RCA INSTITUTES

R E C E I V I N G S E T DIAGRAMS . PART 1 SHEET AERO SEVEN . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

AERO SHORT WAVE ADAPTER FOR A.C. RECEIVERS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 AMRAD A.C. 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 APEX 36 ALL-ELECTRIC ...... 3 ATWATER KENT 20 . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ATWATER KENT 30 . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ATWATER KENT 32 . . . . . . . . . . .5 ATWATER KENT 35 . . . . . . . . . . . 6 ATWATER KENT 40 . . . . . . . . . . . 6 BALKITE . MODEL A . . . . . . . . . 6 BOSCH 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 BREMER TULLY 7-70 . . . . . . . . .8 BROWNING DRAKE-34. 36. COLONIAL 31 A.C
&

38 . . . 8

. . . . . . . . . . .9

CROSLEY 608 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 CROSLEY 704-A . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 DAVEN BASS NOTE . . . . . . . . . . .10 DAY FAN A.C. POWER SET . . . . 11 DAY FAN 35 D.C . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 FADA -MODELS 10.11. 30
6

31 (60 CYCLES). . 12
&

FADA-MODELS 102.112. 302

312 (25 CYCLES). . . 12

FEDERAL ORTHO-SONIC A.C ... 12 FREED EISMAN NR 5 . . . . . . . . . 13 FREED EISMAN NR 80 . . . . . . . .13 FRESHMAN EQUAPHASE . . . . . . . . 24 FRESHMAN-MODEL G . . . . . . . . . 24 GILFILLAN GN 6 . . . . . . . . . . . 14

RCA INSTITUTES
GREBE SYNCHROPHASE. . . . . . . 14 HAMMERLUND ROBERTS H. 1Q

. . 15

KING-MODEL FF. . . . . . . . . . . . 15 KING-MODEL H

. . . . . . . . . . . . 15

KING-62 TRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 KOLSTER 6K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 MAJESTIC A.C . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 MOHAWK ALL-AMERICAN LYRIC MODELS 60.61. 62.65. & 66 . . . . . . . . . 18 MOHAWK ALL-AMERICAN LYRIC MODELS 80.83.84. 85 & 88 . . . . . . . . . 18 PFANSTEIHL 34
&

50 A.C. . . 19

PHILCO ELCTRIC- SERIES 5.19 RCA- RADIOLA 16 . . . . . . . . . . 20 RCA- RADIOLA 17 . . . . . . . . . . 20 RCA- RADIOLA 18 A.C . . . . . . 21 RCA- RADIOLA 18 D.C. . . . . . 21 RCA RADIOLA 60. . . . . . . . . . . 22 RCA RADIOLA 62 . . . . . . . . . . . 22 ROBERTS AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 SILVER MARSHALL-MODEL 630 . . . . . . 23 SPARTON EQUASONNE-MODEL 89 . . . . . 25 SPLITDORF INHERENTLY ELECTRIC .. 25 STEINITE 261 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 STEWART WARNER-MODELS 801. 801A 811. AND 811A SERIES B . . . . . . . 26 STROMBERG CARLSON-MODELS 635.636 .. 27 ZENITH-MODELS 11.12. AND 14 . . . . . . . 27 CHARACTERISTICS OF RECEIVING VACUUM TUBES. . . 29

RCA INSTITUTES
PART 2

ATWATER KENT MODEL 55 . . . . . . . . . . . 29 BRANDES MODEL B-15

&

16 ......... 29

CROSELEY R.F.L. 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 CROSELEY MODEL 804 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 FADA MODELS 50.71.71.

&

72 . . . . . . 31

FREED-EISMAN NR 55 A.C . . . . . . . . . . 31 FREED-EISMAN NR 78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 GREBE SYNCHROPHASE BATTERY . . . . . .32 GREBE A.C. SIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 MAJESTIC MODEL 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 RCA-RADIOLA 28- A.C . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 RCA-RADIOLA 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 RCA-RADIOLA 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 RCA-RADIOLA 44 .................. 37 RCA-RADIOLA 66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 STROMBERG-CARLSON NO . 641 . . . . . . . 38 STROMBERG-CARLSON NO . 846 . . . . . . . 39 ZENITH 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
FOREWORD . INTRODUCTION TO RADIO

TECHNICAL LESSON 1 . MATHEMATICS LESSON 2 . UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND SYMBOLS LESSON 3 . THE ELECTRON THEORY-SUBSTANCE AND MATTER-STATIC ELCTRICITY LESSON 4 . MAGNETISM LESSON 5 . ELECTROMAGNETISM-ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION LESSON 6 . PRIMARY CELLS LESSON 7 . RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTION LESSON 8 . ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

RCA INSTITUTES
LESSON 9 - D.C. MOTORS LESSON 10 - D.C. GENERATORS LESSON 11 - A.C. CURRENT LESSON 12 - THE MOTOR-GENERATOR LESSON 13 - POWER TRANSFORMERS LESSON 14 - INDUCTANCE LESSON 15 - CAPACITY LESSON 16 - THE STORAGE OR SECONDARY BATTERY LESSON 17 - THE USE OF STORAGE BATTERIES ON SHIPBOARD LESSON 18 - METERS LESSON 19

GRAPHS

LESSON 20 - SOUND LESSON 21 - ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES LESSON 22 - FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIO RECEPTION LESSON 23 - VACUUM TUBES LESSON 24 - CHARACTERISTIC CURVES LESSON 25 - THE OSCILLATORY CIRCUITS LESSON 26

MID-TERM EXAMINATION

LESSON 27 - PRACTICAL RADIO CONSTRUCTION LESSON 28 - PRACTICAL RADIO CONSTRUCTION LESSON 29 - AUDIO AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS LESSON 30 - PRACTICAL RADIO CONSTRUCTION LESSON 31 - REGENERATIVE DETECTOR WITH CAPACITIVE CONTROL OF FEED-BACK LESSON 32 - PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF SCREEN-GRID RECEIVERS LESSON 33 - CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF THE RCA INSTITUTES A.C. SCREEN-GRID RECEIVER

LESSON 33-A - BUILDING THE BATTERY-OPERATED SCREEN-GRID RECEIVER LESSON 34 - PRACTICAL RADIO CONSTRUCTION

RCA INSTITUTES
LESSON 35 - COMMON FAULTS AND TROUBLES LESSON 36 - PRACTICAL RADIO CONSTRUCTION LESSON 37 -THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUPER-HETERODYNE LESSON 38-PRINCIPLES AND USE OF TEST EQUIPMENT FOR SERVICING RADIO RECEIVERS LESSON 39 - INSTRUMENTS USED IN SERVICING RADIO RECEIVERS LESSON 40 - INSTRUMENTS USED IN RADIO SERVICING AND PRINCIPLES OF SET TESTING LESSON 41 - BALANCED ARMATURE LOUD SPEAKERS LESSON 43 - RADIOLA 28 A.C. OPERATED LESSON 44 - VICTOR MICRO-SYNCHRONOUS RADIO R-32, R-52, RE-45, RE-75 LESSON 45 - GENERAL ELECTRIC MODEL H-31 MODEL 80 - GRAYBAR MODEL 700

WESTINGHOUSE MODEL WR-5, RADIOLA

LESSON 46 - GENERAL ELECTRIC MODELS H-51 & H-71 - WESTINGHOUSE MODELS WR-6 WR-7- REDIOLA MODELS 82 & 86 - GRAYBAR MODELS 770 & 900 LESSON 47 - CROSELEY R.F.L. 90 -- ZENTIH 17 LESSON 48 - PRACTICAL RADIO CONSTRUCTION LESSON 42 - THE ELCTRO-DYNAMIC SPEAKER LESSON 49 - RADIO RETAILING - SALESMANSHIP LESSON 50 - GREBE - BATTERY AND A.C. RECEIVERS LESSON 51 - BATTERY ELIMINATORS LESSON 52 - PRACTICAL RADIO CIRCUITS - PART 1 LESSON 53 - PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICALLY OPERATED TUNES R-F CIRCUITS LESSON 54 - ELECTRICALLY OPERATED TUNED R-F AND SUPER-HETERODYNE RECEIVERS LESSON 55 - INTERFERENCE ELIMINATORS LESSON 56 - COMMERCIAL LONG AND SHORT WAVE RECEIVERS LESSON 57 - SPARK TRANSMISSION LESSON 58 - ARC TRANSMITTERS LESSON 59 - RADIO AVIATION EQUIPMENT LESSON 59-A - AVIATION RADIO EQUIPMENT FOR TWO WAY COMMUNICATION LESSON 60 - VACUUM TUBES USED IN TANSMITTING LESSON 61 - COMMERCIAL TUBE TRANSMITTERS

&

RCA INSTITUTES
LESSON 62 - VACUUM TUBE TRANSMITTERS LESSON 63 - SHORT WAVE TRANSMITTERS LESSON 64 - SHORT WAVE (HIGH FREQUENCY) RECEIVERS LESSON 65 - TELEVISION - PART 1 LESSON 66 - TELEVISION - PART 2 LESSON 67 - PHOTORADIOGRAMS - BEAM TRANSMISSION LESSON 68

BROADCAST TRANSMITTERS

LESSON 69 - RADIO DIRECTION FINDER OR RADIO COMPASS LESSON 70 - SOUND MOTION PICTURES LESSON 71 - SOUND MOTION PICTURES AND SOUND REPRODUCING EQUIPMENT SUPPLEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

R. C . A. INSTITUTES, 1N.C.
75 VARICK STREET

NEW YORK, N. Y.

Please Read These Instructions Carefully

This binder is for keeping your lessons in good condition and it should be used for that purpose only. When you submit your answers to the lessons, and whenever you write to us, write your name, address and student number plainly so that we will not be delayed in giving you prompt attention. After you have answered the examinations on the exadnation paper which we furnish you, file the lessons in this binder. Do not return the lessons, themselves, to us all we want-qre your answers. Use only one side of the examination paper and write your answers with pen and ink, or typewriter. In answering the examina6ons it is not necessary for you to copy the questions write or type just the answers.

The examination will be found at the end of each 1ess::n. With the exception of standard diagrams, symbols, characters and formulas, your answers must not be copied from the lessons, nor should they be copied from a text. Instead, use the instruction in constructing a line of reasoning of your own and build your reply upon such parallel lines of reasoning. The passing mark for each lesson is 75 per cent. and if your grade
is less than 75 per cent. you will be required to re-submit it entirely.

In grading the examinaiions of o m students we give each answer the proper credit. We take into consideration such factors as neatness, general preparation end manner of expression. Always send in two examinations at one time and keep your mailings at least five days apart. You will at all times be supplied with sufficient study material with which to keep busy. Your exanination papers should be sent to us FIRST CLASS mail. The mailing rate is 2 cents for each ounce or fraction of an ounce. If your examination papers consist of five sheets, or less, the postage required is 2 cents. If from six to eleven sheets are mailed the postage.required is 4 cents; if twelve to seventeen sheets, 6 cents, and so on, addmg two cents for each additional six sheets. Always advise us of any change in your address. Write plainly and d o not abbreviate the name of your town, state and street.

R. L. DUNCAN President
M

P. S. Remember to send in two examinations at one time no more.

- no less

DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS

T h i s lesson c o n t a i n s standardized r a d i o d e f i n i t i o n s and symbols only and does not r e q u i r e a n examination, However, it should be always a v a i l a b l e

t o t h e student as a ready reference when studying t h e l e s s o n s of t h e course. It i s not expected t h a t t h e student w i l l understand the e n t i r e contents of t h i s l e s s o n u n t i l he w i l l have completed t h e course,

W express our thanks t o t h e I n s t i t u t e of Radio Engineers f o r permission e t o make use of t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s and symbols,

"A" POWER SUPPLY:

the cat'node of
ACLTPTGK:
B

A power s u p p l y ' d e v i c e which provides h e a t i n g c u r r e n t fop

vacuum t u b e .

A c i r c u i t of inductance and c a p a c i t y which i s s o arranged and tuned a s t o o f f e r low impedance t o c u r r e n t s of a given frequency, and hlgh impedance t o c u r r e n t s of any o t h e r fiequencg.

ACOUSTIC

INiPEDANCEz The a c o u s t i c impedance of a sound medium on a g i v e n surface i s the complex q u o t i e n t of t h e p r e s s u r e ( f o r m p e r wit a r e a ) on t h a t surface by the f l u x (volume v e l o c i t y , ox- I f n e a r v e l o c i t y multip l i e d by the a p e a ) t w o u g h t h a t s u r f a e e , The a c o u s t i c impeaance way be expressed i n terms of mechanical impedance, acoust f c impedance being e q u a l t o mechanical impedance d i v i d e d by t h e square of khe a r e a of t h e s u r f a c e considered,

ACOUSTIC RADIATOR:

An a c o u s t i c r a d i a t o r i s t h a t p o r t i o n of a transducer which f a c i l i t a t e s t h e r a d i a t i o n of sound v i b r a t i o n s ,

ACOUSTIC REACTANCE: The a c o u s t i c reactance of a sound medium i s t h e imagin a r y p a r t of t h e a c o u s t i c Lmpedance, It i s the'component of the a c o u s t i c impedance r e s u l t i n g from t h e e f f e c t i v e mass o r compliance of the medium,
ACOUSTIC RESISTANCE " e h a c o u s t i c r e s i s t a n c e of a sound medium i s t h e r e a l component of t h e a c o q s t i c impedance, T h i s i s the component of t h e

a c o u s t i c impedance a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e d l s s i p a t i o n of energy,

ACTIVE TRANSDUCER : A n a c t i v e t r a l a s d u c e ~is one in which t h e psvier supplied t o t h e second system i s obtained from a l o c a l source and is c o n t r o l l e d by t h e power from the f i x s t system.
AERIAL:

An e l e v a t e d con8.uctor p o r t i o n of a condenser antenna.

AERIAL C I R C U I T :

The components between t h e f r e e o r i n s u l a t e d end of t h e a e r i a l and t h e connection w i t h t h e e a r t h ,

Printed in U.S A. .

..

AIR CONDENSER:

A condenser having a i r a s i t s d i e l e c t r i c

ALTERNATIW CURRENT: A c u r r e n t , the d i r e c t i o n of which r e v e r s e s a t regul a r l y r e c u r r i n g i n t e r v a l s , the algeb7aic average value being zero.
ALTERNATION:
A LT E RNATOR :

A a l t e r n a t i o n i s one-half cycle of e.m.f. n r i s e and f a l l i n one d i r e c t i o n .

or c u r r e n t , o r t h e

A e l e c t r i c a l machine f o r g e n e r a t i n g a l t e r n a t i n g e .m.f n

ALTERNATOR TRANSMTl'TER:

A r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r which u t i l i z e s radio- frequency power generated by a r a d f o-frequency a l t e r n a t o r .

AMMETER: A instrument connected i n s e r i e s i n a c i r c u i t t o measure t h e n c u r r e n t flowing.

AMPERE: The standard e l e c t r i c a l u n i t of c u r r e n t i s t h e ampere, and i t i s the current e s t a b l i s h e d i n a c i r c u i t of 1 ohm r e s i s t a n c e by an e l e c t r o motive force of 1 v o l t . AMPEREHOUR: The ampere-hour i s t h e u n i t f o r e x p r e s s i n g t k e q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r i c i t y passing through a c i r c u i t under t e s t , when a c u r r e n t of 1 ampere i s e s t a b l i s h e d i n a c i r c u i t f o r a period of one hour. AMPLIFIER: A device f o r i n c w a s i n g the amplitude of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t , voltage or power, t h r o u g h t h e c o n t r o l by t h e input power of a l a r g e r amount of power supplied by a l o c a l source t o t h e output c i r c u i t .
AMPLIFICATION F C O " ATX

m a s u r e of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e g r i d voltage r e l a t i v e t o t h a t of t h e p l a t e voltage i n a f f e c t i n g ths p l a t e c u r r e n t ; it i s the r a t i o of t h e change i n p l a t e v o l t a g e t o a change i n g r i d v o l t age i n the opposite d i r e c t i o n , under the c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e p l a t e curr e n t remains unchanged.

AMPLITUDE: The amplitude of a wave i s a measure of th maximum d e v i a t i o n from i t s zero or normal a x i s .

ANODE:

The e l e c t r o d e t o which t h e e l e c t r o n stream flows.

A device f o r r a d i a t i n g o r absorbing r a d i o waves.

ANTENNA:

ANTENNA F R FACTORdhe r a t i o of t h e e f f e c t i v e h e i g h t of an antenna t o OM

i t s a c t u a l physical h e i g h t .
ANTENNA RESISTANCE :

A e f f e c t i v e r e s i s t a n c e which i s numerically e q u a l t o n t h e quotient of t h e average power i n the e n t i r e antenna c i r c u i t by t h e square of the e f f e c t i v e c u r r e n t a t the p o i n t of maximum c u r r e n t . Note: Antenna r e s i s t a n c e includes: R a d i a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e , ground r e s i s t a n c e , radio- frequency r e s i s t a n c e of conductors i n antenna c i r c u i t , e q u i v a l e n t r e s i s t a n c e due t o corona, eddy c u r r e n t s , i n s u l a t o r leakage, d i e l e c t r i c loss, etc.

Definitions

sheet

//"

4-

APERIODIC :

That which has no d e f i n i t e i n d i v i d u a l period.

A P E R I O D I C CIRCUIT:
ARC:

A a p e r i o d i c c i r c u i t is a c i r c u i t which n e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s which prevent it from o s c i l l a t i n g . An a r c i s formed by the passage of an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t thr or vapor, t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y of which is mainly due t o t h e i o n i z t h e gas or vapor.

AFfC

CONVERTER: An e l e c t r i c a r c used f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n of a l t e r n a t i n g or pulsating current.

A device f o r changing a-c. t o d-c,

ARC RECTIFIM:
A RT IC U L A TION:

A r t i c u l a t i o n of an e l e c t r o - a c o u s t i c t r a n s d u c e r i s a measure of i t s a b i l i t y t o t r a n s m i t detached speech s y l l a b l e s and i s expressed a s a percentage of t h e t o t a l s y l l a b l e s spoken which a r e c o r r e c t l y understood by t h e l i s t e n e r a t t h e output of a t r a n s m i s s i o n system including the transducer a s t h e o n l y source of d i s t o r t i o n of d e t e c t a b l e magnitude.

ARRESTER Apparatus w i t h s u i t a b l y arranged e l e c t r o d e s and s h o r t air- gap, : placed i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e ground lead of a t r a n s m i t t e r o r r e c e i v e r ; a lead i s t a k e n t o t h e r e c e i v i n g apparatus from t h e s i d e of t h e sparkgap remote from t h e ground; used f o r c o n t r o l l i n g s i g n a l s on c i r c u i t , and f o r keeping t h e antenna grouxled i n thunder storms and other e l e c t r i c a l disturbances. ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION: A l o s s of power i n t s a n s m i s s i o n of r a d i o waves due t o a d i s s i p a t i o n i n t h e atmosphere, ATMOSPHERICS: S t r a y s produced by atmospheric condit t o n s ,

(See STATIC )

ATTENUATION: The r e d u c t i o n i n power of a wave or a c u r r e n t with i n c r e a s i n g d i s t a n c e Prom t h e source of transmission, ATTENUATION EQUALIZER"device f o r a l t e r i n g the t o t a l transmis s ion l o s s of a c i r c u i t f o r v a r i o u s f r e q u e n c i e s i n order t o make s u b s t a n t i a l l y equal t h e t o t a l t r a n s m i s s i o n l o s s f o r a l l f r e q u e n c i e s w i t h i n a c e r t a i n range.
AUDIO FREQUENCY: A frequency corresponding t o a normally audible sound wave. The u p p r l i m i t o r d i n a r i l y l i e s between 10,000 and 20,000 cycles. A transformer f o r use w i t h audio-f requency

AUD10-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER: ourrent s,

AUDION:

~ i Vacuum Tube. e

AUTODYNE RECEPTION: A system of heterodyne r e c e p t i o n through t h e use of a device which i s both an o s c i l l a t o r and a d e t e c t o r .
"BW POImR SUPPLY:

A power supply device connected i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of

a vacuum tube. BAFFLE: A b a f f l e is a p a r t i t i o n which may be used w i t h a f r e e r a d i a t o r t o impede c i r c u l a t i o n from f r o n t t o back. Definitions

- sheet 3

? -

FREQLJENCES: A continuous range e f l n i t e frequencies.

Of

frequencies e

A WINDING: ~ A form of c o i l winding i n which s i n g l e t u r n s a r c e s s i v e l y i n each of two o r more l a y e r s , t h e windi ng proceedi end of t h e c o i l t o t h e o t h e r , without r e t u r n .

BAND-PASS FILTER: A f i l t e r designed t o pass c u r r e n t s of frequencies w i t h i n a continuous band l i m i t e d by an upper and a lower c r i t i c a l or cut- off

frequency and s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduce the amplitude of c u r r e n t s of a l l frequencies out s i d e of t h a t band.

BAR:

A pressure of one dyne per square centimeter i s c a l l e d a bar,

A b a t t e r y f s a combination of two ol- more c e l l s .

BATTERY:

BEAM ANTENNA: A u n i l a t e r a l d i P e C t i w antenna such t h a t i t s r a d i a t i o n i s subs t a n t i a l l y confined t o a narrow beama

BEAT:

A complete cycle of such p u l s a t i o n s .

BEAT FREQUENCY: BEATING:

The number of b e a t s per second. This frequency i s e q u a l t o t h e d S f f e r e m e between t h e frequencies of t h e combining waves,

A phenomenon i n whioh two o r more periodic q u a n t i t i e s o f , n o t g r e a t l g d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s r e a c t w i t h each o t h e r t o produce a r e s u l t a n t havfng p u l s a t i o n s of amplitude.

BEAT RECEET I O N :

See Heterodyne Reception c

BI~LATERAL ANTENNAAn antenna having t h e p r o p e r t y of r a d i a t i n g o r r e c e i v i n g s a d i o waves f n l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n i n angular r e g i o n s 180 degrees a p a r t t h a n i n a l l other d i r e c t i o n s ,

BREATHING: Breathing f s a slow and f o r t h e most p a r t p e r i o d i c v a r i a t i o n i n t h e r e s i s t a n c e (and microphonicness ) of a carbon microphone. It may be of r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e magnitude and is not i n g e n e r a l audible.

BROADCASTING: Radio t r a n m i s s i o n intended f o r g e n e r a l r e c e p t i o n . B U H DISCHARGE: A dkschtlrge occurring on t h e s u r f a c e of conductors charged RS t o high potential.
BURNING: Burning i s a r a p i d , t r a n a i t o r y and f o r t h e most p a r t nonperkodic r e s i s t a n c e f l u c t u a t i o n i n a carbon microphone, It i s evidenced by a f r y i n g o r s p u t t e r i n g nofse sometimes heard from a connected r e c e i v e r .

B S BAR: A broad l e a d t o which s m a l l e r leads from t h e u n i t s of a power l i n e , U condenser, b a t t e r y bank, or switchboard, a r e joined,
BUZZER, TUNED: A eommon buzzer w i t h t h e c o i l s of a n electromagnet shunted by a non-induct i v e r e s i s t a n c e,

BYPASS CONDNESXi : A condenser used t o provide an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t p a t h of comparatively low impedance around some c i r c u i t element. . Definitions

- sheet

A T : An a n t e n n a h a v i n g c o n d u c t o r s which c o n s i s t of g r o u a r e l l e l w i r e s a r r a n g e d a s the e l e m e n t s of a c y l i n d e r .
C A P A C I T I V E COUPLING:

The a s s o c i a t i o n of one c i r c u i t w i t h a n o t h e r by means of c a p a c i t y common o r mutual t o b o t h .

CAPACITOR: (same a s c o n d e n s e r ) A d e v i c e employed i n r a d i o c i r c u i t s t o i n t r o d u c e t h e e l e m e n t s of c a p a c i t a n c e . CAPACITY: The c a p a c i t y o f a c o n d e n s e r , o r b e t t e r , i t s c a p a c i t a n c e , i s a measure of t h e amount of e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y which t h e condenser c a n s t o r e UP CARBON CONTACT PICKUP: A c a r b o n c o n t a c t pickup i s a phonogpaph p i c k u p which depends f o r i t s o p e r a t i o n upon t h e v a r i a t i o n i n r e s i s t a n c e of one o r more carbon contacts.
C A RB O N MIGROPHOITZ:
A c a r b o n microphone i s one u s i n g one o r more c a r b o n

contacts, Burning i s a r a p i d , t r a n s i t o r y and f o r t h e most p a r t n o n p e r i o d i c r e s i s t ance f l u c t u a t i o n i n a c a r b o n microphone. I t i s e v i d e n c e d b y a f r y i n g or s p u t t e r i n g n o i s e sometimes h e a r d from a c o n n e c t e d r e c e i v e r , B r e a t h i n g i s a slow and f o r t h e most p a r t p e r i o d i c v a r i a t i o n i n t h e It may be of r e s i s t a n c e (and microplionicness ) of a carbon microphone, r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e magnitude and i s n o t i n g e n e r a l e u d i b 1 e . Packing i n a c a r b o n microphone i s a c o n d i t i o n c a u s e d b y excesp mechanEcal p r e s s u r e between p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t oP b g a d h e r e n c e between p o i n t s of cont a c t r e s u l t i n g from e x c e s s i v e v o l t a g e s , It i s e v i d e n c e by d e c r e a s e d r e s i s t a n c e and s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e a l c r o p h o n e , CARRIER CUR?.F;NT: An a l t e r n a t i n g , e ~ r r e n t lnihlch i s modulated by a s i g n a l . O r d i n a r i : r e f e r s t o w i r e t r a n s i n i s s i c n of h i g h - f r e q u e n c y cu.rrents g

CARRIER FREQXZNCY I Frequency of a c a r r i e r wave o r a c a r r i e r c u r r e n t . CARRIER SUPPRESSION: That method of o p e r a t i o n i n which t h e c a r r i e r wave o r c a r r i e r c u r r e n t i s not t r a n s m i t t e d , CARRIER W m The component of a modulated wave which has t h e same f r e q u e n c y A: a s t h e o r i g i n a l unmodulsted wave. CASCADE:
CATHODE: A s e r i e s of c o n d e n s e r s o r s t a g e s of a m p l i f i c a t i o n .

The e l e c t r o d e from which t h e e l e c t r o n s t r e a m f l o w s .

CATIIODE, INDI!:ECTLY HEATED: A c a t h o d e i n which t h e h e a t i s s u p p l i e d from a separste heater element. CAT WHISKER: A f i n e w i r e used t o make c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s u r f a c e of a crystal detector. sheet 5 Definitions

7 . S T : A s p c i a l s w i t c h arranged t o s h i f t the antenna c m e e t i c n from t h e sending t o t h e r e c e i v i n g apparatus and vice v e r s a .

C H O K E COIL:

A inductance c o i l i n s e r t e d i n a c i r c u i t t o o f f e r reactance n t o t h e flow of a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t components while allowing d i r e c t c u r r e n t t o pass.

A chopper i s a device f o r r a p i d l y opening and c l o s i n g a c i r c u i t .

CBOFFER:

CIRCITIT-PJtEAKER: A c i r c u i t - b r e a k e r i s a s p e c i a l type of switch s o arranged a s t o open a c i r c u i t r a p i d l y and without i n j u r y t o i t s e l f . GOHERFIR: A device used i n t h e e a r l y days of r a d i o c o m n i c a t i o n f o r det e c t i n g t h e presence of electromagnetic waves; u s u a l l y c o n s i s t e d of a g l a s s tube c o n t a i n i n g m e t a l l i c f i l i n g s making connection between two electrodes,
COMAIUTATOR:

c ir c u i t

A device f o r r e v e r s i n g the d i r e c t i o n of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t i n a

COMPLIANCE: The compliance of a mechanical e l e m n t i s i t s d e f l e c t i o n per u n i t of f o r c e . This i s t h e r e c i p r o c a l of i t s s t i f - f n e s s . Compliance i n system a mechanical syseem is analogous t o c a p a c i t a n c e i n a n e l e c t ~ f c a l and i s expmssed i n c e n t i m e t e r s p r dyne, Negative compliance ( r e c i p r o c a l of negative s t i f f n e s s ) occurs f n a case of u n s t a b l e e q u i l i b r i u m where a small displacemex-it r e s u l t s i n a f o r c e t e n d i n g t o give a f u ~ t h e r displacement i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n .

CONDENSER: A condenser fs a device f o r s t o r i n g up e l e c t r i c a l energy, It u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s of two o r more conducting s u r f a c e s s e p a r a t e d by an i n s u l a t i n g meat u c a l l e d the d i e l e c t r i c , m

@ONl)ENSETt AmENlQA:

An antenna consi s t i n g of two c a p a c i t y a r e a s .

COWIIEN5ER LOUDSPEAKEX: A condenser loudspeaker i s one f n which t h e mechanics f o r c e s a r e o b t a i n e d by var3ying t h e voltage between 'two e l e c t r o a e s of a condenser forming a. p a r t of an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t .

C P D N E MPCROFEOIQT ; A. condenser microphone i s one t h e o p e r a t i on of which OT E S R fnvolves a v a r l . n t i a n i n t h e e l e e t r o s t a t f c capacltg' produced by a sound wave.
CONDENSER PICKUP: A condenser pickup is a phonograph pickup whose e1ectrfcs.f. output i s generated by a mechanical v a r i a t % o n of i t s charged c a p a c f t y . CONDUCTIVITY; The c o n d u c t i v i t y of a substance i s a measure of i t s a b i l i t y t o carry e l e e t r f e current,
C O N I C A L HORN"

coolaical horn i s a horn whose e q u i v a l e n t s e c t i o n a l r e d i u s has a constant r a t e of i n c r e a s e ,

A constrained r a d i a t o r i s an acoustic r a d i a t o r , t h e CONSTRAINED RADIATOR: sound from which i s o r i g i n a t e d i n a c o n s t r a i n e d p o r t i o n of t h e medium,

Definitions

- sheet

CCYLJXTEKPOISE:

A system of wires or other conductors, f omin& i;he lower c a p a c i t y a r e a of a condenser antenna e l e v a t e d above and i ~ s u l a t e ?f r ~ z t h e ground.

CONTROL ELECTRODE:

The e l e c t r o d e , the voltage between which and the cathode c o n t r o l s t h c u r r e n t flowing between t h e anode and t h e cathoee.

CONVERTER:

A machine employing mechanical r o t a t i o n in changing e l e c t r i c a l energy f rom one form t o another.

CORRECTED R A D I O B E A R I N G : has been applied,

COULOMB:

A r a d i o bearing t o which t h e c a l i b r a t i o n c o r r e c t i o n

The coulomb f s t h e q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r i c i t y or t h e charge t r a n s mitted i n 1 second by a c u r r e n t of 1 ampere.

COUPLER: A device employed t o t r a n s f e r radio- frequency power from one c i r e u i t t o another by a s s o c i a t i n g t o g e t h e r p o r t i o n s of these c i r c u i t s Couplers a r e of t b same types a s the types Of coupling; namely, i n d u c t i v e : c a p a c i t i v e and r e s i s t a n c e .
COUPLING: The a s s o c l a t f o n of two c i r c u i t s i n such a way t h a t energy mag- be t r a n s f e r r e d from one "c th.e o t h e r ,
COUPLI~VGCOEFFICIENT:

The r a t i o of t h e mutual or common impedance component of two c f r c u i t s t o t h e square r o o t of t h e product of the t o t a l impedance components of the same kind i n two c i r c u i t s , (Impedance components may c o n s l s t of inductance, c a p a c i t y or r e s i s t a n c e . )

C R E T AMPLIFICATION (OF A N AMPLIFIER jr "h UKN Te r a t i o of the a l t e r n a t i n g curr e n t produce& i n t h e output c i r c u i t t o the a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t supplied t o t h e input c i r c u i 6 ,
CYCLE:
pl id

One compl-ete s e t of t h e r e c u r r e n t values of a p e r i o d i c phenomenon,

DAMPED ALTERNATING CURRENT:

$j

A a l t e r n a t fng c u r r e n t pas s i n g through succe s sive n c y c l e s with p r o g r e s s i v e l y diminishing amplftude.

,# F
B
!,f.,~,
,

1 1

DAMPED IXPLQANCE : The damped impedance of" an e l e c t r o - a c o u s t i c transducer i s t h e impedance measured a t t h e t e r m i n a l s of i t s e l e c t r i c a l system when t h e impedance of t b a t t a c h e d m c h a n i c a l system is S n f i n i t e or vice versa.
DAMPED W V S A E : Electromagnetic waves proceeding i n wave t r a i n s i n each o f which t h e amplitude of successive cycles p r o g r e s s i v e l y diminishes.
DAMPING CONSTANT:

The Napierian l ~ g a f f t h mof the r a t i o of two values of an e x p o n e n t i a l l y d e c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t y s e p a r a t e d by u n i t time.

DECREKWER: A instrument f o r measuring t h e l o g a r i t h m i c decrement of a n t r a i n of waves.

DECREMENT:

Percentage of decrease of amplitude i n o s c i l l a t i o n . Definitions

sheet 7

"at :ortion of t h e r e c e i v i n g apparatus which, connected t o e c i r w i t c a r r j i i l g c u r r e n t s of radio- frequency, and i n conjunction w i t h a s e l f - c m t a i n e d or s e p a r a t e i n d i c a t o r , t r a n s l a t e s t h e r a d i o - f r e w e n c y power i n t o a form s u i t a b l e f o r o p e r a t i o n of t h e i n d i c a t o r , This t r a n s l a t i o n may be e f f e c t e d e i t h e r by t h e conversion of t h e radio- frequency power, or by means of the c o n t r o l of l o c a l power, The i n d i c a t o r may be a telephone r e c e i v e r , r e l a y i n g device, tape r e c o r d e r , e t c .

The most common t y p e of d e t e c t o r i s a vacuum tube operated on a nonl i n e a r p o r t i o n of i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t f c curve, t h e r e b y converting a modul a t e d radio-frequency c u r r e n t i n t o a modulated d i r e c t c u r r e n t ,
A tube which o p e r a t e s s i m i l a r l y t o a d e t e c t o r t u b e , but t h e output of which does not o p e r a t e an i n d i c a t o r , may p r o p e r l y be c a l l e d a frequency converting tube.

DIAPHRAGM:
tions,

A diaphragm i s a v i b r a t i n g s u r f a c e which produces sound v i b r a -

DIELECTRIC: D i e l e c t r i c i s an i n s u l a t i n g substance t h a t a l l o e s e l e c t r o s t a t f c i n d u c t i o n t o a c t a c r o s s i t , as t h e i n s u l a t i n g medium between t h e p l a t e s of a condenser. DIODE: A type of vacuum tube c o n t a i n i n g two e l e c t r o d e s which passes c u r r e n t wholly ay8 predominantly i n one d i r e c t i o n ,

Note:: A vacuum tube having a s i n g l e cathode and two modes which o p e r a t e a l t e r n a t e l y may p r o p e r l y be c a l l e d a double diode,
DIFlECT CAPACITANCE (C ) BETWEEN TWO CONDUCTORS: The r a t i o of the charge produced on one coneuctor t o t h e voltage between it and t h e o t h e r cond u c t o r divided by t h i s v o l t a g e , a l l . o t h e r conductors i n t h e neighborhood being a t t h e p o t e n t i a l of e i t h e r conductor, DIRECT CCUPLING: A s s o c i a t i o n of two r a d i o c i r c u i t s by having an i n d u c t o r , a condenser, or a r e s i s t o r cormon t o both c i r c u i t s , DIRECT CUIIREKT: A unidiapectional e m r e a t . A s o r d i n a r i l y u s e d , t h e term designates s p r a c t i c a l l y non-pulsatim current, DIRECTIONAL ANTENIJA: An antenna having t h e p r o p e r t y of r a d l a t f n g or r e c e i v i n g r a d i o waves i n l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n along some d i r e c t i o n s t h a n o t h e r s , An antenna o r t h i s type used f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g iis o f t e n c a l l e d a d i r e c t i v e antenna. DIRECTION-FINDER CALIERATION: The d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e d i r e c t ion and amount of f i x e d l o c a l wave f r o n t d i s t o r t i o n t o the end t h a t the c o r r e c t bearing may be obtained, DIRECTION FINDER (GONIOIVETER): A r a d f o r e c e i v i n g d e v i c e which permits detela mination of the l i n e of t r a v e l of waves a s r e c e i v e d . DISCHARGER: A device i n an O s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t by which t h e spark or a r c discharge i s c o n t r o l l e d . ( A l s o c a l l e d s p a r k d i s c h a r g e r ).

Definitions

- sheet

,~ " ..~- ., ,,.

!: ,

. .mTqT.-,-c

- - ..
a.

A c h c r G e i n wave f o r m o c c w i n g i n a t r a n s d u c e r or t r a n s ~ i s s i o n

n r e ? l w . whec t h e output wave f o r i l i s not a f a i t h f u l r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e i w u t wave f o r m . The principal sources of d i s t o r t i o n a r e r

b, c.

Non-linear r e l a t i o n between input and output a t a g i v e n f'requency, Non-unif orm t r a n s m i s s i o n a t v a r i o u s f r e q u e n c i e s . Phase s h i f t not proporltional t o frequency.

DOUBLE MODULATION: The process of modulation i n which a c a r r i e r wave of one frequency i s f i r s t moduleted by t h e s i g n a l wave and i s then made t o modulate a second c a r r i e r wave of another frequency.

DRIVER ELEMENT: The d r i v e r element of a telephone r e c e i v e r i s t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e r e c e i v e r rrhich r e c e i v e s power from t h e e l e c t r i c a l system and conv e r t s i t i n t o mechanical power,

DRY CELL: A d r y c e l l . i s a type of primary c e l l i n which t h e e l e c t r o l y t e i s i n t h e form of a p a s t e , DUPLRX DI'ERATION T 1 o p e r a t i o n of a s s o c i a t e d t r a n s s x i t t i n g and r e c e i v i n g 1e channels i n which t h e processes of t r a n s m i s s i o n and r e c e p t i o n a r e concurrent.
EARTH: That connection of t h e lower e x t r e m f t i e s of an antenna system f o r completing an e l e c t r f c c i r c u i t t o t h e ground,
EDDY CUKRFNTSAnduced. e l e c t r i c e m r e n t s occurring when a m e t a l l i c mass i s a c t e d upon by a changing magnetic f i e l d , or th.e mass r o t a t e d i n a magnetic f i e l d , which consume a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of e n e r g y ,
E ~ C T ~ V E Hl3IGlE AS o r d i n a r i l y ing a unfforrn i n the actual

O AN ANTEIQiAflThe h e i g h t of an e q u i v a l e n t i d e a l antenna. F d e f f n e d , t h i s i d e a l antenna i s a v e r t i c a l conductor c a r r y c u r r e n t e q u a l t o t h e maximum c u r r e n t e x i s t f n g a t any p o i n t antenna.

Note: T h i s a p p l i e s m o s t s t r i c t l y t o a r t e n n a systems producing o r a f f e c t e d by a s u b s t a n t i a l l y v e r t i c a l electric field, ELFCTRO-ACOUSTIC TRARSDUCER: An e l e c t r o - a c o u s t i c t r a n s d u c e r i s a t r a n s d u c e r which i s a c t u a t e d by power Prom an e l e c t r i c a l . system ancl s u p p l i e s power t o an a c o u s t i c system o r v i c e v e r s a . ELECTRICAL OSCILLATION: An e l e c t r i c a l o s c f l l a t % o n i s a complete c y c l e of h i g h or audf o-frequency c u r r e n t , ELECTRICAL PHONOGRAPH RECORDER : A n e l e c t r i c a l phonograph r e c o r d e r i s a n electromechanical t r a n s d u c e r a c t u a t e d by power i n an e l e c t r i c a l system and supplying power t o a r e c o r d i n g mechanical system, t h e recorded wave form produced by t h e mechanical system c o r ~ e s p o n d i n gt o t h e wave form i n the e l e c t r i c a l system,
ELECTROMAGNETIC LINES O FORCE: F Eleotromagnetic l f n e s of f o r c e a r e t h e l i n e s of f o r c e s e t up by a l l . c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g conductars.

Definitions

- sheet

A s e n s i t i v e form of d e t e c t o r (now o b s o l e t e ) co e l e c t r o l y t i c c e l l , u s u a l l y w i t h a very small anode of insoluble m a t e r i a l , such as platinum, and a l a r g e r cathode immersed i n an e l e c t r o l y t e of 10 per c e n t s u l p h u r i c aciZ s o l u t i o n . O s c i l l a t i o n s from an outside source d e p o l e r i e e the anode and changes occur i n t h e l o c a l c u r r e n t which a c t s upon t h e telephone r e c e i v e r .

I G DETECTOR:

EmCTROMAGNETIC WAVE:

The propagation Of e l e c t r i c a l energy through space s e t i n t o motion by t h e displacement c u r r e n t about a r a d i o t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna.

EIXCTROMOTIVE FORCE: Electromotive f o r c e i s t h e voltage or e l e c t r i c a l pressure t h a t causes e l e c t r i c i t y t o flow i n a c i r c u i t . ELECTRON: A e l e c t r o n i s assumed t o be t h e s m a l l e s t known p a r t i c l e of matter n and i s an a c t i v e charge of negative e l e c t r i c i t y . ELECTRON EMISSION: The phenomenon of t h e l i b e r a t i o n of e l e c t r o n s from t h e s u r f a c e of a body i n t o t h e surrounding space, u s u a l l y under t h e influence of h e a t , i l l u m i n a t i o n , x- rays, impact e x c i t a t i o n , or chemical d i s i n t e gration. ELECTRON TUBE: An e l e c t r o n t u b e i s one whose o p e r a t i o n depends p r i m a r i l y upon a flow of e l e c t r o n s from one element t o another, ELECTROSCOPE: An i n s t r m n t f o r d e t e c t i n g small s t a t f c charges.

E .M . . : Abbreviation f o r Electromotive FOrCr3. F

EMISSION CHARACTERISTIC: The graph p l o t t e d between a f a c t o r c o n t r o l l i n g e l e c t r o n emission (such a s t h e temperature, voltage o r c u r r e n t of t h e cathode o r filament) a s a b s c i s s a s and t h e t o t a l emission from t h e cathode o r filament a s o r d i n a t e s . (See Grid C h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; P l a t e C h a r a c t e l ~ i s t i e ; and Mutual C h a r a c t e r i s t i c . ) EQUISIGNAL RADIO RANGE: A r a d io range which t r a n s m i t s two d i s t i n c t i v e s i g n a l s which may be r e c e i v e d w i t h e q u a l i n t e n s i t y only i n c e e t a i n directions, EQUISIGNAL ZONE: A r e g i o n i n which two d i s t i n c t i v e s i g n a l s from an e q u i s i g n a l r a d i o mnge a r e r e c e i v e d w i t h e q u a l i n t e n s f t ye EXPONENTIAL HORN: A e x p o n e n t i a l horn (sometimes c a l l e d logarithmic horn) n i s a horn whose s e c t i o n a l a r e a v a r i e s e x p o n e n t i a l l y with i t s length. FACSIMILE TRANSMISSION: The e l e c t r i c a l transmission of a copy o r reproduct i o n of a p i c t u r e , drawing, or document, ( T h i s i s also called picture transmission). FADING: The v a r i a t i o n of the s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y received a t a given l o c a t i o n from a r a d i o t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n a s a r e s u l t of changes occurring i n t h e transmission path. FARAD: The f a r a d is t h e u n i t of c a p a c i t y and r e p r e s e n t s t h e charge i n a condenser when an e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e of 1 v o l t w i l l place i n t o it an e l e c t r i c charge of 1 coulomb. Definitions s h e e t 10

iii!

i -

,:,j

he sum of the c u r r e n t s a t a11 tb a n t i eeding the antenna.

FIDELITY: FIU&~NT:

RATIO ( O F A M U L T I P L E TUNED ANPENNA):

The degree t o which a system, o r a p o r t i o n of a system, accur a t e l y reproduces a t i t s output t h e s i g n a l which i s imp-essed upon i t .

A cathode i n which t h e heat i s supplied by c u r r e n t passing through t h e cathode.

FILAMENT CAPACITANCE ( C f ) : The sum of t h e d i r e c t capacitances between t h e

filament and a l l o t h e r conductors of a vacuum t u b e ,

FII,A&~ENT CURRENT: FI~.&~J?,NT FILTER:

The c u r r e n t supplied t o t h e f i l a m e n t t o heat it.

VOLTAGE : The voltage between t h e terminals of t h e filament

A s e l e c t i v e c i r c u i t network, designed t o pass c u r r e n t s within a continuous band o r bands of frequencies o r d i r e c t c u r r e n t , and s u b s t a n t i a n y reduce the amplitude of c u r r e n t s of undesired frequencies.

FIXED

CONDENSER: A f i x e d condenser i s one whose p l a t e s a r e s t a t i o n a r y and whose c a p a c i t y cannot be changed, ANTENNA: A n antenna having approximately h o r i z o n t a l conductors a t

FMT-TOP FLUX:

the top. By t h e f l u x of a c o i l i s meant the electromagnetic l i n e s of f o r c e produced by a c u r r e n t i n t h a t coP1.

FORCE FACTOR:

The f o r c e f a c t o r of an e l e c t r o - a c o u s t i c transducer i s a meas u r e of t h e coupling between i t s e l e c t r i c a l and mechanical systems. ~t i s t h e r a t i o of t h e open c l r c u i t f o r c e or v o l t a g e i n t h e secondary system t o the c u r r e n t o r v e l o c i t y i n t h e primary system.

FORCED ALTERNATING CURRENT:

The a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t which flows i n a c i r c u i t a s t h e r e s u l t of an impressed a l t e r n a t i n g voltage and which has t h e same frequency.

FREE ALTERNATING CURRENT: The damped a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t which flows i n a c i r c u i t following t h e c e s s a t i o n of an impressed voltage.
F R E E RADIATOR: A f r e e r a d i a t o r i s an a c o u s t i c r a d i a t o r , t h e sound fram which i s o r i g i n a t e d i n an unconstrained medium.

FREQUENCY:

The number of c y c l e s per second.

FREQUENCY CHANGER: FREQUENCY METER:

A device d e l i v e r i n g a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t a t a frequency which d i f f e r s from t h e frequency of the supply c u r r e n t .

A instrument f o r measuring frequency. n used i n r a d i o work a r e sometimes c a l l e d wavemeters.

Frequency meters

FREQUENCY MULTIPLER:

A frequency changer used t o m u l t i p l y by a n i n t e g e r the

frequency of an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , Definitions

sheet 1 1

h a l f cycle of the a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t supply, one element f u n c t i o n i n g d u r i n g one-half cycle and t h e o t h e r during t h e next h a l f c y c l e , and so on.
FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY: T h a t frequency a r e integral multiples.
Of

which a l l component f r e q u e n c i e s

PUNDANENTAL OR NATURAL FREQUENCY (OF AN A T N A ) : The lowest' resonant f r e NE N quency of a n antenna, without added inductance o r c a p a c i t y .

A EE F N A E T L W V I NGTH : The wavelength corresponding t o fundamental f reguency. U D MNA G L A O E W : A s e n s i t i w e instrument f o r i n d i c a t i n g t h e presence of an AV N MT e l e c t r i c current i n a c i r c u i t , and determining i t s d i r e c t i o n . GENERATOR: A e l e c t r i c generator i s a device or machine f o r converting n mechanical energy i n t o e l e c t r i c a l energy.

I1

GONION1ETER:

Same a s D i r e c t i o n Finder.

GRID: A e l e c t r o d e having openings through which t h e e l e c t r o n stream n between cathode and anode may pass.

GRID BIAS:

The d i r e c t eomponent of t h e g r i d voltage.

G R I D CAPACITANCE ( C g ) : The sum of t h e d i r e c t capacitances b8 tween t h e g r f d and a l l o t h e r conductors of a vacuum tube.

G R I D CHARACTERISTIC: T h e graph p l o t t e d between g r i d voltage a s a b s c i s s a s (See P l a t e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; Mutual Charand g r i d current a s o r d i n a t e s . a c t e r i s t i c and Emission C h a r a c t e r i s t i c ),

I I

GRID CONDENSER:

A s e r i e s condenser i n t h e g r i d or c o n t r o l c i r c u i t of a

vacuum tube.
G R I D CONDUCTANCE:

The r a t i o of t h e change i n g r i d c u r r e n t t o the change i n g r i d voltage producing i t , under the condition of constant p l a t e p o t e n t i a l . The d i r e c t c u r r e n t passing from t h e g r i d through t h e vacuous The d i r e c t capacitance between the g r i d

GRID CURRENT: space.

FILAMENT CAPACITANCE ( C g f ) z GRIDand the filament.

GRID LEAK.' A r e s i s t o r used t o a f f e c t or determine t h e g r f d b i a s .

GRID-PLATE CAPACITANCE ( C g p ) : the plate.
G R I D VOLTAGE:

The d i r e c t capacitance between t h e g r i d and

The v o l t a g e between t h e g r i d and a s p e c i f i e d p o i n t of the

cathode.

h 'i I* 4
?
1

GROUND:

Same a s Earth. Definitions

sheet 12

GROUND EQUALIZIER INDUCTORS:

C o i l s of r e l a t i v e l y low inductance placed. i n the c i r c u i t connected t o one or more of the grounding p o i n t s of an antenna ground system, t o d l H d e t h e c u r r e n t between t h e v a r i o u s p o i n t s i n any d e s i r e d way.

GROUND S S E Y T M (OF AN ANTENNA) :

That p o r t i o n of t h e antenna system below t h e antenna l o a d i n g devices or generating apparatus most c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e ground and including t h e ground i t s e l f .
A conductive connection t o t h e e a r t h .

GROUND \nllRE:

GROUP FREQUENCY:

The number of t r a i n s of damped waves or c u r r e n t per second.

H L - A E RECTIFIER: A r e c t i f i e r which changes a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i n t o p u l A FW V s a t i n g c u r r e n t , u t i l i z i n g only one-half of each cycle.

HARMONIC : A component of a p e r i o d i c q u a n t i t y having a frequency which i s an i n t e g r a l multiple of t h e findamental frequency. For example, a component

t h e frequency of which i s twice t h e fundamental frequency i s c a l l e d the second harmonic.

HARP ANTENNA: A antenna composed of v e r t i c a l , or approximately v e r t i c a l n conductors, a l l i n one plane.
HELIX:

A hollow conducting c o i l o r solenoid.

HEWRY:

A henry i s t h e u n i t of inductance, and a c i r c u i t has an inductance of 1 henry when a c u r r e n t changing a t t h e r a t e of 1 a m p r e p e r second

produces an induced e.m.f.

KERTZIAN WAVES:

of 1 v o l t .

Electromagnetic waves f i r s t observed by Hertz, which o r i g i n a t e i n a r a p i d l y v i b r a t i n g o r a l t e r r a t i n g c u r r e n t and a r e p r o j e c t e d f a r i n t o surrounding space. Radio communication i s a p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s discovery.

H T R D N RECEETION: The process of r e c e i v i n g r a d i o waves by combining t h e EEO Y E received voltage w i t h l o c a l l y generated a l t e r n a t i n g voltage. The l o c a l l y generated frequency i s ~ommonlyd i f f e r e n t from t h e r e c e i v e d frequency, t h u s producing beats. ? h i s i s c a l l e d beat r e c e p t i o n .
HIGH-FREQUENCY CURRENT: A c u r r e n t where s e v e r a l thousand or more o s c i l l a t i o n s take place i n a second of time.

HIGH-PASS FILTER: A f i l t e r designed t o pass c u r r e n t s of a l l frequencies above a c r i t i c a l or cut - off frequency and s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduce t h e amplitude of c u r r e n t s of a l l f r e q u e n c i e s below t h i s c r i t i c a l frequency.
HOMODYNE RECEPTION: The process of d e t e c t i n g a wave by t h e a i d of a l o c a l l y generated wave of c a r r i e r frequency. (Some times c a l l e d zero-beat reception). HONEYCOMB COIL: mation.
HORN:

A m u l t i p l e l a y e r c o i l wound a i a g o n a l l y i n l a t t i c e l i k e f o r -

A horn i s a constrained r a d i a t o r c o n s i s t i n g of a tube of varying s e c t i o n a l area f o r determining the shape of t h e c o n s t r a i n e d p o r t i o n of t h e medium. Definitions sheet 13

HOT-WIRE

AMMETER : (Expansion type ) : An ammeter dependent f o r i t s i n d i c a t i o n s on a change i n dimensions of an element which i s heated by a current through i t ,

HYDROMETER:

An instrument f o r measuring the s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e i n a s t o r a g e c e l l t o give a n i n d i c a t i o n of the s t a t e of charge of the c e l l .

HYSTERESIS: Expenditure and l o s s O f energy i n t h e form of h e a t due t o the work r e q u i r e d t o change t h e molecules; takes place i n process of magnetizing and de -magnet i e ing

IDFAL TRANSDUCER:

An i d e a l t r a n s d u c e r f o r connecting two s p e c i f i c systems i s a passive t r a n s d u c e r which converts the maximum p o s s i b l e power from t h e e l e c t r i c a l system t o t h e a c o u s t i c system or vice versa.

IMPEDANCE:

The impedance i s t h e t o t a l opposition of a c f r m i t t o the passage of a n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t .

IMPULSE EXCITATION: A method of producing damped o s c i l l a t o r y c u r r e n t i n a - c i r c u i t i n which t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e impressed voltage is s h o r t compared w i t h t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t produced,
INDUCTANCE:

The inductance of a c i r c u i t is i t s p r o w r t y t h a t allows it t o s t o r e up e l e c t r i c a l energy i n electromagnetic f o m .

INDUCTION: The inPluence e x e r t e d by the i n t e r f e r e n c e or influence of f i e l d s upon f i e l d s o r f i e l d s upon conductors o

MDUCTION MUDSPEAKER: An Induction loudspeaker i s a moving c o i l loudspeaker i n which t h e c u r r e n t which r e a c t s w i t h t h e p o l a r i z i n g f i e l d i s induced i n t h e mov3.ng member e INDUCTIVE COUPLINQ: The a s s o c i a t i o n of one c i r c u i t w i t h another by means of ( T h i s term when used without modiinductance common or mutual t o both. f ying words i s commonly used f u r coupling by means of mutual inductance whereas coupling by means of self- inductance common t o both c i r c u i t s i s c a l l e d " d i r e c t i n d u c t i v e coupling".

INDUCTOR: A device used i n r a d i o c i r c u i t s t o introduce t h e element o f Inductance

INPUT ADMITTANCE : The r e c i p r o c a l
Of

input impedance.

INPUT IMPEDANCE:

The r a t i o of the a l t e r n a t i n g voltage impressed on t h e input t e r m i n a l s of t h e device t o t h e a l t e r n a t i n g . c u r r e n t t h e r e b y produced a t t h e s e t e r m i n a l s , i n t h e absence of impressed a l t e r n a t i n g voltages a t o t h e r points.

I NS UL AT OR: An i n s u l a t o r i s a m a t e r i a l t h a t p r e s e n t s such a high opposition t o a flow of e l e c t r i c i t y t h a t t h e r e i s n o t a p e r c e p t i b l e flow through t h a t material.

INTERFEREXICE: Confusion of r e c e p t i o n due t o s t r a y s , undesired s i g n a l s or o t h e r causes; a l s o t h a t which produces t h e confusion. Definitions

- s h e e t 14

!< .. . ,,:.,

~ ? 6 ! Z D I A T EFREQUENCY: A frequency between t h a t O f t h e c a r r i e r employed i n r a d i o transmission and the frequency of modulation, and t o which t h e

c a r r i e r i s converted i n super-heterodyne r e c e p t i o n .
INTERNAL OUTPUT ADMITTANCE:

The r e c i p r o c a l of i n t e r n a l output impedance.

INTERNAL OUTPUT IMPEDANCE: The r a t i o of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g voltage impressed on t h e output terminals of a vacuum tube t o t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t h e r e b y produced h t t h e s e t e r m i n a l s , i n t h e absence of impressed a l t e r n a t i n g voltages a t o t h e r p o i n t s . Note: T h i s i s sometimes c a l l e d simply "output impedance" but t h e p r e f i x " i n t e r n a l n i s p r e f e r r e d i n order more s u r e l y t o d i s t i n q u i s h it from t h e impedance of t h e e x t e r n a l output c i r c u i t . INTERRUPTED CONTINUOUS W V S Waves obtained by i n t e r r u p t i o n a t audioA E: frequency i n a p e r i o d i c manner of an otherwise continuous wave. INTERRUPTER: Apparatus f o r breaking up a continuous c u r r e n t i n t o a success i o n of pulses. INVERTED '$L" ANTENNA: A f l a t t o p antenna the l e a a d i n of which i s taken from one end of t h e h o r i z o n t a l portfon.
IONIZATION:
JAMMING:

The breaking up of a compound i n t o p o s i t i v e and negative ions.

I n t e r f e r e n c e , malicious or otherwise, from u n d e s b e d s t a t i o n s .

JOULF:

The p r a c t i c a l u n i t of e l e c t r i c a l energy; denotes work done by one coulomb under one v o l t pressure.

m:

A key i s a s p e c i a l form of switch arranged f o r r a p i d operation t o form d o t s and dashes of t h e t e l e g r a p h codes.

KEIY-MODULATED W V S : Continuous waves of which t h e amplftude o r frequency AE i s va'rfed by t h e o p e r a t i o n of a t r a n s m i t t i n g key i n accordance w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r s of a communicating code.
KILOCYCLE (STRICTLY KILOCYCLE P R SECOND ) : A thousand cycles per second. E

KILOWATT:

One thousand w a t t s .

LEAD-IN That p o r t i o n of an antenna system which completes t h e e l e c t r i c a l connection between t h e e l e v a t e d outdoor p o r t i o n a d t h e instruments o r disconnecting switches i n s i d e the building.
-EN
J AR: A condenser composed of a g l a s s j a r w i t h i n n e r and outer surf a c e s coated w i t h copper.

LIGHTNING ARRESTER: A l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t e r i s a d e v i c e f o r p r o t e c t i n g a c i r c u i t or apparatus from l i g h t n i n g or o t h e r e x c e s s i v e l y h i g h voltages.

LOADIRTG COIL:

An i n d u c t o r i n s e r t e d i n a C i r c u i t t o i n c r e a s e i t s inductance but not t o provide coupling with any other c i r c n i t . Definitions sheet 1 5

L OD E S T ONE :

A n a t u r a l o r e possessing inherent q u a l i t i e s of magnet i s m .

LOGARITHMIC DECRENENT:

The Napierian logarithm of t g e r a t i o of t h e f i r s t t o t h e second of two s u c c e s s i v e amplitudes i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n , f o r an exp o n e n t i a l l y damped a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . The l o g a r i t h m i c decrement can a l s o be considered a s a constant of a simple r a d i o c i r c u i t , being f l times the product of t h e r e s i s t a n c e and the square r o o t of t h e r a t i o of t h e c a p a c i t y t o t h e inductance of t h e c i r c u i t .

L O A T N A An antenna c o n s i s t i n g of one o r more complete t u r n s of wire. O P NE N : This i s a l s o c a l l e d a c o i l antenna. LW FREQUENCY CURRENT: A c u r r e n t where a l i m i t e d number of o s c i l l a t i o n s , O about 60 t o 500 c y c l e s , t a k e place i n a second of time. LOUDSPEAKER: A loudspeaker i s a telephone r e c e i v e r designed t o r a d i a t e a c o u s t i c power i n t o a room or open a i r . PASS FILTER: A f i l t e r designed t o pass c u r m n t s of a l l f r e q u e n c i e s beLOWlow a c r i t i c a l or c u t - o f f frequency and s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e a c e t h e amplitude of c u r r e n t s of a l l f r e q u e n c i e s above t h i s c r i t i c a l frequency.
MAGNETIC FIELD:

The r e g i o n surrounding a magnet L h r ough which magnetic

forces act.
MAGNETIC LOUDSPEAKER:
M A GNETIC MICROPHONE:
A magnetic loudspeaker i s one i n which t h e mechanfcal f o r c e s r e s u l t from magnetic r e a c t i o n s ,

A magnetic microphone i s one whose e l e c t r i c a l output i s generated i n a c o i l o r conductor i n a magnetic c i r c u i t o r f i e l d . A magnetic device employed a s a modulator a d f u n c t i o n ing by v i r t u e of i t s non- linear magnetization c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ,

MAGNETIC MODULATOR: MAGHETIC PI CKUP :

A magnetic pickup i s a phonograph pfckup whose e l e c t r f l c a l output i s generated i n a c o i l o r conductor i n a magnetic c i r c u i t or f i e l d ,

MAGNETOSTRICTION LOUDSPEAKER: A magnetostriction kouilspeaker i s a magnetic loudspeaker i n which t h e mechanical f o r c e s a r e obtained by magnetostriction.
MASTER 0SCILLATOR"n

o s c i l l a t o r of comparatively low power s o arranged a s t o c o n t r o l the frequency of the output of an amplif 5.e~.

ME C H A N I C A L DdPEDANCE:

The mechanical impedance of a mechanical system i s t h e complex q u o t i e n t of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g f o r c e a p p l i e d t o t h e system by t h e r e s u l t i n g a l t e r n a t i n g l i n e a r v e l o c i t y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e a t i t s p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n .

ME C H A N ICAL REACTANCE:

The mechanical reactance of a mechanical system i s t h e magnitude of t h e imaginary component of t h e mechanical impedance. It may a l s o be expressed a s t h e component of the mechanical impedance of t h e system r e s u l t i n g from i t s e f f e c t i v e mass or compliance.

rn

Definitions

sheet 16

I I

MECHANICAL RESISTANCE:

!
I

The mechanical r e s i s t a n c e of a p e c h a n i c a l system i s t h e r e a l component of t h e mechanical impedance. It may a l s o be expressed a s the quotient of the power absorbed by t h e system by the square of the a l t e r n a t i n g v e l o c i t y a t t h e point o f a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e force.
A m i l l i o n Cycles per second.

,I

MEGACYCLE (STRICTLY MEGACYCLE PERSECOND ) :

i
I

MEGOHM:

A megohm i s a r e s i s t a n c e of 1,000,000 ohms.

METER: ( a ) The meter i s t h e u n i t of l e n g t h i n t h e m e t r i c system, l a r g e l y used i n European c o u n t r i e s , and corresponds t o a l e n g t h of 39.37 inches. ( b ) A meter i s an instrument f o r measuring some q u a n t i t y , as a voltmeter.

M T R AMPERES: The product of t h e antenna c u r r e n t i n amperes a t t h e point EE of maximum currellt and the antenna e f f e c t i v e height i n rreters f o r any r a d i o t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t ion.
MICA:

A mineral i n s u l a t o r . A microfarad i s a c a p a c i t y of l/l,000,000

MICROFARAD:
MICROPHONE:

of a f a r a d .

A microphone i s an e l e c t r o - a c o u s t i c t r a n s d u c e r a c t u a t e d by power i n a n a c o u s t i c system and d e l i v e r i n g power t o an e l e c t r i c system, t h e wave form i n t h e e l e c t r i c system corresponding t o t h e wave form i n t h e a c o u s t i c system. T h i s i s a l s o c a l l e d a telephone t r a n s m i t t e r .

MILLIAMPERE: . A milliampere i s a c u r r e n t of t h e s t r e n g t h of 1/1,000 of an ampere.

MOBILE STATION:

A s t a t i o n capable of moving and which o r d i n a r i l y does move.

MODULATED W V S Continuous waves Of which t h e amplitude or frequency i s A E: r e p e a t e d l y varied i n accordance w i t h a s i g n a l wave. MODULATION: The process whereby t h e frequency or amplitude of a wave i s varfed i n accordance w i t h a s i g n a l wave,
MOD U LA T OR :' A device t o e f f e c t t h e process of modulation. It may be operated by v i r t u e of some non- linear c h a r a c t e r i s t i c or by a c o n t r o l l e d v a r i a t i o n of some c i r c u i t q u a n t i t y .

K O N I T O R I N G RADIO RECEIVER: A r a d i o r e c e i v e r arranged t o enable an operator t o check t h e operation of a t r a n s m f t t i n & s e t .

blOTIONAL IMPEDANCE:

The motional impedance of an e l e c t r o - a c o u s t i c t r a n s ducer i s t h e vector d i f f e r e n c e between the normal and t h e damped i m pedance.

MOUTH O A HORN: F The mouth of a horn i s t h e end w i t h the l a r g e r c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area.

M O V I N G I R O N LOUDSPEAKER:

A moving i r o n l o u d s p a k e r i s a magnetic loudspeaker whose operation involves t h e v i b r a t i o n of a p o r t i o n of t h e ferro- magnetic circuit.

Definitions

- sheet

17

* MOVING C O I L LOUDSPEAKER: A moving c o i l loudspeaker i s a magnetic loudspeaker i n which the mechanical f o r c e s a r e developed by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of curr e n t s i n a conductor and t h e p o l a r i z i n g f i e l d i n which it i s located. T h i s i s sometimes c a l l e d an Electro-Dynamic o r a Dynamic Loudspeaker.
MULTIPIBTUNED ANTENNA: A antenna w i t h connections t o ground or countern poise through inductances a t more than one p o i n t , the inductances being s o determined t h a t t h e i r r e a c t a n c e s i n p a r a l l e l present a t o t a l reactance equal t o t h a t necessary t o g i v e t h e anteqna t h e d e s i r e d n a t u r a l frequency.
MUTUAL CHARACTERISTIC (GRID-PLATE CHARACTERISTIC ) :

The graph p l o t t e d between g r i d voltage a s a b s c i s s a s and p l a t e current a s o r d i n a t e s . (See G r i d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; Mutual Conductance ; P l a t e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; and Emission characteristic.) The r a t i o of t h e change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t t o the change i n g r i d p o t e n t i a l producing i t , under the condition of constant p l a t e voltage. (The u n i t o r d i n a r i l y used i s t h e micromho).

MUTUAL CONDUCTANCE:

NUTUAL 1ADUCTANCEAut.ual inductance i s the term a p p l i e d t o d e s i g n a t e tne inductance produced by a c u r r e n t change i n one of two independent c i r c u i t s which r e a c t upon e a c h other.

NORMAL IMPEDANCE : The normal impedance of a n e l e c t r o - a c o u s t i c transducer i s the impedance measured a t t h e terminals of t h e e l e c t r i c a l system when the mechanical system i s connected t o i t s load o r vice v e r s a .
OHM: An ohm i s the u n i t of r e s i s t a n c e , and may be defined a s the r e s i s t a n c e t h a t w i l l allow 1 ampere of c u r r e n t t o pass under the pressure due t o an electromotive f o r c e of 1 v o l t .

OSCILLATIONS: Electromagnetic waves s e t up i n space by t r a n s m i t t i n g instruments. OSCILLATION CONSTANT: The o s c i l l a t i o n constant of an o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t i s t h e numerical f i g u r e obtained from the square r o o t of i t s inductance multi p l i e d by i t s capacity. OSCILLATION TRANSFORMER: An o s c i l l a t i o n transformer i s a s p e c i a l open type of transformer p r i m a r i l y used f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g l a r g e amounts of o s c i l l a t ing energy from one c i r c u i t t o another. CSCILLATOR: A non - rotating device f o r producil3g a l t e r n a t i n g power, the out put frequency of which i s determined by t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the device. OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT: A r e l a t i v e l y low r e s i s t a n c e c i r c u i t containing both inductance and c a p a c i t y , such t h a t a voltage impulse w i l l produce a curr e n t which p e r i o d i c a l l y r e v e r s e s .
PACKING:

Packing i n a carbon microphone i s a c o n d i t i o n caused by excess mechanical p r e s s u r e between pofnt s of contact or by adherence betrzeen It i s evidenced by p o i n t s of contact r e s u l t i n g from excessive voltages. decreased r e s i s t a n c e and s e n s i t i v i t y of the microphone.

Definitions

sheet 18

PARALLFL C O N N E C T I O N :

A p a r a l l e l connection of e l e c t r i c a l devices o r c i r c u i t s

i s one i n which t h e c u r r e n t d i v i d e s , only a p a r t of t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t passing through e a c h d e v i c e or c i r c u i t .

PARALLEL RESONANCE: A c o n d i t i o n which e x i s t s i n a c i r c u i t having inductance and c a p a c i t y connected i n p a r a l l e l , when t h e supply c u r r e n t and supply v o l t a g e a r e i n phase.
PASSIVE TRANSDUCER:

A p a s s i v e t r a n s d u c e r i s one i n which t h e power supplied t o t h e second system i s obteined e n t i r e l y from t h e power a v a i l a b l e frorn t h e f i r s t system.

PERCENTAGE MODULATION: The r a t i o of h a l f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e maximum and minimum amplitudes of a modulated wave t o t h e average amplitude, expressed i n per c e n t . PERIOD: The period of a n a l t e r n a t i n g Current i s t h e time r e q u i r e d f o r one cycle t o pass through a complete s e t of p o s i t i v e and negative values. PERIODIC CURRFNT: P e r i o d i c a l l y r e v e r s i n g c u r r e n t the frequency of which i s determined by t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n s t a n t s of t h e c i r c u i t s i n which i t flows. It may be e i t h e r damped or continuous.
PERIODIC TIME:

The time of a completed p e r i o d .

PHONOGRAPH PICKUP: A phonograph pickup i s a n e l e c t r o m e c h a n i c a l t r a n s d u c e r a c t u a t e d by a phonograph r e c o r d and d e l i v e r i n g power t o an e l e c t r i c a l system, t h e wave form i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l system corresponding t o t h e wave form i n t h e phonograph r e c o r d .

PHOTOEIECTKIC T B " UE . form Of vacuum tube i n which the e l e c t r o n emission i s produced by t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n of t h e cathode. (Also c a l l e d t h e photoelectric cell. ) PIEzO-ELECTRIC LOUDSPEAKZR: A p i e z o - e l e c t r i c loudspeaker is one i n which t h e mechanical f o r c e s a r e obtained by use of a p i e z e - e l e c t r i c element. PIEZO-ELECTRIC PICKUP: A p i e z o - e l e c t r i c pickup i s a phonograph pickup whose e l e c t r i c a l output i s g e n e r a t e d by varying mechanical s t r e s s e s i n t h e piezo- electric c r y s t a l .
PLATE:

The common name f o r t h e anode i n a vacuum t u b e .

The sum of t h e d i r e c t c a p a c i t a n c e s between the PLATE CAPACITANCE ( C p ) : p l a t e and a l l o t h e r conductors of a vacuum tube.
PLATE CHARACTERISTIC : The g r a p h p l o t t e d between p l a t e volt age a s a b s c i s s a (See Grid C h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; Mutual C and p l a t e c u r r e n t a s o r d i n a t e s . a c t e r i s t i c : and Emission C h a r a c t e r i s t i c . )

PLATE C m C U I T :

The p l a t e c i r c u i t of a n e l e c t r o n t u b e include connected d i r e c t l y i n t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t between t h e c a t p l a t e elements.

ate p o t e n t i a l producing it , under t h e co

tial.

GOhWCTANCE:

The r a t i o of t h e change i n

PLATE CURRENT: space

The d i r e c t c u r r e n t passing from t h e p l a t e through t h e vacuous

PLATE-FILAhBNT CAPACITANCE ( C p f ) : and t h e filament

PLATE RESISTANCE:

The d i r e c t capacitance between t h e p l a t e

The r e c i p r o c a l of t h e p l a t e conquctame.

PLATE VOLTAGE: cathode.

The voltage between t h e p l a t e and a s p e c i f i e d point of t h e

POLARITY:
POTENTIAL:

The p r o p e r t y of having opposite poles o r e l e c t r i c signs (

+ and

- ).

The degree of pressure of a n e l e c t r i c a l charge.

POTENTIOMETER: The potentiometer i s an arrangement f o r o b t a i n i n g any d e s i r e d voltage by u t i l i z i n g t h e voltage drop across t h e r e q u i r e d p o r t i o n of a current- carrying r e s i s t a n c e .

P W R AAIPLIFICATION (OF AN AMPLIFIER ): The r a t i o o f t h e a l t e r n a t ing- current O E power produced i n t h e output c i r c u i t t o t h e a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t power supplied t o the input c i r c u i t . POWERAMPLIFIER: A a m p l i f i e r t h a t i s capable of producing r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e n power i n an putput c i r c u i t .
POWER LFVEL: The power l e v e l a t any point i n a system i s an expression of the power being t r a n s m i t t e d p a s t t h i s point.

PRIMARY CELL: A primary c e l l i s a type of c e l l whose voltage i s d i r e c t l y due t o t h e chemical decomposition of matter. (See d r y c e l l ) .

PRIKARY C O I L :

A primary c o i l i s t h e input winding of a transformer.

PROTECTDE DEVICE: A device f a r keeping c u r r e n t s or v o l t a g e s of undesirably l a r g e magnitude out of a given p a r t of an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t . For example, f u s e ; l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t e r . PULSATING CURRENT: A p e r i o d i c c u r r e n t , t h a t i s , c u r r e n t passing through successive c y c l e s , t h e a l g e b r a i c average v a l u e of which is not zero. A p u l s a t i n g current i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e sum of a n a l t e r n a t i n g and a d i r e c t current. PUSH-PULL MICROPHONE: A push- pull microphone i s one which makes use of t w o functioninq elements 180 degrees out of phase.
RADIATE:
RADIATION:

To emit e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves i n t o space. The process of e m i t t i n g electromagnetic waves i n t o space.

RADIATION EFFICIENCY:

The r a d i a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y of a n antenna i s t h e r a of power r a d i a t e d t o t h e t o t a l power d e l i v e r e d t o the antenna, a t given frequency

RADLATION RESISTANCE:

The r a t i o of t h e t o t a l power r a d i a t e d b t h e square of the e f f e c t i v e current a t the point of maximum Definitions

RADIO- BEACON:

A r a d i o t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n i n a f i x e d geographic l o c a t i o n which e m i t s a d i s t i n c t i v e or c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i g n a l f o r e n a b l i n g mobile r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n s t o determine bearings or courses.

R A D I O BEARING:

The angle between t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e advance of t h e i n coming r a d i o wave and an a r b i t r a r i l y f i x e d l i n e (such a s t h e c e n t e r l i n e of a s h i p ).

RADIO CHANIEL:

A band of f r e q u e n c i e s or wavelengths of a width s u f f i c i e n t t o permit of i t s use f o r r a d i o communicotion. The width of a channel depends upon t h e t y p e of t r a n s m i s s i o n .
/

R A D I O COMMUNICATION: Applies t o the t r a n s m i s s i o n by r a d i o of w r i t i n g , s i g n s , s i g n a l s , p i c t u r e s , and sounds of a l l kinds.

RADIO CONIMUNICATION STATION (OR RADIO STATION): c a r r y on r a d i o communications.

Any s t a t i o n equipped t o

RADIO C M A S O PS

A d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r used f o r navig?.tional purposes.

R A D I O FIELD INTENSITY: The Toot -mean-square value of t h e e l e c t r i c or magnetic f i e l d i n t e n s i t y a t a p o i n t due t o t h e passage of r a d i o waves. It i s u s u a l l y expressed tn terms of t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d i n t e n s i t y , i n microvolts p e r meter or m i l l i v o l t s per meter.
RADIO FREQUENG! : A frequency h i g h e r than those corresponding t o normally a u d i b l e sound waves,

Note:

It i s not implied t h a t r a d i a t i o n cannot be secured a t lower f r e q u e n c i e s , nor t h a t r a d i o - f r e q u e n c i e s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y above the l i m i t of a u d i b i l i t y .

RADIO-FREQUEBCY ALTERNATOR : A r o t a t i n g - t y p e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t generator which g e n e r a t e s radio- frequency power.

RADIO-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER: cur r e n t s

A transformer f o r use w i t h radio- frequency

RADIO NOISE FIELD INTENSITY: A measure of the f i e l d i n t e n s i t y , a t a point ( a s a r a d i o r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n ) of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves of an i n t e r f e r ing character. I n p r a c t i c e t h e q u a n t i t y measured i s not the f i e l d i n t e n s i t y of t h e i n t e r f e r i n g waves, b u t some q u a n t i t y which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o o r bears a known r e l a t i o n t o t h e f i e l d i n t e n s i t y .
R A D I O RANGE: A r a d i o beacon which t r a n s m i t d i r e c t e d waves by means of which d e p a r t u r e s from a given course may be observed.
R A D I O RECEIVER:

A device f o r c o n v e r t i n g r a d i o waves i n t o p e r c e p t i b l e s i g n a l s .

R A D I O TRANSWITTEE:

A d e v i c e f o r producing radio- frequency power and modifyi n g i t i n accordance w i t h a s i g n a l .

R A D I O TRANSMISSION:

The t r a n s m i s s i o n of s i g n a l s by means of r a d i a t e d e l e c t r o mag~etic waves o r i g i n a t i n g i n a c o n s t r u c t e d c i r c u i t . Definitions

sheet 21

R A D I O IIIrAVE-FRONT DISTORTION:

waves.

A change i n the d i r e c t i o n of advance of r a d i o

REACTANCE:

Reactance i s t h e term applied t o express t h e opposition of a wire t o changes of , c u r r e n t e s t a b l i s h e d i n i t .

RECTIFIER: A device having a n asyrumetricay conduction c h a r a c t e r i s t i c which i s used f o r t h e conversion of an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i n t o a p u l s a t i n g c u r r e n t . Such devices include vacuum-tube r e c t i f i e r s , g a s r e c t i f i e r s , oxide r e c t i f i e r s , e l e c t r o l y t i c r e c t i f i e r s , e t c . Note: In d e a l i n g w i t h r e c t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e r e c e p t i o n of r a d i o s i g n a l s t h e term " d e t e c t o r " i s p r e f e r red t o " r e c t i f i e r " . REFLEX C I R C U I T : A c i r c u i t arrangement i n which one o r more a m p l i f i e r tubes amplify the s i g n a l both before and a f t e r d e t e c t i o n . REFRACTION: The change i n d i r e c t i o n of the flow of a n e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t when i t passes from one medium t o another of d i f f e r e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y or of o t h e r differing electric qualities.
REGENERATION: The process by which a p a r t of t h e output power of an amplif y i n g device r e a c t s upon the input c i r c u i t i n such a manner a s t o r e i n f o r c e t h e i n i t i a l power t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g the a m p l i f i c a t i o n . (Sometimes c a l l e d "feed back' or " r e a c t i o n " . )

REJECTOR: . c i r c u i t of inductance and c a p a c i t y which i s so arranged and P tuned a s t o o f f e r h i g h impedance t o t h e flow of c u r r e n t s of a given f r e quency and low impedance t o c u r r e n t s of a l l other frequencies.
I

RELAY: A device by means of which c o n t a c t s i n one c i r c u i t a r e operated by a 'change i n conditions i n t h e same c i r c u i t o r i n one o r more a s s o c i a t e d circuit s

RESIDUAL MAGNETISM: The magnetism which remains i n t h e core of a n e l e c t r o magnet a f t e r t h e c i r c u i t has been broken, RESISTANCE: Resistance i s t h e opposition t o t h e passage of a d i r e c t c u r r e n t or low-frequency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t by any substance o r m a t e r i a l . RESISTANCE COUPLING: The a s s o c i a t i o n of one c i r c u i t w i t h another by means of r e s i s t a n c e common t o both.
RESISTIVITY:

The r e s i s t i v i t y of any m a t e r i a l i s a measure of i t s r e s i s t a n c e or opposition t o t h e flow of e l e c t r i c i t y .

RESISTOR: ance

A device used i n r a d i o c i r c u i t s t o introduce t h e element o f r e s i s

RESONANCE: Two c i r c u i t s a r e i n resonance i f they are i n tune w i t h ea t h a t I s , i f t h e products oP t h e inductance and c a p a c i t y of each ar RESOHANCE FREQUENCY ( O F A REACTIVE CIRCUIT ): The frequency a t whi c u r r e n t and supply voltage of t h e c i r c u i t are i n phase. Def i n i t

R S N N E T A S O M R : A transformer h t h condenser load, whose c i r c u i t s EO A C R NF R E a r e adjusted a s a whole t o have t h e same frequency a s t h a t of the a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s u p p l i e d t o t h e primary, t h e r e b y c a u s i n g the secondary v o l t a g e t o b u i l d up t o h i g h e r v a l u e s than would otherwise be a t t a i n e d . RHEOSTAT: A r e s i s t o r which is provided with means f o r r e a d i l y a d j u s t i n g i t s resistance. REVERSED G R I D CURRENT: vacuous space. The d i r e c t c u r r e n t passing t o t h e g r i d through t h e

~1ppI.E FILTER: A low-pass f i l t e r designed t o reduce the r i p p l e c u r r e n t while f r e e l y passing t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t from a r e c t i f i e r or g e n e r a t o r .

RIPPLE V L A E : The a1 t e r n a t i n g component of u n i d i r e c t i o n a l voltage from a OT G r e c t i f i e r or g e n e r a t o r . Per c e n t r i p p l e is t h e r a t i o of t h e r . m . 8 . value of the r i p p l e v o l t a g e t o t h e a l g e b r a i c average v a l u e of the t o t a l (R . .S. i s t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r r o o t M voltage expressed i n percentage. mean square. )
SCREEN G R I D : A e l e c t r o d e of s u i t a b l e p o t e n t i a l i n t e r p o s e d between c e r t a i n n of t h e other e l e c t r o d e s of a vacuum tube t o s u b s t a n t i a l l y e l i m i n a t e t h e e f f e c t of t h e capacitance between them. SCREEN4RID VACUUM TUBE: A type of vacuum tube i n which t h e capacitance between c e r t a i n e l e c t r o d e s ( o r d i n a r i l y the c o n t r o l g r i d and t h e p l a t e ) i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y e l i m i n a t e d by t h e i n t e r p o s i t i o n of an a d d i t i o n a l e l e c t r o d e of s u i t a b l e p o t e n t i a l

S C N A Y CELL: EO D R

Same a s Storage Cell.

SELECTIVITY: The degree t o which a r a d i o r e c e i v e r i s capable of d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g between s i g n a l s of d i f f e r e n t c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c i e s , This c h o r a c t e r i s t i c i s not e x p r e s s i b l e by a s i n g l e numerical value, but r e q u i r e s one o r more graphs f o r i t s e x p r e s s i o n .
SELF-INDUCTANCE: Self- inductance i s t h e property of e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s which t e n d s t o prevent any change i n t h e c u r r e n t e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e c i r cuit s

SENSE FTXDER: An a d d i t i o n t o a d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r which permits determination of tlie d i r e c t i o n without 180 degrees ambiguity.

SELF-HETERODYNE RECEPTION: A system of heterodyne r e c e p t i o n by u t i l i z i n g a device which i s b o t h an o s c i l l a t o r and a d e t e c t o r . SENSITIVITY: The degree t o which a r a d i o r e c e i v e r responds t o s i g n a l s of It i s measured q u a n t i t a t i v e l y by t h e f r e q ~ e n c y o which i t i s tuned. t t h e r e c i . r o c a l of t h e Nomal Radio F i e l d I n t e n s i t y . p SERIES OR F E E D RESISTANCE (OF A MULTIPLE TUNED ANTENNA ) : The q u o t i e n t t h e power d e l i v e r e d t o the antenna by t h e square of t h e c u r r e n t i n l i n e f e e d i n g t h e antenna.

Definition

SERIES RESONANCE: A c o n d i t i o n which e x i s t s i n a c i r c u i t h a v i n g i n d u c t a n c e and c a p a c i t y connected i n s e r i e s , when t h e s u p p l y c u r r e n t and s u p p l y v o l t a g e a r e i n phase. SIDE BANDS: The bands of f r e q u e n c i e s , one on e i t h e r s i d e of t h e c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y , proeuced by t h e p r o c e s s of m o d u l a t i o n . SIDE FREQUENCY: The f r e q u e n c y on e i t h e r s i d e of t h e c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y p r o duced by t h e p r o c e s s o f s i n g l e - f r e q u e n c y m o d u l a t i o n . SIGNAL-NOISE R A T I O : The r a t i o a t a p o i n t of t h e f i e l d i n t e n s i t y of t h e r a d i o wave t o t h e r a d i o n o i s e f i e l d i n t e n s i t y .

SIGNAL WAVE:

A wave, t h e form of which conveys a s i g n a l .

SINE CURVE: A wave- like curve drawn t o r e p r e s e n t t h e changes i n s t r e n g t h and d i r e c t i o n of an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t or v o l t a g e . SINGLE-SIDE-BAND TRANSMISSION: That method of o p e r a t i o n i n which one s i d e band i s t r a n s m i t t e d , and t h e o t h e r s i d e band Is s u p p r e s s e d . The c a r r i e r wave may be e i t h e r t r a n s m i t t e d or s u p p r e s s e d . SOLENOID: An e l e c t r o n a g n e t i c c o i l w i t h o u t t h e i r o n c o r e . Same a s Group Frequency.

SPARK FREQUENCY:

SPARK GAP: An arrangement of e l e c t r o d e s used for c l o s i n g a c i r c u i t ( u s u a l l y o s c i l l a t o r y ) a t a p r e d e t e r m i n e d v o l t a g e . Among t h e t y p e s of s p a r k g a p s a r e p l a i n g a p , r o t a r y gap, synchronous gap, and quenched g a p . SPARK TRANSMITTER: A r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r which u t i l i z e s t h e o s c i l l a t o r y d i s charge o f a condenser t h r o u g h a n i n d u c t a n c e a d a s p a r k gap a s t h e s o u r c e of i t s r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y power. SPECIFIC GRAVITY: The s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f a n y s u b s t a n c e i s i t s weight i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h a t o f a n e q u a l volume o f w a t e r . SPECIFIC INDUCTIVE CAPACITY: The s p e c i f i c i n d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y of a s u b s t a n c e i s a d i r e c t measure o f i t s a b i l i t y t o s t o r e up e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y when used as a d i e l e c t r i c m a t e r i a l i n a condenser. STATIC : C ond.uction o r c h a r g i n g c u r r e n t i n a n a n t e n n a r e s u l t i n g from p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t between t h e a n t e n n a and charged b o d i e s o r masses of g a s . Note: I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h i s term h a s come. t o be used q u i t e g e n e r a l l y a s a synonym f o r a t m o s p h e r i c s . STOPPING CONDENSER: A c o n d e n s e r u s e d t o i n t r o d u c e a c o m p a r a t i v e l y h i g h pedance i n some b r a n c h o f a c i r c u i t f o r t h e purpose of l i m i t i n g t h e of low- frequency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t o r d i r e c t c u r r e n t w i t h o u t m a t e r a f f e c t i n g the flow of high- frequency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t .
STaRAGE CELLS:

A s t o r a g e c e l l i s a t y p e of c e l l i n which t h e che of d i s c h a r g e may be r e v e r s e d by a n e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t t o c h a r t o i t s o r i g i n a l condition.

Def i n i t i

STRAYS: E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c d i s t u r b a n c e s i n r a d i o r e c e p t i o n o t h e r t h a n t h o s e produced by r a d i o t r a n s m i t t i n g s y s t e m s . SUPW-YETERODYNE RECEPTION: A method of r e c e p t i o n i n which t h e r e c e i v e d v o l t a g e i s combined w i t h t h e v o l t a g e f r o m a l o c a l o s c i l l a t o r and c o n v e r t e d i n t o v o l t a g e of an i n t e r m e d i a t e f r e q u e n c y which i s t h e n a m p l i f i e d and d e t e c t e d t o r e p r o d u c e t h e o r i g i n a l s i g n a l wave. (Sometimes c a l l e d " s u p e r s o n i c r e c e p t i o n " and "double d e t e c t i o n " ) . SWINGING: The v a r i a t i o n i n f r e q u e n c y of a t r a n s m i t t e d wave r e s u l t i n g from momentary changes i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r c i r c u i t s . T h i s may be evidenced by
1.
2. A v a r i a t i o n i n t h e b e a t n o t e when a l o c a l o s c i l l a t o r is adjusted t o t h e c a r r i e r frequency, o r A v a r i a t i o n i n i n t e n s i t y of t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l .

SYNCHRONY: The a d j u s t m e n t o f one c i r c u i t t o a n o t h e r , o r o f a t r a n s m i t t e r t o a r e c e i v e r , so t h a t t h e i r time p e r i o d s a r e t h e same.

SYNTONIC CIRCUITS: S y n t o n i c c i r c u i t s a r e two o r more o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t s h a v i n g s i m i l a r t i m e p e r i o d s o r n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y of o s c i l l a t i o n .

"T" ANTENNA: ' A f l a t t o p a n t e n n a t h e l e a d - i n of which i s t a k e n from about t h e c e n t e r of t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o r t i o n .

TAhrK C I R C U I T : An i n t e r m e d i a t e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o u t p u t c i r c u i t o f a vacuum t u b e t r a n s m i t t e r which a b s o r b s t h e o u t p u t of the vacuum t u b e t r a n s m i t t e r i n t h e form o f e n e r g y i m p u l s e s o f h i g h v a l u e and s h o r t d u r a t i o n and d e l i v e r s the po-qer t o t h e l o a d i n s u b s t a n t i a l l y s i n u s o i d a l form, TELEPHONE RECEIVER: A t e l e p h o n e r e c e i v e r i s a n e l e c t r o - a c o u s t i c t r a n s d u c e r a c t u a t e d b y power from a n e l e c t r i c a l system and s u p p l y i n g power t o a n a c o u s t i c system, t h e wave f o r m i n t h e a c o u s t i c system c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e wave form i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l system. TELEVISION: The e l e c t r i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n of a s u c c e s s i o n o f images and t h e i r r e c e p t i o n i n such a way a s t o g i v e a s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o n t i n u o u s r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e o b j e c t o r s c e n e b e f o r e t h e eye o f a d i s t a n t o b s e r v e r . TETRODE: A t y p e of vacuum t u b e c o n t a i n i n g a n anode, a c a t h o d e , and two a d d i t i o n a l e l e c t r o d e s ( o r d i n a r f l y t h e two a d d i t i o n a l e l e c t r o d e s a r e of t h e n a t u r e of g r i d s ) .
TICKLER: A t i c k l e r i s t h e name sometimes a p p l i e d t o the c o i l i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t used t o f e e d some o f t h e e n e r g y back i n t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t .

TREEMhL RECEIVER: A t h e r m a l r e c e i v e r i s a t e l e p h o n e r e c e i v e r i n which t e m p e r a t u r e of a c o n d u c t o r i s caused t o v a r y i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e c u r r i n p u t , t h e r e b y p r o d u c i n g sound waves a s a r e s u l t o f t h e e x p a n s i o n c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e a d j a c e n t a i r . TRER?dIONIC : R e l a t i n g t o e l e c t r o n e m i s s i o n under t h e i n f l u e n c e of

Def i n i t i o

THERMOCOUPLE AMMETER:

A ammeter dependent f o r i t s i n d i c a t i o n s on the n change i n therno electromotive f o r c e s e t up i n a thermo e l e c t r i c couple which i s heated by the c u r r e n t t o be measured. The t h r o a t of a horn i s t h e end w i t h t h e s m a l l e r cross
Of

THROAT O A HORN: F

s e c t i o n a l area.
TIME PERIOD:
TORQUE:

Ascertained by t h e amount i n the c i r c u i t .

inductance, c a p a c i t y and r e s i s t a n c e

The value of f o r c e s t e n d i n g t o produce r o t a t i o n .

TOTAL EMISSION:

The value of t h e c u r r e n t c a r r i e d by e l e c t r o n s emitted from a cathode under t h e i n f l u e n c e of a v o l t a g e such a s w i l l draw away a l l t h e e l e c t r o n s emitted,

TRANSFORMER: A transformer i s a device f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g energy from one c i r c u i t t o another. TRANSDUCER: A transducer i s a device a c t u a t e d by power from one system and supplying power t o another system. These systems may be e l e c t r i c a l , mechanical, or a c o u s t i c . TRANSNISSION-FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTIC : A graph showing the transmission e f f i c i ency of a c i r c u i t o r t r a n s m i s s i o n path a s o r d i n a t e s and t h e frequency a s abscissas. TRANSMISSION LEVEL: The r a d i o f i e l d i n t e n s i t y o r t h e s i g n a l i n g power amplitude a t any point i n a communication system, expressed e i t h e r i n some absolute u n i t or w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o an a r b i t r a r y base value. TRANSMISSION LOSS: The l o s s of power s u f f e r e d by a t r a n s m i t t e d wave i n pass ing along a transmission p a t h o r through a c i r c u i t device. TRAMSNISSION UXIT (THE DECIBEL--"dbl'): The transmission u n i t i s used f o r exp r e s s i n g c e r t a i n performance i n d i c e s of e l e c t r o - a c o u s t i c t r a n s d u c e r s . This u n i t i s logarithmic i n n a t u r e and possesses a unique r e l a t i o n w i t h the p h y s i o l o g i c a l response of t h e e a r ; namely, over t h e usual range of sound i n t e n s i t i e s one t r a n s m i s s i o n u n i t corresponds very c l o s e l y t o t h e minimum p e r c e p t i b l e change i n loudness. The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e performance i n d i c e s i n terms of what one may e x p w t t o h e a r i s thereby f a c i l i t a t e d by expressing them i n transmission u n i t s .
TRICKLE CHARGER: A device designed t o charge a s t o r a g e b a t t e r y a t a low r a t e continuously o r during a major p o r t i o n of t h e 24 hour day.
TRIODE:

A type of vacuum tube containing an anode, a cathode, and a t h i r d e l e c t r o d e , i n which the c u r r e n t flowing between t h e anode and t h e ca i s c o n t r o l l e d by tk voltage between t h e t h i r d o r c o n t r o l e l e c t r o d e the cathode.

TUNING:

The adjustment of a c i r c u i t o r system t o secure optimum d e s i r e d current; commonly, t h e adjustment of a c i r c u i t o r c i r c resonance. Def i n i t i

UMBRELLA A N T E N N A : A n an cone w i t h the apex a t UNDAMPED WAVE: A train wave i s e q u a l t o that An a

c o r d u c t o r s of which form e l e m e n t s of a o which t h e l e a d - i n i s c o n m c t e d .

n which t h e amplitude of e a c h s u c c e s s i v e ve preceding and f o l l o w i n g it.

UNILATERAL ANTFNNA:

r a d i o waves i n l ~ r g e r other directions.

VACUUM TUBE:
A device an e n c l o s u r e e v a c u a t subs t a n t i a l l y d u e t o

ng t h e p r o p e r t y of r a d i a t i n g o r i n some one a n g u l a r r e g i o n than a number o f e l e c t r o d e s c o n t a i n e

Note: Where

c a l l particular attention

VACUUM-TUBE MODULATOR:

element

l o y i n g a vacuum t u b e a s a m o d u l s t i

VACUUM-TUBE RECTIFIER:

A t u b e whidh r e c t i f i e s an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t b y u t i l i z i n g t h e e l e c t r o n f l o w between two e l e c t r o d e s i n a vacuum o r i n a gas.

VACUUM-TUBE TRANSMITTER: VACUUM-TUBE JOLTM METER: VALVE:

A r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r i n which vacuum t u b e s a r e u t i l i z e d t o c o n v e r t t h e a p p l i e d e l e c t r i c power i n t o r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y power.

A d e v i c e u t i l i z i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a vacuum t u b e f o r measuring a l t e r n a t i n g v o l t a g e s .

Same a s Vacuum Tube.

(The term " valve" i s used w i d e l y i n England).

VARIABLE CONDENSER: VARIOCOUPLER:

A v a r i a b l e condenser i s one whose e l e c t r i c a l c a p a c i t y may be changed o r v a r i e d . A v a r i o c o u p l e r i s composed of a s e t of c o i l s , g e n e r a l l y s o a r r a n g e d a s t o make it p o s s i b l e t o v a r y t h e c o u p l i n g between d i f f e r e n t circuits.

VARIOMETRR: A v a r i o m e t e r c o n s i s t s o f two c o i l s which may b e p l a c e d i n such

r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e i n d u c t a n c e e f f e c t s of e a c h winding may be made t o a s s i s t o r p r a c t i c a l l y n e u t r a l i z e e a c h o t h e r .

k$

VOLT:
@$

k j

j, v o l t 1 s t h e u n i t of e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e and i s t h e e l e c t r i c a l pressure i r e q u i r e d t o send a c u r r e n t of 1 ampere t h r o u g h a r e s i s t a n c e of 1 o h .

VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION:

The r a t i o of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g v o l t a g e produced a t o u t p u t t e r m i n a l s of a n a m p l i f i e r t o t h e a l t e r n a t i n g v o l t a g e impressed ( T h i s term s h o u l d n o t be used t o d e s c r i b e a p r o t h e input terminals.

VOLTAGE DIVIDER:

A r e s i s t o r provided w i t h f i x e d o r movable c o n s t a c two f i x e d t e r m i n a l c o n t a c t s . C u r r e n t i s passed between t h e t e r m i and t h e d e s i r e d v o l t a g e i s o b t a i n e d a c r o s s a p o r t i o n of t h e res t e r m " p o t e n t i o m e t e r " i s d f t e n e r r o n e o u s l y used f o r t h i s d e v i

Definitions

- sheet

27

VOLTMETFR: An i n s t r u m e n t of h i g h r e s i s t a n c e f o r m e a s u r i n g d i f f e r e n c e o f p o t e n t i a l i n v o l t s , o r the voltage i n a c i r c u i t . WATT: A w a t t i s t h e u n i t o f e l e c t r i c a l power, and r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r o d u c t of c u r r e n t and e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e . WAVE: ( a ) A p r o p a g a t e d d i s t u r b a n c e , u s u a l l y p e r i o d i c ; a s a n e l e c t r i c wave o r a soun3 wave. ( b ) A s i n g l e c y c l e of such a d i s t u r b a n c e . ( c ) A p e r i o d i c v a r i a t i o n a s r e p r e s e n t e d by a graph.

WAVE ANTENNA:

A h o r i z o n t a l a e r i a l t h e p h y s i c a l l e n g t h of which i s o f t h e same o r d e r o f magnitude a s that of the s i g n a l i n g waves t o be r e c e i v e d , and which i s so u s e d a s t o be s t r o n g l y d i r e c t i o n a l . A change

W V F'RONT DISTORTION: AE

in the d i r e c t i o n o f advance of r a d i o waves.

WAVELENGTH: The d i s t a n c e t r a v e l e d i n one p e r i o d o r c y c l e b y a p e r i o d i c d i s t u r b a n c e . The d i s t a n c e between corresponding p h a s e s o f two c o n s e c u t i v e waves of a wave t r a i n . The q u o t i e n t o f v e l o c i t y by f r e q u e n c y .
INAWETFX:

A wavemeter i s a d e v i c e a r r a n g e d and c a l i b r a t e d t o r e a d t h e l e n g t h of a r a d i a t e ? wave d i r e c t l y i n m e t e r s . ( A l s o knorrn a s f r e q u e n c y meter.)

A w a v e - t r a i n i s a s h o r t s e r i e s of c y c l e s of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i n t e r r u p t e d or s e p a r a t e d by q ~ l i e tp e r i o d s .

WAVE-TRAIN:

ABBREVI'ATIONS Term Alternating- current Ampere Antenna Audio- frequency Cycle p e r s e c o Decibel Frequency Ground Abbreviat i o n a- c

Megohm rhicrofarad ~ic r o h e n r g Micromicrofarad MS!icrovolt rvlicrovolt p e r meter M i l l i v o l t p e r meter Milliwatt Ohm Power F a c t o r Radio - f r e q u e n c y Volt

.
mv/m mw
-

ABBREVIATIONS F R METRIC PREFIXES O

Prefix

Abbreviation

cent i
deci deka hecto kilo mega micro mi1l.i

Definitions

s h e e t 29

STANDARD

RADIO

SYMBOLS

COURTESY. INSTITUIE OF W EHGUlELRS

AERIAL

Y'

+
AMMETER COIL ANTENNA

_r"

THE WSlTlVE ELECTRODE IS INDICATED BY THE LONG LINE.

CONDENSER FMED

ARC

CONDENSER FlXEO SHIELDED

CONDENSER VARIABLE

CONDENSER VARIABLE (WITH MOVING PLATE INDICATED)

CONDENSER
VARIABLE. SHIELDED

COUNTERPOISE

CRYSTAL DETECTOR

FREQUENCY METER WAVEMETER

GALVANOMETER

GLOW LAMP

GROUND INDUCTOR INDUCTOR ADJUSTABLE

INDUCTOR IRON CORE

INDUCTOR VARIABLE

JACK

KEY

MICROPHONE LIGHTNING ARRESTER LOUD SPEAKER TELEPHONE TRANSMITTER

I
PHOTO ELECTRIC CELL

Definitions

sheet 3 0

STANDARD

COURTESY iNSTlTUTE OF RADIO ENGINEERS

RESISTOR SPARK GAP ROTARY

RADIO

SYMBOLS

PIKOELECTRIC PLATE

RESISTOR ADJUSTABLE

-*TELEPHONE RECEIVER

--D+
SPARK GAP
PWN

RESISTOR VARIABLE

SPARK GAP QUENCHED

THERMOELEMENT

TRANSFORMER AIR CORE

TRANSFORMER IRON CORE

TRANSFORMER
W ~ T HAL VBE I

COUPLING

TRANSFORMER WITH VARlASLE COUPLING (WITH MOVING

WIRES

WIRES CROSSED. NOT JOINED

JOINED coi~ ~NDICATEDI

VACUUM TUBES

. .
DIODE OR HALF. WAVE RECTlFlER TRIODE WITH DIRECTLY HEATED CATHODE TRIODE WITH INOiRECTLY HEATED CATHODE SCREEN GRlD WlTH DIRECTLY HEATED CATHODE

.
SCREEN GRlD WlTH INDIRECTLY HEATED CATHODL RECTIFIER, FULL-WAVE FILAMENTLESS

.
RECTIFIER. HALF-WAVE RUIMENTLESS

RECTIFIER FULL-WAVE WITH DIRECTLY HEKILO CATHODE

Definitions

- sheet

31

M A R C O N / /NST/TUTE

s u n d e d /909

FOKIWORD

INTRODUCTION TO R A D I O .

O November 2 , 1920 r a d i o s t a t i o n KDKA "went on the a i r " a t East P i t t s b u r g h , n Pennsylvania the f i r s t broadcast s t a t i o n i n the world t o f e a t u r e r e g u l a r broadcast programs. For t h e following seven y e a r s , or from 1920 u n t i l 1927, t h e r a d i o i n d u s t r y passed through what was probably i t s most c r i t i c a l period of development. I n d u s t r i a l c h a r t s showed t h a t more t h a n twice a s many r a d i o s e t s , t u b e s and p a r t s were s o l d i n t h e t h r e e y e a r s from 1927 t o 1930 than i n h the preb3ous seven years from 1920 t o 1927. W y was t h i s s o ? Largely because people began t o b e l i e v e i n r a d i o . During the e a r l i e r years of r a d i o broadcasting t h e average person had very l i t t l e f a i t h i n t h i s new form of e n t e r t a i n m e n t ; he considered r a d i o t o be merely a hobby f o r a l e i s u r e c l a s s of i n d i v i d u a l s who wanted a new plaything.

people were a s s k e p t i c a l about r a d i o a s t h e y always have been about most everything e n t i r e l y new. When Fulton invented t h e steamboat it was known a s " F u l t o n f s F o l l y ' . When the Wright brothers were l a b o r i n g i n the development of a i r p l a n e s t h e y were considered f o o l i s h and queer i n d f v i d u a l s . Hemy Ford experienced tremendous d i f f i c u l t y i n obtaining s u f f i c i e n t f i n a n c i a l those who d i d i n v e s t a few backing t o build h i s h o r s e l e s s c a r r i a g e s hundred d o l l a r s with him Were made independently wealthy years l a t e r .

Not so many y e a r s ago t h e backers of t h e telephone were i n u r g e n t need of c a n i t a l , and telephone s t o c k t h a t was purchased a t t h a t time f o r a few d o l l a r s i s today worth a f o r t u n e . And i n r a d i o we have s i m i l a r conditions. The stock of one of the l e a d i n g American r a d i o companies r e c e n t l y increased from a l i t t l e over t h i r t y d o l l a r s a share t o more t h a n f i v e hundred d o l l a r s a share i n a period of two year*. S e v e r a l years ago the following a r t i c l e appeared i n a prominent Boston newspaper: " A man about 46 y e a r s Of a g e , g i v i n g t h e name of Joshua Coppersmith, has been a r r e s t e d i n N w York f o r attempting t o e x t o r t funds from ignorant e and s u p e r s t i t i o u s people by e x h i b i t i n g a device which he says w i l l convey t h e human voice any d i s t a n c e over m e t a l l i c wires so t h a t i t w i l l be heard by t h e l i s t e n e r a t the o t h e r end. He c a l l s t h e instrument a telephone which i s obviously intended t o i m i t a t e t h e word t e l e g r ~ p h and win the confidence of those who know of the s u c c e s s of t h e l a t t e r instrument without understanding t h e p r i n c i p l e s upon which i t i s based. Well informed people know t h a t i t i s imtmssible t o transmit t h e human voice over wires a s mag be done w i t h d o t s an2 dashes and s i g n a l s of t h e Morse code, and t h a t , were it p o s s i b l e t o do s o , t h e t h i n g would be of no p r a c t i c a l value. The a u t h o r i t i e s who apprehended t h i s c r i m i n a l a r e t o be congratulated and it i s hoped t h a t h i s punishment w i l l be prompt and f i t t i n g , t h a t i t may s e r v e a s an example t o o t h e r conscienceless schemers who e n r i c h themselves a t t h e expense of t h e i r f e l l o w c r e a t u r e s " .

It i s f o r t u n a t e t h a t Marconf d i d not l i v e i n t h a t period of ignorance bef o r e he c a r r i e d out h i s dream of spanning the A t l a n t i c Ocean by Wireless; t h i s achievement of Marconits i n the year 1901, i s considered t o be one of t h g r e a t e s t wonders of s c i e n c e . Without h i s g r e a t d i s c o v e r y t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t p r e s e n t d a y r a d i o comrnunicat i o n would be impossible.
s o t h a t you may g e t a b e t t e r and more comprehensive idea of the p r o g r e s s of r a d i o w have c l a s s i f i e d t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s of i t s development i n t o e t h r e e psriods, beginning w i t h t h e r e c o r d s of t h e e a r l y experimenters. EVENTS DURING THE FIRST PERIOD. Throughout the f i r s t p e r i o d , from 1600 t o 1895, t h e r e c o r d s a r e q u i t e b r i e f and widely s c a t t e r e d . Undoubtedly many v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s were made t o r a d i o science by e a r l y experimenters whose i d e n t i t y w i l l always remain unknown. I n 1660, Roger Bacon, a n English s c i e n t i s t , experimented w i t h a c i r c u l a r alphabet placed on a p a i r of magnetic compasses, expecting t h a t one compass mi@;ht be c o n t r o l l e d by t h e o t h e r f o r t h e purpose of connnunicati n g between two s e p a r a t e d p o i n t s . T h i s i d e a , however, was not s u c c e s s f u l because t h e i n v e n t o r was not aware of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e a r t h ' s majinetic i n f l u e n c e s f l x e d t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e compass needles. Since t h e t h e o r y of c u r r e n t and e l e c t r i c i t y were unknown during Bacon's time h i s experiments w i t h magnetic compasses a l s o proved a f a i l u r e . However, t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s b y s c i e n t i s t s more t h a n t h r e e hundred years ago proves t o us t h a t even a t t h a t e a r l y d a t e t h e y were s t r i v i n g t o f i n d a way t o communicate between d i s t a n t p o i n t s without t h e a i d of i n t e r v e n i n g w i r e s or metals. These e x p e r i menters r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e r e was some means unknown t o them by which i n t e l l i gence could be conveyed through s p a c e , without the use of a n a c t u a l p h y s i c a l conducting medium between p o i n t s oS t r a n s m i s s i o n and r e c e p t i o n . The development of d e v i c e s capable of producing f r i c t i o n a l e l e c t r i c i t y occupied t h e a t t e n t i o n of e a r l y s c i e n t i s t s , and i n 1672 Von Guericke i n vented a f r i c t i o n machine c o n s i s t i n g of a globe of s u l p h u r mounted on an a x l e which was revolved w i t h a crank. By h o l d i n g his hand a g a i n s t t h e r e v o l v i n g globe Von Guericke found t h a t e l e c t r i c a l charqes were produced and r e t a i n e d upon t h e s u r f a c e of t h e globe. The "charged globe possessed t h e p r o p e r t y of a t t r a c t i n g l i g h t o b j e c t s , s u c h a s b i t s of paper and c l o t h . L a t e r , about t h e year 1710, a n o t h e r experimenter s u b s t i t u t e d a c i r c u l a r f l a t g l a s s p l a t e i n p l a c e of t h e globe of sulphur and produced f r i c t i o n a l o r " s t a t i c " e l e c t r i c i t y by l i g h t l y p r e s s i n g a cushion of c l o t h a g a i n s t t h e g l s s s plate. I n 1719 P r o f e s s o r Cundens of Leyden succeeded i n making a simple d e v i c e f o r f l b o t t l i n g up" an e l e c t r f j c a l oharge. This d i s c o v e r y was, i n r e a l i t y , t h e b i r t h of the "condenser t h i s i s t h e name g i v e n t o a d e v i c e used (some a u t h o r i t i e s s t a t e t h a t t o s t o r e up energy i n e l e c t r o s t a t i c form. Musschenbroek, a German p r o f e s s o r of philosophy and mathematics, was the f i r s t t o achieve t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n . )

Benjamin F r a n k l i n performed many e l e c t r i c a l experiments d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e e i g h t e e n t h century. His i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e s u l t e d i n the formul a t i o n of t h e b a s i c e l e c t r i c a l law which s t a t e s t h a t "bodies charged with F RW R OE OD

- sheet

s i d e r a b l e h e i g h t by a k i t e ) he was g r e a t l y acclaimed and made a Fellow of t h e Hoyal S o c i e t y of London. Now, who would e v e r imagine t h a t f r o g s t l e g s could be u t i l i z e d i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d ? Yet, from abouC 1780. t o 1830, t h e y were used i n such l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s t h a t a t times t h e demand o f t e n exceeded the supply. It i s r e l a t e d t h a t i n t h e y e a r 1780 t h e wife of Galvani, an experimenter, when preparing supper f o r a group of s c i e n t i s t s a c c i d e n t l y touched a c e r t a i n nerve i n t h e l e g of a f r o g , when a t t h e same moment one of t h e s c i e n t i s t s was experimenting with a nearby s t a t i c machine. They were a l l amazed a t s e e i n g t h e f r o g ' s l e g jump and k i c k a s though it were r e a l l y a l i v e . A f t e r t h a t i n c i d e n t f r o g s t l e g s were i n demand f o r e l e c t r i c a l exp e r i m e n t a t i o n and f o r many y e a r s t h e r e a f t e r t h e y were used a s storm i n d i cators. A approaching e l e c t r i c a l storm could be f o r e c a s t e d because t h e n l e g would t w i t c h and s t r u g g l e . e And now w come t o t h e b i r t h of the s t o r a g e b a t t e r y . I n 1780, an I t a l i a n s c i e n t i s t named V o l t a , d i s c o v e r e d a way of producing e l e c t r i c i t y by means of a device c o n s i s t i n g of z i n c and copper p l a t e s between which were placed moistened p i e c e s of cardboard. An e l e c t r i c a l p r e s s u r e ( v o l t a g e ) was gene r a t e d by t h e d e v i c e due t o t h e chemical a c t i o n of t h e wet cardboard upon t h e z i n c and copper p l a t e s and tkiis p r e s s u r e , o r e l e c t r o m o t i v e force,was u t i l i z e d t o s e t up a flow of c u r r e n t i n a c i r c u i t connected t o t h e p l a t e s . The t h e o r y r e l a t i n g t o t h e flow of an o s c i l l a t o r y c u r r e n t was expounded by Joseph Henry, an American, i n l820. H e found t h a t an o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t was produced when a condenser' d i s c h a r g e d through a c o i l of wire. A n o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t i s an a l t e r n a t r n g c u r r e n t t h a t flows w i t h g r e a t r a p i d i t y back and f o r t h through a conductive p a t h o r medium. P r o f e s s o r Savory i n 1827 discovered t h a t when a condenser d i s c h a r g e d , some of i t s energy was a c t u a l l y p r o j e c t e d outward i n t o s p a c e , H noticed t h a t e a needle would become magnetized when placed i n t h e v i c i n i t y of a d i s c h a r g i n g condenser. This d i s c o v e r y gave c o n s i d e r a b l e encouragement t o s c i e n t i s t s and t h e y put f o r t h t h e i r most c o n s c i e n t i o u s e f f o r t s t o f i n d a means of t r a n s m i t t i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e without t h e a i d of w i r e s . Probably one of t h e most important of a l l d i s c o v e r i e s i n e l e c t r i c i t y was made by Faraday i n 1831 t h i s was t h e p r i n c i p l e of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n . Faraday found t h a t i f a c u r r e n t of e l e c t r i c i t y was made t o flow i n t e r m i t t e n t l y i n a w i r e , by opening and c l o s i n g a c i r c u i t , t h i s a c t i o n would produce an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t i n a neighboring c i r c u i t not d i r e c t l y connected t o t h e c i r c u i t i n which t h e i n t e r m i t t e n t c u r r e n t was flowing. L a t e r , i n 1851, Faraday discovered t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e e l e c t r i c motor. H e found t h a t if a conductor ( a loop of w i r e ) was f r e e t o move about i t s a x i s , and i f i t was placed n e a r the p o l e s of a magnet, t h e loop of wire would

FOREWORD

sheet 3

r o t a t e when an e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t p a s s e d t h r o u g h i t . T h i s r e s u l t c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e a c t i o n between t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d s e t up a t t h e p o l e s of a magnet and t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d about a c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g c o n d u c t o r c o u l d b e made t o produce m e c h a n i c a l motion.

A few y e a r s a f t e r t h i s d i s c o v e r y Faraday i n v e n t e d and c o n s t r u c t e d a p p a r a t u s f o r g e n e r a t i n g e l e c t r i c i t y and a l s o i n v e n t e d and d e v e l o p e d t h e " i n d u c t i o n c o i l " . T h i s d e v i c e makes it p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y from one c i r c u i t t o a n o t h e r . He a l s o l a b o r e d i n c e s s a n t l y on h i s i d e a t h a t t h e s p a c e s u r r o u n d i n g o u r e a r t h could be u t i l i z e d a s a medium f o r c o n veying electromagnetic energy without t h e a i d of w i r e s .

About t h i s time Maxwell b r o u g h t f o r t h many a s t o u n d i i l g t h e o r i e s on e l e c t r i c a l phenomena, c h i e f among which was t h e one i n r e g a r d t o e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves. By m a t h e m a t i c a l d e d u c t i o n Maxwell p r e d i c t e d t h a t e l e c t r i c a l d i s c h a r g e s p r o p a g a t e d e f f e c t s t h r o u g h s p a c e i n t h e form o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves, t h u s s e t t i n g up a d i s t u r b a n c e that c o u l d be d e t e c t e d w i t h s u i t a b l e equipment a t some d i s t a n t p o i n t .

In 1842 i t was r e c o r d e d t h a t Morse, the i n v e n t o r of w i r e t e l e g r a p h y , s u c ceeded i n s e n d i n g messages s h o r t d i s t a n c e s w i t h o u t t h e a i d of w i r e s . Then t h e r e came a s u c c e s s i o n o f well-known s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t o r s ; D r . 0 Shaughn e s s e y i n 1849, P r o f e s s o r I i i g h t o n i n 1872, P r o f e s s o r Trowbridge i n 1880 and P r o f e s s o r Dolbenr i n 1882, a l l of whom u t i l i z e d F a r a d a y ' s p r i n c i p l e s and weye s u c c e s s f u l i n communicating s h o r t d i s t a n c e s b y w i r e l e s s .
H e i n r i c h H e r t z , a German, confirmed M a x w e l l f s t h e o r y c o n c e r n i n g e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves. F u r t h e r m o r e , he proved t h a t t h e s e waves p e n e t r a t e d t h r o u g h i n s u l a t o r s and m e t a l s o f a l l k i n d s , i n c l u d i n g i r o n and s t e e l , and t h a t t h e y were c a p a b l e of r e f l e c t i o r ~and r e f r a c t i o n , and t h a t t h e i r l e n g t h c o u l d be measured. It s h o u l d be b o r n e i n mind t h a t r a d i o waves and e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves a r e one and t h e same t h i n g . They a r e o f t e n c a l l e d " H e r t z i a n waves" i n honor of I i e r t z . p r o f e s s o r B r a n l y , o f t h e C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y of P a r i s , made a n o t a b l e cont r i b u t i o n t o r a d i o s c i e n c e between t h e g e a r s 1890 t o 1892 by p e r f e c t i n g a small d e v i c e , c a l l e d a " c o h e r e r " , t o d e t e c t t h e p r e s e n c e o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves. While t h e c o h e r e r c o u l d n o t compare i n e f f i c i e n c y w i t h t h e p r e s e n t a d a y vacuum t u b e a s . d e t e c t o r , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e d e v i c e was e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y r e c e i v e d , and s e r v e d a s a m a t e r i a l s t e p f o r w a r d i n the a r t of r a d i o d u r i n g i t s p i o n e e r d a y s . The c o h e r e r c o n s i s t e d o f a g l a s s t u b e c o n t s i n i n g m e t a l l i c f i l i n g s which formed a l o o s e e l e c t r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n between two e l e c t r o d e s . E l e c t r i c d i s c h a r g e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e c o h e r e r , o r r a d i o s i g n a l s conveyed t o i t by means o f a s u i t a b l e w i r e a n t e n n a , would c a u s e t h e f i l i n g s t o c l i n g t o g e t h e r and t h e r e b y p a s s an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t w h i c h a c t u e t e d a t e l e phone h e a d - s e t , c a u s i n g t h e l a t t e r t o produce sound. Thus, by ernploylng b o t h t h e c o h e r e r and t h e t e l e p h o n e s t h e d e t e c t i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves was mnde p o s s i b l e . Up t o t h i s p o i n t we have c o v e r e d b r i e f l y t h e f i r s t p e r i o d i n t h e d e v e l o p ment of r a d i o .

FOREWORD

- sheet

Guglielmo Marconi, an I t a l i a n , became s e r i o u s l y i n t e r e s t e d i n w i r e l e s s communication a t t h e age of e i g h t e e n and i n 1896 he colrlucted experiments f o r t h e B r i t i s h government. Before a c t u a l l y becoming engaged i n h i s work Warconi sought t o f a m i l i a r i z e himself with t h e a c t i v i t i e s of e a r l i e r s c i e n t i s t s i n t h i s new f i e l d of communication, and a f t e r r e a d i n g e x h a u s t i v e l y about t h i s s u b j e c t he concluded t h a t t h e t h e o r y developed by Heinrich Hertz was c o r r e c t . A f t e r innumerable t e s t s and demonstrations Marconi f i n a l l y s e n t and r e c e l v e d w i r e l e s s messages over a d i s t a h c e of one and t h r e e - q u a r t e r m i l e s Marconi, perhaps more t h a n anyone e l s e , was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t a k i n g r a d i o out of t h e experimental c l a s s and p l a c i n g it on a p r a c t i c a l f o o t i n g . There i s no doubt but t h a t he made r a d i o a commercial p r a c t i c a b i l i t y . H conceived e t h e i d e a of e l e v a t i n g wires a considerable h e i g h t i n t h e a i r t o s e r v e a s an "antenna". Then by means of a s i n g l e wire t h e e l e v a t e d p o r t i o n was connected t o one s i d e of t h e r a d i o a p p a r a t u s and another wire was used t o connect t h e opposite s i d e of t h e a p p a r a t u s t o t h e ground. The lowest e x t r e m i t y of t h e l a t t e r connecting wire was b u r i e d i n t h e e a r t h s e v e r a l f e e t and it became known a s the "grounded end" of t h e antenna system. A f t e r adding t h e s e features t o b o t h t r a n s m i t t i n g and r e c e i v i n g equipment, i n use a t t h e time, he noticed t h a t i n the case of a t r a n s m i t t e r t h e r a d i a t e d s i g n a l energy would c a r r y g r e a t d i s t a n c e s f o r a g i v e n power and, a l s o , t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l heard i n t h e telephones was much l o u l e r than t h a t ever obtained i n previous t e s t s . I n o t h e r words, t h e s e improvements made i t p o s s i b l e t o g e n e r a t e more powerf u l e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves w i t h a transrnit-cer and t o i n t e r c e p t more s i g n a l energy with the r e c e i v i n g a p p a r a t u s . Also, it should be mentioned t h a t Marconi m a t e r i a l l y improved t h e coherer by adding s i l v e r and mercury with m e t a l l i c f i l i n g s and s e a l i n g t h e s e i n an exhausted s e a l e d g l a s s tube. Through t h e use of t h e improverl c o h e r e r , r e l a y , i n k r e c o r d e r and decoherer, he was a b l e t o r e c e i v e s i g n a l s when t r a n s m i t t e d a t speeds up t o as h i g h a s 15 words per minute. From 1896 u n t i l 1901 r a p i d advancements were made i n t h e d e s i g n of r a d i o apparatus a r d t h e method of i n s t a l l a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , i n February 1901, under conditions more f a v o r a b l e than i n t h e p a s t , Marconi e s t a b l i s h e d communication between Niton S t a t i o n , I s l e of Wight, and a n o t h e r s t a t i o n on the a d i s t a n c e of 196 m i l e s . After these remarkable achievements he Lizard planned to span the A t l a n t i c Ocean by w i r e l e s s and, a c c o r d i n g l y , i n t h e e a r l y w i n t e r of 1901 he s a i l e d from Europe w i t h h i s a s s o c i a t e s i n t h i s e n t e r p r i s e , and soon t h e y a r r i v e d i n Canada f o r t h e memorable event t h a t was y e t t o come.

M r . Marconi, * a s s i s t e d by M r . Paget and M, Kemp, a c t u a l l y began the conr s t r u c t i o n of t h e i r t r a n s - A t l a n t i c r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n on December 6 , 1301 i n e a n old b a r r a c k s b u i l d i n g l o c a t e d a t S i g n a l H i l l , S t . Johns, Mw Foundland. They encountered t h e i r g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o e r e c t a s a t i s f a c t o r y antenna system. They t r i e d many schemes w i t h p r a c t i c a l l y no s u c c e s s , employing balloons of various t y p e s to r a i s e t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna t o a s u i t a b l e h e i g h t , u n t i l f i n a l l y t h e y b u i l t a s p e c i a l k i t e t h a t was powerful enough t o hold t h e upper end of the antenna a t an e l e v a t i o n of approximately 400 f e e t .

Before l e a v i n g England, Marconi supervised the e r e c t i o n of t h e t r a n s F RW R OE OD

sheet 5

t i c s t a t i o n l o c a t e d a t Poldhu. A f t e r t h e r e c e i v i n g s t was i n r e a d i n e s s the o p e r a t o r s a t Poldhu were n o t i f i e d by cable t o s t a r t t r a n s m i t t i n g the l e t t e r "S" a t f i x e d i n t e r v a l s d u r i n g t h e day. Shortly a f t e r noon on December 1 2 , 1301 t h e t h r e e d o t s of t h e l e t t e r 'IS" were d i s t i n c t l y heard by Marconi and h i s a s s i s t a n t , M r . Kemp. This outstanding e v e n t f u r n i s h e d t h e m a t e r i a l f o r one of t h e most b r i l l i a n t pages ever w r i t t e n down i n r a d i o h i s t o r y . However, when news of hlarconifs achievement was spread throu@;houtthe c i v i l i z e d world, many s c i e n t i s t s refused t o bel i e v e t h a t such a f e a t had been accomplished and t h e y were not convinced u n t i l Marconi himself confirmed i t s e v e r a l d a y s l a t e r . Marconi was r i c h l y rewarded f o r h i s i n d u s t r y , perseverance and f a i t h i n h i s p r o j e c t . In f a c t , t h e s e t h r e e q u a l i t i e s i n any man i n v a r i a b l y s p e l l s success. I n 1901 the Marconi l'vireless Telegraph Company of America was e s t a b l i s h e d and i n 1903 t h e deForest Wireless Telegraph Company of America was formed. A l i t t l e l a t e r t h e United Wireless Telegraph Company was organized which absorbed t h e d e F o r e s t Company i n 1907. The developments d u r i n g t h i s p a r t i c u l a r time were confined mainly t o improvement i n the d e s i g n of r e c e i v e r s and t r a n s m i t t e r s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r e f f i c i e n c y . About t h i s time P r o f e s s o r Fessenden invented t h e e l e c t r o l y t i c d e t e c t o r which c o n s i s t e d of a small platinum p o i n t placed i n c o n t a c t w i t h an a l k a l i n e s o l u t i o n . S h o r t l y a f t e r t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h i s new type of d e t e c t o r General Dunwoody and G.W. Pickard began experimenting w i t h t h e use of m i n e r a l s f o r t h e same purpose and t h e y found t h a t g a l e n a , s i l i c o n , z i n c i t e and o t h e r minerals made v e r y s e n s i t i v e d e t e c t o r s of r a d i o s i g n a l s . Then, a l i t t l e l a t e r , Fessenden developed a p p a r a t u s yhich produced t h e t "s p ark ' form of t r a n s m i s s i o n ; t h e "spark t r a n s m i t t e r became the s t a n d a r d type of equipment from t h a t time on u n t i l w i t h i n t h e l a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s . Because of t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e which i t s s i g n a l s s e t up under modern t r a f f i c c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s p a r k t r a n s m i t t e r i s being r a p i d l y r e p l a c e d by t h e vacuum tube t r a n s m i t t e r . As a m a t t e r of f a c t , i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h e spark type of equipment i s now p r o h i b i t e d by an a c t of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Radiotelegraphic Convention which met a t Washington i n 1927. This Convention r u l e d t h a t "no spark t r a n s m i t t e r s h a l l h e r e a f t e r be i n s t a l l e d and t h a t a l l equipment of t h i s t y p e now i n s t a l l e d s h a l l be replaced not l a t e r t h a n 1340". Und o u b t e d l y , t h e various governments a n t i c i p a t e t h a t t h e s p a r k t r a n s m i t t e r w i l l be employed f o r s e v e r a l more y e a r s t o come because they continue t o ask q u e s t i o n s on spark equipment i n the examixations given t o a p p l i c a n t s for radio licenses. A f t e r Ifiarconi prove3 t h a t t e l e g r a p h s i g n a l s could be s e n t long d i s t a n c e s w i t h o u t t h e a i d of wims t h e r e were many noted s c i e n t i s t s , experimenters, e n g i n e e r s , and i n v e s t i g a t o r s who took a much g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t i n w i r e l e s s . From 1900 t o 1917 we f i n d t h e names of men l i k e Pickard, Stone, Lammuir, d e F o r e s t , K o l s t e r , T e s l a , Armstrong, Alexanderson, Beverage, Allen, Squire and many o t h e r s , who achieved d i s t i n c t i o n i n t h i s f i e l d . Their e f f o r t s were d i r e c t e d mainly towards refinement alld improvement i n equipment which was i n more o r l e s s g e n e r a l use a t t h e time. Marconi1s g r e a t accomplishment of spanning t h e A t l a n t i c by w i r e l e s s i n 1901 proved t h a t r a d i o s i g n a l s could be sent and r e c e i v e d over long d i s t a n c e s , a s w s t a t e d b e f o r e , y e t t r a n s - o c e a n i c r a d i o communication did not e r e a l l y become a p r a c t i c a l means of communication u n t i l t h e outbrea,k of t h e F RW R OE OD

- sheet

World War. T h i s . was owing t o the more or l e s s crude apparatus employed i n crude, of course, when compared t o t h a t which i s found the e a r l i e r days i n modern i n s t a l l a t i o n s . The American Marconi Wireless Company, i n 1903, attempted t o e s t a b l i s h r e g a l a r . t r a n s - A t l a n t i c communication s e r v i c e from i t s r a d i o s t a t i o n a t Cape Cod, Massachusetts, b u t the equipment i n use was not r e l i a b l e and, t h e r e a f t e r , t h e s t a t i o n was used t o communicate only w i t h s h i p s a t sea. The B r i t i s h Marconi Company maintained a t r a n s - A t l a n t i c s t a t i o n a t Glace Bay, Bova S c o t i a , from 1907 u n t i l the World War, b u t from a commercial viewpoint t h i s s t a t i o n was not considered a success. From 1901 u n t i l t h e outbreak of t h e TJorld War most of t h e a c t i v i t i e s i n radio were confined t o marine ( s e a ) s e r v i c e . A f t e r t h e c o l l i s i o n between the steamers F l o r i d a and Republic, and o t h e r marine d i s a s t e r s , t h e United S t a t e s Government passed a law t h a t r e q u i r e d a l l passenger s h i p s t o c a r r y r a d i o equipment. Marine h i s t o r y i s f u l l of r e c o r d s which t e s t i f y t o t h e value o f r a d i o on shipboard, e s p e c i a l l y when the l i v e s of passengers and crew a r e i n danger. W o f t e n read a r t i c l e s t h a t a r e p r i n t e d i n newspapers e and magazines, about imminent o r grave d i s a s t e r s t o v e s s e l s a t s e a , where r a d i o i s r e f e r r e d t o a s "The Angel of t h e ~ e e p " . I n 1902 the e l e c t r i c a r c f o r r a d i o t r a n s m i s s i o n was developed. The a r c system made it p o s s i b l e t o convert d i r e c t c u r r e n t i n t o high- frequency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t and was recognized as a b i g s t e p forward because t h i s type of t r a n s m i s s i o n generated r a d i o waves which did not cause i n t e r f e r e n c e l i k e those generated by o t h e r systems. P r a c t i c a l l y a l l of t h e high-power s t a t i o n s employed t h e a r c type t r a n s m i t t e r u n t i l about 1916, and even today a number of a r c s t a t i o n s a r e s t i l l i n a c t i v e operation. L i t t l e d i d Thomas A. Edison dream of the p a r t he was playing in r a d i o when Edison discovered he was experimenting w i t h h i s incandescent lamp i n 1884. t h a t i f a wire was e n c l o s e d and s e a l e d i n s i d e of an incandescent lamp and t h e r e g u l a r filament was heated t o incandescence and a b a t t e r y was s u i t a b l y arranged w i t h t h e lamp's elements, an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t would flow i n a d i r e c t i o n from t h e cold wire through the vacuous space i n s i d e the lamp and thence t o t h e h e a t e d f i l a m e n t , but t h e c u r r e n t would not f l o w i n t h e oppos i t e d i r e c t i o n . Years passed by b e f o r e t h e s c i e n t i f i c world used t h i s discovery i n a p r a c t i c a l way. I n 1905 P r o f e s s o r J . A . Fleming of England announced t h a t he had perfected a r e c t i f y i w "valve" (termed vacuum tube i n America) which u t i l i z e d a c i r c u l a r shaped copper p l a t e placed around t h e filament. The valve o n l y c o n s i s t e d of two e l e c t r o d e s and, t h e r e f o r e , i t became known a s a two- electrode valve. H found t h a t the valve possessed e t h e property of a l t e r i n g o r converting high- frequency r a d i o c u r r e n t s i n t o c u r r e n t s of c o n s i d e r a b l y lower frequency and, consequently, it could be used f o r t h e d e t e c t i o n of a r a d i o s i g n a l and made t o o p e r a t e t h e headphones i n a r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t . The Fleming valve was used q u i t e e x t e n s i v e l y a s a d e t e c t o r f o r s e v e r a l years. h e d e F o r e s t made one of h i s g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o r a d i o when he added a t h i r d e l e c t r o d e , c a l l e d t h e " g r i d " , t o t h e twoe l e c t r o d e tube. This tube had t h r e e electrocles and became known a s a " t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e tube " The a d d i t i o n of t h e g r i d made t h e vacuum tube hundreds of times more s e n s i t i v e t h a n any device h e r e t o f o r e used a s a d e t e c t o r . Since t h a t time the t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e vacuum tube has proven t o be
A few y e a r s l a t e r D r .

FOREWORD

sheet 7

very f l e x i b l e i n o p e r a t i o n , which p e r m i t s i t t o be used i n d i f f e r e n t kinds of c i r c u i t s . For example it w i l l f u n c t i o n not only a s a d e t e c t o r , b u t a s an a m p l i f i e r o s c i l l a t o r , modulator and so on. L i t t l e use was made of the t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e vacuum tube u n t i l America entered t h e World War. A s a matter O f f a c t r a d i o up t o t h i s period was used o n l y on c e r t a i n v e s s e l s and a t a few c o a s t a l s t a t i o n s powerful enough t o communic a t e w i t h ships a t sea. Even t o t h i s day r a d i o t s g r e a t e s t s e r v i c e i s a t s e a ; it i s always ready t o send out t h e d i s t r e s s c a l l "SOS" and a s s i s t i n o t h e r ways i n safeguarding t h e l i v e s of passengers and crews. An " s 0 s f t has absolute preference over e v e r y and a l l other r a d i o communications. So w c l o s e our b r i e f o u t l i n e of r a d i o i n i t s second period of development. e The t h i r d period, from 1917 t o t h e present day, i s a n e r a i n r a d i o which has never been equalled o r surpassed i n a l l h i s t o r y b o t h i n s c i e n t i f i c and i n d u s t r i a l achievements.
I N THE THIRD PERIOD R A D I O MADE T E M S MARVELOUS PROGRESS. H OT

Perhaps the most o u t s t a n d i n g development i n r a d i o communication d u r i n g fhe e a r l y s t a g e s of t h e World War was t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n and i n s t a l l a t i o n of the f i r s t Alexanderson a l t e r n a t o r a t N w Brunswick. New Jersey. This s t a t i o n e provided p r a c t i c a l l y continuous and u n i n t e r r u p t e d t r a n s - A t l a n t i c s e r v i c e by r a d i o f o r the f i r s t time. Since t h e war period trans- oceanic r a d i o communic a t i o n w i t h f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s has developed r a p i d l y and more t h a n 10,000 messages are s e n t and r e c e i v e d a c r o s s t h e A t l a n t i c and P a c i f i c oceans by r a d i o d a i l y . Trans- oceanic communication i s conducted on t h e long-wave channels by t h e Alexanderson a l t e r n a t o r systems an3 a l s o by vacuum tube t r a n s m i t t e r s , and on t h e short-wave channels by tube t r a n s m i t t e r s e x c l u s i v e l y . Major Armstrong developed t h e super- heterodyne r e c e i v e r during t h e World War and i t was during t h i s period t h a t vacuum t u b e s r e a l l y became an important adjunct t o r a d i o t r a n s m i s s i o n and r e c e p t i o n .

~t i s not d e f i n i t e l y known j u s t how r a d i o broadcasting happened t o s p r i n g i n t o prominence, o r how the i d e a of broadcasting o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e minds of Westinghouse Engineers when t h e y f i r s t began experimenting w i t h t h e t r a n s mission of voice and music. During t h e war, however, r a d i o t e l e p h o n y was s u c c e s s f u l l y employed on ship- board, e x p e c i a l l y on submarine chasers. Also, s c h o o l s were e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e U.S. Navy t o provide i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h i s new form of communication. Immediately a f t e r t h e a r m i s t i c e was signed, and f o r s e v e r a l months t h e r e a f t e r , it was not an unccmmon t h i n g t o have phonograph music broadcasted from a s h i p equipped w i t h & radio- telephone s e t and t h e o p e r a t o r s of r e c e i v i n g s e t s w i t h i n a range of about 10 m i l e s Would "tune i n f f and l i s t e n t o t h e music. This, of course, was done merely t o f u r n i s h a l i t t l e entertainment. There i s every reason t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s e post-war demonstrat i o n s of r a d i o may have had considerable t o do with t h e b i r t h of present- day broadcasting.
The leaders of American i n d u s t r y must have v i s u a l i z e d a b r i l l i a n t f u t u r e f o r r a d i o i n 1918, o r two y e a r s before a c t u a l broadcasting. Plans were made t o form an all- American o r g a n i z a t i o n i n order t o u t i l i z e r a d i o t o i t s b e s t advantage and thereupon, i n 1919, the Raclio Corporation of America Came i n t o existence. When t h i s c o r p o r a t i o n was formed it obtained a l l of the r i g h t s F RW R OE OD

- sheet 8

The L a s t Word i n Broadcasting Equipment i n 1921.

The o l d WDY s t a t i o n w i t h t h e s t u d i o t r a n s m i t t e r , t r a n s m i t t e r and r e c e i v i n g equipment a l l q u a r t e r e d i n one room.

WJZ, t h e n l o c a t e d a t Newark, N . J.

Olga Petrova formally opening

The o p e r a t i n g room of WJZfs o l d s t a t l o n a t Newark, N.J. w i t h t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , a t t h e l e f t , c o n s i s t i n g of t h r e e modulator t u b e s and two o s c i l l a t o r tubes

Note:

Compare t h e s e photographs w i t h those on t h e followinp; page.

FOREWORD

- sheet 9

Broadcast Equipment of 1930. The S t u d i o s o f b o t h WJZ and W A F a r e on F i f t h Avenue, New York City.

of t h e American Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company. When it was joined l a t e r by t h e General E l e c t r i c Company and o t h e r engineering concerns t h e r e was welded t o g e t h e r , i n t o one c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e p r i n c i p a l r a d i o i n ventions and r a d i o r e s e a r c h f a c i l i t i e s of America.
A t t h a t time small b a t t e r y operated r e g e n e r a t i v e r e c e i v i n g s e t s , c o n s i s t i n g of a d e t e c t o r and two s t a g e s of audio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n , sold a t p r i c e s up t o $150 w i t h out tubes. The o r d i n a r y 201 type vacuum tube sold f o r $9, and i t was a d i f f i c u l t m a t t e r t o o b t a i n e i t h e r r e c e i v e r s o r tubes because t h e demand was g r e a t e r t h a n t h e supply.

~ l of us remember t h e r a d i o craze of 1920 and 1921. l

S t a t i o n KDKA s t a r t e d broadcasting on November 2, 1920, by giving the p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n r e t u r n s of t h e Harding-Cox campaign and i n l e s s than three years a f t e r t h a t day t h e r e were more than 500 b r o a d c a s t i n g s t a t i o n s i n opera t i o n i n the United S t a t e s . I n 1920 t h e r e t a i l value of r e c e i v i n g sets,. t u b e s and p a r t s , amounted t o l e s s t h a n two m i l l i o n d o l l a r s a s compared t o approximately one b i l l i o n d o l l a r s i n 1929. I n o t h e r words, i n business proportions the r a d i o i n d u s t r y i n c r e a s e d f i v e hundred times i n a p e r i o d of nine y e a r s . J u s t think f o r a moment what a stupendous amount of money t h a t i s , and t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t p a r t of t h i s growth occurred s i n c e 1927, i n j u s t only s few years! R e l i a b l e s t a t i s t i c s show t h a t t h e r e were approximately s i x m i l l i o n r a d i o r e c e i v i n g s e t s i n use a t t h e beginning of 1927, whereas, t h e r e were more t h a n f o u r t e e n m i l l i o n s e t s i n use a t the beginning of 1930. Approximately t h i r t y m i l l i o n vacuum t u b e s were s o l d i n 1927, over s i x t y m i l l i o n i n 1928, and more than one hundred m i l l i o n i n 1929. In 1920 t h e r e was only one r a d i o broadcasting s t a t i o n i n t h e United S t a t e s , but i n 1929 t h e r e were more t h a n 700.
A v a s t army of men a r e now employed i n the r a d i o f i e l d a s compared t o the I n America t h e r a d i o i n d u s t r y has grown mere handful p r i o r t o t h e year 1920. s o l a r g e t h a t it now employs almost h a l f a m i l l i o n workers, supports approxjmately t h i r t y thousand r e t a i l s t o r e s , and keeps more than a thousand f a c t o r i e s i n operation.

It may be s u r p r i z i n g t o note t h a t n o t h i w r e a l l y new h a s been developed i n t h e r a d i o i n d u s t r y s i n c e the World War. The l a t e r developments have been, f o r t h e most p a r t , i n t h e refinement of apparatus used p r i o r t o and d u r i n g t h e World War.
W must, however, make exceptions t o t h e above statement i n a few cases. e One i s concerning the photoradiogram apparatus developed by Major R .H. Ranger f o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of a copy o r a reproduction of n document, drawing o r p i c t u r e . T h i s i s c a l l e d f a c s i m i l e o r p i c t u r e transmission by t h e photoradio Another e x c e p t i o n i s t e l e v i s i o n , b u t t h i s new a r t i s s t i l l i n t h e method. l a b o r a t o r y s t a g e and w i l l probably not become a commercial proposition f o r s e v e r a l more years, according t o t h e opinions of l e a d i n g engineers. W a r e o f t e n asked t h e q u e s t i o n , %at e a r e the limitations i n radio?" FORWORD We

- sheet

1 1

might answer t h i s q u e s t i o n by s a y i n g t h a t t h e r e a r e a p p a r e n t l y no l i m i t a t i m s . Radio t o d a y i s used c h i e f l y f o r b r o a d c a s t i n g , f o r t r a n s - o c e a n i c communication ( b o t h t e l e g r a p h and t e l e p h o n e ) and on s h i p - b o a r d . But r a i l r o a d s , mining and o i l companies, and i n f a c t many i n d u s t r i e s a r e now e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h r a d i o . Radio c h a n n e l s a r e now a l l o c a t e d by t h e U.S. Government Radio Commission f o r r e n d e r i n g d o m e s t i c t e l e g r a p h i c s e r v i c e v i a r a d i o and t h e commercial companies a r e busy g e t t i n g t h i s new S e r v i c e i n t o p r a c t i c a l o p e r a t i o n . And f i n a l l y , when t e l e v i s i o n and p i c t u r e t r a n s m i s s i o n become an a c t u a l i t y , r a d i o w i l l e n t e r a p e r i o d o f a c t i v i t y comparable o n l y t o t h e d a y s when r a d i o equipment c o u l d n o t be purchased a t any p r i c e . Radio i s no l o n g e r an i n f a n t it i s a c o l o s s a l g i a n t . But t h e f i e l d i s you% and p r e s e n t s u n l i m i t e d o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h o s e who want t o grow w i t h i t .

I n t h e f o r e g o i n g p a r a g r a p h s we have g i v e n you a s n a p - s h o t p i c t u r e of t h e development of r a d i o . W have c o n s i d e r e d t h e s u b j e c t o n l y from t h e viewe p o i n t o f i t s h i s t o r y s o t h a t i t may be shown t h a t r a d i o h a s a c t u a l l y r e q u i r e d hundreds of y e a r s t o r e a c h i t s p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n where it h a s become one of t h e world Is l e a d i n g i n d u s t r i e s . If you inform y o u r s e l f a b o u t most of t h e worth- while t h i n g s w i t h which our world i s b l e s s e d , you w i l l f i n d t h a t it h a s taken y e a r s and y e a r s of d i l i g e n t r e s e a r c h and h a r d work on t h e p a r t of many i n d i v i d u a l s b e f o r e t h e s t a g e was reached where t h e particular a r t i c l e o r t h i n g vie h a v e i n mind was r e a d y f o r u s e by t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c . T h i s a p p l i e s j u s t t h e same i n t h e c a s e o f r a d i o , a u t o m o b i l e s , t e l e p h o n e s , e l e c t r i c l i g h t i n g , and s o on. B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g w i t h o u r s t u d i e s l e t u s c l e a r up t h i s one question: "What i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between r a d i o and w i r e l e s s ? " The t e r m " w i r e l e s s " i s d e r i v e d from t h e f a c t t h a t comrnunfcation may be e f f e c t e d between t w o , , p o i n t s w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f w i r e s c o n n e c t i n g t h e p o i n t s and t h e t e r m " r a d i o i s d e r i v e d from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y r e l e a s e d i n t o space i s r a d i ated i n a l l directions. W i r e l e s s and r a d i o , t h e r e f o r e , mean one and t h e same t h i n g . Uninformed p e r s o n s o f t e n a s s o c i a t e " w i r e l e s s " w i t h t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of t h e r a d i o t e l e g r a p h i c c$de, and " r a d i o " w i t h b r o a d c a s t i n g . In t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e t e r m " r a d i o h a s become r e c o g n i z e d a s t h e o n l y expression t o u s e whenever r e f e r r i n g t o a n y k i n d o f communication e f f e c t e d w i t h o u t t h e u s e of w i r e s . In c e r t a i n f o r e i g n countries, the t e r m "wireless" i s s t i l l i n vogue when r e f e r e n c e i s made t o t h e use of r a d i o on s h i p b o a r d .
HOW TO GET THE M S O T OF YOUR STUDIES. OT U

T h i s c o u r s e o f r a d i o i n s t r u c t i o n h a s b e e n p r e p a r e d f o r s t u d e n t s who d o n o t have a c c e s s t o l a b o r a t o r i e s and l a b o r a t o r y equipment. Throughout t h e c o u r s e c o n s i d e r a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n i s p r e s e n t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h numerous p r o blems o f a p r a c t i c a l n a t u r e , a l l supplemented w i t h s u f f i c i e n t n o t e s t o make each s t e p clear. The p u r p o s e o f t h e c o u r s e i s t o t r e a t t h e s u b j e c t from b e g i n n i n g t o end i n a t h o r o u g h l y p r a c t i c a l manner s o a s t o g i v e t h e s t u d e n t a sound working knowledge of t h i s s u b j e c t . The s t u d e n t who h o n e s t l y a p p l i e s h i m s e l f and r e a l l y s t u d i e s t h i s c o u r s e W i l l , a t i t s c o m p l e t i o n , f i n d hims e l f i n p o s s e s s i o n o f r a d i o knowledge f a r above t h e a v e r a g e . Before b e g i n n i n g your s t u d i e s c o n v i n c e y o u r s e l f t h a t you a r e g o i n g t o m a s t e r t h e s u b j e c t and i n t h i s way you w i l l r i d your mind f o r e v e r o f a n y d o u b t a s t o whether o r If you n o t you can o b t a i n a knowledge of r a d i o b y Home S t u d y I n s t r u c t i o n . have a n e a r n e s t d e s i r e t o make s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o g r e s s you w i l l win; on t h e o t h e r hand, if you a r e t h e k i n d t h a t becomes e a s i l y d i s c o u r a g e d when somet h i n g more o r l e s s d i f f i c u l t i s g i v e n you t o d o t h e n you c a n n o t hope t o FOREWORD s h e e t 12

FOREWORD

sheet 13

succeed. O f course, w assume t h a t most everyone h a v i h g the ambition t o e s t a r t a course of s t u d y w i l l f o l l o w i t through t o t h e v e r y end. Ybaturally, t o l e a r n about a s u b j e c t of wide scope r e q u i r e s e f f o r t i f it d i d n o t , i t would be of l i t t l e or no value t o yo?, Anything t h a t i s a s easy a s A-B-C i s t o o easy t o be of p r a c t i c a l value. l h e f i r s t few lessons i n our course a r e comparatively sim'le because t h e s u b j e c t s t r e a t e d a r e q u i t e genyou a good background. You w i l l f i n 3 a s you proceed t o t h e work t h a t i t w i l l r e q u i r e a c e r t a i n amount of time and thought t o get everything out of a lesson t h a t i t c o n t a i n s , But remember Home Study i n s t r u c t i o n i s p r a c t i c a l . T h i s i s s u b s t a n t i a t e d by f u l l y h a l f of our u n i v e r s i t i e s and t h e United S t a t e s Government courses by t h e Home Study Method. Here i s a l e t t e r t h a t one s wrote a few months ago:

"I could not understand how i n t h e world one could l e a r n , on paper, about t h i n g s that required a c t u a l p r a c t i c e . However, j u s t t o prove t o myself t h a t t h i s could not be done, I decided t o t r y your course.
But as I went along w i t h the lessons I became more and more i n t e r e s t e d . U t o t h e present I have covered p lessons 33 and 34, and I would not now give up t h e course f o r f i v e times t h e t u i t i o n p a i d , The proof of t h e pudding i s i n the e a t i n g , I f ever a man can i n v e s t t h e c o s t of t h e t u i t i o n f e e i n a Home Study course t o b e t t e r advantage and g e t more f o r h i s money than I have, I wish he would l e t m i n on it". e J u s t how and when you should study depends upon c o n d i t i o n s over which we here i n the school have no c o n t r o l . One o f t e n f i n d s t h a t he can do r e a l i n t e n s i v e studying e a r l y i n t h e morning, before t h e r e g u l a r day's work beg i n s , ard f o r a time i n t h e evening a f t e r t h e day's work. Many of our s t u d e n t s d e c l a r e t h a t they can concentrate b e t t e r a t those p a r t i c u l a r periods of t h e day. you cannot j u s t i f y your s t u d y periods You may be c e r t a i n of one t h i n g If your mind i s on t h e swimmin' hole t h e n nhen you a r e "wool-gathering", go swimming and g e t it over with. You must c o n c e n t r a t e on your work i f you expect it t o m a n much t o you. Lay out a d e f i n i t e program f o r study and o s t i c k r e l i g o u s l y t o i t . D not be misled by any thoughts t h a t your f r i e n d s w i l l forsake you because you h i b e r n a t e f o r a few months; q u i t e the c o n t r a r y , f t h e y w i l l admlre you when t h e y l e a r n O your success. And i f you can and w i l l apply a goodly amount of s t i c k - t o - i t i v e n e s s f o r a few months you w i l l make s u r p r i s i n g l y f a s t headway.

h Addison remarked: "Knowledge i s t h a t v i c h t r u l y and e s s e n t i a l l y r a i s e s one man above another". T h i s proverb was t r u e a hu&red g e a r s ago and i n t h i s day and age of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i t i s more t r u e than ever.
W a l l have our l i t t l e ups and downs e our h i g h p e r i o d s and our low The a b s o l u t e l y p e r f e c t man has yet t o be developed, hence, we must no discouraged because our mind does not behave f o r us a t a l l times want t o concentrate.

One of our s t u d e n t s r e c e n t l y s a i d : "I know good and w e l l t h a t I have days when I can accomplish a week's work, an2 then a g a i n t h e r e a r e occasions when It t a k e s m a week t o do a day's uvork." e Remember t h a t ambition, p e r s i s t e n c e , dogged pereeverance, d e t e r m i n a t i o n , and l a s t but not l e a s t , c o n c e n t r a t i o n - these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n a man w i l l enable him t o surmount the b i g g e s t o b s t a c l e s . l'he f o r e g o i n g sentence should be your slogan i n l i f e . S t a t i s t i c s s t a t e t h a t f u l l y n i n e t y per cent Of t h e people i n t h e world a r e s a t i s f i e d with t h e i r surroundings and what t h e y ovm; a t l e a s t they seem t o be s a t i s f i e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y make no e f f o r t t o improve e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Think of it! It i s no wonder t h a t t h e r e has always been and always w i l l be more $50,000 a y e a r jobs than t h e r e a r e q u a l i f i e d persons t o f i l l them. You, no d o u b t , know of many i n d i v i d u a l s who a s p i r e only t o pos i t i o n s of r o u t i n e work and who w i l l n e v e r , a s long a s t h e y l i v e , be a b l e t o have the n i c e r t h i n g s i n l i f e . They lack ambition and t h e o t h e r q u a l i t i e s mentioned above. Some S s e s t i o n s on P r a c t i c a l Studying. e Nw t o r e t u r n t o t h i s q u e s t i o n of when and how t o s t u d y , If w advise you o when and how t o study, w i l l i t be h e l p f u l t o you i n any way? Let us answer t h i s q u e s t i o n f o r you by g i v i n g you t h e opinion and a d v i s e of t h e P r e s i d e n t of our school who has t o i l e d through a long experience of study and b u s i n e s s a c t i v i t y . H says: "I r e a l l y had t o l e a r n how t o study. % r i n g and s i n c e t h e e World War m e f f o r t s have been devoted wholly t o t h e s u b j e c t of r a d i o i n s t r u c y t i o n which r e q u i r e d i n t e n s i v e s t u d y and r e s e a r c h t o keep a b r e a s t of developments. I would not undertake s t u d y i n g d u r i n g t h e b u s i n e s s hours of the day because of t h e many d i s t u r b a n c e s t h a t c o n s t a n t l y b r e a k m l i n e of thought y and reasoning. So I confine myself i n closed q u a r t e r s a t l e a s t f i v e n i g h t s r a r e l y l a t e r t h a n midnight. I m i n t a i n each week u n t i 1 eleven o f clock t h i s schedule f m n October u n t i l May s t a r t i n g about 7:30 e a c h evening, and d u r i n g m s t u d y period I w i l l n o t t o l e r a t e i n t e r r u p t i o n s . N business day y i y i s over when I begin m p e r s o n a l s t u d y work and b u s i n e s s w a i t s u n t i l t h e y n e x t day. I would not answer a telephone c a l 1 , o r a knock on t h e door,from anyone e x c e p t i n the c a s e of s i c k n e s s o r emergency of any k i n d . As a m a t t e r of f a c t I i s o l a t e myself from people and telephones. I am not a v a i l a b l e t o anyone when I study."

"By devoting f i v e evenings e a c h week ( f ~ o m October u n t i l May) t o s t u d y I s t i l l have two evenings e a c h week f o r p l e a s u r e , and I p l a y j u s t as hard a s I study. These two evenings e n a b l e m t o see m f r i e n d s and chase t h e bugae y boo t h a t " a l l work and no p l a y makes Jack a d u l l boy". But, on the o t h e r hand, " a l l p l a y and no work c e r t a i n l y wonst make Jack a b r i g h t boy". During the months of June, July, August and September I endeavor t o study about one or two hours every morning b e f o r e m r e g u l a r b u s i n e s s day begins. It i s y d i f f i c u l t f o r m t o apply myself d i l i g e n t l y i n t h e evening a f t e r t h e d a y l s e work e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e extremely warm weather, b u t I p a r t l y make up f o r t h i s by t h e morning study period."

"Your d a i l y working hours may d i f f e r f r o m mine, b u t you can make same adwe a l l have our " o f f " days when we do not f e e l r i g h t
f justment i n your schedule t o permit you t o f i n d time f o r s t u d y . O course, perhaps i t i s a

FOREWORD

s l i g h t i l l n e s s or some o t h e r d i s t r a c t i n g element t h a t handicaps us. A t o t h e r times w may become t i r e d and i t i s then t h a t w should r e l a x f o r a e e t a k e a s h o r t b r i s k walk i n t h e open a i r , but do n o t q u i t . few moments Obtain e i g h t o r nine hours s l e e p each night and even i f you do g e t t i r e d , no harm i s done".

W want you t o remember t h a t w a r e here t o h e l p you,but b e f o r e you r e q u e s t e e h e l p from us sbout c e r t a i n p a r t s of your l e s s o n s t h a t may prove somewhat hard, make every e f f o r t t o overcome t h e o b s t a c l e y o u r s e l f . D your l e v e l o b e s t i n t h i s matter because i f you a r e a b l e t o conquer t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s alone you a c t u a l l y jump s e v e r a l s t e p s forward i n your personal development. W want you t o f e e l t h a t you have formed a p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h us and t h a t it e r e q u i r e s hard work on the p a r t of us a l l t o achieve genuine success. There i s no exception t o t h i s r u l e . I n our years of teaching we o c c a s i o n a l l y come i n contact w i t h s t u d e n t s who not e l e c t r i c i t y " , It i s a s i m have exclaimed, "I want t o l e a r n r a d i o p o s s i b l e t o l e a r n r a d i o thoroughly without some study.of e l e c t r i c i t y a s it would be t o l e a r n how t o read and w r i t e without knowing t h e alphabet. A l though t h i s i s not an e l e c t r i c a l course, yet i s i s ' a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l t h a t you must l e a r n t h e fundamentals of e l e c t r i c i t y a s t a u g h t i n t h e f i r s t few lessons t o understand r a d i o . You w i l l agree w i t h u s on t h i s p o i n t a f t e r you have made some headway w i t h t h e instructf'on.

FQREWORD

s h e e t 16

firmer&
M A R C O N / /NST/TUTE

INC.

Technical Lesson 1

A t e x t book on preparator; mathenatics i s supplied with t h i s 1esson. It i s assumed t h a t you a l r e a d y know how t o work out simple problems i n a d d i t i o n , s u b t r a c t i o n , k l t i p l i c a t i o n and d i v i s i o n . E l e m e n t a r f p r i n c i p l e s a r e adeq u a t e l y t r e a t e d throughout the d i f f e r e n t chapters i n t h e book and t h i s l e s s o n i s p r i m a r i l y intended t o supplement t h i s work.

Providing you are w i l l i n g t o g i v e c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o d e t a i l s and c a r e f u l thought concerning d i f f e r e n t s t e p s t h a t are performed when computing the worked-out examples i n t h i s l e s s o n , t h e r e i s no doubt but t h a t you w i l l soon f e e l confident when handling any problems t h a t involve t h e use of any ins t r u c t i o n contained i n e i t h e r t h e t e x t book o r t h i s l e s s o n . Work out a s nany of t h e examples a s p o s s i b l e t h a t a r e given i n t h e e x e r c i s e s i n t h e book.
It o f t e n comes t o our a t t e n t i o n t h a t a student w i l l f o r g e t p a r t s of c e r t a i n mathematical o p e r a t i o n s , o r perhaps he may r e q u i r e some p r a c t i c e i n working out problems. Our purpose i n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s review of mathematics a t the beginning of t h e course i s t o a s s i s t those s t u d e n t s who f e e l t h a t t h e y need help.

Mathematics may be compared t o a language, since i t i s compose2 of numerous terms, e x p r e s s ions, and o p e r a t i o n s , a l l of which a r e founded on w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e s and laws. You should make a s p e c i a l e f f o r t t o l e a r n t h e meaning of t h e various terms and t o thorough1 understand t h e r u l e s and laws n o t study t h i s lesson only s t a t e d both i n t h i s l e s s o n and i n t h e book. Our advise t o you i s t o f r e q u e n t l y read through once and then l a y i t a s i d e . t h e pages and review any p o i n t s which a r e not f i r m l y f i x e d i n your mind. Frequent reviews and p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of the d i f f e r e n t p r i n c i p l e s a r e t h e only possible ways by which you w i l l be able t o c u l t i v a t e your memory t o r e t a i n a s u f f i c i e n t amount of information t o be of any value t o you. As a r u l e the p r i n c i p l e s of mathematics become very simple t o most persons a f t e r t h e y apply themselves t o t h e t a s k of studying t h e s u b j e c t .

80

Guess work i n mathemntics i s a v e r y dangerous pastime and i f indulged i n v e r y o f t e n i t may block your progress, a t l e a s t it w i l l cause you t o be carel e s s and make mistakes and,furtherrnore,you a r e apt t o waste considerable time. To get t h e most out of t h i s work we advise you t o l e a r n and understand t h e r u l e s f i r s t , and then p r a c t i c e them by working out numerous problems u n t i l It i s not t o o much t o ask of anyone t h e y become a b s o l u t e l y f a m i l i a r t o you. who intends t o educate himself above the average t o work out z t l e a s t f o r t y or f i f t y problems r e l a t i n g t o a p a r t i c u l a r mathematical p r i n c i p l e . It should be remembered, however, t h a t i n order t o thoroughly understand the p r i n c i p l e s involved each problem must p r e s e n t a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t appearance which may be done by changing the wording of t h e q u e s t i o n and t h e numerical Values t h a t a r e used.

Printed in U. S.A.

PART I

SQUARE ROOT DEFINED The term " r o o t " i s b e s t explained by means of an i l l u s t r a t i o n before t h e d e f i n i t i o n i t s e l f i s given. Suppose w s e p a r a t e 4 i n t o two equal f a c t o r s , 2 and 2 . This shows us t h a t e 4 = 2 x 2 and t h a t one of these f a c t o r s 2 i s t h e square root of 4. ~y I n spection i t w i l l be c l e a r l y seen t h a t t h i s i s j u s t t h e r e v e r s e or opposite process t o t h a t used when obtaining the power of a number. L e t us give another i l l u s t r a t i o n . Separate 16 i n t o two equal f a c t o r s , 4 and 4. Multiply 4 by i t s e l f , 4 x 4 = 16, or 16 = 4 x 4. Hence, 4 i s t h e square root of 16. Square r o o t i s d e f i n e d a s follows: The square r o o t of any number i s one of t h e two e q u a l f a c t o r s i n t o which t h e number i s d i v i d e d .
THE RADICAL S I G N
TO i n d i c a t e a power we make use of a n exponent and t o i n d i c a t e a r o o t w e make use of a s p e c i a l s i g n , c a l l e d t h e r a d i c a l sign. The r a d i c a l s i g n i s w r i t t e n J and i s followed by a vinculum, which i s a s t r f a g h t l i n e , 7 , drawn a s an e x t e n s i o n t o t h e r a d i c a l . I n a l l cases the vinculum i s used t o show t o what e x t e n t t h e r a d i c a l s i g n a f f e c t s the expression,or number,before whlch it appears.

For example, t h e number 16 when considered e n t i r e l y by i t s e l f simply means 16 u n i t s . However, when a r a d i c a l s i g n appears b e f o r e t h e number 16, o r i t means t h a t the square r o o t of 16 i s t o be taken.

m,

I n t h e following e x p r e s s i o n x 5 = 20, t h e r a d i c a l s i g n a f f e c t s o n l y 16, and not 5, s i n c e t h e vinculum only extends over 16, a r a d i c a l i s c d led t h e INDEX and i n d i c a t e s what r o o t i s t o be taken. Thus, would t e l l u s a t once t h a t t h e cube r o o t of 125 i s t o be found, a d nindicates t h a t t h e f o u r t h r o o t of 192 i s t o be found. Inasmuch a s square r o o t i s more f r e q u e n t l y used i n o r d i n a r y computations it Is the custom i n t h i s case t o omit the f i g u r e 2 from t h e r a d i c a l . Therefore, t o i n d i c a t e square r o o t , a r a d i c a l with i t s a s s o c i a t e d vinculum i s w r i t t e n without an index number.

A small number placed i n t h e Y s h a p e d opening Of

For example, t'he square r o o t of 16 i s always w r i t t e n a s -!/i8and never a s However, b e a r i n mind t h a t i f any r o o t h i g h e r than 2 is d e s i r e d t h e index must always be w r i t t e n .

Summing up a l l of t h e f a c t s i n the foregoing paragraphs we f i n d t h a t l'Involution" i s used when the power of a c e r t a i n number i s t o be found whereas, " ~ v o l u t i o n "i s used when t h e r o o t of a c e r t a i n number i s t o be found. SQUARE ROOT There a r e only a very few numbers t h a t a r e p e r f e c t squares. For example, between 1 and 100 t h e r e are o n l y 9 p e r f e c t squares, and between 1 and 1000 t h e r e a r e but 31 p e r f e c t squares. Lesson 1 sheet 2

The following l i s t i n c l u d e s a 1 1 of t h e numbers between 1 and 1000 t h a t a r e PERFECT SQUARES: 1, 4, 9, 1 6 , 25, 36, 49, 64, 8 1 , 100, 121, 144, 169, 196, 225, 256, 289, 324, 361, 400, 441, 484, 529, 576, 625, 676, 729, 784, 841, 900, 961. I f w e x t r a c t t h e square r o o t of any of the above numbers w w i l l o b t a i n a e e r e s u l t which i s a whole number.
HOW -TO

FIKD THE $QUARE ROOT O A PERFECT SQUJiRE F

EXmPLE:

Find t h e square r o o t of 625.

F i r s t Step: Write down t h e statement o f t h e problem, a s shown above, by using the r a d i c a l s i g n . Next s e p a r a t e the number 625 i n t o periqds of two d i g i t s each as i n d i c a t e d below where t h e r a d i c a l s i g n i s omitted when working out the problem. Begin a t the r i g h t of t h e number a s follows and place a small mark between each p a i r of f i g u r e s o r d i g i t s t o i n d i c a t e t h i s separ a t i o n , (Note: The term " d i g i t " and " f i g u r e n a r e used here i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y , ) The small mark or s t r o k e i s w r i t t e n thus:

S t i s found t h a t when 625 is separated i n t h i s way i t c o n t a i n s two p e r i o d s and from t h i s w know t h a t only two f i g u r e s w i l l appear i n t h e r o o t , or e answer.

Second Step: N w s e l e c t t h e l a r g e s t f i g u r e , which when squared ( t h a t i s , o the f i g u r e s e l e c t e d f s m u l t i p l i e d by i t s e l f ) w i l l be e q u a l t o o r l e s s t h a n t h e l e f t hand p e r i o d , or 6 , Suppose w t r y 1. Squaring 1 w have 1 x l = 1 e e ; t h i s r e s u l t i s obviousfy t o o small. L e t us t r y 3, Squaring 3 we have 3 x 3 = 9. But, w a l s o f i n d 9 t o be t o o l a r g e , f o r i t i s greate>- than t h e l e f t hand e e e period. Try 2 t h i s time. Squaring 2 w have 2 x 2 = 4. W f i n d that 2 i s t h e c o r r e c t f i g u r e t o use, according t o our r u l e , because 2 squared, o r 4 , i s t h e only number below 6 which when squared w i l l not be q r e a t e r t h a n 6. Third Step: Place 4 under 6 , and therr p l a c e t h e squart. r o o t of 4 , o r 2 , i n t h e bracket t o the r i g h t which i s drawn e x p r e s s l y f o r t h i s purpose, a s f o l l o w :

Fornth s t e p : S u b t r a c t 4 from 6 and w r i t e down t h e remainder a s you would do i n any r e g u l a r proeess of s u b s t r a c t i o n , t h u s :

Lesson 1

- sheet

F i f t h Step: Bring down the next period of t h e number, or 25. t a t i o n w i l l now look a s follows:

Our compu-

S i x t h Step: N w m u l t i p l y t h e r o o t 2 , j u s t found, by 2. o work a t one s i d e of t h e paper, a s follows:

Write down t h i s

Seventh Step: The f i g u r e 4 , jubi faund by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e r o o t ( 2 ) b y 2, is c a l l e r l the t r i a l d i v i s o r . W must now d i v i d e t h e remainder 225 by 6 , R e e member, t h a t a t t h i s p o i n t you always d i s r e g a ~ dthe r i g h t hand f i g u r e i n t h e remainder which i s 5 i n t h i s example. A c t u a l l y , t h e n , we divided 22 by 4, and not 225 by 4. Hence, 22$+ 4 =: 5 W f i n d t h a t w have a q u o t i e n t 5 e e w i t h a remainder. Dfsregard t h e remainder b u t use t h e q u o t i e n t 5, and annex i t t o t h e 4 which was found i n t h e 6 t h s t e p by doubling the root. Our example and work w i l l appear a s f o l l o w s : 2 x 2 = 4 annex 5 makes 6'25 1 2 45 4 225

Eighth Step: The number 45 j u s t found i s c a l l e d t h e t r u e or complete d i v i s m . The s t e p s explained above a r e now repeated. Accordingly, we d i v i d e 225 by 45. By simple d i v i s i o n we f i n d t h a t 225 f45 = 5. T h i s f i g u r e 5 becones t h e seeond d i g i t i n t h e r o o t and, t h e r e f o r e , i t i s w r i t t e n i n t h e b r a c k e t t o t h e r i g h t of t h e f i r s t f i g u r e i n t h e r o o t , o r 2 . The r o o t now c o n t a i n s two f i g u r e s , o r d i g i t s , 2 and 5,

T h i s completes t h e n e c e s s a r y s t e p s i n t h e working out of our example, and we f i n d t h a t 25 i s t h e squere r o o t of 625. Since t h e r e i s no remainder we c a l l t h i s a perfect square. Proof: To check our computation and prove t h a t 25 i s t h e c o r r e c t r o o t w e I f the nmber merely have t o m u l t i p l y 25 by i t s e l f , t h a t i s , w s q u s r e 25. e i t s e l f and t h e r o o t , when squared, a r e e q u a l t h e n you know t h a t you have t h e c o r r e c t answer. T'hus, 252 = 25 x 25 = 625.
PART I1

HOW TO FIND THE SQUARE ROOT OF A LARGE NUErBER. The examples i n square r o o t that have been p r e v i o u s l y worked o u t consisted of numbers having only t h r e e d i n i t s , a l l of t h e numbers being p e r f e c t s q u a r e s . This s e c t i o n w i l l a l s o d e a l w i t h p e r f e c t squares, b u t , t h i s - t i m e w w i l l work with numbers c o n s i s t i n g of e more than t h r e e d i g i t s s o t h a t t h e square r o o t of any Large number may be found. Study t h e f o l l o w i n g worked o u t example. Lesson 1 s h e e t 4

1
I

EXANPLE:

Find t h e square r o o t of 516961.

Eiark off t h e p r i o d s t o i n c l u d e two d i g i t s each, t h u s :

The number whose square i s e q u a l t o , o r l e s s t h a n t h e f i r s t period, 51, i s found by t r i a l t o be 7.

Since 7 i s t o be t h e f i r s t f i g u r e i n the r o o t , it i s p l a c e d i n t h e b r a c k e t t o the r i g h t of t h e number, a s shown below:

Square t b r o o t 7, j u s t found ( t h a t i s , m u l t i p l y 7 by i t s e l f , o r 7 x 7 ) and place the r e s u l t , 49, under t h e f i r s t period of the number, 51, and t h e n s u b t r a c t 49 from. 51.

A f t e r s u b t r a c t i n g , w g e t a remainder of 2, and t o t h i s we annex t h e n e x t e period of t he number, 69, t h u s g i v i n g us a remainder of 269.

Multiplying t h e r o o t 7 by 2 g i v e s us a t r i a l d i v i s o r of 14.

By d i v i s i o n we f i n d t h a t t h e t r i a l d i v i s o r 14 w i l l go. i n t o t h e remainder 269 only once. Note t h a t w d i s r e g a r d t h e r i g h t hand f i g u r e 9 i n 269, and, e t h e r e f o r e , we r e a l l y d i v i d e 26 by 14, a s follows:

Annex t h e 1 t o t h e t r i a l d i v i s o r 1 4 , t h u s making 141 t h e complete d i v i s o r . 7 x 7 =49 7 x 2 = 1 4 annex 1

= 141

51'69161 49 269

bl__

Next d i v i d e 269 by t h e complete d i v i s o r 141 an3 use t h e r e s u l t a s t h e next f i g u r e of t h e r o o t .

Lesson 1

sheet 5

W f i n d 1 t o be t h e next f i g u r e of t h e r o o t , and, t h e r e f o r e , 1 i s w r i t t e n e t o t h e r i g h t of 7. N w b r i n g down 69 a s i n any o r d i n a r y d i v i s i o n . These o s t e p s a r e shown below. 7 x 7 = 4 9 7 x 2 = 14 annex 1

= 141

51'69161 49 269

1 71

M u l t i p l y 1 by 141 = 141. Write 141 under 269 and t h e n s u b t r a c t . This l e a v e s a remainder of 128. The next period of t h e number, o r 61, i s now brought down and annexed t o 128. 7 x7=49 7 x 2 = 1 4 annex 1

= 141

51'69'61 49 269

1 71

M u l t i p l y t h e e n t i r e r o o t 71 by 2 i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a product t h a t w i l l be t h e next t r i a l d i v i s o r . T h i s product is 142. 7 x 7 =49 7 x 2 = 14 annex 1

= 141

Nw d i v i d e 12861 by 142, b u t f i r s t disregal'd t h e extreme r i g h t hand d i g i t o 1 of 12861. I n r e a l i t y , t h e n , we d i v i d e 1286 by 142, o r

After annexing t h e 9 t o 142, we g e t 1429, t h e complete d i v i s o r .

7 x 7 = 4 9 7 x 2 = 1 4 annex 1 7 1 x 2 s= 142 annex 9

= 141 = 1429

51'69161 1 7 1 49 269

Next d i v i d e 12861 by t h e complete d i v i s o r 1429, o r

By d i v i s i o n it i s found t h a t 1429 w i l l go i n t o 12861, 9 times, a s i n d i c a t e d e above. This i s how t h e next d i g i t , 9,- of t h e r o o t i s obtained. W t h e n set d o w n 9 t o t h e r i ~ h of d i g i t s , 7 and 1, which w p r e v i o u s l y found, thus t e g i v i n g us t h e t o t a l r o o t 719.
~

JLesson 1

sheet 6

7 x 2 71 x 2

7 x 7 = 4 9 = 1 4 annex 1 = 1 4 1 = 142 annex 9 =: 1429

5 1 ' 6 9 W l 1719 49 269

M u l t i p l y t h e complete d i v i s o r 1429 b y t h e l a s t r o o t f o u n d , o r 9.

W r i t e t h e p r o d u c t 12861 u n d e r t h e r e m a i n d e r 12861. 7 x 7 = 4 9 7 x 2 = 1 4 annex 1 7 1 x 2 = 142 annex 9

= 141

= 1429

51'69'61 49 269

1 719

The example f i n a l l y works o u t w i t h e v e n v a l u e s and we o b t a i n a n answer w h i c h i s a whole number. S i n c e t h e r e i s no r e m a i n d e r 719 i s t h e complete r o o t . That i s , 719 i s t h e s q u a r e r o o t of t h e number 516961. Proof: prove t h e e the - To 719 x 719 eanswer tweemusti g isnqau la rnumber,complete r o o tt h719. youIf a tr he e product of quals h o r o r 516961, en a s s u r e d t h a t you have worked t h e problem c o r r e c t l y . The c m p u t a t i o n below p r o v e s t h a t 719 i s c o r r e c t b e c a u s e 7192 o r 719 x 719 e q u a l s 516961.

A TZST EXERCISE I N SQUARE ROOT:

Find -\12951314276. The s o l u t i o n of a t y p i c a l example i r _ s q u a r e r o o t i s g i v e n below. The s t u d e n t should work o u t t h i s e x e r c i s e i n d e p e n d e n t l y and c h e c k each s t e p w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e purpose of t e s t i n g h i s a b i l i t y t o perform a l l of t h e n e c e s s a r y s t e p s c o r r e c t l y .

PART 1 1 1
I!OW TO FIN3 ?HI3 SQUARE ROCT OF AN INTEGRAJ, NmBER.

To determine t h e square r o o t O f a n I n t e g r a l number which i s not a p e r f e c t square, the s t u d e n t should proceed according t o t h e o u t l i n e i n Part II w i t h exceptions a s s t a t e d below. When solving f o r t h e square r o o t of an i n t e g r a l number, which i s not a p e r f e c t square, f i r s t determine how many d i g i t s , o r f i g u r e s , a r e r e q u i r e d i n the answer, and t h e n annex a d d i t i o n a l c i p h e r s t o the r i g h t of t h e number u n t i l t h e r e are a s many decimal periods provided a s t h e r e w i l l be decimal places (meaning d i g i t s ) appearing i n the r o o t . Once t h i s has been determined t h e e x t r a c t i n g <f t h e r o o t i s done e x a c t l y a s explained i n Part 11.

The student must keep i n mind t h a t t h e exact r o o t of a nunber, which i s not a perfect square, can not be found. A example of t h i s kind i s worked out n i n t h e paragraphs immediately following.
EXAMPLLi::

Find:

The f i r s t t h i n g t h a t one must do i s t o d e c i d e upon t h e number of decimal places ( d i g i t s ) d e s i r e d i n t h e answer. Suppose you wish t o work out t h e above example t o f o u r decimal p l a c e s , then w r i t e down number 33 and annex f o u r decimal periods t o the r i g h t , c o n s i s t i n g of two c i p h e r s each, a s shown below :

The example i s now i n c o r r e c t form f o r s o l u t i o n . The square r o o t i s ex t r a c t e d by applying t h e p r i n c i p l e s and step- by- step procedure a l r e s d y g i v e n i n t h e foregoing p a r t s of t h i s lesson. The f i r s t t h i n g t o d o i s t o s e l e c t a f i g u r e which when squared w i l l be c l o s e s t t o 39 but not g r e a t e r t h a n i t . Thfs f i g u r e i s 6, and i s w r i t t e n down a s t h e f i r s t f i g u r e i n t h e r o o t , a s follows : 62 3 9 . 0 0 ~ 0 0 ~ 0 0 ~96.2449 - 00 ! 56 6 x 2 = 1 2 annex 2 makes 300 122 complete d i v i s o r 244 5600 62 x 2 = 124 annex 4 makes 4976 62400 1244 complete d i v i s o r 49936 624 x 2 = 1248 annex 4 makes 1246400 12484 complete d i v i s o r 1124001

= 36

6244 x 2

= 12488

annex 9 makes 124889 complete d i v i s o r

122399

The decimal point i s e a s i l y and q u i c k l y l o c a t e d i n the answer by counting off t h e same number of decimal places ( d i g i t s ) t o the r i g h t of t h e answer, beginning a t t h e decimal p o i n t , a s t h e r e a r e decimal periods i n the example, Lesson 1 sheet 8

Since they were f o u r decimal periods annexed t o t h e r i g h t of the decimal p o i n t , following the number 39, then t h e answer w i l l c o n t a i n f o u r decimal places as i n d i c a t e d above. e Proof: T o check t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of the above problem w must square t h e answer, t h a t i s , 6.2449 must be m u l t i p l i e d by i t s e l f . If you perform t h i s m u l t i p l i c a t i o n you w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e product w i l l not e q u a l t h e number 39, but w i l l very c l o s e l y approach 39. l ' h i s proves t h a t t h e exact r o o t of an imperfect square can not be determined.
PART I V

The r u l e s given i n P a r t s I , I1 and III f o r e x t r a c t i n g t h e square r o o t of a number were applied f i r s t t o i n t e g r a l numbers which were p e r f e c t s q u a r e s , and second, t o i n t e g r a l numbers which were imperfect squares. The next p a r t of our work involves only f r a c t i o n a l nwnbers. Before proceedi n g f u r t h e r , however, we w i l l s t a t e s e v e r a l r u l e s t h a t may be applied t o any example i n square r o o t i n v o l v i n g p e r f e c t s q u a r e s , imperfect s q u a r e s , o r T h i s i s more o r l e s s of a review of what has been pref r a c t i o n a l numbers. sented t o you i n t h i s l e s s o n thus f a r . The p r i n c i p l e s which you have a l r e a d y learned may be a p p l i e d t o examples where t h e square r o o t of f r a c t i o n a l numbers must be found.

RULE 1
( A ) -.-BEGIN AT TH3 DECIMAL POINT and d i v i d e t h e number, whose square r o o t i s t o be found, i n t o p e r i o d s of two d i g i t s each,

When t h e i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e number c o n t a i n s an odd number of d i g i t s t h e n only one d i g i t w i l l appear i n t h e left- hand period. This period However, i n t h e may c o n t a i n one o r two d i g i t s a s t h e c a s e may be. c a s e of a decimal proceed a s explained i n t h e f o l l o w i n g paragraph ( B ) .

( B ) ---.When t h e decimal p a r t of t h e number c o n t a i n s an odd number of d i g i t s annex a c i p h e r a t t h e r i g h t , so t h a t t h e l a s t period of the decimal w i l l c o n t a i n two d i g i t s .
Explanation of Rule 1.

part $ a t . 6 4 1

Separate,or p o i n t o f f , t h e number i n t o p e r i o d s of 2 d i g i t s each, beginning a t t h e decimal p o i n t , as f o l l o w s : P o i n t off t o l e f t Point off t o r i g h t 5154'32.64t1

Lesson 1

- sheet

~3-11have one or two d i g i t s according b t h e t o t a l number of d i g i t s comprising t h e i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e number. Since the decimal p a r t of t h e number c o n s i s t s of an odd number of d i g i t s a c i p h e r must be added t o complete t h e l a s t period on t h e r i q h t , thus : +5'54'32.64'10 One d i g i t i n l e f t &cipher i s annexed t o hand period of complete r i g h t - h a n d i n t e g r a l number. period of decimal p a r t of number.
RULE 2.
(A )

- l e scse rtthaai n numberi r is st speriode d whichl whenhand. T hwi si lnumber,q ucaal l lt eodoar elect squared l be e n the f on t h e e f t
A

(B)
(C)

- The above wiitlslebef number, l

(A)

p o t e n t i a l r o o t , i s squared and t h e r e s u l t i s placed under t h e f i r s t period. (not s q u a r e d ) , which was s e l e c t e d according t o t h e f i r s t d i g i t i n the r e q u i r e d r o o t . from t h e f i r s t period and

(D)

- A f t e r you s u b t rba rcitn ghdownr etahtee snext period andt h annex sit pteor i othe, remainder t e g t square from e fir t d a s suggested i n found .
(C),
2 c o n s i d e r number 55432,641 whose square r o o t i s

- The r'emainder i s w r i t t e n down.s u b t r a c t e d number, when squared, i s the

E -x p h n a t i o n of Rule 2. (A) - To i l l u s t r a t e Kule t o be found,

Separate t h e number i n t o p e r i o d s of two d i g i t s each and annex a c i p h e r t o t h e right- hand period of t h e decimal p a r t ,

Remember t h a t we a r e now e x p l a i n i n g how t o b e g i n your computation and what t o d o w i t h t h e f i r s t period. Let us t r y 3 a s t h e f i r s t d i g i t i n the r o o t . N w square '3, which e q u a l s 9. Since 9 i s o g r e a t e r t h a n t h e left- hand period 5, we must t r y some s m a l l e r f i g u r e . This time l e t us t r y 1. N w square 1, which e q u a l s 1. o t h a t f i g u r e 1 i s too small,

It i s c l e a r

(R)

Try 2. N w square 2 which e q u a l s 4. o Figure 2 i s c o r r e c t , inasmuch a s 12 i s t o o small and 32 i s t o o l a r g e . Therefore, 2 becomes t h e f i r s t d i g i t of t h e r o o t , and i s w r i t t e n i n the b r a c k e t a s follovis: 5'54'32.64110 1 2 Lesson 1 s h e e t 10

renarnder 1 which makes t h e t o t a l remainder 154; 5'54'32.64'10 4 (remainder ) 154

12

RULE 3.
(A)

- Now

Rule 3 e x p l a i n s how t o f i n d t h e second d i g i t i n t h e r o o t , double t h e r o o t a l r e a d y found, o r i n o t h e r words, m u l t i p l y t h e root by 2, and use t h e product. a s a t r i a l d i v i s o r f o r t h e t o t a l remainder.

(B)

- Determine

how many times t h e t r i a l d i v i s o r , o r t h e product obtained by doubling t h e r o o t , i s contained i n t h e t o t a l remairder d i s r e g a r d ing t h e r i g h t hand f i g u r e a s we always do i n t h i s o p e r a t i o n . This w i l l be t h e next d i g i t of t h e r o o t and i t sholuld be placed i n t h e b r a c k e t t o t h e r i g h t of t h e f i r s t d i g i t , and a l s o annexed t o t h e r i g h t of t h e t r i a l d i v i s o r t o make a complete d i v i s o r . i n the r o o t

(G)

(D)

- annexing t hi et tnoe ctehses aremainder c tjiuosnt foundt h e n bur ibntgr adownn t. h e Nnextproceedd , Perform ry subtra and perio by s ctio o w
w i t h t h e problem by r e p e a t i n g t h i s procedure f o r e a c h d i g i t i n t h e root.

- Multiplye t ht h i complete dunder rt hby tt h et alla remainder.placed e iviso st digit and w r i t s product e o

Explanation of Rule 3.
(A)

Double t h e r o o t j u s t found, and use t h e product a s t h e t r i a l d i v i s o r . I R 5854132.64'10 k ~ o u b l t h i s r o o t . The e Doubling t h e r o o t work i s done a t t h e l e f t 2 x 2 =4 4 154 hand s i d e of t h e problem.

Since r o o t 2 , when doubled e q u a l s 4 , t h e n 4 becomes t h e t r i a l d i v i s ~ .

(B)

Find how many times t h e t r i a l d i v i s o r 4 w i l l go i n t o t h e t o t a l r e mainder 154, d i s r e g a r d i t h e right- hand f i g u r e . This i s , i n r e a l i t y , d i v i d i n g 1 5 by 4 , o r 15fag+ 4 = 3. The r e s u l t of t h i s l a s t d i v i s i o n , o r d i v i d i n g 1 5 by 4 , w i l l g i v e us 3, w L h becams t h e next 3 i g i t i n t h e r o o t , and by annexing 3 t o the Kc t r i a l d i v i s o r 4 we o b t a i n t h e complete d i v i s o r , o r 43. Lesson 1

- s h e e t 11

Trial divisor. 2 x 2 = 4 annex 3 makes 43

D i g i t 3 i s now w r i t t e n t o t h e r i g h t of d i g i t 2, which was p r e v i o u s l y found, and t h e r o o t t h u s f a r i s 23. Annexing 3 t o the t r i a l d i v i s o r makes 43 t h e complete d i v i s o r , a s shown above a t the left- hand s i d e .
(C)

Multiply t h e complete d i v i s o r 43, j u s t found, by t h e l a s t d i g i t of t h e r o o t , o r 3, and place t h e product, o r 129, under t h e t o t a l r e mainder 154. 2 x 2

=4

annex 3 makes 43

(D)

The product of 43 x 3, o r 129, i s s u b t r a c t e d from 154 and t h e next

p e r i o d 3 2 of t h e number i s brought down a s follows:

-- -

129 2 5 3 2 c P e r i o d 32 brought down and added. t o 25 g i v e s 2532, t h e t o t a l remainder.

If w continue our computation t o two decimal p l a c e s according t o e t h e same r u l e s we w i l l o b t a i n the following r e s u l t :

Lesson 1

- sheet

12

RULE 4

A f t e r a problem has been worked out t o the d e s i r e d number of decimal p l a c e s then p o i n t off a s many ( d e c i m a l ) d i g i t s i n t h e r o o t , beginning a t t h e extreme right, a s t h e r e a r e decimal p e r f ods i n t h e number. There a r e two decimal p e r i o d s i n t h e above number, t h e ~ e f o r e ~ t h e r e w i l l be t w o decimal p l a c e s i n t h e answer, a s i n d i c a t e d . Explenation o f Rule 4. A f t e r completing t h e f o r e g o i n g computations and applying t h e r u l e about l o c a t i n g t h e decimal p o i n t w f i n d t h a t t h e square r o o t of e The s i g n i n d i c a t e s t h a t t.he answer i s 55432.641 i s 235.44 not complete, b u t i s c o r r e c t t o t w o decimal p l a c e s . Also, t h e 9 s i g n s i g n i f i e s t h a t t h e r e a l answer, which would be obtained i f computations were c a r r i e d beyond t h i s p o i n t , would be g r e a t e r t h a n the anslper which we accept a s s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e .

+.

RULE 5

The following r u l e a p p l i e s o n l y in s p e c i a l c a s e s . 'When a t r i a l d i v i s o r i s t o o l a r g e t o go i n t o a remainder, t h e n a c i p h e r should be placed i n t h e r o o t and a c i p h e r a l s o annexed t o the t r i a l d i v i s o r . Then b r i n g down the n e x t period of t h e number and c a r r y out t h e computation i n the r e g u l a r manner, The following example i s given t o i l l u s t r a t e how t h i s r u l e i s applied.
EXAMPLE:

Find:

v m 4

By i n s ~ c t f o n t i s found t h a t t r i a l d i v i s o r 4 can not be divided i i n t o t h e remainder 16 a f t e r w d i s r e g a r d t h e r i g h t hand f i g u r e 6. e That i s , 4 w i l l n o t go i n t o 1. T h e r e f o r e , p l a c e a c i p h e r i n t h e r o o t and a l s o annex a c i p h e r t o t h e t r i a l d i v i s o r 4 making a new t r i a l d i v i s o r 40. Then b r i n g down the next period of the number 53 and continue w i t h t h e problem.
2 x 2

=4

annex 0 makes 40 t h e new t r i a l d i v i s o r .

Disregarding t h e r i g h t hand f i g l n e i n t h e remainder 1653 g i v e s us 165, and d i v i d i n g 165 by 40, w o b t a i n 4. T h e r e f o r e , t h e next d i g i t e i n the r9oot i s 4. Lesson 1

sheet 13

Annex 4 t o the f i n a l t r i a l d i v i s o r 40, making i t 404. Multiply 404 by 4, the l a s t d i g i t of t h e r o o t , and p l a c e t h e product umler the remainder 1653 and s u b t r a c t .
2

x 2 = 4 annex

0 makes 40 the new t r i a l d i v i s o r .

Thus, w f i n d t h a t t h e square r o o t of 41,653 i s 204 w i t h a remainder, e

PART V.
HOW TO FIND TKF SQUARE ROOT O F A DECIMAL.
To f i n d t h e square r o o t of a decimal o r f r a c t i o n i s j u s t a s simple a s when u s i n g i n t e g r a l numbers o r whole numbers, Decimals might appear more d i f f i c u l t t o handle a t f i r s t because the average s t u d e n t does not o r d i n a r i l y work w i t h them a s f r e q u e n t l y a s with whole numbers.
EXAMPLE:

Find

A t y p i c a l example with f u l l explanations i s given below,

Keep i n mind t h a t t h e f i r s t t h i n g t o do i n any case of t h i s kind i s t o point off the number i n t o periods of two d l g i t s e a c h beginning a t t h e decimal p o i n t , thus:

A f t e r d i v i d i n g the number i n t o p e r i o d s , a s shown above, we n o t i c e t h a t t h e right- hand period c o n t a i n s but one d i g i t , 5, and t h e r e f o r e a cipher must be annexed t o complete t h i s period.

The computation i s now s t a r t e d by s e l e c t i n g a number which i s the t r i a l d i v i s o r , This number when squared must not be g r e a t e r t h a n t h e value of t h e f i r s t period. I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e t h e f i r s t period i s 00 and i t i s q u i t e obvious t h a t t h e r e i s no number which i s e q u a l t o zero when squared, hence, a c i p h e r i s place@ i n t h e bracket a s t h e f i r s t d i g i t i n t h e r o o t .

Bring down t h e next p e r i o d , 02, and continue w i t h the example a s explained i n our i n s t r u c t i o n s which preceeded t h i s p a r t . A number i s now s e l e c t e d which when squared w i l l n o t be g r e a t e r than t h e value of t h e second period, o r 02. The number which w i l l s a t i s f y t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s found t o be 1, hence, 1 i s w r i t t e n i n the b r a c k e t a s t h e next d i g i t i n t h e r o o t . Lesson 1

sheet 14

A f t e r f i g u r e 1 i s w r i t t e n i n t h e bracket a s j u s t suggested, a l s o place 1 under the remainder 2, and then s u b t r a c t .

This l e a v e s a remainder of 1 t o which t h e next period 50 i s annexed. t o t a l remainder i s now 150.

The

Multiply t h e r o o t 1 (which i s w r i t t e n in the b r a c k e t ) by 2 i n order t o obtajn a t r i a l d i v i s o r and t h e n determine t h e number of times t h i s t r i a l d i v i s o r , o r 2, i s contained i n t o 150, d i s r e g a r d i n g the right- hand d i g i t i n 150. This means, of course, t h a t 15 i s t o be divided by 2, which e q u a l s 7. T h i s f i g u r e e j u s t obtained, or 7, i s c a l l e d the p o t e n t i a l r o o t . W now annex 7 t o t h e t r i a l d i v i s o r 2 g i v i n g us 27 and by multiplying 27 by t h e p o t e n t i a l r o o t 7 we o b t a i n the f i g u r e 189.

Since f i g u r e 189 i s l a r g e r than t h e t o t a l remainder 150 it i s very evident t h a t w cannot use 7 as t h e next d i g i t i n the r o o t . Therefore, we must t r y e a number which i s l e s s t h a n 7. L e t , u s t r y 6. The f i g u r e 6 now becomes the p o t e n t i a l root. The f i g u r e 6 or p o t e n t i a l r o o t , i s annexed t o t h e t r i a l d i v i s o r 2 and we have 26. Multiplying the p o t e n t i a l r o o t 6 by 26 e q u a l s 156. 16:e cannot use 6 a s t h e next d i g i t i n the r o o t s i n c e 156 i s g r e a t e r than 150, and t h e r e f o r e , w must t r y a smaller f i g u r e . Let u s t r y 5 t h i s time. e Apply the same l i n e of reasoning i n reejard t o the use of 5 a s w d i d i n t h e e c a s e of tb o t h e r t r i a l d i v i s o r s , 7 and 6, which could not be used. T r i a l d i v i s o r 2 w i t h 5 annexed e q u a l s 25. P o t e n t i a l r o o t 5 m u l t i p l i e d by 25 e q u a l s 125. Since 125 is not g r e e t e r t h a n 150 t h e n it i s evident t h a t 5 can be applied a s t h e n e x t d i g i t i n t h e r o o t . Therefore, w r i t e 5 i n t h e b r a c k e t a s t h e next d i g i t i n t h e r o o t ; then m u l t i p l y t h e f i n a l d i v i s o r , o r 25, by the r o o t 5, and place the t o t a l , o r 125, under 150. Lesson 1

sheet 1 5

1x 2
25 x 5

=2

annex 5 makes 25 complete d i v i s o r

I 150

= 125.

125 25

I f t h e answer i s s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e , f o r t h e purpose a t hand, when t h e r o o t i s c a r r i e d out t o t h r e e decimal p l a c e s , t h e n our work i s completed. B u t , suppose a n answer c o n t a i n i n g f o u r decimal p l a c e s i s required; t h e n w must go through one more computet i o n according t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s a l e ready o u t l i n e d . To g i v e you a d d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e i n working out examples of t h i s kjnd l e t us c a r r y out t h e answer t o one more d e c i m a l p l a c e , To do t h i s annex a period c o n s i s t i n g of two c i p h e r s t o t h e r i g h t of t h e l a s t period 50 and continue w i t h t h e work.

1 x 2
25 x 5 15 x 2

=2

annex 5 makes 25

= 125

= SO

annex 8 makes 308 complete d i v i s o r

150 125 2500 2464 36

i s 0.0158

Hence, w e have found t h a t t h e s q u a r e r o o t of 0.00025 answer i s c o r r e c t t o f o u r decimal p l a c e s .

EXAIV!PLF: Given t h e number c o n t a i n 4 decimal p l a c e s .

+.

This

.8006 f i n d i t s square r o o t .

The answer should

The s o l u t i o n t o t h i s example i s given below without a l l of t h e work being shown. This i s done i n o r d e r t o g i v e you a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o work t h e same example step- by- step, showing a l l of t h e work, and a f t e r w a r d t o check your computation.

.00~05~00*00 .0223+ 0 05

Answer.

Lesson 1

s h e e t 16

ROE TO FIhQ TFE SQUARE ROOT OF

EXAKPLB:

Find:

fl

A F'RACTTOE.

I n t h i s problem i t i s seen t h a t b o t h t h e numerator, o r 25, and denominator, or 8 1 , a r e p e r f e c t s q u a r e s . Therefore, t o work out this problem we simply t a k e t h e square r o o t of t h e n m m r a t o r and denominator s e p a r a t e l y and t h e n remove t h e r a d i c a l s i g n a s follows: The square r o o t of 25 is 5; and t h a t of 81 i s 9 . Hence,

Simple examples l i k e t h e one g i v e n above can be solved merely by i n s p e c t i o n . However, t h i s cannot b e done when the numerator and denominator a r e not p e r f e c t squares. I n an example of the l a t t e r kind you must f i r s t reduce t h e f r a c t i o n t o a decimal and t h e n proceed t o f i n d t h e square r o o t o f the decimal.

EXAMPLE : Find :
F i r s t reduce t h e f r a c t i o n t o a decimal by d f v f d i n g 2 by 7. T t h a t 2 = 0.28571 -#7

Thus, w f i n d e

The same step- by- step The next s t e p i s t o f i n d t h e square r o o t of 0,28571. procedure i s followed i n a l l c a s e s where a decimal. i s involved f n square root, A f t e r working out t h i s problem you should o b t a i n 0,5345 f o r t h e answer which f s not f u l l y complete s i n c e t h e r e i s a remainder,but, i n t h e rnajortty of c a s e s e decimal c a r r i e d out t o t h r e e o r f o m p l a c e s i s a c c e p t e d as s u f P i c f e n t l g a c c u r a t e f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, 21n e x p r e s s i n g t h i s p e s u l t we would say t h a t 0,5345 i s t h e square r o o t of c o r r e c t to f o u r decimal 7 places.

Lesson 1 - sheet 17

EXAMINATION

LESSON I

Your ansxers t o Problems 1, 2, 3, and 4 should be g i v e n i n f o u r decimal p l a c e s . DO NOT show t h e work i n t h e s e problems; o n l y t h e answers a r e r e quired.
1 . 2.
3.

What i s t h e s q u a r e r o o t of 527849? What i s t h e square r o o t of 0.94935? What i s t h e s q u a r e r o o t of 26.842? What i s t h e s q u a r e r o o t of

4.

14? 4 255

Your answers t o Problems 5, 6, 7 , 8 , 9, and 1 0 should be accompanied by a l l of t h e work necessary t o f i n d t h e a n s r e r s . 5.

6.

Add:

++g++
5 x 1 and 1
8 16 reduce t h e product found t o a decimal.

~ultiply: Divide:

9, 8.
9.

14 , 28 17 ' 32 Multiply: 1.005 x 0.175 4985.85 15.3

- --

Divide:

10.

Reduce t h e f r a c t i o n

1 to 8 35

a decimal.

