MATH 3650 Topology

SUN, Pak Kiu August 29, 2011

Contents
Chapter 1 Metric Spaces 1.1 Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Continuity and open sets for metric spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 2 Topological spaces 2.1 Denition of a Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Basis for a topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Closed Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 3 Interior, Closure and Boundary 3.1 Interior and Closure of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Limit Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Boundary of a Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 4 New Spaces from Old Ones 4.1 The Subspace Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 The Product Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 The Quotient Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 5 Continuity and Homeomorphisms 5.1 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Homeomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 6 Connectedness 6.1 Connected Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Path Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 7 Compactness 7.1 Compactness in metric spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 The Extreme Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Bolzano-Weierstrass property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 3 7 7 8 10 12 12 14 15 17 17 18 19 21 21 22 24 24 27 27 29 32 35 36

Chapter 1

Metric Spaces
1.1 Metric

Denition 1.1. Let X be a set and d : X 2 R a function with the following properties:(i) d(x, y) 0 for all x, y X. (ii) d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y. (iii) d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y X. (iv) d(x, y) + d(y, z) d(x, z) for all x, y, z X. (Triangle inequality) Then d is a metric on X and (X, d) is a metric space. The properties (i)-(iv) can be illustrated as follows: (i) Distances are always positive. (ii) Two points are zero distance apart if and only if they are the same point. (iii) The distance from A to B is the same as the distance from B to A. (iv) The distance from A to B via C is at least as great as the distance from A to B directly. Example 1.2. Let d(x, y) = |x y| for all x, y R. Show that (R, d) is a metric space. Proof. It is easy to check that conditions (i)-(iii) satised. Let x, y, z R and WLOG, assume y x z. We have d(x, y) + d(y, z) = (x y) + (z y) zy zx = d(x, z). This metric is called the Euclidean metric or standard metric on R. Example 1.3. Let p, q R2 with p = (p1 , p2 ) and q = (q1 , q2 ). We dened d(p, q) = (p1 q1 )2 + (p2 q2 )2 and d is called the standard metric on R2 . Also, if we let dT = |p1 q1 | + |p2 q2 |, then dT is a metric (verify yourself) and it is called the taxicab metric. 1

The following exercises help you understand better the properties of metric spaces. Exercise 1.4. If d : X 2 R is a function with the following properties:(ii) d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y, (iii) d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y X, (iv) d(x, y) + d(y, z) d(x, z) for all x, y, z X, show that d is a metric on X. [Thus condition (i) of the denition is redundant.] Exercise 1.5. Let X = {a, b, c} with a, b and c distinct. Write down functions dj : X 2 R satisfying condition (i) of Denition 1.1 such that:(1) d1 satises conditions (ii) and (iii) but not (iv). (2) d2 satises conditions (iii) and (iv) and d2 (x, y) = 0 implies x = y, but it is not true that x = y implies d2 (x, y) = 0. (3) d3 satises conditions (iii) and (iv) and x = y implies d3 (x, y) = 0. but it is not true that d3 (x, y) = 0 implies x = y. (4) d4 satises conditions (ii) and (iv) but not (iii). You should verify your statements. Exercise 1.6. Let X be a set and : X 2 R a function with the following properties. (i) (x, y) 0 for all x, y X. (ii) (x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y. (iv) (x, y) + (y, z) (x, z) for all x, y, z X. Show that, if we set d(x, y) = (x, y) + (y, x), then (X, d) is a metric space. The next example is a metric that is very important. Denition 1.7. If X is a set and we dene d : X 2 R by { 0 if x = y, d(x, y) = 1 if x = y, then d is called the discrete metric on X. Lemma 1.8. The discrete metric on X is indeed a metric. Proof. The only non-evident condition is the triangle law. But d(x, y) + d(y, z) = d(x, y) = d(x, z) d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) = d(y, z) = d(x, z) d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) 1 + 1 = 2 1 d(x, z) so we are done. if y = z, if x = y, otherwise,

1.2

Continuity and open sets for metric spaces

Some denitions and results transfer essentially unchanged from classical analysis on R to metric spaces. Recall the classical denition of continuity. Denition 1.9. [Analysis denition.] A function f : R R is called continuous if, given t R and > 0, we can nd a (t, ) > 0 such that |f (t) f (s)| < whenever |t s| < (t, ).

It is not hard to extend this denition to our new, wider context. Denition 1.10. [Metric denition.] Let (X, d) and (Y, ) be metric spaces. A function f : X Y is called continuous if, given t X and > 0, we can nd a (t, ) > 0 such that (f (t), f (s)) < whenever d(t, s) < (t, ).

The term (f (t), f (s)) is the distance from f (t) to f (s) in Y and d(t, s) is the distance from t to s in X. Lemma 1.11. [The composition law.] If (X, d) and (Y, ) and (Z, ) are metric spaces and g : X Y , f : Y Z are continuous, then so is the composition f g. Proof. Let > 0 be given and let x X. Since f is continuous, we can nd a 1 > 0 (depending on and f g(x) = f (g(x)) with (f (g(x)), f (y)) < whenever (g(x), y) < 1 . Since g is continuous, we can nd a 2 > 0 such that (g(x), g(t)) < 1 whenever d(x, t) < 2 . We now have (f (g(x)), f (g(t))) < whenever d(x, t) < 2 as required. Exercise 1.12. Let R and R2 have their usual (Euclidean) metric. (i) Suppose that f : R R and g : R R are continuous. Show that the map (f, g) : R2 R2 is continuous. (ii) Show that the map M : R2 R given by M (x, y) = xy is continuous. (iii) Use the composition law to show that the map m : R2 R given by m(x, y) = f (x)g(y) is continuous. Just as there are well behaved and badly behaved functions between spaces so there are well behaved and badly behaved subsets of spaces. In classical analysis and analysis on metric spaces the notion of continuous function is suciently wide to give us a large collection of interesting functions and suciently narrow to ensure reasonable behaviourIn introductory analysis we work on R with the Euclidean metric and only consider subsets in the form of intervals. Once we move to R2 with the Euclidean metric, the idea of open ball evolved. Denition 1.13. Let (X, d) be a metric space. For x X and > 0, we dene the open ball of radius centered at x to be the set Bd (x, ) = {y X | d(x, y) < } Cantor identied two particular classes of well behaved sets. We start with open sets. Denition 1.14. Let (X, d) be a metric space. A subset U of it is open if for each x U , we can nd an open ball Bd (x, ) such that Bd (x, ) U . 3

The following example veried that all open balls are open set. Example 1.15. Consider the two sets. 1. Let (X, d) be a metric space. If r > 0, then Bd (x, r) = {y | d(x, y) < r} is open. 2. If (X, d) is a discrete metric space, then {x} = Bd (x, 1/2) and all subsets of X are open. Proof. The two sets are 1. If y Bd (x, r), then let = r d(x, y) > 0 and, whenever d(z, y) < , the triangle inequality gives us d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) < r so z B(x, r). Thus B(x, r) is open. 2. Observe that d(x, x) = 0 < 1/2 and d(x, y) = 1 > 1/2 for x = y. If x E then d(x, y) < 1/2 implies y = x E so E is open.

Theorem 1.16. If (X, d) is a metric space then the following statements are true. (i) The empty set and the space X are open. (ii) If U is open for all A, then A U is open. (In other words the union of open sets is open.) (iii) If Uj is open for all 1 j n, then n Uj is open. j=1 Proof. (i) Since there are no points e in , the statement x whenever d(x, e) < 1

holds for all e . Since every point x belongs to X, the statement xX whenever d(x, e) < 1

holds for all e X. (ii) If e U , then we can nd a particular 1 A with e U1 . Since U1 is open, we can nd a
A

> 0 such that Since U1

A

x U1 x
A

whenever whenever

d(x, e) < . d(x, e) < .

A U ,

Thus

U is open.

(iii) If e

n j=1

Uj then e Uj for each 1 j n. Since Uj is open, we can nd a j > 0 such that x Uj whenever d(x, e) < j .

Setting = min1jn j , we have > 0 and x Uj for all 1 j n. Thus x

n j=1 n j=1

whenever

d(x, e) <

Uj

whenever

d(x, e) <

and we have shown that

Uj is open.

It is important to realize that we place no restriction on the size of A in (ii). In particular, A could be uncountable. However, the number of sets in condition (iii) must be nite. Example 1.17. Let us work in Rn with the usual metric. Then B(x, 1/j) is open but is not. There is a remarkable connection between the notion of open sets and continuity. Theorem 1.18. Let (X, d) and (Y, ) be metric spaces. A function f : X Y is continuous if and only if f 1 (U ) is open in X whenever U is open in Y . Proof. Suppose rst that f is continuous and that U is open in Y . If x f 1 (U ), then we can nd a y U with f (x) = y. Since U is open in Y , we can nd an > 0 such that zU whenever (y, z) < .
j=1

B(x, 1/j) = {x}

Since f is continuous, we can nd a > 0 such that (y, f (w)) = (f (x), f (w)) < Thus f (w) U In other words, w f 1 (U ) whenever whenever d(x, w) < . d(x, w) < . whenever d(x, w) < .

We have shown that f 1 (U ) is open. We now seek the converse result. Suppose that f 1 (U ) is open in X whenever U is open in Y . Suppose x X and > 0. We know that the open ball B (f (x), ) = {y Y | (f (x), y) < } { ( )} { ( )} is open. Thus x f 1 B f (x), and f 1 B f (x), is open. It follows that there is a > 0 such that { ( )} w f 1 B f (x), whenever d(x, w) < , so, in other words, (f (x), f (w)) < Thus f is continuous. 5 whenever d(x, w) < .

Note that the theorem does not work in the opposite direction. Example 1.19. Let X = R and d be the discrete metric. Let Y = R and be the usual (Euclidean) metric. (i) If we dene f : X Y by f (x) = x, then f is continuous but there exist open sets U in X such that f (U ) is not open. (ii) If we dene g : Y X by g(y) = y, then g is not continuous but g(V ) is open in X whenever V is open in Y . Proof. Since every set is open in X, we have f 1 (V ) = g(V ) open for every V in Y and so, in particular, for every open set. Thus f is continuous. We observe that U = {0} is open in X and g 1 (U ) = f (U ) = U = {0} is not open in Y . Thus g is not continuous. Denition 1.20. Consider a sequence xn in a metric space (X, d). If x X and, given > 0, we can nd an integer N N (depending on ) such that d(xn , x) < for all n N , then we say that xn x as n . Denition 1.21. Let (X, d) be a metric space. A set F in X is said to be closed if, whenever xn F and xn x as n , it follows that x F . The following exercise is easy but instructive. Exercise 1.22. (i) If (X, d) is any metric space, then X and are both open and closed.

(ii) If we consider R with the usual metric and take b > a, then [a, b] is closed but not open, (a, b) is open but not closed and [a, b) is neither open nor closed. (iii) If (X, d) is a metric space with discrete metric d, then all subsets of X are both open and closed.

