Dissociative Disorder

* Involve problems with memory, identity, emotion, perception, behavior and sense of self. Dissociative symptoms can potentially disrupt
every area of mental functioning.
*Dissociation is a disconnection between a person’s thoughts, memories, feelings, actions or sense of who he or she is. This is a normal
process that everyone has experienced. Examples of mild, common dissociation include daydreaming, highway hypnosis or “getting lost” in a
book or movie, all of which involve “losing touch” with awareness of one’s immediate surroundings.
There are three types of dissociative disorders:
 Dissociative identity disorder
 Dissociative amnesia
 Depersonalization/derealization disorder
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Dissociative identity disorder is associated with overwhelming experiences, traumatic events and/or abuse that occurred in childhood.
Dissociative identity disorder was previously referred to as multiple personality disorder.
 The existence of two or more distinct identities (or “personality states”). The distinct identities are accompanied by changes in
behavior, memory and thinking. The signs and symptoms may be observed by others or reported by the individual.
Depersonalization/ Derealization Disorder
*Depersonalization/ derealization disorder involves significant ongoing or recurring experience of one or both conditions:
 Depersonalization – experiences of unreality or detachment from one’s mind, self or body. People may feel as if they are outside
their bodies and watching events happening to them.
 Derealization – experiences of unreality or detachment from one’s surroundings. People may feel as if things and people in the
world around them are not real.
Dissociative Amnesia
Dissociative amnesia involves not being able to recall information about oneself (not normal forgetting). This amnesia is usually related to a
traumatic or stressful event and may be:
 localized – unable to remember an event or period of time (most common type)
 selective – unable to remember a specific aspect of an event or some events within a period of time
 generalized – complete loss of identity and life history (rare)
 Continuous- Continuous amnesia occurs when the individual has no memory of events occurring after a particular event.
Amnesia disorder wherein the individual cannot recall his or her name and remembers little or nothing about the past in varying levels of
intensity.
Psychogenic Fugue - known as Dissociative Fugue is simply the addition to generalized amnesia. A temporary state where a person has
memory loss and ends up in an unexpected place. People with this symptom can't remember who they are or details about their past.

Mood Disorder
 Referred to as an affective disorder, is a condition that severely impacts your mood and its related functions.
 Characterized by extreme and unwanted disturbance in feeling or mood.

Types of Mood Disorder

1. Bipolar Disorder - also called manic depression or bipolar affective disorder, depression that includes alternating times of
depression (extreme sadness) and mania (extreme happiness).
Two Phase of Bipolar Disorder
* Manic Phase- during this phase, the patient may show excessive, unwarranted excitement or silliness, carrying jokes too far. They may also
show poor judgement and recklessness and may be argumentative.
* Depressive Episode – the other side of the bipolar coin is the depressive episode. Bipolar depressed patients often sleep more than usual
and are tired. During bipolar depressive episodes, a patient may also show irritability and withdrawal.
2. Depressive Disorder - is when the person experiences extended, explainable periods of sadness.
*Depressive disorder (also known as depression) is a common mental disorder. It involves a depressed mood or loss of pleasure or interest in
activities for long periods of time.
Types of Depressive Disorder
1. Major Depressive Disorder – a person suffering from this disorder is in a depressed mood for most of the day, nearly everyday or has lost
interest or pleasure in all, or almost all activities for a period of at least two weeks.
2. Persistent depressive disorder- mild or moderate depression that doesn’t go away. A person with PDD has a sad, dark, or low mood and
two or more other symptoms of depression. The symptoms last most of the day, on most days, over a long period of time. It’s defined as
lasting at least two years in adults and at least one year in children and teens.
3. Prolonged grief disorder- Grief is a natural response to the loss of a loved one.
Forms of Depression
Postpartum Depression occurs after having a baby.
Premenstrual Dysphoric disorder occurs during the week before menstruation
Sexual Disorder
 disorder related to a particular phase of sexual response cycle.
 include problems of sexual identity, sexual performance and sexual aim.
Categories of Sexual Disorder
1. Sexual Dysfunctions
2. Paraphilia
3. Gender Identity Disorders
I. Sexual Dysfunction
 refers to a problem(s) that prevents the individual or couple from experiencing satisfaction from sexual activity.
 is difficulty experienced by an individual or a couple during any stage of a normal sexual activity, including physical pleasure, desire,
preference, arousal or orgasm.
 Sexual dysfunctions can be lifelong (evident during initial sexual experiences), acquired (developed after successful sexual
experiences), generalized (occurring in nearly all situations), or situational (occurring with certain partners, situations, or types of stimulation)
Phases of Sex
Phase 1: Excitement
Excitement phase last from a few minutes to several hours.
Phase 2: Plateau
Plateau phase extends to the brink of orgasm.
Phase 3: Orgasm
The orgasm is the climax of the sexual response cycle. It is the shortest of the phases and generally lasts only a few seconds.
Phase 4: Resolution
During resolution, the body slowly returns to its normal level of functioning, and swelled and erect body parts return to their previous size and
color. This phase is marked by a general sense of well-being, enhanced intimacy and, often, fatigue. Some women are capable of a rapid
return to the orgasm phase with further sexual stimulation and may experience multiple orgasms. Men need recovery time after orgasm, called
a refractory period, during which they cannot reach orgasm again. The duration of the refractory period varies among men and usually
lengthens with advancing age.
Type of Sexual Dysfunction
a. Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire (During Excitement Phase)
 Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder - It is marked by lack or no sexual drive or interest in sexual activity.
 Sexual Aversion Disorder - It is characterized by a desire to avoid genital contact with a sexual partner. s
b. Dysfunction of Sexual Arousal (During Arousal or Plateau Phase)
 Male Erectile Disorder - It refers to the inability to maintain or achieve an erection.
 Female Sexual Arousal Disorder - It refers to none responsiveness to erotic stimulation both physically and emotionally.
c. Dysfunction of Orgasm (During Orgasmic Phase)
 Premature Ejaculation / Delayed Ejaculation- It is the unsatisfactory brief period between the beginning or sexual stimulation and
the occurrence of ejaculation.
 Male Orgasmic Disorder - It refers to the inability to ejaculate during sexual intercourse
 Female Orgasmic Disorder - It refers to the difficulty in achieving orgasm, either manually or during sexual intercourse.
d. Sexual Pains
 Vaginismus - It is the involuntary muscle spasm at the entrance to the vagina that prevents penetration and sexual intercourse.
 Dyspareunia - It refers to painful coitus that may have either and organic or psychological basis.
e. Hyper Sexuality
 Nymphomania - A female psychological disorder characterized by an overactive libido and an obsession with sex.
 Satyriasis - A male psychological disorder characterized by an overactive libido and an obsession with sex.