Lesson 1

s h e e t 18
-

UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASURETIiWTS AND SYMBOLS

I n t h e p r e c e e d i n g l e s s o n s we b u i l t up a background f o r our f u t u r e work. From t h i s p o i n t on we w i l l d e a l more s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h t h e s u b j e c t o f r a d i o and e l e c t r i c i t y . A c c o r d i n g l y , we w i l l f i r s t d e f i n e t h e fundamental u n i t s o f measurement which form t h e b a s i s of e l e c t r i c a l computation and l a t e r t h e e l e c t r i c a l u n i t , s and t e r m s which a r e i n common u s e i n r a d i o , The t h r e e f undamerltal u n i t s o f measurement a r e :

(1) t h e c e n t i m e t e r , o r u n i t of l e n g t h , ( 2 ) t h e gram, o r u n i t of mass, ( 3) t h e s e c o n d , o r u n l t of t i m e ,

These t h ~ : n e u a n t i t i e s a r e combined and e x p r e s s e d below i n a simple r e q l a t i o n h2?o\vi': a s t h e c e n t ? . m e t e r - g r a m - s e c o d , o r C .G.S. system. The C ..<LS. unLt of v e l o c i t y i s t h . representing a distance of one centl.meter covered i n one s e c o n d , 1 coni;!.meter .= 0 , 0 1 m e t e r = 0.3937 i n c h . representj.ng the force The C .I? , S . unLt of f o r c e i s t h e r e q u i r s d t o move a mass o f one grar one k i n e per second, 1 gram s= 3./28th o f an ounce.
t representing the The C . 3 . 3 , u n i t of work o r e n e r g y i s t h e % work accomplished by a f o r c e of one dyne working o v e r a d i s t a n c e of one c e x t l m e t e r .

e,

m,

I n t h i s l e s s o n v+e g i v e t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t e l e c t r i c a l u n i t s w i t h s:r.ii:;:le problems t o e x p l a i n t h e i r meanings. These u n i t s ' a r e u s e d r e p e a t e d l y tiiroughout our c o u r s e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e y must be l e a r n e d b y t h e s t u d e : ~ ; . Sf t h e s e u n i t s a r e l e a r n e d a t t h e s t a r t t h e n no d i f f i c u l t y w i l l be enco1;r-:-L6$??ec: n t h e work b e f o r e u s , i

THE VO,LT is t!hc u n i t of e l e c t r i c a l p r e s s u r e . T h i s p r e s s u r e i s known as t h e 7'electroncti-vc! ?or ce " a n d , a l s o , a s " d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l " . E l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e i s :;bbx~?;isteC! by t h e l e t t e r s (E.M.F.) o r (e.m..f. ).
-.., --

One v o ? t i s d e f i n e d a s the amount o f e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e n e c e s s a r y . -, .-. .. i n t e n s i t y o f one ampere t o ~ l ' r o u g h c i r - : a t o cause. ...-:::::-rent c u i t ha';';ijk; s ! r e s i s t a n c e o f one ohm.
~

I n e l e c t r i c a l p r a c t i c e you w i l l h e a r r e f e r e n c e s made t o t h i s u n i t by any one of t h e following names: V o l t , Voltage, Electromotive Force , Pressure o r Difference of P o t e n t i a l , a l l of wfiich have t h e same meaning. The u n i t v o l t i s denoted by t h e symbol ( E ) . I n an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t w e x p r e s s the amount of t h e electromotive f o r c e e a s a c e r t a i n number of v o l t s . To i l l u s t r a t e t h e proper use of t h e terms "e.m.f." and " v o l t s " l e t us consider the simple c i r c u i t drawn i n Figure 1 where a 6 v o l t b a t t e r y i s connected t o a 6 v o l t lamp, INhen speaking about h he t h e pressure i n t h i s c i r c u i t it would be t h e customary t h i n g t o say: e.m.f. of 6 v o l t s , applied t o t h i s c i r c u i t by t h e b a t t e r y , f o r c e s a c e r t a i n amount of c u r r e n t through t h e f i l a m e n t of the l a m p , t h u s causing it t o light. "

THE SAME CIRCUIT SHOWN PICTORIALLY A N D BY D I A G R h M

Figure 1 E l e c t r i c a l pressure i s analogous t o water p r e s s u r e , To i l l u s t r a t e this l e t us suppose you connect up your garden hose t o a f a u c e t and open t h e valve, Providing t h e r e i s water supply a v a i l a b l e i n t h e mains we know t h a t water w i l l r u n through t h e hose. The p r e s s u r e i n the p i p e s was necessary i n o r d e r t o g e t t h i s flow of water. J u s t how water p r e s s u r e i n pipes i s obt a i n e d i n our homes and b u i l d i n g s should be q u i t e obvious to most anyone s i n c e there a r e p r a c t i c a l l y only two sources; one source i s t h e r e s u l t of mechanical work done by a pumping machine of some t y p e , while the o t h e r i s t h e r e s u l t of n a t u r a l g r a v i t y provided by a head of w a t e r , o r water supply o r i g i n a t i n g a t some l e v e l h i g h e r t h a n t h e o u t l e t where t h e hose i s a t t a c h e d . To point out t h e idea t h a t p r e s s u r e i s always e s s e n t i a l before a movement o r motion of any kind can be produced w have shown a s m a l l tank p a r t l y e f i l l e d with water i n s k e t c h ( A ) of Figure 2 . Notice t h a t t o t'he bottom of the tank t h e r e has been connected a s h o r t p i p e , bent i n t o a U shape, t h e open end of whlch i s arranged e x a c t l y l e v e l w i t h t h e t a n k connection. The valve a c t s i n a manner s i m i l a r t o a switch i n an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e flow. If t h e valve i n the pipe 13 closed t h e water pressure i s not u t i l i z e d although t h e p r e s s u r e i s always p r e s e n t by reason of t h e e height and volume of water i n the tank. But, if w open t h e valve t h e p r e s s u r e w i l l immediately a c t and water w i l l flow through t h e pipe and gush out a t i t s open end, The flow w i l l continue j u s t s o long a s t h e r e i s any water i n the tank or any p r e s s u r e . F i n a l l y when t h e t a n k i s emptied i t w i l l be seen t h a t t h e pipe s t i l l h o l d s a q u a n t i t y of w a t e r which does not flow out of t h e open end because b o t h ends of t h e pipe a r e l e v e l , a s shown B . This r e s u l t shows t h a t while t h e water remaining i n the i n sketch ( ) pipe has a p o t e n t i a l f o r c e due t o i t s own weight, y e t i t cannot be made Lesson 2

- sheet. 2

use of i n t h i s case. Thus, we see t h a t it r e q u i r e s a d i f f e r e n c e of pressure Level t o o b t a i n f o r c e by which t h e water may be made t o flow even though water may be a t hand. However, by merely bending t h e open end downward, a s f n ( C ) , t h e water confined i n t h e pipe w i l l begin t o flow o u t , since w e have s e t up a c o n d i t i o n where t h e f o r c e due t o t h e weight of water i s now a c t i n g . The higher t h e water l e v e l i n t h e t a m t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e a v a i l a b l e pressure. Although we can see t h e water w cannot see the "pressure" . Nevertheless, e it i s e a s y t o measure water pressure i n pounds w i t h a s u i t a b l e pressure gauge. When w r e f e r t o p r e s s u r e i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l sense, w a l s o d e a l e e e with an unseen f o r c e which may be generated i n one of s e v e r a l ways. W

Figure 2 know how t o r e g u l a t e the i n t e n s i t y of t h i s e l e c t r i c a l pressure according t o c e r t a i n requirements so t h a t it may be applied t o a c i r c u i t t o s e t up a flow of c u r r e n t . It i s a l s o easy t o measure e l e c t r i c a l pressure by means of a s u i t a b l e instrument, c a l l e d a " voltmeter". S e v e r a l common sources of electrkcal pressure a r e b a t t e r i e s , g e n e r a t o r s , electromagnetic i n d u c t i o n and e l e c t r o s t a t i c induetion.
T t B AMPERE i s t h e u n i t of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t ; it r e p r e s e ~ t sa c e r t a i n amount of c u r r e n t flowing a t a g i w n r a t e ,

One ampere i s deffned a s t h e i n t e n s i t y ( o r s t r e n g t h , o r v a l u e ) of the c u r r e n t t h a t w i l l flow t h r o q h a c i r c u i t whose r e s i s t a n c e i s one ohm, when t h e q p l i e d electromotive f o r c e i s one v o l t . The following i s another d e f i n i t i o n of the u n i t of c u r r e n t s t r s n g t h , based on t h e amount of chemical 8ecomposition taking place i n a g i v e n period of "One ampere i s time, and s t a t e d i n terms of q u a n t i t y and r a t e of flow. t h a t steady flow of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t which when passed through a s t ~ n d a r d s o l u t i o n of n i t r a t e of s i l v e r i n w a t e r , w i l l deposit s i l v e r a t t h e r a t e of 0.001118 gram per second, 11 The q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r i c i t y i s measured by t h e u n i t "coulomb". Although t h i s u n i t i s d e f ined i n a subsequent paragraph l e t us a t t h i s time show t h e "When one coulomb of r e l a t i o n between "coulomb" and "ampere" a s follows: e l e c t r i c i t y passes a g i v e n point i n n c i r c u i t , every second of time, one. ampsre of c u r r e n t i s s a i d t o flow". Hence, i f 2 coulonbs of e l e c t r i c i t y pe.ss a given p o i n t i n a c i r c u i t p e r second t h e s t r e n g t h of the c u r r e n t i s I n a given c i r c u i t , t h e r e f o r e , t o f i n d t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t y of 2 amperes. e l e c t r i c i t y expressed i n coulombs w must take the product of t h e c u r r e n t e Lesson 2

- sheet

i n amperes and t h e l e n g t h of time i n seconds t h a t t h e c u r r e n t flows. Note: The underlined d e f i n i t i o n of an ampere i s the one t h a t should be learned f o r our p r a c t i c a l work. Current i s denoted by t h e symbol (I) and i s m a s u r e d by a n instrument c a l l e d an "ammeter". Again r e f e r t o t h e drawing i n Figure 2 t o be s u r e that you have a c l e a r understanding of t h e d i f f e r e n e e between " q u a n t i t y " and " r a t e of flow", Water flowing through a pipe a t t h e r a t e of a c e r t a i n number of g a l l o n s per In minute can be compared t o c u r r e n t i n amperes passing through a c i r c u i t . n r e p r e s e n t s the q u a n t i t y and " gallons per minute" a water system " g a l l o n s t h e t o t a l amount f o r a given time, o r r a t e of flow; whereas, i n the e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t "coulomb" i s t h e q u a n t i t y and " m p e r e s " i s t h e r a t e ol" flow of a given q u a n t i t y . A importank point t o be mentioned i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i s t h a t throughout t h e n whole length of t h e pipe t h e r e a r e oppositions s e t up which prevent a f r e e movement of t h e water, These oppositions a r e due p r i n c i p a l l y t o f r i c t i o n by contact of the water with t h e i n n e r w a l l s of t h e pipe, bends i n t h e pipe and t h e length and s i z e , o r c r o s s s e c t i o n , o f t h e p i p e , I n any of i t s forms, opposition must be naet and ovepcome by t h e pressure b e f o r e water flows and, of course,the o p p o s i t i o n s w i l l govern t o some e x t e n t t h e amount of water t h a t flows i n a given time ura9er a given pressupe. It i s e a s y t o s e e t h a t any opposition presented by t h e pipe i t s e l f w i l l r e t a r d t h e water flow, T h i s opposition i s comparable t o t h a t which i s p r e s e n t a t a l l t i m e s i n e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s because t h e w i r e s o r o t h e r m e t a l l i c p a r t s do not permit a f r e e movement of e l e c t r o n s , o r c u r r e n t , but r a t h e r , t h e c u r r e n t i s forced t o flow through t h e m a t e r i a l s used t o c o n s t r u c t the c i r c - l i t under t h e applied voltage. Each d i f f e r e n t kind of metal has i t s own s p e c i f i c r e s i s t a n e g , For i n s t a n c e , c u r r e n t flows more r e a d i l y through s i l v e r than through copper, and e more r e a d i l y through copper t h a n i r o n , Thus, If w have two c S r c u i t s cons i s t i n g of t h e same l e n g t h and c r o s s - s e c t i o n of wire, and Pf one c i r c u i t u s e s copper wire and t h e o t h e r i r o n wire, and i f e x a c t l y t h e same v o l t a g e i s a p p l i e d t o both c i r c u i t s it w i l l be found, under t h e s e conditions, that about s i x times a s much c u r r e n t w i l l pass through t h e copper wire a s compared t o This is because the r e l a t i v e r e s i s t a n c e of copper i s t h e iron- wire c i r c u i t . 1.075 a s compared t o 6,37 f o r i r o n , h t h e case of t h e e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t t h i s opposition of t h e m a t e r i a l i t s e l f , which governs t o a l a r g e e x t e n t t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e c u r r e n t flow, i s known a s t h e " r e s i s t a n c e " , T h i s s u b j e c t i s again discussed under t h e miit of r e s i s t a n c e , t h e o h . An A P R - O R is it& M E EH U u n i t i n g e n e r a l use i n b a t t e r y chargin$ s e r v i c e ; It r e p r e s e n t s a continuous flow of c u r r e n t of 1 ampere f o r 1 hour.
THE OHM

i s t h e e l e c t r i c a l u n i t of r e s i s t a n c e , Resistance i s t h e n a t u r a l opposition which a l l m a t e r i a l s o f f e s t o t h e flow of e l e c t r o n i c c u r r e n t , and since t h i s opposition i s i n h e r e n t i n a l l matter it must be overcome by t h e electromotive f o r c e b e f o r e c u r r e n t w i l l flow.

of one ampere through it. Lesson 2

- sheet

The following i s a d e f i n i t i o n of the u n i t r e s i s t a n c e based on a physical standard: One ohm i s the amount of r e s i s t a n c e t h a t would be offered t o a steady flow of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t by a column of mercmy of uniform crosss e c t i o n , 106.3 cm. l o n g 7 14.4521 grams i n weight a t a temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit, or 0 degrees Centigrade. (Note: One centimeter i s a l i t t l e l e s s than e h a l f i n c h . One ounce i s e q u a l t o 28 grams.) The o h i s denoted by t h e symbol ( R ) and is named a f t e r t h e German s c i e n t i s t e George S. Ohm. H was r e s p o n s i b l e t l f o r recognizing t h e r e l a t i o n e x i s t i n g between t h e "volt aget', " r e s i s t a n c e and " current * i n a l l e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s and formulating t h i s r e l a t i o n i n t o what i s probably t h e most important and widely used law i n e l e c t r i c i t y , known a s "OHMtS LAW". When a conductor has an e x c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h r e s i s t a n c e we use the u n i t e "megohm". For conductors having a very low r e s i s t a n c e w use the "mic~ohm'~. One megohm equals one m i l l i o n ohme. one microhm equale 1/l,000,000th of an ohm.
THE COULOhlB i s t h e u n i t of e l e c t r i c a l q u a n t i t y used t o e x p r e s s the t o t a l q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t passing tbrough a c i r c u i t i n e, s t a t e d time.

y One eoulomls is tihe ~ u m t % t of e P e c t r ~ l e i t J rt h a t will flow i n one a second ttwough a c U c u i t h a v f n ~ r e s l a t a n c e of one o h when t h e a p p l i e d ecm.f. i s one v o l t , *e ape now d e a l i n g w i t h " quantity" f n e l e c t r i c i t $ i n about t h a same m y t h a t ordinary standards, a pound o r g a l l o n f o r i n s t a n c e , a r e used t o measure s u p p l i e s such as sugar, milk, e t c , Thus, i f we wish t o know t h e number of "coulombs" o r " q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r i c i t y " passing through a c i r c u i t i n a given tinre we must m u l t i p l y t h e number of amperes by t h e number of seconds t h e current conkinues t o flow. The following example shows how t o apply t h i s m l e : Suppose t h e r a t e of c u r r e n t flow f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u i t i s 8 amperes and t h e c u r r e n t continues t o flow s t e a d f a y f o r 4 seconds. The t o t a l q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r i c i t y passed w i l l be 8 x 4 o r 3 2 ampere-seconds, o r 32 coulombs a f e l e c t r i c i t y . Also, if 2 amperes flow f o r 16 eeconds we would have 52 ampere-seconds o r 32 coulombs. The wit "cou~omb"i s a l s o a p p l i e d i n e l e e t r o s t a t f e s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o placing an e l e c t r o s t a t i c charge i n a condenser and i n t h i s usage %ti s defined a s follolns: "One coulomb i s t h e q u a n t i t y of e L e c t r i C f t y n e c e s s a r y t t o r a i s e by orie v o l t t h e d i f f e r e n c e of p oI9 e n t i a l between t h e p l a t e s of a condenser whose capacf tance i s one f a r a d . The coulomb i s denoted by t h e symbol (Q).
TRE HENRY i s t h e unit of inductance, Inductance i s a c e r t a i n p r o p e r t y possessed by every e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t which e s t a b l i s h e s an electromagnetic f i e l d about i t s conductors and windings ( c o i l s ) . Inductance i s a l s o applied t o t h e p e c u l i a r property of a l l conductors and windirgs ( c o i l s ) which tend t o oppose any c u r r e n t chsnge produced by a c i r c u i t w i t h i n i t s e l f by v i r t u e of the changing magnetism which i s s e t up whenever c u r r e n t v a r i e s o r tends t o vary i n s t r e n g t h . The e f f e c t i s pronounced i n any c i r c u i t i n which the

'

LRssdn 2

- sheet

c u r r e n t i s c o n t i n u a l l y changing i n t e n s i t y , a s f o r example, i n a c i r c u i t carrying p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t c u r r e n t o r a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . The n e t r e s u l t of inductive e f f e c t s i s t h e g e n e r a t i o n of a second e.m.f. separate from t h e a p p l i e d e .m.f. which causes the c u r r e n t t o flow. This property of "inductance" e x i s t s i n a l l p o r t i o n s of an a c t i v e c i r c u i t because the electromagnetic l i n e s of f o r c e ( f l u x ) s e t up by t h e c u r r e n t w i l l vary i n magnitude according t o every change i n c u r r e n t i n t e n s i t y and t h e s e magnetic l i n e s a r e c o n t i n u a l l y a c t i n g upon the v e r y wires ( o r conductors and c o i l s ) which comprise t h e c i r c u i t . The term ' s e l f - inductance 1' i s commonly used t o express t h i s p e c u l i a r property e x h i b i t e d by a c i r c u i t due t o the a c t i o n of i t s own magnetic l i n e s upon i t s e l f . The tendency of a c i r c u i t t o prevent changes i n c u r r e n t i n t e n s i t y and spoken of a s the " s e l f inductance" of a c i r c u i t , a s j u s t mentioned, r e p r e s e n t s one kind of oppos i t i o n and it must not be confused w i t h a c i r c u i t 1 s i ' r e s i s t a n c e " . Resl.stance i s always p r e s e n t whether t h e c u r r e n t v a r i e s i n s t r e n g t h or Wether it flows s t e a d i l y , However, "inductance e f f e c t s " a r e not p r e s e n t i n a c i r c u i t when a s t e a d y d i r e c t c u r r e n t flows, f o r i n t h i s case the magnetic l i n e s a r e a l s o steady and consequently do not a c t upon t h e conductors,
A c i r c u i t i s s a i d t o have an inductance of one henry when an electromotive. f o r c e o f one v o l t w i l l be induced i n t h e c i r c u i t by a c u r r a n t varying a t t h e r a t e of one ampere per second.

The l e t t e r (L) i s t h e symbol used t o denote inductance.

THE FARAD i s t h e u n i t of e l e c t r i c a l c a p a c i t y and i s abbreviated "fd". This u n i t r e l a t e s t o t h e amount of charge t h a t can be s t o r e d up i n a condenser i n e l e c t r o s t a t i c f o r 3 under a g i v e n e.rn.f. measured- i n v o l t s .
A c r n 3 e ~ : : e r i s saicl t o have a capacitance of one farad i f the

c o t e n t i s l ~ i f f e r e n c ebetween i t s p l a t e s w i l l be r a i s e d one v o l t
b$ a charge of one coulomb.

From t h i s d e f i n i t i o n w s e e t h a t a condenser when connected i n a c i r c u i t e and supplied with voltage w i l l s t o r e up n d e f i n i t e amount of e l e c t r i c i t y i n s t a t i c form. The farad i s considerably too l a r g e t o be applied i n practf c a l work. W e t h e r e f o r e have two s.ub-multiples of t h e u n i t fn common use. They are : M c r o f a r a d ( a b b r e v i a t e d nfd. o r f l d . ) f Micro-microfarad (abbreviated mmfd. o r ) y . f d . ) One a i c r o f a r a d i s e q u a l t o one- millionth p a r t of a f a r a d . One micro-mfcrofarad i s e q u a l t o one- mfllionth p a r t of a f a r a d again subafvided i n t o a m i l l i o n p a r t s ; t h a t i s t o s a y , a micro- microfarad i s onem i l l i o n t h of one - millionth p a r t of a f a r a d .
EXAMPLE. E i t h e r u n P t , microfarad o r micro- microfarad, may be used t o express a c e r t a i n numerical value according t o oneqs own preference. A s a r u l e values i n t h e o r d e r of 1000 mtnfd. and h i g h e r a r e expressed i n

Lesson 2

- sheet

microfarads (mfd). Here a r e a few examples of how a value may be w r i t t e n i n terms of e i t h e r u n i t :

1 &d.= 250 mmfd.= 1000 mmfd.r

0.000001 mfd, 0.00025 mfd. 0.001 mfd.

It c o n s i s t s of a t h i n p i e c e of s u i t a b l e i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l , such a s mica, on e i t h e r s i d e of which i s g l u m a sheet of t i n f o i l c The t i n f o i l s h e e t s a r e c a l l e d t h e " p l a t e s " and t h e mica t h e " d i e l e c t r i c If two wires a r e connected from a source of voltage t o the r e s p e c t i v e p l a t e s t h e e.m.f. t h u s provided w i l l cause an e l e c t r o s t a t i c charge t o be s t o r e d up by t h e mica. I n Figure ;a, t h e d r y c e l l of 1 . 5 v o l t s causes a d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l of 1.5 v o l t s t o be s e t up between p l a t e s "A" and "B" of t h e a i r type condense^; t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c l i n e s i n t h i s c a s e a r e s t o r e d up i n t h e a i r b u t i n Figure 3 t h e y a r e s t o r e d i n t h e mica. The conrlensers i n F i g u r e s 3 and 4 a r e c a l l e d f i x e d condensers because no provision i s made t o a l t e r t h e i r c a p a c i t a n c e s .

A simple condenser i s shown i n Figure 3.

AIR DIELECTRIC- ELECTROSTATIC LINES M I C A DIELECTRIC

PLATE "A" NEGATIVELY

PLATE "8" POSITIVELY

STATOR P L ~ T E S R O T O R

PATES

DRY CELL- 1.5 VOLTS

T;INFOIL PL'ATES

GLUED O N E I T H E R S I D E OF M I C A

Figure 3

DIFFERENCE OF POTENTIAL ''BETWEEN P L ATE S is E Q U A L TO VOLTAGE O DRY CELL F

Figure 5

Figure 4

The m u l t i - p l ~ t e va.riable a i r type condenser i n F i g u r e 5 c o n s i s t s of a s e t of f i x e d and movable p l a t e s ; t h i s t y p e i s i n g e n e r a l use i n r a d i o work f o r The c a p a c i t a n c e of t h i s condenser i s varied by r o t a t l n g tuning purposes. one s e t of p l a t e s , which a c t s t o change t h e e f f e c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between b o t h s e t s of g l a t e s . The d i e l e c t r i c medium, which possesses t h e p r o p e r t y of s e t t i n g up e l e c t r o s t a t i c l i n e s of f o r c e i n a condenser of t h i s k i n d , i s the which s e p a r a t e s t h e p l a t e s . W w i l l e x p l a i n l a t e r how t h e p a r t i e c.ular kind of d i e l e c t r i c Used, whether it be a i r , mica, paper o r any o t h e r s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l , h a s an important b e a r i n g upon t h e amount of charge t h e The d i e l e c t r i c m a t e r i a l a l s o governs t h e amount of condenser w i l l t a k e on. v o l t a g e t h a t can be a p p l i e d t o t h e condenser without p l a c i n g t h e i n s u l a t i n g q u a l i t i e s of t h e d i e l e c t r i c under an e x c e s s i v e s t r a i n t h a t would e v e n t u a l l y r e s u l t i n a breakdown. Capacity i s designated i n a l l of our w r i t i n g s and formulas by t h e l e t t e r ( C ) . Lesson 2

- sheet

ELECTRICAL WORK AND POWER. I n our r a d i o s u b j e c t s we d e a l considerably w i t h work and power. xhrough experience we f i n d t h a t very o f t e n the terms, f o r c e , power, energy and work a m not thoroughly understood by everyone. To avoid any confusion between t h e s e terms w w i l l e x p l a i n t h e i r meanings i n t h e e following paragraphs, a l s o g i v i n g a p r a c t i c a l example or t h e i r use.

There a r e d i f f e r e n t kinds of f o r c e t h a t w i l l produce work when properly directed. i n s t a n c e , w apply muscular f o r c e whenever w e x e r t ourselves e e e i n t h e performance O f c e r t a i n t a s k s . Also, w have mechanic* f o r c e derived from various t y p e s of motors and engines which may be operated with compressed a i r , g a s , water, steam, g a s o l i n e and s o on. There i s a l s o chemical f o r c e and e l e c t r i c a l force. Other examples of f o r c e could be c i t e d , but electromotive f o r c e i s t h e f o r c e most f r e q u e n t l y d e a l t w i t h i n our work. It w i l l be r e p e a t e d l y mentjoned t h a t an electromotive f o r c e , when properly a p p l i e d , w i l l cause o r tend t o cause a flow of e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t . FORCE. Force i s a n unseen agent whf ch a c t s t o cause some change i n t h e e x i s t i n g motion of a body, o r mass, o r i t may cauee a change i n d i r e c t i o n of motion, o r i t map i n some cases a l t e r t h e p h y s i c a l shape of t h e body a c t e d upon.
A t t h i s time l e t us review a few of t h e p o s s i b l e c o n d i t i o n s relat5.ng.to f o r c e . If a body i s a t r e s t and f o r c e i s applied i t w i l l tend t o s e t t h e

body i n motion; o r if t ha body i s a l r e a d y i n motion a f o r c e may be applied i n such a way a s t o cause k h e body t o a c c e l e r a t e (move f a s t e r ) , or slow down, o r perhaps come t o a complete s t o p ; o r i f a body i s moving i n a c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n a f o r c e applied i n some o t h e r d i r e c t i o n w i l l t e n d t o cause t h e body t o change i t s o r i g i n a l course of d i r e c t i o n .
It i s t o be um3erstood t h t f o r c e does not always produce motion. This i s a f a c t w i t h which you are p e r f e c t l y aware. For a simple i l l u s t r a t i o n cons i d e r what would happen i f you pushed a g a i n s t the s i d e of a house w i t h a l l your s t r e n g t h ; you know t h a t t h e energy expended would not r e s u l t i n the house being moved r e g a r d l e s s of how hard you may have worked t o accomplish t h i s purpose. These n a t u r a l laws a r e t r u e i n t h e case of e l e c t r i c i t y ; an electromotive f o r c e does not i n e v e r y case a c t t o cause a movement of current but it t e n d s t o do s o , Thus, it may be said t h a t a f o r c e a c t i n g over a d i s t a n c e o r through space i s a f a c t o r of work b u t the a c t i o n does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y produce motion.

TEE JOULE i s t h e u n l t of e l e c t r i c a l energg o r work.

One joule r e p r e s e n t s t h e amount of work perfbr& o r energy expendeds i n c l u d i n g t h a t consumed i n g e n e r a t i n g h e a t , when an electromotive f o r c e of one v o l t i s applied t o a c i r c u i t and a c u r r e n t of one ampere flows f o r one second of time.

W can express e l e c t r i c a l work a s t h e product of the 'felectro-notive f o r c e " e i n v o l t s and t h e " q u a n t i t y of c u r r e n t " i n coulombs. Now, s i n c e an ampere i s equal t o one coulomb of e l e c t r i c i t y m u l t i p l i e d by a time period of one second, t h e n t h i s e n t i r e r e l a t i o n can be s t a t e d a s follows: EZECTRICAL WORK (JOULES)

= VOLTS x AMPERES

x SECONDS

The symbol

( J ) i s used t o denote t h e joule.

Lesson 2

sheet 8

work done can be conveniently measured whether i t i s t h e r e s u l t of mechanicel chemical, e l e c t r i c a l o r heat e f f e c t s . Work, t h e r e f o r e , i s done whenever energy i s expended. T h i s statement, no doubt, i s p l a i n l y obvious t o everyone and i s intended t o p o i n t out t h e f a c t t h a t t o do work does not n e c e s s a r i l , mean t h a t a weight must be l i f t e d . For i n s t a n c e , work i s done by compressed a f r a c t i n g upon a p i s t o n i n a r i v e t machine; an explosion of a charge of g a s o l i n e vapor a c t i n g on one o r more pistons provides t h e power i n a gasol i n e motor f o r use i n b o a t s , automobiles and s o f o r t h ; steam engines u t i l i z e the expansive f o r c e of steam on t h e heads O f l a r g e p i s t o n s as a source of power. Steam may be used i n a p l a n t t o d r i v e e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o r s which a r e i n t u r n used t o supply l i g h t , heat and power. W could go on i n d e f i n i t e l y e c i t i n g examples of how power i s obtained t o do d i f f e r e n t kinds of work.
A simple i l l u s t r a t i o n of mechanical work is one i n which a team of horses a r e i n a c t i o n , e x e r t i n g energy i n p u l l i n g up a vePy heavy weight by means

WORK. s performed whenever opposition, r r e s i a - Worka i body upon which it a cat sf ot roc e overcomes motion. Theo amounts tofn c e i n causjng be s e t i n t o

of s u i t a b l y arranged p u l l e y s and l i n e s .

An i l l u s t r a t i o n of e l e c t r i c a l work i s where an e l e c t r i c f l a t i r o n i s connected

t o a 110- volt house- lighting c i r c u i t . The work 01- energy expended i n the e l e c t r i c a l case i s represented by t h e heat developed i n the c o i l s , c a l l e d h e a t i n g element, mounted w i t h i n t h e i r o n . I n o r d e r f o r t h i s work t o be done s u c c e s s f u l l y we know t h a t t h e v o l t a g e on the l i n e was e f f e c t i v e i n overcoming a l l the o p p o s i t i o n s of tb c b c u i t , with t h e r e s u l t t h a t a c e r t a i n value of c u r r e n t was forced through the c o i l s , This teaches us how e l e c t r i c a l energy i s t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o h e a t energy,

he t o t a l amount of work done i s c a l c u l a t e d by multiplying the amount of a force and t h e d i s t a n c e through which i t a c t s ( o r i s applied ) i n overcoming r e s i s t a n c e which r e s u l t s f i n a l l y i n a t r a n s f e r e n c e of energy f r a n one form t o another,
The accomplishment of a c e r t a i n piece of work i s independent of time. That i s t o say, it may r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t amounts of time, a s f o r i n s t a n c e a day, a week or perhaps longer t o complete a given work. 'When t h e element of e time i s reckoned along w i t h t h e work w must make reference t o the t e r n power. POYER. r s ts e ex- Powera i sc etrht es i ntime r a t e ofof doing wo t h e Itl e negpt hr eofe ntimeboth rti h g which an3 du n penditure of amount

i t i s m f n t a i n e d . Since t h e t e r not confuse it w i t h t h e t o t a l amo

includes t h e element of time we must work a c t u a l l y performed,

WORK -- TIME

The r 0 . l a t i o n of "power", "workn and "tfeme" can be s e t down a s follows:

POWER

THE WATT i s the u n i t of e l e c t p i c a 1 power. From a l i t t l e cons i d e r a t i o n of t h e t h r e e e x p l a n a t i o n s previously given i n regard t o the ioule l o r u n i t of work), and t h e ampere ( o r t h e u n i t of c u r r e n t ) , and t h e v 6 l t ( o r u n i t of p r e s s u r e ) i t i s evident t h a t t h e amount of "power" i n any e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t must be a combination of t h e s e t h r e e f a c t o r s .

Lesson 2

- sheet

Thus, one watt i s defined a s t h a t u n i t of power e q u i v a l e n t t o one joule divided b y one second. This r e l a t i o n may be w r i t t e n a s follows: W TS AT

JOULES SECONDS

N w w a l r e a d y know t h a t a j o u l e i s t h e amount of work r e s u l t i n g when one o e ampere of c u r r e n t i s maintained f o r one second under an applied e.m.f. of one v o l t . Therefore, combining t h i s r e l a t i o n i n t o one expression we have t h e well-known w a t t s formula:

W TS AT

= VOLTS

x AMPERES

The watts formula expressed immediately above i s f o r a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t . The same formula i s repeated below b u t using t h e e l e c t r i c a l symbols.

It i s c l e a r that i f w wish t o a s c e r t a i n the number of w a t t s of power i n a e d i r e c t current c i r c u i t , o r i n t h e p a r t s which form t h e c i r c u i t , we have simply t o m u l t i p l y t h e v o l t s by t h e amperes. However, i n our lesson on a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t ( a - c ) we w i l l l e a r n t h a t another f a c t o r , c a l l e d power f a c t o r , e n t e r s i n t o t h e computation of the wattage of a n a l t e r n a t i n g curr e n t c i r c u - i t or i t s p a r t s .
The powes o r watts formula f o r an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t i s :
W

=E

x I x POlmER FACTOR
I

The following d e f i n i t i o n of a watt should be learned: One watt i s t h e power expended when one am= of c u r r e n t flows s t e a d i l y throuuh a c i r c u i t under a pressure of one v o l t . The symbol ( W ) i s used t o denote t h e watt as used above i n t h e formulas.
A p r a c t i c a l example i s worked out below showfng how t o f i n d t h e wattage of

a simple c i r c u i t .
PROBLEM:

Find t h e number of w a t t s of energy expended i n t h e i s 120 v o l t s and c i r c u i t i n Figure 6 when the e.m.f. the c u r r e n t drawn by the lamp i s 0.5 amp. The wattage f o r t h i s c i r c u i t i s computed as follows:
W = E x I

SOLUTION:

(1)Write t h e formula:
( 2 ) S u b s t i t u t e known

values : ( 3 ) Perform the work a s shown a t t h e r i g h t :

( 4 ) Write t h e answer:

120 x 0.5 120 0.5 60.0

= 60

watts. Lesson 2

- sheet 10

abbpevletecl "R.P." In terms of horse-power, one watt i s equal t o 1/746th of an e l e c t r i c a l horne-povier. This i s e q u i v a l e n t t o saying t h a t one e l e c t r i c a l horse-power equals 746 w a t t s , or w r i t i n g t h i s i n t h e form of a n expression, we have
1 ELECTRICAL H.P.

= 746

watts. One k i l o w a t t , abbreviated

Another u n i t i n common use i s t h e " kilowatt " , "kw", i s equal t o one thousand w a t t s , or
1 kw =.lo00 w a t t s .
CURRENT PASSING

FILAMENT IS 0.5 A
110

VOLTS

T H E SAME CIRCUIT SHOWN PICTORIALLY AND BY D I A G R A M

Figure 6
PRACTICAL USE OF WATTS FORMULA, The w a t t s formula, For t h e law of power, can be s t a t e d i n t h r e e ways as shorn below f o r convenience i n working out p r a c t i c a l problems. Exactly s i n ~ i l a ' rr e l a t i o n s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d between t h e q u a n t i t i e s i n each of the formulas. An i n s p e c t i o n of t h e s e formulas show . t h a t f f the value of any one of t h e t h r e e q u a n t i t i e s i s unknovm 5t may be e a s i l y found providing t h e o t h e r two q u a n t F t i e s a r e known. Using the symbols, w e have

Another p r a c t i c a l example i n t h e u s e o f the w a t t s formula i s worked out be low.

PROBLEK:

Let the r a t e d power of a c i r c u i t be 660 w a t t s and t h e l i n e voltage 110 v o l t s , What i s t h e value of t h e cur r e n t passing through t h i s c i r ' c u i t ? The formula i s w r i t t e n f i r s t and t h e computation completed a s follows: E 660 I =110 I

SOLUTION:

( 1 ) Write formula:

W I=-

( 2 ) S u b s t i t u t e known values:

( 3 ) Solving, we have

=6

amperes.

Answer. Lesson

THE NATT-HOUR AND KIU)WATT-HOUR.

The watt-hour i s a convenient u n i t t o use i n p r a c t i c a l work f o r denoting the amount of energy expended in a given number of hours.

One watt- hour i s e a u a l t o one w a t t of e l e c t r i c a l energg expended i n one hour.

The watt- hour i s t h e u n i t of measurement t h a t i s applied i n t h e c a l i b r a t i o n of e l e c t r i c meters i n s t a l l e d i n our homes, f a c t o r i e s , o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s and so on, f o r i n d i c a t i n g the amount of e l e c t r i c i t y consumed; t h e meters used f o r t h i s purpose a r e u s u a l l y equipped w i t h s e v e r a l d i a l s f o r recording and a r e c a l l e d watt- hour meters. Since a watt i s e q u a l t o a m u l t i p l i e d by an amperee i t i s easy t o see ; or stated t h a t watt- hours must equal v o l t s m u l t i p l i e d by amperes and i n a formula, we have

WATT HOURS -

=E

I X HUS OR

I n many cases the u n i t "watt-hour" i s too small f o r p r a c t i c a l computations, and f o r convenience a l a r g e r m u l t i p l e of t h e u n i t i s employed, c a l l e d a "kilowatt-hour 1 '. Remember t h a t one lcilowatt e q u a l s 1000 w a t t s . Theref o r e , a kilowatt- hour i s found by f i r s t m u l t i p l y i n g v o l t s by amperes by hours, and then d i v i d i n g t h e product found by 1000e &om t h i s w e d e r i v e t h e following formula r KILOWATTHOURS or K -C S WI R

-- KILOWATTS x
x I x HUS OR
1000

HUS OR

=E

One kilowatt - hour i s def inec' a s 'the e q u i v a l e n t of one k i l o w a t t 31000 watts ) of e l e c t r i c a l energy expended i n .one hour. EXAMPLES OF HOU THE TEXM KIWSIATT-HOUR I S USED. Suppose t h a t a genera t o r i n a power p l a n t i s kept i n operation t o f u r n i s h l i g h t and power f o r a f a c t o r y . I f t h e output o f t h i s g e n e r a t o r i n d i c a t e s t h a t o n e kvi, of e l e c t r i c a l work i s maintained f o r one hour t h e f a c t o r y w i l l use 1 kilowatt - hour; o r if 2 km. i s maintained f o r one-half hour ( 2 x $ z= 1) the f a c t o p y w i l l likewise u s e 1 kilowatt- hour; b u t , i f 4 kw, i s maintained 2% hours t h e f a c t o r y w i l l use 10 kilowatt- hours,

mt ILLUSTRATIRG THE PROPER USE O THE T R S : POVBR, FORCE, WORK and mERGY. F EM us r e f e r t o the drawing i n Fiaure 7 where a team o f horses an'e a t work r a i s ing a heavy *on beam. This P l l u s t r a t e s how f o r c e a p p l i e d through a c e r t a i n
d i s t a n c e causes or t e n d s t o cause a body t o be s e t i n t o motion, I n t h i s instance, motion i s a c t u a l l y produced because t h e horses a r e s t r o n g enongh t o perform the t a s k imposed upon them. I n t h i s a c t i o n t h e might be defined a s t h e physical e x e r t i o n put f o r t h by t h e horses i n accomplishing t h e work, The c a p a c i t y which t h e s e h o r s e s possess f o r doing work of t h i s kind i s the eneWg. (Note: The energy cannot a c t u a l l y be c r e a t e d , it i s The work done i s m e a n a t u r a l condition e x i s t i n g w i t h i n the horses.) r e s u l t of t h e f o r c e e x e r t e d , or power expended, by t h e horses i n overcoming

Lesson 2

- sheet

12

any opposition o r r e s i s t a n c e which t h e load presents. The heavy i r o n bean i s t h e load. The power i s t h e r a t e a t which t h e work i s done, t h a t i s , whether it t a k e s t h e h o r s e s 15 minutes, or 1 how, o r any given time t o l i f t t h e load. The t o t a l work includes t h e power expended arni the time. I n summarizing t h e foregoing f a c t s we can s a y i n a few words t h a t the energy OsSesSed by t h e h o r s e s was converted i n t o mechanical p u l l i n g or l i f t i n g power, $his gives us a good i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e laws governing the "conservation of energy". Conservation r e l a t e s t o t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e of energy from one s t a t e t o another. There i s nothing l o s t , p r a c t i c a l l y speaking, i n t h e t r a n s f e r ence of energy from one s t a t e t o another s o long a s our purpose i s f u l f i l l e d ; t h a t i s , s o long a s t h e work we d e s i r e t o be p e r f o r m d i s a c t u a l l y completed.

ELECTRICAL WORK

Figure 7

Figure 8

ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL HORSE POWER DEFINED. -

Mechanical H,P. I n t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n i n Figure 7 , we have shovm two horses l i f t i n g a heavy i r o n beam by means of a h o i s t i n g crane. The power i n t h i s case i s t h e r a t e a t which the work of l i f t i n g t h e beam i s accomplished. Mechanical work i s measured i n "foot-pounds" o r "pounds m u l t i p l i e d by f e e t " . Thus, i f a weight of 3 l b s . i s r a i s e d t o a height of 5 f t . we have an equival e n t of 15 foot-pounds of work. Suppose a 7* Ib. weight is l u t e d only 2 f e e t w would have e x a c t l y t h e sane amount of work done a s when 3 l b s . i s e r a i s e d 5 f t , o r 15 foot-pounds i n both cases.

Now, t o e x p l a i n t h e meaning of mechanical horse-power l e t us suppose t h a t t h e i r o n beam i n Figure 7 weights 33,000 l b s . and i s t o be r a i s e d one f o o t a g a i n s t the f o r c e of g r a v i t y , and suppose f u r t h e r t h a t t h e horses take one minute t o do t h i s . Here w have a s e t of given v a l u e s . L e t us repeat e then: 33,000 l b s i s t o be r a i s e d one f o o t i n one minute, This combinat ion of values i s the b a s i s f o r t h e r a t e of d o i m work which i s e q u a l t o one . mechanical horse-power. If twice t h i s weight, o r 66,000 l b s , , i s r a i s e d one foot i n twice t h e time a o r two minutes, the " r a t e of working" would s t i l l be t h e sane a s i n t h e p r e 6 e e d b g case, o r - one mechanical horse-power.
-

If the horses were r e p l a c e a by a s t r o n g z r team t h a t could l i f t the sane beam, t h e same d i s t a n c e , i n J u s t h a l f the t i m e , o r l e t us say, i n one-half minl~te, t h e n it i s l o g i c a l t o assume t h a t one team i s twice a s powerful a s t h e o t h e r , Thus, i f 33,000 l b s . i s l i f t e d one f o o t i n 30 seconds it would give us 2 mechanical horse-power, W see t h a t b o t h teams of horses p s r f o r n e x a c t l y e t h e same t o t a l amount of work, but, depending upon whether t h e work i s cDmp l e t e d i n one hour, one- half hour o r f i v e minutes, o r any o t h e r i n t e r v a l o f Lesson 2

sheet 13

some p r a c t i c a l work i t may be more convenient t o use foot-pounds per second. Thus :

time, w i l l d e t e r n i n e the "time r a t e of doing t h e work , or "the power". Mechanical powm is u s u a l l y estimated i n foot-pounds p e r minut&, but i n

qq

or

1 MECRANICAL H O P . = 33,000 I . B S . P R NINUTE, T E ~MECHANLCALH a p . = 550 F: LBS. PER SECOND. T

W o b t a i n t h e 550 i n t h e lower equation, f o r e x p r e s s i n g so many foot-pounds e p e r second, by d i v i d i n g 33,000 foot-pounds per minute by 68 seconds, t h a t i s , 33000 + 60 = 550, I n commercial p r a c t i c e t h e power i s estimated according t o the mount of work done i n horse-power and t h e period of time involved i n hours. E l e c t r i c a l B O P . E l e c t r i c a l power i s measured i n w a t t s , t h e measurements being based upon t h e second of time and not t h e minute which i s c h i e f l y used i n mechanical work. Let us suppose the h o r s e s , i n Figure 7, a r e replaced by an e l e c t r i c motor a s t h e source of power a s i n Figure 8. You w i l l r e c a l l t h a t power i s e s t i mated according t o t h e amount of work done d u r i n g a c e r t a i n period of tiine. Accordingly, i n our computations it w i l l be necessary t o know t h e amount of power t h a t a motor i s supplying and t h e l e n g t h of time i t i s kept i n operation, In one of the paragraphs i n t h i s lesson, under the unit "Joule", it was ex~ l a i n e dt.h a t one joule p e r second is t h e u n i t of s L e c t ~ i c a 1 paver, o r the w a t t . 'urthermore, i t was explained t h a t the rate irr vatta st w h i c h e l e c t r i c a l energy is expended i s equal t o the voltage of a c i r c u i t times the number o f amperes of c u r r e n t flowing. P u t t i n g these statements t o g e t h e r sho:lld give you an understanding of t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e w a t t s formula; where
WATTS

=E x

Also, f r o m t h e s e statements it i s a simple matter of deduction t o determine t h a t e l e c t r i c a l horse-power i s equal t o watts d i v i d e d by time, or
ELECTRICAL H.P.

-- WATTS

Where l a r g e amounts of power a r e handled it i s o f t e n inconvenient t o use a u n i t a s small a s t h e w a t t , a s w previously mentioned, and so i n t h e practical e work of r a t i n g e l e c t r i c a l machinery t h e l a r g e r u n i t " e l e c t r i c a l horse-power" i s employed. It w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t one e l e c t r i c a l ho~se-power equals 746 watts. Now, i n order t o f i n d t h e r a t i n g of a n e l e c t r i c a l machine, i n t h e u n i t of horse-power, we have simply t o know i t s c a p a c i t y i n v o l t s and amperes; t o f i n d t h e horse-power m u l t i p l y t h e v o l t s by amperes and d i v i d e by 746. This i s t h e same t h i n g a s saying t h a t the number of w a t t s a r e divided by 746. Hence, we have. ELEXTRICAL H.P.

= VOLTS

746

x AMPERES,W T S AT 746
msson 2

- sheet 14

The following worked out example i s given t o a i d you i n solving problems o f t h i s kind. The r e s u l t s can be expressed e i t h e r i n t h e u n i t w a t t , kilowatt o r e l e c t r i c a l H.P.
PROBLEM:.

Suppose t h e current drawn by t h e motor i n Figure 8 i s 20 amperes and t h e l i n e voltage i s 220 v o l t s . Find the number of w a t t s of energy consumed?

SOLUTION:
(1)W i t e formula
( 2 ) S u b s t i t u t e known values:

W TS AT

=E

x I

( 3 ) Solving, we g e t

WR T = 220 x 20 I TS J WATTS = 4400 w a t t s .

Answer.

I f we wish t o express t h e above answer i n horse-power maintained by t h e motor, simply d i v i d e 4400 by 746, o r
, 746S WT AT ELECTRICAL HORSE-P0'v"IER

- 4400
ss

Hence,

ELECTRICAL HORSE-PObW

= 5 +8 H.P.

Answer. 4.4
kw.

This answer expressed i n k i l o w a t t s i s 4 4 0 0 f 1 0 0 0

THE BASIS O COMPARISON B T E N MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL H.P. F EWE The b a s i s f o r comparing a n e q u i v a l e n t amount of mechanical energy measured i n " foot pounds" and e l e c t r i c a l energy i n "watts" was worked out mathematically many He made a d i r e c t comparison between both kinds of years ago by I)r. Joule. energy i n performing e x a c t l y t h e same work which c o n s i s t e d of h e a t i n g a glven q u a n t i t y of water u n t i l i t s temperature was r a i s e d t o a c e r t a i n value. I n t h e case of mechanical energy the h e a t was obtained from the f r i c t i o n s e t up when paddle wheels were r o t a t e d through t h e water. The amount of power required was f i g u r e d from t h e nunber of foot-pounds of work per second obtained from a c e r t a i n arrangement of pulleys and weighks used i n t h e experiment. I n t h e case of t h e e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t t h e power was computed from the amount of c u r r e n t consumed a t a c e r t a i n v o l t a g e and t h e time r e quired i n generating t h e s p e c i f i e d amount of h e a t . D r . Joule estimated t h a t 1 foot-pound per second 1,356 watts.

--

W have a l r e a d y given an e q u a t i o n which s t a t e s t h a t 550 foot-pounds p e r e The. e l e c t r i c a l equivasecond i s equivalent t o 1 mechanical horse-poyer. l e n t of t h i s , o r 1 e l e c t r i c a l horse-power, would be

THE KmER i s t h e u n i t of measurement f o r wavelength. Wavelength can a l s o be expressed In terms of frequencx. These terms a r e used i n connection w i t h electromagnetic wave motion i n space, by t h i s we mean r a d i o waves i n space. The terms can be interchangeable, i t being a simple matter t o convert wavelength t o frequency and v i c e versa. T h i s i s explained i n a subsequent l e s s o n , Refer t o Figure 9 , which shows a r e g u l a r l y r e c u r r i n g wave motion s e t up on the surf ace of water by s t r i k i n g i t with e q u a l i n t e n s i t y a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s with a wooden block.

Lesson 2

- sheet 1 5

The term ~ a v e l e n g t hcan b e s t be explained w i t h t h e a i d of a drawing of t h i s kind and a f t e r once understanding the meaning of wavelength i t can be applied t o any form of motion that occurs and reoccurs a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s .

w a v F \ FNGTH ILLUSTRATED

One wavelength i s t h e d i s t a n c e from c r e s t t o c r e s t of t h e wave i n Figure 9, or i t m y be the d i s t a n c e from trough t o trough, iwhich n a t u r a l l y would be t h e same. hloreover, we could consider any point on one wave impulse and compare it t o a s i m i l a r point on an adjoining wave impulse and say t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e s e two s e l e c t e d points i s one wavelength. Let us t r y t o v i s u a l i z e a wave motion occuring i n space, s e t up by unseen f o r c e s . Suppose t h a t an electromagnetic wave i s projected from an a c t i v e t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna and t h i s energy c o n s i s t s of a succession of r a p i d l y r e c u r r ing impulses i n space, due t o t h e disturbance s e t up i n t h e space medium. The l e n g t h of each i n d i v i d u a l wave o r complete impulse of t h e electromagnetic sve motion i s ccnsidered from a s i m i l a r viewpoint a s each water wave. The metric u n i t of measurement i s used t o compute such d i s t a n c e , Thus t h e wavelength of an e1.ectromagnetic wave s e n t out by a r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r may be 300 meters, or it mag be 1,500 meters or 14,5 meters o r any d e s i r e d l e n g t h which i s governed b y t h e e l e c t r i c a l ad juscments of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . One meter equals 39,37 inches. T h e s t u d e n t must not confuse t h e d i s t a n c e whhich a radio wave w i l l a c t u a l l y t r a v e l t o be i n t e r c e p t e d and heard i n t h e r e c e i v e r s (whioh may be s e v e s a l thousand miles i n some c a s e s ) with t h e wavelength of each i n d i v i d u a l impulse i n t h e complete wave motion.

Lesson 2

- sheet

16

EXAMINATION

LESSON 2

Give t h e d e f i n i t i o n s of the following u n i t s , e x p r e s s i n g them i n your own words. D not use the exact wording given i n the lesson. o ( d ) coulomb ( g ) farad ( a ) volt (b) ampere ( e ) watt ( h ) kilowatt- hour ( c ) ohm (f) henry ( i ) ampere -hour
(a) (b) (c )

What i s a megohm? Microlun? Kilowatt? ( c ) What must w f i r s t have i n e an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t before c u r r e n t w i l l flow? (d) What u n i t of time i s e l e c t r i c a l measurement based on? ( e ) Hw would you w r i t e 35 rnmfd o i n the u n i t mfd?

(b)

( a ) Can energy be c r e a t e d ? Name t w o p r a c t i c a l sources f o r obtaining e l e c t r i c a l pressure.

Suppose t h e c a p a c i t y of a g e n e r a t o r when c a r r y i n g a load i s 3500 watts. Express t h i s value i n k i l o w a t t s and horsepower, What i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between work and power? What i s f o r c e and energy? Use an analogy, i f you wish, i n order t o e x p l a i n t h e meanings, ( a ) Write t h e formula you would use i f the power a r d current of a c i r c u i t were known and you were asked t o f i n d voltage. ( b ) Write t h e formula you would use t o f i n d c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h if the voltage and wattage of a c i r c u i t were known. Note: Solve t h e following problems which r e l a t e t o d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t s . Use t h e form suggested i n worked-out examples i n t h i s l e s s o n where the formula i s w r i t t e n f k s t , t h e known values s u b s t i t u t e d next, and s o on.
Tf 3 amps. passes through t h e lamp i n Figure 6, and t h e l i n e voltage a t the w a l l o u t l e t i s 110 v o l t s , what power i s being expended?

Suppose an e l e c t r i c a l h e a t e r , r a t e d a t 350 w a t t s , i s placed i n operation e and by measuring t h e c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h with an ammeter, w f i n d it t o be 3 amps. Find the l i n e voltage.

n I f t h e load on a g e n e r a t o r supplying a e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t i s such t h a t a c u r r e n t of 200 amperes flows a t a p r e s s u r e of 120 v o l t s , what i s the capacity of t h i s machine i n w a t t s ? Also, i n k i l o w a t t s ?
I n t h i s problem you a r e given t h e following d a t a : The e.m.f. i s 120 v o l t s , t h e c u r r e n t drawn is 20 amperes and t h e g e n e r a t o r i s maintained i n o p e r a t i o n 12 hrs. Find kilowatt- hours of energy expended.

Lesson 2

- sheet

17

Technical Lessm 3
TKE ELECTRON THECRY

- SUBSTANCE AND MATTER - STATIC ELECTRICITY.

9

INTRODUCTION. It might be s a i d t h a t anyone who d e c i d e s t o s t u d y t h e s c i e n c e o f r a d i o and e l e c t r i c i t y i n t r o d u c e s himself i n t o a world o f unseen f o r c e s , o r i n t o what i s v i r t u a l l y a r e a l m of tremendous a c t i v i t y and a g i t a t i o n . If a l l of t h e human b e i n g s on t h i s e a r t h were p e r m i t t e d t o p e e r i n t o t h e m y s t e r i e s of our w o r l d t h r o u g h a huge magnifying g l a s s , one equipped w i t h a l e n s h a v i n g a m a g n i f i c a t i o n t h o u s a n d s o f t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e most powerful f n use t o d a y , i t i s t h o u g h t t h a t we would be p r i v i l e g e d t o g a z e upon b i l l i o n s and b i l l i o n s o f t i n y u r ~ i v e r s e sc o n s i s t i n g o f diminutitze specks o r p a r t i c l e s . Each and e v e r y one o f t h e s e p a r t i c l e s i s supposed t o have a l l of t h e t h r e e q u a l i t i e s t h a t would e n t i t l e them t o be c l a s s i f i e d a s t i n y b i t s o f m a t t e r . These q u a l i t i e s a r e s i z e , weight and mass, and moreo v e r , e a c h p a r t i c l e would be founcl t o p o s s e s s a v e r y d e f i n i t e amount of e n e r g y . Energy can n o t be c r e a t e d b y man i n anyway w h a t s o e v e r ; t h e e n e r g y e x i s t i n g i n t h e p a r t i c l e s i s a n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n and is a p a r t of a l l t h i n g s c r e a t i v e , a c o n d i t i o n o v e r which we have no c o n t r o l and know l i t t l e a b o u t .

The g r e a t p r i v i l e g e of s e e i n g t h e s e b i t s of m a t t e r i s n o t y e t w i t h i n t h e r e a c l of man even w i t h a l l of t h e a v a i l a b l e s c i e n t i f i c a p p a r a t u s because o f t h e n a t u r a l l i m i t a t i o n s of our e y e s i g h t . W wonder, t h e n , horv s m a l l t h e s e v e r y e t i n y things really are.
The p r i n c i p a l c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e s e minute u n i v e r s e s have been g i v e n t h e names, molecule, atom and e l e c t r o n , For y e a r s s c i e n t i s t s have laborer! t o t e a r down t h e c l o u d s o f u n c e r t a i n t y surrounding t h e s e m i n u t e b o d i e s i n o r d e r t h a t t h e y mey l e a r n more a b o u t t h e i r p h y s i c a l make-up and t h e p a r t i c u l a r q u a l i t y which 'has b e e n g i v e n t h e name energg. How viell t h e s e t i r e l e s s l a b o r a t o r y workers have s u c c e e d e d i n p u t t i n g n a t u r a l f o r c e s t o work could n e v e r be f u l l y r e a l f z e d e x c e p t t h a t t h r o u g h some e x t r a o r d i n a r y c a l a m i t y e v e r y t h i n g e l e c t r i c a l were suddenly t a k e n from u s .

If you could v i s i t t h e s c i e n t i f i c l a b o r a t o r i e s of D r . Langmuir, D r . C o o l i d g e , D r . k i l l i k a n o r D r . Alexanderson and o t h e r men of e q u a l prominence, a n d w i t -

n e s s t h e many marvelous e x p e r i m e n t s i n p r o g r e s s , and s e e t h e w o n d e r f u l t h i n g s t h a t a r e accomplished when t h e power l o c k e d up i n a molecule i s u t i l i z e d , you would a p p r e c i a t e why we have i n t r o d u c e d t h i s l e s s o n on r a d i o If you c o u l d watch t h e s e s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i and e l e c t r i c i t y i n t h i s w a y . g a t o r s a t work you would u n d o u b t e d l y f o r g e t , a t l e a s t f o r t h e t i m e , a b o u t a l l of t h e o r d i n a r y t h i n g s i n your d a i l y e x i s t e n c e . The predominating s c i e n t i f i c t h o u g h t of today t e a c h e s u s t h a t e v e r y t h i n g we s e e o r f e e l i s e l e c t r i c a l i n n a t u r e , and t k i s d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t w e may n o t be aware o f it The develcpment of such a n i d e a h a s been a slow one, because i t r e q u i r e d many p r o o f s t o s u b s t a n t i a t e i t , and t h e s e p r o o f s c o u l d be o b t a i n e ? o n l y t h r o u g h l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g and s i m p l e d e d u c t i o n s f o l l o w i n g y e a r s of e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n and r e s e a r c h . The i d e a i s now moulded

i n t o a well-fourded theory, c a l l e d t h e "Electron Theory". This theory i s used by p r a c t i c a l l y a l l s c i e n t i f i c men to account f o r d i f f e r e n t e l e c t r i c a l phenomena and, t h e r e f o r e , i t s importance t o us cannot be overestimated. The "Electron Theory", e x p l a i n e d & n subsequent paragraphs, i s based upon t h e combined a c t i o n of the "negative e l e c t r o n " , t h e v e r y s m a l l e s t speck of m a t t e r which i s n e g a t i v e e l e c t r i c i t y , and a complementary p a r t i c l e of ositive electricity. One a u t h o r i t y c a l l s t h e l a t t e r a " p o s i t i v e e l e c t r o n " , g u t i t i s more commonly spoken of a s a "proton". These e l e c t r i c a l charges not o n l y form t h e b a s i s of a l l m a t t e r i t s e l f , b u t a r e t h e cause of a l l e l e c t r i c a l actions. 'J'hus, t o b e t t e r understand e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s and t h e i r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n it i s necesgary t o have some g e n e r a l information concerning the c o n s t r u c t i o n of m a t t e r .
MATTER. A l l normal human beings a r e g i f t e d with f i v e f a c u l t i e s o r sens a t i o n s ; t h e s e a r e s i g h t , t a s t e , hearing, touch and smell.

S c i e n t i s t s t e l l us t h a t anything which occupies space and a c t s on our senses i s matter. If w a c c e p t t h i s statement w should have no d i f f i c u l t y i n e e u n d m d i n g t h a t o b j e c t s , such a s c h a i r s , t a b l e s , houses, r a d i o s e t s , t h e w i r e s used t o connect up r a d i o p a s t s , a i r c r a f t , t h e v e r y paper and ink used t o p r i n t t h f s l e s s o n , and even t h e a i r you b r e a t h e , a r e a l l examples of matter. Again, a n y t h i w which occupies space and has weight i s s a i d t o be matter.

Matter t a k e n a s a whole e x i s t s i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t forms, namely, SOLIDS, LIQUIDS and GASES.

A s o l i d i s a body whfch o f f e r s an o p p o s i t i o n t o any change i n i t s shape when under normal temperature and p r e s s u r e . A o b j e c t , such a s a piece of n i r o n , w i l l keep i t s shape am3 i d e n t i t y j u s t s o long a s it i s p r o t e c t e d from t h e elements, or from abnormal temperatures o r p r e s s u r e s .

However, we know t h a t i f i r o n i s placed i n a b l a c k s m i t h f s . f o r g e and heated it can be worked i n t o any d e s i r e d shape by constant pounding w i t h a hammer. S t r i k i n g t h e hot i r o n with a hammer e x e r t s a c e r t a i n p r e s s u r e and t h e hot f i r e i n c r e a s e s t h e temperature; it i s c l e a r t h a t these two provi9ions a r e necessary before t h e i r o n can be p r o p e r l y worked. Now, suppose t h f s i r o n remains i n the f i r e bed and t h e h e a t i s consfderably r a l s e d by o p e r a t i n g t h e qorge blower; it i s e v i d e n t t h a t a time w i l l come when t h e s o l f d piece of i r o n w i l l become molten ancl t h e n b e i n g converted t o a l i q u i d i t w i l l e i t h e r form a pool, o r r u n o f f , o r flow a s would any heavy f l u i d . I f the liquid iron was poured i n t o a r e c e p t a c l e , o r mould, and allowed t o c o o l i t would assume t h e shape of t h e r e c e p t a c l e . Water i s a very good e x w p l e of m a t t e r which can be e a s i l y changed i n t o any f i a t e r i n a n a t u r a l s t a t e i s a c o l o r l e s s l i q u i d ; ,when one of t h r e e forms. f r o z e n i t t u r n s i n t o a s o l i d cake of i c e ; and when h e a t e d t o t h e b o i l i n g p o i n t steam w i l l i s s u e f o r t h from i t s s u r f a c e and r a p i d l y expand i n t o the surrounding space a s a g a s . See Figure 1. I n g e n e r a l , a l l forms of m a t t e r have f o u r important p r o p e r t i e s . They a r e : POROSITY, COMPRESSIBILITY, ELASTIC D Y and DIVISIBILITY.

Lesson 3

sheet 2

( a ) P o r o s i t y may be d e f i n e d a s t h e e x i s t e n c e of minute openings o r pores i n any kind of m a t t e r , t h e openings or pores being e n t i r e l y v o i d of any of the m a t e r i a l or substance of which t h e m a t t e r i s composed, Each pore, r e g a r d l e s s of i t s s i z e i s r e a l l y empty space. These openings v a r y i n s i z e f o r d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s a s may be seen by i n s p e c t i n g a s e c t i o n of s o f t wood and comparrng it with a p i e c e of marble o r i r o n . $The common b l o t t e r which absorbs i n k i s a good example of p o r o s i t y . Also, water i s capable of t a k i n g i n t o i t s pores a d e f i n i t e amount of d i s s o l v e d s u g a r w i t h o u t n o t i c e a b l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e b u l k of t k e w a t e r . ( b ) C o m p r e s s i b i l i t y may be considered t o be a g e n e r a l p r o p e r t y of a l l m a t t e r which would permit t h e small p a r t i c l e s composing the m a t t e r t o be more c l o s e l y packed t o g e t h e r . This packing would t e n d t o l e s s e n t h e amount of t h e void spaces w i t h i n t h e mass. Pressure a p p l i e d t o any substance a c t s t o compress i t . A hot i n g o t of i r o n a f t e r passing through heavy s t e e l r o l l e r s i n a s t e e l m i l l w i l l emerge i n compressed form. In t h e case of water and o i l we have fcrms of m a t t e r which almost r e s i s t compressing, but such l i q u i d s , however, may be compressed t o a very l i m i t e d degree by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of g r e a t p r e s s u r e , In a l l e v e n t s t h e amount of compression depends upon t h e pressure e x e r t e 7 a x l t h e kind of matter under compression.

WhTER IN LIQUID

WATER iN SOLID STATE

WATER IN GASEOUS STATE

Figure 1 ( c ) E l a s t i c i t y Bn m a t t e r may r e l a t e e i t h e r t o e l a s t i c i t y of p h y s i c a l form o r e l a s t i c i t y of volume. This term i s used t o d e s i g n a t e t h e p r o p e r t y possessed by s o l i d bodies t h a t permits then t o be s t r e t c h e d t o c e r t a i n l i m i t s without breaking and, i a t e r , t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l shapes a f t e r When f o r c e i s applied t o a t h e s t r e t c h i n g f o r c e o r ' p r e s s u r e i s removed. m a t e r i a l i n a way t h a t w i l l cause i t t o become t w i s t e d , b e n t , o r s t r e t c h e d , t h e molecules which form t h e ' m a t e r i a l a r e d i s t o r t e d and d i s p l a c e d under an unnatural s t r a i n . I f t h e f o r c e i s d i s c o n t i n u e d t h e molecules w i l l t r y t o a d j u s t themselves and s h i f t back i n t o t h e i r u s u a l p l a c e s a s q u i c k l y a s possible. Lesson 3 sheet 3

T h i s p r o p e r t y , known a s ' P e l a s t i c i t y " , c a n be d e m o n s t r a t e d by p u l l i n g a It i s t h i s p r o p e r t y of e l a s t i c i t y t h a t r u b b e r band a m t h e n l e t t i n g it go. p e r m i t s heavy w e i g h t s t o b e s u p p o r t e d w i t h s a f e t y . It would r e q u i r e a f a r g r e a t e r f o r c e t o p u l l a copper w i r e i n two t h a n a p i e c e of s i l k . Thus, we would s a y t h a t t h e w i r e h a s g r e a t e r t e n a t i t y t h a n t h e s i l k , o r we might s a y t h e molecules f o r m i n g t h e w i r e w i l l n o t l e t go" a s r e a d i l y a s would t h e molecules of s i l k . A 1 1 s o l i d s and l i q u i d s and g a s e s have e l a s t i c i t y t o a g r e a t e r or l e s s extent.

I f o r c e i s a p p l i e d i n c o n s t a n t l y bending a m a t e r i a l h e a t w i l l be g e n e r a t e d . f
his i s due t o t h e r u b b i n g t o g e t h e r of t h e m o l e c u l e s a s t h e y a r e f o r c e d o u t of t h e i r r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s ; we s a y t h a t t h e h e a t i s due t o m o l e c u l a r f r i c t i o r

( d ) D i v i s i b i l i t x o f m a t t e r r e l a t e s t o t h e d i v i s i o n o r b r e a k i n g up o f m a t t e r i n t o i t s s r n a l l e s t c o n c e i v a b l e p a r t s w i t h o u t i n a n y way a l t e r i n g t h e form o f matter i t s e l f . J u s t how s m a l l s u c h p a r t i c l e s of m a t t e r may a c t u a l l y become, and s t i l l r e t a i n t h e i r i d e n t i t y , can be d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a l l o w i n g a few d r o p s of c o l o r e d i n k t o f a l l i n t o a g l a s s o f w a t e r . A t f i r s t , t h e i n k w i l l be If s e e n t o f orn i r r e g u l a r s t r e a k s which work downward t h r o u g h t h e l i q u i d . t h e g l a s s i s l e f t u n d i s t u r b e d f o r some time i t w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t a l l of Can you imagine how t i n y t h e s e d i v i d e d i n k t h e l i q u i d w i l l become c o l o r e d . p a r t i c l e s (from o n l y a few d r o p s ) must have b e e n t o p e r m i t them t o e n t e r t h e c o u n t l e s s p o r e s i n tkz c o m p a r a t i v e l y l a r g e volume of w a t e r , and c a u s e t h e colored t h o u g h o u t ? w a t e r t o be u n i f o r m l y Hence, w l e a r n t h a t m a t t e r i s n o t a b s o l u t e l y a s o l i d homogeneous s t r u c t u r e , e but t h a t m a t t e r i s m d e up of c o u n t l e s s b i l l i o n s of e x t r e m e l y l i t t l e p a r t i c l e s w i t h n o n - m a t e r i a l s p a c e s , c a l l e d "voids ", s e p a r a t i n g the p a r t i c l e s ,
m he e x c e e d i n g l y minute p a r t i c l e s which we have b e e n s p e a k i n g a b o u t a r e g i v e n t h e name m o l e c u l e s ,

'The t i n y s p e c k s , c a l l e d m o l e c u l e s , a r e never a b s o l u t e l y m o t i o n l e s s u d e r a v e r a g e c o n d i t i ons

MOLECULES: A molecule i s d e f i n e d a s t h e s m a l l e s t d i v i s i o n of a n y k i n d of matter r e t a i n i n g a l l of t h e chemical and p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e m a t t e r itself. ?'heref o r e , a m o l e c u l e , a l t h o u g h v e r y s m a l l , c a n be i d e n t i r i e d a s b e l o n g i n g t o a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d of m a t t e r .

A s a body i s lowered i n t e m p e r a t u r e , t h a t i s , a s i t g e t s c o l d e r , t h e movement8 of t h e m o l e c u l e s become l e s s v i o l e n t . On t h e c o n t r a r y , when a body i s r a i s e d 1 1 temperature, t h a t is, a s it g e t s h o t t e r , t h e m o l e c u l a r movement becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y moye a c t i v e . It i s o n l y a t the v e r y l o w e s t known t e m p e r a t u r e ( a b s o l u t e z e r o ) t h a t t h e m o l e c u l e s of a l l m a t t e r a r e d o ~ m a n t ~ m e a n i ntg a t a l l a c t i o n h c e s s e s , Absolute z e s o i s about 459 d e g r e e s below z e r o and i s t h e p o i n t a t whic n o h e a t can b e g i v e n u p o r t a k e n from a body. S p e a k i n g i n b r o a d terms we c a n s a y t h a t h e a t e n c o u r a g e s m o l e c u l a r v i b r a t i o n , o r motion, whereas c o l d t e n d s t o c o u n t e r a c t it.

e means. ~ h tg n d e n c y o f aioms of a s i m i l a r k i n d ( o r s p e c i e ) i s to"assemb1e t o g e t h e r and form m o l e c u l a r g r o u p s which i n turn become u n i t s of m a t t e r . Once t h e g r o u p s a r e assembled t h e y r e s i s t a l l o r d i n a r y methods t o d i s r u p t o r t e a r them a p a r t . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f a f o r c e , o r h e a t , a r e two means f o r Lesson 3

ATOES. The molecule i t s e l f i s composed o f a n a g g r e g a t i o n o f atoms, the XTEiE b e i m t h e s m a l l e s t w a r t s i n t o which m a t t e r c a n be d i v i d e d by c h e m i c a l --- -

- sheet

i :

e f f e c t i v e l y overcoming t k s t r o n g m o l e c u l a r a t t r a c t i o n i n h e r e n t i n a l l m a t t e r . An atom c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y of p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e e l e c t r i c i t y w i t h t h e atoms of t h e v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s d i f f e r i n g i n t h e i r g e n e r a l f o r m a t i o n . There a r e more t h a n n i n e t y d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s , o r k i n d s , of atoms some of which a r e f a m i l i a r t o a l l of u s ; f o r example, we have t h e cop+mr atom, Jhe I n d i v i d u a l t h e i r o n atom, t h e g o l d atom, t h e hydrogen atom, and s o on. atoms i n any one s p e c i e a r e p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l b u t t h e d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s have t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t p r o p e r t i e s . ELEMENTS. Every m o l e c u l e which forms a g i v e n s u b s t a n c e must c o n s l s t of t h e same number and ssme s p e c i e o f atoms, and t o e x p r e s s t h i s f a c t we g i v e t h e Taking any o f t h e e l e m e n t s s i n g l y , e a c h one s u b s t a n c e t h e name e l e m e n t . c o n s i s t s of o n l y one k i n d o f atom. Hence, we u n d e r s t a n d now why c o p p e r , s u l p h u r , i r i d i u m , oxygen, c a r b o n , l e a d , g o l d and a l l t h e r e s t o f t h e n i n e t y o r more e l e m e n t s e a c h e x h i b i t t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r t i e s b y which we know them. When d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of atoms combine t h e s u b s t a n c e f orned i s c a l l e d

a COMPOUIqD.
you can b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e terms b y a n a l y z i n g how w a t e r i s formed. w a t e r , a s we know i t , i s s i m p l y a c o l o r l e s s l i q u i d . A molecule of w a t e r i s t h e s n a l l e s t d i v i s i b l e p a r t of w a t e r t h a t c a n p o s s i b l y be o b t a b e d w i t h tk molecule r e t a i n i n g t h e i d e n t i t y of w a t e r . However, t h e molecule i s com;>osed of two e l e m e n t s , n e i t h e r one of which r e s e m b l e s w a t e r . These e l e m e n t s a r e hydrogen and oxygen, two g a s e s which always combine i n t h e same a ~ o u n t s nrhen b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r . To c i t e a n example: It t a k e s two atoms of hydrogen t o e n t e r i n t o combination w i t h one atorn of oxygen t o form one molecule of w a t e r , and u s i n g t h e symbols, !ye have t h e chemical e x p r e s s i o n f o r w a t e r , H 2 O . : $ a t e r m o l e c u l e s a r e a very s i m p l e arrangement i n t h e a t o m i c world when compared w i t h c e r t a i n compounded s u b s t a n c e s . W e have, f o r example, a v e r y complex a g g r e g a t i o n of d - i f f e r e n t s p e c i e of atoms i n a m o l e c u l e of s u g a r . To form one m o l e c u l e of s u g a r r e q u i r e s t w e l v e s atoms of c a r b o n , twenty-two atoms o f hydrogen and e l e v e n atoms of oxygen combined i n t o a s i n g l e group. There a r e c o u n t l e s s numbers o f pos s i b l e m o l e c u l a r combinations which p e r m i t t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e many d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of t h i n g s found i n and aL.out t h i s w o r l d of o u r s .

COHESION.

There i s a t r e m e M o u s m u t u a l f o r c e of a t t r a c t i o n between atoms of c e r t a i n k i n d s t h a t c a u s e s them t o form g r o u p s , and because t h e atoms p o s s e s s t h i s p r o p e r t y the m o l e c u l e s which t h e y f o r m a l s o have i t . Thus, we s e e why t h e r e i s a s t r o n g t e n d e n c y f o r t h i n g s t o h o l d o r c l i n g t o g e t h e r , o r t h i s p r o p e r t y of m a t t e r i s c a l l e d c o h e s i o n . remain i n t a c t

t You might be s u r p ~ i s e d o l e a r n t h a t it i s n o t a s i m p l e m a t t e r t o p u l l a vlhy n o t t r y t o do t h i s r i g h t now and convince yours h e e t of p a p e r a p a r t . self. Take a s h e e t of w r i t i n g p a p e r , r o l l l t and t h e n g r a s p i t a t e i t h e r end and p u l l w i t h a l l y o u r e f f o r t . Were you s u c c e s s f u l i n p u l l i n g t h e p a p e r i n t o two p a r t s ? U U h i l you c a n t e a r t h i s p a p e r e a s i l y , you may n o t e be a b l e t o f o r c e t h e m o l e c u l e s t o g i v e up t h e i r c l i n g i n g h o l d on one a n o t h e r . The t e r m " a d h e s i o n " i s o f t e n confused w i t h " c o h e s i o n " . Adhesion i s u s e d t o e x p r e s s t h e m u t u a l f o r c e s t h a t h o l d m o l e c u l e s of d i s s i m i l a r k i n d t o g e t h e r . B u t t e r w i l l s t i c k t o b r e a d because o f a d h e s i o n , b u t t h e b u t t e r o r bread c o n s i d e r e d a l o n e h o l d t o g e t h e r because of c o h e s i o n . Lesson 3 sheet 5

ELECTRICITY I S D I V I D E D G T E A L I N T O T O CLASSES. I n t h e broad sense ETR LY W e l e c t r i c i t y i s divided i n t o two c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , namely: s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t and dynamic o r curpent e l e c t r i c i t z . I n t h i s l e s s o n w give a b r i e f outlin: e of important e a r l y experiments which d e a l mainly with s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y . You w i l l see t h a t many e l e c t r i c a l p r i n c i p l e s can be explained and proved by t h e simplest f a c t s of n a t u r e and by l a b o r a t o r y experiments.

Important Events IRadim UP t o t h e Establishment of t h e E l e c t r o n Theory. e Going back t o t h e year 600 B.C. w f i n d t h a t i n t h e Grecian c i t y of Miletus, t h e r e was a Greek philospher, named Thales, who pondered over the causes f o r l i g h t n i n g and t r i e d t o a s c e r t a i n why i t had such d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t s . During he one of t h e s e periods of ~ t u d y discovered, q u i t e by a c c i d e n t , t h a t if an amber rod was rubbed with a piece of s i l k t h e rod a t once possessed the power t o a t t r a c t small b i t s of parchment. L a t e r , d u r i n g t h e period of 400Bc., Democritus devoted considerable time t o t h e s t u d y of m a t e r i a l s and e f f e c t s which could be produced by them, when t r e a t e d i n v a r i o u s ways. His i n t e r e s t was aroused when he observed t h a t i n some i n s t a n c e s an a t t r a c t i o n was s e t up between c e r t a i n substances when rubbed t o g e t h e r , whereas, between o t h e r substances t h e r e was t h e e f f e c k of r e p u l s i o n s e t up. These experiments a r e thought t o be among t h e very f i r s t recorded concerning t h e discovery of a source of e l e c t r i c i t y , and since t h e e f f e c t s were brought about by f r i c t i o n t h i s kind of e l e c t r i c i t y became known a s " e l e c t r i c i t y a t p e s t " . B u t w now c a l l e f f e c t s of this kind " s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y w , The e a n c i e n t Greeks attempted t o account f o r the mysterious r e s u l t s obtained when rubbing t o g e t h e r m a t e r i a l s of d i f f e r e n t kinds. One of the reasons they advanced i n e x p l a n a t i o n of such e f f e c t s was t h a t d u r i n g the rubbing process small g r a i n s of one m a t e r i a l were being imparted t o t h e o t h e r m a t e r i a l . I n 1600 D r . G i l b e r t of sngland performed experiments s i m i l a r t o those of t h e Greeks. But where t h e y used amber he employed a g l a s s rod, and observed t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l s could be put i n t o n c o n d i t i o n thal would g i v e them the power of a t t r a c t i o n o r r e p u l s i o n a s the c a s e may bc, It aas D r . G i l b e r t who a p p l i e d the Greek word f o r amber, which i s "elektron", t o express these p e c u l i a r e f f e c t s and he s t a t e d t h a t when t h e g l a s s rod was rubbed it became " e l e c t r i f Led". The e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n o f bodies when subjected t o such treatment was shown t o be merely a temporary c o n d i t i o n and although t h e e x a c t nature of the e l e c t r i c a l charge was not known t h e r e s u l t s a t t a i n e d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s t a t i c charge r e s t e d only on t h e o u t e r surface of t h e e l e c t r i f i e d material. I n 1733 D r . % f a y 9 when engaged i n f r i c t i o n a l e l e c t r i c a l experiments, n o t i c e d t h a t s e a l i n g wax, when rubbed with e a t ' s f u r , became e l e c t r i f i e d and possessed q u a l i t i e s unl5ke t h o s e of a piece of g l a s s which had been e l e c t r i e f i e d by rubbing w i t h c a t ' s f u r , H saw t h a t t h e s e a l i n g wax would r e p e l substances f o r which the g l a s s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , would e x h i b i t a decided attraction, Moreover, he sought t o i d e n t i f y t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s of opposite kind. Accordi n g l y , he gave t h e name " resinous e l e c t r i c i t y " t o the charge possessed by s e a l i n g wax when rubbed w i t h c a t 1s fur and t h e name " v i t r e o u s e l e c t r i c i t y ' ' t o t h e charge taken on by g l a s s when subjected t o f r i c t i o n a l contact w i t h t h e c a t ' s fur, Thus9 w e must l e a r n a t t h e s t a r t t h a t t h e terms g o s i t i v e and nerrative i n a l l e l e c t r i c a l science are merely r e l a t i v e and a r b i t r a r y as Lesson 3

sheet 6

o r i g i n a t e d by F r a n k l i n . Indeed, he could have c a l l e d r e s i n o u s and v i t r e o u s e l e c t r i c i t y b y t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t names s o long a s t h e names he d i d a p p l y served t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e important f a c t : 'wenever e l e c t r i c i t y i s evident t h e r e always e x i s t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y two u n l i k e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r g e s of e q u a l cjuantitf'. You cannot have one k i n d of c h a r g e p r e s e n t w i t h o u t t h e o t h e r . he words " p o s i t i v e " and " n e g a t i v e " seemed t o f i t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s and t h e y have been used a s s t a n d a r d terms e v e r s i n c e . M e a n i q o f " p o s i t i v e " and "Negative". W a r e i n d e b t e d t o Benjamin F r a n k l i n e f o r o r i g i n a t i n g what a r e u n d o u b t e d l y t h e two most commonly use? terms i n e l e c t r i c i t y ; p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e . About t h e y e a r 1747, a f t e r c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l work, he o b s e r v e d t h a t whenever e l e c t r i c i t y o f one k i n d was p r e s e n t t h e r e a l s o was p r e s e n t a n o p p o s i t e k i n d . I n o t h e r words, we c o u l d n o t have one c o n d i t i o n o f e l e c t r i c i t y p r e v a i l i n g w i t h o u t a l s o t h e o p p o s i t e c o n d i t i on. From t h i s fundamental i d e a w e a r e a b l e t o account f o r t h e e f f e c t s of a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n . F r a n k l i n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s t a t e of charge be p l v e n t h e f o l l o w i n g a r b i t r a r y terms, thus: "A s u b s t a n c e i s s a i d t o - b e p o s i t i v e l y e l e c t r i f i e d i f it i s r e p e l l e d when coning i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h a g l a s s r o d a f t e r t h e l a t t e r h a s been e l e c t p i f i e d b y r u b b i n g w i t h s i l k . On t h e o t h e r hand, a s u b s t a n c e i s s a i d t o be n e g a t i v e l y e l e c t r i f i e d , nr chsrrre!: t o 2 n e g a t i v e s e n s e . i f s e a l i n. wax repels it a f t e r t h e wax h a s g -been e l e c t r i f i e d w T t h c a t ' s f u r " .

.,

~~

~t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t i n t h e e a r l y d a y s l a a r n e d men b e l i e v e d Indeed, even t o e l e c t r i c i t y was due t o t h e f l o w of Ifan i n v i s i b l e l i q u i d . p r e s e n t time we use t h e word I f f low t o e x p r e s s the movement of an e l e c t r i c a l I n our e v e r y d a y work we o f t e n h e a r somecharge from one p l a c e t o a n o t h e r . one make t h e f o l l o w i n g remark: "A flow of c u r r e n t i n a c e r t a i n conductor produced such and s u c h a r e s u l t , e t c . " Thus, t h e t e r m " f l o w f f h a s been r e t a i n e d d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f l u i d t h e o r y h a s lolng s i n c e b e e n d i s c a r d e d .
I n 1833 Faraday a l s o c o r % r i b u t e d t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n g from f r i c t i o n between s u b s t a n c e s . He conceived t h e i d e a t h a t when materials were rubbed t o g e t h e r , t h e y were p l a o e d und-r a n e l e c t r i c a l i n f l u e n c e , o r s t r e s s , and t h a t some unknown i n t e r v e n i n g me-iium was cap& l e of carrying t h i s s t r e s s along t h e material. i s p r e c i s e l y what happens T h i s c o n c e p t i o n was r e a l l y when a g l a s s rod i s rubbed w i t h a s i l k c l o t h . i m p o r t a n t because it was t h e f o r e r u n n e r of t h e i d e a t h a t t h e s u r r o u n d i n g "space medium" was a c a r r i e r o f a n e l e c t r i c a l c h a r g e . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o m e n t i o n that F a r a d a y d i s c o v e r e d t h a t a 'his r e l a t i o n d i s t i n c t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d between s u b s t a n c e and c u r r e n t . s h i p was obsevved by h i m when p e r f o r m i n g an e x p e r i m e n t employing a j a r cont a i n i n g a s o l u t i o n i n t o which was immersed a c o p p e r rod a n d a s i l v e r r o d . He n o t i c e d t h a t a c e r t a i n amount of c u r r e n t was r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n a chemical r e a c t i o n t h a t would remove a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y o f s j l v e r From t h e s i l v e r r o d and d e p o s i t it on t h e c o p p e r . A f t e r S t o n e y s s s u g g e s t i o n i n 1 8 9 1 t h a t t h e " e l e c t r o n b e known a s thq n a t u r a l u n i t of e l e c t r i c i t y " t h e e l e c t r o n t h e o r y became p e r m a n e n t l y e s t a b l i s l i e d . But not w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e many y e a r s of d i l i g e n t r e q e a r c h , a s j u s t o u t l i n e d i n our l e s s o n , the q u e s t i o n , "What i s e l e c t r i c i t y ? I' remains unanswered t o t h i s day. NO one i s c e r t a i n a s t o t h e a c t u a l n a t u r e o f e l e c t r i c i t y . Lesson 3

- sheet

The Electron 'Theory Accourits For E l e c t r i c a l Forces and Their E f f e c t s . ~t t h e present time t h e e l e c t r o n t h e o r y p r e v a i l s almost u n i v e r s a l l y . It i s based on t h e very n a t u r e and composition of a l l m a t t e r ; s o l i d , l i q u i d s , and gases. A l l forms of r e s e a r c h a r e v i t a l l y important because a s modern science delves c l o s e r and c l o s e r i n t o the fundamental b a s i s of our unlverse i t d a i l y c o n t r i b u t e s new knowledge which makes p o s s i b l e the r a p i d development and improvement i n r a d i o d e s i g n and equipment, G e t t i n g down t o t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s of matter, o r i t s r e a l composition, we a r e t o l d t h a t i t i s a l l made up w i t h i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y small matter p a r t i c l e s which a r e e s s e n t i a l l y e l e c t r i c a l charges. if'hese u n i t charges of matter have been g i v e n t h e names, e l e c t r o n s and ~ r o t o n s . I n b r i e f , a l l e l e c t r o n s possess a d e f i n i t e amount of negative e l e c t r i c a l energy, a l s o , t h e y cons t a n t l y w h i r l about their p o s i t i v e nucleus a t tremendous h i g h v e l o c i t i e s , b e s i d e s which t h e y occupy a c e r t a i n place i n t h e complicated sys%em i n t h e atoms of matter. I n our work we d e a l c h i e f l y w i t h t h e " e l e c t r o n and simply r e f e r t o t h e "proton" a s t h e p o s i t i v e charge o r nucleus. The exact arrangement of t h i s atornfy: system depends upon and d i f f e r s according t o various kinds of m a t t e r . &?rep. t o Figure 2, where t h e r e a r e shown t h r e e d i f f e r e n t atoms, e a c h w i t h an i n n e r group of e l e c t r o n s c i r c l i n g about a p o s i t i v e center of a t t r a c t i o n , and " f r e e " e l e c t r o n s r a c i n g about a t hfgh v e l o c i t y t o form a so- called outer group. Note t h a t because of t h e i r p o s i t i o n the f r e e e l e c t r o n s could be more e a s l l y detached from a n atom than any of t h e e l e c t r o n s forming t h e i n n e r group.
ELECTRONS I N RAPID VIBRATION HELD VllTHlN BOUNDS BY THE ATTRACTIVE FORCE OF THE POSITIVE NUCLEUS

E A C H DRAWING ILLUSTRATES A POSSIBLE ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS AND T H E I R POSITIVE NUCLEUS W I T H I N THE

ATOM

Figure 2 This hypothesis, wherein atoms of m a t t e r a r e thought t o be made up of e l e c t r o n s , o r p a r t i c l e s of e l e c t r i c i t y , teaches u s t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y and mattel a r e f u n d a m n t a l l y t h e same. Before you a r e through with t h i s subject you w i l l not only l e a r n t h a t a l l matter i s made up of a very complex and wonderf u l s t r u c t u r e of atoms, but t h a t t h e b a s i s of a l l t h i n g s i s t h e small unseen e l e c t r i c a l p a r t i c l e " t h e e l e c t r o n " .

Let us now r e t u r n t o our s u b j e c t and d i s c u s s i n d e t a i l the r e s u l t s of performing a simple experiment where two d i s s i m i l a r substances a r e rubbed t og e t h e r , and e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s a r e developed, There i s no movement t o e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s of t h i s kind i n t h e o ~ d i n a r y sense t h a t one u s u a l l y t h i n k s or b e t t e r expressed as " e l e c t r i c i t ! of movement; t h e f o r c e s a r e " s t a t i o n a r y a t r e s t " . Forces of t h i s kind a r e known a s " s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t , " and t h e s u b j e c t i t s e l f i n r e f e r r e d t o i n g e n e r a l a s ELECTROSTATICS.

Lesson 3

- sheet

It w i l l be shown t h a t s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y produces e f f e c t s which a r e i n dependent and d i f f e r e n t from those r e s u l t i n g from " e l e c t r i c i t i n motion". The l a t t e r kind o f e l e c t r i c i t y i s c l a s s i f i e d i n g e n e r a l a s dynamic e l e c t r i c i t y , or a s CURRENT ELECTRICITY. T h i s i s t h e e l e c t r i c i t y t h a t flows through copper wires and o t h e r conducting mediums and i s r e f e r r e d t o i n gem+& a s ELECTRODYNAMICS.
H w t o Produce S t a t i c E l e c t r i c i t y by Simple Methods. o It is an e a s y m a t t e r f o r us t o observe t h e e f f e c t s of s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y produced on m a t e r i a l s T O do t h i s f o l l o w t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s a s suggested rubbing t h e n t o g e t h e r . Take a n o r d i n a r y rubber comb and with t h e back held i n Figures 3 and 4. a g a i n s t a piece of wool r u b t h e comb b r i s k l y back and f o r t h a c r o s s t h e I f you now move i t c l o s e t o s m a l l wool, The comb i s now e l e c t r i f i e d . b i t s of paper, which have been prepared f o r t h e experiment, a very s t r a n g e influence w i l l be seen t o e x i s t i n t h e r e g i o n about t h e comb. You w i l l n o t i c e a s t h e comb i s moved slowly toward t h e l i t t l e paper b i t s t h a t they w i l l be s t r o n g l y a t t r a c t e d t o i t ; t h e b i t s w i l l a c t u a l l y jump toward t h e comb and adhere t o i t f o r a few moments. Next, a s you watch t h i s a c t i o n , you w i l l observe another p e c u l i a r e f f e c t , f o r a f t e r a s h o r t i n t e r v a l t h e b i t s of paper w i l l s e e r t o be thrown f o r c i b l y away from the comb. That i s t o s a y , t h e paper b i t s do not merely d r o p off but seem t o be a c t u a l l y r e p e l l e d . Tn the f i r s t p a r t o f t h e experiment t h e p r o p e r t y of a t t r a c t i o n between t h e m e t e r i a l s was observed an&, l a s t l y , t h e p r o p e ~ t y r e p u l s i o n was c l e a r l y of e x h i b i t e d . This i s only one of many e f f e c t s which may be brought about by s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y due t o f r i c t i o n .

Figure 9

Figure 4

Inasnuch as the comb a t d i f f e r e n t times evidences q u a l i t i e s which were opposite e l e c t r i c a l l y , t h a t i s , a l t e r n a t e l y i n d i c a t i n g a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n , then i t s e t s us t o t h i n k l n g t h a t unseen f o r c e s muat have been c o n s t a n t l y a t work while t h i s e n t i r e experiment was under way, It i s a u i t e apparent t h a t two d i s t i n c t k i d s of e l e c t r i c ( s t a t i c ) charges were p r e s e n t i n o r d e r t o produce t h e s e r e s u l t s . Let us experimect f u r t h e r and perform a simple t e s t s i m i l a r t o one made by F r a n k l i n i n 1747. H i s purpose a t the time was t o evolve standarc' term Lcr be used i n e x p l a i n i n g a c t i o n s r e l a t i n g t a e l e c t r i c a l ( s t a t i c ) f o r c e s from known conditions. Our purpose, it i s q u i t e obvious, i s merely t o l e a r n about t h i s marvelous s c i e n c e and s o l e t us s e t up t h e experiment a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 5 and 6. A g l a s s rod and a n ebony rod a r e each suspended by a s i l k Lasmn 3

- sheet

thread a t some d i s t a n c e from each o t h e r as shown i n t h e d-ruwing. A second g l a s s rod w i l l be used t o produce t h e d e s i r e d e f f e c t s by touching i t f i r s t t o one of t h e suspended rods and then t h e other. Now, w i t h a b r i s k movement, rub t h e ebony with a p i e c e of f u r and then f o l l . 0 ~ by rubbing each g l a s s rod i n succession w i t h a piece of s i l k .
GLASS

ROD\,

GLASS ROD-'

, '

'-EBONY

ROD

, '
REPULSION BETWEEN BODIES HAVING L I K E
CHARGES

;
ATTRACTION.,' BETWEEN BODIES H A V I N G U N L I K E CHP

Figure 5

Figure 6

~ l of the ttkrraee rods a r e no;:. s a i d t o be s t a t i c a l l y charged or e l e c t r i f i e d . l Take the unsupported g l a s s rod and hold it near the e b o n y r o d . 'l'he ebony r o d w i l l a t once swing toward t h e g l a s s rod t h u s denoting t h e presence of a n a t t r a c t i v e influence. This time p l a c e t h e g l a s s rod, held i n the hand, close t o the supported g l a s s rod. The l a t t e r w i l l be seen +o swing away i n s t a n t l y , thus denoting t h e presence of a r e p u l s i v e i n f l u e n c e . The sketches i n Figures 7 and 8 i l l u s t r a t e a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n e f f e c t s i n gtatic electricity.

ZLECTRIC-STATIC FIzLD.The experiment i n Figure 6 shows how one e l e c t r i c a l l y charged body e x e r c i s e s a n i n f l u e n c e on another charged body when placed i n c l o s e proximity w i t h each other. The drawings i n F i m r e s 7 and 8 are a which a r e c a l l e d s t a t i c l i n e s simple means f o r showing how " l i n e s of f o r c e of f o r c e " , r e a c h out a considerable d i s t a n c e and occupy t h e space surrounding a n e l e c t r i f i e d body. These l i n e s a r e , of course, i n v i s i b l e but the s t a t i c e l e c t r i c a l a c t i o n s a r e accounted f o r by t h e i r presence.
A "force" i s always i n d i c a t e d by a l i n e and t h e d i r e c t i o n of the arrow head a t t h e end of the l i n e denotes t h e C i r e c t i o n i n which t h e f o r c e i s applied.

~ l s o ,understand t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i n e s show r e p u l s i o n f o r one another and i t i s t h i s p e c u l a r i t y t h a t causes them t o remain a p a r t and assume t h e f o r metion shovm i n t h e drawings. A l l of the l i n e s t a k e n a s a whole a r e c a l l e d a s t a t i c f i e l d of fore$. The space surrounding a charged body i s f i l l e d w i t h t h e s e s t a t i c f o r c e l i n e s , w i t h the e f f e c t of each i n d i v i d u a l l i n e ending on t h e o u t e r surface of t h e m a t e r i a l . From t h i s t e s t w see why a s t r o n g a t t r a c t i o n e x i s t e d between the ebony and e e g l a s s rods and a pronounced r e p u l s i o n between t h e two g l a s s rods. W can now summarize t h i s by s t a t i n g t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l s were placed i n t h i s conLesson 3

sheet 10

d i t i o n by rubbing and that two klnds of e l e o t r i c ( s t a t i c ) charges were made e v i d e n t ; t h i s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e p o l a r i t y signs ( + ) and ( - ) i n Figure 6 .
STATIC CHARGES ARE DUE TO A DISPLACEMENT O ELECTRONS W I T H I N THE ATOiv1. F with t h e t e s t s j u s t performed i n mind and explanations t o f o l . 1 0 ~ e sill l e a r n w

why m a t e r i a l s e x h i b i t t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t a c t i o n s when e l e c t r i f i e d by f r i c t i o n . The f a c t t h a t g l a s s and fur when rubbed together show c o n t r a r y e l e c t r i c a l behavior: i s q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t . yo give a reason why one has the power t o " a t t r a c t , and t h e o t h e r the power t o " r e p e l " , w must r e f e r back t o t h e e c o n s t r u c t i o n of m a t t e r and how i t i s based on the atom and t h e e l e c t r o n . One of the g r e a t e s t a u t h o r i t i e s of our day, "obert Andrews M i l l i k a n , e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e between a l l m a t t e r , which g i v e s us so many vwie'ies of t h i n g s , i s accounted f o r by the number and v a r i e t of the groupings of negative e l e c t r o n s w i t h t h e i r p o s i t i v e charges. hese opposite e l e c t r i c a l charges i n combination c o n s t i t u t e the atoms of matter. The p o s i t i v e charge w i t h i n t h e atom i s sometimes c a l l e d a p r o t o n a s s t a t e d b e f o r e .

ATTRACTION B E T W E E N BODIES CHARGED

REPULSION B E T W E E N BODIES CHARGED WITH ELECTRICITY OF LIKE POLARITY AND E Q U A L POTENTIAL

INVISIBLE
DIRECTION OF FORCE B E T W E E N LINES

ELECTROSTATIC LINES OF FORCE SET U P I N THE INTERVENING SPACE

ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS REMAIN INDEPENDENT AND EXERT A PUSHING EFFECT UPON EACH OTHER

Figure 7

Figure 8

So w l e a r n from the study of t h e e l e c t r o n i c formation of m a t t e r t h a t t h e e q u a l i t i e s which permit a p a r t i c u l a r substance t o b e recognized a r e due ent i r e l y t o a v a r i a t i o n of t h e number of atoms, t h e i r s i z e and aggregation i n e forming the whole mass. N a r e a l s o t o l d t h a t although t h e proton of an atom may remain unchanged i n p o s i t i o n , o r q u a n t i t y , y e t it i s possible t o have perhaps one or more e l e c t r o n s added t o o r s u b s t r a c t e d from those normally revolving w i t h i n t h e atom. Any change i n t h e number of e l e c t r o n s i n an atom, however, w i l l cause i t t o become unbalanced e l e c t r i c a l l y , Under such cond i t i o n s the atoms, and l i k e w i s e the mass i t s e l f , w i l l assume e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which a r e e i t h e r negative or p o s i t i v e , a s explained under t h e t o p i c immediately following.

It has been proven experimentally by p h y s i c i s t s t h a t h e a t a l t e r s t h e atomic s t r u c t u r e of mass. When i n t h e a c t of rubbing the g l a s s rod with t h e s i l k cloth, as i n F i ~ u r e 5, t h e rubbing s e t up f r i c t i o n between t h e m a t e r i a l s , and t h i s i n t u r n r e s l t e d i n a c e r t a i n amount of h e a t b e i n & d e v e l q e d . Hence, under a l l c o n d i t i o n s we expect f r i c t i o n t o g e n e r a t e heat, i n varying degrees, depending, of course, upon t h e circumstances s7Jrrounding the a c t i o n . Accordingly, w may expect i n t h e case just c i t e d t h a t the temperature of e b o t h t h e s i l k and the r o 3 was increased t o some e x t e n t , although t h e h e a t may not have been s u f f i c i e n t f o r you t o d e t e c t i t . Have you ever noticed
Lesson 3

sheet 1 1

how i r o n , when s u b j e c t e d t o i n t e n s e h e a t , w i l l a t f i r s t change i t s shape somewhat and l a t e r become a molten mass and flow l i k e a heavy l i q u i d . The e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of t h e g l a s s rod according t o t h e e l e c t r o n theory i s due t o a c e r t a i n displacement of e l e c t r o n s w i t h i n t h e atoms by which-thee a r e s h i f t e d s l i g h t l y out of t h e usual p o s i t i o n s they occupy. So long a s t-h-e e l e c t r o n s remain s h i f t e d out of the r e l a t i v e u o s i t i o n s i n t h i s wav then - - - -just so long will. e l e c t r l c f o r c e s ( s t a t i c l i n e s of f o r c e ) be i n evideLce i n t h e space about t h e r o d a
W S SAID -H E N A MASSo I Figure Referring t
-

TO BE ZLECTRICALLY I N A NEUTRAL, POSITIVE OR ??YGATIVE ST4T'E. 9 you w i l l observe three sketches ivhieh show p i c t o r i a l l y

why u n i t q u a n t i t i e s of a mass a r e capable of d i s p l a y i n g e l e c t , r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a t d i f f e r e n t times.

NEUTRAL OR NORMAL STATE

A POSITIVE E L E C T R I C A L CONDITION

A NEGATlVf ELECTRICAL CONDITION

Figure 9
( A ) The left - hand drawing, marked ( A ) , i n d i c a t e s t h a t the atoms of t h i s u n i t mass a r e i n a n e u t r a l , or normal s t a t e , because t h e charges are e x a c t l y Each atom i s e q u a l i n amount and opposite i n the15 n a t u r e ( + ) and ( - ). h e n atoms a r e i n t h i s condition, p e r f e c t l y nbalanced" or " n e u t r a l i z e d which i s a normal c o n d i t i o n , no e x t e r n a l e l e c t r i c a l i n f l u e n c e i s d e t e c t a b l e about t h e mass. U%en a body ceases t o show e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n i t i s due t o t h e r e u n i t i n g of t h e separate? charges.

( B ) However, upon looking a t t h e middle drawing, marked LB), you w i l l s e e ince t h e amount t h a t t h e r e a r e f i v e p o s i t i v e and f o u r negative charges. of p o s i t i v e charge i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e negative t h i s u n i t mass w i l l be o s i t i v e l y charged. It w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t the g l a s s rod i n t h e experi$nt of Figure 6 was a l s o put i n t o a s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n of possessing more p o s i t i v e than negative e l e c t r i c i t y a f t e r being rubbed with the s i l k . This was brought about, i t i s thought, by a t r a n s f e r e n c e of negative charges o r e l e c t r o n s from one u n i t mass t o another, o r from the g l a s s t o t h e s i l k , Notice t h a t t h e unit charge i n s k e t c h ( B ) , Figure 9 , d i d not become a p o s i t i v e one because more p o s i t i v e e l e c t r i c i t y had been added, b u t r a t h e r because a c e r t a i n amounb of n e g a t i v e e l e c t r o n s had been detached from t h e n e u t r a l mass i n sketch ( A ) . This means t h a t e a c h atom i n mass (B) has given up perhaps one or two of i V s e l e c t r o n s .

Summarizing these statements t e l l s u s , i n a few words, t h a t i f a mass l o s e s any of i t s e l e c t r o n s i t reduces t h e amount of negative charge and makesthe mass p o s i t i v e , 'Uhen i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e mass s e t s up a f o r c e which i s t r y i n g t o r e s t o r e i t s atoms t o normal c o n t i n u a l l y by e t t r a c t i n g the same number of e l e c t r o n s t o i t s e l f t h a t i t l o s t . ?'his e x p l a i n s why t h e mass i n sketch ( B ) i s s a i d t o be charged p o s i t i v e l y .or charged t o a p o s i t i v e potential Lesson 3 sheet 12

( C ) Nw t u r n your a t t e n t i o n t o t h e right- hand s k e t c h , marked ( C ) , where a o u n i t mass i s shown w i t h more negative charge t h a n p o s i t i v e . Here the mass i s n e g a t i v e l y charged. Bear i n mind t h a t t h e r e a r e t h e same numbes of e p o s i t i v e charges i n a l l of t h e t h r e e sketches b u t t h a t i n sketch ( B ) w took away e l e c t r o n s , whereas, i n ( C ) w have put i n two a d d i t i o n a l negative e charges. It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e r e i s a predominance ( g r e a t e r amount) of e l e c t r o n s i n ( C ) over t h a t f o r a normal condition. The n e t r e s u l t i n t h i s c a s e , where w have a n e x c e s s of el.ectrons, i s t o s e t up about t h e mass a e f o r c e which i s c o n t i n u a l l y t r y i n g t o discharge or give up e l e c t r o n s t o r e s t o r e i t s atoms t o n o r n a l . This e x p l a i n s why t h e mass i n sketch ( C ) i s s a i d t o be "charged nege t l v e l y " or "charged t o a negative p o t e n t i a l " . TRE ELECTROSCOPE

A Simple Experiment t o E x p l a i n "INDUCT I O N " and "CONDUCTION". A electroscope n i s a s e n s i t i v e d e v i c e used t o d e t e c t minute chal?ges of s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y . A working model can be e a s i l y assembled a s shown i n Figure 10. It c o n s i s t s of a p e r f e c t l y c l e a n and d r y g l a s s b o t t l e f i t t e d w i t h a cork through t h e middle of which i s i n s e r t e d a s t i f f copper wire long enough t o protrude from b o t h ends of t h e cork. The upper end of t h e w i r e i s bent t o form a loop while t h e lower end i s bent i n an L shape i n o r d e r t o hold a sheet of gold l e a f f o l d e d i n h a l f . This arrangement provides a p a i r of gold leaves which n a t u r a l l y f a l l t o g e t h e r a s i l l u s t r a t e d , Tho cork z c t s t o i n s u l a t e t h e metal p o r t i o n s from t h e g l a s s b o t t l e .
BRASS R O D \

i
ELECTROSCOPE

INDUCTION OF CHARGES IS THROUGH *' ELECTROSTATIC LINES

GOLD LEAF : FOLDED IN HALF

NO ELECTRIC CHBRGES

GOLD LEhYES REPEL BECAUSE THEY ARE CHARGED WITH SIMILAR KIND OF ELECTRICITY

Figure 1 0 The i n f l u e n c e of s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y upon b o d i e s and t h e i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e kind of charges p r e s e n t , t h a t i s , whether of p o s i t i v e o r negative s i g n , w i l l be shown by t h e f a l l i n g t o g e t h e r o r spreading a p a r t of t h e l e a v e s .
TO begin our t e s t l e t u s r u b a g l a s s rod with s i l k and t h e n c a r e f u l l y move

t h e rod toward t h e w i r e loop without p e r m i t t i n g a c t u a l p h y s i c a l contact Lesson 3

sheet 13

between the r e s p e c t i v e s u r f a c e s , Notice how the l e a v e s spread a u a r t . r h '- in i s s a i d t o happen because an e l e c t r i c f o r c e o r charge of i i k e kind i s b u i l t up on each gold l e a f . Since t h e s e f o r c e s r e a c h out l i l - e any e l e c t r o s t a t - i c f i e l d and a r e e f f e c t i v e i n t h e r e g i o n surrounding t h e leaves we o b s e r v e t h i s r e p u l s i o n between them. The nature of the charges and t h e e n t i r e a c t i o n i s explained below i n s t e p s f o r t h e sake of c l e a r n e s s :

~~

1.

It has been a r b i t r a r i l y decided, a s mentioned h e r e t o f o r e , t h a t a g l a s s rod when e l e c t r i f i e d by rubbing w i t h s i l k w i l l be charged with "positive e l e c t r i c i t y " .
The g l a s s rod induces a charge of opposite kind on t h e wire loop, hence, t h e loop becomes charge4 w i t h "negative e l e c t r i c i t y " .

2.

3.

It i s seen t h a t t h e wire and g o l d leaves t a k e n t o g e t h e r a c t u a l l y form a m e t a l l i c p a t h , I n o r d e r t o make t h e loop end, " n e g a t i v e " a s s t a t e d i n paragraph ( 2 ) j u s t a b w e , i t was n e c e s s a r y t h a t e l e c t r o m b e forced t o move from one end of t h i s m e t a l l i c p a t h e t o t h e o t h e r , O r , w could e x p r e s s t h e same t h i n g by saying t h a t e l e c t r o n s were conducted through t h i s metal path by reason of t h e o t e n t i a l f o r c e s e t up a t t h e loop end. Note t h a t the a d d i t i o n a l :lectrons which c o l l e c t a t t h e loop end were o r i g i n a l l y l o c a t e d a t t h e opposite end, or a t t h e gold l e a v e s . This removal of e l e c t r o ~ sl e a v e s t h e l a t t e r point d e f i c i e n t Pn e l e c t r o n s or with This a c t i o n i s shown i n t h e e n l a r g e d view a p o s l t f v e charge. i n sketch ( C )
Thus, when the loop end i s n e g a t i v e l y chargeri or a t a negative p o t e n t i a l , the o p p o s i t e end o r gold l e a f end becomes posi,bivel;p: charged, o r i s placed a t a p o s i t i v e ~ o t e n t i a l ,;vhich i s the same t h i n g , Comparing both ends t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e ?f p o t e n t i a l between thm. Consequently, each g o l d l e a f i n d i v i d u a l l y Therefore,the leaves possesses a p o s i t i v e charge of equal amount. w i l l d i v e r g e or spread a p a r t . This i s e x a c t l y what was witnessed d u r i n g t h e experiment.

4.

It i s suggested b e f o r e p u t t i n g t h i s experiment a s i d e t h a t you again charge t h e e l e c t r o s e o p e by i n d u c t i o n u s i n g the e l e c t r i f i e d rod and w h i l e the l e a v e s a r e s e p a r a t e d p l a c e Y o u r finger on t h e w i r e loop. The moment c o n t a c t is made t h e l e a v e s will f a l l t o g e t h e r showing t h a t your boag h a s neutralized t h e charge. It would be a v e r y simple matter f o r you t o make an e l e c t r o s ~ o ~ e .
Again r e f e r The Difference Between the Terms " INDU C T ION" and " CONDUCTI ON i n g t o t h e e l e c t r o s c o p e experiment, i n s o f a r a s t h e w i r e and gold l e a f a r e concerned, t h e p o s i t i v e and negative e l e c t r i c i t y a l r e a d y e x i s t e d i n t h e atoms which c o n s t i t u t e t h e s e metal p a r t s , That i s t o s a y , t h e e l e c t r i c i t y i s always p r e s e n t o r i n h e r e n t i n t h e materf a l s . But t h i s e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n was not separated i n t o p o s i t i v e and negative charges, which we know developed a t t h e opposite ends, u n t i l t h e f o r c e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e charge on t h e g l a s s rod induced a charge of opposite kind on t h e wire loop. The f o r c e i s r e presented i n t h e drawing by the l i n e s i n space connecting t h e r e s p e c t j v e s u r f a c e s of the charged bodies. The l i n e s a r e known a s t h e e l e Q t r i c O &&LC P f i e l d as p r e v i o u s l y e x p l a i n e d . Thus, we may have INDUCTION of charges even without t h e s u r f a c e s of bodies a c t u a l l y touching e a c h o t h e r . Lesson 3

".

sheet 14

In t h e c a s e of the m e t a l l i c p a t h i n t h e e l e c t r o s c o p e i t happens t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l s e t up between b o t h e n d s f o r c e s e l e c t r o n s t o move from atom t o atom t h r o u g h t h e m e t a l i n a d i r e c t i o n f r o m t h e g o l d l e a v e s toward t h e l o o p end. T h i s e n t i r e a c t i o n i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e o r i g i n a l a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e e x e r t e d b y t h e P o s i t i v e l y c h a r g e d g l a s s rod upon t h e l o o p of wire.
One i m p o r t a n t p o i n t j u s t mentioned t h a t s h o u l d be b o r n e i n mind i s t h a t i n t h a t c a s e where t h e g l a s s r o d i s e l e c t r i f i e d t h e r e i s no movement of e l e c t r o n s t h r o u g h o u t the m a t e r i a l , b u t s i m p l y a d i s p l a c e m e n t o r s l i g h t s h i f t i n g of e l e c t r o n s w i t h i n t h e atoms t a k e s p l a c e . On t h e o t h e r hand, i n t h e c a s e of t h e m e t a l p a r t s , e l e c t r o n s d o move o r a r e conducted a l o n g from atom t o atom of t h e copper and g o l d p a s s i n g from one end o f t h e m e t a l p a t h t o t h e o t h e r . The movement o r d r i f t of e l e c t r o n s t h r o u g h t h e m e t a l p a r t s i s a c t u a l l y a f l o w sf c u r r e n t , I,o r c u r r e n t e l e c t r i c i t y " , which w e have a l r e a d y c l a s s i f i e d . E l e c t r o n s p a s s i n g throug3,- t h e m e t a l p a r t s i l l u s t r a t e s C O N D U C TI O N . A c c o r d i n g l y , we may h e r e a f t e r c a l l t h e e n t i r e p a t h ( t o i n c l u d e any and a l l mediums, a i r , g a s , s o l i d s , e t c . ) t h r o u g h w h i c h a t r a n s f e r e n c e o f e l e c t r i c i t y Lake p l a c e o r t h r o u g h which e l e c t r o n i c c u r r e n t ' w i l l f l o w under a g i v e n electromotive f o r c e , a conductive c i r c u i t .

The e l e c t r o s c o p e e x p e r i m e n t e n a b l e d u s ( 1 s t ) t o e x p l a i n t h e use of t h e terms " n e g a t i v e " , and " p o t e n t i a l " , and ( 2 n d ) t o o b s e r v e by means of t h e g o l d l e a v e t h a t r e p u l s i o n i s always s e t up between b o d i e s charged w i t h e l e c t r i c i t y of ,like k i n d and ( 3 r d ) t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e e l e c t r i c i t y always -appear s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .
~ l t h o u g hs t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y and t h e e l e c t r o n s which a c c o u n t f o r i t a r e i n v i s i b l e t o u s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e f f e c t s t h e y produce can :>e i n d i r e c t l y W have e x p l a i n e d i n e subsequent l e s s o n , e o b s e r v e d under c e r t a i n condit'ions. how a f o r c e which a c t s between magnetized s u b s t a n c e s titled "~a~net;ism", a l s o e x h i b i t s i d e n t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of " a t t r a c t i o n " and " r e p u l s i o n " b u t i n t h e c a s e o f n a ~ n o t i s mt h e f o r c e i s not d e r i v e d i n t h e same manner a s i n s t a t i c electricity.
A SIMPLE EXPLANATION OF THE TERM POTENTIAL. E l e c t r o n s may b e l i k e n e d t o p o t e n t i a l c h a r g e s . The t e r m " p o t e n t i a l I' a s a p p l i e d t o f o r c e s means t h e t e n e r g y i s s t o r e d up i n some manner, n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n a n o b j e c t , op mass, b u t because of t h e p o s i t i o n t h e o b j e c t o c c u p i e s .

To e x p l a i n t h i s ide.a l e t u s c i t e t h e f o l l o w i n g comparison: A s t o n e r e s t i n g on t h e ground i s n o t c a p a b l e of p e r f o r m i n g work when compared t o t,he same s t o n e placed n e a r t h e edge of a h i g h c l i f f . The s t o n e , when r e s t i n g on t h e c l i f T , becomes a p o t e n t i a l f o r c e b e c a u s e , i f t h e s t o n e i s pushed, i t w i l l f a l l and a c e r t a i n amount of work w i l l be done. T h e work i n t h i s c a s e cons i s t s o f t h e weight of t h e mass f a l l i n g a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e t h r o u g h sp:!ce. Hence, p o t e n t j . a l d e a l s w i t h a c o n d i t i o n i n s p a c e . T h e s a m c o n d i t i o n s a r e t r u e i n t h e c a s e of s t a t i c electricity and charged b o d i e s . Hence, t o make t h e comparison we would s a y t h a t p o t e n t i a l d o e s n o t mean t h e c n o r t h e mass o r body, b u t r a t h e r a c o n d i t i o n t h a t e x i s t s a t a c e r t a i n s p a c e . R e f e r t o t h e d r a w i n g s i n F i g u r e s 7 and 8 showing t h e s t a s e t u p i n t h e space a b o u t t h e c h a r g e d b o d i e s a s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e " ~ o t e n t i a l " s a term used i n connection with i merit, of t h e l i n e s . Lesson 3

i n our work t h e term i s a p p l i e d t o b o t h s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y and c u r r e n t electricity. The t e r n " p o t e n t i a l " i s u s e d i n r e g a r d t o a n o r d i n a r y d r y c e l l o r s t o r a g e b a t t e r y . The t e r m i n a l s a r e connected r e s p e c t i v e l y t o e l e c t r o d e s , one o f which i s s a i d t o be a t a " p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l " and t h e o t h e r a t a "negative. potential". T h i s d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l i s what p r o v i d e s t h e e l e c t r i c a l p r e s s u r e and makes t h e C e l l o r b a t t e r y c a p a b l e of p e r f o r m i n g work. The t e r m p o t e n t i a l i s a l s o u s e d i n b u s i n e s s ; a p o t e n t i a l b u y e r o r p o t e n t i a l customer i s considered t o be a p e r s o n who h a s n o t y e t bought a n y k c h a n d i s e , b u t who h a s t h e power o r i s c a p a b l e of making a p u r c h a s e i f he s o d e s i r e s . ILLUSTRATED BY THRE4 TYPICAL CASES. HOVJ T USE THE T R POTENTIAL. O EM Case 1, I n F i g u r e 11, two b o d i e s ( A ) and $ ) a r e shown, one h a v i n g a p o s i t i v e o o t - n t i a l and t h e o t h e r a n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l o f e q u a l amounts. e Then d i s c u s s i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o r f o r c e s s e t up b y t w o such b o d i e s we s a y t h a t between them " t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e o f p o t e n t i a l " and because o f t h i s condition an e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d i s establishe?.
A -

Case 2, A l s o , we have c a s e s of two charged b o d i e s w b r e e a c h one h a s a p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l , b u t one i s a t a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t b o d i e s ( A ) and ( B ) than t h e other. See F i g u r e 12. b o t h have a s h o r t a g e of e l e c t r o n s , but r e l a t i v e l y s p e a k i n g , body ( R ) h a s fewer e l e c t r o n s t h a n ( A ) . Thus ( B ) w i 1 s e t up a 1 which p l a c e s it a t a h i g h e r p o t e r i t i a l t h a n ( A ). Now due t o t h i s d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l e l e c t r o n s would move from t h e lower p o t e n t i a l p o i n t (A) t o t h e h i g h e r p o t e n t i a l p o i n t (R), p r o v i d i n g t h e y were
ODY HAVING

BODY H A V I N G
POSITIVE

B O D Y W I T H THE

NEGATIVE

LO W E R NEGATI VE

BODY WITH THE

H I G H E R NEGATI!

DIFFEREN CE OF

POTENTIAL

Figure 12

F i g u r e 13

f u r n i s h e d a p a t h o r medium t w o - h w h i c h t h e y c o u l d p a s s . The e l e c t r o n s would move i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n i n t h e i r e f f o r t t o r e d u c e t h e h i g h e r f o r c e and b r i n g i t down t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e lower f o r c e . It can be s a i d t h a t ( A ) i s i n a more unbalanced s t a t e t h a n (B). The medium we r e f e r t o could be s copper w i r e , o r any o t h e r ccmducting m a t e r i a 1 , o r p e r h a p s a g a s , o r t h e atmosphere i n c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , and s o f o r t h . Case 3. ~ l s o ,t h e r e a r e c a s e s o f two charged b o d i e s where e a c h h a s a negat i v e p o t e n t i a l , b u t of u n e q u a l amount, a s shown by ( A ) and ( B ) i n F i g u r e 13. If e l e c t r o n s were given a p a t h be%vieen t h e s e b o d i e s t h e y would move from ( 8 )t o (A) s i n c e ( B ) h a s a r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r a n o n n t of e x c e s s e l e c t r o n s than ( A ) . It i s s a i d t h a t (H) i s c h a r g e l t o a h i g h e r n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l than ( A ) . E l e c t , r o n s would. move l oward ( A ) a s s u g g e s t e d i n o r d e r t o e q u a l i z e ; t h e amounts of n e g a t i v e i n each body, a n d , m o r e o v e r , t h e y would c o n t i n u e p e s s Lesson 3

sheet 16

from one body t o t h e o t h e r u n t i l no d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l e x i s t e d b e e n the b o d i e s . FUNDAMENTAL ELECTROSTATIC LAWS.

We n o t i c e d i n o u r e x p e r i m e n t w i t h t h e b i t s of paper and r u b b e r comb t h a t a

body upon which a n e l e c t r i c c h a r g e had b e e n b u i l t up would a t t r a c t a n e a r b y unchtirged body, b u t a f t e r p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t had b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d t h e a t t r a c t e d body would be r e p e l l e d . T h i s a c t i o n o c c u r s b e c a u s e whenever two such b o d i e s a c t u a l l y t o u c h t h e r e i m m e d i a t e l y t a k e s p l a c e a n e q u a l i z a t i o n of e l e c t r o n i c u n i t s r e s u l t i n g i n t h e a t t r a c t e d body becoming charged t o t h e same v a l u e of p o l a r i t y a s t h a t of t h e body which c a u s e d t h e a t t r a c t i o n . F i n a l l y , when b o t h b o d i e s assume l i k e c h a r g e s of e q u a l v a l u e t h e y r e p e l e a c h o t h e r . Also, we observed t h a t a body h o l d i n g a p o s i t i v e c h a r g e on i t s s u r f a c e would a t t r a c t a body w i t h a n e g a t i v e charge and v i c e v e r s a . ~ h u s s e e n a t u r e c o n s t a n t l y a t work t e n d i n g a t a l l t i m e s t o m a i n t a i n u n i t we masses i n a s t a t e of e q u i l i b r i u m . S i n c e a l l m a t t e r i s e s s e n t i a l l y e l e c t r i c a l i n s u b s t a n c e , t h e n f o r any c o n d i t i o n where t h e s t a t e o f r e s t i s u p s e t , n a t u r e w i l l e x e r t h e r f o r c e s t o r e s t o r e normal c o n d i t i o n s a s q u i c k l y a s p o s s i b l e . The fundamental laws o f e l e c t r o s t a t i c s may b e c o n c i s e l y s t a t e d a s f o l l o w s :

1.

A f i e l d of f o r c e , c a l l e d a n e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d , always e x i s t s i n t h e r e g i o n a b o u t a charged body o r between a n y two b o d i e s o r Neither a positive p o i n t s where a d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l e x ' i s t s . nor n e g a t i v e c h a r g e i s e v e r produced a l o n e .

2.

Bodies h o l d i n g c h a r g e s of e l e c t r i c i t y o f s i m i l a r k i n d o r s i m i l a r p o l a r i t y r e p e l each other. Bodies h o l d i n g c h a r g e s o f e l e c t r i c i t y o f o p p o s i t e k i n d o r o p p o s i t e polarity, a t t r a c t each other. Uociie s which have been c h a r g e d , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e v a l u e of t h e c h a r g e , d i s p l a y an fi t t r a c t i o o f o r n e u t r a l b o d i e s , t h a t i s , b o d i e s which have not been made t o e x h i b i t e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . An e l e c t r i c a l c h a r g e c a n be t r a n s f e r r e d from one body t o m y o t h e r body ( c o n d u c t o r s and i n s u l a t o r s i n c l u d e d ) when p r o p e r i n s u l a t i o n i s provided. E l e c t r i c a l o r s t a t i c c h a r g e s r e s t o n l y upon t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e of s material.

3.
4.

5.

6.

Lesson 3

sheet 17

EXAMINATION

LESSON 3
(c)
A compound?

1. 2.

( a ) What i s an element?

( b ) A molecule?

( a ) What accounts f o r the d i f f e r e n c e s i n m a t e r i a l s t h a t w a r e a b l e e t o recognize t h e various t h i n g s on our e a r t h ? , ( b ) D you t h i n k e l e c t r i c a l a c t i o n s could be c l e a r l y understood o by us a l l w i t h o u t some knowledge of t h e e l e c t r o n t h e o r y ? ( a ) What i s the modern conception of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a l l m a t t e r ? ( b ) What i s t h e n a m of the theory t h a t i s used t o e x p l a i n t h e reason for a l l e l e c t r i c a l e f f e c t s ? ( c ) Can an e l e c t r i c a l charge of one kind e x i s t a l o n e ? ( a ) What do neutral ( b ) When i n ( c ) When i n w mean when w say t h a t : A body or' mass i s i n a e e state? a p o s i t i v e l y charged s t a t e ? a n e g a t i v e l y charged s t a t e ?

3.

4.

5.
6.

What i s a conductive c i r c u i t ? I n t o what two g e n e r a l c l a s s e s i s e l e c t r i c i t y d i v i d e d and what i s the p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e be tween them? ( a ) Why i s i t t h a t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s a body w i l l not show any evidence of e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n when w say t h a t a l l m a t t e r i s e made up of e l e c t r i c i t y ? ( b ) What i s a flow of c u r r e n t supposed t o be ac-cording t o our modern science? In a few b r i e f sentences t e l l what you l e a r n e d from t h e e l e c t r o s c o p e experiment. ( a ) If t h e atoms of a c e r t a i n body ( c a l l e d M ) c o n t a i n more e l e c t r o n s t h a n t h e atoms of a n o t h e r body ( c a l l e d N ) which body, M or N, w i l l be charged t o t h e h i g h e r p o t e n t i a l ? And what p o t e n t i a l , positive or negative? ( b ) I n what d i r e c t i o n would e l e c t r o r ? ~ a s s i f t h e y were g i v e n a p p a t h t o f l o w from o?e charged body t o the o t h e r a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , if w conmcted a copper w i r e between them? e ( a ) S t a t e f o u r findamental laws of e l e c t r o s t a t i c s . ( b ) What i s a n e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d ? ( c ) Draw a s k e t c h showing t w o charged b o d i e s , one p o s i t i v e and one n e g a t i v e , showing the e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d , u s i n g l i n e s and arrows. ( d ) D e l e c t r o s t a t i c l i n e s e x i s t w i t h i n a charged body? \Ifhere do o they e x i s t ? ( e ) H w may an e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d be produced? Mention two ways you o know o f .

7.

8. 9.

10.

Lesson 3

sheet 18

Technical Lesson 4
MAGNETISM Many c e n t u r i e s ago i n t h e m i n i n g r e g i o n s O f a small town named Magnesia, i n A s i a Minor, t h e r e was found a d a r k c o l o r e d s t o n e , w h i c h p o s s e s s e d a v e r y peculiar property one t h a t coulcl b e d e s c r i b e d a s a s o r t of p u l l i n g f o r c e which gave t h i s s u b s t a n c e t h e power t o a t t r a c t s m a l l p i e c e s of i r o n . It was t h e n d i s c o v e r e d t h a t i f a p i e c e of t h i s s t o n e was suspended by a t h r e a d and allowed t o move f r e e l y it would swing a b o u t s l o w l y , an? upon coming t o Early mariners r e s t would assume a p o s i t i o n n e a r l y due North and b o u t h . used t h i s stone as an a i d i n navigation, guiding t h e i r vessels according t o i t s p o s i t i o n and f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e s t o n e became Known a s " l o d e s t o n e " , vrhich means ' l e a d i n g s t o n e i i , Another name g i v e n t o t h i s s t o n e (which i s a n o r e of i r o n ) i s " o x i d e of i r o n " , o r I1m a g n e t i t e " . he p e c u l i a r p r o p e r t y we and t h e s u b s t a n c e it s e l f which posr e f e r t o became known a s "NAGNETISM" s e s r e d t h e p r o p e r t y was c a l l e d a "MAGNET". The l o d e s t o n e r e t a i n s i t s m a g n e t i c p r o p e r t i e s i n d e f i n i t e l y f o r it i s t h e r e s u l t of a n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n w i t h i n t h e o r e it s e l f .

I n l a t e r y e a r s i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t by a n a r t i f i c i a l p r o c e s s o r d i n a r y h a r d i r o n , o r s t e e l , c o u l d be made t o t a k e on t h e same p r o p e r t y of magnetism a s t h e l o d e s t o n e . Thus, t h e magnetic p r o p e r t y i m p a r t e d t o s t e e l gave i t t h e power t o a t t r a c t b i t s o f i r o n , and moreover, it was n o t i c e d t h a t when a t h i n s t r i p of m a g n e t i z e d s t e e l was suspended, and p e r m i t t e d a f r e e m o t i o n , i t would swing a b o u t and come t o r e s t i n a p o s i t i o n e x a c t l y s i m i l a r t o t h e l o d e s t o n e w i t h e r e g a r d t o t h e e a r t h ' s North and South p o l e s . The n e e d l e of t h e common magnetic compass, which i s i n w i d e s p r e a d u s e , i s n o t h i n g more t h a n a n a r t i f i c i a l magnet; i t i s a magnetized p i e c e o f s t e e l suspended s o t h a t it can t u r n f r e e l y . As most o f u s knom, one end o f t h e compass n e e d l e p o i n t s i n a g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n toward t h e North g e o g r a p h i c a l p o l e of t h e e a r t h and Convention, o r t h e o t h e r end p o i n t s toviard t h e South g e o g r a p h i c a l p o l e . custom i n t h e p a s t , a c c o u n t s f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e North ( N ) of a n e e d l e i s s o d e s i g n a t e d and u s e d t o i d e n t i f y t h e l o c a t i o n o f o u r n ' o r t h g e o g r a p h i c a l p o l e o n i g i n a g e n e r a l way a s e x p l a i n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h .

In o r d e r t o a v o i d any m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n o u r s t u d y of magnetism, l e t us e x p l a i n now t h a t t h e n o r t h end of t h e n e e d l e i s a c t u a l l y a t t r a c t e d by t h e e a r t h ' s magnetism i s s u i r ~ gfrom t h e S o u t h m a g n e t i c p o l e . T h i s magnetic p o l e i s l o c a t e d a t a town named B o o t h i a , i n Canada, a d i s t a n c e of more t h a n a thousand m i l e s from t h e ISorth g e o g r a p h i c a l p o l e . bur e a r t h i s r e a l l y a huge magnet w i t h magnetic f o r c e s e v l d e n t a l l o v e r i t s s u r f a c e , t h e f o r c e s b e i n g v e r y pronounced and c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e u p p e r and l o w e r e x t r e m i t i e s , Hence, t o be s t r i c t l y a c c u r a t e i n our o r , a s we would s a y , " a t t h e p o l e s " . s t a t e m e n t we should s a y t h a t t h e "N" end of a compass n e e d l e p o i n t s towards t h e South m a n n e t i c v o l e of t h e e a r t h and t h e "S" e n d towards t h e North magnetic m ole.

To make c e r t a i n t h a t you have a p e r f e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g about p o l a r i t y a s i n d i c a t e d by a compass l e t u s l o o k a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h i s way: Consider t h a t i f t h e n o r t h (N) end of t h e n e e d l e p o i n t s toward a m a g n e t i c i n f l u e n c e , t h e r e g i o n of t h i s i n f l u e n c e must be o f o p p o s i t e a t t r a c t i o n , o r a s o u t h ( s ) p o l e . I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s o u t h ( S ) end o f t h e n e e d l e p o i n t s toward a m a g n e t i c i n f l u e n c e t h e l a t t e r r e g i o n must a l s o be o p p o s i t e , o r a n o r t h ( N ) pole.
INDUCED M A G N S T I S M . Figure 1 i l l u s t r a t e s the p r i n c i p l e of magnetic i n d u c t i o n and a t t r a c t i o n . When a s t e e l b a r magnet i s d i p p e d i n t o s o f t i r o n f i l i n g s , i t w i l l be found t h a t a l a r g e number of t h e i r o n p a r t i c l e s w i l l c l i n g t o one a n o t h e r and t o t h e b a r w i t h g r e a t t e n a c i t y . Most o f t h e f i l i n g s w i l l c l u s t e r n e a r t h e e n d s of t h e b a r w i t h v e r y few d i s t r i b u t e d a l o n g t h e s u r c a c e and p r a c t i c a l l y none a t o r n e a r t h e m i d d l e . The i r o n p a r t i c l e s which a r e i n c o n t a c t an? c l o s e s t t o e i t h e r end of t h e b a r w i l l s e e n t o g r i p on w i t h g r e a t f i r m n e s s while those f u r t h e r o u t f r o m t h e end a r e more f e e b l y a t t r a c t e d t o one a n o t h e r and seem t o be l e s s r i g i d . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e magnetism emanating from t h e end of t h e b a r i s s t r o n g e - s t n e a r i t s s u r f a c e and a s we p r o c e e d outward i n t o s p a c e khe magnetism becomes weaker.

W u s e t h e term ''de;lsity1' t d e x p r e s s t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n magnetism, s a y i n g e It s i m p l y means t h a t t h e m a g ~ e t i cd e n s i t y i s g r e a t e s t c l o s e t o t h e b a r . t h e r e i s a g r e a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n of magnetic fori:e c l o s e r t o t h e m s g n e t ' s p o l e s t h a n a t some d i s t a n c e away from i t .

SOFT I R O N

y'lya

Figure 2 a t t e m p t t o b r u s h them o f f w i t h your f i n g e r s , i t w i l l n o t prove a n easy m a t t e r t o remove a b s o l u t e l y e v e r y t i n y i r o n p a r t i c l e from the m a g n e t f s s u r f a c e . The manner i n which t h e s e s m a l l i r o n b i t s c l i n g t o one a n o t h e r , and t o t h e b a r , i n d i c a t e s t h a t r e g a r d l e s s of t h e e x a c t n a t u r e of t h i s m a g n e t i c i n f l u e n c e i t s f o r c e e x t e n d s outward i n t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g space which i s c a l l e d t h e " s p a c e medium". The i r o n t a c k s c l i n g i n g t o t h e magnet, i n F i g u r e 2 , a l s o s e r v e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e p r i n c i p l e s of i n d u c e d magnetism. The unseen i n f l u e n c e a r o u n d a s t e e l magnet c a u s e s e a c h i n d i v i d u a l f i l i n g i n F i g u r e 1 t o become a t i n y magnet p o s s e s s i n g a l l of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e ! e u s u a l l y express t h i s a c t i o n by s t a t i n g t h a t V l a r g e b a r mngnet i t s e l f . t h e l a r g e magnet i n d u c e d magnetism i n t o t h e i r o n f i l i n g s . The f i l i n g s would have magnetism i n d u c e d i n them w h e t h e r t h e y were i n a c t u a l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e Lesson 4- s h e e t 2
If a v e r y s t r o n g s t e e l magnet i s u s e d t o a t t r a c t t h e f i l i n g s , and l a t e r you

magnet, o r merely i n i t s presence. T O prove t h e l a t t e r statement place the f i l i n g s i n a g l a s s t u b e , o r b o t t l e , and then move t h e magnet against t h e o u t e r surface of t h e g l a s s and note how t h e f i l i n g s are a f f e c t e d and s h i f t around and c l i n g t o one another, assuming d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s according t o t h e magnet's influence. Also, from t h i s experiment w observe t h a t g l a s s e i s t r a n s p a r e n t t o a magnetic f o r c e . Remember t h a t each f i l i n g or t a c k assumes a p o s i t i o n t h a t e n a b l e s it t o accomodate t h e g r e a t e s t amount of magnetism coming from the e x c i t i n g magnet. The sketches i n Figures 1 and 2 a r e intended t o show t h a t magnetism i s n o t c r e a t e d but a l r e a d y e x i s t s i n Nothing h a s been a4ded t o o r t a k e n from t h e t h e i r o n t a c k s and f i l i n g s . It i s s i m-p l - a c o n d i t i o n y i r o n t o produce t h e r e s u l t s w have observed. e where t h i s p e c u l i a r f o r c e ( c a l l e d magnetism) i n t h e f i l i n g s o r t a c k s was made e v i d e n t by t h e outside magnetic influence of the s t e e l magnet. W e know of s e v e r a l p r a c t i c a l means f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g magnetism and, a l s o , ways t o r e g u l a t e i t s s t r e n g t h . This i s a f o r t u n a t e circumstarce, indeed, because i t permits us t o u t i l i z e t h i s i n v i s i b l e f o r c e i n our r a d i o work. Under o r d i n a r y conditions i f we were t o place m a t e r i a l s l i k e copper, paper, o r wood, w i t h i n t h e i n f l u e n c e of a magnet w would not expect t o observe e magnetic e f f e c t s such a s the f i l i n g s gave us i n Figure 1. A t f i r s t s i g h t it might appear t h a t any substance which i s seemingly u n a f f e c t e d when subjected t o a nearby magnetic f o r c e does not possess magnetic p r o p e r t i e s ; but t h i s i s not t h e case. The phenomena of magnetism e x i s t s i n a l l m a t t e r t o a more or l e s s degree, only i n some substances i t s d e t e c t i o n becomes apparent q u i c k l y while i n others it requires t h e most d i l i g e n t r e s e a r c h and d e l i c a t e equipment t o discover i t . To make it pronounced i n paper, wood, and a l l o t h e r soc a l l e d non-magnetic substances, would r e q u i r e an o u t s i d e magnetic i n f l u e n c e If conditions were j u s t r i g h t and i f very s t r o n g of cqhsiderable s t r e n g t h . magnetism was obtainable it could be shown t h a t a piece of paper would be f e e b l y a t t r a c t e d and would move toward the source of s t r o n g magnetism, wherea s a piece of copper would be r e p e l l e d , W d e a l e x c l ~ ~ s i v e wyi t h i r o n and s t e e l i n our s t u d i e s about magnetism bee l cause magnetic e f f e c t s a r e e s p e c i a l l y pronounced i n t h e s e m e t a l s , and f o r magnetic purposes t h e y a r e the p r i n c i p a l ones found i n commercial use. Howe v e r , i t should be known t h a t t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n compound c o n s i s t i n g of i r o n and a small percentage of n i c k e l t h a t has magnetic p r o p e r t i e s superior t o e i t h e r i r o n o r n i c k e l alone. "Permalloy" i s t h e name of one compound t h a t can be magnetized about t h i r t g times s t r o n g e r than s o f t i r o n under s i m i l h r conditions. "Permivar" i s the name of another magnetic compound.
TWO SOURCES O MAGNETISM I N OUR PRACTICAL WORK. F 1 ~ ut mention a t t h i s s n o i n t t- h a t the magnetic f o r c e s e t un bv a f a i r l y s t r o n a mamet i s capable of not o n l y a t t r a c t i n g b i t s of ironan: c u u s i n g * a t t r a c i i o n - o r r e p u l s i o n with o t h e r magnetic masses, but t h e force has the a d d i t i o n a l p r o p e r t y of s e t t i n g up a flow of c u r r e n t through c o i l s , w i r e s , and o t h e r elements composing an e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t . To produce a flow of c u r r e n t t h e magnetism which a c t s on t h e c o i l s and conducting w i r e s must be made t o vary e i t h e r i n s t r e n g t h , o r p o l a r i t y , o r both, and the c i r c u i t must be closed t o form a complete conductive p a t h f o r t h e c u r r e n t t o flow. O r , if a magnetic f o r c e remains s t a t i o n a r y and s t e a d y a c o i l o r conductor must be moved t h r o u g h i t t o produce a c u r r e n t of e l e c t r i c i t y t h e r e i n .
MAGNETIC PROPEFTIES ALREADY EXIST IN I R O N .

Lesson 4

- sheet

It w i l l & shovm i n a forthcoming l e s s o n t h a t 'an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t passing through the t u r n s of a c o i l s e t s up i t s own magnetic lir?es which completely e n c i r c l e t h e c o i l . The l i n e s s e t up by t h e c u r r e n t have p r e c i s e l y s i m i l a r q u a l i t i e s i n every way t o magnetic l i n e s produced by e i t h e r a b a r o r horseshoe magnet. Bear i n mind t h a t magnetism, r e g a r d l e s s of how o r where i t i s obtained ( e i t h e r through t h e use of magnets o r from a f l o w of c u r r e n t ) a l ways e x h i b i t s t h e same g e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s . Therefore, a f t e r having once mastered t h e f'undamental p r i n c i p l e s o u t l i n e d i n t h i s l e s s o n t h e student should f i n d i t e a s y to* apply them t o any a c t i o n where magnetism and e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t a r e involved.
From t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s i t i s seen t h a t t h e r e a r e two p r i n c i p a l sources of magnet ism:
1. Magnetic e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n g from the use of magne t s 2. Magnetic e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n g from t h e flow of e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t s .

The f i r s t mentioned source i s t r e a t e d under t h e t o p i c of "MAGNETISM" and t h e second, under "ELEGTROMAGN~ISM"

Just what t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e "space medium", o r i n a " m a t e r i & l l ' , when a e maanetic f o r c e i s p r e s e n t . or .iust what the n a t u r e of magnetism i s w do not d e ? i n i t e l y know. But t h e . r e s u i t s obtained when f o r c e s oi' t h i s kind a c t upon magnetic substances, or upon conductors of e l e c t r i c i t y , have enabled scient i s t s t o formulate numerous laws and r u l e s governing t h e i r behavior.
Very simple experiments c a n be performed t o demonstrate "magnetic'! and "electromagnetic " phenomena w i t h a minimum of equipment, a s f o r example, w i t h t h e use of a small pocket- size magnetic compass, a b a r o r horseshoe magnet, i r o n f i l i n g s , c o i l s of wire and a b a t t e r y , or d r y c e l l .
K I N D S O NAGNETS. F

Magnetic substances a r e d i v i d e d i n t o two c l a s s e s , namely:

(1) N a t u r a l magnets, and ( 2 ) A r t i f i c i a l magnets.

It should be q u i t e obvious t h a t a l o d e s t o n e i s a n a t u r a l magnet and t h a t a l l manufactured o r man-made magnets a r e i n the a r t i f i c i a l c l a s s , The a r t i f i c i a l kind a r e plsced i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g two p o u p s :
(1 )
Temporary magnets, and ( 2 ) Permanent magnets

Inasmuch a s t h e s o f t i r o n f i l i n g s i n Figure 1, o r t h e t a c k s i n Figure 2 , l o s e p r a c t i c a l l y a l l of t h e i r magnetism when removed from t h e magnetizing f o r c e t h e y a r e c l a s s e d a s temporary magnets. Suppose, on t h e o t h e r hand, t h a t t h e s e f i l i n g s , o r t a c k s , a f t e r b e i n g shaken f r e e from t h e bar nere t o r e t a i n t h e i r magnetic p r o p e r t i e s (assuming t h a t even a f t e r a period of many months o r perhaps y e a r s t h e y s t i l l p e r s i s t i n c l i n g i n g s t r o n g l y t o one a n o t h e r ) tl-.ey would be c l a s s e d a s permanent magnets. Assuming t h a t a s o l i d b a r of i r o n or s t e e l showed p r o p e r t i e s s i m i l a r t o t h e t a c k ? and f i l i n g s , a s w e have suggested above, t h e b a r would a l s o be c a l l e d a "temporary" magnet,or e "permanent" magnet, a s t h e c a s e may be. The p o i n t w wish t o emphasize i s t h a t t h e s i z e of a mass does not a l t e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s .

Lesson 4

sheet 4

TYPES OF hlAGM9TS. There a r e i n g e n e r a l use t h r e e t y p e s of magnets. of t h e m g n e t i c f o r c e s i n e a c h t y p e i s shown i n F i g u r e 3.

The p a t h

(1)Bar magnet.. (Magnetic c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s p a r t l y of i r o n and a i r .) ( 2 ) Horseshoe magnet.. (Magnetic c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s p a r t l y O F i r o n and a l r . ) ( 3 ) Ring magnet (Magnetic c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s o n l y of i r o n . )

.......

......

SIXPLF VAY T MAKE A MAGNET. Suppose t h a t one- half of a b a r of hardened i r o n O o r s t e e l i s r e ~ e a t e d l ys t r o k e d w i t h t h e "N" Dole o f a strone. m a m - . and e n r h e t - , - - ----u -s t r o k e i s made-the s a k e way, b e g i n n i n g a t the middle of t h e v b a r and s t r o k i q toward one end. t h e n t h i s end o f t h e b a r w i l l m e s e n t l v become an "s" = -o- l -~ -- n Suppose t h e "s" pole o f t h e magnet i s now used- t o s t r o i ; e t h e o p p o s i t e h a l f of t h e b a r by t h e same p r o c e s s , t h e n t b e l a t t e r end of t h e b a r w i l l become If t h i s b a r of hardened i r o n , i n t o w h i c h magnetism i s b e i n g i n a n "N" pole. d u c e d , i s h e a t e d o r s l i g h t l y pounded d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s e i t h e r t r e a t m e n t w i l l a s s i s t t h e molecules i n r e a r r a n g i n g themselves i n p a r a l l e l rows ( o r i n a l i g n m e n t ) t o make t h e b a r a permanent magnet. It w i l l be e x p l a i n e d under t h e s u b j e c t of " E l e c t r o m a g n e t i s m " how a C o i l O f 'vire t h r o u g h which c u r r e n t i s f l o w i n g can be u t i l i z e d t o i n d u c e magnetism i n t o a b a r of hardened s t e e l t o make it a permanent magnet
7

M h G N E T I C LINES

BAR MAGNET

UPGNETIC S P E C T R U M S H OWN W I T H I R O N FILINGS

RING MAGNET

Figure 3
FLUX MAGICETIC FIELD YAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE. To i l l u s t r a t e a " f o r c e " on p a p e r i s j u s t l i k e a t t e m p t i n g t o draw something one cannot s e e . For i n s t a n c e , you c o u l d n f t i l l u s t r a t e your " t h i n k i n g powers" on p a p e r , nor could you g r a p h i c a l l y show t h e " f o r c e " Of a n e x p l o s i o n . With t h i s i n rlind you w i l l a p p r e c i a t e why i t h a s become the custom t o m e r e l y draw a l i n e t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e l i n e of d i r e c t i o n of a f o r c e and t h e n t o p l a c e a n arrow somewhere i n t h a t l i n e t o d e n o t e t h e e x a c t d i r e c t i o n i n which t h e f o r c e i s being a p n l i e d . T h a t i s , t h e arrow shows t h e t e n s i o n a l o n g t h e l i n e . The magnetic f o r c e s which e x i s t w i t h i n a magnet and i n t h e r e g i o n s u r r o u n d i n g it a r e , t h e r e f o r e , b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d b y l i n e s and arrows a s shown i n many o f t h e drawings.

The t o t a l magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e s e t up i n a m a g n e t i c c i r c u i t ( e i t h e r b y a m a g n e t i c m a t e r i a l o r by an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t ) a r e c a l l e d magnetic f l u x , o r s i m p l y f l u x . The f l u x i s shown by d o t t e d l i n e s i n our drawings. These lines t a k e t h e form o f ever- widening l o o p s which may be t h o u g h t of a s a s o r t o f magnetic whirl. The f i e l d of f o r c e which i s e v i d e n t i n t h e r e g i o n o u t s i d e a magnet i s c a l l e d t h e magnetic f i e l d , The i d e a of p r e s e n t i n g a n u n s e e n f o r c e g r a p h i c a l l y on p a p e r i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t a l r e a d y used i n o u r l e s s o n on " E l e c t r o s t a t i c s " . The d i f f e r e n c e i s Lesson 4

sheet 5

m a i n l y t h a t unbroken l i n e s a r e drawn i n t h e r e g i o n where a n e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d of f o r c e e x i s t s , w h e r e a s , d o t t e d l i n e s a r e u s e ? t o r e p r e s e n t a m a g n e t i c f i e l d of f o r c e . Note p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e i n e a c h o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of magnets i n F i g u r e 3. See how t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e l i n e s come o u t a t t h e r e g i o n around one p o l e and go i n a t t h e r e g i o n around t h e o p p o s i t e p o l e , w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e l y few l i n e s ~t o r n e a r t h e middle of the magnet. O f c o u r s e , i n t h e c a s e of t h e r i n g magnet t h e l i n e s a r e c o n f i n e d e n t i r e l y w i t h i n t h e i r o n mass b e c a u s e t h i s magnet h a s no p o l e s .
MAGBETIC LINES O Y FORCE CAFJ BE VISUALIZED O WY BY INDIRECT OBSERVATION. OL

Magnetic f o r c e s cannot be s e e n , a s you know, b u t t h e i r e f f e c t s c a n b e . Tn o r d e r t h a t you may a c t u a l l y v i s u a l i z e t h e s t r a i n l i n e s ( l i n e s of f o r c e ) - p r e s e n t about a magnetized s u b s t a n c e i t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g s i m p l e experiment be performed. O b t a i n a s m a l l b a r magnet o r h o r s e s h o e magnet, a s h e e t o f c a r d b o a r d o r g l a s s , and a s m a l l q u a n t i t y of s o f t i r o n f i l i n c s . Someone c o n n e c t e d w i t h a machine shop i n y o u r neighborhood w i l l no d o u b t g i v e you t h e f i l i n g s ; a t h i m b l e f u l o r two w i l l be p l e n t y , o r you may e a s i l y make them b y f i l i n g p a r t of a n i r o n b o l t , o r a n y p i e c e o f o r d i n a r y i r o n for t h a t matter. Let t h e b a r magnet be p l a c e d under t h e c a r d b o a r d , o r g l a s s , and l e t t h e i r o n f i l i n g s be s p r i n k l e d e v e n l y o v e r t h e f l a t s u r f a c e . Then g e n t l y t a p t h e s u r f a c e a dozen t i m e s o r more w i t h a p e n c i l and o b s e r v e how t h e i r o n p a r t i c l e s a c t u a l l y t u r n about and a r r a n g e themselves i n l i n e s o r l o o p s i n a s y m m e t r i c a l f o r m a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e diagram i n F i g u r e 3. The e n e r g y i n t h e magnet i n d u c e s magnetism i n t h e f i l i n g s , c a u s i n g e a c h one t o become a t i n y magnet h a v i n g i t s own " N " and "s" p o l e s ; i t i s t h e induce4 magnetism t h a t makes t h e f i l i n g s a t t r a c t one a n o t h e r c a u s i n g them t o f o r m l o o p s o r whirls. Each of t h e l i n e s of f o r c e completes a n i n d e p e n d e n t c i r c u i t a s shown b y t h e c o n t i n u o u s l o o p s . The l o o p s ( o r l i n e s ) t e n d t o s h o r t e n t h e m s e l v e s a t a l l p o i n t s , t h a t i s , t h e y t e n d t o t a k e t h e s h o r t e s t r o u t e i n t h e space t h e y occupy between o p p o s i t e p o l e s . However, t h e l i n e s r e m a i n s e a a r ~ t e dand s p r e a d o u t a n i n f i n i t e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e b a r because c t h e s t r o n g r e p u l s i o n which a d j a c e n t l i n e s e x e r t on one a n o t h e r . One l i n e n e v e r c r o s s e s o v e r . c u t s t h r o u g h . nor merges i n t o n e i g h b o r i n g l i n e s . See F i g u r e s 4 and 5. The f o r c e l i n e s e x e r t a t e n s i o n i n a d i r e c t i o n outward f r a n t h e "N" end of t h e magnet a s t h e y p a s s a r o u n d t h e b a r t h r o u g h space and r e - e n t e r a t the "S" e n d , t h e t e n s i o n b e i n g c o n t i n u e d on t h r o u g h t h e b a r from 'IS" t o "N" 9 a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e l o o p s and a r r o w s . When s p e a k i n g a b o u t t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t k o f magnetism we s a y t h a t L i n e s of f o r c e a r e i n a d i r e r t i o n f r o m ' I N " t o "s" around a magnet and from "S" t o "N" i n s i d e . (Note: The e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s r u l e i t a r i n g magnet which forms a c l o s e d i r o n c i r c u i t ; i n t h i s t y p e t h e r e a r e no open ends o r p o l e s and t h e r e f o r e t h e l i n e s a r e c o n f i n e d w i t h i n t h e i r o n . however, if a s e c t i o n of a r i n g magnet i s c u t o u t , t h e open e n d s t h u s made t h e n become " N " and "s" p o l e s r e s p e c t i v e l y , w i t h a m a g n e t i c f i e l d s e t up i n t h e space between them.) I n t h e a c t i o n e x p l a i n e d i n t h e f o r e g o i n g p a r a g r a p h s , where t h e f o r c e l i n e s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e b a r magnet e x e r t t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on t h e i r o n f i l i n g s and c a u s e t h e i r r e - a r r a n g e m e n t , it may be added t h a t t h i s a c t i o n i n t u r n p l a c e s Usson 4

- sheet

f i l i n g s i n a p o s i t i o n so t h a t they e x e r t t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l influences on another. Keep i n mind t h a t each l i t t l e f i l i n g becomes a magnet i n t h i s process. Consequently, w have a g r e a t e r t o t a l magnetic f o r c e e x i s t i n g i n e t h e r e g i o n around t h e magnet when f i l i n g s a r e p r e s e n t t h a n without f i l i n g s , because the f o r c e l i n e s s e t up by t h e f i l i n g s when t h e y a r e magnetized add t o t h e f o r c e l i n e s coming from t h e b a r magnet.

EXPLORING A MAGNETIC FIELD WITH A SMALL COMPASS. Suppose w explore t h e e magnetic s t r a i n s e t up i n t h e region about a s t e e l magnet by moving a compass i n v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s a s suggested i n Figure 4. Ve w i l l see t h a t when t h e needle comes t o r e s t a t some p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n it w i l l take up a d e f i n i t e d i r e c t i o n a c t i n g along t h e l i n e s Of f o r c e a t t h a t p o i n t , The s e v e r a l p o s i t i o n s of t h e compass i n t h e drawing shows t h a t t h e n e e d l e coincides w i t h t h e l i n e s of f o r c e i n every case.

Figure 4

Figure 5

Hence, a magnetic compass i s u s e f u l f o r d e t e c t i n g t h e presence of a magnetic f i e l d and determining t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which t h e l i n e s r u n , The diagram of t h e f i e l d about t h e magnet and t h e compass, i n F i g u r e 4, t e a c h e s you how t o determine t h e p o l a r i t y ( " N " and "S" p o l e s ) of a magnet.

MAGNETIC SPECTRUM.
rounding ward one opposite l i n e s as

In Figure 5 w observe a b a r magnet and t h e r e g i o n s u r e it placed under a s t r a i n by t h e f o r c e l i n e s l e a v i n g a t p o i n t s t o -

end of t h e b a r and r e - e n t e r i n g a t s i m i l a r l o c a t i o n s toward t h e end. T h i s g i v e s a symmetrical appearance t o t h e formation of t h e mapped out by t h e i r o n p a r t i c l e s i n t h e b a r magnet i n Figure 3.

The shape o r image of t h e magnstic l i n e s , as viewed w i t h t h e a i d of t h e f i l i n g s , i s c a l l e d a "magnetic spectrum". Since s t r a i n l i n e s always e x i s t around a magnet t h e n f o r any change made i n t h e p o s i t i o n of a magnet t h e s t r a i n l i n e s w i l l move along w i t h i t . Try moving t h e bar magnet i n Figure 1 s l i g h t l y back and f o r t h i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s and note t h e e f f e c t on t h e f i l i n g s .
TKG L W OF ATTRACTION AND REPULSION. A S

1) Magnet p o l e s of l i k e kind r e p e l e a c h o t h e r . 2 ) Magmt p o l e s of u n l i k e kind a t t r a c t e a c h o t h e r .

Lesson 4

- sheet 7

we w i l l make use of two s t e e l b ~ magnets r own and marked a s shown i n Figures 6 and 7. magnet i s suspended by a thread so t h a t i t w i l l move f r e e l y under t h e luence of t h e o t h e r magnet.

(1) I f one of t h e magnets Is held i n the hand and slowly moved, a s shown i n Figure 6, s o t h a t i t s n o r t h pole end i s brought near t h e n o r t h pole end of t h e suspended magnet w w i l l immediately e

see the l a t t e r move away and come t o r e s t i n a p o s i t i o n a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e from t h e f i r s t magnet. T h i s demonstrates the law of r e p u l s i o n .

Figure 6

Figure 7

N w suppose t h e s o u t h pole end of the magnet i n t h e hand i s o brought near t h e n o r t h pole end of the suspended magnet, as shown i n Figure 7 , then we w i l l o b t a i n an e f f e c t j u s t opposite t o t h e one observg? i n (1). T h i s time t h e n o r t h end of the suspended magnet w i l l swing toward the south pole of t h e approaching magnet, w i t h t h e swinging magnet coming t o r e s t i n a p o s i t i o n a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e t o t h e magnet held i n t h e hand. The ends of t h e magnets w i l l a c t u a l l y come i n t o contact i f you permit them: This demonstrates khe law of a t t r a c t i o n .

Figure 8

Figure 9

The e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e a c t i o n i n (1) r e l a t i n g t o r e p 2 l s i v e e f f e c t s w i l l be understood a f t e r examining t h e ' sketch i n Figure 8 and keeping i n mind t h a t t h e magnetic f o r c e s a c t along t h e l i n e s and i n t h e d i r e c t i o n i n d i c a t e d by the arrows. Observe how t h e l i n e s r e p r e s e n t i n g each f i e l d a r e d i s t o r t e d from the normal arrangement t h e y occupy when not under t h e influence Lesson 4

- sheet 8

o f each o t h e r .

The s h a m o f

a n o ~ m n l f.inlrl

3-

shnl~n

~ K .

(2)

The e x p l a n a t i o n governing the a c t i o n i n ( 2 ) r e l a t i n g t o a t t r a c t i v e e f f e c t s w i l l be understood by an examination of Figure 9 and r e a s o n i w a s follows : The a t t r a c t i o n or o i ~ l l i n n e f f e c t between a d j a c e n t magnetic poles o.$ u n l i k e kind i s caused b s t h e l i n e s coming out from the N" end of t h e first -- -magnet & d going i n a t t h e "S" end of t h e second magnet, t h a t i s , t h e t e n s i o n of t h e l i n e s a r e a c t i n g along t h e same d i r e c t i o n a s shown i n the drawing.
A ~ ~~

THEORY OF MAGNETISM I S BASED ON THE ENERGY STORD UP I N A MO1,ECULE AND ATOM. Now. exqmine t h e d r a w i w s i n Figures 10. 11. and 12 f o r t h e ouroose of studv-

i n g ' t h e molecular a c t i o n within- an iron-bar when i t i s demagnetized, o r magnstized, o r s a t u r a t e d w i t h magnetism. Before w go i n t o a d e t a i l e d exe p l a n a t i o n of t h e s e drawings l e t us f i r s t mention a few Pacts about "energy:' and the general conception t h a t a l l m::gnetic e f f e c t s i n i r o n are t h o u ~ h tt o be due an s l t e r a t i o n i n t h e p o s i t i o n the molecules normally occupg. You should. a t t h i s point. r e c a l l some of the e m l a n a t i o n s g i m n i n a previous lesson'about the-composition of m a t t e r . YOU- learned that a l l substances a r e compose4 of molecules, and t h a t the molecules i n t u r n c o n s i s t of atoms, and f i n a l l y the energy w i t h i n t h e atom i s a combination of p o s i t i v e and negat i v e e l e c t r i c a l forces. The negative f o r c e s a r e the r a p i d l y v i b r a t i n g e l e c t r o n s as previously explained.

to

Figure 10

Figure 12

Our e m l a n a t i o n s a l s o s t a t e d t h a t mametism and e l e c t r i c i t y a r e i n s e p a s a b l-s assoc<ated i n a l l k i n d s of "matter", and t h a t e n e r g y i n d i f f e r e n t f o r i s i s accounted f o r by the a c t i o n of e l e c t r o n s i n constant motion. It may be of more . than nassinp: i n t e r e s t t o mention t h a t according t o t h e b e l i e f of scient i s t s theAmanyd i f f e r e n t kinds of substances found-on our e a r t h and t h e energy t h e y ppssess were produced ages ago when our e a r t h was i n the process of cooling and formation.
-

f t is quite evident t h a t e n e r a a l r e a d y e x i s t s i n i r o n and s t e e l molecules and t h i s energy i s capable of doing "work" when p r o p e r l y d i r e c t e d . The r e s u l t s of t h e "work" performed by a magnetic f o r c e was observed i n Figures 1 and 2 when i r o n p a r t i c l e s and t a c k s were a t t r a c t e d toward a bar magnet and t h e i r weight was supported by i t . Also, we saw t h a t magnetic p r o p e r t i e s , e x a c t l y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of t h e s t e e l magnet i t s e l f , were 1nd.uced i n t h e i r o n p a r t i c l e s . This a b i l i t y of i r o n and s t e e l t o become magnetize3 and t o do work p e r n i t s u s t o c o n s i d e r any m a t e r i a l d i s p l a y i n g such q u a l i t i e s a s a storehouse of energy. Lesson 4

sheet 9

and, i f two unlike p o l e s , n o r t h and south, a r e brought together t h e b a r s w i l l move toward one another, and w i l l touch if permitted t o do so, due t o attraction.
If you o b t a i n some s o f t i r o n f i l i n g s and a c t u a l l y t r y the experiment prev i o u s l y suggestecl i n F i g u r e 3 you will. n o t i c e t h a t a f t e r t h e f i l i n g s are shaken off and removed from the magnet they cease t o c l i n g t o g e t h e r ; as f a r as a l l outward signs a r e concerned t h e y have l o s t t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l magnezic p r o p e r t i e s . I n o t h e r words, j u s t s o long a s t h e f i l i n g s a r e subjected t o t h e m ~ g n e t i z i n gi n f l u e n c e t h e y continue t o remain magnets, but when t h e y a r e not subjected t o t h i s i n f l u e n c e they lose p r a c t i c a l l y a l l of t h e i r power I n t h i s process t h e f i l i n g s were t o a t t r a c t one another a s you observed. f i r s t magnetized and t h e n demagnetized.

There a r e c e r t a i n k i n d s of i r o n t h a t , a f t e r being magnetized, w i l l r e t a i n t h e i r magnetism f o r much longer periods t h a n t h e s o f t i r o n f i l i n g s which we used. This subject i s t r e a t e d under " Retentivity " .
NON- MAGNETIZED IRON BAR. The energy c ~ n t a ~ n e n a magnet id t o perform work is s t o r e d up i n t h e molecules of t h e subs t a n c e , a s w have previously explained. A-single glance a t the drawing i n e Figure 10 shows t h a t every m o ~ e c u l e (molecules a r e m%rely suggested by the r e c t a n g l e s ) i s a magnet i n i t s e l f havings i t s own "N" and ItS It poles. Also, t h e d o t t e d l i n e s d e n o t i n g the f o r c e s a r e seen t o reach out through the void spaces between a d j a c e n t molecules thereby l i n k i n g them t o g e t h e r t o form numerous closed and i r r e g u l a r shaped groupings.

CONDITlONS I -enables Ni A that t

The extreme ends o f l l e a c h molecule a r e c a l l e d " poles 1 ', and by condention they a r e known as " north and "south" poles, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The % I 1 pole e n l s o f the molecules a r e i n d i c a t e d i n t h e s k e t c h by s o l i d black squares and the "St' pole ends by white o u t l i n e d squares. Observe how t h e r e i s a n a t u r a l a t t r a c t i o n between neighboring molecules which causes them t o arrange themselves i n a somewbat i r r e g u l a r order w i t h t h e i r n o r t h and s o u t h p o l e s p r a c t i c a l l y together. When an i r o n mass i s i n t h i s condition, t h a t i s , w i t h i t s magnetic f o r c e s confined i n closed paths by v i r t u e of t h e closed molecular groups, the i r o n w i l l not d i s p l a y any not.ic.eable outward magnetic e f f e c t s . The i r o n i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s s a i d t o - .- - . . be non-magnetized o r demagnetized. I n o t h e r words, although magnetism i s v r e s e n t within t h e b a r i t Is not evident i n t h e region o u t s i d e and, conseq u e n t l y t h e r e i s no magnetic f i e l d produced.
-

CONDITIONS I N AND AROUND A MAGNETIZE3 I R O N BAR.

I f a p i e c e of s o f t i r o n i s brought near a s t e e l magnet the i r o n w i l l become magnetized a s mentioned i n an e a r l y p z r t of the l e s s o n . The molecules of s o f t i r o n , when under the e x c i t i n g magnet's i n f l u e n c e , a r e f o r c i b l y t u r n e d about on t h e i r axes and Lesson 4

- sheet 10

t h i s alignment of m o l e c u l e s i s b r o u g h t about t h e e n e r g y i n e a c h moler -- --n t h e same g e ~ e r a l i r e c t i o n toward one end o f t h e b a r and t h e " S ' p o l e s d oward t h e o p p o s i t e end. Thus, t h e magnetized i r o n h a s a l l of the p r o p e r t i e s o f a magnet, t h a t i s , i t h a s a n o r t h p o l e and s o u t h p o l e of i t s own. W h a v e , e t h e n , a c o n d i t i o n where t h e m a g n e t i c e n e r g y i n t h e m o l e c u l e s now e x e r t s i t s i n f l u e n c e i n t h e r e g i o n o u t s i d e t h e b a r , s e t t i n g up s t r a i n l i n e s i n t h i s r e g i o n , t h e s t r a i n l i n e s b e i n g c a l l e d a "magnetic f i e l d " . As i n d i c a t e d by t h e l i n e s and arrow-heads t h e f o r c e l i n e s a b o u t a magnet l e a v e a t t h e n o r t h p o l e and r e - e n t e r t h e s o u t h p o l e .
A

1 The magnetic c i r c u i t i n t h e d i a g r a m i n F i u r e 1 c o n s i s t s o f a i r and i r o n . The a i r p a t h i s t e c h n i c a l l y known a s t h e 'space medium". However, i n p r a c t i c e you w i l l f i M t h a t a m a g n e t t c c i r c u i t may c o n s i s t of a i r o r i r o n a l o n e , o r a combination of b o t h . Magnetic f l u x e n c i r c l i n g a c o i l when c u r r e n t f l o w s i s a n example of a complete a i r p a t h , whereas, a r i n g magnet, such a s t h e one i n F i g u r e 3, i s an example of a n a l l - i r o n p a t h . A r i n g magnet may be employed where no e x t e r n a l f i e l d i s d e s i r e d .

From t h e f a c t s s t a t e d h e r e t o f o r e t h e s t u d e n t s h o u l d r e a d i l y g r a s p t h e i d e a However, t o make t h i s p ~ i n tp o s i t i v e l y t h a t a magnetic f o r c e i s c o n t i n u o u s . c l e a r l e t u s suppose t h a t i n F i g u r e 5 t h e r e a r e 100,000,000 l i n e s o f f o r c e w i t h i n t h e b a r (we have shown o n l y s e v e r a l . s t r a i n l i n e s f o r s i m p l i c i t y ) t h e n we would a l s o have 100,000,000 s t r a i n l i n e s a c t i n g on t h e s p a c e medium. I n o t h e r words, f o r e a c h l i n e e x i s t i n g i n t h e b a r t h e space o u t s i d e i s s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s t r a i n o f one l i n e f o r the s i m p l e r e a s o n t h a t e v e r y l i n e is c o n t i n u o u s ; i t h - s no b e g i n n i n g o r end. J'~oreover, t h e s p a c e a b o u t a magnet opposes b e i n g p l a c e d under a s t r a i n a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , it e x e r t s a c o n s t a n t e f f o r t t o r e c o v e r i t s normal s t a t e .

I t i s of utmost importance that t h e s t u d e n t s h o u l d t h i n k o f m a g n e t i c f l u x a c t i n g e n t i r e l y around a m a g n e t i c c i r c u i t and n o t t h a t t h e l i n e s s t a r t o r end a t any p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t .

The d r e v r i x i n I t !s o n l y n a h a l t o e x p e c t t h a t s u c h s t r a i g h t rows of m o l e c u l e s , when e x a c t l y en; t o e n d , w i l l e x e r t t h e g r e a t e s t s t r a i n o r t e n s i o n i n r e g i o n s o u t s i d e t h e magnet. I n p r a c t i c e , however, m o l e c u l e s d o n o t a s a r u l e form a b s o l u t e l y s t r a i g h t I n any e v e n t the l i n e s b u t t h e i r r e - a r r a n g e m e n t i s more o r l e s s imperf'ect. e x t e n t of m o l e c u l a r r e - a r r a n g e m e n t i s dependent upon t h e k i n d of s u b s t a n c e Each l i n e c o n t r i b u t e s b e i n g magnetized and the s t r e n g t h of t h e i n d u c i n g f o r c e . i t s i n d i v i d u a l m a g n e t i z i n g f o r c e t o t h e t o t a l produced b y t h e magnet. If a l l of t h e m o l e c u l e s o f a n i r o n o r s t e e l b a r were r e - a r r a n g e d a s p e r f e c t l y a s t h o s e shown i n F i g u r e 1 2 t h e n no f u r t h e r magnetism c o u l d be induced i n t h e b a r s i n c e t h e r e i s l l n o t h i n g more t h a t could be done t o t h e i r o n t o make it " t a k e on1' or "hold more m g n e t i s m . I n t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e i r o n would be s a i d t o have r e a c h e d the " s a t u r a t i o n p o i n t " , known a s " magnetic s a t u r a t i o n " . Theref o r e , i t s magnetic s t r e n g t h c o u l d n o t be i n c r e a s e d beyond t h i s l i m i t r e g a r d l e s s o f how s t r o n g might be t h e m a g n e t i z i n g f o r c e . Lesson 4 CC:;3ITIONS IIJ IZOR - e 1:)shows s e v08r aSTEZL :HEN p SATURATEDa!','ITHn KAG1FTIcSLI. Figur e l rows of erfectly l i ~ e d molecules.

sheet 1 1

EFFECT O BREAKING A M G E INTO SMALLER PIECES. The s k e t c h i n F i g u r e 13 F A NT i s i n t e n d e d t o convey t h e i d e a t h a t magnetism i s due t o a c e r t a i n m o l e c u l a r a-rangenent and , a l s o , t h a t magnetic l i n e s form a c o n t i n u o u s c i r c u i t ; t h e y cannot be t h o u g h t of a s h a v i n g a n y b e g i n n i n g o r e n d . A c c o r d i n g l y , i f a b a r magnet i s broken i n t o s e v e r a l p i e c e s , a s i l l u s t r a t e d , e a c h p i e c e becomes a s e p a r a t e msgnet v i i t h "N" and "S" p o l e s o f i t s own and w i t h s t r a i n l i n e s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e surrounding space.

Figure 13
W E TWri MAGNZTIC FORCES ACT SIMULTANEOUSLY I N THR SPME REGION. The purpose HN o f showing t h e w e a t h e r v a n e , i n F i g u r e 1 4 , i s t o e x p l a i n by a s i m p l e comp a r i s o n w i t h two a i r c u r r e n t s what would happen if two i n d e p e n d e n t m a g n e t i c f i e l d s , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e same r e g i o n , a c t e d on e a c h o t h e r . Suppose we have t h e f o r c e of one a i r c u r r e n t , marked A , a c t i n g i n t h e d i r e c t t o n i n d i c a t e d by t h e a r r o w s , and a second a i r c u r r e n t , marked B, a c t i n g from some o t h e r d i rection. If t h e tvio c u r r e n t s meet a t a p l a c e where a weat,her vane i s e r e c t e d t h e vane w i l l move a b o u t and f i n a l l y come t o r e s t p o i n t i n g i n a d i r e c t i o n The f i n a l d i r e c t i o n d i f f e r e n t from e i t h e r of t h e oncoming a i r c u r r e n t s . assumed by t h e vane iz a r e s u l t a n t e f f e c t of t h e two f o r c e s a c t i n g on e a c h If two m a g n e t i c f i e l d s a r e b r o u g h t o t h e r . So it i s w i t h m a g n e t i c f o r c e s . t o g e t h e r i n t h e same r e g i o n t h e f i e l d s w i l l be d i s t o r t e d and t h e f i n a l d i r e c t i o n of t h e m a g n e t i c l i n e s , o r t h e r e s u l t a n t f i e l d , w i l l be governed by t h e angle a t which t h e f i e l d s meet and t h e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h of t h e f o r c e s acting.
RESUL T ANT DIRECTION OF
COMBINED WIND CURRENTS

D I R E C T I O N OF ONE WIND CURRENT\,

F i g u r e 14

when s u b j e c t e d t o r a p i d changes i n magnetism, r e p r e s e n t s one source of energy loss. T h e r e f o r e , i f we wholly o r p a r t i a l l y magnetize and demagnetize a p i e c e of i r o n s t e a d i l y f o r a given length of time, Which we can do by v a r i o u s means, the i r o n w i l l become war11 and under c e r t a i n conditions i t may even become very hot. The h e a t i s s a i d t o be due t o molecular f r i c t i o n between t h e i r o n p a r t i c l e s , and note t h a t a l l of t h i s happens d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t w can see nothing of e the i n v i s i b l e f o r c e s t h a t a r e a c t i n g . It i s obvious t h a t h e a t i s a waste of energy when i t i s not d e s i r e d , or when i t i s not put t o some u s e f u l purpose.

It i s more d i f f i c u l t and r e q u i r e s g r e a t e r magnetic i n f h e n c e t o a l t e r t h e m o l e c u l ~ rarrangement of s t e e l than i r o n , t h a t i s t o s a y , s t e e l n a t u r a l l y r e s i s t s being magnetized or demagnetized t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t than i r o n . The energy l o s s t h a t occurs i n i r o n o r s t e e l when s u b j e c t e ? t o r a p i d changes i n t h e i r molecular a r r a n g e m n t s i s c a l l e d " h y s t e r e s i s

".

RELUCTPXCl3 EXPLAINET) BY PLACING A BAR O SOFT I R O N B E T ' ~ ~ E ZTlidO STEEL MAGENTS. F I The opposition which a i r , o r i r o n , or any m a t e r i a l used i n a magnetic c i r c u i t p r e s e n t s t o magnetic f l u x i s c a l l e d " r e l u c t a n c e " . It w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t i n o i s spoken of w t h e case of an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t the o p p o s i t i o as "resistance".

Figure 1 5

Figure 16

The r e l u c t a n c e of a i r i s about a thousand times as g r e a t a s t h e r e l u c t a n c e of o r d i n a r y i r o n . Because the r e l u c t a n c e of i r o n and s t e e l i s lower t h a n a i r exp3ains why l i n e s of f o r c e w i l l always t a k e an i r o n o r s t e e l p a t h i n p r e f e r e n c e t o an a i r path. Refer t o Figures 1 5 and 16 which show t h a t when a b a r of m a g n e t i z e d s o f t i r o n i s placed between two s t e e l magnets a g r e a t e r number of l i n e s of f o r c e w i l l be accomodated i n t h e i r o n and a s t r o n g e r f l u x w i l l be s e t yy: i n t h e magnetic c i r c u i t t h a n would be t h e case i f w e simply had an a i r space s e p a r a t i n g t h e two s t e e l magnets. The shape of t h e magnetic f i e l d s of t h e two magnets a r e normal when t h e i r o n b a r is removed, a s t h e drawing i n Figure 1 5 shows. However, when t h e i r o n i s i n s e r t e d between t h e magnets, a s i n t h e drawing i n Figure 16, t h e i r f i e l d s a r e d i s t o r t e d and t h e l i n e s seek t h e path t h r o u g h t h e i r o n r a t h e r than through t h e a i r . So long a s t h e i r o n b a r i s kept i n t h e presence of t h e s t e e l magnets t h e i r o n w i l l have magnetism induced i n it and t h e r e f o r e w i l l remain a magnet having "N1' and "3" poles of i t s own. The p o l a r i t y i s due t o t h e i r o n molecules being f o r c e d i n t o alignment, a c o n d i t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t p i c t u r e d i n Figure 11. Note f o r one t h i n g how t h e magnetic c i r c u i t i n Figure 16 i s formed and, a l s o , t h a t t h e r e i s a t t r a c t i o n between t h e t h r e e b a r s s i n c e t h e i r u n l i k e p o l e s a r e n e a r each other. the three bars closer together shorter ourse, t h e r e l u c t a n c e of t h e complete m a d

ding17 w i t h the r e s u l t that more l i n e s of for.ce w l l l be e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s increase the a t t r a c t i o n e x i s t i n g between t h e t h r e e bars and make t h e i r o n a stronger magnet. I f , on the o t h e r hand, the t h r e e bars are moved f a r t h e r t the reluctance Of t h e e n t i r e magnetic c i r c u i t w i l l be increased due t o wider a i r gaps w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t l e s s l i n e s w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d , and e i r o n bar w i l l become a weaker magnet. I n order t o understand t h e reason f o r the r e s u l t s obtained i n Figures 1 5 and 16 i t i s only necessary t o bear i n mind t h a t a i r o f f e r s a n i n f i n i t e opposition t o t h e s e t t i n g up of magnetic l i n e s , whereas, i r o n n a t u r a l l y o f f e r s an e a s i e r path f o r l i n e s of f o r c e . This i s why i r o n i s a t t r a c t e d t o a megnet. The reluctance of a magnetic c i r c u i t i s dependent upon the following t h r e e f a c t o r s , namely: ( a ) t h e length of t h e complete magnetic path or c i r c u i t ; ( b ) the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of the c i r c u i t ; and ( c ) the permeability of t h e c i r c u i t , which v a r i e s according t o the m a t e r i a l s used and the l e n g t h of any a i r gaps or spaces present through which l i n e s of f o r c e must pass.
RETENTIVITY PEP&iFABILITY. The term " r e t e n t i v i t y " i s used t o denote the power of substances t o r e t a i n or hold t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of magnetism imparted t o them. The ternLr e t e n t i v i t y should n o t be confused w i t h permeability, The term "permeability" expresses t h e q u a l i t y of a m a t e r i a l t h a t permits i t t o become s t r o n g l y magnetized, o r , i n o t h e r words i t i n d i c a t e s the ease w i t h which a magnetic substance can be magnetized i r r e s p e c t i v e of how long t h e substance may r e t a i n magnetic p r o p e r t i e s afterwards. A piece of hardened s t e e l r e s i s t s being magnetized, but a f t e r magnetism i s once induced i n t h e s t e e l it w i l l hold o r r e t a i n t h i s property f o r comparaIt r e q u i r e s a g r e a t magnetizing f o r c e (cdl l e d coercive t i v e l y long p r i o d s . f o r c e ) t o completely demagnetize a s t e e l magnet, t h a t i s t o say, t o r e t u r n i t s molecules t o such a p o s i t i o n o r arrangement t h a t t h e s t e e l w i l l no longer show e magnetic p r o p e r t i e s . So w f i n d t h a t molecules of s t e e l a r e not e a s i l y moved out of t h e i r a l i g n e d p o s i t i o n s a f t e r they once assume a c e r t a i n arrangement. For t h i s reason, s t e e l i s used i n the manufacture of ermanent magnets. A aermanent mamet should always be handled w i t h care; ff droppea o r subjected Eo shocks, j a r s , o r h e a t , it i s l i k e l y t o l o s e a considerable p a r t of i t s magnetism due t o the breaking up of the molecular alignment.

O the other hand, s o f t i r o n i s used arfiere a temporary magnet i s required n because the molecules of this material w i l l arrange and re- arrange themselves m i t h r o m n n r n t i ve ease vibn laced fn and O a t of the influence of an outside be apparent t h a t s o f t i r o n a c t s as a magnet magnetic force. It should only a t such times as when a magnetizing f o r c e i s present. DENSITY. It stands t o reason t h a t f a r more p a r a l l e l rows of molecules can be packed i n t o a given mass of i r o n when molecules form e x a c t l y s t r a i g h t l i n e s an3 t h e l i n e s a r e very close together a s i n Figure 1% than i n t h e case where the 1 molecules a r e more or l e s s haphazard a d p a r t l y i n alignment as i n Figure 1 . The number of l i n e s t h a t can be crowded i n t o a given magnet determines i t s magnetic s t r e n g t h ; the number of l i n e s per u n i t area being known a s the d e n s i t g . The s t r a i n a t any point near a magnet i s i n d i c a t e d by the density of the l i n e s a t t h a t p o i n t . It then follows t h a t a magnetic f i e l d of high d e n s i t y possesses g r e a t s t r e n g t h and i s bapable of doing considerable work while a f i e l d of lower d e n s i t y w i l l be comparatively weaker. Lesson 4

sheet 14

RESIDUAL MAGNETISM. If a n i r o n mass, a f t e r b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o a m a g n e t i z i n g i n f l u e n c e , i s removed from t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e and t h e i r o n t h e n h o l d s a p e r c e p t i b l e amount of magnetism, t h e remaining magnet ism i s known as " r e s i d u a l ma g netism t1. It s i m p l y means t h a t t h e m o l e c u l e s d o n o t a l l move back i n t h e o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n s t h e y occupied b e f o r e m a g n e t i z a t i o n t o o k p l a c e , b u t a c e r t a i n number remain permanently $ixed i n m y e o r l e s s i r r e g u l a r l i n e s which produces a weak magnetism. Remanance i s a term u s e l when compering t h e t o t a l number o f l i n e s of f o r c e of r e s i d u a l magnetism remaining i n d i f ~ f e r e n t k i n d s of i r o n and s t e e l a f t e r t h e removal o f t h e m a g n e t i z i n g f o r c e . MAGNETIC SHIELD AIR AND SPACE MEDIUM. W d o n o t r e a l l y c o n s i d e r a i r a s e t h e space medium i n which m a g n e t i c l i n e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d around a magnet a l t h o u g h t h e t e r m air i s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d t o d e n o t e t h i s empty r e g i o n . just what t h e medium i s h a s n e v e r b e e n a s c e r t a i n e d , b u t i t i s known t h s t it i s something o t h e r t h a n a i r . F o r i n s t a n c e , suppose we exhaust t h e a i r from a s e a l e d g l a s s chamber and suppose a compass o c c u p i e s a p o s i t i o n i n t h e v e r y c e n t e r of t h e vacuous s p i c e . I t would be found t h a t i f a s t e e l magnet was b r o u g h t n e a r t h e c h a n b e r t h e magnetic l i n e s emanating from t h e magnet would p e n e t r a t e through b o t h t h e g l a s s w a l l and t h e vacuum and c a u s e t h e compass needle t o d e f l e c t .

It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e from t h i s t e s t t h a t n e i t h e r g l a s s n o r a vacnum w i l l a c t a s a s h i e l d t o block magnetism. I r o n i s used i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l c a s e s where a magnetic s h i e l d i s d e s i r e d . The p r i n c i p l e of a n i r o n s h i e l d i s a s f o l l o w s : Magnetic l i n e s from some s o u r c e w i l l not p a s s d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h and o u t on t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e of a n i r o n s h i e l d , b u t r a t h e r t h e f o r c e of t h e l i n e s a c t on t h e i r o n molecv.les t e n d i n g t o r e a r r a n g e them a n 6 make t h e s h i e l d i t s e l f a magnet. % h a t happens i s t h i s : t h e s b i e l d t a k e s up t h e magnetism end i n t h i s way s h u n t s t h e m a g n e t i c f o r c e s around t h e r e g i o n which 4s t o be p r o t e c t e d o r i s o l a t e d from magnetic e f f e c t s . Thus, when a s h i e l d i s enployed m s g n e t i c l i n e s c a n n o t s p e a d outward i n d e f i n i t e l y i n t o s p a c e , a s t h e l i n e s n a t u r a l l y would do o t h e r w i s e . The p r i n c i p l e e x p l a i n e d h e r e i s one of m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n , and i t h o l d s t r u e i n t h e c a s e of any magnetic f o r c e a c t i n g on i r o n which t e n d s t o make t h e i r o n a magnet.
EXAKINATION

LESSON 4

Name t h r e e t y p e s o f magnets and draw a s i m p l e s k e t c h of each. What m a t e r i a l would you u s e t o make: ( a ) A permanent magnet? Why? ( b ) A t e m p o r a r y magnet? Why? Answer b r i e f l y : ( a ) What i s induced magnetism? ( b ) %,hat d o e s t h e t e r m "dens ity" mean? ( c ) a h a t d o e s t h e t e r m "flux" mean? ( d ) What i s a magnetic f i e l d ? Name s few o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l i n e s o f f o r c e . E x p l a i n i n a few word? t h e meaning of e a c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g t e r n & : (a ) Pern~eability ( b ) r e t e n t i v i t y ( c ) reluctance ( d ) magt:etic s a t u r a t i o n ( e ) r e s i d u a l magnetism ( f ) h y s t e r e s i s . E x p l a i n t h e laws o f a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n . How c o u l d you e a s i l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s e laws t o someone? What i s t h e e f f e c t o f b r e a k i n g a s t e e l magnet b a r i n t o s m a l l p i e c e s ? What i s t h e m o l e c u l a r c o n d i t i o n i n an i r o n o r s t e e l b a r : ( a ) When d e m a g n e t i z e d ? ( b ) When m a g n e t i z e d ? ( c ) when s a t u r a t e d w i t h nagr.e t i sm? Draw a disgr,am o f t h e magnetic spectrum o f a h o r s e s h o e magnet. Why should a permanent mngnet be handled w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t c a r e ? Lesson 4

- sheet

15

INC.
firm

e rly-

M A R CON/ INSTIT(/ TE

s u n d e d /909

Technical Lesson 5
ELECTROMAGNETISM

ELECTROXAGEETIC I N D U C T I O N .

A FUW OF CUERERT PRODUCES MAGNETIC EFFECTS. The r u l e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e l a t i n g t o magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e produced by a s t e e l magnet may be applied t o a l l cases where l i n e s of f o r c e a r e produced by an e l e c t r i c cur r e n t . Magnetic e f f e c t s a r e always s e t up i n the region surrounding a flow of current. A strean: of negative e l e c t r o n s moving from one place t o another through any path which a c t s a s a conducting medium i s considered t o be a flow of c u r r e n t ; t h i s i s i n accordance w i t h t h e " Electron ~ h e o r y " .Thus, a movement of e l e c t r o n s , o r c u r r e n t flow, through a conductor ( a wire f o r example ) s e t s up about t h a t c ductor magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e , f orniinff a magnetic whir 1 uhich begins a t t h e center of the wire and extenc's an i n f i n i t e d i s t a r c e outward i n t o space.

%\, 1

,<

I / ,

EFFECT AROUND A STRAIGHT WIRE

EFFECT AROUND ONETURN OF WIRE

Figure 1

Figure 2

The magnetic f i e l d , o r w h i r l , can be d e t e c t e d e a s i l y by means of a magnetic compass, o r n i t h t h e aid of i r o n f i l i n g s , a s shown by the experiment i n Fi&u?e 1. It shows t h a t a w i r e of s u i t a b l e l e n g t h ( e i t h e r i n s u l a t e d o r bare w i r e ) i s t h - u s t v e r t i c a l l y through t h e c e n t e r of a sheet of cardboard upon which i s sprinkled a t h i n uniform l a y e r of s o f t i r o n f i l i n g s . The opposite ends of the wire a r e connected r e s p e c t i v e l y t o the p o s i t i v e ( + ) and negativf ( - ) terminals of a d r y c e l l which f w n i s h e s the electromotive force necess a r y t o send current through t h e wire. The d i r e c t i o n of c u r r e n t flow i s i n d i c a t e d by arrows. h ' i t c u r r e n t flowing t h e cardboard i s tapped l i g h t l y which causes the f i l i n g s t o move and arrance themselves i n concentric c i r c l e s each c i r c l e being a l i n e of f o r c e . O f course, the f i l i n g s cannot c l e a r l y n map out a l l of t h e l i n e s because of t h e i r v a s t numbers. A important f a c t onl i n e s of f o r c e e x e r t t h e i r e f f o r t i n a c e r t a i n t o be remembered i s t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n around the wire and a t r i g h t angles t o i t .

our experiment o f f e r s a convenient means f o r i n d i r e c t l y observing how t h e

passage of c u r r e n t through a wire s e t s up magnetic e f f e c t s . Although t h e s e w h i r l s of magnetic l i n e s e x i s t along t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h of t h e wire c h c u i t (whenever c u r r e n t f l o w s ) w a r e only v i s u a l i z i n g them a t one l o c a t i o n on t h e e

e . , a t the p o i n t where our cardboard i s placed. To prove t h a t t h e isn e x i s t s a l l along t h e wire move t h e cardboard up and down a t t h e ime observing t h e behavior of t h e f i l i n g s . The t o t a l number of l i n e s ~ r c l i n g h e wire i s an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e magnetic f i e l d s t r e n g t h , o r t s i t y , and i n t h i s c a s e i s c h i e f l y dependent upon t h e number of amperes of r e n t flowing. A c u r r e n t of low value w i l l produce a comparatively weak ' l e l d , whereas, a c u r r e n t of l a r g e r value w i l l produce a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g e r f i e l d . The magnetic l i n e s ( o r f l u x ) . around t h e wire have p r e c i s e l y every q u a l i t y possessed by l i n e s e x i s t i n g .about a s t e e l magnet. The l i n e s a c t upon t h e space medium about t h e wire t o p l a c e it under a s t r a i n a s any magnetic

N w l e t us o bend t h e s t r a i g h t w i r e i n Figure 1 i n t o a loop as i n Figure 2 , It i s seen t h a t t h e magnetic l i n e s a r e p r e s e n t but t h a t by forming a loop w have obe t a i n e d a c o n d i t i o n where the d i r e c t i o n of t h e l i n e s a r e a l l upward i n s i d e t h e loop and a l l downward o u t s i d e t h e loop. S t a t i n g t h i s i n a d i f f e r e n t way w coulz say t h a t a l l of t h e l i n e s s e t up by t h e c u r r e n t emerge from one end e of t h e loop, surround t h e loop and r e - e n t e r a t t h e o p p o s i t e end, with t h e r e s u l t t h a t a continuous magnetic f l u x e n c i r c l e s t h e s i n g l e t u r n of wire. Figure 3 shows t h e magnetic f l u x s e t up by c u r r e n t flowing through a c o i l . The magnetic w h i r l around each t u r n i s s i m i l a r t o t h e s i n g l e t u r n i n Figure 2 but by t h e c o i l arrangement t h e l i n e s around one t u r n combine w i t h those o f an a d j a c e n t t u r n , and so on, throughout the l e n g t h of t h e c o i l . This r e s u l t s i n t h e l i n e s assuming a s i m i l a r d i r e c t i o n around t h e c o i l and through t h e c n o t h a t i s , t h e y emerge a t one end and a f t e r continuing around t h e c o i l r e - e n t e r a t t h e opposite end. Thus, a c o i l can be made t o produce s t r o n g magnetic f e f f e c t s because t h e l f n e s s e t up by each O i t s t u r n s add up c o l l e c t i v e l y .
y u should now s e e from t h e drawing i n Figure 3 t h a t a c o i l througk, which o

THE MAGNETIC EFFECT ABOUT A " L O O P " OF WIRE INHEN CURRENT FLOVS.

c u r r e n t i s flowing i s s i m i l a r t o a s t e e l magnet i n s o f a r t h a t both produce a magnetic flux and, consequently, b o t h have "N" and 'IS" p o l e s a t t h e i r opposit ends. Since magnetic l i n e s of force always have s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , reg a r d l e s s o f how t h e y a r e produced, t h e n any e f f e c t s o r work which a bar o r o t h e r type magnet i s capable of doing could l i k e w i s e be done by any s u i t a b l e c o i l of wire when c u r r e n t flows through i t s t u r n s , The following important f a c t s concerning a c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g c o i l should be remembered: (1)The c u r r e n t produces a magnetic f l u x ; ( 2 ) t h e c o i l has d e f i n i t e "N" and "s" p o l e s ; ( 3 ) t h e end of t h e c o i l from which t h e l i n e s of f o r c e leave i s t h e "N" pole and the o p p o s i t e end where t h e y r e - e n t e r i s t h e "S" pole.

i;

Lesson 5

- sheet

d i r e c t i o n of t h e l i n e s a s t h e y e n c i r c l e it a t right anglesucan be ly understood by t h e s t u d e n t a f t e r examining t h e diagram i n Figure 4 and l y i n g t h e following right -hand thumb r u l e :
FIRST RIGHT-H4ND THUMB RULE: If a conductor i s grasped w i t h t h e r i g h t hand, w i t h t h e thumb p o m t i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t flow the

~.

f i n g e r s w i l l e n c i r c l e the wire i n a d i r e c t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t taken by I n o t h e r words, t h e f i n g e r s coincide w i t h t h e the l i n e s of f o r c e . d i r e c t i o n of tension which tk.a l i n e s s e t up i n space.

Figure 4 ~y placing a compass f i r s t above and t h e n below a wire when c u r r e n t i s flowi n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e 1j.nes can be determined s i n c e they e x i s t ent i r e l y around t h e wire i n c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s . W have shown i n Figure 4 how e t h e compass needle p o i n t s i n a c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n when it occupies a p o s i t i o n over t h e wire, b u t , when under t h e w i r e , the needle p o i n t s i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n . If we were t o r e v e r s e t h e connections a t t h e d r y c e l l and cause c u r r e n t t o flow through the wire i n a n opposite d i r e c t i o n t o t h a t shown by t h e arrows t h e compass needle would i n d i c a t e t h i s change since it would p o i n t i n d i r e c t i o n s j u s t t h e c o n t r a r y t o t h o s e i n d i c a t e d f o r p o s i t i o n s above and below the wire d u r i n g t h e o r i g f n a l connection. The drawings i n Figures 5 and 6 a r e almost self- explanatory. Figure 5 shows t h e end view of a w i r e with t h e c u r r e n t flowing through it i n a d i r e c t i o n away from t h e r e a d e r ( i n d i c a t e d by a c r o s s ) and the l i n e s of f o r c e a r e i n a clockwise d i r e c k i o n about t h e wire. Fjgure 6 shows t h e s a w wire w i t h t h e c u r r e n t reversed and flowing toward the r e a d e r ( i n d i c a t e d by a heavy d o t ) and t h e l i n e s a r e i n a counter- clockwise d i r e c t i o n about t h e w i r e . Figure 3 i l l u s t r a t e s a c o i l w i t h a cut-away s e c t i o n p e r m i t t i n g you t o r e a d i l y visua l i z e t h e magnetic e f f e c t s around each t u r n and the t o t a l f l u x i n alid around a c o i l when c u r r e n t flows, a s p r e v i o u s l y mentioned. The a t t r a c t i o n between t h e magnetic f i e l d s s e t by two p a r a l l e l w i r e s when t h e c u r r e n t flows through e a c h one i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n i s shown i n Figure 7. The r e p u l s i o n between two such f i e l d s when c u r r e n t flows i n each w i r e i n opposite d i r e c t i o n s i s shown i n Figure 8. Lesson 5

sheet 3

Ea SE -

T IG D A - 5 Grasp t h e c o i l with t h e r i g h t hand, place t h e f i n g e r s p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e t u r n s , p o i n t them i n the d i r e c t i o n of' t h e c u r r e n t flow and t h e thumb w i l l p o i n t toward t h e "N" pole of t h e c o i l .
J

-.

,---

.
,

' \

' .

M AGNE T I C WHI RLS

ARE CLOCKWISE WISE &ROUND THE WIRE

'

-t-

Figure 5

Figure 6

SOLENOID HELIX. If a c o i l c o n s i s t s of but a few t u r n s of wire it i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d a h e l i x (meaning s p i r a l shaped) b u t a c o i l wound w i t h a conI n o r d i n a r y cons i d e r a b l e number of t u r n s i s more o f t e n c a l l e d a solenoid. v e r s a t i o n c o i l s a r e f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o a s "windings".

Figure 7

Figure 8

1
] # 1
i '

A I R CORE AND m N CORE. When t h e i n s i d e of any c o i l c o n s i s t s merely of an O a i r space t h e c o i l i s s a i d t o have a n a i r c o r e , l i k e t h e one i n Figure 9. But, if w i n s e r t a b a r of s o f t i r o n i n t o t h e c o i l t o f i l l t h e a i r space, e a s i n Figure 10, the c o i l i s t h e n s a i d II t o have an i r o n core and the whole u n i t i s given t h e name "electromagnet.

The magnetizing e f f e c t of a s o l e n o i d , o r t h e number of l i n e s of f o r c e produced by a . g i v e n . solenoid, a r e e x p r e s s i o n s mhich mean p r a c t i c a l l y the same thing. The number of l i n e s depend mainly upon two Lesson 5

MEANING O "ABUTRE-TURNS". F

- sheet

o r s , nanely: (1 t h e value of t h e current i n amperes flowing through a i n g and ( 2 ) t h e number of t u r n s of wire comprising a winding. Hence, t h e mn II ampere-turns" r e p r e s e n t s t h e product of t h e number of t u r n s of wire on c o i l a& the number of amperes flowina i n each t u r n . we can s e t down t h i s r e l a t i o n f o r ampere-turns a formula, thus:

in

AMPERETURNS = NUMBER O TURNS x AMPERES F According t o t h i s formula a c u r r e n t Of 0.2 amperes flowing through a c o i l c o n s i s t i n g of 500 t u r n s w i l l produce e x a c t l y t h e same amount of magnetic s t r e n g t h as w i l l a c u r r e n t , of 20 amperes flowing through a s i m i l a r l y formed c o i l Sut which has only 5 t u r n s . I n b o t h cases w have 100 ampe~e-turns e

Figure 9

Figure 1 0 '

ELECTROMAGNET. When c u r r e n t flows through t h e windings of an electromagnet t h e i r o n used i n the c o r e becomes magnetized by i n d u c t i o n t h e same as would any mass of i r o n i f brought i n t o the presence of a magnetizing force. When t h e i r o n molecules a r e arranged i n p a r a l l e l rows t h e i r o n c o r e i t s e l f s e t s up i t s own f o r c e l i n e s and t h e l a t t e r are added t o the l i n e s e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e c o i l . Thus, i n any electromagnet t h e magnetic f i e l d s t r e n g t h i s t h e sum of t h e l i n e s s e t up by the i r o n core and those s e t up by the c o i l . By employing an i r o n c o r e , a s i n Figure 10, t h e magpetic f l u x s e t up around a p a r t i c u l a r c o i l by a c e r t a i n c u r r e n t i s m u l t i p l i e d many times over t h a t of a s i m i l a r c o i l with an a i r core. When i r o n i s used and t h e i r o n protrudes beyond t h e ends of t h e coi? it w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t most of t h e l i n e s pass e n t i r e l y through t h e i r o n before t h e y emerge from t h e i r o n and a c t on t h e surrounding space medium. However, i n t h e case of a c o i l w i t h an a i r c o r e the l i n e s begin t o spread out i n t o space a t the opposite ends of t h e c o i l i t s e l f , or where t h e t u r n s end. This i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t i r o n h a s a h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y t h a n a i r . See Figures 9 and 10. An example of how powerful an electromagnet can be made i s g i v e n i n the drawi n g i n Figure 1 showing a modern l i f t i n g magnet moving l a r g e pieces of i r o n . 1 The l e r g e p i e c e s of i r o n a r e l i f t e d by means of t h e s t r o n g magnetism produced when a very high c u r r e n t , perhaps 50 amperes o r more, flows through c o i l s c o n s i s t i n g of a few thousand t u r n s . A magnet of t h i s kind o f t e n weighs over 5000 l b s . i t s e l f , h a s over 100,000 ampere-turns, and i s capable of l i f t i n g i r o n pieces weighing thousands of pounds. B y d i s c o n t i n u i n g t h e c u r r e n t i n sheet 5 Lesson 5

e of how the p r o p e r t i e s of an electromagnet a r e u t i l i z e d t o a c t u a t e an n armature which produces c l i c k s t h a t may be i n t e r p r e t e d i n t o the chare r s forming t h e t e l e g r a p h code. Keep i n mind t h a t the s t r e n g t h of a n electromagnet or any c u r r e n t carrying c o i l depends mainly upon i t s a m p e r e - t m . MAGNETONOTIVE FORGE. (Abbreviated m.m.f. ) T h i s i s the name given t o t h e unseen f o r c e which i s accountable f o r t h e s e t t i n g uu of maanetic f l u x i n a magnetic c i r c u i t . This force i s necessary before magnet is& can be e s t a b l i s h e d i n j u s t t h e same way t h a t electromotive f o r c e i s r e q u i r e d b e f o r e c u r r e n t w i l l flow i n an e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t . There i s a c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n between f l u x and magnetomot i v e f o r c e . For example, when i r o n i s magnetized and demagnetized p a r t of t h e work necessary t o arrange t h e molecules is converted i n t o h e a t , due t o molecular f r i c t i o n . The movement of the molecules, however, l a g s behind t h e f o r c e i n e i t h e r case. This l a g of molecular arrangement i s known a s " h y s t e r e s i s " . It i s always present i n i r o n when used i n any c i r c u i t where t h e c u r r e n t v a r i e s continuously a s i n an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t .

i l s the magnetism drops out of the l i f t i n g magnet and t h e i r o n pieces t o m a t i c a l l y r e l e a s e d . The t e l e g r a p h sourder i n Figure 1 2 i s another ex-

Figure 1 2

Figure 1 1 S M A Y The important f a c t s t o be remembered from t h e s u b j e c t of " ElectroU MR, magnetism, " besides t h e two "right- hand thumb r u l e s n , a r e a s follows:
(1)A magnetic f i e l d i s always e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e region around a wire

c a r r y i n g a c u r r e n t of e l e c t r i c i t y .
( 2 ) When c u r r e n t passes through a c o i l of w i r e e a c h t u r n produces l i n e s .

Those l i n e s extending f u r t h e r out from a given t u r n combine with t h e l i n e s of neighboring t u r n s t o s e t u p a magnetic f l u x e n c i r c l i n g t h e e n t i r e c o i l . This e f f e c t i s c l e a r l y shown i n Figures 3 and 7. (3) A c o i l carrying current exhibits " N " %'' poles a t i t s opposite ends, since a magnetic f i e l d i s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e surrounding space. ( 4 ) Both a bar magnet end a c o i l through which c u r r e n t is passing produce s i m i l a r magnetic e f f e c t s . ELFCTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. Electromotive. Force and Current Induced i n Wires by Lines of Magnetic Force.