Chapter 2

Topological spaces
2.1 Denition of a Topology

We now investigate general objects which have the structure described by Theorem 1.16. Denition 2.1. Let X be a set and T a collection of subsets of X, each called an open set, such that (i) The empty set T and the space X T . (ii) If U T for all A, then A U T . (iii) If Uj T for all 1 j n, then n Uj T . j=1 Then we say that T is a topology on X and that (X, T ) is a topological space. Theorem 2.2. If (X, d) is a metric space, then the collection of open sets forms a topology. Proof. This is Theorem 1.16. If (X, d) is a metric space we call the collection of open sets the topology induced by the metric. Exercise 2.3. If (X, d) is a metric space with the discrete metric, show that the induced topology consists of all the subsets of X. We call the topology consisting of all subsets of X the discrete topology on X. Exercise 2.4. If X is a set and T = {, X}, then T is a topology. Exercise 2.5. We call {, X} the indiscrete topology on X. (i) If F is a nite set and (F, d) is a metric space show that the induced topology is the discrete topology. (ii) If F is a nite set with more than one point, show that the indiscrete topology is not induced by any metric Denition 2.6. Let X be a set and let T1 and T2 be two topologies on X. If T1 T2 then T2 is said to be ner than T1 , and T1 is said to be coarser than T2 . Furthermore, if T2 is ner than T1 but not equal to T1 then T2 is said to be strictly ner than T1 . Strictly coarser is dened similarly. In general, two topologies on a given set X need not be comparable, that is, neither topology would be ner than the other. We use the following denition to simplify our future discussion on open sets. Denition 2.7. Let X be a topological space and x X. An open set U containing x is said to be a neighborhood of x. Theorem 2.8. Let X be a topological space and let A be a subset of X. Then A is open in X if and only if for each x A, there is a neighborhood U of x such that x U A. 7

Before proceeding to the proof of Theorem 2.8, we introduce a very useful lemma. Lemma 2.9. The Union Lemma LetX be a set and C be collection of subsets of X. Assume that for a each x X, there is a set Ax in C such that x Ax . Then Ax = X. Proof. We prove that Ax X and X Ax . First, since each Ax is a subset of X, it follows that Ax X. Conversely, suppose that y X. There exists Ay in C such that y Ay . Thus y Ay Ax . It follows that X Ax and hence Ax = X. Proof of Theorem 2.8. First suppose that A is open in X and x A. Let U = A, then U is a neighborhood of x for which x U A. Conversely, for every x A there exists a neighborhood Ux of x such that x Ux A. By the Union Lemma (Lemma 2.9), it follows that A = xA Ux . Thus, A is a union of open sets and therefore is open.
xX

2.2

Basis for a topology

In general, it is dicult to specify the entire collection of open sets. We usually specify a smaller collection of open sets, a basis, which can generate the rest of the open sets. Denition 2.10. Let X be a set and B be a collection of subsets of X. We say B is a basis if the following statements hold: (i) For each x X, there is a B in B such that x B. (ii) If B1 and B2 are in B and x B1 B2 , then there exists B3 in B such that x B3 B1 B2 . Example 2.11. On the real line R, let B = {(a, b) R | a < b}, the set of open intervals in R. Certainly every point of R is contained in an open interval and therefore is contained in a set in B. Moreover, the intersection of two open intervals is either an open interval or empty. Thus, a point in the intersection of two sets in B is contained in a set in B and B is a basis. Next, we describe how to generate a collection T from a basis B and show that T is a topology. Denition 2.12. Let B be a basis on a set X. The topology T generated by B is obtained by dening the open sets to be the empty set and every set that is equal to a union of basis elements. Before showing that T is a topology, we need the following lemma. Lemma 2.13. Let B be a basis. Assume that B1 , . . . , Bn B and that x B B such that x B n Bi . i=1 n

i=1 Bi .

Then there exists

Proof. We prove this by induction on n, starting with n = 2. The n = 2 case holds by the second condition in the denition of a basis. Assume that the result is true for n 1. Suppose that the sets B1 , . . . , Bn are in B and that x n Bi . i=1 Then x n1 Bi , and the induction hypothesis implies that there exists B B such that x B i=1 n1 i=1 Bi . Now x B Bn ; therefore by the second condition in the denition of a basis, there exists B B n1 n such that x B B Bn . Since B i=1 Bi , it follows that x B i=1 Bi . Thus, if the result holds for n 1, then it holds for n, and by induction the lemma follows. Theorem 2.14. The topology T generated by a basis B is a topology. Proof. The empty set is in T by denition. Since every point in X is contained in some basis element, it follows that X is the union of all of these basis elements and therefore is in T . Next we show that a nite intersection of sets in T is in T . Thus, let V = U1 Un where each Ui is in T . If one of the Ui is empty, then so is V , and thus V T . Assume that each Ui is a union of basis elements. Let x V be arbitrary. Then x Ui for all i. Since each Ui is a union of basis elements, there 8

exists a basis element Bi such that x Bi Ui for each i. Then x

n

n i=1

Bi ; therefore, by Lemma 2.13,

there exists a basis element Bx such that x Bx Bi V . It follows from the Union Lemma that i=1 V = Bx , and therefore V is a union of basis elements. Thus, a nite intersection of sets in T is in T .
xX Finally, we show that an arbitrary union of sets in T is in T . Let V = U where each U is either the empty set or a union of basis elements. If each U is empty, then so is V ; on the other hand, if at least one U is nonempty, then V is a union of basis elements, since it is the union of all of the basis elements making up the U s. Therefore an arbitrary union of sets in T is in T . As a result, the collection of sets T is a topology, and we are justied in calling it the topology generated by the basis B.

Example 2.15. In example 2.11, we showed the collection B = {(a, b) R | a < b} is a basis on R and the topology generated is the standard topology. On the other hand, the collection Bl = {[a, b) R | a < b} is also a basis on R (left as exercise) and the topology generated is the lower limit topology. By denition, the open sets in the topology generated by a basis are the sets obtained by taking unions of basis elements. The next theorem provides another simple way to describe the sets in such a topology. Theorem 2.16. Let X be a set and B be a basis for a topology on X. Then U is open in the topology generated by B if and only if for each x U , there exists a basis element Bx B such that x Bx U . Proof. Suppose U is an open set in the topology generated by B and that x U . Since U is a union of basis elements, there is at least one basis element B among this union that contains x. Thus, we have x B U . Conversely, suppose U X and U has property that for each x U , there exists Bx B such that the x Bx U . By the Union Lemma, U = Bx , and therefore U is a union of basis elements. Thus, U is an open set in the topology generated by B.
xU

Exercise 2.17. Show that the collections B = {B(x, ) | x R2 , > 0} and Br = {(a, b) (c, d) R2 | a < b, c < d} generate the same topology (standard topology) on R2 . We now know that dierent basis can generate the same topology and the following theorem provide a quick method to check whether a collection of open sets is a basis. Theorem 2.18. Let X be a set with topology T and let C be a collection of open sets in X. If, for each open set U in X and for each x U , there is an open set V in C such that x V U , then C is a basis that generates the topology T . Proof. (i) The collection C is a basis. Let x X. From the assumption of C, there is an open set V in C such that x V X. Therefore every point in X is contained in some open set V in the collection C. Thus the rst condition for a basis is satised. Suppose x V1 V2 , where V1 and V2 in C and so V1 V2 is an open set. According to our hypothesis, there must be an open set V3 in C such that x V3 V1 V2 . Therefore C is a basis. (ii) The topology T generated by C coincides with T Suppose U is open in T . Then by the hypothesis, for every x U there is an open set V in C such that x V U . So by Theorem 2.16, U is open in T , the topology generated by C. Therefore T T . Now suppose that W is an open set in T . Then W is a union of open sets in C, all of which are open in T . However, every union of open sets in T is open in T , so W is also open in T . Thus T T and it follows that T = T .

2.3

Closed Sets

Open sets in topological spaces is a generalization of open intervals in R. Closed interval is another important subset on R and the generalization of it can be facilitate by considering [a, b] = (, a) (b, ). We focus on the concept: closed interval is the complement of union of open intervals and we have the following denition. Denition 2.19. Let (X, T ) be a topological space. A set A in X is said to be closed if its complement X \ A is open. Exercise 2.20. Show that the following subsets are closed set in R2 . (i) The closed ball B(x, ) = {y R2 | d(x, y) } and (ii) the closed rectangle [a, b] [c, d] R2 . Example 2.21. The following topologies illustrate some important properties about open and closed sets. (i) Let X be a set with the discrete topology. Every subset of X is an open set. Given an arbitrary set A in X, its complement is then open since every set is open. Therefore A is closed and, since A was arbitrary, it follows that every subset of X is also a closed set in the discrete topology. (ii) Let the set {a, b, c, d} have the topology T = {, X, {a, b}, {b}, {c, d}, {b, c, d}}. Note that {b} is open and not closed, {a} is closed and not open, {a, b} is both open and closed, and {b, c} is neither open nor closed. Closed sets are complementary to open sets and so they have similar properties. Theorem 2.22. If (X, T ) is a topological space, then the following statements are true. 1. The empty set and the space X are closed. F is closed. 2. If F is closed for all A, then
A n j=1

3. If Fj is closed for all 1 j n, then

Fj is closed.

Proof. Consider the complement of open sets (i) Observe that = X \ X and X = X \ . (ii) Since F is closed, X \ F is open for all A. It follows that X\ F = (X \ F )
A A

is open and so

F is closed.

(iii) Since Fj is closed, X \ Fj is open for all 1 j n. It follows that X\

n j=1 n j=1

Fj =

(X \ Fj )

j=1

is open and so

Fj is closed.

10

All single-point sets are closed in Rn with the standard topology. However, there are topologies where this is not the case. For example, consider the topology T on Rn generated by the basis of sets {[n, n + 1) Rn | n Z}. It is not dicult to see that no single-point set is closed in T . Next we present a property of topological spaces that has some particularly nice consequences for spaces satisfying it. As we show below, these consequences include having single-point sets closed. We will see a few of the other convenient consequences of this property throughout the text. Denition 2.23. A topological space (X, T ) is called Hausdor if for every x, y X and x = y, we can nd U, V T such that x U , y V and U V = . Theorem 2.24. Every metric space is Hausdor. Proof. Let the sets U claim that d(y, z) < 2 (X, d) be a metric space. Suppose x and y are distinct points in X with d(x, y) = . Consider = Bd (x, 2 ) and V = Bd (y, 2 ). It follows that x U, y V , and U and V are open sets. We U and V are disjoint. Suppose U V = , and z is in the intersection. Then d(x, z) < 2 and . Therefore, by the triangle inequality, d(x, y) < d(x, z) + d(z, y) < + = ; 2 2

that is, d(x, y) < . This contradicts d(x, y) = . Thus U V = . Hence, there exist disjoint open sets U and V containing x and y, respectively, implying that X is Hausdor. Theorem 2.25. If (X, T ) is a Hausdor space, then the one point sets {x} are closed. Proof. Let x X, it is sucient to show that A = X \ {x} is open. Let y A and we have y = x. Since X is Hausdor, we can nd U, V T such that x U , y V and U V = . It follows that x V and / therefore y V A. Since every y A is in an open set contained in A, Theorem 2.8 implies that A is open. The following exercise shows that the converse to Lemma 2.25 is false. Exercise 2.26. Let X be innite (we could take X = Z or X = R). We say that a subset E of X lies in T if either E = or X \ E is nite. Show that T is a topology and that every one point set {x} is closed but that (X, T ) is not Hausdor. What happens if X is nite?