II. Paraphilias
 The word paraphilia derives from Greek; Para means around or beside, and Philia means love.
 Used to indicate sexual arousal in response to sexual objects or situations that are not part of societal normative arousal/ activity
patterns, or which may interfere with the capacity for reciprocal affectionate sexual activity.
Common Form of Paraphilia
a. Exhibitionism
 Also known as flashing.
 Exposure of private parts of his/her body to another person in a situation when they would not normally be exposed.
b. Fetishism
 Experience sexual urges and behavior which are associated with non- living objects.
Types of Fetishism
 Sexual Transvestic Fetishism (Transvestism) - male who are aroused by wearing, fondling, or seeing female clothing.
 Foot Fetishism - sexual interest in human feet. Most common fetishistic interest among humans.
 Tickling Fetishism - gaining specific sexual trill from either tickling a sex partner or being subjected to tickling themselves.
 Wet and Messy Fetish (WAM) - getting aroused by substance applied on the body like mud, shaving foam, custard pudding,
chocolate sauce, etc.
 Pygmalionism - sexual deviation whereby a person has sexual desire with a statue.
c. Frotteurism (Frottage) - is an act of obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by rubbing one’s genitals against others in public
places or crowds.
d. Pedophilia - used to refer to child sexual abuse which come from the Greek word Pais “Child” and Philia “Friendship”.
e. Masochism - involves acts in which a person derives sexual excitement from being humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise abused.
f. Sadism - is the act of attaining sexual pleasure or gratification by the infliction of pain and suffering upon another person.
g. Voyeurism (Peeping Tom) - is the act of attaining sexual pleasure or gratification by watching others while naked or having sex,
generally without their knowledge; also known as scopophilia or scoptophilia.
h. Scatologia - is the act of attaining sexual pleasure or gratification by obscene phone calls, particularly to strangers; also known as
telephonicophilia and scatophilia.
i. Necrophilia - also called thanatophilia and necrolagnia, is the sexual attraction to corpses.
j. Coprophilia - from Greek kopros - excrement and filia - liking, also called scatophilia or scat, is the paraphilia involving sexual
pleasure from feces.
k. Urolagnia - attaining sexual gratification by urination, particularly in public, on others, and/or being urinated on, also referred to as
"water sports".
l. Gerontophilia - sexual inclination towards the elderly.
m. Mysophilia - obtaining sexual gratification by dirty surroundings.