W learned i n the e a r l i e r p a r t of t h i s l e s s o n t h a t fin e l e c t r i c current move

Lesson 5

- sheet

a wire, o r any conductor, s e t s up a magnetic f i e l d surrounding t h e a l s o , the l i n e s of f o r c e comprising t h e f i e l d r e a c h out a considerstance i n t o space. The e x t e n t o r magnitude ( c a l l e d d e n s i t y ) of t h e bout a c u r r e n t - c a r r y i ~ gwire depends mainly upon the s t r e n g t h of the

a g n e t i c c i r c u i t , i , e . , whether-it be a l l a i r o r p a r t l y iron. o t h e r f a c t s t out were t h a t if a conductor i s wound i n t h e form of a c o i l ( h e l i x e n o i d ) it produces a magnetic f i e l d s i m i l a r t o t h a t of a permanent bar gnet when c u r r e n t passes through t h e t u r n s of t h e c o i l and t h a t the c o i l 1 e x h i b i t n o r t h and south poles a t i t s opposite ends according t o t h e 1 e r e c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e t u r n s . W w i l l r e p e a t e d l y make use of t h e s e e a c t s throughout our present d i s c u s s i o n . However, w must now become f a m i l i a r with ~ r i n c i w l e swhich a r e the converse o f the above s t a t e m e n t s . t h a t i s . =netic l i n e s of f o r c e are capable of producing a movement o f ' e l e c t r i c ~ c u r r e n t i n conductors under c e r t a i n conditions.
T t was Michael Faraday who made t h i s discovery which i s one of the most i m ~ o r t a n ti n a l l r a d i o and e l e c t r i c a l science because from t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s have sprung many forms of r a d i o and power apparatus, such a s generators, transformers, and so on. He n o t i c e ? during one of h i s e x p e r i me - ts ...- -n- - t h a t when a conductor was moved through a maanetic f i e l d i n such a wav t h a t it cut across t h e l i n e s of f o r c e an e l g c t r i c a i pressure ( e .m:f. ) wouldWbe s e t up along t h e conductor, i .e , induced i n t h e conduct or. That an e .m. f o r a 7 n c t r i c charge was made a v a i l a b l e was wroved by a t t a c h i n a the conductor t o - -. . t h e gold l e a v s s of an e l e c t r o s c o p e and observing t h e movement of t h e leaves while the conductor was being moved. H a l s o observed t h a t i f a conductor e i n which an e.m.f. was induced formed p a r t of a closed e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t t h e induced e .m.f. would cause a movement of current through t h e e n t i r e c i r c u i t . "Induced e.rn.fW i s o f t e n c a l l e d "induce3 voltage". Let u s e x p l a i n i n regard t o the l a t t e r statements t h a t a n e.m.f. i s induced i n an open conductor ( t h i s mefins a conductor whose ends a r e l e f t f r e e or disconnected) when a c t e d upon - . ..-. by l i n e s of magnetic f o r c e , whereas, an e.m.f. and c u r r e n t -a r e induced -a closed conductor under s i m i l a r conditions. .When d i s c u s s i n g t h e a c t i o n occurring i n a close,l conductor w r e f e r sometimes only t o the induce? c u r r e n t , keeping e i n mind, however, t h a t w must f i r s t have the inducecl-electromotive f o r c e e

-~

in

Among s e v e r a l e f f e c t s observed by Faraday one was t h a t i f a conductor, a f t e r being placed i n a magnetic f i e l d , remained a t r e s t ( t h a t i s , t h e conductor was not moved w i t h r e s p e c t t o the l i n e s of f o r c e ) no induced e.m.f. could be obtained. Nor could an induced e.m.f. be obtained i f the conductor was moved i n t h e magnetic f i e l d i n such a way t h a t i t s d i r e c t i o n of motion was p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e l i n e s of f o r c e . I n o t h e r words, i n t h e l a t t e r motion t h e conductor would not cut o r pass through t h e f i e l d , i t would merely t r a v e l along and coinpide with t h e d i r e c t i o n of the l i n e s , , But, he found t h a t i f a conductor remained i n a s t a t i o n a r y p o s i t i o n and the magnetic l i n e s were made t o move so t h a t they passed through or cut a c r o s s t h e conductor an e.m,f. would be induced i n the wire under such d n d i t i o n s . Notice p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t i n a l l cases involving induced e .m.f. and c u r r e n t w e have t o consider t h e r e l a t i v e motion of t h e conductor and t h e magnetic l i n e s s i n c e e i t h e r may remain s t a t i o n a r y . That i s , we must take i n t o account the following conditions, namely: (1)Whether a conductor i s moved through a s t a t i o n a r y f i e l d , o r ( 2 ) Whether magnetic l i n e s move p a s t o r cut a c r o s s a s t a t i o n a r y conductor. Lesson 5

- sheet 7

s f o r 3 the b a s i s of t h e study of

" E l s c t r o n n g n e t i c In-

t i s always p r e s e n t i n t h e s p a c e where a m a g n e t i c f i e l d e x i s t s .

t a i n e d from t h e u s e of a permanent magnet, a s i n F i g w e 13, o r from a n romagnet, a s i n F i g u r e 14. I n our p r a c t i c a l work we f i n d c o i l s of b o t h g a i r - , c o r e and i r o n - c o r e t y p e i n use. The d e s i g n of a c o i l i s governed b y s p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n i n t h e c i r c u i t . W do know, however, t h a t when i r o n e used f o r t h e c o r e m a t e r i a l i t s e t s up a magnetic f l u x which i s hundreds t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n c o u l d be o b t a i n e d from a g i v e n c o i l when o p e r a t e d w i t h n l y an a i r c o r e .

-INDUCED CURRENT

DIRECTION OF

F i g u r e 13

Figure 14

I n t h e experiment i n Fi,we 1 4 the induced e .m.f. 1s and c u r r e n t s f o r movements of t h e l o o p of wire w i l l be d e t e c t e d b y t h e d e f l e c t i o n s of t h e p o i n t e r o f a s e n s i t i v e g a l v a n o m e t e r . B e f o r e c o n t i n u i n g w i t h our s u b j e c t l e t us f i r s t g i v e a b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s i n s t r u m e n t . It c o n s i s t s of a s m a l l movable c o i l c a r r y i n g a p o i n t e r , t h e c o i l b e i n g mounted on a b e a r i n g and p l a c e d i n t h e magnetic f i e l d of a h o r s e s h o e t y p e magnet, and it o p e r a t e s on t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t a p a s s a g e o f c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e c o i l c a u s e s it t o r o t a t e , one way o r t h e o t h e r , d u e t o t h e f o r c e o f t h e magnetism s e t up b y t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e c o i l a c t i n g upon t h e f o r c e o f t h e magnetisr- of t h e magnet. A s p r i n g h o l d s t h e c o i l and p o i n t e r i n a z e r o , o r c e n t e r p o s i t i o n . The p o i n t e r w i l l move r i g h t o r l e f t of t h e z e r o mark a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t s u p p l i e d t o t h e c o i l t h r o u g h t h e c o n n e c t i o n s a t t h e two b i n d i n g p o s t s on t h e t o p of t h e m e t e r c a s e . The amount of t h e p o i n t e r d e f l e c t i o n i s t a k e n as t h e measure of t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e c u r r e n t i n d u c e d i n t h e c i r c u i t when t h e l o o p of w i r e moves a c r o s s t h e l i n e s of f o r c e a s i l l u s t r a t e d . I f t h e l o o p i s s u d d e n l y moved v e r t i L e t u s now p r o c e e d w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t . c a l l y downward a d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e g a l v a n o m e t e r p o i n t e r w i l l b e s e e n , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t c u r r e n t momentarily f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e c l o s e d c i r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g of t h e l o o p , t h e c o i l i n t h e g a l v a n o m e t e r , and t h e c o n n e c t i n g w i r e s . The p o i n t e r w i l l move a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e a c r o s s t h e s c a l e and i m m e d i a t e l y d r o p back t o i t s n a t u r a l p o s i t i o n of r e s t . ASSUme t h a t t h e p o i n t e r moves t o t h e r i g h t . If t h e l o o p i s s u d d e n l y moved upnrard t h e p o i n t e r w i l l m o m e n t a r i l x d e f l e c t i n Lesson 5

- sheet

$&ion o p p o s i t e t o i i s f i r s t movement a n d , a c c o r d i n g l y , i t w i l l move a g a i n d i s t a n c e a c r o s s t h e s c a l e t o t h e l e f t o f z e r o . It i s e v i d e n t t h a t when : ' l o o p s t o p s c u t t i n g t h e l i n e s t h e induced c u r r e n t d i e s o u t . Bear i n mind t h e induced. e l e c t r o m o t i v e i s g e n e r a t e d o n l y momentaril& o r w h i l e t h e u c t o r i s a c t u a l l y moving and c u t t i n g l i n e s . galvanometer r e a d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e i n d u c e d c u r r e n t i n t h e loop a l a t e s ;i8ith e a c h r e v e r s a l of i t s movement t h r o u g h t h e f i e l d . If t h e l o o p Ove? q u i c k l y a c r o s s t h e l i n e s a h i g h e r d e f l e c t i o n w i l l be r e a d on t h e anometer t h a n i f o n l y moved slowly. Also, i f i n s t e a d o f moving t h e l o o p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e l j - n e s w e now move it f r o m l e f t t o r i g h t , r i g h t t o l e f t , e i t h e r way ( t h a t i s , p a r a l l e l t o t h e d - i r e c t i o n of t h e l i n e s ) l i n e s w i l l b e c u t a n d , t h e r e f o r e , no e.m.f. o r c u r r e n t w i l l be o b t a i n e d . P . r s o n performing a n e x p e r i m e n t of t h i s k i n d c o u l d e a s i l y move t h e l o o p up nd down s o r a p i d l y t h a t t h e p o i n t e r , due t o i t s w e i g h t , c o u l d n o t f o l l o w t h e a r i a t i o n s o r r e v e r s a l s o f t h e induced c u r r e n t and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e p o i n t e r ould remain a t z e r o , o r p o s s i b l y it might make a s l i g h t q u i v e r i n g motion vithout giving any d e f i n i t e reading.
,

DIRECTION OF FLUX'.

. .

DIRECTION OF (INDUCED CURRENT

UPWfiRO FLUX-.,

MOTION

GPLVANOMETER

F i g u r e 15

F i g u r e 16

There a r e two more i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s t o be mentioned i n r e g a r d t o F i g u r e s 13 and 14. If t h e l o o p i s h e l d s t a t i o n a r y a n d e i t h e r t h e magnet o r e l e c t r o magnet i s moved u p and down s o t h ~ t h e l i n e s a r e made t o c u t through t h e l o o 2 t h e same r e s u l t s w i l l b e o b t a i n e d a s f o r c o n d i t i o n s o u t l i n e d i r , t h e f o r e g o i n g --- - p a r a g r a p h s where t h e l o o p i s made t o c u t t h r o u g h t h e l i n e s . And i f t h e magn e t i c f i e l d s were r e v e r s e d , w i t h "N" t o t h e r i g h t and "S" t o t h e l e f t , t h e i n d u c e d p r e s s u r e s would t h e n be s e t up i n t h e r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n s f o r t h e same motions of t h e loop r e l a t i v e t o t h e f i e l d . Flemingls F c l e f o r D e t e r m i n i n g t h e D i r e c t i o n o f Induced 3.M.F. i n a Conductor, e x p l a i n t h e r u l e it i s b e s t t o perform t h e e x p e r i m e n t s i n F i g u r e s 1 5 and 1 6 w i t h a s t r a i g h t c o p p e r r o d . It i s e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n d u c t i v e e f f e c t s n - - ua i n a rod a@ t h e n l a t e r you can a p p l y t h e same r u l e t o any n u i b e r o f -et c o n d u c t o r s , o r t u r n s of w i r e . A - g a l v a n o m e t e r i s a g a i n used t o i n d i c a t e t h e s t r e n g t h and d i r e c t i o n of t h e i n d ~ c e dc u r r e n t , t h e i n s t r u m e n t b e i n g shown connected t o t h e e n d s o f rod AB.
TO
A

The laws r e l a t i n g t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e e.m.f. induced i n a c - n d u c t o r when i t c u t s t h r o u g h a magnetic f i e l d must be l e a r n e d i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o r , which w i l l be d e a l t w i t h i n one of our. Lesson 5

sheet 9

e (1). I f r o d AB i s moved down a c r o s s t h e rnsgnetic f l u x , a s i n F i g u r e 15, i n d u c e 3 p r e s s u r e i n AB w i l l . b e m-d%tion from R t o A . a s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e a r r o w - i n t h e r o d . T h i s e.m.f. sends c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e r o d and t h e galvanometer c o i l a d , t h u s , a momentary d e f l e c t i o r , of t h e p o i n t e r i s seen. L e t u s assume t h a t t h e pointermoves t o t h e r i g h t o f zero and drops back i m e d i a t e l g . Case ( 2 ) . l?ow. if r U B i s moved up a c r o s s t h e f l u x , a s i n F i g u r e 1 6 , t h e induced e.m.f. w i l l be s e t u p i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , o r from A t o B, a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e a r r o w drawn i n t h e r o d . T h i s r e v e r s a l o f induced p r e s s u r e w i t h a r e v e r s e d movement o f t h e r o d sends c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e ro? and g a l v z n o m e t e r c o i l i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n t o t h a t o b t a i n e d d u r i n g the down movement as i n c a s e (1)above. D u r i n g t h e up movement o f t h e r o d t h e p o i n t e r w i l l d e f l e c t momentarily t o t h e l e f t and r e t u r n t o z e r o .

F i g u r e 17 Hence, we f i n d t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e induced e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e depends upon t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l i n e s of f o r c e and t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion of t h e c o n d u c t o r with r e s p e c t t o t h e l i n e s . An e a s y way f o r rernenbering t h e s e r e l a t i v e d i r e c t i o n s and p a r t i c u l a r l y t o f i n d t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e ind-uced e.m.f. i s t o a p p l y a r u l e , known a s F l e m i n g ' s Right-IIand Rule 9 a s shown i n t h e d i a . gram i n F i g u r e 1 6 and e x p l a i n e d a s f o l l o w s : With t h e THUMB, FOREFIICGm, and MIDDLE FINGER of t h e r i g h t hand a l l h e l d a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o one a n o t h e r , l e t t h e THUMB p o i n t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m o t i o n , t h e FOREFIXGER i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e l i n e s o f f o r c e , anr: t h e MIDnLE FINGER w i l l p o i n t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e indv-ced e.m.f. C a r e f u l l y examine t h e h m d s i n t h e diagram i n F i g u r e 1 7 which c l e a r l y show t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of F l e m i n g ' s r u l e t o t h e e f f e c t s s e t up i n a r e c t a n g u l a r Lesson 5

sheet 10

r e a d e r on t h e r i g h t s i d e of the loop and toward t h e r e a d e r on t h e l e f t side.

~t w i l l be noticed t h a t whenever t h e rod i s moved i n a v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n a c r o s s t h e l i n e s , e i t h e r up o r down, the galvanometer p o i n t e r sill d e f l e c t a

FL U X

A CIRCUIT

E X P A N D ~ N G &T T H E " M K E " O F A S C U R R E N T RISES.

FLUX C O L L A P S I N G &T T H E "BREaK" OF A C l R C U l T AS C U R R E N T DECI(EA5ES.

Figure 18 c e r t a i n amount f i r s t t o one s i d e and then t o t h e opposite s i d e of zero. If t h e rod were moved a c r o s s t h e l i n e s i n such a way t h a t it followed a diagonal p a t h then l e s s e r amounts of c u r r e n t would be obtained a s indicclted by small d e f l e c t i o n s of t h e p o i n t e r , providing, of course, t h a t f o r a l l cases the same r a t e of movement of t h e r o d i s maintained. O r , i f t h e r o d i s moved p a r a l l e l t o t h e l i n e s and, t h e r e f o r e , does not c u t through t h e l i n e s , no induced curr e n t w i l l be obtained nor w i l l any d e f l e c t i o n of the p o i n t e r be observed. The f a c t s just mentioned e x p l a i n , i n g e n e r a l , t h e r e s u l t s t o be expected f o r various chzrges i n the p a t h which a conductor could be made t o take across a magnetic f i e l d . When a C i r a i t is " ~ l o s e d "and 1)Opened" the Current does n o t Rise from a Zero t o Maximum Value I n s t a n t l y Nor does the Current F a l l f r o m ~ a x i m u mt o Zero A Short I n t e r v a l of Time i s Required f o r t h e s e Changes t o Occur. Instantly The purpose of the s e v e r a l views i n Figure 18 i s t o i l l u s t r a t e p i c t o r i a l l y t h r e e conditions, namely: (1)ROW c u r r e n t g r a d u a l l y r i s e s i n s t r e n g t h on the "make" o r c l o s i n g of a c i r c u i t by throwing a switch (views A and B ) . ( 2 ) HOW t h e current flows a t a s t e a d y value a n i n s t a n t o r two a f t e r a c i r c u i t i s closed and does n o t vary i n i n t e n s i t y if t h e c i r c u i t remains closed, provided the c i r c u i t conditions remain unchanged (view C). ( 3 ) How t h e c u r r e n t g r a d u a l l y dec r e a s e s i n s t r e n g t h from i t s s t e a d y value and drops t o zero, on t h e "break" o r opening of a c i r c u i t by p u l l i n g a switch (views D and E ) .

Since every change i n c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h w i l l produce a corresponding change i n t h e number of l i n e s of f o r c e produced by t h e c u r r e n t t h e n we can assume t h a t while current flows t h r o u g h a w i r e , and p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s e s i n value, b t h e l i n e s of f o ~ c e u i l d up and expand outward i n t o space f o r some d i s t a n c e . Lesson 5

sheet 1 1

t h e c u r r e n t f l o w becomes s t e a d y or consta eg do not vary i n numbe-, o r d e n s i t y . A " constant current'" i s an arying c u r r e n t . When current i n a wire p r o g r e s s i v e l y decreases t h e l i n e s g r a d u a l l y diminish i n number, c o n t r a c t back on t h e wire and, f i n a l l y , when t h e c u r r e n t ceases t o flow the l i n e s disappear e n t i r e l y . ~ h u s ,from Figure 18, we l e a r n t h a t on the "make" and I' break" of a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t t h e r i s e and f a l l i n the i n t e n s i t y of the c u r r e n t c s u s e s a corresponding change i n t h e magnitude of t h e magnetic f i e l d and, a l s o , t h a t t h e changes i n c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h and v a r i a t i o n s i n f l u x s t r e n g t h a r e only momentarg. H w an E.K.F. i s Induced i n a Secordary C i r c u i t by Variations of t h e Magnetic o Flux s e t up by a Lhanging CUrrent i n t h e Primarx. The p r i n c i p l e s a l r e a d y explained r e l a t i n g t o t h e s e t t i n g up of a current i n a conductor by causing a f l u x t o cut across it w i l l a g a i n be used, but t h i s time t h e r e s u l t s w i l l be obtained without moving e i t h e r one o f the wires. The c i r c u i t arrangement i s shown i n Figures 1 9 and 20.
OlRECTlON OF ,GALVANOMETER MAGNETIC LINES SET UP BY INDUCED CURRENT MAGNETIC LINES CONTPJlCTlNG DURING THE FALL IN PRIMARY CURRENT:

M A G N E T I C LINES

PRIMARY

CIRCUIT

A C T I O N D U R I N G T H E "MAKE"OF THE PRIMARY

ACTION D U R I N G THE

"BREAV OF THE PRIMARY

Figure 1 9

Figure 20

Figure 19 shows t h e a c t i o n d u r i n g th3 "make" of the primary. A t t h i s i n s t a n t t h e c u r r e n t begins t o r i s e and t h e l i n e s O force i t produces a l s o i n c r e a s e f i n nunbers and i n another i n s t a n t t h e y w i l l have reached out s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r t o cut through t h e seccndary conductor. T h i s e f f e c t of t h e primary on t h e secondary induces an e.m.f. i n t h e seconclary i n t h e d i r e c t i o n designated by t h e arrows, and the l i n e s s e t up by the momentary flow of c u r r e n t a r e shown a s small magnetic w h i r l s along t h e gecondary. Figure 20 shows t h e a c t i o n d u r i n g t h e "break of t h e primary. A t t h i s i n s t a n t t h e primary c u r r e n t begins t o f a l l and t h e l i n e s , a s t h e y contract and fall back on t h e primary, cut through the secondary conductor? i n a d i r e c t i o n opposite t o t h e i r movement d u r i n g t h e "make" of t h e primary. The c u t t i n g a c t i o n o f t h e l i n e s t h i s time induces an e.m.f. i n t h e secondary i n the oppos i t e d i r e c t i o n t o t h e previous induction. This change i n d i r e c t i o n i s denoted by arrows. Observe t h c l t t h e secondary e.m.f. and primmy e.n.f. are now i n the same d i r e c t i o n , and a l s o t h a t t h e magnetic w h i r l s assume s i m i l a r d i r e c t i o n The above two a c t i o n s i l l u s t r a t e t h e f a c t t h a t the secondary opposes the i n duction. of c u r r e n t i n i t by t h e d i r e c t i o n t h a t i t s l i n e s t a k e when compared t o t h e primary's f i e l d , and t h e secondary a l s o opposesof the Lesson 5
It

- sheet

12

opposed and i n a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e t h e y a i d each o t h e r .

The e f f e c t of magnetic l i n e s expanding and c o n t r a c t i n g f o r i n c r e a s e s and dec r e a s e s i n c u r r e n t through one c i r c u i t i s made use of t o produce an e . . f . m and c u r r e n t i n some o t h e r c i r c u i t . Both c i r c u i t s , or t h e i r p a r t s , altho-ugh u s u a l l y independent a r e i n c l o s e mechanical r e l a t i o n s h i p , i .e , coupled t o each o t h e r but w i t h no p h y s i c a l connection between them. S t a t e d i n a few words t h e p r i n c i p l e i s simply one where a changing magnetic f l u x s e t up by t h e conductors of one c i r c u i t reach o u t and l i n k through, or c u t through, t h e conductors of a neighboring c i r c u i t . Coils a r e employed t o provide t h i s coupling between two such c i r c u i t s s o t h a t t h e proper magnetic e f f e c t s w i l l be s e t up by one c i r c u i t and the d e s i r e d amount of voltage w i l l be a v a l i a b l e from t h e o t h e r c i r c u i t . This p r i n c i p l e i s i l l u s t r a t e d i . t h e diagrams i n r Fi&ures19 and 20. This i s one method f o r g e n e r a t i n g a n e . m . f . by e l e c t r o magnetic i n d u c t i o n without the n e c e s s i t y of moving wires of c o i l s , a s w e have h e r e t o f o r e been doing i n our experiments.

L,aw R e l a t i n g t o t h e Amount of Induced E 3 . F . Suppose i n F i g u r e 16 t h a t t h e magnetic f l u c o n s i s t s of 100,000,000 l i n e s of f o r c e . It would be foynd t h a t i f rod AB was made t o c u t t h e s e ~00,000,000 l i n e s i n e x a c t l y one second, t h e p r e s s u r e s e t up along t h e rod ( t h a t i s , between i t s o p p o s i t e ends, ox between A and B) would be one v o l t . This r e l a t i o n between t h e anount of t h e induced e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e measured i n v o l t s , t h e s t r e n g t h o r d e n s i t y of t h e f l u x , and tb r a t e of c u t t i n g t h e l i n e s should be l e a r n e d .

L O N G & I R G AP BE TWEE N POLES DECREASES FLUX

SHORT A l R G b P BETWEEN

SFRIFS MAGNETIC CIRCUIT.

POLES INCREASES

FLUX

PARlhLLEL MAGNETIC CIRCUIT FORMED BY A SOLID I R O N FRAME & N O AIR GAP.

Figure 21

All. of t h e following c o n d i t i o n s have a d i r e c t b e a r i n g on t h e mount of t h e pressure induced i n a conductor whan c u t t i n g , o r being c u t , by l i n e s of f o r c e :

( A ) The s t r e n g t h or d e n s i t y (number of l i n e s p e r u n i t area) of magneti

f l u x a t t h e p o i n t w k r e t h e conductor i s a c t i n g a t any i n s t , a n

(B) The number of t u r n s i n t h e c o i l or l e n g t h of t h e conductor ac

being a c t e d upon by t h e l i n e s . ( G ) The angle which t h e conductor makes w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o a s determined by t h e path t h r o u g h which t h e conductor m o cuts across the l i n e s . ( D ) Rate of motion, or t h e number of l i n e s c u t p e r seco

i n F i g u r e 21 each have a more e f f i c i e n t form of m a g n e t i c c i r c u i t t h a n t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t a t t h e l e f t b e c a u s e t h e l e n g t h of t h e a i r gap t h r o u g h which t h e l i n e s must p a s s a r e s h o r t e r i n one c a s e t h a n t h e o t h e r . A s h o r t a i r g a p s t r e n g t h e n s t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d f o r a g i v e n s e t of c o n d i t i o n s and, t h u s , f o r c e r t a i n movements o f a l o o p O f w i r e t h r o u g h t h e f l u x more l i n e s of f o r c e w i l l be e n c l o s e d o r c u t b y t h e l o o p . I n some t y p e s o n l y one e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c winding i s mounted on t h e i r o n c o r e w h i l e i n t h e o t h e r t y p e s more t h a n one winding i s used, t h i s b e i n g done t o i n c r e a s e t h e a m p e r e - t u r n s . The d i s t a n c e between t h e p o l e s which governs t h e s i z e Of the a i r g a p i s c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d i n p r a c t i c a l machinery t o keep t h e r e l u c t a n c e of t h e magnetic c i r c u i t minimum. The c o i l s a r e connected i n s e r i e s s o t h a t c u r r e n t f l o w i n g t h r o u g h o r e must a l s o p a s s t b r o u g h t h e o t h e r , a n d t h e i r t u r n s a r e s o wound a s t o make t h e a d j a c e n t e n d s of t h o windings n o r t h and s o u t h p o l e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

MARY

F i g u r e 22

F i g u r e 23

L e n z t s Law. T h i s law i n c o n c i s e form s t a t e s t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e i n d u c e d e.m.f. i s always s u c h a s t o oppose t h e motion p r o d u c i n g i t . A n other way o f s t a t i n g t h i s law (which i s p e r h a p s e a s i e r t o u n d e r s t a n d i n view of t h e f a c t t h a t we a r e now f a m i l i a r w i t h e f f e c t s produced b y magnetic l i n e s o f f o r c e ) i s t h a t a n e.m.f. i s always produced i n a d i r e c t i o n such t h a t t h e magn e t i c l i n e s i t s e t s up oppose any chmge i n t h e e x i s t i n g magnetic l i n e s . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 2 2 showing two C o i l s , one a p r i m a r y and t h e o t h e r a seconda r y ; t o g e t h e r t h e y c o n s t i t u t e a t r a n s f o r m e r . A p r a c t i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n of Lenz 1s law i s g i v e n below w i t h r e f e r e n c e s made t o t h e diagram: Let u s assume t h a t t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e primary c o i l i s s u c h t h a t i t makes t h e p o l a r i t y a t t h e l e f t hand end n o r t h , vVhen t h e p r i m a r y i s moved i n t o t h e s e c o n d a r y t h e f l o w of i n duced c u r r e n t i n t h e l a t t e r c o i l makes i t s p o l a r i t y a t t h e r i g h t - h a n d end a l s o n o r t h . Thus, t h e a d j a c e n t e n d s of b o t h c o i l s have o p p o s i t e p o l a r i t y and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e e f f e c t s e t up between t l e m i s one of r e p u l s i o n . However, when t h e s e c o n d a r y i s withdrawn from t h e p r i m a r y t h e induced c u r r e n t i n t h b l a t t e r i s r e v e r s e d and r e v e r s e p o l a r i t y w i l l be s e t up a t t h e r i g h t - h a n d end of t h e coiL W now have a c o n d i t i o n where t h e l e f t -hand end of t k p r i m a r y i s n o r t h ( n o t e e t h a t t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e p r i m a r y d o e s n o t change b e c a u s e i t i s s u p p l i e d w i t h a s t e a d y s o u r c e of e.m.f. b y t h e d r y c e l l s ) and t h e r i g h t - h a n d end of t h e seconda r y i s of s o u t h p o l a r i t y . A m a g n e t i c a t t r a c t i o n now e x i s t s between t h e c o i l s It i s o n l y w h i l e t h e c o i l s a r e moved t h a t t e n d s t o oppose t h e i r s e p a r a t i o n . w i t h r e s p c t t o e a c h o t h e r and t h e induced c u r r e n t f l o w s and r e v e r s e d magneti s m i s s e t up about t h e s e c o n d a r y t h a t we have t h e s e e f f e c t s of a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n . It i s s e e n i n e v e r y case t h a t t h e magnetic a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n t e n d s t o oppose t h e m o t i o n of t h e primary c o i l . S e l f I n d u c t i o n T h i s i s t h e nane g i v e n t o t h a t p r o p e r t y o f an e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t w h e r e i n it t e n d s t o oppose any change ( i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e ) i n t h e s t r e n g t h Lesson 5

s h e e t 14

of t h e current i n t h e c i r c u i t . The e f f e c t s of s e l f - i n d u c t i o n a r e present only a t such times as when a c u r r e n t i s changing I n i n t e n s i t y . The magnetic l i n e s which always accompany a c u r r e n t begin i n a wire a t t h e very clenter of i t s c o r e . Thus, when c u r r e n t r i s e s t h e l i n e s b u i l d U outward and pass through t h e very P w -- - which i s ~ r o d u c i n ~ ire them. O t h e c o ~ t r a r v . n when c u r r e n t f a l l s t h e l i n e s r e cede inward-onAthe wire and cut the wire i n i h e opposite d i r e c t i o n t o t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e c i t e d . This c u t t i n g a c t i o n on a conductor by i t s own l i n e s induces an e.rn.f. i n the conductor f i r s t i n one d i r e c t i o n f o r an i n c r e a s e i n c u r r e n t and, secondly, i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n f o r a decrease i n c u r r e n t . Thus, w see e t h a t t h e induced e.m.f. a t one time t e n d s t o oppose t h e establishment of a c u r r e n t i n a conductor and a t another time i t tends t o prevent the c u r r e n t from l y i n g out. The induced e.m.f. i s known as the induced e.m.f. of s e l f - i n d u c t i o n . The student must understand t h a t the e.m.f. of self - inductance i s another e .n.f. acting on a c i r c u i t and s e p a r a t e from t h e u s u a l e.m.f. which i s appli'ed t o any conductor i n order t o make c u r r e n t flow i n t h e f i r s t place.
-

induced e .m.f. i s s e t up i n a secondary by changes i n t h e secondary f i e l d r e s u l t i n g a c t s on t h e primary f i e l d s i m i l a r l y t o a primary a c t i n g on a secondary. Thus, w h e n two independent c i r c u i t s are so a s s o c i a t e d t h a t n s g n e t i c e f f e c t s s e t up by one c i r c u i t induce e.n.f.'s and c u r r e n t s i n t h e o t h e r c i r c u i t , and t h e l a t t e r a l s o s e t s up magn e t i c e f f e c t s of t h e i r own, t h e two c i r c u i t s a r e s a i d t o r e a c t on each o t h e r . This i s known as mutual i n d u c t i o n and the c i r c u i t s a r e s a i d t o possess t h e property of mutual inductance. Figures 19 and 20 show two independent f i e l d s r e a c t i n g on each o t h e r . One magnetic f i e l d i s due t o t h e inducing c u r r e n t flowing i n the primary (P) and t h e o t h e r i s due t o the induced current in tb secondary (S). Inductance. This term r e l a t e s t o t h e energy s t o r e d up i n t h e magnetic f l u x a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a c o i l o r c i r c u i t through which an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t flows. Inductance i s a m a s u r e of t h e amount of t h i s magnetic f l u . The p r o p e r t y known a s inductance possessed by a c i r c u i t tends t o prevent any change i n t h e value of c u r r e n t flovring t b o u g h t h e c i r c u i t . This may a l s o be c a l l e d t h e s e l f - inductance of t h e c i r c u i t . The a m u n t of inductance, measured i n t h e u n i t I1h e n r y " , i s determined by t h e amount of voltage t h a t w i l l be induced i n a c o i l o r c i r c u i t by t h e c u r r e n t c h ~ n g i n g t a given r a t e . Thus : " A c i r c u i t 19 said t o have an inductance of a 1 henry when a c u r r e n t changing a t the r a t e O f 1 ampere per second w i l l induce t h e r e i n an e .m.f. of 1 volt " .

Mutual A n - Induction. and primary c u r r e n t ,

Non-Inductive H ec s O f f -NeutraLized.Circuit f i-l d ow sE tf f up t alongStehl e be The e s e

-

Inductance w i t h i n a C i r c u i t max t u r n s of a c o i l can be made t o n e u t r a l i z e one another i f the t u r n s of t h e c o i l a r e wotud so t h a t t h e f i e l d around each t u r n opposes i n d i r e c t i o n t h e f i e l d around a n ad j o i n i n g t u r n . The . c u r r e n t i n e a c h tu&l must be e q u a l , and adjacent t u r n s should be close t o gether. A c o i l wound t o produce t h i s r e s u l t i s shown i n Figure 23. The c o i l Is said t o be non- inductive because p r a c t i c a l l y no f i e l d i s e s t a b l i s h e d around t h e c o i l when c u r r e n t flows. Coils of t h i s g e n e r a l type a r e employed f o r r e s i s t o r u n i t s i n instruments such a s Wheatstone b r i d g e s , meters and i n any c i r c u i t s where r e s i s t a n c e i s r e q u i r e d b u t inductive e f f e c t s a r e undesired. Sucking Action of a Solenoid. Since a l l magnetic f i e l d s possess s i m i l a r prop e r t i e s a solenoid w i l l a t t r a c t i r o n when c u r r e n t flows through i t i n t h e same way a bar magnet w i l l a t t r a c t i r o n as shown i n Figure 24. The f l u x seeks the path through t h e i r o n plunger i n preference t o p a s s i n g e n t i r e l y through a i r Lesson 5

sheet 1 5

and t h i s magnetizes the plunger, causing it t o be. a t t r a c t e d by t h e c o i l . The plunger i s drawn i n t o , o r sucked i n t o t h e c o i l , and does not s t o p moving u n t i l it c e n t e r s i t s e l f i n a p o s i t i o n where it w i l l accomodate t h e g r e a t e s t amount of f l u x . It remains unmoved i n the c o i l so long a s the c u r r e n t flows a t the proper value t o provide t h e r e q u i s i t e amount of f l u x t o hold t h e plunger from
SUCKING ACTION OF A SOLENOID

IRON P L U N G E R

-SOLENOID

being p u l l e d back by the s p r i n g . This p r i n c i p l e i s u t i l i z e d commercially i n t h e o p e r a t i o n of p r o t e c t i v e devices c a l l e d " c i r c u i t breakers " These devices a u t o m a t i c a l l y t r i p , open a c i r c u i t and shut o f f t h e power when the c u r r e n t becomes excessive f o r any reason. A s p r i n g i s a d j u s t e d t o t h e proper t e n s i o n s o t h a t t h e plunger i s sucked i n t o t h e c o i l only under extreme conditions. This i d e a can be used f o r r e l a y operation,or any form of t r i p p i n g device. EXAMINATION

IESSON 5

1. What phenomenon always e x i s t s when c u r r e n t flows? 2. S t a t e t h e right- hand thumb r u l e f o r determining t h e p o l a r i t y of a s o l e noid and draw a simple s k e t c h i l l u s t r a t i n g same. 3 S t a t e t h e right- hand thumb r u l e f o r determining t h e d i r e c t i o n of a .

m a p t i c f l u x around a current - carrying wire. 4 !Yhat i s Flemingfs right- hand r u l e ? . 5. If a n a i r - c o r e c o i l i s c a r r y i n g a c u r r e n t and a b a r of s o f t i r o n i s i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e c @ i lwhat e f f e ~ w i l l be produced? t 6. ( a What happens when a n "open ,,conductor moves a c r o s s a magnetic f i e l d ? ( b What happens when a "closed conductor moves a c r o s s a magnetic f i e l d ? 7. S t a t e b r i e f l y two methods f o r producing c u r r e n t i n a s e c o ~ l d a ~ y r c u i t . ci 8. Ex l a i n b r i e f l y what i s meant by t h e following terms: ( a ) Self- inductance, (by 'Mutual inductance, ( c ) Ampere-turns. 9. . - What does Lenz's l a w s t a t e ? . . 10. E i t h e r one of two c o n d i t i o n s must be s a t i s f i e d b e f o r e an e .m.f. can be induced i n a wFre o r c i r c u i t . What are these c o n d i t i o n s ?

Lesson 5

sheet 1 6

INC.
M A R C O N / /NST/%'TE

Technical Lesson 6
PR DIARY CELLS
The p r i n c i p a l sources of e l e c t r i c vower t h a t a r e u t i l i z e d i n p r a c t i c a l l y every r a d i o and power i n s t a l l a t i o n , including t r a n s m i t t e r s , r e c e i v e r s , a m i l i a r y equipment and types of apparatus of unlimited v a r i e t i e s , a r e t h e e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o r and t h e e l e c t r i c b a t t e r g . When w say source of e l e c t r i c e power we mean a source of electromotive f o r c e . It i s customary f o r some persons t o t h i n k that a g e n e r a t o r o r b a t t e r y s t o r e s up e l e c t r i c i t y and supp l i e s c u r r e n t t o any d e v i ce t o which i t may be connected, but t h i s i s not a f a c t r A generator or b a t t e r y merely f u r n i s h e s an electromotive f o r c e ( o r p r e s s u r e ) which when applied t o any device, o r c i r c u i t , w i l l s e t e l e c t r o n s i n motion and cause them t o flow through t h e d e v i c e , o r c i r c u i t . Always keep i n mind t h a t t h e movement of e l e c t r o n s through w i r e s (and a l l conductors of e l e c t r i c i t y ) i s the s o - c a l l e d c u r r e n t flow. Now, s i n c e e l e c t r o n s already e x i s t i n t h e wires and o t h e r elements t h a t form a c i r c u i t t h e n it cannot be s a i d t h a t a g e n e r a t o r o r b a t t e r y s u p p l i e s them; what t h e generator or b a t t e r y does i s t o f o r c e t h e s e e l e c t r o n s t o move through t h e w i r e s from one place t o another, t h a t i s , t h e e l e c t r o n s which c o n s t i t u t e t h e c u r r e n t are forced t o flow through a c i r c u i t by t h e e.m.f. ( o r p r e s s u r e ) applied t o the c i r c u i t . Thus, i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t c u r r e n t w i l l not flow i n any c i r c u i t u n l e s s an electromotive f o r c e i s a p p l i e d t o i t from some source.
ZINC (OUTSIDE:
NEGATIVE-

Figure 1

In t h e case of t h e e n e r a t o r t h e electromotive f o r c e is obtained by making p r a c t i c a l use of t h e aws of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c induction. According t o t h e explanations i n our preceding l e s s o n on t h i s s u b j e c t one law s t a t e d t h a t when a c o i l of wire is moved through a magnetic f i e l d a n electromotive f o r c e is produced a c r o s s t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e c o i l ; t h i s i s e x a c t l y t h e p r i n c i p l e upon which t h e generator works s i n c e it i s constructed t o provide a s t r o n g magnetic f i e l d through which a number of c o i l s a r e r o t a t e d by mechanical means am3 fPom t h e s e c o i l s we a r e able t o g e t an eleotromotive f o r c e , or e l e c t r i c

Figure %

power. I n the c a s e of t h e b a t t e r y , however, t h e electromotive f o r c e i s obt a i n e d through t h e e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l a c t i o n t h a t occurs between t h e combin a t i o n of m a t e r i a l s t h a t a r e used. Ve l e a r n , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a g e n e r a t o r i transforms mechanical energy i n t o e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y and a b a t t e r y transforms chemica 1 energy i n t o e l e c t r i c a l energy. Hence, i n s o f a r as m a r e concerned a t t h e p r e s e n t , a g e n e r a t o r and a b a t t e r y e both produce s i m i l a r r e s u l t s , t h a t i s , e i t h e r one w i l l provide an e l e c t r o motive f o r c e . O c o u r s e , you w i l l understand t h a t many p r a c t i c a l and ecof nomical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s determine whether a g e n e r a t o r o r b a t t e r y w i l l be used t o f u r n i s h power f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n of c e r t a i n t y p e s of equipment. I n many of t h e modern r a d i o broadcast and commercial t e l e g r a p h i n s t a l l a t i o n s i t has been found necessary t o employ both g e n e r a t o r s and b a t t e r i e s t o o b t a i n the best e l e c t r i c a l results. CLASSIFICATION -OF BATTERIES AND CELLS. Let U s f i r s t e x p l a i n the d i s t i n c t i o n A c e l l i s a complete u n i t c o n s i s t i n g between t h e terms " b a t t e r y " and " c e l l ' ' . of a chemical s o l u t i o n i n t o which i s placed two d i f f e r e n t kinds of m a t e r i a l s which a r e not allowed t o touch each o t h e r and from which an electromotive f o r c e can be o b t a i n e d by t h e chemical a c t i o n s e t up between t h e s o l u t i o n ( e l e c t r o l y t e ) and t h e m a t e r i a l s . When two o r more c e l l s of s i m i l a r kind a r e connected t o g e t h e r i n a combination t h a t permits t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l e .m.f. 1s t o be u t i l i z e d a l l a t t h e same time, t h e whole combination i s lmown a s a I'batteryfl. Hence, a b a t t e r y i s a number of c e l l s a l l f u n c t i o n i n g i n conj u n c t i o n w i t h one another t o provide a c e r t a i n amount of e l e c t r i c a l pressilrg, measured i n v o l t s , from i t s t e r m i n a l binding p o s t s .
MOISTURE-PROOF INNER CONTAINER

..-.,
% .

WATER. PROOF i CONTAINER

,,'

TOP SEA1

M015TURE.PROOF -CELL WRAPPER

M0lSTURE.PROOF /CELL WRAPPER ----SEAMLESS ZINC CAN MOISTURE-PROOF .-' N E R BASE IN

MOISTURE-PROOF -INSULATION

Figure 3 Figure 4
A s i n g l e c e l l of t h e d r y c e l l type i s shown i n Figure 1 while . i t s i n t e r i o r c o n s t r u c t i o n i s p i c t u r e d i n t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n 8 1 iriew i n Figure 2. This c e l l has an e.m.f. of approximately 1.5 v o l t s when i n good condition. S e v e r a l c e l l s may be connected t o form a b a t t e q y a s follows: Suppose w have 3 c e l l s e of t h i s type connected t o g e t h e r t o form a b a t t e r y t h e n t h e t o t a l e.m.f. a t e t h e t e r m i n a l s would be 3 x 1.5 o r 4.5 v o l t s . Again, suppose w had 30 c e l l s of t h i s kind connected t o form a b a t t e r y t h e n t h e t o t a l e.m.f. a v a i l a b l e a t t h e b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l s would i n t h i s case be 30 x 1.5 o r 45 v o l t s . I n many d r y b a t t e r i e s t h e r e a r e connections taken from d i f f e r e n t c e l l s i n o r d e r t o provide s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t voltages from the same b a t t e r y f o r convenience.

Lesson 6

sheet 2

A b a t t e r y c o n s i s t i n g of t h r e e small d r y c e l l s connected t o g e t h e r

i a shown i n Figure 3. Notice t h a t t h r e e t e r m i n a l s a r e supplied s ( o r v o l t a g e ) of e i t h e r c e l l may be used s e p a r a t e l y , o r the vo t h e two c e l l s may be used by making connections t o t h e outer two term1 A d r y b a t t e r y c o n t a i n i n g t h i r t y small c e l l s compactly arranged i n a c o n t a i n e r i s shown i n Figure 4 ; t h e 0.in.f. a t the o u t s i d e two terminals i s 45 v o l t s . I n t h i s b a t t e r y a t a p t a k e n between t h e 15th and 1 6 t h c e l l s i s -b r o u g h t t o t n e c e n t e r t e r m i n a l on t h e t o p s o t h a t one-half of t h e t o t a l voltage, o r 2 2 3 v o l t s , i s a v a i l a b l e e i t h e r between t h e f i r s t and second t e r m i n a l s . o r between t h e second and t h i r d t e r m i n a l s ,
0.m.f. T h e d r y c e l l and b a t t e r i e s i l l u s t r a t e d are t y p i c a l of t h e kind found i n widespread use f o r r a d i o and e l e c t r i c a l work. A b a t t e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e one i n Figure 3 i s mostly used f o r a s p e c i f i c purpose i n r a d i o c i r c u i t s t o supply a negative voltage t o t h e g r i d s of vacuum tubes and it i s , t h e r e f o r e , known a s a "C" b a t t e r g . The b a t t e r g i n Figure 4 i s e x a c t l y the same a s the one j u s t mentioned s o f a r a s i t s p r i n c i p l e s of c o n s t r u c t i o n are concerned, except t h a t it has more c e l l s than t h e one i n Figure 3 . The l a r g e r b a t t e r y i n Figure 4 i s employed p r i n c i p a l l y t o f u r n i s h t h e p l a t e voltage t o operate vacuum tubes i n c e r t a i n types of equipment and, consequently, i t i s known a s If s e v e r a l c e l l s of the type i n Figure 1 a r e used t o f u r n i s h a "B" b a t t e r x . an e .m.f. t o the f i l a m e n t s of vacuum tubes i n r e c e i v i n g s e t s , t o provide t h e h e a t i n g c u r r e n t , t h e c e l l s a r e then r e f e r r e d t o a s an " A " b a t t e r % . Later on i n your work you w i l l become accustomed t o using t h e terms " A " , B ", and IIC II f o r i d e n t i f y i n g b a t t e r i e s of any type according t o t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r duty. ~t should now be c l e a r t h a t t h e terms b a t t e r y and c e l l are n o t t o be used interchangeably and, t h e r e f o r e , i n your conversation and w r i t i n g be c a r e f u l t o make the c o r r e c t d i s t i n c t i o n between them. Say " c e l l f ' when you mean c e l l and " b a t t e r y " when you mean b a t t e r y .

EO D R DISTINCTION BETWEEN PRJXARY AND S C N A Y CELLS. There a r e two types of c e l l s i n general use, namely: d r y c e l l s and s t o r a g e c e l l s . A d r y c e l l i s one t h a t de p ends f o r -i t s o p e r a t i o n upon the consu6ption of one of the m a t e r i a l s by t h e chemical a c t i o n of the s o l u t i o n on i t when currenk flows k h r n i-- r r h t h e c e l l and through the c i r c u i t t o which it i s connected. While --- - ~ c u r r e g t flows t h e m a t e r i a l - i s g r a d u a l l y e a t e n u and i n due time it w i l l be e n t i r e l y consumed and as a r e s u l t of t h i s ac i o n the voltage ( o r e.m.P.) of t h e c e l l w i l l d r o p so low t h a t the c e l l becomes u s e l e s s f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, When t h i s happens t h e c e l l must be d i s c a r d e d and replaced by a new one. A storage c e l l , on t h e othei hand, i s one t h a t must f i r s t be chargec by passing a c u r r e n t through it i n a c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n s o t h a t i t s m a t e r i a l s w i l l be put i n t o t h e proper c o n d i t i o n t h a t w i l l enable them t o produce an e l e c t r i c a l pressure. A f t e r t h e storage C e l l has been on c i r c u i t and d e l i v e r s a c e r t a i n amount of c u r r e n t i n a s t a t e d time, i t s e.m.f. w i l l f a l l below t h e proper working value because t h e chemical r e l a t i o n s of the cell. a r e t h e n a l t e r e d . Since t h e m a t e r i a l s merely undergo a change and a r e not e a t e n away, a s i n a d r y c e l l . it i s only necessary t o pass c u r r e n t again through t h e s t o r a g e c e i l t o Gestore t h e - m a t e r i a l s t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l condition. With i n t e l l i g e n t c a r e a s t o r a g e c e l l w i l l l a s t f o r years s i n c e i t only r e q u i r e s charging and t h e adding of water a t p e r i o d i c i n t e r v a l s t o maintain i t i n a proper condition. The l i f e of a d r y c e l l , on the o t h e r hand, i s a more o r l e s s fixed c o n d i t i o n because it i s governed by t h e r a t e a t which the a c t i v e m a t e r i a l , z i n c f o r i n s t a n c e , i s consumed and t h i s i n t u r n depends upon t h e For the reasons j u s t amount of e l e c t r i c a l energy d e l i v e r e d by t h e c e l l .

-+

Lesson 6

sheet 3

advanced a d r y c e l l i s c a l l e d a primary c e l l and a s t o r a g e c e l l i s c a l l e d a secondary c e l l . A l e s s o n i s devoted t o s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s and storage c e l l s I n t e r i n our course. Primary c e l l s a r e a l s o known a s galvanic c e l l s . Another important t h i n g t o mention i s t h a t a d r y c e l l i s not r e a l l y d r y a s t h e name would lead most anyone t o believe. The use of t h e word "dry" no doubt became popular owing t o the f a c t t h a t a l l of t h e m a t e r i a l s i n t h e c e l l a r e s e a l e d up i n a moisture- proof c o n t a i n e r without any outside evidence of a l i q u i d s o l u t i o n i n i t l i k e i n a "wet" b a t t e r y , f o r example. During the manufacture of a d r y c e l l a c e r t a i n amount of water i s added t o t h e m a t e r i a l s and t h e l i q u i d i s t h e r e f o r e r e t a i n e d i n the moist p a s t y f i l l i n g which w e e could see i f w broke open a good c e l l .
It i s R known f a c t t h a t h e r e i s always an e.m..f. of a c e r t a i n number of v o l t s s e t up between any twc pieces of metal Of d i s s i m i l a r kind when immersed i n a l i q u i d ; When c e r t a i n combinations of m a t e r i a l s a r e used, and t h e l i q u i d i s a chemical s o l u t i o n of a s h i g h a s 2 v o l t s and more can be obtained. T h e a p a r t i c u l a r kind, e.m.f. metal pieces r e f e r r e d t o a r e c a l l e d ''plates" and the chemical s o l u t i o n the The e.m.f. o r voltage of a c e l l i s determined s o l e l y by t h e kind of m a t e r i a l s used f o r t h e p l a t e s and t h e n a t u r e of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e . The theory i s t h a t t h e e l e c t r o l y t e a c t s more r e a d i l y on one m a t e r i a l t h a n t h e o t h e r and i t i s t h i s chemical a c t i o n t h a t causes both p l a t e s t o possess an e l e c t r i c p o t e n t i a l , but because of t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e i n c h a r a c t e r one p l a t e w i l l have a higher p o t e n t i a l than the o t h e r . The higher p o t e n t i a l p l a t e i s c a l l e d the ~ o s i t i v e l a t e and the lower p o t e n t i a l p l a t e i s t h e p negative plate. The d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l i s e l e c t r i c a l pressure and it i s capable of sending c u r r e n t through a c i r c u i t . The s i z e o f the p l a t e s , t h e i r a c t u a l s u r f a c e a r e a i n contact wit'n t h e e l e c t r o l y t e , o r the amount of s e p a r a t i o n between p l a t e s have no bearing whatsoever on t h e voltage of t h e c e l l . However, t h e s e f a c t o r s do have some e f f e c t on t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c e l l and t h i s i n t u r n w i l l govern t o some e x t e n t t h e amount of c u r r e n t t h a t the c e l l w i l l be capable of d e l i v e r i n g . WHY AN ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE I S PRODUCED BY A DRY CELL.

---

Hence, i f w have one v e r y l a r g e c e l l and one very small c e l l and each one e i s made up of a s i m i l a r combination of m a t e r i a l s and e l e c t r o l y t e it w i l l be found t h a t the voltage reading t a k e n between the p l a t e s w i l l be a l i k e f o r t h e two c e l l s . T h i s would prove Our statement t h a t only the m a t e r i a l s and t h e e l e c t r o l y t e govern t h e e.m.f. o r voltage a c r o s s t h e p l a t e s . A c e l l cons i s t i n g of a zinc p l a t e and a copper p l a t e immersed i n a l i q u i d of d i l u t e s u l p h u r i c acid g i v e s an e.m.f. of approximately 1 v o l t r e g a r d l e s s of the s i z e of t h e elements (elements means t h e m a t e r i a l s ) . Another c e l l , however, having a d i f f e r e n t combination of m a t e r i a l s , f o r i n s t a n c e , z i n c f o r one p l a t e carbon f o r the o t h e r , and a s a l ammoniac e l e c t r o l y t e , s e t s up an e.m.f. of approximately 1.5 v o l t s between i t s p l a t e s .
POLARIZATION. To e x p l a i n t h i s term l e t u s consider t h a t w have a c e l l cone s i s t i n g of a z i n c p l a t e and a carbon p l a t e being a c t e d upon by a s a l ammoniac e l e c t r o l y t e s o l u t i o n . When a c e l l of t h i s type i s connected I n a c i r c u i t and c u r r e n t flows t h e z i n c i s slowly d i s s o l v e d , o r e a t e n up, by the chemical a c t i o n of the s a l anmoniac (ammonium c h l o r i d e ) . It i s the combining of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e chemically with t h e zinc and t h e amount of t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e a c t i o n f o r th3s p a r t i c u l a r s e t of m a t e r i a l s t h a t makes t h e c e l l capable of between i t s p l a t e s and, a l s o , t o f u r n i s h a given anount developing an 8 . m . f . of c u r r e n t t o a c i r c u i t f o r a given time.

Lesson 6

sheet 4

I
t

a c t i o n goes on and c u r r e n t flows through the c e l l a ne bubbles of hydrogen gas are l i b e r a t e d which immediately form carbon. The bubbles c o l l e c t very r a p i d l y i f t h e c e l l passes a high value continuously f o r any l e n g t h of time and t h e i r presence e p o s i t i v e carbon p l a t e causes a very not$ceable reduction i n the current ength. Thus, we see t h a t t h e hydrogen gas has a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on amount of e l e c t r i c a l energy supplied by t h e c e l l . T h i s weakening of t h e c e l l i s c a l l e d p o l a r i z a t i o n and i f allowed t o continue t h e c e l l w i l l cease functioning e n t i r e l y . The f a l l i n g O f f of t h e c u r r e n t caused by t h e hydrogen g a s i s due t o two ccnd i t i o n s s e t up w i t h i n t h e c e l l ; f i r s t , the gas being a non-conductor of e l e c t r i c i t y a c t s a s an i n s u l a t o r and i n c r e a s e s the i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c e l l and, t h e r e f o r e , a c t u a l l y tends t o block t h e flow of c u r r e n t ; Second13 the gas l a y e r on the carbon reduces t h e amount of a c t i v e s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l t h a t the carbon can p r e s e n t t o t h e e l e c t r o l y t e , t h a t i s t o s a y , t h e qas a c t s t o s e p a r a t e the carbon from t h e e l e c t r o l y t e , Moreover, i f a c e l l of t h i s kind i s s t r o n g l y p o l a r i z e d i t S e t s up a small o p p o s i t i o n e.m.f. because t h e c h a r a c t e r of the p l a t e s a r e a l t e r e d inasmuch a s t h e carbon p l a t e v i r t u a l l y So f a r a s the chemical a c t i o n of the c e l l i s conbecomes a hydrogen p l a t e . cerned i t w i l l behave a s though i t had z i n c and hydrogen p l a t e s and not z i n c and carbon. It has been mentioned before t h a t d i f f e r e n t combinations of t h e m a t e r i a l s of which a c e l l i s composed w i l l cause t h e e.m.f. produced between i t s p l a t e s t o a l s o change, hence, t h e e.m.f. of t h e c e l l i s considerably lowered by t h e polarized c o d i t ion. P o l a r i z a t i o n i s prevented i n a c e l l when it i s Operated t o g i v e an i n t e r m i t t e n t c u r r e n t of average value f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r type of c e l l i n question. I n the type a l r e a d y under c o n s i d e r a t i o n a s t r o n g o x i d i z i n g substance, such a s manganese d i o x i d e , i s used f o r t h i s purpose a s i t combines r e a d i l y w i t h t h e hydrogen and, t h e r e f o r e , removes the gas from around t h e carbon. It i s t o be understood t h a t if a n e x c e s s i v e l y l a r g e c u r r e n t i s d e l i v e r e d s t e a d i l y by t h e c e l l the chemical a c t i o n between t h e o x i d i z i n g m a t e r i a l and t h e hydrogen may be too slow t o prevent p o l a r i z a t i o n and t h e c e l l w i l l become i n a c t i v e i n a s h o r t time. However, i f a c e l l when i n t h i s condition i s disconnected from t h e c i r c u i t and permitted t o remain on open c i r c u i t f o r a b r i e f i n t e r v a l it w i l l r a p i d l y r e c u p e r a t e , o r r e c o v e r , which meaw t h a t i t w i l l be r e s t o r e d t o normal by t h e cleaning up of t h e hydrogen by t h e dep o l a r i z i n g agent. The carbon *hen i s once more l e f t f r e e t o a c t a s a p l a t e and conductor f o r t h e passage of current. Have you e v e r noticed when u s i n g a pocket f l a s h l i g h t t h a t t h e l i g h t suddenly " became dim, but a f t e r allowing t h e switch t o remain i n t h e n ~ f f p o s i t i o n f o r a h a l f minute o r so t h e lamp when next l i g h t e d would glow w i t h i t s former b r i g h t n e s s ? This dimming of t h e l i g h t was caused by t h e f a l l i n g off of t h e c u r r e n t through the c e l l due t o p o l a r i z a t i o n . The same weakening e f f e c t i s o f t e n n o t i c e d i n t h e r i n g i n g of a door b e l l , o r i n the o p e r a t i o n of a buzzer, e s p e c i a l l y when they a r e o p e r a t e d s t e a d i l y f o r a time.
LOCAL ACTION. If a c e l l , l i k e t h e one p i c t u r e d i n Figure 5, i s l e f t on open c i r c u i t (which means t h a t t h e r e i s no conductor of e l e c t r i c i t y connected t o i t s r e s p e c t i v e p l a t e s ) t h e n t h e r e should be no chemical ac%ion occurring between the m a t e r i a l s composing t h e c e l l . If t h e zinc p l a t e i s a b s o l u t e l y pure ( i . e . , without f o r e i g n m a t t e r o r i m p u r i t i e s ) an i n t e r n a l a c t i o n cannot be s e t up and c u r r e n t cannot be produced by the c e l l 1 s own materi.als. However,

Lesscaz 6

- sheet

o r d i n a r y commercial z i n c contains many f o r e i g n p a r t i c l e s , such a s carbon, n t i n , i r o n , and so on, and t h e s e s m a l l f ~ ~ i gp a r t i c l e s a c t with t h e zinc t o s e t up t i n y e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t s t h a t flow i n a s h o r t - c i r c u i t p a t h a s shown i n Figure 5. This l o c a l a c t i o n causes t h e zinc t o be e a t e n away continubusly and i n time i t w i l l a f f e c t the normal output energy of t h e c e l l . To prevent this consumption of the z i n c when t h e c e l l i s n o t used t o operate a c i r c u i t i t i s customary t o rub a s m a l l q u a n t i t y O f mercury i n t o the s u r f a c e of thezinc. This process i s c a l l e d amalgamation. Amalgamation, t h e r e f ore, s t o p s l o c a l a c t i o n when a c e l l i s l e f t on open c i r c u i t because t h e mercury does n o t combine w i t h the carbon, o r o t h e r f o r e i g n p a r t i c l e s , but it does a c t chemicallg with t h e z i n c t o form zinc-mercury amalgam t h a t works i t s way over t h e z i n c p l a t e s and covers up the p a r t i c l e s .

ELECTROLYTE

POSITIVE-. ELFCTRODE

.~ I R E C T or~ C U R R E ~ T I ~ THROUGH INTERNAL CIRCUIT

LOCAL ACTlON

Figure 5

Figure 6

A C T I O N O A SINlPLE PRIMARY CELL. Suppose t h e simple c e l l i n Figure 6 i s F composed of a p o s i t i v e copper (Cu) e l e c t r o d e , a n e g a t i v e z i n c (Zn) e l e c t r o d e ,

and d i l u t e d s u l p h u r i c acid. I n t h i s combination of m a t e r i a l s t h e a c i d u n i t e s more r e a d i l y with t h e zinc t h a n w i t h t h e copper. The chemical symbol f o r s u l p h u r i c acid i s H ~ S Q w h i c h denotes t h a t a molecule of t h i s l i q u i d c o n s i s t s of t w o atoms of h y d r o ~ e n , one atom of sulphur, and f o u r atoms of oxygen. The a c t i o n i s explained according t o t h e " e l e c t r o n tlieory". The important t h i n g t o b e a r i n mind i s t h a t atoms c o n s i s t of a n a g g r e g a t i o n of e l e c t r o n s and if some of t h e s e e l e c t r o n s can be s e t f r e e by chemicd means the f r e e e l e c t r o n s w i l l move through t h e conductors forming t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t around t h e c e l l . As w have j u s t s t a t e d t h e movement of c u r r e n t through t h e e load c i r c u i t connected t o t h e c e l l i s simply a movement of e l e c t r o n s . T h e i r d i r e c t i o n of flow i n the e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t connected t o a c e l l i s from t h e negative t e r m i n a l t o t h e p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l of t h e c e l l . T h i s i s i n accordance w i t h t h e theory a s explained i n our l e s s o n on " S t a t i c E l e c t r i c i t y " . It was s t a t e d t h a t a t a p o s i t i v e l y charged e l e c t r o d e t h e r e i s a d e f i c i e n c y of e l e c t r o n s and a t a n e g a t i v e l y charged e l e c t r o d e t h e r e i s a s u r p l u s of e l e c t r o n s w w i l l attempt t o make the following e x p l a n a t i o n a s e a s y t o understand a s e possible although it i s n o t necessary t h a t you l e a r n t h i s explanation. When chemical a c t i o n s e t s u p i n t h e c e l l each molecule of s u l p h u r i c acid s e p a r a t e s i n t o two o p p o s i t e l y charged p a r t s ; namely, p o s i t i v e i o n s which a r e t h e H 2 o r hydrogen p a r t of t h e acid,and negative ions whf ch a r e t h e SO4 or s u l p h u r i c p a r t of t h e acid. The negative ions a r e made up of a c e r t a i n number of Lesson 6

- sheet

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o t h e r w i s e ) causes them t o move through t h e z i n c e l e c t r o d e , and tkrough t h e conductors forming t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t , and thence through the copper e l e c t r o d e and t h e a c t i o n j u s t described continues on s o long a s t h e c e l l i s connected t o t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t and t h e m a t e r i a l s used i n (The e x t e r n a l c i r c u t t c o n s i s t s of t h e conthe c e l l are i n good condition. n e c t i n g leads and the l o a d a s i n d i c a t e d by the r e s i s t a n c e symbol.) The f a c t t h a t each one of t h e two p a r t s of the e l e c t r o l y t e go t o opposite p l a t e s when i t s e p a r a t e s a s s t a t e d above ( t h a t i s , t h e H2 p o s i t i v e i o n s go t o t h e copper p l a t e and t h e SO4 n e g a t i v e charges go t o t h e z i n c p l a t e ) cause.8 the respective p l a t e s t o become charged e l e c t r i c a l l y t o p o s i t i v e and negative p o t e n t i a l s . T h i s r e s u l t s i n t h e s e t t i n g up of a d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l between t h e p l a t e s , or t e r m i n a l s , of t h e c e l l and t h e movement of the e l e c t r o n s t h o u g h t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n from n e g a t i v e t o positive. The arrows i n the drawing i n Figure 6 a r e not t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e movement of the e l e c t r o n s i n t h e explanation J u s t given. The arrows merely i n d i c a t e t h e d i r e c t i o n O f merit flow according t o t h e u s u a l convention or custom i n p r a c t i c a l use f o r many years. Note t h a t t h e c u r r e n t arrows a r e i n a dlrect'ion i n t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t from t h e p o s i t i v e t o t h e n e g a t i v e e l e c t r o d e and i n t h e i n t e r n a l c i r c u i t from t h e n e g a t i v e t o t h e p o s i t i v e e l e c t r o d e .
C O N S TRUCTION AND OPERATION OF TKE COMMON DFE CELL. The i n t e r i o r view of a t y p i c a l d r y c e l l i s p l a i n l y marked i n Figure 2 t o i d e n t i f y a l l of t h e p a r t s t h a t e n t e r i n t o i t s construction. Dry c e l l s of t h i s type a r e u s u a l l y 6 inches high and 23 inches i n diameter. The z i n c c y l i n d r i c a l can i s the negative e l e c t r o d e . The terms e l e c t r o d e and p l a t e a r e used interchangeably. The z i n c can holds t h e moist b l a c k p a s t e i n t o which i s embedded a l a r g e carbon rod t h a t forms the p o s i t i v e e l e c t r o d e , or p l a t e . The paste u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s of a mixture of ammonium c h l o r i d e ( o r s a l a m o n i a c , the chemical name of which i s NRqCl), p l a s t e r of P a r i s , powdered coke, a small q u a n t i t y of g r a p h i t e , zinc c h l o r i d e (ZnClz), and a de- polarizing a g e n t , such as manganese dioxide (MnO). Enough water i s added t o t h e e l e c t r o l y t e t o moisten t h e absorbing paper which l i n e s the z i n c can and s e p a r a t e s the z i n c from t h e paste. A f t e r t h e p a s t e and carbon r o d a r e f i r m l y packed i n , t h e f whole assevbly i s covered w i t h sand and on t o p O t h i s i s placed a s e a l i n g compound t o make t h e c e l l moisture proof and thus prevent evaporation.

The g r e a t advantage of t h i s type of c e l l i s t h a t i t can remain on open c i r c u i t f o r long p e r i o d s without appreciably s h o r t e n i n g i t s u s e f u l l i f e . After a period of a y e a r , o r more, it w i l l begin t o d e t e r i o r a t e r a p i d l y i f unused and t h e drying out of t h e c e l l w i l l be hastened i f i t i s kept i n a very warm It i s always b e s t t o keep a d r y c e l l i n a cool place whenever atnosphere. possible where the temperature i s n o t much h i g h e r than 70 F.
A d r y c e l l i s a very convenient means f o r o b t a i n i n g an electromotive f o r c e

but i t i s adapted o n l y f o r use on i n t e r m i t t e n t work such a s , r i n g i n g door b e l l s , telephone i n s t a l l a t i o n s , o r where t h e s e r v i c e demands only a small

Lesson 6

- sheet

use of i t s low i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e a d r y c e l l i n good condition w i l l dei v e r a c u r r e n t of about 18 t o 3 0 amperes, o r more, when measured on momentarn s h o r t c i r c u i t by means of a low r e s i s t a n c e anmeter. Short c i r c u i t t e s t s should not be made o f t e n on the same c e l l a s it places a heavy d r a i n on t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s . A v o l t a g e t e s t can be made by u s i n g a good high-grade v o l t meter with a low r e a d i n g s c a l e . %'he average e.m.f. of a l l new d r y c e l l s in good condition i s about 1.5 o r 1.6 v o l t s . I n c e r t a i n c l a s s e s of work a f t e r a c e l l has dropped t o about 1 v o l t it i s removed f r o s a c t i v e service and a new one i s s u b s t i t u t e d . Also, i f two or more c e l l s a r e used i n conjunction w i t h one another t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l voltages should be measured f r e q u e n t l y t o a s c e r t a i n whether t h e y a r e n e a r l y a l i k e , o r whether one c e l l i s considerably lower than the r e s t i n which event the o p e r a t i on of the c i r c u i t wallld be s e r i o u s l y impaired.

ZINC (-)A NEGATIVE

-- CARBON bt)
POSITIVE

LECLANCHE CELL. The standard d r y c e l l i s p r a c t i c a l l y a ~ e c l a n c h d e l l made c both employ s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s i n t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n . up i n a d i f f e r e n t form The Leclsnche c e l l c o n s i s t s of two c y l i n d r i c a l l y shaped p l a t e s , one of zinc and one of carbon placed. i n a s a l atimoniac s o l u t i o n , the carbon p l a t e being corrugated i n shape t o form a porous cup i n which t h e manganese dioxide L h n d e l i v e r i n g c u r r e n t the s a l ammoniac soVe and powdered coke a r e placed. l u t i o n a t t a c k s the z i n c and,as i n the case of the simple d r y cel1,bubbles of hydrogen gas a r e l i b e r a t e d and c o l l e c t on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e carbon. The gas combines with t h e manganese dioxide and i s removed, thus preventing p o l a r i z s t i o n of the c e l l . A c e l l of t h i s kind w i l l keep i n good working c o n d i t i o n f o r years and p r a c t i c a l l y t h e only a t t e n t i o n it needs i s an occ a s s i o n a l f i l l i n g w i t h water and sometimes w i t h a f r e s h supply of s a l ammoniac.

METHOD OF CONNECTING CELLS.

a common d r y c e l l i s shown i n Figure 7. The center t e r m i n a l connects t o the carbon rod and t h i s t e r m i n a l i s c a l l e d t h e " p o s i t i v e p o l e " of the c e l l ; t h e ( ) s i g n i s used t o denote p o s i t i v e p o l a r i t y . W e do not as,,a r u l e c a l l t h i s a 'plus" s i g n i n t h i s work; w most g e n e r a l l y say e " p o s i t i v e sign. The terminal. a t t h e o u t e r edge of the c e l l connects t o t h e z i n c can, o r s h e l l , of t h e c e l l and t h i s t e r m i n a l i s c a l l e d the "negative pole"; t h e s i g n ( ) i s used t o denote negative p o l a r i t y . %e do not c a l l t h i s a "minus" s i m a s a r u l e but r a t h e r a " negative" s i g n . Hence, w s a y e t h a t a d r y c e l l has two t e r m i n a l s , one a p o s i t i v e and the o t h e r a negative. The small sketch t o t h e r i g h t i n Figure 8 i s one way of drawing t h e t o p view of a c e l l and i n d i c a t i n g t h e amount of electromotive f o r c e i n v o l t s t h a t t h e c e l l i s r a t e d a t , o r i n t h i s c a s e , the c e l l i s seen t o have a "terminal" e.m.f. of 1.5 v o l t s . I n s t e a d of drawing a p i c t u r e of a d r y c e l l each time w e
A t o p , o r plan view,of

Lesson 6

- sheet 8

I
I

d e s i r e t o i n d i c a t e One on a diag5a.m we make u s e of t h e standard symbol as shown i n your l e s s o n on "Symbols The long t h i n l i n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o s i t i v e pole, whereas, t h e s h o r t heavy l i n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e negative pole. There a r e two ways i n which t h e c e l l s of a b a t t e r y may be arranged t o vary t h e c u r r e n t output O f the c e l l s ; (1)By a s e r i e s combination; and ( 9 ) by a p a r a l l e l combination.

I
I

--

of t h e b a t t e r y i s increased because t h e s i n g l e c e l l s a r e connected i n a wag t h a t permits t o be a v a i l a b l e . When c e l l s the sum of a l l of t h e i r e.m.f.(s a r e joined i n s e r i e s t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of the combination i s eoual t o t h e sum of t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e s of t h e individim? - -. . - - -. . c e l l s . I n Figure 9 t h r e e c e l l s a r e shown joined i n s e r i e s and connected t o a b e l l . ( 2 ) By the p a r a l l e l method the e.m.f. of t h e b a t t e r y w i l l n o t be g r e a t e r than t h a t of a s i n g l e c e l l but t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of the b a t t e r y decreases w i t h each a d d i t i o n i n t h e number of c e l l s used. Refer t o Figure 10 shoring t h r e e c e l l s joined i n p a r a l l e l and the combination connected t o a b e l l and c o n t r o l l e d by a push b u t t o n .

(1)By t h e s e r i e s method t h e e.m.f.

SERIES COMBIKATION. standing just how t h e c e l l s a r e a c t u a l l y connected. Notice t h a t i n the s e r i e s combination i n Figure 9 t h e connecting w i r e s a r e put on according t o t h e following system: The negative terminal post o f c e l l 1 i s joined t o t h e f p o s i t i v e of c e l l 2; t h e negative O c e l l 2 i s joined t o t h e p o s i t i v e of c e l l 3; t h e negative of c e l l 3 i s joined t o one t e r m i n a l on t h e b e l l ; t h e o t h e r b e l l t e r m i n a l i s joined t o one t e r m i n a l on t h e push button; t h e other t e r minal on t h e push b u t t o n i s connected t o t h e p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l of c e l l 1. ~ h u s , e have made a complete c i r c u i t , beginning a t c e l l 1 and r e t u r n i n g t o w
BELL OR LOAD

~0th Fjgures 9 and 1 0 a r e p i c t o r i a l d i a g r a m drawn t o a s s i s t you i n under-

CELL l

CELL

CELL 3

i t . In t h i s arrangement the same amount of c u r r e n t t h a t flows through one p a r t of the c i r c u i t must a l s o pass through a l l o t h e r p a r t s since t h e r e i s 1 o n l y one continuous c i r c u i t formed. Nw r e f e r t o t h e diagram i n Figure 1 o which i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c i r c u i t i n Figure 9 i n s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t form. The 1 purpose of Figure 1 i s t o show t h a t when we connect two c e l l s from p o s i t i v e t o negative w a r e i n r e a l i t y connecting t h e carbon of one c e l l t o the z i n c e T t i s a simple m a t t e r t o t r a c e out t h e "continuity" of t h e a d j o i n i n g c e l l . of t h i s c i r c u i t . The word " c o n t i n u i t y " expresses j u s t what w were doing, e t h a t i s , t r a c i n g out a c i r c u i t from beginning t o end t o see t h a t it i s cone t i n u o u s and unbroken s o t h a t w may be sure t h a t c u r r e n t w i l l flow through
Lesson 6

- sheet

us study t h e schematic diagram i n Figure 12 showing 3 c e l l s joined e s . I f each c e l l h a s an e .m.f. of 1.5 v o l t s the sum of t h e e .m.f. 1s 1 determine the amount of voltage a v a i l a b l e a t t h e output termina'ls, o r 1 t h i s case, 3 x 1.5 e q u a l s 4.5 Volts, a s marked on t h e diagram. Consider group of c e l l s jolned i n s e r i e s ir Figure 13, t h e v o l t a g e supplied t o any c i r c u i t connected t o t h e two o u t s i d e t e r m i n a l s of t h i s b a t t e r y , marked + and -, would be 6 x 1.5, o r 9 v o l t s .
Figure 14 i l l u s t r a t e s s e r i e s groupings of c e l l s s i m i l a r t o those a l r e a d y given but t h e y a r e drawn i n s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t form. The s i n g l e c e l l a t t h e l e f t i s shown t o p o i n t out t h e r e l a t i o n between a c e l l and i t s symbol. llle have arranged t h e s e diagrams i n s l i g h t l y dif'ferenk form s o t h a t you w i l l be-

Figure 10 come accustomed a t t h e v e r y s t a r t of your work t o r e a d a schematic diagram cfrawn i n any manner. Example: Suppose we have a b a t t e r y c o n s i s t i n g of 12 c e l l s , each r a t e d a t 1.5 v o l t s , w i t h t h e c e l l s i n s e r i e s . What i s t h e t o t a l v o l t a g e a v a i l a b l e ? Example: If t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e The answer i s 12 x 1.5, o r 1 8 v o l t s . of each of t h e c e l l s i n a group of 12 connected i n s e r i e s i s 0 - 5 o w w h a t i s

DIRECTION OF CURRENT INSIDE OF CELL

Figure 1 1 t h e t o t a l i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c e l l s ? 6 ohms. The answer Is 1 2 x 0.5 ohms, or

From the foregoing e x p l a n a t i o n s w l e a r n t h a t t o f i n d t h e r e s u l t a n t v o l t a g e , e of any number of c e l l s connected i n a s e r i e s combination i t i s o r e.m.f., only necessary t o m u l t i p l y t h e voltage of any one of t h e c e l l s , providing Lesson 6

s h e e t 10

t h e y a r e a l l a l i k e , by t h e number of c e l l s i n the group. Also, t o f i n d t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of a l l of t h e c e l l s taken t o g e t h e r i n a s e r i e s combination we must m u l t i p l y t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of one of t h e c e l l s , providing they a r e a11 a l i k e , by t h e number connected i n t h e group.
+

-I

* -

4.5 VOLTS

9 VOLTS

Figure 12

Figure 13

The drawing i n Figure 1 5 of t h e t h r e e locomotives moving a h e a v i l y loaded box c a r i s presented a s a n e a s y way f o r most persons t o v i s u a l i z e how t h e t o t a l pressure a p p l i e d t o t h e c a r i s t h e sum of t h e i n d i v i d u a l f o r c e s t h a t e a c h locomotive i s e x e r t i n g . Suppose t h e box c a r were a long t r a i n of c a r s and i t was found t h a t one locomotive could only move the t r a i n very slotvly, then, by coupling a second locomotive t o t h e f i r s t t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t t h e t r a i n could be move2 a t a f a s t e r r a t e and, again, i f a t h i r d locomotive weye coupled t o t h e f i r s t two t h e t r a i n could be moved a t a s t i l l f a s t e r r a t e . \ye have a s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n i n an e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t when c e l l s are connected i n s e r i e s , t h e voltage of every c e l l i n t h e b a t t e r y c o n t r i b u t e s i t s p r e s s u r e
DRY CELL..
DRY

C E L L S - 1.5 VOLTS EPiCW

DRY CELLS

- q.5 VOLTS

EKH

SERIES

COMBINATIONS

s,
9 VOLTS

+
Figure 1 4

a d d i t i v e l y and s i n c e a l a r g e r voltage i s a v a i l a b l e a s t r o n g c u r r e n t can be forced through a given c i r c u i t t o perform a c e r t a i n amount of e l e c t r i c a l work.

BOX CAR O U LOAD

ENGINE I --

ENGINE 3

Figure 1 5
PARALLEL CONBINATION.

Figure 1 6 i s a p i c t u r e d i a p m of a p a r a l l e l o r m u l t i p l e g r o u p i w of c e l l s where the e.m.f. o r voltage of t h e whole combination i s o n l y t h e e.m.f. of a are s i n g l e c e l l . The drawing shows t h a t a l l of the n e g a t i v e t e r m i n a l s ( - ) Lesson 6 sheet 1

connected t o g e t h e r and, t h e r e f o r e , w have but one l e a d coming from the e negative s i d e of t h e c e l l s t h a t i s common t o a l l of negatives. The p o s i t i v e terminals ( ) are a l s o a l l connected t o g e t h e r Which provides only one common lead coming from t h e p o s l t i v e s i d e of the c e l l s . Observe t h a t t h e connecting wires are put on according t o t h e following system: The z i n c of c e l l 1 i s joined t o t h e zinc of c e l l 2 ; t h e z i n c of c e l l 2 i s joined t o t h e z i n r of c e l l 3:and from t h i s point a l e a d i s c a r r i e d t o t h e b e l l . Next we have the carbon of c e l l 1 joined t o the carbon of c e l l 2; t h e carbon of c e l l 2 joined t o t h e carbon O f c e l l 3 and t h e n a second connection i s c a r r i e d f r o m t h i s p o i n t t o t h e o t h e r t e r m i n a l on t h e b e l l . Thus, w have completed the e c o n t i n r u i . of t h i s p a r a l l e l arrangement of c e l l s . The path of the c u r r e n t s ----furnished by t h e i n d i v i d u a l c e l l . ~and t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t flowing t o t h e b e l l i s represented by t h e arrows.

I n t h i s arrangement t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of t k e b a t t e r y is reduced i f c e l l s a r e added t o t h e group. For example, t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e 3 c e l l s i n t h e b a t t e r y i n Figure 16 i s one- third t h a t of any s i n g l e c e l l . If t h e r e a r e two c e l l s i n a p a r a l l e l poupillg, as i n Fjgure 17, the i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e i s one-half t.hat of e i t h e r c e l l .

We learned i n the f i r s t p a r t of t h i s l e s s o n t h a t t h e amount of z i n c exposed t o t h e a c t i o n of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e determined t h e amount of cwrrent t h a t would be d e l i v e r e d by the c e l l and t h a t t h e voltage of a l l c e l l s a r e e x a c t l y a l i k e , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r s l z e , when the same combinations of m a t e r i a l s a r e eme ployed. Hence, i n a p a r a l l e l grouping of c e l l s w have t h e e f f e c t of i n c r e a s ing the a r e a of the p l a t e s s i n c e the z i n c s of a l l the c e l l s a r e connected t o gether; but w do not o b t a i n an increase i n t h e e.m.f. according t o t h e cnne s i d e r a t i o n t h a t c e r t a i n combinations of m a t e r i a l s g i v e a known e.rn.f, and tho s i z e . ar a r e a . of the m a l e r i a l s has no i n f l u e n c e on t h j s voltage. The advantage of connecting c e l l s i n p a r a l l e l i s t h a t each c e l l c o n t r i b u t e s an equal anount of t h e c u r r e n t d e l i v e r e d by t h e b a t t e r y .

Figure 16 Hence, suppose t h e b a t t e r y i n Figure 18 c o n s i s t i n g of 4 c e l l s i n p a r a l l e l i s connected t o a c i r c u i t which i s passing 2 amperes, t h e n each c e l l of t h i s group would c o n t r i b u t e one- fourth of 2 amperes, o r 0.5 ampere t o t h e c i r c u i t . I f a l l of t h e Thus, the load would be divided e q u a l l y among the c e l l s . c e l l s were forced t o pass 2 amperes through them t o supply such a c i r c u l t the c e l l s would d e t e r i o r a t e very r a p i d l y . I n Figure 1 6 suppose t h e a c t u a l current passing through t h e b e l l i s 0.15 amperes; each c e l l then would f u r n i s h onet h i r d of t h i s amount, o r 0.15 4 3 e q u a l s 0.05 amperes. hand b a t t e r y i s 1.5 v o l t , o r the e.m,f, of any one of t h e c e l l s ; an of the right- hand b a t t e r y i s a l s o 1.5 v o l t , o r t h e e.m,f:~of any ce group

The water analogy i n Figure 20 gives a c l e a r i d e a of t h e e f f e c t of connecting c e l l s i n p a r a l l e l where t h e pressures a r e not added up but each c e l l merely c o n t r i b u t e s it's s h a r e o r Q u a n t i t Y of c u r r e n t t o t h e c i r c u i t t o which i t i s connected.

Figure 17

Figure 18

Suppose tanks T i , T ~ and T 3 e a c h supply 10 g a l l o n s p e r minute'; the t o t a l I q u a n t i t e of water running over t h e wheel w i l l be 30 g a l l o n s per minute, but t h e pressure w i l l n o t b e g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t f i r n i s h e d by any one of the t h r e e tanks.

DRY CELLS -<.5 VOLTS E K H

DRY C E L L S

- 1.5

VOLTS EACH

Figure 19 g e para -l l e l - Sienr i a spCombination.i eThe schematic d i a n ~tahmisn cFiguret connected a r a l l e l - s e r s arrangement. I i ircui
2 1 shows 9 c e l l s

w have t h r e e e s e p a r a t e s e r i e s groups each of which consis'ts of 3 c e l l s connected i n s e r i e s , and t h e t h r e e s e r i e s groups a r e joined i n p a r a l l e l . By r e a d i m t h e dianram w see t h a t a p a r a l l e l - s e r i e s combination i s a p a r a l l e l connection of a-number e of s e r i e s arranged c e l l s .

,. , u .

Figure 20

The s.m.f. a c r o s s e a c h s e r i e s connection i s 4.5 v o l t s . I n a p a r a l l e l comb i n a t i o n of c e l l s t h e e.m.f. i s t h e sane a c r o s s t h e component p a r t s , hence, t h e e.m.f. a c r o s s t h e t h r e e g r ~ u p i n g si s 4.5 v o l t s a s marked on the diagram. Lesson 6

- sheet 13

s e r i e s - P a r a l l e l Combination. The c i r c u i t i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 22 c o n s i s t s n- 1 2 c e l -s connected i n a s e r i e s - p a r a l l e l arranfzement. Observe t h a t t h e r e -f -- -- l a r e t h r e e s e p a r a t e p a r a l l e l groupsLeach of which- consists of 4 c e l l s connected i n p a r a l l e l , and the t h r e e p a r a l l e l groups a r e joined i n s e r i e s . Hence, a s e r i e s - p a r a l l e l combination i s a s e r i e s connection of a number of p a r a l l e l arranged c e l l s .
-

The e.m.f. a c r o s s the b a t t e r y i n Figure 22 i s 4.5 v o l t s because the e.m.f. a c r o s s each p a r a l l e l group i s 1.5 v o l t s , i.e., t h e t o t a l e.m.f. of t h e 3 groups i n s e r i e s i s t h e i r sum, or 4.5 v o l t s , a s marked on the diagram.
E M.F. O EACN SERIES F :CONNECTION I S 4.5 VOLTS;

E.M.F. OF EPCH CELL IS 1.5 VOL?S

I S 1 . 5 VOLTS

L0ll0~ PAR~LLEL-SERIES COMBINPTION

L O ~ D ~ SERIES-P&RPILLEL COMBINATION

Figure 2 1

Figure 22

SUMMARY. The p r i n c i p a l f a c t s t h a t should be remembered from t h i s l e s s o n a r e G l i s t e d below. In our l e s s o n on " ~ l e c t r i c a l j r c u i t s and O h m ' s Law" t h e mathe m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n between t h e r e s i s t a n c e , t h e v o l t a g e and t h e current i n a c i r c u i t w i l l be expl.ained. It i s advisable t h a t you p r a c t i c e drawing c e l l s i n various combinations s o t h a t reading simple schematic diagrams w i l l not cause you any confusion.

I n a primary c e l l one p l a t e i s consumed by t h e a c t i o n of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e when t h e c e l l produces an e.m.f. p o l a r i z a t i o n i s caused by a l a y e r of hydrogen gas bubbles c o l l e c t i w on one of t h e p l a t e s . Local a c t i o n i s due t o i m p u r i t i e s and f o r e i g n p a r t i c l e s such as carbon, i r o n e t c . , i n commercial zinc.

Lesson 6
..&*"',:r

sheet 14
.i..-.;

.~. . ,

.. .

..

...

...,

i',..,., . . c ,

R e s u l t s Obtained From Various C e l l Combinat i o n s . V LA E OT G SERIES arrangement of c e l l s .

VOLTAGE.. ..The

- RESISTANCE - CURRFfPT

t o t a l e.m.f. of a s e r i e s combination of c e l l s i s t h e sum of the e.m.f.cs of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c e l l s .

RESISTANCE.T~~ n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of c e l l s i n s e r i e s i s increased i by adding c e l l s . The t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e i s t h e sum of t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ce 11s.

CUR RE NT ..

. .In c pera scet i ch e c e.m.f.) r e when atlhl e rconnectede i n s ehr ee loadt o a e e l l s -a usu y i s ( e s i s t a n c of t in r t
c i r c u i t ( o r external c i r c u i t ) i s high i n order t o obtain a large current. oP c e l l s .

PARALLEL - arrangement
VOLTAGE..

. .Theu atloonlye.m.f.t h e ofe.m.f.p a rofl lanycombination e ofgroupl l sprovidtal a a el ce is eq to c e l l i n th

i n g they a r e bf s i m i l a r kind.

RES1STAKCE.The i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of c e l l s i n p a r a l l e l i s decreased by adding c e l l s . The t o t a l i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e i s e q u a l t o t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of one c e l l d i v i d e d by t h e number of c e l l s .

CURmNT..

.In p r a c t i c e c e l l s a r e g e n e r a l l y connected i n p a r a l l d when t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e load c i r c u i t i s low s o t h a t each c e l l cont r i b u t e s i t s share of t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t i n t h e c i r c u i t ,

EXAMINATION

LESSON 6

1, 2
3.

4. 5.
6.

7. 8.

9. 10.

What i s a primary c e l l ? Name the m a t e r i a l s used i n some one type of primary c e l l . ( a ) What determines t h e e .m.f. of a d r y c e l l ? ( b ) What determines t h e u s e f u l l i f e of a primary c e l l ? ( a ) ;Vhat i s p o l a r i z a t i o n ? ( b ) H w may p o l a r i z a t i o n be reduced? o ( a ) 'Vhat i s meant by l o c a l a c t i o n ? ( b ) D yo11 know of any remedy f o r Local a c t i o n ? Explain. o Can a primary c e l l be charged and used a g a i n l i k e a s t o r a g e c e l l ? Why? What i s t o e d i f f e r e n c e between a c e l l and a b a t t e r y ? ( a ) Mhen would you u s e a s e r i e s connection of c e l l s ? ( b ) What i s the advantage of connecting c e l l s i n s e r i e s ? ( c ) Hw i s the t o t a l e.m.f. of a s e r i e s combination of c e l l s computed? o ( a ) When would you use a p a r a l l e l grouping of c e l l s ~ ( b ) What i s the advantage of a p a r a l l e l connection of c e l l s ? ( c ) Eow i s t h e t o t a l e.m.f. of a p a r a l l e l combination of c e l l s f i g u r e d ? If you were given 1 5 d r y c e l l s and asked t o connect them i n a group which you would supply a c e r t a i n c i r c u i t w i t h an e.m.f. of 4.5 v o l t s how ~ o u l d do i t ? Draw a schematic diagram using symbols.

Lesson 6

s h e e t 15

Technical Lesson 7
RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTION

Resistance i s a term known t o a l l of us and it means opposition or an opposing force. This force of opposition can be i n two forms; it may be stationary o r i n motion. N matter what work i s done resistance i s present i n some form o r o other. When you walk resistance tends t o r e t a r d your action; when you pow a boat the water offers resistance t o the forward motion of the boat. Water running through a pipe i s retarded by f r i c t i o n caused by the water making contact with the sides of t h e pipe. It i s readily seen then that resistance i s something t h a t must be overcome. If a pipe i s clean water w i l l flow through with comparative ease; ifwe allow rust, and s i l t t o c o l l e c t i n t h e same pipe it w i l l require more pressure t 6 force the water through, hence the r u s t and s i l t i s an obstruction or resistance t o the flow o f water and a greater pressure i s required t o overcome t h i s resistance offered t o the passage of water. I n an e l e c t r i c a l circu5,t resistance i s also present and, before current can flow* the resistance must be overcome i n the c i r c u i t by a pressure or force. A electromotive force of s u f f i c i e n t pressure must be apn plied t o the c i r c u i t t o force the current through the conductor thus overcoming i t s resistance. N e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t canbe devised without some resistance but c e r t a i n o c i r c u i t s may offer l e s s resistance t o a cnrrent of e l e c t r i c i t y than others, depending upon the conductors used. I f the resistance i s low the conduction i s good, o r , ak w say when speaking of c e r t a i n wire, e it i s a good conductor of e l e c t r i c i t y . Conversely, i f the r e s l s t a n c s of a material i s high w have poor conduction; i n other words, the e material i s a poor conductor. Certain materials o f f e r such a very high resistance t o the passage of e l e c t r i c current t h a t there i s p r a c t i c a l l y no conduction; such materials a r e called non-conductors or insulators. I n materials capable of carrying e l e c t r i c current the molecular s t r u c t u r e i s such t h a t the electrons, a p a r t of matter, can be forced i n t o motion thereby producing a flow of e l e c t r i c current. Materials classed a s insulators are substances, t h e molecular structure of which i s s o arranged t h a t electrons cannot make any appreciable movement, because they am t i g h t l y held withinthe atom of which t b i n s u l a t o r 1s composed. e With these two classes of materials w can make up a c i r c u i t of materials t h e natme of which w i l l e i t h e r obstruct or allow current t o flow.

To f o r c e e l e c t r o n s t o move from one p a r t of an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t t o another r e s i s t a n c e must be overcome and f o r c e must be applied. This f o r c e i s c a l l e d electromotive f o r c e and abbreviated E.M.F. When an E.M.F. has been a p p l i e d t o a conductor a c u r r e n t i s fo-md t o flow through t h e conductor, providing t h e conductor f o r m s a complete -called-ampere. (Note. Bear i n mind t h e . path. 'The-unit of c u r r e n t .-c i r c u i t must be complete. A g r e a t E.M.P. may b@ auulied t o a conductor but u n l e s s t h e c i r c u i t i s coniinuous no e l e c t r o n s move, hence no c u r r e n t flows. )

- --

then, i s t h e e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e necessary t o move e l e c t r o n s i n a conductor a g a i n s t t h e r e s i s t i n g f o r c e s of t h e atom which tend t o prevent t h e e l e c t r o n s from mooing from one atom t o another.
E.M.F.

The m a t e r i a l , i t s s i z e , and i t s p h y s i c a l s t a t e , such a s i t s temperatsue, e t c . , determines j u s t how much it w i l l oppose t h e f r e e movement of e l e c t r o n s , or, i n o t h e r words, i t s r e s i s t a n c e . The ohm i s t h e u n i t of r e s i s t a n c e , shown i n symbol a s n , and denotes t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f f e r e d t o an e l e c t r o n movement ( e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t ) through a substance. Conductance i s t h e it i f we s p e l l OHM conductance o r t h e t r o n s can be moved opposite of r e s i s t a n c e and we can f i n d t h e terms f o r backwards, g i v i n g us MHO. Mho t h e n i s t h e u n i t of measure by which w i n d i c a t e t h e e a s e which t h e e l e c e through a substance.

Any e l e c t r i c a l conductor has b o t h r e s i s t a n c e axid conductance and, I n e l e c t r i c a l p r a c t i c e , we s e l e c t f o r our purpose m a t e r i a l which o f f e r s s m a l l r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e flovi of c u r r e n t when we d e s i r e h i h conductance. If low conductance i s d e s i r e d w u s e another c l a s s of m e r i a l which has e a a h i g h r e s i s t a n c e and which o b s t r u c t s o r opposes t h e f l o w of c u r r e n t .

-+

Resistance i n any e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t o f f e r s a wide range of study and t h e purpose of t h i s l e s s o n i s t o p o i n t out t o t h e s t u d e n t t h e v a r i o u s forms of r e s i s t a n c e which may be encountered i n r a d i o p r a c t i c e , and t h e terms used t o c l a s s i f y such r e s i s t a n c e . ohmic r e s i s t a n c e of d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t s may b e determined by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of O h m ' s Law when t h e c u r r e n t and voltage values a r e known. Resistances necessary t o c o n t r o l c u r r e n t and voltage values of vacuum tube c i r c u i t s may be c l a s s i f i e d under t h e following names,-- R e s i s t o r , Rheostat and Potentiometer. D i f f e r e n t n a t e r i a l s a r e used i n making t h e s e v a r i o u s u n i t s of r e s i s t a n c e , such as carbon or t h e combinations of d i f f e r e n t m e t a l s which, when combined, a r e termed a l l o y s . By winding german s i l v e r o r climax r e s i s t a n c e wtre on a s u i t a b l e support, such a s p o r c e l a i n o r a non-lnflamable composition form, a u n i t t o a c t a s an opposition t o t h e flow of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t may be had. Such a form i s suggested i n F i g u r e 1 and c o n s t i t u t e s f i x e d r e g i s t a n c e . Lesson 7

1
1

- sheet 2

most ang eolELfit10n. Radio receivers.

Figures 2 and 3 show types of Resistors used i n

Figure 1

"Rheostat " i s a term applied t o a form of resistance which i s adjustable. B the use of a rheostat current y flow can be controlled a t t h e w i l l of t h e operator by simple adjustment of the r h e o s t a t . T h i s form of r e s i s t a n c e I s shown i n Figure 4.

The Potentiometer i s another form of r e s i s t a n c e employed t o perform a c e r t a i n function i n controlling t h e action of c e r t a i n p a r t s of radio c i r c u i t s . It usually c o n s i s t s of resistance wire wound i n t o u n i t s having a value of from 200 t o 1,000 ohms. The use of the potentiometer i s t o divide p o t e n t i a l s between p a r t s of a single c i r c u i t or t o divide a p o t e n t i a l difference between two or more c i r c u i t s . E x p l i c i t i n s t r u c t i o n concerning the use of e these u n i t s w i l l be given when w g e t t o t h a t point i n our studies wherein w employ these devices. e
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE

Current flow i n a l t e r n a t i n g current c i r c u i t s i s a f f e c t e d by inductance which i s a form of resistance termed inductive reactance, and which i s measured i n ohms.
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE

Figure 2

Capacity also c o n s t i t u t e s a form of r e s i s t a n c e and i s c a l l e d capacitive reactance, also measured i n o m .

The combination of inductive reactance and capacity reactance and pure ohmic resistance o f f e r s opposition t o current flow i n a l t e r n a t i n g current c i r c u i t s . This t o t a l opposition i s termed im edance. Impedance i s a l s o which displaces "Rw measured i n ohms and i s designated by the s m o y i n the Obmls L w formula. Further d i s c u s s i o n c n t h i s subject i s presented a under "Inductance and Capacity".

Figure 3 It i s c l e a r l y seen t h a t r e s i s t a n c e i s a f k t o r which must be taken i n t o account i n a l l e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s . A l l substances a r e found t o r e s i s t the passage of e l e c t r i c i t y but the r e s i s t a n c e of metals Ss l e s s than a l l other substances, t h a t of course being the reason f o r the adoption of metals t o serve as carrying agents of e l e c t r i c i t y . Lesson 7

- sheet 3

CNUTR O D COS The b e s t conductor Of e l e c t r i c i t y i s s i l v e r because i t o f f e r s t h e l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e O r o p p o s i t i o n t o c u r r e n t flow and i s t a k e n a s t h e b a s i s of comparison i n computing t h e r e s i s t a n c e of o t h e r metals. The s p e c i f i c r e s i s t a n c e of any m a t e r i a l i s t h e r e s i s t a n c e of a u n i t l e n g t h of t h a t m a t e r i a l and t h e u n i t c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a a t a predetermined degree of temperature. It i s i n r e a l i t y t h e r e s i s t a n c e of any substance one c u b i c i n c h square when measured a t a temperature The t a b l e shows t h e r e l a t i v e r e s i s t a n c e of of melting i c e (32'F). chemically pure metals a t t h e temperature of 32"Fahrenheit.
METAL

RELATIVE RESISTANCE

RESISTANCE I N MICROHMS PFR CUBIC I N C H

Annealed s i l v e r Annealed copper Hard drawn s i l v e r Hard drawn copper Annealed gold Annealed aluminum Pressed z i n c Platinum Annealed ' i r o n Lead German s i l v e r By studying the r e s i s t a n c e very s i l v e r not only is in as t a b l e i t i s seen t h a t German s i l v e r has a s p e c i f i c . n e w l y 14 times a s g r e a t a s annealed s t l v e r . German has a h i g h r e s i s t a n c e but t h e r e s i s t a n c e s o offered more o r l e s s constant, t h a t i s , i t does not f l u c t u a t e r e s i s t a n c e value w i t h changes of c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h t o g r o a t an e x t e n t a s o t h e r metals.

It has been found by experiment t h a t t h e t o t a l r e s i s t m c e of a conductor v a r i e s d i r e c t l y a s t h e s p e c i f i c r e s i s t a n c e Figure and l e n g t h , and i n v e r s e l y a s t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area. These q u a n t i t i e s a r e r e l a t e d a s shown by t h e following formula: 'Resistance e q u a l s t h e m a t e r i a l times t h e l e n g t h of t h e conductor divided by i t s c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area."
when w know t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a and t h e l e n g t h of a conductor e t h e s p e c i f i c r e s i s t a n c e of t h e wire may be obtained from t h e t a b l e j u s t given and, by s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e values i n t h e above formula, t h e r e s i s t a n c e can e a s i l y be Pound. Temperature changes w i l l a f f e c t t h e r e s i s t a n c e of an e l e c t r i c a l conductor and, i n g e n e r a l , t h e r e s i s t a n c e of metals i n c r e a s e a s t h e

Lesson 7

- sheet 4

a t u r e of t h e s o l u t i o n r i s e s . Carbon f i l a m e n t s , such a s used e a r l y t y p e s o f e l e c t r i c lamps, have but h a l f a s much r e s i s t a n c e when white hot a s when cold. The r e s i s t a n c e of a conductor, however, w i l l remain constant i n value a s long e s t h e temperature remains constant. To g r a s p the i d e a of one ohm r e s i s t a n c e examples of conductors having approximately t h a t value of r e s i s t a n c e are given. For example, two hundred and f i f t y f e e t of number s i x t e e n "Brown and sharp* gauge copper wire having a diameter of one t w e n t i e t h of an i n c h has a r e s i s t a n c e of one ohm. One thousand f e e t of number thirty- two "B & S" bare copper wire has a r e s i s t a n c e of one hundred and seventy and seven t e n t h s ohms. From t h i s i t i s seen t h a t a l a r g e gauge copper wire has a r e s i s t a n c e value l e s s t h a n one of s m a l l e r gauge. INSULATORS Other substances may be s e l e c t e d which have h i g h e r r e s i s t i n g powers e e t h a n metals. W may continue t o s e l e c t m a t e r i a l s u n t i l w a r r i v e a t t h e p o i n t here i t becomes very hard t o f o r c e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t through t h e substance s o s e l e c t e d . Such substances a r e termed I n s u l a t o r s and t h e y have extremely high r e s i s t a n c e . APT m a t e r i a l may be classed a s an i n s u l e t o r which w i l l not allow e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t t o flow, t h a t i s , which w i l l prevent t h e passage of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t through t h e mass of the substances.

It i s well t o s t a t e a t t h i s point t h a t t h e r e i s no p e r f e c t i n s u l a t o r any more t h a n t h e r e i s a p e r f e c t conductor. If a p o t e n t i a l of s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h i s impressed a c r o s s an i n s u l a t o r t h e i n s u l a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s w i l l break down and a flow of c u r r e n t t a k e s place, t h i s flow of c u r r e n t o f t e n being termed "leakage

'.

The i n s u l a t o r s shown i n Figure 5 a r e f a m i l i a r t y p e s and a r e g e n e r a l l y made of m a t e r i a l which o f f e r g r e a t opposftion t o c u r r e n t flow. The corrugations o r i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n the s u r f a c e a r e purposely placed t h e r e t o i n c r e a s e t h e surface a r e a of t h e i n s u l a t o r . A f i l m of moisture sometimes c o l l e c t s on i n s u l a t o r s and t h i s f i l m i s more or l e s s a conductor of e l e c t r i c i t y . The c o r r u g a t i o n s o r i r r e g u l a r surface a i d s i n reducing what i s termed " s u r f a c e leakage'! Other forms of i n s u l a t o r s shown I n Figure 6 a r e known a s p o r c e l a i n c l e a t s . Figure 6A shows a c l e a t i n place, holding two wtres, and n a i l e d or screwed t o a j o i s t o r t'imber. The i n s u l ~ t o r sshown i n Figures 7 and 7 A a r e p o r c e l a i n tubes and a r e used f o r passing e l e c t r i c a l conductors through w a l l s and p a r t i t i o x h , Figure 8 i n d i c a t e s t h e manner of connecting i n s u l e t o r s t o t h e two supported ends of t h e antenna used f o r broadcast r e c e i v i n g work.

or must withstand t h e s t r a i n of 30.000 v o l t s and. i n some i n s t a l l a t i o n s , even g r e a t e r values of p o t e n t i a l . T h i s type l s known a s t h e e l e c t r o s e moulded i n s u l a t o r . A heavy b r a s s rod i s moulded s e c u r e l y i n t o i t which t e r m i n a t e s a t e i t h e r end i n a connection lug. The outs i d e of t h e i n s u l a t o r i s threaded a s shown a t "A" A f i v e i n c h hole i s c u t i n t h e Radio cabin and t h e upper h a l f of t h e i n s u l a t o r "B",

Figure 6 carrying t h e threaded p o r t i o n "A" i s dropped through t h e h o l e and t h a t part of t h e i n s u l a t o ~ r e a t s on rubber washers which i n s u l a t e s it from t h e deck. The lower h a l f which i s threaded i n s i d e a t "Dn i s t h e n screwed onto t h e threaded p a r t " A" and drawn up t i g h t l y w i t h a wrench.

Fiaure 5

F i g u r e 6A

marked'"^"

Another form of i n s u l a t o r , c a l l e d t h e B r e d f i e l d type, i s shown i n Figure 10. A long hard rubber t u b e "T", about two inches i n diameter, The tube i s threaded a t t h e c e n t e r t o t a k e two h a s a b r a s s l u g , "L". wooden blocks B 1 and B2, one being placed above t h e deck and t h e o t h e r below. Washers a r e used between t h e deck and each block. The blocks a r e then drawn up t i g h t l y by means of screws. The cone shaped m e t a l l i c hood Ti" serves t o prot,ect t h e rod from dampness.

Figure 7 Figure 7 A Other i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i e l s used i n r a d i o c i r c u i t s a r e given below i n order of t h e i r i n c r e a s i n g r e s i s t i v e value: *y a i r , p a r a f f i n e , r e s i n , sulphur, wax, g l a s s , mica, I n d i a rubber, s i l k , paper and o i l s . Theser e s i s t i n g elements i n t h e r a d i o c i r c u i t a r e cornonly used a s i n s u l a t i o n around c o i l s o r a s d i e l e c t r i c mediums. The r e s i s t a n c e of such m a t e r i a l s i s measured i n ohms and i s c a l l e d the i n s u l a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e . It i s computed from t h e voltqge a p p l i e d under e x a c t i n g c o n d i t i o n s when temperature, e x a c t s i z e of m a t e r i a l , humidity, e t c . , a r e t a k e n i n t o account during t h e measurements. The a i r between t h e p l ~ t e s v a r i a b l e condensers i s an i n s u l s t o r and of i f you w i l l examine a f i x e d condenser, you w i l l o f t e n f i n d e i t h e r Lesson 7

sheet 6

p a r a f f i n e d paper, mica, o r perhaps o i l e d s i l k , u medium. These m a t e r i a i s a l l a c t a s such because high resistance. When c o m p u t i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e of antennae a l l 10s They are, f i r s t , t h e Ohmic r e s i s t a n c e of t h e wires second, leakage over t h e s u r f a c e s o f i n s u 1 a . t o r s and, l o s s e s when the antenna i s i n t h e proximity of b u l and o t h e r s i m i l a r o b j e c t s . When high frequency c u r r e n t s a r e used, as i n r a d i o wor i s the t o t a l of a l l oppositions and l o s s e s due t o t h e c u r r e n t . The Ohmic r e s i s t a n c e of a l l wires of t h e c i r considered a s w e l l a s c a p a c i t y , inductive and eddy c u r of which' i n c r e a s e t h e r e s i s t a n c e . Resistance, t h e r e f o r e , i s t o be found i n many forms through t r i c a l c i r c u i t . I n some places i t i s u s e f u l while i n o t h e r p t h e c i r c u i t it i s d e t r i m e n t a l and wholly u n d e s i r a b l e .

I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e of conductors t h e

Figure 8

Figure 1 0

employed. A wire one f o o t i n length and one m i l i n diameter i s a mil- foot and i f t h i s wire has a r e s i s t a n c e o f two ohms, it i s s a i d t o have a r e s i s t a n c e of two ohms per mil- foot. I n e l e c t r i c a l parlance,

Resistance per mil- foot x l e n g t h i n f e e t D squared

M i s a constant Thrs formula m be w r i t t e n a s follows: a L equals t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a dependent upon t h e m a t e r i a l used, D i n c i r c u l a r m i l s and L i s t h e l e n g t h of t h e conductor i n p a r t . W q hn t h e r e s i s t a n c e of copper wire i s being computed M equals 10.4 ohms, s o i f you were s o l v i n g f o r the r e s i s t a n c e of copper wire t h e formula would read,
R

= m, where

ML

I n t h e following wire t a b l e h e l p f u l information i s compiled f o r u s e i n r e s i s t a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n . From t h i s t a b l e v a l u e s may b e obtained f o r s u b s t i t u t i o n i n t h e above formule f o r r e s i s t a n c e of copper wire.

-Dia. l miis 2 4.3 8.5 4.4 11.9 '0.74 80.81 1.96 84.08 81.07 80.82 15.26 10.30 15.89 11.96 28.46 !5.35 !2.51 20.10 17.90 15.94 14.20 i2.64 11.26 10.03 8928 7.950 7.080 6.305 5.615 5.m 4.453 3.965 3.531 3.145

Area
Cir. mils Sgvare inches

-.I620 ,1443 .I285 ,1144 ,1019

Dia. n inhe*

6250 0820 6510 3090 0380

- 25' C. .02M ,01635 ,01297 .01028 .008155 ,4028 .5080 .6405 ,8071 1.018 1.284 1.619 2.042 2.575 3.247 4.094 5.163 6.510 8.210 10.35 13.05 16.46 20.76 26.17 33.W 41.62 52.48 66.17 83.44 105.20 132.70 167.30 211.00 266.00 335.50 423.00 533.40 672.60 848.10 1W9.W ,006467 .005129 ,004067 ,003225 .W2558 ,002028 .WX609 .001276 .001012 .0008023 ,0006363 .0005046
.OOD4M)Z

Ohma aLO O0 ft. at F. 01

-wnds
per K.0 ft.
I.u~lar.

WIRE TABLE
B & S GAUGE Dia. C. C. I mils.

Max. Die. . C. C. l miis

19. 13.30 12.5 27.4 i2.9 31.7 91.8 53.0 15.1 68.1 60.8 55.3 50.3 45.9 42.0 38.5 33.3 30.60 28.10 25.90 23.04 22.20 20.64 19.36 18.03 16.93 15.95 15.08 14.31 13.61 13. 12.45 11.96 11.53 11.15

Dia. in
). S.

,116
.02 .98 .63 .43 .92 .77 .68 .43 ,858 318 .2W ,917 .899 ,.092 !.452 ..945 :.542 1.2223 ,9699 ,7692 .61W ,4837 ,3836 ,3042 2413 .I913 ,1517 :I203 .0954: .07561
. 1 m

C. [G. E. co.1

mils

'urns per
CO.)

Appro=.

T-s

....... .......

inch 'G. E.

..............
.............. ..............
,T..

--

Emmeled

inch

per

.......

.......

.......
....... ....... ....... .......
....... ......
....... ......

,0974 ,08081 .01196 ,06408 ,05707 ,05082 ,04526 ,0403 ,03589 ,03196 ,02846 .02535 ,02257 ,02010 .01190 ,01554 .01420 ,01264 ,01126 ,01003 ,00892 .Wl95 .00108 .W630! .00561! .W5 ,00445 .W396 ,00353 $0314

8234 6530 5178 4101 3257 2583 2048 1624 1288 1022 810.1 642.4 509.5 404.0 320.4 254.1 201.5 159.8 126.7 100.5 19.70 63.21 50.13 39.75 31.52

.......

.............. .............. ........ ..

......
29.00 26.00 24.00

......

......

.OOt~3173 .0002517 .W01996 .0001583 .OW1255 .0000995: .0000789< .OW0626( .WW496' .W00393: .W00312: .WOO2471

22.W 20.W 18.60 17.04 15.00 13.90 13.00 12.00 11.30 9.6

25.W .W00196' 19.83 .OWO155' 15.72 .OOWL23! 12.47 .WOW91' 9.888 .0000077~

--

.0475, ,0377, ,0299.

....... 8.00 .......

9.00

--

7.00

Lesson 7

sheet 8

Conductance, a s s t a t e d before, i s the e a s e with which e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t i s forced through t h e c i r c u i t . Conductance i s most e a s i l y remembered a s being e x a c t l y the opposite of r e s i s t a n c e . For exkmple, suppose t h r e e r h e o s t a t e s have. a resistanrre of 20 ohms, 10 ohms and 5 ohms r e s p e c t i v e l y ; t h e conductance would be 1/20 mho, 1/10 and 1/5 mho.
A t times, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e of a p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t , It i s expressed i n terms of conductance a s follows: ''TO f i n d t h e r e s i s t a n c e i n terms of conductance add t h e conductance of t h e s e v e r a l branches t o o b t a i n t h e t o t a l conductance of t h e combination; t h i s r e s u l t I n v e r t e d gives the resistance."
EXAMINATION

- LESSON '7

I s t h e r e a p e r f e c t i n s u l a t o r o r a p e r f e c t conductor? For a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes what substances make t h e b e s t conductors? Does a i r o f f e r r e s i s t a n c e ? Give a c l e a r d e f i n i t i o n of "impedance".. J u s t why a r e i n s u l a t o r s used? What would happen t o t h e r e c e i v e d r a d i o s i g n a l s i f t h e i n s u l a t o r s shown on t h e a e r i a l i n Figure 8 were removed?

I s It p o s s i b l e f o r e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s t o have no r e s i s t a n c e ?
What does t h e t e r n " a l l o y " mean?

Why i s it t h a t some r e s i s t a n c e s , or r e s i s t o r s , o f f e r more r e s i s t a n c e than others?

What i s t h e t o t a l conductance of a c i r c u i t i n which t h r e e r e s i s t o r s of 5 ohms 10 ohms and 20 ohms a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l ? What m a t e r i a l , I n your e s t i m a t i o n , o f f e r s t h e g r e a t e s t amount of r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e flow of c u r r e n t ?

Lesson 7

- sheet 9

.
INC.
fi,-rne>-r,.

M A R C O N / /NST/TUT

Technical Lesson 8
EIXCTRICAL CIRCUITS
fill substances (according t o the e l e c t r o n t h e o r y ) a r e e l e c t r i c a l i n nature. Supported by t h e e l e c t r o n t h e o r y w e find that i f a p r e s s u r e o r f o r c e , e l e c t r i c a l l y c a l l e d an electromotive f o r c e i s a p p l i e d t o a copper w i r e t h e e l e c t r o n s , which a r e a p a r t o f t h e copper atoms, w i l l move from one p a r t of t h e copper t o t h e other. Copper wire i s used e x t e n s i v e l y f o r r a d i o and e l e c t r i c a l purposes i n general.

I n previous l e s s o n s w l e a r n e d t h a t , years ago, s c i e n t i s t s discovered e methods t o c r e a t e t h i s e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e and when it was applied t o a metal i t a g i t a t e d t h e s e small e l e c t r o n s a t such v e l o c i t y a s t o s h i f t o r move t h e e l e c t r i c energy around a t a g r e a t r a t e of speed. Copper ore, which i s mined, i s s e n t t o a r e f i n i n g p l a n t a n d t h e pure copper i s e x t r a c t e d from it. T h i s , i n t u r n , can be made i n t o any shape, such a s wire, by h e a t i n g i t and sending it through small holes i n a s t e e l p l a t e , which i s c a l l e d a die. If t h e wire i s too l a r g e it can be s e n t through a succession of t h e s e s t e e l d i e s each having a smaller opening t h a n t h e preceding d i e u n t i l t h e s i z e d e s i r e d i s obtained.
O u r study of primary c e l l s t a u g h t us t h a t an electromotive f o r c e i s produced when two elements a r e placed i n a n a c i d s o l u t i o n . When z i n c i s employed a s one of t h e elements it i s a t t a c k e d by t h e a c i d which causes a d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l and which, i n t u r n , pushes e l e c t r o n s through t h e a c i d s o l u t i o n out of t h e carbon connection of t h e c e l l . The f o r c e a p p l i e d r e s u l t s i n an e l e c t r o n movement which we c a l l c u r r e n t .

I n Figure 1 and 1 A we have a eel% capable of developing one v o l t of e electromotive force. If w connect a wire fromthe p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l t o t h e negative t e r m i n a l of this- c e l l c u r r e n t w i l l flow i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e arrows. Figure 1 r e p r e s e n t s t h e p i c t u r e of t h e c e l l while Figure 1 A i s t h e e l e c t r i c a l symbol o r short- hand way of showing t h e same t h i n g . T h i s i s a simple e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t and, around it m i l l i o n s of e l e c t r o n s a r e i n motion.
If you secure a d r y c e l l and connect it Up a s shown, and then hold t h e s h o r t wire w i t h one hand a t any p o i n t between X and X I , you w i l l not receive a shock a s you mighk suppose but if you a r e not * c a r e f u l you may r e c e i v e a burn such as you would experience by touqh5ng a h o t iron.

Something i s wrong here, can you imagine what it i s ? Let us disconnect one end of t h i s c i r c u i t b e f o r e it r u i n s t h e c e l l . F i r s t , you should know you have caused what i s c a l l e d a SHORT CIRCUIT; i f you had s e v e r a l c e l l s connected t o g e t h e r t h e wire might become r e d h o t and even melt.
B y r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s e c t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h r e s i s t a n c e and conductance i t was found t h a t s i l v e r was a v e r y good conductor but i t s c o s t i s high. Copper i s used commercially because of i t s lower c a s t and r e l a t i v e l y higH conductivity. Copper has a h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y because i t s molecular s t r u c t u r e i s such t h a t t h e atoms do not have t h e e l e c t r o n s bound up v e r y t i g h t l y . Therefore i f a n E.M.F. i s applied t o t h e copper wire t h e e l e c t r o n s s t a r t off a t a t e r r i f i c r a t e of speed and they have so many c o l l i s i o n s a t such a t e r r i f i c r a t e of speed i n t h e i r endeavor t o move ahead of t h e electromotive f o r c e o r v o l t a g e t h a t t h e e n t i r e wire g e t s hot due t o t h i s v i o l e n t a g i t a t i o n . T h i s causes a s h o r t c i r c u i t . You e i t h e r d e s t r o y t h e b a t t e r y because t h e z i n c w i l l be consumed i n a s h o r t time or t h e wire, i f small enough, a i g h t burn and melt, t h u s opening the c i r c u i t . Short c i r c u i t s must be prevented.

When you s t u d i e d t h e l e s s o n on r e s i s t a n c e you found t h a t c e r t a i n substances would not a l l o w such f r e e movement of e l e c t r o n s ; now w e e a r e g e t t i n g t o it. W want something t h a t w i l l put a brake on t h e e l e c t r o n s , preventing them from burning up %he v e r y conductor of which they a r e a p a r t and i n which they move. Resistance then, i s what we need; something t o r e s i s t o r oppose t h e movement of e l e c t r o n s and hold them down t o a slower pace. N w i s o t h e time we a r e going t o put i n t o p r a c t i c e what we learned about elect r i c a l u n i t s , and our f i r s t problem i s going t o be w i t h t h e c i r c u i t of . Figure 1 We found t h a t t h e wire which made up t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t became hot, s o we must f i n d a r e s i s t a n c e t h a t w i l l check the flow of current. Let us work out a problem t h a t you can apply i n your r a d i o c i r c u i t s . W w i l l redraw Figure 1 t o look l i k e t h e c i r c u i t , Figure 2, and work e out t h e conditions of t h e problem which i s a s follows: With a b a t t e r y having an E.M.F. of s i x v o l t s f i n d t h e r e s i s t a n c e necessary t o allow one h a l f ampere t o flow. From Ohmts Law:

= T substituting

.5)60(U

o r , 1 2 OHMS

r e s i s t a n c e i s necessary t o pass one h a l f ampere of c u r r e n t I n our c i r c u i t of Figure 2. Lesson 8

- sheet 2

=f

and s u b s t i t u t i n g R

= m=

10)4.0(.4 o r a

r e s i s t a n c e of f o u r t e n t h s (0.4) of a n ohm i s required. It i s e v i d e n t &at i f we know any two f a c t o r s we can f i n d t h e t h i r d by Ohm's Law i n any d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t . If t h a t i s so, suppose we c o n s i d e r Figure 4 and prove our statement. R = .4 ohms, I = 10 amperes and, we w i l l say, t h e voltage o r E.M.F. i s unknown. Prom Ohm's Law E = I x R, t h e r e f o r e E : 10 x .4 10 : f o u r v o l t s p r e s s u r e o r E.M.F. necessary o t o d r i v e t e n amperes through t h e c i r c u i t . N w l e t us r e f e r t o the c i r c u i t i n Figure 5. Here t h e r e s i s t a n c e and t h e v o l t a g e i s known, and t h e current flow, we w i l l say, i s unknown, s o from O h m l s Law:
I
.4 m, o r

E r, s u b s t i t u t i n g

= 3 = 10

amperes,

or t e n amperes w i l l flow i n t h e c i r c u i t .

EzUYOLTS

1''

Figure 2

Figwe 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

W have now worked out a l l t h e t h r e e f a c t o r s , - r e s i s t a n c e , voltage and e c u r r e n t which a r e found i n a l l e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s of t h i s kind. It i s problems such a s t h e s e t h a t you encounter i n your Radio work so we w i l l now consider an a c t u a l c i r c u i t .

Our f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i l l be f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t s a p p l i e d t o r a d i o tubes. The filament c i r c u i t i s a very important p a r t of the set and one which seems t o confuse t h e average student.

Lesson 8

sheet 3

You a l r e a d y know t h e meaning of voltage, amperage, and ohms but l e t us r e p e a t them b r i e f l y . , Volts (E) hperes (I)= Ohms (R or& ) = t h e electromotive f o r c e applied. t h e c u r r e n t flow i n t h e c i r c u i t . t h e opposition or r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e current flow.

I
I

The voltage w i l l be found t o be a very important f a c t o r of O h m f s Law f o r t h e reason t h a t upon i t depends t h e amount of c u r r e n t flowing through a given r e s i s t a n c e . Further, if E.M.F. i s h e l d constant and f o r any reason we change t h e value of t h e r e s i s t a n c e , t h e value of c u r r e n t flow w i l l change. Also, i f a constant r e s i s t a n c e i s maintained N w w can g e t o e and t h e E.W.F. i s v a r i e d t h e c u r r e n t w i l l change. r i g h t down t o f a c t s , - t h i n g s you want t o know. Suppose you have a UX-199 tube and wish t o know t h e c o r r e c t value of t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o be used i n s e r i e s with t h e b a t t e r y and filament t o p a s s t h e c o r r e c t value o f c u r r e n t through t h e tube filament.

E =6

VOLTS

Figure 6B Figure 6 A Figure 7 A

Figure 7B

To begin w i t h the manufacturer t e l l s you on the c a r t o n enclosing t h e tube t h a t t h e normal c u r r e n t flow i n t h e f i l a m e n t of a UX-199 i s .06 amperes and t h e normal o p e r a t i n g voltage 1s 3 v o l t s . I n p r a c t i c e , however, we must use a source of voltage s l i g h t l y higher t h a n t h e r a t e d v o l t a g e of t h e tube t o compensate f o r a voltage drop o r l o s s i n t h e c i r c u i t and s t i l l have t h e r e q u i r e d 3 v o l t s a t t h e tube terminals. Three d r y c e l l s a r e used each d e l i v e r i n g 1.5 v o l t s , connected i n s e r i e s which g i v e s a t o t a l voltage of 3 c e l l s times 1.5 I n Figure 6 we have r e p r e s e n t e d a filament A v o l t s o r 4.5 v o l t s . c i r c u i t of one UX-199 tube and a r h e o s t a t , t h e r e f o r e , from Ohm's Law we can c a l c u l a t e t h e r e s i s t a n c e r e q u i r e d t o h e a t t h e filament by allowing the proper c u r r e n t t o flow.

= 7 substituting

4.5

7 5 h Resistance.

B u t i n t h i s c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 6B t h e r e a r e two r e s i s t a n c e s e i.e., tube f i l a m e n t r e s i s t a n c e and r h e o s t a t r e s i s t a n c e . W w i l l a g a i n r e s o r t t o O h m ' s Law and determine what the r e s i s t a n c e of t h e filament i t s e l f i s from t h e f i g u r e s given by t h e manufacturers.
R
I 1

=T

substituting R

= 50

Ohms. Lesson 8

sheet 4

next and final step i s t o substraa

lem, 5 0 * , ( t h e r e s i s t a n c e of f i l our f i r s t problem. or 7 5 A , or 75 50 = 25 ohms. 25 i s t h e required rheostat resistance t o be used i n - a s e r i e s c&&it using one .UX-199 tube.
DX-201~ tube.

e Figures 7 and 7B show a similar c i r c u i t . This time w w i l l use a A The f i g u r e s denote the values t o be used i n solving the problem. F i r s t l e t us f i n d t h e resistance of the filament. The manufacturer s t a t e s t h a t f i v e v o l t s should be applied t o the filament and, a t t h a t voltage the tube w i l l pass .25 amperes. T h i s i s the normal current a t which the filament functions best.
R 2

substituting,R

= =

5 8 .25

=
=

20 O h m s .

When using a s i x v o l t b a t t e r y then, E R = T substituting,R

6 + .25

24 Ohms.

24 ohms minus 20 ohms = 4 ohms. Therefore 4 ohms w i l l be the proper r h e o s t a t r e s i s t a n c e t o use t o secure the correct filament current i n s a UX-201A tube under these conditions. A you may have d i f f i c u l t y i n h securing a variable 4 o m rheostat you must te.ke the next larger s i z e made which i s 5 ohms. From these few problems and diagrams you w i l l be able t o v i s u a l i z e what an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t is. It i s possible t o build up an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t which i s r e a l l y complex, t h a t however i s not our i n t e n t i o n just yet. W want you t o master the simple e c i r c u i t s f i r s t and i n doing t h i s t h e more complex c i r c u i t s t o come l a t e r w i l l be easy.

TYPES O ELECTRICAL C I R C U I T S F
There a r e three general types of e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s i n use. The f i r s t i s a simple s e r i e s c i r c u i t such as you have just studied, then comes t h e p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t and following t h a t i s the s e r i e s - p a r a l l e l circuit. Don't you think t h i s i s i n t e r e s t i n g ? Suppose you want t o know what r e s i s t a n c e t o enploy with three UX-201A tubes connected i n p a r a l l e l , and using a 6 volt battery. Before w work t h i s out l e t us go over t h a t p a r t of Ohm's Law which e r e f e r s t o p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t s and which t e l l s us t h a t i f w connect a e number of r e s i s t a n c e s of equal value i n p a r a l l e l , the current flowing through t h a t divided c i r c u i t w i l l equally divZde through each e resistance. For example, i n F i p e 8 w have an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t e i n whtch w have placed t h r e e resistances i n p a r a l l e l t o the l i n e , ( t h e l i n e i s the connecting leads which carry t h e current from the b a t t e r i e s t o the r e s i s t a n c e s and from the r e s i s t a n c e s back t o t h e b a t t e r y ) . Now, a s the current leaves the b a t t e r y it flows as indi-

Lesson 8

- sheet 5

cated by the arrows i n Figure 8 through l i n e X u n t i l i t a r r i v e s point A. ~t t h i s point it w i l l divide i t s e l f and flow throug R 1 , R2, and R3. If these t h r e e paths are equal i n t h e r e s i s t they o f f e r t o t h i s c u r r e n t , t h e current w i l l divide i t s e l f equa between the t h r e e paths, one t h i r d of the t o t a l c u r r e n t going t h r Let us say, f o r example, the t o t a l l i n e current i s .7 each path. .25 ampere then w i l l flow through R1, .25 ampere thr an ampere. R2 and .25 ampere through R3. A s soon as i t passes through t h i s d i vided c i r c u i t a r r i v i n g a t point B t h e t o t a l current; r e t u r n s t o t h e b a t t e r y through l i n e X 1 as .15 amperes. Since we have combined t h r e e r e s i s t a n c e s i n p a r a l l e l t h i s combined r e s i s t a n c e w i l l be l e s s than e i t h e r r e s i s t a n c e taken separately. For example, i f R 1 equals R2, and R 2 equals R 3 then t h e t h r e e together i n p a r a l l e l w i l l o f f e r l e s s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e current than e i t h e r R 1 , R 2 , o r R 3 taken separately. Nw suppose R 1 , R2 o r R3 taken separately are 20 ohms each. When cono nected i n p z r a l l e l t h e r e s i s t a n c e of the t h r e e together equals 6.66 Nw w can continue with our three o e ohms, o r the t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e . tube r a d i o c i r c u i t which w show i n Figure 9. By studying Figure 9 A e you can see it i s t h e same, and i f you f'urther n o t i c e the d o t t e d l i n e s of Figure 8 you w i l l see the same c i r c u i t drawn d i f f e r e n t l y .

Figure 9 Figure 8 With t h a t s e t t l e d w can g e t a t our problem. e The manufacturer s t a t e s the tube w i l l function a t I t s b e s t 1st s t e d c t l y 5 v o l t s i s applied and .25 amperes flows through the f i l a ment. The r e s i s t a n c e of t h e filament of one tube then i s found by Ohm's Law. E 5 volts R T substituting,R = .Zs amperes o r .25)5.0(20-h

or R t 20 ohms f o r one filament when 5 v o l t s i s applled causing a current of .25 amperes t o flow. o 2nd step. The r e s i s t a n c e of one filament i s 20 ohms. Nw the law of r e s i s t a n c e i n p a r a l l e l t e l l s us t h a t i f w connect t h r e e equal ree s i s t a n c e s i n p a r a l l e l t h e combined r e s i s t a n c e of the t h r e e w i l l be l e s s than any one taken alone and as R 1 , I12 and R 3 a r e equal (20 ohms each), then their t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e i n p a r a l l e l w i l l equal t h e r e s i s t a n c e of them divided by the number of r e s i s t a n c e s i n p a r a l l e l , i.e., 20 ohms divided by 3 or 3)20.00(6.66~ f o r t h e t o t a l t h r e e p a r a l l e l filaments. 18

Lesson 8

- sheet 6

T h i s a s s w e s us of 5 v o l t s c o n s t a n t l y f o r q u i t e long periods before t h e b a t t e r y r e q u i r e s charging. The c u r r e n t through e a c h filament i s .25 amperes and we have t h r e e filaments, t h e r e f o r e 3 f i l a m e n t s times .25 amperes e q u a l s .75 amperes, t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t required.

3rd S t e . The p d E.M.F. of o l t s must in dhighernat tphwalinilel5be oconstant.e rvaTherefore obet constantE.M.F.t eorder he c u r r e we use a n supply v lts, gen lly a 6 v l storage bat ry. slightly
5

4th s t e . W h t h a t fi pass a t 6 vo p te a d .75i tamperesknown ourl t sjob onown tiisa l t, oandn d sout what r e s i s t a n c e

= T and

substituting, R

-'

6 volts .75 amperes

and worked out .75)6.00( 6 00

8.

it l r e a d y have a r e s i s t 5th s t e . the f i l a m n e c i u i repr t dr cButt frome sset enpe d by was found ewet sathemselves amountinga nt coe 6.66 ohms.
2

o r 8 ohms, t h e value of r e s i s t a n c e required.

a
E: 5
VOLTS

Therefore we s u b s t r a c t t h a t from the r e s u l t found i n s t e p ohms 6.66 ohms and worked 8.00 -6.66 ohms

Figure 1 0

1 Figure 1

7th ste . gives t the r e q u i r c r n dl This vmethodleedr h u orsethaett o con r o need a two oh?n a r i a b e

o r approximately 1.34 ohms of r h e o s t a t r e s i s t a n c e r e q u i r e d t o c o n t r o l t h e f i l a m e n t s of t h r e e UX-201A tubes.

exact amount of r e s i s t a n c e necessary f o r t h r e e UX-2O1A tubes. Inthis case ycu and,if t h e s t o r e does not c a r r y t h i s s i z e , you w i l l probably have t o buy t h e next l a r g e r s i z e or 6 ohms.

N w w w i l l consider t h e s e r i e s c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 10. The o e c u r r e n t flowing throughout t h i s c i r c u i t w i l l be t h e same a s t h a t through e v e r y r e s i s t a n c e r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r value. Suppose t h e r e s i s t a n c e of R 1 i s 20 ohms and that of R 2 i s 20 ohms; t o f i n d t h e The c u r r e n t t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e simple add, t h u s 20+ 20 40 ohms. a t a p o t e n t i a l of 5 v o l t s a s found by O h m ' s Law w i l l be

s u b s t i t u t i n g the above v a l w a we have I

volts ohms

Lesson 8

sheet 7

d out, I

= 40)5.000(.125
-Zbb
80

or

.125 amperes, t h e same c u r r e n t flowing through R 1 and R2.

200 -

When f i l a m e n t s a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l t h e v o l t a g e a c r o s s each t u b e is t h e same, but when connected i n s e r i e s t h e v o l t a g e supply must equal t h e voltage r e q u i r e d by one tube times t h e number of tubes. I n Figure 1 w have r e p r e s e n t e d t h e f i l a m e n t s of t h r e e UX-201A tubes. Each tube 1 e i s designed t o o p e r a t e a t an E.M.F. of 5 v o l t s . There a r e t h r e e i n s e r i e s , however, and 3 t u b e s x 5 v o l t s e q u a l s 1 5 v o l t s . While it only r e q u i r e d 5 v o l t s t o o p e r a t e 3 t u b e s connected i n p a r a l l e l it r e q u i r e s 3 times t h e v o l t a g e , namely 1 5 v o l t s , t o do the same t h i n g when you I n a l l c a s e s of s e r i e s connect t h e f i l a m e n t s i n a s e r i e s arrangement. arrangements It i s b e s t t o have a b a t t e r y supply s l i g h t l y over t h e r e quired voltage necessary, s o i n Figure 1 we have i n d i c a t e d t h a t v o l t a g e 1 a s 18 v o l t s . Three s i x v o l t s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s a r e e a s y t o o b t a i n and the t h r e e i n s e r i e s g i v e us a margin of 3 v o l t s t o spare over t h e r e q u i r e d voltage. The c u r r e n t throughout t h e l i n e w i l l be t h e same a s r e q u i r e d by one tube, (Remember i n p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t s the c u r r e n t flowing was t h e sum of a l l t h e tubes.) With t h e s e f a c t s i n mind f i n d t h e r e s i s t a n c e , R 4 , necessary t o c o n t r o l t h e voltage. Proceeding w i t h O h m ' s Law
R

=T

substituting, R

15 v o l t s
.25 amperes

.25)15.00(60 15 0

ohms

o r 60 ohms, t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e tubes a t 15 v o l t s and .25 amperes flowing. But we a r e going t o use 18 v o l t s t o allow f o r a drop of v o l t age E i n t h e l i n e t h e r e f o r e R =.'25 = .25)18.00('72 ohms t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e . 17 5
j
i

5 0

72 60 = 1 2 ohms r e q u i r e d f o r t h e r h e o s t a t , R4, t o c o n t r o l the t h r e e UX-20111 t u b e s i n s e r i e s .

50

N w i f we know the amount of t h e c u r r e n t flow and t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e i n o t h e c i r c u i t given we could compute t h e voltage r e q u i r e d by proceeding a s follows; where t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e i s 72 ohms and t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t f l o w i s . 2 5 t h e n E = I x R , or 72 .25

36 6 144 18.00

volts. hsson 8

sheet 8

I n t h i s work w have neglected a l l r e s i s t a n c e of o t h e r p a r t s of t h e e c i r c u i t . However, i f a v e r y c l o s e measurement were t o be made, every s i n g l e p a r t of t h e c i r c u i t r e s i s t a n c e would have t o b e known; each l e n g t h oP wire, e v e r y switch, i n f a c t a l l p a r t s of any e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t has some r e s i s t a n c e , b u t f o r the g e n e r a l r e s u l t s t h i s f a c t o r i s so small it i s not considered. c o n t a c t and we w i l l g i v e you a formula f o r each one, t h e n when you have a problem you can e a s i l y work i t out. T h i s may a p p l y t o t h e student who wishes t o go i n t o O h m f s Law more thoroughly. W e w i l l t a k e a s e r i e s c i r c u i t f i r s t , a s shown i n Figure 12. The t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e , R, e q u a l s R 1 + R 2 4 R 3 - k R4+ R 5 +R6 + R 7 + RE.
W e can review t h e t h r e e g e n e r a l c i r c u i t s w i t h which you w i l l come i n

R4, 5, 6 , 7, i s t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e b a t t e r y , while RE equals the r e s i s t a n c e of t h e connecting wires. I n our c a l c u l a t i o n s

Figure 12 Figure 13 which do not have t o b e very c l o s e R4, 5, 6, 7, 8 can be omitted, and then t h e formula becomes: R = R1 + R 2 + R3. Figure 13 i l l u s t r a t e s a p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t wherein we have t h r e e p a r a l l e l r e s i s t a n c e s . If t h e r e s i s t a n c e s R 1 , R 2 and R 3 a r e equal t h e n t h e c u r r e n t d i v i d e s e q u a l l y between them.
If t h e r e s i s t a n c e s a r e n o t equal t h e c u r r e n t d i v i d i n g between them i s i n i n v e r s e p r o p o r t i o n t o the i n d i v i d u a l r e s i s t a n c e s . That i s t o say, t h e lowest r e s i s t a n c e w i l l c a r r y t h e most c u r r e n t . Furthermore, t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e o f f e r e d t o t h e flow of c u r r e n t by such a p a r a l l e l connection i s always l e s s than t h e s m a l l e s t r e s i s t a n c e i n such a c i r c u i t . I n o t h e r words, a s more r e s i s t a n c e s a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l i n a c i r c u i t , i t ' s t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e i s decreased.

20 ohns, R 3 1 0 ohns. What i s t h e t o t a l I n Figure 13 R 1 = 30 ohms, R 2 r e s i s t a n c e of t h e t h r e e , d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e connecting l e a d s ? The formula. f o r t h i s w i l l be:

and s u b s t i t u t i m our values w have e

obtain a common denominator of 60,

1 1

then

m+66+ 66
I

11)60.00(5.45

% 44

77s
55 -

ohms, t h e answer, and the t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e of 3 and 10 ohms connected i n p a r a l l e l . T h i s value, w i l l note, i s l e s s t h a n t h a t of t h e smallest r e s i s t a n c e of 10 ohms.

W w i l l consider a problem now w i t h r e s i s t a n c e both i n s e r i e s and e p a r a l l e l , making a s e r i e s - p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 14. I n t h i s problem we a r e c o n s i d e r i n g , t h e e n t i r e c i r c u i t . I n any e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t every p i e c e of wire, every p i e c e of apparatus, no matter how small, has r e s i s t a n c e and t o know a c c u r a t e l y t h e r e s i s t a n c e i n any g i v e n c i r c u i t w must know it a l l , t h e r e f o r e , i n t h e problem shown e i n Figure 14 we a r e considering t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e b a t t e r y (Rote: A d r y c e l l i s l e s s t h a n 0.1 ohm. Shelf l i f e and a s one ohm. use however, i n c r e a s e t h i s and t h e r e s i s t a n c e may, w i t h i n a year, i n e c r e a s e t o 0.5 ohm.) The wire used t o connect up t h e r e s i s t a n c e s w w i l l assume i s one ohm. This r e s i s t a n c e i s i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e l i n e while i n other p a r t s r e s i s t a n c e s a r e connected f i r s t i n !n O 4h 2n ,: s e r i e s , and i n s e r i e s arrangements, t h e n R~,, connected i n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e source of 8n In': e ; - electromotive f o r c e . ;;

<= -

-=

R9

B n

6n

4 n

R5

R1 4n

Figure 14

W w i l l work t h e problem out s t e p by s t e p e i n order t h a t you w i l l be a b l e t o follow it e a s i l y . Taking our values from Figure I 4 our formula w i l l be:

Lesson 8

- sheet 10

1 + 1+ 3i5'6 c l e a r i n g denominator

0.3638+ 360)131.0000 108 0

Tm7r
- u7 n t
2160 1080

3F7m

2880 -

l+l+2.74 4.74, answer.

The r e s i s t a n c e t h e n of t h i s c i r c u i t having r e s i s t a n c e both i n s e r i and p a r a l l e l i s 4.74 ohms. Voltage drop, p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e , and voltage l o s s a r e terms should be well understood. I n r a d i o o p e r a t i n g you f r e q u e n t l y t o take measurements having t o do w i t h a c o n d i t i o n where t h e a apply. It I s w e l l t h e n t o have a p r a c t i c a l workdng knowledge them. Voltage drop, p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e and voltage l o s s a l l p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same t h i n g and have t o do w i t h the d i f f e r e n c e values found a t v a r i o u s p a r t s of an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t . This s t a t e d a s follows;- the p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e , expressed i n along any conductor c a r r y i n g a c u r r e n t , w i l l decrease i n va p o r t i o n t o the r e s i s t a n c e of s a i d conductor and t h e amount expressed i n amperes ( I ) , flowing through t h e c a l l g , t h e v o l t a g e drop along any p o r t i o n of an e l e c t r i equal t o the r e s i s t a n c e of t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e c i r c u i t the c u r r e n t i n amperes flowing t h e r e i n . I n formula f o drop, E = IR.

dropn. To explain the above expression we will use Figure 1 . Here 5 we have a circuit consisting of a battery, a lamp and a rheostat with the necessary connecting wires, and a key "K". The lamp represents a resistance of four ohms, while the rheostat represents a resistance of 2 ohms. Now close switch "Kn and place the terminals of a voltmeter across the battery as at position A. The voltmeter reads 12 volts. We can apply Ohmts Law to find the current flowing and, as the resistances are in series, the current will be the same in all parts of the circuit Therefore the total external resistance is equal to R1+ R2, and substituting the known values of the resistances: R1 = 4 A ; then R equals 4 + 2 = 6 h . Figuring the current flow.

In electrical parlance voltage drop is often referred to as the "IR

I = A or I

6)12(2 12

or 2 amperes.

Remove the voltmeter from position "An and, connecting it at point "Bn across the filament terminals of the lamp, you will notice that it reads 8 volts, Indicating there is an 8 volt drop of potential across this filament resistance. Now place it as shown at point "C" and again take a reading: This time it will read 4 volts, indicating a drop of four volts across this resistance.
zaMpEREs.,

8 volts then is the proportion of the

total of 12 volts required to force 2 amperes through the lamp resistance of 4 o h m , while 4 volts is that proportion of 12 volts required to force a current of 2 amperes through the rheostat resistance.
MEASURING UNKNOWN RESISTANCE

Figure 15

ammeter and voltmeter and the second is by the use of the Whe

value of t h e r h e o s t a t r e s i s t a n c e . ammeter method.

This w

Note t h e arrangement of t h e c i r c u i t . some p o s i t i o n convenient t o you when t h e c i r c u i t ; - from t h e p o s i t i b e s i d e o s i d e of t h e r h e o s t a t , t h e n secure s i d e of t h e r h e o s t a t and connect t t h e o t h e r s i d e of t h e ammeter r u n another wire back t o t h e negative s i d e of t h e b a t t e r y . the voltmeter a c r o s s t h e r h e o s t a t a s shown and c l o s e the c i r c u i t i s closed and c u r r e n t flow reading of t h e voltmeter and a l s o t h e s u b s t i t u t e d i n t h e following f o r n u l a :
R

= T,find

out t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e r h e o s t a t .

For example, when we c l o s e t h e key suppose t h e voltmeter reads 5 v o l t s and the ammeter r e a d s .25 amperes. S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e values i n t h e

Figure 16 above formula w have e

R

Figure 17

= T or

= 5 volts

.25 amperes

.25)5.0(20 ohms 5 0

answer.

Twenty ohms t h e n i s t h e value of t h e r h e o s t a t .

The Wheatstone Bridge method of measuring r e s i s t a n c e s i s a very a c c u r a t e method a n d i s u s e d i n l a b o r a t o r i e s where t h e r e s i s t a n c e of c e r t a i n l e n g t h s of wire and other e l e c t r i c a l apparatus must b e d e f i n i t e l y known. There a r e bridges of v a r i o u s t y p e s and c a p a c i t i e s on t h e market, t h a t i s , t h e physical appearances of some a r e d i f f e r e n t t h a n o t h e r s and some a r e designed t o measure s m a l l r e s i s t a n c e s while o t h e r s a r e used f o r measuring very l a r g e r e s i s t a n c e values. Some w i l l measure any unknown r e s i s t a n c e from a value of l e s s t h a n one ohm t o thousands of ohms. The p r i n c i p l e however, i s t h e same and, knowing t h e p r i n c i p l e of one, you can e a s i l y

Lesson 8

eheet 13

apply it t o another design. The general l a y out of t h e Wheatstone Bridge i s shown i n Figure 1 7 and c o n s i s t s of a c i r c u i t i n mhtch known r e s i s t a n c e i s connected and connections provided f o r t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o be measured. Beginning w i t h a b a t t e r y "H", a mire i s r u n from the p o s i t i v e s i d e t o A t t h i s p o i n t t h e c i r c u i t i s s o arranged t h a t it d i v i d e s a s p o i n t "X". A t " X I an arm i s r u n t o p o i n t "E n ; t h i s i s c a l l e d an arm shown a t "X" of the bridge and i s designated i n the drawing a s arm "A" I n t h i s arm a connection i s made f o r plugging i n r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s of known value . From "X" t o "F" arm "D" i s r u n w i t h t h e same p r o v i s i o n s shown a s 1 A m "A" and I'D" have a re f o r plugging i n or out r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s . s i s t a n c e of 2 r r e a c h . From "E" t o " X l n and from "F" t o " X I " arms "B" and "R" a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y connected. A r m " B n i s provided w i t h b r a s s plugs which t i g h t l y f i t i n t o a b r a s s s t r i p so t h a t the non- inductive r e s i s t a n c e c o i l s 3, 4, 5, 6, may be s h o r t e d or cut out of t h e c i r c u i t a t t h e w i l l of t h e operator. The r e s i s t a n c e s of t h e s e c o i l s a r e a l s o a c c u r a t e l y known and indicated.

A r m "R" i s t h e arm or branch of t h e bridge c i r c u i t i n which t h e unknown

r e s i s t a n c e t o be measured i s connected, binding p o s t s being provided t o connect t h e ends of t h e unknown r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e b r i d g e c i r c u i t a s indicated, When the switch "S" i s closed, c u r r e n t flows from t h e b a t t e r y "R" t o through arms "A" and "Bn t o p o i n t "Xu where it d i v i d e s , p a r t f l o v i pofnt X 1 and p a r t through arms "Dl1 andqR" t o point X 1 , - here it r e turns t o the battery. With c u r r e n t flowing a s i n d i c a t e d we a r e ready t o work on t h e unknown r e s i s t a n c e "7" i n arm "R"; t h a t i s , w a r e t o f i n d out what the value e of t h a t r e s i s t a n c e i s . The p r i n c i p l e on which t h e b r i d g e c i r c u i t works i s t h a t t h e c u r r e n t flowing from t h e b a t t e r y "Hn must, when it reaches p o i n t X, d i v i d e i t s e l f e q u a l l y , provided t h e r e s i s t a n c e s of t h e f o u r arms of t h e bridge a r e balanced. Then t h e c u r r e n t flowing from t h e b a t t e r y "HI' through p o i n t s X, A, E , B, t o X 1 w i l l be t h e same a s t h a t which flows through p o i n t s X, D, F, R , t o X1. For example, i f t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t through t h e c i r c u i t i s 4 amperes, then 2 amperes must flow through t h e arms "A" and "B" and 2 amperes through arms "D" and "R". N w supposing t h i s i s t h e case, i f w c l o s e t h e switch "K" , t h e glavao e nometer w i l l not be d e f l e c t e d , i n o t h e r words, it w i l l remain on zero a s shown, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l between p o i n t s "En and "Fn of the d i v i d e d c i r c u i t . A s a g e n e r a l r u l e , however, when a bridge i s used and a l l necessary connections made, on c l o s i n g key "K" t h e galvanometer needle i s d e f l e c t e d a s shown by t h e d o t t e d arrow. This denotes a d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l a c r o s s p o i n t s "E" and IIFW t h u s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t more c u r r e n t flows i n arms "A" and "B" t h a n through arms "D" and "R" o r v i c e versa. Our o b j e c t now i s t o vary t h e r e s i s t a n c e i n arm "B" t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t no d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s between p o i n t s ?E" and "F" a s determined when no d e f l e c t i o n of t h e galvanometer needle i s obtained or i n o t h e r words, e x a c t l y t h e same c u r r e n t w i l l t h e n flow through p o i n t s X, A , E, B, X 1 , a s through p o i n t s X, D, F, R , X1. When t h a t c o n d i t i o n e x i s t s we can f i n d t h e

Lesson 8

- sheet 14

unknown r e s i s t a n c e "R" by t h e following formula: Unknown r e s " R n equals t h e r e s i s t a n c e of the arm "Bn times t h e r e s i s t a n c e "D" divided by t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e arm " A ".
R

BxD .
A

The e n t i r e procedure can be summed up a s follows;- by t h e us e known variable r e s i s t a n c e ( B ) w can e s t a b l i s h a c o n d i t i o n o t r i c a l balance between p o i n t s E and F ( a s denoted by no d e f l of the galvanometer needle). There a r e t h e n i n t h e c i r c u i t known and one unknown r e s i s t a n c e s . When' such a balance i s o (by a d j u s t i n g B ) we can apply t h e s e t h r e e 'known values t o t o give the f o u r t h , or unknown value. This method of d e t e r values of unknown r e s i s t a n c e s i s very accurate w h e n c a r r i e d p r e c i s i o n instruments. EXAMINATION What i s an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t ? What i s a s h o r t c i r c u i t ? What value of r e s i s t a n c e w i l l pass one ampere under a pressure of 6 volts? To what e x t e n t w i l l t h r e e p a r a l l e l r e s i s t a n c e s of e q u a l value i n crease t h e t o t a l number of amperes i n a c i r c u i t over t h a t when only one i s used? 'What i s meant by t h e term "voltage drop"? What i s a Wheatstone Bridge used f o r ? I f t h e tubes i n a r a d i o r e c e i v e r r e q u i r e 5 v o l t s would you use a 5 v o l t source of supply? Draw a diagram of an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t i n which five r e s i s t a n c e s a r e connected i n s e r i e s . Draw a diagram of an e l e c t r i c a l cLrcuit w i t h f o u r r e s i s t a n c e s i n p a r a l l e l , and two i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e l i n e ; H w would you d e t e r m h e t h e value of an unknown r e s i s t a n c e by the o ammeter-voltmeter method?

LESSON 8

Technical Lesson 9
D C

. . MOTORS

I n our study of electro- magnetic induction it was pointed out t h a t , should electro- magnetic induction cease t o be, numerous e l e c t r i c a l appliances would be rendered u s e l e s s . I n e l e c t r i c motors e l e c t r o magnetic induction i s a very important f a c t o r and when you have f i n i s h e d t h i s paper you w i l l come t o r e a l i z e j u s t how important it is.
The Direct Current E l e c t r i c Motor i s going t o be t h e t o p i c of d i s cussion, but u n l e s s you r e a l l y understand magnetism and e l e c t r o magnetic induction it w i l l be well f o r you t o review t h e s e two s u b j e c t s again i n order t o r e f r e s h your memory on j u s t what t a k e s place about a conductor carrying c u r r e n t a l s o what happens when t h i s conductor i s forced through a magnetic f i e l d . The motor i s c o n s t r u c t e d from m a t e r i a l s you a r e a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r w i t h and it operates according t o t h e laws of magnetism, electro-magnetism and electro- magnetia induction. So you see it i s impossible t o know ( f i g u r a t i v e l y speaking) j u s t what makes the wheels go around i n t h e operation of a motor u n l e s s you a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e above mentioned phenomena. T E PURPOSE QP THE D.C. H
-,

MOTOR

F i r s t , what i s an e l e c t r i c motor and what i s i t s purpose? The motor i s a machine s o designed and constructed t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c current applied t o it w i l l be changed i n t o mechanical power. J u s t what does e t h a t mean? Suppose m e x p l a i n it a s follows, t a k i n g f o r our explan a t i o n a t r o l l e y c a r . Over t h e t r a c k on which t h e c a r runs you n o t i c e + a wire which i s s t r e t c h e d from pole t o tl, ole. worn t h i s wire the t r o l l e y c a r p o l e - c o l l e c t s c u r r e n t , a s shown i n Figure 1, and conducts i t t o t h e e l e c t r i c motor of t h e c a r causing the motor armature t.. revolve. The armature i s o .- - . . . . Figure 1 geared t o t h e wheels of t h e car. The c u r r e n t , a f t e r passing through t h e motor, i s conducted tworough t h e wheels and p a s s e s i n t o t h e r a i l s , thence t o t h e ground where i t r e t u r n s t o the powerhouse generator. T h i s simple e x p l a n a t i o n w i l l serve t o show you t h a t e l e c t r i c a l energy i s converted i n t o mechanical energy when t h e c a r moves.

.' -

Printed i U.S. A. n

THE PARTS OF A D.C. MOTOR

I n t h e e l e c t r i c motor t h e r e a r e t h r e e e s s e n t i a l p a r t s . The f i r a t p a r t i s t h e f i e l d pole which i s a p i e c e of s o f t i r o n made i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r shape f o r t h e purpose it i s t o be used. On t h i s f i e l d pole i s wound a c e r t a i n number of t u r n s of wire making i t an electro-magnet. The second p a r t known as t h e armature, i s another electro-magnet made s o t h a t i t can be revolved between t h e f i e l d poles. The t h i r d Is a d e v i c e c a l l e d a commutator which l e a d s t h e c u r r e n t i n t o t h e armature windings. Referring t o Figure 2 we have drawn two electro- magnets and these w i l l b e c a l l e d t h e f i e l d poles, some times r e f e r r e d t o a s f i e l d magnets. T h i s i s the f i r s t e s s e n t i a l p a r t of t h e motor and when c u r r e n t flows through t h e windings of t h e s e electro- magnets an electro- magnetic f i e l d i s created, a s shown by t h e d o t t e d l i n e s , which f i l l t h e space between t h e two pole pieces. You a l r e a d y know the g e n e r a l n a t u r e of t h i s f i e l d from your experiments w i t h t h e permanent magnets and i r o n f i l i n g s . The armature core of t h e motor i s made up of t h i n stampings of a good grade of s o f t i r o n o r s t e e l a s shown i n Figure 3. A number of these

Figure 3 Figure 2 stampings a r e used t o make up the armature core and t h i s core i s t h e n c a l l e d a "laminated" core. Figure 4 w i l l serve t o show you how t h e armature core looks when a l l these i n d i v i d u a l d i s c s have been placed, one a g a i n s t t h e other, making t h e completed core. The d i s c s are held i n p l a c e by 'various methods. I n small m o t o r s b o l t s a e sometimes employed r which run through t h e d i s c s ; i n o t h e r s lock nuts which a r e threaded t o t h e s h a f t , and i n some makes a c o l l a r i s shrunk on the s h a f t holding t h e d i s o s i n place under g r e a t pressure. The s l o t s along t h e o u t s i d e of t h e laminated core c a r r y t h e c o i l s of wire on t h e armature, h e l d i n place by small p i e c e s of wood which fit i n t o the s l o t s i n t h e core, preventing the c o i l s from being thrown out of t h e s l o t s by c e n t r i f u g a l force. A c r o s s s e c t i o n of how t h i s i s done i s shown i n Figure 5.

The arm~iturei s made up of t h e s e laminations t o reduce eddy c u r r e n t l o s s e s . This l o s s i s brought about when t h e armature revolves i n a magnetic f i e l d . The Induced c u r r e n t s w i t h i n the r e v o l v i n g metal

Lesson 9

sheet 2

r e p r e s e n t a p a r t of t h e energy being used t o operate t h e motor and does no a c t u a l good. I n f a c t an armature so constructed, f o r example, made of one s o l i d piece of metal would have produced i n i t eddy c u r r e n t s of such magnitude a s t o cause t h e armature t o become very hot. This heat r e p r e s e n t s a l a r g e waste of energy. The armature c o i l s absorb a considerame porblon of t h i s h e a t which causes damage t o t h e i n s u l a t i o n and overheates t h e bearings. It i s then advantageous t o see t h a t such eddy c u r r e n t s a r e kept t o a minimum. The l o s s e s a r e very m a t e r i a l l y reduced by b u i l d i n g up t h e armature of
WOOD STRIPS..

'WIRE

'-SLOTS

Figure 6

Figure 6 A

Figure 5 t h e t h i n d i s c s of s o f t i r o n and i n s u l a t i n g each d i s c from t h e o t h e r a s described. By using laminations t h e magnetic c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e core i s reduced and t h e c i r c u l a t i n g eddy c u r r e n t s a r e confined t o each d i s c , t h u s preventing t h e s e undesirable c u r r e n t s f'ron becoming of such prop o r t i o n s a s t o h e a t t h e armature excessively. Figure 6A r e p r e s e n t s a n i r o n core cut i n h a l f w i t h t h e laminations purposely enlarge2 t o show how the eddy c u r r e n t s a r e confined t o each d i s c . Figure 6 r e p r e s e n t s a s o l i d I r o n core showing how t h e eddy c u r r e n t s move through t h e e n t i r e core.
COWtR SEGMENTS
COPPER CUPPER (SEGMENT ENDS OF ARMATURE COILS S O L O ~ ~ D INTO THESE SLOTS.; MICA INSULATION STRIPS BETWEEN ./ SEGMENTS',

SGUZUI

, -? +, '

'MICA

Figure 7C

Figure 7B Figure 7A Figure 7E Figure 7F When t h e armature c o i l i s passing under one magnetic pole t h e eddy c u r r e n t s revolve i n one d i r e c t i o n b u t a s soon a s t h e armature comes under t h e i n f l u e n c e of a magnetic pole of opposite p o l a r i t y t h e s e currents are reversed i n direation. When t h e armature i s revolving a t high speed t h e eddy c u r r e n t s a r e a l s o r a p i d l y r e v e r s e d i n d i r e c t i o n thus causing f r i c t i o n between t h e molecules of t h e i r o n . F r i c t i o n c r e a t e s h e a t which, i f allowed t o become excessive, not only r a i s e s t h e temperature of t h e copper

INSUL~TION BE SEGMENTS LND

Leason Q

- sheet 3

conductors but may cause t h e i n s u l a t i o n of t h e conductors themselves t o burn. T h i s r a p i d r e v e r s a l of t h e molecules c r e a t e s what i s known a s " h y s t e r e s i s l o s s e s n and i s considered a s one of t h e harmful e f f e c t s t o be avoided i n armature design and construction.
The commutator, t h e next and t h i r d e s s e n t i a l p a r t of t h e motor, i s a very ingenious device and w e l l worth becoming acquainted with. F i r s t A we w i l l see how t h e commutator i s constructed. Figures 7 t o 73, i n c l u s i v e , show t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e commutator. Figure 7 i s t h e A conmutator f i n i s h e d r e a d y t o be placed on t h e s h a f t . Figure 7B shows locking r i n g s which hold t h e segments i n place.

Figure 7B i s one s o l i d p i e c e of i r o n o r s t e e l c a s t i n t h e shape shown. The c o m u t a t o r r e q u i r e s g r e a t c a r e i n a s s e m b l i x even though t h e p r i n c i p l e of assembly i s simple. The following b u i l d i n g up process w i l l give

; RING-"---..

LOCKING

Figure 7D

Figure 7G

Figure 7H

Figure '75

you t h e i d e a of how t h e p a r t s a r e assembled. Figure 7B i s t h e p a r t we begin w i t h , t h e f i r s t requirement being t o i n s u l a t e t h e p a r t a s marked f o r i n s u l a t i o n . O t h i s i n s u l a t e d s e c t i o n i s t h e n placed t h e n copper segments which a r e i n s u l a t e d from each other, Figure '7F ill u s t r a t e s t h e a l t e r n a t e arrangement of mica s t r i p s and copper segments. After t h e r e q u i r e d number of segments have been placed on t h e s e c t i o n , Figure 7B, and i n s u l a t e d p e r f e c t l y , both from t h e holder and from each other, a s shown i n Figure ?F, t h e l o c k i w r i n g , Figure 7 D , i s moved i n t o p l a c e shown i n Figure 7G. The segments are' locked i n t o place by t i g h t e n i n g t h e threaded s t u d s which r u n through t h e l o c k i n g ring, i n t o t h e s e c t i o n , and shown i n Figure 7H. Figure 75 i l l u s t r a t e s the segments a s t h e y would appear w i t h a s e c t i o n c u t out of a f i n i s h e d c o m u t a t o r , while Figure 7 i s t h e f i n i s h e d commutator, f i t t e d t o t h e armature s h a f t A ready f o r connection t o t h e armature windings. The beginnings and ends of t h e armature c o i l s a r e brought out and s o l d e r e d i n t o t h e s l o t s of t h e segments a s shown i n Figure 7F. T h i s completes t h e t h r e e major p a r t s of t h e motor. Our next problem i s t o assemble t h e s e p a r t s i n t o a completed machine which i s shown i n Figure 8, w i t h t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s marked.
OPERATING PRINCIPLE

A s t h e motor i s a machine which converts e l e c t r i c a l energy i n t o mechanical energy we must have some means provided t o f e e d t h e c u r r e n t

into the armature coils. This is accomplished by the use of brushes which rest on the copper segments to which the armature coils are s'oldered. You see each segment acts as the end of an armature coil. Figure 9 illustrates the brush holder and brushes resting on the commutator through which the E.Iv1.F. is applied to the armature coils. Now let us consider one armature coil wound on an actual armature. In Figure 10 we can trace the position of this coil from the copper segment
ARMPlTURE CORE AND WINDING BRUSH HOLDERS COMMUTATOR .,'PINO BRUSHES LUGS) MAGNEJ YOKEl ,,FIELD COILS SPRINGS FOR MI\INTAINING BRUSH TENSION

Figure 9 Figure 8 on which the brush rests across the armature core around the back of the core, as illustrated in Figure 11, into the armature slot on the opposite side of the core and finally out where the end is taken to a copper segment of the comutator diametrically opposite the segment from which the coil started. Ordinarily coils are wound in all of the slots but they have been omitted here to enable you to easily trace the position that the one shown occupies on the core. The continual
ARMATURE COIL
IN ARMATURE CORE..,

ARMATURE COIL CONNECTED TO SEGMENT %.

CURRENT FLOWINVN

COlL AT .TACK /OF ARMPilURE

COIL a c - t ~ l ~ ~ lARMITURE COlL AT. ~ t i

' COIL THROUGH '..ARMMURE SLOT

OUT

ARMATURE SLOT

FINISH OF TURN CONllfCTEO TO SEGMENT OPPOSITE THE STARTING SEGWNT

Figure 1 0

Figure 11

rotation and speed of the motor is dependent upon a great number of coils as you will learn later. That we may better understand the thewy of why this armature revolves when placed in a magnetic field we are going to use only one coil. Figure 12 pictures two field magnets attached to the frame of the

Lesson 9

sheet 5

motor. (See a l s o Figure 8.) Note t h a t t h e magnetic f i e l d moves around t h e i r o n frame. This i s shown t o you a s It more c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a r e a l motor, To f u r t h e r a i d us i n studying t h e motor a c t i o n w w i l l use only the e f i e l d magnets and the space where t h e armature revolves, a s i n F i s u r e 13. Here you n o t i c e a round c i r c l e i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e f i e l d which r e p r e s e n t s only one s i d e of an armature c o i l . Note c a r e f u l l y t h a t t h e l i n e s of f o r c e of t h e f i e l d a r e moving from the "N" t o 'ISn pole of t h e magnets i n a uniform manner, t h a t i s , t h e y appear t o be moving i n s t r a i g h t l i n e s ending on t h e " 8 " magnet very n e a r l y opposite t o t h e p o i n t a t which they l e f t t h e ON" magnet. T h i s proves t o us t h a t a l though t h e armature c o i l i s i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e f i e l d , t h e f i e l d has not been influenced by t h e presence of the c o i l .
T h i s i s t h e n a t u r a l course a magnetic f i e l d assumes; it tends a t a l l times t o move i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e and should anything happen t o d i v e r t it from t h i s course it w i l l endeavor t o r e g a i n i t s n a t u r a l s t a t e a t t h e expense of whatever attempts t o change it.

Figure 13 Figure 1 4 e Suppose w f i n d out if t h a t i s t r u e . W throw t h e s w i t c h and allow e o c u r r e n t t o pass through t h e armature c o i l and observe Figure 14. N w g o b s c k and t h i n k what happens when a wire c a r r i e s c u r r e n t . A f i e l d springs up a t once a s shown i n Figure 148. Study Figure 14 and note t h e wire marked denoting t h a t t h e c u r r e n t i s moving through t h e tvire away from you w i t h i t s consequent f i e l d i n d i c a t e d by t h e small arrows. This f i e l d of the wire i s opposing t h e f i e l d of t h e magnets on the l e p t s i d e and moving w i t h t h e f i e l d on t h e r i g h t s i d e of t h e wire. N w what happens. o The f i e l d moving from t h e "N" pole of t h e magnet O t h e l e f t s i d e of t h e wire n moves downtoward t h e pole marked "S". it meets the f i e l d around t h e wire a t p o i n t "A" which i s moviq3 a a i n s t or opposing it. T h i s t e n d s t o n e u t r a l i z e o r weaken t h e f i e l d on t h i s s i d e of t h e wire.

Figure 12

'v

Lookfng a t the r i g h t s i d e , a t poi& "Bn, t h e f i e l d about t h e wire i s Let the arrow moving i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n a s the f i e l d from p o l e "N". "C" r e p r e s e n t a l i n e of f o r c e coming from pole "NV; when it a r r i v e s a t

Lesson 9

- sheet 6

They have no o b j e c t i o n p o i n t "B" it meets t h e f i e l d of t h e wire t o t r a v e l l i n g i n the same d i r e c t i o n but t h e y must have room t o d o so, so l i n e of f o r c e "C" moves outwards t o make room f o r t h e f i e l d around t h e wire and, i n so doing, a l l t h e l i n e s of f o r c e i n t h i s s i e e of t h e wlre a r e bunched o r crowded i n t h i s p o i n t , i n c r e a s i n g the f i e l d s t r e n g t h on t h e r i g h t s i d e of "@". This bunching of t h e l i n e s of force o f t h e f i e l d i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h voltage increase which causes t h e current t o r i s e i n t h e concluctor I & " .

"@".

* .

F i g w e 14A
--.---

Figure 15 These d i s t o r t e d o r bent out l i n e s of force a c t a s t a u t rubber bands and a t any i n s t a n t tend t o s t r a i g h t e n themselves. Ehen t h i s happens t h e conductor '" w i l l move a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e arrow D @ . Figure 1 5 ' i l l u s t r a t e s t h e wire n e a r l y forced out of t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e pole pieces a s t h e l i n e s of f o r c e r a p i d l y r e s t o r e themselves i n t o straight lines*

Figure 17 Let us study Figure 16; here w can b e t t e r see how r o t a t i o n takes e place. You recognize a t once the f i e l d magnets "N" and "s" but w e have drawn a complete l o o p (armature c o i l ) t o f u r t h e r enable you t o understand why t h e armature revolves. This c o i l i s f r e e t o revolve on the a x i s X and X 1 which m i l l allow s i d e " A " t o move down when s i d e "B" i s moving up.
i g n

Figure 16

Studying the f i e l d a s it l e a v e s pole "N" the small arrows show a bunchof l i n e s of f o r c e over t h e t o p of s i d e "A" of t h e loop, thus t h e

Lesson 9

- sheet 7

magnetic f i e l d of t h e wire has added i t s e l f t o t h a t of t h e f i e l d magnets making a s t r o n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n of f o r c e above t h e w i r e , while underneath t h e f i e l d of t h e conductor i s moving against t h e f i e l d of the magnets t h u s weakening t h e f i e l d a t t h i s point. O s i d e "B" of t h e c o i l t h e opposite e f f e c t i s evident which t e n d s t o n f o r c e t h i s h a l f of t h e c o i l upward. This e n t i r e c o i l being f r e e t o move on a x i s X, and X 1 , r o t a t i o n t a k e s place. O a p r a c t i c a l motor armature t h e r e a r e many c o i l s of wire and n t h e a c t i o n you have j u s t s e e n t a k i n g place i n one c o i l w i l l a l s o t a k e place i n a l l t h e c o i l s on t h e armature. Thus, i t can be r e a d i l y app r e c i a t e d t h a t when t h e number of t u r n s on t h e armature c o i l s and t h e amount of c u r r e n t flowing t h e r e i n i s increased, e i t h e r s e p a r a t e l y or t o g e t h e r , t h e amount of f o r c e developed by t h e armature a s i t t u r n s upon i t s a x i s , i s increased. The motor i s designed t o produce a turning ( o r t w i s b i n g ) motion which i s c a l l e d Tor ue and on t h i s torque depends t h e work t h e motor i s capable magnetic f i e l d s t r e n g t h ( o r f l u x ) times t h e number of of doin&e t u r n s of wire on t h e armature, times the c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e arnature c o i l s , g i v e s t h e torque o r t u r n i n g power of a motor. For example, i n a s e r i e s motor t h e f i e l d c o i l s a r e i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e armature, and i f we i n c r e a s e t h e c u r r e n t flowing the f i e l d s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s so t h a t t h e torque v a r i e s approximately a s t h e square of t h e current. That i s , i f w have f i v e amperes flowing t o t h e motor e and we i n c r e a s e t h i s t o t e n amperes then t h e torque or turning power w i l l be i n c r e a s e d n e a r l y f o u r times. I n a shunt motor t h e f i e l d c o i l s a r e shunted a c r o s s t h e armature c o i l s and t h e f i e l d s t r e n g t h , i n r e g a r d s t o the varying armature c u r r e n t , i s n e a r l y constant. I n c r e a s i n g t h e armature c u r r e n t twice a s much w i l l o n l y double t h e torque.

It may be necessary t o r e v e r s e t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of a motor. This can be done a s follows:

2 ,- ,

(1) Reverse t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e magnetic f i e l d , o r Ravnrnn t. - .- - . . -. . - - - - .h e ctmrent f l o w i m through t h e armature, but . . DO NOT REVERSE BOTH FIELD XND ~ T U R C R E T a% t h e same time EU R N I f a r e v e r s a l of direction i s desired.
-

Refer t o F i g u r e . 16, With t h e d i r e c t i o n of armature c u r r e n t and f i e l d a s shown t h e r e s u l t i n g r o t a t i o n i s anti- clockwise.

In Figure 1'7 t h e armature c u r r e n t remains t h e sane a s i n Figure 1 6 but t h e f i e l d i s r e v e r s e d . The r o t a t i o n of the armature i s reversed and moves i n a clockwise d i r e c t i o n .
I n Figure 1 8 t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f i e l d i s the same a s i n Figure 16 but t h e armature c u r r e n t has been r e v e r s e d causing a clockwise r o t a t i o n of t h e armature.

I n Figure 19 both t h e f i e l d and armature c u r r e n t have been reversed but the d i r e c t i o n remains a s i n Figure 16. This proves t h a t t o change t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of a d i r e c t c u r r e n t notor reverse EITJIER t h e FIELD or ARMATURE connections but reverse both.
THE PURPOSE OF THE COMMUTATOR

The f u n c t i o n of t h e commutator on a motor i s t o keep t h e applied c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e armature c o i l s always i n the same d i r e c t i o n a s t h e y come under t h e ma$netic i n f l u e n c e of the same f i e l d magnets. e Refer t o Figure 20 where w have an armature c a r r y i n g e i g h t colls. Each c o i l , 1 t o 8, i s wound on a core and brought out t o a c o m u t a t o r segment a s shown i n Figure 10. To make i t a s easy a s p o s s i b l e for. us t o study t h e fundamental a c t i o n of t h e conmutator we w i l l r e p r e s e n t each o f t h e

Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 18 c o i l s a s shown i n Figure 20. Tracing t h e c u r r e n t from the b a t t e r y w e see t h a t it flows from the p o s i t i v e s i d e t o b r u s h "A", t o segment number A t point "K" it d i v i d e s , 1, where it goes i n t o tlie c o i l t o p o i n t "K" p a r t going through c o i l 7-8-1-2, t o p o i n t "Kl", t o segment 5, i n t o brush "B", and r e t u r n s t o the negative s i d e of t h e b a t t e r y . Returning t o point; "K" t h e o t h e r h a l f of t h e c u r r e n t flows through c o i l s 6-5-4-3 i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n t o p o i n t "Kl", t o segment 5, i n t o brush "B", a l s o r e t u r n i n g t o t h e n e g a t i v e s i d e of t h e b a t t e r y .

h'ow l e t us compare c o i l 1 w i t h the "A" s i d e of t h e c o i l i n Figure 16 and c o i l 5 w i t h t h e "B" s i d e . The s w i t c h i s now closed and c u r r e n t i s flowing t o t h e brushes on t h e commutator and c o i l s a s described above and a s i n d i c a t e d i n Figure 20. A s c o i l number 1 comes under t h e i n f l u e n c e of gagnet "N" t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e combined f i e l d of c o i l 1 and t h e magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e from p o l e "N" w i l l f o r c e t h e c o i l down, i n d i c a t e d by t h e A t t h e same time c o i l 5 has arrow "x" a s shown i n Figure 16 s i d e "A". been forced up, a s i n d i c a t e d by arrow " X l " , and a s shown a t "B" s i d e of c o i l of Figure 16. As t h i s happens c o i l 2 has been forced i n t o t h e f i e l d of pole "N" while c o l l 6 goes under p o l e "s" and, since t h e c o m u t a t o r revolves w i t h t h e armature, segment s i x w i l l come under and make c o n t a c t w i t h brush "B"

Lesson 9

- sheet

and segment 2 w i l l make c o n t a c t w i t h brush " A". The same act,ion now t a k e s place a s when c o i l s 1 nnd 5 were under t h e s e poles. The purpose of t h e commutator then i s t o maintain t h e c u r r e n t flow i n each armature c o i l i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n a s each c o i l i n t u r n comes under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e same magnetic pole.
COUNTER ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

Counter E.M.F., a s you learned from Lenzfs Law, t e n d s t o oppose t h e applied E.M.F. i n t h e l i n e and I t s e f f e c t i s very important i n motor operat i o n because it a c t s a s a r e s i s t a n c e holding back or l i m i t i n g t h e amount of c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e armature c o i l s . When t h e armature of a motor r e v o l v e s i n a magnetic f i e l d t h e armature c o i l s cut t h e l i n e s of force produced by t h e f i e l d magnets e x a c t l y the same a s though t h e c o i l s were being d r i v e n by mechanical power, a s i n a generator armature. An electromotive f o r c e i s i n d u c e d i n t h e armature i s opposite i n d i r e c t i o n t o t h e a p p l i e d c o i l s and t h i s induced E.M.F. electromotive f o r c e which i s f u r n i s h i n g t h e power. This induced E.M.F. i s c a l l e d t h e back o r counter electromotive f o r c e because of i t s oppos i t i o n t o t h e a p p l i e d electromotive force. The r e s i s t a n c e of a n a r n a t u r e c o i l i s very low and t o p l a c e the l i n e voltage, of say 110 v o l t s , on an armature c o i l when it i s not i n motion would be t h e same a s connecting a s h o r t wire around t h e t e r m i n a l s of a b a t t e r y ; t h a t i s t o say, t h e armature would cause a s h o r t - c i r c u i t on t h e 110 v o l t l i n e . I n our study of t h e motor, however, w discovered t h a t a s soon a s an e E.M.F. was a p p l i e d t o t h e commutator segments through t h e brushes, c u r r e n t moved i n t o t h e armature c o i l and t h e c o i l a t once was f o r c e d t o move, thus b r i n g i n g another c o i l under t h e brushes where it r e c e i v e d So you s e e t h e a p p l i e d E.M.F. an E.M.F., and a s q u i c k l y was forced away. only has the opportunity t o d e l i v e r a s h o r t impulse t o each c o i l . I n t h i s s t a r t i n g of t h e motor armature, however, t h e c u r r e n t t a k e n by each c o i l i s more t h a n i s required t o d r i v e i t . I f you connect an ammeter i n the c i r c u i t i t may read 25 amperes a t f i r s t , but a s t h e armature ghins speed, you w i l l see t h e ammeter needle g r a d u a l l y drop back u n t i l , when t h e armature i s revolving a t f u l l speed, t h e meter may only read 4 or 5 amperes. N w why d i d t h e c u r r e n t d ~ o p o from 2 5 t o 5 amperes? A t t h e s t a r t t h e armature c o i l s were p r a c t i c a l l y s h o r t c i r c u i t e d , which allowed an exc e s s i v e c u r r e n t t o flow; but a s t h i s excessive c u r r e n t flows i n t h e c o i l s f o r a v e r y s h o r t p e r i o d of time no damage i s done i n t h e c a s e of a small motor. When t h e c o i l i s forced out of t h e f i e l d the armat u r e t u r n s with it, and a s each c o i l comes under t h e pole pieces, t h e same t h i n g occurs, w i t h t h e armature speed g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g .
A s t h e motor armature begins t o revolve i t s c o i l s a c t s i m i l a r t o t h o s e .of a generator, t h a t i s , an electromotive f o r c e i s developed i n t h e

Lesson 9

- sheet 10

c o i l s , c a l l e d counter E.M.F. This counter E.M.F. opposes t h e c u r r e n t wllich i s causing t h e armature t o revolve and by v i r t u e of t h i s oppos i t i o n , l i m i t s t h e m o u n t of c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e armature. A s t h e speed i n c r e a s e s t h i s back o r counter E.K.F. becomes g r e a t e r and g r e a t e r , allowing l e s s and l e s s c u r r e n t t o flow i n t o t h e c o i l s .
T h i s continues u n t i l t h e f u l l speed i s reached when t h e back E.M.F. may, f o r i n s t a n c e , r e a c h a v o l t a g e of 105 volts. I f t h e r e i s 110 v o l t s app l i e d and 105 "bucking n o r opposing i t then 110 105 5 v o l t s which w i l l be t h e t o t a l 3 M F . . . f o r c i n g c u r r e n t through t h e armature c o i l s . E . Suppose t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e armature i s one ohm. B y Ohm's Law I = F I = 5 t 1 = 5 amperes, o r t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e armature when i t i s up t o f u l l speed. By Ohm's Law f i g u r e out what t h e c u r r e n t flow would be i n t h e armature c o i l s i f the armature d i d not r o t a t e .

E 110 v o l t s I = R o r I = 1 ohm

110 amperes.

This would c e r t a i n l y p l a c e a s h o r t i n the l i n e and cause t h e f u s e s t o blow, thus p r o t e c t i n g t h e armature c o i l s from burning. Therefore you can r e a l i z e t h e importance of C.E.M.F. a s applied t o t h e ,motor; it a c t s t o renulste the current.

STARTING

I f 0 Y MAIN LINE

Figure 2 1 Figure 21A So f a r t h e motor has merely been revolving without d r i v i n g any machinery. suppose now t h e motor i s connected t o a load; t h e motor w i l l momentarily w i l l , a t t h e same time, become l e s s and slow down and t h e counter E.M.F. more c u r r e n t w i l l flow i n t o t h e armature windings. N w disconnect t h e o load; t h e speed of t h e armature i n c r e a s e s and so does t h e counter E.M.F. Any v a r i a t i o n i n t h u s reducing t h e c u r r e n t flowing i n t o t h e armature. speed of t h e armature w i l l cause a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e counter E.M.F.
T h i s counter E.M.F. t h e n a c t s t o automatically r e g u l a t e t h e flow of c u r r e n t i n t o t h e armature when t h e load on t h e motor i s varied.

Motors, such a s w a r e going t o use I n r a d i o , r e q u i r e some means of e controlling the EMF . . . a p p l i e d t o t h e armature a t t h e time of s t a r t i n g t h e motor, t h e r e f o r e a r e s i s t a n c e i s placed i n t h e motor l i n e t o regul a t e t h e c u r r e n t f l o w t o t h e armature c o i l s . When t h e normal speed of t h e motor i s reached t h i s r e s i s t a n c e i s cut out.

Lesson 9

- sheet 11

$ h i s r e g u l a t i n g device i s call-ed a s t a r t i n g box and i s shown i n Figures 2 1 and 21A. F u r t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n of s t a r t i n g boxes w i l l be taken up l a t e r i n t h i s lesson. TYPES O M T R F OO S There a r e t h r e e types of d i r e c t c u r r e n t motors used i n r a d i o p r a c t f c e . They a r e t h e S e r i e s , Shunt, and Compound. The d i f f e r e n t t y p e s a r e used according t o t h e work t h e y have t o perform. The s e r i e s motor, although not found e x t e n s i v e l y i n r a d i o use, w i l l be b r i e f l y explained h e r e i n order t o e n l i g h t e n you on t h e f i e l d winding connections. This motor i s used mostly i n e l e c t r i c a l h o i s t i n g equipment and i n e l e c t r i c t r a c t i o n work. It d e r i v e s i t s name from the f a c t t h a t t h e f i e l d c o i l s a r e connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e armature. on t h e motor c i r c u i t , a l l When the switch i s c l o s e d , p l a c i n g an E.M.F. t h e c u r r e n t flowing through t h e armature c i r c u i t must a l s o flow through t h e f i e l d c o i l s . T h i s i s c l e a r l y shown i n t h e s e r i e s motor connection i n Figure 21. 'Tihen a l o a d i s thrown on a s e r i e s motor, t h e speed of t h e allowing more c u r r e n t t o flow armature decreases, a l s o t h e counter E.M.F. i n t o t h e f i e l d windings. This strengthens t h e f i e l d and decreases t h e speed. A weak f i e l d i n c r e a s e s t h e speed and a s t r o n g f i e l d decreases t h e speed. The f i e l d c o i l s a r e wound with a few t u r n s of heavy wire.
THE SHUlJT MOTOR

This type of motor i s used where a c l o s e r e g u l a t i o n of speed i s r e q u i r e d under loads which a r e c o n s t a n t l y varying. The f i e l d c o i l s of t h e shunt motor a r e wound w i t h many t u r n s of f i n e wire, thus making t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e f i e l d c o i l s high. This allows only a small c u r r e n t t o flow of more o r l e s s constant value no m a t t e r how much c u r r e n t i s flowing i n t h e armature c i r c u i t . As i n t h e case of t h e s e r i e s motor, when t h e f i e l d of a shunt motor i s weakened the armature speed i n c r e a s e s . The increased speed generates more c o u n t e r E.M.F. and t h e armature i s a t once reduced i n speed. Caution should be e x e r c i s e d i n the operation of t h i s t y p e of motor regarding the speed c o n t r o l ; the r e g u l a t i o n of t h e speed may be accomplished by t h e use of a v h r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e i n s e r i e s with the f i e l d c o i l , o r by a r e s i s t a n c e i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e armature c i r c u i t . The f i e l d c i r c u i t must not be opened thereby c u t t i n g t h e current off suddenly. I f t h e f i e l d c i r c u i t suddenly opened t h e f i e l d would become v e r y weak and t h e motor would o p e r a t e by t h e r e s i d u a l magnetism i n the f i e l d magnets. The armature would i n c r e a s e i t s speed because s u f f i c i e n t and counter E.M.F. could not be generated t o reduce t h e applied E.Y.F. p o s s i b l y be t o r n a p a r t i f abnormally h i g h speed was t h e armature might a t t e i n e d . Precautions t o guard s g a i n s t an open f i e l d w i l l be described l a t e r under motor c o n t r o l .
THJ3 COMPOUND MOTOR

The purpose of t h i s type of motor i s t o obtain a constant speed under a l l load conditions. It d i f f e r s from t h e two t y p e s j u s t described Lesson 9

- sheet 1 2

because the f i e l d i s composed of two s e t s of windings; a s e r i e s and a shunt winding. The s e r i e s winding i s mound i n such a manner a s t o oppose t h e f i e l d created by t h e shunt windings. The shunt motor i s used t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t i n r a d i o t h a n t h e compound type motor. You may not have a s much t o do with e i t h e r t h e s e r i e s or compound machines a s w i t h t h e shunt wound machine.
MOTOR STARTING BOXES

C o n t r o l l i n g t h e s t a r t and s t o p of e l e c t r i c motors and g e n e r a t o r s i s accomplished by e i t h e r t h e manual type of c o n t r o l o r t h e automatic or remote c o n t r o l . The modern r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r i s equipped with t h e l a t t e r type s o t h a t t h e operator may s t a r t an6 s t o p t h e apparatus The o l d e r methods r e a u i r e t h a t t. -e h - motor from t h e o u e r a t i n a t a b l e . g e n e r a t o r s e t s to- be s t a r t e d and stopped by manually manipulating t h e l e v e r of t h e s t a r t i n g r h e o s t e t .
A

~ - -

The two methods w i l l be taken up now with d i a g r m s and i n s t r u c t i o n s . The s t o r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e of d i r e c t current motors, a s explained, cont r o l s the c u r r e n t flowing i n the armetwe of the machines. A f u r t h e r c o n t r o l of t h i s applied c u r r e n t t o the armature i s e f f e c t e d by t h e counter E.M.F. developed by t h e armature a f t e r it begins t o r o t a t e FIE D AnuaruaE and then t h e s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e nay be c u t out of t h e c i r c u i t gradually.
A s the r e s i s t a n c e of t h e armature i s low t h e s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e i s necessary t o l i m i t t h e current t o a safe value u n t i l . the armature has a t t a i n e d i t s f u l l speed.

SPRING,

Figure 23 Figure 22 i l l u s t r a t e s what i s known a s a f o u r t e r m i n a l s t a r t i n g box while Figure 23 i s t h e t h r e e t e r m i n a l box. The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two s t a r t i n g boxes i s t h e connecting of t h e holding magnet i n the c i r c u i t . I n Figure 22 t h e holding magnet i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e r e s i s t a n c e "R" and a c r o s s t h e 110 v o l t circuit a s shown. The s t a r t i n g box, Figure 23, has t h e holding magnet connected i n s e r i e s with t h e shunt f i e l d of t h e motor. Figure 24 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e method o f connecting a shunt motor t o a f o u r t e r m i n a l s t a r t i n g box. Figure 24A i s a schematic diagram of t h e same motor and box. Figure 25 shows t h e proper connections f o r a compound wound motor w i t h a schematic diagram shown i n 25A. When it i s d e s i r e d t o s t a r t a motor w i t h t h i s type of c o n t r o l t h e s t a r t i n g arm "H", Figure 23, i s moved slowly across t h e c o n t a c t s . When t h e armature i s on c o n t a c t number 1 c u r r e n t flovrs from l i n e 1 t o the s t a r t i n g arm through t h e a m t o r e s i s t a n c e contact 1, through t h e r e s i s t a n c e c o i l s 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 t o contact 8 where it i s l e d t o t h e t e r m i n a l marked armature and from

t h e r e t o t h e motor armature. A s the arm i s slowly moved over t h e c o n t a c t s t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s g r a d u a l l y c u t out and t h e c u r r e n t slowly i n c r e a s e s . Knen arm "Hn reaches t h e point a g a i n s t t h e holding magnet "M" an& r e s t s on c o n t a c t 8 a l l the r e s i s t a n c e i s out and c u r r e n t flows d i r e c t l y from l i n e 1 t o the armature. The magnet "Mn h o l d s t h e arm "R" which i s made of s o f t i r o n , i n t h e runninp, p o s i t i o n a s shown by t h e d o t t e d arm. T h i s magnet i s connected t o the f i r s t contact and it r e c e i v e s f u l l voltage a t f i r s t but a s t h e ~m moves over t h e c o n t a c t s l e s s E.M.F. i s impressed across t h e magnet

--I10 V MAIN LINE

Figure 25A windims due t o t h e increased r e s i s t a n c e through "R" a s t h e arm i s moved t o f u l l running p o s i t i o n . Hence, when t h e arm i s i n f u l l running p o s i t i o n , just enough c u r r e n t flows through t h e magnet windings t o a t t r a c t and hold t h e arm. The r e s i s t a n c e p r o t e c t s t h e magnet winding from heating.
If t h e f i e l d or armature c i r c u i t o r t h e l i n e s w i t c h i s opened f o r any reason t h e magnet c u r r e n t i s cut off and t h e arm i s pulled back t o t h e "off" p o s i t i o n by a spring l o c a t e d i n t h e s h a f t supporting t h e handle.

Figure 24

F i g m e 24A

Figure 25

A automatic or remote c o n t r o l type of s t a r t e r i s shown i n Figure 26 n and i s used where t h e motor generator i s l o c a t e d a t some remote point from the Radio o p e r a t i n g room i n order t o prevent t h e n o i s e of the s e t from i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h t h e s i g n a l s t o be received. This arrangement not only a c t s a s an automatic s t a r t e r but p r o t e c t s t h e motor by t h e functioning of an overload r e l a y i n t h e event of excessive current flow i n t h e armature.
This r e l a y has a magnet winding #18 which i s c a l l e d the t r i p p i n g magnet. C o i l 17 t h e second magnet of t h e r e l a y , i s t h e holding magnet. Magnet 18 i s i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e armature on t h e negative s i d e of t h e l i n e , and i f more t h a n a predetermined number of amperes flow t h r o w h winding #18 t h e arm #15 i s drawn up by t h e increased magnetism t h u s breaking t h e c i r c u i t of t h e e n e r g i z i n g solenoid #5 through t h e c o n t a c t s 1 4 and 1 5 which i s normally i n t h e down p o s i t i o n . This arm, when drawn up, makes t h e contact w i t h c o n t a c t #16 and c o i l #17 i s then energized being prot e c t e d by t h e f i x e d r e s i s t a n c e #20. The holding l e v e r #15 w i l l remain . . l i n e switch i s opened or t h e i n the up p o s i t i o n u n t i l t h e main D C t r o u b l e causing t h e overload t o occur i s l o c a t e d and removed.

Lesson 9

- sheet 14

To s t a r t t h e motor t h e o p e r a t o r c l o s e s switch # l 9 and switch 1/21. Relay arm #15 i s normally down, bringing c o n t a c t s 1 5 and 14 together. Nw t r a c e from t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of switch #21 around the l i n e t o 13, o from 13 t o p r o t e c t i v e r e s i s t a n c e 12 (which i s c u t i n when the arm 7 nas reached i t s f u l l upward t r a v e l ) through solenoid windlng #5, t o contact 14, t o r e l a y arm 15, through switch 19, which the operator has j u s t closed, out of 1 9 t o connection 25, where it r e t u r n s t o tfie negative s i d e of s w i t c h 21. When c u r r e n t flows through t h i s c i r c u i t it e n e r g i z e s c o i l 5 and through electro- magnetic i n d u c t i o n arm 7 i s drawn upward, being regulated by a dash pot arrangement which permits it t o t r a v e l a t a predetermined speed.
-4s t h e plunger arm 7 mpves upward t h e f l a t p o r t i o n of t h e bar 8 makes contact f i r s t w i t h contact #l. Current t h e n flows from p o i n t 13 t o 26,
1

Figure 26 i n t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s 4, 3, 2 and t o c o n t a c t 1, a c r o s s arm 8 t o Now t o connectlon t h e r i g h t where it passes through a f l e x i b l e p i g t a i l . #9 t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e motor armature, through t h e armature where it r e t u r n s t o t h e negative s i d e of l i n e switch #21. The motor armature i n c r e a s e s i t s speed a s arm 7 r i s e s , and c o n t a c t s 2 and 3 a r e cut out. When b a r 7 i s on contact 4, c u r r e n t flows through t h e arm 8 and t o t h e motor without passing through any of t h e s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e . When switch 2 1 o r 1 9 i s opened c o i l 5 becomes tle-energized and arm 7 c a r r y i n g bar 8 w i l l drop, and c o n t a c t 10 which i s f i t t e d t o arm 8 makes c o n t a c t with c o n t a c t 1 . By t r a c i n g t h i s c i r c u i t you w i l l f i n d r e 1 s i s t a n c e 27 t o be connected d i r e c t l y t o both brushes of t h e motor armat u r e ; t h e motor running i d l e a c t s a s a generator and r e s i s t a n c e 27 a c t s a s a load which q u i c k l y b r i n g s t h e armature t o a stop. This p o r t i o n of t h e c i r c u i t i s c a l l e d a n electro-dynamic brake.

EXAMINATION
1 . 2. 3. 4.

LESSON 9

5.
6.

7. 8 . 9. 10.

Upon what p r i n c i p l e does t h e e l e c t r i c motor operate? What i s t h e f u n c t i o n of an e l e c t r i c motor? What a r e t h e t h r e e e s s e n t i a l p a r t s of a motor? Row i s a motor armature constructed? What i s t h e purpose of t h e commutator? %hat i s t h e purpose of t h e armature? What i s meant by t h e word "torque"? Explain b r i e f l y what you know about Counter E.M.F. Row i s t h e speed of a shunt motor r e g u l a t e d ? Draw a diagram of an automatic motor s t a r t e r . Explain t h e purpose of each p a r t . Lesson 9 sheet 1 5

Technical Lesson 10
D .C

GENERATORS

The theory of t h e e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o r and t h e e l e c t r i c motor a r e very c l o s e l y r e l a t e d and the c o n s t r u c t i o n of b o t h i s p r a c t i c a l l y the same. The action, however, of t h e g e n e r a t o r i s opposite t o t h a t of t h e motor. The generator, o r dynamo, a s i t i s sometimes called, converts mechanical energy i n t o e l e c t r i c a l energy while, a s you j u s t l e a r n e d , t h e motor conv e r t e d e l e c t r i c a l energy i n t o mechanical energy. E l e c t r i c a l energy i s t a k e n from a generator when it i s d r i v e n by an e l e c t r i c a l motor o r by o t h e r means such a s a steam o r gas engine, o r by a water t u r b i n e . The dynamo can be used e i t h e r as a generator o r motor. The term used t o designate a machine depends upon whether it i s t o be used a s a motor I n shop p r a c t i c e t h i s method of having one machine o r a s a generator. which can be e i t h e r used a s a motor o r g e n e r a t o r i s employed t o some extent.
HISTORY O THE GENERATOR F

W have t o look backward a good many y e a r s t o f i n d when t h e f i r s t e g e n e r a t o r was used. I n 1821 Michael Faraday, an E n g l i s h s c i e n t i s t , found t h a t he could produce r o t a t i o n of a magnetic needle when it was brought near a conductor carrying an e l e c t r i c current. He d i d t h i s while experimenting and applying t h e d i s c o v e r i e s of Oersted i n electromagnetism. In 1831 Oersted's g r e a t discovery of electromagnetic i n d u c t i o n was made and, from t h a t d a t e , you might s a y t h e e l e c t r i c generator was born, f o r it was on t h i s p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e dynamo was Since t h e n many men have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s discovery and founded. i t has t a k e n y e a r s of c o n s t a n t study and a p p l i c a t i o n t o b r i n g t h e generator t o i t ' s p r e s e n t day perfection. T E PRINCIPLE H Generator;- - from t h e name many people t h i n k t h e dynamo generates e l e c t r i c i t y . To e n t e r t a i n t h i s i d e a , however, i s wrong. A dynamo can no more g e n e r a t e e l e c t r i c i t y t h a n a windmill can generate water. The water i s t h e r e ; t h e windmill merely f o r c e s it out of t h e well. E l e c t r i c i t y i s a l r e a d y t h e r e , and t h e dynamo only c r e a t e s a f o r c e which moves t h e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t through a wire. I n your e a r l i e r l e s s o n s you spent some time w i t h electromagnetic was induced i n a wire when it induction, l e a r n i n g how an E.M.F.

Printed in U.S.A.

moved through a magnetic f i e l d . You were t h e n a c q u i r i n g knowledge which w i l l now enable you t o understand the p r i n c i p l e of the generator. I f you make a loop of wire and b r i n g the ends out t o two " c o l l e c t o r " r i n g s as,shown i n Figure 1, and place t h i s loop i n a magnetic f i e l d , and so arrange t h e loop t h a t i t may be r o t a t e d i n t h i s magnetic f i e l d , you w i l l have an experimental devi-ce s u i t a b l e . t o i l l u s t r a t e the p r i n c i p l e of a simple g e n e r a t o r .
If t h i s loop i s now revolved so t h a t t h e l i n e s o f f o r c e between t h e ' two magnets are c u t an E.M.F. w i l l be induced i n t h e loop and c u r r e n t w i l l flow through t h e loop "A.A." and "B.B." The c u r r e n t which i s being forced around t h i s loop by t h e induced E.M.F. w i l l flow t o t h e c o l l e c t o r r i n g "C", t o t h e brush "Dm, and through t h e meter "M" t o

Figure 1 brush "F", t o c o l l e c t o r r i n g "E" and r e t u r n t o s i d e "B.B." of t h e loop. The current has caused t h e meter needle t o move so w know t h a t c u r r e n t e flows i n t h e loop.
If t h e loop i s tnrned from t h e p o s i t i o n a s shown i n t h e diagram by t h e of t h e loop ill begin t o move handle "H" t o t h e l e f t , t h e s i d e "A.A." through and c u t t h e l i n e s of f o r c e a t an angle. A s t h e s i d e "A.A." moves i n t h e d i r e c t i o n shorn by t h e l a r g e arrows w i l l cause c u r r e n t t o flow through the loop a s shown t h e induced E.M.F. by the small arrows on t h e l o o More l i n e s of f o r c e a r e cut a s it moves toward t h e d o t t e d l i n e s %.K.", which r e p r e s e n t s t h e loop a t t h e p o i n t where it c u t s t h e greatest.number of l i n e s of f o r c e o r a t r i g h t angles, and when it reaches t h i s p o s i t i o n t h e m a x i m u m E.M.F. i s induced and the g r e a t e s t c u r r e n t flow n a t u r a l l y r e s u l t s .

As t h e 'loop moves out of t h i s p o i n t of g r e a t e s t f i e l d s t r e n g t h toward p o s i t i o n "B.B." l e s s and l e s s E.M.F. i s induced a s t h e loop g r a d u a l l y approaches t h e point "B.R."; a t p o i n t "B.B." t h e loop moves p a r a l l e l t o t h e magnetic f i e l d and no l i n e s of f o r c e a r e c u t consequently no E.M.F. r e s u l t s . Lesson 10

- sheet

W l e s i d e "A.A." h a s been moving down, s i d e "B.B." has been moving up, end t h e induced E.M.F. i n s i d e "A.A." i s i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n t o t h a t i n s i d e "B.B." W s a i d t h a t when t h e t o p of the loop moved downward from p o i n t "A.A." e t o p o i n t "K.K." E.M.F. was induced I n t h a t s i d e of t h e loop which i n creased in s t r e n g t h u n t i l a t p o i n t " . . K K " the maximum E.M.F. was reached. A s t h e loop continues beyond p o s i t i o n "K.K.", t h e induced E.M.F. gradua l l y became less u n t i l , a t point "B.B.", it drops t o zero. The induced E.M.F. g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d from zero a t p o i n t "A.A.", t o a c e r t a i n p o i n t and t h e n decreased a g a i n t o zero.
..M)IXIMUM

POINT

"MAXIMUM POINT

Figure 1 A Suppose we study Fl'gure 1 A and s e e what we can g e t out of t h a t p i c t u r e or voltage, r i s e and f a l l . t o h e l p us understand t h i s E.M.F., Here we have something t h a t looks l i k e a c a r t wheel; a t t h e c e n t e r i s a hub and from t h i s hub a r e r a d i a t i n g l i n e s o r arrows which point a t f i g u r e s around t h e r i m of t h e wheel. S t a r t a t t h e hub now and study t h e arrow which p o i n t s t o zero. Just opposite z e r o you w i l l see a l i n e which w w i l l c a l l the zero l i n e ; t h i s zero l i n e extends, we w i l l e say, f o r 1 5 inches, and t h e numbers 0 , 1 , 2 , 3,4, 5, 6, ?,8,9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, w i l l t h e n be a t i n t e r v a l s of a n inch. 13, The arrow above and t o t h e l e f t of arrow 0 p o i n t s t o 1, t h e next arrow above and t o t h e l e f t of arrow 1 p o i n t s t o 2, and s o on around the r i m of t h e c i r c l e u n t i l w r e t u r n t o arrow zero. e W a r e going t o l e t t h e arrow which p o i n t s t o zero r e p r e s e n t t h e p o s i t i o n e of t h e loop i n Figure 1 . of s i d e "A..4."