11

Chapter 3

Interior, Closure and Boundary

3.1 Interior and Closure of Sets

An arbitrary subset A of a topological space might be neither open nor closed. However, it is often useful to associate a related open set or a related closed set to A. In particular, we can sandwich each set A between the largest open set contained in A and the smallest closed set containing A. These sets are known as the interior of A and the closure of A, respectively. Denition 3.1. Let A be a subset of a topological space X. The interior of A, denoted Int(A), is the union of all open sets contained in A. The closure of A, denoted Cl(A), is the intersection of all closed sets containing A. Clearly, the interior of A is open and a subset of A, and the closure of A is closed and contains A. Thus we have Int(A) A Cl(A). The following properties follow readily from the denition of interior and closure. Theorem 3.2. Let X be a topological space and A and B be subsets of X. (i) If U is an open set in X and U A, then U Int(A). (ii) If C is a closed set in X and A C, then Cl(A) C. (iii) If A B then Int(A) Int(B). (iv) If A B then Cl(A) Cl(B). (v) A is open if and only if A = Int(A). (vi) A is closed if and only if A = Cl(A). Proof. We prove (i), (iii), and (v) and (ii), (iv), and (vi) left as exercise. (i) Suppose that U is an open set in X and U A. Since Int(A) is the union of all of the open sets that are contained in A, it follows that U is one of the sets making up this union and therefore is a subset of the union. That is, U Int(A). (iii) Since A B, Int(A) is an open set contained in B. Part (i) implies that every open set contained in B is contained in Int(B). Therefore Int(A) Int(B). (v) If A = Int(A), then A is an open set since Int(A) is an open set. Now assume that A is open. First, Int(A) A by denition of Int(A). Conversely, since A is an open set contained in A, it follows by (i) that A Int(A). Thus A = Int(A).

The following example demonstrates that the interior and closure of a set A depend on the topology on the set X containing A. 12

Example 3.3. Consider A = [0, 1) as a subset of R with (i) the standard topology. Then Int(A) = (0, 1) and Cl(A) = [0, 1]. (ii) the discrete topology. Then Int(A) = Cl(A) = [0, 1). (iii) the lower limit topology. Here, Int(A) = A since A is an open set. Note that R\[0, 1) = (, 0)[1, ) is an open set in R with the lower limit topology. Therefore [0, 1) is closed in the lower limit topology, implying that Cl(A) = A as well. Denition 3.4. A subset A of a topological space X is called dense if Cl(A) = X. Exercise 3.5. Show that Q is dense in R with the standard topology. The following two theorems provide a simple characterization for the interior and the closure of a given set A. Theorem 3.6. Let X be a topological space with A X and y X. Then y Int(A) if and only if there exists an open set U such that y U A. Proof. First, suppose that there exists an open set U such that y U A. Then, since U is open and contained in A, it follows that U Int(A). Thus y U implies that y Int(A). Conversely, if y Int(A) and we set U = Int(A), it follows that U is an open set such that y U A. Theorem 3.7. Let X be a topological space with A X and y X. Then y Cl(A) if and only if every open set containing y intersects A. Proof. Suppose x Cl(A). Then there is a closed set C such that A C and x C. So X \ C is a / / neighborhood of x such that (X \ C) A = . Conversely, suppose there is a neighborhood U of x such that U A = . Then X \ U is a closed set such that A X \ U and x X \ U . Hence x Cl(A). / / The following theorem provides some useful relationships involving interior, closure, intersection, union, and complement: Theorem 3.8. For sets A and B in a topological space X, the following statements hold: (i) Int(X \ A) = X \ Cl(A). (ii) Cl(X \ A) = X \ Int(A). (iii) Int(A) Int(B) Int(A B), and in general equality does not hold. (iv) Int(A) Int(B) = Int(A B). Proof. We prove (i) and (iii) here and left the others as exercise. (i) We prove that X \ Cl(A) Int(X \ A) and Int(X \ A) X \ CI(A). First, note that Cl(A) is closed and contains A, and therefore X \ Cl(A) is an open set contained in X \ A. It follows by Theorem 3.2(i) that X \ Cl(A) Int(X \ A). To prove that Int(X \ A) X \ CI(A), let x Int(X \ A) be arbitrary. Note that Int(X \ A) is disjoint from A, and therefore x is in an open set that is disjoint from A. By Theorem 3.7, it follows that x Cl(A); hence, x X \ Cl(A). Thus, Int(X \ A) X \ Cl(A). As a result, we have / Int(X \ A) = X \ CI(A). (iii) Since Int(A) A, it follows that Int(A) A B. Also, Int(A) is an open set. Similarly, Int(B) is an open set contained in A B. Every open set contained in A B is contained in Int(A B). Therefore both Int(A) and Int(B) are contained in Int(A B). Hence their union, Int(A) Int(B), is also contained in Int(A B). Now we must show that there are cases where Int(A) Int(B) does not equal Int(A B). Take A = [1, 0] and B = [0, 1] as subsets of R with the standard topology. Then Int(A) Int(B) = (1, 0) (0, 1), but Int(A B) = (1, 1). Thus, in this case Int(A) Int(B) = Int(A B).

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3.2

Limit Points

In the standard topology on Rn , a limit point of a subset is that there is a sequence of points in the subset approaching the limit point. In topological spaces, limit points are dened via neighborhoods rather than sequences and we will encounter some unusual, and perhaps counterintuitive limit point in topological spaces not similar to Rn . Denition 3.9. Let A be a subset of a topological space X. A point x in X is a limit point of A if every neighborhood of x intersects A in a point other than x. Notice that a limit point x of a set A may or may not lie in the set A. Also, in every topology, the point x is not a limit point of the set {x}.
1 Example 3.10. Consider the set A = { n R | n Z+ } as a subset of R with the standard topology. We show that 0 is the only limit point of A.

Proof. If U is an open set containing 0, then there is an interval (a, b) such that 0 (a, b) U . But (a, b) A = for every such open interval. So U A = . Therefore every neighborhood of 0 intersects A and since 0 is not in A, the intersection contains points other than 0. It follows that 0 is a limit point of A. In fact, 0 is the only limit point of A. Given x R \ {0}, we can nd an open interval containing x that is either disjoint from A (if x A) or intersects A only in x (if x A). In either case, if x = 0, then x is not / a limit point of A. Example 3.11. Consider the rational numbers Q as a subset of R with the standard topology. Every x R is a limit point of Q. Proof. Given a real number x, an open set U containing x contains an open interval (a, b) that also contains x. But every open interval intersects Q in innitely many points, and therefore (a, b) intersects Q in a point other than x. Hence, x is a limit point of Q. Limit points provide us with an easy means to nd the closure of a set. Theorem 3.12. Let A be a subset of a topological space X, and let A be the set of limit points of A. Then Cl(A) = A A . Proof. First we show that A A Cl(A) and certainly A Cl(A). Suppose x A . Then every neighborhood of x intersects A. By Theorem 3.7, x Cl(A), and it follows that A Cl(A). Conversely, Suppose x Cl(A). Either x A or x Cl(A) \ A. In the former case, it follows that x AU A . Consider the latter case, x Cl(A) \ A. Since x Cl(A), Theorem 3.7 implies that every open set containing x intersects A and such an intersection must contain a point other than x because x A. / . As a result, we have Cl(A) A A . Thus x is a limit point of A, and it follows that x A A Corollary 3.13. A subset A of a topological space is closed if and only if it contains all of its limit points. Proof. By Theorem 3.2(vi), A is closed if and only if A = Cl(A). By Theorem 3.12, A = Cl(A) if and only if A = A A where A is the set of limit points of A. Finally, A = A A holds if and only if A A. Thus A is closed if and only A A. A concept closely related to limit points is that of a convergent sequence. Denition 3.14. In a topological space X, a sequence (x1 , x2 , . . . ) converges to x X if for every neighborhood U of x, there is a positive integer N such that xn U for all n > N . We say that x is the limit of the sequence (x1 , x2 , . . . ), and we write
n

lim xn = x.

The idea behind a sequence converging to a point x is that, given any neighborhood U of x, the sequence eventually enters and stays in U . In the standard topology on R, limit points are limits of sequences, as the following theorem indicates: 14

Theorem 3.15. Let A be a subset of R in the standard topology. If x is a limit point of A, then there is a sequence of points in A that converges to x.
1 1 Proof. Let x A and let Bn = {(x n , x + n ) | n N} be a collection of neighborhoods of x. It follows that Bn Bm for all n > m and we can choose a point xn Bn A for each n because x is a limit point. Let U be a neighborhood of x and thus U contain an open interval that contain x. Then there exists p N such that Bp U . As a result, xm U for all m p.

In a general topological space X, a limit point of a set B X is not necessarily the limit of a sequence in B. Our intuition might suggest that if a sequence converges to a point, then that point should be unique. This may not be true in other topologies but we can ensure the point of convergence is unique if the topology is a Hausdor space. Theorem 3.16. If X is a Hausdor space, then every convergent sequence of points in X converges to a unique point in X. Proof. Let X be a Hausdor space. Suppose that a sequence (x1 , x2 , . . . ) converges to two dierent points, x and y, in X. Since X is Hausdor, x and y have disjoint neighborhoods U and V , respectively. The sequence (x1 , x2 , . . . ) converges to x; therefore there exists N Z+ such that xn U for all n > N . Similarly, there exists M Z+ such that xn V for all n > M . Thus, if m is greater than both N and M , then xm U V , contradicting the fact that U and V are disjoint. Therefore convergent sequences in a Hausdor space converge to a unique point.

3.3

Boundary of a Set

We have an intuitive idea of what we mean by the boundary of a set: the points that lie close to both the inside and the outside of the set. But as we have seen, there are examples and topologies out there that challenge our intuition. For example, what is the boundary of Q as a subset of R in the standard topology? The denition of the boundary of a set has to be chosen carefully and understood clearly for its proper use as a central concept in topology. Denition 3.17. Let A be a subset of a topological space X. The boundary of A, denoted A, is the set A = Cl(A) \ Int(A). The following examples show that, as with interior and closure, the boundary of a set A depends on the topology on the set X containing A, not just on A itself. Example 3.18. Let A = [1, 1] on R with (i) the standard topology. We have Cl(A) = [1, 1] and Int(A) = (1, 1), therefore A = {1, 1}. (ii) the discrete topology. Here Int(A) = Cl(A) = [1, 1] and so A = . (iii) the lower limit topology. In this case, Cl(A) = [1, 1] and Int(A) = [1, 1), so A = {1}. The next theorem gives conditions that help us to determine whether or not a point x lies in the boundary of a set A. Theorem 3.19. Let A be a subset of a topological space X and let x X. Then x A if and only if every neighborhood of x intersects both A and X \ A. Proof. Suppose that x A. Then x Cl(A) and x Int(A). Since x Cl(A), it follows that every / neighborhood of x intersects A. Furthermore, since x Int(A), it follows that every neighborhood of x is / not a subset of A and therefore intersects X \ A. Thus, every neighborhood of x intersects A and X \ A. Now suppose that every neighborhood of x intersects A and X \ A. It follows that x Cl(A) and x Cl(X \ A). By Theorem 3.8(ii) implies that Cl(X \ A) = X Int(A), and therefore x Int(A). Thus, x Cl(A) and / x Int(A); that is, x Cl(A) \ Int(A) = A. / 15

Here are some quick facts about the boundary of a set A. They all follow readily from the denition. Theorem 3.20. Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Then the following statements about the boundary of A hold: (i) A is closed. (ii) A = Cl(A) Cl(X \ A). (iii) A Int(A) = . (iv) A Int(A) = Cl(A). (v) A A if and only if A is closed. (vi) A A = if and only if A is open. (vii) A = if and only if A is both open and closed. Example 3.21. Consider Q in the standard topology on R. Since Cl(Q) = R, and Int(Q) = , it follows that Q = R. Therefore the whole real line R is the boundary of the rational numbers. That makes sense since every real number is arbitrarily close to the set of rational numbers and to its complement, the set of irrational numbers.