III. Gender Identity Disorder (Transsexualism)

 Person experiences confusion, vagueness, or conflict in his/her feelings about his/her own sexual identity.
 Individual feels trapped in a body of the wrong sex.
Category of Sexual Abnormalities
a. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Choice of Sexual Partner:
 Heterosexual - refers to sexual desire towards the opposite sex.
 Homosexual - refers to a relationship or having a sexual desire towards member(s) of his or her own gender.
 Tribadism (Lesbianism) - a special name for female homosexuals wherein woman has the desire to have sexual intercourse with
another woman; the “masculine” woman may be the active subject during the sexual act; most lesbians have antipathy towards men.
 Autosexual (Self Gratification or Masturbation) - is a form of “self - abuse” or “solitary vice” carried without the cooperation of another
person or the induction of a state of erection of the genital organs and the achievement of orgasm by manual or mechanical situation.
Types of Masturbation:
o In Male - by manual manipulation to the point of emission or rubbing his sex organ against some part of the female body without use
of hand (frottage);
o In Female - manual manipulation of clitoris or introduction of penis-substitute
 Gerontophilia - refers to sexual desire with elder person.
 Necrophilia - refers to a sexual perversion characterized by erotic desire or actual sexual intercourse with a corpse.
 Incest - refers to sexual relations between persons who, by reason of blood relationship cannot legally marry.
b. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Part of the Body:
 Sodomy - refers to sexual act through anus of another human being.
 Uranism - refers to the attainment of sexual gratification by fingering, fondling with the breast, licking parts of the body, etc.
 Frottage (Frotteurism) - form of sexual gratification characterized by the compulsion of a person to rub his sex organ against some
parts of the body of another.
 Partialism - a form of sexual deviation wherein a person has special affinity to certain parts of the female body.
c. Sexual Abnormalities as to Visual Stimulus:
 Voyeurism - is a form of sexual perversion characterized by a compulsion to peep to see persons undress or perform other activitites.
 Mixoscopia (Scoptophilia) - refers to a perversion wherein sexual pleasure attained by watching couple undress or during their sex
intimacies.
d. Sexual Abnormalities as to Number of Sex Partner:
 Triolism - from the French word, Trio which means Three, a form of sexual perversion in which three persons are participating in
sexual orgies.
 Pluralism - a form of sexual deviation in which a group of person participates in the sexual orgies. Two or more couples may perform
sexual act.
Other sexual abnormalities
1. Exhibitionism – it is called indecent exposure, the intentional exposure of genitals to members of the opposite sex under inappropriate
conditions.
2. Coprolagnia – sexual gratification through putting feces in the body.
3. Coprolalia – the use of obscene language to achieve sexual satisfaction.
4. Don Juanism – the act of seducing women as a career without permanency of sexual partner or companion.
5. Urolagnia – sexual gratification through urinating.
6. Necro sadism – sexual behavior wherein the offenders perform sexual intercourse and then kill the
victims.

Personality Disorder - it is a maladaptive personality pattern. It is a psychological disorder that is believed to have resulted from personalities
that developed improperly during childhood.
Types of Personality Disorder: Cluster A, B, & C according to the Diagnostic and statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR, 2000), a reference used
to clinically define mental illness.

Cluster A: Odd or Eccentric Behaviors

a. Schizoid Personality Disorder (SPD) - is characterized by the inability to form social relationship and lack of interest in doing so.
The person seems to express their feelings, they lack social skills. They are the so-called “loners”.
b. Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD) - is characterized by suspicious, rigidity, envy, hypersensitivity, excessive self-importance,
argumentativeness and tendency to blame others of one’s own mistakes. Prone to unjustified anger or aggressive outbursts when they
perceive others as disloyal or deceitful, they more often come across as emotionally “cold” or excessively serious.
c. Schizotypal Personality Disorder - is characterized by seclusiveness, over sensitivity, avoidance of communication and
superstitious thinking is common.

Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Behaviors

a. Antisocial Personality Disorder (APB) - behave in a manner that demonstrates a lack of consideration for the emotions and
entitlements of others. Individuals with anti-social personalities frequently engage in illegal activities. Utilize or leverage individuals for personal
benefit. Individuals may engage in repetitive lying, impulsive behavior, and physical altercations.
b. Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) - a mental illness interferes with an individual’s ability to regulate emotion. Borderlines are
highly sensitive to rejection, and fear of abandonment may result in frantic efforts to avoid being left alone, such as suicide threats and
attempts.
c. Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) - is characterized primarily by grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy.
d. Histrionic Personality Disorder - individuals with this personality disorder exhibit a pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and
attempt to get attention in unusual ways, such as bizarre appearance or speech

Cluster C: Anxious, Fearful Behavior

1. Avoidant Personality Disorder (APD) - those with avoidant personalities are often hypersensitive to rejection and unwilling to take
social risks.
2. Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD) - typically exhibits a pattern of needy and submissive behavior, and rely on others to make
decisions for them.
3. Obsessive- Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) - also known as Anankastic Personality Disorder, individuals that are
focused on order and perfection that their lack of flexibility interferes with productivity and efficiency. They can be also workaholics, preferring
of working alone, as they afraid that work completed by others will not be done correctly.
Schizophrenia
 a psychotic condition marked by withdrawal from reality, indifference concerning everyday problems, and tendency to live in a world
of fantasy.
 formerly called dementia praecox by Emil Kraeplin, a German psychiatrist.
 the term schizophrenia was given by Eugene Bleuler which literally means “splitting of minds”.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia
A. Positive symptoms: These are symptoms of schizophrenia that involve unusual thoughts or perceptions, such as delusions,
hallucinations, disordered thinking, or bizarre behavior.

1. Delusions: These are false beliefs that are firmly and consistently held despite disconfirming evidence or logic.
Delusional themes:
A. Delusions of grandeur. Individuals may believe they are someone famous or powerful (from the present or the past).
B. Delusions of control. Individuals may believe that other people, animals, or objects are trying to influence or take control of them.
C. Delusions of thought broadcasting. Individuals may believe that others can hear their thoughts.
D. Delusions of persecution. Individuals may believe that others are plotting against, mistreating, or even trying to kill them.
E. Delusions of reference. Individuals may believe they are the center of attention or that all happenings revolve around them.
F. Delusions of thought withdrawal. Individuals may believe that someone or something is removing thoughts from their minds.