W want you t o follow t h i s very c a r e f u l l y f o r you a r e going t o c o n s t r u c t e

a curve which i s t h e method used by a l l e l e c t r i c a l men t o show how e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t moves i n an A.C. c i r c u i t . It i s important f o r you t o know t h i s f o r you a r e going t o s e e many s i m i l a r curves b e f o r e you f i n i s h t h i s work and we want you t o understand how t h e curve i s obtained. The loop w i l l be r o t a t e d through t h e magnetic f i e l d . Before moving t h e loop, however, l e t us look over t h e s p e c i a l meter we have arranged a t M, Figure 1, t o i n d i c a t e t h e amount of t h e induced v o l t a g e a s it i n c r e a s e s and d e c r e a s e s i n t h e loop during i t s journey through the l i n e s of f o r c e . Lesson 10

sheet 3

O the i n n e r c i r c l e of t h e meter you f i n d numerals 0 t o 15; t h e s e n correspond t o t h e movement of the loop. O t h e o u t e r c i r c l e 10 v n (10 v o l t s ) 20 V, 30 v, 40 v appear and, following t h e c i r c l e around, 40 V , 30 v, 20 v, 1 0 v, 0 v o l t s appear. NOW l e t us s t a r t the loop and, i f i t were p o s s i b l e t o observe t h e i n d i v i d u a l readings a s t h e loop i s turned, t h e following r e s u l t s would be noted. The loop moves from p o i n t zero, t h e n e u t r a l or zero p o s i t i o n , t o point
1, and has cut l i n e s of f o r c e f o r a d i s t a n c e of one inch. Glancing e quickly a t t h e meter M, Figure 1, w f i n d t h a t t h e v o l t a g e has increased from zero v o l t s t o 10 v o l t s . A t t h i s p o s i t i o n , o r p o i n t "a", Figure l A , plhce a dot. The loop moves on, and a t our next point of observation i s a t point 2. Again reading the meter w f i n d t h e v o l t a g e has i n c r e a s e d e t o 20 v o l t s , so a t p o i n t "b" Figure l A , another d o t i s pleced. As the loop revolves, and a r r i v e s a t p o i n t 3, Figure l A , we take our reading of

30 v o l t s , and another dot i s placed a t p o i n t "c" (Note t h a t t h e voltage i s i n c r e a s i n g a s t h e loop approaches t h e point where i t i s cutt.ing more l i n e s of force a t r i g h t a n g l e s ) . A t p o i n t 4, another reading i s t a k e n and we f i n d t h e meter reads 40 v o l t s . So we place a d o t a t "dm. The arrow p o i n t i n g t o number 4 Figure 1 A r e p r e s e n t s t h e loop i n p o s i t i o n "K.K.", of Figure 1. i n Figure 1 t o point "B.B.", t h e r e s u l t i n g p o s i t i o n s a r e shown i n Figure 1 A by numbers 5, 6, 7, 8. We f i n d t h a t a t p o i n t 5 t h e voltage has dropped t o 30 v o l t s , or 10 v o l t s O u r next reading l e s s than a t p o i n t 4, anda dot i s placed a t p o i n t "E n . i s a t 6. The meter r e a d s 20 v o l t s and a dot i s placed a t "FV*a t point , seven the v o l t a g e has dropped t o 10 v o l t s and a dot i s placed a t "G" and, a s point 8 i s reached, t h e meter shows zero v o l t s and a dot i s placed a t
ll~ll.

A s t h e loop moves downward from p o i n t "K.K."

The foregoing i s c a l l e d one alterziation; t h e voltage a t t h e s t a r t was zero and it g r a d u a l l y increased u n t i l t h e maximum of 40 v o l t s was reached when it receded again t o zero value.
AS t h e p o r t i o n of t h e loop '.. BB" continues it begins t o t r a v e l upward through t h e l i n e s of f o r c e inducing an E.M.F. opposite i n p o l a r i t y t o t h a t induced on i t s downward t r a v e l . N a t u r a l l y t h e c u r r e n t w i l l change i t s d i r e c t i o n of flow. W e w i l l show you how t o p l o t t h i s by using Figure 1A.

The loop i s now moving from p o s i t i o n "B.B." towards "L.L."; and a s it l e a v e s point 8, Figure l A , and reaches point 9 w f i n d t h a t t h e meter e r e a d s 10 v o l t s . Following out our l i n e t o p o i n t "I" another dot i s placed. (Note t h a t t h e voltage i s i n c r e a s i n g a g a i n but i n t h e opposite direction.) Point 10 i s now reached i n t h e upward t r a v e l of t h e loop a s i t comes under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e "s' pole of t h e magnet, and our meter reads 20 v o l t s ; another dot i s placed a t "J" When 1 i s reached 1 t h e meter r e a d s 30 v o l t s and another dot I s placed a t "Kn; p o i n t 12 i s next with a meter r e a d i n g of 40 v o l t s o r t h e maximum voltage of t h e alternation.

Lesson 1 0

- sheet 4

The voltage now begins t o drop and, a s p o i n t s 13, 14, and 15 a r e passed, w read a voltaqe of 30A 20 and 10 v o l t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , w i t h d o t s placed e a t I 1 ~ l 1 llEdll, "N and "0 9 F i n a l l y when t h e loop reaches zero, t h e s t a r t i n @ ; p o i n t , the v o l t a g e has dropped t o zero and, w i t h a f i n a l dot a t " P R Y a cycle of values has been completed, i.e., two a l t e r n a t i o n s .

NOW

s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e d o t a t zero draw a continuous l i n e through A , B,

,--MPIXIMUM

C,

D, 3, F, G, H, I@ J, K, L, M, N, 0, t o P and you w i l l have a curved

VOLTAGE

l i n e a s shovvn i n Figure 2. Draw a s t r a i g h t zero l i n e beginning a t zero through "H" t o "P", and a t r u e s i n e curve i s t h e r e s u l t , shown i n F i g u r e & From t h i s study it i s seen a s t h e . p o r t i o n of t h e loop l e a v e s the p o i n t I f ~ . ~ . " i t moves downward and c u t s the l i n e s of f o r c e under t h e i n f l u e n c e D I R E C T I O N OF I N D U C E D of t h e magnet "Nw ( n o r t h p o l a r i t y ) and t h e CURRENT IN SIDE ' A induced E.M.F. i s i n one d i r e c t i o n while t h e loop l e a v i n g t h e p o s i t i o n "B.B." i s c u t t i n g t h e l i n e s of f o r c e under the magnet "S" ( s o u t h polarity)upwards, inducing an E.M.F. i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n . To l e a d t h i s induced a l t e r n a t i x c u r r e n t out of t h e loop two c o l l e c t o r r i n g s " C n and "E n a r e mounted on t h e s h a f t , i n s u l a t e d from each o t h e r , t o which a r e connected t h e ends of t h e loop and on which r e s t t h e brushes "D" and "F" a s shown i n Figure 1 Leads connect the . brushes t o t h e meter and, a s j u s t explained t o you, a s t h e loop revolves, t h e needle of t h e meter i n d i c a t e s t h e r i s e and f a l l of induced c u r r e n t a t t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e Figure 4 r e v o l u t i o n or c y c l e . These r e s u l t s may be p l o t t e d s i m i l a r t o the curve you have j u s t made. J l t e r n n t i n g c u r r e n t i s used t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , and we w i l l d i s c u s s t h a t i n t h e next lesson. However, a t t h i s time w a r e d e a l i n g w i t h d i r e c t e c u r r e n t dynamos, t h e r e f o r e it i s necessary t o provide some means f o r changing a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t o a d i r e c t c u r r e n t , o r a c u r r e n t which flows i n t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t i n one d i r e c t i o n . This may be done by removing t h e c o l l e c t o r r i n g s , shown i n Figure i, from t h e s h a f t and s u b s t i t u t i n g a commutator about which you have a l ready studied. This i s shown i n Figure 4. Here only one loop i s used

Lesson 10

sheet 5
--

4 , The loop " A " and "B", a s shown i n t h e diagram i f p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e magnetic f i e l d and t h i s i s t h e p o s i t i o n where no E 3 . F . i s i n duced a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e small meter. (Also note t h e brushes s h o r t c i r c u i t both segments; t h a t i s t h e n e u t r a l o r no voltage p o s i t l o n . )
TO LOOP

Figure 4A

Figure 4 B

Figure 4 C

Figure 4D

Figure 4E

N w by t u r n i n g t h e handle i n Figure 4 so t h e loop r e v o l v e s countero clockwise, or t o t h e l e f t , s i d e " A " of the loop begins t o cut t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e magnet under t h e "N" pole inducing a n E.M.F. which causes an induced c u r r e n t t o flow i n t h i s h a l f of the loop a s S ~ O T J ~ t h e arrow. by The commutstor segments which a r e secured t o t h e s h a f t have moved i n t o t h e o s i t i o n a s shown a t 4 A , and t h e induced and out b r u s h "F" through t h e meter c u r r e n t i s flowing t o segment 'An t o brush "Gn, i n t o segment "B", and t o the "B" s i d e of t h e loop.

~t t h e same time, "B" h a l f of t h e loop has moved upward, a s shown by t h e arrow, c u t t i n g t h e magnetic f i e l d of magnet " S n , inducing an E M F ... i n t h i s h a l f of t h e c o i l causing an induced c u r r e n t t o flow through "B" h a l f of t h e loop a s shown by t h e arrow, which i s opposite i n d i r e c t i o n t o t h a t of s i d e 'A".
The c o i l has now t a k e n t h e same p o s i t i o n a s shown i n Figure 5 by t h e arrows 2 and 6.

As the loop r o t a t e s it reaches t h e p o s i t i o n 3 and 7, Figure 5, with t h e commutator a s shown i n Figure 4B. P o s i t i o n 4 and 8, Figure 5, i s t h e . next p o s i t i o n of t h e loop w i t h the commutator i n p o s i t i o n Figure 4C.
A t p o s i t i o n 1 and 5, Figure 5, " A" s i d e of the l o o p i s a t p o s i t i o n 5, while "B" s i d e i s h o l d i n g t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t "A" formerly held a t t h e s t a r t , o r p o s i t i o n 1. The loop i s again i n the n e u t r a l plane, s t which p o i n t no E.M.F. i s induced i n t h e loop.
"A" s i d e of t h e loop and "A" segment of commutator could be considered p o s i t i v e a t t h i s p o i n t , and t h e "B" s i d e of t h e l o o p and "B" segment of t h e commutator negative. The commutator i s shown s h o r t c i r c u i t e d a t 4 D and i n t h i s p o s i t i o n t h e loop Is p a r a l l e l t o t h e magnetic f i e l d a t which time no c u r r e n t flows.

Lesson10

- sheet

become p o s i t i v e , while s i d e - nA n and segment "A" a r e negative, P i and t h e same cycle of e v e n t s t a k e place over and over a g a i n a s t continues t o r o t a t e .

Thus, you can r e a d i l y s e e t h a t a t each h a l f r e v o l u t i o n the c u r r e n t changes d i r e c t i o n i n t h e loop a s it comes under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e d i f f e r e n t magnetic poles. The commutator, however, keeps t h e c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e e x t e r n a l , o r meter c i r c u i t , always i n t h e same d i r e c t -i o n , thus supplying d i r e c t current t o t h e external c i r c u i t . Thus, with only one c o i l on t h e armature and u s i n g a commutator t h e c u r r e n t would rise and f a l l b u t would not r e v e r s e i t s d i r e c t i o n . This c o n d i t i o n i s shown i n t h e curve Figure 6, and i s c a l l e d a p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t current. T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s not d e s i r a b l e , because i f a lamp i s connected i n t h e c i r c u i t i n s t e a d o f t h e meter t h e lamp would appeara
MALIMUM YOLTPlGL OF'V SIDE OF LOOP CUTTING MAGNETIC FIELD UNDEll MAGNET "N"---RISE hUOFALL O INDUCED EMF F l,n~A~SlO LOOP OF MAXIMUM YOLTI6 OF'r SIDE Of LOOP CUTTING M YC GE I I FIELD UNDW MAGNET "N"
RISE ANDFbLL OF INOUCE EMF IH'8WDE DF LOOP

ZERO

ZERO LIN

LINE

Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 dim a t f i r s t t h e n b r i g h t a t t h e point of maximum voltage, t h e n grow dim a g a i n and a t each h a l f r e v o l u t i o n of t h e loop t h e lamp would go out. I n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h i s undesirable f e a t u r e of a l t e r n a t e i n c r e a s e and s g r e a t number of loops a r e used w i t h a corredecrease of t h e E.M.F. spondingly g r e a t number of segments. With more loops r e v o l v i n g i n t h e magnetic f i e l d t h e p u l s a t i n g c u r r e n t becomes a s shown i n F i g u r e 7 , g i v i n g a g r e a t e r number of p u l s a t i o n s per second of time. The loops a r e so arranged t h a t each c o i l r e p l a c e s the preceding loop coming i n t o themagnetic f i e l d s o r a p i d l y t h a t t h e E.M.F. i s p r a c t i c a l l y One c o i l no sooner passes out of the maximum voltage p o i n t constant. t h a n another i s a r r i v i n g a t t h e same point. However, even w i t h a l a r g e number of armature c o i l s , and a correspondi n g l y l a r g e number of segments, t h e s e s l i g h t f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e c u r r e n t w i l l s t i l l be present. Such f l u c t u a t i o n s of the c u r r e n t a r e known a s "commutation r i p p l e s " but a r e s o small i n value t h a t , a s f a r a s o r d i n a r y circumstances a r e concerned, t h e y are of no importance.

If we revolve t h e armature throu@;h t h e magnetic f i e l d and t h e armature c o i l s a r e s e l f supporting, t h e r e l u c t a n c e which t h e a i r gap between t h e p o l e s o f f e r s t o t h i s magnetic f i e l d w i l l m a t e r i a l l y reduce i t s strength. A l l amnature c o i l s a r e wound on a s o f t i r o n l a n i n a t e d armature core about which you have s t u d i e d under motors. T h i s i r o n core p r a c t i c a l l y f i 3 . 1 ~the space between themagnetic f i e l d poles, reducing t h e r e l u c t a n c e offered t o t h e magnetic f i e l d and, t h e r e f o r e , a g r e a t e r number of l i n e s of f o r c e may be c u t . The d i s t a n c e between t h e r e v o l v i n g armature core and t h e f i e l d magnet p i e c e s i s u s u a l l y 1/64 of a n inch.
Lesson 10

sheet 7

FIELD POLES f i e l d magnets of motors and g e n e r a t o r s magnets. The core i n most c a m s i s e i t h e r s o f t s t e e l . I n some types of small motors a r e permanent magnets and t h e s e r e q u i r e no

are g e n e r a l l y l a r g e e l e c t r o c a s t i r o n , wrought i r o n o r t h e frame and pole pieces f i e l d winding.

In t h e l a r g e r types w d e a l w i t h t h e f i e l d magnets a r e electro- magnets e and a r e made up s e p a r a t e l y and b o l t e d t o t h e frame of t h e motor o r generator. The f i e l d pole i s machined c a r e f u l l y t o f i t c l o s e l y t o t h e frame, because a t i g h t j o i n t reduces magnetic leakage. The f i e l d p o l e , "A" i n Figure 8, i s s o f t i r o n c a s t i n t o shape, and t h e n machined a s shown. Holes a r e d r i l l e d f o r t h e holding b o l t s and p r o v i s i o n s made t o countersink t h e heads of t h e holding b o l t s i n t o t h e shoe of t h e pole piece.
MACHINED OFF ,'TO FIT FRAME BOLTS

......

,+IRON CORE

RING FOR LIFTING DYNbMO FRtME

,,FORMED COIL

COTTON TAPE

Figure 8 The form wound f i e l d c o i l s a r e next prepared a s shown i n B. I n s e r i e s wound motors t h e f i e l d c o i l s c o n s i s t of heavy i n s u l a t e d wire. A s each t u r n i s wound on t h e form, s h e l l a c i s applied. Upon completion of t h e winding a s shown a t "B", Figure 8, it i s wrapped w i t h c o t t o n t a p e s h e l l a c e d a g a i n and baked. The completed winding i s t h e n ready f o r t h e pole piece, which i s removed from t h e frame, and t h e f i e l d c o i l i s s l i p p e d over t h e pole piece f i t t i n g c l o s e up t o t h e shoe of t h e core, a s shown a t "c", Figure 8. The completed f i e l d c o i l i s t h e n placed i n s i d e t h e g e n e r a t o r frame, b o l t e d i n t o place and t h e t e r m i n a l of each c o i l connected a s shown a t "D", Figure 8. The p l a c i n g of t h e pole pieces a s t o p o l a r i t y , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p a t h of t h e magnetic f i e l d through t h e frame, i s a l s o shown a t "Dn Figure 8. T h i s f i g u r e shows a f o u r pole generator. Bipolar (two pole g e n e r a t o r s ) a r e a l s o used.

The f i e l d c o i l s a r e connected i n d i f f e r e n t ways according t o t h e design of the machine. I n most commercial d i r e c t c u r r e n t g e n e r a t o r s t h e f i e l d s a r e s e l f e x c i t e d ; that i s , t h e y a r e energized from t h e c u r r e n t generated i n t h e armature. In a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t g e n e r a t o r s t h e f i e l d i s genera-

Lesson 10

- sheet 8

e x c i t e d s e p a r a t e l y by a small D.C. g e n e r a t o r connected d i r e c t l y t o t h e armature s h a f t of t h e a l t e r n a t o r , o r from t h e D.C. supply mains. The s o f t i r o n used i n t h e F i e l d magnet r e t a i n s a small amount of magnetism, c a l l e d r e s i d u a l magnetism, a f t e r t h e g e n e r a t o r i s shut dawn. O s t a r t i n g t h e g e n e r a t o r t h i s residual. f i e l d makes it p o s s i n b l e f o r t h e armature c o i l s , a s t h e y c u t t h i s weak f i e l d , t o generate an induced E.M.F. thereby s t a r t i n g an induced c u r r e n t , A s soon a s c u r r e n t begins t o flow i n t h e armature it s t r e n g t h e n s t h e f i e l d winding, g r a d u a l l y b u i l d i n g up t h e magnetic f i e l d s t r e n g t h u n t i l it becomes normal. There a r e times when t h i s r e s i d u a l magnetism f a i l s ; t h a t i s , t h e p o l e pieces l o s e t h e i r magnetism t o such an e x t e n t t h a t t h e E.M.F. w i l l not b u i l d up. I n t h i s case it i s necessary t o s e p a r a t e l y e x c i t e t h e f i e l d magnet winding by connecting s e v e r a l d r y c e l l s i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e f i e l d c o i l s t o produce a f i e l d s t r o n g enough f o r t h e armature t o develope an A s soon a s t h e E.M.F. s t a r t s t o b u i l d up t h e d r y c e l l s a r e d i s E.M.F.. connected and w i t h t h e f i e l d c i r c u i t r e s t o r e d , t h e machine w i l l operate normally. Let u s observe some of t h e ways t h e generator f i e l d c o i l s a r e connected with t h e armature, which d e s i g n a t e s t h e type of D.C. generator. To make t h i s a s easy a s p o s s i b l e we will use t h r e e drawings; a l l t h r e e s l i g h t l y
ARMATURE

Figure 9 A

Figure 9B

F i g w e 9C

d i f f e r e n t i n appearance b u t , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e c i r c u i t s a r e t h e same. Figures 9A, 9B, and 9C show t h e connections f o r a s e r i e s generator i n which t h e f i e l d c o i l s a r e connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e armature; a l l t h e c u r r e n t p a s s i n g through t h e armature windings must pass t h r o u T t h e f i e l d windings a s well. e Suppose f i r s t w l a y f o u r f i e l d magnets out i n a row a s shown i n Figure 9A. Connect them a l l i n s e r i e s and then connect number 1 t o t h e armature brush; t h e o t h e r f i e l d winding terminal, nunber 2, goes t o t h e load and meter. The o t h e r s i d e of t h e armature t e r m i n a l , nunber 3, goes t o t h e meter. T h i s i s a s e r i e s connection. Figure 9B i s a schematic drawing of C t h e same thing, while i n Figure 9 we have placed t h e c o i l s and armature i n a frame. By t r a c i n g t h e c i r c u i t 6 you w i l l find "A" and "B" t h e same. The shunt type of D.C. generator i s shown i n F i g u r e s 10A, 10B and 10C. ?Jotice that t h e f i e l d c o i l s a r e wound i n s e r i e s w i t h each o t h e r and connected a c r o s s , o r i n p a r a l l e l with, t h e armature c o i l s and NOT I N Lesson 10

- sheet 9

SERIES. The c o i l s a r e wound w i t h a l a r g e number of t u r n s of f i n e w i r e m y a small p o r t i o n of t h e armature c u r r e n t flows through t h e f i e l d . Figure 10A shows t h e f i e l d c o i l s i n a row. Figure 10B i s the schematic drawing, and i n F i g u r e 10C t h e f i e l d c o i l s a r e shown placed i n t h e genera t o r frame.

The compound wound g e n e r a t o r i s a combination of b o t h t h e s e r i e s and shunt generators, having b o t h a s e r i e s and shunt f i e l d . The charac,:;-SHUNT

FIELD

....

'.CONNECTIONS'

Figure 10C t e r i s t i c s of both t h e s e r i e s and shunt machines a r e t h u s combined i n one machine and much b e t t e r r e g u l a t i o n of t h e v o l t a g e i s secured under a l l conditions of varying loads. The s e r i e s winding i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e armature and t h e load a s shown i n F i g u r e s 1 1 A , 9 and C , while t h e shunt f i e l d i s connected i n p a r a l l e l o r i n shunt, w i t h t h e armature. The ac-Lion o f the windings i s a s follows: When a load i s thrown on

Figure 10A

Figure 10E

Figure l l C t h e generator the shunt f i e l d i s weakened and a t t h i s p o i n t t h e s e r i e s f i e l d h e l p s out by s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e shunt f i e l d t h e r e b y a u t o m a t i c a l l y maintaining a c o n s t a n t voltage under a varying load. The c u r r e n t i n t h e compound wound windings must flow through both t h e s e r i e s and shunt windings i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n i n order t h a t t h e r e s u l t a n t f i e l d w i l l be strengthened. The electromotive f o r c e o r voltage generated depends upon t h e following f a c t o r s : 1st. The number of loops o r conductors on t h e armature revolving i n t h e magnetic f i e l d . Lesson 10- sheet 10

Figure 1LZ

Figure l l B

2nd.
3rd.

The s t r e n g t h of the magnetic f i e l d o r l i n e s of f o r c e , The r a t e a t which t h e armature c a r r y i ~ g h e loops or conductors t move through t h i s magnetic f i e l d .

It i s necessary, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e s e f a c t o r s be given c a r e f u l cons i d e r a t i o n t o o b t a i n maximum voltage from a generator.

For a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e commutator r e f e r t o Figure 7 and the t e x t a s s o c i a t e d t h e r e w i t h on D,C. motors. Both t h e assembly and d i s c u s s i o n of t h e commutator i s presented. The brushes used i n n e a r l y a l l types of g e n e r a t o r s a r e made of carbon. The hardness and s o f t n e s s depends upon the copper segments of t h e c o m t n t o r . A s o f t copper segment r e q u i r e s a s o f t carbon brush while on hard copper a hard brush can be used. The degree of hardness of the copper i s not changed i n t e n t i o n a l l y ; t h i s v a r i a t i o n occurs d u r i n g manufacture and d i f f e r e n t grades of carbon brushes are made t o meet t h i s condition. The s i z e of t h e brushes p r i m a r i l y depends upon t h e amount of c u r r e n t If t h e c u r r e n t i s high being taken from t h e armature of t h e generator. i n value then brushes l a r g e enough t o e a s i l y p a s s such c u r r e n t must be used. Conversely, i f t h e c u r r e n t i s low i n value t h e n p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y smaller brushes a r e used. The device holding the b r u s h i n t h e proper p l a c e and b e a r i n g on t h e commutator i s c a l l e d t h e brush holder, a diagram and e x p l a n a t i o n of .. which i s shown i n Figure 9 i n t h e l e s s o n on D C motors.
T h i s brush holding device i s secured t o a b r u s h frame from which it i s i n s u l a t e d , f i t t e d w i t h a handle, and so arranged a s t o allow t h e brushes

t o be s h i f t e d around the? comnutator. This i s c a l l e d t h e rocker arm and allows t h e brushes t o be moved a t times i n order t o compensate f o r d i s t o r t i o n of t h e magnetic f i e l d * This i s explained under t h e subject of "armature r e a c t i o n " .
ARMATURE REACTION

Armature r e a c t i o n i s caused by t h e e f f e c t upon t h e main magnetic f i e l d s e t up by t h e f i e l d c o i l s by t h e magnetic f i e l d about t h e r a p i d l y r e volving i r o n armature and i t s c o i l s , and t h i s r e a c t i o n d i s t o r t s or draws t h e main magnetic f i e l d out of? i t s n a t u r a l p o s i t i o n . The n e u t r a l point i s thereby changed and t h e brushes must be s h i f t e d t o compensate f o r t h i s r e a c t i o n , T h i s change i n t h e s e t t i n g of t h e brushes i s shown i n Figure 13.

By r e f e r r i n g t o t h e c y c l e of e v e n t s i n t h e loop a s shown i n Figure 4 and t h e n e u t r a l p o i n t mentioned t h e r e , armature r e a c t i o n may be more r e a d i l y understood w i t h t h e following explanation. The n e u t r a l p o i n t o r plane, you remember, i s t h a t p o i n t where t h e armature loop o r c o i l moves p a r e l l e l w i t h t h e magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e and i s t h e p o i n t of zero voltage o r where no i n d u c t i o n occurs. The c u r r e n t changes d i r e c t i o n i n t h e loop a t e i t h e r s i d e of z e r o p o s i t i o n . Armature r e a c t i o n changes t h i s n e u t r a l p o i n t , o r p o i n t of commutation, a s it i s most g e n e r a l l y t e m e d .

Suppose t h a t an armature revolves i n a magnetic f i e l d w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t open o r not connected t o t h e brushes on t h e commutator. The main f i e l d w i l l i n t h i s i n s t a n c e remain normal, t h a t i s , t h e l i n e s of f o r c e w i l l extend from N t o S, or from n o r t h t o south magnetic poles a s shown by t h e d o t t e d l i n e s i n Figure 12. When a load i s t h r o m on t h e generator t h e c i r c u i t through t h e armature c o i l i s closed and r e a c t i o n between t h e f i e l d proper and t h e f i e l d of the armature r e s u l t s . T h i s r e a c t i o n between t h e armature f i e l d and t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e pole pieces causes t h e normal n e u t r a l plane t o s h i f t , and i t i s r e a d i l y seen t h a t the c o i l s , which a r e passing the p o i n t where t h e n e u t r a l plane formerly e x i s t e d without any load on t h e armature, a r e not moving p a r a l l e l with t h e magnetic f i e l d but a r e c u t t i n g t h e l i n e s of f o r c e a t an angle; see Figure 13. Therefore t h e brushes must be moved t o t h a t new p o s i t i o n of t h e n e u t r a l point which r e s u l t s from such d i s t o r t i o n of the magnetic f i e l d , f o r a t t h i s new point the c o i l s on t h e armature w i l l be t r a v e l l i n g p a r a l l e l w i t h the d i s t o r t e d magnetic f i e l d . The proper ad-

NEUTRAL POINT WHERE CONDUCTOR K 15 PARALLEL w i r n FIELD

NEW POSITION OF BRUSHES DUE

N,ORMAL NEUIPAL POIHI ON NO LOAD

OLD OR NEUTRAL l8RUSH POSITION

OLD BRUSH P O $ ~ T ~ O N /

Figure 12 Figure 13 justment f o r t h e brushes i s a t t h e V p o i n t of commutation w. must be s h i f t e d on both g e n e r a t o r s and motors.

POSSIBLE TROUBLES

The brushes

Generators should be watched c a r e f u l l y t o c o r r e c t t r o u b l e s which may appear unimportant a t f i r s t but which may l a t e r become s e r i o u s . The most important p o s s i b l e t r o u b l e s follow: The bearings of a g e n e r a t o r and motor should be kept i n good condition; t h e o i l should not be allowed t o become gunmy. The o i l r i n g s should be watched a t a l l times t o see t h a t t h e y a r e c a r r y i n g o i l t o t h e s h a f t and bearing. Figure 14 i l l u s t r a t e s a bearing and o i l r i n g s . "A" i s t h e bearings with t h e o i l r i n g s i n t h e s l o t s f i t t e d l o o s e l y on t h e s h a f t . The d o t t e d lines show t h e s h a f t which c a r r i e s the r i n g s ; a s t h e s h a f t t u r n s i n t h e bearing t h e o i l r i n g s which r e s t on t h e revolving s h a f t a l s o t u r n , picking "Bn up o i l a s t h e y r o t a t e and t h u s s p l a s h i n g t h e o i l onto t h e s h a f t . shows t h e p i l l o w block, t h e lower h a l f containing t h e o i l w e l l ( t h e r i n g s a r e shown i n d o t t e d l i n e s ) t h e upper h a l f of which i s h e l d i n place by b o l t s and i s c a l l e d t h e "housing" which covers t h e bearing.

Lesson 10

sheet 12

The brushes m u s t be g i v e n s p e c i a l care. They should f i t i n t o the brush h o l d e r s i n such a manner a s t o prevent " c h a t t e r i n g " and s t i l l be f r e e t o move up and down. The s p r i n g holding t h e brushes i n c o n t a c t a g a i n s t t h e c o m u t a t o r should be examined and a d j u s t e d f o r proper t e n s i o n t o avoid s c o r i n g of t h e commut a t o r by t h e brush. Keep t h e brushes and b r u s h holder f r e e from d u s t and see t h a t t h e f a c e of t h e brush r e s t i n g on t h e commutator i s f i t t e d p r o p e r l y t o t h e commutator i n order t h a t t h e brush b e a r s evenly a t a l l p o i n t s a g a i n s t tahe segments. Should it become n e c e s s a r y t o r e f i t t h e b r u s h t o t h e c o n i u t a t o r do so as L i f t the b r u s h and p l a c e a p i e c e of double 0 ( 0 0 ) shown i n drawing 15. sand paper w i t h t h e smooth s i d e a g a i n s t t h e commutator. Allow t h e brush t o drop back a g a i n s t t h e rough o r sanded p a r t of t h e paper, then allow t h e sand paper t o follow t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e commutator and w i t h a back and f o r t h movement t h e sand paper w i l l cut away t h e carbon brush, i n s u r i n g a c l o s e f i t . The t e n s i o n of the s p r i n g w i l l keep t h e b r u s h a g a i n s t t h e This i s t h e only absand paper while you a r e moving it back and f o r t h . r a s i v e t h a t should be used f o r t h e purpose. DO NOT USE EMERY PAPER. The machine should be so l e f t t h a t i t cannot be a c c i d e n t l y s t a r t e d d u r i n g t h e

Figure 15 process of f i t t i n g t h e brushes. Keep a l l a b r a s i v e s e s p e c i a l l y t!lose of a m e t a l l i c n a t u r e , away from t h e commutator and b e a r i n g s ; emery paper w i l l cause s h o r t c f r c u i t s between t h e segments of t h e c o m u t a t o r and w i l l cut t h e b e a r i n g s i f allowed t o come I n contact w i t h them. Sparking a t t h e b r u s h e s can be caused by h i g h s p o t s on t h e c o m u t a t o r which should be remedied. Rough or p i t t e d commutators should be turned down on a l a t h e . Excessive loads a t times cannot be avoided, but a f t e r such i n s t a n c e s t h e brushes and c o m u t a t o r should be examined and cleaned and given a s good c a r e a s p o s s i b l e . The mica i n s u l a t i o n between t h e copper segments i s o f t e n h i g h e r t h a n t h e segments themselves; t h e mica If t h e brushes a r e out of t h e should t h e n be c u t down on a l a t h e . p o f n t o f comnutation, t h e y may be c o r r e c t l y adn e u t r a l plane, i.e., justed by s h i f t i n g t h e r o c k e r arm. I f a b r u s h becomes wedged i n i t s holder it should be removed and be given a thorough cleaning. A armature c o i l which i s p a r t i a l l y s h o r t c i r c u i t e d w i l l cause sparking; n t h i s must be l o c a t e d and r e p a i r e d .

Lesson 1 0

- sheet

13

The commutator may a t times become extremely hot due t o excessive c u r r e n t being drawn from t h e generator. There i s , i n t h i s case, only one remedy; reduce the load on t h e generator t o normal. The armature loops o r conductor terminals may become loose i n t h e segments; t h i s r a i s e s t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e contact and produces heat.
A t times m e t a l l i c p a r t i c l e s become lodged between t h e segments of

t h e commutator due t o gummy o i l which has been splashed t h e r e from t h e bearings. The p a r t i c l e s come under t h e brushes and being dep o s i t e d between the segments, t h e y cause sparking. The commutator and brushes should be cleaned, using c l e a n g a s o l i n e on t h e commutator and p o l i s h i n g w i t h a piece of heavy canvas.
A burned out o r s h o r t e d o r grounded armature c o i l w i l l cause sparking. T e s t s f o r l o c a t i n g such t r o u b l e w i l l be given you l a t e r , t o g e t h e r w i t h t e s t s f o r l o c a t i n g s h o r t c i r c u i t s , grounds and broken connections.

1.

Is t h e r e any major clifference between an e l e c t r i c a l motor and an e l e c t r i c a l generator?

What i s t h e purpose of an e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o r ? m a t grade of emery paper should be used t o c l e a n a commutator? What i s t h e purpose of f i e l d poles? What i s meant by t h e term " r e s i d u a l magnetism"? Draw a diagram of a shunt generator. (a) What a r e brushes used f o r ? ( b ) What c a r e should t h e y r e c e i v e ?

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7 .
8.

Are t h e b e a r i n g s of a generator considered important? Suppose t h e f i e l d poles l o s e t h e i r r e s i d u a l magnetism, how would you proceed t o overcome t h i s d i f f i c u l t y i n order t h a t the g e n e r a t o r might be used? What i s t h e purpose of c o l l e c t o r r i n g s ?

9,

10.

Lesson 10

- s h e e t 14

Technical Lesson 1%
A.C.

CURRENT

Generators may be c l s s s i f i e d a s follows; a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t g e n e r a t o r s and d i r e c t c u r r e n t generators. More s p e c i f i c a l l y A.C. generators a r e o f t e n c a l l e d " a l t e r n a t o r s " , and D.C. generators a r e c a l l e d e i t h e r " generators" o r "dynamos". The e l e c t r i c a l energy produced by a c o i l revolving f n a magnetic f i e l d i s p r i m a r i l y a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , When i t i s d e s i r e d t o o b t a i n D.C. i n an e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t , i , e . , c u r r e n t which i s steady i n value and which moves continuously i n the same d i r e c t i o n , it becomes necessary t o equip t h e generator w i t h a commutator, The conunutntor, a s you know, allows t h e c u r r e n t t o Plow through t h e e x t e r n a l c f r c u i t i n one d i r e c t i o n only. I n r a d i o telegraphy and telephony i t i s o f t e n necessary t o u t i l i z e e a l t e r n a t i n g curllent t h e r e f o r e w do not equip t h e machine with a commutator but employ s l i p rings which permits t h e fnduced c u r r e n t t o flow from t h e c o i l s of the armature i n t o t h e e x t e r n a i c i r c u i t j u s t a s it i s generated, o r a s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , I n your l e s s o n on d i r e c t c u r r e n t generators you l e a r n e d t h a t t h e a r m t u r e , revolving i n a magnetic f i e l d , produced a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s i n t h e c o i l s of t h e armature. When one s i d e oT t h e closed c o i l moved through the magnetic f l u x of t h e n o r t h pole t h e r e was induced i n it a n E.M.F. which caused c u r r e n t t o flow t h o u g h t h e armature c o i l i n one d i r e c t i o n . The o t h e r h a l f of t h e c o i l b e g i n s t o c u t t h e magnetic flux of t h e south pole of the magnet a t t h e same time which a l s o causes a current t o move i n t h i s h a l f of the c o i l f o r t h e same reason a s caumd c u r r e n t flow i n t h e f i r s t h a l f ,
If t h e terminals of t h i s revolving c o f l are connected t o a p a i r of b r a s s ~ i n g s ,or s l f p r i n g s , and a p a i r of brushes r e s t a g a i n s t and make c o n t a c t with t h e s e rings, ( t o which i s connected t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t ) , t h e V i n duced c u r r e n t can be made t o leollow t h e conducting wires forming t h e e x t e r n a l electrical c i r c u i t .

In order t o b e t t e r e x p l a i n t h e fundamental a c t i o n going on i n t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t g e n e r a t o r , o r a l t e r n a t o r , we w i l l consider a s i n g l e c o i l i n s t e a d of an armature containing mang c o i l s , and study each e f f e c t a s it t a k e s place during t h e r e v o l u t i o n of a closed c o i l , o r conductor, through t h e magnetic f i e l d or f l u x .
NOW F e f e r t o Figure Is t h e terminals, as s h

Bere w have arranged a s i n g l e armature coPl; e a r e aomected t o t h e s l i p r i n g s . The r i ~ s

Contents Copyrighted 1930

Printed in U.S.A.

themselves a r e held i n place by an i n s u l a t e d s h a f t . e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t a r e c l e a r l y shown and marked.

The brushes and

As the c o i l i s forced t o revolve i n the magnetic f i e l d t h e s l i p r i n g s must move w i t h t h e armature c o i l s , a l l being mounted on a common s h a f t . The brushes a r e s t a t i o n a r y and merely serve t o provide a s l i d i n g contact on t h e rings. Side "A" has induced i n it an electromotive force a s it c u t s through t h e magnetic f i e l d , causing t h e induced c u r r e n t t o flow i n a d e f i n i t e
EXTERNAL CIRCUIT

Figure 1 d i r e c t i o n a s shown by t h e arrow i f the c i r c u i t i s closed by c l o s i n g t h e switch "s". Likewise s i d e hB" a l s o has induced i n it an E.M.F. with c u r r e n t flowing a s shown by t h e arrow. Remember t h i s , - - any wire c u t t i n g a magnetic f i e l d w i l l have induced i n it an induced electromotive force and t h e current flow i s a d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h i s induced E.M.F. but it w i l l not flow u n t i l t h e c o i l forms a closed loop. Since we know t h e p a r t s of t h i s simple a l t e r n a t o r w can go f u r t h e r and t r a c e the c u r r e n t e a s it a l t e r n a t e s o r r e v e r s e s i t s d i r e c t i o n through the c i r c u i t . Let us study Figure 2 where we have t h e same piece of apparatus a s shown i n Figure 1 but drawn i n a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n allowing us t o see t h e f u l l c i r c u l a r path of t h e loop o r armature c o i l through the mafnetic f i e l d . The s i d e of t h e c o i l marked AA", you w i l l n o t i c e , i s a t t h e t o p of t h e Figure 2 magnetic f l u x or f i e l d a t p o s i t i o n "EE" while t h e s i d e %Bn i s a t t h e bottom of t h e f i e l d , p o s i t i o n "FFn. t h a t while t h e loop The meter needle i s p o i n t i n g t o zero i n d i c a t i i s i n t h i s p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e magnetic f e l & t h e r e i s no induced

Lesson 1 - sheet 2 1

E.M.F.

and consequently no induced current. w i l l flow because t h e s i d e s ~ of the loop w ~ and " "BB" a r e p a r a l l e l w i t h the l i n e s of f o r c e and a r e n o t c u t t i n g the f l u x .

Before w e consider t h e flow of c u r r e n t suppose we f i r s t cause t h e loop t o revolve t o show t h e p o s i t i o n s the s i d e "AA" w i l l assume during "AA" s i d e of t h e loop i s shown a t a complete r e v o l u t i o n of t h e c o i l . t h e p o s i t i o n "EE w . The loop begins t o revolve i n a counter clockwise d i r e c t i o n , shown by arrows, on i t s s h a f t "x" and immediately begins t o cut t h e l i n e s of f o r c e o r f l u x of t h e "S" pole of t h e magnet. When it a r r i v e s a t p o s i t i o n "DD n , t h e end of t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r r e v o l u t i o n , it w i l l b e c u t t i n g t h e maximum number of l i n e s of f o r c e leaving p o s i t i o n l l ~ i t n c u t s l e s s l i n e s of f o r c e u n t i l a t p o s i t i o n "FF', ~ t h e end of t h e second q u a r t e r of r e v o l u t i o n , it i s again p a r a l l e l w i t h the l i n e s of f o r c e , c u t t i n g no f l U X r Continuing i n t o the t h i r d q u a r t e r of r e v o l u t i o n it a g a i n c u t s t h e magnetic f l u x , upward t h i s time, g r a d u a l l y c u t t i n g t h e l i n e s of f o r c e a t a g r e a t e r angle each f r a c t i o n of upward movement u n t i l a t p o s i t i o n "CC", o r end of t h e t h i r d q u a r t e r of r e v o l u t i o n , it w i l l be c u t t i n g t h e g r e a t e s t number of l i n e s of f o r c e under t h e 'INn pole o r magnetic f i e l d of n o r t h p o l a r i t y , Leaving p o s i t i o n "CC", and continuing i n t o of r e v o l u t i o n , l e s s and l e s s l i n e s of f o r c e upon a r r i v i n g a t p o s i t i o n "EE", t h e end of l u t i o n , it i s a g a i n p a r a l l e l t o t h e magnetic a r e being cut. t h e f o u r t h and l a s t q u a r t e r a r e c u t per u n i t oftime and, t h e f o u r t h q u a r t e r of revof i e l d and no l i n e s of f o r c e

T h i s completes one r e v o l u t i o n of t h e c o i l through t h e magnetic f i e l d . The loop can be r o t a t e d another f u l l r e v o l u t i o n and t h e same cycle of events would be repeated over again.

On the second journey of t h e loop we a r e going t o s t u d y how t h e induced i s a f f e c t e d by t h e c u t t i n g of t h e l i n e s of force,- how it r i s e s t from zero s t r e n g t h t o maximum s t r e n g t h , and t h e n f a l l s a g ~ i n o zero value.
E.M.F.

O t h e second r e v o l u t i o n we w i l l concentrate upon s i d e "BB". The arman t u r e s t a r t s , "BB" moves upward i n t o t h e n o r t h magnetic f i e l d and, because of t h e c u t t i n g of t h e l i n e s of f o r c e , it has induced i n i t an e l e c t r o motive f o r c e , t h e s t r e n g t h depending upon t h e speed it moves and upon t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e magnetic f i e l d through which i t t r a v e l s .

The induced electromotive f o r c e w i l l cause c u r r e n t t o flow i n t h i s s i d e of t h e loop i n t h e d i r e c t i o n shown by t h e arrows, making brush "Bl" positive. The c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s i n s t r e n g t h due t o t h e increased electromotive f o r c e inciuced by the g r e a t e r number of l i n e s of f o r c e cut Here t h e maxiper u n i t of time, u n t i l t h e c o i l reaches p o s i t i o n "CC" m m number of l i n e s of f o r c e a r e c u t and t h e maximum electromotive f o r c e i s induced. Therefore t h e maximum c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h p o s s i b l e i s obtained a t t h i s p o s i t i o n , assuming t h e f i e l d t o be uniform and t h e speed constant.

Lesson 1 1

- sheet

s i d e "BB" has moved t o p o s i t i o n "CC", s i d e "AA" has moved i n t o n p o s i t i o n "DD", A E.M.F. and c u r r e n t i s induced i n "AA" e x a c t l y a s i n side "BB" but opposite i n d i r e c t i o n , a s shown, making t h e brush " ~ 2 "negative. The r e s u l t i n g induced c u r r e n t has moved through the c i r c u i t causing t h e meter needle t o move t o t h e l e f t , p o i n t i n g t o maximum.
While

Side "BB" now moves out of t h e maximum f i e l d p o s i t i o n "CC", c u t t i n g l e s s l i n e s of f o r c e per u n i t of time a s it moves toward p o s i t i o n n ~ ~ ' l , t h e r e f o r e l e s s E.M.F. i s induced and consequently t h e induced c u r r e n t
1(lO POS1TlON"CC" OF
STAR1 OF INDUCED E.M.F. SIDE "Be" CORRESPONDING 10 POSITION "FF': MMIMUM INDUCED E.M.F. IN SIDE "BE" CORRESPONDING COIL UNDER P0LE"N"

POSITION OF SIDE"BB" OF-,' COIL BEFORE MOVING UPWARD INTO FIELD OF'N'MAGNET

'4AAS IT ENTERS
FIELD OF FOLE'N"

INCREASING IN SIDE;

INDUCED E.M.F. I N SlDE.AK DECREhSED 0 ZERO CDRRESPDN?lNG TO POSITION *EE

MAUMUM INDUCED E.M.F. IN SIDE "AA:----* AT POSI1ION"CC" UNOER POLE "N

Figure 3 decreases i n s t r e n g t h , u n t i l it reaches "EE" where no l i n e s of f o r c e ... drops t o zero a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e needle of t h e a r e cut and t h e E M F meter when i t r e t u r n s t o zero position. W may p l o t t h i s r i s e and f a l l of c u r r e n t t a k i n g place i n s i d e "BBn of e t h e c o i l a s i t passed under t h e n o r t h pole of t h e magnetic f i e l d , a s shown i n Figure 3, by a curved l i n e which moves upward from zero t o a maximum h e i g h t and t h a n a s @radually decreases again t o The p o s i t i o n of t h e loop now i n d i c ~ t e s s i d e "BB" a t p o s i t i o n "EE" and s i d e "AA" a t p o s i t i o n "FF". "BBw now moves downward, under the influence of t h e south magnetic f i e l d , and t h e c u r r e n t inducedflows through "BB" and t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t opposite t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of flow when "BBw mas under t h e north magnetic f i e l d . See Figure 4. The induced E.M.F. r i s e s from zero t o maximum an'd f a l l s a g a i n t o zero a s t h e c o i l was ole. and a s shorn bo moving under t h e %It t h e meter needle which has moved across-;he Figure 4 s c a l e , t h i s time t o t h e r i g h t , r e t u r n i n g t o zero when s i d e "BB" has reached p o s i t i o n "FFn; t h i s r e v e r s a l of c u r r e n t flow w i l l cause t h e needle t o move i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n . I n Figure 3 we have shown a s i n e curve which g r a p h i c a l l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h e continuously varying values of E.M.F. induced i n t h e conductor a s i t moves through t h e magnetic f i e l d .
1 Lesson 1

- sheet 4

VALUE OF

E.M.F.

The value of t h e induced E.M.F.

depends upon t h e following f a c t o r s :

1st.

2nd. 3rd.

The number of conductors revolving i n t h e f i e l d . The s t r e n g t h of t h e magnetic f i e l d , The r a t e a t which t h e s e l i n e s of f o r c e c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e magnstic f i e l d are cut.

I n our simple a l t e r n a t o r only one conductor was used and we assumed t h e f i e l d s t r e n g t h t o be constant.

W may now consider t h e r a t e a t which t h e l i n e s of f o r c e a r e c u t and e v a r i e s a s t h e armature c o i l comwhy the value of t h e induced B.M.F. p l e t e s a r e v o l u t i o n through t h e f i e l d . I n Figure 5 ,we have a diagram intended t o show how time, o r t h e r a t e of c u t t i n g t h e f i e l d , and t h e f i e l d s t r e n g t h , determines the value of It i s obvious, a f t e r studying Figure 5, t h a t a conductor t h e E.M.F. moving through t h e magnetic f i e l d , e i t h e r from " A " d i r e c t l y t o "Cql o r along t h e path " A", "B" s "c", w i l l c u t e x a c t l y t b same number of l i n e s of f o r c e , both having moved through t h e e n t i r e f i e l d , and both having cut every l i n e of f o r c e i n the f i e l d . The d i s t a n c e , however, from "A" t o "C" i s s h o r t e r by approximately two t h i r d s t h e d i s t a n c e t h a n along t h e p a t h A, B, C. Figure 5 Nor assume t h a t t h e conductor i s moving a t a speed r e q u i r i n g one second of time t o t r a v e l from "A" t o "C" thereby c u t t i r q through a l l t h e l i n e s of force w i t h a d e f i n i t e value of E.M.F. being induced. A t t h e sane speed i t now f o l l o w s t h e p a t h 4, B , C, and, t h i s path being f i f t y p e r c e n t longer than p a t h A, C, it r e q u i r e s 1 1/2 seconds of time t o complete t h e d i s t a n c e . A l l t h e l i n e s of f o r c e are cut but a t a slower r a t e , t h e r e f o r e l e s s l i n e s of f o r c e a r e cut i n one second i n t h i s p a t h t h a n t h e path " A ", "c", and l e s s induced E.M.F. w i l l be the r e s u l t . The r a t e a t which t h e l i n e s of f o r c e a r e c u t t h e n i n a given time i s a l s o going t o depend upon t h e angle a t which t h e conductor moves through t h e f i e l d . when t h e conductor moves from "A" t o "C" every l i n e of f o r c e i s cut a t r i g h t a n g l e s and, a t t h e given speed of one second the induced E.M.F. i s maximum.

N w revolve t h e conductor through path A, B, C ; it i s obvious t h a t a s o t h e conductor l e a v e s " A" i t i s moving n e a r l y p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e magnetic f i e l d . A s i t progresses towards "Bn i t s p a t h becomes more n e a r l y a t r i g h t angles t o t h e f i e l d and an i n c r e a s i n g l y g r e a t e r E.M.F. i s induced, u n t i l a t "B" t h e conductor i s moving d i r e c t l y a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e f i e l d and, a t t h i s p o i n t , t h e induced E.M.F. i s a t i t s h i g h e s t value.

Lesson 1 - sheet 5 1

O lenving "B" t h e conductor ceases t o out t h e l i n e s of f o r c e a t n r i g h t angles and, a s i t progresses from p o i n t "B" t o "C", i t c u t s t h e l i n e s of f o r c e l e s s and l e s s a t r i g h t a n g l e s , consequently t h e induced E.M.F. g r a d u a l l y decreases u n t i l a t "C" t h e conductor i s again p a r a l l e l t o t h e f i e l d and i n d u c t i o n c e a s e s , w i t h a consequent c e s s a t i o n of induced E.M.F. and c u r r e n t flow.
TIME RATE EXPRESSED I N DEGREES

The armature c o i l i s s o arranged on the armature core t k t i t must d e s c r i b e a complete c i r c l e i n t h e magnetic f i e l d . I n the a o n s t r u c t i o n of a s i n e curve i n d i c a t i n g a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t h i s i s expressed a s the time r a t e i n degrees. Sn any complete c i r c l e t h e r e a r e 360 degrees and, i f w wish t o show e t h e i n c r e a s e and decrease of induced E.M.F. i n an armature c o i l i n successive s t e p s , we may do so by d i v i d i n g t h e c i r c l e s o described by t h e armature c o i l through the magnetic f i e l d i n t o degrees of time. This w i l l be explained w i t h the a s s i s t a n c e of Figure 6. When t h e s i d e of t h e c o i l "BBw i s i n p o s i t i o n 1 Figure 6, i n t h e i s induced magnetic f i e l d , no f l u x i s being c u t , hence no E.M.F. A t t h i s p o i n t of t h e base l i n e r e p r e s e n t i n g time r a t e i n the coil. i n degrees, we s t a r t our E.M.F. curve. The c o i l now moves from pos i t l o n 1 t o 2, or 45 degrees, and c u t s t h e f l w r and,the induced E.M.F., being of p o s i t i v e p o l a r i t y , i s p l o t t e d above t h e base l i n e .

ALTERNATION

Figure 6 N w draw a v e r t i c a l l i n e from t h e base l i n e u n t i l i t i n t e r s e c t s t h e o h o r i z o n t a l l i n e extending from p o s i t i o n 2 of c o i l "BB" t o t h e r i g h t and p a r a l l e l t o t h e base l i n e . The point of i n t e r s e c t i o n w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e r i s e o r t h e induced E.M.F. of c o i l "BB" and by connecting t h i s point and "45 degrees" on the base l i n e we show g r a p h i c a l l y t h e r i s e i n the inchced E.M.F.

. The c o i l now reaches p o s i t i o n 3, or 90 degrees from p o s i t i o n 1 A v e r t i c a l l i n e i s e r e c t e d from 90 degrees on t h e base l i n e and t h e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e drawn from p o s i t i o n 3. From t h e p o i n t where t h e s e l i n e s i n t e r s e c t a n o t h e r l i n e i s drawn t o t h e 4 5 degree p o s i t i o n i n d i c a t i n g t h e amount of i n c r e a s e t h a t has t a k e n place.
Lesson 1 1

- sheet 6

AS

the c o i l p r o c ~ e d sw p l o t p o s i t i o n 4, o r 135 degrees, and from e y o u r study o f Figure 2 you know t h a t t h e induced E.M.F. i s now de-

c r e a s i n g . ',/hen p o s i t i o n 5 i s reached (180 d e g r e e s ) no E.M.F. has been induced i n the c o i l . T h i s completes t h e f i r s t a l t e r n a t i o n of Side "BBn now continues t o r o t a t e and, upon?,passing through p o i n t s 6 , 7 , 8 and back t o 1, ( t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t ) , i t completes one r e v o l u t i o n . During t h e l a s t h a l f o f - t h i s r e v o l u t i o n e x a c t l y t h e same inductive a c t f o n t a k e s place a s i n t h e f i r s t h a l f r e v o l u t i o n but with t h i s d i f f e r e n c e ; t h e c u r r e n t induced i n the s i d e "BB" now flows i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n , f o r t h e s i d e "BB" i s now under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e south pole and not t h e n o r t h pole a s i n t h e f i r s t h a l f revolution. This r e v e r s a l of t h e c u r r e n t flow i s c l e a r l y shown i n FigUTe 6. A s a l r e a d y mentioned, t h e i n d u c t i v e a c t i o n i s t h e same and, t h e r e f o r e t h e procedure of p l o t t i n g t h e value of t h e induced c u r r e n t upon t h e curve i s t h e same a s f o r t h e f i r s t h a l f r e v o l u t i o n of t h i s o o i l . ALTERNATIONS, FREQUENCY AND CYCUS

The induced E.M.F. I n s i d e "BB" r i s e s from zero t o maximum value between 0 degrees and 90 degrees t h e n f a l l s i n value from 90 degrees u n t i l zero i s a g a i n reached a t 180 degrees; t h i s i s termed an a l t e r nation. From p o s i t i o n 5 t o p o s i t i o n 1 s i d e "AA" has induced i n it a n E.N.F. which changes i n value s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n s i d e "BBn.
his r i s e and f a l l i n t h e value of t h e induced E.M.F. t a k e s place I n every t w i c e during each complete r e v o l u t i o n of t h e armature c o i l . i . e , , one p o s i t i v e cycle, then, t h e r e a r e two a l t e r n a t i o n s of E.M.F., and one negative a l t e r n a t i o n . The frequency of an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t g e n e r a t o r i s expressed i n c y c l e s per second.

* , When t h e c o i l ' s ~ ~ "BB", r o t a t e s 60 complete r e v o l u t i o n s p e r second 120 s e p a r a t e r e v e r s a l s of c u r r e n t per second a r e induced t h e r e i n and s i n c e one cycle c o n s i s t s of two a l t e r n a t i o n s , o r r e v e r s a l s , t h e FREQUENCY of the c u r r e n t i s s a i d t o be 60 c y c l e s per second.
T h i s i s only t r u e i n t h e case of our simple a l t e r n a t o r which employed two f i e l d poles. I n most conmercial a l t e r n a t o r s , however, you w i l l f i n d more t h a n two f i e l d poles and, a s the speed and t h e number of f i e l d poles determine t h e frequency, w a r e going t o g i v e you a simple e formula whereby you can e a s i l y d e t e r n i n e t h e frequency of any a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t generat o r ,

The frequency w i l l equal t h e number of poles i n t h e a l t e r n a t o r m u l t i p l i e d by t h e speed a t which t h e armature r e v o l v e s and divided by the a l t e r n a t i o n s per c y c l e -. which i s always two. W must not o v e r l ~ o k e t h e f a c t t h a t i f we wish t o know t h e frequency i n c y c l e s per second, t h e speed of t h e g e n e r a t o r must be given i n r e v o l u t i o n s per minute. I n working out t h i s formula f o r cycles e r second i t i s necessary, per t h e r e f o r e , t o change t h e speed of t h e genera o r o r e v o l u t i o n s second and t h i s i s e a s i l y done by simply d i v i d i n g t h e speed ( a s i n RPM ) by 60.

1 Lesson 1

- sheet 7

Assme t h a t o u r simple two-pole a l t e r n a t o r of Figure 2 revolves a t the speed oP 3600 RPM, what w i l l be t h e frequency of the generated a l t e r n a t ing c u r r e n t ? N x S Write down yowr formula i n t h i s fashion; F = 7, frequency, where F N = number of p o l e s and S a t h e speed of the machine i n r e v o l u t i o n s per second*

If t h e speed of t h e a l t e r n a t o r i s 3600 RPM t h e n i t s speed i n r e y o l u t i o n s per second w i l l e q u a l 3600, o r 60 r e v o l u t i o n s per second.

==- ?Ti

2 x 60 Substitutin@;t h e s e iralues i n the formula w have F r ' e Z

Therefore, F (frequency] i s 60 c y c l e s per second.

-"

= -2- =

120

60r

The m a j o r i t y of commercial a l t e r n a t o r s have more than two poles and it i s j u s t a s e a s y t o f i n d t h e frequency o f a multi- pole machine a 3 it was t o f i n d t h e frequency of our simple two-pole a l t e r n a t o r . Simply s u b s t i t u t e t h e known number of poles f o r N and a l s o t h e o t h e r known values i n t h e formule and solve a s shown above.
PHASE

The phase of an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t wave can be any point on t h a t wavec You learned i n p l o t t i n g the s i n e curve of Figure 6 t h a t degrees were used t o denote time a s r e g a r d s t h e values of t h e E.M.F. and c u r r e n t each a l t e r n a t i o n . Hence, t h e term "phase" a s they r i s e and f a l l d u r i n ~ may a l s o r e f e r t o time. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , phase may a l s o be s a i a t o be t h e time i n s t a n t when some maximum, zero, o r any intermediate value i s reached by the wave.

1
I

I n Figure 6 w used 45 degree i n t e r v a l s s o i n f u r t h e r d e s c r i b i n g phase e w w i l l a l s o use 45 degree i n t e r v a l s of time and i l l u s t r a t e i t i n Figure e 7 . The phase, "A" " A ' " , u n l e s s otherwise s p s c i f i e d i n such a curve, i s regarded a s a 360 degree phase; t h a t i s , the phase begins a t 0 degrees and e n d s a t 360 degrees.

WT ZERO
E.M.F.AN0 CURRENT MAXIMUM NEGhTlVE

An0

.. . .

';.--I

Figure 7

Figure 8

Any o t h e r point may c o n s t i t u t e t h e phase of t h e curve,.such a s "B" and "B'" which i s a 45 degree phase, "C" and " C ' " a 90 degree phase, "D" and "D 1 If a 135 degree phase, and so on.

Lesson 1 1

- sheet 8

PHASE RELATIONS, CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

The c u r r e n t of t h e a l t e r n a t o r a l t e r n a t e s a s w e l l a s t h e E.M.F. and w i l l have t h e same g e n e r a l form a s t o frequency etc., and both c u r r e n t and E.M.F. can b e p l o t t e d from t h e same base l i n e . The c i r c u i t through which the a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t flows w i l l have, however, an i n f l u e n c e on t h e c u r r e n t and w i l l e i t h e r cause t h e c u r r e n t t o l a g or l e a d the electromotive force. Capacity and inductance a r e t h e determining f a c t o r s i n r e g a r d s t o t h e l a g o r l e a d of t h e c u r r e n t . T h i s w i l l be taken up i n d e t a i l i n a l a t e r lesson. I n t h i s l e s s o n w w i l l show you t h r e e curves having d i f f e r e n t phases. e The f i r s t , shown i n Figure 8, i s one which would be obtained i n an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t where r e s i s t a n c e only i s p r e s e n t i n t h e circuit. Notice t h e E.M.F. and c u r r e n t curves. Both s t a r t t o r i s e a t t h e same i n s t a n t and continue t o r i s e and f a l l keeping i n s t e p with each other throughout t h e cycle. I n o t h e r words, t h e y a r e i n phase w i t h each o t h e r , This condition, a s s t a t e d , r e s u l t s only when pure dhnic r e s i s t a n c e i s p r e s e n t i n t h e c i r c u i t . Figure 9 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r e s u l t i n g e f f e c t on t h e c u r r e n t when pure inductance o n l y i s i n t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t , and i n t h i s ... by 90 case causes t h e c u r r e n t t o 3 behind t h e voltage o r E M F degrees. I n o t h e r words t h e r e t a r d i n g e f f e c t of inductance prevents t h e current from s t a r t i n g through the c i r c u i t u n t i l a f t e r t h e E N F ... has increased i n value corresponding t o 90 degrees. Figure 10 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e phase r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e c u r r e n t and . . . when pure c a p a c i t y only i s present i n t h e c i r c u i t . I n t h i s the EMF i n s t a n c e t h e a c t i o n ' i s q u i t e the opposite of t h a t when t h e alternating c u r r e n t was flowing through pure inductance, i.e., t h e c u r r e n t now leads t h e voltage k y 90 degrees. These curves simply show g r a p h i c a l l y how, f i r s t , a c u r r e n t and E.M.F. which i s i n phase i s d e p i c t e d and, second, how t h e c u r r e n t i s out of phase with t h e E.M.F. by 90 degrees w i t h t h e c u r r e n t lagging the E.M.F. by 90 degrees. and, t h i r d , t h e c u r r e n t l e a d i n g t h e E.M.F. The reasons why t h i s phenomena i s apparent w i l l be taken up i n d e t a i l l e t e r on.

EFFECTIVE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

The ampere i s the u n i t of e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t flow and we t o l d you t h e t it was t h e r a t e of u n i t flow t h a t would pass through a r e s i s t a n c e of me ohm a t a pressure of one v o l t . More c o r r e c t l y it i s s t a t e d a s follows: "The ampere i s t h a t unvarying c u r r e n t which, when passed through a sol u t i o n of n i t r a t e of s i l v e r i n water, w i l l d e p o s i t s i l v e r a t the r a t e From t h i s standard method w may dee of 0.001118 grams per second." termine e x a c t l y t h e amperes flowing i n a D C .. circuit. N are, however, d e a l i n g w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t and you know a l t e r z m G e ing c u r r e n t v a r i e s , changing i t s value every i n s t a n t of t h e cycle
1 Lesson 1

r e v e r s i n g i t s d i r e c t i o n every 180 degrees, o r each a l t e r n a t i o n . T h i s standard of measurement cannot, t h e r e f o r e , be used i n determining t h e amperes i n an A.C. c i r c u i t , The f i r s t a l t e r n a t i o n would deposite a c e r t a i n amount of s i l v e r , t r u e enough, but t h e next a l t z r n a t i o n would be opposite in d i r e c t i o n t o t h e f i r s t and i t would t a k e away the s i l v e r j u s t deposited. For t h a t reason some other means of f i n d i n g the c u r r e n t i n amperes i n an A.C. c i r c u i t must be used. This may be determined by the heat produced. W know t h e e f f e c t of e heat i s e n t i r e l y independent of t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t producing it and a s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t has no s p e c i a l u n i t of i t s own w w i l l e use the d i r e c t c u r r e n t ampere as a u n i t f o r comparison purposes.
With t h a t i n mind we can say t h a n a n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i s equivalent

t o a d i r e c t c u r r e n t when i t produces the same average h e a t e f f e c t s , contingent upon e x a c t l y s i m i l a r conditions. This i s c a l l e d the

Figure 10 Figure 9 e f f e c t i v e value of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , measured i n amperes, and i s K F a l u e which i s measured by a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t measwing i n s t r u ments. Heat i s p r e s e n t i n a c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g wire r e g a r d l e s s of t h e amount of t h e c u r r e n t flowing. Heat i s produced even though you may not be able t o p h y s i c a l l y d e t e c t i t . It i s known t h a t the h e a t i n g e f f e c t of an unvarying c u r r e n t i n a c i r c u i t of f i x e d r e s i s t a n c e v a r i e s a s t h e c u r r e n t squared. For example, Figure 11, we have shown a ,-T-. c u r r e n t curve and h e a t curve; a t any i n s t a n t t h e heat e f f e c t i s equal t o t h e c u r r e n t squared. ,,, ,,; 41 I*.% y ~ ~ C~ Rr E ii. U V ,/;, ; i ' , , , , : : ;:\, .--n,c,cuaaENT Since the h e a t i n g e f f e c t s of an e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t i s . e a u a l t o t h e c u r r e n t squared (Ir). then t o f i n d a t h e heat e f f e c t s of & curve, F i g w e 11, we must f i n d the square of each i n d i v i d u a l current value over t h e a l t e r n a t i o n . T h i s w do and then e extend d o t t e d l i n e s above t h e v e r t i c a l s proportion1 Figure 1 a l t o each squared c u r r e n t value. Connecting t h e e ends of t h e s e e x t e n s i o n s by a l i n e w have a second curve which i s t h e h e a t curve. It i s necessary now t o o b t a i n t h e average of t h e s e h e a t squares which i s done by d i v i d i n g the sum of t h e squares by 9, s i n c e we have 9 instantaneous values of c ~ r r e n t .
I

I\

-.

The square r o o t i s now found of t h i s average which g i v e s us t h e f i n a l r e s u l t , - t h e e f f e c t i v e c u r r e n t . It i s t h i s r e s u l t which i s read by a l l e l e c t r i c a l meters and i s t h e c u r r e n t u s e f u l i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e power of t h e c i r c u i t .
It i s not l i k e l y you w i l l , i n your p r a c t i c a l work, have occasion t o do work of t h i s kind. It i s done here simply t o show you how i t i s

Lesson 1 1

- sheet 10

calculated because this forms the basis from which all alternating current and voltage values are found. The step by step solution follorm: Taking the values of instantaneous current values from the curve we write: 1st instant of value II n n 2d n 11 t1 11 3rd
1. 84 5 .O 1 7. 76

and squerine; the above current values we have:

The sum of these squares equals:

Dividing the sum of the squares by 9 to obtain the average of these squares:
9 )4 9 7 . 4 5'26 45 .

73
9

PPZ
'72

63

T
3
Lesson 11

- sheet

11

E x t r a c t i n g t h e square r o o t o f t h e average squares:

71.47

--zm

49

which equals 71.417 t h e e f f e c t i v e current. The e f f e c t i v e voltage has t h e same r e l a t i o n t o t h e maximun voltage t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e c u r r e n t has to t h e maximum c u r r e n t and i s found i n t h e same manner, You w i l l note t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e c u r r e n t i s l e s s than t h e rnaximum current. I n dealing w i t h voltage the e f f e c t i v e voltage i s a l s o l e s s than t h e maximun v o l t a g e , because themaximum voltage reaches a higher p o t e n t i a l t h a n the e f f e c t i v e voltage. This accounts f o r the i n s u l a t i o n requirements of an A , C . c i r c u i t being higher than i n a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t ,

The power of an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t i s expressed i n w a t t s j u s t a s i n d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t s and i s found by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e c u r r e n t by t h e voltage. Thus, W 6 I x E.

T h i s only holds good i n a c i r c u i t where r e s i s t a n c e o n l y i s p r e s e n t ; i n o t h e r words, t h e c u r r e n t must be i n phase, o r i n s t e p , with t h e voltage, a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 8. When the c u r r e n t l a g s o r l e a d s t h e E.M.F. due t o t h e presence i n t h e c i r c u i t of fnductanre o r capacity, o r both, a power f a c t o r i s used which i s t h e r a t i o of t h e t r u e w a t t s t o t h e apparent watts ( t h e w a t t s you would o b t a i n by multiplying the v o l t s by t h e amperes). I n o t h e r words it i s t h e r a t i o between t h e u s e f u l c u r r e n t and t o t a l c u r r e n t .

ATR OX ATR ' The formula f o r finding t h e POLWR F C O follows: P W R F C O

EXAMINATION

RESISTANCE

LESSON 1 1

Is a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t necessary f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n of a r a d i o transmitter? What are s l i p r i n g s and why a r e they used i n s t e a d of a commutator? Explain t h e fundamental a c t i o n of an A . C . generator. Upon what f a c t o r s does t h e value of E.M.F. of a g e n e r a t o r depend? (a) What i s an a l t e r n a t i o n ? ( b ) A cycle? o ( a ) What i s frequency? ( b ) Hw i s frequency determined? What i s the meaning of "Phase"? What i s meant by " e f f e c t i v e value" of A.C. c u r r e n t ? What i s meant by t h e term "power f a c t o r " ? What i s t h e r e l a t i o n of voltage and c u r r e n t when only a c t u a l (ohmic) r e s i s t a n c e i s p r e s e n t i n an A.C. c i r c u i t .

Lesson 1 1

- sheet 12

.
Technical Lesson 12

newrlr
f;;7-me dyM A R C O N / /NSTIJUTE

INC.

s u n d e d . (909

THE: MOTOR-GENERATOR

The motor and the g e n e r a t o r which youhave j u s t s t u d i e d becomes a motorgenerator when coupled t o g e t h e r and mounted on a comon base. There i s no d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e fundamental design of e i t h e r t h e motor or generator. The s h a f t of the motor i s mechanically coupled t o t h e a motor- generator generator shaft which makes the two machines o n e u n i t n s e t . T h i s combination i s e x t e n s i v e l y used i n r a d i o p r a c t i c e . O shipboard t h e c u m e l k i s D C . . and i n our r a d i o work It i s necessary t o have current of a n a l t e r n a t i n g n a t u r e a v a i l a b l e . Therefore w u s e a motor e which o p e r a t e s on d i r e c t c u r r e n t with t h e s h a f t of t h e motor d i r e c t l y connected t o t h e s h a f t of a n a l t e r n a t i n g current generator and both machines being mounted on a common i r o n base. Figure $ shows a modern motor generator s e t used f o r r a d i o operation. The motor i s a t the l e f t of t h e base and t h e g e n e r a t o r on the r i g h t . This method of coupling t h e two machines t o g e t h e r i s c l e a r l y shown, t o g e t h e r with the housing f o r t h e bearings used t o support t h e s h a f t s of t h e motor and generator. I n t h i s case t h e motor and g e n e r a t o r have independent bearings.

I n some machines t h e coupling p l a t e used i s a s p e c i a l l y prepared d i s c of f l e x i b l e m a t e r i a l which w i l l withstand t h e t w i s t i n g s t r a i n of t h e motor s h a f t t u r n i n g t h e generator armature. T h i s allows f o r small i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e alignment of lthe s h a f t s . Where a s o l i d mechanical connection i s made t h e t i g h t e n i n g of t h e b o l t s i n t h e coupling device might e a s i l y t h r o w t h e s h a f t out of alignment causing i t t o bind on one o r more of t h e bearings, I n Figure 2 i s ill u s t r a t e d t h e g e n e r a l o u t l i n e of t h e motorFigure 1 g e n e r a t o r , . a l l bearings and bearing housings being omitted f o r t h e sake of clearness. Let u s r u n over t h i s assembly and see what we have by comparing t h e numbers i n the l i s t given bel-ow, The switch c o n t r o l l i n g t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t supply. The l e a d s connecting t h e main l i n e c u r r e n t supply w i t h t h e motor armature. 3. The d i r e c t c u r r e n t motoro 4. The armature of t h e motor. 5. The commutator of t h e motor. 6. The motor brushes. 7 . The motor s h a f t . 8. The l e a d s running from brushes supplying c u r r e n t t o t h e motor f i e l d windings. 9. The motor f i e l d c o i l s .

1 . 2 .

Contents Copyrighted 1 9 3 0 Printed in U S A. ..

It now becomes necessary t o d i v i d e the motor- generator equipment i n t o t h r e e s e p a r a t e c l s s s e s according t o the windine employed i n t h e f i e l d Coils*
The f i r s t type, shown i n Figure 2, i s a shunt'wound n o t o r coupled d i r e c t l y t o t h e a l t e r n a t o r ; second, t h e same t y p e of motor coupled t o an A . C . g e n e r a t o r having a compound wound f i e l d and, t h i r d , t h e motor f i e l d winding i s of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l compound wound type coupled t o a simple A.C. g e n e r a t o r . Let us c o n s i d e r t h e s e t h r e e d i v i s i o n s by studying t h e simple schematic drawings of F i g u r e s 3, 4 and 5, Before w go f u r t h e r , i f you have not a l r e a d y become f a m i l i a r with t h e e e l e c t r i c a l symbols, place t h e sheet bearing t h e s e symbols before you a s you study t h e drawings. Figure 3 i s t h e diagram of a simple shunt wound motor- generator s e t and has the same f i e l d and generator connections a s shown i n Figure 2. The p a r t s a r e a l l c l e a r l y labeled. The r e g u l e t i n g a c t i o n , or automatic c o n t r o l , due t o counter electromotive f o r c e , i s t h e same a s i n the shunt motor you studied. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s you w i l l n o t i c e two r e g u l a t i n g f i e l d c u r r e n t r h e o s t a t s one i n the motor 1 f i e l d c i r c u i t and one i n the generator f i e l d c i r c u i t , W nrf 1 exe p l a i n the o p e r ~ t i o nof these two r h e o s t a t s .

A.C. GENERATOR

D.C. MOTOR

Figure 3 Bsginning f i r s t w i t h t h e motor f i e l d , i f w t u r n t h e r h e o s t a t t o the e l e f t a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e arrow and more r e s i s t a n c e i s added t o t h e f i e l d c i r c u i t t h i s w i l l reduce t h e c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e motor f i e l d windings and t h u s weaken t h e magnetic f i e l d allowing t h e motor t o speed It i s very evident t h a t UP 9 which a l s o i n c r e a s e s t h e generator speed. t h e frequency output of t h e generator w i l l b e increased because i t s f ~ e q u e n c yp a r t l y depends upon i t s speed. By r e v e r s i n g t h i s procedure, l.e., decreasing t h e motor f i e l d r e s i s t a n c e by t u r n i n g t h e r h e o s t a t arm t o the r i g h t , t h e opposite e f f e c t i s produced, t h a t of reducing t h e f~equency of t h e generator. N w go through t h e same procedure with t h e generator f i e l d r h e o s t a t ; o t u r n it t o t h e l e f t a s shown by the arrow thereby c u t t i n g i n more r e s i s t a n c e and, n a t u r a l l y , a decrease i n c u r r e n t i n t h e generator f i e l d results.

Lesson 12

- sheet

When r e s i s t a n c e i s i n c r e a s e d i n t h e f i e l d windings of a generator it weakens t h e magnetic f i e l d and this, i n t u r n , reduces t h e generator output voltage. By t u r n i n g t h e r h e o s t a t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of the arrow l e s s r e s i s t a n c e i s included i n t h e f i e l d c i r c u i t , consequently more c u r r e n t flows i n t o t h e f i e l d c o i l s and a g r e a t e r magnetic f i e l d r e s u l t s , g i v i n g t h e armature more l i n e s of f o r c e t o c u t , hence a g r e a t e r e l e c t r o notive f o r c e , o r voltage i s produced.

SHUNT WOUND D.C. MOTOR

A.C. COMPOUND WOUND GENERATOR

Figure 4 generator f i e l d winding and i n a motor f i e l d . Be s u r e t h a t you f u l l y comprehend t h e two a c t i o n s and do not confuse them. I n Figure 4 w have a shunt wound motor and compound wound generator; e t h e motor and g e n e r a t o r shunt f i e l d s have a d j u s t a b l e r h e o s t a t s connected i n t h e i r c i r c u i t s e n a b l i n g t h e speed of t h e motor t o be r e g u l a t e d and t h e voltage of t h e g e n e r a t o r t o be c o n t r o l l e d . When t h e d e s i r e d speed of the motor i s secured and t h e proper voltage output of t h e generator i s obtained, t h e s e r h e o s t a t s a r e l e f t i n t h a t p o s i t i o n . The shunt and s e r i e s f i e l d windings of t h e g e n e r a t o r a r e connected i n such manner t h a t t h e f i e l d of the s e r i e s winding and t h a t of the shunt

0. C. MOTOR

A.C. MOTOR

Figure 5 winding are i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n , i.e., of t h e same p o l a r i t y . The motor-generator i s s u b j e c t t o sudden loads when t h e t e l e g r a p h key i s closed and when t h i s happens t h e r e i s a tendency toward a decrease i n speed; a s t h i s t a k e s p l a c e t h e r e w i l l be a n i n c r e a s e of current flow through t h e s e r i e s windings, because t h e s e r i e s windings a r e i n s e r i e s

Lesson 1 2

- sheet 4

w i t h t h e armature of t h e motor, This increased c u r r e n t flow through t h e s e r i e s winding s t r e n g t h e n s t h e f i e l d of the g e n e r a t o r a t once and it tends t o r e s t o r e t h e voltage t o normal. Thus, i n t h i s type of motorgenerator t h e speed of t h e motor and v o l t a g e output of t h e generator i s constant under sudden v a r i a t i o n s of t h e loadss. maintained f ~ i r l y

Figure 6 N w l e t us look a t Figure 5. The motor i n t h i s case i s d i f f e r e n t i a l l y o compound wound o r , i n o t h e r words, t h e shunt f i e l d i s wound i n one d i r e c t i o n while t h e s e r i e s f i e l d i s o p p o s i t e l y wound, and when c u r r e n t flows through t h e s e two windings t h e f i e l d of one w i l l oppose the f i e l d s e t up by the o t h e r . Suppose w analyze t h e e f f e c t of having the f i e l d e of t h e s e r i e s windings oppose t h e f i e l d of t h e shunt windings of t h i s motore From t h e work you have covered you learned t h a t when t h e f i e l d of a motor was weakened i t s speed increased, When a load i s thrown on t h e g e n e r a t o r i n Figure 5 t h e speed of the motor i s reduced thereby dec r e a s i n g the counter E,M.F. As t h e shunt f i e l d i s connected a c r o s s t h e l i n e it t e n d s t o remain normal 5x1 s t r e n g t h , and would tend t o f u r t h e r reduce t h e speed. However, a s t h e s e r i e s f i e l d i s connected i n s e r i e s with t h e armature i t t a k e s more c u r r e n t from t h e l i n e and i s thereby s t r e w t h e n e d and, being wound opposite t o t h e shunt winding, i t s f i e l d opposeg, o r tends t o n e u t r a l i z e , t h e f i e l d of the shunt winding, f u r t h e r weakening t h e mqtor f i e l d a s a whole. This weakened f i e l d allows t h e motor t o g a i n speed a t once, b u i l d i n g up t h e counter E.DA.Fb which a u t o n a t i c a l l g r e s t o r e s t h e motor t o i t s norm 1 speedc

Lesson 12

- sheet 5

Motor g e n e r a t o r s employed with r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r s a r e r a t e d i n O shipboard you w i l l f i n d 1/4 m , 1/2 KW, 1 KW and n i kilowatts. 2 KW machines f o r spark transmission. The frequency i n cycles of any A.C. generator can be found a s follows, using f o r example, t h e two kilowatt s e t of t h e Crocker Wheeler t y p e shown i n Figure 6. F i r s t we must know t h e number of p a i r s of poles and t h e speed of t h e armature i n r e v o l u t i o n s per second. This p a r t i c u l a r type of generator has 30 f i e l d poles and revolves s t 2000 r e v o l u t i o n s per minute. Let F = frequency. F number of p a i r s of poles. N t h e speed i n r e v o l u t i o n s p e r minute.

N 2000 R.P.M. Then "F" P x '60 or F -" 1 5 x ?seconds. F 2 1 5 x 33.3 ? I v/e would, t h e n , say t h a t the frequency i s 500 cycles.

499.5

The motor w i l l r e q u i r e about 29 anperes under a p r e s s u r e of 110 v o l t s armature which d e l i v e r s v o l t a g e s varying from t o drive the g e n e p ~ ~ t o r 120 t o 380 v o l t s and a c u r r e n t output of about 20.8 amperes. Worn t h e above w can a l s o determine t h e e l e c t r i c a l horse power g f t h e motor by e m u l t i p l y i ~ amperes times 110 v o l t s and d i v i d e t h i s by 746 watts, 29 or one e l e c t r i c a l horse power, E l e c t r i c a l H.P.e

+ 746 =
BRUSH OF ARM
MAKING CONTkCT

4.27 h o r s e power.

RESISTANCE WINDING

RREOSTPIT*"
CONTACTOR

'--HPINDLE

Figure 7
T I E FIELD RHEOSTAT

Figure 8

For c o n t r o l l i n g t h e f i e l d c u r r e n t of a motor o r g e n e r a t o r t h e r e s i s t a n c e wire must be a b l e t o continuously c a r r y t h e c u r r e n t supplying t h e f i e l d c o i l s . The r h e o s t a t f i e l d i s , consequently, d i f f e r e n t i n d e s i g n from t h e s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e due t o t h e constant c u r r e n t flow through t h e f i e l d . The s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e c a r r i e s t h e c u r r e n t o n l y during the

s h o r t time r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g t h e motor t o normal speed. when the s t a r t i n g arm has been forced over t o the "OEI" p o s i t i o n the r e s i s t a n c e i s cut out and t h e c u r r e n t t h e n t r a v e l s d i r e c t l y through t h e s t a r t i n g arm, a s shown i n F i g u r e s 22 and 23 i n the l e s s o n on DC .. motors. The f i e l d r h e o s t a t , o r running r e s i s t a n c e a s it i s sometimes c a l l e d , i s s o designed t h a t any p a r t of t h e r e s i s t a n c e a a y be placed i n t h e c i r c u i t and l e f t t h e r e . A photograph of t h e C u t l e r Hammer type of f i e l d rheos t a t i s shown i n Figure ?', and a diagram w i t h explanatory n o t e s i s shown i n Figure 8. The r e s i s t a n c e wire used i s a n a l l o y of such metals a s it w t l l enhance I t s r e s i s t a n c e p r o p e r t i e s and w h i c h , a f t e r i t has been placed and connected t o the proper c o n t a c t s , i s covered w i t h a s p e c i a l l y prepared i n s u l a t i n g cement. The e n t i r e unit i s t h e n placed i n an oven and baked. The baked cement p r e s e n t s a hard g l a z e d s u r f a c e which p e r f e c t l y insul a t e s t h e r e s i s t a n c e windings and r e n d e r s them d u s t and moisture proof. T h i s type of g e n e r a t o r f i e l d c o n t r o l g i v e s t h e very c l o s e r e g u l a t i o n of magnetic f i e l d s t r e n g t h which i s necessary where t h e quenched s p a r k type of gap i s used i n r a d i o transmission. The motor- generator set r e q u i r e s t h e same c a r e and a t t e n t i o n a s the Independent mot o r and g e n e r a t or. T E ROTARY CONVERTER H Rotary c o n v e r t e r s have s e v e r a l u s e s c I n commercial p r a c t i c e t h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y used t o convert a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i n t o d i r e c t c u r r e n t f o r use on t r a c t i o n l i n e s , i n t h e charging of s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s , and i n e l e c t r o - p l a t i n g plants. However, i n r a d i o when used on shipboard, the i n p u t i s d i r e c t c u r r e n t and t h e output i s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . There a r e no new p r i n c i p l e s with which you a r e not f a m i l i a r i n t h e fundamentals of t h i s machine o t h e r t h a n i t s physical construction. Just remember when you t h i n k o r h e a r of a r o t a r y converter t h a t it i s simply two machines i n one. There i s one armature and on t h i s i s placed a simple winding which s e r v e s t o revolve t h e armature and from which generated c u r r e n t i s c o l l e c t e d . T h i s generated c u r r e n t i s t h e r e s u l t of w h a t was, i n t h e independent motor o r generator, t h e counter E.M.F. Furthermore, only one s e t of f i e l d windings i s used t o supply t h e magnetic f i e l d f o r both t h e motor and generator f u n c t i o n s of t h e machine. Remember t h a t by applying d i r e c t c u r r e n t t o t h e windings, a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t can b e obtained by t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of c o l l e c t o r r i n g s placed on t h e end of t h e s h a f t opposite t h e commutator end or, i f it i s f i t t e d w i t h a c o m u t a t o r f o r output c u r r e n t , then d i r e c t c u r r e n t can be taken from it. F u r t h e r , i f arrangements a r e made t o revolve t h e armature by mechanical means t h e n b o t h a l t e r n a t i n g and d i r e c t c u r r e n t w i l l be delivered. The d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s a r e a s j u s t s t a t e d ; t h e use of a s i n g l e armature f o r e i t h e r a l t e r n a t i n g o r d i r e c t c u r r e n t . There a r e only

Lesson 12

sheet 7

two b e a r i n g s needed, and it r e q u i r e s l e s s space f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n and i n s t a l l a t i o n of the machine a s a whole i s s i m p l i f i e d . There i s t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e however of c o n t r o l of t h e v o l t a g e ; f u l l c o n t r o l i s n o t o b t a i n e d , and t h i s i s needed f o r e f f i c t e n t t r a n s n i s s i o n . T h e r e f o r e , it i s b e t t e r t o u s e t h e m o t o r - g e n e r a t o r t h a n t h e r o t a r y c o n v e r t e r f o r r a d i o t r a n s m i s s i o n , even t h o q h t h e c o s t of t h e m o t o r - g e n e r a t o r i s h i g h e r .
GENEUPISOR
WINDING-'-.-

SHUNT FIELD
18RUSH

cOLLE'-"
RlNi

,-COMMUTATOR

MOTOR

W I N DI N G

Figure 9 A f u n d a n e n t a l c i r c u i t o f t h e r o t a r y c o n v e r t e r a p p e a r s i n F i g u r e 9. The c u r r e n t f l o w s from t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t g e n e r a t o r t h r o u g h t h e s e r i e s field winding i n t o t h e a r m a t u r e a t b r u s h 1, t h r o u g h t h e armature c o i l s The shunt f i e l d i s c o n n e c t e d a c r o s s t h e l i n e a s and out a t b r u s h 2. i n any compound wound machine. As t h e c u r r e n t i s a p p l i e d t o t h e armat u r e c o i l s r o t a t i o n r e s u l t s . The d o t t e d l i n e s which a r e shown c o n n e c t e d t o t h e c o l l e c t o r r i n g s a r e t a p s t a k e n from t h e a r m a t u r e windings a t t h e p o i n t shown. As t h e armature r e v o l v e s i n t h e f i e l d , c u r r e n t i s d e v e l o p e d and i s l e d t o t h e c o l l e c t o r r i n g s and d e l i v e r e d t o t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t a s a l t e r nating current. The v o l t a g e w i l l be maximum when t h e t a p s running t o t n e c o l l e c t o r r i n g s a r e c o n n e c t e d a t t h e b r u s h e s a s shown, and minimum when c o n n e c t e d t o t h e winding midway between t h e b r u s h e s . The a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t v a l u e d e l i v e r e d , which i s r e a l l y t h e c o u n t e r E.M.F. of t h e r e v o l v i n g a r m a t u r e , w i l l r e a c h a maximum of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70 v o l t s when 1 1 0 v o l t s D C . . i s used a s t h e supply. ' h e n v a l u e s of h i g h e r v o l t a g e a r e d e s i r e d a s t e p up t r a n s f o r m e r must b e u s e d on t h e a l t e r n a t i n g current side. THE D N M T R Y A OO The c i r c u i t of the dynamotor i s shovin i n F i g u r e 10. The a r m a t u r e c a r r i e s two s e p a r a t e w i n d i n g s wound i n s e p a r a t e s l o t s on t h e c o r e , one t o r e v o l v e t h e a r m a t u r e a s a motor and t h e o t h e r f o r the prod u c t i o n of c u r r e n t . I n t h e f i g u r e shown the d i r e c t c u r r e n t u s e d t o d r i v e t h e a r m a t u r e i s (Commercial machines o b t a i n e d from a 30 v o l t s t o r a g e b a t t e r y o u t f i t .

Lesson 1 2

sheet 8

can be r u n on 110 v. D.C. and o t h e r v o l t a g e s . ) Voltages ranging from 350 t o 2000 v o l t s D.C. may be secured from the g e n e r a t o r end, depending upon the design and type of dynamotor. The f i e l d i s compound wound and i s used a s both t h e motor and generator f i e l d windings. The speed of t h i s type of machine i s 2000 R.P.M. and, t o reduce v i b r a t i o n , t h e e n t i r e 1 u n i t i s suspended i n a s p r i n g suspension saddle shown i n Figure 1 .
,GENERPITOR WINDING

DYNPIMOTDRS ARE STPNOAROIZEO FOR VOLTAGE OUTPUTS OF 350, 1000. AND 2 0 0 0 VOLTS

Figure 1 1 Figure 10 The motor- generator i s f a s t r c p l a c i w the r o t s r y converter and dynamotor f o r r a d i o tube work due t o t h e more e f f i c i e n t c o n t r o l r e a l i z e d i n both constant speed and constant output i n voltage values. The modern tube t r a n s m i t t e r c a l l s f o r a method t o supply b o t h low and h i g h voltages. The f i l a m e n t voltage r e q u i r e d f o r t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g tube v a r i e s from 8 t o 16 v o l t s and may be e i t h e r a l t e r n a t i n g or d i r e c t c u r r e n t . The p l a t e v o l t a g e ranges from 350 t o 6000 v o l t s . EXAMIIiATION
1.

GENERhTOR END

- LESSON 12

What i s a motor- generator? What a r e t h e requirements of a motor- generator s e t ? Draw a diagram of a shunt wound motor generator. What a r e t h e t h r e e t y p e s of motor g e n e r a t o r s ? Draw a diagram of a compound wound g e n e r a t o r s e t . H w would you r e g u l a t e t h e speed of a shunt wound motor- generator? o Explain how t h e voltage output o f t h e g e n e r ~ t o r s c o n t r o l l e d i n i a motor- generator set. What i s a dynamotor?

2
3.

4.

5.

6.

7 .
8. 9,

Explain f u l l y .
Explain f u l l y e

What i s a r o t a r y converter?

1. 0

Inkat i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between a " s t a r t i n g " and "running1' r e s i s t a n c e ?

Lesson 12

- sheet 9

sTlTUTE OF
FORMERLY MARCONI INSTITUTE FOUNDED 1909

Technical Lesson 13
POWER TRANSFORMERS

You became acquainted w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s underlying the a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t transformer i n your study of i n d u c t i o n and i t s d i f f e r e n t ch?.racteristics. Before studying transformers it w i l l be necessary f o r you t o r e c a l l t h a t which you lenrned i n your study of s e l f i n d u c t i o n , and i t i s suggested t h a t you again go over t h e l e s s o n d e a l i n g with t h a t p a r t of t h e work t o r e f r e s h your memory i n order t h a t t h e fundamental a c t i o n of t h e t r a n s f o r n e r may be thoroughly understood. The trnnsformer comes i n t o use when w e wish t o change a v o l t a g e of low value t o one of h i g h e r value o r t o change high v o l t a g e s t o voltages of lower values. These changes may be accomplished i n t h e c o i l s of t h e transformer a t h i g h e f f i c i e n c y and without t h e a i d of moving p a r t s . F i r s t l e t us consider t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a simple transformer core, t h e n t h e windings or c o i l s and f i n a l l y determine how i t works and t h e numerous uses w have f o r it i n r a d i o p r a c t i c e . e
THE SIMPLE TRANSFORMER

A simple transformer can be made a s follows: Upon a s o f t i r o n r i n g wind a few t u r n s of o r d i n a r y rubber covere9 wire. Opposite t o t h i s winding and on t h e same r i n g s wind a l a r g e number of t u r n s of insul a t e d f i n e wire a s shown i n Figure 1. The f i r s t windfng i s c a l l e d t h e primary winding and t h e second i s c a l l e d t h e secondary winding.

Figure 1 I n your work on electro- magnetic i n d u c t i o n you learned t h a t when c u r r e n t passes through a wire a magnetic f i e l d immediately expands about t h e wire, and t h a t when t h i s f i e l d c u t s another mire an E.M.F. i s a t once induced i n t h e second wire. I f t h e second wire forms a produces a c u r r e n t which flows closed c i r c u i t t h i s induced E.M.F. through t h e second closed wire. You a l s o l e a r n e d t h a t , i n order t o t h e s e magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e , or t h e produce t h i s induced E.M.F. f i e l d , must be i n a s t a t e of c o n t i n u a l change.

Printed in U.S.A.

PRODUCTION O INDUCED E . .F. F M

by r e f e r r i n g t o F i g u r e s 2A, 2B, 2C and 2D. I n Figure 2 t h e magnetic A l i n e s of f o r c e a r e constant. I n t h i s f i e l d i s a c l o s e d conductor represented by t h e small c i r c l e . When t h i s conductor i s moved through t h e f i e l d i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e , a s from "S" t o "F n, o r from "Fn t o "s", it w i l l be moving p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e l i n e s of force. A s a r e s u l t none

Let u s pause h e r e andreview t h e various ways t h i s can be accomplished

of t h e l i n e s of f o r c e have been c u t and, t h e r e f o r e , no induced E.M.F. t a k e s place i n t h e conductor.

Figure 2B Figure 2 A I n Figure 2B w have r e p r e s e n t e d t h e conductor a s moving through, o r e c u t t i n e , t h e l i n e s of f o r c e a t f o u r d i f f e r e n t angles. If w move "A" e through t h e f i e l d a t e v e r s o s l i g h t an angle the l i n e s of f o r c e w i l l be c u t and a n induced E.M.F. r e s u l t s . "B" w i l l c u t more l i n e s of f o r c e i n a given time t h a n "A" because it t r a v e l s through t h e f i e l d more n e a r l y a t r i g h t a n g l e s than does "A" and a g r e a t e r induced E.M.F. "c", l i k e w i s e , w i l l t h e r e f o r e r e s u l t s i n conductor "B" t h a n i n 'A". have induced i n i t a g r e a t e r E.M.F. due t o t h e i n c r e a s e d angle a t which it c u t s t h e l i n e s of f o r c e . When t h e conductor moves through a magnetic f i e l d a t r i g h t angles, a s shown a t "DH, the maximum number of l i n e s of force a r e c u t (providing a l l t h e wires a r e moved a t t h e same r a t e o r i n the same given t i n e ) , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e maximm incluced E.M.F. T h i s in-

I I -Figure 2C Figure 21) duced E.M.F. may be i n c r e a s e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e f i e l d s t r e n g t h or by i n c r e a s i n g t h e speed of t h e conductors, o r both.

Figure 2G r e p r e s e n t s a conductor "K" i n an electro-magnetic f i e l d . The conductor i s s t a t i o n a r y but t h e l i n e s of f o r c e of t h e f i e l d a r e made t o expand and c o n t r a c t ( r i s e and f a l l ) i n t h e space about t h e conductor by opening and c l o s i n g t h e switch which does not allow c u r r e n t t o flow continuously through t h e electro-magnets, thereby causirig t h e f i e l d t o varg i n s t r e n g t h . This w i l l produce an induced E.M.F. i n t h e conductor KT'. T h i s method will g i v e t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t but someone must open and c l o s e t h e switch c o n t i n u a l l y o r employ an automatic device such a s a v i b r a t o r t o do t h e same t h i n g , which involves moving mechanical p a r t s , and moving mechanical p a r t s a r e p r e f e r a b l y t o be avoided because t h e y a r e o f t e n a source of t r o u b l e .

Lesson 13

- sheet 2

E it i s a m a t t e r of causing t h e s e l i n e s of f o r c e t o vary, why n o t ? use a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t which i s c o n s t a n t l y varying i n s t r e n g t h from zero t o maximum and t h e n decreasing t o zero, only t o r e p e a t the same o p e r a t i o n over a g a i n a f r a c t i o n of a second l a t e r but i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n . T h i s i s n o t only p o s s i b l e , but can be and i s done a s shown i n Figure 2D. Here t h e conductor i s s t a t i o n a r y whereas t h e magnetic f i e l d i s c o n s t a n t l y changing about t h e conductor "M" due t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g and decreasing n a t u r e of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t supplied t o t h e windings. An E.M.F. w i l l be induced i n wire "M" by t h e changi n g magnetic f i e l d although t h e wire does not move. The l a s t method, t h e n , i s t h e one we w i l l use i n t h e transformers we a r e t o employ i n our r a d i o c i r c u i t s .
Transformers a r e used in t h e commercial f i e l d to send e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t from one p a r t O f t h e country t o another over h i g h t e n s i o n l i n e s . T h i s energy can be s e n t many miles with small l o s s by employing step- up transformers and t h e n reduced t o any d e s i r e d voltage by a step-down transformer. I t s use, t h e r e f o r e , i s by no means confined t o radio. The underlying p r i n c i p l e s , however, regarding t h e a c t i o n of t h e comm e r c i a l transformer and t h e types used i n r a d i o p r a c t i c e a r e t h e same.
. I f an i n t e r r u p t e d Returning now t o t h e transformer shown i n Figure 1 d i r e c t c u r r e n t i s a p p l i e d t o t h e primary winding an E.M.F. w i l l be induced i n the secondary winding which w i l l be considerably higher i n voltage t h a n t h a t used t o energize t h e primary winding providing more t u r n s a r e wound on t h e secondary t h a n t h e primary.

The electromotive f o r c e induced i n t h e secondary winding depends upon t h e r a t i o of t h e t u r n s i n t h e two windings, primary "P" and secondary "S", a l s o on t h e r a t e t h i s f l u x o r f i e l d t w e a d i n g through and expanding about t h e secondary winding i s changed. Suppose t h e primary, "P" of a transformer i s wound with one hundred n t u r n s of number 1 4 o r 16 B & S G a g e i n s u l a t e d copper wire. O t h e secondary, "Sn many thousands of t u r n s of number 36 B & S i n s u l a t e d copper wire i s wound. Now,by applying a voltage, s a y of 100 v o l t s , t o t h e primary winding, a p o t e n t i a l of many thousand v o l t s w i l l be induced i n the secondary winding. By making improvements i n t h i s fundamental d e s i g n of t h e transformer, but u s i n g t h e same p r i n c i p l e s , w can c o n s t r u c t what i s known a s t h e e i n d u c t i o n c o i l , which was shown and explained i n your l e s s o n on e l e c t r o magnetic induction. The c u r r e n t i n t h e primary of t h e i n d u c t i o n c o i l can be i n t e r r u p t e d from t h i r t y t o one hundred t i n e s p e r second by proper adjustment of t h e v i b r a t o r arm "V" and t h e a d j u s t i n g screw "AS". The secondary of t h i s i n d u c t i o n c o i l i s comprised of many thousand of t u r n s of f i n e wire, whereas t h e primary i s of comparatively few t u r n s of coarse wire. Because of t h e high t u r n s r a t i o of these windings t h e voltage induced i n t h e secondary i s very high; s o high, i n f a c t , t h a t although the secondary t e r m i n a l s may he separated by a l a r g e a i r gap t h e voltage w i l l be g r e a t enough t o break down t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e intervening a i r and "jump" a c r o s s t h i s a i r gap i n t h e form of an e l e c t r i c spark. Lesson 13

- sheet 3

TYPES O POWER TRANSFORMERS F The symbol u s e d t o denote an i r o n core transformer i s shown i n Figure 3 and w i l l be used h e r e a f t e r whenever a transformer of t h i s type i s shown i n a c i r c u i t . Transformers may be c l a s s e d a s open core transformers and closed core transformers. The open core transformer i s so c a l l e d because t h e core does not prov,ide a continuous magnetic p a t h o r c i r c u i t , f o r t h e magnetic l i n e s of force,i.e., t h e magnetic c i r c u i t , as provided by t h e i r o n c o r e , i s open. A open c o r e transformer i s shown d i a g r a m a t i c a l l y i n Figure 4 n and a glance a t t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n w i l l show t h a t t h e magnetic l i n e s of force have a magnetic c i r c u i t only p a r t l y through i r o n , t h e remainder of t h e i r p a t h being, p e r f o r c e , through a i r .
lWN CORE

Figure 3 Figure 5 Figure 4 Compare t h i s c o n d i t i o n w i t h t h a t shownfn Figure 5 whereinis i l l u s t r a t e d It a t once becomes e v i d e n t t h a t , i n t h l s a closed core transformer. t y p e of core, t h e magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e have a continuous, o r closed magnetic p a t h i n which t o e s t a b l i s h themselves and, t h e r e f o r e , a r e not forced t o t a k e a p a t h even p a r t l y i n a i r . Hence a closed core t r a n s former i s one i n which t h e i r o n core provides a continuous, o r closed, magnetic c i r c u i t f o r t h e magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e . The method of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of energy i s i n d i c a t e d when t h e transformer i s classed a s a step- up transformer or a s a step-down transformer. Transformers a r e designed a s e i t h e r c o n s t a n t voltage o r constant c u r r e n t transformers. The i n d u c t i o n c o i l described i n the l e s s o n on electro- magnetic i n d u c t i o n i s a good example of t h e open core t r a n s former. This type of transformer i s s t i l l used f o r c e r t a i n purposes, but f o r r a d i o work it has been superseded by t h e closed core type. The open core step-up constant c u r r e n t transformer used i n r a d i o work i s shown i n Figure 4 and 9, and i t i s very s i m i l a r t o t h e " induction c o i l " type of transformer j u s t r e f e r r e d to. Tbe i r o n core i s b u i l t up of laminations i n t h e form of many small s o f t i r o n wires c u t t o l e n g t h and t i e d i n t o a t i g h t bundle. T h i s bundle of w i r e s i s t h e n cove,red w i t h i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l , such a s empire c l o t h , over which i s wound t h e primary winding. The primary u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s , of a c o m p ~ r a t i v e l y few t u r n s of heavy i n s u l a t e d wire.

Lesson 13

sheet 4

The terminals of t h e primary winding a r e brought out t o be connected l a t e r t o t h e supply source, such a s a 110 v o l t A . C . generator. Over t h e completed primary winding i s placed a tube which a c t s a s an insul a t o r s e a a r a t i n g t h e primary and secondary windings and capable of withstanding heat. On t h i s tube i s wound many thousand t u r n s of very f i n e i n s u l a t e d wire. This secondary i s g e n e r a l l y wound i n separate c o i l s and a s t h e y a r e s l i p p e d over t h e i n s u l a t i n g tubing t h e y a r e connected, one t o t h e o t h e r , s o t h a t a l l the c o i l s comprising the seconlary a r e i n s e r i e s . T h i s s i m p l i f i e s t h e r e p a i r i n g of the secondary, f o r should one c o i l burn out it can e a s i l y be r e p l a c e d without the expense and work of r e p l a c i n g t h e e n t i r e secondary winding. The terminals of t h e secondary winding a r e brought out and connected t o t h e spark gap a s shown. When the s w i t c h i n t h e primary c i r c u i t of Figure 4 i s closed t h e a l t e r n a t o r a t once impresses an a l t e r n a t i n g E.M.F. on t h e primary winding of t h e transformer. T h i s i n t u r n f o r c e s a n a l t e r n a t i n g current through t h e c o i l and t h e r e r e s u l t s an a l t e r n a t i n g magnetic f i e l d , OP f l u x . This f l u x a t once induces a counter electromotive f o r c e i n t h e primary windi n g which opposes t h a t E.M.F. being applied t o t h e c i r c u i t by t h e a l t e r n a t o r . The counter E.M.F. becomes so s t r o n g t h a t i t very n e a r l y succeeds i n stopping t h e p r e s s u r e being applied by t h e a l t e r n a t o r , r e s u l t i w i n but a small c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e primary. The f l u x caused by t h i s c u r r e n t h a s moved through t h e magnetic c i r c u i t provided by t h e i r o n core, out a t t h e ends, and has passed through t h e secondary winding inducing a n E.M.F. i n t h e secondary winding. In the secondary wincling a counter E.N.F. i s a l s o caused by t h e f l u x which opposes t h e f l u x of t h e primary. N w remember t h i s : - A s t h e f l u x of o t h e secondary has t o pass p a r t l y through a i r t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o the primary f l u x i s not g r e a t , t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i s l i t t l e magnetic r e a c t i o n by the secondary upon the primary due t o t h e l a c k of a continuous p a t h of i r o n f o r t h e magnetic flux t o pass through. The s e l f - i n d u c t i o n of t h e primary, due t o t h i s break i n t h e magnetic p a t h , remains n e a r l y constant and, because of t h i s f a c t , t h e c u r r e n t i s p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same a t a l l t i m e s , r e g a r d l e s s of whether t h e secondary i s closed o r open. This type of t r a n s f o r m e r , t h e r e f o r e , i s o f t e n termed a constant c u r r e n t transformer. I n designing an open core transformer where t h e e f f e c t of magnetic leakage i s used (magnetic leakage being t h e e f f e c t caused by t h e flwc passing through a c i r c u i t p a r t l y composed of i r o n and p a r t l y through a i r ) a s l i g h t a l t e r a t i o n i n t h e design i s made, i n t h a t more t u r n s a r e added i n t h e secondary c i r c u i t t h a n would be used i n t h e closed core type. The closed core t y p e i s shown i n Figure 5 and i s known a s a constant I t ' s a c t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h e open core voltage step- up transformer. transformer with t h e exception of t h e r e a c t i o n of t h e secondary on t h e primary due t o t h e i r o n core which both c o i l s embrace and which w i l l be Closing t h e switch impresses t h e v o l t a g e of t h e a l t e r n a t o r explained. upon t h e primary windings r e s u l t i n g I n c u r r e n t flow t h e r e i n with i t s attendant.magnetic f i e l d , or flux. Lesson 13

I I

- sheet 5

This f i e l d now produces two e f f e c t s simultaneously. Due t o s e l f i n d u c t i o n it begins t o e x e r t a back p r e s s u r e , o r counter E.M.F., in t h e primary windings, tending t o prevent any more c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e primary due t o t h e p r e s s u r e of the a l t e r n a t o r . It a l s o magnetizes t h e i r o n core on which t h e secondary i s wound; t h i s magnetic f l u x i n t h e core t h e n passes through t h e windings of t h e secondary thereby inducing an E.M.F. i n t h e secondary and t h e r e s u l t i n g induced c u r r e n t w i l l then flow i n t h e secondary, i f t h i s c i r c u i t i s closed. The induced c u r r e n t now produced i n t h e secondary i s i n a d i r e c t i o n opposite t o t h e c u r r e n t of the primary and it produces a magnetic f i e l d which opposes t h e f i e l d of the primary and thereby weakens i t . A s t h e c o r e i n t h i s type of transformer provides a complete magnetic c i r c u i t f o r t h e f i e l d of t h e secondary, it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e secondary w i l l r e a c t s t r o n g l y upon t h e f i e l d of t h e primary. The s t r e n g t h of t h i s secondary f i e l d w i l l determine t o what e x t e n t t h e primary f i e l d w i l l be weakened, and when weakened t h e s e l f - i n d u c t i o n of t h e primary i s reduced. When t h i s self- induced f i e l d of t h e primary i s weakened more c u r r e n t can flow i n t h e primary, t h e r e f o r e , each i n c r e a s e i n t h e secondary c u r r e n t causes an i n c r e a s e i n t h e primary c u r r e n t and t h e same c y c l e of e f f e c t s a s took place a t t h e s t a r t begins over again. With t h e s e e f f e c t s t a k i n g place over and over a g a i n t h e voltage of t h e transformer i s maintained f a i r l y constant throughout the period of use.
A transformer having both t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e c o n s t a n t c u r r e n t and constant v o l t a g e transformer can be had i f w provide an a i r gap e which, while not a s l a r g e a s i n t h e open core transformer, w i l l provide an a i r space s u f f i c i e n t t o allow a c e r t a i n amount of magnetic leakage t o t a k e place. This can be done a s i s shown i n Figure 6 by providing t h e core of t h e transformer with a magnetic leakage gap which w i l l maintain t h e s e l f - i n d u c t i o n of t h e primary n e a r l y c o n s t a n t under varyi n g loads placed on t h e secondary.

The r a t i o of voltage i n t h e secondary t o t h a t of t h e primary w i l l be found t o be n e a r l y a d i r e c t r a t i o of the t u r n s employed on each winding. For example, suppose t h e primary of t h e transformer of Figure 6 i s conposed of 200 t u r n s of y i r e and t h e secondary has 2,000 t u r n s ; t h e voltage of the secondary w i l l be 2 0 0 0 1 200, o r t e n times g r e a t e r t h a n t h e voltage applied a t t h e primary t e r m i n a l s by t h e a l t e r n a t o r . This can be put i n equation form a s follows: E F of secondary M n f prjmary

t u r n s of secondary t u r n s of primary

The primary winding i n a step- up transformer r e c e i v e s t h e low voltage from t h e e x c i t i n g f o r c e , o r a l t e r n a t o r , - w h i l e t h e secondary winding d e l i v e r s t h e high voltage induced t h e r e i n by t h e a c t i o n of t h e magnetic f i e l d produced by t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e primary.

I n t h e step-down transformer t h e r e v e r s e c o n d i t i o n e x i s t s ; t h e high voltage i s applied t o t h e winding of t h e g r e a t e r number of t u r n s and

Lesson 13

- sheet 6

t h i s winding t h e r e b y becomes t h e primary, while t h e winding c o n s i s t i n g of t h e l e s s e r number of t u r n s becomes t h e secondary. It i s , t h e r e f o r e , good p r a c t i c e t o r e f e r t o t h e windings of any transformer as the low t e n s i o n ancl t h e h i g h t e n s i o n s i d e s .
THE AUTO-TIIAVSFOHMER

The auto- transformer i s shown i n Figure 7 and i s seen t o c o n s i s t of t h e usual i r o n core on which i s b u t one winding, t h i s winding serving a s both t h e primary and secondary of the device, The t r a n s f e r of energy fkom primary t o secondary i n t h e auto-t~ansforrner i s not wholly i n d u c t i v e as i n those types of transformers employing
M&GNETIC LEAKAGE GAP

Figure 8 Figure 7 s e p a r a t e primary and secondary windings. I n t h i s type of transformer t h e t r a n s f e r of energy from t h e primary c i r c u i t t o t h e secondary c i r c u i t i s p a r t l y conductive, a s t h e secondary i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e primar y winding, and p a r t l y inductive due t o t h e i n d u c t i v e e f f e c t of t h e c o i l ' s magnetic f i e l d upon t h a t p a r t of t h e winding which comprises t h e secondary. This t y p e of transformer i s n o t used where t h e voltage t r a n s forrxatlon i s l a r g e , i.e., where h i g h voltages a r e t o b e stepped down t o low voltages o r , conversely, where low voltages a r e t o be stepped up t o h i g h voltages. T h i s i s because of t h e l i a b i l i t y of t h e voltage of t h e high t e n s i o n s i d e being impressed upon t h e low t e n s i o n s i d e due t o t h e s i n g l e winding being common t o both t h e h i g h and low t e n s i o n c i r c u i t s . Where t h e voltaee transformation i s l a r g e those t y p e s of transformers and secondrry windings a r e used. Hence, when employing s e p a r a t e p r i m ~ r y t h e auto-transforner i s used, i t i s employed i n c i r c u i t s where t h e Voltages being handled a r e of comparatively low values. For example, when stepping down 110 v o l t s A.C. t o , perhaps, 30 v o l t s , o r stepping up v o l t ages from, say, 20 v o l t s t o 50 or 60 v o l t s . As i n those t y p e s of transformers employing separate primary and secondary wind-ings, t h e v o l t a g e developed i n t h e secondary of t h e auto- transformer, a s r e l a t e d t o t h e primary voltage, i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r a t i o of primary t o secondary turns. Therefore, the equation given on page 6 f o r t h e open core and closed core transf'ormers can a l s o be a p p l i e d t o auto-transrormers For example, i n Figure 7 the auto-transf ormer i s shown a s having f i f t e e n t u r n s i n t h e primary, f i v e t u r n s i n t h e seconda r y ancl a primary voltage of 110 v o l t s . What w i l l b e t h e secondary voltage?

Lesson 13

- sheet 7

According t o t h e e q u a t i o n t h e equation becomes

550

35 3
Ep

Ts

S u b s t i t u t i n g our known values

E .

5 = n,transposing,

E,

x 110 o r

Es

equals

36.6.

The secondary voltage, t h e n i s 36.6 v o l t s .

s e c t i o n would become t h e secondary. The v o l t a g e developed i n the seconda r y can be found by t h e use of t h e same formula a s before;

I f t h e a l t e r n a t o r were connected t o t h e t e r m i n a l s S1, 52, the f i v e t u r n s e c t i o n of t h e winding would thereby become t h e primary and t h e 1 5 t u r n

E, Fp
E,

IS. S u b s t i t u t i n g , w have 7 3 3 e
1650

Tr

Es

15 = r,t r a n s p o s i n g ,

E,

15

5- x 110 o r

330.

The secondary voltage, then, i s 330 v o l t s .

SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER

The s h e l l type transformer i s shown i n Figure 8. The c o i l s of t h e transformer are f i r s t wound on a s u i t a b l e form and then, a s Is t h e case w i t h a l l transformer windings, a r e thoroughly impregnated w i t h an i n s u l a t E compound. T h i s may be merely melted p a r a f f i n o r it may be a compound of p a r a f f i n , beeswax and r o s i n , The i r o n core i s now b u i l t around t h e windings. Laminated s e c t i o n s of i r o n a r e used and, a f t e r a s u f f i c i e n t amount of i r o n has been i n cluded, p r e s s u r e i s brought upon t h e laminated s e c t i o n s and r i v e t s o r b o l t s a r e t h e n employed t o hold them i n place. Building t h e i r o n comp l e t e l y around t h e transformer windings provides a v e r y complete c i r c u i t f o r t h e magnetic f i e l d . Transformers a r e a l s o employed i n c i r c u i t s wherein a r e llowing a l t e r nai;ing c u r r e n t s of very h i g h frequency, namely, r a d i o frequency. Thesa transformers, known a s radio- frequency t r a n s f o r m e r s , depend f o r t h e i r functioning upon t h e same b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s a s do power transformers b u t , due t o t h e v a r i o u s phenomena encountered a t r a d i o frequencies, t h e i r design and c o n s t r u c t i o n d i f f e r s g r e a t l y from t h a t of power transformers. Radio-frequency transformers p l a y an important p a r t i n r a d i o c i r c u i t s and t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n s w i l l be dfscussed i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n a l a t e r lesson. The transformers j u s t described a r e power t r a n s f o r m e r s and a r e used i n c i r c u i t s where high power i s handled, y e t transformers u t i l i z i n g t h e same p r i n c i p l e s a r e employed i n r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r s and r e c e i v e r s where such high power i s n o t encountered.

Lesson 13

- sheet

T3ANSFORMER LOSSES

The l o s s e s i n a transformer a r e due t o the h e a t c r e a t e d by the c u r r e n t passing through t h e windings which i s g e n e r a l l y termed t h e "IaH l o s s " ( c u r r e n t squared times t h e r e s i s t a n c e l o s s ) . I n transformers handling high power t h i s h e a t i n g e f f e c t may r e a c h dangerous proportions, t h e r e f o r e various methods a r e employed t o prevent t h e h e a t from r i s i n g t o a point where t h e windings w i l l burn out. The i r o n l o s s e s include hyst e r e s i s and eddy c u r r e n t l o s s e s .
O i l , s r e a s e , water and a i r ape ax1 employed t o d i s s i p a t e t h e heat

developed i n t h e transformer.

When water i s employed a s a cooling

PRIMARY CORE

' SECONDARY
Figure 9

COILS

medium a cooling j a c k e t i s used i n which t h e water c i r c u l z t e s around t h e windings without coming i n a c t u a l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e c o i l s ; t h e heat i s taken up by the water and c a r r i e d t o t h e o u t s i d e of' t h e transformer case where it i s r a d i a t e d i n t o the atmosphere. When o i l i s used t o d i s s i p a t e h e a t i t c i r c u l a t e s , by v i r t u e of thermal a g i t a t i o n , around t h e windings and i s kept from coming i n c o n t a c t with t h e c o i l s by t h e t a p e which covers the c o i l s . When a i r i s used, it i s f o r c e d t o c i r c u l a t e about t h e c o i l s by a fan, d i s s i p a t i n g t h e h e a t by keeping cool a i r c o n t i n u a l l y c i r c u l a t i n g through t h e windings of t h e transformer. Open core transformers of the type i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 9 a r e g e n e r a l l y designed f o r primary voltages

of 110 t o 500 v o l t s a t f r e q u e n c i e s from 60 t o 500 c y c l e s , and seconda r y voltages of 1 2 , w t o 15,000 v o l t s , approximately. Tne c o i l s a r e surrounded by t h e laminated core w i t h t h e t e r m i n a l s brought out t o a panel a s shown, The s a f e t y gap leads a r e a l s o brought out through i n s u l a t o r s on t h e same panel. The transformer i s enclosed i n a case which i s f i l l e d grease t o prevent moiature from e n t e r i n g t h e windings r a d i a t e the h e a t when t h e transformer i s i n use. The i n g t h e terminals of b o t h t h e primary, secondary, and provides a t o p which i s screwed t o t h e case.
w i t h a heavy
A type of closed core transformer i s shown i n Figure 10.

and a l s o t o panel contains a f e t y gap,

NO LOAD CURRENT
V&en a power transformer former i s c l o s e d through flowing through b o t h t h e t h e secondary t e r m i n a l s , circuit. i e i n a c t u a l use t h e secondary of t h e t r a n s t h e load c i r c u i t and a t t h i s time c u r r e n t i s primary and secondary windings, Disconnect however, and no c u r r e n t flows i n t h e e x t e r n a l

which i s b e i n g s u p p l i e d by t h e g e n e r a t o r i s s t i l l The a l t e r n a t i n g E.M.F. e x e r t i n g i t s e l f on t h e primary and, being a l t e r n a t i n g E.M.F., t h e magneti c f i e l d produced i s a l s o a l t e r n a t i n g and c o n t i n u a l l y changing. This causes a constant r e v e r s a l of t h e magnetic f l u x through t h e i r o n core, which i n t u r n t h r e a d s through t h e primary winding inducing an E.M.F.

This f i e l d o r f l u x i s a l s o whlch i s opposite t o t h e a p p l i e d E.M.F. c u t t i n g t h e secondary b u t a s t h e secondary c i r c u i t i s open t h i s back p r e s s u r e w i l l n e a r l y e q u a l t h e applied p r e s s u r e of t h e a l t e r n a t o r , t h e r e f o r e t h e primary c u r r e n t i s very small. This s m a l l c u r r e n t i n t h e primary i s c a l l e d t h e 'ho load current" and r e p r e s e n t s a very small Lesson 13

- s h e e t 10

percentage of t h e c u r r e n t which i s r e q u i r e d by t h e transformer when it i s on load. From t h i s it i s s e e n t h e counter E.M.F. produced by t h e primary windi n g and which n e a r l y e q u a l s t h e applied E.M.F. a c t s a s a p r o t e c t i v e device a g a i n s t t h e s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g of t h e primary winding. Were i t n o t f o r t h i s back E.M.F., o r s e l f - i n d u c t i o n , of t h e primary, t h e c o i l would be s h o r t c i r c u i t e d when on no load.

It i s w e l l t o keep i n mind t h e following f a c t s when considering t h e transformer. First.- The transformer i s p r i m a r i l y designed t o change t h e voltage from a higher t o a lower p r e s s u r e , and v i c e versa. Second.The frequency of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t induced i n t h e secondary i s t h e same as t h a t flowing in t h e primary, Third.- I n r a d i o communication high p o t e n t i a l s a r e necessary and t h e transformer p e r f o r m t h e d u t y of very e f f i c i e n t l y changing low p o t e n t i a l s t o high without t h e use of moving p a r t s . Fourth.- It i s rugged i n c o n s t r u c t i o n and w i l l stand comparatively h a r d usage. Fifth.- It i s most e f f i c i e n t l y used on a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t s . Sixth.- It does not convert a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t o d i r e c t c u r r e n t , ( a r o t a r y c o n v e ~ t e ri s necessary f o r t h i s work). Seventh.. Although t h e voltage i s increased i n a step-up t r a n s former t h e a c t u a l power output i s n o t increased, but i s decreased t o a s l i g h t extent. I n o t h e r words i n t h e transformation of one voltage a higher some power i s l o s t .
EXAhlINATION
O f what use i s a transformer?

LESSON 13

Describe a simple transformer.

( a ) When the i n p u t of a transformer i s 110 v o l t s and t h e output 20,000 v o l t s what name i s given t o t h e i n p u t winding? ( b ) What name, i n t h i s case, i s g i v e n t o t h e output winding?

? h a r e some t y p e s of power transformers immersed f n o i l ? Uy Are transformers employed i n e l e c t r i c a l work i n g e n e r a l , or f o r purposes o t h e r t h a n r a d i o ? If so, f o r what purposes?

D r a w a diagram of a n open core step-up transformer. operation.

Describe a closed c o r e transformer.

Explain i t s

H w i s t h e r a t i o of voltage transformation of transformeradetermined? o What i s an auto- transf ormer? What a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l l o s s e s i n a power transformer?

Lesson 13

sheet 1 1

I ,

INC.
/-,7me7-fg-

M A R C O N / /NSTITUTE

sunded./909

Technical Lesson 14
INDUCTANCE

W now come t o t h e s u b j e c t of INDUCTANCE. e It w i l l be of g r e a t advantage t o you t o study t h i s phase of the i n s t r u c t i o n thoroughly s t r i v i n g t o master t h e fundamentals of inductance and i t s e f f e c t i n alternating current circuits. Inductance plays a very important p a r t i n such c i r c u i t s and, a s t h e frequency of t h e c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s , i t s e f f e c t thereupon becomes more and more pronounced u n t i l , i n c i r c u i t s handling c u r r e n t s of r a d i o frequency, i t becomes a f a c t o r of predominant importance.
INDUCTANCE i s b e s t defined a s t h a t p r o p e r t y of an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t which s t o r e s up energy i n t h e form of electro- magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e . I t s e f f e c t i s t o oppose any change of c u r r e n t i n t h e c i r c u i t and t h i s o p p o m t o a change i n c u r r e n t i s termed INDUCTIVE REACTANCE.

'

The p r o p e r t y of inductance simply denotes a p a r t i c u l a r arrangement of a conductor o r c i r c u i t , t h a t i s , t h e shape of the c i r c u i t , t h e m a t e r i a l s of which it i s formed, and t h e magnetic p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e medium surrounding it.
A c i r c u i t may have v a r i o u s values of inductance, i n f a c t , a c i r c u i t may have a s many inductances a s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o change t h e shape o r form of t h e c i r c u i t .

The u n i t of inductance i s t h e Henry and a c i r c u i t i s s a i d t o have an inductance of one Henry when a c u r r e n t which i s changing a t the r a t e of one ampere per second inpuces an electromotive f o r c e of one v o l t i n the c i r c u i t . T h i s unit was named a f t e r a noted American s c i e n t i s t , Joseph Henry, who discovered many important electro-magnetlc f a c t s . The Henry i s t o o l a r g e a unit f w ~ h r a d i o f P e q ~ e n c gc i r c u i t s hence ~ ~ e t h e m i l l i h e n r y which i s one thousanth (1/1000) p a r t of a Henry, i s used and, w i t h t h e very high f r e q u e n c i e s , t h e microhenry, which i s one m i l l i o n t h p a r t of a Henry, i s f r e q u e n t l y employed. The Henry i s used a s a u n i t of inductance i n t h e lower frequency c i r c u i t s of r a d i o r e c e i v e r s and t r a n s m i t t e r s , such a s i n t h e r a d i o and power circuits

I n t h e s t u d y of inductance t h e terms magnetic flux, m a m e t i c f i e l d , and magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e w i l l f r e q u e n t l y appear. They a l l mean t e one and h
The magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e which surround a c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g conductor a r e i n v i s i b l e and i n t a n g i b l e and a r e , t h e r e f o r e , non e x i s t i n g

l i n e s . The word l i n e s i s merely used a s a convenient way t o express o r represent the path and d i r e c t i o n of t h i s i n v i s i b l e magnetic force which surrounds a c u r r e n t carrying conductor. When any change i s made i n an e x i s t i n g c i r c u i t so thali an increase i n the number of magnetic f l u x l i n e s c u t t i n g the c i r c u i t i s produced per ampere of current, the inductance of the c i r c u i t w i l l b e i n c r e a s e d . A s t r a i g h t conductor w i l l possess r e l a t i v e l y small inductance and, i f t h e same copductor i s wound i n the shape of a h e l i x or c o i l t h e inductance w i l l be increased due t o the f a c t t h a t a g r e a t e r p a r t of the conductor, since it i s i n h e l i x form, w i l l be cut by a g r e a t e r proportion of a l l t h e f l u x developed. When i r o n i s used a s the core a s t i l l g r e a t e r concentration of magnetic f l u x takes place because the i r o n provides a b e t t e r magnetic p a t h f o r t h e f l u x than a i r alone. To determine the inductance of a c o i l used i n low frequency work and i n which no i r o n i s used, i.e., having an " a i r w core, the following formula may be applied: Assuming t h e c o i l of Figure 5 has 100 t u r n s , the average r a d i u s o f t h e c o i l i s 3 inches, and i t s length i s 9 inches, then

T'

x RS x .0000001

where

inductance number of turns r a d i u s of c o i l length of c o i l a constant

T
R

=
=
=
=

.0000001

1.0000001 x

TL x

R1

L L

=
=

10000 x

.0000001

- 0.001000

.001 Henry ( o r .l rnilli-Henry).

Now remember t h i s ; - t h e experiment and t h e working out of t h i s problen b s %Q do with a l t e r n a t i n g current c i r c u i t s of low frequency. The formul a , however, i s changed but s l i g h t l y with higher frequencies such a3
radio frequencies.

Lesson 14

- sheet 2

It i s necessary f o r you t o have knowledge of t h e foregoing s o t h a t you may have an i d e a of how inductance a c t s upon such c i r c u i t s t o b e t t e r enable you t o bring about a l i n e of reasoning which w i l l h e l p you when we a r r i v e a t t h e point where h i g h frequency i s used i n a r a d i o c i r c u i t . T h i s same b a s i c idea i s t o hold i n t h e explanation of c a p a c i t y i n an a l t e r n a t i n g c i r c u i t of h i g h frequency when we w i l l have progressed t o t h a t p a r t of t h e work.
SELF INDUCTANCE Self inductance i s t h e phenomenon af an e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t which causes i t h e g e n e r a t i o n of a second electromotive f o r ~ e n t h e c i r c u i t whenever t h e c u r r e n t i s i n c r e a s i n g , decreasing, or varying i n i t s r a t e of flow. The applied electromotive f o r c e , which we w i l l c a l l t h e f i r s t E.M.F., i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e flow of c u r r e n t i n t h e c i r c u i t , but t h e c u r r e n t while it i s i n any way varying, e i t h e r i n c r e a s i n g o r decreasing, s t a r t ing, or stopping, i s causing a second electromotive f o r c e t o appear i n t h e same c i r c u i t , I f w have a long s t r a i g h t wire forming a c i r c u i t of 22 ohms r e s i s t a n c e e i n which 5 amperes a r e flowing, a t an electromotive f o r c e of 110 v o l t s , w w i l l fincl t h a t , upon c l o s i n g t h e c i r c u i t by means of a switch, t h e e ammeter w i l l almost immediately r e g i s t e r 5 amperes and, upon opening t h e switch, a small spark w i l l appear a t t h e s w i t c h points. Winding t h e same conductor about an i r o n core a s shown i n Figure 1 and a g a i n c l o s i n g t h e switch "s" t h e aruneter w i 3 3 again r e g i s t e r 5

:t/-lA
3 2
I
0

i r k
I
0

TIME

TIME

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

anperes a s t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e conductor has not been changed. It w i l l be noticed, however, i f it was p o s s i b l e t o observe t h e r i s e of t h e needle, t h a t i t r e q u i r e s a considerably longer time f o r the needle t o i n d i c a t e t h e f u l l value of 5 amperes i n t h e second c i r c u i t arrangement, than it d i d i n t h e f i r s t . Upon opening t h e s w i t c h "s" t h i s time a much l a r g e r spark w i l l be seen t o occur a t t h e switch c o n t a c t s , which f a c t i s evidence t h a t t h e c u r r e n t s t i l l t e n d s t o flow i n t h e c i r c u i t .

It should be noted t h a t t h i s spark i s l a r g e r t h a n t h a t produced when t h e c i r c u i t was i n t h e f i r s t arrangement of a s t r a i g h t conductor; t h i s i s evidence t h a t t h e c i r c u i t now has g r e a t e r inductance.
That which t a k e s place i s a s follows: When a c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 1 i s closed, c u r r e n t a t once s t a r t s t o flow through t h e c o i l and i n c r e a s e s i n value u n t i l the maximum c u r r e n t value i s reached. Lesson 14

- sheet 3

It does not r i s e t o i t s f u l l value i n s t a n t l y b u t does s o gradually, a s

s h o w by t h e s l o p i n g p a r t of t h e curve i n Figure 2. The reason f o r i t s gradual r i s e i n s t e a d of an instantaneous r i s e i s due t o t h e expandi n g magnetic f i e l d which always i s i n a s t a t e of change whenever t h e c u r r e n t v a r i e s . The i n s t a n t t h e c u r r e n t s t a r t s , t h i s magnetic f i e l d s p r i n g s i n t o being and expands, c u t t i n g t h e conductor and inducing i n t h i s same conductor a secondary electromotive f o r c e , c a l l e d t h e s e l f induced o r counter E.M.F., which t e n d s t o prevent t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e c u r r e n t producing it.

It i s t h i s self- induced E.M.F. which, b y i t s o p p o s i t i o n t o any change i n t h e flow of c u r r e n t , r e t a r d s t h e r i s e of c u r r e n t i n t h e c i r c u i t . The g r e a t e r the s e l f - i n d u c t a n c e of a c i r c u i t t h e more pronounced w i l l be t h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o any change whatsoever i n t h e c u r r e n t . In a c i r c u i t , such a s t h a t of Figure 1, i n which t h e c o i l s e t s up a s t r o n g magnetic f i e l d and hence has a h i g h value of self- inductance, whenever an attempt i s made t o q u i c k l y i n c r e a s e , reduce, o r s t o p t h e c u r r e n t flow, t h e r e s u l t i n g s e l f -induced E .M.F. e x e r t s a marked opposition t o such a change. It w i l l always oppose an i n c r e a s e i n c u r r e n t and, when t h e c u r r e n t i s decreased o r stopped, w i l l a l s o oppose such a decrease by attempting t o maintain t h e c u r r e n t a t i t s o r i g i n a l maximm value.

:v-/\
3

CURRENT

2
0

BLE THROW SWITCH

TIME

Figure 4 Figure 5 The applied electromotive f o r c e , which caused t h e c u r r e n t t o flow during t h e time t h e c u r r e n t was i n c r e a s i n g , was being opposed by t h e self- induced e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e , and it i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e two v o l t a g e s which determines t h e momentary c u r r e n t value. When t h e c u r r e n t i s i n c r e a s i n g a t i t s g r e a t e s t r a t e t h e s e l f induced voltage a t t a i n s i t s g r e a t e s t opposing f o r c e , b u t when t h e c u r r e n t reaches i t s maximum value and becomes s t e a d y i.e., having no v a r i a t i o n , t h i s s e l f induced E.M.F. t h e n disappears. Although t h e counter E.M.F. becomes n i l when t h e c u r r e n t has reached a maximum steady value, energy, however, i s s t i l l present i n the form of an electromagnetic f i e l d . If a c i r c u i t possesses a very low self- inductance, upon opening the switch "S", t h e c u r r e n t w i l l n o t drop i n s t a n t l y t o zero, a s shown by t h e abrupt c u t off l i n e A , i n Figure 2, but w i l l g r a d u a l l y decrease a s shown by t h e l i n e A ' , i n Figure 3. If, on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e c i r c u i t possesses r e l a t i v e l y h i g h inductance then, upon opening t h e c i r c u i t and t h u s suddenly stopping t h e source of c u r r e n t , t h e r e w i l l

Lesson 14

sheet 4

be a momentary heavy surge of c u r r e n t i n t h e c i r c u i t a f t e r which t h e c u r r e n t d i e s out a s shown i n Figure 4.

It must be remembered t h a t , during t h e gradual r i s e of c u r r e n t i n t h e c i r c u i t , energy was a l s o being g r a d u a l l y s t o r e d up i n t h e medium surrounding t h e c o i l i n t h e form of an electromagnetic f i e l d . Since t h i s magnetic f i e l d i s dependent f o r i t s e x i s t e n c e upon a flow of c u r r e n t through t h e c o i l , the i n s t a n t t h e switch "s" i s opened, thus stopping t h e flow of current, t h e f i e l d immediately c o l l a p s e s upon t h e c o i l . This c o l l a p s e of t h e f i e l d upon t h e c o i l induces t h e r e i n a voltage and c u r r e n t which flows i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n a s t h e o r i g i nal, current. T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e i n e v i t a b l e decrease of c u r r e n t by tending t o maintain t h e c u r r e n t flow a t i t s o r i g i n a l maximum value. I n o t h e r words, t h e flow of c u r r e n t through t h e c o i l has r e s u l t e d i n some of t h e c u r r e n t being used t o c r e a t e an e l e c t r o magnetic f i e l d . When t h i s c u r r e n t ceases t h e f i e l d c o l l a p s e s and the energy s t o r e d i n this f i e l d i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e c i r c u i t i n t h e form of e l e c t r i c a l current. A s a l r e a d y explained, t h i s i n t e r - p l a y of f o r c e s i n t h e c i r c u i t i s such t h a t t h e self- induced voltage and c u r r e n t a l ways opposes any change. It i s t h e sudden f a l l i n g of t h i s magnetic f o r c e about the conductor which causes the momentary heavy surge a s . shown i n Figure 4 by t h e peak curve marked P

What have we discovered by t h e foregoing? and e f f e c t s we f i n d t h e following:

(1) When an E.M.F.

Summing up t h e s e causes

i s applied t o a c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s t a r t s t o flow and a magnetic f i e l d springs up.

( 2 ) A s the current i n c r e a s e s the f i e l d increases, cutting t h e conductor and thereby c r e a t i n g a counter E.M.F. which t e n d s t o prevent t h e c u r r e n t from f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e and which i s c a l l e d t h e SELF-INDUCTION of the c i r c u i t .
( 3 ) Self- induction i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e c o n s t i t u t e s an opposi n g f o r c e t o the o r i g i n a l crurrent.
( 4 ) Time i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e o r i g i n a l c u r r e n t t o overcome t h e opposit i o n o f f e r e d by t h e s e l f - i n d u c t i o n of t h e c i r c u i t .
( 5 ) When t h e c u r r e n t reaching i t s maximum value and remaining steady, t h e f i e l d ceases t o c u t t h e conductor and s e l f - i n d u c t i o n ceases.

n t h e o r i g i n a l current ( 6 ) O disconnecting t h e source of a p p l i e d E.M.F. ceases t o flow, t h u s allowing t h e magnetic f i e l d t o c o l l a p s e , which and c r e a t i n g a again c u t s t h e canductor thereby inducing a n E.M.F. c u r r e n t which flows i n such a d i r e c t i o n a s tends t o maintain t h e c u r r e n t flow i n t h e c i r c u i t .

( 7 ) The s e l f - i n d u c t i o n of an e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t always opposes any change of c u r r e n t t a k i n g place.

(8) I n a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t t h e e f f e c t of s e l f - i n d u c t i o n i s apparent only f o r a moment while t h e c u r r e n t i s changing i n value, e i t h e r i n c r e a s i n g or decreasing, o r only a t t h e time t h e c i r c u i t i s opened and closed.

Lesson 14

sheet 5

Electromagnetic I n e r t i a i s a term sometimes used t o b e t t e r express self- inductance f o r it a c t s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e i n e r t i a which i s found i n t h e study of mechanics. For example, a f l y wheel tends t o remain a t r e s t and, when f o r c e i s applied i n a manner which w i l l cause t h e wheel t o revolve, it w i l l r e q u i r e time p l u s t h e f o r c e t o cause t h e wheel t o revolve a t a given speed. When it i s d e s i r e d t o s t o p the revolving wheel f o r c e i s again a p p l i e d and time i s r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g t h e wheel t o a d e a d stop. The energy which i s s t o r e d i n t h e revolving mass must be absorbed a s i t i s gradually brought t o i t s o r i g i n a l s t a t e of r e s t . I n e r t i a w i l l oppose any i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e i n t h e e x i s t i n g speed of a movlng mass, The same p r i n c i p l e i s involved i n t h e case of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t flowing through a c o i l where s e l f - i n d u c t i o n (electro- magnetic i n e r t i a ) opposes any i n c r e a s e o r decrease i n the flow of c u r r e n t . The c u r r e n t value i n an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t i s c o n t i n u a l l y changing i n value, consequently t h e magnetic f i e l d i s c o n t i n u a l l y changing,- b u i l d i n g up one i n s t a n t and c o l l a p s i n g t h e next,opposing t h e r i s i n g c u r r e n t and tending t o maintain t h e flow o f , t h e decreasing c u r r e n t . An experiment which serves t o v i s i b l y i n d i c a t e t h e e f f e c t of t h e inductance of a c o i l both w i t h and without an i r o n core when, f i r s t , d i r e c t c u r r e n t i s flowing through t h e c o i l and, second, a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , i s explained i n t h e following paragraphs. Employing one of t h e c o i l s we used i n our s t u d y of electyo-magnetism, w w i l l connect a lamp i n t h e c i r c u i t i n s t e a d of t h e meter and change e t h e source of supply by t h e use of a double-pole, double-throw switch, allowing us, by throwing t h e switch, t o send e i t h e r a l t e r n a t i n g o r d i r e c t current through t h e c o i l . I n Figure 5 t h e voltage of both sources i s 110 v o l t s . F i r s t throw t h e s w i t c h t o t h e l e f t , thus connecting t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t with t h e c o i l . The lamp l i g h t s b r i l l i a n t l y a t once. With t h e lamp burning move t h e i r o n c o r e i n and out of t h e c e n t e r of t h e c o i l . It w i l l be noticed ' t h a t t h e r e i s no change whatever i n the b r i l l i a n c y of t h e lamp; it burns j u s t a s b r i g h t l y w i t h t h e i r o n core i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e c o i l a s i t does w i t h it o u t r N w withdraw the i r o n and throw t h e switch t o t h e right, thus connecto ing t h e c o i l t o t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t source. A t once t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e b r i l l i a n c y of t h e l i g h t of t h e lamp. It i s burning dimly. Thrust t h e i r o n core i n t h e c e n t e r sf t h e c o i l a s you d i d bef o r e and note t h a t t h e lamp becomes very d u l l . Removing t h e i r o n w i l l produce a change i n t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e lamp but, i n e i t h e r case, w i t h the i r o n i n o r out of t h e c o i l , it does not burn a s b r i l l i a n t l y a s i t d i d when connected t o t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t source of supply. I n t h i s experiment t h e c i r c u i t has not been changed i n any r e s p e c t ; t h e a c t u a l (ohmic) r e s i s t a n c e has remained t h e same i n both cases, and t h e voltage maintained a t t h e same pressure.

Lesson 14

- sheet

When d i r e c t c u r r e n t was employed t h e lamp was n o t e f f e c t e d but burned with t h e same b r i l l i a n c y w i t h and without an i r o n core. On connecting t h e same p r e s s u r e of a l t e r n a t i n g E.M.F. t o the c i r c u i t t h e r e was a differ- i n t h e burning of t h e lamp, and s i n c e no change was made i n t h e ohmic r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c i r c u i t i t i s obvious t h a t t h e r e must be some o t h e r pronounced e f f e c t i n the c i r c u i t when A.C. i s employed and t h a t t h i s e f f e c t reduced the amount of c u r r e n t flovring i n t h e c i r c u i t a s evidenced by t h e dimming of t h e l i g h t . Since a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i s c o n t i n u a l l y changing i n value the f i e l d a l s o changes and tends t o keep up a c o n t i n u a l counter E.M.F. opposing any change i n the a p p l i e d c u r r e n t ; when t h e i r o n core was i n s e r t e d a g r e a t e r e f f e c t was n o t i c e d by a f u r t h e r dimming of t h e lamp due t o a g r e a t e r f i e l d concentration which was produced by t h e i r o n core because the core f u r n i s h e s a much b e t t e r magnetic p a t h f o r t h e magnetic f i e l d than a i r . It i s evident from t h i s experiment t h a t the counter E.M.F. of s e l f - i n d u c t i o n of the c o i l when a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i s used, tends t o reduce, o r oppose, t h e flow of t h e c u r r e n t producing i t . It i s a l s o evident t h a t t h e e f f e c t of inductance w i l l oppose t h e c u r r e n t t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n would be t h e case i f s t r a i g h t r e s i s t a n c e were employed,- independent, of course, upon t h e frequency of t h e c u r r e n t and t h e r e s p e c t i v e values of inductance and r e s i s t a n c e . From t h i s w may say;- "The electromotive f o r c e of s e l f - i n d u c t i o n e opposes a t a l l times any change i n the c u r r e n t producing it, and i t s value i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r a t e a t which t h e producing current varies:' e For example, i f w cause t h e c u r r e n t t o a l t e r n a t e more r a p i d l y , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l b e t h i s opposing force. I n a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t t h e opposition t o t h e flow of c u r r e n t i s caused by t h e ohmic r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e c i r c u i t and r e p r e s e n t s a l o s s of energy because t h e energy i s d i s s i pated a s h e a t , while i n an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t t h i s opposing or s e l f - i n d u c t i o n , which simply e f f e c t i s caused by t h e counter E.M.F., reduces t h e c u r r e n t and a l l t h a t i s r e q u i r e d i s a g r e a t e r a p p l i e d E.M.F. t o force t h e same e q u i v a l e n t c u r r e n t through t h e c i r c u i t . Therefore t h e l o s s e s are not a s g r e a t i n an A.C. c i r c u i t employing inductance a s i n a c i r c u i t using r e s i s t a n c e .
REACTANCE

W have seen how a conductor wound i n t h e shape of a c o i l or h e l i x w i l l , e when placed i n an A.C. c i r c u i t , l i m i t the c u r r e n t flowing through the c i r c u i t a s was proven i n t h e experiment w i t h t h e c i r c u i t of Figure 5. The counter E.M.F., o r self - induction, of t h e c o i l was t h e cause of t h i s r e t a r d i n g phenomena and i s c a l l e d t h e Reactance. When only in ductance i s involved t h i s opposition i s c a l l e d I n d u c t i v e Reactance and i s shown i n abbreviated form us X L ( r e a d a s X sub L ) , and i s exp r ~ s s e d s so many ohms r e a c t a n c e o a Reactance caused by t h e presence of c a p a c i t y (condenser) i n t h e c i r c u i t i s c a l l e d t h e Capacitive r e a c t a n c e Xa ( r e a d a s X sub C ) , afid which i s covered i n d e t a i l t n your next lesson. Lesson 14

- sheet

Inductance i n an A . C . c i r c u i t w i l l cause t h e c u r r e n t t o l a g behind t h e voltage. T h i s i s caused by the induced E.M.F. present whenever t h e r e i s a change i n t h e c u r r e n t f c i r c u i t ; t h e induced E.M.F. w i l l always oppose any current. I n any a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t the c u r r e n t i s alwa and, when inductance i s p r e s e n t i n t h i s c i r c u i t , t h e r e be an induced E.M.F. opposing t h e s e changes i n t h e c u r c u r r e n t i s r i s i n g i n value t h e induced E.M.F. opposes and t t h e momentary values of the induced E.M.F. Therefore, t h e i n c r e a s e of c u r r e n t takes place l a t e r t h a n of t h e applied E.M.F. and since t h i s i s t h e c a s e the c u r r e t h e r e f o r e s a i d t o l a g t h e voltage. When t h e applied E.M.F. i s decreasing and c u r r e n t i s decreasing t h e induced E.M.F. opposes t h e decrease o f the c u r r e n t and t t o keep t h e c u r r e n t a t a l a would occur from the decrea alone. This e f f e c t of t h e i Figure 6 t e n d s now t o uphold t h e c u r r e n t values, c t h e c u r r e n t t o again l a g t h e applied E.M.F. Thus c y c l e t h e c u r r e n t l a g s behind t h e applied voltage contains inductance only, and by t h a t i s meant ne c a p a c i t y , the c u r r e n t w i l l be reaching i t s maximum and minimum values 90 degrees behind t h e maximum and minimum values of t h e applied E.M.F. o r , more s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e c u r r e n t l a g s t h e voltage by 90 degrees. Figure 6 shows t h i s c o n d i t i o n i n curve form. The inductive reactance of any c i r c u i t i s e q u a l t o 6.28 times i t s inductance i n h e n r i e s , times t h e .OI H E NR IE S frequency of t h e c u r r e n t , and i s r e a l l y another or 60 CYCLE a d d i t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e added t o t h e c i r c u i t b e s i d e s t h a t of actual ohmic r e s i s t a n c e , and i t i s measured i n GENER~TOR ohms. Thus w speak of a c i r c u i t a s having s o many e ohms reactance b u t , a s we have a l r e a d y s t a t e d , r e Figure 7 actance does not always c o n s t i t u t e a l o s s i n t h e c i r c u i t a s r e s i s t a n c e does; i t merely c a l l s f o r a higher E.M.F. t o be a p p l i e d t o f o r c e a given c u r r e n t through t h e c i r c u i t t h a n i f r e s i s t a n c e only were p r e s e n t i n t h e c i r c u i t . I n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e i s determined by the following formula: Inductive r e a c t a n c e ( X L f L 6.28

+ y l

= =

r a

2 e f L, o r 6.28 x f x L frequency i n c y c l e s inductance i n h e n r i e s (2 x 3.1416) u s u a l l y w r i t t e n 2%.

SupposirIg t h e c o i l i n Figure 7 h a s , a n inductance of . O 1 h e n r i e s and t h e a t 60 cycles. What would be the reactance a l t e r n a t o r i s supplying E.M.F. i n ohms i n t h i s c i r c u i t ? From our fornula:

Lesson 14

- sheet 8

XL

6.28 x 60 x . O 1

3.7680 ohms reactance.

CHOKE CQILS

I n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t s inductance c o i l s having c e r t a i n v a l u e s may be used a s choke c o i l s t o l i m i t t h e c u r r e n t flow, t h e name "choke c o i l " being used because of t h e choking or r e t a r d i n g e f f e c t upon a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t by t h e self - inductance of t h e c o i l . T h i s p b i n c i p l e i s used t o r e g u l a t e t h e flow of c u r r e n t i n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t s because of t h e economy a t t a i n e d over t h e use of r e s i s t s n c e which absorbs t h e energy and g i v e s it off a s h e a t . ' F R S O INDUCTANCE OM F Inductance i n r a d i o t a k e s various forms. The antsnna i t s e l f constit u t e s a form of inductance, r e f e r r e d t o a s d i s t r i b u t e d inductance due t o t h e magnetic f i e l d which i s s e t up about t h e antenna wires. You a r e perhaps f a m i l i a r w i t h t h i s form of inductance z s shown i n Figure 8.

Connected t o the antenna l e a d - i n i s another form of inductance c a l l e d lumped o r concentrated inductance which, i n t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s e t , appears sometimes a s a h e l i x of heavy copper t u b i n g o r s o l i d wire. T h i s type of inductance i s shown i n Figure 9. Figures 1 0 and 1 show t y p e s of inductance c o i l s commonly used i n 1 receiving sets.

1 Figure 1 The next p a r t of our work, w i l l have t o do with capacity. Capacity and inductance t o g e t h e r i n an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t produce i n t e r e s t i n g

Lesson 14

- sheet

r e s u l t s and a w e l l founded knowledge of b o t h i s needed t o enable you t o thoroughly understand r a d i o c i r c u i t s .

NOTE. The c o n s t a n t 6.28, used i n a formula i n t h i s lesson, i s found by multiplying 3.1416 by 2. Nany students become confused when t h e y The e x a c t mathematical r e l a t i o n t h i s holds t o see the symbol*. s u b j e c t s of e l e c t r i c i t y i s complicated and w i l l not be discussed h e r e , however, it might be w e l l t o o u t l i n e g e n e r a l l y i t s use t h u s i d i s p e l l i n g t h e doubt many s t u d e n t s have i n r e g a r d s t o it. 'r ( p i ) i s t h e s i x t e e n t h l e t t e r of t h e Greek alphabet and i s pronounced " pie"; it has been adopted by mathematicians t o show t h e r e l a t i o n e x i s t i n g between t h e diameter and circumference of a c i r c l e . Num e r i c a l l y it i s equal t o 3.1416 and it i s used t o denote t h a t t h e circumfeTence of a c i e c l e i s equal t o 3.1416 times i t s diameter.
E l e c t r i c a l engineers have adopted t h e s y m b o l k t o denote magnetic f o r c e and, o m i t t i n g t h e mathematics involved, we w i l l e x p l a i n it a s follows: A t a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e from a c e r t a i n magnetic pole the magnetic f i e l d has a c e r t a i n s t r e n g t h , i t being considered t h a t t h e s e i s one l i n e of magnetic f o r c e f o r each square centimeter. A s t h i s magnetic f o r c e from a magnetic pole i s equal i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s from t h e pole and s i n c e t h e s u r f a c e ofasphere has a r a d i u s equal t o u n i t y , t h e magnetic 'lines of f o r c e from t h i s c e r t a i n magnetic pole w i l l be equal t o 4 xT)-. I n o t h e r words, the magnetic f o r c e r e s u l t i n g from a c u r r e n t flowing through a c o i l i s e q u a l t o 4 T + 10 x t h e product I x turns. of amperes x t h e t u r n s of wire i n t h e c o i l , or m.m.f.
EXAMINATION

LESSON 1 4

1.

Does s e l f - i n d u c t i o n e x i s t i n D i r e c t Current c i r c u i t s ? Does i n d u c t i o n t a k e place when t h e magnetic f i e l d i s steady? ( a ) H w would you d e s c r i b e t h e e f f e c t of inductance o Direct Current c i r c u i t ? ( b ) In an A.C. c i r c u i t ? Write b r i e f l y what yon know about i n d u c t i v e reactance.
V h t a r e choke c o i l s and why a r e they used?

2.
3.

in a

4.
5.
4

6.

What e f f e c t i s apparent when i r o n i s introduced a s t h e core of an inductance c o i l ?

7 What i s t h e u n i t of inductance? .
8. 9 .
10. Does an i n c r e a s e i n c u r r e n t i n a conductor i n c r e a s e t h e magnetic f o r c e about t h a t conductor? What i s t h e product of 2 *
?

Where i s t h e following formula employed: an example of i t s use.

XL

2 ffL1 v

Give

Lesson 14

- sheet

10

CAPACITY

What i s c a p a c i t y ? Under what o t h e r names does it appear and where and why i s it used? Capacity i s t h e a b i l i t y t o r e c e i v e , c o n t a i n and s t o r e up energy. For example, a tank has t h e a b i l i t y of s t o r i n g water, o i l and o t h e r forms of l i q u i d . A condenser, i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l sense, s t o r e s e l e c t r i c i t y . It i s used i n power l i n e t r a n s m i s s i o n a s w e l l a s i n r a d i o . Capacitance i s another word used t o d e s c r i b e c a p a c i t y and t h i s term i s used considerably when r e f e r e n c e i s made t o t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c c a p a c i t y of a device. A s c a p a c i t y p l a y s a l a r g e p a r t i n many ways and i n v a r i o u s phases of t h e r a d i o i n d u s t r y i t may be well f o r you t o know how simple it i s t o construct a device possessing cap a c i t y o r capacitance. I f you s e c u r e a p i e c e of g l a s s and two s h e e t s
---',LASS
%

PLATE

T I N FOIL

---...
*-'

2;
'-TIN F O ~ L
TIN FOIL."

Figure 1

Figure 3

of t i n f o i l you have t h e elements of a very simple condenser. Figures 1 and 2 i n d i c a t e how t h i s condenser i s assembled, A l a r g e number of commercial condensers used w i t h spark c o i l s a r e u s u a l l y made of t i n f o i l and p a r a f f i n e d paper, t h e t i n f o i l being t h e conductors and t h e paper t h e i n s u l a t o r o r d i e l e c t r i c , a s it i s c a l l e d . A l t e r n a t e l a y e r s of t i n f o i l and paper make up t h e condenser. A p a r a f f i n e d paper condenser w i t h l e a d s i s shown i n Figure 3.
,PLATE TERMINALS.

-.DOUBLE POLE DOUBLE THROW SWITCH

110 VOLT LINE

1
DIRECT CURRENT

Ffgure 2

Figure 4

Suppose w conduct an experiment, t h e purpose of which w i l l a s s i s t e us t o v i s u a l i z e t h e e f f e c t t a k i n g place when a condenser i s placed i n a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t and t h e n i n a c i r c u i t c a r r y i n g a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . W w i l l use a hook-up s i m i l a r t o t h e one used i n conducting e t h e experiment w i t h inductance b u t , i n place of t h e inductance, we Contents Copyrighted 1930 Printed in U.S . A .

w i l l i n s e r t a condenser a s shown i n Figure 4. Throw t h e double-pole double-throw switch down, t h u s connecting t h e c i r c u i t containing t h e condenser and lamp t o t h e source of d i r e c t c u r r e n t . It i s noticed t h a t t h e lamp does not l i g h t . I n a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t t h e condenser a c t s a s an open c i r c u i t e x a c t l y a s though you had opened the c i r c u i t by c u t t i n g t h e wire with a p a i r of p l i e r s , snd t h i s experiment proves i t , f o r otherwise t h e lamp would have given o f f l i g h t . In t r a c i n g t h e c i r c u i t , beginning a t "L", you w i l l f i n d a connecting path f o r c u r r e n t a s f a r a s , and including, t h e p l a t e s but t h e i n t e r vening d i e l e c t r i c , which i s an i n s u l e t o r , prevents c u r r e n t from flowing t o "Ll". An electromotive f o r c e does e x i s t , however, end i s a v a i l a b l e over t h e p l a t e s connected t o "L1' s i d e of t h e l i n e but steady c u r r e n t w i l l not flow t o the p l a t e s of t h e condenser connected t o "Ll" s i d e of t h e l i n e due t o t h e i n t e r v e n i n g d i e l e c t r i c a s was ... i s r i s i n g t o a maximum s t r e n g t h , it s t a t e d above. IThile t h e E M F i s changing i n value and, during t h i s time, a p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e i s b u i l t up on t h e opposite p l a t e s of the condenser. The lamp, if t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e condenser and r e s i s t a n c e of t h e lamp i s c o r r e c t , w i l l become incandescent f o r a f r a c t i o n of a second g i v i n g a f l a s h of l i g h t but w i l l n o t remain illuminated. If t h i s occured i t would i n d i c a t e t h e t t h e r e was a momentary c u r r e n t flow a f t e r which t h e lamp ceased t o glow. Let us apply an a l t e r n a t i n g E.M.F. t o the same c i r c u i t by throwing the switch up. The lamp a t once burns a t incandescence and remains i n t h i s s t a t e g i v i n g off l i g h t u n t i l t h e c i r c u i t i s opened. While was w could o b t a i n a s i n g l e f l a s h of t h e lamp when a d i r e c t E.M.F. e applied, we f i n d t h a t by applying a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t a continuous i l l w n l n a t i o n r e s u l t s , proving. without q u e s t i o n t h a t a condenser, when of the c o r r e c t c a p a c i t y i n a n A.G. c i r c u i t does n o t produce t h e e f f e c t of a n open c i r c u i t a s it d i d i n t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t . There i s an e l e c t r i c a l phenomenon t a k i n g place i n t h e space between the p l a t e s of the condenser. T h i s space together w i t h t h e condenser p l a t e s c o n s t i t u t e s capacity. This space has t h e a b i l i t y t o r e c e i v e and hold an e l e c t r i c a l charge and i s c a l l e d t h e D i e l e c t r i c . The p l a t e s of t h e condenser serve o n l y t h e purpose of d i s t r i ~ u t l n gt h e electromotive f o r c e over the d i e l e c t r i c . The most common form of d i e l e c t r i c m a t e r i a l i s found i n t h e shape of i n s u l s t o r s . A i r a s a d i e l e c t r i c i s f r e q u e n t l y used, anq it i s from a i r t h a t w base our standard f o r t h e " S p e c i f i c Tnductive Capacity n e of t h e d i e l e c t r i c . A i r , mica, g l a s s , rubber, paper and o i l a l l may be u t i l i z e d t o form a d i e l e c t r i c f o r t h e condenser. A s a i r i s t a k e n . a s a standard i t i s given t h e value of u n i t y , o r 1 To e x p l a i n t h i s value of S p e c i f i c I n d u c t i v e Capacity, suppose we determine by measurement t h e amount of charge a condenser using a i r a s t h e d i e l e c t r i c w i l l accumulate w i t h a d e f i n i t e E.M.F. Then under t h e same conditions we w i l l measure t h e amount of charge i n t h e same condenser using g l a s s It w i l l b e found t h a t when g l a s s i s t h e d i e l e c t r i c as the dielectric. medium t h e condenser w i l l t a k e a charge from 4.5 t o 1 0 times a s g r e a t a s t h e condenser having a i r a s t h e d i e l e c t r i c , t h i s s p e c i f i c inductive c a p a c i t y depending upon t h e grade of g l a s s used.

Lesson 15

- sheet

SPECIFIC INDUCTIVE CAPACITY

Tne following t a b l e i n d i c a t e s the S p e c i f i c Inductive Capacity of some of the most commonly used d i e l e c t r i c s . Castoroil Hard rubber Glass Mica Paper
Air

has a d i e l e c t r i c constant of

"
"
I1

"
11 I1 I1

It 11

"

II

n
It

11 11 11 11 il

" "

1.00

4.67
2.5

"
I'

It I1

"

5.4 4.0 1.5

t o 3.50 " 10.00 I' 8.00 " 3.00

W f i n d t h a t when d i f f e r e n t i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e placed between e t h e p l a t e s of a condenser the c a p a c i t y of t h e condenser w i l l be changed. To explain t h e charging a c t i o n of the condenser i t w i l l be w e l l f o r us t o review b r i e f l y t h e subject of conductance, i n s u l a t i o n , and a phase of the e l e c t r o n t h e o r y dealing w i t h the atomic s t r u c t u r e , The condenser c i r c u i t i s composed of t h e conductor p l a t e s which a r e u s u a l l y aluminum, t i n f o i l or copper. The m a t e r i a l s e l e c t e d a s a conductor must have a low r e s i s t a n c e , - i n o t h e r words i t should o f f e r v e r y l i t t l e opposition t o t h e movement of e l e c t r o n s which, a s you know, produces what i s termed an e l e c t r i c current. I n s u l a t i o n i s so named because of t h e opposition which it o f f e r s t o t h e e l e c t r o n i c movement and r e s u l t i n g e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t . I n s u l a t i o n i n a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t produces t h e e f f e c t of an open c i r c u i t , but when t h e same i n s u l a t i o n i s used a s a d i e l e c t r i c of a condenser and placed i n an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t it may have t h e e f f e c t of being a conductor, a s you learned by t h e lamp and condenser exgeriment. The condenser does not permit an a c t u a l passage of current,it has t h e e f f e c t of p e r m i t t i n g a flow of current;. T h i s statement may, a t f i r s t appear c o n t r a d i c t o r y and somewhat confusing, but t h e e f f e c t of t h e conduction of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t through a condenser can be r e a d i l y e explained and made c l e a r f f w w i l l but consider t h e nature of e l e c t r i c current flow a s s e t f o r t h i n t h e e l e c t r o n theory. According t o the e l e c t r o n t h e o r y a l l bodies a r e considered t o be made up of i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y small p a r t i c l e s of matter c a l l e d Atoms and, r e volving about the atom, much a s t h e e a r t h and o t h e r p l a ~ r e v o l v e about the sun, a r e much smaller p a r t i c l e s c a l l e d Electrons. The atom i s considered t o be made up of a charge of p o s i t i v e e l e c t r i c i t y and t h e e l e c t r o n s of charges of negative e l e c t r i c i t y . A l l bodies a r e made up of atoms and, s i n c e the atom i s considered t o c o n s t i t u t e a p o s i t i v e charge of e l e c t r i c i t y and t h e e l e c t r o n negative e l e c t r i c i t y , a l l substances possess l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of e l e c t r i c i t y . W found i n e previous lessons t h a t l i k e charges r e p e l and unlike charges a t t r a c t . In n e a r l y a l l cases, however, t h e p o s i t i v e e l e c t r i c a l charge equals t h e negative e l e c t r i c a l charge thereby n e u t r a l i z i n g e a c h other and from a l l outward appearances no e l e c t r i c a l charges a r e evident. T h i s

Lesson 15

- sheet

complete balance of p o s i t i v e and negative e l e c t r i c i t y may be upset and w then observe e l e c t r i c a l e f f e c t s . e The atom, being a f o r c e of p o s i t i v e e l e c t r i c i t y , a t t r a c t s t o i t and ut holds a number of e l e c t r o n s - o f negative e l e c t r i c i t y i n j s the proper number t o e u a l t h e o s i t f v e f o r c e . There the e l e c t z n s r e m n z , r e vo v ng aroun m e w o n s about S a t u r n i n r e g u l a r o r b i t s --IT-+ t h e a o and, with t h e s e two charges equal, t h e atom i s s a i d t o be uncharged.

Negative e l e c t r i c i t y , o r t h e e l e c t r o n , i s considered t o be t h e only form of motional e l e c t r i c i t y , t h e r e f o r e , i f w can succeed i n f o r c i n g e an e l e c t r o n t o l e a v e t h e atom t h e r e w i l l be l e s s negative charge t h a n p o s i t i v e , t h e system becomes unbalanced, and the atom predominates i n p o s i t i v e charge. By r e t u r n i n g t h e negative e l e c t r o n t o t h e atom we again produce a balance and t h e atom i s a g a i n n e u t r a l or uncharged. N w f o r c e a n e l e c t r o n t o the balanced atom; the atom now w i l l have o an excess of negative charge t h u s making i t negative. I n a substance which i s a good conductor of e l e c t r i c i t y , such a s copper and some of t h e o t h e r metals, t h e e l e c t r o n can be moved e a s i l y from atom t o atom and t h i s i s what t a k e s pla.ce when an e l e c t r o n o t i v e f o r c e i s produced by e i t h e r mechanical or chemical means. A s a11 e l e c t r o n s a r e negative charges of e l e c t r i c i t y each e l e c t r o n caused t o move from one atom t o the next w i l l cause an e l e c t r o n adjacent t o it t o be r e p e l l e d w i t h g r e a t f o r c e , snd a s long a s t h e e l e c t r o motive f o r c e i s a p p l i e d t h i s r e p e l l i n g of e l e c t r o n s continues. It i s t h i s movement of e l e c t r o n s which r e s u l t s i n what i s c a l l e d c u r r e n t flow. I n i n s u l a t o r s , such a s we employ a s d i e l e c t r i c mediums of a condenser, t h e atom has a f a r g r e a t e r a t t r a o t i v e f o r c e f o r t h e e l e c t r o n and g r e a t e r electromotive f o r c e its r e q u i r e d t o d r i v e a n e l e c t r o n from t h e atom. N w suppose we have a condenser and a source of E.M.F., o t h e l i m i t of' which i s not g r e a t enough t o completely dislodge o r d r i v e t h e e l e c t r o n s from the atom, but s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t enough a t i t s highest point t o s t r a i n t h e e l e c t r o n from i t s normal p o s i t i o n b u t not completely d i s lodging it from t h e atom, t h a t i s , t o a p o s i t i o n j u s t s h o r t of t h e compl&e breaking away point. As t h e E.M.F. f o r c e s t h e e l e c t r o n s from t h e c i r c u i t i n t o t h e d i e l e c t r i c , p i l i n g them i n by t h e m i l l i o n s , t h e e l e c t r o n s about t h e atoms of t h e d i e l e c t r i c a r e d i s p l a c e d from t h e i r normal p o s i t i o n g i v i n g away t o t h e incoming e l e c t r o n s . It i s t h i s moving away of t h e e l e c t r o n s from t h e i r normal p o s i t i o n about the atom t h a t i s c a l l e d t h e displacement c u r r e n t , and the condenser i s s a i d t o be charging, t h a t i s , charging i n t h e sense t h a t e l e c t r o n s continue, a s a r e s u l t of t h e E.M.F., t o p i l e up i n t h e d i e l e c t r i c . The p o s i t i o n of t h e e l e c t r o n s t h a t have been r e p e l l e d has produced a s t r a i n on t h e whole s t r u c t u r e of t h e atoms. T h i s continues u n t i l a charge i s s t o r e d up i n t h e d i e l e c t r i c of t h e condenser. As t h e e l e c t r o n s move i n t o t h e opd i e l e c t r i c from t h e c i r c u i t t h e y begin t o c r e a t e a counter E.M.F. a posing the a p p l i e d E.M.F. and, when it e q u a l s t h e a p p l i e d E.M.F., f u r t h e r movement of e l e c t r o n s toward the d i e l e c t r i c cannot take place. The condenser i s t h e n s a i d t o be f u l l y charged, Lesson 1 5

- sheet

This a c t i o n , so f a r , can be i l l u s t r a t e d by imagining a tank of proper design used t o s t o r e a i r . Let an a i r pump r e p r e s e n t a n e l e c t r i c genera t o r and t h e p a r t i c l e s of a i r t h e e l e c t r o n s . O s t a r t i n g t h e pump a i r n a t once i s s e t i n motion and i s forced i n t o t h e t a n k ; t h e tank i s under pressure and becomes s t r a i n e d . This s t r a i n caused by t h e p i l i n g up of a i r p a r t i c l e s begins t o e x e r t a back p r e s s u r e on t h e a i r being foRced i n t o t h e tank r ~ h i c hcontinues t o i n c r e a s e w i t h e v e r y s t r o k e of t h e punp u n t i l t h e s t o r e d up a i r reaches a pressure e q u a l t o t h a t which t h e pump i s capable of producing, a t which p o i n t no more a i r w i l l be forced i n t o t h e tank. Nw reduce t h e p r e s s u r e of the sir pump and t h e o p r e s s u r e which has been stored up i n t h e t a n k w i l l begin t o discharge back i n t o t h e pipe l i n e .
A s the app l i e d E M .F. decreases i n t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t the s t r a i n e d . d i e l e c t r i c i s r e l i e v e d , allowing t h e e l e c t r o n s t o again assume t h e i r normal p o s i t i o n s about t h e atoms. T h i s r e v e r s e movement of the e l e c t r o n s produces a displacement c u r r e n t i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n and As t h e a p p l i e d E.M.F. r e v e r s e s i t d i s t h e condenser i s discharging. t r i b u t e s i t s e l f over t h e opposite p l a t e of t h e condenser thus charging and s t r a i n i n g t h e d i e l e c t r i c , t h i s time opposite t o t h e f i r s t charge and, a s t h e a l t e r n a t i n g E.M.F. i s c o n s t a n t l y varying i n s t r e n g t h and d i r e c t i o n of f'low, e l e c t r o n s a r e c o n t i n u a l l y moving i n and out of t h e
~

A s i m i l i a r a c t i o n t a k e s place i n t h e e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t .

--

SKIN THE TIPS OF P1 PIECE OF

rONDENSER

Figure 5 Figure 6 dielectric: tending t o keep t h e condenser p l a t e s a t t h e r i g h t p o t e n t i a l difference

It i s t h i s movement of t h e e l e c t r o n s i n and out of t h e d i e l e c t r i c which r e s u l t e d i n t h e c u r r e n t causing t h e lamp t o glow i n t h e experiment of Figure 3. It i s t h e r e f o r e c l e a r t h a t t h e e l e c t r o n s do not a c t u a l l y p a s s through t h e d i e l e c t r i c from one p l a t e t o the o t h e r but simply move i n and out of t h e d i e l e c t r i c , swinging through t h e c i r c u i t from one p l a t e through t h e g e n e r a t o r t o t h e opposite p l a t e . With t h i s knowledge of t h e behavior of t h e conrienser we a r e enabled t o make an e f f i c i e n t t e s t a s t o t h e worthiness of a condenser by using d i r e c t c u r r e n t f o r t h e t e s t .
From a source of d i r e c t E.M.F., such a s a 45 v o l t "B" b a t t e r y , b r i n g out two leads a s suggested i n Figure 5. Touch t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e condenser and, a t t h e same time, observe t h e voltmeter. The needle

Remove t h e t e s t t i p s and a t once b r i n g them i n contact with t h e condenser a second time,on t h e second c o n t a c t t h e r e w i l l . b e no d e f l e c t i o n of t h e voltmeter needle. This proves, f i r s t , t h a t t h e condenser i s chargehand, second, t h a t i t w i l l not accept a f u r t h e r charge with t h e E.M.F. of 45 v o l t s . T h i r d , t h e c u r r e n t w i l l not flow e n t i r e l y through t h e d i e l e c t r i c . Take a piece of i n s u l a t e d wire, s k i n t h e ends and s h o r t c i r c u i t t h e condenser a s shown i n Figure 6. When t e s t i n g c e r t a i n condensers i n t h i s manner a b r i g h t spark w i l l r e s u l t , proving that t h e d i e l e c t r i c h e l d t h e charge u n t i l a p a t h was o f f e r e d t o t h e charge t o flow o u t , which it immediately d i d , i t s course being out of t h e d i e l e c t r i c i n t o t h e p l a t e which charged i t , around t h e wire forming the c i r c u i t t o t h e opposite p l a t e , t h u s e q u a l i z i n g t h e charge u n t i l t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l between t h e condenser p l a t e s . N w secure a punctured condenser and follow t h e same procedure a$ o before. The i n d i c a t i n g needle of t h e meter w i l l be d e f l e c t e d a t every contact of t h e t e s t t i p s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e d i e l e c t r i c i s broken down allowing c u r r e n t t o flow d i r e c t l y through from one p l a t e of t h e condenser t o t h e o t h e r . A broken down condenser w i l l not hold a charge.
A water analogy of t h e a c t i o n of a condenser f o l l o w s t o i l l u s t r a t e displacement c u r r e n t . Refer t o Figure 7. Here i s a system of p i p e s "En and "C", a t a n k d i v i d e d i n t o two d i v i s i o n s , "A" and "B", by a rubber p a r t i t i o n "R". A r e s e r v o i r i s shown a t "D" ( t h e use of which w i l l be explained l a t e r ) . O f i l l i n g t h i s system w i t h water it i s n c l e a r l y seen t h a t t h e water w i l l be divided and prevented from moving There w i l l be t h e same p r e s s u r e i n t h e by t h e rubber p a r t i t i o n "R" h a l f of t h e system B-C-D a s i n t h e h a l f A-E-D, t h e r e f o r e t h e r e i s no d i s t o r t i o n of t h e rubber p a r t i t i o n "R" and no movement of the water through t h e system. The c o n f l i c t i n g arrangement of t h e arrows i s intended t o p i c t u r e t h e water a s i d l e , t h a t i s , no p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n of motion being evident.

nil1 be d e f l e c t e d once and then r e t u r n t o zero.

Figure 8 i s t h e same arrangement b u t , i n t h e r e s e r v o i r 'IDn we have i n s t a l l e d a c e n t r i f u g a l pump so designed t h a t a continuous pressure i s exerted on t h e water f o r c i n g it c o n t i n u a l l y i n one d i r e c t i o n a s long a s t h e pump revolves. Revolving t h e pump i n a clockwise d i r e c t i o n t h e water w i l l be forced i n t o motion and w i l l flow, a s shown i n Figure 8, from t h e r e s e r v o i r "D" through pipe "Et'and i n t o "A" h a l f of t h e tank, N w what happens? The water cannot move beyond t h e o rubber p a r t i t i o n b u t , due t o t h e nature of t h e r u b b e r , it w i l l s t r e t c h and become d i s t o r t e d by t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e water a s shown and a d i s placement of water t a k e s place. W w i l l assume t h a t t h e pump has s u f f i c i e n t f o r c e e t i t i o n t o i t s l i m i t but not enough t o r u p t u r e it. h a l f of t h e tank w i l l be d i s p l a c e d i n t h e Balf of by t h e forced d i s t o r t i o n of t h e rubber p a r t i t i o n , wards r e s e r v o i r "D". N w r e t a i n t h i s : There has o t o extend t h e parThe water i n "B" t h e system B, C , D , and w i l l move tobeen a displacement

of water out of "B" through "c" t o "D". D n o t f o r g e t t h e word o displacement because you w i l l have t o a s s o c i a t e i t w i t h e l e c t r o n i c movement lafer. Remember a l s o t h a t a s t r e s s has been placed a g a i n s t it t h e rubber p a r t i t i o n and, under t h i s m, has been s t r a i n e d and, because of t h i s s t r a i n , movement r e s u l t s i n t h e rubber causing a displacement of t h e water i n "B" h a l f of t h e tank. A s the pump continues t o revolve continuously i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n i t maintains a s t r e s s upon t h e rubber p a r t i t i o n and t h e rubber remains i n a f i x e d s t r a i n e d p o s i t i o n . As it cannot be s t r a i n e d f u r t h e r t h e r e i s no f u r t h e r displacement of the water i n "B" h a l f of t h e tank when t h e p a r t i t i o n has reached i t s l i m i t of s t r a i n a n d , t h e r e f o r e , only one surge of water t a k e s place i n t h e B, C , D h a l f of t h e system a s long a s the water i s f o r c e d t o move i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n . T h i s a c t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h e a c t i o n of a condenser i n a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t . There i s a c t u a l l y one surge of displacement c u r r e n t through a condenser i n a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t j u s t a s t h e r e was one surge of displaced water i n Figure 8, but t h a t completes it because t h e condenser d i e l e c t r i c i s s t r a i n e d by t h e voltage d i s p l a c i n g e l e c t r o n s s u f f i c i e n t l y t o cause one surge of c u r r e n t .

Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Explaining t h e water analogy f o r a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t w w i l l use Figure e 9 which i s t h e same type of arrangement a s shown i n Figures 7 and 8 b u t , i n s t e a d of the c e n t r i f u g a l pump, we have a p i s t o n "P" which f i t s c l o s e l y t o t h e w a l l s of t h e reservoir. Water fWs t h e system as it d i d i n Figure 7. It i s c l e a r l y seen t h a t i f the p i s t o n "P"is moved t o t h e l e f t , Figure 9, it w i l l e x e r t a p r e s s u r e on t h e water i n t h e "EA" h a l f of t h e system thus p l a c h g a s t r e s s on t h e rubber p a r t i t i o n "R", causing it t o s t r e t c h and a displacement of t h e water i n "B" follows, which moves a l l t h e water i n B, C, D. The e l a s t i c rubber p a r t i t i o n i s e x e r t i n g a back p r e s s u r e a g a i n s t t h e water f o r c e d a g a i n s t it by t h e p i s t o n and w i l l , when t h e p i s t o n i s moved t o t h e r i g h t , @ve back t o t h e A, F, D p a r t of t h e system t h i s s t o r e d up energy. Now move t h e p i s t o n t o t h e r i g h t . A t once t h e s t r a i n on t h e rubber i s r e l i e v e d and a i d s t h e p i s t o n i n i t s movement by t h e f a c t of i t s tendency t o s t r a i g h t e n , t h u s f o r c i n g t h e water through A, E, D s i d e of t h e system a s shown i n Figure 10. A t t h e same time the p i s t o n has f o r c e d t h e water up through t h e pipe "C" i n t o "B" h a l f of the tank s t r a i n i n g t h e p a r t i t i o n t h i s time t o t h e l e f t . The water i n "A" h a l f of t h e tank i s d i s p l a c e d and movement t a k e s p l a c e a s shown by t h e arrows. W i t h t h i s arrangement and by a r a p i d back and forward movement of t h e p i s t o n water w i l l move f i r s t i n one d i r e c t i o n t h e n i n the o t h e r , t h u s maintaining a flow of water which a l t e r n a t e s i n d i r e c t i o n through t h e system.

i
i

CAPACITY

; I
!

The c a p a c i t y of a condenser i s measured i n terms of t h e f a r a d and i s a 'measure used t o determine the r e l a t i o n between t h e amount of. charge a condenser w i l l hold and t h e E M F . . . s t r e n g t h t o produce t k e chrlrge. A condenser having a c a p a c i t y of one f a r a d i s much t o o l a r g e f o r p r a c t i c a l use, hence smaller condensers which are but f r a c t i o n a l p a r t s of a f a r a d a r e used. I n e n g i n e o r i x p r a c t i c e , decimal p a r t s are expressed a s microfarads and micro- microfarads. Micro means "one m i l l i o n t h of" and micro-micro means "one m i l l i o n t h - m i l l i o n t h of". Yence,a condenser of one microfarad has a c a p a c i t y of one m i l l i o n t h of a f a r a d and a condenser of one micro-microfarad has a c a p a c i t y of one m i l l i o n t h of a micro-farad. The capacity o f a condenser i s sometimes expressed i n centimeters, one centimeter of c a p a c i t y being equal t o 1.1224 micro- microfarads. This u n i t , however, i s not s o f r e q u e n t l y used a s t h e one explained i n t h e foregoing paragraph.
GEXERAL TYPES O CONDENSERS F

Condensers may be divided i n t o f o u r o r f i v e g e n e r a l types according t o t h e d i e l e c t r i c used i n t h e i r construction. The "Leyden j a r " type was, a t one time, a very common form of condenser used i n t r a n s m i t t i n g equipment. It c o n s i s t s of a g l a s s j a r with w a l l s about 1/8" t h i c k coated i n s i d e and out t o within two inches of t h e top with a t i n f o i l , koooc ~ ~ E Q - ; co?per or s i l v e r coating, This type i 3 shown i n Figure 11. The "Leyden j a r " was one of the BINDING P O S T ..IEPIDING TO --' ,NS~DECOPTING f i r s t type8 of e l e c t r o - s t a t i c condensers de"J:,DL ;-, veloped and, although it i s q u i t e e f f i c i e n t i t has been rendered almost o b s o l e t e by more modern condensers i n c o r p o r a t i n g higher e f %%A7lN& f i c i e n c y and g r e a t e r capacity i n u n i t s of CHAIN smaller p h y s i c a l dimensions. M~KIILIBG CONTACT WlTH INSIDE --.COPPER ConTlNG

COPPED CO&lING

The Compressed sir condenser i s a type t h a t Figure 1 1 wSll be found i n use i n very few r a d i o i n s t a l l a t i o n s because exgense I n c o n s t r u c t i o n and upkeep does not warrent i t s general use. B r i e f l y , t h e compressed a i r type i s constructed a s follows: A metal tank contains s t e e l p l a t e s i n which h a l f of t h e p l a t e s a r e i n s u l a t e d from t h e tank and t h e o t h e r h a l f connected t o t h e tank. The tanlr i s pumped t o a pressure of 250 pounds providing a d i e l e c t r i c capable of withstanding a p o t e n t i a l of 25,000 Volts. Should a break-down p o t e n t i a l be applied t o ' t h i s type 6f condenser no dannge is' done because t h e a i r simply f i l l s i n a g a i n making t h e d i e l e c t r i c p e r f e c t . T h i s type of condenser i s heavy, hard t o handle and, i n n e a r l y a l l cases, t r o u b l e i s experienced i n maintaining t h e tank a i r t i g h t .

The Glass P l a t e Condenser f o r use w i t h h i g h p o t e n t i a l s i s constructed a s follows: P l a t e g l a s s i s used a s t h e d i e l e c t r i c t o which i s glued t i n f o i l p l a t e s and, a f t e r being thoroughly d r i e d , t h e y a r e coated with s h e l l a c or h o t p a r a f f i n e . A s i n g l e p l a t e i s shown i n Figure 2. Lesson 1 5

- sheet

of assembly and t h e time and work r e q u i r e d i n r e p l a c i n g broken p l a t e s

i n case of break down.

The foregoing. t y p e s of condensers have been rendered obsolete, a s l a r a s modern r a d i o p r a c t i c e i s concerned, by the mica condenser. They have been mentioned because, a t t h e p e r i o d of t h e i r development, t h e y represented t h e b e s t p r a c t i c e i n r a d i o condenser construction. The mica condenser u s e s s h e e t mica a s t h e d i e l e c t r i c and t h e p l a t e s a r e made of t i n f o i l , o r copper f o i l . Properly designed and constructed,
lrERMlNAlS

1
d
1.
c,

CONDENSER

PLhlES

Figure 12 Figure 13 t h i s condenser w i l l withstand the. high p o t e n t i a l s encountered i n r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r s , - i t s e l e c t r i c a l e f f i c i e n c y i s very good and l a r g e capacit i e s may be secured w i t h i n comparatively small p h y s i c a l dimensions. Furthermore, it i s very s t u r d y a s compared t o t h e f r a g i l i t y of condensers e q l o y i n g g l a s s a s t h e d i e l e c t r i c , - such a s t h e Leyden j a r and t h e ghass p l a t e condensers.
A modern mica t r a n s m i t t i n g condenser i s shown i n Figure 13. The condenser i s enclosed i n a n aluminum case, t h e space between t h e condenser and case being f i l l e d w i t h an i n s u l a t i n g compound t o render t h e condenser moisture proof and t o reduce b r u s h discharges. The metal case i s used a s one t e r m i n a l of t h e condenser while t h e o t h e r t e r m i n a l i s brought out t o the binding post on t h e b a k e l i t e cover of t h e case.

CONDENSER GROUPING

Condensers a r e grouped t o o b t a i n various c a p a c i t i e s and t o perform c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s . C e r t a i n c i r c u i t s may c a l l f o r condensers i n s e r i e s and o t h e m i n p a r a l l e l , Vdhen condensers a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l , a s shown i n Figure 14, t h e t o t a l c a p a c i t y r e s u l t i n g from such a connection i s t h e sum of t h e i n d l v i d u a l c a p a c i t i e s . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , the d i f f e r e n t condensers i n t b e group a r e shown a s having c a p a c i t y of .005 m f , .0005 ntf, ,001 mf and .0035 mf. The t o t a l c a p a c i t y of such a p a r a l l e l arrangement i s , a s s t a t e d , the sum of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a p a c i t i e s , o r .01 mf.

Lesson 15 - , s h e e t 9

nected I n s e r i e s a s shown i n Figure 15? To o b t a i n t h e t o t a l capacity of a n m b c r of condensers of equal value connected i n s e r i e s simply d i v i d e t h e c a p a c i t y of one of t h e condensers by t h e t o t a l numbel* of condensers i n t h e c i r c u i t . Applyi% t h i s r u l e t o Figure 15 w o b t a i n e p t h e answer, .000625 mfd., t h e t o t a l c a- a o i t y of t h e s e f o u r confiensers when connected i n s e r i e s ; It becomes necessary under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , t o employ condensers of d i f f e r e n t values i n s e r i e s . When t h i s i s t h e case t h e formula of r e c i p r o c a l s i s r e q u i r e d t o solve f o r t o t a l c a p a c i t y . I n Figure 16 we have four condensers C 1 , C2, C3, C4 connected i n s e r i e s . What i s t h e t o t a l capacity? The formula f o r condensers connected i n s e r i e s i s a s follows

S u b s t i t u t i n g our known values a s s t a t e d i n Figure 16, t h e formula becomes

= .0000746

mfd.

(microfarads), or C

74.6 mmfd.

(micro- microfarads).

Capacity always c o n s i s t s of two o r more opposing s u r f a c e s between which e x i s t s an i n s u l a t i n g medium, ( d i e l e c t r i c ) . This medium may be a i r , c a s t o r o i l , hard rubber, g l a s s , mica, paper or any i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l The capacity of a condenser i s always found t o vary depending upon the following f a c t s . Lesson 1 5

- s h e e t 10

( 1 s t ) D i r e c t l y a s t h e a r e a of t h e opposing s u r f a c e s (which i n t h i s l e s s o n would be t h e p l a t e s of t h e condenser).

(2nd) The a b i l i t y of t h e d i e l e c t r i c t o absorb a charge, I&., t h e s p e c i f i c i n d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y of t h e d i e l e c t r i c .

(3rd) I n v e r s e l y a s t h e s e p a r a t i o n of the opposing s u r f a c e s ( p l a t e s ) *
T h i s means t h a t t h e a r e a of the p l a t e s must be first c a l c u l a t e d i n

square inches. The number of p l a t e s comprising the condenser must be known and t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e p l a t e s , i e , t h e thickness of t h e d i e l e c t r i c .
C
: :

Let us w r i t e t h e ,above as a formula:

A x K x 2248 D x 10"

Capacity of t h e condenser i n microfarads. T o t a l a r e a of t h e p l a t e s i n square inches. Constant of s p e c i f i c inductive capacity. The t h i o k n e s s of t h e & i e l e c t r i c , when s o l i d d i e l e c t r i c is used, such a s g l a s s , etc., and t h e d i s t a n a e between t h e p l a t e s when a i r i s used a s a d i e l e c t r i c .

= K = D =

C A

A value found by experiments t o be t h e c o r r e c t number t o u s e 10, t o m u l t i p l y by "D" t o g i v e t h e r e s u l t . (10" = 10,000,000,000.)

2248 i s a l s o a constant found by experiment.

-L
Figure 14

TOTAL C A k I T Y c: Cl+Cl+C,+C,

FHHHI
C, .oOz5
C1.0025

C3 a025

C4.0015

loTAL CAPACITy

: ,000625

MFO

Figure 15

HI
015

C-BW~

TOTLL CAPIICIlY

C r .0000746+ NFD.

Figure 16 Lesson 1 5

- s h e e t 11

The a r e a of t h e p l a t e s , t h e number of p l a t e s and d i s t a n c e between t h e p l a t e s can e a s i l y b e found. The s p e c i f i c i n d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y , o r "K" I however, must be determined b y a c t u a l t e s t andmeasurement when absolute accuracy i s d e s i r e d . When an approximation i s d e s i r e d a value of "Kn may be used a s given i n s p e c i f i c inductive c a p a c i t y t a b l e s . For example, suppose a condenser has a t o t a l p l a t e a r e a of 800 square inches. The d i e l e c t s i o i s mica, one one-hundredth (1/100) of a n i n c h i n thickness W now have a l l t h e necessary d a t a from which t o c a l c u l a t e t h e c a p a c i t y e of t h e condenser except t h e s p e c i f i c inductive c a p a c i t y ( d i e l e c t r i c constant "KW)*. This can be obtained from t a b l e s g i v i n g t h e d i e l e c t r i c constant of d i f f e r e n t materials. Referring t o t h e t a b l e given on s h e e t 3 m f i n d t h e d i e l e c t r i c constant f o r mica v a r i e s from 4.0 t o 8.0, dee pending upon t h e grade of mica. Let us assume t h a t t h e mica being used i n t h i s condenser has a d i e l e c t r i c constant of 5. S u b s t i t u t i n g these known values i n t h e formula f o r capacit y . t h e formula becomes

C A P A C I T Y REACTANCY

The e f f e c t o f c a p a c i t y i n an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t , termed c a p a c i t y reactance, w i l l now be considered. You w i l l renember t h a t , when inductance was introduced i n an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t , t h e e f f e c t produced mas t o r e t a r d or cause t h e c u r r e n t t o l e g t h e e l e c t r o motive f o r c e . Capacity produces e x a c t l y t h e opposite e f f e c t , t h a t i s , t h e c u r r e n t l e a d s t h e e l e c t r o n o t i v e force. Capacity r e a c t a n c e i s expressed i n ohms, a s was i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e , and i s w r i t t e n Xc ( X sub c ) while inductive r e a c t a n c e i s expressed X (X sub L) ,

Capacity e f f e c t s e x i s t between any two conductors when t h e e l e c t r o motive f o r c e i n , o n e i s a d i f f e r e n t p o t e n t i a l t h a n t h e o t h e r , w i t h a d i e l e c t r i c between them. A s you learned, a i r o r any i n s u l s t i n g substance i s a d i e l e c t r i c , and t h e r e i s always a p o s s i b l e c a p a c i t y e f f e c t between two e l e c t r i c a l conductors. If t h e y a r e b a r e wires, a i r i s t h e d i e l e c t r i c ; i f covered w i t h i n s u l a t i o n t h e i n s u l a t i o n ects as a dielectric.
#

(Note; s p e c i f i c i n d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y ( R ) i s more o f t e n termed t h e " d i e l e c t r l c constant" . )

In bare w i r e s running from pole t o pole o r , on a s h i p , from mast t o mast, t h e a i r between t h e wires a c t s a s a d i e l e c t r i c , t h e ground a c t i n g a s one s i d e , o r p l a t e , of a condenser while t h e wire I s t h e o t h e r p l a t e , and c a p a c i t y e x i s t s t h e r e e x a c t l y a s between two conductors running c l o s e t o each o t h e r , o r a s i n a condenser. Figure 17 g i v e s an idea of c a p a c i t y i n c i r c u i t s f a m i l i a r t o you.
I n determining c a p a c i t y i t i s seen t h a t formulae f o r a l l c o n d i t i o n s under which c a p a c i t y e x i s t s would be r a t h e r a complicated work.

The c a p a c i t y reactance i n any c i r c u i t changeswith a change i n frequency and t h e r e a t e r t h e frequency t h e l e s s e f f e c t w i l l Oapacity reactance have on b c u i t . An i n c r e a s e m r e p e n c y , when inductance i s being considered, produced a g r e a t e r i n d u c t i v e e f f e c t , t h e r e f o r e cap a c i t y a c t s t o produce one e f f e c t , - t h a t of opposing t h e EKF ... when charging and, i n a pure c a p a c i t y c i r c u i t , the c u r r e n t i s out of phase, l e a d i n g t h e E.M.F. by 90 degrees, while inductance was out of phase by 90 degrees. W worked out a problem e o p p o s i t e l y , lagging t h e E.M.F. in i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e from a fundamental formula and we w i l l now cone l d e r t h e f o n r m l a f o r c a p a c i t i v e reactance. The f o r n u l a Is a s follows;-

Xc X ,
6.28
f
C

= z7mT

=
=

c a p a c i t y reactance.

2% o r 2 x 3.14.
frequency.

= capacity I n farads.

I n a 110 v., A.C. 60 cycle c i r c u i t , we have a .0025 f a r a d condenser connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e l i n e , What Is t h e c a p a c i t y reactance?
By formula given: Substituting,

X ,

6.28 x f x C

X ,

1 6.28 x 60 x

.Lesson 15

sheet 13

Nult i p l y i n g t h e denominat or

6.28
60

then

&

Dividing

W f i n d thiit the c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e i n t h e c i r c u i t a s given above e amounts t o 1.0615 ohms. N w l e t us i n c r e a s e t h e frequency t o 500,000 c y c l e s using the same o condenser of .0025 f a r a d s . This w i l l show us t h a t , w i t h an i n c r e a s e of frequency, t h e r e a c t a n c e i s lowered. Again by f0rr;luls Substitute

X ,

62.8
1

X ,

6.28 x 500,000 x .OW25

Multiplying t h e denominator
6.28

or X ,

--

.00012738 ohms.

The purpose i r working out t h i s problem has been t o show how according t o t h e formula, c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e d e c r e a s e s w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n frequency. You found t h a t , w i t h a frequency of 60 cycles, a c a p a c i t i v e When t h e reactance of a l i t t l e over one ohm r e a c t a n c e was present. frequency was i n c r e a s e d t o 500,000 c y c l e s , however, t h e reactance was reduced t o a f r a c t i o n a l p a r t of an ohm. Lesson 15

- s h e e t 14

Impedance, expressed i n ohms i s t h e combined o p p o s i t i o n i n an A.C. c i r c u i t . of t h e a s t u a l (ohmicj r e s i s t a n c e ancl t h e ,apparent r e s i s t a n c e , o r opposition, due t o the counter E.M.F. of s e l f - i n d u c t i o n andcapacity. The flow of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i s u s u a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by c o i l s of h i g h s e l f - i n d u c t i o n , known a s r e a c t a n c e c o i l s , or choking c o i l s , which causes a reactive pressure i n the circuit. This r e a c t i v e p r e s s u r e i s termed i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e and i s expressed by formula a s

When a condenser i s connected i n s e r i e s i n an A.C. c i r c u i t it a c t s a s an e f f e c t i v e r e s i s t a n c e and e x e r t s a back p r e s s u r e on the charging E.M.F. T h i s back p r e s s u r e a l s o opposesthe r e a c t i v e p r e s s u r e s e t up by t h e choke c o i l s . It i s termed C a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e and i s expressed by formula a s

The i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e p o s i t i v e r e a c t a n c e , ancl t h e c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e a s t h e n e g a t i v e r e a c t a n c e . :\%en computing t h e t o t a l impedance of a c i r c u i t i n which r e s i s t a n c e , inductance and c a p a c i t y i s connected i n s e r i e s , t h e following formula i s used.

=JRz+

fi6.28 x i x L )

(6.28 x

r xc

( Z i s t h e symbol f o r impedance)

'If w l e t X, r e p r e s e n t t h a t p a r t of t h e above formula w r i t t e n e 6.28 x f x L, and X , t h a t p a r t which w r i t t e n

we can t h e n s i m p l i f y t h e formula and e x p r e s s i t a s follovis.

Let u s assume t h a t we have a c 4 r c u i t c o n t a i n i n g an inductance c o i l hnving a r e a c t a n c e of 1 0 ohms, a r e s i s t a n c e ( a c t u a l ) of 1 6 ohms, and a condenser having a r e a c t a n c e o f 4 ohms. Then by formula

where

= = XL =
Z R

Xc =

Impedance Resistance ( a c t u a l ) InC?uctive r e a c t a n c e i n ohms. C a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e i n ohms.

Lesson 1 5

- sheet 15

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e known values o f 1 0 ohm, 16ohms and 4 ohm r e s p e c t i v e l y , w write: e

:d16*+

(10

41%

17.08 i s the t o t a l impedan5e i n ohms of a c i r c u i t which conteins 10 ohns inductive reactance.16 ohms a c t u a l (ohmic) r e s i s t a n c e , and 4 ohms capacitive reactance in' series.

1. 2.
3.

What i s a d i e l e c t r i c m a t e r i a l ? Fxpl~in what happens when a condenser i s placed i n an A.C. 1)escribe a simple condenser. What i s c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e ? ( a ) Show by diagram how you would connect t h r e e condensers i n (b) In parallel. series. What i s your understanding of t h e term " capacity" ? When t h r e e condensers, each having a c a p a c i t y of .001 microfarads c a p a c i t y , a r e connected i n s e r i e s what i s t h e t o t a l capacity? Describe t h r e e t y p e s of condknsers. What i s t h e a c t i o n of a condenser when p l a c e d i n D.C. circuit? circuit?

4.
5.

6.

7.
8.

9 ,
10.

';/hen f o u r condensers, each having a c a p a c i t y of .002 micl'ofarads capacity, a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l what i s t h e t o t a l c a p a c i t y ?

Lesson 1 5

sheet 16
/

INC.
firmedu
MARCON/ /NST/TOTE

s u n d e d ./909

Technical Lesson 16
T E STORAGIC OR SECOHDARY BATTERY H The term " storage b a t t e r y " has become, s i n c e t h e r i s e i n p o x u l a r i t y of r a d i o broadcast r e c e i v e r s , almost a s common a s t h e word Radio n . To t h e average broadcast l i s t e n e r t h e storage b a t t e r y i s simply a heavy, box- like a f f a i r t h a t l i g h t s the tubes i n his r a d i o set. For t h e student of radio, however, t h e storage c e l l must mean more t h a n that and i t s construction, a c t i o n ahd maintenance should be understood. There a r e two predominating types of storage c e l l s i n u s e today. They a r e t h e l e a d p l a t e , s u l p h u r i c acid c e l l , manufactured by t h e E l e c t r i c Storage B a t t e r y Company and t h e Edison nickel- iron a l k a l i c e l l , made by t h e Edison Storage B a t t e r y Company. EODR DIFFERENCE BETKEEN PRIMaRY ARD S C N A Y CELLS There i s a marked d i f f e r e n c e between the primary c e l l , which has been previously discussed and t h e secondary cel1,which i s t h e object of t h i s lesson. The primary c e l l , when exhausted, can only be recharged by r e p l a c i n g t t h e zinc element. If w e could send a c u r r e n t t h ~ o u g h h e primary c e l l opposite t o t h a t of t h e discharging c u r r e n t of t h e c e l l , which would r e s t o r e t h e elements, we would have a storage c e l l , but since t h i s i s n o t possible t h e elements must be replaced. The secondary c e l l allows a r e v e r s e c u r r e n t , c a l l e d t h e charging c u r r e n t , t o be sent through it whieh r e s t o r e s t h e c e l l t o use a g a i n without having t o replace any of the elements. The primary c e l l i s u s e l e s s when d i s charged, and i s thrown away, while the secondary c e l l may be used over and over a g a i n simply by passing an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t through t h e c e l l i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n of discharge. The storage b a t t e r y i s made up of two or more c e l l s and each c e l l cons i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y of one p o s i t i v e and one negative p l a t e immersed i n an a c i d solution. CONSTRUCTION O THE LEAD A C I D CELL F The Exide type of p l a t e i s made of an a l l o y of s o f t l e a d and antimony. T h i s i s made i n t o a g r i d o r frame, a s shown i n Figure 1, of v e r t i c a l r i b s joined t o g e t h e r by s h o r t h o r i z o n t a l bars. The b a r s a r e f l u s h with t h e surface of t h e p l a t e on one s i d e and extend only h a l f way through t h e p l a t e ; t h e opposite s i d e i s q u i t e the same but t h e openings a r e staggered a s shown i n Figure 2. This c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e p l a t e makes a strong r i g i d frame t o hold t h e a c t i v e material. Contents Copyrighted 1930 Printed in U.S.A.

THE ACTIVE h?ATERIAL

The a c t i v e m a t e r i a l i s a p a s t e of l i t h a r g e , o r o x i d e of l e a d , mixed w i t h d i l u t e s u l p h u r i c a c i d . This paste i s forced i n t o t h e opening of t h e p l a t e s under g r e a t pressure; the pressure t o g e t h e r with t h e adhesive p r o p e r t i e s of t h e m a t e r i a l combine t o hold the p a s t e i n p l a c e . When t h e p l a t e s have been completed, i . e , the openings f i l l e d with paste, t h e y a r e t h e n placed i n a s o l u t i o n o f s u l p h u r i c a c i d and water, c a l l e d t h e e l e c t r o l y t e , and g i v e n t h e forming charge. This forming charge c o n s i s t s of passing a c u r r e n t of e l e c t r i c i t y through t h e p l a t e s and e l e c t r o l y t e which changes one p l a t e t o l e a d peroxide and t h e other t o sponge l e a d ,

Figure 2 Figure 1 Figure 3 Figure 4

After t h e forming charge t h e p l a t e s a r e then t a k e n out of t h e forming tank. Figure 3 s h o w t h e negatiire p l a t e a f t e r t h i s chargc. It has been chemically changed t o sponge l e a d and i s g m y i n color. Figure 4 shows t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e which has been changed t o l e a d peroxiile and which i s brown i n color. T E AMPERE HOUR RATING OF T E STORAGE BATTERY H H The c a p a c i t y of a s t o r a g e c e l l i s r a t e d i n ampere hours. The ampere hour i s t h e unit employed t o express t h e equivalent q u a n t i t y of c u r r e n t r e p r e s e n t e d by c u r r e n t of one ampere flovring through a g i v e n c i r c u i t f o r an hour of time. The normal discharge r a t e f o r most b a t t e r i e s i s genera l l y based on t h e &hour r a t e of discharge. For example, suppose you have a b a t t e r y which i s r a t e d a s having a c a p a c i t y of 110 ampere-hours, t h e norlilal r a t e of discharge i s found by d i v i d i x 110 by 8, o r 13.75, which means t h a t t h i r t e e n and t h r e e - q u a r t e r s amperes can be drawn from t h e b a t t e r y f o r a p e r i o d of 8 hours. From a t h e o r e t i c a l standpoint it would seem t h a t t h e above b a t t e r y would d e l i v e r 110 amperes f o r a p e r i o d of one hour. This, however, from p r a c t i c a l experience, h a s proven t o be untrue. As t h e r a t e of discharge i s increased t h e ampere-hour c a p a c i t y w i l l decrease because of t h e i n a b i l i t y of t h e a c i d t o p r o p e r l y and quickl y combine w i t h ~ t h ea c t i v e m a t e r i a l of t h e p l a t e s a t t h e more r a p i d r a t e of discharge. Lesson 16

- sheet 2

TFiE CHEMICAL ACTION OF A LEAD STORAGE BATTERY

When a l e a d a t o r a g e c e l l i s put on discharge t h e c u r r e n t i s produced by the a c i d of t h e s o l u t i o n going i n t o and combining w i t h the porous 'part of t h e p l a t e c a l l e d t h e " active material'. I n t h e positive p l a t e t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l f s l e a d peroxide and i n t h e negative p l a t e it i s m e t a l l i c lead i n a spongy form. When t h e s u l p h a r i c acid, % S04, I n t h e e l e c t r o l y t e combines w i t h t h e l e a d Pb, i n t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l of both p l a t e s , a compound " lead sulphate 8 P b SQp i s formed.

amount of acid t h a t i s used i n t h e p l a t e s , and the formation of more water due t o t h e chemical combination of t h e hydrogen, 8, and oxygen, 0, producing t h e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t and i n c i d e n t a l l y producing t h e compound of a c i d and lead c a l l e d "lead sulphate". T h i s sulphate continues t o i n c r e a s e i n q u a n t i t y and bulk, thereby f i l l i n g the pores of t h e plates. A s t h e pores of t h e p l a t e s become thus f i l l e d w i t h t h e sulphate, the f r e e c i r c u l a t i o n of a c i d i n t o t h e p l a t e s i s r e t a r d e d and, s i n c e t h e a c i d cannot t h e n g e t i n t o t h e p l a t e s f a s t enough t o maintain the normal a c t i o n , t h e b a t t e r y becomes l e s s a c t i v e a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e r a p i d drop i n voltage. W i n g t h e charging period d i r e c t c u r r e n t rausc pass through the c e l l s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n opposite t,o t h a t of discharge. This current w i l l reverse t h e a c t i o n which took place i n t h e c e l l s during discharge. It w i l l be remembered t h a t , during discharge, t h e a c i d of t h e s o l u t i o n went i n and combined w i t h t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l , f i l l i n g t h e pores w i t h sulphate and causing t h e s o l u t i o n t o become weaker; reversing t h e c u r r e n t r e s t o r e s t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l t o i t s o r i g i n a l c o n d i t i o n and r e t u r n s t h e a c i d t o t h e s o l u t i o n . Thus, during charge, t h e s o l u t i o n g r a d u a l l y becomes s t r o n g e r a s t h e sulphate i n t h e p l a t e decreases, until no more sulphate remains and a l l t h e a c i d has been returned t o t h e s o l u t i o n , when i t w i l l be of t h e same s t r e n g t h a s before t h e discharge and the same a c i d w i l l b e ready t o be used over again during t h e next discharge. Since t h e r e i s no l o s s of a c i d by t h i s process, none should ever be added t o fhe s o l u t i o n exce* t o replace t h a t which may be s p i l l e d out. The whole o b j e c t of charging, t h e r e f o r e , i s t o d r i v e from t h e p l a t e s t h e acid which has been absorbed by them during discharge. The chemical a c t i o n which occurs i n a l e a d c e l l during charge and d i s charge can be r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e following expression which a p p l i e s t o both p l a t e s :

A s t h e discharge progresses t h e e l e c t r o l y t e becomes weaker by the

From l e f t t o r i g h t , t h i s expression r e p r e s e n t s the chemical r e a c t i o n s during discharge and, from r i g h t t o l e f t , t h e chemical r e a c t i o n s during charge.

