ENVIROMENTAL ENGINEERING

 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

TERM DESCRIPTION
Specific Yield Retracatble water from a aquifier
Safe Yield Limit of withdrawal from aquifier without depletion
Specific capacity Discharge per unit drawdown also indicator of performance of
well
Field capacity or Retained in a aquifier by the action of gravity .𝑛 = 𝑠 + 𝑠
specific retention
Specific Storage Water retracted from unit volume of aqifier due to unit decrease
in piezometric head 𝑆 = 𝛾(𝑛𝛽 + 𝛼)
Storage Volume of water released by column of confined aquifier of unit
coefficient/storitivity c/s area uner unit decrease in piezometric head𝑠

( )
Theim’s equation is valid for confined aquifier 𝑄 =

Dupit’s equation is valid for unconfined aquifier 𝑄 =

 Valves
VALVES FUNCTIONS LOCATIONS
GATE VALVE/SLUICE Regulation of flow Summit
VALVE
AIR VALVE Air relief valves are provided to remove Summit at bothside of
accumulated air & air inlet valve allows air to D/S of sluice valve
enter to increase air pressure if it falls
BLOW/DRAIN/SCOUR In order to remove entire water from within pipe At low points
VALVE and sand & silt are out for sediment accumulation
prevention
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE To reduce water hammer pressure Especially at low point
at high pressure
CHECK VALVE One way valves and automatic valve Delivery and suction
side of pumps
 Pipes
TYPES USAGES AND ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
CAST IRON Moderate in cost, easy to join, Water carrying capacity decrease with time
strong & durable long life do not endure high pressure, uneconomical
,corrosion resistant used in and uneasy to transport, brittle due to break
distribution mains
STEEL Low transport cost,25-50 Susceptible to corrosion
year life,withstand high
pressure used in siphon &
pumping mains
RCC PIPES Long life 75 yr resist external Difficult to repair, heavy & bulky difficult to
loads donot collapse in make connections
nominal vaccuams
 Asbestos Highly resistant to Costly, brittle, soft, not able to transport
pipe corrosion,easy to make
joints,small size distribution
pipes
Vitrified Smooth hydraulically efficient
clay pipe
QUALITY ACCEPTABLE CAUSE FUNCTIONS
FOR
REJECT
HARDNESS 200 600 BOILER INCRUST,
LEAD .01 - ANEMEA
ARSENIC .01 .05 BLACKFOOT
IRON 0.3 -
CADMIUM .03
TURBIDITY 1 NTU 5NTU
FLUORIDES 1 1.5 LESS-CARIES TEETH EXCESS-
DISCOLOUR
chloride 250 1000 Indices of pollution of sewage
NO3- 45 METHAEMOGLOBINEMIA
Zinc 5 15
Manganese 0.1 0.3
copper .05 1.5 Indigestion
Sulphates 200 400 Laxative effect
Residual 0.2 1
chlorine
Colour 5 tcu 15 tcu Tintometer
Odour 1 ton 3 ton where B is volume of clean water to
mix
Free 0.15 Distillation process
ammonia
Organic 0.3 Boiled water+KMnO4
ammonia

PARAMETER TEST INFORMATION

REGARDING
HARDNESS EDTA,EBT(INDICATOR),WATER Wine Red to blue color
ALKALINITY Pheneptholin & methyl orange indicator .02(N)H2SO4 Red to yellow methyl
orange
Colourless to pink
phenopthyn
DO First alkali iodide azide(NaOH+KI+NaN3) with MnSO4 Sodium thiosulphate
added.if DO present then brown MnO2 ppts. Otherwise if titrant & starch indicator
not DO presents white Mn(OH)2 ppts.if ppt is brown then & changes blue to
it is soluble by H2SO4 and it is titrated starch indicator colourless
with sodium thiosulphate sollution
BOD 300 ml BOD bottle THOD>COD>BOD
 COD Oxidized with K2Cr2O7 in presence of H2SO4+AgSO4+HgSO4 Ferroin indicator titrant
to produce H2O & CO2 then sample is titrated against ferrous ammonium
ferrous ammounium sulphate using ferroin indicator sulphate colour changes
to blue green to brown
Organic Muffle furnace @600-650℃
matter