2. Hallucination: It is a perception of nonexistent or absent stimuli; it may involve a single sensory modality or a combination of modalities,
including hearing (auditory hallucination), seeing (visual hallucination), smelling (olfactory hallucination), touching (tactile hallucination), or
tasting (gustatory hallucination).
3. Disorganized thinking (formal thought disorder): It is typically inferred from the individual's speech. The individual may switch from one
topic to another {derailment or lose associations). Answers to questions may be obliquely related or completely unrelated (tangentiality).
Rarely, speech may be so severely disorganized that it is nearly incomprehensible and resembles receptive aphasia in its linguistic
disorganization {incoherence or "word salad").

[Link] symptoms: These are associated with an inability or decreased ability actions or speech, express emotions, or feel pleasure
(Barch, 2013). The term “negative” is used because certain behaviors or experiences are lost from a person’s life once schizophrenia
develops. Such symptoms include:

A. Avolition—an inability to initiate or persist in goal-directed behavior;

B. Alogia—a lack of meaningful speech;
C. Asociality—minimal interest in social relationships;
D. Anhedonia—reduced ability to experience pleasure from positive events; and
E. Diminished emotional expression—reduced display of emotion involving facial
expressions, voice intonation, or gestures in situations in which emotional reactions are
expected.
Types of Schizophrenia
1. Paranoid Schizophrenia
 used to be the most common form of schizophrenia.
 has hallucinations and delusions.
 characterized principally by delusions of persecution and/or grandeur.
2. Residual Schizophrenia
 previous diagnosis of schizophrenia but no longer has any prominent symptoms of the disorder.
 an individual that has been through at least one episodes of schizophrenia (6months) but then “recover”.
3. Hebephrenic/Disorganized Schizophrenia
 in this variation of schizophrenia, the individual doesn’t have hallucinations or delusions. Instead, they experience disorganized
behavior and speech.
 Expressing emotions that are not appropriate to the situation.
 manifests severe integration of personality and can be observed through inappropriate giggling and smiling without apparent reasons
which to an untrained observer may only be childish playfulness.
4. Catatonic Schizophrenia
 rare severe mental disorder characterized by striking motor behavior, typically involving either significant reductions in voluntary
movement or hyperactivity and agitation.
 patient may remain in a state of almost complete immobility, often assuming statuesque positions. Patients may remain motionless in
a rigid posture for hours or even days.
5. Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
 was the term used to describe when an individual displayed behaviors that were applicable to more than one type of schizophrenia.
 This is used when the patient’s symptoms clearly point schizophrenia but are so clouded that classification into the different types of
schizophrenia is very difficult.

Coping Mechanism
 The sum total of ways in which people deal with minor to major stress and trauma.
Defense Mechanism
 Refers to an individual’s way of reacting to frustration.
 According to Freud, defense mechanisms are methods that ego uses to avoid recognizing ideas or emotions that may cause
personal anxiety; it is the unrealistic strategies used by the ego to discharge tension.