Lesson 16

- sheet 3

T E NUMBER O PLATES I N POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE G O P H F R US When the b a t t e r y i s discharging t h e chemical a c t i o n taking place i s g r e a t e s t on t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e . There i s , a s a r e s u l t of t h i s g r e a t e r cheuiical a c t i o n , more heat produced i n t h e p l a t e s of t h e p o s i t i v e group. This h e a t must,be equalized, t h a t i s , evenly d i s t r i b u t e d on both s i d e s of t h e p l a t e s t o prevent what i s termed "buckling". Buckling i s analogous t o t h e warping of a board t o which h e a t has been applied n a t u r a l l y o r i n t e n t i o n a l l y a t a g r e a t e r i n t e n s i t y on one s i d e t h a n the other. iVlIeh a lead - acid - cell p l a t e buckles i t has a tendency t o loosen t h e a c t i v e material. This of course decreases the e f f i c i e n c y of t h e b a t t e r y because, without t h i s a c t i v e m a t e r i a l , t h e b a t t e r y w i l l not function. To accomplish t h e even d i s t r i b u t i o n of heat a r i s i n g i n t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e s , t h e negative group always c o n s i s t s of one more p l a t e than t h e p o s i t i v e group and when the groups are assembled t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e s a r e surrounded by t h e negative p l a t e s t h u s a s s u r i n g a more even temperature on both s i d e s of t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e s . The negative group i s shown i n Figure 5 and t h e p o s i t i v e i n Figure 6. Figure 7 shows how t h e two groups a r e i n t e r l e a v e d s o t h a t t h e negative groups surround t h e p o s i t i v e .

Figure 5 SEPARATORS

Figure 6

When t h e p o s i t i v e and negatfve groups a r e i n t e r l e a v e d , s p e c i a l l y prepared wooden and rubber s e p a r a t o r s a r e placed between the p l a t e s t o prevent t h e p l a t e s of t h e negative group from coming i n contact w i t h t h e p o s i t i v e group. The p e r f o r a t e d rubber s e p a r a t o r , a s shown i n Figure 8 , i s p l a c e d on each s i d e of each p o s i t i v e p l a t e , and a grooved wooden s e p a r a t o r , shown i n Figure 9, i s placed between each rubber s e p a r a t o r and t h e a d j a c e n t negative p l a t e i n such a way t h a t the f l a t s i d e of t h e wooden s e p a r a t o r i s against t h e negative. The a c t i v e mat e r i a l t h a t i s worked loose by t h e chemical a c t i o n drops down t o t h e bottom of t h e j a r through t h e grooves of t h e wooden separator.

Lesson 16

- aeet

with the p l a t e s i n t e r l e a v e d and t h e s e p a r a t o r s i n p l a c e t h e two comp l e t l y assembled groups a r e now c a l l e d t h e "elements n . They a r e placed

i n a rubber j a r w h i c h h a s a rubber c e l l cover t i g h t l y sealed by means of a s p e c i a l s e a l i n g compound. The cover i s shown i n Figure 10 w i t h t h e f i l l i n g and s e a l i n g plug f i t t e d i n place.

Figure 7

Figure 8
THE COMPLETED CELL

Figure 9

Figure 1 i s a cutaway view showing t h e completed c e l l . Notice t h e 1 r i b s a t t h e bottom of t h e j a r on which t h e p l a t e s r e s t ; t h i s provides space f o r t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l , which works from t h e p l a t e s t o drop, t h u s preventing s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g of t h e p l a t e s . The channel running around t h e edge of t h e t o p cover i s f o r t h e s e a l i n g compound which i s poured i n u n t i l it i s f l u s h w i t h t h e t o p of t h e j a r and cover. These c e l l s a r e now ready t o be placed i n t h e b a t t e r y box which f s of wood o r composition s t r u c t u r e , depending upon t h e s e r v i c e i n which the b a t t e r y i s t o be employed.

Figure 10

Figure 12 Lesson 16

- sheet 5

The c e l l s are a r r a n g e d a s shown i n Figure 12. I n t h e b a t t e r y box t h e r e has been placed t h r e e c e l l s C 1 , C2 and C3. The connector l i n k s a r e placed on t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e c e l l s a f t e r t h e rubber cover has been sealed i n place, and connect the negative terminal of one c e l l t o t h e p o s i t i v e terminal of t h e next c e l l and so on. A l l c e l l s must be connected i n s e r i e s and, when completed, t h e b a t t e r y has two terminal posts,- one negative and one p o s i t i v e . T E ELECTROLYTE USED I N T E BATTERY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY H H The completed b a t t e r y shown i n Figure 1 2 i s now ready f o r t h e e l e c t r o l y t e . This i s t h e chemical s o l u t i o n which a c t s on t h e p l a t e s . Sulphuric acid i s t h e base of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e and i s mixed with pure distilled water, t h a t is, water which containes no f o r e i g n substance. The percentage of a c i d v a r i e s from 22 t o 37 percent by volume, depending upon t h e t m e of c e l l . When a s o l u t i o n having a s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of U O O i s required, and 1 p a r t of a c i d t o 4.3 p a r t s of d i s t i l l e d water. For a s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of L275, add 1 p a r t of a c i d t o 2.8 p a r t s of water and, when a s o l u t i o n having a s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f 1 3 0 0 i s d e s i r e d , add 1 p a r t of a c i d t o 2.5 p a r t s of water.
T h i s s o l u t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y placed i n t h e b a t t e r y by t h e manufacturer and i t i s not probable t h a t t h e consumer w i l l have this d u t y t o perform. Yet should t h e buyer have t h i s t o do t h e e l e c t r o l y t e w i l l come mixed and

p l a c i n g it i n t h e b a t t e r y i s simply a matter of removing t h e s e a l i n g and vent plug from t h e t o p of each c e l l and c a r e f u l l y pouring t h e s o l u t i o n i n t h e c e l l . The e l e c t r o l y t e should cover t h e p l a t e s three- quarters of an inch, D not use a metal f u n n e l or allow t h e acid t o come i n contact o w i t h P metal container. A g l a s s o r earthenware c o n t a i n e r only should be employed f o r t h i s purpose. T E H DO EE H Y R MTR
A s explained, t h e e l e c t p o l y t e has weight, and t o measure t h i s weight

an instrument known a s t h e "hydrometer" i s employed. I n t h e process of charging and discharging the b a t t e r y t h e acid, during discharge, combines with t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l of t h e p l a t e s and when being charged t h e a c i d i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e e l e c t r o l y t e . A s t h e p l a t e s absorb t h e a c i d during discharge t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e s o l u t i o n becomes l i g h t e r and it w i l l n o t , t h e r e f o r e , support t h e weight of t h e hvdrometer a s it w i l l when t h e a c i d i s oombined w i t h t h e water. The hydrometer i s constructed on p r i n c i p l e s which a r e based on t h e d e n s i t y of t h e f l u i d it i s t o measure. T h i s instrument, used t o show t h e s t a t e of charge of t h e s t o r a g e b a t t e r y , i s constructed as follows: The hydrometer i s a long hollow g l a s s tube, t h e g e n e r a l appearance of which i s shown i n Figure 13. A t t h e lower and l a r g e p a r t of t h e tube l e a d shot i s placed and sealed i n with wax. A t t h e upper end of t h e g l a s s tube t h e numbers Ll.00, L150, 1200, 1250, 1300 appear, This g l a s s tube i s placed i n a l a r g e r g l a s s container, t h e t o p of which i s f i t t e d with a rubber bulb f o r drawing t h e e l e c t r o l y t e i n t o t h e c o n t a i n e r and i n which t h e hydrometer f l o a t s . See Figure 14. When t h e hydrometer f l o a t s , t h e point on t h e s c a l e a t which it remains Lesson 16

- sheet

i. I
I

s t a t i o n a r y i n d i c a t e s t h e weight of t h e l i q u i d . I n a s o l u t i o n having a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of a c i d t h e hydrometer w i l l not s i n k a s deeply a s i n t h e l i q u i d devoid of acid,or mostly water. Figure 15 shows a b a t t e r y , t h e e l e c t r o l y t e af which i s mostly water, giving a hydrometer reading of 1.100. Figure 16 shows a s o l u t i o n heavy w i t h a c i d reading 1.300. I n t h e f i r s t t h e hydrometer s i n k s deep i n t o t h e s o l u t i o n while i n t h e l a t t e r it does not s i n k t o t h e same depth i n d i c a t i n g i n t h e f i r s t instance a discharged b a t t e r y and, i n t h e l a t t e r , a charged b a t t e r y .
PREPARING TKE ELFCTROLXTE

The very f i r s t t h i n g t h a t you must know under t h i s heading i s t h e care t o be exercised i n preparing e l e c t r o l y t e f o r lead- acid c e l l s . You understand t h a t t h i s e l e c t r o l y t e i s a comb i n a t i o n of d i s t i l l e d water and sulphuric acid. The water i s harmless but t h i s cannot be *aid about t h e acid. Sulphuric a c i d i n i t s e l f i s a very d e s t r u c t i v e agent both t o your c l o t h e s and p a r t s of yoW body w i t h which it may come i n If you s p i l l a c i d on your hands or contact. c l o t h e s it can be n e u t r a l i z e d by quickly applying a s o l u t i o n of baking soda and water, or household ammonia. There i s another danger i n handling water and s u l p h u r i c acid, however, t h a t i s not s o e a s i l y taken c a r e of and I s caused by improperly combining t h e two. Remember t h i s , - NEVER ADD Figure 13 WATER TO STRONG SULPHURIC A C I D - ? o r t h e reason That water and SUlphWic a c i d , when combined, produce t e r r i f i c h e a t and when water i s added t o t h e a c i d i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s steam i s immediately generated which w i l l blow t h e s o l u t i o n i n t o your face and over your body r e s u l t i n g i n severe a c i d burns and perhaps blindness.

Figure 14

ALWAYS ADD A C I D S O L TO TRE WATER. Follow t h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s when L WY mixing t h e a c i d e l e c t r o l y t e and you may proceed w i t h assured success. The water used should be d i s t i l l e d but i f pure water i s not e a s i l y obtained c l e a n r a i n water which has not r u n through metal g u t t e r s and lead down pipes may be used. Clean snow melted i n an e a r t h e n o r g l a s s r e c e p t a c l e w i l l be s a t i s f a c t o r y .

I n mixing, add small q u a n t i t i e s of acid t o t h e water w i t h t h e hydromet e r , s t i r r i n g c a r e f u l l y with a c l e a n wooclen s t i c k u n t i l t h e proper s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y i s obtained. The s o l u t i o n must be allowed t o cool before it i s placed i n t h e b a t t e r y .

Lesson 16

- sheet

The manufacturers always specify i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s accompanying the b a t t e r y t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e t o be used w i t h t h a t p a r t i c u l a r b a t t e r y , and t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n s should be c a r e f u l l y followed.
THE CHARGING O BATTERIES F

The charging of a l l storage b a t t e r i e s must be done w i t h d i r e c t c u r r e n t . If d i r e c t current i s not a v a i l a b l e altermating c u r r e n t must be changed . . by the use of a r e c t i f i e r . There a r e s e v e r a l good types of t o DC r e c t i f i e r s on t h e market known c h i e f l y a s e l e c t r o l y t i c and vacuum tube types. Thus w f i n d when a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i s used f o r charging purposes it e must f i r s t be r e c t i f i e d i n t o a d i r e c t c u r r e n t by means of a r e c t i f i e r . O the o t h e r hand when d i r e c t current i s used it i s a comparatively n easy matter t o charge storage b a t t e r i e s . The following explanations and diagrams may be used t o accomplish t h e charging of b a t t e r i e s from a d i r e c t current source.
SHOWlNG CELL DISCHARGE0 S P E C I F I C GPYITY 1100

TY

f i n d out how t o determine t h e apparatus t o be employed; t h i s means t h a t a e must r e c a l l some of t h e formulae w learned e i n e a r l i e r lessons. The d i r e c t c u r r e n t l i g h t i n g mains i n most homes have an E.M.F. of 110 v o l t s and i n our computations w w i l l use e t h a t value. I f , upon i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e l i n e voltage i s found t o be higher, a l l t h a t P s necessary i s t o s u b s t i t u t e t h e higher voltage i n t h e formulae which w i l l be given.

A bank of lamps or a r e s i s t a n c e u n i t may be employed. F i r s t , however, w w i l l e

Figure 15

Figure 16

If w connect 110 v o l t s d i r e c t l y a c r o s s a storage b a t t e r y a very e high c u r r e n t would flovf through t h e b a t t e r y due t o i t s low i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e . This i s undesirable because a c u r r e n t t o o high i n value w i l l elamage the p l a t e s by over- heating and buckling, t h e r e f o r e w e must i n s e r t some s o r t of c u r r e n t l i m i t i n g device i n t h e c i r c u i t t o prevent more t h a n t h e required current t o flow through the c e l l s .
"Rn which i s placed i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e l i n e and storage b a t t e r y , "B n . Suppose we w i s h t o charge t h e b a t t e r y a t t h e r a t e of 2 amperes; with

I n our f i r s t problem w w i l l study Figure 17 and use a r e s i s t a n c e u n i t e

t h e voltage of 110 v o l t s known w can determine t h e watts d i s s i p a t i o n e necessary by t h e following formula:

W = I x E, s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e known values w have, W = 2 x 110, where e I = 2 and E = 110, t h e r e f o r e W = 110 x 2 = 220 watts.

From t h i s we f i n d t h a t with a r e s i s t a n c e u n i t r a t e d a t 220 watts connected i n s e r i e s w i t h one s i d e of the D.C. l i n e and t h e b a t t e r y , t h e c u r r e n t e n t e r i n g the b a t t e r y w i l l be 2 amperes, t h e r a t e a t which we wish t o charge. I n most cases w l i k e t o know t h e value of t h e c u r r e n t l i m i t i n g dee vice i n terms of r e s i s t a n c e so, by employing O h m f s Law, we s u b s t i t u t e E/I, where E = 110 and ow. known values i n t h e following formula, R I = 2 a s before. Therefore R = 110 f 2 o r 55 ohms. From t h i s w f i n d t h e r e q u i r e d r e s i s t a n c e t o be 55 ohms and t h e ammeter, e ''A", when connected i n t h e charging c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 17, w i l l read 2 amperes. Suppose w go a s t e p f u r t h e r and check our computation t o make sure t h a t e we a r e correct before a c t u a l l y connecting up t h e c i r c u i t . To do t h i s we 'In, we know, equals 2 amperes, and w i l l use the formula, W = IYx R.

Figure 17
I

Figure 18

"R1' w found t o be 55 ohms. From our formula, however, "Inmust be e e squared, t h n t i s , m u l t i p l i e d by i t s e l f , t h e r e f o r e by s u b s t i t u t i n g w have :

W =
W W

= =

I'XR

2 & x 55 4 x 55

220 watts.

Any r a t e of charge mag be determined by chana;in@;t h e r e s i s t a n c e value of "Rn t o meet t h e conditions required. I n Figure 18 i s a c i r c u i t s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n Figure 17. Here w employ e r e g u l a r e l e c t r i c lamps, a s found i n any home, a s c u r r e n t l i m i t i n g or r e s i s t a n c e d e v i ~ e s . T h i s i s c a l l e d t h e lamp bank method of chargin@: any by using t h i s method various charging r a t e s may be obtained simply by changing lamps of e i t h e r a higher o r lower watt r a t i n g . I n Figure 18 place t h r e e lamps i n tlze lamp r e c e p t a c l e s a t "L", each e lamp r a t e d a t 2 5 watts. 3 lamps Umes 2 5 w a t t s equals 75 watts. W knaw the voltage i s 110 v o l t s a n d h a v i n g found t h e w a t t s t o be 75, t h e next s t e p i s t o determine, w i t h t h e s e values, t h e charging r a t e . To do t h i s w 8 must take our f i r s t formula which was w r i t t e n i n terms of watts and from t h a t d e r i v e a formula t o meet t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case.

If W I x E t h e n E i s equal t o W/I and I i s equal t o W/E. The formul a e , therefor*, derived from W I x E is E W/I and I W/E.

Lesson 1 6

- sheet 9

Referring t o the f i r s t p a r t of our problem w know t h a t E = 110 and e W 75. By i n s p e c t i o n , then, we f i n d t h e formula I = w/E w i l l solve our problem i n terms of amperes, and by s u b s t i t u t i n g w have I equals e 75/110 o r 0.68 ampere.

0.68-t ampere i s a very slow r a t e of charge, so l e t us replace t h e t h r e e 25 watt lamps w i t h t h r e e o t h e r s ; one having a r a t i n g of 400 w a t t s , one of 25 w a t t s , and t h e t h i r d 75 watts. 400 w a t t s plus 25 w a t t s plus 75 w a t t s i s a t o t a l of 500 watts. By formula I = W/E and s u b s t i t u t i n g our known values I = 500/110 o r I = 4.54.
COMPUTING CHARGING RATES F O F R LIGHTING PLANTS R M AM

Farm l i g h t i n g e l e c t r i c p l a n t s , i n some i n s t a n c e s , have a maxvoltage of 32 v o l t s . The rmles already given apply here a s well a s i n c i r c u i t s of 110 v o l t s . Care must be taken, however, t o s u b s t i t u t e 32 f o r "En i n s t e a d of 110. For example, suppose you have a 6-volt storage b a t t e r y and you w i s h t o charge i t a t a r a t e of 4 amperes from a 3 2 v o l t f a r = l i g h t i n g p l a n t . R = E/I and s u b s t i t u t i n g R = 32/4 or 8 ohms. Eight ohms t h e n i s t h e required r e s i s t a n c e . RM PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED I N CHARGING F O DIRECT CURRENT P o l a r i t y must be c o r r e c t . The o s i t i v e of t h e charging source must be c o n n e c w t o t h e p o s i t i v e term na of t h e b a t t e r y . If no voltmeter i s a v a i l a b l e t o determine t h e p o l a r i t y employ t h e water o r potato t e s t . Do not allow t h e l e a d s t o t h e b a t t e r y t o come i n contact w i t h grounded water o r gas pipes o r o t h e r metal o b j e c t s which may be grounded. Do not charge a t an excessive r a t e . I n t h e next l e s s o n on skorage b a t t e r i e s f u r t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s source of E.M.F. w i l l be t a k e n up t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e care and maintenance necessary t o o b t a i n h i g h e s t e f f i c i e n c y and l i f e from t h e storage battery.
EXAMINATION

err

- LESSON 16

9. What c u r r e n t would be obtained f o r charging R b a t t e r y i f a r e s i s t a n c e of 55 ohms were uaed on a 110 v o l t charging l i n e ? 10. O f what use i s a hydrometer?

p1(ri) t h e chemical a c t i o n taking place Bxplaln ( b ) On discharge.

1 Name the a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s used i n t h e s t o r a g e b a t t e r y p l a t e s . . 2. What i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between a primary and secondary c e l l 3 3. O what i s t h e e l e c t r o l y t e of t h e Exide c e l l composed? f 4. What i s mean5 by t h e ampere-hour c a p a c i t y of a s t o r a g e c e l l ? 5. Draw a diagram of a simple charging c i r c u i t . 6. What i s +,he s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e of a f u l l y charged Exide b a t t e r y ? V . H w would you mix a c l d w i t h water when preparing t h e e l e c t r o l y t e ? o -

i n a c e l l on charge.

Lesson 16

sheet 1 0

INC. firmed9
s u n d e d /909

M A R C O N / /NST/JUTE

Technical Lesson 1 7
T E USE OF STORAGE BATTERIES ON'SBIPBOARD H The purpose of t h e s t o r a g e b a t t e r y a t s e a i s t o provide a source of emergency power t h a t may be used i n place of t h e r e g u l a r power equipment of the s h i p t o o p e r a t e t h e r a d i o t r a n s m i t t i n g apparatus. There a r e two laws covering t h i s emergency power supply, one an i n t e r n a t i o n a l law and t h e o t h e r a domestic law. The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Radio Telegraphic r e g u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e an a u x i l i a r y source of power f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e motor-generator of t h e r e g u l a r r a d i o equipment, o r t o o p e r a t e a low-powered t r a n s m i t t e r independently of t h e s h i p f s g e n e r a t o r , which i s capable of functioning f o r a t l e a s t 6 hours. The United S t a t e s Radio Act of August 13, 1912, s t i p u l a t e s t h a t a l l v e s s e l s r e q u i r e d t o c a r r y r a d i o equipment s h a l l have an emergency t r a n s m i t t i n g equipment t h a t can be operated e n t i r e l y independent of t h e c u r r e n t supply of the s h i p ' s g e n e r a t o r . The emergency equipment must have a t r a n s m i t t i n g range of a t l e a s t 100 miles during d a y l i g h t hours and be a b l e t o f u n c t i o n continuously f o r a period of f o u r hours. The a u x i l i a r y source of supply may be a small 4C o r DC generator operated by . a g a s o l i n e o r o i l engine. I n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l cases, however, t h e operator w i l l f i n d a b a t t e r y of s t o r a g e c e l l s a s t h e a u x i l i a r y supply and f o r t h a t reason he should be f a m i l i a r with t h e o p e r a t i o n and c a r e necessary t o maint a i n t h e b a t t e r y a t i t s h i g h e s t e f f i c i e n c y . I t must be remembered t h a t t h e s t o r a g e b a t t e r y may be t h e only source of power a v a i l a b l e t o operate t h e Radio t r a n s m i t t e r if t h e r e g u l a r power equipment should become i n o p e r a t i v e . The main emergency b a t t e r y g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t s of s i x t y c e l l s having a c a p a c i t y s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e t o properly o p e r a t e t h e r a d i o t r a n s m i t t i n g apparatus i n a manner t o s a t i s f y t h e laws governing such emergency apparatus. Two general types of storage c e l l s a r e used i n connection with emergency t r a n s m i t t e r s ; namely, t h e l e a d p l a t e , s u l p h u r i c a c i d c e l l , such a s t h e "Chloride w and "Exiden types manufactured by t h e E l e c t r i c Storage B a t t e r y Company, and the Edison, n i c k e l i r o n a l k a l i c e l l . TYPES OF PLATES:- The p l a t e s most commonly used i n t h e lead- acid storage c e l l a r e the pasted, o r Faurg p l a t e s , and t h e p l a n t & , or formed p l a t e s . The p l a n t 6 type of p l a t e i s made by taking pure l e a d , immersing i t i n an e l e c t r o l y t e and passing an e l e c t r d c c u r r e n t through t h e e l e c t r o l y t e and lead. T h i s process, c a l l e d forming, produces a coating of brown lead peroxide on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e l e a d . I t i s t h i s coating t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l i n t h i s type of c e l l . Due t o t h e i r excessive weight and l a r g e s i z e , and t h e time r e q u i r e d t o form t h i s type of p l a t e , i t i s no longer used i n t h e o r i g i n a l form t o any g r e a t e x t e n t . P r i n t e d i n U.S.A. Contents copyrighted 1930.

I n 1881 ~ a u r e o r i g i n a t e d a method of making up t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l and past' ing i t on the lead p l a t e s . This was a g r e a t time saver, doing away with t h e tedious forming process of t h e raw l e a d p l a t e s . This method, however, had i t s disadvantages because t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l thus pasted on t h e f l a t s u r f a c e s of t h e l e a d p l a t e s had t h e d i s t i n c t disadvantage of buckling and f a l l i n g o f f a s i t was n o t an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e p l a t e . I t was t h e s k e l e t o n framework or g r i d described i n Lesson 16 t h a t made t h e s t o r a g e c e l l a commercial success. The modern s t o r a g e c e l l u s e s a modification of one o r both of these methods which w i l l now be described.
THE POSITIVE PLATE O THE EXIDE CHLORIDE TYPE PLATE:- Since t h e P l a n t 4 F method i s used i n making up t h i s p l a t e t h e openings and a c t i v e m a t e r i a l d i f f e r from t h e pasted type. The openings of t h i s p l a t e , which hold t h e a c t i v e mate- ial, a r e n o t r e c t a n g u l a r i n shape but c o n s i s t of 3/4 i n c h h o l e s .

Figure 1 Pure s o f t l e a d which has f i r s t been c u t from t h i n l e a d ribbon, and r o l l e d i n t o a s p i r a l button, i s f o r c e d by h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e i n t o t h e s e openings. T h i s p l a t e i s shown i n Figure 1. The p r e s s u r e used i n f o r c i n g i n t h e s e huttons s e c u r e l y l o c k s them i n t h e openings and, a s they h e a t by t h e charging o r discharging of t h e c e l l , a f u r t h e r t i g h t e n i n g r e s u l t s which has t h e twof o l d purpose of b e t t e r locking them i n place and of making good e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t with t h e g r i d .
THE NEGATIVE PLATE OF THE CHLORIDE TYPE:- The negative p l a t e i s made up by method (pasted p l a t e ) ; t h a t i s , t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l i s made i n t o a the ~ a u r 6 p a s t e of f i n e l y divided porous l e a d and forced i n t o square openings. This m a t e r i a l , s i n c e i t i s n o t self- supporting, r e q u i r e s a f i n e l y p e r f o r a t e d rubber s h i e l d which allows t h e ' a c i d t o reach t h e p l a t e but prevents t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l from f a l l i n g away from t h e g r i d .

THE ELECTROLYTE:- The e l e c t r o l y t e of t h e Chloride c e l l i s a 20% s o l u t i o n of s u l p h u r i c a c i d and does n o t employ c h l o r i d e s , a s t h e name might imply. The name "Chloride" i s merely a t r a d e name and d e s i g n a t e s t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r type of b a t t e r y i s one using a combination of t h e P l a n t 6 and FaurQ types of p l a t e s , t h e p o s i t i v e being a formed type and t h e n e g a t i v e a pasted type.

Lesson 1 7

sheet 2

THE IRONCLAD EXIDE CELL

The W d e type just and i s an struction

wIroncladn c e l l embodies the same fundamental p r i n c i p l e s a s t h e discussed. The c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h i s c e l l i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t improvement over t h e o t h e r types, i n s o f a r a s t h e p l a t e coni s concerned.

Figure 3 Figure 2 The negative p l a t e of t h e I r o n c l a d c e l l i s very s l n i l a r t o t h e p l a t e shown i n Figure 3 of t h e previous l e s s o n , with t h e exception of t h e t o p and bottom edges of t h e p l a t e . A rubber casing i s f i t t e d t o t h e top and bottom edges of t h e p l a t e and vulcanized i n t o place, t h e purpose being t o e l i m i n a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s h o r t c i r c u i t s occurring from any m a t e r i a l t h a t might p o s s i b l y bridge a c r o s s from t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e . The p o s i t i v e p l a t e of t h e I r o n c l a d c e l l i s t h e improved f e a t u r e of t h i s c e l l . The g r i d of t h e p l a t e i s composed of a number of v e r t i c a l lead a l l o y metal r o d s which a r e secured t o t h e t o p and bottom of t h e g r i d . Around each metal rod i s placed peroxide of l e a d i n c y l i n d r i c a l form, t h i s i n t u r n i s completely surrounded by a hard rubber casing which has a g r e a t number of small openings o r slits, a s shown i n Figure 2, t o allow t h e e l e c t r o l y t e t o come i n c o n t a c t Whila t h e s e s l i t s allow a w i t h t h e peroxide of l e a d , t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l . f r e e c i r c u l a t i o n of a c i d t o t h e l e a d peroxide they a r e f i n e enough t o prev e n t t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l from washing out. I n Figure 3 i s shown a cutaway s e c t i o n of a tube of t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e with t h e metal rod, t h e peroxide of l e a d and t h e rubber casing c l e a r l y marked. Figure 4 shows t h e f i n i s h e d p o s i t i v e p l a t e of t h e I r o n c l a d s t o r a g e c e l l . Lesson 17

- sheet 3

ES AND RATINGS OF THE EXIDE CELL USED I N VdBRGENCY EQUIPMENT following t a b l e t h e smaller s i z e s of c e l l s a r e used i n connection ransrnitting s e t s r a t e d a t 1/2 KW, t h e l a r g e r c e l l s being employed where emergency l i g h t s aboerd s h i p a r e t o be supplied a s well a s t h e r a d i o a p p a r a t u s . I n most i n s t a l l a t i o n s where a 2 KW t r a n s m i t t e r i s used ,the 6 0 - c e l l M V A - 1 1 type Exide i s em~loyed. Capacity i n Ampere-Hours Number of C e l l s
60 c e l l
n n
II

Type

A t the

D -J -

I
A t the 10-Hour Rate 11

&HOW

Rate

MVA-9 1 1 13

"

147% 177

118

Ampere-Hours
II

137 171 205

Ampere-Hours
11 11 II

When severe conditions a r e t o be imposed on t h e emergency s t o r a g e b a t t e r y equipment, such a s excessive v i b r a t i o n , the Exide I r o n c l a d b a t t e r y i s employed, assuring longer l i f e under such conditions. The r a t i n g s of s e v e r a l s i z e s of t h i s type of b a t t e r y a r e given i n t h e following t a b l e . Capacity i n Ampere-Hours Rate
11

Number of C e l l s 60 c e l l
n
n

Type
MVA-9 n 1 1

A t the

d- our
11

1 I
A t t h e 1 0 - ~ 6 u rRate
n n
11

n n

n
n n

13 15 17

122 153 184 214 245

Ampere-Hours
n
II

146 Ampere-Hours 183 II n 220 n n 256 n n 293 n 11

On s h i p s which a r e operated mostly i n t r o p i c a l waters, or on any s h i p when t h e b a t t e r y has t o be s o l o c a t e d t h a t i t i s c o n t i n u a l l y s u b j e c t t o extremely high temperatures, t h e Exide 60- cell type n%VALn b a t t e r y i s recommended. The same p r i n c i p l e s a r e embodied i n t h i s c e l l a s i n t h e 1 1 M V A n type. The det a i l of assembly, with but one exception, i s t h e same and t h e same p l a t e s a r e used. The d i f f e r e n c e l i e s i n t h e s e p a r a t i o n of t h e p l a t e s which a r e more widely spaced, allowing t h i c k e r s e p a r a t o r s t o be used, and an e l e c t r o l y t e having a lower o r weaker s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y . Both of t h e s e changes a r e d e s i r a b l e e s p e c i a l l y under high temperature o p e r a t i n g conditions. This b a t t e r y w i l l g i v e longer l i f e than t h e standard marine r a d i o b a t t e r y type nMVA," t h e disadvantage being t h a t , f o r t h e same c a p a c i t y , i t r e q u i r e s more space and weighs more.

Lesson 17

sheet 4

Figure 4
A s t o r a g e b a t t e r y i s a l s o employed t o h e a t t h e f i l a m e n t s of t h e tubes i n t h e r e c e i v i n g s e t . This s t o r a g e b a t t e r y i s the p o r t a b l e type comprised of t h r e e c e l l s giving a t o t a l of 6 v o l t s . It i s r a t e d a t 100 ampere-hours a t t h e 10-hour r a t e .

C e r t a i n fundamental f a c t s concerning t h e charge and discharge of s t o r a g e c e l l s and the c i r c u i t s f o r t h e i r use w i l l now be considered, followed by a complete d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e charging panel used i n marine r a d i o i n s t a l l a t i o n . CHARGINGSTORAGE BATTERIES In t h i s l e s s o n more d e t a i l i s given, e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e charging methods aboard ship. The charge i s accomplished by connecting t h e p o s i t i v e terminal of t h e b a t t e r y t o the p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l of a source of d i r e c t c u r r e n t and-the nertative terminal t o t h e negative s i d e of the charging source. This i s t r u e because t h e chemical a c t i o n must be reversed when t h e b a t t e r y i s t o be charged, t h e r e f o r e t h e charging c u r r e n t must flow through t h e b a t t e r y oppos i t e i n d i r e c t i o n t o t h a t of discharge. The v o l t a g e of t h e charging source
T h i s phase of t h e study was p a r t i a l l y taken up i n t h e previous lesson.

Lesson 17

sheet 5

must exceed the voltage of t h e b a t t e r y , t h a t i s , t h e t o t a l voltage of a l l t h e c e l l s of which t h e b a t t e r y i s composed must be l e s s than t h e voltage a v a i l a b l e f o r charging purposes. '6 The p o l a r i t y of t h e charging mains may be determined by one o r a l l of t h e following methods:
1. 2. 3.
By t h e use of a d i r e c t c u r r e n t voltmeter. By chemical means. By immersing t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e charging source i n a s o l u t i o n of s a l t water..

The terminals of t h e voltmeter a r e g e n e r a l l y marked w i t h p o l a r i t y signs, + ( p o s i t i v e ) and ( n e g a t i v e ) . If t h e meter i s c o r r e c t l y connected a c r o s s t h e l i n e a d e f l e c t i o n of the n e e d l e enables t h e o p e r a t o r t o read t h e E.M.F. i n v o l t s . If connected improperly no reading can be taken.

When two o r more b a t t e r i e s a r e t o be charged they a r e g e n e r a l l y connected i n s e r i e s and, a s t h e charging i s u s u a l l y from a 110- volt c i r c u i t , t h e t o t a l v o l t a g e of t h e b a t t e r y when charged must not exceed 110 v o l t s . The l i m i t i n g r e s i s t a n c e used t o determine t h e charging r a t e may be e i t h e r a f i x e d r e s i s t a n c e , an a d j u s t a b l e r h e o s t a t , a lamp-bank, o r a water r h e o s t a t . I l l u s t r a t i o n s of simple charging c i r c u i t s employing t h e s e methods w i l l be shopm. Figure 5 shows t h e method of charging by lamp-bank from a 110- volt source. Five 110- volt 16 candle-power carbon lamps a r e used a s the means of cont r o l l i n g t h i s charging c u r r e n t . Since one 110- volt 16-CP carbon lamp a l l o w s 1/2 ampere t o pass, f i v e lamps connected a s shown i n t h e f i g u r e w i l l charge t h e b a t t e r i e s a t 2 1/2 amperes. The group of lamps and t h e c e l l s a r e connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e charging l i n e , and t h e c u r r e n t flowing through the c e l l s w i l l be determined by t h e number of lamps used. The charging c u r r e n t flows from t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e l i n e through t h e posit i v e s i d e of t h e switch, through t h e f u s e , through t h e lamps, then through t h e c e l l s and r e t u r n s t o t h e negative s i d e of t h e l i n e passing through the ammeter which measures t h e c u r r e n t passing through t h e c e l l s . The lamp-bank may be connected i n e i t h e r t h e p o s i t i v e o r negative s i d e of t h e l i n e but i t must be always connected i n s e r i e s with the b a t t e r y . The u o s i t i v e s i d e of u l i n e must always be connected t o the p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l of t h e b a t t e r y . e I n w i n g lamps a s t h e r e s i s t a n c e i n a charging c i r c u i t i t i s recommended t h a t t h e carbon f i l a m e n t lamp be used as t h i s type h a s a g r e a t e r c u r r s n t consumption f o r a c e r t a i n amount of l i g h t than t h e t u n g s t e n filament type, and fewer lamps a r e requrred t o o b t a i n t h e necessary charging c u r r e n t . I t i s always advisable t o have an ammeter connected i n t h e c i r c u i t t o measure a t a l l times t h e charging c u r r e n t . If an ammeter i s n o t a v a i l a b l e t h e following r u l e , when employing e i t h e r carbon o r tungsten filament lamps, may be applied t o o b t a i n t h e approximate number of lamps t o u s e when t h e l i n e voltage, t h e charging r a t e i n amperes, and t h e w a t t consumption of t h e lamps, a r e known. For example, suppose you have 60 watt lamps, t h e charging r a t e i s t o be 6 amperes and t h e v o l t a g e i s 110 v o l t s . Multiply t h e charging r a t e times

Lesson 17

sheet 6

the voltage and d i v i d e by the watt consumption per lamp. a s follows:

T h i s i s expressed

o r eleven 60 watt lamps w i l l be required.

4-

+
I40 VOLTS DIRECT CURRENT

-(
BATTERIES-

I
FUSES

((0VOLTS DIRECT CURRENT

RHEOSTAT

Figure 5

Figure 6

A charging c i r c u i t employing a r h e o s t a t i s shown i n Figure 6. This c i r c u i t may be employed where t h e voltage of t h e charging source i s g r e a t e r than t h e voltage required f o r t h e number of c e l l s connected i n s e r i e s , and i t may be adjusted t o give any r e s i s t a n c e within i t s range. When a r e s i s t o r of t h i s type i s used t h e charging source must be s l i g h t l y h i g h e r than t h e v o l t a g e of a l l t h e c e l l s a t t h e completion of t h e charge.

The voltage of the charging source M S ALWAYS EXCEED t h e MAXIMUM v o l t a g e of UT t h e s t o r a g e b a t t e r y because t h e b a t t e r y e x e r t s a back p r e s s u r e o r counter electromotive f o r c e on t h e charging source and i f t h e voltage of t h e charging source i s LESS than t h a t of t h e b a t t e r y t h e l a t t e r w i l l n o t be charged. When charging a number of c e l l s i n s e r i e s t h e charging r e s i s t a n c e f o r a given b a t t e r y may be determined by Ohm's Law. Example: Assume t h a t a given b a t t e r y , when f u l l charged, h a s a v o l t a g e of 30 v o l t s , t h e normal charging r a t e a s s p e c i f i e d by t h e manufacturer i s 6 amperes and t h e v o l t a g e of t h e charging source i s 110 v o l t s . The b a t t e r y e x e r t s a counter electromotive f o r c e of 30 v o l t s on t h e charging source; 30=80 volts. t h e e f f e c t i v e o r n e t voltage, then, i s 110

But i n our For ordinary d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t s by O h m ' s Law; R - E / I . example, however, t h e value of t h e charging r e s i s t a n c e i s determined by; R=E- e I Where E = t h e voltage of the charging source e = t h e f u l l y charged voltage of t h e b a t t e r y I = t h e normal charging c u r r e n t a s s p e c i f i e d by t h e manufacturer. Lesson 17

sheet 7

S u b s t i t u t i n g the known values i n t h e formul

R =

110

30

13.3 ohms.

Figure 7 i l l u s t r a t e s a water r h e o s t a t , a form of r e s i s t a n c e which may be used i n an emergency when t h e r e g u l a r means of r e s i s t a n c e i s n o t a v a i l a b l e . The c u r r e n t flows from t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e l i n e through t h e r i g h t hand s i d e of t h e switch t o the bottom metal p l a t e , which may be any piece of metal e a s i l y obtained, through t h e s a l t water t o t h e upper metal p l a t e t o t h e c e l l s , and thus r e t u r n s t o t h e negative s i d e of t h e l i n e . Some means of a d j u s t i n g t h e d i s t a n c e between the two metal p l a t e s i s provided which w i l l determine t h e c u r r e n t flow t o t h e c e l l s .

110 VOLTS DIRECT CURRENT ROVE TO LOWER hND RAISE METAL PLhlE

WATER RHEOSTAT

'- METAL PLATES

BATTER&

Figure 7
THE PANEL CHARGER

O shipboard t h e 6 0 - c e l l emergency r a d i o b a t t e r y h a s a combined voltage too n high t o be charged from t h e s h i p ' s 110- volt l i n e and because of t h i s t h e b a t t e r y i s divided i n t o two equal banks of 30 c e l l s each f o r charging.
A switchboard panel e s p e c i a l l y designed f o r s h i p use and which i s equipped with a l l t h e necessary a p p a r a t u s f o r performing t h e v a r i o u s switching opera t i o n s and f o r p r o t e c t i n g t h e c i r c u i t s i s shown i n Figure 8. The diagram showing t h e wiring back of t h i s panel i s shown i n Figure 9 while Figure 10 i s a diagram of t h e charging c i r c u i t connections and t h e meter c i r c u i t .

I n s t r u c t i o n s concerning t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h i s panel a r e explained i n t h e following. The r e v e r s i n g switch i s closed i n t h e proper d i r e c t i o n t o g i v e c o r r e c t p o l a r i t y . T h i s w i l l be i n d i c a t e d by t h e needle of the voltmeter which i f t h e p o l a r i t y i s c o r r e c t , w i l l g i v e a reading. If t h e needle does not swing over t h e s c a l e but t e n d s t o move t o t h e l e f t where no reading can be observed, i t i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e p o l a r i t y i s reversed; t h e r e f o r e t h e reversing switch must be thrown i n t h e r e v e r s e p o s i t i o n . Lesson 1 7

- sheet 8

The v c l t i g e cf t h e b a t t e r y i s obtained b uLper 5r.d 1,v:er r i g k t i!;r.d recektacles c A s t h e voltmeter circuit i s normally open a push b u t t o n switch on t h e switchboard f o r c l o s i n g t h e c i r c u i t when it i s d e s i r e d t o take meter readings. The reason f o r t h i s c i r c u i t being open i s t o prevent s t r a y h i g h frequency c u r r e n t s from flowing through t h e meter windings when t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s i n o p e r a t i o n . The connections of t h i s meter c i r c u i t a r e shown i n Figure 10.

Figure 8 The next s t e p i s t o open t h e &pole double-throw switch and c l o s e t h e c i r c u i t breaker, a t t h e same time holding up t h e plunger of t h e low v o l t a g e r e l e a s e c o i l ; now throw t h e 6-pole double-throw switch t o t h e l e f t , t h u s connecting t h e two b a t t e r y banks t o t h e charging source through t h e charging r e s i s t o r s . These r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s a r e p l a i n l y niarked and shown i n both F i g u r e s 9 and 10. The ampere-hour meter i s our next consideration. Over t h e f a c e of t h i s instrument w i l l be seen two i n d i c a t i n g hands, one black and t h e o t h e r r e d i n color. The r e d hand should now be. moved u n t i l i t p o i n t s t o the number corresponding t o t h e ampere-hours as s p e c i f i e d by t h e manufacturer f o r t h e s i z e of t h e b a t t e r y t o be charged. The black hand i n d i c a t e s t h e s t a t e of discharge of t h e b a t t e r i e s a t a l l times. With t h e 6-pole double-throw switch t o t h e l e f t t h e b a t t e r i e s a r e on charge, and t h e amount of charge Lesson 17

- sheet

w i l l be i n d i c a t e d by t h e b l a c k hand which w i l l move toward z e r o and, when i t reaches z e r o , t h e b a t t e r y i s charged. The black hand, on reaching t h e z e r o p o s i t i o n , makes an e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t which s h o r t c i r c u i t s t h e holdingmagnet windings of t h e c i r c u i t breaker through a small r e s i s t a n c e and t h e c i r c u i t breaker opens, t h u s a u t o m a t i c a l l y opening t h e charging c i r c u i t .
A t s t a t e d p e r i s d s , g e n e r a l l y about once each month, i t i s b e s t t o g i v e t h e To do t h i s t h e cover of t h e ampere-hour meter i s b a t t e r i e s an over-charge. removed and t h e black hand moved back half-way t o t h e red hand; t h e cover i s A t t h e completion of the t h e n r e p l a c e d and t h e b a t t e r y placed on charge. over- charge t h e charging c u r r e n t i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y c u t o f f by t h e black hand making c o n t a c t a t t h e z e r o p o s i t i o n and thereby opening t h e c i r c u i t breaker. I t is- important t h a t t h e ampere-hour meter be g i v e n t h e proper a t t e n t i o n which w i l l i n s u r e i t being maintained i n good o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n . When p o s s i b l e t h e meter should be overhauled and r e c a l i b r a t e d once every twelve o r e i g h t e e n months.
CHhRGING RLSISIkUCES

-.-

CHARGING RESISTkNCES

TO WIRELESS

Figure 9 Lesson 1 7

THE C I R C U I T BREAKER

The c i r c u i t breaker i s equipped with a low-voltage r e l e a s e device which f u n c t i o n s when t h e v o l t a g e from t h e ship's g e n e r a t o r drops below t h e proper p o t e n t i a l . If f o r any reason v o l t a g e from t h e shipqs mains drops below t h e voltage of t h e b a t t e r i e s t h e no-load o r low v o l t a g e r e l e a s e w i l l o p e r a t e by opening t h e c i r c u i t , thereby preventing t h e b a t t e r y from discharging back i n t o t h e s h i p f s mains. A s long a s t h e v o l t a g e of t h e s h i p f s generator i s high enough t o f o r c e s u f f i c i e n t c u r r e n t through t h e magnet; which holds t h e
I 1 0 VOLT Bus-::,

f +

D.P.D.T.

LAMP FOR FLOATING CHARGE

..--.

AlIr'lRE HOUR

DOUBLE POLE DOUBLE THROW 3 0 AMPS ,,'SWITCH.

VOLTMETER CONNECTIONS POINT # I BATTERY P O I N T # 2 BUS POINT*^ BATTERY -PI" POINT#^ BATTERY '"8"

(DISCHPRGO
'

PUSH

8UTT0N
MUL~IPLIER

-0

.+

-*

.+

V O L T M E T E R PLUG

Figure 10 Lesson 17

low-voltage plunger U i n p l a c e t h e c i r c u i t w i l l remain closed. When t h e p v o l t a g e drops o r f a i l s t h e magnetic f i e l d developed i n t h e magnet holding t h e plunger ceases and t h e plunger, which i s metal, drops and t r i p s a lock which holds t h e c i r c u i t breaker i n place. If t h e s h i p ' s g e n e r a t o r f a i l s t h e b a t t e r i e s may be used t o supply t h e current f o r the ship's lights. THE F L OAT I NG OR TRICKLE CHARGE When t h e 6- pole double-throw switch (abbreviated 6-PDT) i s closed t o t h e l e f t , with t h e c i r c u i t breaker open, t h e r e g u l a r charging r e s i s t o r c i r c u i t w i l l be open. The b a t t e r y w i l l , however, r e c e i v e a t r i c k l e charge through t h e two lamps which a r e shown mounted a t t h e upper l e f t and r i g h t hand corn e r s of t h e charging panel, Figure 8. This i s t h e normal p o s i t i o n of t h e switches on the panel when t h e b a t t e r y i s f u l l y charged and t h e s h i p ' s power i s being used t o supply power f o r t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . I n t h i s way t h e b a t t e r y i s always maintained a t f u l l charge ready t o be used i n c a s e of an emergency. When t h e b a t t e r y i s on t r i c k l e o r f l o a t i n g charge t h e l i g h t s cannot be operated from i t . I t t h e r e f o r e becomes necessary t o c l o s e t h e lower DPDT switch t o t h e l e f t . The d i s t r i b u t i o n switches f o r t h e l i g h t s , shown on t h e extreme lower p a r t of t h e panel, may be operated a s d e s i r e d . When t h e c i r c u i t breaker i s open and t h e &PDT s w i t c h ~ c l o s e dt o t h e r i g h t , which i s t h e discharging p o s i t i o n , t h e l i g h t s may be operated from e i t h e r PT t h e s h i p ' s l i n e o r from t h e b a t t e r y by c l o s i n g t h e lower D D switch, marked nLights," t o $he r i g h t o r l e f t , depending upon t h e source of power t o be drawn from. When t h e s h i p ' s g e n e r a t o r p l a n t i s f o r any r e a s o n n o t opera.ting, t h e r a d i o s w i t c h on t h e s h i p ' s switchboard and a l l t h e switches on t h e b a t t e r y panel switchboard must be opened. Under such c o n d i t i o n s never use t h e b a t t e r y f o r supplying t h e l i g h t c i r c u i t s except i n c a s e of emergency. EFFICIENCY OF BATTERIES W might assume t h a t by sending a predetermined m o u n t of c u r r e n t i n t o a e b a t t e r y t h e same amount can be taken from i t . This, however, i s n o t p r a c t i c a l which you may prove by t h e following formula: The watt hours o u t p u t E f f i c i e n c y = The watt hours i n p u t t o recharge For t h i s reason t h e b a t t e r y i s given an over-charge p e r i o d i c a l l y .

BATTERY CLEANLINESS:- Dampness and accumulation of d i r t about t h e t o p s of t h e b a t t e r y w i l l lower i t s e f f i c i e n c y because they permit t h e accumulated charge t o slowly l e a k away and produce c o r r o s i o n about t h e b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l s by holding small q u a n t i t i e s of t h e b a t t e r y s o l u t i o n c a r r i e d o u t of t h e v e r l t i l a t i n g h o l e s by t h e g a s . The t e r m i n a l s should be scraped c l e a n and thoroughly greased with c l e a n white v a s e l i n e t o p r e v e n t c o r r o s i o n .
ELECTROLYTE:- The e l e c t r o l y t e should always be k e p t one-half i n c h above the tops of t h e p l a t e s . When evaporation h a s reduced t h e s o l u t i o n add d i s t i l l e d

w a t e r o n l y b e f o r e c h a r g i n g . A s t h e a c i d d o e s n o t e v a p o r a t e new a c i d s h o u l d n e v e r be added u n l e s s t h e b a t t e r y s o l u t i o n h a s been s p i l l e d o u t . The b a t t e r y should be k e p t i n a s t a t e o f f u l l c h a r g e a t a l l t i m e s and t h e t r i c k l e o r f l o a t i n g c h a r g e should b e i n o p e r a t i o n a t a l l t i m e s e x c e p t when t h e b a t t e r y i s being charged o r d i s c h a r g e d . The t r i c k l e c h a r g e lamps w i l l b u r n a d u l l r e d when t h e t r i c k l e c h a r g e i s o p e c a t i n g . Should e i t h e r o f t h e s e lamps b u r n o u t r e p l a c e immediately w i t h a n o t h e r o f t h e seme r a t i n g . The g a s a r i s i n g from t h e b a t t e r y i s e x p l o s i v e ana a l l open f l a m e s must be k e p t away from t h e b a t t e r y a t a l l t i m e s .

STATE OF CHARGE:-

The p o l a r i t y of t h e g e n e r a t o r should be checked o f t e n t o guard a g a i n s t t h e b a t t e r y being a c c i d e n t a l l y d i s c l i a r g e d through t h e r e v e r s a l o f t h e g e n e r a t o r . T h i s may be accomplished by t a k i n g v o l t m e t e r r e a d i n g s f r e q u e n t l y by means of t h e v o l t m e t e r p l u g s on t h e s w i t c h b o a r d . The b a t t e r y should be f r e q u e n t l y i n s p e c t e d f o r l e a k y j a r s and i f a l e a k y jar i s found i t must be immediately r e p l a c e d and t h e o l d one r e p a i r e d o r d i s c a r d e d e n t i r e l y . C a r e f u l l y watch t h e t e r m i n a l s ; s e e t h a t a l l c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e t e r m i n a l s a r e c l e a n and t i g h t t h u s a s s u r i n g good e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t . P r e v e n t i m p u r i t i e s from e n t e r i n g t h e c e l l a s t h i s may c a u s e l o c a l a c t j o n and, i n time, r u i n t h e p l a t e s of t h e c e l l . TESTING F R C O N D I T I O N O CHARGE:- The hydrometer i s t h e o n l y means by which O F t h e s t a t e o f c h a r g e s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d as t h i s g i v e s t h e measure o f t h e amount of a c i d which h a s gone t o form s u l p h a t e on t h e p l a t e s . The v o l t m e t e r t e l l s l i t t l e o r b a t t e r y when measured on open a s c e r t a i n t h e s t a t e of charge i n t h e p r o c e s s of c h b r g i n g o r n o t h i n g a s t o t h e s t a t e o f c h a r g e of t h e circuit. When t h e v o l t m e t e r i s employed t o i t must be done when t h e b a t t e r y i s e i t h e r d i s c h a r g i n g a t t h e normal r a t e .

The f u l l y charged s t o r a g e c e l l should r e a d from 2.5 t o 2.6 v o l t s when on c h a r g e and a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2.1 v o l t s when on d i s c h a r g e . The v o l t a g e should n e v e r be allowed t o d r o p below 1 . 8 v o l t s . The s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f t h e f u l l y charged b a t t e r y s h o u l l measure from 1.280 t o 1.300 and, when f u l l y d i s c h a r g e d , 1.150. The t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e e l e c t r o l y t e should n o t be h i g h e r t h a n 105 d e g r e e s (F) when t h e b a t t e r y i s on c h a r g e . C O W O N TROUBLES The s t o r a g e b a t t e r y may become i n a c t i v e from one o f two c a u s e s , - e i t h e r due t,o a l a c k o f c h a r g e o r t r o u b l e i n t e r n a l l y . If i t i s l a c k of c h a r g e a hyd r o m e t e r r e a d i n g t a k e n o f a l l t h e c e l l s s h o u l d show a low, b u t uniform, s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y measurement f o r each c e l l , - t h e remedy t h e n i s t o p l a c e on c h a r g e . If one o r two c e l l s show a marked d i f f e r e n c e i n s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y r e a d i n g , t h e c a u s e i s p r o b a b l y i n t e r n a l t r o u b l e and t h e b a t t e r y should be overhauled.

Lesson 1 7

s h e e t 13

BUCKLING O PLATES:- When a s t o r a g e b a t t e r y i s s u b j e c t t o long excessive F charging or d i s c h a r g i n g t h e elements h e a t beyond t h e s a f e l i m i t and, i f t h i s p r a c t i c e i s c o n t i n u a l l y r e p e a t e d , t h e p l i t e s buckle causing t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l t o drop o u t of t h e g r i d s , thus r u i n i n g t h e c e l l .
The cause of t h e e x c e s s i v e charge may be due t o f a u l t y charging apparatus o r i t may be c a r e l e s s n e s s on t h e p a r t of t h e person who h a s charge of t h e b a t t e r y ; i n e i t h e r c a s e t h e remedy i s obvious. SULPHATI0N:- S u l p h a t i o n , a s explained, forms on t h e p l a t e s on discharge and accumulates r a p i d l y u n l e s s t h e b a t t e r y i s k e p t i n a w e l l charged s t a t e . When t h e p l a t e s become exposed t o t h e a i r s u l p h a t i o n r a p i d l y s e t s i n formi n g a hard c r y s t a l i z e d c o a t i n g over t h e p l a t e s . T h i s g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e s t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c e l l and r e q u i r e s a long over- charge a t a low r a t e t o break up t h i s c o n d i t i o n . Regular charging and n a i n t a i n i n g a proper h e i g h t of e l e c t r o l y t e w i l l , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , p r e v e n t s u l p h a t i o n . PLACING BATTERIES OUT O SERVICE:- Should i t become necessary t o p l a c e t h e F b a t t e r i e s out of commission f o r s e v e r a l months t h e y should be given a comp l e t e i n s p e c t i o n , t h e t e r m i n a l s thoroughly cleaned, e l e c t r o l y t e properly covering the p l e t e s , and then f u l l y charged. Before p l a c i n g them a g a i n i n a c t i v e s e r v i c e a thorough charge should be a p p l i e d u n t i l t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and v o l t a g e remain c o n s t a n t f o r a period of f i v e hours.

DRY STORAGE:- The same i n s t r u c t i o n s apply t o t h i s procedure a s above with t h e e x c e l ~ t i o nt h a t t h e e l e c t r o l y t e , a f t e r t h e c e l l s have been f u l l y charged, i s removed. The p l z t e s a r e washed with clean c o l d water and t h e b a t t e r y t h e n s t o r e d i n a dry cool p l a c e . Care should be taken t o s e e t h a t t h e p o s i t i v e and negative groups do not come i n c o n t a c t w i t h each o t h e r while t h i s i s being done. The s e p a r a t o r s a r e removed and thrown away and new ones used when t h e b a t t e r y i s a g a i n p u t i n commission.
THE EDISON S O A E BATTERY T R G

The Edison s t o r a g e b a t t e r y employs a p r i n c i p l e which d i f f e r s r a d i c a l l y from t h a t of a l l o t h e r s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s . I t i s t h e only s t o r a g e b a t t e r y having i r o n o r s t e e l i n i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n ; no l e a d whatever being employed. The g r i d s and t h e j a r s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d of s t e e l . The e l e c t r o l y t e of t h e Edison c e l l i s an a l k a l i n e s o l u t i o n and it has none of t h e disadvantages of t h e a c i d s o l u t i o n ; i t does n o t g i v e o f f noxious fumes during t h e charging process and, i f a c c i c l e n t a l l y s p i l l e d , w i l l n o t i n j u r e metal f a s t e n i n g s of t h e h u l l i f i t r u n s i n t o t h e b i l g e . The s o l u t i o n i s , . i n f a c t , a p r e s e r v e r of s t e e l and n i c k e l and t h e r e f o r e prevents many of t h e troubles arising i n storage battery practice.

1
j

1!

The chemical composition of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e i s a 21% s o l u t i o n of c a u s t i c potash t o which i s added a small amount of l i t h i u m h y d r a t e . The d e n s i t y o r s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of t h i s s o l u t i o n , which does n o t change, i s from 1.200 t o 1.230. During charge t h e water of t h e s o l u t i o n i s d r i v e n o f f a s gas a s i n t h e l e a d a c i d c e l l and i t i s necessary t o add d i s t i l l e d water when t h e e l e c t r o l y t e drops below t h e l e v e l of t h e t o p of t h e p l a t e s . When t h e Edison c e l l i s f i r s t charged, o r when t h e b a t t e r y i s given a long over- charge, c o n s i d e r a b l e water evaporates. Lesson 1 7

s h e e t 14

The a c t i v e m a t e r i a l o f t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e i s n i c k e l h y d r a t e and p u r e n i c k e l flake, the l a t t e r t o increase conductivity. The n e g a t i v e p l a t e employs i r o n o x i d e t o which i s added a s m a l l q u a n t i t y of mercury o x i d e t o i n c r e a s e t h e conductivity. The p o s i t i v e p l a t e i s made up o f a n m b e r of p e r f o r a t e d , s p i r a l l y wound, s t e e l t u b e s i n t o which a r e packed, under heavy p r e s s u r e , a l t e r n a t e l a y e r s o f n i c k e l h y d r a t e and p u r e n i c k e l f l a k e . The f l a k e n i c k e l , vvhich i s p l a c e d between e a c h l a y e r of n i c k e l h y d r a t e , i s a b o u t t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t i s s u e p a p e r and a b o u t 1/16 i n c h s q u a r e . F i g u r e 1 shows a m a g n i f i e d s e c t i o n o f a p o s i 1 t i v e t u b e i n which t h e n i c k e l h y d r a t e a p p e a r s a s t h e l i g h t l a y e r s and the p u r e n i c k e l f l a k e a s d a r k h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s . When t h e t u b e h a s been c o t t p l e t e l y l o a d e d i t i s s t r e n g t h e n e d m e c h a n i c a l l y by e n c i r c l i n g i t w i t h s e a m l e s s s t e e l rings as shown i n F i g u r e 12.

......

rA,,-

Figure 12

Figure 1 1

F i g u r e 13

The g r i d i s made o f s t e e l i n t o which t h e t u b e s j u s t d e s c r i b e d a r e f o r c e d , g i v i n g a m e c h a n i c a l l y s t r o n g p l a t e which i s c a p a b l e o f w i t h s t a n d i n g cont i n u a l s h o c k s and v i b r a t i o n . The g r i d i s shown i n F i g u r e 13 and t h e completed p o s i t i v e p l a t e a t A, F i g u r e 14. The n e g a t i v e p l a t e i s made up o f a number of f l a t p e r f o r a t e d s t e e l c o n t a i n e r s o r p o c k e t s i n t o which i s packed i r o n o x i d e w i t h a small amount of mercury o x i d e . A f t e r t h e s e p o c k e t s , shown i n F i g u r e 15, a r e packed and c l o s e d t h e y a r e p l a c e d i n t h e o p e n i n g s o f t h e n e g a t i v e g r i d , shown i n F i g u r e 1 6 , and f o r c e d i n t o permanent p l a c e and c o n t a c t by h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e . The completed n e g a t i v e p l a t e i s shown a t B, F i g u r e 1 4 . The p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e p l a t e s a r e now mounted on s t e e l r o d s which a r e i n t e g r a l w i t h t h e t a p e r e d s t e e l p o l e s p r o j e c t i n g t h r o u g h t h e t o p of t h e c e l l f o r e x t e r n a l c o n n e c t i o n . A f t e r t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e g r o u p s have been formed t h e y a r e i n t e r l e a v e d a s shown i n F i g u r e 17. The p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e g r o u p s a r e i n s u l a t e d from e a c h o t h e r by a s u i t a b l e r u b b e r i n s u l a t i o n which k r e v e n t s them from making e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t . F i g u r e 18 shows t h e two g r o u p s assembled and r e a d y t o be p l a c e d i n t h e s t e e l container. The c o n t a i n e r i s made o f a h i g h g r a d e s h e e t s t e e l h e a v i l y n i c k e l p l a t e d , a s a r e a l l o t h e r p a r t s of t h e c e l l . A l l seams and j o i n t s n e c e s s a r y i n i t s

Lesson 1 7

s h e e t 15

Figure 14

Lesson 17

sheet 16

c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e s e a l e d by means of welding. The c o n t a i n e r i s t i g h t l y s e a l e d except f o r t h e opening i n t h e top which i s provided f o r t h e escape of gases t h a t a r e given o f f during t h e process of charge, and f o r t h e add i t i o n of water and e l e c t r o l y t e . The opening provided with a s p r i n g f i l l e r cap which contains a g a s valve, while t h e openings through which t h e tapered t e r m i n a l s pass a r e s e a l e d with s o f t rubber g a s k e t s . Figure 19 shows t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e t o p of t h e c o n t a i n e r .
A cutaway view of t h e completed Edison case i s shown i n Figure 20 i n which

each p a r t i s p l a i n l y marked.

Figure 15 Figure 1 6

THE CHEMICAL ACTION O THE EDISON CELL:F i n t h e Edison c e l l i s a s follows:

The chemical process taking p l a c e

The f i r s t charging of t h e Edison c e l l reduces the i r o n oxide t o a m e t a l l i c i r o n , w h i l e converting t h e n i c k e l hydrate t o a. very h i g h oxide,black In c o l o r . O discharge, t h e m e t a l l i c i r o n goes back t o i r o n oxide and t h e high n i c k e l n n oxide goes t o a lower oxide, but not t o i t s o r i g i n a l form. O every c y c l e t h e r e a f t e r t h e n e g a t i v e charges t o m e t a l l i c i r o n and d i s c h a r g e s t o i r o n oxide while t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e charges t o a h i g h n i c k e l oxide.

Figure 1 7 Lesson 17

- s h e e t 17

Current passing i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of charge o r d i s c h a r g e decomposes t h e potassium hydrate of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e , and t h e o x i d a t i o n and reduction of the e l e c t r o d e a r e brought about by the a c t i o n of i t s elements. A amount of potassium h y d r a t e equal t o t h a t decomposed i s always reformed n a t one of t h e e l e c t r o d e s by a secondary chemical r e a c t i o n , i n consequence t h e r e i s none of i t l o s t and i t s d e n s i t y remains constant.

Figure 18

F i g u r e 19

The f i n a l r e s u l t of charging i s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e of oxygen from the Iron t o t h e n i c k e l e l e c t r o d e s and t h a t of discharging i s t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e back again.
A hydrometer reading of t h i s c e l l i s not r e q u i r e d a s t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of

t h e e l e c t r o l y t e does n o t change with t h e s t a t e of charge o r discharge and consequently the only d i r e c t method of making a measurement of t h e s t a t e of charge i s with an ampere-hour meter o r by t h e c o r r e c t use of a voltmeter. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EDISON CELL:- The v o l t a g e of t h e Edison c e l l i s only 1.2 v o l t s on normal discharge. The disadvantage of t h i s low voltage i s o f f s e t by the ease w i t h which t h e b a t t e r y i s cared f o r . I t may be l e f t standing f o r long periods without i n j u r y providing t h e e l e c t r o l y t e i s a t t h e proper l e v e l above t h e p l a t e s . I t w i l l s u f f e r no damage by being subjected t o extreme cold. I t may be charged o r discharged a t r a p i d r a t e s roviding Its t h e temperature of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e does n o t exceed 115 degrees ( F maintenance c o s t i s low and i t s g r e a t s t r e n g t h enables i t t o be subjected t o rough treatment without i n j u r y .

f.

The charging voltage of t h i s c e l l i s from 1.5 v o l t s t o 1.8 v o l t s per c e l l depending upon t h e type. F u l l i n s t r u c t i o n concerning t h e charging r a t e accompanies each c e l l . The c e l l should be charged when t h e voltage has f a l l e n t o 0.9 v o l t s . I f t h e b a t t e r y i s a c c i d e n t a l l y given a charge i n t h e wrong d i r e c t i o n no permanent i n j u r y w i l l r e s u l t , however, t h e b a t t e r y should a t once be given a long charge i n the r i g h t d i r e c t i o n t o r e s t o r e the c e l l s t o proper condition. m e n on charge a f r e e g a s s i n g of the c e l l s i s an i n d i c a t i o n of a healthy condition. Frothing, however, i s a s u r e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t something i s wrong; f o r e i g n substances have g o t t e n i n t o t h e c e l l , o r t h e e l e c t r o l y t e Lesson 17

s h e e t 18

i s too high and, i f t h i s condition continues f o r any l e n g t h of time, t h e e l e c t r o l y t e should be emgtied out and a new s o l u t i o n added. The d i f f e r e n t types of Edison b a t t e r i e s a r e designated by l e t t e r s and numerals. C e l l s bearing the same l e t t e r , a s A-4 and 8-12, o r G-6 and G-9, a r e composed of t h e same kind of p l a t e s and differ o n l y in t h e number of p l a t e s . The numeral i n d i c a t e s t h e number of POSITIVE p l a t e s . For example, t h e c e l l designated a s A-4 has four p o s i t i v e p l a t e s , and A-12 has twelve p o s i t i v e p l a t e s . I n a l l types of Edison c e l l s t h e number of negative p l a t e s exceeds the p o s i t i v e by one.

VALVE

F'>LER CAP

P O S I T I V E POLE

NEGATIVE POLE HARD RUBBER G L A N D CAP PER WIRESWEDGED C E L L COVER WELDED T O CONTAINER C E L L COVER S T U F F I N G BOX W E L D T O COVER GLAND R l N G CONNECTING ROD P O S I T I V E GRID

NEGATIVE GRID

NEGATIVE POCKET
[IRON

OXIDEI

G R I D SEPARATOR SEAMLESS S T E E L RINGS

P l N INSULATOR POSlTlVE TUBE

NICKEL M I D R A T E 6ND NECKEL IN L A Y E R S

SIDE INSULATOR

CORRUGATION6

SIDE ROD INSULATOR

SUSPENSION BOSS SOLID STEEL CONTAINER

CEL' B O T T O M
[ W E LL 1 0 TO 5 1 ~ ~ 5 1

Figure 20

Lesson 17

- sheet 19

EXAMINATION
1.

LESSON 1 7

H w does t h e I r o n c l a d Exide c e l l d i f f e r from t h e MVA type described o i n t h e previous l e s s o n ? H w does t h e Edison c e l l d i f f e r Prom t h e Exide? o What type of l e a d a c i d c e l l i s b e s t adapted f o r use when subjected t o r a d i c a l c l i m a t i c changes? Explain f u l l y how you would determine t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e charging source. H w i s t h e s t a t e of charge of t h e Edison c e l l determined? o W y a r e s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s used on shipboard? h What a r e some of t h e advantages of t h e Edison c e l l ?

2.

3.
4.

5.
6.
7,

[ti
9. 10,

What i s t h e maximum v o l t a g e of t h e Exide s t o r a g e c e l l ? The Edison?

What e l e c t r o l y t e i s used i n t h e Edison c e l l ? What i s t h e maximum allowable temperature of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e of a l e a d a c i d c e l l when on charge?

Lesson 17
L

s h e e t 20

. .$ y .- + '
S .

--. ..

--

.
,

~..a

>

.aNsmr
f i ,-me >+.
INC.
M A R C O N / /NST/)TU7Z

Technical Lesson 1 8

If you were a steam engineer you would not t h i n k of working near b o i l e r s which had n o t been equipped w i t h steam gauges t o i n d i c a t e t h e amount of s t e m p r e s s u r e . A instrument t o show t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e steam i s n q u i t e necessary. N e i t h e r should you undertake e l e c t r i c a l work of any importance without i n d i c a t i n g instruments ( m e t e r s ) designed t o measure e l e c t r i c i t y i n t h e c i r c u i t s which you may work w i t h .

c a l l e d meters, t h e f i r s t one t o be considered i n t h i s l e s s o n i s one which may be employed t o d e t e c t minute e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e s . T h i s i s t h e o r d i n a r y magnetized needle and i s one of t h e s i m p l e s t forms of c u r r e n t det e c t i n g instruments.
O f t h e d i f f e r e n t e l e c t r i c a l i n d i c a t i n g instruments,

The magnetized needle, whenbrought near a c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g conductor, w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e presence of c u r r e n t i n t h a t conductor by being def l e c t e d . ,The needle w i l l , i f allowed t o come t o r e s t , t a k e up & d e f i n i t e p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of current p a s s i n g through t h e conductor.

Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 1 The followin@;a r e experiments you may t r y w i t h an o r d i n a r y magnetic compass, a l e n g t h of wire, and d r y c e l l s . The compass i s contained i n a small metal case and covered w i t h g l a s s t o p r o t e c t the needle. Only t h e needle and support i s shown i n t h e f i g u r e . I n Figure 1 place a compass under a l e n g t h of wire allowing t h e needle t o come t o r e s t , p o i n t i n g t o t h e North. Adjust t h e wire so t h e t it i s d i r e c t l y above and p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e compass needle. You w i l l n o t i c e t h a t t h e needle remains a t r e s t , but when t h e s w i t c h "s* i s closed t h e needle i s d e f l e c t e d a t once and w i l l assume t h e p o s i t i o n a s shown i n Figure 2. Change t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e wire by p l a c i n g it underneath t h e needle and t h e n e e d l e w i l l p o i n t i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n and t h e def l e c t i o n of t h e needle w i l l t h e n be as shown i n Figure 3.
Contents Copyrighted 1930 Printed in U.S.A.

Next form a c l o s e d loop of t h e wire a s shown i n Figure 4 and place t h e needle i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e loop midway between t h e t o p and bottom wires. I n t h i s p o s i t i o n t h e needle w i l l not show any d e f l e c t i o n when t h e switch i s closed, providing the c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h is e q u a l l y d i v i d e d i n b o t h s i d e s of t h e conductor forming t h e closed loop. When t h e compass i s placed c l o s e r t o one o r t h e o t h e r of t h e two cond u c t o r s , one above and t h e o t h e r below t h e compass, t h e needle w i l l be influenced by t h e conductor n e a r e s t t o it. O r i f t h e wires a r e of une q u a l r e s i s t a n c e and more c u r r e n t flows i n one t h a n t h e o t h e r t h e needle m i l l be influenced by t h e wire c a r r y i n g t h e g r e a t e s t current. Capry out f u r t h e r experiments w i t h c i r c u i t s as shown i n F i g u r e s 5 and 6 and make notes a s t o t h e r e s u l t i n g d e f l e c t i o n of t h e compass needle. You may o r l g i n a t e any experiment you d e s i r e , watching c a r e f u l l y t h e p o l a r i t y , but keep t h e s w i t c h c l o s e d only momentarily If a s h o r t wire i s used. I n c r e a s e and decrease t h e c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e conductor and c a r e f u l l y watch the movement of t h e compass needle when h e l d a t various d i s t a n c e s from the conductor.

Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 4 The value of t h e compass a s a n e l e c t r i c a l i n d i c a t i n g instnument l i e s i n i t s a b i l i t y t o d e t e c t t h e presence of c u r r e n t and, by t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e needle, p o l a r i t y may be determined.

The galvanometer i s designed t o d e t e c t s m a l l c u r r e n t s of e l e c t r i c i t y and t o measure t h e i r r e l a t i v e strength. Two ty-pes used i n r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r i e s a r e t h e Thompson A s t a t i c , and Dtkrsonval galvanometers. These instruments o p e r a t e under d i f f e r e n t p r i n c i p l e s and have t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r values f o r c e r t a i n k i n d s of work. The Thompson A s t a t i c galvanometer d e r i v e s i t s name from t h e p o s i t i o n of two s e t s of permanent magnets which a r e secured t o mica d i s c s and joined t o g e t h e r by a s t i f f wire s o t h a t t h e i r p o l e s a r e r e v e r s e d , t h u s n e u t r a l i z i n g t h e magnetic i n f l u e n c e of each o t h e r , i n o t h e r words, they a r e i n a s t a t i c r e l a t i o n t o each other. About e a c h s e t of magnets i s a c o i l of wire wound i n a d i r e c t i o n which, when c u r r e n t i s passed through

Lesson 18

- sheet

t h e c o i l s , t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e r e s u l t i n g f i e l d w i l l t e n d t o t u r n t h e magnets i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n . The a s t a t i c p o s i t i o n of t h e magnets i n n e u t r a l i z i n g e a c h o t h e r e l i m i n a t e s t h e e f f e c t which t h e E a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d would otherwise e x e r t upon t h e system. A l i g h t m i r r o r i s secured t o t h e wire j o i n i n g t h e two s e t s of magnets on which abeam W i t h t h i s d e l i c a t e system very minute c u r r e n t s of l i g h t i s d i r e c t e d . can be d e t e c t e d by t h e movement of a m i r r o r which i s d e f l e c t e d a s c u r r e n t passes through t h e c o i l s . Figure 7 i l l u s t r a t e s a fundamental A s the revolving element of t h i s meter i s p l a n of t h i s instrument. suspended by a cocoon ' f i b r e it t u r n s very e a s i l y and w i l l swing back and f o r t h f o r some time a f t e r being s e t i n motion. The mica d i s c s , however, tend t o s t o p t h i s swinging movement t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t h u s (Deadbeat meaningto s t o p swinging when tending t o make it dead b e a t . c u r r e n t through t h e c o i l s becomes constant.)

MICh DISC,------.. SUPPORTING MIRROR

---..

-CACOON FIBRE

AN0 REFLECTOR

Figure 7
THE D 1 ARSONVAL G L A O E E AV N MTR

Figure 7 A

In t h e type of i n d i c a t i n g instrument j u s t d i s c u s s e d we have concerned o u r s e l v e s w i t h t h e t y p e of galvanometer i n which t h e magnet formed t h e moving elements. W now f i n d i n t h e DlArsonval galvanometer a type i n e which the magnets a r e s t a t i o n a r y and a c o i l of w i r e forms t h e moving 8 element. Figure 7 .
The wire forming t h e armature i s wound on a r e c t a n g u l a r frame i n t h e c e n t e r of which i s placed a s o f t i r o n core. T h i s core s e r v e s t o concentrate t h e powerful f i e l d of t h e permanent magnets i n which it i s suspended. Both t h e wire frame and core a r e supported by a f i n e phosphor bronze wire a t t o p and bottom through which t h e c u r r e n t p a s s e s i n reaching and l e a v i n g t h e winding of t h e c o i l . When c u r r e n t i s passed through t h e instrument i t s e t s up a f i e l d about t h e co 1 producing a North and South pole and, s i n c e it i s suspended i n t e powerful magnetic f i e l d o f t h e magnets, t h e North pole of t h e armature c o i l t e n d s t o t u r n toward the South pole of t h e magnet and t h e South pole toward t h e North p o l e of t h e magnet.

Lesson 18

sheet 3

I n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t y p e a m i r r o r i s moved when c u r r e n t passes through t h e c o i l and, -ifa l i g h t beam i s d i r e c t e d on t h e m i r r o r , t h i s beam w i l l b e r e f l e c t e d along a scale. By winding t h e c o i l on a non-magnetic core t h e instrument becomes p r a c t i c a l l y dead b e a t , f o r a s soon a s t h e c o i l moves i n t h e f i e l d of t h e permanent magnets induced c u r r e n t s a r e s e t up i n t h i s non-magnetic frame which a r e i n such a d i r e c t i o n t h a t t h e y tend t o s t o p t h e motion producing them ( L e n z f s Law). An instrument of t h i s kind, w i t h proper design, may b e equipped t t h a p o i n t e r and used commercially. For example, the Westinghouse P X 2 type galvanometer, shown i n Figure 8, has an extremely s e n s i t i v e DlArsonval movement, the c o i l being supported by f i n e p i v o t b e a r i n g a c c u r a t e l y f i t t e d i n sapphires which make it s u i t a b l e f o r p r e c i s i o n measurements and l a b o r a t o r y work. T h i s instrument may be used i n r a d i o c i r c u i t s , f o r example, t o measure B power u n i t voltages when t h e potentiometer method, a s shown diagrammatically i n F i g u r e 9, i s used. T h i s meter can then be used t o o b t a i n c o r r e c t readings of B v o l t s g e s with a n vl ordinary low r e s i s t a n c e voltmeter. The readings t h u s obtained v il be t r u e voltages because t h i s method does n o t i n c r e a s e t h e load which would cause a corresponding voltage drop on t h e B b a t t e r y power u n i t , a s i n t h e ordinary voltmeter t e s t .

Figure 9 The galvanometer i s v e r y u s e f u l and has many a p p l i c a t i o n s but from t h e very n a t u r e of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of such instruments it i s obvious t h a t a c u r r e n t of any considerable magnitude could n o t be passed d i r e c t l y through t h e windings because of t h e i r low r e s i s t a n c e . There i s , however, a method we can i n c o r p o r a t e which permits us t o connect a d e l i c a t e galvanometer i n c i r c u i t s c a r r y i n g hundreds of amperes and t h a t i s by connecting i n t h e meter c i r c u i t a s p e c i a l r e s i s t a n c e a l l o y , c a l l e d a shunt.

Figure 8

THE SHUNT
For many y e a r s it was necessary, when s t a t i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e of a m e t a l l i c substance, t o q u a l i f y t h e statement by adding t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e would be a c e r t a i n value a t a c e r t a i n temperature, t h a t i s , a s t h e temperature of a metal i n c r e a s e s s o does i t s r e s i s t a n c e . T h i s p e c u l i a r i t y was more pronounced i n some metals t h a n i n other8 and when r e s i s t a n c e was used i t s temperature had t o be f i r s t determined before a p o s i t i v e statement could be made r e l a t i v e t o i t s t r u e resistance. Lesson 18

- sheet 4

D r . ' ~ e s t o nof t h e Weston E l e c t r i c a l Instrument Company, a f t e r many yenrs of r e s e a r c h , succeeded i n producing a m e t a l l i c a l l o y t h e r e s i s t r n c e of which a c t u a l l y decreased a s i t s t e m p e r a t u r e increased. T h i s was e x a c t l y what was r e q u i r e d i n t h e manufacture of shunts used w i t h measuring instruments and i t insured g r e a t accuracy i n t h e readi n g of e l e c t r i c a l meters.
If an m e t e r i s placed d i r e c t l y i n t h e l i n e a s shown a t A, Figure 10, t h e only p a t h f o r t h e c u r r e n t i s d i r e c t l y through t h e instrument. Suppose t h e instrurxent was designed f o r a c u r r e n t of 1 ampere and t h e l i n e was c a r r y i n g 50 amperes,- t h e meter c e r t a i n l y would be destroyed. To understand t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e shunt r e f e r t o B, Figure 10. The r e s i s t o r "R", which has been added, i s a d j u s t e d u n t i l i t i s t h e same a s the r e s i s t a n c e of t h e meter windings and, when the c u r r e n t i s thrown on, h a l f t h e c u r r e n t w i l l p a s s through t h e meter d i r e c t and h a l f through t h e r e s i s t o r o r shunt and, t o o b t a i n t h e c o r r e c t r e a d i n g i n amperes, we m u l t i p l y t h e r e a d i n g of t h e instrument by 2. If now we Figure 10, two add another shunt of t h e same r e s i s t a n c e a s i n "C" t h i r d s of t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t w i l l pass through t h e shunt and one t h i r d t h r o q h t h e meter. T h i s r a t i o may be c a r r i e d on i n d e f i n i t e l y , and by employing t h e proper shunt value of r e s i s t a n c e , a v e r y d e l i c a t e and low r e s i s t a n c e meter may be used t o measure v e r y h i g h c u r r e n t values. When we consider t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e shunt r e q u i r e d i t i s not necessary t o have a number o i i n d i v i d u a l s h u n t s because t h e y c a n a l l be made i n t o one p i e c e of r e s i s t a n c e a l l o y .

Figure 10
i ;

Figure 1 1

form of commercial shunt; i s shown a t D, Figure 10. The a l l o y s t r i p s a r e soldered i n t o lugs and spaced for v e n t i l a t i o n . The measuring instrument i s then.connected t o t h e lugs.
THE AlJIIilETER

Since, by t h e f o r e g o i r q method, t h e c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e c o i l s of e t h e galvanometer can be divided and proportioned w c a n now u t i l i z e t h e gslvanometer i n d i f f e r e n t ways f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes. When a shunt i s p l a c e d a c r o s s t h e t e r m i n a l s of a galvanometer we t h e n have an a m e t e r . The ammeter i s c a l i b r a t e d so t h a t t h e n e e d l e , i n moving

Lesson 18

sheet 5

over the s c a l e , r e a d s d i r e c t l y i n amperes. These instruments a r e i n f a c t merely p o r t a b l e t y p e s of DlArsonval galvanometers. Up t o a c e r t a i n c u r r e n t value, (approximately 30 amperes) t h e shunt i s placed i n s i d e the case containing t h e working p a r t of t h e ammeter and i s g e n e r a l l y i n the form of h i g h r e s i s t a n c e wire. When l e r g e r c u r r e n t s a r e t o be handled t h e shunt t a k e s the form as shown i n Figure 1 0 D and i s connected t o the t e r m i n a l s of t h e ammeter, but o u t s i d e of t h e case of t h e i n s t r u ment marked G . a r e binding p o s t s by which t h e instrument may be connected t o t h e source of c u r r e n t and a c r o s s which i s connected t h e shunt. The w i r e s BB, conn e c t t o t h e s p r i n g s S ~ S a a n dc a r r y the c u r r e n t t o and away from t h e armat u r e . The armature i s r e c t a n g u l a r i n shape and wound on a non-magnetic metal frame. Between t h e North and South p o l e s of t h e permanent horse shoe magnet i s a s o f t i r o n c y l i n d e r core which i s s t a t i o n a r y and placed t h e r e t o improve t h e magnetic q i r c u i t of t h e magnet t h u s producing a more uniform f i e l d i n which t h e c o i l moves. The c o i l swings between t h i s s o f t i r o n core and t h e permanent magnet pole p i e c e s when c u r r e n t i s flowing. A s c u r r e n t i s passed through t h e armature winding t h e l i n e s of f o r c e between t h e normal f i e l d from N t o S of t h e h o r s e show magnet a r e lengthened out and, i n t r y i n g t o s h o r t e n themselves, t h e y a c t u a l l y t w i s t or t u r n t h e c o i l . When t h e t e n s i o n of t h e s p r i n g s , S I and SO., i s equal t o t h e p u l l of t h e magnetic f i e l d t h e p o i n t e r , which I s a t t a c h e d t o t h e armature c o i l frame, comes t o r e s t and t h e reading of t h e i n s t r m e n t nay be taken from t h e s c a l e over which t h e p o i n t e r swings. The wire used i n t h e armature i s very f i n e and i s designed t o c a r r y only a small f r a c t i o n of t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t fl,owing, t h e r e f o r e , t o make t h e instrument capable of measuring l a r g e c u r r e n t values t h e shunt must be placed a c r o s s t h e armature c o i l .
USE O THE AMMETER F
A fundamental drawing of t h e Weston ammeter appears i n Figure 1 . 1

AA

Ammeters a r e found i n a l l phases of e l e c t r i c a l work and a r e designed t o measure minute c u r r e n t s of a few thousandths of an ampere a s w e l l a s c u r r e n t s of thousands of amperes. I n r a d i o work t h e m e t e r i s used t o measure t h e c u r r e n t i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e c i r c u i t such as f o r determining t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e filament and p l a t e c i r c u i t s . w e n used i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t t h e y i n d i c a t e t h e c u r r e n t i n milll-amperes and a r e t h e r e f o r e c a l l e d milliammeters. ( m i l l i meaning a thousandth part. ) The ammeter must always be connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e l i n e hence, when connecting an ammeter i n a c i r c u i t , it i s necessary t o open one s i d e of t h e l i n e and connect the ammeter i n such a manner t h a t t h e c u r r e n t flows through it. Care must be e x e r c i s e d i n making c e r t a i n t h a t the instrument w i l l have a range s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t enough t o c a r r y t h e c u r r e n t flowing.

Lesson 18

- sheet

Figure 1 2 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e connections f o r measuring t h e B b a t t e r y c u r r e n t u s i n g a d i r e c t c u r r e n t m i l l i m e t e r . The c u r r e n t of t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t s , (" A " b a t t e r y c u r r e n t ) , may be measured by follovri n g t h e diagram shown i n Figure 13. The student must thoroughly understand t h a t t h e ammeter must always . be connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e C ~ F C U ~ ~FEVER CONNECT AN AMMETER
ACROSS THE LINE.

Figure 12

Figure 13

THE: VOLTMETER
Any galvanometer i n which a h i g h r e s i s t a n c e c o i l i s p a r t of t h e movable armature c o i l c i r c u i t may be employed t o measure t h e voltage o f a n e l e c t r i c a l circuit.
A voltmeter i s simply a galvanometer i n which a c o i l of h i g h r e s i s t a n c e has been connected i n s e r i e s with t h e moving c o i l , o r included i n s e r i e s with the circuit.

Figure 1 4 shows a p l a n diagram of a t y p i c a l Weston d i r e c t c u r r e n t movable c o i l voltmeter which c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y of a l i g h t r e c t a n g u l a r c o i l of copper wire u s u a l l y wound upon an aluminum frame, pivoted i n jeweled bearings, and mounted t o r o t a t e i n an annul a r space between t h e s o f t i r o n c o r e and t h e s p e c i a l l y formed pole p i e c e s of a permanent magnet. A l i g h t tubular p o i n t e r i s r i g i d l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e c o i l and moves over a c a l i brated scale. The c u r r e n t i s l e a d i n t o and from t h e c o i l by means of two s p i r a l s p r i n g s , which serve ~ T U PPE R S P R IN G O TO L O W ER SPRING-/ a l s o t o c o n t r o l i t s movements. T h i s movement i s due t o t h e dynamic a c t i o n between Figure 1 4 the c o i l and t h e t h e c u r r e n t flowing t h r o ~ h magnetic f i e l d of t h e permanent magnet. The becomes s t a t i o n a r y and t h e c o i l a t t a i n s a p o s i t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m when t h e o p p o s i ~ o r c e s f of t h e s p r i n g s e q u a l t h e f o r c e caused by t h e r o t a r y tendency of t h e c o i l . Since t h e magnetic f i e l d i s uniform and t h e t o r s i o n of t h e springs proportional t o t h e deflection, the s c a l e divisions are

Lesson 18-. s h e e t 7

p r a c t i c a l l - y uniform. The higher t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e windings t h e more s e n s i t i v e t h e instrument because of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c u r r e n t flovr i n a h i g h r e s i s t a n c e i s v e r y small and does n o t appreciably a f f e c t t h e voltage t o be measured. Voltmeters must be p l a c e d a c r o s s t h e l i n e a s shown i n Figure 15. Here we i l l u s t r a t e t h e method of measuring t h e voltage a p p l i e d t o t h e f i l a ment of a vacuum tube.

The meters thus f a r discussed have been t h e magnetic type which a r e employed i n d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t s . Thege types of meters w i l l not f u n c t i o n when connected t o an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t because of t h e f a c t t h a t one a l t e r n a t i o n would tend t o move t h e c a i l i n one d i r e c t i o n and t h e following a l t e r n a t i o n would tend t o move it i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n . These a l t e r n a t i o n s occur s o r a p i d l y t h a t t h e moving element, in t e n d i n g t o obey one impulse, i s almost immediately caused t o move i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n by t h e succeeding impulse w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e i n d i c a t i n g needls remains p r a c t i c a l l y stationary.

THE T O P O A .C H MS N

METER

The Thompson i n c l i n e d c o i l meter, manufactured by t h e General Z l e c t r f c Company was developed t o measure a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . The working p a r t s of t h e instrument a r e shovm i n Figure 16. The i n c l i n e d c o i l C , through which the c u r r e n t p a s s e s , i s shorm i n c r o s s s e c t i o n . It i s mounted w i t h i t s axis inclined t o horizontal. I n t h e c e n t e r of t h i s c o i l i s placed a v e r t i c a l s h a f t mounted i n jewel bearings and c o n t r o l l e d by a f i n e f l a t A t t h e c e n t e r of t h i s s h a f t a vane of s o f t i r o n i s h a i r s p r i n g "s" o b l i q u e l y mounted.

When no c u r r e n t i s p a s s i n g through t h e c o i l "C" t h e p o i n t e r r e s t s a t t h e zero p o s i t i o n , h e l d t h e r e by t h e s p r i n g "s", and t h e i r o n vane l i e s n e a r l y a c r o s s t h e a x i s of? t h e coil. When c u r r e n t i s passed through t h e c o i l t h e i r o n t e n d s t o t u r n i n such a p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e l i n e s of f o r c e passing through it w i l l be p a r a l l e l t o t h e l i n e s of f o r c e i n t h e s c o i l . The p o i n t e r which i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e t o p of t h e v e r t i c ~ l h a f t then swings over the graduated s c a l e from whi ch t h e reading i s obtained. Lesson 18

- sheet 8

t u r e c o i l of t h e s e instruments i s wound w i t h a few t u r n s of e when t h e instrument i s t o be used a s an m e t e r and, when a s a voltmeter, a l a r g e number of turns of f i n e wire a r e on t h e c o i l . and. connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h i s c o i l . i s a n a c c u r a t e l y a d j u s t e d h i g h r e s i s t a n c e c o i l . The moving armature, which l i e s i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e c o i l , c o n s i s t s of a small p i e c e of s o f t i r o n , s e m i - c i r c u l s r i n shape, secured t o a v e r t i c a l s h a f t which i s pivoted a t

Figure 17 b o t h ends and a c c u r a t e l y f i t t e d i n j e w e l b e a r i n g s . A p o i n t e r of t r u s s c o n s t r u c t i o n and very l i g h t i n weight i s secured t o t h e upper end of t h e s h a f t . A s m a l l vane i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e p o i n t e r which moves i n a small a i r compartment. T h i s vane, a s it moves i n t h e c l o s e d a i r compartment, provides t h e damping r e q u i r e d t o prevent t h e p o i n t e r from o s c i l l a t i n g , thus making t h e instrument "dead b e a t n . To a c c u r a t e l y balance t h e p o i n t e r i n t h e b e a r i n g s t h e non- indicating end of t h e p o i n t e r which c r o s s e s t h e s h a f t , i s threaded and provided with a

'- FIXED IRON

~iiure 17 small weight which may b e r u n forward o r backward u n t i l a balance i s obtained. S i t u a t e d c l o s e t o t h i s movable i r o n s l e e v e i s secured a f i x e d piece of curved i r o n , t r i a n g u l a r i n shape, w i t h t h e small end of t h e t r i a n g l e rounded o f f . This p i e c e of i r o n i s s e c u r e l y held i n place,

Lesson 18

sheet 9

up which magnetizes t h e f i x e d t r i a n g u l a r piece of i r o n and t h e curved movable i r o n elements due t o induction. A s b o t h t h e f i x e d i r o n and t h e i r o n of t h e movable element a r e w i t h i n t h e f i e l d c o i l t h e i r adjacent ends w i l l develope l i k e p o l a r i t i e s and, s i n c e t h e y a r e a l i k e a s t o a o l e r i t y , r e p u l s i o n t a k e s place between them. The only motion p o s s i b i e , d u e - t o t h e r e p e l l i n g a c t i o n betweep t h e two p i e c e s of i r o n , i s t h e movable element which t e n d s t o mme away from t h e l i k e pole of t h e f i x e d i r o n sleeve. The p o i n t e r t h e r e f o r e , swings over t h e s c a l e a s it i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e movable element.

a passed through t h e f i x e d c o i l a magnetic f i e l d i s s e t

and h a s no p h y s i c a l connection t o t h e armature c i r c u i t .

The motion of t h e p o i n t e r i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s p i ~ a s p r i n g a t t h e l t o p of t h e s h a f t , which opposes i t s motion, and when c u r r e n t ceases t o p a s s i n t h e c o i l t h e p o i n t e r r e t u r n s t o z e r o p o s i t i o n . The p o i n t e r swings over t h e s c a l e and comes t o r e s t at once due t o t h e damping vane a t t a c h e d t o t h e p o i n t e r and which moves i n t h e closed a i r compartment. 7 The p l a n of t h e A.C. meter i s shown i n Figure 1 . " A " i s an i n s u l a t e d c o i l of wire is t h e c e n t e r of which i s suspended two p i e c e s of s o f t i r o n . When no c u r r e n t i s flowing through t h e c o i l t h e i r o n s t r i p s w i l l remain a s shown. When, however, a b a t t e r y i s connected so t h a t d i r e c t c u r r e n t flows through t h e t u r n s of t h e c o i l i n such a d i r e c t i o n t h a t t h e i r o n s t r i p s a r e magnetized and develope N p o l e s a t t h e i r upper e ends and S p o l e s a t t h e i r lower ends, w have two magnets having l i k e p o l e s and, s i n c e l i k e p o l e s r e p e l 1 each other, t h e two i r o n s t r i p s w i l l be f o r c e d a p a r t as shown a t B. If t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t flowing through the c o i l i s r e v e r s e d b y r e v e r s i n g the connections t o t h e b a t t e r y t h e i r o n s t r i p s a r e a g a i n magnetized but t h i s time develope S poles a t t h e i r upper ends and N p o l e s a t t h e i r lower ends. If some means can be provided whereby t h e c u r r e n t passing through t h e c o i l can b e r a p i d l y reversed t h e s e two i r o n s t r i p s w i l l c o n t i n u a l l y develope p o l a r i t i e s which w i l l t e n d t o produce a c o n t i n u a l o p p o s i t i o n between t h e m t h u s keeping them c o n s t a n t l y a p a r t a s long a s c u r r e n t i s flowing. T h i s i s done when t h e c o i l i s connected i n an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t . Suppose we go a s t e p f u r t h e r and f a s t e n one of t h e s e i r o n s t r i p s t o t h e s i d e of t h e c o i l i n a manner t h a t w i l l prevent it from moving and then suspend t h e remaining i r o n s t r i p a s shown a t D. By applying a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t o t h e c o i l a t D t h e suspended s t r i p w i l l be f o r c e d away from the f i x e d piece of i r o n a s shown a t E. One more s t e p ; - t h i s time we w i l l secure a f i x e d i r o n p l a t e a s shown a t F and suspend t h e o t h e r p l a t e by a s e t of b e a r i n g s which w i l l comp e l t h e suspended s t r i p t o move only by r o t a t i o n . Now, by applying a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t o t h e arrangement a t F, t h e suspended p l a t e w i l l be f o r c e d away a s before and, a s i t moves, i t ; w i l l d e s c r i b e an a r c . To t h i s movable p l a t e we have secured a l i g h t p o i n t e r which moves over a graduated s c a l e and i n d i c a t e s t h e c u r r e n t p a s s i n g through the coii.

Lesson 18

- sheet

10

Figure 18 i s a cutaway photograph showing the f i x e d and movable i r o n s l e e v e s o r p l a t e s i n p l a c e i n s i d e the windings of an A.C. voltmeter and an A.C. a m e t e r , and a view of t h e damping compartment from which t h e cover has been removed.

THE WATTMETER
The power i n w a t t s i n a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t i s equal t o t h e v o l t s m u l t i p l i e d by the amperes. By connecting an ammeter and voltmeter i n a DC . . c i r c u i t , as shown i n Figure 19, t h e value of c u r r e n t and voltage may be read. The ammeter r e a d s 3 amperes and t h e voltmeter 2 v o l t s ; by multiplying t h e s e two values w can f i n d t h e power i n w a t t s , thus e 2 x 3 = 6 watts. The wattmeter, which i s r e a l l y two instruments i n one, a voltmeter and an ammeter, performs t h i s computation f o r us a u t o m a t i c a l l y giving a

Figure 18 r e a d i n g d i r e c t l y i n watts. Two c o i l s a r e used i n t h i s instrument, one i s c a l l e d t h e voltage c o i l and t h e other t h e c u r r e n t c o i l . The c u r r e n t c o i l i s f i x e d and i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h one s i d e of the l i n e j u s t a s you would connect an m e t e r . The voltage c o i l i s t h e movable e l e ment and i s connected a c r o s s t h e c i r c u i t j u s t a s you would connect a voltmeter.
A fundamental diagram of 2 wattmeter appears i n Figure 20. The c o i l s CC a r e wound w i t h heavy wire which w i l l p e r n i t t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t t o

flow through them rvithowt becoming e x c e s s i v e l y heated. The ends of t h e s e c o i l s a r e brought out t o two heavy binding p o s t s shown i n t h e diagram a s BB. The movable c o i l D i s the v o l t a g e c o i l and i s connected across t h e l i n e through t h e high r e s i s t a n c e c o i l R and small binding p o s t s a t E. The winfiing on t h e c o i l D c o n s i s t s of a few t u r n s

Lesson 18

- s h e e t 11

of f i n e i n s u l a t e d wire, tlie e n t i r e c o i l being plzced on a l i g h t v e r t i c a l s h a f t which i s mounted i n jewel bearings. Near t h e t o p of t h e s h a f t i s secured t h e p o i n t e r P and balanced c r o s s X; each end of t h e c r o s s X i s threaded and f i t t e d 7 7 4 t h small balancing nuts. The non- indicating end of t h e p o i n t e r i s threaded and f i t t e d w i t h a balancing nut or weight i n t h e same way. ImDIedihtely b l o w t h e c r o s s i s secured t h e c o n t r o l l i n g s p r i n g s Y which forms t h e terminals t o t h e voltage c o i l . The magnetic f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e movable c o i l D depends upon t h e c u r r e n t flow i n each c o i l . I n the voltage c o i l the c u r r e n t w i l l v a r y a s t h e p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between i t s t e r m i n a l s vary, and t h e c u r r e n t through t h e c o i l s CC w i l l vary d i r e c t l y a s t h e c u r r e n t v a r i e s i n the c i r c u i t t o which i t i s connected. The f o r c e s of t h e two c o i l s s e t t h e movable c o i l i n motion and, a s it t u r n s a g a i n s t t h e t o r s i o n of t h e s p r i n g s , t h e p o i n t e r P swings over t h e s c a l e S which i s graduated i n watts. T h i s instrument may b e used on e i t h e r a l t e r n a t i n g or d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t s . Care, however, clust be taken t o see t h a t t h e instrument i s n o t connected i n a c i r c u i t c a r r y i n g a c u r r e n t value above i t s r a t i n g .

Figure 19

LINE

Figure 20
WATT HOUR METW

Figure 21

The power i n w a t t s of a c i r c u i t i s t h e product of t h e v o l t s times . . c i r c u i t t h e r e i s no "power f a c t o r " whereas, t h e amperes. I n a D C i n A.C. c i r c u i t s , the n power f a c t o r " must be considered. I n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t s power i s equal t o t h e v o l t a g e times t h e c u r r e n t , times t h e cosine of t h e angle of l a g o r lead. T h i s formula f o r power i s expressed, P = I x E x Cos 6.
In t h e watt hour meter t h e power f a c t o r i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y taken care of i n t h e c a l i b r a t i o n of t h e instrument and t h e watt hours a r e read d i r e c t l y from a s e t of d i a l s .

Lesson 18

- sheet 12

I t ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n and d e s i g n i s s i m i l a r t o t h e wattmeter j u s t des c r i b e d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e moving element. T h i s element i s a small motor which r e v o l v e s between t h e two l a r g e f i e l d o r c u r r e n t c o i l s CC. The s h a f t supporting t h e armature of the motor i s mounted i n Jewel bearings. I n s t e a d of a p o i n t e r a t t h e t o p of the s h a f t a s e t of g e a r t e e t h i s arranged which t u r n s a s h a f t D, mechanically and a u t o m a t i c a l l y counting t h e t o t a l number of k i l o w a t t s of energy consumed per hour. Since t h i s meter r e c o r d s the t o t a l m b e r of k i l o w a t t hours it i s c a l l e d an i n t e r g r a t i n g watt hour meter. The magnetic f o r c e $ of t h e c o i l s M and CC causes t h e armature c o i l BB t o revolve and t h e r a t e of r o t a t i o n w i l l be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s e two magnetic e f f e c t s .

A simple diagram of t h e Thompson Wattmeter i s shown i n Figure 21.

The l i g h t aluminum d i s c E which i s a t t a c h e d t o the lower end of t h e amnature s h a f t r e v o l v e s w i t h t h e s h a f t and p a s s e s between two s t r o n g permanent horse shoe magnets SS. A s t h i s d i s c t u r n s , e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s (eddy c u r r e n t s ) a r e set up i n it by t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e magnets, and t h e s e c u r r e n t s when s e t up produce a r e t a r d i n g e f f e c t which t e n d s t o prevent t h e motion producing them. T h i s d i s c then, i s i n e f f e c t , a brake which p r e v e n t s t h e armature c o i l from running away. It a l s o s t o p s t h e armature a s soon a s c u r r e n t f l o w i s discontinned.

>

Figure 22A t h e jeweled coil F is high reor direct

Figure 22 To compensate f o r t h e small amount of f r i c t i o n p r e s e n t a t b e a r i n g s JJ, and commutator X, a small compensating f i e l d connected i n t h e shunt c i r c u i t of t h e armature, a s i s t h e s i s t a n c e R. T h i s m e t e r nay be used on e i t h e r a l t e r n a t i n g current circuits.
THE SANGAMO D.C.
WATTMETER

The sangamo watt hour meter h a s a copper d i s c as i t s armature i n s t e a d of t h e c o i l of wire and commutator. The copper d i s c i s i n c l o s e d i n a mercury chamber i n which i t revolves, t h e mercury forming p a r t of t h e c i r c u i t . T h i s d e s i g n p r a c t i c a l l y e l i m i n a t e s commutator f r i c t i o n a s t h e d i s c f l o a t s i n t h e mercury. The sangamo meter, which i s a mercury motor, c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y of t h e copper d i s c which f l o a t s i n t h e mercury and which l a y s i n t h e f i e l d of a n electromagnet. Leads a r e provided t o d i r e c t the c u r r e n t t o and from the mercury a t d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposite points, Lesson 18

- sheet 13

The r e l a t i o n s of t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s a r e shown i n Figure 22. The c u r r e n t of e l e c t r i c i t y c a r r i e d by t h e c i r c u i t i n which energy i s t o be measured e n t e r s at contact b a r C 1 , p a s s e s through the comparatively h i g h r e s i s t a n c e mercury H, t o the edge of t h e copper d i s c D, c r o s s e s t h e d i s c t o t h e I, mercury H . and out a t c o n t a c t bar C 2 .
A magnetic f i e l d which c u t s t h e copper d i s c and which consequently produces r o t a t i o n when c u r r e n t passes through the d i s c i s obtained from t h e electro- magnet M 2 which i s energized by t h e windings shown connected across t h e l i n e . k s o f t s t e e l p l a t e i s placed above t h e mercury chamber shown i n t h e diagram a s M 1 ; t h i s a c t s a s a r e t u r n f o r t h e magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e from the electromagnet M2.

According t o t h e laws of electromagnetic induction, i f a current carrying conductor c u t s a magnetic f i e l d a t r i g h t angles, a f o r c e i s e x e r t e d upon the conductor tending t o push it a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o b o t h t h e c m n t and t h e f l u x , hence t h e d i s c revolves a t a uniform r a t e . The r e l a t i v e d i r e c t i o n of t h e magnetic f l u x and t h e c u r r e n t of e l e c t r i c i t y a s w e l l a s t h e r e s u l t i n g motion i s shown i n Figure 22A. Since t h e d i s c D i s f r e e t o move and i s c a r r y i n g a c u r r e n t , t h e d i r e c t i o n of which i s a t r i g h t angles t o t h e f i x e d magnetic f i e l d produced by t h e magnets exp l a i n e d i n Figure 22, t h e d i s c D i s pushed by t h i s magnetic f o r c e and moves from i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n . This allows c u r r e n t t o e n t e r t h e d i s c a t a d i f f e r e n t p o i n t on t h e edge of t h e d i s c D and it i s a g a i n pushed out of t h e f i e l d .

* N i l SPLASH SHELL

MOLDED INSULATION

ROTATING D I B G E U B M E W E
IN MEROYR"

MERCYRYTYBE

OWE* BEIIIIXO

wsrw

Figure 23 Lessan 18

Figure 23A

- sheet 14
-

W i t h a c o n s t a n t change i n t h e p o i n t a t which c u r r e n t e n t e r s and leaves

t h e d i s c r o t a t i o n r e s u l t s , w h i c h continues a s long a s c u r r e n t flows i n the circuit. Figure 23 shows a c r o s s s e c t i o n of t h i s instrument which t h e student should study. Figure 23A i s a view of t h e w a t t meter showing damping d i s c and damping magnets i n place.
SANGAMO AMPERE HOUR M T R EE

T h i s meter i s t h e type used on board s h i p i n a u x i l i a r y b a t t e r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s . It not only i n d i c a t e s t h e s t a t e of charge of t h e b a t t e r y b u t a l s o a u t o m a t i c a l l y t e r m i n a t e s the charge when t h e b a t t e r y i s f u l l y charged. T h i s meter, known a s t h e N type, employs two permanent magnets which f u r n i s h the d r i v i n g f l u x , damping, and r e t a r d i n g f o r c e . The shape and s i z e of t h e magnets a r e such a s t o allow a very h i g h s t a t e of magnetization.

By design, t h e poles of t h e s t e e l p l a t e and electromagnet a r e c l o s e t o g e t h e r , being l o c a t e d d i r e c t l y above and below t h e d i s c , which

Figure 24

Figure 25

produces very dense and powerful f i e l d s a c r o s s t h e d i s c , The armature chamber, a round f l a t box o f moulded i n s u l a t i o n , shown i n Figure 24, c o n t a i n s t h e copper d i s c . The fundamental o p e r a t i n g t h e o r y i s t h e same i n t h i s t y p e a s i n t h e w a t t hour meter p r e v i o u s l y described. The moving element of t h e meter i s shown i n Figure 25. It comprises a s o l i d copper d i s c and a hardened s h a f t s e c u r e l y f i x e d i n t h e main hub. The upper end of t h e s h a f t c a r r i e s t h e worm and t h e highly polished p i v o t . Over the worm i s f i t t e d t h e counter weight which r e g u l a t e s t h e f l o t a t i o n of t h e moving system s o t h a t t h e upward pressure of t h e p i v o t a g a i n s t t h e jewel b e a r i n g i s about one t e n t h of an ounce.

Lesson 18

- sheet 15

Storage b a t t e r i e s do not give a s much energy a s i s put i n t o them. A meter designed f o r u s e with storage b a t t e r i e s must, t h e r e f o r e , autom a t i c a l l y provide f o r t h e r e q u i r e d excess of charge or discharge. This compensating arrangement should be a d j u s t a b l e over a considerable range since it i s a m a t t e r of common knowledge t h a t b a t t e r i e s of d i f f e r e n t types, a s well a s b a t t e r i e s of t h e same type but i n d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s of s e r v i c e , r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s i n order t o give the amount of overcharge b e s t s u i t e d t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r conditions.

Figure 26 The sangamo meter i s provided w i t h a v a r i a b l e r e s i s t o r element, Figure 26, which c o n s i s t s o f a small a u x i l i a r y mercury chanber which i s located i n - t h e leakage f i e l d s of t h e permanent magnets and equipped w i t h a pivoted copper vane. This mercury chamber i s connected i n s e r i e s with t h e armature c i r c u i t so t h a t t h e pivoted copper vane tends t o r o t a t e according t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of c u r r e n t through t h e meter, o p e r a t i n g on t h e same p r i n c i p l e a s t h e main disc. The movement of the r e s i s t o r i s l i m i t e d t o an angle of 45 degrees or l e s s by a p i n i n s e r t e d i n t h e ends of an e c c e n t r i c screw.

O discharge the vane t a k e s a p o s i t i o n over a copper contact d i r e c t l y n

connected t o t h e armature chamber thus providing a low r e s i s t a n c e p a t h t o t h e main armature c i r c u i t and causing t h e meter t o r o t a t e a t normal n speed. O charge t h e vane swings away from t h i s c o n t a c t p o i n t thereby introducing r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e main armature c i r c u i t because t h e c u r r e n t t o the armature chamber must now pass through mercury a s w e l l a s copper. I n t h i s p o s i t i o n more of t h e c u r r e n t i s n a t u r a l l y shunted away from t h e armature c i r c u i t and t h e meter runs slower. The amount of swing of t h e vane away from t h e discharge p o s i t i o n i s r k g u l a t e d by means of an ext e r n a l p o i n t e r , Figure 27, which moves over an a c c u r a t e l y c a l i b r a t e d s c a l e , t h u s allowing t h e meter t o be s e t f o r any overcharge from 0 t o 40 percent. The r e s i s t o r i s constructed s o t h a t it c a r r i e s t h e e n t i r e armature c u r r e n t t h e r e b y being very s e n s i t i v e and p o s i t i v e i n action. Figure 28 shows t h e type N ampere hour b a t t e r y meter with r e s i s t o r i n place. Figure 28A shows t h e permanent magnets and armature box. A c r o s s s e c t i o n of t h e N type meter i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 29.

Lesson 18

sheet 16

PERMANENT MAGNET-..

Figure 28A

Figure 28

sson 18 -

- sheet

17

U 3 I O FREQUGWCY METERS

ammteP l s be used t o measure c u r r e n t i n both A & . and ay and it m y a l s o be employed t o measure c u r r e n t s a t r a d i o fiaxbmental c i r c u i t of t h i s meter i s shown i n Figure 30. A s t e e l p l a t e P i s made t o p u l l a g a i n s t t h e w i r e GD by t h e s p r i n g S1. One end of t h e wire CD i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e p l a t e P a t A, passed around t h e p u l l y K, and i s again a t t a c h e d t o P a t R, where it i s i n s u l a t e d . The p u l l y K c a r r i e s t h e a r m S w i t h two prongs between which i s s t r e t c h e d a s i l k X carries the t h r e a d T wound about t h e s h a f t X. p o i n t e r P1 which moves over t h e s c a l e . The c u r r e n t t o be measured e n t e r s t h e w i r e a t p o i n t A and leaves a t t h e p u l l y K. A s t h e c u r r e n t f l o w s t h e temperature , of t h e wire C i s r a i s e d , causing it t o expand but, owing t o t h e t e n s i o n of S1, t h e s l a c k i s taken up a t the s i d e and e q u i l i b r i u m can be r e s t o r e d only Figure 30 when t h e p u l l y K r o t a t e s s u f f i c i e n t l y t o e q u a l i z e t h e p u l l on t h e spring. \The r o t a t i o n of K c a r r i e s S w i t h i t , and S, i n moving, causes t h e s i l k f f b e r t o r o t a t e t h e s h a f t which c a r r i e s t h e i n d i c a t i n g needle P1.
When l a r g e values of c u r r e n t a r e t o be measured a shunt must be ~ r o v i d e dt o sub-divide t h e c u r r e n t flow. An inductive shunt cannot be used a s t h e impedance would vary with each change i n frequency, hence h o t w--. . 7 r e meters a r e c o n s t r u c t e d a f t e r t h e d e s i g n shown . . i n Figure 31 where s e v e r a l r e s i s t a n c e w i r e s a r e s t r e t c h e d i n p a r a l l e l between t h e l a r g e copper b l o c k s B and B'. The wire AB i s a t t a c h e d t o the wire CD t o which a s i l k f i b e r t h r e a d i s a t t a c h e d a t p o i n t K and t h e n wound about t h e s h a f t M i n such a d i r e c t i o n t h a t Figure 31 i t w i l l work a g a i n s t t h e s p r i n g S which normally would cause t h e p o i n t e r t o move t o t h e f u l l s c a l e p o s i t i o n . However, by means of t h e t h r e a d , i t i s held i n t h e z e r o p o s i t i o n . When c u r r e n t i s floviing through CD it expands, r e l e a s i n g t h e p u l l of t h e t h r e a d and allowing t h e ~ o i n t e rt o move a c r o s s the s c a l e , according t o t h e expansion t h e wire and t e n s i o n of t h e spring,
EXAXINATION

- LESSON 18

Where i s a shunt used t o advantage w i t h meters? What i n s t r m e n t i s used t o measure r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t ? where would you employ a n ampere-hour meter? ( a ) What i s a voltmeter? ( b ) Show how i t i s connected i n a c i r c u i t . Show how an ammeter i s connected i n a c i r c u i t . What i s a galvanometer? I s t h e r e any type of meter which may b e used t o measure both D.C. and
A.C.?

For what purpose i s the wattmeter employed? I s mercury a conductor of e l e c t r i c i t y ? Show a simple e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t w i t h a n ammeter and a voltmeter properly connected i n t h a t c i r c u i t . Lesson 18 - sheet 18

aN3W?r~~~s
INC.
f i r m e rCyM A R CON/ INSTITUTE

~unded./90Q

Technical Lesson 19
GRAPHS The graph, more commonly known a s a "curve", i s a simple and convenient way of showing t h e r e l a t i o n between any two q u a n t i t i e s o r value s The curve diagram i s employed f o r purposes o t h e r t h a n Radio. It may be used t o show t h e d i s t a n c e one walks during a given time, o r i t may be employed t o show conditions of business over a period of time Y The curve i s r e a l l y a p o i n t p i c t u r e because it r e p r e s e n t s t o u s , by a number of p o i n t s connected by a l i n e , c e r t a i n q u a n t i t i e s , values or conditions a t a glance. The graph o r curve diagram i s g e n e r a l l y drawn on a s h e e t of paper c a l l e d graph- paper, r u l e d off i n t o squares by h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l l i n e s a s shown i n Figure 1 The foundation of a l l . graphs i s p i c t u r e d i n Figure 2.

W w i l l draw two l i n e s a s shown i n Figure 2,e t h e f i r s t X I O X and t h e second Y'OY. These l l n e s s e p a r a t e a plane i n t o f o u r p a r t s , and t h e s e f o u r p a r t s a r e c a l l e d quadrants and Y' numbered quidrant 1, 2, 3 and 4 . The c e n t e r marked 0 ( z e r o ) i s considered t o be t h e zero F'igure I. value of any q u a n t i t y . When it i s d e s i r e d t o show decreases i n a value t h e y a r e shown e i t h e r below t h e l i n e X f O X , o r t o t h e l e f t of t h e l i n e Y'OY. This i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 3 where decreasing values a r e i n d i c a t e d by t h e negative s i g n (-) while i n c r e a s i n g values a r e i n d i c a t e d by t h e p o s i t i v e s i g n (4-1. The h o r i z o n t a l l i n e X I O X i s c a l l e d the "X" a x i s , o r a b s c i s s a e , and t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e Y'OY i s c a l l e d t h e "Y" a x i s , o r o r d i n a t e .
9'
SECOND QUADRANT FIRST QUADRANT SECOND OUADRANT

Y1

----

FIRST QUADRANT

FIRST QUADRANT OUADRANT

+
4

+
4

THIRD QUADRANT

FOURTH QUADRANT

THIRD FOURTH QUADRANT - +-----+ QUADRANT

THIRD QUADRANT

+_--

__-, +WADRANT

FOURTH

Figure 2 Contents Copyrighted 1 9 3 0 Printed i n U.S.A.

Figure 3

Figure 4

Bhen p o s i t i v e values only a r e t o be shown t h e f i r s t quadrant i s used. H w t h i s operates i s shown i n Figure 4. S t a r t i n g a t zero make an X o movement which, w w i l l say, c a r r i e s you t o p o i n t B. A t t h i s point e e r e c t a perpendicular t o the l i n e OX, a l s o c a l l e d t h e a b s c i s s a e , t o an i n d e f i n i t e length, Begin again a t zero and make a "Y9"movement Draw a l i n e a t perpendicular along t h e o r d i n a t e O Y V o p o i n t "D". t o l i n e OY', o r t h e o r d i n a t e , t o an i n d e f i n i t e l e n g t h a l s o , A t t h e

TIME IN MINUTES ABSCISSFa

Y' Figure 5 i n t e r s e c t i o n s of t h e s e l f n e s , o r a t point C, place a dot. This i s c a l l e d p l o t t i n g t h e p o i n t , Both movements shown have been i n c r e a s i n g , o r p o s i t i v e , movements and when p o s f t i v e values only a r e involved t h e f i r s t quadrant i s used,

Supposeoyou walk from a given point f o r 8 minutes a t t h e r a t e of 50 f e e t per m h u t e what d i s t a n c e would you have covered i n t h e 8 minutes? A t t h e same r a t e what d i s t a n c e would you cover i n 4 I! minutes? The / : answer t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s can be shown by graph Figure 5. F i r s t l a y o f f t h e a b s c i s s a e , allowing 1/4 inch t o r e p r e s e n t one minute, then l a y off t h e o r d i n a t e s , allowing 1/4 i n c h t o r e p r e s e n t 50 f e e t . Nw i f t h e r a t e you t r a v e l f s 50 f e e t a minute look a l o n g t h e a b s c i s s a e o u n t i l you f i n d one minute. Move up the v e r t i c a l l i n e u n t i l you meet t h e

I I

Lesson 1 9

sheet 2

h o r i z o n t a l which i s axawn opposite ille numeral 50 and, where t h i s v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l l i n e i n t e r s e c t s , place a d o t , D t h e sane o f o r each n i n u t e of t r a v e l , - t h i s i s c a l l e d , " p l o t t i n g t h e point " . P e n beginning a t z e r o ( 0 ) draw a l i n e through t h e p o i n t s j u s t l o c a t e d , This l i n e W i l l show t h a t you have walked i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e and covered a d i s t a n c e of 400 f e e t i n 8 minutes, To f i n d t h e d i s t a n c e t r a v e l e d i n 4 l / 2 minutes look along t h e 9 a b s c i s s a e u n t i l you f i n d number 4 , o r f o u r minutes. ~,,,, Half way between 4 and 5 w i l l be 4 1/2 minutes. 7000 Trect a v e r t i c a l l i n e shown by t h e d o t t e d l i n e un,ooo ti1 i t i n t e r s e c t s l i n e OA. From t h i s point draw a 5000 l i n e p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e a b s c i s s a e u n t i l it meets t h e 4000 o r d i n a t e O . Where t h i s l i n e meets t h e o r d i n a t e Y 3000 w i l l show t h e d i s t a n c e walked i n 4 1/2 minutes, Notice t h a t t h i s l i n e passes midway between 220 and NOO 230 f e e t , which i s 225 f e e t , 225 f e e t i s t h e to00 d i s t a n c e t r a v e l l e l i n 4 l / 2 mlnutes.
%U

FfB

MAR I\PR MPI JUNE JULY IIUG

SEPT

suppose you were a merchant and you wished t o p l o t Pipre 6 f l u c t u a t i o n of your s a l e s over a period of 9 nonthu, The f i r s t t h i n g t o do i s t o r u l e off a piece beginning w i t h January. of paper h o r i z o n t a l l y and v e r t i c a l l y and, a t t h e bottom of each v e r t i c a l l i n e , w r i t e t h e name of t h e months and, a t t h e l e f t of each h o r i z o n t a l I f you p r e f e r you may l e t l i n e , a s s i g n a number r e p r e s e n t i n g d o l l a r s . t h e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s r e p r e s e n t months and t h e v e r t i c a l l t n e s d o l l a r s . I n e Figure 6 w have drawn it up according t o t h e f i r s t method,

If, i n January you d i d a $4000 business place a d o t opposite $4000 and on t h e January o r d i n a t e . February you d i d a $5000 b u s i n e s s , so on t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e , OP o r d i n a t e r e p r e s e n t i n g February, you place another dot, and so on f o r each month. N w by c o n n e c t i w t h e s e o d o t s w i t h a l i n e you have a curve i n d i c a t i n g t h e t r e n d of business over a p e r i o d of months. You observe t h a t your business i n c r e a s e d durine; January, February and March and between March and April i t decreased t o $3000, and continued t o decrease u n t i l June, where i t remained t h e same f o r one month. In August i t began t o i n c r e a s e and i n Septenber i t in creased over August,
The owner of a r e c e i v i n g s e t can p l o t a curve which w i l l a s s i s t him i n l o c a t i n g s t a t i o r l s xhen the wave l e n g t h i s knowna Rule off a sheet of paper as shown i n Figure 7. Along the a b s c i s s a e allow each square t o r e p r e s e n t f i v e d i v i s i o n s on t h e d i a l of t h e r e ceiver. Alex t h e o r d i n a t e mark t h e wave lengths. I n s t a r t i n g t h e curve p l o t a few p o i n t s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s t a t i o n s which you r e c e i v e e a s i l y and t h e wave l e n g t h s of which you know. You should a t l e a s t p l o t t h r e e or f o u r , f o r example, WEAF, WOR, WJZ, LrIPAP, which s t a t i o n s a r e l o c a t e d f a i r l y i n t h e center of

Lesson 1 9

- sheet 3

t h e broadcast wave l e n g t h band. When you have completed t h i s draw a l i n e through the p o i n t e r j u s t located. When such a curve i s c a r e f u l l y drawn it i s u s e f u l i n l o c a t i n g o t h e r s t a t i o n s of unknown wave length. By c a r e f u l study of Figure 7 you should be a b l e t o p l o t a curve of your own r e c e i v e r . It may be necessary, however, i n t h e case of a t h r e e d i a l r e c e i v e r t o make t h r e e s e p a r a t e curves.
THE: SINE CURVE

The v a r i a t i o n s i n any 0 S c i l l a t 0 r y motion o r value may be shown by t h e use of t h e s i n e burve r e g a r d l e s s of whether i t i s t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e value of an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t o r t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e speed of a swinging pendulum.
A s i n e curve may be c o n s t r u c t e d a s follows: Let t h e p o i n t A, Figure 8, move a t a uniform r a t e of speed around a c i r c u l a r p a t h i n ~e d i r e c t i o n i n d i c a t e d by t h e arrow. The angle 6 w i l l uniformly i n c r e a s e from 0 ( z e r o ) t o 180 degrees and t h e n from 180 degrees t o 360 degrees. The l e n g t h of t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r , or l i n e AB, which i s dropped from p o i n t A U the h o r i z o n t a l a x i s of t h e c i r c l e , i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e angle o $ because t h e s i n e 6 i s equal t o t h e q u o t i e n t of AB divided by t h e hypotenuse OA, which i n t h i s case i s t h e r a d i u s of t h e c i r c l e and does not change i n value but remains constant throuahout t h e r e v o l u t i o n , 9' 0 Y

180'

210'

ABSCISSA

Figure 8

Figure 9

It w i l l be seen t h a t t h e l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e AB v a r i e s from 0 ( z e r o ) t o t h e maximum length, and it i s e q u a l t o OA a t 90 degrees a s A revolves. A s A continues t o r e v o l v e t h e l i n e AB g r a d u a l l y d e c r e a s e s i n l e n g t h n u n t i l , a t 180 degrees, it i s a g a i n ( 0 ) z e r o 1-ength. O l e a v i n g 180 degrees it a g a i n i n c r e a s e s i n l e n g t h u n t i l 290 degrees i s reached, when i t i s maximum, and t h e n i t decreases i n l e n g t h t o 0 ( z e r o ) when reaching zero degrees.
I n order t o d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e varyine; l e n g t h s of AB above and below the h o r i z o n t a l a x i s of t h e c i r c l e t h e values of AB above t h e horiz o n t a l a x i s a r e c a l l e d p o s i t i v e (+) values and below t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s negative (-) values. During t h e r e v o l t u i o n of p o i n t A it w i l l be noted t h a t t h e l i n e AB does n o t vary i n l e n g t h a t a uniform r a t e even though I t s l e n g t h v a r i e s r a p i d l y a t f i r s t , t h e n more and t h e speed i s uniform. more slowly and, when n e a r i n g 90 degrees i t s l e n g t h remains n e a r l y constant. Upon p a s s i n g 90 degrees t h e l e n g t h of l i n e AB decreases, Lesson 1 9

- sheet

slowly a t f i r s t u n t i l , ne-1-ing 180 degsees, i t d e c r e a s e s very r a p i d l y u n t i l i t s l e n g t h i s 0 ( z e r o ) . *To p l o t a curve r e p r e s e n t i n g the l e n g t h of t h e l i n e AB, a s i t v a r i e s with t h e r e v o l v i n g p o i n t A , we r u l e off a s h e e t of paper somewhat a s shown i n Figure 9, p l o t t i n g the values of i t s varying l e n g t h along t h e o r d i n a t e , o r v e r t i c a l Y a x i s , and t h e time a l o w t h e h o r i z o n t a l o r X a x l s . Since the l e n g t h of t h e l i n e AB i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s i n e of t h e angle $, the v e r t i c a l o r Y a x i s may be used t o r e p r e s e n t t h e s i n e of t h e angle $, and t h e changes i n angle $, being p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e l e n g t h of time r e q u i r e d t o move A from one p o i n t t o another a s it revolves, t h e d i s t a n c e s along t h e h o r i z o n t a l axis may a l s o r e p r e s e n t t h e v a l u e s of t h e angle $. I n p l o t t i n g t h e varying l e n g t h of l i n e AB through 360 degrees the curve shown i n t h e f i g u r e i s t h e r e s u l t .

Figure 10
THJI LOGARITHMIC CURVE

The l o g a r i t h m i c curve i s one which may have no d e f i n i t e minimum point i n a curve showing t h e d e c r e a s e of a value or q u a n t i t y and no d e f i n i t e maximum p o i n t when showing an i n c r e a s e i n a value o r q u a n t i t y . The l o g a r i t h m i c curve may t h e r e f o r e be used t o show t h e r a t e of i n c r e a s e o r decrease of a v a l u e o r q u a n t i t y . When you t a k e up t h e study of t r a n s m i t t e r s you w i l l l e a r n of damped e l e c t r i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n s which decrease i n value r e l a t i v e t o amplitude according t o a l o g a r i t h m i c law and from which a logarthmic curve may be taken, e To enable us t o d e s c r i b e a logarthmic curve w w i l l u s e t h e same analogy employed t o e x p l a i n t h e logarithmic decrement of e l e c t r i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n s which a r e c r e a t e d i n an antenna o r o t h e r c i r c u i t by means of condenser discharges. A weight suspended by a f i n e t h r e a d , when a t If you draw r e s t , w i l l assume t h e p o s i t i o n AC a s shown i n F i g u r e 10. t h e weight a s i d e from i t s v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n AC t o any o t h e r p o s i t i o n , f o r example p o s i t i o n AB, and t h e n r e l e a s e t h e weight i t w i l l descend from B toward C, i n t h e a r c of a c i r c l e , The momemtum it has acquired

Lesson 1 9

sheet 5

w i l l cause it t o p a s s p o i n t C , r i s i n g a g a i n s t g r a v i t y , and it w i l l r i s e n e a r l y t o p o i n t D which i s i n t h e same h o r i z o n t a l l i n e a s B. It then r e v e r s e s t h e motion and, on passing C , w i l l r i s e t o a point s h o r t of B, f o r example E, and a g a i n r e v e r s i n g t h e motion it w i l l swing back t o p o i n t F. Thus t h e weight w i l l swing backward and forward on b o t h s i d e s of l i n 3 AC u n t i l it i s brought t o r e s t by t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e a i r and t h e f r i c t i o n a t p o i n t A @
The swing of t h e weight from B t o D or from D t o B i s c a l l e d one oscillation. The a r c , measured i n degrees, from C t o D , i s c a l l e d the am l i t u d e of If we observe t h e l e n g t h o r amplitude o+cessive the oscillation. swings of t h e weight we would o b t a i n a group of decaying o s c i l l a t i o n s , t h e amplitude of each successive o s c i l l a t i o n bearing a d e f i n i t e r a t i o t o one another. The r a t e a t which t h e s e o s c i l l a t i o n s d i e out depends upon t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f f e r e d t o t h e weight. T h i s r e s i s t a n c e i s c a l l e d t h e Damping Factor.
If w a t t a c h a p i e c e of cardboard t o t h e s t r i n g , t h e o s c i l . l a t i o n s of e t h e weight would come t o a s t o p i n a much s h o r t e r p e r i o d and t h e y would be c a l l e d damped o s c i l l a t i o n s .

I f we draw a continuous l i n e which i s tangent t o and connects t h e maximum point of each o s c i l l a t i o n a s we have done i n F i g u r e 10 we w i l l have c o n s t r u c t e d a I n t h i s case t h e curve i s showing a d e c r e a s i n g used however t o show t h e i n c r e a s e i n a value o r q u a n t i t y a s well.

What i s meant by "X" a x i s ? What i s meant by "Yw a x i s ? What i s t h e " abscissae " ? What i s t h e " ordinate " ? If a movement i s caused along t h e "X" a x i s i s it a p o s i t i v e or a negative movement? I s t h e movement t o t h e l e f t of t h e "Y" a x i s p o s i t i v e o r negative? What i s meant by t h e term, " p l o t t i n g t h e point " ? Of what use i s a curve diagram? If a movement along t h e "x" a x i s i s t a k e n in t h e n e g a t i v e d i r e c t i o n and t h e n a movement i n t h e negative d i r e c t i o n i s t a k e n along t h e "Y" a x i s , which quadrant w i l l t h i s t a k e t h e movement i n t o ? What does a s i n e curve show?

Lesson 19

sheet 6

INC.

Technical Lesson 20
SOUND

Not many s t u d e n t s r e a l i z e t h e importance of sound i n connection w i t h t h e study of r a d i o . Sound v i b r a t i o n s or waves mark t h e beginning of t h e r a d i o bpoadcast program. Sound i s employed t o a c t u a t e t h e microphone i n a way t h a t c o n t r o l s the form of t h e electro- magnetic wave which i s d e t e c t e d by t h e r a d i o r e c e i v e r . The r e c e i v e r , i n t u r n , r e converts the electro- magnetic waves i n t o sound waves. W may r i g h t l y e sound waves play an important p a r t i n r a d i o programs say, then, t h a t a t t h e s t u d i o and a t t h e r e c e i v i n g end. Since t h e sound waves c o n t r o l l i n g t h e broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r moulds t h e c u r r e n t s e n t t o t h e antenna i n t o a form which, upon being passed through t h e r e c e i v e r , i s converted again t o sound waves which a r e e x a c t l y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e occuring e a t t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , it i s important t h a t w study t h i s s u b j e c t of sound f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t i t g i v e s u s a very concrete i d e a 5 4 k j c e r t a i n p a r t s of the t r a n s m i t t e r and r e c e i v e r function.

The word sound i s a most comprehensive word,- i t a p p l i e s t o anyt h i n g t h a t i s audible. Because sound i s going t o be employed t o vcry e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t it should be c l e a r l y r e a l i z e d t h a t 'I8$ we should know j u s t how sound i s capable of accomplishing such a r e s u l t . Sound may be t r a n s m i t t e d through l i q u i d s , gases, and I most of t h e s o l i d s . ~ l t h o u g h e r t a i n s o m a s c a r r i e d through c t h e a i r may be i n a u d i b l e t o t h e e a r , t h e same sounds may be d i s t i n c t l y heard through a s o l i d or through a l i q u i d . The speed Figure 1 of sound through a i r i s about 1100 f e e t p e r second and through a a s o l i d , such a s s t e e l , about 1 5 times a s f a s t a s through a i r and, through water, n e a r l y f i v e times a s f a s t a s through gas. Sound i s proAuced because t h e molecules of t h e sounding body or medium have been caused by some means t o o s c i l l a t e o r v i b r a t e .
111 ,I, It' (11 11' 141 I' 111 (11 11,

1
111 $1

5':

The tuning f o r k is t h e most common method employed t o show a body i n a s t a t e of vibration or o s c i l . l a t i o n , and how sound i s produced by a v i b r a t i n g body.
A very simple experiment producing b o t h v i b r a t i o n and sound may be performed by s t r e t c h i n g a rubber band and plucking it a s shown i n Figure 1 . Upon s t r i k i n g a tuning f o r k simil.ar r e s u l t s a r e obtained a s shown i n Figure 2.

Figure 2

Both t h e rubber band and t h e ends of t h e t u n i n g f o r k can be seen i n motion and t h e sound produced by t h i s v i b r a t i n g motion can be d i s t i n c t l y heard. I f any v i b r a t i n g body w i l l cause t h e sense of hearing t o be Contents Copyrighted 1 9 3 0 i'r 1nt ed i U S. A. n .

excited, denoting sound, t h e vibratory motion must be transmitted by some m a t e r i a l medium, such a s air, s o l i d s , or l i q u i d s . Sound waves w i l l not t r a v e l through a vacuum which proves t h a t one of t h e t h r e e mediums mentioned i s necessary i n order t h a t sound may be sent from one point t o another. Furthermore, t h e transmission of sound waves from a v i b r a t i n g body may be transmitted through any substance e l a s t i c i n nature. When sound waves s t r i k e substances such a s f e l t , heavy c u r t a i n s and d r a p e r i e s , t h e v i b r a t i o n s are damped, or deadened; they tend t o prevent t h e transmission of sounflc To understand how sound i s transmitted w must b r i e f l y study motion e because of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v i b r a t i n g body s e t s t h e a i r i n motion

Figure 3 Figure 4 which takes on a d e f i n i t e form. A l l bodies are composed of minute p a r t i c l e s , and each p a r t i c l e of t h e v i b r a t i n g body, when s e t i n motion, moves i n a forward and backward motion along a definilte path. When each p a r t i c l e r e t u r n s t o t h e same condition a t r e g u l a r r e c u r r i n g i n t e r v a l s , t h e motion i s c a l l e d periodic, However, f f i n addition, the p a r t i c l e i s being c o n t i n u a l l y reversed i n d i r e c t i o n such as i n t h e case of a swinging pendulum t h e motion i s t h e n c l a s s i f i e d a s being vibratory. I n the study of sound t h e v i b r a t i o n s of e l a s t i c bodies have t o be cons i d e r e d and t h e s e a r e i n d e n t i f i e d a s e i t h e r t r a n s v e r s e or l o n g i t u d i n a l vibrations. A v i b r a t i o n of t r a n s v e r s e nature may be described a s vib r a t i o n s which i n s c r i b e a path perpendicular t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e body producing them. For example, i f a h a t p i n i s stuck i n t o a bloc^ of wood, t h e head drawn down and released, it w i l l v i b r a t e f o r a short period of time and t h e p a t h of t h e v i b r a t i o n s w i l l be a s shown by t h e dotted l i n e s i n Figure 3. Such v i b r a t i o n s a r e c a l l e d transverse vib r a t i o n s and can be both heard and seen. Longitudinal v i b r a t i o n s a r e shown i n Figure 4 by t h e use of a c o i l s p r i n g and weight. If p o s i t i o n s A , B and P a r e l o c a t e d o n t h e spring, and the weight i s pulled down and released, t h e weight and t h e p a r t i c l e s of the s p r i n g w i l l s e t up v i b r a t i o n s which a r e p a r a l l e l t o t h e l e n g t h of t h e spring. The p a r t i c u l a r t u r n of mire i n t h e c o i l a t P w i l l v i b r a t e between t e p o s i t i o n s , A and B, equidistantfk.om P, hence h such v i b r a t i o n s a r e c a l l e d longitudinal.

Lesson 2 0

sheet 2

s i n g l e v i b r a t i o n i n sound i s u s u a l l y considered t o be t h e motion of t h e p a r t i c l e from one extreme p o s i t i o n i n one d i r e c t i o n , such a s A , i n Figure 4 , and a r e t u r n of t h e p a r t i c l e t o t h e extreme p o s i t i o n B i n t h e r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n and t h e n back t o A . The t i n e t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e r e q u i r e s t o v i b r a t e from A t o B and back t o A, t h a t i s , making one complete v i b r a t i o n , i s termed t h e period of v i b r a t i o n . Further t h e d i s t a n c e from P t o A o r from P t o m a l l e d t h e antplitude of t h e v i b r a t i o n , and the number of complete v i b r a t i o n s t a k i n g place i n one second i s c a l l e d t h e frequency of the v i b r a t i o n s .
A

When the s u r f a c e of a body of water i s s e t i n t o v i b r a t i o n a s by throwi m a stone into a pond, t h e stone upon s t r i k i n g the water s e t s t h e water p a r t i c l e s a t t h a t p o i n t i n t o v i b r a t i o n and adjacent water p a r t i c l e s
A

ONE W A V E LENGTH

Figure 5 Figure 6 One p a r t i c l e a f t e r t h e other t a k e s quickly assume a s i m i l a r motion. up t h e v i b r a t i o n but a t a s h o r t i n t e r v a l of t i n e a f t e r t h e p r e c e e d i x one. Considering t h e s u r f a c e of water t o be a row of adjoining p a r t i c l e s the e n t i r e row w i l l be s e t i n t o v i b r a t i o n . A t any i n s t a n t , t h e p a r t i c l e s a r e a l l i n d i f f e r e n t phases of v i b r a t i o n hence t h e r e s u l t of t h e s e r i e s of p a r t i c l e s , when i n d i f f e r e n t phases of v i b r a t i o n , i s t o produce a wave or waves which, l i k e a l l v i b r a t i o n s , may be t r a n s v e r s e or l o n g i t u r n .

A t r a n s v e r s e wave form can b e shown ~ y u s i n g a rope, a s shown i n Figure 5. By g i v i n g t h e rope a quick up motion, from A t o B, and be seen then down t o C , p a r t i c l e s of t h e rope between D and D - i l l t o be I n every phase of v i b r a t i o n . A t p o i n t D t h e v i b r a t i o n i s s t a r t ing. A t E t h e v i b r a t i o n i s one q u a r t e r completed, a t F one h a l f , a t The G t h r e e q u a r t e r s , and a t Dl one v i b r a t i o n i s e n t i r e l y completed. wave thus caused has l e n g t h and Is measured from D t o Dl and i s c a l l e d one wave length.
The b e l l i n Figure 6 i s s e t i n t o v i b r a t i o n when t h e c l a p p e r s t r i k e s any p o r t i o n of t h e b e l l . A s t h e b e l l v i b r a t e s t h e a i r near t h e s u r f a c e of t h e b e l l i s suddenly f o r c e d oUtward,compressing it. This compressed l a y e r of a i r a t once e x e r t s a p r e s s u r e on t h e p a r t i c l e s of a i r next t o i t , s e t t i n g them i n motion. T h i s p u l e e ' o r wave continues onward f o r a considerable d i s t a n c e . The a i r p a r t i c l e s causing i t , however, t r a v e l

Lesson 20

sheet 3

but a very s h o r t d i s t a n c e , - Only f a r enough t o s e t t h e adjacent l a y e r of particles i n motion. The outward v i b r a t i o n of t h e b e l l , which has caused t h i s d i s t u r b a n c e and compressionofthe a i r p e r t i c l e s , now swings back, causing a p a r t i a l vacuum. The a i r p a r t i c l e s next t o the b e l l surface now r u s h i n t o f i l l t h i s p a r t i a l vacuum which causes a s i m i l a r movement t o t a k e place along the compressed p o r t i o n s of t h e wave and t h e a i r p a r t i c l e s surge backward i n an e f f o r t t o r e s t o r e themselves t o a s t a t e of r e s t . It w i l l be seen t h e r e f o r e , t h a t on t h e outward movement of t h e v i b r a t i o n t h e a i r i s compressed and t h e c o n d i t i o n due t o the r e t u r n i n g v i b r a t o r y movement causes what i s known a s a r a r e f i e d s t a t e t o e x i s t among t h e a i r p a r t i c l e s . When t h e s e sound waves s t r i k e t h e organs of hearing i t produces t h e s e n s a t i o n of sound.
(1) The v e l o c i t y of a wave i s e q u a l t o t h e wave l e n g t h times t h e

frequency, (2) or the wave l e n g t h i s equal t o the v e l o c i t y d i v i d e d by the frequency

(3) o r frequency i s e q u a l t o t h e v e l o c i t y divided by t h e wave length

Where (Lambda) 7\
V

and

= =
=

wave l e n g t h of sound waves v e l o c i t y 3f sound waves frequency of sound v i b r a t i o n s

Then w may w r i t e e a c h of t h e above expressions a s follows; giving t h e e b~sic formula f o r v e l o c i t y f i r s t :

~ l t h o u g h h e above formula i s w r i t t e n here t o i l l u s t r a t e sound waves, it t w i l l be shown l a t e r t h a t t h e same formula i s a l s o used f o r determining t h e wave l e n g t h of r a d i o waves. NOISE When a c r a s h occurs, such a s a head-on c o l l i s i o n between two t r u c k s , sound i s produced. This sound i s c l a s s i f i e d a s n o i s e because t h e c r a s h creates a n o n - p e r i o a i c v i b r a t i o n , or wave motion. Such sounds a r e g e n e r a l l y unpleasant t o t h e e a r and some non- periodic v i b r a t i o n s may become even p a i n f u l t o t h e sense of hearing. MUSICAL SOUNDS Music i s t h e r e s u l t of a r a p i d s e r i e s of p e r i o d i c v i b r a t i o n s and, when such sounds occur or a r e p r o d u c e d a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s , they a r e pleasing t o the e a r and have a soothing e f f e c t . The i n t e n s i t y of a sound w i l l depend upon t h e energy of t h e v i b r a t i n g a i r p a r t i c l e s producing t h e sound wave which s t r i k e s the ear.

Lesson 2 0

- sheet 4

Some i n d i v i d u a l s c l a s s i f y the loudness of a sound d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n o t h e r s ; t h i s may b e caused by a varying d i s t a n c e o r p o s i t i o n between t h e source of t h e sound and the r e c i p i e n t , or i t may be due t o a d i f f e r ence i n the h e a r i n g power of one e a r over another. Sound from any sounding body may be i n t e n s i f i e d , or, made louder by b r i n g i n g near t o i t another body, t h e n a t u r e of which w i l l allow i t t o v i b r a t e a t t h e same period of t h e sound v i b r a t i o n .

THE PITCH O F A TONE

The p i t c h of a tone r e f e r s t o t h e highness o r lowness of t h e tone. P i t c h depends uponthe v i b r a t i n g frequency and t h e g r e a t e r t h e number of v i b r a t i o n s per second t h e higher w i l l be t h e p i t c h of t h e tone and, a s t h e v i b r a t i o n s decrease per second and become slower, the p i t c h of the tone w i l l be lower. A piccolo produces a high pitched o r high frequency tone, while t h e base horn produces a low p i t c h e d or low frequency tone.
HARMONICS
1/11

$ 1 ;\',\ 11;; \;\\

,'Ill
) $ / (

;;I;

;I $$I I

111,

,,11 1\11 ,,I\ 1 ( \ 1 1111

\\I; $1) \OI

I;!,
I,'!

\!',I

Figure 7 ing a s i n g l e musical somd. When a s e r i e s of simple tones a r e combinad, i n which t h e v i b r a t i n g f r e q u e n c i e s of each simple tone are represented by whole numbers, t h e n t h e combined tone i s s a i d t o be made up of a harmonic s e r i e s of tonee, When tones a r e i n harmony t h e i r r e l a t i v e frequencies of v i b r a t i o n may be expressed by whole numbers. I n t h e s t u d y of musical sounds t h e r a t i o of t h e frequencies of two simple tones i s known a s t h e i n t e r v a l between them and t h e octave i s t h e most important i n t e r v a l between two simple tones i n which me of t h e t o n e s has twice a s many v i b r a t i o n s per second a s the o t h e r . When a s e r i e s of n o t e s a r e s t r u c k on t h e piano, each one h i g h e r than t h e l a s t by one octave, w h e a r a s e r i e s e of tones which v i b r a t e i n harmony,
If a s t r e t c n e d piano s t r i n g i s s t r u c k a t i t s c e n t e r point it w i l l v i b r a t e as a whole j u s t a s t h e rubber band d i d when you

A simple tone r e s u l t s when a d e f i n i t e p i t c h i s involved produc-

Figure 8

s t r e t c h e d and plucked it a t i t s middle point. A s t r i n g s e t i n t o vibration i n t h i s f a s h i o n shows a f o r m o f h a l f wave, and the tone heard Erom such a string, i n v i b r a t i o n a s a whole, w i l l be what i s c a l l e d i t s primary o r fundamental v i b r a t i o n . or See Figure 7 - . frequency tone.

I f you now place your f i n g e r on t h e c e n t e r of t h e s t r i n g and t h e n s t r i k e each h a l f t h e y w i l l be seen t o v i b r a t e a s shown i n Figure 8, and t h e y w i l l maintain t h i s form of v i b r a t i o n when t h e f i n g e r i s released. The . tone heard w i l l be an octave higher t h a n when v i b r a t i n g a s i n Figure 7 When a tone one octave h i g h e r i s produced by t h e string v i b r a t i n g a t twice the fundamental frequency, it i s s a i d t o be v i b r a t i n g a t i t s second harmonic. If it v i b r a t e s t h r e e times f a s t e r t h a n t h e fundamental, it Ps c a l l e d the t h i r d harmonic, e t c .

Lesson 20

sheet 5

harmonic i s a m u l t i p l e or another frequency, W can, t h e r e f o r e e produce multiples of a fundamental which a r e second, t h i r d , f o m t h and f i f t h harmonics, and s o on ,upward,
A

You w i l l study about harmonics i n connection w i t h electro- magnetic waves when t h e s u b j e c t of t r a n s m i t t e r s f s t a k e n up, They a r e ealcul a t e d t h e same a s harmonics of sound waves. I n music they a r e des i r a b l e while i n r a d i o t h e y a r s not always d e s i r a b l e and, when not required, s t e p s a r e t a k e n t o suppress them.
BEAT NOTES

When two t u ~ ? i n g o r k s a r e s e t i n t o v i b r a t i o n , t h e f i r s t v i b r a t i n g a t a f frequency o f , say 200 v i b r a t i o n s per second, and t h e second v i b r a t i n g a t 201 v i b r a t i o n s p e r second, they w i l l s i b r a t e t o g e t h e r o r be i n phase once every second and opposite i n phase each h a l f second l a t e r . The v i b r a t i o n s from such a combination w i l l produce what i s c a l l e d a b e a t note once each second, The beat note i s recognized by the tone being strengthened when t h e v i b r a t i o n s of each f o r k a r e i n unison &, dying away a s the v i b r a t i o n s come out of unison or phase, then becoming s t r o n g e r and stronger u n t i l t h e v i b r a t i o n s a r e a g a i n working t o g e t h e r when a f u l l tone i s again heard, With t h e tuning f o r k s i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , t h i s s t r o n g tone or beat note would be heard every second. Suppose t h e f i r s t fork i s v i b r a t i n g a t 200 s i b r a t f o n ~ e r second an& t h e second a t 202 p v i b r a t i o n s per second* The b e a t note would t h e n be heard twice every secondda T h i s p r i n c i p l e of b e a t s i s employed i n r a d i o r e c e i v i n g and i s explained i n a l a t e r l e s s o n on super-heterodyne r e c e i v e r s . Let us see now how t h e sound waves we have been d i s c u s s i n g a r e able t o c o n t r o l e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s , The, o r d i n a r y telephone you use i n your home c l o s e l y resembles a r a d i o telephone t r a n s m i t t e r , or microphone, W w i l l study t h i s ordinary telephone so t h a t we may know how t h e e c o n t r o l of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t i s aeconplishedr The telephone t r a n s m i t t e r , o r microphone, i s a device i n which souna c o n t r o l s t h e c u r r e n t . The r e c e i v e r converts t h i s cusrenf: flow back t o sound. The e s s e n t i a l p a r t s of such a device a r e the 'transmitter, a conducting l i n e over which the c u r r e n t i s @;u%ded,and a r e c e i v e r . The t r a n s m i t t e r , Figure 9, c o n s i s t s of a mouth p i e c e A, a t h i n mica diaphrnm D, and a n i n s u l a t e d piece of carbon E, i n t h e form of a d i s c which i s connected t o t h e button B e "' shows the P i n e carbon F granules l o o s e l y packed between E and G, G beirig a second I n s u l a t e d carbon d i s c which, by means of a wise connection, makes c o n t a c t with t h e base of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r R, The r e c e i v e r , Figure 10, c o n s i s t s of a permanent magnet I, c o i l s J and J, and K, t h e diaphram of t h e r e c e i v e r c

Lesson 20

sheet 6

A steady c u r r e n t i s applied t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and follows t h e p a t h Prom b a t t e r y , "Bat", t o H of the t r a n s m i t t e r and t o t h e carbon d i s c G, through the loosel;g Packed carbon granules F, t o carbon d i s c E, thence through t h e primary winding of an induction c o i l L, r e t u r n i n g t o t h e batterye

From y o w study of t h e induction c o i l you learned t h a t when cur'rent of a constant value flows i n the primary winding, no current w i l l be induced i n the secondary winding, t h e r e f o r e , w i t h a constant c u r r e n t flowing through t h e granules of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r no c u r r e n t w i l l flow through the r e c e i v e r magnets, Row allow sound waves t o be d i r e c t e d i n t o t h e mouth piece of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and the pressure or condens a t i o n of t h e sound wave produced by v i b r a t i o n causes the mica d i s c D t o increase t h e pressure on t h e carbon granules, packing them c l o s e r together, and when t h u s compressed they have t h e p e c u l i a r pm~opertyof and w i t h l i t t l e permitting an e l e c t r i c current t o flow q u i t e ~ e a d i l g r e s i s t a n c e , But when lyilag l o o s e l y against each o t h e r they interpose a very considerable r e s i s t a n c e t o the flew of cument through them thus reducing t h e amount of current which passes. This increased pressure on the diaphsam then allows a g r e a t e r c u r r e n t t o flow through winding of t h e induction c o i l "Z"e t h e granules and through the p r i ~ a r y Because more c u r r e n t i s admitted t o the p r r l a r y winding of the induction c o i l , the f i e l d w i l l become stronger thus inducing a current i n &he secondary winding.

Figure 10 Figure 9 A r a r e f a c t i o n of t h e sound now takes place which allows t h e diaphram D t o f a l l back thereby reducing the pressure on t h e carbon g r m u l e s , and this decrease i n pressure again& the granules allows them t o again assume a loosely packed s t a t e , thereby decreasing t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e c u r r e n t passing through them and a l s o tthough t h e primary winding of t h e induction coil. T h i s r e s u l t s i n another change i n t h e value of t h e induced current i n t h e secondary, These v a r i a t f m s i n t h e current s t r e n g t h w i l l cause corresponding changes i n t h e number of l i n e s of fofce passing through the secondary of t h e induction c o i l %" The induced a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s s e t up w i l l vary i n s t r e n g t h a s well a s i n t h e i r period of v i b r a t i o n , which v a r i e s with t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e sound wave impinged on the diaphran These varying a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s produce changes i n t h e magnetic I The f i e l d of t h e r e c e i v e r magnet . o consequent changes i n f i e l d s t r e n g t h of the r e c e i v e r magnet causes the r e c e i v e r d i s c "K" t o be a l t e r n a t e l y a t t r a c t e d and r e p e l l e d , Attracted and r e p e l l e d i n t h i s

Lesson 20

- sheet
-

f a s h i o n , t h e d i s c K reproduces t h e o r i g i n a l v i b r a t i o n s of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r diaphram and t h e r e f o r e reproduces t h e sounds s i m i l a r t o t h e sounds d i r e c t e d toward t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . Thus it i s seen how sound waves a r e employed t o vary a n e l e c t r i c current and, t h e n by use of t h e r e c e i v e r , reconverted back t o sound waves. The t r a n s m i t t e r i s , i n f a c t , a s o r t of valve, much l i k e t h e valve on a steam l i n e , capable of opening up t o permit a f u l l flow of c u r r e n t eithex- g r a d u a l l y or suddenly snd reducing t h e c u r r e n t through or ~ l o s f n g it. The t r a n s m i t t e r will operate on very f e e b l e sound v i b r a t i o n s and, of c o w s e , t h e cusrent changes a r e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e s e v i b r a t ions, The form of sound r e c e i v e r most g e n e r a l l y used f o r r a d i o r e c e p t i o n r c o n s i s t s of two ~ e p a m t e e c e i v e r s mounted on a head band which allows them t o f i t comfortably t o t h e e a r s . The loud speaker i s a sound producing device used in r a d i o with a horn o r o t h e r r a d 2 a t i n g s t r u c t u r e s o proportioned and designed t h a t a loud sound i s produced which can be e a s i l y heard a t some d i s t a n t point from t h e r e c e i v e r . The r e c e i v e r of Ffgure 10 remains s i l e n t so long a s a steady c u r r e n t i s passing ",hrough the magnets

EXAMINATION
31,

- LESSON 20

ThPough what mediums may sound be t r a n s m i t t e d ? Explain how sound t r a v e l s , H w does sound vary t h e c u r r e n t i n a telephone c i r c u i t ? o

2,
3.

4 @ Is sound a f a c t o r t o be considered i n r a d i o ?

5,

Explain how a b e a ~ o t e i s produced, n Tihat formula i s lased f o r determining t h e wave l e n g t h of a sound wave? What i s t h e meaning of t h e word, '?Amplitudet'? What i s meant by the 'second harmonic"?

6,
'7.

8.
9,

What i s t h e meaning of t h e word, " f r e q u e n ~ y " ?

IQ, Does, sound t r a v e l f s s t e r through a i r t h a n through s t e e l ?

Lesson 20

- sheet 8

6.
M A R C O N / INS J/TUTE

Technical Lesson 21
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Electromagnetic waves c o n s t i t u t e a form of energy i n t h e t r a n s mission of Radio and, i n a way, possess some of t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s found i n t h e transmission of r a d i a n t h e a t , sound and l i g h t waves. For e x m p l e , when a v i o l i n i s bowed t h e s t r i n g s a r e s e t i n t o v i b r a t i o n c r e a t i n g sound waves, The flame of a candle s e t s up v i b r a t i o n s c r e a t i n g waves which, on passing t h e eye, produce t h e s e n s a t i o n of l i g h t . I n Radio transmission a d i s t u r b a n c e i s created a t t h e source which moves away through space i n t h e form of electrornagnetlc waves. Whereever wave motion i s c r e a t e d i t always r e p r e s e n t s a form of energy which i s t r a n s m i t t e d through a medium having t h e a b i l i t y t o conduct the p a r t i c u l a r wave i n q u e s t i o n e
kUELENGTH

Sound waves a r e t r a n s m i t t e d by a condensation and r a r e f a c t i o n of a* p a r t i e l e a ,

WkeneveP wave motion i s p r e s e n t it i s always caused by a v i b r a t i o n of some form a t i t s source, T o prodme a r a d i o wave, then we must s e t up e l e c t r i c a l vi,bratiorts a t t&e t r a n s ~-L?"ZH~ m i t t i n g souree, kx+. ':z.,:s- ~ / .-- \<- - ---. , r ~ . , . & + . . S ~W R V E S ~ 1kE4 R From the s t u d y of sound you remember w found e t h a t a sound wave was c r e a t e d by v i b r a t i o n s Figure 1 and t h a t t h i s wave ha6 frequency, velocity, and l e n g t h (wave l e n g t h ) , The electromagnetic wave a l s o has these sane p r o p e r t i e s and they a r e a l l d e f i n i t e l y r e l a t e d t o one another. The frequency i s expressed, you will r e c a l l , i n c y c l e s , When the f.requencr$ of e l e c t r i c a l c w r e n t reaches L O c y c l e s , 2 . t may be t h e n O0 c a l l e d on@k i l o c y c l e , ( k i l o meaning one thousand), In r a d i o t r a n s mission the frequency i s spoken of i n terms of k i l o c y c l e s because of t h e extremely h i g h .fsequeneies employed POP broadcasting work, ranging from 550,QQC t o 1,500,000 c y c l e s per second. Since 1000 cycles e q u a l one k i l o c y c l e we can use t h e more convenient Germ t o work with, Far example, dlvfcling 55b,000 c y c l e s by 1000 w i l l g i v e us $50 k i l o c y c l e s and i n t h e same manner 1,500,000 c y c l e s w i l l be equal t o 1500 k i l o c y c l e s , The frequency of' t h e broadcast range v a r i e s from 550 K.C, ( k i l o c y c l e s ) t o 1500 K.C, ( k f l o c y c l e s ) ,
A s explained i n t h e previous l e s s o n a wave has two motions which a r e

opposite,- one t h e c r e s t , and t h e o t h e r the trough, Wave l e n g t h i s determined by measuring from a point on one wave t o a s i m i l a r point

Printed i n U.S.A.

trough.

on the next wave a s , f o r example, from c r e s t t o c r e s t o r trough t o T h i s i s g r a p h i c a l l y shown i n Figure 1 .

The v e l o c i t y of sound waves i s about 1,100 f e e t per second. E l e c t r o magnetic, or r a d i o waves, however, t r a v e l a t t h e t e r r i f i c speed of n e a r l y 300,000,000 meters per second (one meter i s e q u a l t o 39.37 inches, o r 3,280 f e e t ) which i s approximately 186,300 miles per second. The r e l a t i o n between t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s i s d e f i n i t e and, considering t h e v e l o c i t y a d e f i n i t e value, t h e frequency and wave l e n g t h can be varied. This brings us a g a i n t o t h e b a s i c f o r m l a g i v e n i n t h e study of sound. V e l o c i t y i s e q u a l t o t h e frequenoy times t h e wave l e n g t h , V = f x 3 , Frequency equals v e l o c i t y divided by t h e wave length, F V +A. The wave l e n g t h i s e q u a l t o t h e v e l o c i t y divjtded by the frequency,7\= VI-F. 7 (lambda) i s t h e symbol f o r wave l e m t h . \

When the wave r i s e s and f a l l s a g r e a t many times p e r second it i s s a i d t o have h i g h frequency, t h a t i s , when t h e frequency i s h i g h t h e wave l e n g t h i s short. Let us use our formula t o prove t h i s , choosing an a r b i t r a r y frequency a s , f o r example, 600,000 c y c l e s and, w i t h a vel o c i t y of 300,000,000 meters,

O rv

7\=
=

500 meters c y c l e s per second,

Suppose our frequency i s i n c r e a s e d t o 7,500,000 then

v P

N w decrease t h e frequency t o 20,000 c y c l e s per second, o

or,

\=

15,000 meters. Lesson 2 1

sheet 2

n u s i t 1 s seen t h a t , a s the frequency i s increased, t h e wave l e n g t h becones s h n r t e r and when decreased t h e wave l e n g t h becomes longer, a s s h o r n by the diagram Figure 2. The r e l a t i o n e x i s t i n g between frequency, v e l o c i t y , and wave l e n g t h i s always t h e same, as,shown by t h e foregoing f ornulae. Fiadio waves a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s continuous and damped. A continuous wave, a b b r i v i a t e d (CW), i s one whose o s c i l l a t i o n s producing the wave w i l l b e of constant amplitude, providing t h e e l e c t r i c a l energy producing t h e wave i s k e p t a t a constant value, Damped waves a r e those s e t up by energy which i s supplied by t h e transmi1:ter a t i n t e r v a l s ; such waves g r a d u a l l y d i e out according t o a l o g a r i t h m i t i c law which w i l l be considered l a t e r under t r a n s m i t t e r s .

If you s e t a v i o l i n string i n t o v i b r a t i o n by one s h o r t quickly executed s t r o k e of t h e bow t h e v i b r a t i o n s w i l l produce a sound wave, the form of

HIGH FREQUENCY

LOW FREOUENCY

DAMPED

WLIVE

CONTINUOUS WAVE

Figwe 2 Figure 3 which w i l l be damped, t h a t i s , t h e v i b r a t i o n of t h e s t r i n g w i l l be of maximum amplitude a t f i r s t and t h e r e s u l t i n g wave motion w i l l produce a loud sound which w i l l g r a d u a l l y d i e away. A damped wave form i s shown i n Figure 3. I f t h e v i o l i n s t r i n g could be bowed uniformly and i n a manner t h a t would keep t h e s t r i n g v i b r a t i n g contlnuously a t a constant amplitude t h e r e s u l t i n g wave would be continuous t h u s producing a steady sound, Such a continuous wave form i s a l s o shown i n Figure 3 and r e p r e s e n t s a graphic p i c t u r e of t h e continuous r a d i o wave. Undamped ( c o n t i n u o u s ) o s c i l l a t i o n s of v e r y high frequency must be employed i n broadcast transmission. The frequency of t h i s c u r r e n t i s t o o h i g h t o be a u d i b l e * The wave produced by such r a p i d e l e c t r i c a l v i b r a t i o n s s e r v e s no purpose i n t h i s form, f i r s t , because t h e diaphram of t h e telephone r e c e i v e r o r loudspeaker could not follow such -a r a p i d r e v e r s a l of c u r r e n t and, second, even i f t h e telephone diaphrarn could follow such r a p i d v i b r a t i o n s t h e e a r would not respond t o t h e v i b r a t i o n s produced, It w i l l be remembered from the l e s s o n on sound t h a t t h e wire telephone t r a n s m i t t e r i s employed t o modula.te, t h a t i s , change t h e c u r r e n t flowing through t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , This was accomplished by t h e sound waves causing t h e diaphram of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r t o v i b r a t e a t t h e frequency of these sound waves, t h u s eompe;Lling t h e carbon g r a n u l e s t o vary t h e i r pressure. This change i n t h e i r p r e s s u r e v a r i e s t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e causing t h e c u r r e n t t o v a r y i n accordance with the v i b r a t i o n s of t h e diaphram.

Lesson 2 1

- sheet

In E a d i c tele3hony t h e high frequency and i n a u d i b l e e l e c t r i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e modulated by the use of a telephone t r a n s m i t t e r ( t h e ~ i c r o p h o n e )which g i v e s t h e n t h e same wave form as t h a t of tlie sound wave comiw from speech o r music. The i n a u d i b l e , high f r e q u e n c y o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t , c a l l e d t h e c a r r i e r c u r r e n t , cannot be h e a r d i n t h e r e c e i v e r , b u t t h e changes i n t h i s c u r r e n t produced by the a c t i o n of t h e modulator (when c o r r e c t adjustments a r e maint a i n e d i n t h e modulator c i r c u i t ) w i l l follow t h e wave forms of sounds produced b e f o r e t h e microphone, and t h e s e a r e heard i n t h e receiver.
Figure 4, c o n s i s t i n g of an antenna, an inductance "L" f o r tuning t h e antenna, the h i g h frequency a l t e r n a t o r , and a microphone, shows a very simple means f o r i l l u s t r a t i n g the g e n e r a t i o n and modulation of undamped continuous h i g h frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s . When no sound waves s t r i k e t h e microphone r a p i d h i g h frequency c u r r e n t s a s shorn i n Figure 5 a r e continuously and unifomnly supplied t o t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna. Sound waves, impinging upon t h e diaphram of t h e microphone, w i l l by inward and outward displacements of t h e diaphram vary t h e r e s i s t a n c e

' -I _

MICROPHONE

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 4 of the carbon granules through which t h e h i g h frequency current i s passing. By v i r t u e of t h i s varying r e s i s t t m c e t h e a n t e m a c u r r e n t w i l l a l s o be v a r i e d r e s u l t i n g In a change i n amplitude of t h e antenna current. These changes w i l l produce a wave having t h e same form a s t h e sound waves being produced before t h e microphone. Figure 6 shov~s a modulated c a r r l e r wave. When t h e s e electromagnetic waves pass a r e c e i v i n g antenna t h e y w i l l produce t h e r e i n a f e e b l e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t which, when conducted t o a r e c e i v e r by a proper arrangement of conductors, w i l l be amplified, detected and again amplified, and $hen passed through a telephone r e c e i v e r which r e c o n v e r t s t h e c u r r e n t t o sound waves* Further w o r k m t r a n s m i t t e r problems m i l l be takenup i n l a t e r lessons. With t h e preceeding i n t r o d u c t i o n r e w i l l begin our work with t h e r a d i o receiver. Before going on, however, l e t us sum up t h e work we have . covered by r e f e r r i n g t o Figure 7
A s u i t a b l e apparatus f o r producing undamped continuous high frequency c u m e n t s shown a t B i s necessary. This c u r r e n t i s passed through t h e modulabing apparatus a t C . The t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna i s shown a t G.

Lesson 2 1

- sheet 4

;%ler.~o sound v i b r a t i o n s are impinged upon the microphone t h e high f r e q s e n c j currznt o s c i l l a t e s continuously and uniformly i n the antenna as sr.oi,n a t D. . h e n sound waves, caused by speechor music, a r e produced a t t h e microphone they c r e a t e audible e l e c t r i c a l f r e q u e n c i e s whlch superimpose t h e speech and music v i b r a t i o n s on t h e h i g h frequency, or . c a r r i e r wave D I n combining t h e voice and music waves w i t h the c a r r i e r wave a t t h e modulator system t h e h i g h frequency c a r r i e r wave i s changed i n form, and the contour of a l i n e drawn through t h e 'cops of the wave w i l l be seen t o correspond e x a c t l y t o t h e speech and music sound waves a t t h e microphone, shown a t F. The powerful c a r r i e r wave i s , i n t h i s form, p r o j e c t e d fromthe t r a n s m i t t i n g antennaG, ~ n dr a v e l s away through t space i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s , Passfng through space t h e c a r r i e r , i n e l e c t r o magnetic form, i s pfckedi up by a r e c e i v i n g antenna H and s t i l l maintains t h e same frequency and shape as it had on l e a v i n g t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna but i n g r e a t l y a t t e n u a t e d form, t h a t i s , g r e a t l y reduced i n strea s shown a t I. By means of a lead- in wlre from t h e antenna the e l e c t r o -

SOUND

LOUD

magnetic wave i s guided t o t h a t p a r t of the r e c e i v e r c a l l e d t h e t u n e r o r s e l e c t o r , 3 , which i s c o n t r o l l e d manually by t h e operator, and which f u n c t i o n s i n such a manner as t o permit t h e s e l e c t i o n of one p a r t i c u l a r frequency and t h e e x c l u s i o n of o t h e r s , This i s c a l l e d "tuning" and, i n tuning, t h e operator i s enabled Lo s e l e c t t h e s t a t i o n he d e s i r e s , Vdhen t h e s e l e c t o r of t h e r e c e i v e r has been b e d t o the proper frequency t h e modulated c a r r i e r I i s passed through a r a d i o Prequency amplifier which g r e a t l y a m p l l r i e s , t h a t is, magnifies t h e f e e b l e r e c e i v e d c u r r e n t t o a s t r e n g t h which w i l l s a t i s f a c t o r i l y o p e r a t e t h e d e t e c t o r L B The d e t e c t o r L-transforms o r r e c t i f i e s t h e high frequency i n a u d i b l e c a r r l e r c u r r e n t and allows t h e a u d i b l e component, ( t h i s audible component being

by the shape of the aave, as i n Figure 6 , which corresponds e x a c t l y t o t h e shape o f the c a r r i e r produced a t t h e t r a n s m i t t e r ) , t o pess as shown a t M . This transformed c u r r e n t M i s now amplified, e s shown a t 0 , t o t h e s t r e n g t h s u i t a b l e t o opesate a loud speaker. The r e c e i v s r convorts the electromagnetic waves back t o sound waves, reproducing t h e sound produced a t t h e microphone of t h e broadcasting station,

The explanation of t h e apparatus necessary f o r transforming t h e electromagnetic waves i n t o sound waves w i l l now be g i v e n under r e c e i v i n g apparatus,
RECEIVING APPARATUS

Regardless of t h e type of t h e r a d i o r e c e i v e r employed it must c o n s i s t of t h e following p a r t s , The antenna system, tuner, d e t e c t o r , and t e l e phone headset or loud speaker*

The antenna systeln 59 n e c e s s a r y t o i n t e r c e p t t h e t r a n s m i t t e d e l e c t r o magnetic waves- 1% may be a s i n g l e wire s t r u n g between two p o l e s , between t h e s i d e of a b u i l d i n g and pole, o r it may be l o c a t e d i n s i d e the house, a s * f o r example, i n t h e a t t i c o r around t h e mouldings of t h e room, Another form of antenna i s t h e loop antenna which i s use6 i n l o c a t i o n s where o t h e r forms of antennae a r e Xmpractfcsble, o r with a r e c e i v i n g s e t p r i m a r i l g d e s i g n e d t o operate w i t h t h i s type of antenna. The a&e-ma, a l s o 0 ~ l l C d h e , a e r % a l , i s a system of conductors designed t n f o r r a d f a t f n g o r absorbfng eleotromagnetite waves. A antenna designed f o r r a d i a t i n g electromagnetic waves i s employed a t t h e t r a n s m f t t f n g s t a t i o n , The a n t e m e d e a m e d f o r absopbing electromagnetic waves i s employed a t t h e r e c e i v e r , TbePe a r e s e v e r a l forms of keceiving antennae found i n g e n e r a l u s e s They a r e t h e s o c a l l e d E and T type, t h e I n s i d e type, and t h e loop antenna, I n g e n e r a l only a s i n g l e wire antenna i s used f o r broadc a ~ r e c e p t i o n e It i s more e f f i c i e n t than a n e l a b o r a t e system t comprising s e v e r a l wires, The L type antenna c o n s i s t s of a h o r i z o n t a l wir*e laavins a v e r t e c a l l e a d - i n which i s attached t o t h e s h o r i z o n t a l p a r t of t h e antenna n e a r e s t t h e ~ e c e i v i n g e t . T h i s form of antenna i s e a s i l y i n s t a l l e d whereever t h e wire can be run from one b u i l 4 i n g t n another, a s from t h e house t o t h e garage. The T form of antenna c o n s i s t s of a h o r i z o n t a l wire l i k e t h e E type, but i n s t e a d of t h e lead- in being t a k e n from t h e end, it i s connected t o t h e c e n t e r of t h e h o r i z o n t a l wire. This form i s g e n e r a l l y employed when t h e lead- in can be dropped c l i r e o t l y t o t h e receiver* The L and T antennae a r e outdoor types and they a r e u s u a l l y t h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y e They should range i n l e n g t h from 65 t o 150 f e e t , and be e l e v a t e d a t l e a s t 30 f e e t from t h e ground. No. 1 4 seven s t r a n d copper. wPre, or

Lesson 2 1

sheet 6

serves a s a p r o t e c t i o n f r o m t h e corrosive e f f e c t s of t h e smoke and fumes. s i n g l e wipe antenna two s t r a i n i n s u l a t o r s a r e placed a t e a c h end of the antenna wire and serve t o i n s u l a t e me antenna from t h e supp o r t s t o which it i s f a s t e n e d * The i n s u l a t o r i s necessary t o prevent leakage of t h e e l e c t r o m a g m t i c energy whioh has been "picked up" by t h e antenna. I n s u l a t o r s f o r t M s purpose a r e made cf substances which a r e non-oonducdors of e l e c t r i c i t y . Pgrex g l a s s , glazed porcelain, and s p e c i a l impregnated comproeitions are used a s i n s u l a t o r s s
~1,'Jithh e t

when t h e antenna i s t o be pun along t h e a i d e of a b u i l d i n g "stand of%'' insuPators should be used t o hold t h e lead- in a t l e a s t 4 o r 5 inches away from t h e s i d e of buildings
*hMTENNA l USULPrPO?

ANTENNA POLES-

4 CONDUCTOR X 1 COPPER --OR *I7 STEEL CLAD OR

PROTECTIVE GROUNDING

Figure 8 A p o r c e l a f n tube i n s u l a t o r 1 s employed f o r l e a d i n g t h e wire i n t o the building, The tube w f l l vary Psom 8 t o PB inches i n l e n g t h , depending upon t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e walX, The window s t r i p l e a d - i n i s used where it f s u n d e s i r a b l e Lo d r i l l an opening i n t h e w a l l of a b u i l d i n g f o r t h e p o r c e l a i n tube t y p e of leadin i n s u l a t o r ,
A l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t e r of a type approved by t W F i r e Underwriters B a necessary t o complete t h e antenna i n s t a l l a t i o n .

Figure 8 i s a dfagram showing the i n s t a l l a t f o n of a n L t3pe s i n g l e wire antenna. Whenever possPblo p l a n t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n s o that t h e

Lesson 2 l

- sheet 7

allowed between t h e h o r i z o n t a l wire and the r o o f ,

h o r i z o n t ~ lp e r t o f the antenna will be from 65 t o 100 or 150 f e e t i n :e,u;th. A l e a s t 30 f e e t should separate the h o r i z o n t a l p a r t o f the t entemia and g r o u n d . Should it be necessary t o i n s t a l l t h e antenna on the t o p of a buildi-ng, a clearance of twelve t o f i f t e e n f e e t i s

Fi,we 8 shows t h e l e a d - i n soldered t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l p a r t of t h e antenna. If p o s s i b l e r u n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p a r t from t h e f a r i n s u l a t o r through t h e i n s u l a t o r a t t h e r e c e i v e r end, through t h e stand off insul a t o r s t o the l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t e r , using a continuous l e n g t h of wire a s shown i n Figure 9, thereby avoiding soldered j o i n t s . Fro113t h e antenna s i d e o f t h e l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t e r t h e lead- in i s continued through t h e p o r c e l a i n tubes When t h e p o r c e l a i n t u b e lead- in i n s u l a t o r i s used a hole i s bored in t h e window c a s i n g a t an angle a s shown I n F i g w e 8, There a r e various kinds of lead- in devices,- some a r e f l a t copper ribbon covered w i t h an i n s u l a t i n g f a b r i c , e a l l e d window s t r i p s . Such a device i s l a i d over the wirldorr s i l l and t h e mindow closed t i g h t l y on i t . Other methods may b e used, a s , f o r example, using a board about two inches i n width and the l e n g t h of the window, i n s e r t i n g the p o r c e l a f n i n s u l a t o r through t h e board and t h e n c l o s i n g t h e window on it a s shown
,INSULATORS -..--ANTENNR CONTINUES UNBROI<EN TO SET

-ANTENNk CONTINUING TO SET

Figure 9

- eonno

FITTED.) -UNDER WINDOW SILL

..
= -

Figure 10 i n Figure 10. his p a r t of t h e i ns t a l l a t i o n w i l l have t o be noverne d by the wishes of the-owner of t h e house. The l e a d - i n i s then-connected t o t h e binding p o s t of t h e r e c e i v e r marked A , o r antenna. From t h e binding post on t h e r e c e i v e r masked G, or ground, a wire i s connected d i r e c t t o t h e grounds T h i s should be Noe 14 B & S w a g e rubber covered i n s u l a t e d wires A s m a l l e r wire mag b e used from r e c e i v e r t o ground provided a No. 14 wire i s connected from l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t e r t o ground, TIiE LIGHTNING AWRESTm The l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t e r i s a device employed i n t h e antenna i n s t a l l a t i o n t o p r o t e c t t h e r e c e i v i n g B e t from heavy e l e c t r i c a l charges absorbed by t h e antenna* An antenne does not a t t r a c t l i g h t n i n g t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n e l e c t r i c l i g h t and telephone l f n e s . It should be understood that, i f l i g h t n i n g di-ctly s t r i k e s an antenna, e l e c t r i c ' l i g h t , or telephone wire, no a r r e s t e r w i l l o f f e r a b s o l u t e protection. When an atmospheric storm i s i n progress, however, t h e r e i s always a e l e c t r i c a l charge accumulating on t h e antenna. It i s t h i s charge which, Lesson 2 1

sheet 8

on becoring s u f , P i c i e n t l y strong, is earpieE hamilessly t o ground by t5e a r r e s t e r m5 the p r o t e c t i v e groundconductor. These undesirab l e charzes 6 0 not pass t h r o u g h t h e various p a r t s of t h e receiver. ~ l antenna systems should be equiped with some form of approved l liz:^,tnirg arrester.
The l i g n t n i n s a r r e s t e r c o n s i s t s of two e l e c t r o d e s s e c u r e l y supported and separated from each o t h e r by a n a i r gap, a s shown i n Figure lla The s p a c i r g of t h i s a i r gap i s such t h a t excessive charges accumulating on the antenna w i l l jump t h e gap and pass d i r e c t l y t o ground, t h u s p r e v e n t l r q a heavy charge from passing through t h e r e c e i v i n g p a r t s .
BAKELITE. RUBBER

OR WOOD)

hU0ITIONb.L SWITCH I N I\NTENMk L E W

Figure 3 . 1
BOX TYPE LOOP
SPlRkL TYPE LOOP

Figure 12

The indoor antenna should be i n s u l a t e d wire u n l e s s t h e supports on which t h e wire f s r u n a r e , in themselves, i n s u l a t o x " ~ , The same r u l e s and precautions should be e x e r c i s e d i n indoor I n s t a l l a t i o n s a s i n outdoor,- t h e more c a r e f u l t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n t h e b e t t e r t h e r e s u l t s obt ainedo
A s i n g l e s t r a i g h t wire may be i n s t a l l e d i n a long a t t i e Pn the same general manner a s the outdoor a e r i a l * Some b u i l d i n g s a r e small, howe v e r , and it may be necessary t o loop t h e wire back anB f o ~ t h on p o r c e l a i n c l e a t s o r k n o b i n s u l a t o r % I n some o a s e s t h e wire i s supported along t h e t o p of t h e p i c t u m moulding about t h e roome The wire i n t h f s case should be i n s u l a t e d , but c l e a t s a r e unnecessar$.

Any of t h e s e a s strong an installed i n may be q u i t e

indoor antenna w i l l f u n c t i o n but t h e y w i l l not d e l i v e r impulse t o t h e r e c e i v e r a s t h e outdoor type and, when s t e e l frame bufldings, t h e d e c r e a s e i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h marked,

Lesson 21

- sheet 9

LOP A
Under c e r t a i n conditions t h e c o i l , or loop, antenna w i l l give very goo(? r e s u l t s . The l o o p antenna c o n s i s t s of a number o f t u r n s o f wire wound on a wc,oden frame varying i n s i z e from t e n inches t o f i v e f e e t square. Some loops a r e oblone; i n shape. Figure 1 2 shows t w o forms of loops r The loop, because of P t s s i z e , cannot be used f o r d i s t a n t r e c e p t i o n u n l e s s s u i t a b l e apparatus i s used t o g r e a t l y amplify t h e minute energy absorbed by t h e loop, (The "super-heterodyne" r e c e i v e r operates most s a t i s f a c t o r i l y w i t h a loop a e r i a l . ) There a r e s e v e r a l good f e a t u r e s i n using t h e loop antenna when t h e proper a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e , F i r s t , it i s d i r e c t i o n a l , t h a t is, when t h e loop i s turned so t h a t one edge i s p o i n t i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n s i g n a l s from t h a t s t a t i o n w i l l b e absorbed by t h e loop a t maximum i n t e n s i t y ; and, when t u r n i n g it away from this p o s i t i o n t h e s i g n a l s become w e a k e ~ i t i s a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n , no s i g n a l w i l l be received. When t h e loop i s pointed toward any p a r t i c u l a r s t a t i o n it t e n d s t o exclude s t a t i o n s t h a t may be l o c a t e d on e i t h e r s i d e , w i t h t h e exception of nearby powerful t r a n s m i t t e r s e while t h e energy r e c e i v e d by a loop antenna i s q u i t e small t h e amount r e c e i v e d can u s u a l l y be amplified t o s u f f f c i e n t i n t e n s i t y t o give loud and c l e a r s i g n a l s ,
UrnERGROUND ANTENNAE

Electromagnetic waves p e n e t r a t e t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h t o a short depth w i t h f a i r s i g n a l s t r e n g t h , This i s taken advantage of i n t h e underground antenna system due t o t h e b e t t e r s i g n a l t o s t a t i c r a t i o ; it i s more s e l e c t i v e t h a n t h e overhead form and i t s d i r e c t i o n a l e f f e c t i s very pronounced,

This type of antenna should be made o f No. 14 hard drawn copper wire a t l e a s t YE3 f e e t i n l e n g t h and i n s u l a t e d by a q u a r t e r i n c h thickness

of good rubber i n s u l a t l o n o It should be buried t o a depth of from 8 inches t o two f e e t , p r e f e r a b l y i n moist ground*

The s i g n a l s t r e n g t h r e c e i v e d by t h e underground a e r i a l i s very small and s u i t a b l e a m ~ l i f i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e d t o s a t i s f a c t o r i l y operate a l o u d i speaker.

CONNECTING TEE LOOP

When t h e loop antenna i s employed t h e ends of t h e loop a r e connected t o t h e antenna and ground binding p o s t s o f t h e s e t r e s p e c t i v e l y i f the t u n e r has a c o i l and condenser i n s e r i e s * When t h e t u n e r c o n s i s t s of a c o i l only, t h e n a condneser must be connected i n s e r i e s w i t h one s i d e of t h e loop and t h e ground connection of t h e s e t , in some s e t s t h e loop i s used i n p l a c e of t h e tuning c o i l and when t h i s is done a condenser must be placed a c r o s s t h e loop termina l s t o tune t h e loop. Loop connections a r e shown i n Figure

MULTIPLE WIRE APPTENNAE D i f f i c u l t y i s experlcnced, a t times, i n running a s f n g l e s t r a i g h t wire f o r t h e antenna due t o laclr of space, In t h a t c a s e the ixuitlple wire antenna may be r e s o r t e d t o , Figure 14 shows two forms,- n tvro wire T, antenna and a t h r e e wire T type antenna. The p a r ~ a i i e lh o r i z o n t a l wires should be spaced. a t l e a s t 2 f e e t . The s i g n a l s t r e n g t h wfth t h e two wire form w f l l be s l i g b k i g increased a s coiripnrec: w i t h t h e s t r e n g t h received by t h e Single wire, and. t h e s i g n e l s t r e n g t h o f the t h r e e wire form w i l l be about one and a h a l f tinies as g r e n t a s the s i n g l e wlree

FZgure 13 The wires i n a mulGfple antenna skoufd be e x a c t l y t h e same l e n g t h and show.ld be s e p a m t e d by wood spreaders, Each wlre can b e ~ u a thraugh a h o l e bored i n t h e spreader, t a k i n g a twrn or two and then brouglik oat end tw.i.sted back on t h e h o r i z o n t a l s e c t i o n of t h e a n t e m a , " o r they may be secured wi.th i n s u l a t o r s a s shows* i n t h e tiwee wire fomi, I n s u l a t o r s should always be placed b e t w e e n t h supports and the antenna propeF i n a i l t y p e s of antennae t o prevent el.ectro-magnetic leakage,
THE COUNTERPOISE

The counterpoise i s a system of wires erected. underneath. t h e antenna, It nay be placed a few f e e t above t h e grouxid, from two t o 10 f e e t , and t~ should f o l l o ~ h e design, a s t o l e n g t h and shape, of t h e hor*fzontal p a r t of the antenna. It Ps s t i l l b e t t e r , however, t o have it cover a g r e a t e r space t h a n t h a t covered by t h e antenna proper, I f t h e antenna i s e r e c t e d on t h e t o p of a building t h e counterpoise may be l o c a t e d i n t h e a t t i c uncier t h e antenna, or i n t h e c e l l a r , p ~ o viding t h e r o o f i s not a metal one, otherwise it i s b e t t e r t o p l a c e i t d i r e c t l y under t h e antenna above t h e r o o f . The counterpoise, when

Lesson 2 1

- skeet 11

employed, t a k e s t h e place of t h e ground, and i n l o c a t i o n s where t h e e a r t h i s very d r y i t w i l l g i v e b e t t e r r e s u l t s t h a n t h e ground. The same r u l e s i n installation apply a s those followed i n e r r e c t i n g an antenna.
RIGF1T AND WRONG ROOF INSTALLATIONS

The two i l l u s t r a t i o n s In Figure 1 5 show t h e c o r r e c t and i n c o r r e c t methods of e r e c t 5 c g supports f o r antennae on r o o f tops,

Figure 15

FIRE UBDERWRITERS REGULATIONS

General The requirements of t h i s a r t i c l e s h a l l n o t apply t o equipment on shipboard, but s h a l l be deemedtobe a d d i t i o n a l t o , o r amend those prescribed i n a r t i c l e s 1 t o 19, i n c l u s i v e , of t h i s cocle*
P

Transformers, v o l t a g e reducers, keys and o t h e r devices employed s h a l l be of types e x p r e s s l y approved f o r r a d i o o p e r a t i o n o For -Receivi
e

a, Antenna and counterpoise outside b u i l d i n g s s h a l l be kept well away from a l l e l e c t r i c l i g h t o r power wires of any c l r c u i t of more t h a n 600 v o l t s , and from railway, t r o l l e y o r f e e d e r wires, s o a s t o avoid t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c o n t a c t between t h e antenna or counterpoise and such w i r e s under a c c i e e n t a l conditions.

Lesson 21

sheet 1 2
. ..

.. .

Antenna and counterpoise, where placed i n proximity t o e l e c t r l c l i g h t o r power w i r e s of l e s s t h a n 600 Volts, o r s l g n a l wires, s h a l l be constructed and i n s t a l l e d i n a s t r o n g and durable manner* and s h a l l be so l o c a t e d and providedwith s u i t a b l e clearance a s t o prevent a c c i d e n t a l contact w i t h such w i r e s by s a g g i r i o r swinging*
be

c. S p l i c e s and j o i n t s i n tfie antenna span s h a l l be soldered unless made w Z t h approved s p l f @ing devices, The preceding paragraphs, a, b, and c, s h a l l not apply t o l i g h t antenna, kfue t h e devfces used and power c i r c u i t s used as ~ e c e i v f h g t o connect t h e l i g h t and powep wires t o r a d i o r e c e i v i n g s e t s s h a l l be of approved type,
d,

Leadsin conductors 8 91 be of copper, approved oopper-clad s t e e l o r o t h e r metal which w i 1 4 not; corrode excessively, end i n no case s h a l l they be smaller "can no, 14, except t h a t bronze o r copper-clad s t e e l nok l e s s than No, 15' may be used.
e.
f, Lead-Pn; conductors o n t h e outside o f b u i l d i n g s s h a l l n o t come n e a r e r t h a n 4 inches t o e l e c t r f c l i g h t and power wires u n l e s s separated t h e r e from by a continuous and f i r m l y fixed. non-conductor which ~93.1malntain permanent s e p a r a t i o n , The non-conductor s h a l l be fin a d d i t i o n %o any i n s u l a t i n g covering on t h e wire,

g , Each lead- in conductor s h a l l e n t e r t h e b u i l d i n g through a noncombustible, non-absorpt i v e i n s u l a t i n g bushtng s l a n t i n g upward toward t h e i n s i d e o r by means of an approved device designed t o gi.ve equivalenk

protection,

A, nach lead-iaz eonductor s h a l l be provided w i t h an approved. p r o t e e t l v e device ( I i g h t n i a g arrester) which w P l P op3rate a t e voltage c.f 500 v o l t s o r l e s s , properzijr c o r m e c t o d end. located e i t h e r insio'e t h e b u l l d i n g a t some p o h t between t h e entrance and. t h e s e t whieh 1s convenient t o a ground, or outside t h e b u i l d i n g a s near a s p r a c t i c a b l e t o t h e point c9" entrance, The p r o t e c t o r s h a l l not be placed i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y of e a s i l y i g n f t a b i e st&?.', or where exposed t o inflammabls gases o r d u s t or f l y i r g s of combustible m a t e r i a l s ,

E m i f an antenna grounc1ing switch i s employed, it s h a l l , i n 1 . t ~ closed p o s i t i o n , form a shunt ako& t h e p r o t e c t i v e device* Such a switch s h a l l pot be used a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e p r o t e c t i v e devlcee
It i s recoxmended t h a t t h e antenna grounding switch be employed, and t h a t i n a d d i t i o n a switch r a t e d a t not l e s s t h a n 30 amperes, 250 v o l t s , be l o c a t e d between t h e l e a d - i n eonductor and the r e c e i v e r s e t ,
j . I f f u s e s a r e used, they s h a l l not be placed i n t h e c i r o u f t from t h e antenna through t h e p r o t e c t i v e device t o ground.

Lesson 21

- s h e e t 13

k . The p r o t e c t i v e grounding conductor may be bare and s h a l l be of copper, bronze o r approved copper-clad s t e e l . The p r o t e c t i v e grounding conductor s h a l l not be smaller nor have l e s s conductance per u n i t of length, than t h e lead- in conductor and i n no case s h a l l be smaller than No. 14 if copper, nor smaller t h a n No. 17 i f of bronze or copperc l a d s t e e l . The p r o t e c t i v e grounding conductor s h a l l be r u n i n a s s t r a i g h t a l i n e a s p o s s i b l e from t h e p r o t e c t i v e device t o a good permanent ground. Preference s h a l l be given t o water piping. Other permissible grounds a r e grounded s t e e l frames of b u i l d i n g s or o t h e r grounded metal work i n t h e building, and a r t i f i c i a l grounds such a s d r i v e n pipes, rods, p l a t e s , cones, e t c . Gas p i p i n g s h a l l not be use& f o r the ground.

L . The p r o t e c t i v e grounding conductor s h a l l be guarded where exposed t o mechanical i n j u r y , An approved ground clamp s h a l l be used where t h e p r o t e c t i v e grounding conductor i s connected t o pipes o r piping.
The p r o t e c t i v e grounding conductor may be r u n e i t h e ~ n s i d e o r i outside t h e building. The p r o t e c t i v e grounding conductor and ground, i n s t a l l e d a s p r e s c r i b e d i n th preceding paragraphs K and L, may be used a s the operating ground,
It i s recommended t h a t i n t h i s case t h e operating grounding conductor be connected t o the t e r m i n a l of the p r o t e c t i v e device.

m,

I f d e s i r e d , a s e p a r a t e operating grounding connection and ground may be used, t h i s o p e r a t i n g grounding conductor being e i t h e r bare o r provided with an i n s u l a t e d covering o

n e Wires i n s i d e b u i l d i n g s s h a l l be s e c u r e l y f a s t e n e d i n a worlananlike manner and s h a l l not cone n e a r e r than 2 inches t o any e l e c t r i c l i g h t o r power wire not i n conduit u n l e s s separated therefrom by some continuous ana f i ~ m l y i x e d non-conductor, such a s p o r c e l a i n tubes or f approved f l e x i b l e tubing, making a permanent s e p a r a t i o n . This nonconductor s h a l l be i n a d d i t i o n t o any r e g u l a r i n s u l a t i n g covering on t h e wire*
os Storage b a t t e r y l e a d s s h a l l c o n s i s t of conductoFs having approved rubber insulation. The c i r c u i t s &om s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s s h a l l b e p r o p e r l y p r o t e c t e d by f u s e s o r c i r c u i t breakers r a t e d a t nor more t h a n 15 amperes and l o c a t e d p e r f e r a b l y a t o r near t h e b a t t e r y *

a. Antenna and counteppoise outside b u i l d i n g s shall. be kept well away from a l l e l e c t r i c l i g h t or power wires of any c i r c u i t of more t h a n 600 v o l t s , and from railway, t r o l l e y , o r f e e d e r wires, so a s t o avoid the p o s s i b i l i t y of contact between the antenna o r counterpoise and such wires under a c c i d e n t a l conditions. Lesson 21

- sheet 14

b, Antenna and counterpoise, where placed i n proximity t o e l e c t r i c l i g h t or power w i r e s of l e s s t h a n 600 v o l t s , or s i g n a l wires, s h a l l be constructed and i n s t a l l e d i n a s t r u n g and durable manner, and a s h a l l be so l o c a t e d and provided with s u i t a b l e c l e a r a n c e s as f prevent a c c i d e n t a l contact w i t h such wires by sagging or swinging. c. S p l i c e s and j o i n t s i n t h e antenna and counterpoise span s h a l l be soldered unless made with approved splicing devices. d , Lead-in conductors s h a l l be of copper, bronze, approved copperc l a d s t e e l or other metal which w i l l not corrode exce'ssively and i n no case s h a l l be s m a l l e r t h a n No. 14. e , Antenna and counterpoise eonductors and wires l e a d i n g therefrom t o ground switch, where a t t a c h e d t o buildings, s h a l l be f i r m l y mounted 5 inches c l e a r of t h e s u r f a c e of t h e building, on non- absorptive insul a t i n g supports such a s t r e a t e d pfm or brackets, equipped w i t h i n s u l a t o r s having not l e s s than 5 inche8 creepage and air - gap d i s t a n c e t o inflammab l e or conducting m a t e r i a l , except t h a t t h e creepage and a?r-gap distance f o r continuouu wave s e t s of 1000 watts and l e s s i n p u t t o t h e t r a n m i t t d r , s h a l l Go not l o s s t h a n 3 inches.

In passing t h e antenna o r counterpoise lead - in i n t o t h e building n tube or bushing of non- absorptive, i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l , s l a n t i n g upward toward t h e i n s i d e , a h a l l be used and s h a l l be s o i n s u l a t e d a s t o hsve a creepage and air- gap d i s t a n c e of a t l e a s t 5 inches t o any extraneous body, except t h a t t h e creepage and a i r - g a p d i s t a n c e f o r c o n t i m o u s wave s e t s of 1000 wat.t;s and l e s s input t o the t r a n s m i t t e r , s h a l l be n o t l e s s t h a n 3 inches, I f porcelain o r o t h e r f r a g i l e m a t e r i a l i s used it s h a l l be protected where exposed t o mec:lanical i n j u r y . A d r i l l e d window pane may be used i n p l a c e of' a bushing provided creepage and air- gap d i s t a n c e a s s p e c i f i e d above i s maintained,
f

8. A double-throw k n i f e s w i t c h havfn a break d i s t a n c e O f a t l e a s t 4 inches and a blade not Less t h a n l , 8 . Snch by 1/2 s h a l l be used t o j o i n t h e antenna and counterpoise lead- in t o t h e grounding conciuctof, The switch may be l o c a t e d i n s i d e or outside the b u i l d i n g , The base of t h e switch s h a l l be of non- absorptive insnlatirzg m a t e r i a l . This switch s h a l l be so mounted t h a t i t s c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g p a r t s w i l l be a t l e a s t 5 inches c l e a r of' t 5 e building w a l l o r o t h e r conductors, except t h a t f o r continuous wave s e t s of 1000 w a t t s and l e s s input; t o the t r a n s m i t t e r , t h e clearance s h a l l be not l e s s t h a n 3 inches. The conductor from grounding switch t o ground s h a l l be s e c u r e l y supported,

It i s reconmended t h a t t h e switch be l o c a t e d i n the most d i r e c t l i n e between t h e l e a d - i n conductors and t h e point where grounding connection i s made.

h, Antenna and counterpoise conductors s h a l l be e f f e c t i v e l y and permanently grounded a t a l l times when s t a t i o n i s not i n a c t u a l
Lesson 21

sheet 1 5

o p e r a t i o n and unattended, a t a conductor a t l e a s t a s l q r g e a s t h e l e a d - i n and i n no case s m a l l e r t h a n No. 1 4 copper, bronze, or approved copper-clad s t e e l . This p r o t e c t i v e grounding conductor need not have an i n s u l a t e d covering o r be mounted on i n s u l a t i n g supports. The prot e c t i v e grounding conductor s h a l l be r u n i n a s s t r a i g h t a l i n e a s p o s s i b l e t o a good pernanent ground,- preference s h a l l be given t o water p i p i w , Other p e r m i s s i b l e p r o t e c t i v e grounds a r e t h e grounded s t e e l frames of b u i l d i n g s and o t h e r grounded metal work i n b u i l d i n g s and a r t i f i c i a l grounding devices such as d r i v e n p i p e s , rods, p l a t e s , cones, e t c . The p r o t e c t i v e grounding conductor s h a l l be p r o t e c t e d where exposed t o mechanical i n j u r y . A s u i t a b l e approved ground clamp shall. be used where t h e p r o t e c t i v e grounding conductor i s connected t o pipeo o r piping. Gas piping s h a l l not be used f o r t h e ground. It i s reconunended t h a t t h e p r o t e c t i v e grounding concluc t o r be r u n o u t s i d e t h e b u i l d i n g .
i, T h e o p e r a t i n g grounding conductor s h a l l be of copper S t r i p not l e s s than 3/8 inch wide by 1/32 i n c h t h i c k , or of copper, bronze, or approved copper-clad s t e e l having a p e r i p h e r y , or g i r t h , of a t l e a s t 3/4 inch, such a s No. 2 wire, and s h a l l be f i r m l y secured i n p l a c e throughout i t s length.

j . The o p e r a t i n g groundir@ concluctor s h a l l be connected t o a good permanent ground. Preference s h a l l be given t o water piping. Other perrnissible grounds a r e grounded s t e e l frames of b u i l d i n g s or o t h e r groundei? metal work i n t h e buil-ding, and a r t i f i c i a l grounding d e v i c e s such a s d r i v e n p i p e s , r o d s , p l a t e s , cones, e t c . Gas p i p i n g s h a l l not be use,? f o r t h e groundD
k , Where t h e c u r r e n t supply i s obtained d i r e c t l y from l i g h t i n g or power c i r c u i t s , t h e conductors whether or not l e a d covered s h a l l be i n s t a l l e d i n approved metal confiuit, armored c a b l e or m e t a l raceways. L. When n e c e s s a r y t o p r o t e c t t h e supply system from h i g h - p o t e n t i a l surges and kick-backs t h e r e s h a l l be i n s t a l l e d i n t h e supply l i n e a s near as p o s s i b l e t o each r a d i o transformer, r o t a r y spark gap, motor and g e n e r a t o r i n motor g e n e r a t o r s e t s and o t h e r a u x i l i a r y a p p a r a t u s one of t h e following:

1 . Two condensers ( e a c h of not l e s s t h a n 1/10 microfarad c a p a c i t y and capable of w i t h s t a n d i n g 600 v o l t t e s t ) i n s e r i e s a c r o s s t h e l i n e w i t h mid-point between condensers grounded; a c r o s s ( i n p a r a l l e l w i t h ) each of t h e s e condensers s h a l l be connected a shunting f i x e d spark-gap capable of not more t h a n 1/32 i n c h s e p a r a t i o n ,
2, Two vacuum tube type p r o t e c t o r s i n s e r i e s a c r o s s t h e l i n e w i t h t h e mid-point grounded.