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Chapter 4

New Spaces from Old Ones

4.1 The Subspace Topology

Given a subset Y of a topological space X, there is a natural way to dene a topology on Y , based on the topology on X. Denition 4.1. Let X be a topological space and let Y be a subset of X. Dene TY = {U Y | U is open in X}. This is called the subspace topology on Y and, with this topology, Y is called a subspace of X. We say that V Y is open in Y if V is an open set in the subspace topology on Y . Lemma 4.2. The subspace topology TY dened in Denition 4.1 is a topology. Proof. Consider the following three types of sets. (i) The sets and Y are open in Y since = Y and Y = Y X. (ii) Suppose that {V } is a collection of sets that are open in Y . Then for each there exists an open set U in X such that V = U Y . Therefore, ( ) ( ) Y U = Y U . V =

Now, U is open in X, implying that open in Y .

V is an open set in X intersected with Y . Thus,

V is

(iii) Suppose that V1 , . . . , Vn are open in Y . Then for each i there exists Ui , open in X, such that Vi = Ui Y . Now, n n ( ) V1 Vn = (Y Uj ) = Y Uj .
j=1 j=1

Since U1 Un is open in X, it follows that V1 Vn is an open set in X intersected with Y , and therefore is open in Y .

Exercise 4.3. (i) If (X, T ) is a topological space and Y X is open, show that the subspace topology TY on Y is the collection of sets U T with U Y . (ii) Consider R with the standard topology T . If Y = [0, 1], show that [0, 1/2) TY but [0, 1/2) T . / Exercise 4.4. Let (X, d) be a metric space, Y a subset of X and dY the metric d restricted to Y (formally, dY : Y 2 R is given by dY (x, y) = d(x, y) for x, y Y ). Then if we give X the topology induced by d, the subspace topology on Y is identical with the topology induced by dY . Denition 4.5. Let X be a topological space, and let Y X have the subspace topology. We say that a set C Y is closed in Y if Y \ C is open in the subspace topology on Y . 17

Theorem 4.6. Let X be a topological space, and let Y X have the subspace topology. Then C Y is closed in Y if and only if C = D Y for some closed set D in X. Proof. Suppose C is a closed subset of Y . Then there is an open subset U of X such that Y \ C = Y U . Therefore, C = Y \ (Y \ C) = Y \ (Y U ) = Y (Y \ U ) = Y (X \ U ). Since X \ U is closed in X and we may call it D. Conversely, suppose C Y and C = D Y for some closed set D in X. Then X \ D is open in X and Y \ C = Y \ (Y \ D) = Y (Y \ D) = Y (X \ D). Therefore Y \ C is open in Y and hence C is closed in Y . We will nd it useful to be able to produce a basis for the subspace topology on a subset of a topological space, using a basis for the original space. Theorem 4.7. Let X be a topological space and B be a basis for the topology on X. If Y X, then the collection BY = {B Y | B B} is a basis for the subspace topology on Y . Proof. First, note that BY is a collection of open sets in the subspace topology on Y . We use Theorem 2.18 to prove that BY is a basis for the subspace topology. Suppose W is an open set in the subspace topology on Y . Let y W be arbitrary. Then W = U Y , where U is open in X. There exists a basis element B in B such that y B U . Thus y B Y U Y = W . Since B Y BY , it now follows by Theorem 2.18 that BY is a basis for the subspace topology on Y . Exercise 4.8. If (X, T ) is a Hausdor topological space and Y X, then Y with the subspace topology is also Hausdor.

4.2

The Product Topology

Given two topological spaces X and Y , we would like to generate a natural topology on the product, X Y . Our rst inclination might be to take as the topology on X Y the collection C of sets of the form U V where U is open in X and V is open in Y . But C is not a topology since the union of two sets U1 V1 and U2 V2 need not be in the form for U V some U X and V Y . However, if we use C as a basis, rather than as the whole topology, we can proceed. Denition 4.9. Let X and Y be topological spaces and X Y be their product. The product topology on X Y is the topology generated by the basis B = {U V | U is open in X and V is open in Y }. Of course, we must verify that B is a basis for a topology on the product X Y . Theorem 4.10. The collection B is a basis for a topology on X Y . Proof. Every point (x, y) is in X Y , and X Y B. Therefore the rst condition for a basis is satised. Next assume that (x, y) is in the intersection of two elements of B. That is, (x, y) (U1 V1 ) (U2 V2 ) where U1 and U2 are open sets in X, and V1 and V2 are open sets in Y . Let U3 = U1 U2 and V3 = V1 V2 . Then U3 is open in X, and V3 is open in Y , and therefore U3 V3 B. Also, U3 V3 = (U1 U2 ) (V1 V2 ) = (U1 V1 ) (U2 V2 ), and thus (x, y) U3 V3 (U1 V1 ) (U2 V2 ). It follows that the second condition for a basis is satised. Therefore B is a basis for a topology on X Y .

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In Denition 4.9, the basis B that we use to dene the product topology is relatively large since we obtain it by pairing up every open set U in X with every open set V in Y . Fortunately, as the next theorem indicates, we can nd a smaller basis for the product topology by using bases for the topologies on X and Y. Theorem 4.11. If C is a basis for X and D is a basis for Y , then E = {C D | C C is a basis that generates the product topology on X Y . Proof. Each set C D E is an open set in the product topology; therefore, by Theorem 2.18, it suces to show that for every open set W in X Y and every point (x, y) W , there is a set C D in E such that (x, y) C D W . But since W is open in X Y , we know that there are open sets U in X and V in Y such that (x, y) U V W . So x U and y V . Since U is open in X, there is a basis element C C such that x C U . Similarly, since V is open in Y , there is a basis element D D such that y D V . Thus (x, y) C D U V W . Hence, by Theorem 2.18, it follows that E = {C D | C C and D D} is a basis for the product topology on X Y . Exercise 4.12. Let (X1 , d1 ) and (X2 , d2 ) be metric spaces. Let T be the product topology on X1 X2 where Xj is given the topology induced by dj [j = 1, 2]. Dene k : (X1 X2 )2 R by 1 ((x, y), (u, v)) = d1 (x, u), 2 ((x, y), (u, v)) = d1 (x, u) + d2 (y, v), 3 ((x, y), (u, v)) = max(d1 (x, u), d2 (y, v)), 4 ((x, y), (u, v)) = (d1 (x, u)2 + d2 (y, v)2 )1/2 . Establish that 1 is not a metric and that 2 , 3 and 4 are. Show that each of the j with 2 j 4 induce the product topology T on X1 X2 . The results above can be extended to any nite (or even innite) product of topological spaces. Exercise 4.13. If (X, T ) and (Y, ) are Hausdor topological spaces, then X Y with the product topology is also Hausdor. and D D}

4.3

The Quotient Topology

The concept of a quotient topology allows us to construct a variety of additional topological spaces from the ones that we have already introduced. Put simply, we create a topological model that mimics the process of gluing together or collapsing parts of one or more objects. Denition 4.14. Let X be a topological space and A be a set (that is not necessarily a subset of X). Let p : X A be a surjective map. Dene a subset U of A to be open in A if and only if p1 (U ) is open in X. The resultant collection of open sets in A is called the quotient topology induced by p, and the function p is called a quotient map. The topological space A is called a quotient space. Now, we verify that the quotient topology is a topology: Theorem 4.15. Let p : X A be a quotient map. The quotient topology on A induced by p is a topology. Proof. We verify each of the three conditions for a topology. (i) The set p1 () = , which is open in X. The set p1 (A) = X, which is open in X. So and A are open in the quotient topology.

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(ii) Suppose each of the sets in the collection {U }B is open in the quotient topology on A. Then ) ( p1 (U ) = p1 (U ), which is a union of open sets in X, and therefore is open in X. Thus, (U ) is open in the quotient topology, implying that the arbitrary union of open sets in the quotient topology is an open set in the quotient topology. ( ) (iii) Suppose each of the sets Ui , i = 1, . . . , n, is open in the quotient topology on A. Then p1 (Ui ) = p1 (Ui ), which is a nite intersection of open sets in X, and therefore is open in X. Hence, Ui is open in the quotient topology, and it follows that the nite intersection of open sets in the quotient topology is an open set in the quotient topology. Hence, the quotient topology is a topology on A.

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Chapter 5

Continuity and Homeomorphisms

5.1 Continuity

Denition 5.1. Let (X, T ) and (Y, ) be topological spaces. A function f : X Y is said to be continuous if and only if f 1 (U ) is open in X whenever U is open in Y . This topological denition of continuity is very simple to state and Theorem 1.18 tells us that if (X, d) and (Y, ) are metric spaces the notion of a continuous function f : X Y is the same whether we consider the metrics or the topologies derived from them. By denition, a function f : X Y is continuous if the preimage of every open set in Y is open in X. However, checking that every open set in Y has an open preimage in X is more than we really need to do. As the following theorem indicates, to prove that f is continuous, it suces to consider only the sets in a xed basis for Y , showing that the preimage of each basis element is open in X. Theorem 5.2. Let X and Y be topological spaces and B be a basis for the topology on Y . Then f : X Y is continuous if and only if f 1 (B) is open in X for every B B. Proof. Suppose f : X Y is continuous. Then f 1 (V ) is open in X for every V open in Y . Since every basis element B is open in Y , it follows that f 1 (B) is open in X for all B B. Now, suppose f 1 (B) is open in X for every B B. We show that f is continuous. Let V be an open set in Y . Then V is a union of basis elements, say V = B . Thus, f 1 (V ) = f l ( B ) = f 1 (B ). By assumption, each set f 1 (B ) is open in X; therefore so is their union. Thus, f 1 (V ) is open in X, and it follows that the preimage of every open set in Y is open in X. Hence, f is continuous. Example 5.3. Let T denote the standard topology on R and dene f : (R, T ) (R, T ) by f (x) = x3 . The collection B of all open intervals is a basis for T . Thus, by Theorem 5.2, it is sucient to show that the inverse image of each open interval is open. Let (a, b) be an open interval. Then f 1 ((a, b)) = ( 3 a, 3 b), so f is continuous. Theorem 5.4. Assume that f : X Y is continuous. If a sequence (x1 , x2 , . . . ) in X converges to a point x, then the sequence (f (x1 )), f (x2 ), . . . ) in Y converges to f (x). Proof. Let U be an arbitrary neighborhood of f (x) in Y . Since f is continuous, f 1 (U ) is open in X. Furthermore, f (x) U implies that x f 1 (U ). The sequence (x1 , x2 , . . . ) converges to x; thus, there exists N Z+ such that xn f l (U ) for all n > N . It follows that f (xn ) U for all n > N , and therefore the sequence (f (x1 )), f (x2 ), . . . ) converges to f (x). Denition 5.5. Let (X, T ) and (Y, ) be topological spaces. A function f : X Y is said to be open provided that if U T then f (U ) . Note that a continuous function need not to be open. For example, the function f : R R given by f (x) = x2 is continuous, but the image of the open set (1, 1) is [0, 1), which is not open. 21