LIST OF DEFENSE MECHANISM

1. Acting Out - this means literally acting out the desire that are forbidden by the Super Ego and yet desired by Id. Example: An addict
gives in to his/her desire for alcohol or drugs.
2. Altruism - avoid your own pain by concentrating on the pains of others.
Example: A self-made millionaire who grew up in poverty sets up charitable foundation and gains pleasure from how it helps other get out of
the poverty trap. She receives social accolade and public recognition for her good deeds gratefully.
3. Avoidance - simply finding ways of avoiding having to face uncomfortable situations, things or activities. Example: I dislike another
person at work. I avoid walking past his/her desk. When people talk about him/her, I say nothing.
4. Compensation - has weakness in one area, they may compensate by accentuating or building up strengths in another area.
Example: A person who failed in Math excelled in English.
5. Conversion - occurs where cognitive tensions manifest themselves in physical symptoms.
Example: A person’s arm becomes suddenly paralyzed after it has been used to threaten to hit someone else.
6. Denial - simply refusing to acknowledge that an event has occurred.
Example: Alcoholic vigorously deny that they have a problem.
7. Displacement - refers to the shifting of actions from a desired target to a substitute target when there are some reason why the first
target is not permitted or not available.
Example: A woman, rejected by her boyfriend, goes out with another man ‘on the rebound.
8. Dissociation - involves separating a set of thoughts or activities from the main area of conscious mind, in order to avoid the conflict
that this would cause.
Example: A religious person preaches kindness to all, yet is cruel towards others., without realizing that there is conflict between the two.
9. Fantasy or Day Dreaming - we cannot achieve or do something that we want, we channel the energy created by the desire into
fantastic imaginings.
Example: A boy who is punished by his teacher fantasies of shooting the teacher.
10. Fight-or-Flight Reaction - when we perceive a significant threat to us, then our bodies get ready either for a fight to the death or a
desperate flight from certain defeat by a clearly superior adversary.
Example: A lion suddenly appeared in front of a person while walking the forest. That person may choose to wrestle the lion or run away to
save his life..
11. Identification - it occurs when a person changes apparent facets of his/her personality such that he/she appears to be more like
other people. This process may be to copy specific people or it may be to change to an idealized prototype.
Example: A person in meeting adopts similar body language of his/her manager, and tends to take the same viewpoint.
12. Intellectualization - refers to a ‘flight into reason’, where the person avoids uncomfortable emotions by focusing on facts and logic.
Example: A person who is in heavily debt builds a complex spreadsheet of how long it would take to repay using different payment options
and interest rates.
13. Introjection - occurs as a coping mechanism when we take on attributes of other people who seem better able to cope with the
situation that we do.
Example: I have to give a presentation but feel scared. I put on the hat of Abraham Lincoln and imagine I am confidently giving an important
speech/ address to the nation.
14. Passive Aggression - a person who uses passive- aggressive method to cope with stresses does this by ‘attacking’ others through
passive means. Thus, the aggressive intent is cloaked by the passive method. Passive aggression often appears when a person is asked to
do something which he/she wants to avoid for some reason (such as priority of other work). By appearing to agree but not making any real
commitment, he/she can avoid the action.
Example: A manager asks people to change what they do. They agree but do not actually do what they agreed to do.
15. Projection - a person has uncomfortable thoughts or feelings, he/she may project these onto other people, assigning the thoughts or
feelings that he/she need to repress to a convenient alternative target.
Example: A woman who is attracted to fellow worker accuses the person sexual advances.
16. Reaction Formation - occurs when a person feels an urge to do or say something and then actually does or says something and
then actually does or says something that is effectively the opposite of what he/she really wants.
Example: A man who is gay has a number of conspicuous heterosexual affairs and openly criticizes gays.
17. Rationalization - when something happens that we find difficult to accept then we will make up logical reason why it has happened.
Example: A person fails to get good enough results to get into a chosen university and then says that he/she didn’t want to go there anyway.
18. Regression - involves taking the position of a child in some problematic situation, rather than acting in a more adult manner.
Example: A person who suffers a mental breakdown assumes a fetal position, rocking and crying.
19. Repression - involves placing uncomfortable thoughts in relatively inaccessible areas of the subconscious mind. Example: A man
has a phobia of spiders but cannot remember the first time he was afraid of them.
20. Self- Harming - the person physically deliberately hurts himself/herself in some way or otherwise put themselves at high risk of harm.

Example: Slapping oneself or Punching a hard wall.

21. Sublimation - is the transformation of unwanted impulse into something less harmful.
Example: I am angry. I go out and chop wood. I end up with a useful pile of firewood.
22. Suppression - this is where the person consciously and deliberately pushes down any thought that leads to feelings of anxiety.
Example: An older man has sexual feelings towards a teenager and quickly suppresses the thought.
23. Substitution - takes something that leads to discomfort and replace it with something that does not lead to discomfort.
Example: Instead of putting up a mirror, I put up a photograph of myself when I was younger.
24. Symbolization - is a way of handling inner conflicts by turning them into distinct symbols.
Example: A man asks for a woman’s hand, symbolizing the ‘hand in marriage’.
25. Undoing - refers to the performance of an act to ‘undo’ a previous unacceptable act or thought.
Example: A person who has barged in front of others in a queue holds the door open for them.
26. Avoidance Unconsciously staying away from any person, situation, or place that might cause unwanted feelings to occur.
Example: A female college student with an abusive father avoids dating.
27. Identification- Unconscious modeling of another person's values, attitudes, or behavior.
Example: An adolescent’s talks & acts are similar to a teacher she admires.
28. Isolation- Separation of emotions from precipitating event or situation
Example: A rape victim talks about her rape without showing any emotions.
29. Repression- A person deals with emotional conflict or stress by forcing out any thoughts, impulses, experiences, or memory from
conscious awareness.
Example: A mother show seems unaware of the date or events surrounding her child's death
A victim of a car accident does not remember anything about the accident.
Factors Altering Human Behavior
1. Emotion
 Derived from the French word émouvoir meaning ‘excite’. This is based on the Latin word emovere, where e- means ‘out’ and
movere meaning ‘move’. To “move out” conveys the idea of an outward expression of something inside. It connotes a stirred up bodily state.
 Refers to feelings affective responses as a result of physiological arousal, thoughts and beliefs, subjective evaluation and bodily
expression.
 A state characterized by facial expressions, gestures, postures and subjective feelings (Uriate, 2009).
 Is associated with mood, temperament, personality, and disposition.
Theory of Emotion
1. James- Lange Theory
 William James and Carl Lange
 Results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment; emotion occurs after physiological reactions.
 “we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble. And neither have we cried, strike, nor tremble
because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be.”
2. Cannon- Bard Theory
 Walter Cannon and Philip Bard
 People feel emotions first and act upon them.
 Emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously.
3. Two Factor Theory
 Schachter and Singer
 For many, this remains the best formulation of emotion.
 Most people consider this to be the “common sense” theory to explain physiological changes; their physiology changes as a result of
their emotion
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
 EI is the area of cognitive ability that facilitates interpersonal behavior. Dr. Daniel Goleman described EI as a person’s ability to
manage his feelings so that those feelings are expressed appropriately and effectively.
 EI is the capacity to understand and manage emotions; however, the content and boundaries of this construct remain unsettled.
Five Components of Emotional Intelligence by Goleman
 Self- Awareness - a person has a healthy sense of emotional intelligence self-awareness if they understand their own strengths and
weaknesses, as well as their actions.
 Self- Regulation - a person with high (ie) has the ability to exercise restraint and control when passing expressing their emotion
 Motivation - people with high emotional intelligence are self-motivated, resilient, and driven by an infer ambition rather than been
influences by outside force.
 Empathy - an emphatic person has compassion and is able to connect with other people on an emotional level, helping them
respond genuinely to people’s concerns.
 Social Skills - people who are continually intelligent are able to build trust with other people, and are able to quickly gain respect
from the people they meet.