Lesson 21

s h e e t 16

3. R e s i s t o r s having p r a c t i c a l l y zero i n ductance connected a c r o s s the l i n e w i t h mid-p o i n t grounded

It i s recommended t h a t t h i s t h i r d method be not employed where t h e r e i s a c i r c u l a t i o n of power c u r r e n t betwean t h e Wd-point of t h e r e s i s t o r s and t h e p r o t e c t i v e ground of ' t h e power c i r c u i t
4. Lightning a r r e s t e r s such a s the aluminum c e l l type.

AXI'ENEJA TROUBLES

Too g r e a t h a s t e i n t h e c o n s t r u o t i o n of the antenna w i l l , i n time, u s u a l l y cause t r o u b l e ,

SWAYING POLE

,-y

OR TREE '----'

Figure 16 The antenna should be inspected p e r i o d i c a l l y f o r grounds, broken, cracked, anci corroded i n s u l a t o r s , weak supports, e t c . O such an n i n s p e c t i o n t h e antenna w l l l o f t e n be founcl t o be making contact with p a r t s of t h e r o o f , t h e lead- in i n c o n t a c t w i t h metal g u t t e s s , conduit pipes, or t h e s i d e of t h e b u i l d i n g e Where a t r e e supports i one end of t h e a e ~ f a 1 t m y be found t h a t it i s coning i n contact w i t h t h e branches, The remedy i n such c a s e s i s obvious. I f t h e antenna has s t r e t c h e d i t should be t i g h t e n e d up, broken an3 cracked i n s u l a t o r s should be rcplaoed, Where t h e antenna or Lead-in i s found t o be making contaot w i t b any p a r t of t h e b b i l d i n g measures should be adopted t o prevent a reoccurence of such e o n t s c t , Branches of t r c e s or the damp s i d e of a frame b u i l d l n g wZ19 form a n e x c e l l e n t p a t h t o g r ourad,
A d e f e c t i ~ e :1Sghtnfng a r r e s t e r w i l l ground t h e antenna r e s u l t i n g i n weak s i g n a l s t r e n g t h . The remedy i s t o r e p l a c e f t w i t h a new a r r e s t e r ,

When one end of t h e sntenna f s a t t a c h e d t o a t r e e o r pole t h a t sways w i t h t h e w i n d , p r e c a u t i o n s should be t a k e n t o prevent the antenna from breaking; by e x c e s s i v e s t r a i n , Swaying anchorages a r e not d e s i r a b l e but a r e sometimes necessary. Figure 16 i a a suggested method which has

Lesson 2 1
-.

- sheet
-

P9

been used t o prevent t h e antenna from breaking due t o excessive swaying of supports. EXAMINATION
1 .

- LESSON 21
What i s

The frequency of a c e r t a i n s t a t i o n i s 1,250,000 cycles. i t ' s frequency i n kSlocycles?

2 .
3.
4.

What i s the wave l e n g t h when t h e frequency i s 566,000 c y c l e s ? What i s a continuous wave?

O f what p a r t i c u l a r use o r uses i s t h e antenna?

5, 6. 7,
8. 9,

What i s t h e v e l o c i t y (approximately) of a r a d i o wave expressed i n terms of meters? What precautions should be taken when i n s t a l l i n g antennae? What i s a l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t e r ? What i s t h e p r o t e c t i v e grounding conductor? should be used f o r t h i s purpose? f s grounding on a gas pipe permissfble? What are some of t h e t y p e s of antennae employed f o r receivi,ng purposes? Make diagrams of a t l e a s t t h r e e types. What s i z e of wire

10.

Lesson 2 1

- sheet 18

Technical Lesson 22
FUNDAMENTALS O R A D I O RECEPTION F The transmitting: s t a t i o n sends out electromagnetic waves. A s t h e s e waves pass or cut a c r o s s a r e c e i v i n g antenna t h e y induce t h e r e i n a n electromotive f o r c e which w i l l , i f t h e antenna c i r c u i t i s complete, cause a c u r r e n t t o flow i n t h e antenna. From t h e work you have comp l e t e d on electromagnetic i n d u c t i o n you a r e a b l e t o understand how a c u r r e n t i s caused t o flow i n t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna system by t h e p r i n c i p l e of electromagnetic induction, This c u r r e n t w i l l be of t h e same frequency a s t h a t of t h e electromagnetic wave which c a r r i e s it through t h e e t h e r . N w l e t us consider t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n and opero a t i o n of t h e telephone r e c e i v e r f o r a moment. Figure 1 i s an open view of t h e r e c e i v e r showi n g two electromagnets s o supported t h a t t h e r e DIAPHRAGM i s a small s e p a r a t i o n betvieen t h e ends of t h e i r pole pieces and t h e diephragm. There i s a -poL~ PIECE c e r t a i n amount of r e s i d u a l magnetism i n t h e i r o n . core of t h e s e magnets s o t h a t a constant p u l l i s exerted on t h e diaphragm a t a l l times. R PIECE When curxent flows through t h e magnet windings i n a c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n i t s t r e n g t h e n s the Figure 1 magnetic f i e l d and t h e t h i n i r o n diaphragm i s a t t r a c t e d and w i l l be p u l l e d i n c l o s e r t o t h e pole p i e c e s causing it t o bulge i n t h e c e n t e r , If you wish t o experjment and determine i f t h e r e c e i v e r c o i l s a r e i n p e r f e c t c o n d i t i o n you may do s o by touching t h e r e c e i v e r t e r m i n a l s t o a d r y c e l l ; you w i l l h e a r a d i s t i n c t c l i c k when touching t h e t e r m i n a l P of t h e c e l l with t h e l e a d L and, upon removing L, you w i l l h e a r a second c l i c k .
,POLEPIECE

The a t t r a c t i o n on the diaphragm i s very s t r o n g when the c u r r e n t through t h e magnets i s i n c r e a s e d , and correspondingly l e s s when t h e c u r r e n t decreases. A n i n c r e a s e and decrease of c u r r e n t v i i l l cause t h e magnetic a t t r a c t i o n of t h e diaphragm t o be a l s o i n c r e a s e d and decreased. If t h e l e a d L i s a l t e r n a t e l y placed on and removed from c o n t a c t with t h e t e r m i n a l P of t h e d r y c e l l , thus making and breaking t h e c i r c u i t very r a p i d l y , the diaphragm w i l l be a t t r a c t e d and r e l e a s e d a s r a p i d l y and a succession of c l i c k s w i l l be heard. The speed of making and breaking t h e connection can be increased by using a v i b r a t o r and it may be r e g u l a t e d s o t h a t t h e diaphragm w i l l v i b r a t e w i t h such r a p i d i t y a s t o cause p r a c t i c a l l y a continuous sound. When t h e v i b r a t i o n s -of a d i a phragm have a frequency of between 1 5 and about 8,000 t o 10,000 v i b r a t i o n s each second t h e a i r waves r e s u l t i n g therefrom w i l l produce

Contents Copyrighted 1930 Printed i U.S.A. n

t h e s e n s a t i o n of sound. I f , however, we. cause t h e diaphragm t o be a t t r a c t e d and r e l e a s e d a t such a r a t e t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g a i r v i b r a t i o n s nould be g r e a t e r t h a n perhaps 10,000 per second no sound would be heard because the average human e a r w i l l not respond t o a f r e q u e n c y much g r e a t e r t h a n 8,000 t o 10,000. Remember t h e r e i s no e x a c t l i m i t defined a s t o j u s t where aud-to f r e q u e n c i e s end and inaudible f r e q u e n c i e s begin, I n order t o i n c l u d e a l l of t h e p o s s i b l e frequencies, it might be s t a t e d t h a t , "Frequencies above 015,00Q a r e INAUDIBLE and f r e q u e n c i e s between 1 5 and 15,000 may be AUDIBLE". The magnet c o i l s of t h e o r d i n a r y land telephone r e c e i v e r s have a r e s i s t a n c e of 75 ohus and a r e not s u i t e d f o r r a d i o r e c e p t i o n . The r e c e i v e r s employed f o r r a d i o r e c e p t i o n , however, a r e wound with many t u r n s of f i n e mire and have a r e s i s t a n c e of from 1,200 t o 3,000 ohms, A very small c u r r e n t i n r a d i o r e c e i v e r s w i l l produce a l a r g e volume

Figure 2

Figure 3 The c u r r e n t induced i n t h e antenna by the electromagnetic wave i s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of very h i g h frequency, so h i g h i n f a c t t h a t i f a r e c e i v e r were placed i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 2 no sound would be heard even though the c u r r e n t produced by t h e r a d i o wave was impressed on t h e magnet windings of t h e r e c e i v e r . I n t h e f i r s t place t h e h i g h frequency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i s changfng d i r e c t i o n s o r a p i d l y t h a t although t h e p o s i t i v e h a l f c y c l e s of c u r r e n t might tend t o move t h e diaphragm i n one d i r e c t i o n and t h e negative h a l f c y c l e s t e n d t o move i t i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n , y e t n o , v i b r a t o r y motion could be p o s s i b l y imparted t o it because of i t s i n e r t i a ; t h e d i a phragm having a c e r t a f n weight and mass and r i g i d i t y depending upon i t s thickness. The average p u l l o r a t t r a c t i o n on t h e d i a p h r m by t h e opposing p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e h a l f cycles i s zero, I n t h e second p l a c e suppose t h e diaphragm could follow such r a p i d a l t e r n a t i o n s o f c u r r e n t ; we s t i l l would hear no sound because t h e

Lesson 2 2

- sheet 2

diaphragm would be moving a t t h e same r a t e a s t h e frequency of t h e r a d i o wave and, s i n c e t h i s frequency i s above 15,000 c y c l e s per second, i t i s i n a u d i b l e . Since our r e c e i v e r i n Figure 2 w i l l n o t produce t h e e f f e c t s of t h i s high frequency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t we must i n t r o duce some device which w i l l allow t h e r a d i o c u r r e n t t o p a s s through t h e r e c e i v e r i n only one d i r e c t i o n t o make t h e p u l l on one s i d e g r e a t e r than t h e other. When w have accomplished t h i s t h e diaphragm w i l l then e respond and v i b r a t e a t some frequency l e s s t h a n t h e r a d i o f r e q u e n c i e s because one h a l f of t h e wave w i l l n o t be e x e r t i n g an e q u a l f o r c e t o a c t a g a i n s t the o t h e r h a l f . This can be done by changing t h e c i r c u i t of Figure 2 t o t h a t shown i n Figure 3, where a c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t w l t h h e a d p h o n e r e c e i v e r s connected a c r o s s t h e c r y s t a l . T h i s hook up i s one of t h e s i m p l e s t and l e a s t complicated r a d i o c i r c u i t s f o r r a d i o r e c e p t i o n , b u t it i s n o t e f f i c i e n t , The c r y s t a l i s a mineral. Galena i s o f t e n used f o r t h i s purpose which i s s i l v e r grey o r l e a d colored c r y s t a l , obtained i n small squares w i t h

Figure 4

Figure 5

smooth g l i s t e n i n g m i r r o r l i k e s u r f a c e s . These small p i e c e s of g a l e n a a r e mounted i n a metal cup i n such a way t h a t a f i n e p i e c e of wire can be brought t o b e a r on t h e exposed s u r f a c e of t h e c r y s t a l , A holder f o r such a d e t e c t o r i s shown i n Figure 4. A l l p l a c e s on t h e surface of such c r y s t a l s a r e n o t a s s e n s i t i v e a s o t h e r s , and it i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o s h i f t t h e wire u n t i l a s e n s i t i v e spot i s located. Due t o v i b r a t i o n t h e contact may be j a r r e d loose, and a l s o a heavy s i g n a l w i l l sometimes cause t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e c r y s t a l t o change. The a c t i o n of t h i s r e c e i v i n g s e t i s a s follows: An electromagnetic wave r a d i a t e d by t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna c u t s a c r o s s t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna and thereby produces a n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i n t h e r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t which w i l l flow more r e a d l y through t h e c r y s t a l i n one d i r e c t i o n t h a n i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n . The c r y s t a l almost e l i m i n a t e s h a l f of t h e r a d i o frequency wave because it p r e s e n t s a very h i g h r e s i s t a n c e t o h a l f of t h e wave, and a lovi r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e opposite half. (Note: The n a t u r e of c r y s t a l of c e r t a i n m i n e r a l s i s such a s t o permit t h e passage of e i t h e r t h e p o s i t i v e o r t h e n e g a t i v e p u l s e s of c u r r e n t , but n o t both t h e p o s i t i v e and negative.)

I n r a d i o telephone work t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s u p p l i e s t h e antenna w i t h a high frequency c u r r e n t having constant amplitude o r s t r e n g t h and t h i s

Lesson 22

- sheet 3

c u r r e n t produces what i s c a l l e d a continuous wave or c a r r i e r wave. The sound waves d i r e c t e d before t h e microphone modify t h i s continuous wave. Suppose, f o r example, a key of a piano i s s t r u c k along t h e middle s c a l e ; t h e sound waves t h u s produced, impinge upon the d i a phragm of t h e microphone, s e t t i n g i t i n t o v i b r a t i o n . By means of s u i t a b l e e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t s t h e sound v i b r a t i o n s a r e made t o change t h e amplitudes of t h e continuous o r c a r r i e r wave t o a form somewhat a s shown i n Figure 5 which i s t h e r e s u l t of superimposing audio frequency c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n s upon t h e r a d i o Zrequency c a r r i e r wave. The a l t e r n a t i o n s of t h e r a d i o wave a r e shown by t h e f u l l l i n e s i n Figure 5 while t h e d o t t e d o u t l i n e shows how t h e amplitude of t h e r a d i o wave has been caused t o vary i n accordance w i t h t h e wave produced by t h e piano s t r i n g . This r a d i o wave, upon s t r i k i n g t h e r e c e i v i n g antenns, w i l l induce t h e r e i n a c u r r e n t which w i l l a l t e r n s t e a s shown i n F i g u r e 5.

It i s known t h a t t h e c r y s t a l w i l l allow one h a l f of t h i s wave t o e a s i l y pass but w i l l more o r l e s s e f f e c t i v e l y block the o t h e r h a l f of t h e same wave. For example, we w i l l ' assume t h a t t h e p o s i t i v e h a l f , o f t h i s wave flows i n t h e d i r e c t i o n a s shown by t h e f u l l l i n e arro% i n Figure 6 and i s e f f e c t i v e l y conducted through t h e c r y s t a l . The negative h a l f of t h e r a d i o wave c u r r e n t t e n d s t o flow through t h e c r y s t a l a s shown by t h e d o t t e d l i n e arrow, b u t , due t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c r y s t a l t o c u r r e n t i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n very l i t t l e

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 8

c u ~ r e n tpasses. Therefore t h e negative h a l f of t h e wave of Figure 5 i s suppressed a s shown i n Figure 7. The c r y s t a l t h e n a c t s a s a r e c t i f i e r ; it conducts e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t r e a d i l y i n one d i r e c t i o n but o f f e r s g r e n t r e s i s t a n c e t o c u r r e n t s of opposite p o l a r i t y . The current flowing i n one d i r e c t i o n through t h e telephone r e c e i v e r magnet c o i l s v a r i e s t h e magnetic f i e l d and t h e diaphragm i s moved corresponding t o t h i s change i n f f e l d s t r e n g t h and t h i s movement would appear a s shown i n Figure 8. The r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c r y s t a l prevents, t o some e x t e n t , t h e f r e e f l o v of o s c i l l a t i o n s and tends t o d e s t r o y t h e t u n i n g q u a l i t i e s of the antenna c i r c u i t , The tuning p r o p e r t i e s of t h e antenna system can be improved by removing t h e c r y s t a l from t h e simple c i r c u i t of Figure 3; and connecting i t i n a second c i r c u i t which i s c a l l e d t h e d-etector c i r c u i t . This w i l l be taken up p r e s e n t l y .

Lesson 22

- sheet 4

3
?

$
i

Pb
i

ji

t r n n s n i t i i n g s t a t i o n haw, fn g e n e r a l , or.17 s n e ::.hve 1en.sth. T h e frequency o f t h e antenna c u r r e n t a t t h e receiving u nz ei o nt h ei l antenna e systema i s t h a t of t t h t h t r a n s m i tfrequency s t l t s s w l be t h same s tuned o e i s same t e d r a d i o w n v e s and the " e d i o current . w i l l not be maximum i n s t r e n g t h . T h i s means t h a t t?.e r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t must be s o arranged that it w i l l respond t o t h e TI-equency o f t h e r a d i o waves coming from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t . 4n ii5ea of t h i s p r i n c i p l e of t u n i n g may be explained by employing tno tuning f o r k s having tlie same p i t c h or frequency of v i b r a t i o n , When the f i r s t f o r k i s caused t o v i b r a t e t h e second w i l l v i b ~ a t e a l s o , producing a note having t h e same p i t c h a s t h a t of t h e f i r s t fork. The second f o r k was s e t i n t o v i b r a t i o n by the sound waves produced by t h e f i r s t f o r k because i t i s a n e x a c t d u p l i c a t e of t h e f i r s t f o r k and i s , t h e r e f o r e s u b j e c t t o t h e same v i b r a t o r y laws a s e t h e f i r s t one. Suppose w detune the second f o r k by a t t a c h i n g some wax t o it, t h i s w i l l change i t s weight and it w i l l consequently have a d i f f e r e n t fundamental v i b r a t o r y frequency. I f we a g a i n s e t t h e f i r s t f o r k i n t o v i b r a t i o n , t h e second one w i l l not respond as it d i d before because it i s out of tune.
c ~-i .

aeves

--T~--

...

--- . t i c u l r r . --"

A r a d i o r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t must be so c o n s t r u c t e d t h a t it can be tuned t o the d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s assigned t o broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r s . When a r e c e i v e r i s so c o n s t r u c t e d i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o tune o r s e l e c t any d e s i r e d r a d i o wave and, a t t h e same time, r e j e c t alJ. o t h e r waves ( w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s ) having a d e f f e r e n t frequency. It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e g r e a t e s t s t r e n g t h from the s e l e c t e d wave by u t i l i z i n g t h a t which i s known a s coupling,
F N A E T L IDEAS OF COUPLING U D MNA D i f f e r e n t types of coupling a r e employed t o t r a n s f e r t h e energy picked up by t h e r e c e i v i n g a e r i a l t o t h e detector. The t h r e e methods of coupll n g a r a d i o r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t may be described a s d i r e c t o r conductive, inductive, and c a p a c i t i v e coupling. A l l types of r e c e i v e r s make use of one o r more of t h e s e fundamental i d e a s which w i l l be b r i e f l y described. Figure 9 shows t h e conductive form of coupling. The antenna c u r r e n t i s conveyed d i r e c t l y t o t h e detector. This c i r c u i t w i l l produce loud s i g n a l % but i t is not s e l e c t i v e and t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r f e r e n c e r e s u l t s w i t h i t s use. The inductive coupling shown i n Figure 10 u t i l i z e s t h e magnetic f i e l d which s p r i n g s up about t h e primary i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t t o t r a n s f e r t h e energy t o t h e secondary c i r c u i t , A s t h e s e magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e , shown a s d o t t e d l i n e s , expand from t h e primary c i r c u i t t h e y out t h e secondary c o i l and an E.M.F, i s s e t up i n t h e secondary which causes a c u r r e n t t o flow i n t h i s c i r c u i t . When t h e primary and secondary a r e arranged, t h a t i s , s o placed t h a t they mag be moved i n t o a p o s i t i o n where p r a c t i c a l l y a l l t h e l i n e s of f o r c e from t h e primary c u t t h e secondary, they a r e s a i d t o b e c l o s e l y coupled. When only a conlpara-

Lesson 22

- sheet 5

trvely fex l l n e ~ of fo-ce cut t h e secondary the c o i l s a r e s a i d t o be L.>:celc-u-Le3.

. .... -..-, a

,,,-..,..,lti-~,,. . coupling rnethod i s shown i n Figure 1 . I n t h i s type 1 of c i ~ c u l tn o use i s made of t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e primary. In f ~ c tth e r e should be no i n d u c t i v e coupling between c o i l s L , and I& ; t h e y a r e placed i n t h e c i r c u i t w i t h t h e i r a x i s a t r i g h t angles t o each other. The energy from t h e antenna c o i l i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e d e t e c t o r , or secondary c i r c u i t La, by means of t h e condensers C, and c If condensers C , and C o a r e l a r g e t h e coupling w i l l be c l o s e
? .

--

Figure 9 Figure 1 0 and. t h e sane broad t u n i n g r e s u l t s would be obtained a s experienced w i t h c l o s e coupled incluctive c i r c u i t s , To o b t a i n l o o s e coupling, , condensers C , and C a r e e i t h e r small f f x e d condensers of about .00004 mfd, or v a r i a b l e having a maximum c a p a c i t y of .00004 mfds, The tuning inductance shown i n Figure 12 i s made by winding a l a r g e number of t u r n s of v i r e i n a s i n g l e l a y e r on some i n s u l a t e d form. By which make c o n t a c t w i t h a bared s e c t i o n moving t h e s l i d e r s S , an& S,,

F i g u r e 12

Figure 11 of t h e wire, t h e number of t u r n s of wire t o b e used may be varied. I n t h i s way t h e antenna inductance i s decreased o r i n c r e a s e d thus changing t h e wave l e n g t h , By varying the t u r n s on t h e inductance ( a l s o c a l l e d t u n i n g c o i l ) t h e c i r c u i t may be tuned t o t h e wave

Lesson 22

- sheet 6

l e n g t h of t h e incoming s i g n a l . This c i r c u i t i s not very s e l e c t i v e because of t h e c l o s e conductive coupling e f f e c t ,

THE VARIOMETER COUPLING I N

THE SIMPLE C I R C U I T

Somewhat b e t t e r tuning r e s u l t s w i l l be obtained when employing a device c a l l e d t h e variometer shown i n Figure 13. The variometer has two s e t s of c o i l s , one s e t f i x e d and t h e o t h e r s e t movable. A shaft e x t e n d s through and s u p p o r t s t h e movaljle c o i l on t h e end of which i s a t t a c h e d a graduated d i a l . The winding on t h e s e c o i l s i s made continuous by connecting t h e s t a t i o n a r y c o i l t o t h e povable c o i l through a p i g t a i l f l e x i b l e lead. This makes one continuous s e r i e s winding from t h e beginning of t h e f i x e d c o i l t o t h e end of t h e movable c o i l . The graduated d i a l i s g e n e r a l l y f i t t e d t o t h e s h a f t of t h e movable c o i l i n such a way t h a t when t h e graduated mark 100 i s up, i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t

- .FIXED WINDING

INNERWlNDlN

' D E C R E A S I N G CO UP L ING

'.MRMMUM

C O U PL I N G

THE VhRIOMETER

'--VARIOMETER

Figure 13 t h e movable c o i l i s t h e n i n a p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e f i x e d c o i l t h a t c u r r e n t flows through b o t h c o i l s i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n . The inductance i s t h e n maximum and a l s o t h e wave length. When t h e c o i l d i a l i s r o t a t e d toward zero t h e movable and f i x e d c o i l s a r e t h e n 2n a r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n so t h a t c u r r e n t w i l l flow through each one i n opposite d i r e c t i o n s . T h i s reduces the inductance and lowers the wave length. I n t h i s way; by moving one c o i l with r e s p e c t t o t h e o t h e r , f i n e adjustments a r e obtained. The t u n e r of Figure 1 2 should be wound w i t h about 95 t u r n s of #18 double c o t t o n covered wire on a tube having a diameter of 3 inches-. A f t e r t h e winding i s completed t h e i n s u l a t i o n should be removed along t h e l e n g t h of t h e c o i l t o allow t h e s l i d e r s S , and S r t o make c o n t a c t w i t h each t u r n but not i n a manner t o "short" one t u r n w i t h an adjacent turn. The variometer shown i n Figure 13 should be wound a s fol1ovrs;- t h e o u t s i d e or s t a t i o n a r y c o i l with about 22 t u r n s of #24 double c o t t o n covered copper wire on a tube about 4 inches i n diameter and t h e i n s i d e o r movable c o i l w i t h t h e same number of t u r n s on a form just l a r g e enough t o t u r n f r e e l y i n s i d e t h e f i x e d c o i l without touching. The winding on t h e s e two c o i l s i s continuous, t h a t i s , t h e y a r e wound i n s e r i e s , because t h e o u t s i d e winding makes connection w i t h t h e movable c o i l by a p i g t a i l wire which a l s o allows t h i s c o i l t o be r o t a t e d through an angle of 180 degrees. Lesson 22

- sheet

A c i r c u i t employing t h e variometer i s s i m i l a r t o the double s l i a e r

tuner, but i n s t e a d of changing the number of t u r n s , t h e f i e l d of one 1s made t o oppose t h e f i e l d of the other.
TKE' INDUCTIVE COUPLED C I R C U I T

A s s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y t h e d e t e c t o r i s u s u a l l y placed i n a s e p a r a t e

c i r c u i t c a l l e d t h e l o c a l d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t which i s provided f o r by t h e i n d u c t i v e l y coupled arrangement. Figure 14 i s a loose coupled or i n d u c t i v e l y coupled r e c e i v e r . I n t h i s r e c e i v e r w have two s e p a r a t e windings; t h e one c a l l e d t h e primary e i s connected d i r e c t l y i n t h e antenna and made v a r i a b l e by means of t h e s l i d e r t a p which can be moved along t h e winding c u t t i n g t u r n s i n o r out a s d e s i r e d . The primary c o n s i s t s of about 70 t u r n s of #22 double cotton covered copper wire wound on a 4 i n c h tube.

CRYSTAL DETECTO~;

,001 MICROFI\RRD F I X E D CON DE N SE R

@

~ S E C O N O h R YWINDING

I
-

f'

\.~ECONDARY
WINDING

TELEPHONE
RECEtVER

Figure 1 5

-..PRIMARY WINDING

Figure 14 The secondary i s e n t i r e l y s e p a r a t e d from t h e primary, t h a t i s , no physical connection e x i s t s between them. This winding c o n s i s t s of about 100 t u r n s of #26 double c o t t o n covered wire, wound on a 3 inch tube with t a p s taken off a t say the 90th, 80th, 70th, 60th and 50th t u r n s and connected t o switch c o n t a c t s a s shown. By use of the s w i t c h "s" t h e number of t u r n s i n the secondary may be varied.
A form of loose coupler i s shown i n Figure 1 5 and i s so arranged

t h a t the secondary may b e moved i n and out of t h e primary a t w i l l , t h u s i n c r e a s i n g o r decreasing t h e coupling between t h e two c i r c u i t s . The purpose of t h e tuning arrangement i n t h e two methods of coupling J u s t discussed I s t o a d j u s t t h e frequency of t h e primary and secondary c i r c u i t s and t o a l s o provide an adjustment which w i l l produce t h e proper transformer a c t i o n i n order t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e energy w i l l be t r a n s r e r r e d t o t h e secondary c i r c u i t . When considering t h e c i r c u i t of Figure 12, which i s a s i n g l e c i r c u i t arrangement, t h e adjustment f o r frequency w i l l depend upon t h e amount

Lesson 22

sheet 8

of inductance i n t h e c 1 "L" and t h e c a p a c i t y "C". 1 The transformer a c t i o n depends upon t h e r a t i o of t h e inductance L t o t h e capacity "C" and t h e coupling between t h e c i r c u i t s . In t h e i n d u c t i v e l y coupled, or double c i r c u i t , t h e same conditions hold t r u e ; t h e transformer a c t i o n a l s o depends upon t h e coupling between t h e two windings. (Coupling i n t h i s case r e f e r s t o t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of t h e primary and secondary c o i l s . ) Figure 1 5 shows t h e two c i r c u i t s l o o s e l y coupled but when t h e secondary winding i s moved t o t h e l e f t i n t o t h e primary winding t h e coupling i s decreased o r becomes c l o s e r . To i n c r e a s e t h e coupling t h e secondary c o i l i s moved c l o s e t o t h e primary; t o d e c r e a s e coupling t h e secondary i s moved away, from t h e primary. Loose coupling gives b e t t e r s e l e c t i v i t y t h a n c l o s e coupling. The scheme of coupling two r a d i o c i r c u i t s then may be regarded a s a s o r t of f i l t e r . The antenna c i r c u f t i t s e l f w i l l p a r t l y p i c k out or f i l t e r t h e wave d e s i r e d and t h i s f i l t e r i n g scheme i s c a r r i e d on t o a much f i n e r degree by t h e Pecondary c i r c u i t .

Figure 16 A c i r c u i t such a s shown i n Figure 12 w i l l give loud s i g n a l s but a v a r i e d assortment of waves come i n a t t h e same time, i n o t h e r words, i t has poor s e l e c t i v i t y o I n t h e double c i r c u i t however loose coupling g e n e r a l l y g i v e s much b e t t e r s e l e c t i v i t y but a t t h e s a c r i f i c e of s i g n a l s t r e n g t h , t h a t i s , t h e s i g n a l heard i n t h e telephones w P l l b e much weaker u n l e s s t h e c i r c u i t i s constructed i n a manner t h a t w i l l enable t h e energy a c t i n g on t h e secondary c i r c u i t t o b e increased t o an e x t e n t t h a t w i l l o f f s e t t h e e f f e c t s of loose coupling, This can be done by winding t h e secondary w i t h a few more t u r n s t h a n t h e primary but c a r e must be t a k e n not t o place an excessive nunber of t u r n s on t h e secondary. CAPACITIVE COUPLING The method known a s " c a p a c i t i v e coupling", 1s shown by t h e diagram, Figure 16. The primary and secondary c o i l s designated by L , and L A a r e not i n d i r e c t i n d u c t i v e r e l a t i o n . They a r e s a i d t o be e l e c t r o s t a t i c a l l y coupled through t h e condensers C, and CL. In p r a c t i c e t h e condensers C, and C L a r e mounted on a s i n g l e s h a f t and then cap a c i t y v a r i e d simultaneously by a s i n g l e c o n t r o l knob. Lesson 22

- sheet 9

It i s claimed t h a t s i n c e a f i x e d p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s a c r o s s c o i l L the energy t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e secondary c i r c u i t v a r i e s a s t h e c a p a c i t y of The g r e a t e r t h e coupling t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be condensers C t and C, t h e t r a n s f e r of energy from the antenna t o t h e d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t hence t h e coupling between a e c i r c u i t s v a r i e s a s t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e coupling condensers,

INDUCTIVE COUPLING WITH TUNED SECONDARY

Figure 17 r e p r e s e n t s a double c i r c u i t r e c e i v e r i n whichthe coupling i s accomplished by v a r y i n g t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e primary and secondary c o i l s , T h i s c i r c u i t can be very c l o s e l y coupled and made s e l e c t i v e by i n s e r t i n g a v a r i a b l e condenser across the secondary coil, a s shown. When t h e frequency of t h e primary and secondary a r e tuned e x a c t l y a l i k e by varying t h e inductance of t h e primary and t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e secondary t h e c u r r e n t flowing t o t h e telephone r e c e i v e r s w i l l be maximum, thus giving a loud s i g n a l .

CONDENSER CONNECTED IN SERIES DECRELSLS,' wave LENGTH BY DECREMING TOTPIL CPIPbCITY

-- - __ - -+

Figure 17

Figure 18

ANTENNA ADJUSTMENT F R L N AND SHORT WAVES O OG

When it i s d e s i r e d t o r e c e i v e wave lengths s h o r t e r t h a n t h e wave l e n g t h t o which t h e antenna system ( t h e antenna and primary inductance c o i l ) w i l l respond it i s necessary t o employ a v a r i a b l e s e r i e s condenser, This condenser i s u s u a l l y placed i n t h e c i r c u f t with t h e r o t o r p l a t e s connected t o t h e ground s i d e . When t h e c a p a c i t y of the condenser i s decreased t h e wave l e n g t h i s decreased. This arrangement i s shown i n Figure 18 and i s employed when a long antenna i s used.
A v a r i a b l e condenser connected i n p a r a l l e l t o t h e t u n i n g c o f l of t h e antenna system w i l l accomplish t h i s r e s u l t . T h i s i s shown by t h e d o t t e d l i n e i n Figure 18. The s e r i e s condenser must t h e n be removed.

The student should keep i n mind t h e f a c t t h a t t h e antenna i s l i k e a condenser and t h e antenna wires form one p l a t e and t h e ground t h e

Lesson 22

- sheet

10

o t h e r p l a t e , and t h e space between t h e a e r i a l wires and t h e ground forms t h e d i e l e c t r i c . N w when an a d d i t i o n a l condenser i s connected o i n p a r a l l e l t o t h e antenna system t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e antenna i s increased; when connected i n s e r i e s it i s reduced, The t o t a l c a p a c i t y of two condensers connected i n p a r a l l e l i s equal t o t h e sum of t h e i r c a p a c i t i e s , whereas t h e t o t a l c a p a c i t y of condensers connected i n s e r i e s equals t h e product of the c a p a c i t y of t h e f i r s t times t h e cap a c i t y of the second d i v i d e d by t h e sum of t h e c a p a c i t y of f i r s t plus t h e capacity of t h e second t h u s

C 1 x C2

T o t a l c a p a c i t y of condenser i n . a e r i e s .

o r t h e r e c i p r o c a l formula, explained i n a previous l e s s o n , should be used.

CRYSTAL DETECTORS

There are o t h e r m i n e r a l s besides galena which w i l l a c t a s d e t e c t o r s and which come under t h e c r y s t a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ; t h e y a r e S i l i c o n , Z i n c i t e Bornite, and Carborundwn. The vacuum tube, however, has supplanted n e a r l y a l l c r y s t a l s . It i s extremely s e n s i t i v e and possesses t h e p r o p e r t y of amplifying t h e received s i g n a l t o a much g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a t a c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r .

1. 2,
3.

O what use i s t h e diaphragm of a telephone receiver? f Are v i b x ~ a t i o n swhich have a frequency above 15,000 c y c l e s audible?
W i l l a high frequency c u r r e n t a c t u a t e t h e diaphragm of a telephone

receiver?
4.

Explain t h e a c t i o n of a c r y s t ~ when used a s a d e t e c t o r . l T e l l i n your own words what you can about t h e p r l n c i p l e of tuning and t h e purpose of couplfng. ( a ) What i s conductive couplfng? ( c ) Capacitive coupling?
(b) Inductfve coupling?

5.
6,

7.
8. 9.

HOW a r e t h e windings of a variometer arranged?

Draw a diagram of a simple i n d u c t i v e l y coupled r e c e i v e r . Name a few minerals t h a t may be used as d e t e c t o r s . circuit?

10. Where are v a r i a b l e condensers used t o advantage i n a r e c e i v i n g

Lesson 22

- sheet 11

INC.
firme+

Technical Lesson 23
VACUUM TUBES
W now come t o t h e strtdy of t h e Vacuum Tube, a device which i s t h e e very h e a r t of t h e r a d i o r e c e i v e r . The s t u d e n t w i l l , a t t h i s p o i n t , have t o give his undivided a t t e n t d o n t o t h a t which f o l l o w s and proceed w i t h an open mind and a c t i v e imagination. I n order t o understand t h e a c t i o n of t h e vacuum tube we should review t h e a c t i o n of t h e e l e c t r o n i n a vacuum. To imagine an e l e c t r o n i s one t h i n g , but t o follow t h e a c t i o n s of e l e c t r o n s i s q u i t e another. The stu8.y of the e l e c t r o n t h e o r y a s applied t o t h e vacuum tube i s comparatively easy if t h e student w i l l concentrate, otherwise it i s a d i f f i c u l t study It i s i n t e n s e l y i n t e r e s t and only r e s u l t s i n a s t a t e of confusion. ing and, when understood, g i v e s a c l e a r i d e a of t h e r e l a t i o n between r a d i o c i r c u i t s and vacuum tubes. The vacuum tube i s n o t confined t o r a d i o alone; it i s used i n any number of o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s , e s p e c i a l l y those i n which high frequency r a y s a r e involved. Let us consider f o r the time being t h a t i n t h e vacuum tube w have e a device which w i l l not only r e c t i f y an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t but w i l l a l s o reproduce, in amplified form,themost f e e b l e v a r i a t i o n s of E M F ... a p p l i e d t o i t r e g a r d l e s s of t h e frequency. The tube may be employed a s a r e c t i f i e r of e i t h e r h i g h frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s o r low frequency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s . The term r e c t i f i e r i s sometimes used t o i n d i c a t e t h e d e t e c t o r a c t i o n .

It i s termed a r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r when it i s used t o amplify t h e high frequency c u r r e n t s induced i n t h e antenna by t h e incoming s i g n a l wave.
Further, the tube i s used t o m p l i f y t h e output clrrrents of t h e det e c t o r and when s o used it i s known a s an audio frequency amplifier. When used a s a g e n e r a t o r of h i g h frequency undamped o s c i l l a t i o n s i n an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t it i s c a l l e d an o s c i l l a t o r . Before t h e s e various f u n c t i o n s can be explained it i s necessary t o have a knowledge of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the vacuum tube and t o what e x t e n t t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can b e controlled. Until recent y e a r s no s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n was o f f e r e d concerning many phases of e l e c t r i c a l phenomena known t o science. A s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of e l e c t r i c i t y developed, however, t h e r e was a g r e a t amount of d a t a secured which enabled s c i e n t i s t s t o formulate some of t h e laws governing the flow of e l e c t r i c i t y . For example, t h e r e l a t i o n between electromotive

f o r c e , c u r r e n t , and r e s i s t a n c e was explained by D r . O h m and put i n t o t h e form of a law, t h e law being known u n i v e r s a l l y a s O h m l s Law. Discoveries were a l s o made regarding t h e g e n e r a t i o n of e l e c t r i c a l pressure by chemical a c t i o n between c e r t a i n l i q u i d s and metals. T h i s l e a d t o t h e development of t h e b a t t e r y , and t h e n came t h e e v o l u t i o n of the dynamo. N s a t i s f a c t o r y explanation was o f f e r e d a t t h e time o concerning the e l e c t r i c a l phenomena of t h e s e d i s c o v e r i e s get t h e y were of g r e a t p r a c t i c a l value i n determining from t h e r e s u l t s obtained, experimentally, many of t h e present laws of e l e c t r i c i t y . It a l s o became necessary t o s e t t l e upon c e r t a i n a r b i t r a r y s t a n d a r d u n i t s by which e l e c t r i c a l f o r c e and energy could be measured and computed, these being known a s Universal E l e c t r i c a l U n i t s which were explained i n a previous lesson.

It was a l s o found necessary t o assume a c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n i n which e l e c t r i c i t y flowed through a conductor. S c i e n t i s t s decided t o c a l l t h e copper or carbon p l a t e of a primary c e l l t h e p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l , and the z i n c p l a t e t h e negative terminal, and considered t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y flowed i n an e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t from t h e p o s i t i v e e l e c t r o d e It must be understood t h a t t h i s d i r e c t i o n t o t h e negative e l e c t r o d e . given t o t h e c u r r e n t flow was e n t i r e l y an a r b i t r a r y one and was agreed upon only as a m a t t e r of convenience i n understanding c e r t a i n phenomena.
For many y e a r s t h e atom was regarded a s t h e s m a l l e s t u n i t i n t o which matter could be d i v i d e d and s t i l l r e t a i n i t s chemical and p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and t h e phenomenon was then explained bythe atomic theory. I n r e c e n t years many s c i e n t i s t s have accepted t h e g e n e r a l b e l i e f t h a t t h e atom i s i t s e l f subdivided i n t o many thousands of p a r t i c l e s termed e l e c t r o n s and t h a t t h e s e e l e c t r o n s c a r r y w i t h them a charge of e l e c t r i c i t y . It has been found t h a t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s t h e s e e l e c t r o n s o r p a r t i c l e s of n e g a t i v e e l e c t r i c i t y can be made t o move. Their movement i s f r o n a negative t o a p o s i t i v e e l e c t r o d e and when i n motion they constit u t e a c u r r e n t flow. This new t h e o r y i s known a s t h e " Electron t h e o r y of matter".

It was shown i n t h e s t u d y of e l e c t r o s t a t i c s t h a t , on joining two charged bodies t o g e t h e r by a metal connection, a momentary flow of e l e c t r i c i t y takes p l a c e due t o a d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l between t h e two bodies, the flow l a s t i n g only u n t i l a t r a n s f e r of charges t a k e s place of t h e proper order t o bring about a s t a t e of n e u t r a l i z a t i o n between them. ;"hen, however, a conductor forms a closed e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t and a n e l e c t r o motive f o r c e i s a p p l i e d t o it by connecting each end of t h e c i r c u i t t o some device such a s a g e n e r a t o r , o r o a t t e r y , a p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e i s created along t h e e n t i r e c i r c u i t . Due t o t h e e f f e c t of t h i s e l e c t r o motive f o r c e detachable, or f r e e e l e c t r o n s , a r e set i n t o motion, t a k i n g z,ig zag paths t o and f r o through t h e conductor but, on t h e whole, making a continuously forward movement f r o n one end of t h e conductor t o t h e other. This r e s u l t s i n a continuous flow of e l e c t r o n s which a r e negative It i s t h i s flow of e l e c t r o n s e l e c t r i c charges around t h e e n t i r e c i r c u i t . t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s what i s termed an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t .

Lesson 23

- sheet

The d i r e c t i o n of t h e f l o w of an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t was t h o q h t t o be from p o s i t i v e t o n e g a t i v e before the acceptance o f t h e e l e c t r o n theory, a s s t a t e d before. But t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e e l e c t r o n flow, however, i s from negative t o p o s i t i v e . The terms p o s i t i v e and negative being merely r e l a t i v e terms, it i s a simple m a t t e r t o understand t h e a c t i o n i n a c i r c u i t according t o t h e new e l e c t r o n t h e o r y by assuming t h a t t h e e l e c t r o n i s a c a r r i e r of negative e l e c t r i c i t y o r simply a p a r t i c l e of negative e l e c t r i c i t y . This d i s t i n c t i o n should b e kept i n mind when r e f e r r i n g t o c u r r e n t flow and e l e c t r o n movement*
THERMIONIC CURRENTS

Thermionic c u r r e n t i s t h e name given t o e l e c t r i c i t y which i s t h e r e s u l t A d i s c o v e r y made of e l e c t r o n s thrown o f f o r e m i t t e d from h o t bodies. by Thomas A. Edison i n 1884, known a s "The Edison E f f e c t " , gave r i s e t o an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of thermionic c u r r e n t s which l e a d s up t o t h e vacuum tube of today. Edison, i n h i s work w i t h t h e e l e c t r i c lamp, found t h a t a f t e r a lamp had been i n use some time a d a r k c o a t i n g formed on t h e i n s i d e of t h e lamp, becoming i n some i n s t a n c e s n e a r l y black w i t h long c o n t i n u a l use, H became i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s e f f e c t and f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h e brought out t h e f a c t t h n t when a metal p l a t e was placed i n s i d e t h e lamp and connected t o one s i d e of a s e n s i t i v e galvanometer and t h e o t h e r terminal of t h e galvanometer t h e n connected t o t h e p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l of t h e b a t t e r y supplying c u r r e n t t o t h e f i l a m e n t of t h e lamp, t h e galvanometer would show a d e f l e c t i o n when t h e f i l a m e n t of t h e lamp was heated. The e f f e c t a t t h e time seemed t o i n d i c a t e t h a t an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t flowed from t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e o f the filament- through t h e galvanometer t o t h e p l a t e i n s i d e t h e lamp, through t h e vacuum of t h e lamp, r e t u r n i n g t o t h e filament. Edison a l s o discovered t h a t , when t h e galvanometer t e r m i n a l was removed from t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of the f i l a m e n t andconnected t o t h e negative s i d e , p r a c t i c a l l y no d e f l e c t i o n of t h e galvanometer followed. After t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h i s phenomenon e x p e r h e n t s were c a r r i e d out by s e v e r a l s c i e n t i s t s , J. A Fleming, a f t e r considerable experimenting and r e s e a r c h on t h e Edison e f f e c t , came t o t h e conclusion t h a t NEGATIVE e l e c t r i c i t y passed from t h e f i l a m e n t of t h e lamp t o t h e p l a t e when t h e p l a t e was r e l a t i v e l y cold w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f i l a m e n t and t h e p l a t e was charged t o a p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i d . Conclusions of t h e experiments of J.J. Thompson l e d t o t h e b e l i e f t h n t %hat i s now c a l l e d t h e e l e c t r o n e x i s t e d and. t h a t n e g a t i v e e l e c t r i c i t y c o n s i s t e d of masses of t h e s e e l e c t r o n s which were f o r c e d away from t h e filament of an e l e c t r i c lamp when t h e f i l a m e n t was brought t o incandescence. I n o t h e r words t h e f i l a m e n t i t s e l f c o n s i s t e d of t h e s e It has now been g e n e r a l l y i n f i n i t e l y small p a r t i c l e s c a l l e d e l e c t r o n s . accepted t h a t i t i s by means of t h e e l e c t r o n t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y i s c a r r i e d through a conductor o r through a vacuum. The atoms, of which an element i s composed, have what i s termed a core, or nucleus, which i s supposed t o c o n s t i t u t e a p o s i t i v e charge of e l e c t r i c i t y . About t h i s core revolve a number of e l e c t r o n s . The n a t u r e of

Lesson 2 3

- sheet

an atom d i f f e r s according t o t h e number and arrangement of i t s complement of e l e c t r o n s . Thus t h e d i f f e r e n c e between copper and i r o n would t h e n be accounted f o r by t h e f a c t t h a t the atoms of i r o n have a d i f f e r e n t number and arrangement of e l e c t r o n s t h a n atoms of copper. The atom of elements cannot be changed by any way known t o science which means t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e atoms ( r e f e r r i n g t o t h e e l e c t r o n s which a r e a p a r t of t h e atom) cannot be taken from it, There areshowever, surrounding t h e atom a d d i t i o n a l e l e c t r o n s which can be forced e away and it i s t h e s e e l e c t r o n s , c a l l e d f r e e e l e c t r o n s , t h a t w w i l l d e a l with i n t h e vacuum tube. There a r e always l a r g e numbers of e l e c t r o n s i n an atom and normally t h i s q u a n t i t y amounts t o a given number j u s t s u f f i c i e n t t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e e f f e c t of the p o s i t i v e nucleus. Generally but one e l e c t r o n can b e detached from an atom even though i t may have a g r e a t many a s s o c i a t e e l e c t r o n s . Under normal c o n d i t i o n s t h e atom possesses no e l e c t r i c a l charge because a p e r f e c t s t a t e of n e u t r a l i z a t i o n e x i s t s between t h e p o s i t i v e charge and t h e e l e c t r o n s . When, however, one of t h e f r e e e l e c t r o n s i s f o r c e d away by some cause or o t h e r t h i s p e r f e c t balance i s destroyed and t h e atom predominates i n p o s i t i v e charge because it i s now d e f i c i e n t i n i t s complement of Blectrons. When only a few of t h e s e f r e e e l e c t r o n s a r e f o r c e d away from t h e i r atoms t h e atom i s s a i d t o have a small p o s i t i v e charge, and i t follows, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a p o s i t i v e l y charged body i s s h o r t o r d e f i c i e n t i n e l e c t r o n s . It i s e q u a l l y t r u e t o say t h a t a n e g a t i v e l y charged body i s one having more t h a n i t s r e g u l a r complement of e l e c t r o n s , From t h e foregoing we may s t a t e t h a t a p o s i t i v e charge i s a charge lacking e l e c t r o n s and a n e g a t i v e charge i s a charge w i t h an e x c e s s i v e amount of e l e c t r o n s . If, i n any two bodies, one has more f r e e e l e c t r o n s t h a n t h e o t h e r , one i s s a i d t o be a t a higher negative p o t e n t i a l . When t h e p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e bodies i s g r e a t , and i f t h e y a r e brought c l o s e t o g e t h e r , a spark w i l l be seen t o pass between them. What happens i s t h a t t h e e l e c t r o n s passed t o t h e body of low negative p o t e n t i a l i n an e f f o r t t o b r i n g about a s t a t e of balance.
ELECTRON EMISSION

The emission of e l e c t r o n s i s dependent upon t h e temperature of t h e filament, the s i z e ( a r e a ) of t h e f i l a m e n t , the n a t u r e of t h e substance employed a s t h e f i l a m e n t , and t h e medium i n which t h e f i l a m e n t i s heated. The number of e l e c t r o n s e m i t t e d w i l l be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a r e a Of t h e f i l a m e n t , For example, i f you have two f i l a m e n t l e n g t h s , one twice a s long a s t h e o t h e r , by h e a t i n g one filament t o a given temperature a c e r t a i n e l e c t r o n emission occurs. W i t h t h e same h e a t a p p l i e d t o t h e filament of twice t h e length, double t h e emission occv.rs. This happens however only when t h e same h e a t i s a p p l i e d t o b o t h filaments. The temperature of t h e f i l a m e n t i s very important i n t h a t , with e a c h i n c r e a s e of f i l a m e n t heat, t h e r e w i l l be an i n c r e a s e i n e l e c t r o n emission.

Lesson 23

- sheet 4

his i n c r e a s e i n e l e c t r o n emission i n c r e a s e s a s t h e temperature i n c r e a s e s u n t i l t h e maximum emission takes p l a c e which i s just below t h e m e l t i n g p o i n t of t h e f i l a m e n t . Heating t h e filament t o excessive temperature i s of no advantage a s you w i l l l a t e r learn.

The composition of t h e f i l a m e n t , t h a t i s , t h e m a t e r i a l employed i n i t s manufacture, w i l l h a v e a bearing upon t h e e l e c t r o n emission. Some metals, when h e a t e d , do not emit a s many e l e c t r o n s a s others. Carbon, f o r example w i l l emit a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y ~f e l e c t r o n s but not n e a r l y i n a s l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s a s tungsten. Tungsten i s materia l l y h e l p e d ' i n e l e c t r o n i c emission when another metal c a l l e d thorium i s combined w i t h it. It i s t h e Thoriated Tungsten f i l a m e n t t h a t i s used . i n many types of t u b e s because a t low temperatures i t has a very h i g h r a t e of e l e c t r o n emission. There i s S t i l l another f a c t o r which has a g r e a t i n f l u e n c e on e l e c t r o n emission and t h a t i s t h e medium i n which t h e emission occurs. I n t h e f i r s t place i t must be i n a vacuum, o r a t l e a s t a p a r t i a l one. It i s q u i t e impossible t o o b t a i n a complete vacuum and small t r a c e s of gas l e f t i n t h e tube w i l l decrease t h e e l e c t r o n emission. Most of t h e gases i n t h e t u b e , w i t h few exceptions, a r e i n e r t gases, The presence of gas i n t h e vacuum p r e s e n t s a r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e e m i s s i o n o f e l e c t r o n s ( T h i s p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t w i l l be t a k e n u n l e s s i o n i z a t i o n t a k e s place. up l a t e r i n more d e t a i l ) . The most important f a c t o r i n t h e r a t e of emission i s t h e temperature of t h e filament f o r , upon t h e r a t e of emission alone i n a c e r t a i n tube, w i l l depend the number of e l e c t r o n s emitted. It must be understood a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t t h e term mission" r e f e r s only t o t h e emerging of t h e e l e c t r o n s from t h e filament and not t o t h e passage of t h e e l e c t r o n through t h e vacuum. Suppose now w attempt t o v i s u a l i z e t h a t which t a k e s place i n the e filament when it i s heated, A s h e a t i s a p p l i e d t h e whole atomic s t r u c t u r e i s s e t i n t o a v i o l e n t a g i t a t i o n and t h e f r e e e l e c t r o n s about t h e atoms of t h e f i l a m e n t a r e s e t i n t o r a p i d v i b r a t i o n r With each i n c r e a s e of h e a t t h i s v i b r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s and t h e e l e c t r o n s f i n a l l y g a i n a v e l o c i t y i n t h e i r movements g r e a t enoagh t o c a r r y them beyond t h e p o s i t i v e f o r c e of t h e atom which normally h o l d s them w i t h i n t h e f i l a m e n t . A s t h i s v e l o c i t y i s a t t a i n e d t h e y emerge from tlie filament i n clouds much a s does steam from a pan of b o i l i n g water. This happens o n l y a f t e r t h e y have acquired a speed which i s able t o p r o j e c t them beyond t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e atom t o which t h e y belong. Once beyond t h e a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e of the parent atom t h e y a r e subject t o colLisions which a r e c o n t i n u a l l y occuring a s t h e y move about i n t h e f i l a m e n t . Their v e l o c i t y , on l e a v i n g the f i l s m e n t , v a r i e s according t o t h e r e t a r d i n g e f f e c t t h e s e c o l l i s i o n s have had upon t h e e l e c t r o n i n i t s attempt t o escape, Once o u t s i d e t h e f i l a m e n t t h e y again have d i f f i c u l t y due t o t h e g a s molecules which may be p r e s e n t w i t h i n t h e vacuum, and w i t h w h i z ' h t h e y c o n t i n u a l l y c o l l i d e u m t i l t h e i r energy i s exhausted whereupon t h e y a r e drawn back t o t h e f i l a m e n t . Lesson 2 3

- sheet

SPACE CHNLGE The e l e c t r o n c o n s t i t u t e s a negative charge of e l e c t r i c i t y and, on emergi n g from t h e f i l a m e n t , l e a v e s t h e f i l a m e n t p o s i t i v e i n r e s p e c t t o t h e p r o j e c t e d e l e c t r o n . The tendency, t h e r e f o r e , i s f o r t h e e l e c t r o n t o be a t t r a c t e d back t o t h e filement. Any gas i n t h e vacuum a l s o p r e s e n t s a r e s i s t a n c e t o be overcome by t h e e l e c t r o n . There i s a l s o another r e p e l l i n g e f f e c t which must be overcome. T h i s i s t h e r e p e l l i n g e f f e c t of e l e c t r o n s which a r e moving a t a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e from t h e filament t h a n t h e newly e m i t t e d e l e c t r o n s .
A s s t a t e d b e f o r e , t h e e l e c t r o n s f i l l t h e space about t h e heated f i l a ment much a s steam f i l l s t h e space over a pan of b o i l i n g water. The e l e c t r o n s , i n t h e i r c o u n t l e s s thousands, may be considered a s a c t u a l p a r t i c l e s of n e g a t i v e e l e c t r i c i t y , and t h e y c o n s t i t u t e i n r e a l i t y an a c t u a l negative charge i n t h e space t h e y f i l l . It i s t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h a t i s c a l l e d h he Space charge",

Figure 1

Let us now c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t t h i s space charge has upon e l e c t r o n s leavinG t h e f i l a m e n t and, f o r example, we w i l l consider a s i n g l e e l e c t r o n . In Figure 1 t h e f i l a m e n t i s shown e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o n s which are r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e b l a c k d o t s r The e l e c t r o n A , which i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e enlarged d o t , i s shown a s h o r t d i s t a n c e from t h e f i l a m e n t F and we w i l l assume i t s v e l o c i t y c a r r i e s it to t h e p o i n t shown, f i r s t , by overcoming t h e tendency of t h e f i l a m e n t t o draw it back, second, i t s v e l o c i t y c a r r i e s it a g a i n s t whatever r e s i s t a n c e i s o f f e r e d by any gas p r e s e n t and, t h i r d , it i s c a r r i e d against the repelling force exercised against i t by t h e e l e c t r o n s which a r e moving about ahead of i t .

~t t h e point shown a t " A ' ~ t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e e l e c t r o n i s spent and i t has no f u r t h e r energy t o c a r r y it ahead. It i s t h e n e a s i l y influenced by t h e r e p e l l i n g a c t i o n of t h e e l e c t r o n s beyond it,- a l s o by t h e a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e of t h e f i l a m e n t and it f i n a l l y r e t u r n s and i s absorbed by t h e filament. W w i l l consider E l e c t r o n "B" a s having gained a g r e a t e r v e l o c i t y on e It reaches p o i n t B b e f o r e it i s drawn back t o leaving t h e f i l a m e n t . t h e filament. E l e c t r o n "G" has l e r t t h e f i l a m e n t a t a s t i l l g r e a t e r v e l o c i t y than e i t h e r A or B and has reached t h e p o i n t C a s shown. T h i s e l e c t r o n has reached a p o i n t i n t h e space charge where t h e r e i s a g r e a t e r number of e l e c t r o n s behind it t h a n ahead of it and, s i n c e l i k e charges r e p e l , e l e c t r o n "c' i s a c t u a l l y a s s i s t e d on i t s course f u r t h e r away . from t h e f i l a m e n t t o p o i n t D The foregoing w i l l s e r v e t o acquaint you w i t h a t l e a s t a working knowledge of t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g u p o n t h e e l e c t r o n , t h i s being important because i t accounts f o r c e r t a i n phenomena which w i l l be encountered l a t e r on i n our d e t a i l e d study of t h e tube.

Lesson 23

- sheet 6

".
V

THE PLATE

I n a d d i t i o n t o c r e a t i n g a supply of e l e c t r o n s i n t h e vacuum tube i t i s necessary t h a t we a l s o c r e a t e some a t t r a c t i o n which w i l l cause t h e s e e l e c t r o n s t o move from t h e i r p o i n t of o r i g i n . This i s accouplished by s e a l i n g a second element c a l l e d t h e p l a t e i n t h e vacuum space. T h i s i s shown i n Figure 2. It i s t o be noted t h a t t h e p l a t e has a connecting l e a d brought out f o r a purpose which w e w i l l soon explain. For t h e time being w s h a l l c o n s i d e r t h e p l a t e e a s shown i n Figure 2 t o be s e a l e d i n t h e tube b u t not connected i n any way.
E l e c t r o n s being e m i t t e d w i l l accumulate on t h e p l a t e and charge it t o a negative p o t e n t i a l , t h e negative charge w i l l i n c r e a s e u n t i l t h e p l a t e r e p e l s any f u r t h e r e l e c t r o n s moving i n i t s v i c i n i t y . Let us now give t h e p l a t e a p o s i t i v e charge by connecting i t t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of a b a t t e r y , c a l l e d t h e "B" b a t t e r y , a s shown i n Figure 3 . Since t h i s makes t h e p l a t e p o s i t i v e i t means t h a t e l e c t r o n s have been t a k e n from i t , and i t s n a t u r a l tendency, i n order t o r e s t o r e t h e s t a t e of balance, i s t o a t t r a c t any negative charge p o s s i b l e . T h i s i t does by drawing t o i t t h e e l e c t r o n s whfch a r e being emitted by t h e fflament. When t h e p l a t e i s connected i n t h e c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 3, and 5 s given a p o s i t i v e charge, e l e c t r o - s t a t i c l i n e s of f o r c e immediately a r e s e t up between t h e p l a t e and t e r m i n a t e a t t h e f i l a m e n t . It i s along these l i n e s of f o r c e t h a t a p o s i t i v e charge of e l e c t r i c i t y , a s formerly understood, would t r a v e l . The e l e c t r o n b e i n g a n e g a t i v e charge would move along t h e same l i n e s of f o r c e but from filament t o p l a t e which simple means, when expressed d i f f e r e n t l y , t h a t t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e w i l l a t t r a c t t o it t h e negative e l e c t r o n s ( u n l i k e charges a t t r a c t ) . The a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e t h e p l a t e has f o r t h e e l e c t r o n s w i l l depend upon t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e p l a t e r e l a t i v e t o t h a t of t h e f ilaruent

Figure 3

Figure 4

The o r i g i n a l t u b e , known a s t h e Fleming Valve, c o n s i s t e d of only two elements, t h e f i l a m e n t and p l a t e , a s shown i n Figure 3. CHARACTERISTICS O F THE FUMING V L E AV The phenomenon of a vacuum tube can b e s t be understood by making a preliminary study of t h e Fleming Valve. Lesson 2 3

- sheet 7

The c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of a source of c u r r e n t , known a s the "A" b a t t e r y t o h e a t t h e f i l a m e n t . The E.M.F. applied t o t h e f i l a m e n t i s made m i e b l e . A source of E.M.F., known a s t h e "B" b a t t e r y , i s u s e d t o charge t h e p l a t e and t h i s should a l s o be v a r i a b l e . Such a c i r c u i t s shown i n Figure 4. t h e p l a t e has a very small p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l placed on it a s
w n i n Figure 5 a very weak c u r r e n t w i l l flow through t h e p l a t e c u i t , P, M , A , F , because, under these c o n d i t i o n s , only a l i m i t e d

number of e l e c t r o n s w i l l r e a c h the p l a t e and, while only a few e l e c t r o n s w i l l s t r i k e t h e p l a t e , t h e g r e a t e r m a j o r i t y of them a r e drawn back i n t o t h e filament

Figure 5 Figure 5 A Figure 6 It i s t o be noted here t h a t the p l a t e w i l l have a p o t e n t i a l about equal t o the f i l a m e n t . Let us, however, connect a b a t t e r y i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure, 5A, g i v i n g t h e p l a t e a high p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l w 5 t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f i l a m e n t Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s n e a r l y a l l t h e e l e c t r o n s e m i t t e d from t h e filament w i l l be a t t r a c t e d t o t h e p l a t e r e s u l t i n g i n a flow of a comparitively l a r g e p l a t e c u r r e n t , a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e m i l l i a m e t e r reading. If t h e B b a t t e r y i s connected a s shown i n Figure 4 t h u s placing a negative p o t e n t i a l on the p l c t e , t h e meter w i l l show no d e f l e c t i o n because t h e emitted e l e c t r o n s a r e negative and t h e y w i l l be r e p e l l e d by the n e g a t i v e p l a t e . This c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y cannot flow from t h e p l a t e t o t h e f i l a m e n t due t o t h e f a c t t h a t no e l e c t r o n s a r e passing i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e filament

A s w s t r t e d before t h e r a t e of emission w i l l depend upon t h e m a t e r i a l e of whichthe f i l a m e n t i s made, t h e s i z e of t h e fil-ament, and t h e tempera t u r e a t which the f i l a n e n t i s heated. I n t h e vacuum t u b e the temperature e of the f i l a m e n t i s a v a r i a b l e f a c t o r . W cannot change t h e p o s i t i o n nor s i z e of any of t h e elements w i t h i n t h e tube but we can change t h e filament temperature by a v a r i a t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t passed through it. For a given f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t t h e r e w i l l be a corresponding temperature and t h i s temperature w i l l remain constant, providing t h e c u r r e n t i s n o t varied. A t a c e r t a i n temperature a d e f i n i t e number of e l e c t r o n s w i l l be emitted. I f t h e c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 6 i s s e t up w i t h t h e filament switch

F S open filament c u r r e n t w i l l not flow and no e l e c t r o n s a r e e m i t t e d

Lesson 23

- sheet 8

hence no p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l flow, which i s i n d i c a t e d by zero reading When switch FS i s closed c u r r e n t w i l l flow of t h e m i l l i a m e t e r , M.A. through t h e f i l a m e n t from b a t t e r y A . Electrons w i l l t h e n be emitted and a s t h e c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s through t h e f i l a m e n t i t s temperature w i l l be increased w i t h a corresponding i n c r e a s e of e l e c t r o n emission. By observing the m i l l i a m e t e r , and varying t h e r h e o s t a t r e s i s t a n c e t o allow more c u r r e n t t o flow, a g r e a t e r d e f l e c t i o n w i l l be noted with each chai-&e, or i n c r e a s e of filament temperature, showing t h a t t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s w i t h each i n c r e a s e of t h e f i l a m e n t heat. The e l e c t r o n s move from t h e filament t o t h e p l a t e where t h e y a r e absorbed and, a t t h e same r a t e , new e l e c t r o n s a r e thrown off t h e filament and t h e number of e l e c t r o n s i n t h e space between t h e f i l a m e n t and p l a t e w i l l depend upon t h e r a t e t h e y a r e absorbed by t h e p l a t e , p l u s t h e r a t e they a r e emitted by t h e f i l a m e n t . If t h e f i l a m e n t temperature i s g r a d u a l l y r a i s e d t h e r a t e of emission w i l l a l s o i n c r e a s e which w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e number of e l e c t r o n s i n t h e vacuum between filament and p l a t e , T h i s mass of e l e c t r o n s produces, i n t h e space, a negative space charge and t h i s charge e f f e c t s t h e e l e c t r o n s l e a v i n g t h e filament tending t o r e p e l them, because l i k e charges r e p e l . T h i s i s t h e opposite e f f e c t t o t h a t which t h e p l a t e i s e x e r t i n g , When t h e f i l a m e n t temperature h a s been r a i s e d t o a c e r t a i n value the number of e l e c t r o n s present w i l l be g r e a t enough t o c r e a t e a balance between t h e space charge and t h e p l a t e p o t e n t i a l . That i s t o say, t h e space charge becomes s u f f i c i e n t l y n e g a t i v e t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e p o s i t i v e e f f e c t of t h e p l a t e . After t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s once reached it w i l l be observed t h a t , no matter how much h i g h e r t h e filament temperature i s i n c r e a s e d , no f u r t h e r d e f l e c t i o n of t h e m i l l i a m e t e r w i l l be noted. This means t h a t f o r a given "B" b a t t e r y v o l t a g e a' p o i n t w i l l be reached where a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of f i l a m e n t h e a t w i l l not produce a g r e a t e r f l o w i n p l a t e c u r r e n t , Many owners of r a d i o r e c e i v i n g s e t s have the i d e a t h a t b e t t e r r e s u l t s w i l l be obtained i f t h e y operate t h e tubes w i t h g r e a t e r b r i l l i a n c y . T h i s i s not t r u e because, beyond a c e r t a i n p o i n t , a g r e a t e r e f f e c t cannot be obtained, if operated beyond t h a t p o i n t t h e higher tempera t u r e of t h e f i l a m e n t simply shortens t h e l i f e of t h e tube. Xow, i f a g r e a t e r p l a t e c u r r e n t i s d e s i r e d we may o b t a i n it by inc r e a s i n g t h e "B" b a t t e r y v o l t a g e s o t h a t a higher p o t e n t i a l i s applied t o t h e p l a t e * The r e s u l t w i l l be noted by a g r e a t e r d e f l e c t i o n of t h e meter placed i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t c Without changing t h e p l a t e p o t e n t i a l b u t i n c r e a s i n g t h e f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t t h e r e w i l l a g a i n occur a point where f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n f i l a m e n t h e a t w i l l not cause a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n p l a t e c u r r e n t . Therefore, f o r a given value of p l a t e p o t e n t i a l t h e r e i s a corresponding f i l a m e n t temperature beyond whlch no f u r t h e r r i s e i n p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l occur r e g a r d l e s s of how h o t t h e f i l a m e n t becomes. T h i s a c t i o n j u s t d i s c u s s e d i s explained by t h e curve of Figure '7. "A" p a r t of t h e curve shows t h e i n c r e a s e of c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t w i t h each i n c r e a s e of p l a t e p o t e n t i a l , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t

a l l the e l e c t r o n s e m i t t e d a r e not being a t t r a c t e d t o t h e p l a t e but some a r e r e t u r n i n g t o t h e filament. That p o r t i o n of t h e "B" curve which f l a t t e n s Out i n d i c a t e s t h a t n e a r l y a l l e l e c t r o n s emitted a r e being absorbed by t h e p l a t e . It i s a t t h i s p a r t of t h e curve t h a t t h e milliameter w i l l i n d i c a t e n e a r l y a maximum p l a t e c u r r e n t flow. A t " C" t h e curve i s almost f l a t a s n e a r l y a l l t h e e l e c t r o n s emitted a r e now being drawn t o t h e p l a t e , t h i s p o i n t being c a l l e d t h e point of s a t u r a t i o n , O r s a t u r a t i o n c u r r e n t . A f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n p l a t e p o t e n t i a l w i l l not i n c r e a s e t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t flow a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e f l a t p o r t i o n O f t h e curve a t "D". The d o t t e d l i n e s of t h e curve, EFGH, IJKL, MNOP show t h e same e f f e c t s a s ABCD, f o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t values of p l a t e p o t e n t i a l s a p p l i e d a t d i f f e r e n t times. The f i l a m e n t temperature was i n c r e a s e d u n t i l t h e s a t u r a t i o n of p l a t e c u r r e n t i n each i n s t a n c e was obtained.
GAS EFFECTS

The subject matter j u s t given a p p l i e s t o t u b e s which a r e t h e o r e t i c a l l y p e r f e c t i n Vacuum, allowing t h e e l e c t r o n s t o pass i n t h e space between t h e f i l a m e n t and p l a t e without i n t e r f e r e n c e .
I

When, however, small t r a c e s of gas a r e l e f t i n , - - -.- -- - t h e tube t h e e l e c t r o n c u r r e n t , which flows when r-N a positive potential i s applied t o t h e plate, i s i n c r e a s e d over t h a t obtained under t h e same conditions w i t h tubes h i g h l y evacuated. The i n c r e a s e i n e l e c t r o n c u r r e n t t a k e s p l a c e , however, on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t i o n i z a t i o n t a k e s place.

IONIZATION

I o n i z a t i o n 1s t h e e f f e c t produced when e l e c t r o n s , on t h e i r p a t h from t h e f i l a m e n t t o t h e p l a t e , c o l l i d e with t h e molecules of gas i n t h e tube. The molecule of g a s i s d i s r u p t e d by t h e c o l l i s i o n and i t f r e e s detacha b l e e l e c t r o n s which t h e n flow w i t h t h e main body of e l e c t r o n s o r i g i nating a t the filament* Figure ?
A s t h e "B" voltage i s i n c r e s s e d t h e a t t r a c t i o n of t h e p l a t e f o r t h e

e l e c t r o n s i s increased. T h i s , of course, e f f e c t s t h e speed of t h e e l e c t r o n s and when t h e y s t r i k e t h e gas molecules with g r e a t e r speed the number of e l e c t r o n s f r e e d from t h e molecules of gas w i l l be i n creased. It i s the l i b e r a t e d e l e c t r o n s fromthe gas molecules joining t h e main stream of e l e c t r o n s t h a t i n c r e a s e s the p l a t e c u r r e n t . When t h e e l e c t r o n s being emitted from t h e f i l a m e n t have a t t a i n e d a speed g r e a t enough t h e y break up t h e gas molecule i n t o f r e e e l e c t r o n s leaving t h e gas molecule p o s i t i v e l y charged, I n o t h e r words t h e gas molecule has been ionized and i s now what i s termed a p o s i t i v e ion. When t h i s t a k e s place i n a vacuum tube t o any g r e a t e x t e n t it i s made evident by a blue glow which f i l l s t h e space about t h e p l a t e because

Lesson 2 3

- s h e e t 10

a t t h i s point t h e g r e a t e s t v e l o c i t y of t h e e l e c t r o n occurs. The p o s i t i v e ions t h u s formed cannot flow t o t h e p l a t e because t h e p l a t e i s p o s i t i v e l y charged, and l i k e charges r e p e l , and t h e i o n s w i l l t h e n move Coward t h e f i l a m e n t . Upon s t r i k i n g t h e f i l a m e n t t h e y break loose more e l e c t r o n s , which a g a i n i n c r e a s e s the q u a n t i t y of electrons a v a i l a b l e t o bombard t h e p l a t e . I o n i z a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , i s t h e s p l i t t i n g o r breaking up of gas molecules i n t o f r e e e l e c t r o n s which a r e always n e g a t i v e and p o s i t i v e charged ions, The f r e e d e l e c t r o n s forming w i t h t h e main stream of e l e c t r o n s , and t h e ions shaking more e l e c t r o n s f r e e from t h e f i l a ment which a t once s t a r t on t h e i r journey t o t h e p l a t e , produces increased c u r r e n t i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t . T E THREE ELEMENT VACUUM TUBE H The t h r e e e l e c t r o d e tube d i f f e r s from t h e two-element t u b e only i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a t h i r d element, c a l l e d t h e g r i d . The i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e g r i d brought about a change i n r a d i o t h a t has had a f a r reaching e f f e c t . I n f a c t it was t h e most important c o n t r i b u t i o n made i n t h e advancement of r a d i o communication since t h e Fleming Valve was p e r f e c t e d . It g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e sensit i v e n e s s of a l l r e c e i v i n g apparatus used i n r a d i o and i s d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l t h e u s e s of t h e knodern vacuum tube i n t r a n s m i t t i n g and r e c e i v i n g apparatus. The g r i d i s capable of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e e l e c t r o n s which f i l l t h e space between t h e f i l a m e n t and p l a t e . It e x e r c i s e s a d i r e c t i v e power over t h e cloud of e l e c t r o n s which a r e r a c i n g with tremendous speeds toward t h e p l a t e . The g r i d allows c e r t a i n q u a n t i t i e s of the e l e c t r o n s t o proceed t o t h e p l a t e o r it may prevent them i n some c a s e s from s t r i k i n g the plate a t all. By making t h e g r i d a l t e r n a t e l y p o s i t i v e and negative t h e e l e c t r o n s flowing from t h e hot f i l a m e n t t o t h e p l a t e can o r decreased. It can t h u s c o n t r o l l a r g e powers of p l a t e amazing f e a t u r e h e r e i s t h a t very small power applied t o e x e r c i s e t h i s c o n t r o l . Row t h i s i s accomplished w i l l now
TKF USE O THE GRID F

q u a n t i t y of be i n c r e a s e d Current. The the g r i d w i l l be considered.

The theory of t h e two e l e c t r o d e t u b e , r e l a t i v e t o t h e e l e c t r o n flow, t h e space charge, e t c . , w i l l nov be applied while e x p l a i n i n g t h e e f f e c t s produced by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e t h i r d element, t h e g r i d . The g r i d i s placed i n t h e tube t o c o n t r o l t h e e l e c t r o n flow from f i l a m e n t t o p l a t e . For t h i s r e a s o n it i s o f t e n compared t o t h e t r i g g e r a c t i o n of a gun, o r t h e valve c o n t r o l over water, steam l i n e s e t c . I n t h e g r i d , however, w u t i l i z e e l e c t r i c i t y t o a f f e c t e t h i s c o n t r o l . You w i l l remember i n our study of t h e two e l e c t r o d e tube t h a t t h e space between t h e filament and p l a t e was f i l l e d with

Lesson 23

sheet 11

minute negative charges, t h e e l e c t r o n s . You a l s o know t h a t l i k e charges of e l e c t r i c i t y w i l l r e p e l and u n l i k e charges w i l l a t t r a c t . Nw l e t us r e f e r t o t h e t h r e e e l e c t r o d e tube shown i n Figure 8. o The g r i d w i l l t h e n be r i g h t i n t h e middle of t h e cloud of e l e c t r o n s c o n s t i t u t i % t h e space charge. If w now connect t h e negative termine a l of a t h i r d b a t t e r y *c" $0 t h e g r i d a s shown i n Figure 8 we p l a c e a negative charge on t h e g r i d which w i l l a s s i s t t h e negative space charge. Since t h e space charge i s a l r e a d y negative an a d d i t i o n a l negative charge on the g r i d w i l l r e p e l the g r e a t e r number of e l e c t r o n s which otherwise would have t r a v e l e d d i r e c t l y t o the p l a t e . As soon a s t h i s happens t h e p l a t e i s robbed of e l e c t r o n s and a drop i n p l a t e c u r r e n t r e s u l t s . If w have t h e g r i d p o t e n t i a l b a t t e r y i n Figure 8 arranged so t h a t it i s e v a r i a b l e , allowing u s t o g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e t h e negative charge on t h e g r i d , a point w i l l f i n a l l y be reached when t h e r e p e l l i w f o r c e caused by i n c r e a s i n g t h e negative p o t e n t i a l w i l l become g r e a t enough t o e f f e c t u a l l y block and t u r n back a l l t h e e l e c t r o n s emitted by t h e filament. I n t h i s case no c u r r e n t w i l l flow i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t because e l e c t r o n s a r e not now reaching t h e p l a t e . In o t h e r words we have made t h e g r i d equal i n negative f o r c e t o t h e p o s i t i v e a t t r a c t i o n of t h e p l a t e and neutralization i s the result*

Figure 8

Figure 9

N w l e t us r e v e r s e t h e b a t t e r y "C" s o t h e p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l i s cono nected t o the g r i d a s shown i n Figure 9. This w i l l give t h e g r i d a p o s i t i v e charge and, since u n l i k e charges a t t r a c t , t h e g r i d w i l l have t h e e f f e c t of a t t r n c t i w t h e e l e c t r o n s and a l s o c o n t e r a c t i n g , t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t h e negative space charge. The p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l be increased because t h e g r i d , being made p o s i t i v e , h a s now added an a t t r a c t i v e p o s i t i v e f o r c e t o t h a t of t h e p l a t e and consequently a s s i s t s t h e p l a t e i n a t t r a c t i n g e l e c t r o n s t o i t . B y t h i s added p o s i t i v e f o r c e i n t h e e l e c t r o n p a t h s t h e e l e c t r o n s g a i n a much g r e a t e r v e l o c i t y and pass between t h e f i n e g r i d wires s t r i k i n g the p l a t e i n g r e a t e r quantities. Some of t h e e l e c t r o n s s t r i k e t h e gr%d and cause a c u r r e n t t o flow t h e r e i n . This c u r r e n t i s u s u a l l y small and l a t e r on methods w i l l be introduced t o keep i t a t a m i n i m u m because l a r g e g r i d c u r r e n t i s undesirable. If t h i s g r i d b a t t e r y C i s made v a r i a b l e a s i n t h e case of Figure 8, and t h e n g r a d u a l l y changed s o t h a t an i n c r e a s i n g posltive

Lesson 23

- sheet 12

charge i s placed on t h e g r i d , more and more e l e c t r o n s w i l l be a s s i s t e d t o t h e p l a t e , but t h e r e w i l l b e a point reached where f u r t h e r increas i n g the p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l of t h e g r i d w i l l not draw more e l e c t r o n s from the f i l a m e n t . When t h e s a t u r a t i o n p o i n t has been reached f u r t h e r i n c r e a s i n g t h e g r i d p o t e n t i a l w i l l not i n c r e a s e t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t . When w consider the r e p e l l i n g e f f e c t e being emitted i t i s e a s i l y understood when w introduce any element t h a t w i e a c t i o n of t h e space charge. The g r i d t r o l as you have observed. t h e space charge has on e l e c t r o n s how t h e e l e c t r o n flow is e f f e c t e d l l e i t h e r i n c r e a s e o r decrease t h i s has t h e power t o e x e r c i s e t h i s con-

The r a d i o wave i s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , r a p i d l y changing from p o s i t i v e t o negative. This c u r r e n t i s l e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e g r i d i n t h e r a d i o r e c e i v e r and changes the g r i d r a p i d l y from p o s i t i v e t o negative thereby c o n t r o l l i n g t h e flow of e l e c t r o n s which, i n t u r n , determine t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t flow. The p l a t e c u r r e n t flowing through t h e telephone r e c e i v e r s i s made t o change i n t h i s way. The tube a c t i o n i n t h e r e c e i v i n g s e t w i l l b r i n g t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n out i n more d e t a i l .
EXAMINATION

- LESSON

23

1.

What a r e Thermionic Currents?

Of what importance was t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e "Edison E f f e c t " ?

2 .
3.
4.
5.

Does t h e atom normally possess a n e l e c t r i c a l charge? Upon what does e l e c t r o n emission depend? T e l l what you know about "space charge". ( a ) I n a vacuum t u b e what i s t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e p l a t e ? ( b ) The f i l a m e n t ? What i s t h e e f f e c t of i o n i z a t i o n ?
HOW does t h e t h r e e element t u b e d i f f e r from the Fleming Valve?
O f what importance i s t h e g r i d element?

6.

7.
8.

9 . 10.

When t h e h e a t a p p l i e d t o t h e filament i s i n c r e a s e d i s t h e r e an i n c r e a s e i n t h e e l e c t r o n emission?

Lesson 23

sheet 13

Technical Lesson 24
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e s of a vacuum tube show t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t and t h e f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e and p l a t e c u r r e n t and t h e a p p l i e d g r i d v o l t a g e s . The fundamentals may b e e x p l a i n e d by t h e i r u s e which e n a b l e s t h e o p e r a t o r to a d j u s t t h e t u b e f o r c e r t a i n r e q u i r e d functioning.

GRID VOLTS

Figure 1 F i g u r e I shows t h r e e c u r v e s , A , B, and C . Curve A r e p r e s e n t s t h e changing p l a t e c u r r e n t f o r e a c h change i n v o l t a g e a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d of t h e t u b e when t h e p l a t e v o l t a g e i s m a i n t a i n e d c o n s t a n t a t twenty v o l t s and t h e f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t i s kept a t a c o n s t a n t value. Follow curve A t o t h e l e f t ; a t i t s lower p o i n t you w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t r e a c h e s zero. T h i s happens because t h e g r i d i s g i v e n a n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l a s shown by t h e g r i d v o l t a g e which i s marked a l o n g t h e X a x i s . When t h e g r i d i s s t r o n g l y n e g a t i v e t h e e l e c t r o n s frornthe f i l a m e n t a r e p r e v e n t e d from p a s s i n g t o t h e p l a t e and, i n consequence o f t h i s f a c t , no p l a t e c u r r e n t f l o w r e s u l t s . The g r i d , b e i n g n e g a t i v e , s t o p s t h e e l e c t r o n flow t o the p l a t e . When, however, the p o t e n t i a l a p p l i e d t o the g r i d becomes l e s s n e g a t i v e more e l e c t r o n s a r e allowed t o p a s s t o t h e p l a t e . When t h e g r i d becomes p o s i t i v e and i s i n c r e a s e d i n p o s i t i v e v a l u e t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y i n c r e a s e . T h i s i n c r e a s i n g value of p l a t e c u r r e n t i s shown by t h e s t r a i g h t p o r t i o n of curve A between p o i n t s D and E.

Printed i U S. A. n . C o n t e n t s Copyrighted 1 9 3 0

t h e r e w i l l be a p o i n t r e a c h e d where t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l c e a s e T h i s i s termed t h e p o i n t of s a t u r a t i o n . By t h e t e r m , " p o i n t of s a t u r a t i o n " , we mean t h a t , p r o v i d e d t h e f i l a n e n t v o l t a g e and p l a t e v o l t a g e a r e k e p t a t a c o n s t a n t v a l u e , any f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l v a l u e on t h e g r i d w i l l n o t i n c r e a s e t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t flow. T h i s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e f l a t t e n i n g of t h e curve a t p o i n t S and i s c a l l e d t h e p o i n t of s a t u r a t i o n . When t h e p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l of t h e g r i d i s f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d t h e c u r r e n t f l o w i n g i n t h e c i r c u i t may s t a r t t o d e c r e a s e . T h i s i s caused by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e g r i d has become s o h i g h l y p o s i t i v e t h a t i t r o b s t h e p l a t e of e l e c t r o n s which o t h e r w i s e would h a v e passed t o ,the p l a t e .
t o increase.

If t h e g r i d voltage i s continuously increased i n p o s i t i v e value

GRID CURRENT
When t h e g r i d i s made p o s i t i v e i t i s obvious from t h e law, " u n l i k e charges a t t r a c t " , t h a t t h e g r i d w i l l a t t r a c t t h e e l e c t r o n s t o i t s e l f from t h e f i l a m e n t j u s t a s a p o s i t i v e l y c h a r g e d p l a t e w i l . 1 a t t r a c t e l e c t r o n s . S i n c e a movement o r f l o w of e l e c t r o n s c o n s t i t u t e s a f l o w of c u r r e n t it i s e v i d e n t t h a t , w i t h t h e g r i d p o s i t i v e , t h e r e w i l l b e a f l o w of e l e c t r o n s o r c u r r e n t i n t h e g r i d and t h r o u g h any c i r c u i t connected t o t h e g r i d .
A l a r g e g r i d c u r r e n t f l o w i s not d e s i r a b l e i n t h e r a d i o c i r c u i t and means a r e t a k e n t o k e e p it down t o a minimum v a l u e which w i l l b e exp l a i n e d l a t e r . The o n l y f u n c t i o n i n t e n d e d of t h e g r i d i s t o c o n t r o l t h e c u r r e n t f l o w i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t . %en c u r r e n t f l o w s i n t h e g r i d it must be s u b t r a c t e d from t h e c u r r e n t t h a t would n o r m a l l y f l o w i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t s i n c e b o t h t h e g r i d and p l a t e c u r r e n t o r i g i n a t e It i s s e e n , t h e n , t h a t a from t h e e l e c t r o n s e m i t t e d by t h e f i l a n e n t . p o s i t i v e g r i d t e n d s t o r o b t h e p l a t e of e l e c t r o n s and s e t s up a c u r r e n t i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t p e r f o r m i n g no u s e f u l work and r e d u c e s t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t flow. A s m a l l g r i d c u r r e n t i s p u t t o u s e f u l p u r p o s e , a s explained i n d e t e c t o r action. Grid c u r r e n t i s p r a c t i c a l l y prevented by m a i n t a i n i n g t h e g r i d n e g a t i v e t h r o u g h t h e u s e of what i s termed a g r i d b i a s i n g b a t t e r y , commonly c a l l e d t h e "CC" b a t t e r y , and p l a c i n g it i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t w i t h i t s n e g a t i v e pole connected t o t h e g r i d .

Curves "B" and "C" of P i c u r e 1 d i f f e r o n l y from c u r v e " A" i n t h a t curve "3" i n d i c a t e s 40 v o l t s used on t h e p l a t e w h i l e i n c u r v e "C" e i g h t y v o l t s was a p p l i e d .
I n a l l t h r e e c u r v e s the same f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e was m a i n t a i n e d , t h e g e n e r a l form of a l l t h e c u r v e s b e i n g p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same.

THE VACUUhl TUBE AYIPLIFIER

B e f o r e t a k i n g up t h e a c t i o n of t h e vacuum t u b e employed a s a d e t e c t o r we w i l l c o n s i d e r i t a s a n a m p l i f i e r f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t i t s fundamental a c t i o n s a r e more e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d . W w i l l , f o r t h i s purpose, u s e a e vacuum t u b e c i r c u i t w i t h supplementary c u r v e s t o d e s c r i b e t h e a c t i o n a s we proceed.

Lesson 24

- sheet

F i g u r e 2 r e p r e s e n t s a c i r c u i t which we w i l l u s e t o d e s c r i b e t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e t u b e a s a n a m p l i f i e r . It was e x p l a i n e d t h a t when a p o s i t i v e v o l t a g e i s p l a c e d on t h e g r i d t h e r e s u l t i n g f l o w of p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l a l s o a s s m e a c e r t a i n i n c r e a s e d value. When, however, t h e g r i d v o l t a g e i s changed t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l a l s o make a c o r r e sponding change, t h e e x a c t amount depending upon t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e t u b e . The t u b e a c t i n g a s a n a m p l i f i e r s h o u l d o p e r a t e on t h e s t r a i g h t p o r t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e o r t h e p a r t of c u r v e A , of F i g u r e 1, between D and E.

Figure 2 Figure 3 Nowlet u s r e t u r n t o F i g u r e 2. 'When a n incoming Radio wave i s impressed on c o i l L l t h r o u g h i n d u c t i o n by c o i l I, t h e wave w i l l a l t e r n a t e and t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s composing t h i s wave w i l l be r e g u l a r o s c i 3 . l a t i o n s Y t h a t i s , e a c h o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l a l t e r n a t e l y v a r y from a p o s i t i v e t o a n e g a t i v e v a l u e . When t h e wave i s made up of c o n t i n u o u s oscil.l.ations t h e p o s i t i v e v a l u e may b e c o n s i d e r e d p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h e n e g a t i v e v a l u e . In t h e damped wave, however, e a c h h a l f o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l be somewhat l e s s than t h e preceeding h a l f o s c i l l a t i o n . W w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e wave e When it i s impressed upon c o i l L1 i t w i l l t o be a c o n t i n u o u s one. i n t r o d u c e n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e t u b e a n e l t e r a a t i n g c u r r e n t . T h i s ' w i l l c a u s e t h e g r i d t o become p o s i t i v e one i n s t a n t and n e g a t i v e t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s t a n t . When p o s i t i v e , a n i n c r e a s e d p l a t e c u r r e n t f l o w s and, when n e g a t i v e , t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l d e c r e a s e . T h i s a c t i o n i s shown by t h e c u r v e F i g u r e 3. By c a r e f u l l y s t u d y i n g t h i s curve i t w i l l be s e e n t h a t , because t h e g r i d v o l t a g e v a r i e s e q u a l l y , t h e i n c r e a s e s of c u T r e n t i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t a r e f o l l o w e d by d e c r e a s e s of e q u a l magnitude. I n F i g u r e 3 t h e z e r o v o l t a g e l i n e i s shown i n t e r s e c t i n g t ? ~ echaract e r i s t i c curve a t i t s mid- point A. When a n a l t e r n a t i n p c u r r e n t B C G F K , and s o on t o Z, which i s r e p r e s e ~ t i n gt h e incoming wave, i s impressed on t h e g r i d , t h e t u b e w i l l o p e r a t e o v e r t h a t p o r t i o n

Lesson 24

sheet 3

of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve between t h e p o i n t s D and I. % This, you w i l l observe, i s on t h e s t r a i g h t p o r t i o n of t h e curve, and the d i s t a n c e DA w i l l be equal t o AE.
B C G , which i s t h e p o s i t i v e h a l f of the incoming s i g n a l wave w i l l - t h e r e f o r e produce a p l a t e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n shown by the l e t t e r s H I J, while the n e g a t i v e h a l f of the s i g n a l wave G F K w i l l produce a p l a t e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n J M N which w i l l be equal but opposite t o H I J. These v a r i a t i o n s of p l a t e current produce a p l a t e c u r r e n t of. a p u l s a t i n g n a t u r e a s shown between p o i n t s H and P, t h e form of which w i l l be e x a c t l y s i m i l a r t o t h e form b f t h e incoming s i g n a l wave, B C G F K. The amplitude, however, w i l l be d i f f e r e n t i n t h a t t h e v a r i a t i o n s of p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l have a much g r e a t e r amplitude t h a n t h a t of t h e incoming s i g n a l which was impressed on t h e g r i d ,

The fundamental i d e a of a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s t h a t , f o r a given v - r i a t i o n i n g r i d voltage, t h e r e w i l l be a g r e a t e r , or amplified v a r i a t i o n i n t h e p l a t e current. The p l a t e v a r i a t i o n s , although g r e a t e r i n amplitude t h a n the g r i d v a r i a t i o n s , w i l l be e x a c t l y s i m i l a r i n form.

- - - -- - - - -

CONTINUOUS W U E 7 R A I N PtWYED IN AHltNWD, CIRCUIT

] PRODUCED BY IYCPMING WAVE VARYING GRID VOLTI\GE

Figure 4 For a given g r i d v o l t a g e t h e p l s t e c u r r e n t has a given s t r e n g t h while operating on t h e s t r a i g h t p o r t i o n of t h e curve. I f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e t u b e , however, i s such t h a t t h e curve w i l l have a s t e e p slope a t t h e operating p o i n t , a s shown by t h e curve of Figure 4, then t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t would be q u i t e l a r g e f o r a given v a r i a t i o n of the g r i d voltage. The magnitude of a m p l i f i c a t i o n w i l l depend i n p a r t upon t h e charact e r i s t i c s of t h e p a r t i c u l a r tube t o be used and a l s o upon t h e voltage charge applied t o t h e grid. The applied g r i d voltage canbe c o n t r o l l e d by the operator of t h e r e c e i v e r but t h e amplifying f a c t o r s of t h e tube, t h a t i s , t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n constant i s e n t i r e l y dependent upon the des i g n of t h e tube i t s e l f . I n reference t o t h e varying p l a t e c u r r e n t i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o make c l e a r a t t h i s time t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t v a r i e s c o n s t a n t l y and r e g u l a r l y , it cannot be c a l l e d an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t because it

Lesson 24

- sheet

does not have negative values small p o s i t i v e values.

It has only s u c c e s s i v e l y l a r g e and

Suppose w use t h e tube a s an a m p l i f i e r with a p l a t e p o t e n t i a l of e twenty v o l t s . I n s p e c t i o n of curve A of Figure 1 w i l l b r i n g out t h e f a c t t h a t , w i t h the g r i d normally a t zero p o t e n t i a l , t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n w i l l n o t be as l a r g e a s i n t h e previous case of It must Figure 3 due t o the s m a l l e r slope of the curve a t p o i n t D. be remembered t h a t , f o r b e s t r e s u l t s i n a m p l i f i c a t i o n , w must work e on t h e s t e e p p a r t of t h e curve. The v a r i a t i o n s of c u r r e n t through t h e d i f f e r e n t c i r c u i t s can now be shown by t h e graphs A , B, and C i n Figure 5. Graph A r e p r e s e n t s a continuous wave t r a i n being r e c e i v e d i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t . T h i s induces a c u r r e n t i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t L1 of Figure 2. The varying voltage a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d i s shown by graph B This varying g r i d v o l t a g e w i l l cause t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t t o vary . as represented i n graph C . I n graph C s p e c i a l note should be taken of t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t f o r i t shows t h e c u r r e n t s t a r t i n g a t some f i x e d p o s i t i v e value and varying from g r e a t e r t o l e s s e r p o s i t i v e values. This varying p l a t e c u r r e n t , on passing through the primary winding L2 of t h e transformer i n Figure 2 , induces i n t h e secondary L3 an a l t e r n a t i n g B.M.F. which s e t s up an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t flow i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e second tube. The p l a t e c u r r e n t through L2 of t h e f i r s t tube i s g r e a t e r than t h e g r i d c u r r e n t induced i n L 1 of t h e same tube. By u s i n g t h e transformer t o t r a n s f e r energy from L2 t o L 3 t h e voltage impressed on t h e second tube w i l l then be much g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t on t h e f i r s t tube. The c h a r a c t e r of t h e v a r i a t i o n s , however, w i l l remain t h e same a s t h o s e of t h e f i r s t tube. THE T B DETECTOR UE The purpose of t h e vacuum tube a s a d e t e c t o r i s t o r e c t i f y the r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t s c o l l e c t e d by t h e r e c e i v i n g a e r i a l . The vacuum tube may be used i n two ways t o o b t a i n r e c t i f i c a t i o n ( d et e c t i o n ) . One of t h e s e methods i s t o connect t h e tube i n the c i r c u i t , and a d j u s t t h e g r i d , p l a t e , and filament v o l t a g e s t o t h e extent t h a t t h e normal o p e r a t i o n w i l l occur a t t h e bend of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve of t h e tube, and it i s t h u s u t i l i z e d t o o b t a i n d e t e c t i o n . This i s c a l l e d the p l a t e c u r r e n t method of r e c t i f i c a t i o n . The other method i n which t h e tube may be used a s a d e t e c t o r i s t o i n clude i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t o f t h e d e t e c t o r a g r i d l e a k and g r i d condenser. When used i n this way d e t e c t i o n is obtained b y p i d c u r r e n t r e c t i f i c a t i o n . When using t h e method f i r s t s t a t e d t h e tube r e c t i f i e s because t h e i ncreases and decreases of p l a t e c u r r e n t a r e made unequal when changes i n the g r i d voltage a r e applied when o p e r a t i n g a t t h e bend of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve.

Lesson 24

sheet 5

I n F i g u - ~ e w have a g r i d voltage p l a t e c u r r e n t curve which i s simi6 e l a r t o t h e curves shovm i n Figure 1 . This curve has been explained and i t shows t h e c h a w e i n p l a t e c u r r e n t f o r a g i v e n change i n g r i d voltage. W w i l l now assume t h a t t h e g r i d i s biased a t two v o l t s negztive. e The normal p l a t e c u r r e n t i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e P.C. which we have a r b i t r a r i l y assumed t o r e p r e s e n t .2 milliamperes. A continuous r a d i o wave i s now impinged upon t h e antenna, s e t t i n g up t h e r e i n an a l t e r n a t i n g E.M.F. which i n t u r n causes an a l t e r n a t i n g E.M.F. t o be impressed upon t h e g r i d of t h e tube through s u i t a b l e coupling devices. T h i s incoming s i g n a l wave i s c l e a r l y shown i n Figure 6 along t h e g r i d voltage l i n e .

P.C.

O PNTENNA -' F

CURRENT WAVE
'

I*--GRID

VOLlPiGE LlNf.

Figure 6 The incoming s i g n a l wave w i l l have a c e r t a i n voltage which i s a l t e r n a t i n g f i r s t p o s i t i v e anrl t h e n negative and it w i l l add t o o r s u b t r a c t from t h e v o l t a g e a l r e a d y on t h e grid. When no s i g n a l wave i s being r e ceived t h e g r i d voltage i s normally 2 v o l t s negative shown by t h e g r i d v o l t a g e l i n e which i n t e r s e c t s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve a t "XIt1. At t h i s p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n a h o r i z o n t a l l i n e , P.C., i s drawn p a r a l l e l t o t h e "x" a x i s i n d i c a t i n g t h e normal p l a t e c u r r e n t f l o w with t h e g r i d a t 2 v o l t s n e g a t i v e . The incoming s i g n a l wave i s now impressed upon t h e g r i d and, a s shown, i s of e q u a l amplitude on both s i d e s of t h e g r i d v o l t a g e l i n e . The m a x i m amplitude of t h i s wave i s shown t o t h e l e f t of t h e g r i d v o l t a g e l i n e of n e g a t i v e two v o l t s and i t w i l l decrease the Following the n e g a t i v e charge a l r e a d y on t h e g r i d t o 4 v o l t s negative. dott.ed l i n e from t h e maximum p o i n t of t h e amplitucle i t r r i l l i n t e r s e c t t h e curve a t "D", and t h e h o r i z o n t a l d o t t e d l i n e dravm p a r a l l e l t o t h e X a x i s shows t h e value of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t flowing when t h e g r i d i s a t 4 v o l t s n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l . The g r i d v o l t a g e was made more n e g a t i v e , a s j u s t s t a t e d , by t h e negative voltage of t h e incoming wave being added t o t h e negative charge a l r e a d y on t h e g r i d .

Lesson 24

- sheet

The negative amplitude of t h e wave now begins t o decrease and, on reaching t h e gric' voltage l i n e , the g r i d w i l l be r e s t o r e d t o i t s n o ~ m e lcondition, having a charge of 2 v o l t s negative. This w i l l cause t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t t o i n c r e a s e a s represented by t h e curve between p o i n t s D t o t h e normal operating p o i n t of t h e curve " X I n . The wave novi i n c r e a s e s i n amplitude from C t o I; t h i s h a l f of t h e wave, being p o s i t i v e , it o f f s e t s the 2 v o l t s negative charge reducing i t t o zero with a r e s u l t i n g p l a t e .current i n c r e a s e represented by "El1 on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve. The form of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t curve w i l l follow e x a c t l y the form of the incoming s i g n a l waves, which i s shown by F G H J K e t c . The p l a t e c u r r e n t impulses, 8 s shown by l e t t e r s 3 L N, i n c r e a s e to a g r e a t e r value above t h e normal p l a t e c u r r e n t l i n e PC than they decrease i n value below t h i s l i n e , a s shown by G K M , even though the amplitude or voltage changes of t h e incoming s i g n a l wave i s equal on e i t h e r s i d e of t h e g r i d voltage l i n e . Because t h e changes of t h e g r i d voltage produce t h i s r e s u l t , t h i s method of r e c t i f i c a t i o n i s given t h e name " p l a t e c u r r e n t r e c t i fication'. R e c t i f i c a t i o n r e s u l t s when t h e operating p o i n t of t h e curve occurs near the loxzels bend or knee of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve.
GRID
PLhTE

GRID

PLATE

Figure 8 Figupe 7 If t h e g r i d voltage Pine was made t o i n t e r s e c t t h e char: c t e r i s t i c curve higher up where t h e curve i s n e a r l y a s t r a i g h t l l ~ l e the i n creases and decreases of p l a t e c u r r e n t above and below t h e normal p l a t e c u r r e n t l i n e would be n e a r l y equal and a m p l i f i c a t i o n instead of r e c t i f i c a t i o n would be obtained,
BIASING METHODS

Biasing the g r i 3 nay be accomplished by employing a potentiometer connected a c r o s s t h e filament l i g h t i n g b a t t e r y a s shown i n Figure 7. The c e n t e r , o r movable arm of t h e potentiometer, i s connected t o t h e g r i d r e t u r n and t h e ends of t h e potentiometer winding i s connected t o t h e p o s i t i v e and negative siZes of t h e filament. When t h e potentiometer arm i s moved t o t h e r i g h t i t w i l l place a p o s i t i v e b i a s on t h e g r i d and moving i t t o t h e l e f t makes the g r i d negative. With t h i s system a c l o s e adjustment can be secured which a f f o r d s an opportunity f o r t h e operator t o s h i f t t h e operating p o i n t a t w i l l u n t i l t h e b e s t p o i n t of d e t e c t i o n i s found.

Lesson 24

- sheet

Another method of placing a b i a s on t h e g r i d i s t o use a b i s s i n g b a t t e r y , c a l l e d t h e "C" b a t t e r y . The d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t i n Figure 8 shows how t h e "C" b a t t e r y i s connected t o b i a s t h e g r i d , This method does not allow a s f i n e an adjustment zs t h e potentiometer because t h e operator can only vary t h e g r i d voltage by the number of t a p s brought out on t h e "C" b a t t e r y and, i n generAl, t h e t a p s a r e i n one and one h a l f v o l t steps. Although the b i a s i n g methods j u s t described may be used, they have been replaced i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l r a d i o broadcast r e c e i v e r s by'connecting t h e g r i d r e t u r n d i r e c t l y t o e i t h e r t h e p o s i t i v e or negative s i d e of the f i l a m e n t , depending upon the type of tube used, t h e t i s , whether a h i g h l y evacuated or hard. tube, or a gas f i l l e d or s o f t tube.

'-TUNED CIRCUIT

R.

Figure 9 Figure 10 It i s d e s i r a b l e when a hard tube i s used a s a d e t e c t o r t o connect t h e g r i d r e t u r n d i r e c t l y t o the p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e filament. When using a s o f t tube such a s t h e old W-200 a s a d e t e c t o r or t h e new UX-200-A, i t i s then considered b e s t t o connect t h e g r i d r e t u r n d i r e c t l y t o t h e negative s i d e of t h e filament. The g r i d i s maintained p o s i t i v e when connected t o the p o s i t i v e s i d e of the filament c i r c u i t and negative when connected t o t h e negative s i d e of t h e f ilaraent.
G R I D CURRENT RECTIFICATION

When a g r i d condenser and g r i d leak a r e connected i n t h e c i r c u i t of a vacuum tube d e t e c t o r , a s shown i n Figures 9 and 10, g r i d c u r r e n t r e c t i f i c a t i o n t a k e s place. The only change i n t h i s c i r c u i t from t h e det e c t o r c i r c u i t u t i l i z i n g t h e p l ~ t e u r r e n t r e c t i f ' i c a t i o n method i s t h e c omission of the g r i d , or "C" b a t t e r y , and t h e i n s e r t i o n of a g r i d conCenser i n t h e g r i d l e a d . When no s i g n a l vave i s being received t h e p l e t e p o t e n t i a l supplied by t h e "B" b a t t e r y w i l l be of a constant value P r a c t i c a l l y no c u r r e n t v i t h a s t e a d y c u r r e n t flow i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t . w i l l flow i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t because t h e g r i d i s i n s u l a t e d from the filament by t h e s m d l g r i d condenser. N w assuming t h a t t h e condenser i n s u l a t e s t h e c i r c u i t p e r f e c t l y then, o with t h i s condition, t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e g r i d ( o n l y when f i r s t s e t i n o p e r a t i o n ) w i l l be t h a t corresponding t o a zero c u r r e n t i n t h e g r i d circuit. Lesson 24

sheet 8

-W e

w i l l now assume t h a t t h e antenna i s energized by a damped wave. The wave w i l l be picked up by the antennb and w i l l pass through t h e inductance c o i l L , and condenser C, t o ground and induce an E.M.F. i n L C c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 10. Current w i l l now flow through , , the g r i d condenser t o t h e g r i d placing thereon an a l t e r n a t i n g p o s i t i v e and negative charge.

Refer t o F i g b e 1 1 A showing simply t h a t p a r t of Figure 10 which includes condenser C, t h e g r i d condenser, and t h e tube elements. During t h e p o s i t i v e h a l f cycle of t h e incoming o s c i l l a t i o n s , shown i n Figure 1 1 B , t h e g r i d becomes p o s i t i v e and t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e tube i s i n c r e a s e d , t h a t i s , e l e c t r o n s a r e a s s i s t e d t o the p l a t e by t h e p o s i t i v e g r i d and more current flows i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t . The g r i d n a t u r a l l y w i l L r e t a i n some of t h e s e e l e c t r o n s . The negat i v e h a l f cycle of t h e incoming wave passes through t h e same c i r c u i t s making t h e g r i d negative t h i s time a s s h o w i n Figure 1 2 , Since t h e g r i d i s negative i t r e p e l s a g r e a t many of t h e e l e c t r o n s emitted by t h e filament and t h e tube becomes l e s s conductive, and c u r r e n t flow i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t i s reduced.

4-

OMING OSCILLATIONS

Figure 1 1 B Figure 1 2 Figure 1 3 During t h e negative h a l f cycles the g r i d does not l o s e t h e e l e c t r o n s i t accumulated d u r i n g t h e p o s i t i v e h a l f cycles and, t h e r e f o r e , a t every cycle the n e g a t i v e charge i s b u i l t up g r a d u a l l y on t h e g r i d . Such a condition i s s w g e s t e d i n Figure 13, t h e e f f e c t of which i s &ach h a l f o s c i l l e t i o n causes t o decrease the p l a t e c u r r e n t flow. t h e negative charges t o add t o the previous ones making t h e gricl more and more n e g z t i v e and t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l t h e r e f o r e continue t o decrease.

It i s undesirable t o have t h e g r i d c i r c u i t permanently r e t a i n t h e negative charge i t has accumulated during t h e successive c y c l e s of t h e f i r s t inconling wave t r a i n shown by curve A, Figure 14. A f t e r . t h e damped o s c i l l a t i o n s have Cied out, some means must be provided f o r the accumulated charge t o move away from t h e g r i d and t h u s res t o r e t h e g r i d t o i t s o r i g i n a l c o n d i t i m of zero g r i d voltage before t h e next wave t r a i n a r r i v e s .
I n the e a r l i e r t y p e s of tubes considerable gas was present i n t h e tube due t o the f a c t t h a t a h i g h evacuation of t h e tube could not be s u c c e s s f u l l y accomplished. This gas formed a h i g h r e s i s t a n c e path over which t h e accur~ul.ated grid charge could pass t o the f i l a ment, thus automatically r e s t o r i n g the g r i d t o i t s condition of zero gricl voltage before t h e incoming wave t r a i n was impressed upon it. Lesson 24

sheet 9

With modern vacuum punps t h e t u b e s a r e more h i g h l y e x h a u s t e d and i t becomes n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e a c i r c u i t which w i l l a l l o w t h e g r i d a c c u n u l a t i o n t o e s c a p e . T h i s i s accomplished b y p l a c i n g a h i g h r e s i s t a n c e i n p a r o l l e l w i t h t h e g r i d condenser. T h i s h i g h r e s i s t a n c e i s called a grid leak. F i g u r e 10 shows how it i s connected around t h e g r i d condenser. Let u s review t h e f o r e g o i n g s t a t e m e n t s now i n o r d e r t o b e t t e r understand t h e p a r t the g r i d leak plays.

+
I N CO M IN G OSCILLATIONS

+
-

U'JV"

CURRENT I N GRID CIRCUIT

+ b 7
-

ID
a -

VOLTAGE

F.,RoR,neHaFcoPso

INDICATIN* T l W L RCBUlRED

LreKqf

L.

Vhd

" w h '

PLME C U RRE NT V P I R I ~ I O M S

-I

pv n w a a m cuaasnr
I* TELEPHONE^
W H I C H U S 0 SHOWS M O T I O N

OF TELEPW9WE DIWNPLGM

I n F i g u r e 1 3 t h e incoming wave t r a i n , a c t i n g a l t e r n a t e l y p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e on t h e g r i d of t h e t u b e , h a s caused a l a r g e a c c u m u l a t i o n of n e g a t i v e c h a r g e s on t h e g r i d which cont i n u e s a l l t h r o u g h t h e s e r i e s of o s c i l l a t i o n s c o m p r i s i n g one wave t r a i n of t h e s i g n a l . 0 E l e c t r o n s cannot e s c a p e t o t h e f i l a m e n t t h r o u g h t h e vacuum f o r we are c o n s i d e r i n g our t u b e t o b e h i g h l y exhausted, or a hard t u b e , w i t h l i t t l e o r no g a s p r e s e n t . E l e c t r o n s cannot f l o w t h r o u g h t h e g r i d condenser back t o t h e f i l a m e n t b e c a u s e c a condenser w i l l not p a s s d i r e c t c u r r e n t , and t h e e l e c t r o n s a r e p o t e n t i a l l y d i r e c t c i - ~ r r e n t . They c a n , however, leak away and r e t u r n t o t h e f i l a m e n t t l - t r ~ ~ ~ g h h i g h r e s i s t a n c e g r i d l e a k we have the p l a c e d i n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e g r i d condenser. The E e s i s t a n c e of t h i s l e a k v a r i e s from a m i l l i o n t o f i v e m i l l i o n ol.tis and h i g h e r v a l u e s and o f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e movement of t h e accumulxted g r i d charge. Because o f t h i s h i g h resisi;ance a l l during- the increasing voltages of one wave t r a i n of t h e incoming s i g n a l t h e g r i d becomes more and more n e g a t i v e . The negaE t i v e charge accumul-ates f a s t e r t h a n t h e h i g h - r e s i s t a n c Z g r i d l e a k w i l l a l l o w it t o p a s s - o f f t o filament.
A

Figure 14 The v a l u e of t h e g r i d 1.eak i n ohms depends upon t h e s i z e of t h e c h a r g e a c c u m u l a t i n g on t h e g r i d , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e c i r c u i t , and t h e It should be s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t t o p r e v e n t tube used a s a d e t e c t o r . the g r i d condenser from t o t a l l y d i s c h a r g i n g b e f o r e t h e incoming o s c i l l a t i o n s of any one group of s i g n a l s have been completed, and s u f f i c i e n t l y s m a l l t o a l l o w t h e completed c h a r g e t o l e a k o f f between t h e g r o u p s of o s c i l l a t i o n s . When t h e v a l u e of t h e l e a k i s t o o s m a l l t h e g r i d conilenser w i l l not c h a r g e f u l l y t h u s d e c r e a s i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e t u b e and, i f t o o l a r g e i n v a l u e , it w i l l amount t o t h e same a s no g r i d leal: a t a l l . For example, i n a c i r c u i t h a v i n g no l e a k and r e c e i v i n g a l a r g e c h a r g e t h e c h a r g e may jump t o t h e f i l a m e n t t h r o u g h s u r f a c e l e a k a g e a c r o s s t h e g r i d c o n d e n s e r , o r i t may t a k e p l a c e a c r o s s t h e i n s u l a t i o n of t h e t u b e socket. T h i s w - i l l produce a PUTT PUTT PUTT sound i n t h e t e l e p h o n e s , o c c u r i n g p e r i o d i c a l l y a s e a c h c h a r g e accur.1ulates and d i s c h a r g e s . T h i s may happen, a s s t a t e d above, i f t h e g r i d l e a k r e s i s t a n c e i s t o o h i g h o r i f no g r i d l e a k i s used. L e s s o n 24

s h e e t 10

t e d i n e i t h e r of two ways a s shown i n study of t h e s e two c f r c u i t s w i l l show filament In Figure 10, the charge flows through L+ t o t h e f i l a m e n t , while i n Figure 1 5 i t flows d i r e c t l y t o t h e filament without p a s s i n through This method of r e c t i f i c a t i o n ( g r i d c u r r e n t i s a much inductance La. b e t t e r one t o use t h a n p l a t e c u r r e n t r e c t i f i c a t i o n s i n c e r e c t i f i c a t i o n ( d e t e c t i o n ) can be obtained a t any point of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve of t h e tube, and i s t h e method used a t the present time i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l broadcast r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t s .

'i

Figure 14 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n the c i r c u i t s j u s t described. Curve A, a s s t a t e d i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e incoming groups of o s c i l l a t i o n s . Curve B r e p r e s e n t s t h e g r i d c i r c u i t c u r r e n t . C i n d i c a t e s t h e g r i d voltage, D t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n s , and E t h e average c u r r e n t through t h e telephone r e c e i v e r s . Curve C i s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n t h i s s e r i e s ,GRID CONDENSER of curves because it shows t h e m i d voltage o s c i l l a t i n g a t r a d i o frequency, becomingmore and more nenatfve u n t i l t h e crroum of o s c i l l a t i o n s cease and t h e gri;i charge l e a k s off t o f i l a m e n t through t h e g r i d leak. The g r i d then assumes i t s normal voltage and a aew group of o s c i l l a t i o n s i s impressed on t h e c i r c u i t . Curve D shows-the r a d i o frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u r t current. They o s c i l l a t e a t r a d i o f r e q u e n c i e s and follow t h e g r i d & v o l t a g e y a r i a t i o n s , but t h e average p l a t e 7' c u r r e n t makes only one l a r g e v a r i a t i o n Figure 1 5 f o r each group of o s c i l l a t i o n s impressed on the g r i d . The telephones do not respond, a s you know, t o r a d i o frequencies but w i l l respond t o t h e average p l a t e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n s . This average v a r i a t i o n which a f f e c t s t h e phones i s shown a t E, t h e r e being one l a r g e v a r i a t i o n f o r each group of incoming o s c i l l a t i o n s .

EXAMINATION

LESSON 24

What i s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve of t h e vacuum tube intended t o show? What i s meant by the " s a t u r a t i o n point" ? I s it d e s i r a b l e t o have a l a r g e g r i d c u r r e n t flow? H w i s the g r i d current flow prevented? o What i s t h e fundamental i d e a of a m p l i f i c a t i o n i n t h e vacuum tube? What i s t h e purpose of t h e vacuum tube a s a d e t e c t o r ? S t a t e two ways of p l a c i n g a b i a s on t h e g r i d of a vacuum tube. What d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s between t h e d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t employing g r i d c u r r e n t r e c t i f i c a t i o n and t h e d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t employing p l a t e current r e c t i f i c a t i o n ? How i s t h e g r i d condenser connected i n the c i r c u i t ? Show by diagram two ways of placing a g r i d l e a k and condenser i n the detector c i r c u i t . Lesson 24

- sheet

1 1

M A R CON/ /NST/TUTE

Technical Lesson

25
THE

OSCILI:ATORYCIRCUIT

The o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t i s one of t h e most important c i r c u i t s w w i l l e study. It i s shown i n Figure 1 i n i t s most simple form. It c o n s i s t s of a c o i l of wire L and a condenser C . You learned t h a t a c o i l of wire possesses a p r o p e r t y called Ipfluctance, and a condenser t h e p r o p e r t y c a l l e d Capacity. It was pointed out t o you t h e e f f e c t t h a t each of t h e p r o p e r t i e s had upon t h e flow of an alternating current. I n t h i s l e s s o n we s h a l l go f u r t h e r with t h e s t u d y of t h e e f f e c t s produced by Inductance and Capacity. You w i l l remember t h a t when we connected a c o i l of w i r e , f i r s t t o a source of dire'ct c u r r e n t , and then t o a source of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , both of the same voltage, t h e flow of r e s u l t i n g c u r r e n t , measured i n amperes, was g r e a t e r when the c o i l was connected t o t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t source than t o the a l t e r n a t i n g source. This r e s u l t was oqtained because t h e counter electromotive f o r c e of s e l f - i n d u c t i o n i n t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t was only of momentary d u r a t i o n , t h e e f f e c t s being 0 1n noticed only v 2 e t h e c u r r e n t was turned on or o f f . The e f f e c t pk-oduced when t h e c o i l was connected t o the a l t e r n a t i n ~ source, however was q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . Figure 1 Here the e f f e c t s of s e l f - i n d u c t i o n was found t o be continuous, r e s u l t i n g i n a back p r e s s u r e or counter electromotive f o r c e , which must always be taken i n t o account whenever t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e c u r r e n t i s t o be determined#

The flow of d i r e c t c u r r e n t throush t h e c i r c u i t was opposed only by t h e ohmic r e s i s t a n c e , R = ECI, while t h e flow of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i s impeded by t h e counter electromotive f o r c e of s e l f - i n d u c t i o n a s well a s the ordinary ohmic r e s i s t a n c e . The a d d i t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e of s e l f - i n d u c t i o n i s c a l l e d REACTANCE and i s expressed i n equivalent ohms. When t h e s e two e f f e c t s of opposition a r e p r e s e n t i n any c i r c u j t it i s terned IMPEDANCE, t h e r e f o r e the flow of c u r r e n t through a c i r c u i t carrying a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t w i l l be governed not by t h e olmic r e s i s t a n c e alone but bjr t h e impedance. It must be understood t h a t t h e counter E.M.F. of s e l f - i n d u c t i o n does not r e p r e s e n t a l o s s of energy i n an e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t as does r e s i s t a n c e , where t h e energy i s d i s s i pated i n t h e form of h e a t , but a g r e a t e r v o l t a g e i s required t o f o r c e a given c u r r e n t through t h e c i r c u i t . The flow of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i s n e a r l y always c o n t r o l l e d 'by c o i l s having t h e p r o p e r t y of high self- inductance and t h e y a r e c a l l e d reactance c o i l s . These c o i l s e f f e c t an opposition which i s t e r n e d , Inductive Reactance, and i s expressed by t h e following equation. Contents Copyrighted 1930
Printed in U. 5. A.
,

..~.

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE

2 x 3.1416 x frequency x inductance

Where 2 x 3.1416 i s a constant Frequency i s t h e cycles per second Inductance i s the inductance of the c o i l i n h e n r i e s This may be w r i t t e n i n simple form a s follows:
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE 2 f

= =

2 % x f x L or 2 h f L 2 x 3.1416 frequency inductance i n henries.

When a condenser i s connected i n s e r i e s with an a l t e r n a t i n g current c i r c u i t i t a c t s a s an e f f e c t i v e r e s i s t a n c e , a s was shown, e x e r t i n g a back pressure o r counter E.M.F. on the electromotive f o r c e charging t h e condenser. This same counter electromotive f o r c e exerted by t h e condenser w i l l a l s o oppose t h e back p r e s s u r e s e t up by t h e ipductance. I n order t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between t h e s e counter e l e c t r o p o t i v e f o r c e s , t h e r e a c t a n c e caused by t h e inductance i s expressed a s p o s i t i v e reactance and t h a t by t h e condenser a s negative reactance. The c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e of the condenser i s shown by t h e equation; Capacitive Reactance

1 2 x 3.1416 x frequency x capacity

or Capacitive Reactance where 2%

f

1 2 x h x

S x

= =

2 x 3.1416 frequency c a p a c i t p of t h e condenser i n f a r a d s .

When t h e reactance of t h e inductance i s equal t o t h e reactance of t h e condenser, theLr e f f e c t s a r e n e u t r a l i z e d and t h e c i r c u i t i s then s a i d t o be i n RESORANCE. Resonance i n a r a d i o c i r c u i t i s h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e and t o o b t a i n resonance t h e following equation must be s a t i s f i e d :

The frequency i s an important f a c t o r i n any e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t where resonance i s d e s i r e d because i f t h e frequency changes,the value of e i t h e r t h e inductance ( L ) o r t h e capacity ( C ) , o r b o t h inductance and capacity values must be changed so t h a t a new p o i n t of resonance may be secured.
THE OSCILLATORY DISCHAFGE
<

Figure 2 r e p r e s e n t s a condenser connected t o a d i r e c t c u r r e n t charging source. It mag, however, be discharged a t w i l l bv making a m e t a l l i c connection across the two p l a t e s of t h e condenser a s shown i n Figure 3.

Lesson 25

- sheet

When making t h e connection a t p l a t e A f i r s t , and then b r i n g i n g t h e f r e e end of the wire t o p l a t e B , a spark w i l l be seen t o pass between t h e f r e e end of t h e wire and p l a t e B j u s t p r i o r t o t h e a c t u a l contact heir? made. This spark w i l l be only momentary and upon t h e completion of t h e spark t h e condenser w i l l be found t o be completely discharged. I n watching, t h e discharge during t h e short i n t e r v a l of time t h e spark i s v i s i b l e , it would seen t h a t t h e r e had been b u t one r u s h of c u r r e n t . I n r e a l i t y , however, t h e r e were many back and forward r u s h e s of c u r r e n t while t h e spark was i n evidence. S t a r t i n g w i t h t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e t h i s discharge moves t h r o u g h t h e connecting wire t o t h e opposite p l a t e making i t p o s i t i v e and t h e n discharges back i n t o t h e f i r s t p l a t e . This back and forward r u s h of c u r r e n t continues, giving up some of i t s energy a t each r e v e r s a l , which i s manifested by l i g h t , heat, and sound, u n t i l t h e energy o r i g i n a l l y s t o r e d i n t h e condenser has been d i s s i p a t e d . This back and forward motion of c u r r e n t , or 0 s c i l . l a t i o n s of c u r r e n t , t h e n cease.

Figure 4 Figure 2 Figure 3

Figure 5

The number of o s c i l l a t i o n s t e k i n g place w i t h a given charge w i l l i n t h i s case depend mainly upon t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e p a t h between t h e two p l a t e s . When t h i s p a t h i s of low r e s i s t a n c e , t h e r e wi1.l be s e v e r a l c y c l e s of c u r r e n t w i t h each succeeding cycle. becoming smaller i n amplitude, than t h e preceeding c y c l e u n t i l t h e c u r r e n t d i e s out e n t i r e l y . This g r a d u a l dying out of t h e o s c i l l a t L o n s i s c a l l e d damping.
A high r e s i s t a n c e p a t h w i l l a f f e c t t h e discharge t a k i n g place between t h e t w o p l a t e s because t h e discharge may take place s o slowly t h a t no ~ e v e r s a l c u r r e n t w i l l occur, or because t h e energy i m i p a t e d of i n heat.

Let us again charge t h e condenser and place i t i n s e r i e s wi.th an 'inductance L and spark gap G a s i n Figure 4. A spark discharge wil.1 take place which w i l l c o n s i s t of a s e r i e s of cycles of a l t e r n a t i n g current of c o n s t a n t l y decreasing amplitude t h e frequencjr.of which may be very rapid. These, a s s t a t e d , a r e known a s damped o s c i l l a t i o n s . The complete cycle of events t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e discharge of t h e condenser of Figure 4 follow: J u s t p r i o r t 3 t h e f i r s t discharge which t a k e s place i n Figure 4 a t gap G, t h e charge

Lesson 25

- sheet

i n t h e condenser takes t h e form of an e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d which i s s t o r e d up between t h e p l a t e s a s shown by t h e d o t t e d l i n e s . This e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d s t r a i n i s such t h a t i t w i l l cause a spark t o jump from one e l e c t r o d e t o t h e other a c r o s s t h e gap, t h a t i s , t h e c o l l a p s e of t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d causes a c u r r e n t t o flow across t h e spark gap through the inductance L which s e t s up a magnetic f i e l d around t h e c o i l L and t h e connecting l e a d s a s shown i n Figure 5. After the e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d i s converted t o c u r r e n t t h e magnetic l i n e s of force, w i l l then c o l l a p s e back upon t h e inductance L and t h e connecting leads. The r e s u l t i n g c u r r e n t then recharges the condenser t o the opposits p o l a r i t y a s shown i n Figure 6. Although t h e condenser i s now charged i n t h e opposite sense t h e charge i s l e s s than t h a t of t h e i n i t i a l charge because some of t h e energy h a s been l o s t by t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c u r r e n t and t h e production of l i g h t , heat and sound. The condenser now discharges across t h e gap i n a d i r e c t i o n opposite t o t h a t shown i n Figure 5 and the inductance c o i l L i s a g a i n sur-

Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 rounded by a f i e l d a s shown i n Figure 7, but opposite i n p o l a r i t y t o t h a t of Figure 5. These magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e c o l l a p s e and t h e induced c u r r e n t w i l l recharge t h e condenser a g a i n with t h e p o l a r i t y as shown i n Figure 8.

Figure 10 This a c t i o n continues, with each r e v e r s a l of c u r r e n t becoming smaller i n amplitude t h a n the preceeding one, a s shown i n Figure 9. The foregoing may be surrmed up by saying t h a t when an i s o l a t e d charge of e l e c t r i c i t y i s a p p l i e d t o a condenser and t h e p l a t e s a r e connected t o g e t h e r by an e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t t h e charges do not completely n e u t r a l i z e a t t h e f i r s t i n s t a n t of discharge b u t , i n f a c t , s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i o n s of c u r r e n t take place before a s t a t e of equi1.ibriu.m i s r e s t o r e d . When we have an inductance c o i l connected i n s e r i e s with a charged condenser a s shown i n Figure 10, i n which the inductance and c a p a c i t y can be adjusted t o various values, w can, by making the proper adjustments, e make the c u r r e n t o s c i l l a t e many tlmes before i t f i n a l l y ceases. Lesson 25

Figure 9

- sheet

EFFECT O RESISTANCE ON OSCILLATIONS F I n the c i r c u i t j u s t described r e s i s t a n c e has a marked e f f e c t upon t h e damping of t h e o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t . It i s t o be noted t h a t , while r e s i s t a n c e and c a p a c i t y w i l l t e n d t o r a p i d l y damp t h e c u r r e n t i n the o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t , t h e inductance p r e s e n t w i l l a c t t h e r e verse, tending t o prolong t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s . Feebly damped o s c i l l a t i o n s Eire d e s i r e d a s a g e n e r a l r u l e , . t h e r e f o r e t h e inductance must be of high value, while the c a p a c i t y and r e s i s t a n c e should be kept a t low values. I n l a b o r a t o r y work, when very close measurements a r e taken of an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t t h e e f f e c t i v e . r e s i s t a n c e , denoted by symbol R, i s always considered. The formula f o r frequency t h e n becomes;

Considering t h e e f f e c t i v e r e s i s t a n c e "R", frequency would be expressed a s follows,

t o be zero, equation f o r

Keslstance, w found, had t h e tendency t o dampen t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t , hence t h e e f f e c t s of r e s i s t a n c e on o s c i l l a t i o n s nay be expressed a s follows: "When i n any given c i r c u i t a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l value of r e s i s t a n c e i s exceeded, r e l a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r f a c t o r s of t h e c i r c u i t , t h e c i r c u i t w i l l f a i l t o o s c i l l a t e n . The r e l a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , between t h e r e s i s t a n c e of a c i r c u i t and t h e n o n - o s c i l l a t o r y c o n d i t i o n of t h e c i r c u i t i s expressed a s follows: I f t h e r e s i s t a n c e denoted by symbol "R" c i r c u i t w i l l not o s c i l l a t e .
If t h e r e s i s t a n c e "R",

i s g r e a t e r than 2-,

the

i s equal t o 2 q t h e c i r c u i t i s j u s t o s c i l the circuit i'l'hen, however, t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s l e s s t h a n 2 latory. w i l l o s c i l l a t e because i n t h i s case t h e r e w i l l b e an o s c i l l a t o r y c u r r e n t discharge from t h e condenser. T h i s c i r c u i t t h e r e f o r e i s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e production of r a d i o frequency o s c i l l a t i o n .

The value of 2 e i s seen t o hold a d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n t o t h a t c r i t i c a l r e s i s t a n c e which w i l l cause a given c i r c u i t t o become non- oscillatory. I n t h e above e q u a t i o n s
R

L
C

= =

Resistance i n ohms. Inductance i n h e n r i e s . Capacity i n f a r a d s .

LBsson 25

- sheet 5

Let us assume t h e r e s i s t a n c e of Figure 4 t o be zero, the frequency, t h e r e f o r e w i l l be expressed by

and i t w i l l be found t h a t the frequency of o s c i l l a t i o n s can be varied over given p r a c t i c a l l i m i t s by varying e i t h e r t h e inductance or capacity values. I f , f o r example, w add t u r n s t o t h e c o i l L t h e c u r r e n t w i l l e o s c i l l a t e through the c i r c u i t a t a lower frequency. When, however, t u r n s a r e taken off the c o i l L the frequency of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s increase. I f the c a p a c i t y of t h e condenser C i s increased t h e frequency of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l be reducedanddecreasing t h e c a p a c i t y w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e frequency of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s .
RESONANCE

I n order t o b r i n g out t h e idea of resonance w w i l l use a c i r c u i t a s e shown i n Figure 11, and place c l o s e t o i t another oscill.ating c i r c u i t having v a r i a b l e c a p a c i t y aod inductance but having no physical connection between t h e c i r c u i t s . W now have two c i r c u i t s of r a d i o frequency, LCG, e and L1, C 1 , A , coupled magnetically by t h e inductance c o i l s L and L1. --

, ' I. -,--,,, ,':--:,',

<--

___*, /

--

, ,,.-.. .-,, ,

\.__I

Figure 1 1 If the c i r c u i t , LCG, i s s e t i n t o oscillation and t h e inductance L 1 i s c a r e f u l l y a d j u s t e d a p o i n t w i l l be found when t h e milllammeter w i l l give a maximum d e f l e c t i o n . A t any other adjustment of t h e inductsnce t h e meter w i l l i n d i c a t e a lower reading. It can be shown t h a t the adjustment of t h e c i r c u i t , L1, C1, A , when t h e d e f l e c t t o n of t h e ammeker i s maximum, i s such t h a t the two c i r c u i t s have s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same period of o s c i l l a t i o n , t h a t i s , t h e same n a t u r a l frequency. It i s under such adjustments only t h a t l a r g e values of c u r r e n t can be The g r e a t e s t c u r r e n t w i l l flow i n induced i n t h e c i r c u i t L1, C 1 , A. an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t i f i t contains inductance and c a p a c i t y of such values t h a t t h e reactance of c a p a c i t y and t h e reactance of i n ductance a r e equal and opposite. This condition e x i s t s i n the c i r c u i t , L1, C 1 , A, of Figure 1 when t h e hot wire ammeter A i n d i c a t e s t h e maxi1 mum d e f l e c t i o n , t h a t i s , t h e reactance of L 1 equals t h e reactance of t h e condenser C 1 , hence t h e flow of c u r r e n t i n c i r c u i t L1 C 1 i s governed by i t s f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e . The maximum amount of energy w i l l be obtained under t h e s e conditions. Figure 12 shows an antenna, inductance c o i l L and ground. Here w have a c i r c u i t s i m i l a r t o the e . o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t shown i n Figure 1 Lesson 25

- sheet 6

Instead of t h e small condenser C of Figure 1 w have, i n e f f e c t , a e very l a r g e condenser which i s formed by t h e antenna w i r e s and t h e ground. The a e r i a l , t a k e s t h e place of one p l a t e of t h e condenser while the ground forms t h e other p l a t e . The a i r between the antenna and ground c o n s t i t u t e s t h e d i e l e c t r i c of t h e condenser. The a e r i a l and ground a s s t a t e d , forms the p l a t e s of a condenser, and connected between i s a small c o i l , L. The condenser formed by t h e antenna and ground w i l l be charged by t h e energy received which i s s e n t out i n t o space i n the form of radio waves by a t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n . This energy i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e curving l i n e s of Figure 12. From t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna t h e energy i s r a d i a t e d through space and a s i t reaches t h e l a r g e condenser o? Figure 12, which i s formed by t h e a e r i a l and ground, a s t r e s s i s s e t up which r e s u l t s i n a charge on t h e antenna. T h i s charge causes a c u r r e n t t o flow through t h e c o i l L t o t h e ground and, i n passing through t h e c o i l , it s e t s up a magnetic f i e l d about t h e c o i l of Figure 12 just a s t h e discharge c u r r e n t from t h e condenser of Figure 1 s e t up a magnetic 1 f i e l d i n t h e c o i l L of that c i r c u i t .
,

\----ANTENNA

Figure 12

Figure 13 If w i n d u c t i v e l y couple another c i r c u i t containing a c o i l L 1 and a e v a r i a b l e condenser C t o t h e antenna c o i l L a s shown i n Figure 13 t h e magnetic f i e l d s e t up about c o i l L w i l l c u t t h e c o i l L 1 and induce ... which w i l l cause c u r r e n t t o flow i n the c i r c u i t L1, t h e r e i n an E M F C. The value of t h i s induced c u r r e n t w i l l be very small, and we will1 have t o use t h e p r i n c i p l e s a s s e t f o r t h under Resonance t o u t i l i z e t h i s f e e b l e c u r r e n t t o t d e b e s t advantage.
TUNING

The v a ~ i o u sbroadcasting s t a t i o n s transmit energy which energizes t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna a t c e r t a i n frequencies. Each broadcasting s t a t i o n i s a l l o t e d a d i f f e r e n t frequency and it i s due t o t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e i n frequency t h a t w e a r e able t o tune broadcasting s t a t i o n s i n or out a t

will.
In tuning, e i t h e r t h e inductance or the c a p a c i t y of t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v e r i s a d j u s t e d u n t i l a p o i n t of resonance i s
Lesson 25

- sheet 7

found a t t h e f r e q u e n c ~ t h e s t a t i o n w w i s h t o receive. A t t h i s of e point of resonance t h e c o i l L and condenser C of Figure 13 w i l l allow t h e maximum current flow, o f f e r i n g a t the sane time a h i g h impedance t o any other frequency.
Tuning can be accomplished by using a capacity of f i x e d value w i t h

a variable inductance, o r by v a r i a b l e capacity and f i x e d inductance, or by having both inductance and capacity v a r i a b l e .

Many of the manufacturers, i n designing t h e i r broadcast r e c e i v e r s , employ fixed inductances and v a r i a b l e condensers f o r tuning. Figure 13 shows a v a r i a b l e condenser being used with an inductance and here you have t h e fundamental c i r c u i t of t h e broadcast receiver.
EXAMINATION

LESSON 2 5

What i s meant by resonance?

W i l l a p e r f e c t condenser r e t a i n i t s charge over a period of time?

When a condenser i s discharged i s t h e r e only one r u s h of current?

W i l l a high r e s i s t a n c e path a f f e c t the discharging of a condenser?

Explain what you can of t h e a c t i o n of t h e discharging condenser when inductance i s i n t h e c i r c u i t . Can tuning be accomplished with a v a r i a b l e condenser and f i x e d inductance?
Is it possible t o tune a receiving s e t i n which t h e capacity and inductance a r e b o t h v a r i a b l e ?

Which have you found by experience t o be t h e most g e n e r a l l y used method of tuning, f i x e d inductance and variable capacity, or variable inductance and f i x e d capacity? Does the antenna a c t a s one p l a t e of a condenser?

Why?

What conditions must be met i n an a l t e r n a t i n g c i r c u i t , which cont a i n s both inductance and capacity, t o o b t a i n a maximum current flow?

Lesson 25

- sheet 8

C- x N s r % r ~ ~ & S A. .
f i r INC.- f y m e>

MARCON/ /NS TIJUTE

s u m f e d /go9

Technical Lesson 26
MID-TERM EXAMINATION
1.
2.

I s the f i l a m e n t tenpebature of a r a d i o vacuum tube important? Why? Explain b r i e f l y t h e e f f e c t when a g r i d l e a k of improper value i s used. Name a symptom which would i n d i c a t e g r i d t r o u b l e . m a t device can be used t o c o n t r o l t h e flow of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t ? Vifhat would happen i f you a c c i d e n t l y used an ammeter a s a voltmeter? What i s meant by t h e p i t c h of a tone? Explain t h e o b j e c t of "coupling n i n a r a d i o r e c e i v e r . Describe s e l f induction. What i s t h e e f f e c t of charging a lead s t o r a g e c e l l i n t h e wrong direction? Describe t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e Edison c e l l . Draw simple c i r c u i t diagrams of 3 types of motor g e n e r a t o r s and explain the c i r c u i t s b r i e f l y . What i s t h e f u n c t i o n of a s t a r t i n g box? Give diagram. H w i s it constructed? o
A step-down

3 .
4.

5.
6 .

7,
8.
9. 10.

1 . 1

12.
13.

What i s t h e purpose of a step- up transformer? transformer?

Is mutual induction a form of electromagnetic induction?

14. 15. 16.

What a r e t h e advantages of t h e d r y c e l l i n r a d i o work? H w many ohms r e s i s t a n c e i s r e q u i r e d t o allow e x a c t l y 10 amperes o t o flow i n a c i r c u i t having an electromotive f o r c e of 120 v o l t s ? Explain what you can of the phenomenon t a k i n g p l a c e when an unnagnetized piece of s o f t i r o n i s brought near a permanent magnet. Can you make a permanent magnet from a piece of s o f t i r o n ?

17.

Contents Copyrighted 1930 p r i n t e d i n U. S. A .

Name a simple method of determining t h e d i r e c t i o n of c u r r e n t by i t s chemical e f f e c t s . T e l l what you can of t h e Edison e f f e c t , ( a ) What e f f e c t has t h e g r i d upon the e l e c t r o n emission when i t becomes h i g h l y negative? ( b ) P o s i t i v e ? Show another way of expressing 2%. What i s a Voltmeter and how i s i t used? What i s a Sine Curve? Show how i t i s constructed. ( b ) A modulated wave.

( a ) Show by diagram a continuous wave. ( c ) A damped wave. Show by diagram two forms
Of

Inductance.

Show by diagram t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a simple condenser. What instrument should be used t o determine t h e s t a t e of charge of the Edison c e l l ? H w would you a d j u s t your motor f o r slower speed? o Show by fiiagram t h e E.M.F. and current i n phase.

Draw a fundamental c i r c u i t of a r o t a r y converter. Does t h e f i e l d about a c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g conductor cease t o expand when t h e c u r r e n t flow becomes steady?
I s platinum a s good a conductor a s copper?

What electromotive f o r c e i s necessary t o f o r c e 2.2 amperes through a r e s i s t a n c e of 55 ohms? Are e l e c t r o n s considered a s being p o s i t i v e charges or negative charge 8 ? Suppose a voltmeter and an ammeter a r e connected i n a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t . The voltmeter reads 125 v o l t s and t h e m e t e r S t a t e i n terms of w a t t s t h e power being exreads 20 amperes. pended i n t h e c i r c u i t . T e l l how you would determine t h e p o l a r i t y of a h e l i x . What e f f e c t does g a s have upon t h e e l e c t r o n emission? Show by diagram and e x p l a i n two methods of g r i d b i a s i n g .

Lesson 26

- sheet

What instrument may be used i n connection w i t h an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t t o determine resonance? What i s your understanding of t h e term "Damping

actor"?
Has it any

O f what advantage i s an underground antenna system? d i sadvantages?

If you had t o demonstrate the idea of tuning, hovr would you proceed? What i s t h e t o t a l c a p a c i t y o f f i v e condensers i n s e r i e s , each having a c a p a c i t y of 0.001 micro- farads? How, by t h e readings of the voltmeter, can you determine t h e condition of a storage b a t t e r y or any one c e l l of t h i s b a t t e r y ? What a r e t h e p o i n t s of d.ifference between t h e Edison c e l l and the l e a d a c i d c e l l ? of H w would you use a s o f t carbon brush on t h e commutato~- a o motor or g e n e r a t o r ? Hw a r e generators c l a s s i f ied? o What i s meant by t h e term,
"LOW

t e n s i o n s i d e of a transformer"? Which

There a r e two elements i n a dry c e l l , Carbon and Zinc, i s decomposed more r a p i d l y through chemical a c t i o n ? What i s an I n s u l a t o r ?

Draw an e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t showing t h r e e r e s i s t a n c e s , one of 5 ohms, one of 10 ohms, and one of 1 5 ohnls connected i n s e r i e s t o a b a t t e r y of t h r e e c e l l s . What i s another name f o r magnetic oxide of i r o n ? A Electromotive Force of 125 v o l t s i s being applied t o an e l e c n t r i c a l c i r c u i t i n which w have t h r e e e l e c t r i c a l devices having e a t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e of 350 ohms. What c u r r e n t w i l l flow i n t h e circuit? HOW can an electromagnet be constructed? Where i s t h e Sangamn ampere howmmeter employed aboard ship? To what does t h e word " ~ o u n d "apply? Show by diagram t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a telephone r e c e i v e r . Explain i t s f u n c t i o n .

Lesson 2 6

- sheet 3

58.

Show by diagram a c l o s e d core transformer w i t h magnetic leakage gap

4

59.
60.

T e l l how you would t e s t a condenser. Name two d i s t i n c t t y p e s of storage c e l l s . necessary t o keep them i n good condition? What precautions a r e

61. 62.
63,

What i s meant by t h e frequency of a g e n e r a t o r ? If the c u r r e n t i s out of phase with t h e E.M.F. how can this be shown? by 90 degrees,

Show a c i r c u i t diagram of a motor g e n e r a t o r s e t w i t h a shunt motor and compound wound generator.

If t h e terminals of a h e l i x a r e connected t o a galvanometer and an electromagnet thrust i n t o t h e h e l i x , w i l l t h e galvanometer show a reading? If so, why? If not, why?

64.

65.

When two or more d r y c e l l s a r e connected t o g e t h e r , what i s t h i s combinatf on c a l l e d ? Does t h e a i r between t h e p l a t e s of a condenser a c t a s an i n s u l a t o r ? Who was t h e f i r s t s c i e n t i s t t o s u c c e s s f u l l y t r a n s m i t w i r e l e s s s i g n a l s over g r e a t d i s t a n c e s ? I f t h e N pole of a permanent magnet i s brought c l o s e t o t h e N pole of a second magnet, w i l l , t h e y be a t t r a c t e d t o each o t h e r ? S t a t e the e q u i v a l e n t of 2 Farad i n terms of mlero f a r a d s . Describe, w i t h t h e use of a diagram, a l o g a r i t h m i c curve. Tihat does t h e following formula mean t o you,

66.
67.
I

I
I
I
I

68,

69.
70.

71,
72,

-P? -v

Graphically show what i s meant by t h e t e r n Wave Length. What i s Inductance? When woulci you u s e a s o f t carbon brush on t h e commutator of a motar or g e n e r a t o r ? Name some of t h e causes of t h e overheating of a generator,

73.

74.

75.

Lesson 26

- sheet

fi,me,-f,
M A R C O N / /NST/TUTE

INC.

s u n d e d /90Q

Technical Lesson 27
PgACTICAL RADIO CONSTRUCTION FOREWORD: Present day radio communication is a precise and highly developed art wherein are used intricate circuits and complicated apparatus, the results of many years of scientific experimenting and research. These circuits a i apparatus, when incorporated in modern radio transmitters and receivers, rd appear as a bewildering maze to the untrained and unskilled man, but, to the man who is trained in the art of radio and skilled in the application of its principles, these otherwise complicated circuits resolve themselves to simple, logical and easily understandable applications of radio fundamentals.

receiver may appear to be a mechanism to the 1i A modernknows little of radio; butmanvery complex electricalBy virtue of his man who the same receiver is simplicity itself to possesses KNOWLEDGE. the trained man - for the trained

1 knowledge he
i

I and the part it plays in relation to other instruments and the receiver as a

is fully cognizant of the why and wherefore of each instrument

whole. The trained man when confronted with a circuit entirely new to him can, therefore, quickly analyze the action of each and every individual part and, with a minimum of time and effort, fully understand upon what principle or principles the receiver is built and its exact mode of operation.

To give you such knowledge and training is the sole aim of the R. C. A. Our lessons are designed to give you a clear, comprehensive ; knowledge of the art of radio and its many developments. The object of the I following lessons in EXPERII~ITBL RADIO CONSTRUCTION is to enable you to put that knowledge to practical use, and at the same time increase the knowledge already yours. Beginning with simple, easily understandable apnaratus you 'will be shown how to build actual radio receivers. By following instructions 1 you will learn the functioning of each instrument and its practical applica<tion and, step by step, you will progress from simple receivers employing but 1 one vacuum tube to more complex multitube receivers.

. Institutes.

All the following constructional experiments embody the building of actual working models of radio circuits. Hence, you will be enabled to listen to rrdio programs, and in addition you will experience the supreme satisfaction of knowing that such accomplishment is the res.ult of your own handiwork. It is safe to predict that you will find these lessons in actual radio construction pleasant and interesting. The fascination of radio will grip you, evsn as it has gripped many others, and you will become absorbed in the work. Selection of Tubes and Batteries. begin this series of lessons in !/ of tubes and radio construction letBeforeC.wescreen-grid construction kit furnexperimental us say a word or two about the selection batteries. Although the A.

jished to you by the R. C. A. Institute is complete, tubes and batteries are \not supplied for obvious reasons. Tubes are fragile and easily broken in tran-

6 Printed

in U S. 8. . Contents copyrignted 1930

sit; while batteries, because of their weight, appreciably increase shipping costs. This would mean an unnecessary imposition upon the student for many of our students already possess tubes and batteries and, therefore, do not wish to be put to this additional expense.

1 !

The A. C. screen-grid kit of parts supplied with the course require the newtype A. C. operated tubes; namely, types 224, 227, 245 and 280. These should be of standard make, the product of well-known manufacturers. The selection of tubes for the battery-operated circuits depends greatly upon the kind of battery the student wishes to use to supply filament current to the tubes. If the student has,or can secure, a 6-volt battery then we would recommend the use of UX-20U or CX-30l.A tubes. The UX-201A and CX-3OlA are identical in their electrical characteristics and physical dimensions and can be used interchangeably. As these tubes draw a filament current of a quarter ampere apiece, it is essential that a 6-volt storage battery be used to suoply the filament current. If dry cells are used to supply the filament current to these tubes, the current drain upon the dry cells would be too great and the life of the dry cells would be very short, necessitating frequent replacement. If the student does not have a storage battery and does not wish to go to the expense of purchasing one, he may well use the UX-199 or CX-299 type of tube. These tubes require a filament current of only six one-hundredths (0.06) amp?~-e and this may be secured from ordinary dry cells. Because of this difference in the kind of battery required to furnish filament current to the tube the tubes requiring a filament current of a quarter-ampere or more are often referred to as -storage batteryn tubes; while tubes reouiring a very small amount of filament current (such as the UX-199) are often termed "dry cell" tubes.

. ,

As far as actual results from the completed hook-up are concerned, there will be little difference between the dry cell tubes and storage battery tubes unless the user wishes to secure great volume of signal, for storage battery tubes are capable of delivering greater volume of signal than dry cell tubes. The object of the following experiments, however, is not to produce great signal strength, but rather to demonstrate the practical application of radio principles and, to this end, the UX-199 type of tube will perform quite as efficiently as the UX-2OI.A. General Instructions. The following are general instructions that apply to each and every experiment and should be followed. Before beginning any of the work in experimental radio construction, the student should closely examine each piece of apparatus to be used in order to thoroughly familiarize himself with its design and construction. The eaeriment will serve to demonstrate the practical use to which each piece of apparatus is put and the principles involved. Mount the parts in such manner that the wires connecting them will be as short and direct as practicable. Do not, however, carry this idea too far and unnecessarily crowd the parts. Do not mount tuning coils close to large masses of metal such as variable condensers and audiofrequency amplifying transformers.

1l
'

:
I:

When connecting two wires together, or when connecting a wire to a binding post, make sure that the surfaces of the wire and binding post are clean and bricht. Remove the insulation from the wire and scrape it with a knifeLesson 27

.!
i

38

- Sheet 2

blade or a bit of sandpaper. Exmine the contact surface of the binding post to be sure that it is free from dirt and grime. If the connection is to be a temporary one, it is only necessary to make a firm and cleen mechanical connection. But if the connection is to be a permanent one, it irust be soldered. (It is a sim3le matter to learn how to make a good soldered connection and this will be thoroughly explained in the following pages.) Be patient. a good radio like job. d shod fashion "Rome was not built in a day"; neither can the construction of receiver be hurried. Take the time to do a shipshape, workmanreceiver which has been "thrownw together in a careless, slipis very apt to give inferior results.

In the following series of lessons in experimental radio construction each

hook-up is a temporary one, i.e., when it has been built and has demonstrated in actual practice its underlying principles, it has served its purpose. It is then chanced t3 conform with the instructions in t 3 e following lesson. Do not let the fact that each hook-up is a temporary one be an excuse for carelessness and sllpshod work. Exercise care and patience in each and every step of every lesson. It pays. Value of Schematic and Picture Wiring Diagrams. In the first les-ons in practical radio construction both a schematic and a "picturew wiring diagram are given. The picture diagram is to aid you in praperly placing the various Darts and to enable you to visualize the schematic wiring diagram. Before beginning the actual construction study carefully both the diagrams and the instructions. While engaged in the performance of an experiment follow, step by step, the diagrams and instructions. In this way yoqr success is assured. The picture diagram has been evolved for the use of the novice - the man who wishes to build a radio receiver, but who knows little or nothing about radio. The schematic diagram is the technical man's method of depicting a circuit,as it lends itself much more readily to a quick and accurate analysis and understanding thereof. There is a knack in learning to read schemtic diagra~s, but this knack is by no means difficult to acquire. By repeated comparisons between the picture diagrams and the schematic diagram you will soon ace-uire the knack of reading schematics. And once you, as a trained technician, can read a schematic,'you will find this method much the easier and more practical of the two. In order to derive the greatest benefit from these lessons in practical radio construction, you should keep in mind the idea of learning to know your receiver and your "hook-upw. Review your texts dealing with the various phases of the subjects encountered in this practical work so that when you turn a knob or make an adjustment you will know why you do so. Thus you will learn the whys and wherefores of constructing and tuning radio circuits and you will understand what is going on within the receiver. Lesson 27

Sheet 3.

SOLDERING

Purpose of Using Solder. The repair of any radio receiver usually entails the making of a number of soldered connections, and it is essential that the' on radio service man should know h r to solder the connections correctly, because the many connections in the wiring of a radio receiver must be so treated in order to eliminate losses arising from high-resistance joints. It is recommended that, after carefully studying this subject, you put into practice the instructions contained herein. A n hour or so spent with a simple soldering kit and a few scraos of copper wire should enable you to acquire the knack of making a neat, well-soldered joint. Any joint in the wiring of a receiver, in order to be good, must possess low electrical resistance and high mechanical strength.

If the surfaces of two copper wires are scraped until clean and bright and
then firmly twisted together, the joint thus formed will possess good mechanical strength and low electrical resistance when first made. But with the lapse of time, inevitable vibration of the wires will tend to loosen the joint and this undesirable loosening will be further aggravated by expansion and contraction of the metal with temperature changes. Furthernore, due to the =tion which the oxygen in the atmosphere has upon 'the metal, oxidization of the surface of the metal will take place and eventually this oxidation will penetrate to every crack and cranny of the joint. As the oxides thus formed are very poor conductors of electricity, it can be readily appreciated that the m a l t will be troublesome. This oxidization of the metal takes place slowly, but as this action progresses, inevitably the resistance of the joint becomeshigher and higher until its resistance in extreme cases may become of such a value as to be nearly non-conductive.
Noisy and fluctuating reception volume is often due to poor joints. The a mount of energy received by the antenna in the first place is very small and i i u t be conserved to the greatest extent possible. There should be no waste i.s of an appreciable amount of this energy which would be the result if it traversed high-resistance joints.

Solder, therefore, is applied to each and every joint in the wiring of a receiver for the purpose of enhancing the meohanical strength of the joints and to preserve their initial l r resistance. on Although solder (an alloy of tin and lead) has greater resistance than copper, it is possible in the practical application to so form the joints that they will possess very low resistance. To accomplish this it is necessary to make joints, splices, and connections so thet they will be mechanically secure and electrically conductive without the use of solder. Solder is then applied to preserve the stability of such joints both mechanically an3 electrically. Action of Heat Applied to a Joint to be Soldered and Use of Soldering Flux. When soldering a connection it is necessary to heat the joint to a temperature at which the solder will melt and flow freely, and for this purpose the soldering iron is used. However, heated metal oxidizes rapidly and to prevent such oxidization, and to dissolve such oxides when they do form, a fluxing agent is applied to the joint to be soldered. Lesson 27

sheet 4

both non-corrosive and non-conductive.

Should

e fluxes available rosin flux and"Nokorodew, or equivaler:t, are the or radio use. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, as set forth below, and as the methods of application differ slightly the use of each will be taken up separately. Nokorode is the easier of the two to handle and its use enables one to easily and quickly make well-soldered connections. However, although it is non-corrosive, Nokorode, or.equivalent,possesses the disadvantage of being partially conductive and this point should be borne in niind when using it about a radio receiver. Moreover, it creeps rapidly when melted by the heat of the soldering iron, and should it run between two or more terminals in the receiver it would create a leakage path between such terminals. Even a very thin film of this flux, so slight as to be sczrcely noticeable, peraits the possibility of current leakage with consequent detrimental effects upon the efficiency of the receiver, Also, as this flux is made in the form of a grease-like paste, it readily collects dust, which, when occurring between two terminals, does not add to the efficiency of the receiver. It is permissible to use Nokorode, or equivalent, on joints where there is no possibility of its creeping and forming a more or less high resistance leak between different portions of the circuit. If it should creep between terminals or conductors placed in close proximity to one another, it must be wiped off carefully with a clean cloth, preferably a cloth dipped in alcohol. Rosin Flux and so-called *Rosin Jointn. Rosin flux, although it is more difficult to handle than Nokorode. or eauivalent. is the best flux for all soldering operations about a radioerecei<er. It is both non-corrosive and nonconductive; as a matter of fact, the insulating qualities of rosin are excellent. Hence, if residual rosin is allowed to remain between two or more terminals or conductors, no harm is done and when it hardens it presents a smooth, glazed surface which does not readily collect dust. On the other hand, rosin flux improperly used is quite apt to result in what is termed a "rosin joint", The creation of a rosin joint is to be avoided, for the resistance of such a joint may be easily so high as to constitute an open circuit. However, by exercising reasonable care in applying the rosin flux, such joints will not occur. The Soldering Iron is made mith a Copper Tip and Should not be Allowed to Overheat. The soldering iron consists of an insulated handle, an enclosed - - heater resistance unit ind a copper tip, There are many electric irons on the market at very low prices, but the purchase of such irons is not recommended. These cheap irons invariably are poorly made, with the result that they either draw an excessive amount of current, furnish an insufficient amount of heat, or fail to stand up under continued usage; i.e., the heating unit burns out, thus rendering the iron useless. It is economical to pay more in the first place for a well made iron. Such irons are not expensive.

n The proper degree of heat of a electric soldering iron is predetermined by the design of its enolosed heating unit and will always be right when used on an electric lighting circuit of correct voltage. Thus, the user is saved the

inconvenience of having to heat the iron repeatedly, as is the case when electricity is not available and a plain iron must be used. Plain irons, although they cost less than the electric variety, must be heated with a blow-torch or in a gas flame. If the iron is heated in a gas flame, care must be exercised to keep it cleaned of the soot that will be deposited upon it. The proper degree of heat of any soldering iron is that at which it will melt the solder as soon as it is applied. In an electric iron the correct soldering temperature is automatically provided for by the design of the heating element. When heating a soldering iron with a blow-torch or gas flame, be careful not to overheat the iron, and under no circumstances allow it to become redhot. The proper degree of heat is indicated by the appearance of a green flame about the iron.

Figure 1. Figure 2. The point of the soldering iron should be properly shaped. Figure 1 illustrates a well shaped point. By the use of such a point, with its working surface held parallel to the work as shown, heat conduction from iron to joint is expedited, resulting in quick and efficient heating of the joint to proper temperature. Figure 2 shows a poorly shaped point. To hold the working surface of such a point parallel to the work will often necessitate an awkward positioning of the iron. mere the nature of the layout of the receiver will not permit of a correct positioning, only a limited part of the iron's working surface can be brought into contact with the work. Result: Slow and lirnited heating of the joint and consequent possibility of producing a poorly soldered connection.
HOW to tin the Soldering Iron and Preparation of Zoint for Soldering.

Before To tin soldering can be accomplished properly the iron r i s be tftinned". iut the iron it is first heated and the working surfaces filed until the copper shows clean and bright, Figure 3. Do not bear down heavily upon the file for it is only necessary to remove such dirt and oxide as may have collected upon the surface of the copper. A daub of flux is now placed upon the surface of a piece of clean, bright tin, the heated iron is applied thereto Lesson 27

sheet 6

'

E i

i t : surfaces are uniforrcly coated. % ni e iron is now tinr~ed ar.? rer-.5:? f o , s . ~ e : ~ e F o r e proper1:- soldered connection can be mede the surface of the wires a m s t be scraped or sacdpapered until clean and bright. The joint is then made mechanically secure as shown in Figure 5. A loop is formed in the wire by means of a pair of long-nosed pliers. This loop is then slipped over the wire to which connzction is to be made and pinched into place, resulting in a secure, self-supporting joint.

Compare the connections in Figure 5 with Figures 6 and 7 wherein are shown what are known as "abutted jointsn. The making of such joints should be avoided as they are insecure and very apt to possess poor electrical conductivity. To attempt to hold the wire of an abutted joint in position while soldering is certain to result in an unsatisfactory joint, for it is a physical impossibility to hold the wire absolutely steady for the length of time necessary for the solder to solidify. The slightest trenmr of the hand at this critical stage will result in a fracture of the solder and, although this fracture may be so slight as to be quite unnoticeable, it nevertheless detracts from the strength and conductivity of the joint. Another objection to the making of abutted joints arises from the necessity, often encountered, of making two or more connections close to one another. While soldering one connection the heat will be conducted by the metal to

Figure 4 . Lesson 27

sheet 7.

the other conn-ction and should this other connection be an abutted one, it will promptly fall apart. Having made the joint mechanically secure, the next step is the application of the flux. Of the two fluxing agents already mentioned as being suitable for radio and other delicate electrical work, namely Nokorode, or equivalent, and rosin, we will consider the use of Nokorode first.

Figure 7.

Lesson 27

sheet 8 .

Nokorode, o r e q u i v a l e n t , can be a p p l i e d t o t h e j o i n t e i t h e r b e f o r e o r a f t e r i t h a s been h e a t e d , b u t t o a p p l y t o t h e j o i n t b e f o r e i t h a s been h e a t e d is p e r h a p s p r e f e r a b l e . Assuming t h a t t h e s e r v i c e man is s o l d e r i n g a j o i n t a s shown i n f i g u r e 5, Nokorobe f l u x is first a p ~ l i e d t h e j o i n t . T h i s p a s t e to should be used v e r y s p a r i n g l y , o n l y enough t o cover t h e j o i n t w i t h a t h i n f i l m . If an e x c e s s of t h i s f l u x i s used i t w i l l c r e e p r a p i d l y as i t m e l t s , and t h i s i s h i g h l y u n d e s i r a b l e f o r r e a s o n s a l r e a d y s t a t e d . The s o l d e r i n g i r o n , p r o p e r l y h e a t e d and w e l l - t i n n e d , is now a p p l i e d t o t h e j o i n t , m e l t i n g t h e p a s t e which r u n s i n t o t h e j o i n t where i t accomplishes i t s purpose; i . e . , t h e removal of any s l i g h t f i l m of o x i d e t h a t may have formed t h e r e o n . The i r o n i s h e l d a g a i n s t t h e j o i n t u n t i l t h e j o i n t i s h e a t e d t o t h e m e l t i n g p o i n t of s o l d e r . The s o l d e r is t h e n a p p l i e d t o t h e j o i n t , a s shown i n F i g u r e 8, and n o t t o t h e i r o n a s shown i n F i g u r e 9 . m e n prope r l y done, t h e s o l d e r w i l l m e l t a s soon a s i t comes i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e j o i n t and w i l l r u n i n and over t h e j o i n t making a n e a t , workmanlike job. Only enough s o l d e r s h o u l d be used t o cover t h e j o i n t , as s h o r n i n F i g u r e 1 0 ; do n o t l e a v e a lump of s o l d e r on t h e j o i n t a s shown i n F i g u r e 1 . Such un1 s i g h t l y "gobs w o f s o l d e r a r e wholly unnecessary and p r e s e n t a n unworkmanl i k e appearance.

F i g u r e 8.

F i g u r e 9.

If any of t h e f l u x remains on t h e j o i n t o r a d j a c e n t i n s u l a t i o n , ivhich i t u s u a l l y does, i t s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y wiped o f f w i t h a c l e a n c l o t h . s p e c i a l c a r e should be e x e r c i s e d i n t h i s r e s p e c t i n c a s e t h e r e s i d u a l f l u x h a s c r e p t between two o r lnore m i r e s o r t e r m i n a l s . I n a n y c a s e , i t is b e s t t o u s e a c l e a n c l o t h t h a t h a s been d i p p e d i n a l c o h o l . The a l c o h o l m a t e r i a l l y a i d s t h e thorough c l e a n s i n g o f t h e j o i n t and a d j a c e n t i n s u l a t i o n by d i s s o l v i n g the left- over flux. Lesson 27

- s h e e t 9.
-

Incidentally, the handiest and most practical forms of solder for radio use are ribbon and wire solder. Wire solder is made with a core of rosin flux, a very convenient arrangement, for by its use flux and solder are applied to the joint in one operation. When using rosin-core solder a somewhat different procedure is in order insofar as the flux is ap?lied to the joint after it has been heated. First, apply the iron to the joint until the joint is well heated; then apply the rosin-core solder. Be careful to apply the solder to the joint, as shown in . Figure 8 The rosin flux in the core of the solder will at once melt and run upon the joint, fluxing it. The solder will also melt rapidly and fallow the flux to the joint, resulting in a neat, well soldered connection.

Figure 10.

Figure 11.

Even as the use of Nokorode, or equivalent, has one pronounced disadvantage; namely, the likelihood of current leakage due to the presence of residual flux; so has rosin flux one pronounced disadvantage, and that is the possibility of producing a wrosin jointw. A rosin joint is the result of burned rosin collecting on the joint and is due to the improper manipulation of the soldering iron and solder. The solder will often flow over such a joint giving the appearance of a well soldered connection, when, in reality, the bwned rosin in the joint results in a high-resistance connection and in severe cases even an open circuit. To avoid the making of rosin joints the rosincore solder must be apqlied to the heated joint, not to the iron. If the rosin-core solder is applied to the iron, as shown in Pigure 9, a rosin joint will very likely be made for the following reason. The melted rosin flowing upon the iron will result in the active ingredients of the rosin flux literally "going up in smoke," while the useless burned residue will flow down onto the joint. As that active ingredient in the flux which accomplishes the proper fluxing of the joint has been evaporated by the heat of the iron, the burned rosin remaining is of no use as a fluxing agent and only serves to obstruct the soldering operation. Therefore, care should always be exercised in the use of rosin-core solder. m e n handled correctly, however, rosin-core solder is really excellent for radio use. It is often necessary in the wiring of a radio raceiver to carry the solder to the joint on the soldering iron. This is greatly facilitated by notching the iron with a file, as shown in Bigwe 12; this notch serves to hold a bubble of molten solder while the iron is brought to the joint. When a bubble of solder is brought into contact with the joint it.aill heat the joint very quickly and, provided the joint has been properly fluxed, the solder mill flow readily to it. Lesson 27

sheet 1 . 0

i
I

Practical Application of Solder to Metal Units or Parts of Receiver, Wiring, Terminals, Lugs, etc. It is impossible to solder to nickel plated surfaces when us in^ these fluxes permissible in radio work. Therefore, when solderto an instrumelit or terminal which is nickel plated, it is necessary first to scrape the plating from that part of the instrument or terminal which is to be soldered uhtil the base metal, usually brass, is exposed. Soldering is then accomplished in the usual manner. It is always best to solder connections, but when soldering wires to certain apparatus it is sometimes necessary to modify this rule, Then it is inadvisable to solder a connection directly to the binding post terminal of an instrument, the wire should be soldered to a connecting lug and this lug should be then clamped tightly beneath the nut of the binding post. Bear in mind, however, that such a connection does not constitute a soldered joint. The actual connection between lug and binding post terminal of the instrument is a mechanical one and every care should be exercised that it be not only good but permanent; i.e., the contact surfaces of lug and terminal should be scraped, or sandpapered, until clean and bright, and the lug then clamped tightly beneath the nut of the binding post,

Figure 12. Figure 13 illustrates a commonly used type of connecting lug. These lugs are usually made with a small hole in the shank and through this hole the wire is slipped and pinched securely into place by means of pliers. Solder Is then applied to this joint to insure the preservation of its mechanical strength and electrical conductivity. If the lug has a small trough, as in B, Figure 13, the wire is clamped into place in this trough and solder then run into it. . Instruments to which it may be inadvisable to solder directly are a. f transformers, s m l l fixed condensers, grid leaks, and fixed and variable high resistance units. Many makes of audio-frequency transformers are equipped with binding post terminals, and it is not good policy to solder directly to these. Solder the wire to a lug and clamp the lug tightly beneath the binding post nut. The wires leading from the windings of the transformer are usually soldered to Lesson 87

sheet 1 . 1

the shanks of the binding posts inside the casing.

An attempt to solder direct1:r to such terminals will possibly cause the connections with the case to become unsoldered, resulting in an open-circuit& transformer. However, many of the later types of audio-frequency transformers are provided with lug terminals. It is quite safe to solder to these as the manufacturer has anticipnted, and provided against, the loosening of the interior connections during the soldering operation.

Yome types of small fixed condensers are made with plates of flimsy tinfoil. D o not solder connections directly to such condensers, as the heat of the lron is likely to damage the plates. Connection should be made by slipping a small ( 8 / 3 2 ) brass machine screw through the hole usually provided for such a purpose and clamping a lug, to which the connecting wire has been soldered, beneath the nut o f the machine screw. However, connections may be soldered, without fear of damage to those types of condensers having plates of sturdy cop2er foil, or thin strip brass, and solidly moulded in a protective casing of bakelite. Grid leaks and other tabular high resistance units are almost invariably mounted by slipping them between two metal clips which serve to hold them firmly in place and make contact with their terminals. As a rule, the amount of heat necessary to solder connections to grid leaks and tubular high . resistance units will damage the resistance thereof or will loosen, or entirely detach, the mall metal end-caps which serve as the terminal of such devices.

Figure 13.

4 Figure 1 .

When the grid leak or high resistance unit is a solid rod or such material as carborundum or graphite, or if it is a resistance unit made of wire, it is safe to make soldered connections to such devices unless the manufacturer specifically states that soldering will not damage his product. Instead, make a firm secure mechanical connection by m a n s of the terminal provided for this purpose.

A method of splicing comparatively coarse wires, such as are used for the antenna, lead-in and ground wires, is shown in Figure 1 . The wires are 4 twist3d once, as shown at point A, then bound tightly one about the other, as shown at points B and C. A slight space is left between these adjacent
turns of the wire to allow the flux and solder to penetrate to the innermost crevices of the joint. Lesson 27

- sheet 12.

The foregoing instruction upon soldering may be summarized in a few simple rules, as follows:
1. The joint to be soldered must be clean, mechanically secure and electrically conductive. 2. The soldering iron ~u;t be clean, well tinned and heated to the proper, temperature. (Use an electric iron, it is by far the best.) 3. Never use an acid flux. 4 Use the right flux, such as Nokorode, or equivalent, or rosin, and . use it sparingly, keeping in mind the limitations of each. 5 . Flow just enough solder on the joint to cover it. 6. If a paste flux such as Nokorode, or equivalent, is used, wipe away the residual flux with a clean cloth, preferably a cloth dipped in alcohol.

EXAMINATION

- Lesson 27.

What are the primary requirements of a good joint? What is meant by "tinning" the iron? State briefly the advantages and disadvantages of:(a) paste fluxes. (b) rosin fluxes. Why is solder used in making joints? What precautions should be observed when using paste flux? What is an abutted joint? Is the making of abutted joints considered good practice? How much solder is necessary to make a good joint? What precautions should be observed when using rosin flux? What happens when a joint is left unsoldered? Is the use of acid flux permissible in radio work? State why.

Lesson 27

- sheet 13.

fr;,-m e rlyM A R C O N / /NST/TUr

INC.

Technical Lesson 28
2i)"ACTICURADIO CONSTRUCTION The Simple Regeneration Receiver. The purpose of this lesson is to teach the constructional details and underlying theory of the simplest practical type of vacuum tube receiver - the regenerative detector - and to demonstrate in actual practice the value of regeneration in securing sensitivity and selectivity. There are two or three general types of receivers still simpler, but they are obsolete and impractical; so much so as to render them useless under present day radio conditions. So we shall begin with the regenerative vacuum tube detector a receiver which is easy to build and simple to operate, yet is both sensitive and selective.

As stated in the previous paragraph the purpose of this lesson is to teach constructional details and underlying theory, If the student has the radio parts on hand to accomplish the actual step-by-step assembly of the receiver he should use them;.onthe other hand if the parts are not readily available the principles will nevertheless be mastered. This lesson, and lessons 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 48, and 52 teach the underlying theory of tuned and untuned radio frequency receivers, balanced and neutralized receivers and audio and radio frequency amplifiers in general. Lessons 32 and 33 teach the practical constructional details and theory of screen-grid receivers. A complete kit of modern apparatus is furnished with lessons 32 and 33 to enable the student to accomplish all the practical work required. There are a variety of ways in which regeneration may be secured and controlled, and this lesson will serve to familiarize the student with one of the best known methods of securing and controlling regeneration in a vacuum tube detector. It will also serve to demonstrate, in practical fashion, the valuable advantages to be derived by the proper utilization of regeneration. Before entering into the constructional details of the receiver, however, it may be well to outline briefly the functioning of the various instruments as the signal traverses the circuit from the antenna to the headphones. Consider first the antenna circuit. Here we have an elevated wire, the antenna, and a connection to ground, there being in series with this antenna-ground system a coil composed of but a few turns of wire. The foregoing arrangement constitutes an oscillatory circuit composed principally of the concentrated inductance of the coil shunted by the distributed capacity of the antenna and, being such, is capable of responding to electrical impulses of an oscillatory nature. Thus, it can readily be appreciated that when the elevated antenna wire intercepts the electromagnetic waves being radiated from a distant transmitter, an oscillatory current will be induced in the receiving antenna circuit because, under such conditions, we have electrical impulses of an oscillatory nature acting upon an oscillatory circuit. Printed In U.S.A. Contents copyrighted 1930

conThe Oscillatory Circuit. The usual oscillatory circuit, composed of a centrated inductance in the form of a coil and a concentrated capacity in the form of a condenser, shown in Figure 1, must be tuned by adjustment of the values of inductance or capacity; or both, to the frequency-of the particular current being dealt with. Because the resistance of such a circuit is usually of a reasonably low value, such a circuit will resonate sharply to the specified frequency. Figure 1A illustrates the response curve of such a sharply 0 resonant circuit tuned, for instance, to a mvelength of 4 0 meters. If resistance is added to such a circuit, as shown in Figure 2, it will tune less sharply and, as-the amount of resistance is increased, it will tune more and more broadly. This will result in the circuit responding over a wide band of wavelengths, as depicted in Figure 2A,ratherthan to a narrow band of wavelengths as in Figure 1 . 8 Tuning the Antenna System. With the foregoing in mind you should observe that no provision has been made for tuning the antenna circuit. Due to the fact that the oapaaity of this circuit is-of a distributed character, and that the antenna system is a device of inherently high resistance, this circuit, rather than tuning sharply, is broad in its tuning. When the dimensions of the antenna are suited to the wavelength range to be covered by the receiver, the antenna circuit will be sufficiently non-critical in its tuning to respond to all wavelengths within that range with practically equal facility. Such an antenna system is known as an aperiodic, or untuned antenna.

Figure 1 .

Figure U.

Figure 2 .

Figure 2. 4 .

It should be borne in mind that some advantage is to be gained in the way of sensitivity and selectivity by tuning the antenna - and, furthermore, that such tuning adds at least one more control to the receiver. The form of untuned antenna shown here, or a modification thereof, is used in the great majority of broadcast receivers inasmuch as it eliminates a tuning control and the loss in sensitivity and selectivity is not pronounced. In other words, it is the consensus of opinion that such loss is more than compensated by the reduction of the number of tuning controls with the consequent increased ease of tuning in the hands of the inexperienced user. It will be seen, then, that this antenna coil is not a tuning inductance, but solely a coupling coil insofar as it serves to couple the antenna circuit to the grid (secondary) circuit of the tuner. When electro-magnetic waves radiated by distant transmitters pass the receiving antenna they induce therein radio-frequency currents. Due to the nonselective characteristics of this type of antenna circuit, as outlined above, it is entirely possible that the signals from a dozen or more transmitters Lesson 28

sheet 2.

w i l l be p r e s e n t i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . N e e d l e s s , t o s a y some means must b e provided whereby t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l may b e p i c k e d o u t of t h e jumble e x i s t i n g i n t h e a n t e n n a c i r c u i t i n o r d e r t h a t r e c e p t i o n of t h i s s i g n a l may be e f r e c t e d t o t h e e x c l u s i o n of a l l o t h e r s . T h i s i s done by t u n i n g t h e g r i d (secondary) c i r c u i t .

The secondary c o i l of t h e t u n e r i s shunted by a condenser, t h u s p r o v i d i n g u s By v a r y i n g t h e v a l u e s of e i t h e r inductance o r c a p a c i t y , o r b o t h , we can tune t h i s c i r c u i t t o any d e s i r e d f r e q u e n c y , F u r t h e r more, a s t h i s c i r c u i t i s of r e a s o n a b l y low r e s i s t a n c e it w i l l r e s o n a t e more o r l e s s s h a r p l y , t h u s making i t p o s s i b l e t o p i c k o u t We d e s i r e d s i g n a l t o t h e exc l u s i o n of t h e o t h e r s p r e s e n t i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t .
with an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t .

I n o r d e r t o c o v e r t h e wavelength r s n g e of 200 t o 550 m e t e r s (550 t o 1500 ~ i l o c y c l e s )used by b r o a d c a s t s t a t i o n s i t is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o make b o t h t h e one v a r i a b l e i s a l l t h a t i s needed. Bei n d u c t a n c e and c a p a c i t y v a r i a b l e c a u s e of a number of c o n s i d c r a t i o n s i t i s e a s i e r and more economical t o make t h e condenser v a r i a b l e t h a n t o make t h e inductance v a r i a b l e . For t h i s r e a s o n , i n a p r e a t number of b r o a d c a s t r e c e i v e r s , it w i l l be found t h a t t h e i n d u c t a n c e i s of a f i x e d v a l u e w h i l e t u n i n g i s accomplished by a v a r i a b l e condenser of a s u i t a b l e r a n g e of c a p a c i t y . When t h e condenser i s s e t a t i t s minimum v a l u e of c a p a c i t y , i . e . , r o t o r p l a t e s t u r n e d a l l t h e way o u t , t h e secondary c i r c u i t w i l l be tuned t o about 200 m e t e r s . S e t t i n g t h e condenser a t i t s maximum v a l u e of c a p a c i t y , i . e . , r o t o r p l a t e s c o m p l e t e l y i r - t e r l e a v e d w i t h t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s , w i l l t u n e t h e secondary c i r c u i t t o approximately 550 meters.

F i g u r e 3. With such a n arrangement, namely, an untuned antenna c i r c u i t coupled t o a tuned secondary c i r c u i t , t r a n s f e r o f energy from antenna t o secondar w i l l t a k e p l a c e C u r r e n t s of o n l y a t t h a t f r e q u e n c y t o which t h e l a t t e r i s r e s o n a t e d ( t u n e d o t h e r f r e q u e n c i e s w i l l n o t be t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e secondary f o r under such eond i t i o n s , t h i s c i r c u i t w i l l n o t respond t o them. Thus, when t h e secondary c i r c u i t LC of F i g u r e 3 i s tuned t o r e s o n a n c e w i t h t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l , p r e s e n t i n

'I.

Lesson 2 8

sheet 3.

the antenna circuit, a transfer of energy will take place. A current of corresponding frequency will then flow in circuit LC and voltages will be developed ecross the circuit terminals XY. These terminals are connected to.the input teminals of the vacuum tube, i.e., its grid and filament terminals, thus impressing these high frequency potentials upon the grid of the tube and causing corresponding fluctuations of the grid voltage. These radiofrequency variations of the grid voltage cause corresponding fluctuations of the plate current, these fluctuations being of the same frequency and possessing the same characteristics as those of the wave which is acting upon the antenna. Operation of Detector Tube. By virtue of proper values of plate voltage and grid bias voltage the tube is being operated on the lower knee of its characteristic curve, the point best suited to detector action. Due to the phenomenon of detection not only is there a radio frequency current present in the plate circuit of the tube, but there is also present a low frequency current, this low frequency current being an exact reproduction of the modulation of the radio wave. When speaking of operating a tube on the lower knee of its characteristic curve it should be borne in mind that a11 tubes of the UX-199, UX-20U, UX-112 and UX-112A types are adjusted for detector operation by applying 45 volts plate potential, using a grid condenser of .00025 mfd. in conjunction with a grid leak of 2 to 9 megohms (grid leak resistance is not critical in value) and a grid return to the positive terminal of the filament. The "grid returnn is the connection denoted as YZ in the schematic wiring diagram, Figure 3 . Such a grid Teturn, in conjunction with the proper value of grid leak, serves to keep the grid at the correct value of negative biasing potential necessary to good detector action. Should the grid return be made to the negative side of the filament, the grid biasing potential would be upset with consequent reduction in the efficiency of the tube as a detector. When using the super-sensitive detector tube UX-2008, the grid return preferably should be made to negative filament, but bringing the grid return to positive filament does not seriously effect its excellence as a detector. Action of the Detector Tube. In a previous lesson it has been pointed out that at the broadcasting station audio frequencies are superimposed upon the radio wave and thzt this superimposition is termed nmodulationn. The radio wave serves only to carry these audio-frequencies to distant receivers and thereby derives the term "carrier wavew. Before currents of such frequency can be utilized to operate headphones or loudspeakers (devices which convert the audio-frequency currents to sound waves) it is necessary to separate the radio-frequency from the audio-frequency. This, in brief, is what the detector tube accomplishes it separates the audio-frequency from the radiofrequency and, at the same time, amplifies the received signal.

Although the plate current of the tube is direct current, the alternating voltages actuating the grid of the tube do, in effect, superimpose an alternating current upon the plate current. Thus, the plate current of the tube may be, and is, considered as possessing an alternating current component.

Lesson 2 8

sheet 4.

. .

"'FM& *rue when t h e t u b e is meratink iis elii kiiwfTP3ier but. when t h e tuSc ,ls e r a t e d as a d e t e c t o r : two rent cokonents are o h y p r e s e n t i n t h e p i a t e c i r c u i t , on; b e i n g of r a h i o - f r e q u e n c y and t h e o t h e r of audio- frequency.

These two a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t components f l o w i n g i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t encount e r d i v i d e d , o r p a r a l l e l , p a t h s a t p o i n t D. One p a t h l i e s through t h e headphones and B b a t t e r y t o f i l a m e n t ; t h e o t h e r through t h e condenser Cb t o f i l a ment. The a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t components of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l , of c o u r s e , t a k e t h a t p a t h which o f f e r s t h e least o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e i r flow and, i n t h e c a s e of condenser C b , such o p p o s i t i o n w i l l t a k e t h e form of c a p a c i t i v e r e actance. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e flow o f a l t e r n a t i n g c u r w n t through t h e headphones w i l l be p r i n c i p a l l y i n t h e form of i n d u c t i v e reacxance, f o r t h e magnet winding o f t h e headphones is composed of a g r e a t many t u r n s of v e r y f i n e w i r e wound upon a s t e e l core. Such winding p o s s e s s e s a h i g h v a l u e of a v a l u e which may e a s i l y be of t h e o r d e r of s e v e r a l h e n r i e s . inductance Assuming t h a t t h e i n d u c t a n c e of t h e headphone winding is, s a y , t h r e e h e n r i e s we can r e a d i l y d e t e r m i n e i t s i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e t o a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s of any s p e c i f i e d frequency.

If t h e l e n g t h of t h e r e c e i v e d wave is, f o r example, 300 m e t e r s , t h e frequency of t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c u r r e n t induced i n t h e a n t e n n a and t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l be 1,000,000 c y c l e s p e r second, and t h e r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y AC component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l be of c o r r e s p o n d i n g f r e q u e n c y . Also, due t o t h e phenomenon o f d e t e c t i o n , we have p r e s e n t i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t a lowf r e q u e n c y AC component c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e audio- frequency modulation of t h e r a d i o wave, and t h i s w i l l a v e r a g e , l e t u s s a y , 1,000 c y c l e s p e r second. Applying t h e s e known v a l u e s t o t h e formula f o r i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e (XZ6.26fL) 1 we can r e a d i l y and t o t h e formula f o r c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e Xc 6.28f C determine t h e r e a c t a n c e of each p a t h f o r each of t h e two f r e q u e n c i e s i n volved. I n t h i s manner we f i n d t h a t a t a f r e q u e n c y of 1,000 c y c l e s p e r second t h e i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e of t h e headphones i s 18, 840 ohms. A t t h e same frequency t h e c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e of t h e condenser, which has a capaci t y of .001 mfri. i s 159,235 ohms. Needless t o s a y , t h e audio- frequency component w i l l flow t h r o u g h t h e headphones r a t h e r than through t h e condenser.

By t h e u s e o f t h a same f o r m u l a s we can now d e t e r m i n e t h e i n d u c t i v e and capaci t i v e r e a c t a n c e s of t h e headphones and condenser, r e s p e c t i v e l y , a t a f r e quency of 1,000,000 c y c l e s . A t t h i s frequency t h e i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e of t h e headphones i s 18,840,000 ohms, w h i l e t h e c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e of t h e cond e n s e r is b u t 159 ohms. Thus i c i s a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l f l o w d i r e c t l y t o t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t T h i s condenser, t h e n , s e r v e s t o p a s s t h e r a d i o - f r e through condenser Cb. quency component around t h e h i g h i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e of t h e headphones, and from t h i s i t d e r i v e s i t s name " by- pass w condenser. I n t h i s f a s h i o n t h e r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y , having brought t o u s t h e audio- frequency c u r r e n t s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e s t u d i o o f t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g s t a t i o n and enabled us upon which we s h a l l d w e l l a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h l a t e r t o secure regeneration h a s served i t s u s e f u l purpose and is then provided w i t h a d i r e c t p a t h t o f i l a ment. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e audio- frequency component i s f o r c e d t o flow

Lesson 28

- sheet

5.

me:,hraadphonesare for the purpose of converting these audio-frequency currents to sound waves, thereby making then audible TO The human ear. Thepry of Regeneration. Having briefly outlined and reviewed the more simple ~henomenaencountered in the passage of the signal from antenns to headohones iet us now turn our attention to &at phenomenon which is termed "regen&ati&.v Regeneration has, on occasion, been referred to as the simplest and most economical known method of radio-frequency amplification and - such it really is for it effects a marked degree of amplification of the received signal at radio frequency. Its use results in greatly improving the sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver, or in other words it increases the volume of nearby and semi-distant stations and makes possible the reception of distant stations to which the tube would not otherwise give audible response. At the same time, regeneration increases the ability of the receiver to completely tune out undesired signals from stations operating on wavelengths closely adjacent to that of the desired signal. Regeneration is best defined as being the feeding-back of radio-frequency energy from the plate (output) circuit to the grid (input) circuit in such fashion that the fed back energy strengthens, or reinforces, the signal energy actuating the grid of the tube. When the voltage of an incoming signal is impressed upon the grid of the tube, it causes a variation of the grid voltage. It should be borne in mind that any variation of the grid voltage, no matter how slight such variation may be, results in a comparatively great fluctuation of the plate current. This, in brief, is what constitutes amplification inasmuch as a small mount of energy introduced into the input (grid) circuit releases a comparatively large amount of energy in the output (plate) circuit. (Incidentally, it is this ability of a vacuum tube to amplify that makes regeneration possible.) Furthermore, any increase in the amplitude of the signal voltage will result in an increase in the fluctuations of the plate current. This, in turn, will mean a more vigorous vibration of the headphones diaphragm, i e , louder signals. ..

It is entirely practicable to take some of this amplified energy from the plate
circuit and return a portion of it to the grid circuit. Properly done, this returned or fed back energy increases the amplitude of the signal voltage actuating the grid, and such a procedure is termed "regenerationn. The Regeneration Circuit. In the receiver being dealt with in this lesson, a diagram of which is shown in Figure 3, regeneration is secured by means of the coil T. A glance at the schematic diagram, Figure 3, will show that this coil termed the "tickler" coil, is in series with the plate circuit and, furthermore, that it is inductively coupled to the grid coil L. Obviously any current flowing in the plate circuit must, of necessity, traverse the tickler coil and thus set up about this coil a magnetic field, As the ticlcler coil is coupled to the grid coil L, a number of the turns of the grid coil will lie within the magnetic field of the tickler coil. Here, then, we have fulfilled two of the primary requisites necessary for the transfer of energy from one circuit to another by virtue of electro-magnetic induction. However, as long as the plate current is of constant strength, the magnetic field of the tickler coil does not vary, and consequently no induction between tickler and grid coil occurs.

Less03 28

sheet 6.

n the grid, corres-

grid coil is thereby subjected to a varying magnetic field, or in other words the grid coil is being "cutn by moving magnetic lines of force, and induction results. In this manner some of the amplified energy released in the plate circuit by variations of grid potential is returned to the grid circuit. The voltage induced in the grid coil by this feed-back combines with the signal voltage so that the total voltage actuating the grid of the tube is the resultant of this combining of the signal and feed-back voltages. When, at any given instant, the feed-back voltage is of the same polarity as the signal voltage, the combining of these two voltages will be additive. Thus, the initial voltages actuating the grid are intensified, resulting in still greater fluctuations of the plate current with consequent increased signal strength. On the other hand, if the magnetic field of the tickler coil be reversed so that the feed-back voltage is, at any given instant, of opposite polarity to that of the incoming signal, the feed-back voltage will, naturally, oppose the signal voltage. Such a condition as this will result in a reduction of the voltage acting upon the grid with consequent decreased signal strength and, should such feed-back be present to any appreciable degree, it will render the receiver wholly inoperative.

- .

Limitations of Regeneration. From the foregoing it can readily be seen that care must be exercised to insure the feed-back voltge being of such wolaritv that it strengthens the initial signal voltage for-only under suoh bondi- " tions can regeneration be secured. Regeneration, however, can be carried too far for broadcast reception purposes beoause, when feed-back is increased beyond a certain point, the tube becomes a self-excited oscillator, i,e., it becomes a generator of radio-frequency oscillations.

This condition is highly undesirable in broadcast reception for, when the tube is oscillating, a reaction takes place between the incoming signal oscillations and the oscillations being generated by the tube, which results in a whistling squeal that drowns out the voice and music. This reaction is technically aesignated as "autodyning9*and the resultant squeal is termed the autodyne, or "beatw frequency. Control of Regeneration. It is necessary to provide some means by which the feed-back can be controlled so that .lust the right amount of regeneration may be secured and, furthermore, this control mcst be easily anz quiokly variable. This provision for the control of regeneration is necessary in view of the following facts. (a) The tube is most sensitive when the amount of feed-back is kept just below that value of which the tube begins to oscillate. This is known as the point of maximum regeneration. (b) This point of maximum regeneration is different for each wavelength to which the grid circuit is tuned. Control of regeneration may be secured in a variety of ways and, in the circuit under consideration, this is accomplished by mrying the coupling between the tickler and grid coils. This variation of the coupling between these two coils could be secured by varying the distance

Lesson 28

sheet 7 .

between them, but the method actually employed in this receiver is a more convenient one. Here the tickler coil is so mounted that it can be rotated thus providing a means of varying the angular displacement of the tickler coil with respect to the grid coil. If you have really learned the fundamentals of electro-magnetic induction and the considerations which enter into its application and control, as set forth in the lesson covering that subject, you will readily appreciate that when the tickler coil is set at right angles to the grid coil, minimum coupling is secured with consequent minimum feed-back. Therefore, when these two coils are at right angles to each other, regeneration is practically non-existent. m e n the tickler is . parallel to the grid coil, the maximum available coupling is obtained and, of course, feed-back is greatest. Thus, varying the angular displacement of these two coils from right angles to parallel affords a continuously variable control of regeneration. When the grid circuit is tuned to any specific wavelength, for instance 300 meters,.it will be found that when the tickler coupling is increased to a certain value the tube will begin to oscillate. This point at which the tube goes into oscillation is indicated by a more or less distinct "plop" followed by a rather faint hissing sound in the headphones not loud but unmistakable As previously indicated, when the tube oscillates, satisfactory reception of broadcasting is quite impossible because of the autodyne "squealn. Reducing feed-back by loosening the tickler coupling will bring the tube out of oscillation, i.e., cause it to stop oscillating. This adjustment of feed-back at which the tube is just on the verge of breaking into oscillation is the point of maximum regeneration where signal strength is greatest and tuning is sharpest.

Decreasing feed-back below the amount necessary for maximum regeneration results in a pronounced decrease in sensitivity and selectivity. On the other hand, regeneration should not be forced too far, for it will then result in distortion, that is, the received voice and music will sound unnatural and be of poor quality. The adjustment of feed-back at which maximum signal strength is secured without distortion might well be termed the point of optimum regeneration. The point at which one secures maximum regeneration is critical of adjustment and varies with each change of tuning, i e , whenever the variable .. condenser controlling the tuning of the grid circuit is varied, the tickler coupling must also be varied in order to keep the tube in its most sensitive condition just below the point at which it goes into oscillation.

The lower the wavelength to which the grid circuit is tuned, the more readily does the tube oscillate; in other words, the lower the wavelength of the grid circuit, the less will be the amount of tickler coupling needed to secure optimum regeneration. Conversely, the higher the wavelength to which the grid circuit Is resonated, the greater will be the amount of tickler coupling necessary for optimum regeneration.

In practical operation it will be found that if the grid circuit is tuned, for
example, to a wavelength of 300 meters, a certain amount of tickler coupling will be necessary to secure the greatest amount of regeneration possible without introducing distortion or oscillation. Then if the wavelength of the grid circuit is raised to, let us say, 370 meters, the tube will suffer a pronounced decrease in sensitivity, for the value of tickler coupling sufficient for maximum results at 360 meters will prove insufficient for optimum Lesson 28

sheet 8 .

regeneration at the higher wavelength of 370 meters. To secure best results it will be necessary to increase tickler coupling to again obtain the critical value of optimum regeneration. On the other hand, if the wavelength of the grid circuit is lowered from 360 meters, to for instance, 350 meters, the tube will promptly begin to oscillate because the amount of feed-back that gives optimum regeneration at 360 meters will prove excessive at any lower wavelength such as 350 meters. Therefore, as this oscillation is the inevitable result of feed-back in excess of that required for optimum regeneration, a reduction of the tickler coupling will be necessary to cause the tube to stop oscillating. If the feed-back is in this way decreased until the tube just ceases to oscillate, maximum regeneration is again secured. Summary of Operation. In view of the foregoing considerations, it is apparent that a continuously variable control of feed-back is necessary to the operation of this circuit, and such control is secured in this receiver by employing a rotating tickler coil. As might be expected, although regeneration, when properly controlled, is a valuable asset to the operation of the vacuum tube detector, it is not without its drawbacks. The principal drawback encountered in the utilization of a rotating tickler coil as the means of securing and controlling regeneration is that moving the tickler influences the tuning of the grid circuit. This is readily apparent in view of the following considerations. The tickler must, of necessity, be located within the magnetic field of the grid coil. This results in distorting the grid coil's magnetic field, and such distortion is further intensified by the fact that the tickler possesses a magnetic field of its own and the inevitable reaction that takes place between these two interlinking fields. The result of this distortion of the grid coil's magnetic field is to change the effective inductance of the grid coil. If the grid circuit is to be kept tuned to a specific wavelength, it is necessary to compensate for this change in the effective inductance of the grid coil by a change in the tuning capacity associated therewith. This change in the effective inductance of the grid coil varies with each movement of the tickler coil and, in practical operation of the receiver, it will be found that when the tickler coil is rotated, be it ever so slightly, the tuning condenser must be readjusted in order to maintain the circuit at resonance with the desired signal. A brief sununary of the advantages and disadvantages of regeneration follows:Advantages: (a) (b)

I increases the sensitivity of the receiver. t

It increases the selectivity of the receiver. Its adjustment for maximum results is a variant with wavelength. (That is, it cannot be "setw and thereafter be "let alonen. )

Disadvantages: (a)

(b) Adjustment of the regeneration control exerts a detuning effect upon the grid circuit.

Lesson 28

- sheet 9.

I
!

Constructional Details of a Simple Regeneration Circuit. With the foregoing instruction in mind, let us now turn our attention to the constructional details of a radio receiver incorporating regeneration controlled by a rotating tickler coil. Read the instructions thoroughly and endeavor to learn each instrument by its name. The instruments used in the construction of this circuit are:

1 1 1 1

- variable condenser - vacuum tube socket

pair headphones - rheostat

- baseboard - panel circuit tunerw - "three

2 1 1 1

- grid - grid

condenser (.00025 mfd) leak (2 megohms) by-pass condenser (.001 mfd) tip jacks terminal strip 4-inch dial 3-inch dial

If the student has the parts just listed he may follow this instruction. The real purpose of these lessons is to teach you, in a practical manner, the underlying theory and practice of the various fundamental circuits which form the ground work for the more advanced instruction that you will receive later.
A complete kit of parts is supplied to each student for his work on electrically operated screen-grid receivers, the constructional details of which are taught beginning with Lesson 32. However, too much time and thought cannot be given to these lessons that precede the screen-grid instruction, as well as those that follow the screen-grid subject. Do not lose sight of this advice.
The panel in drilled with the holes necessary to attach such apparatus as will be mounted upon it. The first step in the building of the receiver is t fasten the panel to a o baseboard. This baseboard may be any ordinary piece of wood one-half inch thick and eight or nine inches in width. It is the usual practice to make the baseboard an inch shorter than the panel. Along the bottom edge of the panel are four holes through which four wood screws are passed and screwed into the edge of the baseboard. Attach in such manner that the panel projects one-half inch bevnnd the baseboard at each end. Mounting the Instruments. The instruments to be mounted upon the panel are a variable condenser. the three-circuit tuner. the rheostat and the two tin jacks. These instr&ents are attached to the'panel, as shown in the accom; 3anying "picturew diagram, Figure 4, by means of the panel holes provided for this purpose. Other instruments are screwed to the baseboard and, in this receiver, these are the terminal strip and the vacuum tube socket, their proper positions being clearly shown in the diagram. Note the placement of the tube socket as regards its terminals, i,e., the grid (G) and plate (P) terminals toward the rear of the baseboard and the two filament terminals (marked+and-) toward the front of the baseboard. With all the instruments mounted in their proper positions upon the panel and baseboard, we are now ready to begin wiring.

Lesson 28

sheet 10.

bNTENNA

TO GROUND -

" 0 BATTERY

"A"

BATTERY

Figure 4.

Lesson 28

- sheet 11.

In wiring any radio receiver it is usually the best practice to wire in the filament circuit first. This is done by connecting a wire to the negative A (A) binding post on the terminal strip, the other end of the wire being connected to one of the terminals of the rheostat. A wire is now connected to the remaining terminals of the rheostat and thence to the negative filament terminal socket. The positive terminal of the tube socket is then connected to the positive A (+A) binding post of the terminal strip. The tube sockets furnished with this kit, like many of the sockets being ), marketed, have their filament terminals indicated by polarity signs (+andActually, such polarity Signs mean little except to indicate the filament terminals of the socket because, as far as the practical operation of the tube itself is concerned, the relative polarity of the filament terminals is of no consequence. However, in connecting the tube to the various circuits with which it is required to fuhction, it does make a difference to which side (positive or negative) of the filament circuit such connections are made. If the student carefully observes these polarity markings and is governed thereby when wiring in the filament circuit, he will be able subsequently to determine quickly and easily the polarity of the filament wiring without it being necessary to trace such wiring back to the filament battery. However, when working upon receivers built by others, no dependence should be placed upon such socket filament markings, for more often than not such polarity marks have been haphazardly disregarded and, therefore, will prove misleading, Connecting the Instruments. The three-circuit tuner comprises three coils, one rotatinn and two stationary. The rotating coil is the tickler coil and. of the twc stationary coils the smaller is the primary (antenna) coil, whiie the largeris the secondary !grid) coil. The terminal wires of these coils are soldered to lug terminals securely fastened to the coil form to facilitate the connecting of.the coils in circuit. To just what terminals the ends of each coil are connected can easily be determined by examination, as these connections are plain and easily traceable. The antenna coil is placed in circuit by connecting one of its terminals to the antenna (ANT) binding post and its other terminal to the ground (GND) binding post on the terminal strip. Connection to the secondary coil (the larger of the two stationary coils) is affected by means of lugs to which the ends of the coil are soldered. Before preceeding with the connections to this coil, note carefully the lug to which is connected that end of the secondary coil farthest from the antenna coil, and also the lug which is connected to that end of the secondary coil nearest the antenna coil. Having done this, turn your attention to the variable tuning condenser. The variable tuning condenser consists of two interleaved sets of plates - one roup of plates being stationary (stator plates), the other group being movable rotor plates). It is equipped with two terminals, one of which is attached directly to the metal end plate of the condenser, thereby providing a means of connection to the frame and rotor plates. The other terminal is mounted upon an insulating bushing and affords a means of connection to the stator plates.

Lesson 28

sheet 12.