Example 5.6. Let D denote the discrete topology on R and let T denote the standard topology on R. Then f : (R, D) (R, T ) dened by f (x) = x for each x R is continuous because if U T then f 1 (U ) D. However, f is not open because {1} D whereas {1} T . / The proof of Theorem 1.11 given on page ?? carries over unchanged to give the following generalization. Theorem 5.7. If (X, T ) and (Y, ) and (Z, ) are topological spaces and f : X Y , g : Y Z are continuous, then so is the composition g f . Proof. Suppose that f : X Y and g : Y Z are continuous, and let U be an open set in Z. Then (g f )1 (U ) = f 1 (g 1 (U )). Since g is continuous, g 1 (U ) is open in Y , and since f is continuous, f 1 (g 1 (U )) is open in X. Thus, (g f )1 (U ) is open in X for an arbitrary U open in Z, implying that g f is continuous. Theorem 5.8. Let (X, T ) and (Y, ) be topological spaces. A function f : X Y is continuous if and only if f 1 (F ) is closed in X whenever F is closed in Y . Finally, we introduce a very useful lemma called the Pasting Lemma. Theorem 5.9. The Pasting Lemma Let X be a topological space and let A and B be closed subsets of X such that A B = X. Assume that f : A Y and g : B Y are continuous and f (x) = g(x) for all x in A B. Then h : X Y , dened by { f (x) if x A h(x) = g(x) if x B is a continuous function. Proof. By Theorem 5.8, it suces to show that if C is closed in Y , then h1 (C) is closed in X. Thus suppose that C is closed in Y . Note that h1 (C) = f 1 (C) g 1 (C). Since f is continuous, it follows by Theorem 5.8 that f 1 (C) is closed in A. Theorem 4.6 then implies that f 1 (C) = D A where D is closed in X. Now, D and A are both closed in X, and f 1 (C) = D A; therefore, f 1 (C) is closed in X. Similarly, g 1 (C) is closed in X. Thus, h1 (C) is the union of two closed sets in X and therefore is closed in X as well. It follows that h is continuous.

5.2

Homeomorphism

Two groups are the same for the purposes of group theory if they are (group) isomorphic. Two vector spaces are the same for the purposes of linear algebra if they are (vector space) isomorphic. When are two topological spaces (X, T ) and (Y, ) the same for the purposes of topology? In other words, when does there exist a bijection between X and Y in which open sets correspond to open sets, and the grammar of topology (things like union and inclusion) is preserved? A little reection shows that the next denition provides the answer we want. Denition 5.10. We say that two topological spaces (X, T ) and (Y, ) are homeomorphic, denoted X Y if there exists a bijection : X Y such that and 1 are continuous. We call a homeomorphism. Exercise 5.11. Show that homeomorphism is an equivalence relation on topological spaces. That is, show the following three statements. (i) The function id : X X, dened by id(x) = x, is a homeomorphism. (ii) If f : X Y is a homeomorphism, then so is f 1 : Y X. (iii) If f : X Y and g : Y Z are homeomorphisms, then so is g f : X Z . Certain properties dened for topological spaces are preserved by homeomorphisms. An example is provided by the next theorem. 22

Theorem 5.12. If f : X Y is a homeomorphism and X is Hausdor, then Y is Hausdor. Proof. Suppose that X is Hausdor and f : X Y is a homeomorphism. Let x and y be distinct points in Y . Then f 1 (x) and f 1 (y) are distinct points in X. Thus, there exist disjoint open sets U and V containing f 1 (x) and f 1 (y), respectively. It follows that f (U ) and f (V ) are disjoint open sets containing x and y, respectively. Therefore Y is Hausdor. A property of topological spaces that is preserved by homeomorphism is said to be a topological property. Theorem 5.12 implies that being Hausdor is a topological property. In general, properties that are dened in terms of open sets, like Hausdor, are topological properties. As we have seen in a few examples in this section, we can prove that two topological spaces are homeomorphic by dening a homeomorphism between them. Conversely, in order to prove that two topological spaces are not homeomorphic, it is necessary to show that none of the functions dened between them is a homeomorphism. However, it is often too dicult to consider every function between the spaces. Instead, we nd a topological property held by one space but not the other. Then we know that the two spaces are not homeomorphic.

23

Chapter 6

Connectedness
There are several natural approaches that we could take to rigorously capture the concept of connectedness for a topological space. One approach might be to say that a topological space is connected if it cannot be broken down into two distinct pieces that are separated from each other. Another approach might be to say that a topological space is connected if we can take a continuous walk in the space from any point to any other point. In this chapter we dene both of these types of connectedness. Spaces of the rst type are called connected, while spaces of the second type are called path connected. We prove that these two types of connectedness are not the same, but that path connectedness does imply connectedness.

6.1

Connected Spaces

Denition 6.1. Let X be a topological space. (i) We call X connected if there does not exist a pair of disjoint nonempty open sets whose union is X. (ii) We call X disconnected if X is not connected. (iii) If X is disconnected, then a pair of disjoint nonempty open sets whose union is X is called a separation of x. Example 6.2. The following are some disconnected topological space (i) The subspace X = (1, 0) (0, 1) of R is disconnected. The pair of sets, (1, 0) and (0, 1), is a separation of X. (ii) If p R, then R \ {p} is a disconnected topological space since the pair of sets, U = (, p) and V = (p, ), is a separation of R \ {p}. (iii) If a set X consists of more than one point and it has the discrete topology, then it is disconnected. If A is any nonempty proper subset of X, then the pair of sets, A and X A, is a separation of X. The following result provides an alternative formulation of connectedness: Theorem 6.3. A topological space X is connected if and only if there are no nonempty proper subsets of X that are both open and closed in X. Proof. Suppose X is not connected. Then there are nonempty, disjoint open sets U and V such that X = U V . Thus U is a nonempty proper subset of X that is open and closed since U = X \ V . Conversely, suppose X has a nonempty proper subset U that is both open and closed. Then U and X \ V are nonempty disjoint open sets whose union is X. Therefore X is not connected. Example 6.4. In R with the lower limit topology, intervals [a, b) are both open and closed. Therefore Theorem 6.3 implies that R is disconnected in this topology. Denition 6.5. A set A contained in a topological space X is said to be connected in X if A is connected in the subspace topology. If A is not connected in X, we say it is disconnected in X. 24

The next theorem yields an alternate characterization of disconnected sets in a topological space X. Theorem 6.6. A set A is disconnected in X if and only if there exist open sets U and V in X such that A U V , U A = , V A = , and U V A = . Proof. Suppose that A is disconnected in X. Then there exist nonempty sets P and Q that are open in A, disjoint, and such that P Q = A. Since P and Q are open in A there exist sets U and V that are open in X and such that U A = P and V A = Q. Clearly, A U V , U A = , V A = , and U V A = . Now suppose that U and V are open sets in X such that A U V , U A = , V A = , and U V A = . If we let P = U A and Q = V A, then it follows that the pair of sets, P and Q, is a separation of A in the subspace topology, and therefore A is disconnected in X. Denition 6.7. Let A be a subspace of a topological space X. If U and V are open sets in X such that A U V , U A = , V A = , and U V A = , then we say that the pair of sets, U and V , is a separation of A in X. Note that U and V need not be disjoint but U V should disjoint from A. It is straightforward to show that connectedness is a topological properties. However, as the following theorem indicates, we do not need the full strength of a homeomorphism to preserve connectedness: Theorem 6.8. If X is connected and f : X Y is continuous, then f (X) is connected in Y . Proof. Suppose that f (X) is not connected in Y . Then there exist open sets U and V that form a separation of f (X) in Y . The function f is continuous, and therefore f 1 (U ) and f 1 (V ) are open in X. Both U and V have nonempty intersection with f (X); thus f 1 (U ) and f 1 (V ) are nonempty. Furthermore f (X) U V , implying that X f 1 (U )f 1 (V ). Finally, since U V f (X) = , it follows that f 1 (U ) and f 1 (V ) are disjoint. Therefore the pair of sets, f 1 (U ) and f 1 (V ), is a separation of X, contradicting the assumption that X is connected. Hence, f (X) is connected in Y . Lemma 6.9. Let C and D be subsets of a topological space X. Assume that C is connected and C D. Further assume that U and V form a separation of D in X. Then either C U or C V . Proof. Suppose that neither C U nor C V . Then U C = and V C = . It follows that U and V form a separation of C in X, contradicting the assumption that C is connected. Our next theorem indicates that if C is connected in X, and we add limit points to C, then the resulting set is also connected in X. Theorem 6.10. Let C be connected in X, and assume that C A Cl(C). Then A is connected in X. Proof. Suppose that A is not connected in X, and let U and V form a separation of A in X. Then by Lemma 6.9, either C U or C V . We may assume, without loss of generality, that C U . Hence C V = . But, since U and V form a separation of A in X, it follows that A V = . Pick x A V . Now, x A and A Cl(C) imply x Cl(C). But x V , an open set in X which is disjoint from C. So x cannot be in the closure of C, yielding a contradiction. Thus, it follows that A is connected in X. The following theorem shows that union of connected subsets of a topological space have at least one point in common is connected. Theorem 6.11. Let X be a topological space, and let {C }A be a collection of connected subsets of X such that C = . Then C is connected in X.
A A

Proof. Suppose that of

A

C a is not connected in X. Thus there exist sets U and V that form a separation
A

C in X. Let x be in

C . Then either x U or x V , but both cannot hold. We may assume,

without loss of generality, that x lies in U and does not lie in V . Lemma 6.9 implies that for all A, 25

either C U or C V . Since x U and x V , it follows that C U for all A. Thus / contradicting the assumption that U and V form a separation of in X. We can use the previous theorem to prove that a product of connected spaces is connected.
A

C U ,

C in X. Therefore

C is connected

Theorem 6.12. Let X1 , . . . , Xn be connected spaces. Then the product space X1 Xn is connected. Proof. We prove the result for a product of two spaces. The general result can then be shown by induction. Assume that X and Y are connected topological spaces. We prove that X Y is connected. First, note that for every x X, the subspace {x} Y of X Y is homeomorphic to Y and is therefore connected. Similarly, for every y Y , the subspace X {y} of X Y is connected. Thus, by Theorem 6.11, for every x X and y Y the set ({x} Y ) (X {y}) is connected in X Y . Now x x0 X and let y vary. Each set ({x0 } Y ) (X {y}) contains the set {x0 } Y . It then follows by Theorem 6.11 that (({x0 } Y ) (X {y}))
yY

is connected in X Y . Furthermore,
yY

(({x0 } Y ) (X {y}))

implying that X Y is connected. Denition 6.13. Let X be a topological space and let C be the equivalence relation on X dened by x C y if x and y lie in a connected subset of X. The components of X are the equivalence classes of the equivalence relation C . Theorem 6.14. If X be a topological space, then (i) each component of X is connected in X. (ii) If A is connected in X, then A is a subset of a component of X. Proof of (i). Let X be a topological space and C be a component of X. Pick a point p C. For every x C, x C p since C is an equivalence class under the equivalence relation C that determines the components. Therefore, by the denition of C , there exists a connected set Cx containing x and p. We claim that Cx C. To prove the claim, suppose y Cx . Then y and p both lie in the connected set Cx , implying that y C p. Therefore y is in the same equivalence class as p, namely C, and it follows that Cx C. Now, by the Union Lemma we have Cx = C. Therefore C is the union of the connected sets Cx ,
xC

and each of these connected sets contains the point p. By Theorem 6.11, it follows that C is connected. Theorem 6.15. Let f : X Y be a homeomorphism. If C is a component of X, then f (C) is a component of Y . Proof. Suppose that f : X Y is a homeomorphism and C is a component of X. Then C is connected in X by Theorem 6.14. Thus Theorem 6.8 implies that f (C) is connected in Y . Again by Theorem 6.14, it follows that f (C) is a subset of a component D of Y . We claim that f (C) = D to complete the proof of the theorem. The component D is connected in Y , and f 1 is a continuous function; therefore f 1 (D) is connected in X. Furthermore, f (C) D implies that C f 1 (D). But C is a component of X, and C is a subset of the connected set f 1 (D). Therefore C = f 1 (D). Hence, f (C) = D, as we wished to show. Theorem 6.16. The real line R in the standard topology is a connected topological subspace.