2. Conflict
 Is a stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between incompatible or contradictory alternatives.
 Is a negative emotional state caused by an inability to choose between two or more incompatible goals or impulse (Uriate, 2009).
 Is a state in which two or more motives cannot be satisfied because they interfere with one another. (Lahey, 2001).
Forms of Conflict
 Approach speaks to things that we want.
 Avoidance refers to things that we do not want.
Kinds of Approach- Avoidance
a. Approach- Approach Conflict - individual must choose between two positive goals of approximately equal value. In this, two
pleasing things are wanted but only one option should be chosen.
b. Avoidance- Avoidance Conflict - conflict involves more obvious sources of stress. The individual must choose between two or
more negative outcomes.
c. Approach- Avoidance Conflict - conflict exist when there is an attractive and unattractive part to both sides. It arises when
obtaining a positive goal necessitates a negative outcome as well.
d. Multiple- Approach- Avoidance Conflict - refers to conflict with complex combinations of approach and avoidance conflicts. It
requires individual to choose between alternatives that contain both positive and negative consequences.

3. DEPRESSION

- Is an illness that causes a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the time.
- Depression (major depressive disorder) is a common and serious medical illness that negatively affects how you feel, the way you think, and
how you act.

[Link]
 Is any event or circumstances that threatens the individual and requires some form of coping reaction.
 Derived from the Latin “stringere” meaning to draw tight.
* Refers to the consequence of the failure of an organism to respond appropriately to emotional or physical threats, whether actual or
imagined.
* Can be thought of as an event that strains or exceeds an individual’s ability to cope.

Stressor- Is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or positive).

Two Types of Stress

a. Eustress (Positive Stress) - from the Greek “eu” meaning either “well” or “good”; a stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of
fulfilment or other positive feelings.
b. Distress (Negative Stress) - this may lead to anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior.
3 Stages of Stress (General Arousal Syndrome)
1. Alarm - when the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body’s stress response is a state of alarm. During this stage
adrenaline will be produced in order to bring about the fight-or-flight response
2. Resistance - coping up with stress and getting used to it but may be gradually depleted
3. Exhaustion - the body is unable to maintain normal function. The initial autonomic nervous system symptoms may reappear
sweating, raised heart rate.

[Link]
 Is a negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from reaching a goal.
 Is an unpleasant state of tension and heightened sympathetic activity, resulting from blocked goal.
 May be external or personal.
a. External Frustration - distress caused by outwardly perceivable conditions that impedes progress towards a goal.
b. Personal Frustration - is a distress caused by the individual’s inner characteristics that impedes toward a goal (Uriate, 2009).
Victimology
 Is the study that deals purely on the underlying factors of victimization and the contributory role of the victims in the commission of
crimes.
 Is the scientific study of victimization, including the relationships between victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and
the criminal justice system and the connections between victims and other societal groups and institutions, such as the media, businesses,
and social movements.
 The study of the ways in which the behavior of crime victims may have led to or contributed to their victimization (Merriam- Webster).
 Is the scientific study of victimization, including the relationship between victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and
criminal justice system (Revisa & Pioquinto, 2020).
Crime Victim
 Any person, group, or entity who has suffered inquiry or loss due to illegal activity.
 Legally a crime victim is;
o An individual who has suffered direct, or threatened, physical, emotional or pecuniary harm as a result of the commission of a crime.
o In the case of victim being an institutional entity, any of the same harms by an individual or authorized representative of another
entity.
o representative of another entity.
Victimology -vs- Criminology
Victimology focuses on helping victims heal after a crime, while Criminology aims to understand the criminal’s motives and the
underlying causes of crime.
Victimologists are concerned with fostering recovery, while Criminologist seek prevention.
Victimity and Victimizer
Victimity refers to the state, quality, or fact of being a victim while Victimizer refers to a person who victimizes others.
 Two victimologist, Benjamin Mendelsohn and Hans Von Hentig, began to explore the field of victimology by creating "typologies". They are
considered the "fathers of the study of victimology."