A w i r e i s now connected t o t h e r o t o r p l a t e s of t h e condenser, by means of t h e t e r m i n a l provided f o r t h i s purpose, and t h e o t h e r end of t h i s w i r e is connect-

ed t o t h e l u g on t h e t h r e e - c i r c u i t t u n e r which connects t o t h e end of t h e secondary c o i l n e a r e s t t o t h e a n t e n n a c o i l . From t h e same c o n n e c t i o n a n o t h e r w i r e i s now r u n t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e f i l a m e n t , i . e . , t o t h e w i r e which c o n n e c t s t h e "Aw b i n d i n g p o s t on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p t o t h e corresponding f i l a ment t e r m i n a l of t h e t u b e s o c k e t . The s t a t o r p l a t e s of t h e condenser a r e now connected t o t h e c o i l t e r m i n a l which, i n t u r n , connects t o t h a t end of t h e secondary c o i l f u r t h e s t from t h e antenna c o i l . I n t h i s manner t h e r o t o r p l a t e s of t h e condenser a r e connected t o t h e "low w end of t h e secondary c o i l and t h e n c e t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t , w h i l e t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s of t h e condenser a r e connected t o "high" end of t h e secondary c o i l . Care s h o u l d be e x e r c i s e d t h a t t h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s be made as s p e c i f i e d . The g r i d condenser i s t h e s m a l l f i x e d condenser equipped w i t h t h e c l i p s , i n which t h e 2-megohm g r i d l e a k i s i n s e r t e d , and marked as having a c a p a c i t y of .00025 mfd. One t e r m i n a l of t h i s condenser i s connected t o t h e g r i d ( G ) t e r m i n a l of t h e t u b e s o c k e t . T h i s can be done by s o l d e r i n g t h e l u g t e r m i n a l of t h e condenser d i r e c t l y t o t h e s o c k e t t e r m i n a l s , o r a s h o r t p i e c e of s t i f f w i r e may be used t o connect t h e s e two t e r m i n a l s , The remaining t e r m i n a l of t h e g r i d condenser i s connected t o t h e w i r e running from t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s of t h e condenser t o t h e " high w end of t h e secondary. If t h e g r i d condenser is s o l d e r ed d i r e c t l y t o t h e p r o p e r s o c k e t t e r m i n a l , o r i f t h e c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e cond e n s e r a r e made of f a i r l y s t i f f w i r e , no a d d i t i o n a l means of mechanical s u p p o r t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y i n a temporary hook-up such as t h i s . The g r i d l e a k should be removed from i t s c l i p s on t h e g r i d condenser when s o l d e r i n g c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h i s condense'r, i n o r d e r t o a v o i d p o s s i b l e i n j u r y t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e element of t h e g r i d l e a k due t o t h e h e a t o f t h e s o l d e r i n g i r o n . Replace t h e g r i d l e a k when s o l d e r i n g h a s been completed and t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e condenser have cooled. One of t h e t i c k l e r c o i l t e r m i n a l s i s now connected t o t h e p l a t e ( P ) t e r m i n a l of t h e tube s o c k e t , w h i l e t h e o t h e r t e r m i n a l of t h i s c o i l i s connected t o a t i p jack. The o t h e r t i p jack i s connected t o t h e "B+ Detw b i n d i n g p o s t on the terminal s t r i p . The by- pass condenser i s a s m a l l f i x e d condenser h a v i n g a c a p a c i t y of .001 mfd. One t e r m i n a l of t h i s condenser i s connected t o t h a t t i p jack which is connected t o t h e t i c k l e r c o i l . The o t h e r t e r m i n a l of t h i s condenser i w t h e n connected t o t h e n e g a t i v e s i d e of t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t . T h i s completes' t h e w i r i n g o f the receiver. Mounting t h e Dials. A f o u r - i n c h d i a l i s now a t t a c h e d t o t h e s h a f t of t h e v a r i a b l e condenser by means of t h e s e t - s c r e w p r o v i d e d f o r t h i s purpose. B e f o r e t h e d i a l i s f a s t e n e d i n p l a c e , however, an i n d i c a t i n g marker should be p l a c e d upon t h e p a n e l . T h i s marker may be a l i n e s c r a t c h e d upon t h e s u r f a c e of t h e p a n e l by means of some s h a r p - p o i n t e d i n s t r u m e n t , such as a pen- knife, o r i t may be drawn i n i n k on a b i t of p a p e r above t h e s h a f t of t h e v a r i a b l e condens e r and so p o s i t i o n e d t h a t i t l i e s a t t h e edge of t h e d i a l . Wnen p r o p e r l y mounted, t h e 100 d i v i s i o n on t h e d i a l w i l l be o p p o s i t e t h e i n d i c a t i n g marker on t h e p a n e l when t h e condenser i s s e t a t i t s maximum v a l u e of c a p a c i t y , i . e . , r o t o r p l a t e s c o m p l e t e l y i n t e r l e a v e d w i t h t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s , and t h e z e r o d i v i s i o n on t h e d i a l w i l l b e o p p o s i t e t h e i n d i c a t i n g marker when t h e condenser i s s e t a t minimum c a p a c i t y . Lesson 28

- s h e e t 13.

A s i m i l a r i n d i c a t i n g marker i s provided f o r t h e t h r e e - i n c h d i a l which i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e s h a f t of t h e t i c k l e r c o i l . %%en p r o p e r l y p l a c e d , t h e z e r o d i v i s i o n on t h e d i a l w i l l be o p p o s i t e t h e i n d i c a t i n g marker when t h e t i c k l e r c o i l is a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e secondary c o i l , and t h e 90 d i a l d i v i s i o n w i l l b e o p p o s i t e t h e marker when t h e s e two c o i l s a r e p a r a l l e l .
Check a l l c o n n e c t i o n s . B e f o r e connecting t h e b a t t e r i e s and p l a c i n g t h e t u b e i n i t s s o c k e t , i t would b e w e l l t o check and t h e n re- check each and e v e r y c o n n e c t i o n i n ' t h e r e c e i v e r t o make c e r t a i n t h a t t h e y a r e c o r r e c t . A s a f i n a l p r e c a u t i o n , t e s t t h e c i r c u i t f o r p o s s i b l e i n c o r r e c t c o n n e c t i o n s and s h o r t c i r c u i t s which w i l l '-mpress t h e "B" b a t t e r y v o l t a g e upon t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t . Should such a c o n d i t i o n e x i s t , t h e f i l a m e n t of t h e t u b e w i l l b e burned o u t as soon as t h e b a t t e r y v o l t a g e s a r e a p p l i e d .
--

Such a t e s t i s b e s t made i n t h e f o l l o w i n g x m n e r : Connect a l l b e t t e r i e s t o t h e r e c e i v e r , b u t do n o t p l a c e t h e t u b e i n i t s s o c k e t . Turn t h e f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t on and t h e n connect a D. C. v o l t m e t e r t o t h e f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l s of t h e t u b e s o c k e t . T h i s v o l t m e t e r should be one t h a t r e a d s from 0 t o 50 v o l t s o r from 0 t o 100 v o l t s . The v o l t ~ l l e t e rshould r e a d no more thZn th9 v o l t a g e of t h e "A" b a t t e r y , i . e . , 4.5 v o l t s o r 6 v o l t s as t h e c a s e may be. Should t h e . v o l t m e t e r r e a d 45 v o l t s ( t h e v o l t a g e of t h e "Bv b a t t e r y ) it is a s u r e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t , through a m i s t a k e n c o n n e c t i o n , t h e "B" b a t t e r y v o l t a g e i s a c r o s s t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t . Such a circumstanca would s u r e l y r e s u l t i n t h e t u b e f i l a m e n t b e i n g burned o u t were t h e t u b e t o be i n s e r t e d i n t h e s o c k e t . Check t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t w i r i n g u n t i l t h e m i s t a k e n c o n n e c t i o n i s found.

If a v o l t m e t e r s u i t a b l e t o t h e aforementioned t e s t i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , t h e t e s t may be made a s follows:- Connect only t h e "An b a t t e r y t o i t s p r o p e r b i n d i n g do connect t h e "Bn b a t t e r y t o t h e r e c e i v e r i n any way. P l a c e t h e posts t u b e i n i t s s o c k e t and t u r n on t h e r h e o s t a t u n t i l t h e t u b e i s l i g h t e d . Leavi n g t h e r h e o s t a t s e t a t t h i s p o s i t i o n , s h i f t t h e p o s i t i v e "An b a t t e r y l e a d t o t h e p o s i t i v e "BW b a t t e r y b i n d i ~ g o s t . Now connect t h e n e g a t i v e "An p b a t t e r y l e a d , f i r s t t o t h e p o s i t i v e , t h e n t o t h e n e g a t i v e , "A" b a t t e r y bindi n g p o s t s . The t u b e s h o u l d n o t l i g h t . If i t does l i g h t when t h e n e g a t i v e "An b a t t e r y l e a d i s connected t o e i t h e r t h e p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e "Aw b a t t e r y b i n d i n g p o s t , i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e "B" b a t t e r y c i r c u i t i s s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d t o t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t . I f t h e t u b e h a s not l i g h t e d t h e n i t i s s a f e t o connect b o t h t h e "Attand "Bn b a t t e r i e s t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p o s t s , t a k i n g c a r e t o obs e r v e t h e c o r r e c t p o l a r i t i e s , i . e . , n e g a t i v e "A" b a t t e r y to- A b i n d i n g p o s t , p o s i t i v e "Aw b a t t e r y to+A b i n d i n g p o s t , n e g a t i v e "B" b a t t e r y t o - B b i n d i n g p o s t , and p o s i t i v e "B" b a t t e r y t o t h a t b i n d i n g p o s t marked+B Det.

O f t h e f o u r prongs on t h e b a s e o f t h e t u b e , t h e two f i l a m e n t prongs a r e of l a r g e r d i a m e t e r t h a n t h e g r i d and p l a t e prongs. The openings i n t h e t u b e s o c k e t i n which t h e s e p r o n g s a r e i n s e r t e d a r e o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i a m e t e r s , and c a r e should be e x e r c i s e d t h a t t h e t u b e i s r o e r l i n s e r t e d as e a r d s f a c i l l t a t e 8 %y t h e prongs. The p r o p e r i n s e r t i o n of t h e t u b e f s ?urti!er small b r a s s p i n on t h e s i d e of t h e t u b e base. When t h e t u b e i s p r o p e r l y i n s e r t e d , t h i s small p i n s h o u l d p o i n t i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n as t h e s m a l l arrow engraved on t h e t o p of t h e s o c k e t .

Connect t h e a n t e n n a and ground t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e b i n d i n g p o s t s and i n s e r t the t i p s of t h e phone c o r d i n t h e two t i p j a c k s on t h e p a n e l . The r e c e i v e r i s now ready f o r o p e r a t i o n .

Lesson 28

- s h e e t 14.

Tuning t h e Receiver. The manner i n which t h e c o n t r o l s of t h i s r e c e i v e r a r e m a n i ~ u l a t e di n o r d e r t o t u n e i n t h e s i g n a l s from d i s t a n t t r a n s m i t t e r s w i l l p r o v e t o be a s i m p l e m a t t e r , i f you ha;e l e a r n e d by c a r e f u l s t u d y t h e f a c t s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e ' f o r e g o i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s . Keep i n mind t h e f a c t o r s governing t h e p r o d u c t i o n and c o n t r o l of r e g e n e r a t i o n , and t h e manner i n which such f a c t o r s v a r y w i t h changes i n t u n i n g .
---

B e g i n t u n i n g a t t h e s h o r t e r wavelengths ( a b o u t 200 m e t e r s ) by s e t t i n g t h e condenser a t , o r n e a r , minimum c a p a c i t y ; t h e n g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e t h e wavel e n g t h t o which t h e r e c e i v e r i s tuned by s l o w l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e t u n i n g condenser. A t t h e same t i m e , keep t h e t u b e a d j u s t e d f o r maximum r e g e n e r a t i o n by p r o p e r m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e t i c k l e r c o i l . More s p e c i f i c n l l y , s e t t h e condenser d i a l a t about 1 0 and a d j u s t t h e t i c k l e r c o u p l i n g s o t h a t t h e t u b e o s c i l l a t e s . When t h e t u b e s t a r t s t o o s c i l l a t e , a more o r l e s s d i s t i n c t " plop n followed by a r a t h e r f a i n t h i s s i n g sound w i l l be h e a r d i n t h e headphones. Should t h e r e be any doubt a.s t o whether or n o t t h e t u b e i s o s c i l l a t i n g , a good t e s t can be made i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner. Tap one of t h e g r i d condenser t e r m i n a l s w i t h a moistened f i n g e r t i p . If t h e t u b e i s o s c i l l a t i n g a d i s t i n c t " c l u c k n w i l l be heard i n t h e headphones each time t h i s t e r m i n a l i s tapped.
A s soon a s t h e t u b e o s c i l l a t e s , r e d u c e t h e t i c k l e r c o u p l i n g u n t i l t h e t u b e j u s t s t o p s o s c i l l a t i n g , t h i s b e i n g t h e a d j u s t m e n t s f o r maximum r e g e n e r a t i o n .

Now i n c r e a s e the wavelength of t h e r e c e i v e r by i n c r e a s i n g t h e condenser capa c i t y v e r y g r a d u a l l y , meanwhile k e e p i n g t h e feed- back a d j u s t e d f o r maximum r e g e n e r a t i o n by an e q u a l l y g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n t i c k l e r c o u p l i n g . I n t h i s manner t h e wavelength r a n g e of t h e r e c e i v e r ( 2 0 0 t o 550 m e t e r s ) i s covered u n t i l a s t a t i o n i s tuned i n . When a s t a t i o n i s h e a r d , c a r e f u l l y a d j u s t t h e r e c e i v e r t o e x a c t r e s o n a n c e w i t h t h e incoming s i g n a l s by means of t h e t u n i n g c o n d e n s e r , and a d j u s t t h e feed- back u n t i l maximum s i g n a l s t r e n g t h w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i o n or o s c i l l a t i o n i s secured. T h i s i s a l l t h e i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t c a n b e g i v e n on p a p e r i n r e g a r d t o o p e r a t i n g t h i s r e c e i v e r , The knack o f t u n i n g comes o n l y w i t h p r a c t i c e and so t h e s t u d e n t should n o t s t i n t h i m s e l f a s t o t h e amount of time h e spends w i t h t h i s r e c e i v e r i n l e a r n i n g t h e r u d i m e n t s of t h e t u n i n g a d j u s t m e n t s . It may be found t h a t o n l y a s m a l l amount o f t i c k l e r c o u p l i n g is r e q u i r e d f o r maximum r e g e n e r a t i o n , even a t t h e l o n g e r wavelengths i n t h e v i c i n i t y of 500 m e t e r s . T h i s makes t h e c o n t r o l o f feed- back r a t h e r c r i t i c a l and i s an i n d i c a t i o n of t o o many t u r n s of w i r e on t h e t i c k l e r c o i l . E a s i e r a d j u s t m e n t and c o n t r o l o f r e g e n e r a t i o n could be s e c u r e d i f n e a r l y maximum t i c k l e r c o u p l i n g were necess a r y f o r r e g e n e r a t i o n a t t h e l o n g e r w a v e l e n g t h s ; and t h i s could be s e c u r e d by taking turns off the tickler coil. T h i s r e d u c t i o n of t h e number o f t u r n s on t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i s n o t recommended, b e c a u s e t h e same c o i l i s t o b e used i n subsequent e x p e r i m e n t s i n which t h e number of t u r n s on i t w i l l b e none t o o many. T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n o t a d v i s a b l e t h a t t h e s t u d e n t t a k e o f f any t u r n s as i t w i l l s a v e him t h e t r o u b l e of r e p l a c i n g them i n f u t u r e e x p e r i m e n t s .
If t h e r e c e i v e r , however, were t o be a permanent o n e , t h e n t h e p r o p e r pro-

c e d u r e would be t o r e d u c e t h e number of t u r n s on t h e t i c k l e r c o i l u n t i l n e a r l y

Lesson 28

s h e e t 15.

, "

maximum tickler coupling would be necessary for regeneration at 550 meters. It would then be found that only a small amount Of tickler coupling muld be necessary for regeneration at 200 meters. In this fashion greater ease of regeneration control would be secured, for the range of its adjustment would be spread over a greater portion of the tickler dial instead of being confined to a small portion wherein the control would prove critical of adjustment.

EXAMINATION

LESSON 28.

What is regeneration? What simple test can be made to determine whether or not the tube is oscillating? What is the purpose of the tickler coil? How Is the secondary circuit tuned? What happens to the voice and music being received when the tube oscillates? (a) What adjustment of feed-back gives greatest signal strength? (b) What adjustment of feed-back gives sharpest tuning?
Why is the tickler coil made movable?

In what manner does a variation in grid voltage effect plate ourrent? How may regeneration be controlled? What may cause a tube to oscillate in a regenerative receiver?

Lesson 28

- sheet 16.

Technical Lesson 29
AUDIO AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

Our preceding l e s s o n d e a l t w i t h a r a d i o r e c e i v e r employing a s i n g l e vacuum tube o p e r a t i n g a s a r e g e n e r a t i v e d e t e c t o r and, i n p r e s e n t i n g t h e fundamental p r i n c i p l e s governing t h e a c t i o n s going on w i t h i n t h e c i r c u i t , i t was pointed o u t t h a t t h i s tube, by v i r t u e of i t s d e t e c t o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , served t o demodulate t h e received r a d i o wave. I n o t h e r words, t h e d e t e c t o r separated t h e audio- frequency c u r r e n t s from t h e radio- frequency c a r r i e r wave t h a t conveyed them through space from t r a n s m i t t e r t o r e c e i v e r .
I t i s very o f t e n t h e case t h a t , although r e g e n e r a t i o n i s used t o i n c r e a s e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of a r e c e i v e r , i t i s impossible t o b r i n g i n a d i s t a n t s t a t i o n d i s t i n c t l y and, under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , t h e received s i g n a l s w i l l be weak t o the p o i n t of being b a r e l y a u d i b l e i n s p i t e of t h e most c a r e f u l tuning adjustments on t h e p a r t of t h e o p e r a t o r . To amplify such weak audio- frequency c u r r e n t s , t h a t i s , t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r s t r e n g t h , a r e c e i v e r i s supplied with one o r more a d d i t i o n a l vacuum t u b e s and s u i t a b l e a p p a r a t u s f o r operating and coupling t h e t'ube c i r c u i t s t o g e t h e r . Any arrangement of apparatus used f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e volume of t h e r e c e i v e d audio- frequency s i g n a l i s known a s an audio- frequency a m p l i f i e r . TRANSFORMERCOUPLED AUDIO AMPLIFIERS. The audio- frequency a m p l i f i e r a s a whole i s composed of a number of vacuum tubes so connected t h a t t h e s i g n a l t o be amplified i s f e d s u c c e s s i v e l y from t h e o u t p u t ( p l a t e ) c i r c u i t of t h e f i r s t tube t o t h e i n p u t ( g r l d ) c i r c u i t of t h e next following tube and so on through a s many s t a g e s a s a r e necessary t o r e a l i z e t h e d e s i r e d amount of volume. Each tube c o n t r i b u t e s i t s s h a r e t o t h e t o t a l a m p l i f i c a t i o n obtaina b l e from t h e a m p l i f i e r a s a whole. T h i s procedure of passing t h e s i g n a l s u c c e s s i v e l y through a number of amplifying t u b e s i s known as a "cascade" connection. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e s i g n a l t o be a m p l i f i e d i s impressed upon t h e g r i d of t h e f i r s t tube of t h e a m p l i f i e r and due t o t h e amplifying a b i l i t y of t h e tube t h e s i g n a l reappears i n t h e t u b e ' s p l a t e c i r c u i t g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d i n strength. The s i g n a l i s then t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h i s tube t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e next following t u b e where t h e same a c t i o n i s r e p e a t e d and the s i g n a l , t h e r e f o r e , i s s t i l l f u r t h e r amplified. This procedure i s repeated i n as many s t a g e s of a m p l i f i c a t i o n a s may be necessary f o r b u i l d i n g up t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s i g n a l t o t h e d e s i r e d l e v e l as we j u s t exylained. I n o r d e r t h a t t h e s i g n a l can be t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of one tube t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e n e x t following tube, some s o r t of device o r u n i t must be used t o e f f e c t t h i s t r a n s f e r of s i g n a l energy. Such a device t a k e s a v a r i e t y of forms, but whatever i t may be, j u s t s o long a s t h e p a r t performs t h i s f u n c t i o n of coupllng t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of one tube t o t h e g r i d P r i n t e d i n U.S.A. Contents copyrighted 1930.

circuit of the next following tube, it will be termed in general an intertube coupler or interstage coupler. The three principal types of devices used as intertube couplers are resistors, impedances (in the form of choke coils), and transformers. Furthermore, audio-frequency amplifiers are generally classified accordine to the tvnn of -= - -intertube - ~ ~ ~ p i i employed, namely-: ngv
-

-.

(A)

Resistance-coupled amplifiers. Impedance-coupled amplifiers. Transformer-coupled amplifiers.

(B)
(C)

Of these three types, the transformer-coupled amplifier is the most widely used and is the type of amplifier with which we shall deal in this lesson. Each stage of amplification is composed essentially of a vacuum tube, an intertube coupler (in this instance a transformer), and other incidental apparatus such as the tube socket and filament rheostat and batteries.

An audio-frequency amplifier may incorporate as many stages as desired, but the number of stages usually employed rarely exceeds three. There are broadcast receivers manufactured which incorporate four stages of audio-frequency amplification, but such receivers are very few in number. The great majority of broadcast receivers employ two stages of amplification, or at the most, three stages of amplification, the latter being sufficient to deliver as much signal volume as ordinarily required.

PRI.

SEC.

Figure l

In Figure 1 is shown the schematic wiring diagram of a single stage of audiofrequency amplification connected to the receiver which was described in the preceding lesson. As shown in this diagram, the primary of the audio-frequency amplifying transformer T1 has been substituted for the headphones in the plate circuit of the detector tube. The secondary terminals G and F of this

transformer are connected to the input terminals of the amplifier tube, that is, to its grid and negative filament terminals. This transformer T1 is one having a closed iron core upon which is mounted a primary and a secondary winding- the whole assembly being enclosed in a thin sheet-iron casing which serves to protect the windings from damage and, also, to prevent the escape of stray magnetic fields due to magnetic leakage in the transformer core and coils. The principle of operation is briefly that energy is transferred from primary to secondary windings by virtue of ordinary transformer action as described in our early lessons dealing with electromagnetic induction. More specifically, the plate current of the detector tube possesses an alternating-current component of audio frequency. As this alternating current continually varies according to the characteristics of the signal and flows through the transformer primary it induces fluctuating voltages of similar characteristics in the secondary. Since the secondary terminals are connected to the input terminals of the amplifier tube socket these voltages induced in the secondary will be impressed between the grid and filament of the tube. Thus, the signal energy present in the plate (output) circuit of the detector tube is transferred to the grid (input) circuit of the amplifier tube by means of transformer coupling. TRANSFORadER TURNS RATIO AND SECONDARY INDUCED VOLTAGES. At this point, let us again stress a fact that already has been covered in a preceding lesson. Any vacuum tube is a voltage operated device, that is, the greater the fluctuation in the voltage impressed upon the grid of the tube, the greater will be the corresponding fluctuation in its plate current. This being the case, it is easy to appreciate that the higher the voltages developed in the secondary of the transformer the greater will be the response obtained from the amplifier tube to whose grid this secondary is connected. Furthermore, the voltages developed in the transformer secondary will depend principally upon the turns ratio of the device, and if the transformer possesses a step-up ratio the secondary voltages will be raised to some value higher than the primary voltages. Following the same line of thought, it would appear to be very much to our advantage to always use amplifying transformers having a high turns ratio and in this way obtain high voltage amplification. A high step-up ratio transformer would be necessary if we were concerned only with the production of great signal strength, but this is not the case as we will explain. Audio amplification in broadcast reception must also be considered from the standpoint of the quality of reproduction. In broadcast reception it is of prime importance to obtain natural, life-like reproduction and the desirawity to obtain a great volume of signal is a secondary consideration. In order to obtain good quality of reproduction it is essential that the transformer amplify equally well at all frequencies in the audio range which includes frequencies between approximately 30 and 5000 cycles. Should the transformer accentuate certain frequencies, that is, over-amplify them and discriminate against others, then it is said that the transformer distorts those audio frequencies. In order to obtain faithful reproduction this distortion must be kept as low as possible-the degree of absence of distortion being the customary way by which the worth of the amplifier is judged. Because of a number of practical considerations in transformer design it is highly impracticable to produce an audio-frequency amplifying transformer capable of distortionless amplification and at the same time having a high

turns ratio. The limit of the turns ratio whereby faithful amplification will result is about five to one (5:1),but the audio-frequency amplifying transformers usually employed have a turns ratio of aborat three to one (3:l), or three and one-half to one ( i l . 3:) CURVES ARE USED TO INDICATE THE PERFORMANCE OF AUDIO TRANSFOFUERS. Curve B in Figure 2 is the amplification curve of a good low-ratio transformer. A curve-of this kind is- a visual means of showing the performance of a particar transformer throughout the audio-frequency range. Observe that all frequencies 0 between approximately 1 0 and 5000 cycles are amplified equally well while there is but a slight decrease in amplification at the lower range of frequencies between approximately 1 0 and 30 cycles. An amplifier employing one or 0 more transformers that would give an amplification curve similar to curve B in Figure 2 is capable of providing faithful and pleasing reproduction due to the almost complete absence of distortion.
100
CURVE 8.:

n d c U w E

-.
10 30 40 60 100 2i0 500 1000 FREQUENCY CYCLES

2000 3000 4000 5000

Figure 2 Curve A is the amplification curve of a typical high-ratio transformer having curve A with curve B and note the a turns ratio of ten to one (10:1).Compare irregularities in curve A as compared to the smooth, flat curve B. Note that the two curves, A and B, representing the characteristics of two different transformers operating under similar conditions are plotted on the same chart, Figure 2, in order to easily compare them. Such an irregular curve as A indicates that the transformer from which it was plotted is incapable of amplifying any current whose frequency is below 70 cycles. On the other hand, any current having a frequency in the neighborhood of 1000 cycles is over amplified out of all proportion to other frequencies. An amplifier employing a transformer that would give a curve like curve A would prove unsatisfactory since it would deliver a highly distorted reproduction of voice and music. Hence, there would be an almost complete absence of the low frequencies (bass notes) so necessary to the full enjoyment of good music, while the tendency of the transformer to over amplify certain of the high frequencies would cause an undesirable sound,which is called blasting, to be emitted by the phones or loudspeaker when notes or overtones of corresponding frequencies were received. In brief, if an amplifier incorporates a transformer which is not carefully selected for the use to which it will be subjected then it is very likely that the reproduction of speech will sound indistinct and whereas, music will be more or less harsh. It might be well to point out that any audio amplifier when completed can be used with any kind of a radio receiver by simply connecting it in the proper manner to the output of the detector. An audio amplifier, of whatever type

It w i t h a p a r t from t h e

comprising a t y p i c a l audio-frequency a m p l i f i e r a r e shown on a a r d i n Figure 3. W have i l l u s t r a t e d t h e arrangement of p a r t s e manner t o make i t easy f o r vou t o studv t h e c i r c u i t s and t o f a c-l- - . n i ltat our explanation l a t e r a s t o hbw a c i r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g of o i l y one s t a g e of a - f a m p l i f i c a t i o n may be a l t e r e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e a second s t a g e a f a - f amplification. The f i r s t s t e p i n studying about a d e t e c t o r and an a-f a m p l i f i e r i s t o examine diagram i n Figure 3. There i t w i l l be s e e n that t h e audio-frequency the ~ i c t u r e amplifying transformers T 1 and T2 a r e i n t h e p o s i t i o n s i n d i c a t e d so t h a t t h e i r t e r m i n a l s w i l l be conveniently l o c a t e d with regard t o t h e terminals of o t h e r p a r t s , such a s thevacuum tube sockets.Each audio- frequency amplifying t r a n s former has two primary t e r m i n a l s , P and % a n d two secondary terminals, G andF; t h e s e i d e n t i f y i n g l e t t e r s a r e t h e u s u a l l e t t e r s found stamped i n t o t h e metal case of t h e transformer beneath i t s r e s p e c t i v e terminals. Notice t h a t t h e d e t e c t o r and a-f a a p l i f i e r tubes a r e each supplied with i n d i v i d u a l r h e o s t a t s t o provide r e g u l a t i o n of f i l a m e n t voltage. The schematic diagram of F i g u r e 1 may be followed throughout our explanation, of i f you r e f e r t o the p i c t u r e diagram of Figure 3, providing you d i s r e g a r d t h e connections shown i n d o t t e d l i n e s . The d o t t e d connections i n Figure 3 a r e those r e q u i r e d f o r t h e a d d i t i o n of a second s t a g e of a m p l i f i c a t i o n which would be attached immediately following t h e first s t a g e of a m p l i f i c a t i o n . L e t u s now follow o u t t h e c o n t i n u i t y of t h e v a r i o u s c i r c u i t s and f i n d o u t how t h e y a r e r e l a t e d , From the3.A binding post on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p n o t e t h a t t h e r e i s a connection t o t h e corresponding4.filament t e r m i n a l on t h e tube socket. The o t h e r - f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l i s connected t o one of t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e r h e o s t a t on t h e panel. The remaining r h e o s t a t terminal connects t o the- A binding post on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p . This p l a c e s t h e r h e o s t a t i n t h e n e g a t i v e f i l a m e n t l i n e . I n t h i s c i r c u i t a s t o r a g e b a t t e r y o r "A" b a t t e r y s o u l a b e used t o supply f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e t o a l l tubes. The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e between t h e r a d i o r e c e i v e r a l r e a d y explained i n t h e preceding l e s s o n and t h i s one i s t h a t t h e primary of t h e audio- frequency amplif y i n g transformer i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e headphones i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r tube. You can e a s i l y s e e how this might be done by t r a c i n g t h e wire which l e a d s from t h e t i c k l e r c o i l t o one of t h e t i p jacks. Notice that t h i s wire i s disconnected from t h e t i p jack and connects t o t h e P t e r m i n a l of t h e audio-frequency transformer. The wire which Connects t h e Det+B t e r m i n a l t o t h e o t h e r t i p jack i s removed from t h e t i p jack and i t connects I n s t e a d t o t h e B terminal of t h e audio- frequency transformer. One t e r m i n a l of t h e byp a s s condenser Cb connects t o t h e n e g a t i v e s i d e of the Pilament c i r c u i t a s b e f o r e while i t s remaining t e r m i n a l connects t o t h e l e a d running from t h e t i c k l e r c o i l t o t h e P t e r m i n a l of t h e transformer. A wire connection i s shown on t h e diagram between t h e G t e r m i n a l of t h e transformer and t h e G ( g r i d ) terminal of t h e a m p l i f i e r tube socket and, a l s o , t h e r e i s another connection between t h e F t e r m i n a l of t h e transformer and t h e C- binding p o s t on t h e terminal s t r i p . The two binding p o s t s marked C+and A - connect t o each o t h e r and, a l s o , t h e P ( p l a t e ) t e r m i n a l of t h e a m p l i f i e r tube socket connects t o one of t h e t i p jacks, and t h e o t h e r t i p jack connects i n t u r n t o t h e A p B + binding p o s t on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p . m

11-

TO GROUND

'A" BATTERY-.

-Lesson 29

Figure 3

sheet 6

This completes t h e wiring arrangement of t h e r e c e i v e r . A c i r c u i t of t h i s kind i s placed i n o p e r a t i o n by plugging t h e phone cord t i p s i n t o t h e t i p - j a c k s after having f i r s t connected t h e proper b a t t e r i e s t o t h e r e c e i v e r . I n t h e p i c t u r e diagram i n Figure 3 t h e r e a r e two 45 v o l t "Bn b a t t e r i e s shown connected t o t h e r e c e i v e r i n such manner a s t o apply 45 v o l t s t o t h e p l a t e of t h e d e t e c t o r tube and 90 v o l t s t o t h e p l a t e of t h e a m p l i f i e r tube. A 44 v o l t "Cn b a t t e r y , connected a s shown, f u r n i s h e s t h e c o r r e c t amount of g r i d b i a s i n g p o t e n t i a l t o t h e g r i d of the a m p l i f i e r tube. These a r e t h e v a l u e s of v o l t a g e s recommended f o r u s e with such a c i r c u i t . However, i f only one 45 v o l t "Bn b a t t e r y were t o be used i t would be connected t o t h e B-and D e t - t B binding posts. By t h e u s e of a wire jumper between t h e Det+B and Amp+B binding posts, t h e voltage of this nBrf b a t t e r y w i l l be a p p l i e d t o t h e p l a t e s of both t h e d e t e c t o r and a m p l i f i e r tubes. I n t h e event t h a t only 45 v o l t s were a p p l i e d t o t h e p l a t e of t h e a m p l i f i e r tube a V n b a t t e r y would n o t be r e q u i r e d and, t h e r e f o r e , i n t h i s case, t h e nCff b a t t e r y would have t o be disconnected from i t s binding posts, C + and C-. Now t h e n , s i n c e disconnecting t h i s Wn b a t t e r y would open t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e a m p l i f i e r tube i t would be necessary i n order t o c l o s e t h i s c i r c u i t t o connect a wire jumper between t h e binding p o s t s C S - and C- . USE O A RADIO-FREQUENCY BY-PASS CONDENSER I N THE DETECTOR PLATE CIRCUIT. The F condenser Cb i n Figure 1 i n t h i s l e s s o n f u n c t i o n s i n t h e same manner a s condenser Cb i n Figure 1 i n Lesson 28, inasmuch a s both serve t o by-pass t h e radio- frequency component of t h e d e t e c t o r p l a t e c u r r e n t around t h e high i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e of t h e transformer primary. However, i n p r a c t i c e i t i s w a l l known t h a t i n some i n s t a n c e s a r e c e i v e r of t h i s kind w i l l continue t o o a e r a t e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y with t h e by-pass condenser disconnected. This i s accountable due t o the d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y of t h e primary winding. D i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y e f f e c t i s an i n h e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of any c o i l and i s caused by a d j a c e n t t u r n s of wire a c t i n g i n a manner s i m i l a r t o t h e p l a t e s of t i n y condensers whenever c u r r e n t flows through t h e t u r n s . Although t h i s condenser a c t i o n between any two t u r n s i n a c o i l i s extremely small, y e t t h e t o t a l d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y of a c o i l may be l a r g e s i n c e c a p a c i t y e f f e c t s a r e a d d i t i v e , t h a t i s t o say, the t o t a l e f f e c t i s t h e s m of t h e s e small i n d i v i d u a l a d j a c e n t t u r n u c a p a c i t i e s . Inasmuch a s t h e primary winding of any audio transformer i s composed of hundreds of t u r n s of wire, t h e t o t a l d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y of such a winding o f t e n reaches a n a p p r e c i a b l e value. The e f f e c t of t h e d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y of a l a r g e winding i s t o form a shunt condenser a c r o s s t h e winding e x a c t l y a s would an a c t u a l condenser i f it were connected a c r o s s t h e winding. I t w i l l be observed t h a t we have an a c t u a l condenser, t h e one marked Cb i n Figure 1 connected a c r o s s t h e transformer primary winding. If t h e value o f t h e d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y of t h e primary winding approximated t h a t of condenser Cb i t would be found t h a t condenser Cb would n o t t h e n be a b s o l u t e l y necessary t o t h e proper o p e r a t i o n of t h e c i r c u i t and, t h e r e f o r e , i t could be eliminated.
--

Now, considering t h i s m a t t e r from a p r a c t i c a l viewpoint, t h e value of t h e d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y of a winding cannot be depended upon f o r i t i s a p t t o vary i n d i f f e r e n t transformers. Furthermore, t h e d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y may n o t only d i f f e r i n t h e products of d i f f e r e n t manufacturers, but it may prove t o be a v a r i a b l e q u a n t i t y i n transformers of t h e same make. Hence, t o e l i m i n a t e t h i s element of u n c e r t a i n t y and i n s u r e t h e proper f u n c t i o n i n g of a r e c e i v e r , a by-pass condenser of s u f f i c i e n t value t o meet t h e requirements i s most g e n e r a l l y connected i n t h e manner s i m i l a r t o condenser Cb a s i n d i cated i n Figure 1. To summarize t h e foregoing i t can be s a i d t h a t when comparing a simple r e c e i v e r w i t h an audio a m p l i f i e r t h e r e w i l l be an appreciable

i n c r e a s e i n the s t r e n g t h of received s i g n a l s due t o t h e use of t h e s t a g e of audio-frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n .

A TWO-STAGE AUDIO AMPLIFIER.

I!
I

Having explained t h e e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s of a s i n g l e stage of a-f a m p l i f i c a t i o n i n t h e r e c e i v e r . l e t u s now * - - - - ~ oroceed with t h e a d d i t i o n of a second s t a g e . This second a-f s t a g e w i l l f u n c t i o n according t o the same p r i n c i p l e s a s o u t l i n e d f o r t h e f i r s t a- f s t a g e .

:I

I n regard t o t h e a l t e r a t i o n s of t h e c i r c u i t i n Figure 1 t h a t would be n e c e s s a r y t o provide a 2nd a- f s t a g e r e f e r t o Figure 3. Notice t h a t t h e 2nd a-f t r a n s former, TZ i n Figure 3,would be l o c a t e d t o provide a convenient placement of i t s terminals i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e t e r m i n a l s of o t h e r p a r t s a s i n d i c a t e d . The tube socket which holds t h e second a m p l i f i e r tube i s marked S2. The complete schematic wiring diagram of t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e d e t e c t o r , 1st and 2nd s t a g e audio a m p l i f i e r w i t h transformer coupling i s shown i n Figure 4. If you wish t o compare t h e p i c t u r e diagram of Figure 3 which shows t h e a c t u a l arrangement of p a r t s i n a t y p i c a l c i r c u i t of t h i s kind w i t h t h e schematic diagram of Figure 4 be s u r e t o take p a r t i c u l a r n o t i c e of t h e wiring drawn i n d o t t e d l i n e s . Keep i n mind t h a t t h e purpose of t h e diagram i n Figure 3 i s p r i m a r i l y t o show t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s of instruments and wiring i n t h e t y p i c a l c i r c u i t which we a r e describing and t h e d o t t e d l i n e s i n d i c a t e t h e necessary changes i n wiring f o r the a d d i t i o n of a second audio stage. The following paragraphs e x p l a i n how the c i r c u i t i n Figure 1 would be a l t e r e d f o r a t t a c h i n g a second s t a g e of audio a m p l i f i c a t f o n .
DETECTOR

A-F
AMPLIF I ER

2 p A-F
RNPLIFIER,
I

--

"B"

Figure 4 Observe t h a t the + f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l of S1 s o c k e t connects t o t h e + f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l of socket S1 while t h e - f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l of socket SZ connects t o f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l of S1. In t h i s manner t h e f i l a m e n t s of t h e corresponding both a m p l i f i e r tubes a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l and t h e f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t , being i n s e r i e s with t h e s e f i l a m e n t s ; s e r v e s t o c o n t r o l t h e f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t

Lesson 29

sheet 8

which h e a t s these f i l a m e n t s . The necessary changes c o n s i s t of disconnecting one end of a l e a d which runs from t h e p l a t e t e r m i n a l of socket S1 t o a t i p jack. The end of t n e l e a d t h a t would be disconnected from t h e t i p jack would then be connected i n s t e a d t o t h e P terminal of transformer T2. Another wire which connects t h e A p 4 B binding post t o t h e o t h e r t i p jack would be disconm nected from t h i s t i p jack and i n t u r n would be connected t o terminal B on t h e a-f transformer T2. The G t e r m i n a l of transformer T2 connects t o t h e G ( g r i d ) t e r m i n a l of socket 5 2 , and t h e F t e r m i n a l of transformer T2 connects t o t h e binding post C-on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p . The P ( p l a t e ) t e r m i n a l of socket S2 connects t o one of t h e t i p J a c k s while t h e remaining t i p jack connects t o bindjng post Amp+B on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p . This completes t h e changes t h a t would be required f o r t h e a d d i t i o n of a second s t a g e . The b a t t e r i e s connect t o t h e r e c e i v e r a s previously i n d i c a t e d i n Figure 3, t h e same wCn and wBrs b a t t e r i e s s e r v i n g t o supply p l a t e and g r i d b i a s i n g p o t e n t i a l s ~ e s p e c t i v e l yt o both a m p l i f i e r tubes. J u s t a s i n t h e case with only a s i n g l e s t a g e of audio a m p l i f i c a t i o n using a p l a t e p o t e n t i a l of 90 v o l t s , i t would r e q u i r e a 49 v o l t flCw b a t t e r y t o supply t h e r e q u i s i t e g r i d b i a s p o t e n t i a l f o r two s t a g e s , providing both s t a g e s employed t h e same type of tube and t h e same p l a t e p o t e n t i a l s . If, however, a p l a t e potentiL1 of only 45 v o l t s were t o be used on the a m p l i f i e r tubes, t h e nCn b a t t e r y could be omitted and, a s we previously explained, t h e "Clt b a t t e r y binding p o s t s would t h e n have t o be bridged with a wire jumper t o c l o s e t h i s c i r c u i t .
BRASS
/BALL

BRAS5 ,*THREADS., TIP/SLEEVE~

INSULATED
S '

GI , RP '

Figure 5

THE USE OF JACKS AND PLUGS.

I n p r a c t i c a l r e c e p t i o n t h e r e a r e occasions when an operator may wish t o l i s t e n t o a s i g n a l e i t h e r d i r e c t l y a s i t comes from a d e t e c t o r o r a f t e r t h e s i g n a l has been i n t e n s i f i e d through one o r more stages of a m p l i f i c a t i o n . This can be e a s i l y accomplished by t h e proper use of Wjacksn and "plugs'' i n s e r t e d i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e Cetector tube, t h e f i r s t a m p l i f i e r tlibe and t h e second a m p l i f i e r tube. T h i s permits t h e operator t o connect the headphones i n t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of e i t h e r t h e d e t e c t o r tube, f i r s t amplifier tube o r second a m p l i f i e r tube without t h e n e c e s s i t y of making changes i n the wiring of t h e a m p l i f i e ~ . I n o t h e r words, when such devices a s jacks a r e incorporated i n an audio a m p l i f i e r t h e o p e r a t o r can e a s i l y and q u i c k l y connect the headphones i n t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of any one of t h e tubes i n t h e a m p l i f i e r , and i n t h i s way use t h e output of t h e d e t e c t o r when l i s t e n ing t o strong s i g ~ a l s ,o r t h e output of one s t a g e of audio a m p l i f i c a t i o n if t h e s i g n a l s a r e moderate i n s t r e n g t h , o r providing t h e s i g n a l s a r e weak then t h e output of both s t a g e s of a m p l i f i c a t i o n can be used t o boost t h e s i g n a l . The conventional type plug, shown i n t h e sketch i n Figure 5, c o n s i s t s ess e n t i a l l y of a b r a s s s l e e v e , a b r a s s b a l l - t i p and an i n s u l a t e d g r i p o r handle. The sleeve and b a l l - t i p each terminate i n a connector within t h e g r i p and both a r e thoroughly insulated. from each o t h e r by means of a bushing made of insul a t i n g m a t e r i a l such as hard rubber, b a k e l i t e , o r f i b r e . The headphone cord Lesson 29

sheet 9

means of a thread arrangement provided f o r t h i s purpose.

i s passed throngh the hole i n t h e end of t h e handle and t h e cord t i p s a r e clanped beneath the t e r m i n a l screws which make connection t o the b a l l - t i p and s l e e v e r e s p e c t i v e l y . The g r i p i s then screwed t o t h e plug proper by

I n F i g u r e 6 i s shown a s i d e view of a " double- circuit" jack. The construction i s simple and t h e drawing i s self- explanatory. There a r e f o u r metal l e a v e s made of spring b r a s s o r s t e e l i n t h i s type of jack and each l e a f i s provided w i t h a small c o n t a c t l u g f o r making soldered connections. The jack o p e r a t e s a s follows: When t h e r e i s no plug i n s e r t e d i n t h e jack t h e two upper l e a v e s and t h e two lower l e a v e s a r e i n c o n t a c t with each o t h e r a s shown. However, when t h e plug i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e jack, a s shown i n F i g u r e 7 , t h e uppermost l e a f i s pushed away from t h e l e a f immediately beneath i t , t h u s breaking t h e c o n t a c t between t h e s e two l e a v e s , but leaving t h e uppermost l e a f i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s l e e v e of t h e jack. A t t h e same time, t h e b a l l - t i p of t h e jack pushes t h e lowest l e a f away from t h e l e a f immediately above i t , t h u s breaking t h e c o n t a c t between them, but l e a v i n g t h e lowest l e a f i n c o n t a c t with t h e t i p of t h e plug. A jack i s used i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of each tube. The r e c e i v e r shown i n Figure 4 w i l l r e q u i r e t h e use of t h r e e jacks i f it i s d e s i r e d t o plug t h e headphones i n t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of any one of t h e t h r e e tubes. Observe t h a t a d o u b l e - c i r c u i t jack must be used i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t s of both t h e d e t e c t o r and f i r s t a m p l i f i e r tube. However, a s i n g l e - c i r c u i t jack s i m i l a r t o t h e one i n F i g u r e 8, must be used i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e l a s t a m p l i f i e r tube. J u s t where a l l of t h e " double- circuit" and f l s i n g l e - c i r c u i t R j x k s a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e v a r i o u s p l a t e c 1 r c u i . t ~ s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 9. i Phone jacks a r e u s u a l l y mounted upon t h e panel of a s e t i n t h e manner shown i n F i g u r e s 7 and 8. Note t h a t a h o l e of proper s i z e must f i r s t be made i n t h e panel t o support t h e jack and a f t e r mounting i t i s h e l d s e c u r e l y i n p l a c e by a n u t .

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 8

A d o u b l e - c i r c u i t jack i s connected i n t h e d e t e c t o r d a t e c i r c u i t by breaking t h e c i r c u i t between p o i n t s 1 and 2, and between p o i n t s 3 and 4 a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 4. The c i r c u i t i s t h e n completed by a wire which connects from p o i n t 1 t o l e a f No. 1 of t h e jack, and by another wire which connects l e a f No. 2 t o p o i n t 2. Leaves 3 and 4 a r e connected t o wires 3 and 4 r e s p e c t i v e l y . With t h e s e changes t h e jack i s p r o p e r l y connected t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t .

HOW A JACK FU1;ICTIONS I N A PLATE C I R C U I T O A TUBE. F

When no plug i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e jack, l e a v e s 1 and 2 a r e i n c o n t a c t with each o t h e r and thus t h e p l a t e of t h e d e t e c t o r tube i s connected t o t h e P t e r m i n a l of t h e amplifying transformer. Also, s p r i n g s 3 and 4 make c o n t a c t with each o t h e r t h u s c l o s i n g t h e c i r c u j t between t h e B t e r m i n a l of t h e transformer and t h e +B b a t t e r y l e a d .

Lesson 29

s h e e t 10

Upon inserting the plug in the jack, leaves 1 and 2 are forced apart, thus breaking the connection between the plate of the tube and the transformer. Similarly, leaf 4 is forced away from leaf 3 thus breaking the connection between the transformer and the "B" battery lead. However, in this case, leaves 1 and 4 are in contact with the sleeve and tip of the plug respectively and, thus, the circuit is completed from the plate of the tube through the headphones to the "B" battery. From the foregoing it can readily be seen that when the plug is inserted in the jack the transformer primary is disconnected from the plate circuit and the headphones are automatically substituted for it and, hence, the audiofrequency current in the plate circuit of the detector tube will flow through the headphones and not through the transformer. However, when the plug is withdrawn from the jack, leaves 1 and 2 and leaves 3 and 4 spring together thus reconnecting the transformer primary into the circuit of the detector tube and this time the audio-frequency current in the detector plate circuit is forced to flow through the transformer primary. After the audio current which conveys the signal acts on the transformer secondary by electromagnetic induction then this signal energy passes to the audio amplifier and its volume is increased in the usual manner.

Figure 9 The same principles are applied for the use of another double-circuit jack in the plate circuit of the first audio amplifier as in the case of the jack fn the detector plate circuit. The plate circuit of the first amplifier tube is opened between points 1 and 21 and between points 31 and 4 as indicated ' 1 . 1 1 in Figure 4 Note that 1 connects to leaf No. 1, and 2 to leaf No. 2, and 31 to leaf No. 3, and 4 to leaf No. 4 1 . The insertion or withdrawal of the plug results in the same automatic switching of the connections as in the detector jack, that is, from transformer to phones and vice versa. Figure 9 illustrates the use of single circuit and double circuit jacks.

Lesson 2 9

sheet 1 1

A single-circuit J is used in the plate circuit of the second audio-amplifier tube. The connection of the headphones into the plate circuit of this tube is effected by contact between the tip of the plug and the leaf of the jack, and by contact between the sleeve of the plug and the metal frame of the jack. The use of a doublecircuit jack in the plate circuit of this tube is unnecessary as the jack is not required to automatically change the plate connections from transformer prinary to phones, or from phones to transformer primary as it must do in the detector and first audio stage. To change the connections woula be a simple matter. It could be done by disconnecting the plate and 4 - B battery leads from the tip-jacks and by connecting these leads to the leaf and frame of the single-circuit jack.

When headphones are connected in the output of a two-stage a-f amplifier very strong signals are usually received when listening-in to nearby stations. At no time should the signals in the headphones be so loud that the phones would have to be removed from the ears. If the signals from a certain transmitter were tocome in so strong as to cause the volume of signal to be too great for comfort, reduce the signal strength to the proper level by lowering the filament current supplied to the amplifying tubes by adjustment of the rheostat.

A very strong signal should never be permitted to act on the phones for any length of time because it might result in making the phones "rattly" and less sensitive to weaker signals, or it might possibly damage the phones completely.
EXAMINATION

- LESSON 29

What is the purpose of the audio-frequency amplifying transformer? State the purpose of the detector plate by-pass condenser. How many stages of audio-frequency amplification are usually employed? mlfe. Name the principal types of coupling devices employed in an audio a p i i r Why are jacks used? Will a high-ratio transformer give distortionless amplification? Which is more important in an audio-frequency amplifier used in volume or quality? broadcast reception

What is the usual turns ratio of a good transformer capable of faithful amplification? What would be the advantage of using high-ratio transformers? What would be the disadvantage? Explain the operation of a double-circuit jack.

Lesson 29

sheet 12

INC.
firmed9

S.

Technical Lesson

30
PRACTICAL RADIO CONSTRUCTION

Regeneration, a s you know, may be secured only by r e t u r n i n g t o the g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e t u b e some of t h e amplified s i g n a l energy present i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t . By such means alone can r e g e n e r a t i o n and its a l l i e d phenomenon o s c i l l a t i o n , be secured; and when such feed-back i s absent or i s reduced t o a n e g l i g i b l e amount, r e g e n e r a t i o n and o s c i l l a t i o n cannot be obtained. I n the g r e a t m a j o r i t y of regenerative d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t s t h i s feedback i s secured by means of inductive coupling between p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s and feed-back secured i n t h i s manner i s termed i n d u c t i v e feed-back. However, t h e r e a r e a few c i r c u i t s i n e x i s t e n c e wherein feed-back i s e f f e c t e d through condensers, and i s , t h e r e f o r e , termed c a p a c i t y feed-back. This lesson i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n of the work embodied i n Lesson 28 insof a r a s it employs a r e g e n e r a t i v e vacuum tube d e t e c t o r . The r e c e i v e r d e a l t with i n t h a t l e s s o n employed inductive feed-back t o secure r e generation. F'urthermore, t h e t i c k l e r c o i l , by means of which t h e inductive feed-back was obtained, was made movable because, f o r reasons given t h e r e i n , it i s necessary t o e x e r c i s e c o n t r o l over t h e and t h i s c o n t r o l was e f f e c t e d by r o t a t i n g t h e amount of feed- back t i c k l e r c o i l , thereby varying the coupling between it and t h e g r i d coil.

The r e c e i v e r t o b e d e a l t with i n t h i s l e s s o n employes regeneration; and t h i s r e g e n e r a t i o n i s secured i n e x a c t l y t h e same manner a s i n Lesson 28; i.e., by means of a t i c k l e r c o i l which, by v i r t u e of being i n d u c t i v e l y coupled t o t h e g r i d c o i l , makes p o s s i b l e t h e necesThis c i r c u i t s a r y feed-back of energy from p l a t e t o g r i d c i r c u i t s . d i f f e r s , however, from t h a t of Lesson 28 i n t h e method employed t o Herein, t h e t i c k l e r i s s e t i n i t s p o s i t i o n c o n t r o l t h e feed-back. and c o n t r o l of feed-back i s secured by varying the amount of r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t flowlng through t h e t i c k l e r c o i l .
A glance a t Figure 1 w i l l show t h a t the p l a t e c i r c u i t divides' a t point X t o form two p a t h s f o r t h e flow of c u r r e n t , t h e two paths

being i n p a r a l l e l , one with t h e other. One p a t h i s from p l a t e through t h e r a d i o frequency choke c o i l , headphones and B b a t t e r y t o filament; t h e o t h e r path i s from p l a t e through the t i c k l e r c o i l and t h e v a r i a b l e condenser F t o filament. C

Contents Coavriahted 1930 Printed i n fJ".~.x.

-

F u r t h e r ~ i s r e , w have p r e s e n t i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t two a l t e r n a t i n g e one being a r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t s of widely d i f f e r e n t frequency c u r r e n t averaging 1,000,000 cycles per second; t h e o t h e r an audio frequency c u r r e n t averaging about 1,000 c y c l e s per second.

The audio frequency component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i s t h e e l e c t r i c a ' l equivalent of t h e sound waves ( v o i c e and music) o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e s t u d i o of t h e broadcasting s t a t i o n and, a s t h e headphones a r e t h e e l e c t r i c a l device whose s o l e purpose i s t o convert such c u r r e n t s t o sound waves, i t i s iinmediately apparent t h a t t h e s e audio frequency c u r r e n t s must be s e n t through t h a t branch of t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t which i n c h ~ d e st h e headphones. O t h e o t h e r hand, it i s necessary t h a t t h e n r a d i o frequency component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t flow through t h e branch of t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t which includes t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i n order t h a t this r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t can be u t i l i z e d f o r securing regeneration. By t h e proper proportionfng of the e l e c t r i c a l dimensions of each of t h e s e two p a r a l l e l branches of t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t i t i s e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e t o s e p a r a t e t h e s e a u d i o and r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t s and t o confine each t o t h a t branch of t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t i n which it w i l l do t h e work r e quired of i t and d e l i v e r the d e s i r e d resu1t.s. The audio frequency component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t upon reaching point X, w i l l flow on through t h e headphones r a t h e r t h a n through the o t h e r

7
T

1 .

R.F. CHOKE COIL

Figure 1 branch of t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t which includes the v a r i a b l e condenser FC. W y the audio frequency c u r r e n t w i l l take t h e p a t h designated i s aph parent i f t h e i n d u c t i v e and c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e s of the various instruments involved a r e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . A t a frequency of 1000 cycles t h e i n d u c t i v e reactance of the headphones, which have an inductance, say, of t h r e e h e n r i e s , i s 18,840 ohms; whereas t h e c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e of condenser FC, which has a maximum capacity of .0005 mfd., i s 322,580 ohms a t the same frequency. Needless t o Lesson 30

- sheet 2

say, t h e audio frequency component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l f o l . 1 0 ~ t h e path of l e a s t reactance through t h e headphones. The r a d i o frequency choke c o i l has an inductance of approxi~nately 80 m i l l i - h e n r i e s ( o r .08 henry); t h e r e f o r e i t s i n d u c t i v e reactance a t a frequency of 1,000 cycles i s approxinately 500 ohms, and so it o f f e r s l i t t l e opposition t o c u r r e n t s of audio frequency a s compared t o t h e much g r e a t e r o p p o s i t i o n created by the high inductance of t h e head-phones. Let us again consider the inductive and c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e s of t h e s e but a t a r a d i o frequency of 1,000,000 c y c l e s psr second. same instruoents A t t h i s frequency t h e i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e of the r a d i o frequency choke c o i l (80 m i l l i - h e n r i e s ) i s approximately 500,000 ohms, while t h e cap a c i t i v e reactance of condenser FC ( .OOO5 m f d . ) i s but 318 ohms The r a d i o frequency component of the p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l flow through t h a t branch of t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t which o f f e r s the l e s s e r opposition t o i t s passage, i.e., through t i c k l e r c o i l and condenser FG. The inductance of t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i s s u f f i c i e n t l y low t h a t i t s i n d u c t i v e reactance does not s e r i o u s l y impede the flow of r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t .

Thus, by properly proportioning t h e i n t h e two p a r a l l e l branches of t h e caused t o s e p a r a t e a t point X, each c i r c u i t wherein it accomplisl~esthe

values of inductance and capacity p l a t e c i r c u i t t h e two curren-ts a r e flowing i n t h a t branch of t h e p l a t e desired r e s u l t s .

It may occur t o t h e student t h a t it s c a r c e l y seems l o g i c a l t o i n s e r t frequency choke c o i l having an inductance of i n the c i r c u i t a ~ a d i o only 80 m i l l i - h e n r i e s (.08 henry) t o prevent t h e passage of r a d i o frequency current through t h e headphones which have an inductance of a about t h r e e h e n r i e s . A t f i r s t glance, i t would appear t h a t such a comparatively h i g h inductance a s t h r e e h e n r i e s would, i n i t s e l f , c o n s t i t u t e an i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e of well- nigh i n f i n i t e opposition t o a frequency of 1,000,000 c y c l e s per second; and such would be t h e d i s t r i b u t e d capacity. case were it not f o r one f a c t o r

Like t h e audio frequency transformer primary mentioned i n t h e preceding lesson, t h e headphone windings a r e composed of thousands of t u r n s of very f i n e wire wound s i d e by s i d e and l a y e r on layer. Here, then, we again encounter d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y i n c o i l windings and, e x a c t l y a s i n any c o i l , t h i s d i s t r i b u t e d capacity does, i n e f f e c t , form a shunt condenser a c r o s s t h e winding. Thus, any r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t t h a t reaches the headphones w i l l not be subjected t o t h e excessive inductive reactance of the head-phone windings f o r it w i l l f i n d a value of d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y which w i l l a f f o r d i t an easy p a t h through which t o flow. A glance a t Figure 1 w i l l r e v e a l t h a t Cx (which r e p r e s e n t s t h e d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y of t h e headphones) provides a path f o r r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t d i r e c t l y from p l a t e t o filament c i r c u i t . This path i s in p a r a l l e l t o t h e c i r c u i t conposed of t h e t i c k l e r c o i l and feed-back c o n t r o l condenser F so C t h a t any r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t flowing through C w i l l r e s u l t i n a decrease i n t h e amount of r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t flowing i n the

Lesson 30

- sheet

t i c k l e r c o i l c i r c u i t . If t h e d i s t r i b u t e d capacity , i s of s u f f i c i e n t C value and i t o f t e n i s , i t robs t h e t i c k l e r c i r c u i t of s o much r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t t h a t i t i s impossible t o secure regeneration. Therefore, a r a d i o frequency choke c o i l i s i n s e r t e d i n the c i r c u i t a t .the point i n d i c a t e d i n Figure 1 t o prevent t h e r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t f r o m e n t e r i n g t h a t branch of t h e c i r c u i t i n which a r e included t h e headphones, and thus prevents the r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t from being bypassed by t h e d i s t r i b u t e d capacity of the l a t t e r . I n t h i s manner t h e r a d i o frequency choke c o i l prevents t h e d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y of t h e headphones from s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g t h e r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t d i r e c t l y t o t h e filament c i r c u i t by preventing, or 'choking o u t n , t h e r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t from reaching t h i s undesirable and troublesome d i s t r i b u t e d capacity. All c o i l s possess d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r degree and r a d i o frequency choke c o i l s a r e by no means an e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s r u l e . It should n o t be d i f f i c u l t t o understand t h a t any appreciable amount of d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y i n t h e r a d i o frequencg choke c o i l w i l l g r e a t l y impair i t s "choking" a c t i o n and thereby render it useless. It i s of prime importance t h a t , f o r a given value of inductance, t h e d i s t r i b u t e d capacity of t h i s device be of a s small a value a s f t i s possib l e t o make i t ; and t o achieve t h i s end s p e c i a l methods of winding a r e o f t e n employed. The method of securing r e g e n e r a t i o n i n t h i s r e c e i v e r i s t h e scme as t h a t described i n Lesson 28, namely, by means of a t i c k l e r c o i l . This c i r c u i t d i f f e r s , however, from t h a t described i n Lesson 28 i n t h e method employed t o c o n t r o l t h e feed-back. I n the r e c e i v e r of Lesson 28 c o n t r o l of feed-back was obtained by r o t a t ing t h e t i c k l e r c o i l and i n t h i s way varying t h e angle a t which t h e g r i d c o i l was cut by t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e t i c k l e r c o i l w i t h a consequent v a r i a t i o n of t h e i n d u c t i v e e f f e c t of t h e t i c k l e r upon t h e g r i d c o i l . I n t h i s r e c e i v e r t h e t i c k l e r c o i l , once it i s a d j u s t e d t o i t s proper p o s i t i o n , need not again be moved, f o r c o n t r o l of r e g e n e r a t i o n i s secured by varying t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t flowing t h e r e i n . Here a g a i n i s an a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e fundamentals of e l e c t r o magnetic i n d u c t i o n a s s e t f o r t h i n preceding lessons, If t h e r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t flowlng through t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i s decreased t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e t i c k l e r i s weakened, and tNs weakening of t h e t i c k l e r c o i l c s magnetic f i e l d r e s u l t s i n less energy being induced i n t h e g r i d c o i l @ In other words, a decrease i n t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t flowing through t h e t i c k l e r r e s u l t s i n decreased f e e d back. Conversely, an i n c r e a s e i n t h e s t r e n g t h of the r a d i o frequency current flowing through t h e t i c k l e r c o i l r e s u l t s i n an i n c r e a s e i n i t s magnetic f i e l d and, a s t h i s means t h a t t h e g r i d c o i l i s s u b j e c t e d t o a stronger magnetic f i e l d , t h e r e w i l l be an i n c r e a s e i n t h e energy induced t h e r e i n . Hence, an increase i n t b r a d i o frequencg c u r r e n t flowing through t h e Lesson 30

- sheet 4

t i c k l e r c o i l r e s u l t s i n increased feed-back. This c o n t r o l of t h e strength of the r a d i o frequency current i n the t i c k l e r c o i l i s secured by employing a condenser, FC, i n Figure 1, i n s e r i e s with t h e t i c k l e r c o i l ; t h i s condenser being continuously v a r i a b l e i n i t s values of capacity from a minimum of about .00005 mfd. t o i t s maximum of .0005 m f d . Eear In mind t h a t the reactance o f any condenser i s i n v e r s e l y prop o r t i o n a l t o i t s capacity, i.e., a s i t s capacity increases i t s r e actance decreases, and a s i t s capacity decreases I t s reaczance increases. Furthermore, t h e r a d i o frequency current flowing through e r c o i l , w i l l , or course, increase w i t h a decrease i n t h e capacitive reactance and w i l l decrease w i t h an increase i n t h e cap a c i t i v e reactance. This being so, then an increase i n the capacity of t h e feed-back c o n t r o l condenser PC r e s u l t s i n an i n c r e a s e i n t h e feed-back, while a decrease i n t h i s condenser's capacity decreases the f eed-back. Here, then, w have a means of c o n t r o l l i n g feed-back which, by v i r t u e e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s condenser i s continuously v a r i a b l e between i t s minimum and maximum values of capacity, a f f o r d s us a smooth, even control of regeneration. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , such an arrangement f o r the c o n t r o l of feed-back possesses the decided advantage of having very l i t t l e de- tuning e f f e c t upon the g r i d c i r c u i t . (Refer t o Lesson 28 wherein i t was pointed out t h a t a r o t a b l e t i c k l e r c o i l has a pronounced de- tuning e f f e c t upon the g r i d c i r c u i t ) .

In t h i s c i r c u i t t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i s s t a t i o n a r y and thus e x e r t s but l i t t l e , i f any, de-tuning e f f e c t upon t h e g r i d c o i l , The s l i g h t detuning e f f e c t which mag r e s u l t from varying the t i c k l e r c o i l ' s magnetic f i e l d by manipulating the.feed-back control condenser, FC, i s so s l i g h t a s t o be n e g l i g i b l e . This absence of any appreciable de-tuning e f f e c t upon the g r i d c i r c u i t by t h e regeneration c o n t r o l i s a very r e a l advantage inasmuch a s it renders the operation of the r e c e i v e r simpler and e a s i e r *
Before commencing the wiring of t h i s r e c e i v e r remove a l l connections made i n accordance w i t h t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s contained i n Lesson 28. However, it i s n e i t h e r necessary nur d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e audio frequency amplifier be a l t e r e d a s we a r e dealing h e r e i n only w i t h t h e connections i n the r a d i o frequency p o r t i o n of t h e receiver. aount the feed-back control eondenser on the panel t o t h e r i g h t of t h e t h r e e - c i r c u i t tuner. The t u n e r , tuning condenser, r h e o s t a t s and o t h e r apparatus r e t a i n t h e p o s i t i o n s accorded them i n the preceding lessons e Begin by wiring i n t h e filament c i r c u i t o f the d e t e c t o r tube, A wire i s run from the+A binding post on the terminal s t r i p t o t h e + A lug on t h e d e t e c t o r tube socket. A connection i s now made between t h e -A binding post on the t e r m i n a l s t r i p and one of t h e terminals of t h e lower rheostat, the remaining terminal of t h i s instrument being connected t o

Lesson 30

- sheet

the -A lug of the d e t e c t o r tube socket. (No a l t e r a t i o n i s made i n t h e connections of t h e upper r h e o s t a t as t h i s i s t o continue t o control t h e filament c u r r e n t of t h e audio amplifier t u b e s ) . Connect Me antenna and ground b i ~ x i i n gp o s t s t o the terminals of the antenna c o i l of t h e tuner. The tuning condenser should now be connected i n p a r a l l e l t o the seconda r y of &e t u n e r , t a k i n g care t h a t the r o t o r p l a t e s of the condenser a r e connected t o t h a t end of t h e secondary which i s n e a r e s t the antenna c o i l , and t h a t t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s are cornecrej. t o t h a t end of t h e secondary f a r t h e s t from the antenna c o i l . Connect t h e r o t o r p l a t e s of the tuning condenser t o t h e p o s i t i v e A b a t t - r y lead. One of the terminals of t h e g r i d conclenser i s norv connected t o t h e g r i d terminal of t h e d e t e c t o r tube socket, the remaining terminal of the g r i d condenser being connected t o the s t a t o r p l a t e s of the tuning condenser. D not f o r g e t t o o remove the g r i d leak from i t s c l i p s on t h e g r i d condenser while soldering connections t h e r e t o . The r a d i o frequency choke c o i l should now be mounted t o the r e a r of the baseboard and near t h e f i r s t stage audio frequency amplifying t r a n s former. A wire i s now run'rrom t h e p l a t e terminal of t h e d e t e c t o r tube socket t o one of the t i c k l e r c o i l terminals. The remaining t i c k l e r c o i l terminal i s comected t o the s t a t o r p l h t e s of the feed-back c o n t r o l condenser, the r o t o r p l a t e s being connected t o t h e negative A b a t t e r y lead. The p l a t e terminal of the d e t e c t o r tube socket i s a l s o connected t o one of the r a d i o frequency choke c o i l terminals. The remaining terminal of t h i s choke c o i l i s connected t o t h e P terminal of t h e f f r s t s t a g e audio frequency amplifying transformer, while t h e B t e r m i n a l of t h i s i n s t m ment i s connected t o t h e Det+B binding post on t h e terminal s t r i p .
If t h e audio frequency m p l f f i e r i s dispensed with and only the d e t e c t o r tube used, then t h e l e a d s from t h e DetaB binding post and r a d i o frequency choke c o i l a r e connected t o the two t i p jacks i n s t e a d of t o t h e p r i m ~ r y terminals of the f i r s t audio frequency amplifying transformer. It i s recommended, however, t h a t the audio frequency a m p l i f i e r be used.

This completes t h e wiring of the receiver. To put it i n operation connect antenna, ground and b a t t e r i e s t o t h e i r binding p o s t s on the terminal strip.
A s i n t h e preceding hook-up (Lesson 29), t h e use of a C b a t t e r y t o furnispl

a g r i d b i a s i n g p o t e n t i a l t o t h e g r i d s of t h e audio frequency amplifying tubes w i l l depend upon t h e value of B b a t t e r y voltage impressed upon the p l a t e s of t h e s e tubes. I f a p l a t e p o t e n t i a l of 90 v o l t s i s used, a C b a t t e r y of 4.5 v o l t s should be connected t o t h e C b a t t e r y binding posts. However, if t h e p l a t e p o t e n t i a l of the amplifying tubes i s made the same a s t h a t of the d e t e c t o r , ice., 45 v o l t s , no C b a t t e r y i s required. I f t h e C b a t t e r y i s omitted i t w i l l be necessary t o connect a short wire otherwise t h e g r i d r e t u r n lead of both audio jumper from C + t o Gfrequency amplifying tubes would be open-circuiteda

This r e c e i v e r w i l l be found t o operate i n a manner very s i m i l a r t o t h a t of Lesson 28 inasmuch a s the p r i n c i p l e s involved are i d e n t i c a l except f o r Lesson 30

- sheet

1 r

t h e means provided f o r c o n t r o l l i n g feed-back, (Bear i n mind t h a t feed-back i s secured i n t h e same manner by means of a t i c k l e r c o i l . It i s only the method of c o n t r o l l i n g i t t h a t d i f f e r s ) . Tuning i s accomplished by varying t h e capac'ty of t h e v a ~ i a b l econdenser connected i n shunt t o the t u n e r secoEdary, while feed- back i s c o n t r o l l e d by varying t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e feed-back c o n t r o l condenser,FGe

When t h e r e c e i v e r i s f i r s t put i n operation, s e t t h e feed-back c o n t r o l condenser a t maximum c a p a c i t y ( r o t o r p l a t e s completely i n t e r l e a v e d w i t h s t a t o r p l a t e s ) and s e t t h e t i c k l e r c o i l f o r maximum a v a i l a b l e coupling ( t i c k l e r c o i l winding p a r a l l e l t o t h e g r i d c o i l ind ding)^ The r e c e i v e r should now o s c i l l a t e , Whether or not i t i s o s c i l l a t i n g c a n b e determined by l i s t e n i n g f o r heterodyne squeals a s t h e tuning condenser i s slowly r o t a t e d , o r by tapping t h e g r i d l e a d of t h e d e t e c t o r tube with a moistened f i n g e r t i p . (See Lesson 28, sheet 16, paragraph 2 ) . I f t h e d e t e c t o r tube does not o s c i l l a t e , t u r n the t i c k l e r c o i l around tlsrough one-half r e v o l u t i o n so t h a t i t a g a i n i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e g r i d c o i l , but t h u s r e v e r s i n g t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e magnetic f i e l d a c t i n g upon the secondary* Allowing t h e t i c k l e r c o i l t o remain a t t h i s p o s i t i o n of maximum coupli n g * feed-back can now be c o n t r o l l e d by varying t h e c a p a c i t y of feedback c o n t r o l condenser; a r e d u c t i o n of i t s c a p a c i t y r e s u l t i n g i n a decrease i n feed-back, while an i n c r e a s e i n I t s c a p a c i t y i n c r e a s e s feed-back,
A s always, t h e s h o r t e r the wavelength t o which t h e g r i d c i r c u i t i s tuned the l e s s w i l l be t h e feed-back necessary f o r maximum regenera t i o n ; and, conversely, t h e longer t h e wavelersth t o which t h e g r i d c i r c u i t i s resonated t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e amount of feed-back which w i l l give r e g e n e r a t i o n .

A f t e r tuning i n a number of s t a t i o n s and n o t i n g the feed-back c o n t r o l condenser which give r e g e n e r a t i o n wavelengths t o which t h e g r i d c i r c u i t i s tuned, t r y t i c k l e r c o i l coupling t o determine t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p coupling and feed-back c o n t r o l condenser;

s e t t i n g s of t h e a t t h e various varying t h e between t i c k l e r

To do t h i s , tune i n a s t a t i o n ( p r e f e r a b l y one on about 350 m e t e r s ) w i t h t h e t i c k l e r c o i l p a r a l l e l t o t h e g r i d c o i l (maximum t i c k l e r coupling) and the feed-back condenser a d j u s t e d f o r optimum regenera t i o n . N w s l i g h t l y reduce t h e t i c k l e r coupling; n a t u r a l l y , r e o g e n e r a t i o n immediately decreases. The d e t e c t o r tube can now be brought back t o t h e p o i n t of optimum r e g e n e r a t i o n , however, by inc r e a s i n g the c a p a c i t y of t h e feed-back c o n t r o l condenser. This, of course, i s r e a d i l y explainable. When t h e t i c k l e r coupling i s decreased, t h e angle a t which i t s magnetic f i e l d c u t s t h e g r i d

Lesson 30

- sheet

c o i l i s decreased w i t h a consequent l e s s e n i n g of t h e inductive e f f e c t by the t i c k l e r upon t h e g r i d c o i l . The r e s u l t a n t decrease i n the feedback can be compensated by increasing the s t r e n g t h of the t i c k l e r c o i l t s magnetic f i e l d . T h i s i s done by increasing the c a p a c i t y O f the feedback c o n t r o l condenser which, because i t thereby permits more r a d i o frequency current t o f l o w through the t i c k l e r c o i l , strengthens the magnetic f i e l d t h e r e o f .
T r y d i f f e r e n t values of t P c k l e r coupling and note t h e corresponding changes i n t h e adjustmem of t h e feed-back c o n t r o l condenser necess a r y t o maintain t h e d e t e c t o r tube a t t h e point of maximumregenera t i o n , As t:he t i c k l e r coupling i s reduced it w i l l b e found, when a c e r t a i n degree of coupling i s reached, t h a t i t i s impossible t o secure regeneration a t the l o w e r wavelengths even when t h e feed-back control condenser I s ndjusted t o maximum capacity. Such a circumstance i n d i c a t e s t h a t , although t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i s r e c e i v i n g a l l the r a d i o frequency current airailable i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t , y e t i t s coupling t o the g r i d c o i l i s t o o loose t o give the amount of feed-back required f o r regeneration a t t h e longer wavelengths o A s t h e t i c k l e r coupling i s s t i l l f u r t h e r reduced and t h i s reduction should be g r a d u a l it w i l l be found that t h e highest wavelength a t which r e g e n e r a t i o n can be secured becomes l e s s and l e s s u n t i l , a s the t i c k l e r coupling approaches zero, it w i l l be found impossible t o s e c u r e regeneration even a t the s h o r t e r wavelengths where t h e l e a s t amount of feed-back i s necessary t o s e c u r e regeneration. When the t i c k l e r c o i l i s a t , or n e a r l y a t , r i g h t angles t o t h e g r i d c o i l i t s coupling i s p r a c t i c a l l y zero; therefore, even i f a comparatively s t r o n g r a d i o frequency current flows through the t i c k l e r c o i l , i t s inductive e f f e c t upon t h e g r i d c o i l i s negligible and, t h e r e f o r e , feed-back i s non-oxistent*

After experimenting with t h e adjustment of the feed-back c o n t r o l condenser a s r e l a t e d t o d i f f e r e n t values of t i c k l e r couplingp a s outllned above, no d i f f i c u l t y should be experienced i n determining a value of t i c k l e r coupling a t which the c o n t r o l of feed-back "spreads n over most of t h e feed-back c o n t r o l condenser's d i a l . T h a t i s t o say, regenera t i o n a t t h e longer wavelengths (about 500 meters) should be secured 0 ' a t about 5 or 75 on t h e r e g e n e r a t i o n c o n t r o l d i a l , whlle regeneration a t the s h o r t e r wavelengths i n t h e v i c i n i t y of" 200 meters should be obtained a t about 20 o r 25 on t h i s d i a l . This i s t h e adjustment which w i l l give the smoothest, e a s i e s t c o n t ~ o l regeneration. of
If t h i s r e c e i v e r were t o be a permanent one, the l e n g t h of b a k e l i t e tubing on which t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i s wound would be r i g i d l y mounted i n s i d e the secondary c o i l of t h e tuner; o r e l s e i t would be wound on t h e same tube a s the secondary and w i t h l i t t l e or no spacing between t h e t i c k l e r and secondary windings, Thus, i f the t i c k l e r were f i x e d i n i t s p o s i t i o n , the adjustment of i t s coupling i n order t o "spread" t h e r e g e n e r a t i o n c o n t r o l over most of i t s d i a l would, of necessity, have t o be made by adding t u r n s t o , o r s u b t r a c t i n g t u r n s from, t h e t i c k l e r winding,

Lesson 30

sheet 8

EX4MINkTION
I

LESSON 30

1 .

W y i s i t n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e r a d i o frequency component of t h e h d e t e c t o r tube" p l a t e c u r r e n t flow through t h e t i c k l e r c o i l ?

W y i s t h e r a d i o frequency choke c o i l used? h

How i s feed-back secured i n t h i s r e c e i v e r ?

hky 1 s it necessary t h a t t h e audio frequency component of the

d e t e c t o r t u b e ' s p l a t e c u r r e n t flow through t h e headphones? B w does t h e feed-back c o n t r o l condenser c o n t r o l t h e feed-back o i n t h i s receiver?

What i s t h e advantage of t h i s method of c o n t r o l l i n g regeneration?

What e f f e c t upon feed- back accompanies an i n c r e a s e i n t h e c a p a c i t y o f the feed- back c o n t r o l condenser?

I n any r e c e i v e r employing t h i s method of c o n t r o l l i n g r e g e n e r a t i o n , i s i t necessary. t h a t the t i c k l e r c o i l be movable?

What kind o r type of c o i l s possess d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y ? Does a decrease i n t h e s t r e n g t h of the r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t flowing l;hrou@;ht h e t i c k l e r c o i l r e s u l t i n i n c r e a s e d o r decreased feed- back?

Lesson 30

- sheet 9

INC.
M A R C O N I /A'S JITUTE

Technical Lesson 3 1

REGENERATIVE DETECTOR WITH CAPACITIVE CONTROL OF FEED-BACK The method of controlling regeneration described in the preceding lesson is considered to be one of the best, for it is smooth and even in operation and, in addition, it possesses the advantage of having very little tuning effect upon the wavelength adjustment of the grid circuit. Another method, equally as good and also employing capacitive control of regeneration, mill be described in this lesson. The circuit of the receiver now being dealt with and the circuit of the preceding lesson are quite similar. comparison later will show thst while the circuits themselves vary but slightly, yet there is absolutely no difference in the arrangement of the parts'that form the circuits. This lesson will serve to illustrate how identical principles may be useh to obtain certain results, but that the method of applying such principles can be varied, and how this necessitates only a slight alteration in circuit arrangement.

In the receiver described in this lesson, regeneration is secured by means

of inductive coupling between the plate and grid circuits of the detector tube through the use of the usual tickler coil. This tickler coil can remain fixed in its position and feed-back controlled by varying the strength of the radio-frequency component of the plate current flowing through it- a variable condenser being used to secure this control of the radio-frequency current. This, in its fundamental principle, is the same method of securing and controlling regeneration as was employed in the receiver of the preceding lesson. The actual difference in the circuit arrangements of both receivers can be most clearly understood by a aomparison of Figure 1 in this lesson with the schematic wiring diagram in Figure 1 of Lesson 30. An examination of these two diagrams shows that the difference between them exists in the plate-tickler sections of the circuits. In the circuit of the preceding lesson the currents in the plate circuit are separated at the plate, the radio-frequency component flowing through the tickler coil and feed-back control condenser while the audio-frequency component flows through the radio-frequency choke coil and headphones. In the circuit of this lesson the radio-frequency and audio-frequency comonents of the plate current both flow through the tickler coil and are Then separated at point X in Figure 1 At this point the plate circuit . divides into two branches and, due to the electrical dimensions of these two branches, the audio and radio-frequency components of the plate current are caused to separate in exactly the same manner, and in accordance with the same reasons, as already explained in the preceding lesson. Printed in U.S.A. nnn+-nts nnnvri~hted 1930.

The audio-frequency component of the plate current will flow through the radio-frequency choke coil and headphones to the filament circuit as these instruments offer less reactance to audio-frequency Currents than the variable condenser FC. On the other hand, the radio-frequency component of the plate current will flow through condenser FC to filament as the capacitive reactance of this condenser is much less to radio-frequency currents than the inductive reactance of the radio-frequency choke coil. Thus, the radiofrequency choke coil serves the same purpose here as it did in the preceding lesson, that is, it prevents the radio-frequency component from being shortcircuited, or by-passed, by the distributed capacity of the headphones or transformer urimarv deuendine: uDon which one is inserted in the late circuit -of the detecior. ?he histriEutkd capacity of the windings of either the phones or transformer primary is indicated by the imaginary condenser Cx drawn in dotted lines in Figure 1:
-

R E CHOKE COIL

Figure 1 By varying the capacity of condenser PC, Its reactance to the flow of radiofrequency current is changed and it is this variation in the strength of the radio-frequency current that provides us with a means of controlling feed-back energy. A condenser used for this purpose is often termed a "throttlew condenser, presumably because it serves to throttle down the flow of radio-frequency current through the tickler coil-the degree to which it throttles the radio-frequency current determining the amount of plate to grid feed-back. Both of these circuits are technically called "regenerative detectors with capacitive control of feed-backw. Furthermore, one circuit differs from the other not only by the circuit variation as outlined above, but also by the fact that one is "shunt feedw while the other is "series feedw. The terms "shunt feedw and "series feedw refer to the manner in which the tickler coil is placed with respect to the source of plate potential which Lesson 31

- sheet 2

in t h i s instance i s t h e "B" b a t t e r y . The "BW b a t t e r y w f e e d s wp o t e n t i a l t o t h e p l a t e of t h e tube and a glance a t t h e schematic w i r i n g diagram of Lesson 30 w i l l d i s c l o s e t h a t t h e t i c k l e r c o i l c i r c u i t i s i n s h u n t , o r p a r a l l e l , t o t h e *Bw b a t t e r y , and hence, from t h i s arrangement a r i s e s t h e term "shunt feed". T h i s time by r e f e r r i n g t o Figure 1 of t h i s l e s s o n , it w i l l be seen %hat h e r e t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i s i n s e r i e s with t h e "Bn b a t t e r y and, t h e r e f o r e , t h i s arrangement i s given t h e name " s e r i e s f e e d w .
I t should be understood t h a t i n t h i s r e c e i v e r , t h e p a t h of t h e radio- frequency component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i s through t h e t i c k l e r c o i l and condenser F C t o f i l a m e n t , and t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r l i m i t i n g t h e flow of r a d i o - f r e quency c u r r e n t through t h i s p a t h i s due t o t h e c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c ~of t h e condenser. Any change i n t h e c a p a c i t y of t h i s condenser w i l l v a r y t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e radio- frequency c u r r e n t flowing through t h e t i c k l e r c o i l , t h u s providing u s with a means of c o n t r o l l i n g feed-back a s we have a l r e a d y mentioned.

To be morespecific,an i n c r e a s e i n t h e c a p a c i t y of condenser FC decreases i t s r e a c t a n c e and, s i n c e t h i s r e s u l t s i n an i n c r e a s e i n t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t flowing through t h e t i c k l e r c o i l , t h e e f f e c t i s t o produce a n i n c r e a s e i n feed-back. Conversely, a decrease i n t h e c a p a c i t y of t h i s condenser i n c r e a s e s i t s r e a c t a n c e . a n d thereby d e c r e a s e s feed-back due t o t h e corresponding decrease i n t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e radio- frequency c u r r e n t flowing through t h e t i c k l e r c o i l . The s t u d e n t can e a s i l y s e e what changes a r e necessary i n t h e connections of t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e r e c e i v e r of t h e kind described t o convert it from t h e hookup of Lesson 30 t o t h e c i r c u i t shown i n Figure 1 of t h i s l e s s o n . The changes a r e e n t i r e l y i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r tube, and a s t u d y of t h e schematic wiring diegram of t h i s l e s s o n and t h e one i n Lesson 30 w i l l q u i c k l y show t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t connections. I n t h e following paragraphs a r e given t h e p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n arrangement between t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e c i r c u i t described i n Figure 1 of Lesson 30, and t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e c i r c u i t t r e a t e d i n t h i s l e s s o n a s shown i n Figure 1. The primar y t e r m i n a l s of the t h r e e - c i r c u i t t u n e r connect t o t h e antenna and ground binding posts. The + A binding p o s t on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p connects t o t h e f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l of t h e tube socket. The-A b i n d i n g p o s t on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p is connected t o one t e r m i n a l of t h e d e t e c t o r f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t , while t h e o t h e r t e r m i n a l of t h i s r h e o s t a t i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e - f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l of t h e tube socket. Notice how t h e tunina: condenser i s arranged i n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e secondary of t h e t h r e e - c i r c u i t t u n e r , and p a r t i c u l a r l y how t h e r o t o r p l a t e s of t h e condenser a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e end of t h e secondary which is n e a r e s t the antenna c o i l , and the s t a t o r p l a t e s t o t h e end of t h e secondary which i s f a r t h e s t from t h e antenna- he end of t h e secondary c o i l neare s t t h e antenna c o i l i s connected t o t h e - k f i l a m e n t l i n e , while t h e o t h e r t e r minal of t h e secondary is connected t o t h e g r i d condenser. The remaining t e r m i n a l of t h e g r i d condenser i s connected t o t h e g r i d t e r m i n a l of t h e t u b e s o c k e t . I n t h i s way t h e r o t o r p l a t e s of t h e condenser connect t o t h e "low" end of t h e t u n e r secondary while t h e "high n end of t h i s same c o i l connects t o t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s and t o t h e g r i d of t h e tube. The p l a t e terminal of t h e t u b e socket connects t o one of t h e t i c k l e r c o i l t e r m i n a l s , and t h e remaining termin a1 of t h i s c o i l connects t o t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s of t h e " t h r o t t l e " condenser. The r o t o r p l a t e s of t h i s condenser connect t o t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t . A

Lesson 31

sheet 3

oonnection is made from the stator plates Of the "throttlen condenser (to which one terminal Of the tickler coil is also connected) to the radio-frequencg choke coil. The remaining terminal of the r-f choke is connected to one of the tip-jacks. The other tip-jack is Connected to the Det+B binding post on the terminal strip. These oonnect;ions would go to the tip-jacks only if the headphones were to be used in the plate circuit of the detector tube. If the audio-frequency amplifier were to be used instead of the phones, connection from the r-f choke coil to the tip-jack would be disconnected from the tip-jack and this connection would go to the P terminal of the first stage audio-frequency transformer. The connection from the Det+B terminal would be disconnected from the remaining tip-jack and connected instead to the B terminal of thea-ftransformer. It is general practice to employ one a-f stage with power detection and otherwise two stages. In the preceding lessons mention has been made of the "highn and "lown ends 0 of the secondary coil Of the tuner. The terms "highn and nlown are used $ indicate the distribution of radio-frequency potential along the secondary coil. For example, the end of the secondary coil to which the antenna coil is coupled,and which is also connected to the filament circuit, is the end of the coil which is at the lowest radio-frequency potential. As the radiofrequency voltages at this point are so small as to be negligible, this end of the secondary is termed the "lown end. On the other hand, the remaining terminal of the secondary coil, that is, the end of the secondary farthest removed from the filament end, is the point at which the highest available radio-frequency voltages are encountered and this terminal is therefore referred to as the uhighH end of the secondary. Try to keep in mind the terms "high" and "lown used in the manner just explained and you will realize why it is always necessary to specify to which end of the secondarv coil the grid of the tube should be connected. Let us repeat that the terminal of the coil at which the highest radio-frequency voltage is developed should alwsys be connected to the grid Of the tube inasmuch as the vacuum tube is a voltage operated device. Perhaps you have noticed while studying preceding lessons that it has been mentioned that the rotor plates of a tuning condenser should always connect to that end of the secondary which connects to the filament, or the "low" end and, that the stator plates should connect to that end Of the secondary farthest from the filament end, or the "high" end. This is necessary in order to avoid what is known as the "body capacityn effect. If the hand is brought near the tuning instruments of an oscillatory circuit, the circuit will be thrown out of resonance with the frequency to which it was tuned, and this phenomenon is usually attributed to the assumption that the human body is capable of acting as an electrostatic condenser. Hence, placing the hand in close proximity to portions of a radio-frequency circuit has the same effect as though the capacity of the tuning condenser associated with the circuit had been changed. In other words, when an operator is in the act of tuning and his hand is moved near to, or away from, the circuit, the tuning will be altered in quite the same manner as though the capacity of the tuning condenser itself had been varied. Lesson 31

sheet 4

This so-called "body capacityw effect Is most pronounced at those portions of the circuit at which are encountered the highest radio-frequency potentials, and,therefOre, as far as the secondary coil Of this circuit is concerned, such an effect is.most noticeable at the "highn end of the secondary. This is an important factor insofar as it has a definite bearing upon how the tuning condenser should be connected to the secondary coil. The "body" capacity acts on the receiving circuit because the tuning condenser being mounted upon the panel has its shaft conn&ted directly to the rotor plates, and this shaft projects through the panel and upon this shaft a dial is mounted so that when grasping the knob of the dial with the fingers it brings the hand near the metal shaft of the condenser. Since only the thickness of the insulating knob then separates the fingers from the metal shaft, yet this is near enough to cause trouble if the rotor plates, which are attached to the shaft, are connected to a point in the circuit which is operating at an appreciable value of radio-frequency potential. If the rotor plates of a tuning condenser were improperly connected to the "highn end of the Secondary coil, body capacity effect will be experienced and, as stated above, it always aets to change the tuning of the circuit whenever , the hand is brought near, or moved away from, that part of the circuit which is operating at an appreciable value of radio-frequency voltage. In this instance, the effect is carried to the shaft of the tuning condenser. In actual operation of a receiver this effect lnakes itself evident in the following manner: The hand is placed on the knob and a station tuned in. Then when the hand is removed from the knob the tuning of the circuit is changed due to the removal of the *body capacityw of the hand, and the station which was then being received immediately decreases in strength or disappears entirely. Placing the hand again on the dial restores the tuning of the circuit and the station is again received at its former signal strength. The effect of body capacity introduced into the circuit under such circumstance is very troublesome and, should it exist to a pronounced degree, makes accurate tuning impossible.

TO eliminate this bothersome condition the rotor plates of a tuning condenser should always be connected to the point of lowest radio-frequency potential, that is, to the filament or ground circuits. This will place the rotor plates and shaft at practically zero radio-frequency potential and thereby do away with body capacity and its consequent de-tuning effect.
This rule to always connect the rotor plates of a variable condenser to the oint of lowest radio-frequency potential wherever it is possible to do so ipppllies all variable condensers. Whether the condenser is beingused as to a tuning condenser or whether it is being used for other purposes than tuning, ii is common practice in the design of receiving sets to connect rotor plates in accordance with these suggestions. For instance, in Figure 1, are shown two variable condensers, one being a tuning condenser while the other is a nthrottlen,or feed-back control condenser. This diagram clearly shows that one set of plates of each of these condensers, namely the rotor plates, connect to the filament circuit. It should now be clear that in order to avoid body capacity effect while making tuning and feed-back adjustments all variable type condensers should be Lesson 31

- sheet 5

e u i t o r t o any o t h e r low p o t e n t i a l t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s a r e the ones which connect t o t h e p o i n t high radio- frequency p o t e n t i a l , which i n t h e e a s e of t h e tuning condenser t h e "high w end of t h e secondary c o i l while i n t h e c a s e of t h e t h r o t t l e ondenser t h i s connection i s t o t h e t i c k l e r c o i l . The s t a t o r p l a t e s when s o onnected a r e not s u b j e c t t o the e f f e c t of body c a p a c i t y because t h e hand i s o t brought s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e t o them during t h e manipulation of t h e c o n t r o l dials.
EXAMINATION

- LESSON 31

What is the purpose of t h e t h r o t t l e condenser? How does i t accomplish i t s purpose? What i s meant by t h e "highn end of t h e tuning c o i l ? What i s meant by t h e "loww end of t h e t u n i n g c o i l ? What is body c a p a c i t y e f f e c t ?
I s i t s presence d e s i r a b l e i n a r e c e i v e r ? W y i s t h e g r i d of t h e tube connected t o t h e "highn end of t h e t u n e r h

secondary?

What k i n a of r e g e n e r a t i o n c o n t r o l is used i n t h i s r e c e i v e r ? How is r e g e n e r a t i o n obtained i n t h i s c i r c u i t ? en8 of t h e t u n e r secondary? Explain f u l l y .

Why a r e t h e r o t o r p l a t e s of the t u n i n g condenser connected t o t h e "low"

Lesson 31

- sheet

Technical Lesson '32

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF SCREEN-GRID RECEIVERS The popularity achieved by the new electrically operated screen-grid receivers is a tribute to those who are responsible for the productim of the a-c screen-grid vacuum tube. When the wonderful characteristics which this tube possesses became known the interest of radio set manufacturers centered chiefly around the development of an electric set that could utilize one or more of these tubes and obtain from them every advantage to the fullest extent. Although the tube mas originally designed to reduce interelectrode capacity to a negligible amount and thus make it possible to build radio-frequency circuits without requiring the use of neutralizing devices of any kind, yet it was soon noticed that the tube had extraordinary am2lifying qualities. To think that the amplification constant of an a-c screen-grid tube is 420 as compared to 9 for the three-electrode tube is nothing less than remarkable. Weak signals or signals from distant stations are amplified many fold to be reproduced by the loudspeaker with ample volume,and the signals from nearby local stations usually come in with such large amounts of power that a volume control is required ahead of the detector so that the signal voltage applied to the detector grid may be lowered to a suitable value to prevent detector overloading. An overloaded detector produces distortion no matter what efforts are made to overcome this condition through careful designing of the audio amplifier circuits. The extra high gain of signal level in a receiver using two stages of tuned radio-frequency amplification and a-c screen-grid tubes requires that some method of lowering this level be incorporated in the antenna input circuit. Thus, we have what is known as a "LOCAL-DISTANT" switch which is brought into operation under extreme conditions, that is, where a strong local signal would cause detector overloading. Although the use of the "LOCALDISTANT" switch and the volume control both have the same ultimate effect of controlling volume by permitting more or less signal energy to be applied to the detector grid, yet the principles upon which they operate are by no means identical as we will explain further in our lesson. While on this subject of screen-grid receivers attention should be called to the fact that other models of receivers employing three-electrode tubes (for instance, the 227 or 226 type) as radio-frequency amplifiers, and with the r-f stages properly neutralized, give results which compare favorably with those obtained from screen-grid sets. The set which does not use screen-grid tubes, however, will invariably be supplied with an additional radio-frequency tube thus permitting it to reach the higher degree of sensitivity. What we wish to point out is that the type of tuberor the number of stages of radio-frequency amplification incorporated in the design of a receiver is not a basis for estimating the performance of the set. We must realize that although the figures mentioned in the preceding Printed in U.S.A.
r--+--+rrrnrrri

uhted 1930

paragraph comsaring the amplification constant of two different types of tubes are at such a wide variance these figures do not express in any sense the relative gain in radio-frequency amplification to be expected between the two tubes under consideration when operating in particular receiving circuits. The true gain in signal energy from any receiving circuit can be found only by measuring the performance under practical conditions and not by computing the gain from figures based on tube characteristics. Whether one type of tube or another is more effective as an amplifier depends as much upon the circuit design and quality of the parts as upon the tube itself. Up to the present time not anything near the gain of which a screengrid tube is theoretically capable has ever been fulfilled. For example, the advent of the screen-grid tube has brought about special considerations in the matter of coil design to reduce capacity effects and give the plate circuit a high impedance at resonance, and even with the best designing the impedance of the load circuit, due principally to the coils, is still far below the tube's plate impedance which is several hundred thousand ohms. These and other factors which govern the maximum gain possible from screengrid amplifiers (referred to usually as sensitivity) and also the degree of sharpness of tuning that permits a receiver to cut through a strong local station and pick up a distant station when both are working on closely adjoining frequencies (referred to as selectivity) are discussed in the following paragraphs. So that you may grasp at a glance the various important features in a-c screen-grid receivers which are not found in receivers of other types we have prepared the list given below. In comparing the sensitivity of any two receivers, tube for tube, me assume that in each case the tuned r-f stages are properly designed. The characteristics of the screen-grid set are, briefly:

1 . 2 .
3 .

4 .

5.

High sensitivity with less tubes. Selectivity greater than that obtainable from a similar number of tuned stages when tubes not of the screen-grid type are used. Ease of control. Screen-grid tubes lend themselves to a very simple means of volume control and due to the fewer number of tuned r-f stages the gang condenser construction is greatly simplified. Freedom from noise. The reduced number of tuned stages permits receivers of the screen-grid type to have a minimum signal to noise ratio. Less adjustments needed. The elimination of a tuned r-f stage means the elimination of a trimmer condenser which would otherwise require careful adjusting to place one stage in resonance with another.

In this lesson we have divided our subject into several sections according
to the functions of the principal circuits of an alternating current operated receiver of the type which you are about to construct. This is a seven-tube a-c screen-grid receiver employing two of the screen-grid type 224 tubes, two type 227, two type 245 power amplifiers and one type 280 full-wave rectifier.

Lesson 32

- sheet 2

Reference to the schematic diagram of any electric set will clearly show that the receiver is divided into two main parts; namely, the "receiver proper" and the "power unit," often called the "power pack." In turn we can subdivide these parts into their principal circuits, each one of which will be treated as a separate topic in our lesson. No doubt most of us are particularly interested in the a-c screen-grid tube for the reason that it is one of the newer contributions to the science of Radio, therefore,our discussion naturally will lean toward the tube itself and the radiofrequency circuit in which it is used. Our lesson is divided into seven topics according to the classified list given immediately below.
(A)

The principal circuits of the receiver proper: 1 Radio-frequency amplifier stages. . 2 Detector. . 3 . Audio-amplifier stages. The principal circuits of the power pack: 4 A-C input and power transformer. . 5. Full-wave rectifier 6. Filter, consisting of choke coils and condensers. 7 Voltage distribution system, consisting of several resistors. .

(B)

It is suggested that you study this lesson with the idea of keeping the seven principal circuits separated clearly in your mind. Also, learn as much as you can about the principles involved in each circuit so that when you come to the constructional work and assemble the parts and wire them you will have a thorough understanding of the operation of the entire receiver. The schematic diagram of our receiver is shown in Figure 1 and it should be followed closely throughout the explanations.

Figure 1

Lesson 32

PART 1 RADIO-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER The part of the radio receiver using screen-grid vacuum tubes that differs from the conventional type tuned r-f receiver is the radio-frequency amplifier. The radio amplifier in our set employs two UY-224 tubes in two tuned stages, and since the detector grid input circuit is also tuned we aetually have three tuning circuits which requires a three-gang condenser. The rotor plates of the variable tuning condensers are mechanically and electrically connected together as indicated on the diagram by the dotted lines and marked at the top "3-gang condenser.tt Each section of the gang condenser is provided with a small trimmer condenser built in the unit so that a trimmer is shunted across each tuning condenser. This arrangement permits the use of a single dial for simultaneously tuning the r-f circuits, and to most persons this is preferable to independently tuned circuits from the standpoint of convenience in quickly changlng from one station to another. The stator plates of the tuning condensers connect respectively to the grids of the 1st and 2nd r-f amplifiers and to the detector, whereas, the rotor plates are all grounded. The three r-f transformer coils are wound to give them the best transformer characteristics and each one is completely enclosed in an aluminum can which acts as an electrostatic shield to eliminate coupling effects between the coils themselves,or between the coils and other parts of the circuit. Vdithout the shielding cans over the coils the circuits woul& at once become unstable and. readily break into oscillation that could not be controlled. Under such conditions the set would probably be unreceptive at any setting of the tuning dial, or at least it would be found unmanageable on the higher broadcast frequencies. From the diagram in Figure 1 each tuned circuit is seen to be a conventional one consisting of an r-f transformer, a variable tuning condenser and a trimmer condenser. The transformers are used as coupling devices to introduce the signal voltages to the input,or grids of the tubes in the case of the secondaries and to receive the output,or plate current in the case of the primaries. The primary of the first r-f transformer, of course, obtains its signal energy directly from the antenna to which it is connected. The output or plate circuits of the tubes carry a fluctuating current which is composed of a high frequency,or alternating current component and a direct current component. This output current possesses all of the characteristics of the signal wave which are represented by a-c voltages fed to the grids. The output is greatly increased in amplitude over the input, the extent of the increase or gain in signal strength per stage being determined for-one thing upon the tube's own amplifying properties, and for another on the external circuit design. An imoortant point to remember in regard to the prooer connection of the secon2ary of transformer to the grid of a tube is to always use the lead coming from the last turn on the "outsideN of the secondary. By "outsideft we mean the end of the secondary which is farthest from that portion of the coil where the primary is usually mounted. The last turn, on the opposite end of the secondary, or the end which is located nearest the primary, is called the "inside," and the connection made from here usually goes to

Lesson 32

sheet 4

t h e ground. The n o u t s i d e n end of the p r i n a r y goes t o t h e p l a t e and t h e " i n sitie" t o the voltage supply. I n t h e case of t h e l s t , o r i n p u t transformer t h e "outsidell end goes t o t h e antenna and t h e o p p o s i t e end t o t h e ground. These connections a r e n o t s o easy t o follow i n t h e c a s e of t h e 2nd and 3rd transformers of t h e screen- grid s e t because of t h e s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e i n s i z e between the primary and secondary. Although t h e s e connections a r e a l r e a d y made with f i n e w i r e s soldered t o t h e t e r m i n a l s you should examine them. The v a r i a b l e tuning condensers a r e used t o r e s o n a t e t h e r-f c i r c u i t s t o a o a r t i c u l a r s t a t i o n ' s frequency, t h e one we d e s i r e t o l i s t e n t o , while t h e ?unction of t h e trimmer condensers, which a r e e a s i l y a d j u s t e d by means of a screw, i s t o allow f o r making small changes i n t h e capacitance of each r-f c i r c u i t i n o r d e r t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t a g e s may be placed i n e x a c t resonance w i t h one another. It might be mentioned t h a t trimmer condensers, a l s o c a l l e d line- up condensers, a r e a valuable a d j u n c t t o a modern r a d i o r e c e i v e r a s they compensate f o r s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e tuning c i r c u i t s which may be caused by wiring o r d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n c o i l s o r condensers when manufactured i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s . The antenna system i s designed t o accommodate e i t h e r a long o r s h o r t antenna by a simple change i n connection t o e i t h e r one of two antenna t e r m i n a l s provided f o r t h i s purpose. If a s h o r t antenna i s used i t should be connected d i r e c t l y t o t h e r-f c o i l , b u t with a long antenna t h e l e a d - i n wire should be connected t o t h e p o s i t i o n which p l a c e s a small .00025 mfd. condenser i n s e r i e s with t h e c o i l . The "LOCAL-DISTANT" switch should be used i f s t r o n g l o c a l s i g n a l s a r e picked up which would tend t o cause d e t e c t o r overloading. By c l o s i n g t h e switch, a s shown i n t h e diagram, t h e amount of s i g n a l energy t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e primary c o i l t o t h e secondary i s reduced and, thereafter, t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l l e v e l can be r e g u l a t e d by manipulating t h e volume c o n t r o l . How Screen-Grid V o l t a ~ ei s Obtained and Regulated. The c i r c u i t t h a t supn l i e s u o s i t i v e v o l t a g e t o t h e screen g r i d s o p e r a t e s according t o t h e urin&iplesAas explained Gy Ohm% Law which s t a t e s t h a t a c e r t a i n - r e l a t i o n - e x i s t s between c u r r e n t , r e s i s t a n c e and voltage. The r e s i s t o r of 6000 ohms i s r e a l l y a potentiometer w i t h a movable arm. I t i s supplied with d-c v o l t a g e from t h e power supply c i r c u i t through a 40,000 ohm r e s i s t o r connected i n s e r i e s . Observe how t h e r e s i s t o r s a r e placed i n s e r i e s and i n t u r n connected a c r o s s t h e d-c power supply. Suppose t h e r e i s 300 v o l t s a c r o s s t h e two r e s i s t o r s i n s e r i e s , t h e n from t h i s we s u b t r a c t a c e r t a i n v o l t a g e drop e due t o t h e 40,000 ohms, which l e t u s s a y i s 260 v o l t s , then w g e t a r e mainder of 40 v o l t s which i s a p p l i e d a c r o s s t h e 6000 ohms. Hence, any v o l t a g e between z e r o and 40 may be obtained from t h e 40,000 ohms a s determined by t h e amount of r e s i s t a n c e included between t h e lower, o r gro7mded end of t h e wire and t h e p o i n t where t h e c o n t a c t arm r e s t s . Negative g r i d b i a s f o r t h e screen- grid tubes i s f u r n i s h e d by t h e d-c p l a t e c u r r e n t of these a m p l i f i e r s r e t u r n i n g t o t h e cathodes of t h e tubes through a f i x e d r e s i s t o r of t h e proper value, o r 400 ohms f o r t h i s c i r c u i t . P o s i t i v e p l a t e voltage f o r t h e screen- grid tubes, UY-224's, i s supplied through an 6000 ohm r e s i s t o r i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s with t h e p o s i t i v e end of t h e d-c output of t h e power pack. The f u n c t i o n of t h e r-f chokes i n t h e p l a t e s of t h e r a d i o a m p l i f i e r s i s t o block t h e r-f' component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t and keep i t out of t h e power supply c i r c u i t and t h e purpose of t h e 0.1 mfd. by-pass condensers connected between t h e r e s p e c t i v e chokes and t h e cathodes of t h e tubes i s t o f u r n i s h an easy path, o r one of low r e a c t a n c e , t o t h i s r- f Lesson 32

sheet 5

0.1 mfd. by-pass condenser i s shunted around the 400 ohm g r i d s t o r t o permit the r-f s i g n a l c u r r e n t s t o pass through and thus s e r i o u s l o s s e s which would s u r e l y occur i f t h i s energy was forced a r o u t e through t h e r e s i s t o r . The main purpose behind t h i s design i s t o 2rovide a radio- frequency c i r c u i t i n which t h e s i g n a l c u r r e n t w i l l c i r c u l a t e with highest e f f i c i e n c y t o be impressed a s a n a l t e r n a t i n g v o l t a g e between the control g r i d and cathode o f t h e tube. THE UY-224 A-C SCREENGRID TUBE AND TEE UY- 227 A-C TUBE

The UY-224 tube c o n s i s t s of f o u r electrodes, namely: a p l a t e , a c o n t r o l g r i d , a screen g ~ i d and the cathode with a-c heater. A four- electrode tube i s known a s a "tetrode." The UY-227 tube has only t h r e e e l e c t r o d e s , namely: a p l a t e , a c o n t r o l g r i d and t h e cathode and h e a t e r u n i t . A t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e tube i s given t h e name " triode." Reference should be made t o Figures ZA and 2B which c l e a r l y show the cons t r u c t i o n of t h e s e tubes. Both tubes have a cathode ancl h e a t e r which a r e
CONTROL G R CONNECTION
I D -

HEATER-NOT

SHOWN- IS INSIDE OF 'CATHODE

Figure 2A Figure 2B q u i t e s i m i l a r p h y s i c a l l y , thus making i t possible f o r some manufacturers t o u t i l i z e these p a r t s interchangeably i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e i r tubes. B small wire, c a l l e d t h e h e a t e r , i s imbedded i n s i d e of a s p e c i a l i n s u l a t ing m a t e r i a l which i s c y l i n d r i c a l l y shaped md around which i s placed a m e t a l l i c thimble, or sheath,previously cavered with an oxide coating. I t i s t h i s metal sheath of oxide, of "cathode," which g i v e s off e l e c t r o n s when t h e small heater wire i s r a i s e d i n temperature by t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t passing through it. The a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of proper voltage i s obtained from one of the windings on t h e power transformer. Thus we see t h a t t h e Lesson 32

sheet 6

I t w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e source of e l e c t r o n s i n t h e UY type tube, such a s t h e 245 or 201-A, i s t h e h o t f i l a m e n t wire i t s e l f , t h e f i l a m e n t wire i n t h e UX tubes being t r e a t e d w i t h an oxide s i m i l a r t o t h e coating on t h e metal thimble i n t h e h e a t e r type ( o r UY type) tube.

The UY-224 screen- grid tube i s equipped with 5 p i n s i n t h e base and a metal cap l o c a t e d on t h e top of t h e g l a s s envelope, t h e c o n t r o l g r i d being connected t o t h i s cap. A p o i n t t o be mentioned i n regard t o t h e sockets used with t h e s e tubes i s t h a t t h e h e a t e r t e r m i n a l s i n some sockets a r e marked "H, H ' and i n o t h e r s YFIL." l The p l a t e and cathode p i n s a r e i n the same p o s i t i o n s i n t h e bases of both t h e 227 and 224, but t h e screen g r i d of t h e 224 connects t o t h e p i n which i n t h e 227 would make connection t o t h e regular control grid. The screen g r i d i s made up i n two s e p a r a t e p a r t s which a r e connected t o g e t h e r e l e c t r i c a l l y . One p a r t of t h e screen, i n t h e form of a s p i r a l c o i l , i s placed between t h e p l a t e and t h e c o n t r o l g r i d , t h i s being c a l l e d t h e " inner screen." The o t h e r p a r t , i n t h e form of a metal s c r e e n of meshlike cons t r u c t i o n , i s l o c a t e d o u t s i d e of t h e p l a t e , t h i s p a r t being known a s t h e "outer screen." There i s a t h i n metal cover mounted over t h e o u t e r screen which a c t s a s an e l e c t r o s t a t i c s h i e l d between t h e p l a t e and t h e c o n t r o l g r i d l e a d which goes t o t h e metal cap on t h e t o p of t h e tube. The i n t e r n a l c a p a c i t y between g r i d ( c o n t r o l g r i d ) and p l a t e of t h e UY-224 i s g r e a t l y reduced by t h e presence of t h e s c r e e n ( s c r e e n g r i d ) t o a value which may be considered n e g l i g i b l e . This arrangement e f f e c t i v e l y s h i e l d s t h e c o n t r o l g r i d from e f f e c t s caused by p l a t e v o l t a g e v a r i a t i o n s through t h e inter- element c a p a c i t y ( g r i d t o p l a t e ) . If allowed t o e x i s t t h i s c a p a c i t y would permit troublesome feedback of r-f energy from t h e p l a t e t o g r i d c i r c u i t s w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t unwanted o s c i l l a t i o n s would be s e t up i n t h e c i r c u i t s . Due t o t h e open s p i r a l c o i l c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e i n n e r screen g r i d and t h e lower p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l a p p l i e d t o i t i n comparison t o t h e higher 2 o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l on t h e p l a t e accounts f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e l e c t r o n stream i s net. o b s t r u c t e d a s i t passes through t h e vacuous space i n t h e tube from cathode t o p l a t e . However, i f an exceedingly high p o s i t i v e pot e n t i a l on t h e screen i s permitted i t would cause t h e screen t o a c t l i k e a m i n i a t u r e p l a t e with t h e r e s u l t t h a t e l e c t r o n s would be prevented from going through t o t h e p l a t e . The l a t t e r s i t u a t i o n must n o t p r e v a i l because i t would reduce t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e tube a s a n a m p l i f i e r , a s i t would n a t u r a l l y l e s s e n t h e c u r r e n t flow i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t . The screen- grid tube f u l f i l l s two important functions: F i r s t , i t p r a c t i c a l l y e l i m i n a t e s inter- element c a p a c i t y and t h u s makes t h e use of e x t e r n a l n e u t r a l i z i n g , o r s t a b i l i z i n g d e v i c s s unnecessary. Second, i t provides an unusu.?lly high degree of r a d i o a m p l i f i c a t i o n , o r s i g n a l g a i n per s t a g e . The high a m p l i f i c a t i o n makes i t necessary t o provide s h i e l d i n g between the r-f c o i i s and, a l s o , f u r t h e r s h i e l d i n g on t h e c o n t r o l g r i d l e a d s t o prevent e x t e r n a l c a p a c i t a t i v e coupling between t h e g r i d and p l a t e c i r c u i t s .

Lesson 32

sheet 7

Hsater Voltage 2.5 Heater Current 1.75 -I- 180 P l a t e Voltage 6 P l a t e Current G r i d Bias Voitage -13.5 9 Amplification Constant h ~ u t u a lConductance 1000 9000 P l a t e Xesistance G r i d t o P l a t e Capacity 3.3

volts amperes volts milliamperes volts micromhos ohms rEcromicrofarads

2.5 v o l t s 1.75 amperes 180 v o l t s 4 milliamperes -1.5 v o l t s 420 1050 micromhos 400,000 ohas 0.01 micromicrofarads

From t h e t a b l e s w s e e t h a t the h e a t e r voltage and c u r r e n t f o r both tubes a r e e i d e n t i c a l . The p l a t e voltage of both tubes i s a l s o t h e same and t h e mutual conductance n e a r l y a l i k e . However, i n the case of t h e W-224 we f i n d t h a t t h e g r i d b i a s voltage i s much lower, t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r enormously g r e a t e r and t h e p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e considerably higher when compared t o the UY-227. W have analyzed t h e comparative q u a l i t i e s of t h e s e tubes and o t h e r e f e a t u r e s pertaining t o the r-f c i r c u i t s i n t h e following e i g h t t o p i c s and with reasons f o r advantages which one tube has over t h e o t h e r .
1.

The h e a t e r voltage of t h e UY-224 i s the same a s t h a t of t h e UY-227 and, therefore, a common winding on t h e power transformer may be used t o supply h e a t e r c u r r e n t f o r tubes of both types when used i n t h e same r e c e i v e r . This i s a d i s t i n c t advantage i n simalifying transformer construction. 2. The p l a t e voltage and c u r r e n t requirements of both tubes a r e moderate, t h e r e f o r e , t h e use of a UX-280 r e c t i f i e r w i l l prove ample f o r supplying a l l p l a t e voltages.

3 . The g r i d b l a s of t h e W-224 i s lower than t h a t required f o r t h e UY-227. A low g r i d b i a s allows a tube t o respond e f f e c t i v e l y t o a low i n p u t voltage, hence, giving maximum output, but t h e disadvantage h e r e i s t h a t a l a r g e g r i d swing w i l l cause overloading.

4. The a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r of t h e UY-224 i s considerably higher than f o r t h e UY-227. I n p r a c t i c e i t i s impossible t o g e t t h e f u l l a m p l i f i c a t i o n constant from t h e s e tubes. However, t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n obtainable from t h e UY-224 i n a well-de;;igned s t a g e i s s e v e r a l times g r e a t e r than from the UY-227. A f a i r i d e a of t h e g r e a t e r r-f g a i n p o s s i b l e from t h e screen- grid tube may be had by estimating t h a t t h e average r a d i o c i r c u i t employing a three- electrode tube, f o r i n s t a n c e t h e 227 type, h a s a g a i n per s t a g e of approximately 8 , whereas, when a four- electrode o r screen- grid tube i s worked i n a s i m i l a r c i r c u i t , but designed e x p ~ e s s l y o r the l a t t e r tube, f t h e g a i n i n s i g n a l l e v e l p o s s i b l e i s from 30 t o 40 per s t a g e . So i t i s s a f e t o assume t h a t a UY-224 tube i s about f o u r o r f i v e times more effect i v e a s an a m p l i f i e r . Placing t h e c o n t r o l g r i d c l o s e t o t h e cathode and r e l a t i v e l y f a r from t h e p l a t e i n c r e a s e s the a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r enormously while the i n s e r t i o n of t h e screen- grid i n c r e a s e s t h e p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e . The advantages of h i g h p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e a r e obtained from t h i s tube without Lesson 32

sheet 8

ce.

Since

p l a t e and czthoae then a v o s i t i v e ~ o t e n t i a limuressed on the screen g r i d sili cause the flow of p l a t e -c u r r e n t t o be a c c e l e r a t e d . I n f a c t , t h e screen g r i d (because of i t s p o s i t i o n i n the tube) produces a g r e a t e r a c c e l e r Eitian of p l a t e c u r r e n t than does t h e higher voltage impressed on t h e p l a t e . The mechanical c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e screen does n o t permit i t t o c o l l e c t many of the e l e c t r o n s which would o r d i n a r i l y go t o t h e p l a t e , hence, t h e m a j o r i t y of e l e c t r o n s which c o n s t i t u t e t h e tube c u r r e n t pass on through t h e screen g r i a t o the p l a t e ; o n l y a l i m i t e d q u a n t i t y flow i n t h e screen- grid c i r c u i t s a s d i r e c t current.
5. The mutual conductance i s s l i g h t l y lower i n the,-UY-227 than i n t h e UY-224. lviutuai conductance i s a d i r e c t f u n c t i o n of a m p l i f i c a t i o n constant and p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e , and i s a measure of a t u b e ' s g e n e r a l performance. However, t h e mutual conductance of an r-f a m p l i f i e r does n o t assume the importance t h a t i t does i n o t h e r s t a g e s . Considering t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n constant of the UY-224 i t s mutual conductance i s very high. The p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l on t h e screen g r i d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e cathode i s necessary f o r operation a s t h e mutual conductance of t h e tube i s a d i r e c t f u n c t i o n of t h e value of t h i s voltage. Therefore, i t follows t h a t with a very low voltage t h e mutual conductance w i l l be low and with maximum voltage t h e mutual conductance w i l l be maximum. Consequently, i f we vary t h i s voltage Re can e a s i l y c o n t r o l t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of the r-f a m p l i f i e r and t h i s w i l l a c t a s a volume c o n t r o l f o r t h e r e c e i v e r . I n p r a c t i c e t h i s screen- grid voltage i s varied from 0 v o l t s a t minimum volume t o about 40 v o l t s p o s i t i v e , o r more a t maximum volume.
6. The p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e UY-224 i s many times g r e a t e r than f o r t h e UY-227. For t h e d i f f e r e n t broadcast frequencies t h a t are used i n op2ration i t i s known t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e load c i r c u i t i n t o which t h e tube works should be a s g r e a t , o r g r e a t e r than the impedance of t h e tube. On t h i s account t h e 224 tube r e q u i r e s a n output c i r c u i t d i f f e r e n t from t h a t used with o t h e r tubes, such a s t h e 227 f o r example. This point was brought o u t i n a foregoing s e c t i o n . I n p r a c t i c e t h e high r e s i s t a n c e i s gained by concentrated inductance In t h e c o i l windings. Another important advantage of high p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e i s impoved s e l e c t i v i t y . This i s accounted f o r by t h e reduced r-f r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e a d j a c e n t g r i d c i r c u i t s . I n a radiofrequency c i r c u i t t h e p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e r e f l e c t s i n v e r s e l y i n t h e a d j o i n i n g grid circuit.

7. Because of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e l f - c a p a c i t y of t h e UY-224 i s p r a c t i c a l l y n e g l i g i b l e t h e r- f c i r c u i t s can be constructed without s t a b i l i z i n g , o r n e u t r a l i z i n g devices of any kind providing, of course, a l l c i r c u i t s e x t e r n a l t o t h i s tube a r e p r o p e r l y shielded, a s previously mentioned. The low i n t e r n a l c a p a c i t y of t h e tube i s accomplished through t h e i n s e r t i o n of t h e screen g r i d between t h e c o n t r o l g r i d and t h e p l a t e . The values i n t h e t a b l e s show t h a t g r i d - p l a t e c a p a c i t y i s -01 mmf. f o r t h e UY-224 and 3 . 3 mmf. f o r t h e UY-227, thus i n d i c a t i n g t h a t s e l f - c a p a c i t y i s lowered about l/3OOth through t h e use of the s c r e e n g r i d * Again r e f e r t o Figure ZB which shows the screen g r i d c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e 224,and i t s absence i n t h e 227 i n Figure 2A.
8.

High a m p l i f i c a t i o n g a i n i s an advantage because i t permits the use of a s i n g l e s t a g s of r e s i s t a n c e coupling i n t h e audio a m p l i f i e r followed by a

Lesson 38

sheet 9

NOT; l e t us f i n i s h our d i s c u s s i o n of PART 1 by summarizing t h e important f a c t o r s concerning screen- grid a m p l i f i e r s . Although one or more. of t h e items may have been mentioned e a r l i e r i n t h e l e s s o n they w i l l b'ear r e p e t i t i o n . Important f a c t s r e l a t i n g t o g r i d swing of the r a d i o amplif i e r s and g r i d b i a s e s a r e a l s o explained.

( a ) Each r-f s t a g e must be shielded i n order t o prevent o s c i l l a t i o n due t o p l a t e t o g r i d feedback of r-f energy through wiring,or c o i l s . This s h i e l d i n g should extend over t h e c o i l s and t h e c o n t r o l g r i d l e a d s but not n e c e s s a r i l y over t h e tuning condensers and tubas a s t h e radio-frequency f i e l d surrounding such p a r t s i s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y strong.

(b) The primary of each r-f transformer should have an inductance a s high a s possible t o approach t h e output impedance of t h e 224. The primary of a transformer designed f o r use with a tube of some other type than the 224 does not r e q u i r e such a high value of inductance. For t h e r a d i o c i r c u i t s w a r e considering, a s i n Figure 1 a high e x t e r n a l p l a t e or load e , impedance i s e s s e n t i a l , a s otherwise t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n gain of each stage w i l l be low. Figure 3 is a cut-away view of a t y p i c a l r- f transformer wound t o g i v e high impedance. Note the l a r g e number of primary turns.
( c ) A, power u n i t must proviae s u i t a b l e a-c v o l t a g e s f o r the h e a t e r s of t h e 224 and 227 tubes. This voltage i s 2.5 v o l t s with a c u r r e n t r e quirement of 1.75 amperes f o r each tube used. Also, d i r e c t c u r r e n t w-hich has been properly f i l t e r e d , Jr smoothed o u t , must be provided f o r supplying t h e c o n t r o l g r i d w i t h about 1.5 v o l t s negative b i a s , and the screen g r i d with about 40 v o l t s p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l , and t h e p l a t e with p o s i t i v e 180 v o l t s . This power u n i t a l s o s u p p l i e s t h e d e t e c t o r and audio s t a g e s with operating v o l t a g e s a t s p e c i f i e d values. (d) Due t o t h e h i g h s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e screen- grid c i r c u i t s i t i s des i r a b l e t o reduce t h e amount of s i g n a l energy when r e c e i v i n g strong l o c a l broadcast programs. I n c e r t a i n c i r c u i t s t h i s i s accomplished by disconnecting t h e antenna from t h e i n p u t r- f c o i l by means of a switch, c a l l e d WLOCAL-DISTAMT" switch. I f t h i s method i s used t h e 1 s t r-f transformer i s n o t shielded and u s u a l l y a small f i x e d condenser ( f o r example, one with a capacitance of ,00023 mmf. i s used i n c e r t a i n c i r c u i t s ) i s automatically shunted a c r o s s t h e antenna c o i l by t h e switch. Shunting t h e condenser around t h e transformer primary provides an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t on which t h e s i g n a l energy may be picked up. Another type f u n c t i o n s vhen the switch i s on t h e 'UOCAL" p o s i t i o n t o connect the antenna through a small r e s i s t o r t o ground, t h e value of t h e r e s i s t o r being of t h e order of 1 5 ohms. The purpose of t h i s switch, a s h e r e t o f o r e explained, i s t o prevent t h e strong c a r r i e r of a l o c a l s t a t i o n from overloading t h e d e t e c t o r , thereby causing d i s t o r t i o n . ( e ) Radio-frequency by-pass condensers and r-f chokes, c a l l e d f i l t e r i n d u c t o r s , a r e necessary t o prevent t h e r-f energy i n each s t a g e f r o m entering another s t a g e through t h e common power supply l e a d s . These condensers

Lesson 32

sheet 10

choke f s about 10 m i l l i h e n r i e s . The condensers~mustbe ~ r o o e r l vulaced i n t h e c i r c u i t t o a c t a s a radio- frequency by-pass t o groun>,a> o t i e k v i s e o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l be s e t up and one of t h e most d e s i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e screen- grid tubes would be l o s t . Figure 4 i l l u s t r a t e s one method f o r cons t r u c t i n g an r-f choke c o i l .
-

Figure 3

Figure 4
\

A schematic diagram of a t y p i c a l screen- grid a m p l i f i e r i s Qictured i n Figure 5,and upon examination it w i l l be noticed t h a t i t d i f f e r s but s l i g h t l y from t h e r-f p o r t i o n of t h e complete schematic diagram i n Figure 1. I n Figure 5 a l l of t h e d-c p l a t e c u r r e n t flows through t h e g r i d b i a s r e s i s t o r . I t a l s o shows how t h e screen g r i d s a r e made p o s i t i v e with r e s p e c t t o t h e negative cathode,and how t h e p o s i t i v e v o l t a g e on t h e screens can be regulated between t h e l i m i t s of 0 and about 40 v o l t s by simply varying t h e amount of r e s i s t a n c e on t h e volume c o n t r o l included between t h e s l i d i n g contact, o r p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l point, and t h e left- hand end, o r negative p o t e n t i a l p o i n t of t h i s r e s i s t o r .

( f ) Next we w i l l consider how t h e n e g a t i v e b i a s i s obtained f o r t h e c o n t r o l g r i d s of t h e 224 t u b e s . Referring t o Figure 5 we n o t i c e t h a t a r e s i s t o r , marked " g r i d b i a s r e s i s t o r , " i s connected i n t h e c i r c u i t i n such a manner t h a t a l l of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t of both a m p l i f i e r tubes must flow through i t . The path of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t , considering only one tube and s t a r t i n g from t h e p o i n t marked+180-V ( t h i s being t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e d-c power supply) i s through t h e r-f choke, through t h e primary of t h e r-f transformer t o t h e p l a t e of t h e tube, then t o t h e cathode and down through t h e b i a s r e s i s t o r and thence t o t h e ground, ( t h e ground being t h e negative e s i d e of he d-c suppl ). W know t h a t t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n d i f f e r e n c e of pot e n t i a l [voltage droyy a c r o s s such a r e s i s t o r when c u r r e n t flows, t h e Lesson 32

sheet 1 1

voltage deijending u s i s t a n c e . Actually t h i s r e s i s t o r i s connected i n s e r i e s between cathode e and ground,and w a l s o f i n d t h a t t h e g r i d r e t u r n l e a d of t h e tube i s connected t o ground, t h e g r i d c i r c u i t being completed through t h e secondary of the r-f transformer. By t h i s arrangement t h e flow of p l a t e c u r r e n t through t h e g r i d b i a s r e s i s t o r causes t h e cathode t o become p o s i t i v e i n p o t e n t i a l with r e s p e c t t o t h e g r i d , o r expressed t h e o t h e r way around and meaning, e x a c t l y the same thing, t h e g r i d i s made n e g a t i v e with r e s p e c t t o t h e cathode, which i s t h e reference p o i n t of a l l p o t e n t i a l s of t h e tube. (g) Let us now d i s c u s s t h e r e l a t i o n of p o s i t i v e g r i d swing from a s i g n a l voltage t o t h e amount of permanent b i a s supplied t o the c o n t r o l g r i d of t h e 224. If your r a d i o s e t i s l o c a t e d c l o s e t~ a broadcasting s t a t i o n t h e s i g n a l might come i n so strong t h a t t h e radio- frequency voltage applied t o t h e c o n t r o l g r i d of t h e tube would cause the g r i d p o t e n t i a l t o a c t u a l l y swing over and become p o s i t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t t o the cathode. You can w e l l imagine from your previous knowledge of t h e c o n t r o l a c t i o n which t h e g r i d e x e r c i s e s over t h e stream of negative e l e c t r o n s i n t h e tube what t h e r e s u l t ing e f f e c t would be i f t h e g r i d ever assumes a p o s i t i v e e l e c t r i c charge. Supposing t h a t t h i s happened then t h e g r i d would n a t u r a l l y a c t i n a manner s i m i l a r t o a miniature p l a t e and, hence, a t t r a c t e l e c t r o n s i n g r e a t numbers. Since t h e flow of e l e c t r o n s between cathode and g r i d i s nothing more than what we c a l l g r i d c u r r e n t then the presence of t h i s g r i d c u r r e n t makes t h e i n t e r v e n i n g space between cathode and g r i d a c t a s though a high r e s i s t a n c e were connected between t h e s e e l e c t r o d e s . I n a c t u a l e f f e c t t h i s i s l i k e placing a high r e s i s t a n c e a c r o s s t h e tuned r-f c i r c u i t , inasmuch a s t h i s c i r c u i t i s always connected a c r o s s t h e g r i d and cathode of an a m p l i f i e r tube. Therefore, i t should now be c l e a r t h a t i f an r-f a m p l i f i e r g r i d were n o t supplied with a permanent negative b i a s , o r i f t h e b i a s were so low a s t o be overpowered by s t r o n g p o s i t i v e impulses from a l o c a l s i g n a l , t h e space between t h e s e two elements would e x h i b i t a l l of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a high r e s i s t a n c e shunted a c r o s s t h e r-f tuned c i r c u i t . This condition i s undesirable. What we would l i k e t o have i s a g r i d which never becomes p o s i t i v e but i s always working a t g r e a t e r or l e s s e r negative values with r e s p e c t t o t h e cathode. The condition should be such t h a t t h e g r i d t o cathode path remains a t a l l t-lmes p r a c t i c a l l y l i k e a small condenser, t h e e l e c t r o d e s a c t i n g a s p l a t e s and t h e space a s t h e d i e l e c t r i c . If t h i s i s f u l f i l l e d i n p r a c t i c e t h e g r i d i s l e f t f r e e t o a c t e f f i c i e n t l y a s an e l e c t r i c a l l y charged body whose p o t e n t i a l i s c o n s t a n t l y varying i n accordance with t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s i g n a l wave, and t h e changing g r i d p o t e n t i a l l w i l l cause a corresponding v a r i a t i o n i n p l a t e c u r r e n t . Ve know t h i s t o be t h e case because t h e c o n t r o l of p l a t e c u r r e n t i s due t o t h e e f f e c t which t h e e l e c t r i c a l l y charged g r i d has over t h e e l e c t r o n stream a s i t moves through t h e vacuous path i n t h e tube from cathode t o p l a t e . What we have j u s t s a i d i n regard t o t h e radio- frequency g r i d swing has some bearing on t h e tuning q u a l i t i e s of t h e r e c e i v e r r e f e r r e d t o a s "Broadness, o r Sharpnessfi of tuning. The i n t r o d u c t i o n of even a small amount of r e s i s tance i n a c i r c u i t of t h i s kind causes t h e resonance curve t o become l e s s sharp o r peaked, or t o f l a t t e n out a s i t were. This r e s u l t s i n what i s known a s "broad tuning.n I n o t h e r words the r e c e i v e r then cannot discrimi n a t e between broadcast frequencies when they a r e 10 k i l o c y c l e s a p a r t , but

Lesson 32

sheet 12

will respond with almost equal sensitiveness to the frequencies of more than one station, thus causing serious interference. This extreme sensitivity of the control grid of the 224 is responsible for the easy manner in which remote and distant stations are brought in on a modern screen-grid receiver. Moreover, it has the distinct advantage of permitting the use of shorter antennas than have heretofore bee6 required to pick up signals from distant stations. An antenna not exceeding 50 feet in length usually gives the best results.

II

PART 2 THE DETECTOR The detector circuit in our receiver employs a UY-227 heater-type tube. Reference to the diagram in Figure 1 shows that an incoming signal passes through two stages of screen-grid am2lification before it reaches the detector grid. Now in regard to the detector let us explain that there are two types of detectors in common use today, either one of which gives satisfactory results when properly operated. The detectors are classified according to their action and are known as the power, or grid-bias tuve, and the grid leak-condenser twe. The latter type is used in the receiver you will construct, the detector action being controlled by a grid-leak resistance of the order of 2 megohms placed in parallel with a small fixed condenser of .00025 mfd. capacitance,and these units in turn being connected in series with the grid circuit. The arrangement is shown in Figure 6. The relative characteristics of both methods of detection willnowbepointed out. One advantage of the ppwer detector is that it may be operated at a high plate voltage which gives it sufficieut output to drive a power amplifier tube without the need of an intermediate stage of audio amplification. To off-set this advantage the power detector has several noticeable disadvantages as follows: First, a good strong signal is necessary to operate the power detector satisfactorily and this often requires the use of several stages of radio-frequency amplification. Second, it is not sensitive to weak signals and, moreover, it will give little or no output on signals having a low percentage of modulation.

Figure 6 The characteristic of the grid leak-condenser type are about the reverse of those of the power detector. The grid leak-condenser type possesses the following advantages: First, it is very sensitive to a very weak signal. Second, it is responsive to signals having a low percentage of modulation. Lesson 32

- sheet 13

A n incoming s i g n a l wave t h a t i s i n t e r c e p t e d by t h e antenna of a r a d i o r e c e i v e r induces a c u r r e n t i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t which h a s t h e same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s t h e wave s e n t o u t by t h e t r a n s m i t t e r antenna. The c u r r e n t i s a high-frequency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , t h e frequency being determined by t h e c o n s t a n t s of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n ' s r-f c i r c u i t s . Suppose, f o r example, t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s o s c i l l a t i n g a t a frequency of 1,000 ~ i l o c y c l e sand the microphone i s being used, then t h i s high-frequency c u r r e n t w i l l have superimposed upon i t another frequency of a lower order which r e p r e s e n t s t h e modulating frequency. The l a t t e r frequency covers a band of between approximately 60 and 7,000 cycles, which f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes i s s u f f i c i e n t t o r e p r e s e n t the voice,or musical tones o r i g i n a t i n g a t t h e microphone. However, i n p r a c t i c e , the frequencies of broadcast ' s t a t i o n s i n c e r t a i n zones a r e s e p a r a t e d by 10,000 cycles f o r a complete coverage of t h e audio band. Figure 7 shows a g r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a modulated o high-frequency c u r r e n t . N w t h e purpose of the d e t e c t o r i s t o demodulate t h i s s i g n a l energy s o t h a t only t h e music,or voice frequencies remain t o be passed along t o t h e audio system t o be amplified an6 then applied t o t h e loudspeaker. (Demodulate means t o s e p a r a t e t h e a-f from t h e r - f . )

ACTION O TRE DETECTOR. F

The c i r c u i t a s arranged i n Figure 6 does n o t provide t h e d e t e c t o r g r i d with a negative b i a s because t h e g r i d r e t u r n l e a d goes d i r e c t t o t h e cathode. Since t h e g r i d i s n o t supplied with b i a s v o l t a g e from t h e c i r c u i t s a small e l e c t r o n i c flow passes through t h s tube from t h e cathode t o t h e g r i d and then from t h e g r i d through t h e l e a k r e s i s t o r and secondary of t h e r-f transformer and back t o t h e cathode. This e l e c t r o n c u r r e n t c i r c u l a t i n g through the g r i d c i r c u i t , a s j u s t traced out, i s q u i t e small due t o t h e l i m i t i n g a c t i o n of t h e g r i d l e a k . I t s high r e s i s t a n c e holds back a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r o n s and thus r e t a r d s t h e flow. When a s i g n a l i s tuned i n t h e r e i s a high-frequency c u r r e n t i n t h e g r i d tuned c i r c u i t and t h i s energy passes r e a d i l y through the path furnished by t h e condenser and i n t h i s manner the s i g n a l v o l t a g e s a r e applied t o t h e g r i d , Figure 7

Figure 8

Figure 9

/L - . - An

The a c t i o n taking p l a c e i s a s follows: O t h e p o s i t i v e a l t e r n a t i o n of a n s i g n a l c u r r e n t t h e g r i d w i l l tend t o draw more c u r r e n t , but due t o the I R drop, o r voltage drop, an i n c r e a s e of c u r r e n t through t h e g r i d l e a k w i l l cause t h e c u r r e n t t o remain s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same. O the negative a l t e r n nation, however, t h e g r i d c u r r e n t w i l l be e i t h e r reduced, or i t w i l l s t o p flowing because t h e g r i d l e a k r e s i s t o r has no l i m i t i n g a c t i o n on a decreasing amount of c u r r e n t . Thus, our g r i d c u r r e n t assumes a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a s shown by t h e curves i n Figure 6. I t i s t o be understood t h a t every v a r i a t i o n of g r i d voltage i s r e p e a t e d by changes i n t h e value of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t and, consequently, we have a condition e x i s t i n g i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t

Lesson 32

s h e e t 14

where t h e s e half- frequency v a r i a t i o n s a r e a t r a d i o - f r e q u e n c i e s but t h e e f f e c t i v e p l a t e c u r r e n t , o r t h e one which c a r r i e s o n l y thk voice o r musical f r e q u e n c i e s , i s simply t h e average value a s shown i n Figure 9. The average value i2 t h e a u d i o component and t h e one t h a t i s used 50 d r i v e t h e l o u d s ~ e a k e rt o g i v e t h e o r i g i n a l reproduction a t t h e micronhone. O r .> --in other'words, the average vaiue of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t corresponds t o t h e modulating freauency of t h e s i g n a l wave. The modulating frequency i s a l s o c a l l e d t h e WaJdio" and sometimes t h e rclow-frequencyll component. The r-f c u r r e n t i s t h e k a r r i e r w frequency, o r t h e one on which transmission of t h e s i g n a l i s accomplished through space. The modulating frequency a f t e r bei n g separated i n t h i s manner from t h e r-f, o r c a r r i e r , i s then passed on t o be a m ~ i i f i e dby means of t h e audio s t a g e s t o t h e d e s i r e d l e v e l f o r our loudspeaker, a s a l r e a d y mentioned. Remember t h e term ndemodu1ate.n
-

Since i t i s u n d e s i r a b l e t o permit the r-f t o p a s s beyond t h e d e t e c t o r output, or t o t h e audio c i r c u i t s , i t i s by-passed through a f i l t e r placed i n t h e d e t e c t o r p l a t e c i r c u i t a s i n d i c a t e d on t h e diagram. This f i l t e r cons i s t s of an r- f choke and a condenser of . O 1 mfd. capacitance, t h e choke serving t o block t h e passage of t h e r-f and t h e condenser serving a s a path f o r it t o flow through t o t h e ground and t h u s d i s s i p a t e t h i s energy. The p l a t e c i r c u i t i s completed through a r e s i s t o r of 40,000 ohms which tog e t h e r with a . O l mfd. condenser a c t s t o couple t h e d e t e c t o r output t o t h e g r i d of t h e 1st audio a m p l i f i e r . From t h e lower end of t h e r e s i s t o r t h e plate c i r c u i t goes t o t h e + B supply, orpositive s i d e of t h e d-c power supply.
PART 3

The schematic diagram i n Figure 10 shows a t y p i c a l audio system with t h e output of t h e d e t e c t o r f e e d i n g i n t o a r e s i s t a n c e coupled s t a g e of audio a m p l i f i c a t i o n and t h i s s t a g e coupled t o two power a m p l i f i e r s o p e r a t i n g i n push- pull r e l a t i o n . P o i n t s of s i m i l a r i t y between t h i s c i r c u i t and t h e one given i n Figure 1 can be e a s i l y recognized. A s a t i s f a c t o r y l e v e l of output f o r p r o p e r l y d r i v i n g a loudspeaker can be o b t a i n e d through t h e use of t h e two audio s t a g e s when g r i d leak-condenser method of d e t e c t i o n i s employed. I n t h e s e a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t s t h e l a s t s t a g e being of t h e pushp u l l type, a s j u s t s t a t e d , u t i l i z e s two tubes of s i m i l a r kind which about doubles t h e wattage o u t p u t over t h a t o b t a i n a b l e hen only one tube of a s i m i l a r type i s used. Examining t h e diagram i n Figure 1 0 we s e e t h a t t h e output of t h e UY-227 d e t e c t o r tube i s c ~ u p l e dby means of r e s i s t a n c e couplI2lg t o t h e i n p u t of another UY-227, t h e l a t t e r being used a s a f i r s t audio- amplifier tube. Resistance coupling does n o t g i v e any step- up g a i n of t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h o t h e r than t h a t o b t a i n e d through t h e normal a c t i o n of t h e tube,due t o i t s a m 2 l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r . However, t h i s f a c t i s o f f s e t by t h e e x c e p t i o n a l l y good q u a l i t y o f o u t p u t w i t h t h i s type of coupling. The r e s i s t o r coupling c o n s i s t s of a d e t e c t o r p l a t e r e s i s t o r of 40,000 ohms, a condenser of .Olmf& capacitance and a g r i d r e s i s t o r f o r t h e 1st audio t u b e , t h e r e s i s t o r being r a t e d a t 250,000 ohms. When t h e audio c u r r e n t from t h e d e t e c t o r output f l u c t u a t e s a s i t p a s s e s through t h e 40,000 ohms r e s i s t o r t h e c u r r e n t

Lesson 32

s h e e t 15

g e n e r a t e s an audio-frequency voltage a c r o s s the terminals of t h e r e s i s t o r , and t h i s voltage feeds through t h e .01 mfd. coupling condenser t o t h e g r i d of t h e a m p l i f i e r . The condenser i s l a r g e sized t o permit t h e audio frequencies t o flow through r e a d i l y , t h i s being necessary t o i n s u r e good f i d e l i t y of reproduction from t h e loudspeaker. The 227 audio- am p lifier g r i d c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of a g r i d r e s i s t o r of 250,000 ohms, which has been r e f e r r e d t o previously, and which c o n t r o l s t h e flow of e l e c t r o n s c o l l e c t e d by the g r i d , t h a t i s , i t c o n t r o l s the flow of g r i d c u r r e n t . The n e g a t i v e b i a s f o r t h i s g r i d i s obtained throdgh a 1000 ohm r e s i s t o r , i n s e r t e d between the cathode and ground, s i n c e the p l a t e c u r r e n t flowing through t h e r e s i s t o r causes t h e cathode t o assume a c e r t a i n p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l with r e s p e c t t o the ground, o r i t may be s a i d t h a t t h e ground i s a t a c e r t a i n n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l t o t h e cathode. I t follows, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e g r i d a l s o being connected t o ground through the res i s t o r w i l l place t h e g r i d a t t h e proper negative voltage with r e s p e c t t o

Figure 10 t h e cathode. Figure 1 shows fundamentally t h e e n t i r e arrangement f o r 1 coupling by t h e r e s i s t a n c e method between a d e t e c t o r and f i r s t audio tube, and how the voltages could be supplied by means of b a t t e r i e s i n s t e a d of a power u n i t , a s i n an e l e c t r i c s e t . F The 1 s t A- Amplifier. The UY-227 tube used a s a f i r s t a-f a m p l i f i e r has an a m 2 l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r of approximately 9, which value we a r e p r a c t i c a l l y a b l e t o t a k e f u l l a d v a ~ t a g eof i n t h i s s t a g e . An a-f transformer i s included i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h i s tube, t h e transformer being d i f f e r e n t from t h e conventional a-f transformer i n t h a t i t s secondary has a center tap. This i s c l e a r l y shown i n Figure 10. The s p l i t t i n g of t h e secondary i n t o two s e c t i o n s i s necessary i n order t h a t t h e s i g n a l output of the secondary can be made t o work i n t o two tubes i n push- pull r e l a t i o n . A transformer of t h i s type i s known a s a push- pull i n p u t transformer. It has,

1 Figure 1

~esson 32

sheet 16

i n t h i s case, a step- up r a t i o (between the primary and each h a l f of the secondary) of approximately 1 t o 3. The c e n t e r t a p i s t h e common r e t u r n f o r each g r i d c i r c u i t and t h e t u b e s r e c e i v e t h e i r negative b i a s through t h i s connection. How Tubes i n Push-Pull Operate. The diagram i n F i g u r e 1 2 i l l u s t r a t e s one type of ~ u s h - p u l l c i r c u i t and i t i s drawn i n s i m p l i f i e d form which makes i t ebsy t o s e e t h i s r e l a t i o n of t h e p a r t s and how t h e v o l t a g e s a r e a p p l i e d . I t i s seen t h a t t h e primary of t h e i n p u t stage connects t o t h e p l a t e termin a l of t h e 1st a-f tube. I n t h i s primary flows t h e f l u c t u a t i n g audiofrequency c u r r e n t which induces an a-c voltage of s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e s p l i t secondary and from t h i s point t h e a-f energy i s c a r r i e d t o t h e g r i d s of t h e two t u b e s i n push- pull through t h e connecting l e a d s

Figure 1 2 a t t a c h e d t o t h e extreme ends of t h e secondary winding. A t any i n s t a n t t h e g r i d s a r e a t o p p o s i t e v o l t a g e p o l a r i t i e s , which means t h a t when one g r i d i s p o s i t i v e t h e o t h e r i s negative. This a c t i o n causes an i n c r e a s e i n t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i n one tube and a decrease i n p l a t e c u r r e n t i n t h e o t h e r , with t h e f i n a l r e s u l t t h a t we g e t a much g r e a t e r change i n t o t a l p l a t e c u r r e n t than i f only one tube were used f o r t h i s purpose. The low impedance of t h e 245 tubes permits t h i s c i r c u i t t o work i n t o a n ordinary magnetic type loudspeaker with o n l y a tapped choke i n s e r t e d i n t h e p l a t e f o r coupling purposes. Thetap i s t h e common connection through which t h e +B voltage i s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e p l a t e s . The a-c o r audio component of t h e p l a t e currezit may be obtained by connecting t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e loudspeaker from p l a t e t o p l a t e of t h e two tubes. T h i s i s shown i n Figure 12. I f a dynamic type loudspeaker i s used it w i l l be necessary t o employ an impedance a d j u s t i n g transformer between t h e o u t p u t of t h e two p l a t e s and t h e cone c o i l , o r voice c o i l , of t h e dynamic speaker. T h i s i s necessary because t h e a-c impedance of cone c o i l s a t voice f r e q u e n c i e s i s l e s s than 100 ohms. Transformer coupling i n t h e output of t h e push- pull power a m p l i f i e r may a l s o be used, a s shown i n our schematic diagram i n Figure 1.
THE UX-245 POWER-AMPLIFIER TUBE.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h i s type tube make it d e s i r a b l e f o r use i n a pushp u l l audio a m p l i f i e r . I t i s t o be k e p t i n mind t h a t i n a push- pull a m p l i f i e r t h e performance of two power t u b e s used should match each o t h e r a s near a s p o s s i b l e s o t h a t t h e t u b e s w i l l do t h e i r work w i t h equal e f f e c t i v Dness. Matching tubes i n t h i s way might be c a l l e d a disadvantage.

Lesson 32

s h e e t 17

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e UX245 Power Tube: Filament Voltage Filament Current P l a t e Voltage P l a t e Current G r i d Bias Voltage Amplification Factor P l a t e Resistance Undistorted Output

2.5 1.5 250 32 -50

3.5

volts amperes volts milliamperes volts

1900 ohms 1600 m i l l i w a t t s

The outstanding advantage of t h e UX-245 tube i s i t s l a r g e u n d i s t o r t e d output with a low p l a t e v o l t a g e . The requirements of t h i s tube permits t h e UX-280 t o be used a s a full- wave r e c t i f i e r . Another d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e of t h e 245 i s i t s low p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e . A low r e s i s t a n c e output tube allows b e t t e r q u a l i t y of output which i s e s p e c i a l l y n o t i c e a b l e a t t h e lower f r e q u e n c i e s . The u n d i s t o r t e d output of a 245 i s s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r than i n t h e case of t h e 210 type,and about one- third t h a t of t h e 250 type. About 3 w a t t s output can be obtained from two UX-245 tubes which i s an o u t p u t t h a t w i l l produce more volwne than i s a c t u a l l y required i n t h e average home. A r e s e r v e of power i s always t o be d e s i r e d , even though one may never expect t o use i t , because r e s e r v e power c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e q u a l i t y of o u t p u t a t any volume.

PART 4

THE POWER SUPPLY CIRCUITS.

A-C INPUT AND POWER TRANSFORldiER.

The power u n i t c o n s i s t s of a power transformer, a full- wave r e c t i f i e r , a f i l t e r and a v o l t a g e d i v i d e r system f o r supplying t h e proper d-c v o l t a g e s t o t h e tubes. The power transformer i s b u i l t with a primary and f o u r secondaries a l l mounted on a heavy laminated i r o n core. The primary r e c e i v e s t h e 110 v o l t , 60 c y c l e a-c through t h e plug and the lamp cord, when i t i s connected t o e i t h e r a lamp s o c k e t , o r w a l l o u t l e t , and t h e o p e r a t i n g switch i s i n t h e "ON" p o s i t i o n . The a-c i n t h e primary s e t s up an a-c v o l t a g e of s i m i l a r frequency i n each of t h e s e c o n d a r i e s ; t h e a c t u a l voltage i n any winding depends mainly upon t h e number of t u r n s with which it i s wound. Three of t h e secondaries a r e low v o l t a g e windings used a s f o l l o w s : One s u p p l i e s t h e f i l a m e n t s of t h e 245 t u b e s , another s u p p l i e s t h e h e a t e r s of t h e 224 and 227 tubes,and t h e t h i r d s e r v e s t h e f i l a m e n t of t h e 280 r e c t i f i e r . Twooithe windings a r e mid-tapped, a s shown i n t h e diagram i n Figure 1, w i t h conn e c t i o n s terminating a t t h e ground f o r t h e purpose of preventing any a-c r i p p l e being s e t up by t h e s e c i r c u i t s . The f o u r t h secondary winding i s l a r g e r than t h e r e s t s i n c e i t i s r e q u i r e d t o f u r n i s h a h i g h a-c voltage t o t h e p l a t e s of t h e 280 tube. This winding has a mid-tap which i s grounded and forms t h e negative s i d e of t h e d-c c i r c u i t from t h e r e c t i f i e r . The f i l a m e n t winding of t h e 280 i s a l s o c e n t e r tapped and t h e connection c a r r i e d from t h i s p o i n t t o t h e i n p u t of t h e f i l t e r forms t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e d-c c i r c u i t .

Lesson 32

sheet 18

PART 5
THE RECTIFIER.

I n t h e r e c e i v e r under c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e UX-280 i s used a s a full- wave r e c t i f i e r . The p l a t e s of t h i s t u b e a r e supplied w i t h a-c from t h e power t r a n s former and because of t h e one-way c o n d u c t i v i t y of a vacuum tube (the e l e c t r o n stream flows only from t h e f i l a m e n t t o p l a t e ) t h i s r e c t i f i e r w i l l d e l i v e r i n a c i r c u i t connected t o i t s o u t p u t a p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t c u r r e n t . After being smoothed o u t by means of a brute- force f i l t e r t h e o u t p u t w i l l flow a s a subs t a n t i a l l y s t e a d y d i r e c t c u r r e n t s u i t a b l e f o r supplying t h e p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s of t h e t u b e s i n t h e r e c e i v e r proper. I n s h o r t , t h i s 280 tube prov i d e s d i r e c t c u r r e n t f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n of an a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t r e c e i v e r .

Figure 13 The theory of o p e r a t i o n of t h e 280 i n a t y p i c a l c i r c u i t i s a s follows: R e f e r r i n g t o F i g u r e 13 we observe a r e c t i f i e r c i r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g of t h e 280 tube, a transformer capable of supplying t h e r e q u i s i t e p l a t e voltage and f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e f o r t h i s tube, two f i l t e r r e a c t o r s o r chokes, and t h r e e f i l t e r c a p a c i t o r s o r condensers. I n any thermionic tube t h e r e i s a flow of c u r r e n t o n l y when t h e anode, o r p l a t e , i s a t a p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f i l a m e n t , o r cathode. A t n e g a t i v e p l a t e p o t e n t i a l s t h e t u b e o f f e r s i n f i n i t e l y high r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e flow of c u r r e n t which i s accountable f o r by t h e r e p u l s i o n which a n e g a t i v e p l a t e w i l l e x e r t upon t h e n e g a t i v e e l e c t r o n s emitted by t h e f i l a m e n t . Now, examining t h i s c i r c u i t w i l l bring o u t t h e f a c t t h a t a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t flows i n a l l of t h e transformer s e c o n d a r i e s a s t h e r e v e r s a l of t h e p o s i t i v e (+) and n e g a t i v e (-) s i g n s i n d i c a t e when t h e primary i s connected t o t h e a-c l i n e supply of proper r a t i n g , t h a t is, 110 v o l t s a- c a t 60 c y c l e s . When t h e c i r c u i t i s a c t i v e t h e a-c flowing through t h e f i l a m e n t h e a t s i t t o a temperature which causes e l e c t r o n s t o be emitted. The e l e c t r a n flow i s towards t h e p l a t e which i s charged t o a p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l a t any par-' t i c u l a r i n s t a n t , a s we have j u s t explained. While one of t h e p l a t e s i s charged p o s i t i v e during an a l t e r n a t i o n of the a-c c y c l e t h e o t h e r p l a t e w i l l a t t h a t time be charged negative. I t i s easy t o understand t h a t t h e n e g a t i v e p l a t e w i l l r e p e l t h e e l e c t r o n s and, t h e r e f o r e , no c u r r e n t w i l l flow through t h i s p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e tube b u t , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e w i l l a t t r a c t e l e c t r o n s and c u r r e n t t h e n w i l l flow out of t h e tube i n t o t h e p o s i t i v ; s i d e of t h e f i l t e r c i r c u i t . The path of t h e c u r r e n t i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e arrows. I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e c u r r e n t flows o n l y i n t h e upper h a l f of t h e secondary and n o t i n t h e lower h a l f . On t h e next

Lesson 52

s h e e t 19

a l t e r n a t i o n t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e p l a t e s w i l l be r e v e r s e d , a s i n d i c a t e d i n Figure 14, and c u r r e n t w i l l then flow i n t h e o t h e r p l a t e c i r c u i t through t h e lower h a l f of t h e secondary and o u t t o t h e f i l t e r c i r c u i t a s shown by t h e arrows. By employing a c i r c u i t arrangement of t h i s kind ( t h a t i s , where each end of t h e p l a t e winding of t h e transformer i s connected t o a p l a t e with t h e c e n t e r t a p used a s a common n e g a t i v e connection) we o b t a i n a p u l s a t i o n of d i r e c t c u r r e n t f o r every a l t e r n a t i o n of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . Before t h e r 2 c t i f i e d c u r r e n t i s f i l t e r e d i t w i l l have t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s somewhat a s depicted by t h e second row of curves marked nR.A.C.n meaning r e c t i f i e d a- c, a s i n Figure 15.

D.C.
FILTERED

Figure 14
PART 6

F i g u r e 15

TEE FILTER
The f i l t e r c o n s i s t s of two i n d u c t o r s , o r r e a c t o r s , which a r e commonly c a l l e d chokes, and t h r e e c a p a c i t o r s which a r e made t o withstand a h i g h d-c working voltage. The r e a c t o r s , due t o t h e i r h i g h inductance, tend t o 2 p o s e any v a r i a t i o n i n t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e c u r r e n t flowing through them. The c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n s we r e f e r t o a r e the p u l s a t i o n s marked "R.A.C.lf i n Figure 15. No impedance i s o f f e r e d , however, t o t h e flow of a s t e a d y c u r r e n t . o r pure d i r e c t c u r r e n t by t h e r e a c t o r s ; t h e o n l y opposition i n t h i s case i s - t h a t which i s s e t up by t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e windings. The l a t t e r r e s i s t a n c e i s c a l l e d t h e d i r e c t - c u r r e n t r e s i s t a n c e . The condensers a c t l i k e r e s e r v o i r s because t h e y become charged,and p e r i o d i c a l l y d i s c h a r g e , and i n t h i s way t h e y supply v o l t a g e t o t h e c i r c a i t which has t h e e f f e c t of f i l l i n g i n t h e gaps of t h e p u l s a t i o n s . After passing through t h e f i r s t r e a c t o r , o r choke,the c u r r e n t i s p a r t l y smoothed o u t , o r f i l t e r e d , a n d f i n a l l y a f t e r emerging from t h e second choke i t i s p r a c t i c a l l y t h e e q u i v a l e n t of a s t e a d y , o r non- fluctuating d-c. The smooth c h a r a c t e r of t h e d-c output of t h e f i l t e r makes i t s u i t a b l e f o r supplying t h e p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v i n g tubes. Figure 1 5 shows how t h e v a r i o u s f i l t e r i n g devices a c t upon t h e r e c t i f i e d c u r r e n t .

PART 7
THE VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

After t h e p u l s a t i n g d-c from the 280 r e c t i f i e r i s completely f i l t e r e d we have a v a i l a b l e f o r u s e a s t e a d y d i r e c t c u r r e n t of about 300 v o l t s p o t e n t i a l with a c u r r e n t c a p a c i t y of 100 milliamperes. This v o l t a g e i s of proper

Lesson 32

s h e e t 20

value f o r t h e p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s of t h e 245 power tubes, but f o r o t h e r tubes i n t h e r e c e i v e r t h i s v o l t a g e i s too high. I t i s t o be understood t h a t t h e g r i d does n o t r e c e i v e such a h i g h v o l t a g e a s j u s t mentioned, but t h a t i t o b t a i n s i t s b i a s from t h e d-c s u p p l i e d by t h i s h i g h voltage by methods p r e v i o u s l y explained. f o r t h e 224 and 227 tubes. I n n r a c t i c e we f i n d two g e n e r a l methods of v o l t a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n employed. hey a r e commonly known a s t h e p a r a l l e l method and t h e s e r i e s method.
A means must be found f o r reducing t h e h i g h v o l t a g e t o v a l u e s s u i t a b l e

+
*'< =IY
'E
Lc

EsEs
VDLllCE DIVIDEILI;

*ZSd
+I80

+ 45
-s+c
- C 50v.

2 : :
ja

ti,"

i
Figure 1 6

Where a h i g h v o l t a g e i s being s u p p l i e d t o t h e r e c e i v e r t h e p a r a l l e l method i s most g e n e r a l l y used. The reason f o r u s i n g t h i s method i s because t h e load i s n o t s o l i k e l y t o be removed e n t i r e l y from t h e r e c t i f i e r c i r c u i t , b u t i n t h e event t h a t t h i s d i d happen a v e r y dangerous v o l t a g e would be generated. A t y p i c a l c i r c u i t of a p a r a l l e l system i s shown i n F i g u r e 16. , Notice how t h e t a p s a r e taken o f f a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s along t h e r e s i s t a n c e f o r t h e v a r i o u s v o l t a g e s . T h i s r e s i s t a n c e may c o n s i s t of s e v e r a l s e p a r a t e u n i t s connected t o g e t h e r , o r j u s t one tapped u n i t .

Figure 1 7 The s e r i e s method, shown i n F i g u r e 17, i s used i n t h e screen- grid r e c e i v e r t h a t you w i l l c o n s t r u c t . The fundamental advantage of thismethod i s i n t h e f a c t t h a t no c u r r e n t i s consumed by t h e r e s i s t o r s which could be considered independent of t h e c u r r e n t d r a i n of t h e tubes. The d r a i n from t h e tubes i s t h e e n t i r e d r a i n put on t h e r e c t i f i e r i n t h i s system. A s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e condensers i n t h e f i l t e r i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t flowing i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o have t h e d r a i n a s low a s possible.

Lesson 32

sheet 21

Referring t o both F i g u r e s 1 and 17 it i s seen t h a t t h e p l a t e r e s i s t o r of 6000 ohms drops t h e v o l t a g e from t h e high v a l u e of about 300 v o l t s t o 180 v o l t s f o r t h e p l a t e s of t h e 224 and 227 tubes. The voltage f o r t h e 245,s i s taken d i r e c t from t h e o u t p u t of t h e f i l t e r system. I n Figure 1 t h e 40,000 ohm r e s i s t o r i n t h e d e t e c t o r p l a t e drops t h e supply v o l t a g e from 160 t o about 45 v o l t s which i s a p p l i e d t o t h e d e t e c t o r p l a t e . The a c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e screen- grid s e t w i l l be taken up i n our next lesson.

EXAMINATION

- LESSON 32

What a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of screen- grid r e c e i v e r s t h a t d i f f e r from those employing o t h e r type tubes? I n what t h r e e r e s p e c t s do t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a screen- grid tube d i f f e r from t h e u s u a l h e a t e r - t y p e d e t e c t o r a m p l i f i e r tube?
Why do t h e r-f transformer primaries used i n screen- grid r e c e i v e r s

d i f f e r from t h o s e used i n o t h e r type r e c e i v e r s ? Why a r e t h e r e no n e u t r a l i z i n g condensers o r s t a b i l i z i n g devices used i n screen- grid r e c e i v e r s ? H w i s improved s e l e c t i v i t y obtained i n screen- grid r e c e i v e r s over thosc o employing a s i m i l a r number of tuned s t a g e s b u t using o t h e r types of tub< H w does a g r i d l e a k and. condenser c m s e a c i r c u i t t o f u n c t i o n a s a o detector?

Name t h e advantages of two t y p e s of d e t e c t o r s .

What a r e t h e advantages and disadvantages of push-2ull a m p l i f i c a t i o n a s used i n a power audio s t a g e ? Explain t h e p r i n c i p l e of o p e r a t i o n of t h e full- wave therrnionic r e c t i f i c Uihy i s a UX-280 tube s u f f i c i e n t f o r providing a l l d-c voltages used i n t h e r e c e i v e r discussed i n t h i s l e s s o n ?

Lesson 32

s h e e t 22

--

'

. q , -

".*

<& " * $. *.* ,>

INS3'IT
INC.

Technical Lesson 33
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF THE RCA INSTITUTES A.C. SCREEN-GRID RECEIVER General To~ics. In our previous lesson the principles of design and practical operation of an a-c operated screen-grid receiver were discussed and many problems which enter into the design were explained. Keep these principles in mind because you will now be shown how to apply them to a typical receiver and, also, you will learn how to actually build the receiver and adjust its radio-frequency circuits for maximum selectivity and sensitivity. The parts named in the following list include every important piece of equipment necessary for the construction of your screen-grid receiver. Push-pull Input Transformer. Push-pull Output Transformer. Power Transformer. (This consists of 5 separate windings) R-F Transformers. R-F Choke Coils. his consists of 2 Filter ~eactors) Dual 30-henry Choke. Headset. (phones) UY Sockets. For tubes with 5-pin bases UX Sockets. For tubes with 4-pin bases ohm Resistor. UY-224 Control Grid Bias ~esistor) 40 0 n n 750 UX-245 Grid Bias Resistor) 1000 n n 1st A-F Grid Bias ~esistor) 80 00 n n Plate Supply ~esistor) 40,000 11 I I Detector Plate Coupling ~esistor) 4,0 000 n n Screen-Grid Voltage Drop Resistor) 20 . megohm n Detector Grid-leak Resistor 250,000 ohm n 1st A-F Amplifier Grid-leak 6000 ohm Potentiometer. Volume Control) 0.01 mfd. Condensers. 0 1 mfd. Condensers. . .00025 mfd. Antenna Condenser. .00025 mfd. Detector Grid Condenser. condenser .00035 mfd.) 3-gang Tuning Condenser. (~ach his consists of 6 fixed condensers) Condenser Block. Miscellaneous Parts:
1 Double resistor mounting. 1 Single resistor mounting. 3 R.F. Coil shields with mountings. 3 Coil mounting brackets. 2"'Complete screen-grid clips. 1 Dial for tuning. 1 Terminal strip. 1 Drilled panel.
.:s;
,J ,.5:

2 Shielded wires for screen-&?id clips. = 2 Switches.

Printed in U.S.A.

-A-

":-b+,,,Llazn

Also,there is an assortment of rubber covered and colored wire, wood screws, hex nuts and soldering lugs. Additional items not furnished with the kit and to be obtained by the student are as follows: Vacuum tubes of the UY-224 type. 2 Vacuum tubes of the UY-227 type. 2 Vacuum tubes of the UX-245 type. 1 Rectifier tube of the UX-280 type. Loudspeaker. i it her a dynamic or magnetic type speaker may be used with this set, but better results will be obtained with the use of a good dynamic type.) Antenna and ground equipment. Soldering iron and sufficient rosin-core solder. Baseboard 12" wide by 28" long by a n or 1" thick. This should preferably be of plywood to avoid warping. If UX or UY-type tubes are not available you may use any tubes of a similar type providing, of course, they are in good operating condition. The surest way of testing a tube, or to check its condition at the time of purchase, is to insert the tube in the proper socket of some receiver which is operating and tuned to a broadcasting station. A tube which is O K will give .. satisfactory reception. It is very important to use two 245 power tubes having nearly the same characteristics, that is, they should be matched in order to work efficiently in push-pull relation. The wires, insulators, clamps and other parts comprising the antenna and ground equipment may be of any standard make. It is suggested that you erect an antenna not to exceed 50 feet in length to obtain best results. If an antenna of this dimension is used it should be connected to the "S. ANT.n (meaning short antenna) terminal of the receiver. A longer antenna than the one Just suggested may be required in conjunction with your receiver if it is remotely located from broadcasting stations. The longer antenna is often necessary in order to pick up sufficient signal strength for satisfactory reception and in this case you should be careful to connect the antenna lead-in wire to the nL. ANT." (meaning long antenna) terminal, This connection places a small fixed condenser of .00025 mfd. capacitance in series between the antenna lead and receiver circuit and thus allows the receiver to maintain its selectivity even with the use of a long antenna. This constructional lesson is divided into seven parts as follows: Part 1 . n 2 . 11 3 . n 4 . Constructional Details. Wiring of Filament and Heater Circuits. Wiring of Plate and Audio-Frequency Circuits. Vriring of Radio-Frequency Circuits, which includes Antenna, Grids, and Cathodes. n 5 . Vdiring of Power Supply Circuits, consisting of Rectifier, Filter and Power Transformer. n 6 . Practical Operation of Screen-Grid Receiver. '1 7 Line-Up Adjustments of Radio-Frequency Circuits. . Lesson 33
2

sheet 2

PR 1 AT
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS.

Refer t o Figures 1, 2 and 3.

Your f i r s t s t e p i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h i s r e c e i v e r i s t o ungack a l l of t h e p a r t s c a r e f u l l y and then proceed t o i d e n t i f y them according t o our i l l u s t r a t i o n i n Figure 1. This drawing i s a plan view of t h e s e t showing pict o r i a l l y the g e n e r a l r e l a t i o n of t h e p a r t s . The p a r t s a r e not only named but t h e i r e l e c t r i c a l values, o r r a t i n g , a r e given i n many instances. I t s u r e l y w i l l be t o your advantage t o l e a r n t h e name of every p a r t before you begin t h e a c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n work. The next thing t o do i s t o study very c a r e f u l l y t h e dimensional plan-view drawing i n Figure 2. The e x a c t l o c a t i o n of the p a r t s as you w i l l assemble them on t h e base board i s made c l e a r by t h i s drawing. The measuremants, a s given, i n d i c a t e t h e d i s t a n c e s between t h e c e n t e r s of t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s and a f t e r placing them on the board according t o t h i s lay- out i t w i l l be but a simple matter t o screw them down securely i n p o s i t i o n . W have arranged t h e e p a r t s i n a p a r t i c u l a r way s o t h a t t h e c i r c u i t s may be t r a c e d o u t e a s i l y f o r t h e purpose of i n s t r u c t i o n and, a l s o , t o o b t a i n t h e most e f f i c i e n t r e s u l t s . Some of the smaller pieces come q u i t e c l o s e t o one another and, therefore, you must be c a r e f u l i n your measurements and n o t permit any p a r t s t o touch. Let us r e p e a t t h a t t h e v a r i o u s v a r t s must be mounted on t h e board according t o t h e arrangement a s shown on t h e dimensional diagram i n Figure 2,because an i n c o r r e c t placement of any p a r t may have a bearing on t h e operation of the receiver. A f t e r you f i n i s h mounting t h e p a r t s on the baseboard then proceed t o assemble t h e two panels which a r e t o be screwed t o t h e f r o n t of t h e board. One panel i s t h e narrow terminal s t r i p f i t t e d with s u i t a b l e connections f o r a t t a c h i n g t h e antenna lead- in wire, t h e ground wire, and t h e l e a d s from t h e loudspeaker. The o t h e r panel i s comparatively l a r g e and i s d r i l l e d with h o l e s f o r mounting t h e volume c o n t r o l r e s i s t o r and the "OFF-ON" switch. A small hole i n t h e center permits t h e s h a f t of t h e gang condenser t o pass through. The tuning d i a l , o f t e n c a l l e d s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r , i s put on t h e end of t h i s s h a f t a f t e r t h e gang condenser and panel a r e i n place. I n regard t o t h e two switches i t must be mentioned t h a t although they a r e constructed a l i k e mechanically and can be used interchangeably they a r e e n o t mounted i n t h e same way, a s w w i l l now exdlain. The "OFF-ON" switch i s mounted together with i t s name p l a t e on t h e l a r g e panel and t h i s should be done i n only one way, s o t h a t t h e words OFF and ON can be read properly. However, i n t h e case of t h e o t h e r switch, t h e metal name p l a t e t h a t i s f u r n i s h e d with i t i s n o t used and, hence, only t h e switch u n i t i t s e l f i s mounted on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p i n t h e hole d r i l l e d f o r t h a t purpose, with t h e switch being turned i n a p o s i t i o n t h a t makes i t r e l a t i v e l y upside down t o t h e nOFF-ON" switch. The c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n i s easy t o determine because an examination of t h e switches w i l l show t h a t each has a grooved s l o t running along the threaded ? o r t i o n . I f you have the groove i n t h e down p o s i t i o n f o r t h e "OFF-ON" switch and i n t h e 9 p o s i t i o n f o r t h e "LOCAL-DISTANT" switch Lesson 33

sheet 3

'

Lesson 33

sheet 4

Lesson 33

sheet 5

then the latter will function correctly in the circuit. It is obvious that the latter switch does not use the metal name plate, as stated before,because the words LOCAL and DISTANT are engraved on the front of the strip. Before hiring the set note that soldering lugs must be pla over the terminals,or screws of various parts. Some parts are already quipped with lugs but those parts without lugs and kith binding posts, or screws,should have the lugs attached to them. You can readily determine for yourself just where to put soldering lugs since every connection in the set must be a soldered one. The only wires that will not require soldering are the antenna lnad-in, the ground connection and the leads from the loudspeaker, and all of these ;*re attached to the proper terminals on the terminal strip only after the set is completely assembled and ready for practical operation. Two lugs should as be screwed on each switch and connections to these ~ a d e suggested later. If one or two of the soldering lugs on the back of the terminal strip seem to be too close to the 1st r-f socket you can bend them slightly upward.

Figure 3 Special attention should be directed toward the radio-frequency transformers. There are three r-f transformers two of which are exactly similar in appearance when looking at the individual coils on the outside and inside tubing. Notice that two of the transformers have primary windings that are practically as long as the secondaries, which are wound on the outside tubing. Note that the primary is wound on the inside tubing and the secondary on the outside tubing. The other transformer which is different has a short primary coil located on the inside tubing but its secondary, or outside windizg, is the same size as the other secondaries. Be sure to use the Lesson 33

sheet 6

transformer with the s h o r t primary (which by the way i s tapped) f o r t h e antenna input, or 1st r-f transformer and the o t h e r two, or t h e ones with t h e l a r g e primaries, a s 2nd and 3 r d r-f transformers. Handle these c o i l s very c a r e f u l l y and mount them i n t h e i r respective l o c a t i o n s according t o t h e p i c t u r e lay- out i n Figure 1. The p o s i t i o n t h a t each c o i l should occupy on t h e board can be determined by t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e holding bracket with r e gard t o t h e f o u r terminals. The general arrangement of t h e windings on t h e c o i l s and the exact method of connection t o the v a r i o u s terminal lugs a t t h e bottom of the tubing a r e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 1 by two small sketches drawn i n schematic form. The i n t e r n a l method6of connection f o r t h e input and output push- pull t r a n s formers, t h e f i l t e r r e a c t o r s , the condenser block and the power transformer a r e likewise pictured i n Figure 1. From these sketches you can e a s i l y v i s u a l i z e j u s t how t h e c i r c u i t s a r e completed through t h e s e p a r t s and t h i s w i l l no doubt a i d you i n understanding t h e wiring of t h e s e t , providing t h a t a t t h e same time you make comparisons with the complete schematic wiring diagram i n Figure 3. The metal s h i e l d s which cover the t h r e e radio- frequency transformers a r e n o t t o be placed i n p o s i t i o n u n t i l a l l of the wiring t o these transformers h a s been completed. Note t h a t r-f transformers a r e o f t e n c a l l e d n r - f c o i l s . " Later i n t h i s lesson you w i l l be advised j u s t whan ground wires a r e t o be soldered t o small e y e l e t s i n t h e s h i e l d s and when t h e s h i e l d s a r e t o be placed over the r-f c o i l s and fastened i n p o s i t i o n .
A t t h e time of wiring each p a r t the s t u d e n t should make f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e

t o Figure 3, which i s t h e schematic d i a g a m of t h e complete r e c e i v e r , s o t h a t the r e l a t i o n of t h e physical p a r t t o i t s symbolic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w i l l be p e r f e c t l y c l e a r and understandable. I t i s q u i t e necessary f o r anyone engaged i n p r a c t i c a l r a d i o work t o be capable of reading a l l kinds o f ' c i r c u i t diagrams. One never knows when h e nlay be c a l l e d upon t o t r a n s l a t e a schematic diagram i n t o a r i r i n g diagram, o r v i c e versa. To do t h i s o f t e n r e q u i r e s considerable thought and time, hence, t h e wiring of t h i s k i t and the reading of the v a r i o u s diagrams w i l l a f f o r d e x c e l l e n t p r a c t i c e along these l i n e s . Before a c t u a l l y s t a r t i n g t h e work t u r n t o your previous l e s s o n dealing with t h i s screen- grid r e c e i v e r and, a l s o , t o the l e s s o n on soldering and review them both so t h a t you may r e c a l l a s many of t h e h i n t s and suggestions cont a i n e d t h e r e i n a s possible. C a r e f u l l y study t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s on how t o s o l d e r and be sure t o put them i n t o p r a c t i c e . Good well- soldered j o i n t s a r e e s s e n t i a l and t h e o n l y way t h a t they can be obtained i s t o use a properly t i m e d h o t i r o n and t o have a l l of t h e surfaces t h a t a r e t o be soldered p e r f e c t l y clean. Heating t h e connections t o be soldered t o a s high a tempera t u r e a s possible causes t h e s o l d e r t o adhere t o t h e metal and avoids what i s known a s a cold, o r r o s i n j o i n t . S a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s w i l l be obtained i f you use rosin- core s o l d e r and thoroughly c l e a n a l l of t h e s u r f a c e s t o be soldered,as w have j u s t mentioned. By c a r e f u l l y following our i n s t r u c t i o n s e you w i l l o b t a i n a good mechanical and e l e c t r i c a l j o i n t .

Lesson 33

sheet 7

You should now be ready t o s t a r t your wiring. Rubber covered wire and an assortment of d i f f e r e n t colored wires a r e furnished w i t h t h e s e t , a s you know. The rubber covered wire i s l a r g e r i n s i z e t h a n t h e colored wires. Use t h e rubber coveped wire f o r t h e high- current c i r c u i t s which supply t h e f i l a m e n t s and hedters,and t h e colored wires f o r t h e remaining c i r c u i t s according t o our suggestions o r , i f you prefer,you may work up a color scheme of your own. When you come t o a d j u s t i n g t h e trimmer condensers n o t e t h a t any type screwd r i v e r may be used s i n c e t h e screws thread i n t o t h e frame and, thus, a r e placed a t ground p o t e n t i a l . The mechanical c o n s t r u c t i o n shows t h a t i f you r a i s e o r lower a screw i t causes the t h i n metal p l a t e over t h e mica t o move.

PART 2 W I R I N G OF THE FILUMENT AND HEATER CIRCUITS.

Refer t o Diagram i n Figure 4.

I t i s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d i n Figure 4 where a l l of t h e f i l a m e n t and h e a t e r wiring should be placed. I t i s t h e u s u a l custom t o complete' the f i l a m e n t and h e a t e c i r c u i t s of a r e c e i v e r before any of the o t h e r c i r c u i t s a r e wired and, t h e r a f o r e , we w i l l a l s o follow t h i s p r a c t i c e .
An examination of Figure 4 shows t h a t a l l of the f i l a m e n t and h e a t e r wiring i s of twisted p a i r s of wire. This method of t w l s t i n g t h e w i r e s i s absolutel y e s s e n t i a l so t h a t t h e magnetic f i e l d s e t up by t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e wires w i l l be cancelled out f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes by t h e a c t i o n of the f i e l d surrounding one wire upon t h e f i e l d around t h e adj a c e n t wire. A t l e a s t , i t can be s a i d t h a t t h e f i e l d produced by a-c i n t h e filament and h e a t e r c i r c u i t s i s reduced t o a n e g l i g i b l e amount by t h e twisted- pair wiring s i n c e i n t h e modern a-c s e t w do n o t hear an objectione a b l e hum i n t h e loudspeaker t h a t would otherwise be caused i f inductive e f f e c t s e x i s t e d between t h e s e w i r e s and o t h e r p a r t s .

N w begin by preparing each s e t of f i l a m e n t and h e a t e r l e a d s , f i r s t twisto ing t h e w i r e s i n p a i r s and t h e n c u t t i n g them t o a g i v e n l e n g t h . Cut t h e l e a d s a l i t t l e longer than t h e a c t u a l d i s t a n c e between t h e terminals which they w i l l connect so t h a t you may handle them comfortably on t h e board. After t h e wires a r e t w i s t e d and c u t t o l e n g t h a l l of t h e ends should be scraped c l e a n and tinned and f i n a l l y each one should be soldered i n place. Note t h a t e i t h e r end of a t w i s t e d p a i r may be soldered t o e i t h e r one of t h e proper terminals on a s o c k e t s i n c e p o l a r i t y i s no c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n e h e a t e r s and f i l a m e n t s when f e d with a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . A s w explained i n our l e s s o n preceding t h i s one, t h e a-c hum i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e c i r c u i t design which i s p r i n c i p a l l y t a k e n c a r e of by mid-tapping t h e various windings on t h e power transformer. Notice from t h e diagram, F i g u r e 4, t h a t t h e h e a t e r s of t h e two r- f amplif i e r s and d e t e c t o r tube and t h e f i l a m e n t of t h e f i r s t audio a m p l i f i e r a r e a l l connected i n p a r a l l e l by l e a d s marked on t h e diagram F-3, F-4 and F-5, Lesson 33

- sheet 8

Lesson 33

sheet 9

The filaments of the two 245 power tubes a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l by l e a d F-i and i t w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t l e a d F-2 i s run over t o terminals 3 and 4 on the power transformer f o r the voltage supply t o t h e s e tubes. should proceed t o wire t h e filament c i r c u i t of t h e r e c t i f i e r . The l e a d F-7 connects t h e f i l a m e n t terminals on the 280 socket t o terminals 13 and 1 5 on the power transformer; t h e s e terminals connect i n t e r n a l l y t o the low voltage winding supplying t h i s tube.
If you a r e s a t i s f i e d t h a t t h e wiring thus f a r has been done c o r r e c t l y you

The "OFF-ONTI switch i s next connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e primary of t h e power transformer and t h e a-c l i n e supply cord by t h e twisted p a i r marked F-8. The a-c i n p u t cord with plug attached connects t o terminals 5 and 7 on t h e transforffier. The wiring of t h e s e c i r c u i t s i s now completed and t o be c e r t a i n t h a t they w i l l function normally i t i s suggested t h a t t h e following p r a c t i c a l t e s t -on. be made with t h e
1.

F i r s t , i n s e r t t h e i n p u t a-c connection plug i n the l i g h t i n g socket, o r t h e wall o u t l e t a s t h e case may be. Be s u r e t h a t the r e q u i r e d a-c voltage (from 105 t o 125 v o l t s a-c) i s supplied a t a frequency of 50 t o 60 cycles. This v o l t a g e and frequency a r e required because of t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e power transformer. Next, t u r n t h e operating switch t o t h e p o s i t i o n marked "ON." Be extremely c a r e f u l n o t t o permit your hands, o r any ? a r t of your body, t o come i n t o c o n t a c t with t h e open wiring a t t h e terminal connections. Bdake i t a f i r m r u l e never t o touch any p a r t of t h e s e t , except t h e c o n t r o l s on t h e f r o n t of t h e panel, when t h e power i s on. N w i n s e r t t h e r e c t i f i e r 280 i n i t s socket and, p o v i d i n g the' o proper v o l t a g e i s supplied, i t s f i l a m e n t w i l l l i g h t dimly. N w remove t h e 280 from i t s socket and i n s e r t t h e tube f i r s t o i n one of t h e 245 sockets, and then i n t h e o t h e r t o a s c e r t a i n whether t h e c i r c u i t s a r e wired c o r r e c t l y . Remember t h a t t h e 280 tube i s placed i n t h e 245 sockets t o t e s t t h e wiring and the i n d i c a t i o n should be as follows: With t h e 280 i n e i t h e r of t h e 245 sockets i t should l i g h t with much l e s s intensity than when i n t h e 280 socket. I f t h i s i n d i c a t i o n i s n o t obtained and i t i s found t h a t t h e tube, when i n e i t h e r of t h e 245 sockets, l i g h t s up b r i g h t e r or even a t t h e same b r i l l i a n c y a s when i n t h e 260 socket you can assume t h a t t h e wiring i s i n c o r r e c t f o r the following reasons, namely:

2 .

3 .
4.

Lesson 33

s h e e t 10

(a)

G r e a t e r b r i l l i a n c y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e 280 and 245 f i l a m e n t wiring has been reversed. That i s , t h e filament terminals on t h e 280 socket a r e connected t o t h e terminals on t h e power transformer marked t o r e c e i v e t h e wiring from t h e 245 socket and v i c e versa.
If t h e 280 l i g h t s up C i t h equal b r i l l i a n c y when

(b)

i n e i t h e r t h e 280 o r 245 socket it i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e 224 and 227 h e a t e r wiring and t h e 280 f i l a m e n t wiring a r e reversed. That i s , t h e 280 filament t e r m i n a l s on t h e socket a r e connected t o t h e t r a n s former terminals which should r e c e i v e t h e l e a d t h a t i s c a r r i e d over t o t h s transformer from the h e a t e r t e r m i n a l s on t h e 224 and 227 sockets. The l e a d we r e f e r t o i s marked F-6 on t h e diagram.

After s a t i s f a c t o r i l y making t h e t e s t s explained above,the operating switch i s placed i n t h e "OFFn p o s i t i o n , t h e 280 i s removed from the s e t and t h e plug i s pulled o u t of t h e l i g h t i n g socket, o r o u t l e t . With t h i s done you a r e ready t o proceed w i t h t h e wiring of t h e c i r c u i t s a s o u t l i n e d i n t h e s e c t i o n Immediately following, o r PART 3.
Although t h e wiring of t h e h e a t e r and filament c i r c u i t s has been explained i n d e t a i l it w i l l n o t be necessary t o do this throughout a l l of t h e work because t h e d i f f e r e n t connections a r e so c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d on a l l of t h e diagrams. You cannot go wrong i f you a r e c a r e f u l i n mounting t h e p a r t s i n t h e i r proper p o s i t i o n s , and f o l l o w t h e wiring diagrams e x a c t l y and c u t t h e wires t o t h e i r proper l e n g t h s t h e f i r s t time t o avoid waste. Each l e n g t h of wire can be approximated by holding it i n t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t i t w i l l f i n a l l y occupy before c u t t i n g i t . h he wire should be placed around o r between t h e p a r t s a s illustrated.)
PART 3
W I R I N G O PLATE AND AUDIOF FREQUENCY CIRCUITS.

Refer t o Diagram i n Figure 5.

The wiring diagram i n Figure 5 shows a l l of t h e l e a d s t h a t must be put i n p l a c e t o connect up t h e c i r c u i t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p i s t e s of t h e receivi n g tubes and the audio- amplifier p o r t i o n of t h e r e c e i v e r . This wiring i s simple t o follow and w i l l n o t r e q u i r e any s p e c i d i n s t r u c t i o n o t h e r than t o observe t h e suggestions already o u t l i n e d f o r accuracy i n placing on t h e l e a d s and c a r e i n soldering.
A l l wires which c a r r y d i r e c t current, and t h i s r e f e r s t o t h e p l a t e leads of t h e tubes i n t h e r e c e i v e r proper, do n o t r e q u i r e t w i s t i n g a s i n t h e case where a wire c a r r i e s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t l i k e t h e f i l a m e n t and h e a t e r wires, f o r example, which a r e made up i n twisted- pair. Although t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t i n t h e p l a t e wires f l u c t u a t e s according t o t h e modulation of t h e s i g n a l t h i s change i n c u r r e n t value i s very small and i s by-passed by condensers placed a t c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e tube c i r c u i t s . This I s t h e same thing a s saying t h a t t h e r-f, o r a-f component of t h e p l a t e supply, i s s o small t h a t t h e f i e l d i t produces around t h e w i r e s w i l l n o t cause any i n t e r a c t i o n i n neighboring c i r c u i t s and, consequently, a l l of t h e p l a t e wires can be placed p a r a l l e l and c l o s e t o one another.

Lesson 33

sheet 1 1

Lesson 33

- sheet

12

i n p u t of t h e 1st audio-frequency amiJifier,-whereas, transformer coupling i s em2loyed between t h e output of the 1st audio a m p l i f i e r and t h e input of t h e l a s t audio- amplifier s t a g e , which c o n s i s t s of two power tubes of the UX-245 type arranged i n push- pull. The l a t t e r type of coupling r e q u i r e s t h e use of a transformer which h a s i t s secondary tapped i n t h e center so t h a t each h a l f of t h e winding may be connected t o a power tube f o r d e l i v e r ing t h e s i g n a l v o l t a g e s t o t h e g r i d s of the 2451s.
I t w i l l prove much e a s i e r t o study t h e lay- out i f a c o l o r scheme i s used throughout the main c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v e r a s a l r e a d y mentioned. Theref o r e , l e t us suggest t h a t you u s e t h e red covered wire supplied with the k i t f o r a l l of t h e wiring i n d i c a t e d on Figure 5. Another good reason f o r using red covered wire f o r these c i r c u i t s i n p a r t i c u l a r i s because i n many c a s e s they c a r r y reasonably high v o l t a g e s and, thus, by using t h e red c o l o r i t w i l l serve a s a warning f o r your personal s a f e t y t o keep c l e a r of such ~iires when the s e t i s placed i n operation. I n f a c t , keep c l e a r of a l l wiring when t h e s e t i s a c t i v e . The wires f o r t h i s p o r t i o n of the r e c e i v e r a r e marked P-1 t o I?-20, i n c l u s i v e , on t h e diagram.

The l a r g e condenser bank containing s e v e r a l condensers with terminals f o r making connections i s sometimes c a l l e d t h e c a p a c i t o r pack. When wiring up t h i s u n i t bear i n mind t h a t t h e condenser connections w i t h i n t h e pack can be e a s i l y damaged beyond r e p a i r by applying excessive h e a t a t t h e terminals when s o l d e r i n g on the wires. You must l e a r n n o t t o hold a h o t i r o n too long on a condenser terminal. The l e n g t h of time must be judged and i n general should be j u s t long enough t o make t h e s o l d e r flow and adhere t o the metal s u r f a c e s t h a t a r e t o be joined. This i s p o s i t i v e l y one u n i t t h a t can be damaged without a person being aware of t h e f a c t u n t i l i t i s too l a t e and, t h e r e f o r e , we again warn you t o be c a r e f u l when s o l d e r i n g wires t o the condenser terminals. This r u l e a p p l i e s t o a l l condensers of the f i x e d type.

PART 4

W I R I N G O THE RADIOF FREQUENCY CIRCUITS, ANTENNA. GRIDS and CATHODES.

Figure 6.

The v a r i o u s l e n g t h s of wire r e q u i r e d t o connect ulj t h e radio- frequency c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v e r a r e designated i n Figure 6. Let us impress upon you t h a t the radio- frequency c i r c u i t s a r e e s p e c i a l l y c r i t i c a l a s t o the placing of t h e wiring and t h i s should be done e x a c t l y a s we recommend i n t h e diagram. I f any of t h e wires a r e wrongly l o c a t e d a s t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n with regard t o o t h e r l e a d s and p a r t s i t may s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t t h e operation of t h e s e t , or r e s u l t i n i n a b i l i t y t o properly l i n e up t h e radio-frequency c i r c u i t s . This work w i l l prove easy i f you keep i n mind a few very i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s dealing with r-f c i r c u i t s , a s follows: Be c a r e f u l t o have a l l of t h e r- f g r i d c i r c u i t wiring a s s h o r t and d i r e c t a s p o s s i b l e from p o i n t t o p o i n t , o r from terminal t o terminahand separated a s much a s p o s s i b l e from other w i r e s and p a r t s . Lesson 33

sheet 13

A l l . of the ground connections a r e t o be made a t t h e l o c a t i o n s indicated on the drawing. A t t h e t&e of wiring up the various grounds t h e s h i e l d s over t h e c o n t r o l g r i d connections should a l s o be grounded. This i s ano t h e r p a r t of t h e r e c e i v e r t h a t should be wired with extreme care. The s h i e l d i n g and grounding of t h e control g r i d connections must be done c o r r e c t l y , o r e l s e t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l o s c i l l a t e when a low value of screeng r i d voltage i s a p p l i e d t o the r a d i o a m p l i f i e r tubes.

H w t o Prepare t h e Two Shielded Grid Leads. Reference t o Figure 7 will o show you how t o prepare each braided,or shielded wire. Note how the braided s t r a n d s a r e c u t back allowing a t l e a s t 1/4" of rubber i n s u l a ?On betwem the s t r a n d s and t h e bared ends of the copper wire i t s e l f . Also, how t h e metal cap, o r c l i p , i s soldered t o one end and a ground lead t o t h e s t r a n d s a t t h e o p p o s i t e end of t h e s h i e l d wire. After each g r i d lead i s completed i t i s soldered t o a p a r t i c u l a r lug on t h e t o p of the gangcondenser. These c o n t r o l g r i d wires go t o t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s of t h e f i r s t two condensers, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
SOLDER THESE LUGS CONNECT TO STATOR PLATES OF CONDENSERS

RU88tR COVERED WIRE.<

RUBBER COYERfD WIRE

THIS LUG IS FASTENED WITH SCREW TD THE METAL FRAME AND FORMS A GROUND.-'------

Figure 7

The color of t h e wires used t o connect up t h e c i r c u i t s i n PkiiT 4 and t h e marks which i d e n t i f y t h e i n d i v i d u a l wires, a s shown on Diagram 6, a r e a s follows: The wires used f o r t h e antenna c i r c u i t s a r e green and a r e l a b e l l e d A-1 t o A-5, i n c l u s i v e . The ground l e a d s a r e black wires and a r e marked GND-1 t o GND-16, i n c l u s i v e . The cathode wires C-1 t o C-6, i n c l u s i v e , a r e blue. The g r i d wires G - 1 t o G-7, which c a r r y t h e r-f i n p u t voltages t o t h e g r i d s , a r e yellow. The wires AF-1 t o AF-4 a r e used t o supply t h e g r i d input t o t h e audio- frequency tubes and these wires a r e green.

Note t h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e s o l d e r i n g l u g s on t h e bottom of t h e gangcondenser f o r making convenient connections a t t h e bottom i n s t e a d of carrying wires up t o t h e l u g s on the top of t h i s u n i t . Each lug i s a t tached t o t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s of a tuning condenser.

Lesson 33

sheet 1 5

PART 5 W I R I N G O THE POWER SUPPLY CIRCUITS, RECTIFIER AND FILTER. F

See Figure 8.

The next s e c t i o n of t h e s e t t o be wired includes t h e c i r c u i t s which supply a- c and d-c v o l t a g e s t o t h e v a r i o u s tubes throughout t h e s e t . This s e c t i o n c o n s i s t s of t h e a-c l i n e supply cord and plug, t h e power transformer, t h e r e c t i f i e r tube and t h e f i l t e r system. There a r e a l s o t h r e e r e s i s t o r s t o be wired a t the same time, some of t h e s e being p a r t of t h e voltage d i v i d e r . The two p l a t e s of t h e r e c t i f i e r tube a r e supplied w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t from one of t h e windings on t h e power transformer. This winding i s l a r g e and e s p e c i a l l y designed t o g i v e a high output voltage. A l l o t h e r p l a t e c i r c u i t s i n the r e c e i v i n g s e t a r e supplied with d i r e c t c u r r e n t obtained from t h e o u t p u t of the r e c t i f i e r a f t e r t h e d-c has passed through t h e f i l t e r system. J u s t follow t h e wiring diagram c a r e f u l l y and use r e d colored w i r e s i f you wish. The wires f o r t h e s e c i r c u i t s a r e marked R - l t o R-17, i n c l u s i v e .

PART 6

PRACTICA.L OPER A T I O N O THE SCREEN-GRID RECEIVER. F

See Diagram i n Figure 9.

Important S a s e s t i o n s . After completing the wiring of a l l t h e c i r c u i t s t h e y should be c a r e f u l l y checked. Yu'nile doing t h i s you must n o t permit anything t o d i s t r a c t your a t t e n t i o n , o r e l s e you may overlook an e r r o r . I t i s b e s t t o place a check on each i n d i v i d u ~ lwire of t h e complete wiring diagram i n Figure 9 a t t h e time t h a t you examine t h i s wire on t h e s e t i t s e l f and i n t h i s way you w i l l be assured of having i n s ~ e c t e de v w y wire.

I t i s advisable t o check over a c i r c u i t of t h i s kind sometime a f t e r the c o n s t r u c t i o n and wiring have been comgleted but n o t immediately a f t e r . A very sound p r a c t i c a l reason can be advanced f o r t h i s suggestion. For .ins t a n c e , i f you f i n i s h your wiring one day wait u n t i l t h e following day t o go over t h e work and then do i t slowly. Never attempt t o check when you a r e t i r e d o r f a t i g u e d f o r i t i s i n v a r i a b l y i n such circumstances t h a t one w i l l make omissions,or e r r o r s which a r e d i f f i c u l t t o l o c a t e a t t h e tiroe. If you w i l l e x e r c i s e a l i t t l e p a t i e n c e and wait u n t i l t h e next day t h e whole lay- out of t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l t a k e on a d i f f e r e n t appearance t o you; i n f h c t , the r e l a t i o n of t h e p a r t s and c i r c u i t s i n g e n e r a l w i l l be much c l e a r e r t o you than a t t h e time when you were concentrating on t h e placing of t h e many wires i n t h e i r proper p o s i t i o n s . I n a few words, it could be s a i d t h a t i n any form of work mistakes a r e more q u i c k l y and e a s i l y found a day a f t e r t h e completion of t h e a c t u a l work.

Lesson 33

- s h e e t 16

Lesson 33

sheet 17

C
Lesson 33

she8

The f a c t s r e l a t e d i n t h e preceding paragraphs hold e q u a l l y t r u e f o r a l l kinds of engineering and manufacturing work and, i n l a r g e organizations, t h e work of an i n d i v i d u a l i s u s u a l l y r a r e l y ever checked by t h e same person who performed t h e work. After a l l of t h e wires a r e i n place you should a g a i n r e f e r t o the complete wiring diagram i n Figure 9 f o r the purpose of a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t wires t h a t can be cabled together t o improve the appearance of t h e s e t . You should use a piece of strong cord, o r f i s h l i n e of s u f f i c i e n t length, and l a c e wires which run p a r a l l e l with one another f o r any d i s t a n c e i n the form of a cable. The improvement i n t h e appearance of the r e c e i v e r i s n o t t h e only f e a t u r e involved i n l a c i n g wires together i n t h i s manner, but by doing so tends t o prevent any p o s s i b l e t r o u b l e i n t h c f u t u r e due t o m i s placement of l e a d s . D n o t l a c e i n any wires which connect t o t h e g r i d s o of tubes, i n a cable form with o t h e r wires. When t h e wiring has been completed according t o t h e main wiring diagram and a l l of t h e work has been gone over and inspected again f o r coldsoldered j o i n t s , r o s i n j o i n t s , and c o r r e c t wiring, then i t i s time t o slate the radio- frequency s h i e l d cans i n t h e i r proper p o s i t i o n s . Each of t h e ground terminals on t h e s h i e l d s a r e connected together and then one l e a d i s run from t h e s h i e l d n e a r e s t the r e a r of t h e s e t t o t h e ground lug l o c a t e d on t h e metal frame of t h e gang-condenser. The f i n a l ground conn e c t i o n i s made with a wire running from a ground l u g on the gang-condenser t o t h e "GNDW terminal on t h e terminal s t r i p .
PLACING THE SET INTO OPERATION.

The r e c e i v e r i s now ready f o r operation and applying power from the a-c mains. Follow t h e procedure given below t o place the s e t i n operation: (a) (b) (c) F i r s t connect t h e loudspeaker cords t o t h e two output terminal connections on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p marked "SPEAKER." Connect t h e antenna and ground l e a d s t o t h e i r r e s 2 e c t i v e terminal connections, a l s o on t h e same s t r i p . I n s e r t t h e tubes i n t h e i r proper sockets according t o the p i c t u r e diagram of the s e t i n Figure 1 which shows t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of t h e sockets and t h e types of tubes t o be used i n each. Place each shielded wire c l i p on t h e metal cap on t o p of a 224 tube. This wire forms t h e connection t o t h e c o n t r o l - g r i d and i s t h e wire through which t h e s i g n a l energy passes. I t i s important t h a t t h e two UX- 245 a m p l i f i e r tubes be c l o s e l y matched t o i n s u r e good reproduction. Be s u r e t h a t t h e operating switch has been i n t h e "OFF71 p o s i t i o n during this time. Nw i n s e r t t h e plug attached o t o t h e e l e c t r i c cord from t h e power transformer i n t h e l i g h t i n g socket of t h e a-c supply, o r any convenient o u t l e t i n t h e house- lighting system.
If you do n o t a l r e a d y know t h e v o l t a g e and frequency of t h e a-c supplied t o your premises make i n q u i r y from t h e d i s t r i c t o f f i c e of t h e e l e c t r i c company t o a s c e r t a i n i f

(d)

(e)

Lesson 33

sheet 19

t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t is of proper voltage and frequency f o r your set, t h a t i s , 105 t o 125 v o l t s a-c - a t a frequency of 50 t o 60 c y c l e s . (f) N w t u r n t h e operating switch t o t h e "ON11 p o s i t i o n and o place t h e "LOCAL DISTANT" switch i n t h e TIDISTANT" p o s i t i o n . Powsr i s now on t h e r e c e i v e r c i r c u i t and it w i l l r e q u i r e a b r i e f i n t e r v a l f o r t h e tubes t o warm up. Turn the volume c o n t r o l about h a l f way t o the l e f t and begin a d j u s t i n g the " S t a t i o n Selectox-n which i s another name f o r nTuning Dial." A t some p o s i t i o n on t h e d i a l , as it i s r o t a t e d slowly a c r o s s t h e s c a l e , a s i g n a l should come through from some s t a t i o n whose t r a n s m i t t i n g frequency i s within the range of your r e c e i v e r , o r t h e broadcast range, a s w e commonly r e f e r t o it. It might be added t h a t a s you advance t h e volume c o n t r o l t o t h e r i g h t , t o i n c r e a s e volume, a s l i g h t sound might be heard which i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s e t h a s gone i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n . This i s a normal c o n d i t i o n . O s c i l l a t i o n , providing it i s s e t up, w i l l occur only when t h e volume c o n t r o l i s a t o r somewhere near t h e upper end of t h e volume c o n t r o l range. Recember t h a t t h e p o i n t of maximum s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r i s j u s t below the p o i n t where o s c i l l a t i o n i s s e t up and, t h e r e f o r e , when t h e s e t i s i n t h i s condition i t i s extremely s e n s i t i v e .
PART 7
LINE-UP ADJUSTMEIYTS OF THE RADIO-FREQUENCY CIRCUITS.

~iagraa Figure 1.