26

Proof. Suppose it is not, and let U and V form a separation of R. Pick u U and v V . We may assume u < v without loss of generality. Let U = U [u, v] and V = V [u, v]. It follows that U V = [u, v]. Since U is bounded from above (by v), U has a least upper bound; call it c. We have u c v. We derive a contradiction by showing that c U and c V . / / To show that c V , we assume that c V and derive a contradiction. Since u V and V is open / / . This implies that d is an upper in [u, v], it follows that there exists d such that u < d < c and (d, c] V bound of U and that d is less than the least upper bound c. This is a contradiction and thus c V . / Next we show that c U . We do this by contradiction as well. Therefore, assume that c U . Since / U is open in [u, v] and v U , there exists d such that [c, d) U . For any e (c, d) it follows that e U / and e > c, contradicting the fact that c is an upper bound of U . Thus c U . / and c V . But c [u, v] and U V = [u, v]. With this nal contradiction it now Therefore c U / / follows that R in the standard topology is a connected topological space. Theorems 6.12 and 6.16 imply the following corollary: Corollary 6.17. Euclidean n-space Rn is a connected topological space.

6.2

Intermediate Value Theorem

Theorem 6.18. The Intermediate Value Theorem on [a, b]. Let f : [a, b] R be continuous, and assume that s lies between f (a) and f (b). Then there exists at least one c [a, b] such that f (c) = s. Theorem 6.19. The Intermediate Value Theorem (General Version). Let X be a connected topological space and f : X R be continuous. If p, q f (X) and p r q, then r f (X). Proof. Suppose f : X R is continuous, p, q f (X), and p r q. If r = p or r = q, then we immediately have that r f (X). Therefore, we only need to consider the case where p < r < q. Note that f (X) is connected in R since X is connected and f is continuous. We prove by contradiction that r f (X). Thus, suppose that r f (X). Then U = (, r) and V = (r, ) are disjoint open subsets of R. whose union / contains f (X). Since p U and q V , it follows that f (X) intersects both U and V . Hence, U and V form a separation of f (X) in R. But this contradicts the fact that f (X) is connected in R. Therefore r f (X). Theorem 6.20. The One-Dimensional Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem. Let f : [1, 1] [1, 1] be continuous. There exists at least one c [1, 1] such that f (c) = c. Proof. Let f : [1, 1] [1, 1] be continuous. Dene a function g : [1, 1] R by g(x) = f (x) x. The function g is continuous. Note that f (1) 1, and therefore g(1) 0. Similarly g(1) 0. The Intermediate Value Theorem implies that there exists a value c [1, 1] such that g(c) = O. For such c it follows that f (c) = c. Therefore there exists at least one c in [1, 1] such that f (c) = c.

6.3

Path Connectedness

Denition 6.21. A topological space X is path connected if for every x, y X, there exists a continuous function : [0, 1] X with (0) = x and (1) = y. The continuous function is called a path from x to y in X. A subset A of a topological space X is path connected in X if A is path connected in the subspace topology that A inherits from X. Theorem 6.22. If X is a path connected space, then it is connected. Proof. Proof. Let X be a path connected space. We prove that X is connected by showing that it has only one component, or equivalently that every pair of points x, y X is contained in some connected subset of X. Thus, let x and y be arbitrary points in X. Since X is path connected, there is a path in X from x to y. The image of such a path is a connected subset of X containing both x and y. Therefore every pair of points in X is contained in a connected subset of X, and it follows that X is connected. The next example displays a topological space that is connected but not path connected. 27

Example 6.23. We work in R2 with the usual topology. Let 1 E1 = {(0, y) : |y| 1} and E2 = {(x, sin ) : 0 < x 1} x and set E = E1 E2 . (i) Explain why E1 and E2 are path-connected and show that E is closed and connected. (ii) Suppose, if possible, that x : [0, 1] E is continuous and x(0) = (1, 0), x(1) = (0, 0). Explain why we ( 1 can nd 0 < t1 < t2 < t3 < . . . such that x(tj ) = (j + 2 ))1 . By considering the behavior of tj and y(tj ), obtain a contradiction. (iii) Deduce that E is not path-connected. Proof. (i) If y1 , y2 [1, 1], the function f : [0, 1] E1 given by ( ) f (t) = 0, (1 t)y1 + ty2

is continuous and f (0) = (0, y1 ) and f (1) = (0, y2 ), so E1 is path-connected.

1 If (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) E2 , then yj = sin xj and setting ( g(t) = (1 t)x1 + tx2 , sin

1 (1 t)x1 + tx2

we see that g is continuous and g(0) = (x1 , y1 ) and g(1) = (x2 , y2 ), so E2 is path-connected. We next show that E is closed. Suppose that (xr , yr ) E and (xr , yr ) (x, y). If x = 0, then we note that, since |yr | 1 for all r and yr y, we have |y| 1 and (x, y) E1 E. If x = 0, then 1 x > 0 (since xr 0 for all r). We can nd an N such that |x xr | < x/2 and so xr > x/2 for all r N . Thus, by continuity, (xr , yr ) = (xr , sin 1/xr ) (x, sin 1/x) E2 E. Thus E is closed. Now suppose, if possible, that E is disconnected. Then we can nd U and V open such that U E = , V E = , U V E and U V E = . Then U V Ej and U V Ej = . and so, since Ej is path-connected, so connected, we have U Ej = or V Ej = [j = 1, 2]. Without loss of generality, assume V E1 = so U E1 . Since (0, 0) E1 , we have (0, 0) U . Since U is open, we can nd a > 0 such that (x, y) U whenever (x, y)2 < . If n is large, ((n)1 , 0) U E2 = U V E, contradicting our initial assumptions. By reductio ad absurdum, E is connected. (ii) Write x(t) = (x(t), y(t)). Since x is continuous so is x. Since x(0) = 1 and x(1) = 0, the intermediate 3 value theorem tells us that we can nd t1 with 0 < t1 < 1 and x(t1 ) = ( 2 )1 . Applying the 5 intermediate value theorem again, we can nd t2 with 0 < t2 < t1 and x(t2 ) = ( 2 )1 . We continue inductively. Since the tj form a decreasing sequence bounded below by 0, we have tj T for some T [0, 1]. Since y is continuous ( ) (1)j = sin 1/x(tj ) = y(tj ) y(T ) which is absurd. (iii) Part (ii) tells us that there is no path joining (0, 0) and (1, 0) in E, so E is not path-connected.

28

Chapter 7

Compactness
Several important theorems in analysis hold for closed bounded intervals. Heine used a particular idea to prove one of these. Borel isolated the idea as a theorem (the Heine-Borel theorem), essentially Theorem ?? below. Many treatments of analysis use the Heine-Borel theorem as a basic tool. Denition 7.1. Let A be a subset of a topological space X, and let O be a collection of subsets of X. (i) The collection O is said to cover A or to be a cover of A if A is contained in the union of the sets in O. (ii) If O covers A and each set in O is open, then we call O an open cover of A. (iii) If O covers A, and O is a sub-collection of O that also covers A, then O is called a subcover of O. Denition 7.2. A topological space X is compact if every open cover of X has a nite subcover. Example 7.3. The real line R in the standard topology is not compact since O = {. . . , (1, 1), (0, 2), (1, 3), . . . } is an open cover, but no nite sub-collection of O covers R. The reader is warned that compactness is a subtle property which requires time and energy to master. Up to this point most of the proofs in this course have been simple deductions from denitions. Several of our theorems on compactness go much deeper and have quite intricate proofs. Exercise 7.4. Here are some simple examples of compactness and non-compactness. (i) Show that, if X is nite, every topology on X is compact. (ii) Show that the discrete topology on a set X is compact if and only if X is nite. (iii) Show that the indiscrete topology is always compact. (iv) Show that the topology described in Exercise 2.26 is compact. (v) Let X be uncountable (we could take X = R). We say that a subset A of X lies in T if either A = or X \ A is countable. Show that T is a topology but that (X, T ) is not compact. Denition 7.5. Let X be a topological space, and assume A X. Then A is said to be compact in X if A is compact in the subspace topology inherited from X. The following lemma allows us to check whether or not a subspace A of a topological space X is compact by considering covers of A that are made up of open sets in X rather than covers of A that are made up of open sets in the subspace topology on A: Lemma 7.6. Let X be a topological space, and assume A X. Then A is compact in X if and only if every cover of A by sets that are open in X has a nite subcover. 29

Proof. Proof. Let A be compact in X, and suppose that O is a cover of A by open sets in X. Then O = {U A | U O} is a cover of A by open sets in A. Hence, there exists a nite subcover {U1 A, U2 A, . . . , Un A} of O . But then {U1 , U2 , . . . , Un } is a nite subcover of O. Therefore every cover of A by open sets in X has a nite subcover. Conversely, suppose every cover of A by sets that are open in X has a nite subcover. Let O = {V }B be a cover of A by open sets in A. Then, by denition of the subspace topology, for each V there is an open set U in X such that V = U A. It follows that the collection O = {U }B is a cover of A by open sets in X. Since O has a nite subcover {U1 , . . . , Un } it follows that {V1 , . . . , Vn } is a nite subcover of O. Thus every cover of A by open sets in A has a nite subcover, and therefore A is compact.
1 Example 7.7. Consider (0, 1] as a subspace of R. This space is not compact. The collection O = {( n , 2) | n Z+ } is a cover of (0, 1] by sets that are open in R. There is no nite sub-collection of O that covers (0, 1], and therefore (0, 1] is not compact as a subspace of R.

We actually do not need the full strength of a homeomorphism to ensure that a compact space maps to a compact space. The next theorem asserts that, as with connectedness and path connectedness, compactness is preserved by continuous functions. Theorem 7.8. Let f : X Y be continuous, and let A be compact in X. Then f (A) is compact in Y . Proof. Let f : X Y be continuous, and assume that A is compact in X. To show that f (A) is compact in Y , let O be a cover of f (A) by open sets in Y . Then f 1 (U ) is open in X for every open set U in O. Hence O = {f 1 (U ) | U O} is a cover of A by open sets in X. Since A is compact, Lemma 7.6 implies that there is a nite sub-collection of O , say {f 1 (U1 ), . . . , f 1 (Un )}, that covers A. Then the collection of open sets {U1 , . . . , Un } in O covers f (A). Thus, O has a nite subcover, implying that f (A) is compact in Y . One immediate consequence of Theorem 7.8 is that a quotient space of a compact space X is compact since it is the image of X under a quotient map, and a quotient map is a continuous function. The next two theorems show that being closed and being compact are closely related properties. Theorem 7.9. Let (X, T ) be a topological space and let E be compact in X. If F is closed in X, and F E, then F is compact in X. Proof. Since F is closed and we have X \ F T . If U T and F U , then
A

(X \ F )

U = X E.