Key Figures in Victimology

I. Hans Von Hentig a criminologist in Germany during the first half of the last century, Hans Von Hentig sought to develop crime
prevention strategies. Having researched the factors that predispose one to criminality; he began to wonder what might cause a victim to
become a victim. He ultimately determined that certain victim characteristics did play a role in shaping the crimes suffered
Types of Victims according to Von Hentig:
a. The Young - referring to children and infants. From a contemporary point of view, children are physically weaker have less mental
prowess, have fewer legal rights, and are dependent on their caretakers (e.g., parents, guardians, teachers, and day – care providers);
b. The Acquisitive - referring to those who are greedy and looking for quick gain. In other words, those focused on acquiring wealth
and possessions. Such individuals may suspend their judgment, or intentionally put themselves in dangerous situations, to get the things of
value that they desire.
c. The Wanton - referring to promiscuous individuals. People who engage in indiscriminate sexual activity with many different partners
expose themselves to different levels of disease and varying personalities.
d. The Lonesome or Heartbroken - referring to widows, widowers, and those in mourning. From a contemporary standpoint, loneliness
is at epidemic proportions, with more than half of marriages ending in divorce, the rise of the culture of narcissism since the late 1970s and
diminishing intimacy skills across all cultures.
e. The Tormentor - referring to the abusive parent. In contemporary terms, there are abusive caretakers, intimates, and family
members of all kids. Such abusers expose themselves to the harm they inflict, the resulting guilt and angst, and the potential for their victims
to fight back. For example, an abusive mother who gets drunk and punches a child exposes herself to the dangers of injuring her hand, of
misjudging her strike and even her balance, of feeling bad about it, and of the child punching back.
f. The Blocked, Exempted, or Fighting - referring to victims of blackmail, extortion, and confidence scams. In such cases, the
attention of law enforcement, and any subsequent publicity, is something that the victims wish to avoid. They find a means of dealing with the
crimes being committed against them (e.g., giving into demands) without avoiding harm or loss – and without involving the authorities.

II. Benjamin Mendelsohn a French - Israeli lawyer who began studying victims in 1947. While working for the defense on a rape case,
he became interested in the correlations between rapists and their victims. He found that there was often a strong interpersonal relationship
between the two, and that it could lead some victims to unknowingly invite or even cause their own victimization. He referred to this as victim
precipitation.
Types of Victims according to Mendelsohn
a. Completely Innocent Victim - This person exhibits no provocative or contributory behavior prior to the offender’s attack.
b. Victim Due to Ignorance - this person unwittingly does something that places him or her in a position to be victimized.
c. Voluntary Victim - Victims make a conscious and deliberate choice to suffer harm or loss. This includes suicides, or those injured
while participating in high – risk activities crimes such as drug abuse or prostitution.
d. Victim More Guilty than the Offender - The victim provokes a criminal act (e.g., throws the first punch to start a fight but ends up a
loser).
e. Most Guilty Victim - This person is the initial aggressor, but due to circumstances beyond his or her control ends up the victim (e.g.,
attempts to rob a convenience store but is short by the store owner).
f. Simulating or Imaginary Victim - this person is a pretender, or false reporter. No crime has happened yet the person reports
suffering harm or loss.
III. Dr. Stephen Schafer a professor of sociology at Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. In 1968, he published what is
regarded by some as the first textbook on the subject of victimology. “The Victim and His Criminal: A Study in Functional Responsibility.”
Schafer’s types of Victims Responsibility (or victim precipitation), which are essentially a variation on the work of Von Hentig:
a. Unrelated Victims - No victim responsibility
b. Provocative Victims - Victim shares responsibility
c. Precipitative Victims - Some degree of responsibility
d. Biologically Weak Victims - No responsibility
e. Socially Weak Victims - No Responsibility
f. Self- Victimizing - Total victim responsibility

According to Jan Van Dijk, there are two major types of victimology, namely:

1. General Victimology: The study of victimity in the broadest sense, including those that have been
harmed by accidents, natural disasters, war, and so on. The focus of this type of victimology is the
treatment, prevention, and alleviation of the consequences of being victimized, regardless of the
cause.
2. Penal Victimology: Generally, approach the subject from a criminological or legal perspective, where
the scope of the study is defined by Criminal Law. This type of victimology advocates for victims, for
their rights, or in relation to certain types of prosecution.
Dynamics of Victimization
There are a number of procedural models which can be applied to the study of the victimization process for the purpose of understanding
the experience the victims.
a. “Victims of Crime Model” (by Bard and Sangrey). According to this model, there are three stages involved in any victimization:
1. Stage of Impact & Disorganization - stage during and immediately following the criminal event.
2. Stage of Recoil - stage during which the victim formulates psychological defenses and deals with conflicting emotions of guilt, anger,
acceptance, and desire of revenge (said to last three to eight months).
3. Reorganization Stage - stage during which the victim puts his or her life back to normal daily living. Some victims, however may not
successfully adopt the victimization experience and a maladaptive reorganization stage may last for many years.
b. “Disaster Victim’s Model” - this model was developed to explain the coping behavior of victims of natural disaster. According to this
model, there are four stages of victimization:
1. Pre-impact - stage describe the victim’s condition prior to being victimized.
2. Impact - the stage at which victimization occurs.
3. Post-impact - stage which entails the degree and duration of personal and social disorganization following victimization.
4. Behavioral outcome - stage that describes the victim’s adjustment to the victimization experience