Coliforms are gram negative, forms red stain, non spore forming, bacillus, lactose fermenters
𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻 𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙

If pH> 5 then HOCl become predominant HOCl ⇌ 𝐻 + 𝑂𝐶𝑙 Ph 5-7 is conducive to formation
of HOCl & pH>8 𝐻 & 𝑂𝐶𝑙 become predominant

Disinfection power 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙 > 𝑂𝐶𝑙 > 𝐶𝑙

NH3+Cl2⟶ 𝑁𝐻 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑝𝐻 > 7.5)

𝑁𝐻 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑙 ⟶ 𝑁𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 (𝑝𝐻 5 − 7)

NHCl2+Cl2⟶ 𝑁𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 (pH< 4.4)

Majority Of Chloramines is NHCl2 Sequence of formation 𝑁𝐻 𝐶𝑙 − 𝑁𝐻𝐶𝑙 − 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙 − 𝑂𝐶𝑙

A good disinfectant must be toxic to microorganism at concentrations will below the toxic
threshold of humans & higher animals

Residual chlorine can be determined by 1.DPD test 2.Orthotolidine test(also for ozone)
3.chlorotex test 4.starch-iodide test
Chlorine penetrates cell wall & reaction with enzyme system

CU for rapid sand filter 1.2-1.6 & slow sand filter 1.8-2.5 rate of filtration @ rsf> rate of filtration
@ ssf

Seri pheno problem sollution

al no mena
1 Air Headloss of static head of water &negative 1.controll in growth of algae
binding pressure so developed tends to release the 2.supersaturated air with water
air dissolved in water & formation of 3.by taking precautions if possible
bubble reason of this 1.negative head against water getting warmed
2.from increase of water temperature 3.
Occasionally released oxygen of algae
2 Mud The mudball is accumulation of mud due to 1.mudball can be breaken by
Ball inadequate washing of filter these mud mechanical rakes
sballs increasing in size & weight sink 2.mudball can be broken by water
down to gravel bed the sand is improperly stream
washed & accumulates 3.compressed air scouring during
back washing
3 Crackin The fine sand contained top layers of filter Same as mudball formation
g of bed shrinks & cause development of
filter shrinkage cracks & predominant in wall

Under drainage system=0.02×filter area injecting chlorine between rsf & storage tank more
contact time & chlorine demand is reduced ssf is less efficient in removing color turbidity but
rsf is more efficient in this

Filtration rate MMF~DMF>RSF>SSF 𝑓 = 3000 − 6000 /ℎ𝑟 𝑓 = 100 − 200 /ℎ𝑟

Sometimes careless or indifferent operation of the filter bumping or lifting of the filter beds
when switching on the back wash cycle is adopted. This type of inadequate cleaning process
should be discouraged.

Nitrate nitrogen-old pollution & eutrophication total nitrogen=satisfactory microbial activity,

ammonia nitrogen=recent pollution

RSF can remove suspended solid, bacteria , helminth

The purpose of recarbonation to convert to soluble form of CaCO3

Coagulation leads to decrease in alkalinity , increase in hardness & Acidity

type Description
High turbidity low alkanity Lower pH, Adsorption & charge neutralization
High turbidity high alkanityUnaffected pH, Adsorption & charge neutralization, high dosage
of coagulent
Low turbidity high alkanity Coagulation is difficult, sweep coagulation
Low turbidity low alkanity Coagulation is difficult,additional turbidity required
Ionic Layer compression is the technique for delta formation

Flocculant settling-type ii settling G for flocculation 20-80 s -1 time for flocculation 30 min