By compactness, we can nd (j) A [1 j n] such that E (X \ F ) Since (X \ F ) F = and E F , it follows that F and we are done. The converse of the above theorem does not generally hold. A compact set in a topological space is not necessarily a closed set, as demonstrated in the next example. Example 7.10. Give an example of a topological space (X, T ) and a compact set in X which is not closed. Proof. If (X, T ) has the indiscrete topology, then, if Y X, Y = X, , we have Y compact but not closed. We can take X = {a, b} with a = b and Y = {a}. 30
n j=1 n j=1

U(j) .

U(j)

Theorem 7.11. If (X, T ) is Hausdor, then every compact set is closed. Proof. Let K be a compact set. Arbitrary choosing x X \ K and k K (we have k = x). As X is Hausdor, we can nd open sets Uk and Vk such that x Vk , k Uk and Vk Uk = . Since
kK

Uk

kK

{k} = K, we have an open cover of K. By compactness, we can nd k(1), k(2), . . . , k(n)

n j=1

K such that

Uk(j) K.

We observe that the nite intersection V =

n j=1

Vk(j) is an open neighborhood of x and that

n j=1

V K V

Uk(j) = ,

so V K = and we have shown that every x X \ K has an open neighborhood lying entirely within X \ K. Thus X \ K is open and K is closed. Lemma 7.12. [The Tube Lemma.] Let X and Y be topological spaces, and assume that Y is compact. If x X, and U is an open set in X Y containing {x} Y , then there exists a neighborhood W of x in X such that W Y U . Proof. For each y Y pick open sets Wy in X and Vy in Y such that (x, y) Wy Vy U . The collection of sets {Vy }yY is an open cover of Y . Since Y is compact, nitely many of these sets cover Y , say Vy1 , . . . , Vyn . n Let W = Wyi . Then W is open in X, and W contains x because each Wy contains x. Note that
i=1 n

W Y

(Wyi Vyi ) U.

i=1

Therefore W Y contains {x} Y and is contained in U . Theorem 7.13. If X and Y are compact topological spaces, then the product X Y is compact. Proof. Let O be an open cover of X Y . For each x X, the set {x} Y is compact in X Y . Therefore a nite sub-collection Ox of O covers {x} Y . Let Ux be the union of the sets in Ox . The set Ux is open in X Y and contains {x} Y . By the Tube Lemma, for each x X there exists an open set Wx X such that x Wx and Wx Y Ux . Note that Ox covers Wx Y . The collection W = {Wx | x X} is an open cover of X. Since X is compact, it is covered by nitely many of the sets in W, say Wx1 , . . . , Wxm . It follows that C = Ox1 Oxm covers X Y . The collection C is a sub-collection of O and is nite, being a nite union of nite sets. Therefore O has a nite sub-collection that covers X Y , implying that X Y is compact. Using this result and induction, we then obtain the following corollary: Corollary 7.14. Let X1 , . . . , Xn be topological spaces, and let Ai be a compact subset of Xi for each i = 1, . . . , n. Then A1 An is a compact subset of the product space X1 Xn .

31

7.1

Compactness in metric spaces

In real analysis, where the focus is on Rn with the standard metric and topology, sometimes a set is dened to be compact if it is closed and bounded. In this section, we show that in Rn such a denition is consistent with the topological denition already presented. We then address the extent to which this equivalence carries over to general metric spaces. Following that, we present some important convergence properties of compact sets in a metric space. First, we dene rigorously the meaning of bounded subset in metric spaces. Denition 7.15. Let (X, d) be a metric space. A subset A of X is said to be bounded under d if there exists a > 0 such that d(x, y) for all x, y A. We begin with the following lemma, which we subsequently use to show that closed and bounded intervals in R are compact: Lemma 7.16. [The Nested Intervals Lemma.] Let {[an , bn ]}nZ+ be a collection of nonempty closed bounded intervals in R such that [an+1 , bn+1 ] [an , bn ] for each n Z+ . Then [an , bn ] is nonempty.
n=1

Proof. Assume that [an+1 , bn+1 ] [an , bn ]for each n Z+ . It follows that the interval endpoints satisfy the inequalities, a1 a2 an bn b2 b1 . The set {an }nZ+ is bounded from above (for example, by each bn ) and therefore has a least upper bound A. Similarly, the set {bn }nZ+ has a greatest lower bound B. Note that A B and therefore the interval [A, B] is nonempty. We claim that [an , bn ] = [A, B], to complete the proof of the lemma. First, we show that [an , bn ]
n=1

[A, B]. Thus, let x

n=1

[an , bn ] be arbitrary. Then x [an , bn ] for all n, implying that x an and x bn

n=1

for all n. Therefore x A and x B; that is, x [A, B]. Hence To prove that [A, B] Therefore x
n=1

[an , bn ] [A, B].

n=1

[an , bn ], let x [A, B] be arbitrary. Then x an and x bn for all n.

n=1

[an , bn ]. Thus [A, B]

[an , bn ], and it follows that

[an , bn ] = [A, B].

n=1

n=1

Lemma 7.16 does not hold if we replace the closed intervals with open intervals. For instance, the 1 1 1 collection of nonempty bounded open intervals {(0, n ) | n Z+ } satises the condition that (0, n+1 ) (0, n ) 1 for each n Z+ , but n=1 (0, n ) = . Theorem 7.17. Every closed and bounded interval [a, b] is a compact subset of R with the standard topology. Proof. Let O be a cover of [a, b] by open sets in R. To derive a contradiction, assume that there is no nite sub-collection of O covering [a, b]. Consider the intervals [a, a+b ] and [ a+b , b] obtained by dividing [a, b] in half. The collection O covers both 2 2 of these intervals. For at least one of the two, there is no nite sub-collection of O that covers it. Choose such a half of [a, b], and denote it by [a1 , b1 ]. In a similar manner, we can choose a half of [a1 , b1 ] that is not covered by a nite sub-collection of O and denote it by [a2 , b2 ]. We repeat this process. In other words, given [an , bn ], a subset of [a, b] that is not covered by a nite sub-collection of O, choose a half of [an , bn ] that is not covered by a nite sub-collection of O, and denote it by [an+1 , bn+1 ]. Consider the collection of intervals {[an , bn ]}nZ+ . Based on the construction of these intervals, the following statements hold for each n Z+ : 32

(i) [an+1 , bn+1 ] [an , bn ] (ii) bn an =

ba 2n

(iii) [an , bn ] is not covered by a nite sub-collection of O. By Lemma 7.16, it follows that [an , bn ] is nonempty. Let x be in this intersection. Then x [a, b], n=1 and therefore there exists U O such that x U . Since U is open in R, there exists > 0 such that (x , x + ) U . Let N be a positive integer large enough so that ba < . Since x [an , bn ], it follows n=1 2N that x [aN , bN ]. Furthermore, since bN aN = ba < , it follows that [aN , bN ] (x , x + ) U . But 2N then[aN , bN ] is covered by a single set in O, contradicting the fact that [aN , bN ] is not covered by a nite sub-collection of O. Thus there must be a nite sub-collection of O that covers [a, b], and it follows that [a, b] is compact. In the next theorem, we extend Theorem 7.17 to a corresponding result for products of closed bounded intervals in Rn . The proof follows directly from Theorem 7.17 and Corollary 7.14. Theorem 7.18. Let [a1 , b1 ], . . . , [an , bn ] be closed bounded intervals in R. Then [a1 , b1 ] [an , bn ] is a compact subset of Rn . We now come to a point to proof the Heine-Borel Theorem, which states that in Rn , our new denition of compact in topological spaces is equivalent to the old denition we learned in analysis courses. Theorem 7.19. [The Heine-Borel Theorem.] Let Rn have the standard topology and the standard metric d. A set A Rn is compact in Rn if and only if it is closed and bounded. Proof. Let A be compact in Rn . Since Rn is Hausdor, it follows by Theorem 7.11 that A is closed. To see that A is bounded, consider the collection O = {B(O, n) | n Z+ }, made up of open balls centered at the origin in Rn . The collection O is an open cover of A, and since A is compact, it follows that nitely many of the sets in O cover A. Thus, there exists N Z+ such that A B(O, N ). Therefore, for x, y A, we have d(x, y) < 2N , implying that A is bounded. Now assume that A is closed and bounded. Let a = (a1 , . . . , an ) be a point in A, and assume that d(x, y) < M for all x and y in A. Then A is contained in the product of intervals P = [a1 M, a1 + M ] [an M, an + M ]. The set P is a compact subset of Rn by Theorem 7.18. Since A is closed and a subset of P , it follows by Theorem 7.9 that A is compact in Rn . We know from our analysis course that a bounded sequence in Rn has a convergence subsequence. However, this is not true in general metric space. Example 7.20. Give an example of metric space (X, d) that is bounded but there exists a sequence with no convergent subsequence. Solution. Consider the discrete metric on Z. If xn = n and x Z, then d(x, xn ) = 1 for all n with at most one exception. Thus the sequence xn can have no convergent subsequence. Fortunately we do have a very neat and useful true theorem. Denition 7.21. A metric space (X, d) is said to be sequentially compact if every sequence in X has a convergent subsequence. Theorem 7.22. If the metric space (X, d) is compact, then it is sequentially compact.