Victimology & Damages

“If there is a complainant, there must be a defendant.” Thus, there could never be a victim if there
is no offender, except in what is known as victimless crimes.
The only thing that does away with criminality is decriminalization. This is otherwise known as LOGOMACY. Logomacy is a statement that we
have no crime if we had no criminal law, and that we could eliminate all crime by abolishing all criminal laws. Man has a juridical capacity and
capacity to act. He is normally entitled to the following civil damages.
1. Moral Damages – the compensation awarded to a person’s physical suffering, mental anguish, fright, serious anxiety, besmirched
reputation, wounded feelings, moral shock, social humiliation, and similar injury
2. Actual or Compensatory Damages – the compensation awarded to a person for such pecuniary loss suffered by him as he has duly
proved
3. Nominal Damages – the amount awarded to a victim in order that his right that had been violated or invaded may be restored or
recognized
4. Temperate Damages – moderate damages; the compensation that is more than nominal but less than compensatory damages given to a
person when the court finds that he has suffere some pecuniary loss, but its amount cannot, from the nature of the case, be proved with
certainty
5. Liquidated Damages – damages that agreed upon by the parties to a contract to be paid in case of BREACH OF CONTRACT
6. Exemplary Damages – corrective damages; those that are imposed by way of example or a
correction for the public good, in addition to the moral, temperate, liquidated, or compensatory damages.

Victim Patterns gender, age, marital status, income, victim-offender relationships and ecology are some factors that affect victimization risks
Gender
 Males are more likely to become victims of robbery and assault.
 Females are more likely to be victims of sexual assault.
 When men are victims of violent crimes, the perpetrator is usually described as a stranger.
 Females are more likely to be victimized by people they know, like relatives, husbands or boyfriends
Age
 Young people face a much greater victimization risk than older persons.
 Adolescents often stay out late at night, go to public places and hang out in places where crime is most likely to occur.
 Teens face a high victimization risk because they spend a great deal of time in the presence of their adolescent peers, the group
most likely to commit crimes.
Income
 The poor are the most likely to become victims of crimes because they live in areas that are crime prone.
Marital Status
 Unmarried or never married people are victimized more often than married people.
 Unmarried people tend to be younger, and young people have the highest victim risk.
 Married people and widows have much lower victimization rates because they interact with older people and are more likely to stay
home at night and avoid public places.
Victim-Offender Relationships
 Women seem much more likely than men to be victimized by acquaintances; a majority of female assault victims know their
assailants.
Ecology
 Most victimizations occur in large, urban areas.
 Rural and suburban victim rates are lower.
 Most incidents occur during the evening hours.
 The most likely site for victimization is an open, public area such as street, park, parking area and the like.
Theories of Victimology
1. Victim Precipitation Theory - people may actually initiate the confrontation that eventually leads to their injury or death.
Two Types:
a. Active precipitation - occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even attack first.
b. Passive precipitation - occurs when the victim exhibits some personal characteristic that unknowingly either threatens or encourages
the attacker.
2. Lifestyle Theory - crime is not a random occurrence but rather a function of the victim’s lifestyle. For example, due to their lifestyle
and demographic makeup, college campuses contain large concentrations of young women who may be at greater risk for rape and other
forms of sexual assault than women in the general population.
a. High-Risk Lifestyles - People who have high-risk lifestyles- drinking, taking drugs, getting involved in crime- maintain a much greater
chance of victimization. Groups that have an extremely risky life, such as young runaways living on a street, are at high risk for victimization;
the more time they are exposed to street life, the greater their risk of becoming crime victims.
b. Victims and Criminals - One element of lifestyle that may place people at risk for victimization is ongoing involvement in a criminal
career. Carrying a weapon was another surefire way to become a crime victim. Males who carried weapons are approximately three times
more likely to be victimized than those who did not carry weapons.
3. Deviant place theory - the greater their exposure to dangerous places, the more likely people will become victims of crime and
violence. Victims do not encourage crime but are victim prone because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas where they have
the greatest risk of coming into contact with criminal offenders, irrespective of their own behavior or lifestyle.
Kinds of Crime Victim
1. Direct or Primary Crime Victim. Directly suffers the harm or injury which is physical, psychological, and economic losses.
2. Indirect or Secondary Crime Victim. Experience the harm second hand, such as intimate partners or significant others of rape
victims or children of a battered woman.
3. Tertiary Crime Victim. Victims who experience the harm vicariously such as through media accounts the scared public or
community due to watching news regarding crime incidents.

Victimless Crime - crime without a victim; an illegal act such as prostitution or drug use in which there is no obvious injured party.

Victims Services Program

Republic Act No. 7309 “An Act Creating a Board of Claims under the Department of Justice for Victims of Unjust Imprisonment or Detention
and Victims of Violent Crimes.”