Balancing or distribution reservoir is to met fluctuating demand

Autotroph Derive their energy from photosynthesis or inorganic substances like nitryfing
bacteria, Sulphur bacteria
Heterotroph Derive energy from organic substances. Aerobic heterotroph require oxygen in their
metabolic process similarly anaerobic do this in absence of O 2
Catabolism Organic material used as an energy sources is transformed into stable products .The
process of catabolism releases energy. Catabolism breaks down big complex
molecules into smaller, easier to absorb molecules.
Anabolism Energy consuming process. Anabolism builds molecules required for the body’s
functionality.
Phototroph organisms that use light as their energy
Chemotroph organisms that employ oxidation-reduction chemical reactions to provide energy.
They are further classified on the basis of chemical compounds oxidized

In aerated grit chamber flow is spiral detritus tank detention period is longer. V H=24-30 Cm/s it
is designed for inorganic particles only. aerated grit chamber helical motion is observed FeCl 3
is a coagulant for sewage treatment

Type Operations
Batch reactor Operated as fill & draw type
Plug flow reactor Continuous discharge is maintained ex-grit chamber aeration tank asp
𝐿 =𝐿 𝑒
Complete mixed Particles are dispersed immediately throughout tank as they enter
reactor tank. 𝐿 =

Fluidized Bed The reactor is similar to packed bed except packing medium can be
reactor expanded by upward movement of fluid thereby controlling porosity of
bed
Packed Bed reactor Reactor is filled with some packing medium such as gravel,synthetic
plastic media etc. They can be either anaerobic,aerobic.ex-trickling
filter

Propotional weir is associated with geometry of grit chamber

Sloughing is a phenomena associated with trickling filter. Liquid sewage exert some force &
shearing phenomena happens

TROUBLE REMEDY
Fly nuisance Flooding the filter with sewage for 24
hr,DDT,insectisides
 Odour nuisance(H2S) Chlorination of sewage
Ponding trouble (voids blocked by algae) Chlorination of sewage

Eckenfelder equation 𝑆 = 𝑆 𝑒

Stages in sludge Description

digestion
Acid fermentation These organism solubilize the organic solids through hydrolysis.
Soluble products are then fermentated to volatile acids & organic
alcohols like proponic acid, acetic acid
Acid regression The volatile organic acids nitrogenous compounds of the first stage
stage are attacked by the bacteria small amount of H2S & CO2 are also given
off 𝑝𝐻 values rise little
Alkaline Methane formers attacks resistant materials like protein, digested
fermentation stage sludge is ripened sludge

Temperature Data
Thermophilic Digestion period=10-15 days temperature is 40-60℃ 54℃ optimum
digestion temperature
Mesophilic design Digestion period=30 days temperature is 25-40℃ optimum
temperature29℃

Supernatant liquid has high BOD

If the methane former not operating properly, an accumulation of volatile acids may occur
causing 𝑝𝐻 drop as low as 5.0 which will suppress bacterial action.so optimum 𝑝𝐻 about to
7.2-7.4

In anaerobic reaction two stages are – 1.acid fermentation—complex organic materials are
broken down mainly to short chain acids & alcohols. 2. Methane formation— acids & alcohols
are converted to CO2, CH4 . Foul odours are generated due to this so it is avoided. High
temperature & high strength industrial waste waters are suited for anerobic ponds

Oxidation ponds detention period = 2-6 weeks =2−4

Trickling filter—hrtf -10-40m3/m2/d srtf –1-4 m3/m2/d OLR- hrtf .08-.32 kg/m3/d , srtf .32-1
kg/m3/d

Methanothrix & methanosarcina involved in acetic acid in production of methane

Plastic media 25-100 mm size are employed in srtf for treatment of ww having very high BOD