33

Proof. Let (xn ) be a sequence in X. We claim that there exists x X such that every nonempty open ball centered at x contains xn for innitely many n. Suppose this does not hold. Then for every x X there exists x such that Bd (x, x ) contains members of the sequence (xn ) for at most nitely many n. Consider the collection O = {Bd (x, x )}xX . No nite sub-collection of O can cover the sequence (xn ) since each set Bd (x, x ) contains members of the sequence (xn ) for only at most nitely many n. On the other hand, O is an open cover of the compact space X and therefore there is a nite sub-collection of O that covers X, this is a contradiction. Thus, there exists x X such that every nonempty open ball centered at x contains xn for innitely many n. 1 Now, for each m Z+ let xnm be a point in the sequence (xn ) such that nm > nm1 and xnm Bd (x, m ). Then (xnm ) is a subsequence of (xn ) converging to x X. An important convergence question for metric spaces is the following: If the points in a sequence (xn ) get closer and closer to each other, then does the sequence converge? We investigate this question in the remainder of the section. Denition 7.23. Let (X, d) be a metric space. (i) A sequence xn in X is called a Cauchy sequence if for every > 0, there exists an N () Z+ with d(xn , xm ) < for every n, m N0 (). (ii) If every Cauchy sequence in X converges to a limit in X, then X is called complete. The following theorem illustrated that Rn with the standard metric is complete. Theorem 7.24. Let (xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in Rn with the standard metric d. Then (xn ) converges to a limit in Rn . Proof. Suppose that (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence in Rn . Pick a > 0. Since (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence, there exists N Z+ such that d(xn , xm ) < for all n, m N . Let C be the closed ball of radius centered at xN . Then C is a compact set since it is closed and bounded. Also, the sequence (xN , xN +1 , . . . ) is in C. By Theorem 7.22, the sequence (xN , xN +1 , . . . ) has a subsequence that converges to a limit x in C. We claim that the original sequence (xn ) converges to x . Thus, suppose that > 0 is arbitrary. Because (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence, we can choose M Z+ such that d(xn , xm ) < 2 for every n, m M . Now, let k M be arbitrary. We show that d(xk , x ) < , proving that (xn ) converges to x . Since (xN , xN +1 , . . . ) has a subsequence converging to x , there exists j M such that d(xj , x ) < 2 . Also, having j, k M implies that d(xk , xj ) < 2 . Therefore, by the triangle inequality, it follows that d(xk , x ) < , as desired. The previous theorem shows that Rn with the standard metric is a complete metric space. However, if we let X = R 0 with the metric d(x, y) = |x y|, then X is not a complete metric space. The sequence 1 (1, 2 , 1 , . . . ) is a Cauchy sequence in X that does not converge in X. 3 Example 7.25. Let X = R and let d be the standard metric on R. Let Y = (0, 1) (the open interval with end points 0 and 1) and let be the standard metric on (0, 1). Then (X, d) and (Y, ) are homeomorphic as topological spaces but (X, d) is complete and (Y, ) is not.
1 Solution. We know from rst year analysis that f (y) = tan((y 2 )) is a bijective function f : Y X which is continuous with continuous inverse. (Recall that a strictly increasing continuous function has continuous inverse.) Thus (X, d) and (Y, ) are homeomorphic. We know that (X, d) is complete by the general principle of analysis. 1 However ( n ) is a Cauchy sequence in Y with no limit in Y . (If y (0, 1), then there exists an N with 1 . If m 2N , then | 1 y| 1 so ( 1 ) not converge to y.) y>N m 2N n

We say that completeness is not a topological property. In Example 1.19 we saw that the continuous image of an open set need not be open. It also easy to see that the continuous image of a closed set need not be closed. 34

Exercise 7.26. Let R have the usual metric. Give an example of a continuous injective function f : R R such that f (R) is not closed. Hint. Look at the solution of Example 7.25 if you need a hint. Theorem 7.27. Let (X, T ) be a compact and (Y, ) a Hausdor topological space. If f : X Y is a continuous bijection, then it is a homeomorphism. Proof. Since f is a bijection, g = f 1 is a well dened function. If K is closed in X, then (since a closed subset of a compact space is compact) K is compact so f (K) is compact. But a compact subset of a Hausdor space is closed so g 1 (K) = f (K) is closed. Thus g is continuous and we are done. (If U is open in X then X \ U is closed so Y \ g 1 (U ) = g 1 (X \ U ) is closed and g 1 (U ) is open.) Exercise 7.28. (i) Give an example of a compact space (X, T ) and a topological space (Y, ) together with a continuous bijection f : X Y which is not a homeomorphism. (ii) Give an example of a topological space (X, T ) and a Hausdor space (Y, ) together with a continuous bijection f : X Y which is not a homeomorphism. Finally, we give the following very useful results for compact metric spaces. Theorem 7.29. If X is a compact metric space, then X is complete. To prove Theorem 7.29, we need the following lemma and Theorem 7.22. Lemma 7.30. A metric space X is complete if every Cauchy sequence in X has a convergent subsequence. Proof. Let (xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in (X, d). We show that if (xn ) has a subsequence (xni ) that converges to a point x, then the sequence (xn ) itself converges to x. Given > 0, rst choose N large enough that d(xn , xm ) < 2 for all n, m N [using the fact that (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence]. Then choose an integer i large enough that ni N and d(xni , x) < 2

[using the fact that n1 < n2 < . . . is an increasing sequence of integers and xni converges to x]. Putting these facts together, we have the desired result that for n N , d(xn , x) d(xn , xni ) + d(xni , x) < .

7.2

The Extreme Value Theorem

The Extreme Value Theorem concerns continuous real-valued functions on a compact domain. In this section we prove a general version of the Extreme Value Theorem. To begin, we need the following lemma. Lemma 7.31. Let A be a compact subset of R. Then there exist m, M A such that m a M for all a A. Proof. We only prove the existence of the maximum value M . The proof of the existence of the minimum value m is similar. Since A is compact, it is closed and bounded in R. Therefore A is bounded from above. It follows that the set A has a least upper bound; denote it by M . Of course, a M for all a A. We claim that M A. We prove the claim by contradiction; thus suppose that M A. Since A is closed, it follows / that there exists an > 0 such that (M , M + ) A = . Then M is an upper bound for A that is smaller than M , a contradiction. Therefore M A, and A has a maximum value. Theorem 7.32. [The Extreme Value Theorem (General Version).] Let X be compact and f : X R be continuous. Then f takes on a maximum value and a minimum value on X; that is, there exist a, b X such that f (a) f (x) f (b) for all x X. 35

Proof. Since X is compact and f is continuous, f (X) is a compact subset of R by Theorem 7.8. Therefore f (X) contains a maximum value M and a minimum value m by the previous lemma. The points m and M are in f (X); therefore there exist a, b X such that f (a) = m and f (b) = M . Now, for all x X we have that f (x) f (X), and thus ,f (a) = m f (x) M = f (b), as we wished to show. The following corollary is the version of the Extreme Value Theorem that we encountered in a calculus course. Corollary 7.33. [The Extreme Value Theorem on [a, b]]. Assume that f : [a, b] R is continuous. Then f takes on a maximum value and a minimum value on [a, b]. Example 7.34. The publishers at K Publishing House would like to catch the new wave of interest in applied topology. They are planning to publish an applied topology text to compete with those currently on the market. The business department has committed a $500,000 budget to the rst run of the book. The budget is to be allocated among several aspects of the books production, including an authorship contract, editorial costs, printing, advertising, and distribution. Suppose that there are n such variables, v1 , . . . , vn . The prot that the publishers can expect to make on this venture depends on how the resources are allocated. For example, if they opt for printing the book in a high-cost Mobius-band format and a minimal advertising budget, they will realize a smaller prot than if they had used a standard book format and a larger advertising budget. Thus, we regard the prot, P , as a function of the variables v1 , . . . , vn . It is natural to assume that P is continuous. The domain of P is the subset of Rn given by D = {(v1 , . . . , vn ) | v1 0, . . . , vn 0, v1 + + vn 500, 000}. Since D is closed and bounded, it is compact. Therefore the Extreme Value Theorem indicates that there is a choice for the allocation of resources resulting in a maximum prot for the planned textbook project.

7.3

Bolzano-Weierstrass property

As indicated when we rst mentioned compact sets, there are other formulations of the notion of compactness that are frequently useful. In this section we introduce one of them. Weaker in general than compactness, it coincides with compactness for metric spaces. Denition 7.35. A topological space X has the Bolzano-Weierstrass property if every innite subset of X has a limit point.
1 Example 7.36. In R the subspace A = {0} { n | n Z+ } has the Bolzano-Weierstrass property. Let B be 1 an innite subset of A. Then B must contain values of the form n where n is arbitrarily large. Therefore 0 is a limit point of B. Thus, every innite subset of A has a limit point, implying that A is has the Bolzano-Weierstrass property.

The following theorem indicates that compactness implies Bolzano-Weierstrass property in all topological spaces. Theorem 7.37. If a topological space X is compact, then it has the Bolzano-Weierstrass property. Proof. We prove that if X does not has the Bolzano-Weierstrass property, then X is not compact. Suppose that X does not has the Bolzano-Weierstrass property. Thus, X has an innite subset B that does not have a limit point. Since each x B is not a limit point of B, it follows that for every x B there exists a neighborhood Ux of x such that Ux B = {x}. Also, since B has no limit points, that is, it contains all its limit points and this implies that B is closed. Hence, X \ B is open. Let O be the collection of open sets {Ux | x B} {X \ B}. Then O is an open cover of X. Furthermore O has no nite subcover, since each of the innitely many points x in B is contained in only the open set Ux in O. Therefore X has an open cover with no nite subcover. It follows that X is not compact.

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Example 7.38. Let Z have the topology generated by the basis B = {(n, n) | n Z+ }. In this topology, Z is not compact since the basis B is an open cover that has no nite subcover. We claim, however, that Z has the Bolzano-Weierstrass property in this topology. In fact, we show that every nonempty subset of Z has a limit point. Thus, let A be a nonempty subset of Z. Every subset of Z has an element with minimum absolute value; let s be such an element of A. For every t Z such that |t| > |s|, it follows that every open set containing t must contain s. Therefore every t satisfying |t| > |s| is a limit point of A. Hence, A has a limit point, implying that Z has the Bolzano-Weierstrass property in the topology generated by B. Before we prove the nal important result in this course, that is, dierent notion of compactness are equivalent in metric spaces, we need the following lemma. Lemma 7.39. Suppose that (X, d) is a sequentially compact metric space and that the collection U with A is an open cover of X. Then there exists a > 0 such that, given any x X, there exists an (x) A such that the open ball B(x, ) U(x) . Proof. Suppose the rst sentence is true and the second sentence false. Then, for each n 1 we can nd an 1 xn such that the open ball B(xn , n ) U for all A. By sequential compactness, we can nd y X and n(j) such that xn(j) y. Since y X, we must have y U for some A. Since U is open, we can nd an such that B(y, ) U . Now choose J suciently large that n(J) > 21 and d(xn(J) , y) < /2. We now have, using the triangle inequality, that B(xn(J) , 1/n(J)) B(xn(J) , /2) B(y, ) U , contradicting the denition of xn(J) . Theorem 7.40. Let X be a metric space. Then the following are equivalent: (i) X is compact. (ii) X has the Bolzano-Weierstrass property. (iii) X is sequentially compact. Proof. We have already proved that (i) (ii). To show that (ii) (iii), assume that X has the BolzanoWeierstrass property. Given a sequence (xn ) of points of X, consider the set A = {xn | n Z+ }. If the set A is nite, then there is a point x such that x = xn for innitely many values of n. In this case, the sequence (xn ) has a subsequence that is constant, and therefore converges trivially. On the other hand, if A is innite, then A has a limit point x. We dene a subsequence of (xn ) converging to x as follows: First choose n1 so that xn1 B(x, 1). Then suppose that the positive integer ni1 is given. Because the ball B(x, 1 ) intersects A in innitely many i points, we can choose an index ni > ni1 such that 1 xni B(x, ). i Then the subsequence xn1 , xn2 , . . . converges to x. Finally, we show that (iii) (i). This is the hardest part of the proof. Let (U )A be an open cover and let be dened as in Lemma 7.39. The B(x, ) form a cover of X. If they have no nite subcover, then given x1 , x2 , . . . xn we can nd an xn+1 n B(xj , ). Consider the / j=1 sequence xj thus obtained. We have d(xn+1 , xk ) > whenever n k 1 and so d(xr , xs ) > for all r = s. It follows that, if x X, d(xn , x) > /2 for all n with at most one exception. Thus the sequence of xn has no convergent subsequence. 37

It thus follows, by reductio ad absurdum, that the B(x, ) have a nite subcover. In other words, we can nd an M and yj X [1 j M ] such that X= We thus have X=
M j=1

B(yj , ).

M j=1

B(yj , )

M j=1

U(yj ) X

so X = M U(yj ) and we have found a nite subcover. j=1 Thus X is compact.

38