Grab sample is relevant employed for design of wastewater treatment

In conventional MLSS is 2000-3000 mg/l

SVI is more than 50-150 ml/gm then it has not good settling characteristics & less than the
value poor flow charecteristics
Operational trouble remedy
Sludge bulking Filamentous micro-organism have been responsible for a bulked
sludge as a result of high sludge age . reduction of sludge age less
than 6 days & chlorination of return activated sludge
Rising sludge Denitrification of secondary clarifier leads to rising sludge
Sr Device Size Efficiency merits demerits principle
no
1 Gravitational > 50𝜇𝑚 < 50% Simple design, Low efficiency, Stoke’s Law
Settling maintainence and low larger space
chamber pressure loss required, only
large particles
2 Centrifugal 5 50 − 90% Inexpensive, Simple Efficiency low Velocity of flow
precipitators/ − 25𝜇𝑚 design, maintainence, for large converted into
cyclone require less area,can particles, vortex motion &
collector/ handle large volume of air requires much under centrifugal
dynamic that’s why used in headroom,prone force particles are
precipitators industries involved in to variable thrown out
production of larger loading
volume of gas like
cement,fertilizer,petroleum
3 Wet > 10𝜇𝑚 < 80% The wet scrubber & spray A lot of waste In these devices
Scrubber or tower can be made to water is flue gas is made to
Collector or remove gaseous as well as produced push up against a
spray tower spm hot gas can be cooled ,maintainence down falling
Wet cyclonic > 2.5𝜇𝑚 < 80% down corrosive gas can be cost high, wet water(liquid)current
scrubber recovered & neutralized outlet gas, The particulate
like SO2, NO2 poses freezing matter mixes up
problem in cold with water droplets
Venturi > 0.5𝜇𝑚 < 99%
countries & thus falls down &
Scrubber gets removed

4 ESP > 1𝜇𝑚 95 − 99% Particles may be collected Higher costs ESP the flue gas is
wet or dry high efficiency Sensitive to made to pass
of the order of 99% & even variable loading through a highly
small particles such as & flow rates ionized zone where
dust & smoke can be use high the particles get
removed & operate @ high voltages electrically charged
temparature & the separated
out from gas
5 Fabric filter < 1 𝜇𝑚 > 99% High efficiency, can Can’t operate @ Flue gas is allowed
remove carry small high in woven fabric
particles in dry state temperature which filter out pm
must be dry,
prone to chemic
Primary air pollutant-obtained from vechicular emission & man made activities e.g CO 2, SO2
(coal burning, fossil fuel), NOX ,CO (incomplete burning, asphyxiant)

Secondary air pollutant obtained from reactions of Primary air pollutant e.g H2SO4,
Tropospheric O3 (due to HC+NOX) , PAN ,Formaldehydes

TROPOSPHERE (0-15KM), Stratosphere (15-50km) mesosphere (50km-

80km),thermosphere(>80km) ozonosphere is stretched between stratosphere to mesosphere

Lower C/N ratio leads loss of nitrogen & slows decomposition and higher C/N ratio leads to
cell destruction to obtain nutrition
Ringleman chart to grade density of smoke.

Pneumoconiosis disease caused due to coaldust , silica.

Smog is mixture of smoke & fog. Conditions for formation of photochemical smog

(a) Hydrocarbons (b) NOX (c) Stagnant air (d) Solar insolation of abundant sunlight

Photochemical consists of –PAN, Tropospheric O3 , CO , CO2 , HNO3

DALR>WALR due to heat produced by condensation of water vapour

Ecological system is inter relationship between organisms & the environment

Isokinetic sampling is used for SPM

CO2 absorbs infrared waves.

air pollution on vegetation leads to necrosis (kill tissue), chlorosis (reduction of green
element), leaf abcission (dropping of leaves) , leaf epinasty (curvature of leaf)

𝐿 = 20 log ∑ (10) ,𝐿 = 10 log ∑ (10) ×𝑡

Acoustics auditorium is considered when its reverberation time is 0.5-1.5 secs. Enviromental
Impact assessment (1986) includes environmental statement, emp , risk & hazard assessment

Noise pollution can be roadside building can be reduced by thick bush

Noise pollution can be reduced using double glass windows the air between two glass reduce
noise

PLUME CONDITION
LOOPING(ELR>ALR) Unstable
NEUTRAL(ELR=ALR) Upward lifting of plume
CONING(ELR<ALR) Stable
FANNING(INVERSION) Horizontal spreading
LOFTING(INVERSION@GROUND Downward mixing
+super adiabatic)
FUMIGATING(INVERSION@ Gases never able to
above stack+super adiabatic) escape over stack
Trapping (superadiabatic+ Pollutant is trapped
inversion @ bellow & @above between two layers
stack

Composting is ecologically most acceptable

INDORE process- anaerobic process BANGALORE process- aerobic process

C/N ratio should be in the range of 30-50

Incineration is employed in plastic & rubber (best process)

Septic tank least expensive & most suitable excreta disposal

MOEF is the issuing authority of hazardous waste management & handling

Food waste contains C & O

Gas production in incineration process

𝑏 𝑐 3 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 3𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 3𝑑
𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 𝑁 + 𝑎− − + 𝑑 𝑂 = + − − 𝐶𝐻 + − + + 𝐶𝑂 + 𝑑𝑁𝐻
4 2 4 2 8 4 8 2 8 4 8
Natural forces in self purification (a) dilution & dispersion (b) sedimentation (c) sunlight

Chemical forces in self purification (a) oxidation (b) reduction

Biological zones are

 Euphotic zone upper layer of lake water through sunlight can penetrate. All plants
grow in this zone
 Littoral zone shallow water near the shore , in which rooted plants grow is called
littoral zone
 Benthic zone bottom sediments in a lake comprises bacteria are always present in this
zone

Depending on the productivity

LAKE PRODUCTIVITY
OLIGOTROPHIC Low level productivity due to limited nutrient,clear water
MESOTROPHIC Medium level productivity in this case the do in hypolimnion is very low
EUTROPHIC High level of nutrient conducive to algal growth, highly turbid
SENESCENT Old lake having thick organic sediments

Thermal stratification – 1.epilimnion 2.metalimnion 3.hypolimnion

Relative setability-it is defined as the ratio of oxygen available in effluent of sewage treatment
plant in form of DO, NO2, NO3 to the tolal oxygen required in carbonaceous BOD
𝑆 = 100(1 − .794𝑡 ), 𝑆 = 100(1 − .63𝑡 )

𝐷𝑂 ∝

Water distribution system is governed by pressure but sewers are designed in gravity flow
mechanism

Self cleansing velocity is minimum velocity to flush out any deposited solids in the sewer.It
must be achived in a day once 0.8 m/s is the minimum velocity for sanitary sewer (0.45-0.9
m/s).It is designed to attain self cleansing velocity at minimum hourly rate

The p trap is used in water closet

Sewers are not running full because to account for fluctuations of flow , large scale infiltration
of water ,unforeseen increase in population of water consumption & consequent increase
Time of concentration will be 𝑇 = 𝑇 + 𝑇 it is relevant to determine time of travel

Nomogram is a curve for ploting & 𝑣𝑠

Manholes are provided for maintainence, inspection

To attain more velocity egg shaped sewer is constructed

The following steps are involved in laying a sewer in a trench

 Setting sight rails over trench , driving pegs to level of invert line of sewer ,
transferring center line of the sewer to bottom of a trench , placing sewer

Storm water (diversion of excess storm water) regulators or storm relief works

 Leaping weir-the leaping weir arrangement consists of an opening in the invert of

storm drain or combined weir through which the normal flow is diverted to intercepting
trap. To separate storm water & sewage leaping weir is used
 Overflow weir-In this type of arrangement the excess of sewage is allowed to
overflow the combined sewer in the manhole from where it enters into a channel
carrying it to storm
 Siphon spillway-the siphon spillway arrangement used for diverting excess sewage
discharge from the combined sewer .it is the most effective method of a storm relief
work

Ventilation of sewers provided to provision for gas

Inverted sewer is a such pipe has to be dropped below the hydraulic gradient line for
passing it beneath a valley, a road, railway, a stream, a tidal estuary or any other
depression in earth surface & pressure greater than atmospheric pressure