Each of t h e tuned radio- frequency c i r c u i t s a r e balanced, o r placed i n r e s o nance with one another, by means of a small v a r i a b l e condenser, t h e c a p a c i t a n c ~ of which can be a l t e r e d very e a s i l y by a simple adjustment. A condenser used f o r t h i s purpose i s c a l l e d a ntrimmerff condenser, o r "line-upn condenser, and i s connected i n p a r a l l e l t o t h e main tuning condenser of t h e r-f c i r c u i t . The small line- up condensers i n your s e t a r e l o c a t e d on t h e top of t h e 3gang condenser assembly. Notice t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e t h r e e screws, and t h a t each one connects t o a condenser. By t u r n i n g t h e screw one way o r t h e o t h e r t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e p l a t e s of t h e condenser i s changed, e i t h e r made g r e a t e r or l e s s , and i n t h i s way t h e condenserls capacitance i s varied. Let us again r e p e a t t h a t t h e t h r e e small condensers a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l t o t h e main tuning condensers and t h e i r purpose i s t o compensate f o r any l a c k of agreement i n resonance between t h e t h r e e r-f c i r c u i t s which might be due t o s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s i n p a r t s , o r wiring, of t h e r - f a m p l i f i e r . I t i s abs o l u t e l y necessary t o have t h e t h r e e r-f c i r c u i t s i n e x a c t synchronism throughout t h e 180 degrees of t h e i r tuning range b e f o r e t h e r e c e i v e r can operate with maximum s e n s i t i v i t y o r s e l e c t i v i t y . The procedure f o r synchronizing t h e r-f c i r c u i t s i s a s follows: (a) Tune i n a s t a t i o n whose frequency i s n o t l e s s than 1200 k i l o c y c l e s but p r e f e r a b l y 1400 o r 1500 k i l o c y c l e s . If you a l r e a d y possess a modulated o s c i l l a t o r t h i s may be used i n place of an a c t u a l broadcast s i g n a l s i n c e t h e Lesson 33

sheet 20

oscillator sends out a note having a modulation of uniform character. A modulated oscillator can be constructed very easily accordfng to the circuit diagram and constants of 0 the parts as shown in Figure 1 . If you intend to do very much testing and adjusting of receivers it will repay you to build a modulated oscillator because it can be used any time and at any place in the absence of a radio signal and, moreover, the audio modulation of an oscillator of this type is of uniform character as just stated. Its use enables one to make more satisfactory adjustments. (b) Now tune in the signal carefully from the broadcasting station, or from the modulated oscillator, and adjust the trimmer condenser connected with the r-f circuit of the detector. The screw for this condenser is the last one toward the rear of the gang condenser. The screw should

Figure 10 be turned either one way or the other until a maximum value of signal is obtained from the loudspeaker. Make this adjustment carefully because it is very critical. (c) Next adjust the trimmer condenser attached to the'tuning condenser associated with the 2nd r-f amplifier stage. The screw for this adjustment is the middle one of the three and it should be turned until the signal comes in loudest in the same manner that the detector trimmer condenser was adjusted. This time the trimmer condenser associated with the 1st r-f amplifier is adjusted for maximum signal strength in precisely the same way as in the case of the other two trimmer condensers. The screw adjustment for this condenser is the first one toward the front of the gang condenser.

(d)

Lesson 33

sheet 21

(e)

It i s recommended t h a t the adjustments be gone over c a r e f u l l y a second time i n o r d e r t o check up t h e work and any f u r t h e r changes t h a t a r e considered necessary should be made a t this time.
second s e t of adjustments have been made t h e l i n e t h r e e r-f c i r c u i t s should be c o r r e c t and t h e r e c e i v e r e f f i c i e n t operation. I t i s important t h a t t h e s e adbe made w i t h the "LOCAL-DISTANT" switch i n t h e "DISTANT11 p o s i t i o n . There a r e no o t h e r adjustments required f o r t h i s r e c e i v e r except those you have j u s t made f o r synchronizing t h e r-f c i r c u i t s . Normal o p e r a t i o n of t h e s e t should be obtained upon s a t i s f a c t o r y completion of t h i s work; After the up of t h e ready f o r justments

S W A R Y . I f t h e r e c e i v e r f a i l s to operate a f t e r a l l of our i n s t r u c t i o n s have been c a r r i e d out s p e c i f i c a l l y , o r i f i t o p e r a t e s but g i v e s abnormal r e s u l t s , then t h e t r o u b l e i s p o s s i b l y due t o a mistake i n t h e wiring, a d e f e c t i v e tube, o r loudspeaker cord, o r speaker, o r some one of t h e p a r t s i n t h e s e t may n o t f u n c t i o n . S l n c e every p a r t f u r n i s h e d i n t h e k i t i s c a r e f u l l y t e s t e d before shipment you should e x e r t e v e r y e f f o r t t o f i n d t h e t r o u b l e before assuming t h a t t h e cause of f a i l u r e i s i n one of t h e p a r t s . G over the s e t a g a i n and recheck the wiring and h e a t a l l s o l d e r e d j o i n t s o a g a i n t o make c e r t a i n t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l connections a r e good and f i n a l l y check t h e antenna system and t u b e s i f t r o u b l e i s experienced.
A good antenna system can be c o n s t r u c t e d according t o the i n s t r u c t i o n s

given i n our lesson on t h i s s u b j e c t .

WINATION

- LESSON 33

W y a r e f i l a m e n t and h e a t e r wires made up i n t w i s t e d - p a i r ? h What i s t h e p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e 1st r-f transformer and those used i n the 2nd and 3 r d r- f s t a g e s ? What precaution should be made when soldering l e a d s t o t h e terminal l u g s of small f i x e d condensers? What a r e trimmer condensers used f o r ? Explain how you would l i n e up the radio- frequency s t a g e s i n t h e r e c e i v e r . When g e t t i n g a s e t of t u b e s t o g e t h e r f o r t h e r e c e i v e r should you be p a r t i c u l a r i n any way a b o u t the two 245 t u b e s used i n t h e push-pull a m p l i f i e r s t a g e and why? What i s t h e "LOCAL-D1STANT"witch used f o r ? H w i s t h e volume of your s e t regulated? o I n general what a r e the advantages of a screen- grid s e t ? H w i s c o n t r o l g r i d b i a s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e screen- grid tubes i n your s e t ? o

L,esson 33

sheet 22

Technical Lesson 33 -A
BUILDING THE BATTERYOPERATED SCREEN-GRID RECEIVEH

I n theory of o p e r a t i n g t h e r e i s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e b a t t e r y opera t e d r e c e i v e r and t h e r e c e i v e r operated from a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t l i n e s . The c h i e f d i f f e r e n c e l i e s i n t h e manner of obtaining t h e necessary p o t e n t i a l s t o supply t h e f i l a m e n t s , g r i d s and p l a t e s of t h e tubes. Since a b a t t e r y opera t e d r e c e i v e r i s designed t o o b t a i n i t s c u r r e n t supply from b a t t e r i e s , and a l l b a t t e r i e s supply d i r e c t c u r r e n t , many of t h e problems encountered i n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t o p e r a t i o n of r e c e i v e r s a r e done away w i t h . Inasmuch a s t h e r e i s no "hum1! t o d e a l with i n b z t t e r y s e t s t h e y do n o t r e q u i r e s p e c i a l h e a t e r type tubes and e l a b o r a t e f i l t e r systems which a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n of a-c r e c e i v e r s . Our battery- operated r e c e i v e r i s tuned i n e x a c t l y t h e same manner a s t h e a-c s e t and a l s o t h e d e t e c t o r demodulates t h e incoming s i g n a l wave t o provide an audio- frequency c u r r e n t which i s amplified through t h e audio s t a g e s i n t h e u s u a l way, which has been explained i n former lessons. From our previous e x p l a n a t i o n s i t should be c l e a r how t h e s i g n a l wave s e n t o u t by a broadcasting s t a t i o n i s i n t e r c e p t e d by a r e c e i v i n g antenna, and how t h e energy induced i n t h e antenna wires i s conducted through t h e primary of t h e f i r s t radio- frequency transformer t o t h e e a r t h and, a l s o , how t h e s i g n a l a s i t passes through t h e primary s e t s up a varying magnetic f i e l d which i n duces a c u r r e n t having c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s i m i l a r t o t h e r a d i o wave i n t o t h e secondary of t h i s transformer. When t h e secondary i s tuned c a r e f u l l y with a v a r i a b l e condenser t o r e s o n a t e t h i s c i r c u i t t o the same frequency a s t h a t of t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l then t h e h i g h e s t value of s i g n a l c u r r e n t w i l l flow. The s i g n a l c u r r e n t thus obtained i s used t o o p e r a t e t h e f i r s t vacuum tube by varying t h e voltage on i t s g r i d which i n t u r n c o n t r o l s t h e flow of e l e c t r o n s between f i l a e n t and p l a t e . I n o t h e r words, s i n c e t h e s e e l e c t r o n s a r e t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t we have a d i r e c t c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t t h a t v a r i e s i n exact accordance with t h e g r i d v o l t a g e v a r i a t i o n s . I n our r e c e i v e r , however, t h e r e i s a potentiometer l o c a t e d ahead of t h e r-f transformer t o a c t as a volume c o n t r o l . The amount of s i g n a l voltage applied t o t h e 1 s t r-f c i r c u i t depends upon t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e movable c o n t a c t arm on t h e r e s i s t a n c e wire of t h e -potentiometer. From experience we know how q u i c k l y an r-f tube w i l l break i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n when a comparatively s t r o n g s i g n a l i s applied t o t h e g r i d due t o t h e c a p a c i t y coupling between t h e p l a t e and g r i d elements. T h i s c o n d i t i o n whereby energy is t r a n s f e r r e d back and f o r t h between p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s i s popularly known a s "feed-backt! and i s u n d e s i r a b l e i n c i r c u i t s of t h i s type. The screeng r i d tube i s designed e s p e c i a l l y t o overcome t h i s d i f f i c u l t y . A f o u r t h element known a s a screen g r i d o r space charge g r i d i s placed between t h e c o n t r o l g r i d and p l a t e of t h i s tube. When t h e s c r e e n g r i d i s s u p p l i e d with t h e proper P r i n t e d i n U.S.A. Contents copyrighted 1950.

0 )

p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p l a t e an6 c o n t r o l g r i d i t w i l l reduce t h e c a p a c i t y betweengrid and p l a t e t o a n e g l i g i b l e amount and t h u s prevent t h i s u n d e s i r a b l e feed-back. The u s e of t h e s c r e e n g r i d permits a s t r o n g s i g n a l v o l t a g e t o be a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d and n a t u r a l l y a g r e a t l y a m p l i f i s d s i g n a l can be t a k e n from t h e p l a t e without c r e a t i n g a feed-back condition. Furthermore, due t o t h e a c t i o n of t h e screen g r i d a high p o t e n t i a l can be a p p l i e d t o t h e p l a t e of t h e tube which a l s o r e s u l t s i n g r e a t e r a m p l i f i c a t i o n , When t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t v a r i e s w i t h i n g r e a t e s t l i m i t s it d e l i v e r s a l a r g e s i g n a l energy t o the primary of t h e next r-f transformer, ana t h i s s t r o n g e r energy w i l l i n t u r n be amplified considerably more a s i t passes through each succeedi n g r-f s t a g e u n t i l i t reaches t h e g r i d of t h e d e t e c t o r tube. The d e t e c t o r tube i s a d j u s t e d t o f u n c t i o n on the audio- frequency component of t h e received signal. A f t e r t h e incoming s i g n a l energy i s strengthened through two successive s t a g e s o f r-f a m p l i f i c a t i o n i t s t i l l r e t a i n s i t s o r i g i n a l wave form, but a f t e r a c t i n g on t h e d e t e c t o r g r i d t h i s energy i s demodulated by t h e d e t e c t o r a c t i o n and produces a n audio- frequency c u r r e n t i n t h e output of t h e d e t e c t o r , Therefore, a f t e r t h e s i g n a l passes through t h e d e t e c t o r we have no f u r t h e r use f o r t h e radio- frequency component of t h i s s i g n a l . Consequently, we make every e f f o r t t o keep t h e r-f o u t of t h e a-f c i r c u i t s by choking i t back with an r-f choke c o i l and f u r n i s h i n g a p a t h f o r i t t o flow through w i t h a by-pass condenser connected between t h e p l a t e and t h e low p o t e n t i a l s i d e of t h e c i r c u i t . Hence, o n l y t h e audio- frequency component a s represented by t h e modulation, o r varyi n g amplitudes of t h e r-f o s c i l l a t i o n s , i s allowed t o pass t o t h e audio system. Reviewing t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s concerning an audio- frequency a m p l i f i e r i t should be c l e a r t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e s governing t h e a c t i o n of an a- f a m p l i f i e r a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r t o those of an r-f a m p l i f i e r , t h e d i f f e r e n c e being mainly t h a t t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r i s concerned with t h e r-f component of t h e s i g n a l , whereas t h e audio- amplifier handles o n l y t h e a-f component. Because of the wide d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two f r e q u e n c i e s , t h a t is, between r a d i o and audio f r e q u e n c i e s , we must u s e transformers of s p e c i a l d e s i g n t o handle t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s . Therefore, we u s e a i r - c o r e transformers i n t h e r-f s t a g e s and iron- core transformers i n t h e audio- amplifier s t a g e s . The process of a m p l i f y i n g t h e audio output of t h e d e t e c t o r i s repeated i n each succeeding a-f s t a g e u n t i l t h e s i g n a l i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g t o o p e r a t e t h e loudspeaker. PUSHPULL AMPLIFIER. Our r e c e i v e r i s designed t o o p e r a t e e i t h e r a magnetic o r dynamic type speaker w i t h ample volume and good tone q u a l i t y by employing two power tubes i n t h e l a s t s t a g e of t h e audio a m p l i f i e r . The tubes a r e arranged i n what i s termed a push- pull system of a m p l i f i c a t i o n , t h e name being derived from t h e p r i n c i p l e upon whlcli t h e t u b e s work t o g e t h e r . When tubes a r e connected i n t h i s manner t h e g r i d p o t e n t i a l of the one tube i s p o s i t i v e with r e s p e c t t o t h e f i l a m e n t when t h e g r i d p o t e n t i a l of t h e o t h e r tube i s negative w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s f i l a m e n t . Thus, each tube works on o p p o s i t e ends of t h e same wave, a s i t were, one p u l l i n g and t h e o t h e r pushing, and s i n c e t h e r e i s a complete r e v e r s a l of p o l a r i t y during each c y c l e t h e tubes r e v e r s e t h e i r a c t i o n , and i n this way both tubes a r e always adding t h e i r e f f e c t i v e changes i n t h e energy d e l i v e r e d t o t h e speaker c i r c u i t . Notice t h a t t h e secondary winding i s tapped i n t h e c e n t e r and a connection i s c a r r i e d from t h i s point t o t h e - 45 v o l t t e r m i n a l of t h e WCfl b a t t e r y t o supply t h e r e q u i s i t e negative b i a s t o t h e g r i d s . Since each g r i d i s a t t a c h e d t o o p p o s i t e ends of t h e secondary winding t h e a l t e r n a t i n g v o l t a g e generated i n each h a l f i s applied t o t h e r e s p e c t i v ~tubes. Lesson 33- A

- sheet

A schematic diagram of t h e arrangement of t h e p a r t s i n t h e push- pull amplif i e r employed i n our battery- operated r e c e i v e r i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1.

Figure 1 To o b t a i n good tone q u a l i t y from t h e loudspeaker we make use of r e s i s t a n c e coupling i n s t e a d of transformer coupling between t h e d e t e c t o r and f i r s t audio a m p l i f i e r . It should be k e p t i n mind t h a t t h e voltage a m p l i f i c a t i o n per s t a g e i s n o t so g r e a t with r e s i s t a n c e coupling a s with transformer coupling because a r e s i s t a n c e coupled a m p l i f i e r depends e n t i r e l y upon t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n taking place w i t h i n t h e tube, whereas, with transformer coupling, t h e r e i s t h e a d d i t i o n a l v o l t a g e a m p l i f i c a t i o n taking place i n t h e transformer.
RESISTANCE COUPLED -AMPLIFIER.

Figure 2 shows t h e e s s e n t i a l p i e c e s of apparatus r e q u i r e d f o r r e s i s t a n c e coupl i n g which c o n s i s t s of a p l a t e r e s i s t o r , a g r i d r e s i s t o r , and a coupling condenser. A s explained i n a former l e s s o n an audio- frequency voltage i s genera t e d a c r o s s t h e p l a t e r e s i s t o r by the varying p l a t e c u r r e n t passing through i t , and i t i s t h i s varying v o l t a g e t h a t i s impressed f i r s t on t h e coupling condenser and thence on t h e g r i d of t h e f i r s t audio a m p l i f i e r . The coupling condenser i s o l a t e s t h e d-c p l a t e c u r r e n t of t h e d e t e c t o r from t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e audio tube. The g r i d r e s i s t o r i s r e q u i r e d t o provide a path f o r t h e e l e c t r o n s c o l l e c t e d by t h e g r i d t o r e t u r n back t o t h e f i l a m e n t , t h e e l e c t r o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e flow of g r i d d i r e c t c u r r e n t . The nCn b a t t e r y of t h e f i r s t audio a m p l i f i e r m a i n t a i n s a b i a s of 9 v o l t s on t h e g r i d .

Figure 3 Lesson 33- A

sheet 3

PRIMARY.TERMINAL CONNECTIONS ON 2 V AND 3%' TRANSFORMERS

. GROUND -

SECONDARY

PRIMARY

',

GROUND

SECONDARY -.-.---TERMINAL CONNECTIONS ON Is3 R.F. TRANSFORMER

TA

TENNA

, . -

3.GANG ,,,--TUNING CONDENSER

OUT

BOTTOM LUG---.

,-. -..,
TRANSFORMER

BOTTOM LUG

PUSH-PUL L OUTPUT TRANSFORMER

.,

+QF..TO~

l2

LUG

TOR'

SWITCH

Figure 4

Lesson 33-A

sheet 5

CLASSES OF RECEIVERS.

Radio r e c e i v e r s can be divided i n t o t h r e e c l a s s e s according t o the source of e.m.f. from which they d e r i v e t h e i r power, a s follows: (1)
(2)

(3)

Battery- operated r e c e i v e r s which d e r i v e t h e i r 2ovier e n t i r e l y from b a t t e r i e s , D i r e c t - c u r r e n t e l e c t r i c a l r e c e i v e r s which t a k e t h e i r power d i r e c t l y from d-c power l i n e s , and ~ l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n tr e c e i v e r s which o b t a i n t h e i r supply from a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t power l i n e s .

Alternating- current r e c e i v e r s a r e r a p i d l y r e p l a c i n g t h e battery- operated type i n many l o c a l i t i e s where a-c l i n e supply i s a v a i l a b l e . I t i s c e r t a i n , however, t h a t t h e r e w i l l always be some battery- operated r e c e i v e r s i n use, e s p e c i a l l y f o r p o r t a b l e use, and i n p l a c e s where t h e r e a r e no e l e c t r i c power l i n e s . The Battery- Operated Receiver described i n t h i s t e x t h a s incorporated w i t h i n it the b e s t f e a t u r e s which we have discussed i n o t h e r paragraphs. Figure 3 i s a schematic diagram of t h e c i r c u i t of t h i s r e c e i v e r showing two s t a g e s of r-f a m p l i f i c a t i o n employing UX-222 type screen- grid tubes, a d e t e c t o r and one s t a g e o f resistance- coupled a u d i o a m p l i f i c a t i o n employing UX-112-P; type tubes, and f i n a l l y a power s t a g e employing two UX-171-rl type t u b e s i n push- pull arrangement. The output of t h e power tubes i s d e l i v e r e d t o a n o u t p u t transformer which i s designed t o f u r n i s h t h e c o r r e c t impedance t o t h e e x t e r n a l p l a t e c i r c u i t , and a t t h e same time through i t s transformer a c t i o n allows any type speaker t o be used. Figure 4 i s a p i c t o r i a l diagram giving t h e names of a l l t h e p a r t s . BATTERIES AND TUBES REQUIRED. The following tubes, o r t h e i r e q u i v a l e n t a r e r e q u i r e d f o r b a t t e r y operation. Two UX-222 Two UX-112-A Two UX-171-A Screen- grid r-f amplifiers.) Detector and 1st a-f a m p l i f i e r .) Power a m p l i f i e r s i n push- pull stage.)

The following b a t t e r i e s a r e required. Four 45 v o l t "BIT B a t t e r i e s . Two 22$ v o l t small s i z e d "C" B a t t e r i e s . 6 v o l t Storage B a t t e r y , c a l l e d t h e One One 44 v o l t "C" B a t t e r y . CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS.

Battery.

The board t h a t you must procure f o r mounting t h e p a r t s should be well seasoned s o t h a t i t w i l l l i e f l a t and never warp. I t should be a white wood o r pine board f r e e from knots, 1 2 inches wide, 20 inches long, and about 7 b i n c h t h i c k . If sandpapered and given a c o a t of s t a i n i t s appearance w i l l be improved. The following t o o l s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n a l work: A good s o l d e r i n g i r o n (use an e l e c t r i c i r o n i f p o s s i b l e ) , a medium-sized screw d r i v e r , a small screw d r i v e r f o r t i g h t e n i n g s e t screws, a p a i r of long-nose p l i e r s f o r holding wires while s o l d e r i n g them, a p a i r of s i d e - c u t t i n g o r diagonal- cutting p l i e r s , a k n i f e , and a r u l e f o r measuring t h e lay- out of t h e p a r t s f o r mounting. Figure 5 i s a dimensional drawing showing the e x a c t r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e p a r t s when mounted. The f i r s t t h i n g t o do i s t o measure o f f t h e c e n t e r l i n e s on t h e Lesson 3 3 - A

sheet 6

board f o r each p a r t according t o t h e measurements given i n t h e drawing, making only a l i g h t mark with a l e a d p e n c i l i n t h e proper l o c a t i o n . Nw place the o p a r t s on the board j u s t a s t h e drawing i l l u s t r a t e s , making s u r e t h a t each p a r t i s turned i n t h e proper d i r e c t i o n . With a sharp pointed instrument such a s an awl, o r a wire n a i l , mark t h e l o c a t i o n where t h e screws w i l l e n t e r t h e wood i n mounting each p a r t and then c l e a r t h e board of a l l p a r t s and make a small h o l e a t each s"crew l o c a t i o n t h u s marked t o allow t h e screws t o take hold e a s i l y . If t h e s t a r t i n g h o l e i s made too l a r g e t h e screw w i l l n o t hold s e c u r e l y when t h e p a r t s a r e mounted, so be c a r e f u l when doing t h i s work. W w i l l c a l l t h e edge of t h e board on which t h e panel i s t o be mounted t h e e " f r o n t " of t h e board. Lay t h e board on a t a b l e o r work bench w i t h t h e f r o n t f a c i n g you and your dimensional drawing placed nearby f o r ready reference, and commence a t t h e l e f t end of t h e board anti mount t h e transformers. The two output terminals of t h e output transformer should f a c e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n toward t h e f r o n t edge of t h e board, and t h e two i n p u t terminals, marked P and B, of t h e i n p u t transformer should f a c e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n toward t h e back edge of t h e board. Next proceed t o mount t h e sockets, being c a r e f u l t o place them so t h a t t h e i r filament t e r m i n a l s , marked FF, a r e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n toward t h e l e f t end of t h e board. Now mount t h e by-pass condensers, choke c o i l s , r-f transformers and o t h e r p a r t s a s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e drawing. However, do n o t mount t h e r-f transformer s h i e l d s u n t i l t h e r e c e i v e r has been completely wired and checked f o r p o s s i b l e e r r o r s i n wiring. The WLOCAL-DISTANT" switch should be assembled on t h e small panel s t r i p contain. i n g t h e f i v e spring- type terminals. F i r s t remove t h e o u t s i d e n u t and "OFF-ON" p l a t e from t h e switch and t h e n i n s e r t t h e switch i n t o t h e l a r g e c e n t e r h o l e s o t h a t t h e s h a f t and t o g g l e p r o t r u d e through t h e f r o n t of t h e panel, and then r e p l a c e t h e "OFF-ONn p l a t e and t u r n t h e switch s o t h a t the "OFFn p o s i t i o n i s at t h e bottom, Again remove t h e "OFF-ONnname p l a t e , being c a r e f u l n o t t o t u r n t h e switch i n doing so, and put on t h e o u t s i d e n u t and t i g h t e n , The name p l a t e must n o t remain on t h e switch because t h e proper n m e s "LOCAL and DISTANTTI a r e engraved on t h e panel. The b a t t e r y switch must be assembled on t h e l a r g e panel i n much t h e same manner as t h e assembly of t h e nLOCAL-DISTANT1l switch on t h e small panel, except t h a t t h e flOFFfrp o s i t i o n should be l o c a t e d a t t h e t o p and t h e aOFF-ON" p l a t e i s t o be used and secured i n p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e switch. I t may be necessary t o e n l a r g e t h e h o l e i n t h e l a r g e panel before mounting t h e b a t t e r y switch, which can be done e a s i l y with a round f i l e . The volume c o n t r o l should next be assembled on t h e l a r g e panel and held i n pos i t i o n by t h e n u t provided f o r t h i s purpose a f t e r f i r s t removing t h e knob from t h e s h a f t . The knob i s h e l d by a s e t screw which must be loosened. When t h e volume c o n t r o l i s i n place remount t h e knob and push i t over t h e end of t h e s h a f t a s f a r a s i t w i l l go, and w i t h a small screw d r i v e r t i g h t e n t h e s e t screw firmly. With t h e s e p a r t s mounted a t t a c h the l a r g e panel t o t h e f r o n t edge of t h e board, a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e drawing, by means of two wood screws i n s e r t e d through small h o l e s . ' The small panel s t r i p c a r r y i n g t h e s p r i n g terminal p o s t s and "LOCAL-DISTANTw switch i s a t t a c h e d immediately t o t h e l e f t of t h e l a r g e panel and held by means of small screws. Next l o c a t e t h e p o s i t i o n f o r mounting t h e 3-gang tuning condenser by i n s e r t i n g i t s s h a f t through t h e c e n t r a l h o l e i n t h e panel. The t h r e e hexagon a d j u s t i n g n u t s should be toward t h e top. S l i p t h e d i a l over t h e end of t h e s h a f t and t i g h t e n t h e d i a l s e t screw s o t h a t t h e condenser s h a f t w i l l r o t a t e with t h e d i a l . After t h i s i s done move t h e 3-gang condenser e i t h e r forward o r backward and t o e i t h e r s i d e i f necessary, u n t i l Lesson 33- A

sheet 7

Lesson 3 3 - A

sheet 8

t h e d i a l j u s t c l e a r s t h e panel. Be s u r e the clearance space i s equal a l l around t h e d i a l so t h a t t h e d i a l when r o t a t e d w i l l n o t touch o r scrape the panel. I n s e r t two wood screws through t h e two h o l e s i n t h e bottom of t h e condenser frame and secure t h e condenser t o the board. Be s u r e t h a t t h e p l a t e s of t h e gang condenser a r e f u l l y meshed (closed) while working with it, o t h s r wise t h e p l a t e s might become bent o r damaged. With t h e condenser p l a t e s f u l l y meshed and t h e frame s e c u r e l y f a s t e n e d t o t h e board, loosen t h e d i a l s e t screw and r o t a t e t h e d i a l on t h e condenser s h a f t u n t i l t h e 100 mark on t h e d i a l coi n c i d e s with t h e l i n e engraved on t h e panel above t h e d i a l , and when t h i s p o s i t i o n i s found a g a i n t i g h t e n t h e s e t screw. The condenser block should now be mounted a s i n d i c a t e d on t h e drawing a t t h e r i g h t of t h e board and toward t h e back edge. The condenser block i s p r i m a r i l y intended f o r use i n conjunction with t h e a-c r e c e i v e r and i s n o t e s s e n t i a l t o a battery- operated r e c e i v e r . However, s i n c e i t i s a v a i l a b l e we w i l l u t i l i z e i t f o r two very good purposes, namely, a s a t e r m i n a l s t r i p t o which we can bring a l l of our power c i r c u i t l e a d s and t h e r e j o i n them t o t h e b a t t e r y cable l e a d s and, a l s o , t h e condensers i n t h i s block a r e made t o serve a s by-passes a c r o s s each b a t t e r y t h u s keeping a l l r-f c u r r e n t s o u t of t h e b a t t e r y c i r c u i t s which of course i s d e s i r a b l e . Figure 6 i s a p i c t u r e drawing of t h e arrangement of i j a r t s w i t h t h e c i r c u i t s a l l completely wired. The accompanying wiring c h a r t has been prepared t o a i d t h e s t u d e n t i n properly wiring h i s r e c e i v e r . I n t h e column headed "CIRCUIT11 a r e t h e names of t h e d i f f e r e n t p o r t i o n s of t h e r e c e i v e r wiring t o which t h e information i n t h e other columns apply. For example: The word "Filament's i n t h e IVIRCUITv column i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e d a t a given i n each of the columns reading t o t h e r i g h t and a c r o s s t h e page p e r t a i n s t o the wiring of the f i l a m e n t s from t h e tubes t o the f i l a m e n t supply. This column shows t h a t t h e r e a r e 18 wires, numbered from W 1 t o W 1 8 , i n c l u s i v e , needed f o r t h e f i l a m e n t s . The column headed IfWIRE NUMBER" d e s i g n a t e s by number each of the i n d i v i d u a l wires i n t h e c i r c u i t s of the s e t . I t w i l l be observed t h a t t h e wires i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e wiring drawing bear t h e same designating numbers a s those appearing i n t h e "WIRE NUUBER1l column. The next c o l m d e s i g n a t e s t h e c o l o r of t h e wire t o be used f o r any p a r t i c u l a r FO number a s given i n t h e number column. The column headed " R M TERD4INAL" g i v e s t h e t e r m i n a l number and name of p a r t t o which one end of a p a r t i c u l a r wire i s t o be attached. The next column headed "TO TERBbINALfl g i v e s t h e t e r i i n a l number and name of p a r t t o which t h e o t h e r end of t h i s wire i s t o be attached. T h i s method of p l a i n l y d e s i g n a t i n g each p a r t and numbering a l l the terminals and i d e n t i f y i n g each wire makes t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s very easy t o follow. The Following Are P r a c t i c a l E X D D ~ ~ of H w t o Use t h e Chart. Referring t o S o t h e wiring c h a r t under "Filament 1 c i r c u i t i t w i l l be noticed t h a t t h e f i r s t e wire l i s t e d i s numbered W 1 . W f i n d i n t h e next column t h a t W 1 i s a p i e c e of nbus wire," which i s t h e name given t o a l e n g t h of s o l i d tinned wire found i n t h e k i t of p a r t s . I n t h e next column we f i n d t h a t one end of wire W 1 should be connected t o t e r m i n a l marked #7 on t h e drawing, which i s one of t h e termin a l s on t h e condenser block. Referring t o t h e next column we s e e t h a t t h e o t h e r end of t h i s wire i s connected t o a terminal marked $8 on t h e drawing, which i s another t e r m i n a l on t h e condenser block. About 1/4 i n c h from each end of t h e bus wire make a s h o r t hook by bending t h e wire a t r i g h t angles t o t h e l e n g t h s o t h a t t h e s h o r t bent-over ends can be i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e h o l e s i n . t h e s o l d e r l u g s , a f t e r which t h e s e connections should be soldered.
f

Lesson 33- A

sheet 9

fn r e f e r t the c h ill he e which i s .which see r ittn g beosoldereda rttowe wwireconsider c tt et d efno x t t wireconnection,numbered W e h a t a black colored i s sele r his one end is o lug marked #8 on h condenser bank and t h e
p o s i t e end t o terminal marked #1 on t h e b a t t e r y switch o r "OFF-ON11 switch.
I t i s unnecessary f o r us t o follow o u t every connection and wire i n t h i s des c r i p t i o n . That i s t h e purpose of making up t h e c h a r t . Thus, t h e c h a r t should be consulted when connecting each wire and the i n s t r u c t i o n s followed c b r e f u l l y i n order t o avoid e r r o r s i n wiring t h e r e c e i v e r . It would be a good plan t o p l a c e a check or a c r o s s (x) a f t e r each number i d e n t i f y i n g t h a t p a r t i c u l a r wire i n t h e c h a r t and, a l s o , c h e c k o r c r o s s t h e corresponding wire on t h e wiring diagram. This w i l l a i d you i n keeping t r a c k of your work.

Every connection i n t h e c i r c u i t should be c a r e f u l l y soldered and i n no i n s t a n c e should you ever attempt t o s o l d e r a wire t o a screw o r binding post; always s o l d e r t o a l u g provided f o r t h a t purpose. I f screws o r binding p o s t s a r e n o t equipped w i t h l u g s then p u t them on y o u r s e l f . A supply of l u g s w i l l be found among t h e p a r t s i n t h e k i t . The audio transformers, chokes, l o c a l - d i s t a n t switch, volume c o n t r o l and so on, should a l l have s o l d e r l u g s attached. A f t e r i t i s decided where t h e b a t t e r i e s a r e t o be placed then measure t h e l e n g t h s of t h e d i f f e r e n t w i r e s necessary t o connect between t h e terminals on t h e b a t t e r i e s and t h e t e r m i n a l s on t h e condenser bank. I t i s suggested t h a t t h e b a t t e r i e s be k e p t w i t h i n a reasonable d i s t a n c e from t h e s e t s i n c e very long b a t t e r y l e a d s have been known i n cases t o reduce t h e applied p o t e n t i a l s t o values lower t h a n r e q u i r e d f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y operation. Notice t h a t b a s t e r y l e a d s marked+C, -B, and - Aa r e a l l of t h e same c o l o r and a l l connect t o t h e same terminal on t h e condenser bank. Since t h i s t e r m i n a l i s common t o t h e s e t h r e e l e a d s i t does n o t m a t t e r which l e a d s a r e used f o r + C , -B, and - A. Each b a t t e r y lead should be i d e n t i f i e d with a tag marked A, B, o r C, and with the p o l a r i t y + o r - and t h e proper voltage t o avoid confusion and p o s s i b l e e r r o r a t some l a t e r time when s e r v i c i n g the s e t t o renew b a t t e r i e s .
A l l wires a f t e r being c u t t o t h e i r proper l e n g t h s should be cleaned and tinned a t both ends so t h a t t h e s o l d e r w i l l t a k e hold e a s i l y when t h e wires a r e s o l d e r e d l a t e r t o t h e t e r m i n a l s . I n a case where more t h a n one wire i s t o be connected t o t h e same t e r m i n a l , t h e wires should be t w i s t e d together before t i n n i n g and then t h e group should be tinned and soldered a t t h e same time t o t h e terminal. D n o t make your wires t o o s h o r t , but prepare them long enough o s o they w i l l e a s i l y r e a c h around or between p a r t s and around bends a s shown i n t h e drawing.

m e n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s completely f i n i s h e d you can make a neat and workmanl i k e job of t h e wiring i f you l i k e by l a c i n g t o g e t h e r any wires which run p a r a l l e l o r s i d e by s i d e f o r any d i s t a n c e . To do t h i s simply t i e t h e l e a d s t o g e t h e r a t i n t e r v a l s of about two o r t h r e e inches. Do n o t l a c e any g r i d w i r e s which run from s o c k e t s t o transformers i n a c a b l e with o t h e r wires. T h i s a p p l i e s e s p e c i a l l y t o w i r e s which c a r r y r- f c u r r e n t s . The wires nunbered W19, W20, and W21 should be t w i s t e d f i r s t and then i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e respective e y e l e t s of t h e aluminum s h i e l d cans and then soldered. These a r e t h e e y e l e t s used t o hold t h e mounting brackets. I t i s u s e l e s s t o t r y t o s o l d e r t o t h e aluminum can, o r s h i e l d , because a s p e c i a l solder and f l u x a r e necessary f o r s o l d e r i n g wires t o aluminum. You should s o l d e r t o t h e e y e l e t a s j u s t suggested. Lesson 3 3 - A
i

- s h e e t 10

Figure 7 Figure 7 i s a schematic diagram of t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t f o r our d-c r e c e i v e r when employing a 6 v o l t s t o r a g e b a t t e r y f o r f i l a m e n t supply.

I t w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t while a l l o t h e r tubes have t h e i r f i l a m e n t s connected i n m u l t i p l e , o r p a r a l l e l , t h e f i r s t and second tubes, which a r e of t h e screen g r i d type, have t h e i r f i l a m e n t s connected i n s e r i e s and i n t u r n t h e i r o u t s i d e l e a d s a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l with r e l a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r tubes. This metho of connection i s necessary because t h e 112-A and 171-8 t y p e tubes both r e q u i r 5 v o l t s t o supply t h e i r f i l a m e n t s , whereas each of t h e 222 type tubes r e q u i r e o n l y 3 t o 3.3 v o l t s .

Since we w i l l u s e a 6 v o l t s t o r a g e b a t t e r y f o r f i l a m e n t supply we can o p e r a t e t h e two 3 v o l t tubes i n s e r i e s d i r e c t l y a c r o s s t h e b a t t e r y a s j u s t explained. However, s i n c e a l l o t h e r tubes r e q u i r e 5 v o l t s we must i n s e r t a r e s i s t o r i n s e r i e s w i t h them a f t e r t h e y a r e f i r s t connected i n p a r a l l e l t o reduce t h e 6 v o l t s supplied by t h e b a t t e r y t o t h e 5 v o l t s r e q u i r e d . L e t u s r e p e a t t h a t an e.m.f. of 5 v o l t s i s supplied t o each of t h e 1 1 2 4 and 171-A tubes, b u t t h a t 6 v o l t s i s not too much f o r t h e two 222 tubes provided t h e l a t t e r a r e connected i n s e r i e s . Observe t h a t t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e 222 tube c i r c u i t i s c a r r f e d t o t h e b a t t e r y s i d e of t h e fflament r e s i s t o r .

I t should be noted t h a t t h e r e i s a s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e i n design between t h e f i r s t r-f transformer and t h e second and t h i r d . The second and t h i r d a r e a l i k e i n every r e s p e c t and t h e r e f o r e they may be used interchangeably, but t h e f i r s t transformer, which has one t e r m i n a l common t o both primary and secondary, can be used i n only one l o c a t i o n a s shown i n t h e diagram, t h a t i s i t i s used a s t h e f i r s t r-f transformer. The l a t t e r i s e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d by t h e comparatively s h o r t tube l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e long o u t e r tube. The second a r y c o i l i s wound on t h e l o n g o u t s i d e tube and t h e primary c o i l on t h e i n s i d e tube. Schematic s k e t c h e s of t h e wiring of each type of transformer a r e shown i n F i g u r e 4.
H w t o Prepare t h e Two Shielded R-F Screen-Grid Wires. o Figure 8 i l l u s t r a t e s how t o prepare t h e two s h i e l d e d g r i d leads. These s h i e l d e d l e a d s a r e used t o connect t h e c o n t r o l g r i d s of t h e 222 tubes t o t h e r e s p e c t i v e c i r c u i t s by s o l d e r i n g one end of each wire t o the proper lug on t t o p of t h e 3-gang condenser a s shown. A cap i s soldered t o t h e o t h e r end of each wire, t h e cap being cup-shaped t o f i t over t h e m e t a l top on t h e tube. Lesson 33- A

- s h e e t 11

Notice how t h e braided wire, or s h i e l d , i s pushed back on t h e rqbber insul a t i o n f o r about 1/4 i n c h a t each end and s o l d e r flowed around t h e braided wire near the end t o prevent t h e s h i e l d from s l i p p i n g back and making poss i b l e c o n t a c t with t h e copper wire which i t encases.
SOLDER WIRE
f H E S E LUGS CONNECT TO STATOR PLATES OF CONOENqERS

'.

S H I E L DE D WIRE::

RUBBtR COVERED WIRE-.-:.'

NOS OF THE STRANDS ARE TWISTED AND SOLDERED TO RUBBER COYEREO WIRE

THIS LUG IS FASTENED W I T H SCREW TO THE METAL FRAME AND FORMS A GROUND.-'---.----

Figure 8
W e t h e wiring i s completed a c o n t i n u i t y t e s t should be made before t h e hn b a t t e r i e s a r e connected o r t h e t u b e s i n s e r t e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s o c k e t s t o make s u r e no e r r o r h a s been made t h a t might r e s u l t i n damage t o any of t h e p a r t s o r tubes. Figure 9 i l l u s t r a t e s how a 1rClr b a t t e r y and a p a i r of headphones a r e connected i n s e r i e s t o make t h i s t e s t . One t i p of t h e phone cord i s connected t o one t e r m i n a l of t h e -b a t t e r y and a p i e c e of wire t o t h e o t h e r terminal of the b a t t e r y thus providing two t e s t l e a d s a s shown i n t h e sketch

TELEPHONE --'HEPIDSET

HANDLES

----->=-TEST

POINTS

Figure 9 Figure 10 The procedure f o r t h i s t e s t i s as follows: Place t h e phones over your e a r s and touch t h e end of one t e s t l e a d t o e i t h e r one of t h e f i l a m e n t terminals on t h e f i r s t socket and t h e end of t h e o t h e r t e s t l e a d t o t h e p l a t e terminal on t h e same socket. When c o n t a c t i s made a s l i g h t c l i c k w i l l be heard because t h e by-pass condenser w i l l be charged and discharged. However, i f t h i s conn e c t i o n i s made and broken r e p e a t e d l y by tapping t h e t e r m i n a l s with t h e t e s t l e a d s t h e c l i c k should become s t e a d i l y weaker and f i n a l l y seem t o disappear Lesson 33- A

s h e e t 12

a l t o g e t h e r . If t h e c l i c k should be s t r o n g and pronounced each time t h e t e r m i n a l s a r e touched w i t h t h e t e s t l e a d s i t i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a s h o r t c i r c u i t between t h e p l a t e and f i l a m e n t wiring and t h e wiring should then be checked f o r wrong connections and i n s p e c t e d a t crowded t e r m i n a l s where t h e r e i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a bare w i r e touching the'vrrong t e r m i n a l of some socket. When making t h i s t e s t t h e b a t t e r y switch should be turned on and a l l b a t t e r y l e a d s separated s o t h a t t h e bare ends of t h e wires do n o t touch one another. When t h e c o n t i n u i t y t e s t h a s been completed and you a r e s a t i s f i e d t h a t t h e wiring i s c o r r e c t i n accordance w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s t h e b a t t e r i e s should be connected a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 10. Next i n s e r t t h e t u b e s i n t h e i r res p e c t i v e sockets being s u r e t o place t h e 222 tubes i n s o c k e t s 1 and 2 , t h e 1 1 2 4 tubes i n s o c k e t s 3 and 4, and t h e 171-A tubes i n sockets 5 and 6, The c l i p s o n t h e ends of t h e two s h i e l d e d l e a d s which come from the f i r s t two s e c t i o n s of t h e 3-gang condenser should be connected r e s p e c t i v e l y t o t h e metal caps on the tops of the 222 tubes. When t h e s e t i s l o c a t e d n e a r a broadcasting s t a t i o n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s a r e u s u a l l y obtained with an indoor antenna, however, i f t h i s i s n o t t h e case o r i f t h e s e t i s s i t u a t e d a considerable d i s t a n c e from a s t a t i o n an outdoor antenna must be i n s t a l l e d . To f i n d o u t j u s t what type antenna i s b e s t s u i t e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n sometimes r e q u i r e s a l i t t l e experimentation. Reference should be made t o our l e s s o n on antennas. I n g e n e r a l , i f an outdoor o r indoor antenna i s used and does n o t exceed s e v e n t y - f i v e f e e t i n l e n g t h rneasilred from t h e f a r end t o t h e s e t , then t h e l e a d - i n should be connected t o the terminal marked W . Ant." S If t h e antenna exceeds seventy- five An i n f e e t the l e a d - i n should be a t t a c h e d t o t h e t e r m i n a l marked "L. Ant." door antenna can be e a s i l y made by i n s t a l l i n g about f i f t y f e e t of o r d i n a r y b e l l wire around the p i c t u r e moulding. Gas p i p e s should be avoided f o r t h e purpose of making ground connections t o r a d i o s e t s .
PRACTICAL OPERATION. The r e c e i v e r i s ready f o r p r a c t i c a l operation when the tubes have been i n s e r t e d i n t h e i r sockets, t h e b a t t e r i e s connected, and t h e antenna and ground connections made, and t h e phones o r loudspeaker connected t o t h e speaker terminals. To place t h e s e t i n o p e r a t i o n proceed a s follows: F i r s t t u r n on t h e b a t t e r y switch and next t u r n t h e volume c o n t r o l knob a l l t h e way t o t h e r i g h t , t h a t i s , i n a clockwise d i r e c t i o n , and begin t o r o t a t e t h e condenser d i a l back and f o r t h slowly from one end t o t h e o t h e r and a t some p o i n t you should t u n e i n a broadcast s i g n a l . A f t e r you have picked up a s t a t i o n i n t h i s way, t h e n reduce t h e volume t o t h e d e s i r e d l e v e l . To r e duce volume never detune a r e c e i v e r by moving t h e d i a l away from t h e p o i n t of resonance because i t s p o i l s t h e q u a l i t y of t h e reproduction. Always use t h e volume c o n t r o l f o r t h i s purpose.
HOW TO ADJUST THE THREE T R I W E R CONDENSERS.

A f t e r a s t a t i o n has been p r o p e r l y tuned- in on t h e r e c e i v e r t h e n with any type of screw d r i v e r a d j u s t each trimmer condenser i n succession by t u r n i n g the l a r g e s l o t t e d hexagon screw e i t h e r i n a clockwise or counter- clockwise d i r e c t i o n u n t i l t h e g r e a t e s t volume i s obtained o f o r each adjustment. D n o t touch t h e volume c o n t r o l o r move t h e tuning d i a l when performing t h i s work because you can only judge each adjustment by t h e volume of sound a t a g i v e n s i g n a l frequency. Be very c a r e f u l t o make t h e b e s t adjustments p o s s i b l e i n each case because t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e s e t i n g e n e r a l w i l l depend upon how p e r f e c t l y t h e r-f c i r c u i t s a r e synchronized. Lesson 3 3 4

s h e e t 13

WIRING CHART FOR BATTERY RECEIVER WIRE NUMBER WIRE COLOR Bus-Wire Black
n
11

CIRCUIT Filament
n

FROM TERMINAL

TO TERMINAL
#8

8 Condenser
$8 4

Bank

Condenser Bank

Condenser Bank "OFF-ON" Switch

#1 "OFF-ON" Switch

#2

# Gang-Condenser 1 Gnd. Panel Strip -F 1st R-F Socket

# Gang-Condenser 1

Gnd. Panel Strip

+ F 1st R-F Socket +F 2nd R-F Socket

# Filament Resistor 1

-F

2nd R-F Socket

# Filament Resistor 1 # Condenser Bank 1 - F Detactor Socket

- F 1st R-F Socket

-F Detector Socket

- F 1st A-F Socket - F A-F Socket No. 5

#2 Filament Resistor #2 Filament Resistor

- F 1st A-F Socket - F A-F Socket No.5

- F A-F Socket No.6

+ F Detector Socket

+ F 1st A-F Socket

-)- F A-F Socket No. 5

+ F 1st A-F Socket + j? A-F Socket NO. 5

Yellow
n

+F A-F Socket No .6
+A
Battery - A Battery 3rd R-F Shield 2nd R-F Shield 1st R-F Shield G 1st R-F Socket

#1 Condenser Bank
#7 Condenser Bank
#5

Black
n
n

Shield
n n

Gang-Condenser

3rd R-F Shield 2nd R-F Shield G 2nd R-F Socket

Screen-Grid
n n

Red
n

G 1st R-F Socket

#4 Condenser Bank

# Condenser Bank 4

+ 45 B Battery
Lesson 33-A

sheet 1 4

WIRING CHART FOR BATTERY RECEIVER (continued) CIRCUIT Screen-Grid

n

WIRE NUMBER

WIRE COLOR Black

n

FROM TERMINAL
#3 Volume Control

TO TERMINAL # Local-Distant Switch 1 Gnd. Panel Strip #l Grid-Leak Condenser

# Volume Control 1

Control-Grid
11

Green
If

G 3rd R-F Transformer

#2 Grid-Leak Condenser

G Detector Socket
F 1st R-F Transformer

n
n n
11

F 2nd R-F Transformer

F 3rd R-F Transformer
G 1st A-F Socket

n
n
It

- F Detector Socket # 1st A-FCoupling h d . 1 # A-F Grid Resistor 1

#3 Condenser Bank

# 1st A-FCou@irgCond. 1
#2 A-F Grid Resistor

n
11

n
11

# Condenser Bank 3
#3 Input Transformer
#5 Input Transformer #4 Input Transformer

- 9 Volt C

Battery

n
n

G A-F Socket No.5

G A-F Socket No.6
#2

n
n
n n

rr
n
n

Condenser Bank

#2 Condenser Bank

- 45 Volt C Battery
# Gang-Condenser 2
# Gang-Condenser 3
#4 Gang-Condenser

G 1st R-F Transformer

n
n

G 2nd R-F Transformer

G 3rd R-F Transformer
#7 Condenser Bank

n
11

Black
I1

+ C Battery

#7 Condenser Bank
#2 1st By-pass Condenser

-B Battery -F 1st R-F Socket

# Antenna Condenser 1 "S. Ant." Panel Strip

Red Black
n
n n

Antenna
n n

"L. Ant." Panel Strip

#2 Antenna Condenser

# Local-Distant Switch 1

P 1st R-F Transformer

Gnd. Panel Strip
#2 Local-Distant Switch

F 1st R-F Transformer

+lst R-F Transformer

Lesson 33-A

- sheet 15

W I R I N G CHART F R BATTERY RECEIVER (continued) O

CIRCUIT

WIRE NUKBER

WIRE COLOR

FO RN TERMINAL W. -Ant." Panel S t r i p S

1st R-F Control Grid Clip

TO TEREBINAL
#Z Volume Control

Antenna

W50

Black
n n
n

Control-Grid W51
n

#6 GaW-Condenser

W52

2nd R-F Control Grid C l i p W51 S h i e l d (braided wire) W51 S h i e l d (

n

#7 Gang-Condenser
W52 S h i e l d (braided wire)
#1 Gang-Condenser
# Output Transformer 1

Shield
n

n
Red
n
n

Plate
n n
n

# Speaker-Panel S t r i p 1

#2 Speaker-Panel S t r i p
#3 Output Transformer
#5 Output Transformer

#2 Output Transformer P A-F Socket No.5

n
n n
11

P A-F Socket No.6

n
n

#4 Output Transformer

#6 Condenser Bank
$180

#6 Condenser Bank
# I n p u t Transformer 1

Volt B B a t t e r y

P 1 s t A- Socket F #1 3 r d R-F Choke #2 PrFCoupling Condenser

# Detector P l a t e ResJsto: 1

n
n
n

n
n

P Detector Socket #2 3rd R-F Choke

n
n
n .

#2 A- Coupling Condenser F
#2 Detector P l a t e R e s i s t o r

n
n

#2 Input Transformer

#2 I n p u t Transformer
#5 Condenser Bank
#/1 Detector By-Pass Cond.

#5 Condenser Bank
+I35 Volt B B a t t s r y

n n
n

n
n n

#1 3 r d R-F Choke
#2 2nd R- Choke F

#2 Detector P l a t e R e s i s t o r #2 2nd R-P Choke

n
n
n
n
It

n
n

#2 1 s t R-F Choke
#1 1st R-F Choke
# 2nd R-F Choke 1

+ 2nd R-F

Transformer

n
11

+ 3 r d R-F Transforaer

P 1st R-F Socket

P 2nd R-F Socket

p 2nd R-F Transformer F P 3 r d R- Transformer Lesson 33- A

s h e e t 16

WIRING CHART FOR BATTERY RECEIVER (Continued) CIRCUIT Plate

'IT

WIRE NUMBER W75 W76

~ 7 ?

WIRE
COLOR Red
n n

FROU TERMINAL
#1 1st R-F Choke # 2nd R-F Choke 1
#2

TO TERMINAL
# 1st By-pass Condenser 1 # 2nd By-pass Condenser 1
#2

n n

Detector By-Pass Cond.

2nd By-pass Condenser

W78

#2 2nZ By-pass Condenser

#2 1st By-pass Condenser

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. The 3-gang condenser should be carefully examined before mountins it on the board. A slight adjustment to the middle set of rotor plates nay be necessary in some cases-to prevent the rotor plates from touching the stator plates when in the extreme zero "On position, that is, when both sets of plates are completely out of mesh. With the plates in this relative position the condenser has minimum capacitance. A short circuit test canbe made with headphones and battery.If the above condition exists it can be corrected as follows: Move the rotors about half way noutn and then firmly grasp the rotor assembly of either end condenser with one hand and with the other use screw driver handle to tap the brass plate on the middle rotor one or two quick sharp blows in a downward direction. This sudden shock is usually sufficient to shift the middle rotor a r m d on the shaft the slight amount necessary to make the two sets of plates clear when in the extreme nout" position. It may or may not be necessary to loosen the set screws during the adjustment since in most condensers there is enough tolerance for a small shift of rotor. A shorted middle condenser would cause the filament of one 222 tube to be shorted out, with the result that the full 6 volts would be applied to the other 222 filament because of the series connection. HOW TO ATTACH TERMINAL POSTS FOR PBONOGRAPH PICK-UP. For those students who desire to utilize the audio am~lifierand loudspeaker for reproducing phono- --- graph records it is suggested that two terminal-posts be attached to-the rear cage of the board directly in back of the detector, and then connect permanently an insulated wire from one of these posts to the grid terminal on the detector socket and a second wire from the other post to - A terminal on the same socket, or to any low potential or grounded part of the receiver circuit. To reproduce phonograph records simply attach the two leads from any pick-up attachment to the newly installed posts, turn on the switch and move the tuning dial to 1 0 0. Before operating the receiver for broadcast reception always remember to disconnect one of the pick-up attachment leads. The pick-up lead to be removed is the one attached to the post to which the grid is connected. OSCILLATION. If the battery-operated receiver has a tendency toward oscillation this can be overcome by connecting the screen-grid lead to the 225 volt tap on the nB1tbattery instead of to the 45 volt tap as recommended. This change in screen-grid voltage will, however, reduce the volume to sane extent.

Lesson 33-A

sheet 17

EXAMINATION
1 .

- LESSON

33- A

What a r e t h e advantages of a push-pull a m p l i f i e r ? ( a ) Has a battery- operated r e c e i v e r any advantages over a n a-c operated r e c e i v e r ? ( b ) Give reasons f o r your answer. ( a ) What b a t t e r i e s a r e required f o r t h i s battery- operated r e c e i v e r , and give t h e i r v o l t a g e s ? (b) What c i r c u i t s do t h e y supply? Name and g i v e t h e f u n c t i o n of each tube employed i n t h i s battery- operated receiver. S t a t e how many v o l t s should be supplied t o t h e filaments of t h e following tubes: ( a ) 222 type, ( b ) 112-A type, ( c ) 171-A type. I n what p a r t of a r e c e i v e r would you u s e trimming condensers? H w many v o l t s would you apply t o t h e p l a t e of a UX-222 tube? o
W y a r e screen- grid type tubes p r e f e r a b l e f o r radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r s ? h

2.
3 .

4.

5.
6.

Why?

7.
8.

9.

H w can t h e same s t o r a g e b a t t e r y be used t o supply t h e filaments of two o 222 type tubes and 112-A and 171-A type tubes i n a r e c e i v e r ?

10.

If t h i s s e t tends t o o s c i l l a t e howwould you c o r r e c t t h i s trouble?

Lesson 3 3 - A

- s h e e t 18

Technical Lesson 34
PRACTICAL RADIO COITSTRUCTION

The Tuned-Grid Tuned-Plate Circuit. Up to the present we have dealt with a number of receivers, each employing a regenerative vacuum tube detector. With one exception. all of these receivers made use of a tickler coil in order to secuEe the feed-back necessary to regeneration and its allied phenomenon, oscillation. In each instance feed-back was secured by virtue of electromagnetic induction, and the principle difference in these circuits lay in the manner of controlling feed-back. Such control, of course, is necessary in' order to maintain the tube at its most advantageous adjustment for the reception of broadcasting, that is, at the point of maximum regeneration. It is the purpose of this lesson to deal with a circuit arrangement which will give rise to regeneration and oscillation in a vacuum tube, and it is important inasmuch as it has a direct bearing upon the greatest problem encountered in radio-frequency amplification, a subject with which we shall soon concern ourselves. This problem is how to prevent oscillation in a radio-frequency amplifier, and this lesson will serve as an introduction to the causes of oscillation in such circuits. The circuit dealt with in this lesson is that of a vacuum tube detector and, when properly adjusted, it will enable the user to secure regeneration and oscillation. As a regenerative detector tube circuit it is as sensitive and selective as any heretofore described, but it is of little practical value due to the difficulty encountered in controlling feed-back and for that reason is seldom used today. When it is desired to introduce regeneration into a vacuum tube detector, one of the tickler coil circuits already described is utilized. It is described herein, not because it is especially valuable as a regenerative detector circuit, but because it leads directly to important considerations entering into the functioning of radio frequency amplifiers. This circuit, which is shown schematically in Figure 1, is known as the tunedgrid tuned-plate circuit; the origin of the name being obvious after a single glance at the schematic wiring diagram. The grid circuit of the tube is tuned by the inductance L1 and the condenser C1 while the plate circuit is 9 tuned by the inductance L2 and condenser C 2 . The tube will oscillate readily when the grid and plate circuits are both tuned to the same wavelength; and by de-tuning the plate circuit so that it is no longer tuned to the same wavelength as the grid circuit, the tube can be stopped from oscillating and adjusted to the point of maximum regeneration. Oscillation takes place despite the fact that there need be no electromagnetic coupling between the plate and grid coils, as was necessary in the other rePrinted in U.S.A. Contents copyrighted 1930

generative detector circuits mith which we have dealt. As a matter of fact, in the actual lay-out of the apparatus in the receiver the plate and grid coils are deliberately placed at right angles to each other, thereby reducing the electro-magnetic coupling between them to practically zero. If no electro-magnetic coupling exists between the plate and grid coils it is obvious that no electro-magnetic induction can take place between them and thus effect feed-back from the plate to the grid circuit. Yet the tube oscillates and, therefore, feed-back must in some manner take place; and this feedback does take place through the inter-electrode capacity of the vacuum tube. As we proceed with this subject of feed-back through the inter-electrode capacity of a vacuum tube, bear in mind the fact that any two conductors which are fairly close together and insulated from each other are capable of functioning as an electro-static condenser. Let us consider, then, the placement of the electrodes in a modern vacuum tube. As you know, the tube has three metallic electrodes; a filament, a grid, and a plate. The metal filament is encircled by a wire mesh (the grid) and this, in turn, is surrounded by a metal plate. These electrodes are carefully insulated one from the other and the spacing between any two of them is but a fraction of an inch. Here, then, we have fulfilled the conditions necessary for the formation of an electro-static condenser, as given above; that is, two or more conductors insulated from each other closely spaced.

TRLNSFORMER

Figure 1. Three such condenser effects exist within a three-electrode vacuum tube; namely, the plate-filament capacity, grid-filament capacity and plate-grid capacity; and it is the plate-grid capacity with which we are chiefly concerned in this lesson. The presence of the plate-grid capacity is indicated in dotted lines as Cpg in the schematic wiring diagram. Bear in mind that no actual condenser is connected between the plate and grid of t'he tube. Those dotted lines are simply to assist you to visualize the existence of the tube's plategrid capacity. On the other hand, do not permit the fact that it is shown in dotted lines lead you to believe that this plate-grid capacity is more or less

Lesson 34

sheet

imaginary or unimportant. It is very real and the complications that arise from its existence has caused more than one radio engineer to burn the midnight oil seeking ways and means of overcoming it. The plate-grid capacity is very small in the average vacuum tube, being of the order of 0.000008 mfd. for the ordinary 201A type of tube. Small as this capacity is, however, it provides a path for the flow of wdio-frequency current from plate to grid of the tube. Any transfer of energy from plate to grid of the tube constitutes feed-back whether it is accomplished inductively, as by the use of a tickler coil, or by means of the electro-static capacity of a condenser. Furthermore, when the feed-back voltage is in phase with (of the same polarity as) the signal voltage being impressed upon the grid of the tube, it strengthens, or reinforces, the signal voltage. Should the opposite be true, that is, should the feed-back be of opposite polarity to the signal voltage, it will weaken the signal even to the point of completely nullifying it. However, the feed-back through the plate-grid capacity is invariably in phase with the signal voltage, so that when the feed-back is sufficiently great, oscillation will result. Needless to say, no current will flow through a condenser unless voltage is applied to it and, furthermore, such voltage must be of an alternating nature. Therefore, in the case of condenser Cpg no current will flow through it because of the voltage impressed upon it by the "BR battary, for the voltage of the "B" battery is steady and unvarying. However, when an incoming signal impresses its voltage upon the grid of the tube, the consequent radio-frequency variations in the plate current do, in effect, cause a radio-frequency variation of the plate potential. Or, in other words, the radio-frequency voltage impressed upon the grid of the tube causes a corresponding radio-frequency potential to appear in the plate circuit. This radio-frequency variation of the plate potential is impressed upon the tiny condenser formed by the plate and grid, and the net result is feed-back through this capacity from plate circuit to grid circuit; the amount of feed-back depending principally upon the strength of the radio-frequency voltage present in the plate circuit. Ordinarily this voltage is not great enough to cause sufficient feed-back for regeneration and oscillation and, therefore, this feed-back via the plate-grid capacity must be supplemented by additional feed-back secured in other ways as, for instance, by means of a tickler coil. But if the radio-frequency voltage present in the plate circuit can be strengthened sufficiently, then the feed-back due to the plate-grid capacity will be increased to the point where regeneration and oscillation will result without the presence of any feed-back other than that which takes place by virtue of the plate-grid capacity. This can be done by including in the plate circuit an inductance, L ,and tuning this inductance by means of a condenser, C2, to resonance wi%h the particular radio-frequency being dealt with.

Lesson 34

sheet 3.

m e n radio-frequency current flows through the inductance L2, the magnetic lines of force surrounding this coil rise and fall in accordance with the variations in current strength and, in so doing they creat a secondary, or self-induced voltage. The strength of this self-induced voltage, which is often termed the inductive reactance voltage, depends primarily upon the value of the inductance and the strength of the current flowing therein. In this instance, the value of inductance L is determined and fixed by the wavelength range to be covered when use$ with condenser C2 of a given capacity. Therefore, the strength of the inductive reactance voltage will depend upon the strength of the ref. current flowing through this inductance. Inasmuch as the inductance L2 and condenser C2 form an oscillatory circuit, the greatest flow of radio-frequency current will take place in this circuit when it Is tuned to resonance with the radio-frequency current flowing in the plate circuit. The inductive reactance voltage developed across the inductance, L2, will then be at its maximum value and will result in maximum feedback through the plate-grid capacity, and this feed-back will be sufficient to cause the tube to oscillate.

If the oscillatory circuit, L2C2, is de-tuned from resonance with the radiofrequency component of the plate current, the radio-frequency current flowing in circuit L2C2 will, of course, decrease and therefore the inductive reactance voltage developed across L2 will decrease. Any reduction of this voltage developed across L2 means a reduction of the voltage applied to the plate-grid capacity, Cpg, which in turn results in a decrease in feed-back. When the plate circuit is de-tuned sufficiently the feed-back will be reduced to the point at which the tube ceases to oscillate and becomes regenerative. Thus, the tuning of the plate circuit becomes a regeneration control for, by adjusting the degree of resonance of the tuned plate circuit, L2C2, the tube can be made to oscillate or to regenerate.
Before commencing the wiring of this receiver it will be necessary to mount an additional piece of apparatus upon the baseboard, i.e., the tuned radio frequency transformer. This instrument should be mounted near the rear lefthand corner of the baseboard and, furthermore, it should be placed at right angles to the three-circuit tuner mounted upon the panel. By so placing the radio-frequency transformer, inductive coupling between it and the threecircuit tuner is reduced to a minimum. Having mounted the RF transformer, begin wiring by connecting its primary (the small coil of ten turns of wire) to the antenna and ground binding posts. Connect a wire between the +A binding post on the terminal strip and the positive filament terminal of the tube socket. The -A binding post on the terminal strip is now connected to a terminal of the detector's filament rheostat and the other terminal of this rheostat is connected to the negative filament terminal of the tube socket. Connect the grid condenser to the grid terminal of the tube socket. The grid leak is, as usual, inserted in the clips provided for it on the grid condenser. The secondary of the tuned RF transformer is the larger of the two coils comprising this instrument. The end of the secondary which is next to the primary coil, i.e., the "low" end, should be connected to the positive filament lead. The end of the secondary

Lesson 34

- sheet 4.

c o i l o p p o s i t e t h e p r i m a r y c o i l , i.e., t h e "highw end, should be connected t o t h e g r i d condenser. The v a r i a b l e t u n i n g condenser mounted a t t h e l e f t o f t h e p a n e l should now be connected i n p a r a l l e l t o t h e secondary oP t h e tuned RF t r a n s f o r m e r . When doing t h i s be c a r e f u l to,connect t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s of t h e condenser t o t h e " high w end of t h e secondary and t h e r o t o r p l a t e s t o t h e "loww end of t h e secondary.
O f t h e t h r e e c o i l s which comprise t h e t h r e e - c i r c u i t t u n e r only t h e secondary i s made u s e of i n t h i s c i r c u i t , t h e primary and t i c k l e r c o i l s b e i n g l e f t d i s connected. A c o n n e c t i o n i s now made between t h e p l a t e t e r m i n a l of t h e t u b e s o c k e t and one of t h e secondary t e r m i n a l s o f t h e t h r e e - c i r c u i t t u n e r . The o t h e r secondary t e r m i n a l i s connected t o a t i p - j a c k . The remaining t i p - j a c k i s connected t o t h e B+Det b i n d i n g p o s t on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p . The v a r i a b l e t u n i n g condenser which i s mounted t o t h e r i g h t of t h e p a n e l should n o r be connected i n p a r a l l e l t o t h e secondary c o i l of t h e t h r e e - c i r c u i t t u n e r . I n doing t h i s i t would be a d v i s a b l e t o connect t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s of t h i s cond e n s e r t o t h a t end of t h e secondary c o i l which i s connected t o t h e p l a t e t e r m i n a l of t h e t u b e s o c k e t . The r o t o r p l a t e s s h o u l d t h e n be connected G O t h e o p p o s i t e end o f t h i s ( s e c o n d a r y ) c o i l . The 0.001 mfd. f i x e d condenser is t h e by- pass condenser shown as Cb i n F i g u r e 1. One t e r m i n a l of t h i s cond e n s e r i s connected t o t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t as shown, w h i l e i t s o t h e r t e r m i n a l i s connected t o t h e same t i p - j a c k t o which one t e r m i n a l of t h e t h r e e c i r c u i t t u n e r secondary i s connected.

When t h e a p p a r a t u s i s connected i n accordance w i t h t h e above i n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e secondary of t h e RF t r a n s f o r m e r becomes t h e g r i d c o i l , Ll and t h e t u n i n g condenser connected i n p a r a l l e l t o t h i s c o i l i s t h e g r i d t u n d g condenser,C~,. Also, t h e secondary of t h e t h r e e - c i r c u i t t u n e r i s t h e p l a t e t u n i n g c o i l , L2, and t h e v a r i a b l e condenser i n p a r a l l e l t o t h i s c o i l i s t h e p l a t e t u n i n g cond e n s e r , C2.
A s i n p r e v i o u s l e s s o n s , i f t h e audio- frequency a m p l i f i e r is used, a s recommended, t h e w i r e s c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e two t i p - j a c k s a r e connected i n s t e a d t o t h e primary t e r m i n a l s of t h e first AF t r a n s f o r m e r . Take c a r e t h a t t h e w i r e which connects t o t h e B+Det b i n d i n g p o s t on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p i s connected t o t h e B t e r m i n a l of t h e AF t r a n s f o r m e r . The p l a t e t e r m i n a l of t h e t u b e s o c k e t should b e connected, through t h e i n d u c t a n c e L2, t o t h e P t e r m i n a l of t h e AF t r a n s f o r m e r .

The o p e r a t i o n of t h i s r e c e i v e r d o e s n o t d i f f e r g r e a t l y from t h a t of o t h e r t y p e s of r e g e n e r a t i v e d e t e c t o r s . There a r e tvro c o n t r o l s , namely, t h e v a r i a b l e condenser, C 1 , which e n a b l e s t h e u s e r t o t u n e t h e g r i d c i r c u i t o f t h e t u b e t o t h e wavelength of t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l ; and t h e v a r i a b l e condenser, C2, which s e r v e s t o t u n e t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e t u b e , and which f u n c t i o n s a s a r e generation control. O s c i l l a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e when the g r i d c i r c u i t , L C and t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t , L2C2, a r e b o t h tuned t o t h e same wavelength. o s h i h a t i o n i n t h e d e t e c t o r t u b e can be c o n t r o l l e d by d e - t u n i n g t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t from resonance w i t h t h e frequency of t h e incoming s i g n a l , and s o , by p r o p e r m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e p l a t e t u n i n g condenser, C2, t h e d e t e c t o r t u b e c a n b e a d j u s t e d t o t h e p o i n t of maxinun r e g e n e r a t i o n .

Lesson 34

s h e e t 5.

Changes i n t h e tuning of t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t a r e a p t t o e f f e c t the tuning of t h e g r i d c i r c u i t . Therefore, when a l t e r i n g the t u n i e of t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t i n order t o a d j u s t t h e d e t e c t o r tube t o t h e p o i n t of maximum regeneration, i t w i l l be necessary t o make minor re- adjustments i n the tuning of t h e g r i d c i r c u i t i n order t o keep t h i s c i r c u i t i n resonance w i t h t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l . and t h e secondary-of t h e t h r e e The secondary of t h e tuned RF transformer, c i r c u i t t u n e r , L2 a r e very n e a r l y a l i k e i nL$& e l r v a l u e s of inductance; and . t h e same holds t r & e f o r t h e two v a r i a b l e tuning condensers, i . e . , f o r any given s e t t i n g they w i l l be n e a r l y a l i k e i n t h e i r values of capacity. Theref o r e , when the d i a l s of the tuning condensers read a l i k e , t h e two tuned c i r c u i t s which t h e s e condensers c o n t r o l w i l l be tuned t o p r a c t i c a l l y the same wavelength, and o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l r e s u l t . The g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e tube, L1C1, must be tuned t o exact resonance with t h e s i g n a l i t i s d e s i r e d t o receive. To stop t h e tube from o s c i l l a t i n g and a d j u s t f o r maximum r e g e n e r a t i o n , de-tune t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t . Decreasing the f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t of t h e d e t e c t o r tube below i t s normal value w i l l prove of m a t e r i a l a i d i n preventing o s c i l l a t i o n ; t h u s , t h e d e t e c t o r tube

r h e o s t a t can be used a s a supplementary o s c i l l a t i o n c o n t r o l by which t h e tube can be a d j u s t e d f o r maximum regeneration. Do n o t , however, decrease t h e det e c t o r tube's f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t too much, because too g r e a t a decrease i n i t s value w i l l g r e a t l y impair t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e tube. O t h e o t h e r hand, n c a r e should be exercised n o t t o increase t h e filament c u r r e n t of the d e t e c t o r tube, o r any tube f o r t h a t m a t t e r , above i t s normal v a l u e , f o r by so doing t h e l i f e of t h e filament w i l l be shortened, The exact manner i n which the d e t e c t o r r h e o s t a t can be used i n a d j u s t i n g t h e d e t e c t o r tube f o r maximum r e g e n e r a t i o n can b e s t be determined by experiment. It should be borne i n mind, however, t h a t t h e p l a t e tuning condenser, C2 i s t h e main o s c i l l a t i o n c o n t r o l and t h e d e t e c t o r filament r h e o s t a t should o&ly be used t o secure t h e f i n a l adjustment of regeneration. Tuning the P l a t e I n d u c t i v e l x . The c i r c u i t w i t h which we s h a l l d e a l i n the followina DaramaDhS i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e r e c e i v e r l u s t described i n t h e i r e c e d i n g pages of t h i s l e s s o n . That t h e two c i r c u i t s a r e q u i t e s i m i l h r i s a t once evident from a comparison of Figure 2 and t h e c i r c u i t diagram, Figure 1, y e t t h e c i r c u i t shown i n Figure 2 incorporates an e l a b o r a t i o n of the preceding hook-up which i s of prime importance i n tuned radio- frequency amplification. The manner i n which t h e s e two c i r c u i t s d i f f e r from each o t h e r l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e tuned o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t , L C2 i n s t e a d of being d i r e c t l y connected i n t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t & tube, i s coupled t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t by means of c o i l P. Despite t h e f a c t t h a t the tuned o s c i l l a t o r y i s no longer connected i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t , L2C t u b e , n e v e r t h e s s i t s e r v e s t o tune the tube's p l a t e c i r c u i t due to the f a c t t h a t i t i s coupled t h e r e t o .

It i s a w e l l known f a c t t h a t when two such o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t s a r e placed i n inductive r e l a t i o n s h i p t o each o t h e r , t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each w i l l influence the e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e o t h e r . I n c i d e n t a l l y , i t might be well t o mention t h a t by " e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " i s meant r e s i s t a n c e , inductance an8 c a p a c i t y and t h e a l l i e d phenomenon of resonance

Lesson 34

- sheet 6,

arising from their inter-related functionings. The extgnt to which electrical characteristics of the coupled circuits involved will influence each other will depend to a great extent upon the degree of coupling existant between these circuits. To elaborate upon the foregoing statement let us state that if the coupling between the circuits is tight their effect upon each other will be pronounced, while if the coupling is loose this mutual reaction between the circuits will be less evident; and when the coupling between them is made very loose their reaction upon each other becomes negligible. Consider, then, the coil P, Figure 2, and the tuned oscillatory circuit, L C2 You will note that no provision has been made for tuning coil P, and, by dfs-' regarding its natural period or wavelength, we may consider it, as far as our purposes are concerned, as being untuned. This coil is inductively coupled to coil L2 which, in conjunction with the variable condenser, C2 forms an oscillatorf circuit. By virtue of the values of inductance and cdpacity of L2 and C2 respectively, this tuned circuit may be resonated to any wavelength between 200 meters and 550 meters by varying the cepacity of the variable condenser C2

Figure 2 . Because of the inductive coupling between coil P and the oscillatory circuit, L2C2 the tuning of this oscillatory circuit will make itself felt upon coil P and, in effect, will tune coil P to approximtely the same wavelength as that to which circuit L2C2 is resonated.

In this manner, circuit L C2 serves to tune the plate circuit. Althmgh it

is not connected to the p ate circuit of the tube by direct wire connection as in Figure 2, it is, nevertheless, connected to the plate circuit by magnetic lines of force, i.e,, it is coupled to the plate circuit.

A somewhat different angle from which to regard this phenomenon is from the
viewpoint that when dealing with alternating currents, whether they be of high or low frequency, it is not necessary to employ metallic conductors in order to secure a connection between two or more circuits. Direct metallic connections may be dispensed with and the circuits "connected" by utilizing

magnetic lines of force; and when two or more circuits are so connected by magnetic lines of force, they are said to be "inductively coupledn. When circuits are connected by means of metallic conductors the efficacy of such connections is determined by the resistance, or, conversely, the conductivity of such connections. A similar determining factor is encountered when two or more circuits are "connected* by magnetic lines of force, i.e., coupled, inasmuch as the effectiveness of the nconnectionn is dependent upon the degree of coupling employed.
1

Thus, even as in Figure 1, circuit L2C tunes the plate circuit of the tube due to its coupling thereto, and the extenf to which its tuning will influence the plate circuit will be determined by the degree of coupling between it and the . coil P If coil P is closely coupled to coil L the influence of circuit L C2 upon the plate circuit will be pronounced, but 2s the coupling is loosened fts influence upon the plate circuit becomes less and less until, when the coupling is made sufficiently loose, the influence of circuit L2C2 upon the plate circuit becomes negligible. When the grid and plate circuits are tuned to the same wavelength and with tight coupling between coils P and L2, the tube will oscillate and otherwise behave in a manner similar to that of the preceding hook-up shown in Figure 2 . But, in addition to those effects noted in the operation of that receiver, it will be found that adjustment of the coupling between coils P and L2 provides us with an additional and very effective oscillation control. To convert the hook-up of Figure 1 to the circuit shown in the wiring diagram of Figure 2, only one simple change in the plate circuit wiring is necessary. To make this change, disconnect from the plate circuit the tuned circuit,L2C2, and substitute for it the coil P. More specifically: Trace the wire that leads from the plate terminal of the detector tube socket to the secondary of the three-circuit tuner (L2). Disconnect ,this wire from coil L2 and connect it instead to one of the terminals of the tickler coil. The wire which leads from one of the tip jacks (or the P terminal of the first stage AF transformer, depending upon whether or not an audio amplifier is used) to the other terminal of coil L2 is now disconnected from this coil terminal and connected instead to the remaining terminal of the tickler coil. In this way, the coil which was formerly employed as a tickler coil now becomes the primary P of the tuned r.f. transformer composed of the coil P and the tuned secondary coil, L2 Moreover, as this primary coil is rotatable, we have a convenient means of varying the coupling between the primary and the secondary coils. When making the changes described above, care should be exercised that the condenser, C2 which is ordinarily connected in parallel to coil L2 remains connected to this coil, and that no other changes in the wiring of the plate circuit are inadvertently made except those alterations mentioned. When first putting the receiver in operation, place the primary (tickler) coil, P, parallel to the secondary coil, L2 thus securing the maximum available coupling between the two. Then proceed to operate the receiver as in the preceding lesson, As before, the grid circuit, LIC must be tuned to resonance with the desired signal and, with maximum couphng between the coils P the detector tube will oscillate when the tuned plate circuit is t into resonance with the grid circuit. As in the receiver first described (Figure l), oscillation can be stopped and the tube adjusted for maximum regeneration by de-tuning the plate circuit.

Lesson 34

sheet 8 .

A more effective control of oscillation, however, is secured by varying the By loosening the coupling between these two coils coupling between P and L
the tube can be stopped &om oscillating and brought to the point of maximum regeneration. Conversely, tightening the coupling will increase regeneration and finally result in oscillation provided, of course, that the grid and plate circuits are in resonance. The proper procedure, therefore, for tuning in a station is to use maximum coupling between coils P and L2 while varying the two varibale condensers until the desired signal is heard. Then loosen the coupling between P and L2 until the detector tube stops oscillating. At this point a slight final re-adjustment of the plate and grid tuning condensers may be necessary. While tuning in stations operating on differing wavelengths take note of the value of the coupling necessary for maximum regeneration at each different wavelength. It will be found that this critical degree of coupling will vary according to the wavelength of the station being received; and that the coupling between coils P and L2 necessary for maximum regeneration is greater for the longer wavelengths. In other words, the longer the wavelength of the station being received the tighter must be the coupling between coils P and L2 in order to secure maximum regeneration and, conversely, as the receiver is tuned to shorter wavelengths the degree of coupling necessary for maximum regeneration becomes less.

EXAMINATION

- LESSON 34

How does feed-back take place in the circuit shown in Figure 27 What is the purpose of coilP in Figure 21 State briefly two ways in which regeneration can be controlled. How is the plate circuit tuned in Figure 21 What advantage is derived from making the coil P, in Figure 2, rotatable?
What is the purpose of the tuned circuit L2C2?

When the plate and grid circuits in Figure 2 are both tuned to the sane wavelength, how can oscillation be prevented? Row is oscillation controlled in Figure l? (a) What are the three principal internal capacities in a vacuum tube? (b) Are these capacities large or small? What is the purpose of condenser C1 in Figure l?

Lesson 34

- sheet 9.
k

f i r m e rtu

INC.

M A R C O N / INSTITUTE

S.

Technical Lesson

35
COMMON FAULTS AND TROUBLES

Much h a s been s a i d and much h a s been w r i t t e n on t h e many t r o u b l e s that a r i s e i n Radio r e c e i v e r s a s t o what causes t h e i r f a i l u r e and how t o c o r r e c t t r o u b l e s when t h e y occur. Radio p u b l i c a t i o n s have devoted columns and pages i n answering i n d i v i d u a l problems. These have been of invaluable a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t i n n e a r l y a l l cases have r e f e r r e d t o s p e c i f i c conditions. Here w w i l l endeavor t o group s e r v i c e problems under g e n e r a l c l a s s i e f i c a t i o n s and p r e s c r i b e methods of diagnosing them followed by a p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r c o r r e c t i n g them. F a i l u r e of r e c e i v i n g s e t s t o operate may be grouped under c e r t a i n g e n e r a l c l a s s e s , namely: Lack of o p e r a t i n g experience on t h e p a r t of t h e u s e r . Location. ~ e f e c t i v ea c c e s s o r i e s . open c i r c u i t . Short c i r c u i t . High r e s i s t a n c e connection. Lack of o p e r a t i n g experience may be the r e s u l t of not following out i n s t r u c t i o n s c a r e f u l l y enough, o r a s i s sometimes t h e case t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e n o t complete enough, and a r e not e n t i r e l y c l e a r t o t h e novice. It may be t h e r e s u l t of i n s u f f i c i e n t i n s t r u c t i o n on the p a r t of t h e s e r v i c e man who made t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n Then t o o , i t may be the It i s a peculiar r e s u l t s of impatience on t h e p a r t of the customer condition, but a f a c t n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h a t the f i r s t n i g h t a customer h a s a s e t , he f e e l s t h a t he should be a b l e t o g e t g r e a t d i s t a n c e s . The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h i s c o n d i t i o n r e s t s w i t h e i t h e r the salesman who sold t h e s e t o r tkle s e r v i c e man who f a i l e d t o c o r r e c t t h i s f a l l a c y i n the customer~s mind, o r w i t h t h e manufacturer of t h e s e t f o r over a d v e r t i s i n g h i s product, and being a l i t t l e too o p t i m i s t i c a s t o t h e possibilit i e s of r e c e p t i o n . A manufacturer who i n N w York C i t y r e c e i v e s the e P a c i f i c Coast s t a t i o n s on h i s product i s not j u s t i f i e d i n making a g e n e r a l statement t h a t t h i s i s so and g i v e t h e impression t o the r e a d e r of t h e advertisement t h a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r r e c e i v e r w i l l perform l i k e wise i n every o t h e r l o c a l i t y . That i s incomplete a d v e r t i s i n g a n d should be discouraged a s i t h a s a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on the i n d u s t r y a s a whole. Under the caption of l o c a t i o n many f a c t o r s must be considered. The type of b u i l d i n g i n which t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n i s made, t h e proximity t o s t e e l b u i l d i n g s , power l i n e s , t r o l l e y and r a i l w a y l i n e s , and the geol o g i c a l and Contents Copyrighted 1930 P r i n t e d i n USA ...

l o g i c a l and topographical conditions surrounding t h e i n s t a l l a t i o a a r e a l l important f a c t o r s . C e r t a i n a r e a s appear t o be dead t o c e r t a i n s t a t i o n s , while a t t h e same time p a r t i c u l a r l y good f o r o t h e r s . W do e not b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s i s due t o t h e a r e a being so c a l l e d "dead" but due t o t h e d i s t o r t i o n of t h e wave f r o n t from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n causing it t o be d e f l e c t e d i n such a manner t o r e n d e r r e c e p t i o n of s i g n a l s from t h a t s t a t i o n very d i f f i c u l t o r impossible i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r location. Under d e f e c t i v e a c c e s s o r i e s we may include d e f e c t i v e tubes, b a t t e r i e s , loud speakers, antenna and ground i n s t a l l a t i o n s , a l s o improper b a t t e r y o r power connections. Many s e t s f a i l o r a r e r e t u r n e d t o t h e d e a l e r a s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y because of poor antenna and ground i n s t a l l a t i o n s . itlany s e t s of good q u a l i t y and capable of d e l i v e r i n g s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s f a i l because the loud speaker t h a t i s used w i t h i t does not have t h e proper e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o operate s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n conjunction w i t h t h e r e c e i v e r . Tubes w i l l a l s o cause t r o u b l e a s they a r e s u b j e c t t o c e r t a i n d e f e c t s because of t h e i r d e l i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n . Open c i r c u i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y found i n the movable connections of t h e s e t such a s condenser p3g t a i l s , loop l e a d s , loud speaker l e a d s , and any o t h e r connection t h a t i s s u b j e c t t o movement o r v i b r a t i o n i n the normal o p e r a t i o n of t h e s e t . Open c i r c u i t s may a l s o r e s u l t from burned out t r a n s f o r m e r s o r from mzchanical f a i l u r e s i n telephone jacks, r h e o s t a t s , and switches.
I f a s e t h a s been once t e s t e d and found t o be O.K., s h o r t c i r c u i t s r a r e l y occur. When t h e y do i t i s t h e r e s u l t of a mechanical f a i l u r e of t h e moving p a r t s o r of t i n k e r i n g with t h e mechanism of the s e t . It w i l l sometimes happen t h a t t h e p i g - t a i l of a moving element of t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l break and f a l l i n such a way a s t o cause a s h o r t c i r c u i t of t h a t element. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e of t h e p i g - t a i l s of v a r i a b l e condensers. I f t h e f i l a m e n t of t h e tube should break t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e f i l a m e n t f a l l i n g i n such a way a s t o cause a s h o r t c i r c u i t between i t s e l f and t h e p l a t e and g r i d elements of t h e tube. When such a f r a c t u r e of t h e f i l a m e n t occurs t h e v o l t a g e of the B o r C b a t t e r y a s the case may be, i s s h o r t c i r c u i t e d through t h e conductors involved. This type of s h o r t c i r c u i t i s g e n e r a l l y of very b r i e f dur a t i o n a s t h e f i l a m e n t w i l l g e n e r a l l y burn out a s soon a s the s h o r t occurs. A c o n t a c t between t h e g r i d and p l a t e element of a tube i s a more s e r i o u s type of s h o r t c i r c u i t , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e r a p i d d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e B and C e b a t t e r i e s , and may p o s s i b l y cause a burn out of t h e transformer windings i n t h e c i r c u i t s involved.

The foregoing t r o u b l e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y easy t o check up a s they a r e i m mediately apparent o r can e a s i l y b e -l o c a t e d by a c o n t i n u i t y of c i r c u i t test. The most d i f f i c u l t t y p e of f a i l u r e t o l o c a t e i s t h a t caused by a h i g h r e s i s t a n c e connection. It i s not only d i f f i c u l t t o l o c a t e , but i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o determine. T h i s condition w i l l cause t h e s e t t o operate i n d i f f e r e n t l y w i t h r a t h e r ~ m s a t i s f a c t o r yr e s u l t s . This condition i s Lesson 35

sheet 2

sometimes mistaken a s l o c a t i o n trouble. A h i g h r e s i s t a n c e i s p o s s i b l e Soldered cqnnections that a r e a t any connection I n t h e r e c e i v e r . soldered w i t h a c o r r o s i v e f l u x t h a t has not been p r o p e r l y t r e a t e d a f t e r t h e s o l d e r i n g o p e r a t i o n a r e probably t h e worst offenders. Weak mechanical s p r i n g s i n telephone jacks and switches may a l s o introduce h i g h r e s i s t a n c e connections. Radio s e t s , l i k e human i n d i v i d u a l s , a r e very much t h e same t h e world over. They f a i l oq succeed according t o a few fundamental laws. They a r e s u b j e c t a s i t were t o t h e same i l l s . The d o c t o r can diagnose the t r o u b l e i n a manls system whether he be w e l l d r e s s e d o r poorly dressed, whether h i s name be S m i t h of Jones, because he knows t h e fundamental laws governing t h e human system and i s not confused by s i z e o r shape o r a d i f f e r e n c e i n p h y s i c a l dimensions o r shape. One d o e s n l t have t o be a Radio engineer t o b e a b l e t o s e r v i c e a r a d i o s e t . He does need experience t o become adept, and a good knowledge of t h e ftlndamentals i s valuable. One must be of course f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e v a r i o u s parts that a r e commonly used i n r a d i o r e c e i v e r s such a s r h e o s t a t , jacks, and s o on, and must know i n a g e n e r a l way, the f u n c t i o n of each. Given a f i r s t - a i d manual, t h e average i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a n ordinary amonnt of common sense and a n a b i l i t y t o f o l l o w d i r e c t i o n s mfsrht go o u t and administer f i r s t - a i d treatment t o a drowning man, and i f he followed t h e d i r e c t i o n s p r o p e r l y m i a t e f f e c t a recovery. A doctor could do no d i f f e r e n t l y . H i s experience would permit h i m t o handle t h e case mare s k i l l f u l l y and. h i s ineimate knowledge of t h e workings of t h e human systems would permit h i m t o diagnose t h e case more q u i c k l y from t h e apparent symptoms, but t h e man w i t h t h e f i r s t - a i d manual would produce t h e same r e s u l t s i n a l i t t l e l o n g e r time and y e t he knows nothing of t h e medical science. For i n s t a n c e , what does a d o c t o r do when he i s c a l l e d i n t o t r e a t a s i c k person? The f i r s t t h i n g he g e n e r a l l y does Is t o f e e l t h e p u l s e and while doing t h a t , s t a r t s a s e r i e s of q u e s t i o n s a s t o t h e l e n g t h of ttme t h e person h a s been ill, where the p a i n s a r e , and he may even go a s far a s t o i n q u i r e i n t o t h e family h i s t o r y . Let t h a t be t h e p r a c t i c e of t h e r a d i o s e r v i c e man. Do n o t immediately g e t out t h e t o o l bag and s t a r t p u l l i n g t h e s e t a p a r t , b u t t r y and f i n d out what t h e d i f f i c u l t y i s by q u e s t i o n i n g t h e customer. What would you t h i n k of a d o c t o r if a t first s i g h t of every p a t i e n t , h e s t a r t e d t o operate, and y e t you w i l l s e e a s e r v i c e man start i n immediately t o p u l l t h e s e t out of t h e c a b i n e t and look f o r t r o u b l e , and t h e t r o u b l e may be i n a b a t t e r y connection. what we w i l l attempt i n t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n i s t o o u t l i n e a f i r s t - a i d manual f o r t h e treatment of s i c k r a d i o s e t s , that w i l l enable you t o recognize t r o u b l e and make t h e necessary r e p a i r s . W w i l l t r e a t the e s u b j e c t from a p r a c t i c a l viewpoint and r e f e r only t o t h e o r e t i c a l d i s cussions when a b s o l u t e l y necessary t o express our p o i n t . W have e prepared a l i s t of complaints that a r e most f r e q u e n t l y heard, and ne Lesson 35

- sheet

*
w i l l analyze each complaint a s t o t h e p o s s i b l e reason f o r it.

Let u s s t a r t w i t h a suggestion t o t h e d e a l e r , o r f o r t h a t matter, t o any one who s e l l s a r a d i o r e c e i v e r . Test a l l s e t s before s a l e . T h i s t a k e s but a very few minutes and w i l l s u r e l y pay w e l l i n avoiding diss a t i s f a c t i o n a s w e l l a s time t h a t i s sometimes necessary t o s e r v i c e a d e f e c t i v e s e t t h a t has been shipped t o a customer. A r a d i o r e c e i v e r t h a t i s working p r o p e r l y today does not a s a r u l e go bad tomorrow, and i f such a n i n s t a l l a t i o n does f a i l , the d e a l e r may f e e l t h a t the t r o u b l e i s due t o a d e f e c t i v e accessory r a t h e r than t h e s e t i t s e l f . When t h e s e r v i c e man i s c a l l e d on t o s e r v i c e such a s e t he has t h e confidence t h a t t h e s e t i s O.K. and he w i l l immediately be a b l e t o concentrate on t h e r e a l p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e r a t h e r t h a n imaginary ones. Then too, i f t h e d e a l e r s would acquaint the customer w i t h t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of r a d i o r e c e p t i o n , what t o expect and what not t o expect, s e r v i c e problems would be minimized. Acquaint t h e customer a s t o t h e probable l e n g t h of t i m e h i s b a t t e r i e s w i l l l a s t . T h i s i s q u i t e i m p o r t a n t , and i f followed out, w i l l avoid some v e r y d i s a g r e e a b l e service jobs. For example, when a man purchases a r a d i o s e t he becomes q u i t e e n t h u s i a s t i c and w l l l read a l l a v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e on t h e s u b j e c t , and a t t h e end of t h e month he h a s absorbed j u s t enough information t o be dangerous. J u s t about t h i s time t h e s i g n a l s on h i s s e t w i l l s t a r t t o decrease and he w i l l remember having read somewhere t h a t t h i s might be caused by a d e f e c t i v e transformer, and he immediately g e t s out the t o o l s t o make t h e r e p a i r , and t h e n t h e d e a l e r h a s a r e g u l a r s e r v i c e job on h i s hands. Had t h e d e a l e r i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e acquainted the customer w i t h t h e f a c t s concerning t h e l i f e of the b a t t e r i e s , the customer would be more t h a n l i k e l y t o r e c a l l such information and take t h e proper s t e p s . The q u e s t i o n h a s been asked a t times, "What should the s e r v i c e man' s equipment c o n s i s t o f ? " He should c a r r y t h e necessary t o o l s and apparatus t o be a b l e t o run a complete t e s t on the s e t t o be s e r v i c e d and be a b l e t o make any minor r e p a i r necessary. W suggest t h e following items: e Set of t e s t e d tubes, m u l t i - s c a l e voltmeter of good q u a l i t y , p a i r of head phones, l a r g e and small screw d r i v e r s , small s o l d e r i n g i r o n , s o l d e r and non- corrosive flux, spare wire and tape, p l i e r s , t e s t l e a d s w i t h c l i p s , p i p e c l e a n e r s , l a r g e p i e c e of c l o t h , s e t of B and C b a t t e r i e s (small). m e n a s e r v i c e man goes i n t o a customer's home he i s u s u a l l y going t h e r e as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a c o m e r c i a 1 establishment. He should be i n s t r u c t e d t o be courteous and considerate. If he must take a s e t out of the cabinet f o r adjustment he should use t h e p i e c e of c l o t h provided e i n h i s k i t t o p r o t e c t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e t a b l e he works on. H should answer a l l q u e s t i o n s asked h i m no m a t t e r how absurd t h e y may appear t o him. The customer does n o t h o l d that p o i n t of view o r he would not

Lesson 35

sheet 4

ask them. The customer g e n e r a l l y h a s one q u e s t i o n t h a t he would l i k e t o have answered, and i n his mind t h e s e r v i c e man must be an e x p e r t , i n order t o be a b l e t o do such work, and s o he unburdens h i s mind. The s e r v i c e man should r e s p e c t t h i s a t t i t u d e on t h e p a r t of t h e customer and should do h i s b e s t t o p o i n t out f a l l a c i e s t a c t f u l l y and s e t t h e customer r i g h t i n h i s i d e a s about radio. The s e r v i c e man should make t h e customer enjoy h i s v i s i t ; i f t h i s i s done t h e s e r v i c e man becomes a valuable a s s e t t o a b u s i n e s s and i s a p o t e n t i a l salesman.
The s e r v i c e man, before he s t a r t s t o make any adjustments o t h e r t h a n turning on t h e s e t and t r y i n g t h e v a r i o u s c o n t r o l s , should q u e s t i o n the customer a s t o how i t happened, the time, place and c o n d i t i o n s surp ~ u n d i n gt h e f a i l w e . Such q u e s t i o n s a s t h e following:

H w long has t h e s e t been i n ooeration? o Was t h e s e t o p e r a t i n g s a t l s f a c t o r i L y up t o t h e time of f a i l u r e ? Were you tuning t h e s e t when t h e f a i l u r e occurred? If so what c o n t r o l were you moving? Did you make any change i n t h e connection of t h e b a t t e r i e s , if so what were t h e y ? Did i t suddenly s t o p operating? Ws t h e r e any squeal o r howling sound i n i t j u s t p r i o r t o i t s a failure? Were you moving t h e loop? Did t h e loud speaker f a l l ? I s t h e antenna O.K? I n s h o r t , have t h e customer re- enact the c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e time of f a i l u r e . Get a l l t h e symptoms and a s u r p r i s i n g amount of time may be saved i n running down t h e d i f f i c u l t y . If s u f f i b i e n t q u e s t i o n s a r e asked, t h e customer w i l l g e n e r a l l y g i v e you t h e r e a l cause of t r o u b l e o r he w i l l suggest something t o you i n t h e course of i n q u i r y t h a t w i l l p o i n t out j u s t what t h e cause of f a i l u r e was. S e t s as a r u l e do not go bad of themselves but t h e f a i l u r e u s u a l l y occurs while some o p e r a t i o n i s t a k i n g place, such as p l q g i n g i n the loud speaker, t u r n i n g t h e condensers o r making a change i n the b a t t e r y connections. The length of time t h a t c a t i o n of v a r i o u s t y p e s s t a l l e d i s subject t o a been i n o p e r a t i o n f o r a a s e t has b e m i n o p e r a t i o n w i l l be a n i n d l of t r o u b l e s . A s e t t h a t h a s r e c e n t l y been i n c e r t a i n type of f a i l u r e while a s e t t h a t h a s gear o r more i s s u b j e c t t o o t h e r types of failure.

If a s e t h a s been i n s t a l l e d f o r a p e r i o d of two weeks o r l e s s , o u t s i d e

of the i n a b i l i t y of t h e customer t o produce t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t s t h e r e a r e only a few reasons why t h e s e t w i l l f a i l , and t h e y a r e : Defective b a t t e r y o r b a t t e r y connection. Loud Speaker connection loose i n telephone plug. Burnout of transformer. O f course t h e r e may be o t h e r reasons but t h e s e a r e t h e most common and a r e given i n t h e o r d e r of t h e i r p o s s i b i l i t y of occurence. Lesson 35
A d e f e c t i v e tube.

sheet 5

If t h e s e t has been i n o p e r a t i o n f o r a month o r s i x weeks and h a s been giving s a t i s f a c t o r y s e r v i c e f o r t h a t period t h e cause of f a i l u r e i s g e n e r a l l y due t o t h e weakening of the b a t t e r i e s .

If the s e t has been i n o p e r a t i o n f o r a period of s i x months o r a year, t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of t r o u b l e w i l l increase. If t h e f a i l u r e i n t h i s type of i n s t a l l a t i o n has been gradual, t h e f i r s t thought would be t h a t t h e tubes were becoming d e a c t i v a t e d through c o n t i n u a l use. If t h e breakdown was sudden, a mechanical f a i l u r e m i g h t be expected i n one of t h e movable connections o r p i g t a i l s . A burned out transformer could be expected i n s e t s of t h i s c l a s s . If t h e t r o u b l e i s due t o a n o i s e condition, t h e f a i l u r e m i g h t be a s m i b e d t o d u s t and d l r t accumulations on the c o n d e n s e p l a t e s o r o t h e r important p a r t s of the r e c e i v e r . The d e f e c t might a l s o be due t o a aoldered connection. I t w i l l r e q u i r e a s a r u l e a r a t h e r long period of time f o r a soldered connection t o corrode t o such a degree a s t o cause t h i s condition. The l o c a l atmospheric conditions under which t b e s e t h a s been operating may have some bearing on t h e cause of f a i l u r e . If t h e s e t h a s been o p e r a t i n g near t h e seashore and h a s been sugjected t o the a c t i o n of s a l t atmosphere i t may have caused s u f f i c i e n t corrosion of t h e connections o r o t h e r m e t a l l i c p a r t s so a s t o i n t r c d u c e h i g h r e s i s t a n c e o r leakage p a t h s . Moisture may s a t u r a t e t h e cheaper grades of d i l e c t o t o such a n e x t e n t a s t o cause high frequency s h o r t c i r c u i t s .

s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s and i t develops n o i s e s and s c r a t c h i n g sounds, do not look f o r a loose connection i n the w i r i n g of t h e s e t , b u t r a t h e r look f o r an open c i r c u i t i n some of t h e moving p a r t s . Worn mechanical p a r t s a r e o f t e n mistaken f o r loose connections i n t h e wiring. The wiring i s a b s o l u t e l y s t a t i o n a r y and i t i s n o t a t a l l l i k e l y t h a t it w i l l be d i s t r u b e d i n t h e ordinary use of t h e s e t so a s t o cause a f a i l u r e due t o a l o o s e connection. Vernier d r i v e s h a f t s and v e r n i e r p l a t e s w i l l wear loose and while a p p a r e n t l y a r e making a p e r f e c t cont a c t t o t h e metal s u r f a c e s of the condenser when t h e s e t i s brought i n t o a c r i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n a s i s t h e case when r e c e i v i n g d i s t a n t stations, w i l l cause a l l kinds of n o i s e s t h a t m i g h t be thought due t o a loose connection i n t h e wiring. Another item t o be considered i n t h e s e r v i c i n g of r a d i o s e t s i s the c o s t of t h e o r i g i n a l apparatus. Radio l i k e any o t h e r merchandise, i s a m a t t e r of p r i c e . A s a r u l e , t h e more you pay f o r a s e t , the b e t t e r w i l l be t h e q u a l i t y of theequipment you g e t and you may reasonably expect longer and more s a t i s f a c t o r y s e r v i c e from it. I n a h i g h grade r e c e i v e r , t h e mechanical f a i l u r e s a r e l e s s f r e q u e n t t h a n i n t h e cheaper grades of s e t s . The same i s t r u e of e l e c t r i c a l f a i l u r e s . The cheaper grades of s e t s a r e much more s u b j e c t t o c l i m a t i c conditions tkian a r e t h e b e t t e r g m d e s . V have compiled a s e r i e s of complaints and we w i l l take each e ! one up i n t u r n a s t o what i t suggests a s the p o s s i b l e cause of f a i l u r e .
1.

If a s e t h a s been o p e r a t i n g f o r a long period of time and h a s given

The s e t j u s t stopped operating. It was g i v i n g e x c e l l e n t r e s u l t s but i t suddenly stopped. This complaint i s q u i t e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y from a s e r v i c e man's p o i n t of Lesson 35

sheet 6

view. It does not suggest anything d e f i n i t e and i t may be the r e s u l t of many things. S e t s do not g e n e r a l l y go bad i n t h i s manner. I t genera l l y occurs when some o p e r a t i o n i s taking place, whether i t be tuning o r making adjustments o r plugging i n the loud speaker o r revolving t h e loop. The s e r v i c e man should i n q u i r e j u s t how t h e f a i l u r e took place, j u s t what t h e customer was doing when t h e s e t f a i l e d . I f t h e f a i l u r e occurred when some adjustment was being made, he should look f o r a broken connection o r a mechanical breakdown i n t h e c o n t r o l being used a t the time. There a r e s e v e r a l causes f o r a s e t f a i l i n g completely ,and suddenly,'and t h e y a r e p r i n c i p a l l y , a burned out tube, a burned out transformer, a broken connection o r a s h o r t c i r c u i t . A broken loop connection w i l l a l s o cause complete f a i l u r e a s w e l l a s a burned out loud speaker, b u t t h e l i s t j u s t given r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r i n c i p l e causes f o r a complete and sudden f a i l u r e .

A burned out tube w i l l be immediately obvious and should be rep1aced.A broken b a t t e r y connection o r p i g t a i l may be l o c a t e d by i n s p e c t i o n and necessary r e p a i r s made. A d e f e c t i v e loud speaker may be determined by r e p l a c i n g t h e loud speaker w i t h a p a i r of head phones and noting whether t h e head phones operate s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . There i s a p o s s i b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i n s e t s t h a t employ a l a r g e bi- pass condenser which i s connected a c r o s s t h e p l a t e supply. I n event of t h i s condenser becoming s h o r t c i r c u i t e d i t w i l l cause the B b a t t e r i e s t o drop i n voltage very r a p i d l y and i f the s h o r t i s complete enough, t h e b a t t e r i e s w i l l h e a t up. T h i s can be very q u i c k l y determined by breaking t h e connection through t h e negative B b a t t e r y . If a heavy spark occurs, i t i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a s h o r t c i r c u i t i n t h e B b a t t e r y supply which may be due t o t h i s condenser. I n t e s t i n g t h i s condenser should by chance the tubes be l i t when t h e B b a t t e r y connection i s broken, a small spark w i l l be present. The small spark i s due t o the normal d r a i n on t h e B b a t t e r i e s and r e p r e s e n t s the t o t a l p l a t e c u r r e n t of the t u b e s i n the s e t . I f t h e tubes a r e not l i t , no sparking should occur when t h e b a t t e r y connection i s broken, and i f t h e r e should be, t h e r e i s a n i n d i c a t i o n of a short c i r c u i t w i t h i n the s e t . O f course, t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y of a wire breaking f r e e i n t h e s e t i b s e l f and f a l l i n g i n such a way a s t o cause a s h o r t c i r c u i t , h t t h i s i s immediately apparent on i n s p e c t i o n . There i s a l s o a p o s s i b i l i t y of a s h o r t c i r c u i t of t h e elements i n t h e tubes.
"I cannot g e t d i s t a n c e " i s a general c r i t i c i s m t h a t i s met w i t h r a d i o r e c e i v e r s of a l l types. I n some cases i t i s the r e s u l t of over advert i s i n g on the p a r t of t h e manufacturer which l e a d s t h e customer t o bel i e v e t h a t he w i l l g e t d i s t a n t stabions under any and a l l conditions j u s t by t u r n i n g the d i a l s . The manufacturer o r d e a l e r who employs t h i s type of a d v e r t i s i n g sooner o r l a t e r d i g s h i s own grave a s you cannot f o o l t h e p u b l i c a l l or t h e time.

The most g e n e r a l cause f o r t h i s complaint i s due t o t h e i n a b i l i t y of the customer t o mne t h e s e t p r o p e r l y so a s t o g e t t h e most out of i t . The obvious remedy f o r t h i s i s t o i n s t r u c t him f u r t h e r i n t h e operation of the s e t . The s e r v i c e man should spend an evening w i t h h i m and show him j u s t how t o do i t , and once the customer knows t h a t the s e t i s capab l e of r e c e i v i n g d i s t a n c e , he w i l l never admit t h a t he cannot g e t it. Lesson 35

sheet 7

frequency a m p l i f i e r . Try interchanging tubes so a s t o g e t t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e combination. Do not make a p r a c t i c e of interchanging tubes, a f t e r t h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y combination h a s once been determined. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e t o d r y c e l l tubes. Because of t h e extremely d e l i c a t e s t r u c t u r e , i t i s n o t w e l l t o subject them t o excessive handling. Location and l o c a l conditions m a t e r i a l l y e f f e c t t h e a b i l i t g of a s e t t o receive d i s t a n t s9ations. Antenna c o n s t r u c t i o n and ground conditions a r e important f a c t o r s . I f a loop i s used the s h i e l d i n g of nearby m e t a l l i c bodies w i l l a f f e c t t h e r e s u l t s . I n a case of loop s e t s i t i s advisable t o i n s t a l l the s e t near a window. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n the l a t e s t types of homes and apartment houses which employ i n t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n metal l a t h i n g which a c t s a n a n e l e c t r o - s t a t i c s h i e l d t o t h e incoming s i g n a l s . I n t h e case of s e t s employing antennas it w i l l be necessary t o experiment w i t h antennas of d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h and i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . However, before the s e r v i c e man blames t h e loc a t i o n a s the cause of f a i l u r e , he should take a s e t of s i m i l a r make which he knows operates s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n another l o c a t i o n , and check t h e r e s u l t s i n the d o u b t f u l l o c a t i o n comparing r e s u l t s received on t h e new s e t w i t h those of t h e standard s e t . I n a g r e a t many i n s t a n c e s t h e s e r v i c e man i s crone t o use l o c a t i o n a s the cause of f a i l u r e t o r e c e i v e d i s t a n t s i g a n l s whereas it may be due t o a d e f e c t i v e p a r t i n the r a d i o set.
2. The s i g n a l comes i n loudly and t h e n d i e s out: T h i s i s g e n e r a l l y due t o t h e phenomenon of f a d i n g w i t h which the

A d e f e c t i v e tube w i l l sometimes prevent d i s t a n c e r e c e p t i o n s . Perhaps one of the tubes used i n the r a d i o frequency c i r c u i t i s not p a r t i c u l a r l y adapted f o r t h a t purpose, b u t w i l l make a n i d e a l d e t e c t o r or audio

customer h a s had no experience. However, should t h i s c o n d i t i o n e x i s t on t h e l o c a l s t a t i o n s , a s w e l l a s the d i s t a n t s t a t i o n s we would be i n c l i n e d t o s u s p e c t e i t h e r a def e c t i v e A b a t t e r y connection o r a d e f e c t i v e A b a t t e r y . A soldered connection i n t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t t h a t h a s become corroded o r broken f o r some unknown r e a s o p while n o t completely open so a s t o cause t h e tubes f a i l u r e t o l i g h t , b u t j u s t making contact, w i l l cause t h i s cond i t i o n . This d e f e c t i v e connection a t times w i l l become h i g h l y r e s i s t a n t s u f f i c i e n t l y so a s t o cause a decrease i n t h e f i l a m e n t b r i l l i a n c y . T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y obvious a s t h e b r i l l i a n c y decreases a t t h e time of t h e fading. T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s r a r e l y met but it i s extremely d i f f i c u l t t o l o c a t e . The d e f e c t i v e connection r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l i n s p e c t i o n of every connection. This condition may be brought about by a d e f e c t i v e d r y c e l l type A b a t t e r y . I n t h i s case i t i s due t o a l o c a l a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e d r y c e l l . The i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c e l l w i l l vary due t o t h i s l o c a l a c t i o n and cause e f f e c t s s i m i l a r t o t h a t caused by t h e d e f e c t i v e connection j u s t described. I n t h e case of d r y c e l l s it i s sometimes necessary t o r e a d j u s t t h e f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t s s l i g h t l y i n o r d e r t o r e s t o r e the s e t s t o i t s normal o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n and a t times, t h e s e t w i l l recover 4 i t s e l f . I n a s t o r a g e type - b a t t e r y t h i s c o n d i t i o n may be brought Lesson 35

- sheet 8

about by a socalled t r e e i n g e f f e c t . This condition i s g e n e r a l l y only present i n o l d storage b a t t e r i e s and i s t h e r e s u l t of a l e a d t r e e building up on the p l a t e s i n such a way a s t o p e n e t r a t e the s e p a r a t o r . This lead t r e e b u i l d s up u n t i l i t touches the opposite p l a t e and causes" a momentary s h o r t c i r c u i t of the p l a t e s involved. The s h o r t c i r c u i t burns off the l e a d t r e e and immediately t h e b u i l d i n g up process i s s t a r t e d again. m e n t h e s h o r t c i r c u i t occurs t h e r e w i l l be a s l i g h t decrease i n the t o t a l voltage of t h e b a t t e r y which w i l l cause a s l i g h t decrease i n t h e f i l a m e n t b r i l l i a n c y r e s u l t i n g i n t h i s fading e f f e c t . I n cases of t'nis type, the f a d i n g periods a r e only momentary and r e c u r a t f a i r l y uniform time interval,^ and i s p r e s e n t on a l l p o s i t i o n s of the tuning s c a l e .
A s i m i l a r fading condition may be caused on s e t s employing a n antenna

o r l e a d i n . T h i s condition should not be confused w i t h t h e f a d i n g phenomenon and may be i d e n t i f i e d by the f a c t t h a t t h e volume of t h e s i g n a l w i l l not change g r a d u a l l y , but w i l l swing i n and out. The p a r t i c u l a r t r o u b l e t o be encountered i s when t h e antenna i s close t o a m e t a l l i c o r o t h e r conducting body and i n swinging touches same, causing a momentary s h o r t c i r c u i t . This i s recognized by a c l i c k i n t h e loud speaker when t h e ground occurs.
3. Fading phenomenon. To a person u n f a m i l i a r w i t h the e f f e c t of fading, t h e tendency i s t o b e l i e v e t h a t i t i s s e t t r o u b l e ; t h i s , however, i s not the case.

When r e c e i v i n g from a d i s t a n t s t a t i o n the s i g n a l volume may suddenly begin t o decrease, g r a d u a l l y f a d i n g u n t i l i t n e a r l y disappears. - A l l the tuning o r adjustments p o s s i b l e w i l l not b r i n g t h e s i g n a l back t o the o r i g i n a l volume u n t i l c e r t a i n conditions change. Again fading may occur with t h e s i g n a l e n t i r e l y disappearing and, w i t h i n the next moment o r so, reappear and b u i l d up even louder t h a n i t was o r i g i n a l l y . A l l t h i s may happen without so much a s touching t h e c o n t r o l s of t h e s e t . This a c t i o n i s c a l l e d fading. There i s no p o s i t i v e l y proven reason f o r t h i s e f f e c t although t h e r e i s a n explanation which seems t o account f o r i t . T h i s explanation i s expressed by t h e Heaviside theory i n the follov~ing. The sun's r a y s i n passing through the atmosphere of the e a r t h produce a n e f f e c t c a l l e d i o n i z a t i o n , and according t o t h e Heaviside theory t h e r e i s , a t some d i s t a n c e above t h e surface of t h e e a r t h , a l a y e r of ionized a i r . This l a y e r , i t i s thought, i s not a smooth even surface but i s believed t o r o l l about s i m i l a r t o the waves of t h e sea. Radio s i g n a l s i n l e a v i n g t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna t r a v e l i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . Waves t r a v e l i n g downward p e n e t r a t e the e a r t h t o a c e r t a i n depth. Waves t r a v e l i n g i n a h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n over the surface of the e a r t h , c a l l e d ground waves, a r e g r a d u a l l y absorbed by v a r i o u s o b j e c t s i n t h e i r path and grow weaker a s the d i s t a n c e from t h e t r a n s Lesson 35

sheet 9

m i t t e r i n c r e a s e s . Waves t r a v e l i n g upward a r e supposed t o continue u n t i l they s t r i k e t h e Heaviside l a y e r through which t h e y w i l l not p a s s but a r e r e f l e c t e d back toward the e a r t h when coming i n contact with t h i s l a y e r . Another p e c u l i a r phenomenon a t t r i b u t e d t o the IIeaviside l a y e r i s that the r a d i o wave i s not always immediately ref l e e t e d bacK but tends t o g l i d e along the underside of t h e l a y e r i n some cases f o r a considerable d i s t a n c e before f i n a l l y being r e f l e c t e d back t o e a r t h . The radio s i g n a l a r r i v i n g a t t h e r e c e i v e r antenna i s a combination of t h e ground wave and t h e wave t r a v e l i n g d i r e c t l y through the a i r upward t o the Heavisl.de l a y e r and which i s r e f l e c t e d back t o e a r t h . I n d a y l i g h t t h e waves t r a v e l i n g upward a r e f o r the most p a r t absorbed and a r e t h e r e f o r e l o s t , t h e ground waves being the only waves received and which come d i r e c t l y t o the r e c e i v e r over t h e s u r f a c e of the e a r t h . During darkness, however, t h i s condition i s changed. The ground wave and the r e f l e c t e d wave both r e a c h the r e c e i v i n g antenna which, l e t us o sap, i s w i t h i n t ~ o r t h r e e hundred miles of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n . The waves t r a v e l i n g upward t o t h e Heaviside l a y e r and r e f l e c t e d back, t r a v e l a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e t h a n the ground waves i n reaching t h e r e ceiving antenna, t h e r e f o r e t h e r e f l e c t e d waves may s t r i k e t h e ' a n t e m a a l i t t l e l a t e r t h a n t h e waves coming d i r e c t . The combination of t h e two waves may be such t h a t they completely balance out each o t h e r due t o t h e p o s i t i v e a l t e r n a t i o n of one wave a r r i v i n g a t t h e same i n s t a n c e t h e negative a l t e r n a t i o n of t h e o t h e r wave a r r i v e s . Ithen t h e Heaviside l a y e r s h i f t s , t h i s changes t h e r e l a t i o n and t h e s i g n a l s a r e a g a i n heard and i n many cases become stronger than t h e y were before. The phenomenon of f a d i n g t h e r e f o r e caknot be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f a u l t of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r o r r e c e i v e r . A t the p r e s e n t time i t i s beyond human c o n t r o l and nothing can be done with i t u n t i l conditions r e sponsible f o r t h e phenomenon change.
4.

I d o n ' t g e t any volume, t h e s i g n a l s a r e weak: If t h i s condition i s p e r s i s t e n t and i n v e s t i g a t i o n shows t h a t good r e s u l t s were never had on t h e r e c e i v e r and found t o be O.K., t h e d i f f i c u l t y would seem t o b e due t o one of the following causes:

I n f e r i o r type of s e t , o r one n o t capable of producing expected good r e s u l t s . Defective tubes Defective b a t t e r i e s . Reversed A b a t t e r y connection. Poor antenna l o c a t i o n or i n s t a l l a t i o n . Defective ground connection. Defective loud speaker.

Lesson 35

sheet 10

These a r e l i s t e d i n t h e i r order of importance and occurrence. If the r e c e i v e r i s of a n i n f e r i o r q u a l i t y some advantage may be had by r e placing the g r i d condensers and audio-frequency transformers with s i m i l a r instruments of b e t t e r q u a l i t y . If i t i s due t o l a c k of knowledge, i t i s t h e d u t y of the service man t o i n s t r u c t t h e customer more f u l l y . Defective tubes should be replaced. T h i s condition may be ohecked by r e p l a c i n g t h e e n t i r e s e t of tubes i n t h e d e f e c t i v e s e t with a s e t of tubes t h a t a r e known t o be O.K. A defective battery may be located by checking t h e voltage. I t i s g e n e r a l l y conceded t h a t a B b a t t e r y whose v o l t a g e had dropped 25% from t h e normal r a t i n g of the b a t t e r y should be discarded. I f the A b a t t e r y connections a r e reversed on r e c e i v e r s employing audio frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n , l i t t l e o r no amp l i f i c a t i o n w i l l be had. This i s e a s i l y checked by r e v e r s i n g the b a t t e r y leads. J u s t when an antenna i s d e f e c t i v e i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o say a s t h e r e a r e so many l o c a l conditions which p l a y important p a r t s i n t h e success o r f a i l u r e of an antenna i n s t a l l a t i o n . I t should be r e moved a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e from a l l o b j e c t s such a s t r e e s and b u i l d i n g s and metal o b j e c t s i n p a r t i c u l a r . I n general the h i g h e r the antenna t h e b e t t e r w i l l be t h e r e s u l t s obtained. If t h e antenna i s e r e c t e d i n the v i c i n i t y of a h i g h t e n s i o n transmission l i n e , i t should be erected so t h a t the l i n e of the antenna be a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e transmission l i n e . The antenna should be c a r e f u l l y i n s u l a t e d a t a l l p o i n t s throughout i t s l e n g t h including the l e a d i n . I t w i l l sometimes happen t h a t a s e t employing an antenna operates q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y during periods of d r y weather, but during and a f t e r r a i n storms, the operation of the s e t becomes r a t h e r i n d i f f e r e n t . This condition i s g e n e r a l l y due t o a d e f e c t i v e i n s u l a t o r which breaks down during periods of wet weather, causing h i g h l o s s e s . An opposite condition may be had where the s e t operated more s u c c e s s f u l l y d u r i n g p e r i o d s of wet weather than it d i d i n d r y weather. This would i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e moisture i n the ground enhanced t h e value of t h e ground connection by reducing t h e ground r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c i r c u i t . Some care should be exercised i n t h e s e l e c t i o n of a ground and t h e s e r v i c e man should n o t use t h e f i r s t ground t r i e d . Several good ground connections should be t r i e d and a n e f f o r t made t o determine the one g i v i n g maximum r e s u l t s , and t h i s one used. I n t h e p r e s e n t day equipment i t seems t o be customary t o use a n a p e r i o d i c c i r c u i t i n t h e antenna, and f o r t h a t reason d e f e c t i v e grounds do not manifest themselves quickly. I n antenna s e t s employing a s e r i e s antenna condenser a d e f e c t i v e ground w i l l cause t h e antenna condenser t o tune very broadly.
A loud speaker t h a t h a s been connected i n t o a r e c e i v e r w i t h the p o l a r i t y

reversed w i l l a f t e r a time become demagnetized and r e s u l t i n very poor volume and q u a l i t y . T h i s condition, however, i s r a r e l y met. 5. The volume was g r e a t f o r a s h o r t time but suddenly s t a r t e d t o weaken: This condition g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t s from u s i n g a n excess v o l t a g e on the tubes. It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n t h e case of s e t s employing d r y c e l l tubes, The customer sometimes has a p e c u l i a r psychology and b e l i e v e s t h a t by turning t h e r h e o s t a t s of the tubes on f u l l t h a t he i s g e t t i n g b e t t e r r e s u l t s . With t h e tubes used today employing t h o r i a t e d Tungsten f i l a m e n t s t h i s i s a f a l l a c y . Operating tubes u s i n g t h i s type of f i l a Lesson 35

sheet 1 1

ment a t a g r e a t e r t h a n normal voltage d e a c t i v a t e s t h e f i l a m e n t very r a p i d l y and n e c e s s a r i l y decreases i t s u s e f u l l i f e . Under no consider* a t i o n should a t h o r i a t e d Tungsten tube be operated a t a voltage higher t h a n the r a t e d voltage a s i n d i c a t e d by the manufacturer.
A d e f e c t i v e b a t t e r y t h a t has d e t e r i o r a t e d abnormally w i l l a l s o cause t h i s condition.

I can g e t !XEAF O.K. but WJZ i s weak and they a r e b o t h about the same d i s t a n c e away: It i s the g e n e r a l b e l i e f t h a t this condition i s caused by m e t a l l i c obs t r u c t i o n s such a s s t e e l b u i l d i n g s , high t e n s i o n systems, r a i l r o a d s , and so on, o r p o s s i b l y mineral d e p o s i t s near o r on t h e e a r t h ' s surface. It i s believed t h a t t h e s e o b s t r u c t i o n s cause e i t h e r an absorption o r a d e f l e c t i o n of t h e radio,waves which renders c e r t a i n a r e a s incapable of r e c e i v i n g s i g n a l s from c e r t a i n s t a t i o n s . Engineers r e c e n t l y c a r r i e d out experiments i n which t h e y p l o t t e d the s i g n a l s t r e n g t h of WEAF i n d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s of New York City, and of t h e p e c u l i a r conditions t h a t were noted. C e r t a i n a r e a s i n Central Park were p r a c t i c a l l y dead t o s i g n a l s from t h i s s t a t i o n . There i s no remedy f o r t h i s condition and i t i s not the f a u l t of any p a r t i c u l a r s e t , a s t h i s condition would be t r u e whether a c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r o r a Super-Heterodyne be used i n such a l o c a t i o n . O f course t h e Super-Heterodyne c i r c u i t because of I t s s e n s i t i v i t y , would respond t o an extremely weak s i g n a l t h a t would be i n a u d i b l e i n a c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r s e t , but f o r p r a c t i c a l considerations, r e c e p t i o n i n such a n a r e a would not be s a t i s f a c t o r y , while a t the same time give e x c e l l e n t r e s u l t s from o t h e r nearby s t a t i o n s .

6.

It works O.K. f o r awhile but suddenly a howl s t a r t s which sounds l i k e a s i r e n o r a f o g horn which can only be stopped by s h u t t i n g off t h e s e t o r c u t t i n g down t h e volume. T h i s e f f e c t i s due t o a r e v e r b e r a t o r y a i r column which 1 8 s e t up between the loud speaker and g e n e r a l l y the d e t e c t o r tube of t h e s e t . The a c t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o that which r e s u l t s when a r e c e i v e r of a telephone instrument i s placdd i n f r o n t of t h e mouthpiece of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . T h i s condition i s g e n e r a l l y caused by a microphonic tube i n the detector socket. It may a l s o be due t o a loose element i n some o a r t of t h e c i r c u i t . A loose transformer lamination o r condenser p l a t e might cause t h e same condition. The most popular theory of t h i s condition i s t h a t t h e v i b r a t i n g a i r column from t h e loud speaker causes a v i b r a t i o n of t h e tube c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which c a u s e s i n t u r n a v a r i a t i o n of the p l a t e c u r r e n t , and a n a c o u s t i c f e e d back r e s u l t s . T h i s i s a l o g i c a l explan a t i o n of t h i s phenomenon b u t i s not u n i v e r s a l l y accepted. I n loud speakers of t h e a d j u s t a b l e type, adjustment of t h e a i r gap w i l l sometimes eliminate t h i s howl. I n the case of non- adjustable loud speaker u n i t s it w i l l be necessary t o t r y interchanging t h e t u b e s i n the s e t s i n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h i s condition. I f interchanging the tubes does n o t c o r r e c t i t , place t h e loud speaker so that t h e b e l l p o i n t s away from t h e s e t and place e i t h e r t h e loud speaker o r t h e s e t o r both on wads of s o f t f e l t o r sponge rubber. It i s because of t h i s e f f e c t t h a t i t i s not a d v i s a b l e t o p l a c e t h e loud speaker on t o p of t h e cabinet, u n l e s s t h e tube sockets a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y cushioned.
7.

Lesson 35

sheet 1 2

This condition, however, u s u a l l y occurs only when the s e t i s operate4 a t maximum output and t h e r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r s a r e s e t i n an extremely s e n s i t i v e condition. Reduction of the volume w i l l i n v a r i a b l y eliminate t h i s howling e f f e c t .
8. The q u a l i t y i s t e r r i b l e . W cannot understand a t h i n g that i s said: e T h i s condition i s known a s d i s t o r t i o n and i s due t o many f a c t o r s . A s a

general r u l e d i s t o r t i o n occurs only i n the audio frequency c i r c u i t s . D i s t o r t i o n may be caused by a d e f e c t i v e tube, a d e f e c t i v e b a t t e r y , a def e c t i v e loud speaker, a broken down by-pass condenser a c r o s s the output, or what i s the most common caEse of d i s t o r t i o n , over- loading of the t u b e s A s o f t o r gassy tube w i l l cause d i s t o r t i o n , but t h i s d e f e c t i n a tube i s r a r e l y encountered i n t h e standard make of tube. A weak o r d e f e c t i v e C b a t t e r y i s a l s o a very common cause of d i s t o r t i o n and w i l l be evidenced by a tendency of t h e a m p l i f i e r s t o squeal. When t h e B b a t t e r y voltage has dropped 25% d i s t o r t i o n w i l l o f t e n r e s u l t and may be accompanied by a continuous h i g h pitched squeal. Audio frequency transformers of poor q u a l i t y and design w i l l cause d i s t o r t i o n . T h i s i s g e n e r a l l y i n d i c a t e d by t h e i n a b i l i t y of t h e a m p l i f i e r s t o reproduce t h e extremely high and low musical tones. A transformer i n which the l e a d s have been soldered w i t h a corrosive f l u x w i l l cause d i s t o r t i o n a s h o r t time p i o r t o t h e time when t h e corrosive a c t i o n of the f l u x w i l l cause t h e winding t o open. Both these conditions c a l l f o r t h e replacement of t h e d e f e c t i v e transformer. Over-loading of the a n p l i f i e r tubes i s evidenced by a b l a s t i n g of the loud tones of t h e program. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e on l o c a l reception. The customer should be i n s t r u c t e d t o watch the overloading of the tubes and if the b l a s t i n g does occur, he should detune hPs s e t s l i g h t l y so a s t o reduce the volume t o t h e p o i n t where t h e tubes w i l l J u n c t i o n properly. It i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e multi- tube s e t s used toda, when i n s t a l l e d i n t h e v i c i n i t y of a powerful broadcasti n g s t a t i o n , t o i p r e s s on the g r i d of the l a s t tube i n a s e r i e s , s u f f i c i e n t voltage so a s t o swing the g r i d voltage beyond the l i m i t s of t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e p o s i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve. Increasing t h e C b a t t e r y p o t e n t i a l o r v o l t a g e on tEe a m p l i f i e r t u b e s w i l l tend t o r e duce t h i s b l a s t i n g . But t h i s i s not recommended a s g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e because of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of i n c r e a s i n g t h e negative p o t e n t i a l t o such a p o i n t a s t o cause d i s t o r t i o n when the tube i s o p e r a t i n g w i t h normal volume. A g r e a t many a m p l i f i e r s i n r e c e i v i n g s e t s use a f i x e d condenser ranging i n value from .002 t o .006 connected a c r o s s t h e loud speaker terminals. T h i s condenser i s known a s a bi- pass condenser and i s subjected i n t h i s p a r t of t h e c i r c u i t t o considerable peak voltages. Shoulc! t h i s condenser f a i l , a d i s t o r t e d s i g n a l w i l l r e s u l t . I f on s e r v i c i n g t h i s condition i s met and a l l the foregoing items have been checked w i t h no r e s u l t s , replace t h i s bi- pass condenser, a s a p o t e n t i a l breakdown i n t h i s condenser i s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t o t e s t f o r u n l e s s l a b o r a t o r y equipment i s a v a i l a b l e .

9. I t i s loud enough b u t very noisy, t h e r e i s a continuous cackling r a s p i n g o r s c r a t c h i n g sound i n t h e loud speaker: This may be the r e s u l t of a g r e a t many causes. Intel-ference from either atmospheric o r l o c a l sources i s t h e most common cause of t h i s d e f e c t .

Lesson 35

sheet 13

By l o c a l sources w r e f e r t o such apparatus a s X-ray machines, v i o l e t e r a y machines, e l e c t r i c r a i l w a y systems, e l e v a t e d c o n t r o l s , leaky power l i n e s o r transformers, automatic telephone switching l i n e s , t e l e g r a p h l i n e s , and l o c a l t e l e g r a p h s t a t i o n s i n the v i c i n i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r . I n checking n o i s e s i n a r a d i o r e c e i v e r the f i r s t problem should be t o determine whether i t i s being picked upon t h e antenna o r t h e loop, o r whether i t i s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e s e t i t s e l f . In order t o check t h i s on a s e t employing a n antenna, a d j u s t t h e r e c e i v e r t o a p o i n t where t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e o r noise i s present. Then remove t h e antenna and ground connections from the r e c e i v e r and note whether o r not t h e noise ceases. If t h e r e i s a g r e a t decrease i n the volume of t h e noise when the l e a d s a r e disconnected, it i s s a f e t o assume t h a t t h e noise i s emanating from an o u t s i d e source.
If a loop s e t I s employed, disconnect t h e loop and place a s h o r t l e n g t h of wire not over f o u r inches i n l e n g t h i n place of t h e loop. I f t h e noise ceases when t h e loop i s removed it may be s a f e l y assumed t h a t t h e noise o r i g i n a t i n g a t some outside source. However, i f the noise pers i s t s a f t e r t h e pick-up c i r c u i t , e i t h e r loop o r antenna, i s removed, i t i s s a f e t o assume t h a t t h e n o i s e i s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e s e t i t s e l f . The noises r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e foregoing a r e those which a r e present a t a l l times, p a r t i c u l a r l y when none of t h e c o n t r o l s a r e being moved. Noises w i t h i n the s e t i t s e l f may be caused by one of the following items:
A d e f e c t i v e tube.

~ i r t y tube contact. Defective b a t t e r y . Defective loud speaker. D l r t on loud speaker diaphragm. Defective b a t t e r y c o n t a c t o r loose connection. Defects i n b a t t e r y e l i m i n a t i n g devices. The d e f e c t i v e tube should be replaced by a t e s t e d one. The tube cont a c t s should be cleaned w i t h a piece of emery c l o t h o r f i n e sand paper. Make sure t o remove a l l t r a c e s of g r i t before r e p l a c i n g the tube. Make sure the c o n t a c t springsof the sockets a r e c l e a n and a r e making good contact t o the c o n t a c t p i n s of t h e tube. A d e f e c t i v e b a t t e r y w i l l a l s o cause a l l kinds of n o i s e s i n a r e c e i v i n g s e t . The b a t t e r i e s should be checkezl i n t h e following manner: Connect a p a i r of headphones a c r o s s t h e outside t e r m i n a l s of each i n d i v i d u a l b a t t e r y , and note the sound i n the headphones. If t h e r e i s a b o i l i n g o r f r y i n g sound i n t h e headphones when t h e y a r e connected i n t h i s manner, it i s an i n d i c a t i o n of a defect i v e b a t t e r y , and b a t t e r i e s showing such d e f e c t s should not be used i n a r a d i o s e t . A loose or d e f e c t i v e b a t t e r y connection w i l l a l s o cause a s e t t o be noisy. A loud speaker w i t h a d e f e c t i v e winding w i l l a l s o cause disagreeable n o i s e s . Dust and d i r t on the loud speaker diaphragm w i l l cause t h e s e t t o appear noisy. A condition might a r i s e , where the diaphragm of t h e loud speaker would become loosened and cause i t t o r a t t l e when a c t u a t e d by t h e incoming s i g n a l . Loud speaker d e f e c t s genera l l y n e c e s s i t a t e a f a c t o r y r e p a i r . A transformer winding which i s det e r i o r a t i n g w i l l a l s o cause a h i s s i n g o r f r y i n g sound i n t h e a m p l i f i e r . Lesson 35

sheet 1 4

i s s u b j e c t t o v i b r a t i o n when t h e loud speaker f s o p e r a t i n g w i l l a l s o cause the s e t t o be noisy. I n order t o d e f i n i t e l y l o c a t e the o r i g i n of noises i n t h e r e c e i v e r , use a p a i r of headphones and plug them i n place of the loud speaker. T h i s w i l l immediately determine whether t h e noise i s o r i g i n a t i n s i n t h e loud speaker. I f the n o i s e p e r s i s t s w i t h t h e phones plugged i n t h e l a s t stage of a m p l i f i c a t i o n , plug i n t o the f i r s t stage, i f a jack i s provided, and r e p e a t t h e process plugging i n t o the d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t . I f but a s i n g l e jack i s provided, and t h i s jack i s connected i n t h e output of t h e audio frequency a m p l i f i e r s i n order t o determine whether o r not t h e noise i s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e audio frequency a m p l i f i e r s , connect t h e telephones i n s e r i e s with the d e t e c t o r B b a t t e r y l e a d . I n t h a t way, you may determine whether o r not t h e noise i s o r i g i n a t i n g ahead of the d e t e c t o r o r i n the audio frequency a m p l i f i e r s . Once the source of the n o i s e i s determined i t r e q u i r e s very c a r e f u l checking of the various p a r t s and connections i n the c i r c u i t s responsible.

A loose connection i n any p a r t of t h e r e c e i v e r and loud speaker, which

10. Set operates s a t i s f a c t o r i l y except when any of t h e c o n t r o l s a r e moved i t i s very noisy: This condition i n d i c a t e s d i r e c t l y a d e f e c t i v e connection caused by a mechanical f a i l u r e . A d e f e c t i v e tube w i l l sometimes cause t h i s cond i t i o n , and i s apparent when a r h e o s t a t i s moved o r t h e s e t i s subject t o mechanical v i b r a t i o n . If the noise p e r s b t s when any of the cont r o l s a r e moved such a s condensers and c o i l s , i t i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a mechanical f a i l u r e which i s causing a d e f e c t i v e e l e c t r i c a l connection. Dust and d i r t accumulations on t h e condenser p l a t e s w i l l a l s o cause n o i s e s t o be heard when the condensers a r e r o t a t e d . The p l a t e s should be cleaned w i t h a n ordinary pipe c l e a n e r . A bent condenser p l a t e touching the opposite assembly w i l l a l s o cause t h i s cond i t i o n . Some v a r i a b l e condensers a r e constructed so t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l contact i s made through a f r i c t i o n washer o r through t h e f r i c t i o n of t h e r o t o r s h a f t t o the bushing. This type of c o n t a c t i s q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y when the condenser i s new but a f t e r a long p e r i o d of operation t h e p a r t s wear, decreasing t h e f r i c t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n a n i n d i f f e r e n t cont a c t which w i l l a t times cause the s e t t o appear noisy, p a r t i c u l a r l y so when the c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v e r a r e tuned t o resonance. Vernier drive s h a f t s t h a t have become worn through use w i l l cause t h e s e t s t o be noisy when the c i r c u i t s a r e i n resonance. Weak c o n t a c t s i n telephone jacks w i l l a l s o cause t h i s condition.
11. Vhen I take m hand away from t h e s e t I l o s e t h e s i g n a l : y This e f f e c t i s known a s t h e "body capacity e f f e c t " and i s p r i m a r i l y due t o a poor d e s i g n p r a poor ground connect'lon. Grounding of the A b a t t e r y w i l l sometimes be h e l p f u l i n e l i m i n a t i n g this body capacity e f f e c t , but i t shculd be f i r s t determined whether o r not tAere i s a conn e c t i o n between t h e ground terminal o f the s e t and t h e filament c i r c u i t . For example, i f the p o s i t i v e filament c i r c u i t i s connected t o the ground terminal, the A b a t t e r y should be grounded a t t h e p o s i t l v e t e r n i n a l . I f the ground terminal of t h e r e c e i v e r i s connected t o t h e negative side of t h e filament c i r c u i t w i t h i n t h e s e t , t h e negative terminal of the battery should be grounded. I n s e t s of proper &esign i n which s h i e l d s have been incorporated and t h i s body c a p a c i t y i s p r e s e n t we would suspect t h a t the

Lesson 35

sheet 1 5

s h i e l d has become disconnected from t h e ground o r b a t t e r y c i r c u i t w i t h i n the s e t . 12. There i s a f r y i n g sound i n the s e t : This condition may be brought about by a d e f e c t i v e b a t t e r y , d e f e c t i v e tube, a ground i n t h e loud speaker, a d e f e c t i v e b a t t e r y connection, a transformer t h a t i s burning out, o r i n t h e case of a s e t employing a gas type 200 d e t e c t o r tube an excessive B v o l t a g e on t h i s tube. The d e f e c t i v e tube may be l o c a t e d by r e p l a c i n g t h e t u b e s w i t h r e s t e d ones. The d e f e c t i v e b a t t e r y should be checked w i t h headphones a s described previously. A d e f e c t i v e loud speaker may be determined by r e p l a c i n g same by headphones. A l l b a t t e r y connections should be tightened. The d e f e c t i v e transformer may be determined by a s i m i l a r t e s t t h a t i s used t o l o c a t e a d e f e c t i v e b a t t e r y , except t h a t a b a t t e r y t h a t i s O.B. i s used and connected i n s e r i e s w i t h the telephones and t h e winding of t h e transformer under suspicion. 13. When I touch t h e panel t h e r e i s a r i n g i n g sound: This i s i n v a r i a b l y due t o a microphonic tube and may be eliminated t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t by interchanging the tubes u n t i l t h e b e s t combination i s had. The d e t e c t o r and audio frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e s a r e the p r i n c i p a l offenders i n t h i s connection. I n s e t s employing d r y c e l l operated tubes such a s t h e WD ( o r WX) 11, o r t h e UV ( o r UX) 199 t h i s condition i s g r e a t l y exaggerated u n l e s s the tube s o c k e t s a r e p r o p e r l y cushioned. There i s always a c e r t a i n amount of t h i s c o n d i t i o n p r e s e n t i n a l l r e c e i v e r s , even under normal conditions, and i t i s another reason why the cushion type socket suspension i s used. 14. There i s a squealing sound i n t h e s e t a l l t h e time: Th;s condition mag be caused by a d e f e c t i v e tube, one t h a t has become s o f t o r gassy. This may a l s o be due t o a d e f e c t i v e B o r C b a t t e r y t h a t has dropped i n v o l t a g e . A burned out prina.py winding of a transformer o r a n open telephone jack i n t h e audio frequency c i r c u i t w i l l cause t h i s squealing. Another cause may be t h e r e s u l t of t h e heterodyning of two t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n s , o r i t may be t h e e f f e c t of a nearby r e c e i v e r i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h the one i n use, however, under t h e l a s t conditions t h e' squeal w i l l be p r e s e n t a t c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e p l a c e s on the d i a l whereas i n the case of a d e f e c t i v e b a t t e r y , tube, transformer o r jack, i t i s continuous throughout the e n t i r e s c a l e reading. The frequency may vary from one c l i c k a minute t o a very h i g h p i t c h e d note. If t h e g r i d l e a k should become loosened from i t s c l i p s t h i s sound w i l l genera l l y r e s u l t . I f a C b a t t e r y i s used, a poor connection o r broken connection t o t h i s b a t t e r y w i l l give the same r e s u l t . I f none of these conditions appear t o be t h e d i f f i c u l t y , it w i l l be necessary t o make a c o n t i n u i t y t e s t from t h e g r i d contact spring of each socket t o t h e filament c i r c u i t . 16. V%en I touch anything on t h e s e t a r a t t l i n g sound s e t s up o r the s e t w i l l sometimes go dead anda j a r w i l l r e s t o r e it: Lesson 35 15. There I s a clucking sound i n i t : T h i s i s a general i n d i c a t i o n of an open g r i d c i r c u i t .

sheet 16

o r i n any connection of t h e c i r c u i t . I n v e s t i g a t i o n of e v e r y connection and f r i c t i o n contact i n t h e s e t should be made. It i s w e l l t o r e p l a c e t h e tubes w i t h t e s t e d ones i n order t o e l i m i n a t e t h e t u b e a s a f a c t o r . A loose s h i e l d w i l l sometimes cause t h i s . 17. It works i n the d e t e c t o r jack but does n o t o p e r a t e i n t h e f i r s t o r second stages: If t i e A b a t t e r y connections t o t h e a m p l i f i e r a r e p r o p e r l y made t h i s condition i s probably due t o a d e f e c t i v e telephone jack i n the d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t o r a burned out primary winding of t h e audio frequency t r a n s former connected i n t h e d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t .
18. It works O.K. i n t h e f i r s t stage Audio Frequency Amplifier b u t does not operate i n t h e second stage: T h i s i s due t o a s i m i l a r reason a s j u s t p r e v i o u s l y given. I t i s caused by a d e f e c t i v e telephone jack o r transformer i n the first audio frequency c i r c u i t .

T h i s i s caused p r i m a r i l y by a loose connection e i t h e r i n one of t h e t u b e s

19. The t u b e s f a i l t o l i g h t : This condition may be brought about by a d e f e c t i v e A b a t t e r y o r a def e c t i v e A b a t t e r y connection. It may a l s o be due t o a f a u l t y b a t t e r y switch, t h a t f a i l s t o make proper contact. I n the same way, a r h e o s t a t t h a t does not make proper c o n t a c t , w i l l cause t h e same e f f e c t . Any loose connection i n t h e A b a t t e r y c i r c u i t of t h e s e t may cause t h e f a i l u r e of t h e t u b e s t o l i g h t . If t h i s c o n d i t i o n e x i s t s o n l y on one o r two tubes, i t i s i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y due t o a burned out f i l a m e n t . A d i r t y contact on the tube w i l l sometimes cause t h e f a i l u r e of a tube t o l i g h t . If t h e contact s p r i n g s of t h e socket do n o t make a firm c o n t a c t t o the tube p i n s t h i s c o n d i t i o n might a l s o occur. If d r y c e l l s a r e used, check t o see t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l c e l l s a r e connected i n t h e c i r c u i t with the proper p l a r i t y . If one o r more of t h e c e l l s a r e connected i n w i t h reversed p o l a r i t y , f u l l voltage w i l l not be had a t the tube terminals. I n g e n e r a l , the s e r v i c e man should follow a procedure somewhat along these l i n e s . L i g h t t h e t u b e s and tune the r e c e i v e r t o t h e p o i n t where t h e b e s t l o c a l s t a t i o n g e n e r a l l y i s received. He should note t h e volume on the loud speaker, i f one i.s used. I f t h e volume i s weak, t a p t h e tubes w i t h the f i n g e r n a i l t o determine whether o r not the audio frequency a m p l i f i e r s a r e o p e r a t i n g s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . If t h e t m p l i f i e r i s working s a t i s f a c t o r i l y , a r i n g i n g sound w i l l be heard i n t h e loud speaker. If t h i s r i n g i n g does not r e s u l t , check t h e p o l a r i t y and voltage of t h e v a r i o u s b a t t e r i e s , and r e p l a c e a l l the d e f e c t i v e ones. I n s p e c t t h e connections of t h e b a t t e r i e s . If t h i s does not r e s u l t i n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e c e p t i o n , t r y r e p l a c i n g the tubes. If no sound a t a l l r e s u l t s immediately r e p l a c e t h e loud speaker w i t h t h e headphones t o determine whether o r not t h e loud speaker i s d e f e c t i v e . If no r e s u l t s a r e obtained, t u r n o f f t h e A b a t t e r y switch and remove t h e tubes, and by means of a voltmeter, check the voltage between t h e f i l a m e n t and p l a t e contact s p r i n g s of each socket. If s a t i s f a c t o r y in3Scations a r e had and no s i g n a l i s heard, r e p e a t w i t h a s i m i l a r o p e r a t i o n between t h e g r i d and. filament c o n t a c t s , u s i n g a p a i r of headphones i n s e r i e s w i t h a

Lesson 35

sheet 17

22Q v o l t b a t t e r y i n place of t h e voltmeter. Rather decided c l i c k s should be heard, when c o n t a c t i s made i n each i n s t a n c e w i t h the exc e p t i o n of t h e d e t e c t o r g r i d . Because of t h e f a c t , that i n t h e det e c t o r c i r c u i t , a h i g h r e s i s t a n c e g r i d l e a k i s used, t h e c l i c k w i l l be r a t h e r weak. One of t h e foregoing t e s t s w i l l most probably check up t h e d i f f i c u l t y and t h e obvious r e p a i r should be made.

The foregoing i s a g e n e r a l review of some of t h e p r i n c i p l e t r o u b l e s t h a t may occur i n the r a d i o r e c e i v e r . There may be a few t r o u b l e s t h a t apply t o a s i n g l e type of r e c e i v e r which have been omitted, but t h e y w i l l be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of that p a r t i c u l a r type. I n conclusion, we would r e p e a t t o t h e d e a l e r which we b e l i e v e t o be h e l p f u l sugg e s t i o n s i n r e d u c i r i s e r v i c e t o a minimum: Test a l l s e t s before s a l e and be t r u t h f u l i n t h e m a t t e r of r e s u l t s t h a t m y be expected. D not o l e a d t h e customer t o b e l i e v e t h a t he w i l l be a b l e t o r e c e i v e California any time he d e s i r e s . Advise h i m a l s o of the probable l e n g t h of l i f e of h i s b a t t e r i e s . To a s e r v i c e man, ask questions and analyze t h e def e c t s before you commence operations. A few j u d i c i o u s questions w i l l oftimes save considerable work and c r e a t e a more f a v o r a b l e impression with t h e customer.
EXAMINATION

- LESSON 35

What i s u s u a l l y the t r o u b l e when a r i n g i n g noise i s emitted by t h e loud speaker?

If a "frying 1 ' noise i s heard what i s l i k e l y t o be t h e t r o u b l e ?

Do atmospheric conditions have any e f f e c t upon r e c e p t i o n ? i n what way?

I f sc,

Wbat should a s e r v i c e man do before t a k i n g a s e t a p a r t f o r r e p a i r s ? What a r e some of t h e cond.it.ions t h a t may cause f a d i n g ? what i s u s u a l l y t h e cause of weak s i g n a l s ? Has t h e l o c a t i o n of a s e t anything t o do w i t h the q u a l i t y of reception? What a r e some of th.e reasons why t'ne tubes mag f a i l t o light? Why i s i t that a s e t may operate s a t i s f a c t o r i l y f o r a long perkod o e time and then, f o r no apparent reason a t a l l , b e g i n t o "howl1'? L Name s e v e r a l of the g e n e r a l causes why a r e c e i v e r may P a i l t o operate?

Lesson 35

sheet

la
-

INm sr
INC. firme&
M A R C O N / /NST/)TUTE

Technical Lesson 36
PRACTICAL RADIO CONSTRUCTION

W now come t o t h e s u b j e c t o f tuned radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n e a system of r e c e p t i o n employed i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l p r e s e n t day types of broadcast r e c e i v e r s . Radio-frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n , when properly designed and constructed, serves t o i n c r e a s e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of a r e c e i v e r and a l s o i n c r e a s e s t h e volume of t h e received s i g n a l s . It might be well t o mention here' t h a t the same may be s a i d of audio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n ; but t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two lLes i n which of these two q u a l i t i e s predominate i n t h e system of a m p l i f i c a t i o n being considered. The o b j e c t i n using audio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s t o secure g r e a t volume of s i g n a l ; t h a t i t a i d s somewhat i n i n c r e a s i n g t h e range over which s i g n a l s may be heard i s i n c i d e n t a l . O t h e o t h e r hand, t h e p r i n c i p l e n reason f o r u s i n g radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s t h a t by i t s use s i g n a l s from g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s can be received and which would othenwise be i n a u d i b l e ; while its a b i l i t y t o i n c r e a s e t h e volume of received s i g n a l s i s a f a c t o r subservient t o i t s d i s t a n c e - g e t t i n g a b i l i t y . Furthermore, tuned radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n ( o f t e n abbreviated "tuned RF" a m p l i f i c a t i o n , o r "TRF" a m p l i f i c a t i o n ) when p r o p e r l y designed and constructed, i n c r e a s e s the o v e r - a l l s e l e c t i v i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r due t o t h e number of tuned c i r c u i t s which must n e c e s s a r i l y be employed.
A t p r a c t i c a l l y a l l times t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna i s i n t e r c e p t i n g signals from d i s t a n t t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n s which a r e so weak t h a t they a r e i n capable of producing an a p p r e c l a b l e response i n t h e d e t e c t o r tube, and t h e r e f o r e , even though a powerful audio- frequency a m p l i f i e r i s being used, t h e s e weak s i g n a l s cannot be heard; f o r i t goes without saying t h a t before an audio- frequency a m p l i f i e r can amplify a s i g n a l , t h a t s i g n a l must f i r s t cause a n appreciable response i n t h e d e t e c t o r tube. Should t h e s i g n a l be so weak t h a t it i s incapable of o p e r a t i n g t h e d e t e c t o r tube, t h e audio- frequency a m p l i f i e r w i l l be of no use a s a n a i d t o r e c e p t i o n f o r i t cannot be expected t o amplify impulses t h a t i t does n o t g e t .

Vacuum t u b e s a r e t h e r e f o r e used t o amplify the s i g n a l a t i t s o r i g i n a l radio- frequency before i t i s r e q u i r e d t o operate t h e d e t e c t o r and, when so used, t h e s e tubes a r e termed radio- frequency amplifying tubes. By t h e i r use, s i g n a l s t o o weak t o otherwise s a t i s f a c t o r i l y operate t h e d e t e c t o r tube a r e amplified i n s t r e n g t h t o t h e p o i n t where they w i l l produce i n t h e d e t e c t o r tube a s i g n a l s t r o n g enough f o r the audiofrequency a m p l i f i e r t o take hold of and then, by a m p l i f i c a t i o n a t audio-frequency, t h e s i g n a l i s increased t o loud speaker proportions. Contents Copyrighted 1930

Radio-frequency a m p l i f i e r s may i n c o r p o r a t e a s many scages of amplif i c a t i o n a s t h e d e s i g n e r o r c o n s t r u c t o r wishes t o employ, o r r a t h e r , a s many a s he can use s u c c e s s f u l l y ; f o r when too many s t a g e s a r e used complications develop t h a t l i m i t t h e number of s t a g e s t h a t can be put t o p r a c t i c a l usage. The g r e a t m a j o r i t y of modern r a d i o broadcast r e c e i v e r s i n use today employ from one t o t h r e e s t a g e s of tuned r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n although t h e r e a r e a comparative fev: which incorporate f o u r and even f i v e stages. I n g e n e r a l , i t may be s a i d t h a t two s t a g e s i s t h e u s u a l number found i n a r e c e i v e r designed t o operate with a n o r d i n a r y outdoor antenna, while t h r e e s t a g e s i s considered t o be t h e p r a c t i c a l l i m i t when the r e c e i v e r i s intended f o r use with a loop antenna o r a small indoor antenna. Tuned radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s v e r y d e s i r a b l e i n a r e c e i v e r , but l i k e a l l good t h i n g s , t h e r e i s "a s t r i n g t i e d t o it". T h i s bugbear of tuned radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e RF a m p l i f i e r tubes and t h i s l e s s o n s e r v e s t o p o i n t out t h e cause of such o s c i l l a t i o n , while subsequent l e s s o n s w i l l d e a l w i t h aporoved methods of overcoming t h i s undesirable o b s t a c l e . O s c i l l a t i o n i n a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r i s u n d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e self-same reason t h a t i t i s unwanted i n a r e g e n e r a t i v e d e t e c t o r , i . e . , when o s c i l l a t i o n occurs i n a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s t h u s being generated by t h e R F amplifying tube combine with the incoming s i g n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s i n much t h e same manner a s i n a n o s c i l l a t i n g d e t e c t o r tube, and t h e r e s u l t i s t h e s h r i l l , vhistling squeal of t h e r e s u l t a n t b e a t , o r heterodyne, frequency t h u s formed. Therefore, i t i s important t o suppress o s c i l l a t i o n i n a radiofrequency a m p l i f i e r f o r , i f i t occurs, t h e r e c e i v e r becomes u s e l e s s a s a medium f o r t h e enjoyment of r a d i o broadcast entertainment. The cause of o s c i l l a t i o n i n a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r can be sunmea I t makes no d i f f e r e n c e whether such up i n one word "feed-backt'. feed-back t a k e s p l a c e through electro- magnetic coupling o r e l e c t r o s t a t i c coupling; i f feed- back e x i s t s t o a n a p p r e c i a b l e degree and i s of proper phase (and i t u s u a l l y i s ) , o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l t a k e place.

I n Figure 1 i s shown t h e schematic wiring diagram of a r e c e i v e r incorporating one s t a g e of tuned radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n and a vacuum tube d e t e c t o r . To t h i s c i r c u i t may o r may not be added a n audio-frequency a m p l i f i e r , according t o t h e choice of t h e c o n s t r u c t o r . The "picture" diagram of Figure 2 i n d i c a t e s t h e placement of apparatus and wiring, and i t a l s o shows two s t a g e s of transformer-coupled audiofrequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n a s a l r e a d y described i n a preceding lesson (No. 29). Note e s p e c i a l l y t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s of t h e radio- frequency transformer, RFT1, and the radio- frequency transformer, RFT2, ( t h r e e c i r c u i t t u n e r ) . Heretofore we have been r e f e r r i n g t o t h a t piece of apparatus i n d i c a t e d a s RFT2 a s a rr t h r e e - c i r c u i t tuner rr , a s t h a t i s the name t h a t i s p o p u l a r l y a s c r i b e d t o i t in thebroadcast r e c e p t i o n P i e l d . Nore s p e c i f f c a l l y , i t i s a radio- frequency transformer aid the p r i n c i p l e d i f f e r e n c e between it, and t h e radio- frequency transformer i n d i c a t e d a t RFTl i s t h a t i t i s equipped with a c o i l t h a t can be used a s a t i c k l e r . L,esson 36

sheet 2

I t s o u l ? be well t o mention now t h a t the requirements necessary t o produce o s c i l l a t i o n i n a d e t e c t o r tube apply e q u a l l y well t o liadiofrequency amplifying tubes. I t makes no d i f f e r e n c e whether a vacuum tube i s being operated a s a d e t e c t o r o r a s a radio- frequency amplif i e r , the circumstances which w i l l produce o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e tube remain t h e same i n each instance.

the foregoing f a c t i n mind t a k e note of t h e s i m i l a r i t y e x i s t i n g between Figure 1 of t h i s l e s s o n and the w i r i n g dlagram of Figure Z i n Lesson 34. The principle d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h e tube whose g r i d c i r c u i t i s coupled t o t h e antenna i s now o p e r a t i n g a s a radio-frequency a m p l i f i e r i n s t e a d of a s a d e t e c t o r ; but, a s i n Lesson 34, i t s p l a t e c i r c u i t i s i n d u c t i v e l y coupled t o a tuned c i r c u i t , L2C2. The one r e m a i n h g p o i n t of d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h i s same tuned c i r c u i t , L2C2, i s now connected t o t h e i n p u t ( g r i d ) c i r c u i t of another vacuum tube which i s operating a s a d e t e c t o r . Aside from t h e s e two minor p o i n t s of d i f f e r e n c e , a b r i e f comparison should r e v e a l t h a t , from the antenna up t o ardincluding L2C2, t h e c i r c u i t of t h i s l e s s o n i s markedly s i m i l a r t o t h a t of Lesson 34.
V!ith

"A"

Figure 1 Let u s nor consider what occurs when a n a s s i n g electro- magnetic wave r a d i a t e d from a d i s t a n t t r a n s m i t t e r i s i n t e r c e p t e d by t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna. When a wave from a d i s t a n t t r a n s m i t t e r i s i n t e r c e p t e d by t h e antenna a radio- frequency c u r r e n t , i d e n t i c a l i n i t s characteri s t i c s w i t h t h a t of t h e passing wave, w i l l be induced i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t . Connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e antenna c i r c u i t i s t h e primary, A , of the radio- frequency transformer, RFT1, whose secondary, L1, i s connected t o t h e i n p u t t e r m i n a l s of t h e R a m p l i f i e r tube. Thus,when F c u r r e n t flows i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t voltage i s induced i n t h e seconda r y , $, and t h i s v o l t a g e 4s a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d of t h e R a m p l i f i e r F tube. I n order t o e f f e c t t h e maximum p o s s i b l e t r a n s f e r of energy from t h e antenna c i r c u i t t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e RF a m p l i f i e r tube i t i s Lesson 36

sheet 3

necessary t h a t t h e secondary, L 1 , be tuned t o resonance w i t h the r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e primary, A. This i s accomplished by adjustment of condenser, C 1 , which, i n conjunction w i t h L1, enables F the user t o tune t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e R a m p l i f i e r tube t o any wavelength i n t h e broadcast band of 200 t o 550 meters; and when the secondary c i r c u i t , L1C1, of RFTl i s thus resonated t o the frequency of the incoming s i g n a l , maximum t r a n s f e r of energy from t h e antenna c i r c u i t t o the g r i d c i r c u i ~ tof t h e RF a m p l i f i e r tube i s secured with consequent maximum response from t h e tube. These radio- frequency pot e n t i a l s being impressed upon t h e g r i d of t h e tube by t h e incoming s i g n a l cause corresponding f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t . These radio- frequency f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t a r e termed, a s you know, the radio- frequency component of the p l a t e c u r r e n t and, furthermore, i s t h e same i n i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s t h e s i g n a l frequency a c t u a t i n g the g r i d except t h a t i t i s considerably strengthened due t o t h e amplifying a b i l i t y of t h e tube. The p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e RF a m p l i f i e r tube i n c l u d e s t h e primary, P , of t h e radio- frequency transformer RFT2; t h e secondary, L2, being connected t o t h e i n p u t t e r m i n a l s of t h e d e t e c t o r tube. In this manner t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r tube i s coupled t o the p l a t e c i r c u i t of the R a m p l i f i e r tube. I n order t h a t t h e maximum p o s s i b l e F F t r a n s f e r of energy can t a k e p l a c e from the p l a t e c i r c u i t of the R tube t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r it i s necessary t D r e s o n a t e t h e secondary, L2, t o t h e frequency of the radio- frequency c u r r e n t flowing through t h e primary,P. This i s accomplished by adjustment of t h e v a r i a b l e condenser, C2 and, when resonance i s t h u s secured, t h e amplified s i g n a l energy i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e R ampliF f i e r tube i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r tube with maximum e f f e c t i v e n e s s , The primary, P, of t h e radio- frequency transformer, RFT1, can be r o t a t e d i n order t h a t t h e degree of coupling between primary and secondary can be v a r i e d a t w i l l . Thus, when t h e primary i s s e t a t right angles t o t h e secondary t h e coupling between them i s r e duced t o minimum. The t r a n s f e r of energy from primary t o secondary i s t h e n very small, v i z . , t h e amount of s i g n a l energy t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r tube i s very s l i g h t and, of course, t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l w i l l be weak o r even i n a u d i b l e , Rotating t h e primary, P , so t h a t it becomes more n e a r l y p a r a l l e l t o t h e secondary, L2, i n c r e a s e s t h e coupling between the two c i r c u i t s involved and a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e t r a n s f e r of energy from t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e HF a m p l i f i e r tube t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e det e c t o r tube i s secured. T h i s i n c r e a s e d t r a n s f e r of energy r e s u l t s i n g r e a t e r s i g n a l s t r e n g t h and t h i s i n c r e a s e i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h w i l l continue with i n c r e a s e s i n coupling u n t i l a n optimum value of coupling i s secured a t which +;he s i g n a l i s s t r o n g e s t . However, before t h e degree of couplin& which w i l l g i v e maximum s i g n a l s t r e n g t h i s reached t h e RF a m p l i f i e r tube w i l l begin t o o s c i l l a t e .

Lesson 36

sheet 4

"A" BATTERY-

Figure 2. This i s t h e c i r c u i t shown i n Figure 1 t o which two s t a g e s of A ampli'fication h a s been added. F Lesson 36
&a

- sheet

To again e n t e r i n t o t h e s e same c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n d e t a i l ; i t w i l l be noted t h a t i n order f o r t h e s i g n a l t o be t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e primary, P , t o the secondary, L2, of the radio- frequency transformer, RFT2, i t i s necessary t h a t t h e secondary of t h i s transformer be tuned t o resonance w i t h the incoming s i g n a l . This a u t o m a t i c a l l y brings t h i s c i r c u i t , L2C2, i n t o resonance w i t h c i r c u i t , L l C 1 , inasmuch a s both a r e , of course, tuned t o t h e same s i g n a l . That i s , i f t h e incoming s i g n a l i s of a wavelength of say, 300 meters, b o t h c i r c u i t , L1C1, and c i r c u i t , L2C2, must be tuned t o 300 meters i n o r d e r t h a t the s i g n a l can be received. D not overlook the f a c t t h a t the tuned c i r c u i t , L l C 1 , i s connected o i n the g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e RF a m p l i f i e r tube, and t h a t a s i m i l a r l y tuned c i r c u i t , L2C2, i s coupled t o the p l a t e c i r c u i t of the same tube. From the foregoing i t can be r e a d i l y a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t t h e same cond i t i o n s t h a t gave r i s e t o o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e d e t e c t o r tube c i r c u i t of Lesson 34 a r e p r e s e n t a l s o i n t h i s c i r c u i t i n s o f a r a s t h e RF a m p l i f i e r tube i s concerned. That i s t o say, b o t h t h e g r i d and p l a t e c i r c u i t s of t h e tube a r e tuned t o resonance w i t h the same wavel e n g t h and t h e r e s u l t i s feed- back through t h e p l a t e - g r i d c a p a c i t y of the tube w i t h consequent o s c i l l a t i o n t h e r e i n . Furthermore, o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e R a m p l i f i e r tube of t h i s c i r c u i t F can be c o n t r o l l e d e x a c t l y a s i n Lesson 34, i . e . , by adjustment of t h e coupling between t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t and t h e tuned c i r c u i t , L2C2; t h u s , o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e RF amplifier tube can be stopped by reducing the coupling between t h e p l a t e c o i l , P, and t h e tuned c i r c u i t L2C2. However, reducing t h e coupling between c o i l s P and L2 w i l l a l s o d e c r e a s e t h e t r a n s f e r of energy from t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e RF a m p l i f i e r tube t o t h e - g r i d c i r c u i t of the d e t e c t o r tube, and t h i s i s undesirable f o r t h e s t r e n g t h of received s i g n a l s i s reduced a s t h i s coupling i s decreased. Therefore, i f we use s u f f i c i e n t l y t i g h t coupling between c o i l s P and L2 t o secure good t r a n s f e r of energy the R a m p l i f i e r tube w i l l o s c i l l a t e ; on t h e o t h e r hand, if t h e F coupling i s reduced s u f f i c i e n t l y t o s t o p o s c i l l a t i o n t h e t r a n s f e r of energy from t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e RF a m p l i f i e r tube t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r tube i s l e s s e n e d w i t h a consequent depreceiation i n signal strength. However, i f c a r e i s e x e r c i s e d i n t h e adjustment of t h e coupling between c o i l s P and & so t h a t the R F a m p l i f i e r tube just ceases t o o s c i l l a t e i t t h e n becomes r e g e n e r a t i v e , and t h l s r e g e n e r a t i o n w i l l o f t e n more t h a n compensate f o r t h e decrease i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h t h a t would otherwise t a k e place. Yet t h i s degree of c o u p l i ~ t h a t e n a b l e s u s t o d e r i v e t h e b e n e f i t s of r e g e n e r a t i o n i s c r i t i c a l i n i t s adjustment and, moreover, it v a r i e s with each change i n t h e tuning of the c i r c u i t . Each time t h e wavelength adjustments of t h e r e c e i v e r a r e changed a s t h e r e c e i v e r i s tuned from one s t a t i o n t o another, Lesson 36

- sheet 6

t h e coupling between c o i l s P and L2 must be r e - a d j u s t e d i n order t~ maintain t h e R F a m p l i f i e r tube a t t h i s c r i t i c a l p o i n t a t which i t does not o s c i l l a t e y e t , p r e f e r a b l y , i s r e g e n e r a t i v e . The wavelength t o which t h e tuned c i r c u i t s L l C 1 , and L2C2, a r e tuned w i l l determine t o a g r e a t e x t e n t t h e amount of coupling necessary betmeen c o i l s P and L2. T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p between wavelength and coupling evidences i t s e l f i n p r a c t i c e a s follows: The s h o r t e r t h e wavelength t o which t h e r.eceiver i s tuned t h e l o o s e r must be the coupling i n order t o avoid o s c i l l a t i o n ; and, conversely, the longer t h e wavelength t o which t h e r e c e i v e r i s tuned t h e c l o s e r t h e coupling can be without o s c i l l a t i o n . Begin the c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h i s r e c e i v e r by f i r s t w i r i n g i n the f i l a ment c i r c u i t . T h i s i s done i n such a way t h a t t h e f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t supplied t o b o t h t h e R F a m p l i f i e r tube and t h e d e t e c t o r tube i s c o n t r o l l e d by one r h e o s t a t , and t n e remaining r h e o s t a t i s used t o c o n t r o l the f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t of t h e two AF a m p l i f i e r tubes. Run a wire from t h e negative "A" binding post on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p t o one terminal of a r h e o s t a t . The o t h e r terminal of t h i s r h e o s t a t i s connected t o t h e n e g a t i v e ( - ) f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l s on b o t h t h e R ampliF f i e r and d e t e c t o r tube sockets. N w coqnect t h e p o s i t i v e "A" bindfng o p o s t on the t e r m i n a l s t r i p t o both the p o s i t i v e (+) f i l a m e n t terminals of these same two t u b e sockets. The primary ( s m a l l 10- turn c o i l ) of t h e r a d i o frequency transformer should now be ccrlnected t o t h e antenna and ground binding p o s t s on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p . The secondary c o i l of t h i s transformer i s connected i n t o t h e c i r c u i t a s follows: The end of t h e secondary winding t h a t i s n e a r e s t t h e p r i m a q winding ( t h e 'lowff end of t h e secondary) i s connected t o t h e r o t o r p l a t e s of the tuning condenser, C1, and a l s o t o t h e negative "C" binding p o s t on the termin a l s t r i p . The "high" end of the secondary ( t h e end of t h e secondary f u r t h e s t from the primary) i s now connected t o t h e g r i d terminal o f t h e R F a m p l i f i e r tube socket and a l s o t o t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s of condenser, C 1 . The p l a t e terminal of t h i s socket i s connected t o one terminal of t h e movable c o i l of t h e radio- frequency transformer. RFT2 ( t h e threec i r c u i t tuner"). The remaining terminal of t h i s c o i l i s connected t o t h e B+Amp binding p o s t on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p . T h i s movable c o i l i s t h e same one t h a t , i n preceding hook-ups, functioned a s a t i c k l e r c o i l ; but when connected i n accordance with t h e above d i r e c t i o n s it becomes t h e primary c o i l of t h e radio- frequency transformer, RFT2. The "lowrf end of this t r a n s f o r m e r r s secondary ( t h e end of t h e winding n e a r e s t t h e movable primary c o i l ) i s connected t o t h e potor p l a t e s of t h e tuning condenser, and a l s o t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of the f i l a ment c i r c u i t . The *hi;E?' end of t h e secondary winding should then be connected t o t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s of t h e t u n i n g condenser, C2, and a l s o t o one t e r m i n a l of t h e g r i d condenser. (Note: The sinall f i x e d winding on t h e " t h r e e - c i r c u i t f f t u n e r i s not used i n t h e hookup of t h i s l e s s o n . ) The remaining t e r m i n a l of t h e g r i d condenser should t h e n be connected t o t h e g r i d t e r m i n a l of t h e d e t e c t o r tube socket; and t h e g r i d l e a k clipped i n t o place o n l y a f t e r t h e solderi n g of t h e s e g r i d condenser connections h a s been f i n i s h e d . The p l a t e Lesson 36

sheet 7

terminal of t h e d e t e c t o r tube socket i s now connected t o the "P" termin a l of the f i r s t - s t a g e AF t r a n s f o r ~ n e r ; and t o t h i s same terminal i s connected a terminal of t h e by-pass condenser, Cb, (marked 0.001 mfd.). The o t h e r terminal of t h i s condenser i s connected t o t h e negative s i d e of t h e filament c i r c u i t . The "5" terminal of t h e f i r s t - s t a g e t r a n s former should now be connected t o the E+Amp binding p o s t on the termin a l s t r i p . The connections of the audio-frequency a m p l i f i e r have a l r e a d y been covered i n d e t a i l i n Lesson 29. A f t e r connecting t h e r e c e i v e r t o t h e antenna, ground and b a t t e r i e s i t i s ready t o be p u t i n t o operation. Before t u n i n g f o r s t a t i o n s p l a c e the movable primary c o i l "P" of t h e radio- f requency transformer, RFT2, i n t h e p o s i t i o n of maximum coupling, i . e . , p l a c e it p a r a l l e l to o t h e secondary winding, L2. Nw tune i n a s t a t i o n by a d j u s t i n g t h e two tuning condensers. i'hen a s t a t i o n has been tuned i n it w i l l probably be found t h a t t h e RF a m p l i f i e r tube i s o s c i l l a t i n g . Such o s c i l l a t i o n can be stopped by l e s s e n i n g t h e coupling between t h e c o i l s P and L2 and t h i s coupling should be decreased u n t i l t h e RF a m p l i f i e r tube j u s t s t o p s o s c i l l a t i n g and thereby becomes r e g e n e r a t i v e Follow t h i s procedure while tunixg i n a number of s t a t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t wavelengths throughout t h e broadcast band between 200 and 300 meters. While doing t h i s take note, of the value of coupling necessary t o adj u s t the RF a m p l i f i e r tube t o t h e p o i n t where it does not q u i t e o s c i l l a t e . It w i l l be found t h a t a s the wavelength o f t h e r e c e i v e d s t a t i o n s becomes s h o r t e r t h i s c r i t i c a l degree of coupling becomes l e s s . D not f a i l t o take note t h a t , i f t h e coupling which g i v e s b e s t r e s u l t s o when the r e c e i v e r i s tuned t o a long wave s t a t i o n is used, when t h e tunixg of the r e c e i v e r h a s been changed i n o r d e r t o r e c e i v e a s t a t i o n F n on a s h o r t e r wavelength, t h e R a m p l i f i e r tube w i l l o s c i l l a t e . O t h e o t h e r hand, i f a long wave s t a t i o n i s tuned i n and t h e coupling i s l e f t a t the value which gave b e s t r e s u l t s on a s h o r t e r wavelength, i t w i l l be found t h a t t h e received s i g n a l s w i l l not be as s t r o n g a s when the coupling i s i n c r e a s e d t o t h e proper amount. When making t h e foregoing comparlsons between s h o r t and long wavel e n g t h r e c e i v e r adjustments t o determine t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e coupling of c o i l , P, t o c o i l , L2, i t would be w e l l t o make them between a s t a t i o n t r a n s m i t t i n g on a wavelength of about 200 meters and a s t a t i o n t r a n s m i t t i n g on a wavelength of about 400 o r 450 meters. There w i l l t h e n be a pronounced d i f f e r e n c e between the values of coupling which give t h e b e s t r e s u l t s a t t h e two d i f f e r e n t wavelengths.

Lesson 36

sheet 8

EXAMINATION

- LESSON 36.

1.
2 .

Why is radio-frequency amplification used? Why is oscillation in the radio-frequency amplifier undesirable? What is the purpose of radio-frequency transformer RFTz?

3 .

4 What is the cause of oscillation in a radio-frequency amplifier? .

5 What kind of coupling is employed in RFTl and RFTz? .
6 .

Does increasing the coupling between coils P and L2 increase the liability of oscillation in the RF amplifier tube?

7 Will the same circumstances that cause oscillation in a detector . tube cause oscillation in a radio-frequency amplifier tube? 8 . 9 .

Is the detector tube, shown in Figure 1, regenerative or nonregenerative? Why? If the RF amplifier tube were oscillating, what would you do to stop it?

1 . How would you adjust coil P in order to secure maximum sisnal 0 strength?

Lesson 5 6

- sheet 9

Technical Lesson 37
THE UZVZLOPMENT O TIE: SUPER-HETERODYNE: F

I n previous lessons you learned t h a t t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e c i r c u i t i s capable A regenerative of g r e a t l y amplifying t h e received s i g n a l impulses. c i r c u i t can a l s o be made t o operate on what i s known a s the "autodyne" p r i n c i p l e of reception, and since r e g e n e r a t i o n s i g n i f i e s one operating condition and autodyne another operating condition i t i s w e l l t o e x p l a i n how t'!ese two d i f f e r e n t p r i n c i p l e s of r e c e p t i o n can be made t o f u n c t i o n w i t h the same i d e n t i c a l c i r c u i t . I n the s t r i c t use of the term "autodyne" it i s meant t o convey t h e i d e a t h a t the tube i s caused t o o s c i l l a t e and, i n t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e c i r c u i t , when the feed-back c o i l ( a l s o c a l l e d t h e t i c k l e r c o i l ) i s c l o s e l y coupled t o the g r i d c i r c u i t , o s c i l l a t i o n can be recognized by a d i s t i n c t "plop" i n the headphone a s t h e tube goes i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n . Then the c i r c u i t i s i n t h i s condition it i s s a i d t o be o p e r a t i n g on t h e autodyne p r i n c i p l e and i s then adapted t o r e c e i v e continuous wave ( C . W . ) s i g n a l s . The term "regeneration" ? e l a t e s t o t h e operation of t h e c i r c u i t when, by t h e proper r e g u l a t i o n of t h e feed-back c o i l , the r e l a t i o n between the feed-back c o i l and t h e g r i d c o i l i s s u b t h a t t h e tube i s ITOT OSCILLATING but i s feeding back energy t o the g r i d c i r c u i t by means of t h e t i c k l e r c o i l t o replace t h a t which h a s been absorbed ,by l o s s e s i n t h e c i r c u i t . With the c i r c u i t o p e r a t i n g i n t h i s condition modulated continuous wave s i g n a l s may be received but n o t continuous wave s i g n a l s . I n both i n s t a n c e s the feed-back a c t i o n of t h e tube s u p p l i e s energy t o compens a t e f o r l o s s e s i n the d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t , thereby improving s e l e c t i v i t y and obtaining g r e a t a m p l i f i c a t i o n . W now come t o a p r i n c i p l e used t o o b t a i n f a r g r e a t e r a m p l i f i c a t i o n toe g e t h e r with extreme s e l e c t i v i t y and s e n s i t i v i t y and, while t h e r e i s a s i m i l a r i t y i n some p a r t s of t h e c i r c u i t of t h e methods j u s t described, it w i l l b e seen t h a t improvements a r e incorporated t o o b t a i n t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t s . T h i s p r i n c i p l e i s embodied i n t h e super-heterodyne r e c e i v e r . Two methods of a m p l i f i c a t i o n have been made known t o you; t h e f i r s t method a m p l i f i e s t h e incoming s i g n a l a t radio frequencies and the second amplifies t h e r e c t i f i e d o r d e t e c t e d s i g n a l a t audio frequencies. Radio frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s used before t h e d e t e c t o r tube c i r c u i t t o amplify very weak s i g n a l s t h a t would not otherwise a c t u a t e t h e g r i d of the d e t e c t o r tube. Radio frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s v e r y u s e f u l t o strengthen a weak impulse and one of i t s g r e a t e s t advantages i s found when long d i s t a n t r e c e p t i o n i s d e s i r e d . Contents Copyrighted 1930
Printed i U. S A. n .

Audio frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n f i n d s i t s use i n amplifying t3e r a d i o s i g n a l a f t e r i t h a s been r e c t i f i e d by the d e t e c t o r , t h u s b u i l d i n g up t h e s i g n a l t o a s t r e n g t h where i t w i l l s a t i s f a c t o r i l y operate a loud speaker. This i s g e n e r a l l y accomplished w i t h two o r t h r e e s t a g e s of audio frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n . More than K l i s i s not g e n e r a l l y succ e s s f u l due t o tube n o i s e s which d e s t r o y t h e q u a l i t y of t h e s i g n a l thus arnplif ied. Radio frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n was employed q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y a t frequencies above 500,000 ( e q u i v a l e n t t o 600 m e t e r s ) . It was soon found, however, t h a t on wavelengths below 600 meters, t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n of the s i g n a l a t t h e incoming h i g h frequency presented many d i f f i c u l t i e s , and t h e lower the wavelength, t h e h i g h e r became t h e frequency, w i t h i n c r e a s i n g t r o u b l e s i n the c o n t r o l of such h i g h frequency because t h e h i g h e r t h e frequency used, the more d i f f i c u l t it i s t o confine i t t o t h e c i r c u i t s i n which i t i s intended t o function. A s a g r e a t d e a l of r a d i o s i g n a l i n g was c a r r i e d on a t low wavelengths, it was apparent t h a t t h e r e was a g r e a t need f o r a n a m p l i f i e r t h a t would s a t i s f a c t o r i l y operate a t t h e s e high frequencies.
A t high frequencies t h e c a p a c i t y e f f e c t s become very d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e proper handling of t h e s e minute high frequency impulses, such a s

t h e capacity e f f e c t between t h e wires used t o connect t h e c i r c u i t s . I n many cases t h e c a p a c i t y between adjacent wires i s not objectiona b l e when working a t low f r e q u e n c i e s ( h i g h wavelength). O t h e o t h e r n hand, t h e s e same c a p a c i t y e f f e c t s a c t a s short c i r c u i t s t o high frequency (low wavelength) s i g n a l s . The vacuum tubes themselves presented t h e g r e a t e s t c a p a c i t y d i f f i c u l t i e s . Many experiments were conducted w i t h a l l t h e vacuum tubes a v a i l a b l e when the t h r e e element tube was f i r s t used i n r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r s . I t was soon evident, however, because of t h e i r high g r i d t o p l a t e capacity, h i g h f i l a m e n t t o g r i d and f i l a m e n t t o p l a t e capacit i e s , t h a t s a t i s f a c t o r y a m p l i f i c a t i o n a t even moderately h i g h frequenc i e s , such as5OO,OOO c y c l e s (600 meters) p e r second o r h i g h e r , could not be obtained. These c a p a c i t i e s were found t o a c t a s s h o r t c i r c u i t paths f o r high frequency which amounted t o s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g t h e r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r s .
It i s t h e r e f o r e r e a l i z e d t h a t the d i f f i c u l t i e s of a m p l i f i c a t i o n a t r a d i o frequency were r e a l and since i t was d i f f i c u l t t o reduce the capacity of t h e tubes which was so d e t r i m e n t a l a t h i g h frequencies, t h e problem f i n a l l y resolved i t s e l f i n t o t h e o r i g i n a t i o n of a scheme whereby t h e a m p l i f i e r could operate a t some frequency which would not present t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s j u s t mentioned.
A t a frequency of 1,000,000 cycles, which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 300 meters, a capacity of 8 micro- microfarads i s equivalent t o approximately 100,000

ohms reactance, while a t a frequency of 50,000 c y c l e s o r a wavelength, t h e same c a p a c i t y would p r e s e n t a reactance of 2,000,000 ohms. a t 6,000 meters, o r a frequency of 50,000 s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g e f f e c t of high frequency i s not evident. Lesson 37

6,000 meter approximately cycles, t h e Therefore,

sheet 2

with an amplifier designed to operate at 50,000 cycles, amplification can be carried out satisfactorily. It was on this principle that Major Armstrong worked, thus developing the super-heterodyne. The super-heterodyne circuit consists of the following parts:

A loop which is used as the aerial to pick up radio signal impulses. (b) An oscillator. (c) A frequency changing tube called the first detector. (d) A multi-stage intermediate frequency amplifier unit. (e) The second detector. (f) An audio frequency amplifying unit.
(a) A super-heterodyne circuit with the various units marked is shown in

.GRID LEAK

w:

,.GRID CONDENSER

GRID LEAKa---.

,GRlO CONDENSER

-'~\ 11 11 ~ I * ~
"BLOCKING CONDENSER

"6"

'

I -,

"0"

In the various forms of receiving circuits gou have studied, any signal ~icked by the tuning inductance coils is amplified as well as the up signal to which the set is tuned. In the super-heterodyne, however, this undesirable condition is practically eliminated by adjusting the frequency of the local oscillator which combines with the frequency of the incoming signal to a point where the beat frequency which is thus 000 produced will be above audibility. In many sets this is 5 , 0 cycles. Lesson 37

- sheet 3

I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e wavelength was converted from a low wavelength t o one of high wavelength which was e x a c t l y t h e c o n d i t i o n d e s i r e d i n order t h a t r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n could be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y c a r r i e d out. Let us assume t h a t t h e incoming frequency o s c i l l a t i o n picked up when tuning the loop by means of a condenser an3 impressed on the g r i d of t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r orfrequency changer i s 1,003,000 cycles p e r second, which would be the s i g n a l from a s t a t i o n t r a n s m i t t i n g on a wavelength of 300 meters. The o s c i l l a t o r i s now a d j u s t e d by means of t h e v a r i a b l e condenser C2 t o a frequency of 1,050,000 cycles p e r second; t h i s i s a l s o impressed on the g r i d of t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r through t h e pick-up c o i l L3. W now have two different frequencies being impressed on a common c i r c u i t ; e t h a t i s impressed upon the grid of t h e f i r s t detector. When two d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s a r e t h u s impressed on a common c i r c u i t , they produce a t h i r d , o r b e a t frequency, and the frequency of t h i s b e a t w i l l b e t h e d i f f e r e n c e between the two inpressed frequencies. Since t h e incoming frequency was 1,000,000 cycles and t h e o s c i l l a t o r frequency was 1,050,000 cycles, t h e e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e two f r e q u e n c i e s w i l l be 50,000 cycles. W now have a frequency which i s lower t h a n t h e incoming frequency of 1,000,000 c y c l e s t o work w i t h , namely, 50,000 cycles, and consequently higher i n wavelength, being e q u i v a l e n t t o 6,000 meters. T h i s b e a t frequency i s c a l l e d t h e intermediate frequency, and i s passed t o t h e f i r s t intermedia t e frequency transformer (abbreviated I.F.T.), where i t i s amplified and t h e n passed on t o t h e second and t h i r d intermediate transformers. (Amplification can be c a r r i e d on f o r more than two s t a g e s i f d e s i r e d ) . A f t e r passing through t h e intermediate frequency a m p l i f i e r s , i t i s i m pressed on the g r i d of t h e second d e t e c t o r . The f u n c t i o n of t h e second d e t e c t o r i s the same a s t h a t of t h e d e t e c t o r i n any r a d i o r e c e i v e r , which i s t o change t h e h i g h frequency a l t e r n a t i n g wave t o a p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t c u r r e n t . T h i s of course, a s you know, i s c a r r i e d out t o change the a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i n t o a form t h a t w i l l a c t u a t e t h e diaphragm of t h e telephone r e c e i v e r s . Generally t h i s r e c t i f i e d c u r r e n t i s passed through two s t a g e s of audio a m p l i f i c a t i o n which s t e p s i t up t o a value which w i l l s a t i s f a c t o r i l y operate a loud speaker.
THE LOOP AND FIRST DETECTOR C I R C U I T

The fundamental p r i n c i p l e upon which t h e super- heterodyne c i r c u i t i s founded i s shown by F i g u r e s 2 and 3. Figure 2 shows a n a e r i a l i n the form of a loop, a d e t e c t o r , and a v a r i a b l e condenser.
If t h e loop and condenser a r e tuned t o resonance a t some p a r t i c u l a r frequency, r a d i o s i g n a l s of that frequency w i l l t h e n be received and impressed on t h e g r i d of the tube. Let us leave t h i s c i r c u i t f o r a moment and work w i t h t h e c i r c u i t of Figure 3 which shows a simple oscillator.

Lesson 37

sheet 4

This c o n s i s t s of a n inductance c o i l i n the g r i d c i r c u i t and one i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t . These c o i l s a r e so arranged t h a t energy from the p l a t e c i r c u i t c o i l w i l l be i n d u c t i v e l y supplied t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t c o i l .
A v a r i a b l e condenser placed between t h e g r i d and plate s i d e s of t h e two c o i l s loakes p o s s i b l e t h e tuning of t h i s c o i l , and a l s o enables one t o tune the system so t h a t i t w i l l o s c i l l a t e a t a frequency which w i l l p e r n i t the circ-:lt t o be used f o r pnactical r e c e p t i o n .

Depending upon the inductance of t h e c o i l s and t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e condenser, the frequency can be made anything w i t h i n t h e range of t h e value of these u n i t s .

PLATE

COIL

GRID COIL

Figure 2 With such a system capable of prodvcing r a d i o frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s , w w i l l couple it t o t h e c i r c u i t of Figure 1 by means of a small picke up c o i l shown by L3. W now have t h r e e c o i l s i n t h e coupled o @ l l a t o r , e L i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t , L2 i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t and L3 i n t h e g r i d c r c u i t of the frequency changer o r f i r s t d e t e c t o r . W a l s o have two e v a r i a b l e condensers; C 1 i n t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t t o tune t h e loop, and C2 i n the o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t . These a r e t h e only tuning c o n t r o l s necessary i n the super-heterodyne.

!i

Nw by a d j u s t i n g C 1 , we may have t h e frequency of any d e s i r e d s i g n a l i n o t h e loop c i r c u i t ; and t h e o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t may be made t o produce any d e s i r e d frequency independent of e x t e r n a l sigrtals o r f o r c e s . With t h e s e two c i r c u i t s coupled, t h e frequency produced by t h e o s c i l l a t o r i s i m pressed on t h e loop c i r c u i t frequency and t h e s e two f r e q u e n c i e s mixing of combining produce on t h e g r i d of t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r a t h i r d frequency, comonly c a l l e d t h e b e a t o r intermediate frequency, which i s lower i n frequency ehan t h e incoming s i g n a l frequency but h i g h e r i n wavelength. T E INTEFWEDIATE FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS H Nw t h a t w have the incoming wave converted t o a h i g h e r wavelength, o e p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n must te directed to the intermediate frequency t r a n s formers whose f u n c t i o n i t i s t o amplify t h i s intermediate frequency through s e v e r a l successive stages. These transformers may be e i t h e r t h e a i r o r i r o n core type. I r o n d u s t i s g e n e r a l l y used i n making up Leeson 37

- sheet 5

t h e i r o n core type, and i s f r e q u e n t l y employed i n a l l t h e intermediate s t a g e s w i t h t h e exception of the f i r s t o r l a s t s t a g e s . E i t h e r the f i r s t o r l a s t intermediate stage i s of t h e a i r core type and should be tuned t o pass only the inaudible beat frequency. The intermediate transformers a r e t h e r e f o r e designed t o amplify t h e frequency d e s i r e d with a l l e f f i c i e n c y p o s s i b l e by so s e l e c t i n g t h e inductance values of each transformer t h a t t h e y w i l l pass t h i s p a r t i c u l a r frequency w i t h the g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e t r a n s f e r of power. These transformers a r e tuned r a t h e r broadly t o t h e chosen intermediate frequency t o be used so t h a t each successive stage w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e s i g n a l passed t o i t from t h e preceding stage and a l s o a t t h e same time a c t a s a f i l t e r t o prevent a l l o t h e r und e s i r a b l e s i g n a l s reaching t h e second d e t e c t o r which m i g h t have passed the f i r s t d e t e c t o r .
It i s the enormous a m p l i f i c a t i o n a t t a i n e d and t h e a b i l i t y of the i n t e r mediate frequency transformers t o f i l t e r out a l l but t h e ' d e s i r e d frequency t h a t gives t o t h e super-heterodyne t h a t d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s f o r which i t i s noted, namely, extreme s e n s i t i v i t y and s e l e c t i v i t y .

T E DETECTOR AND AUDIO TRANSFORMERS H This p o r t i o n of t h e super-heterodyne i s , and f u n c t i o n s t h e same a s , t h e d e t e c t o r and audio a m p l i f i e r i n any o t h e r r e c e i v e r . The audio a m p l i f i e r may be any of t h e r e g u l a r l y used types. The d i s t i n c t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e super-heterodyne i s i n t h e use of t h e o s c i l l a t o r and t h e intermgdiate transformer u n i t s . The f i r s t super- heterodyne a s o r i g i n a l l y constructed by Major Armstrong, was a nine tube s e t n e c e s s i t a t i n g t h e use of storage b a t t e r i e s of l a r g e capacity and was not a s e t t h a t could be economically maintained by t h e average person. W i t h t h e i n t r o duction of d r y c e l l operated vacuum tubes and s t o r a g e b a t t e r y tubes of low current consumption, t h e problem of producing a super- heterodyne w i t h i n t h e reach of anyone was p o s s i b l e . t A f t e r exhaustive experiments a means w a s evolved w h e r e b ~ h e f i r s t det e c t o r was made t o f u n c t i o n both a s t h e o s t i l k a t o r and as f i r s t d e t e c t o r , t h u s e l i m i n a t i n g one tube. This was n o t a simple s o l u t i o n but one which required considerable r e s e a r c h and time. Armstrong f i n a l l y developed a simple and e f f e c t i v e arrangement which solved t h e problem completely, namely, t h a t of connecting two tuned c i r c u i t s t o t h e o s c i l l a t o r ; one a simple c i r c u i t which could be tuned t o t h e frequency of t h e incoming s i g n a l , and t h e o t h e r a r e g e n e r a t i v e c i r c u i t which could be a d j u s t e d t o o s c i l l a t e a t some p a r t i c u l a r frequency, t h e second harmonic of which, b e a t i n g with t h e incoming s i g n a l frequency, would produce t h e frequency d e s i r e d f o r intermediate a m p l i f i c a t i o n . A fundamental c i r c u i t of t h i s i d e a of t h e two tuned c i r c u i t s i s shown i n Figure 4. Assuming t h a t t h e fpequency of $he received s i g n a l i s 600,000 cycles and t h e a m p l i f i e r tuned f o r 50,000 cycles, then t h e heterodyning frequency must be 550,000 o r 650,000 cycles. When t h e s e conditions a r e obtained, t h e tuning of t h e loop condenser C 1 of Figure 4 t o t h e d e s i r e d r a d i o Lesson 37

sheet 6

impulse will affect circuit of C2. In a similar manner circuit. To eliminate this lator frequency is used for

of C2, thus requiring a change in the setting the tuning of C2 will react upon the loop difficulty the second harmonic of the oscilheterodyning.

By reason of certain assymetrical characteristics of vacuum tubes acting as oscillators, not only a fundamental frequency is secured but a series of other frequencies also are produced called upper harmonics, whose frequencies will be exact multiples of the fundamental. If, for example, the oscillator is tuned to 275,000 cycles per second, we will obtain in addition to this fundamental frequency af 275,000 thb following frequencies: 550,000 cycles; 825,000 cycles; 1,100,000 cycles, and so on. These frequencies are called the second, third and fourth harmonics, respecti~ely, and correspond to two, three and four times the fundamental frequency of 275,000 cycles.

Figure 4 If the second harmonic is used the oscillator is adjusted at a fundamental frequency of 275,000 or 325,000 cycles which produces a second harmonic of 550,000 or 650,000 cycles. Since, in this method, the loop and oscillator circuits are tuned to frequencies which so widely differ, the tuning of one has no harmful effect upon the other. Therefore, the use of one tube to act as both oscillator and detector was solved. A reduction of the number of tubes in the Armstrong super-heterodyne was desired. This was brought about by a method of reflexing, thus eliminating another tube by making the radio frequency amplifier function both as a radio frequency and an intermediate amplifier. Vih a view to the servicing of several of the commercial types of re!t ceivers, full and complete instruction will immediately follow; the first being a full description of a Radiola Super-heterodyne, operating on the second harmonic principle, with full information pertaining to accessories needed, together with step by step procedure for testing these receivers to correct possible troubles.

Lesson 37

- sheet 7

EXAMINATION

LESSON 37

What i s an advantage of r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n ? Can r a d i o frequency be u t i l i z e d below 600 meters a s s u c c e s s f u l l g a s a t higher wavelengths? What a r e t h e p r i n c i p l e p a r t s of a super-heterodyne c i r c u i t ? Explain b r i e f l y i n your own words, the f u n c t i o n of t h e superheterodpe. What i s t h e f u n c t i o n of the i n t e r n e d i a t e transformers?
What i s t h e purpose of t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r ?

D any of the i n t e r m e d i a t e frequency transformers have a n i r o n core? o

I s the wavelength of the incoming s i g n a l converted t o a higher o r lower wavelength by the super-heterodyne c i r c u i t ?
i

What i s t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e second d e t e c t o r ? What i s t h e f u n c t i o n of the o s c i l l a t o r i n t h e super-heterodyne circuit?

Lesson 37

sheet 8

--

Technical Lesson 38
PRINCITLES AND USE OF TEST EQUIPMENT FOR SERVICING RADIO WCEIDERS

i
.

i i
!

g n i , i 1: 'i ,-

It requires only a little looking around to see what a marked difference there is between the design and construction of radio receiving sets manufactured at the present time and those turned out by the radio industry i n previous years) You might wonder what has brought about the numerous changes in radio sets in such a comparatively short time. One of the principal reasons is that modern productivemethods have been applied in buildradios-methods which follow closely along lines similar to those employed in many big industries where products are manufactured in large uantities and are subjected to rigid inspections and performance tests efore they leave the factory.' @they reasons which are responsible for the ew models are the rapid development & screen-grid tubes and the radio ircuits in which they function and, also, the almost universal adoption of c electrically operated sets that obtain their power from a socket or wall tlet in the house lighting system. onsidered both from the electrical and mechanical standpoints our present ype radio sets are superior to the older models in practically every respect but along with this advancement in set design and al1,arpund improvement in & set performance there comes a big problem. That is, te problem of testing & and servicing these receivers. In answer to t e general requirements for aking rapid and accurate tests on tubes and receivers there has been deeloped a few comparatively simple test instruments which aye within the 7, ommand of radio service men. ut the entire radio field there are, of course, a great variety of rnents in use for different purposes as a study of other lessons in our course will reveal. This lesson will be devoted to a study of instruwhich have been found to be most useful in practic~aL,.,r.ad.&~ servicing. the list immediately following we have included the name:$ 03 those instrunts which undoubtedly offer the greatest aid to the systematic worker in sting tubes, making adjustments and locating faults and.troubles in revers of practically every description. These instruments are; namely, a set tester which is also called a set analyzer; a tube tester ,ora"tube er; a continuity tester and ohmmeter and volt-ohmmeter; an r-f and modud oscillator; a'griddip meter and an output meter. A vacuum tube voltd in servicing and testr is aiso inclpded because it i~sf making comparative -. .? ., work this meter affords an excel10 surements.
. .

1.

,!:n reading over the names of.tbe ins$ix&?nts just mentioned you can realize ..

.nt.edin U S A ... . ,hts copyrighted 1 0 -,

cannot be overestimated in this work. In fact, one manufacturer believes that through lack of necessary electrical testing equipment a person is unable to intelligently record the condition of a radio set and there is no doubt but that he is right in his contention. His statement is just another way of saying that when suitable test instruments are employed and properly handled it eliminates all guess work from radio servicing. And speaking of guess work recalls to mind conditions which existed a few years back when the majority of receiving sets were battery operated,and the parts and accessories where assembled together in a maze of open wiring,and how radio troubles were oftentimes located in a more or less haphazara manner. A good guess or two by an experienced radio man as to the probable cause of trouble in some of the one to three-tube sets that he was called upon to service and he would in many cases hit right on the fault.

Figure 1 Nowadays, however, conditions are entirely changed in the service field of the radio inhustry. The highest character of service must be rendered to owners of radio setsbecause of the keen competition in this line and this means that the most efficient testing methods must be put into practice. In other words, when workins on a set that is operating unsatisfactorily or perhaps not operating at all a serviceman aims to get at the real source of the difficulty in the shortest possible time end to do this on modern radio sets requires that a regular system of tests be made according to standard practices. We will outline these for you in a subsequent section. Of course you will soon learn that systematic electrical testing of troublesome receiving sets of any type, whether they be new or old models, is a distinct advantage over tests attempted by any of the so-called hit and miss methods. Lesson 38

- sheet 2

? l o s t everyone knows t h a t when a r e c e i v e r of r e c e n t manufacture i s i n s t a l l e d i n i t s c a b i n e t o r c o n s o l e o n l y a v e r y s m a l l p o r t i o n of t h e w i r i n g and com?orient p a r t s of %he r e c e i v e r Proper and Power s u p p l y u n i t s and loudspeaker a r e r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e . This i s accounted f o r , as t h e photograph i n F i g u r e 1 c l e a r l y shows, by t h e mechanical l a y o u t of t h e r e c e n t models which a r e b u i l t on t h e u n i t plan,emploi~ing c h a s s i s form of c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d , a l s o , because of t h e generous u s e of m e t a l c o v e r s and c o n t a i n e r s and s h i e l d i n g c a n s which e n c l o s e t h e p a r t s . It i s q u i t e obvious t h a t i n s e r v i c i n g s e t s wbich a r e a s s e n b l e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s u n i t p l a n t h a t c e r t a i n p r e l i m i n a r y e l e c t r i c a l t e s t s a r e v e r y n e c e s s a r y t o e q e d i t e t h e work. The i l l u s t r a t i o n i n F i g u r e 1 i s a t y p i c a l example of modern t e s t methods b e i n g employed t o check t h e c i r c u i t s of a r e c e i v e r . I t shows a s e t t e s t e r b e i n g used t o t a k e v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t r e a d i n g s a t t h e 1st r-f s o c k e t of a n e l e c t r i c a l l y o p e r a t e d s c r e e n - g r i d r e c e i v e r . You can s e e t h a t t h e s c r e e n- g r i d t u b e h a s been removad from i t s s o c k e t i n the r e c e i v e r and i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e TJY s o c k e t on t h e s e t t e s t e r p a n e l and the t u b e h a s been r e p l a c e d w i t h a t e s t e p l u g ; hence, t h e p l u g i s i n t h e 1st r-f s o c k e t p r e v i o u s l y occupied by t h e tube. To complete t h e c o n n e c t i o n s f o r such a t e s t t h e c o n t r o l g r i d l e a d coming from t h e r-f c o i l i s c l i p p e d t o a s m a l l t e r m i n a l l o c a t e d on t h e s i d e of t h e p l u g while a n o t h e r connection, which i s p a r t of t h i s same c i r c u i t , is made a t the t e s t e r by means of a s h o r t l e a d . A s shown i n t h e photograph one end of t h i s s h o r t l e a d i s c l i p p e d t o t h e m e t a l cap c o n t r o l g r i d t e r m i n a l a t t h e top of t h e tube and t h e o t h e r end i s f a s t e n e d t o a b i n d i n g p o s t on t h e p a n e l . I t should be mentioned t h a t i n u s i n g t h i s p a r t i c u l a r set, t e s t e r t h e c o n t r o l g r i d t e r m i n a l of e i t h e r a s c r e e n - g r i d o r pentode tube would be conn e c t e d t o t h i s b i n d i n g p o s t by means of t h e s h o r t w i r e . I n t h e c a b l e which j o i n s t h e t e s t e r p l u g t o t h e s e t t e s t e r a r e s e v e r a l m i r e s which you cannot s e e . These wires a t t h e p l u g end connect t o prongs i n t h e u l u g base which a r e s i m i l a r l y arranged t o t h e prongs found on a tube b a s e , whereas, t h e o p p o s l t e ends of t h e s e w i r e s which t e r m i n a t e a t t h e s e t t e s t e r l e a d i n t o v a r i o u s m e t e r and s o c k e t c i r c u i t s through t h e s w i t c h i n g a r r a n g e ment. Thus, when tile l u g is i n t h e p o s i t i o n shown i n F i g u r e 1, t h e w i r e s i n t h e c a 5 l e s e r v e t o c a r r y each c i r c u i t t e r m i n a t i n g a t t h e c o n t e c t s of t h e t u b e s o c k e t i n t h e r e c e i v e r o v e r t o corresponding c o n t a c t s of t h e s e t t e s t e r s o c k e t where t h e a e t e r s a r e l o c a t e d . This is known as a tube- socket a n a l y s i s . n h i s method o f e x t e n d i n g c e r t a i n r e c e i v e r c i r c u i t s over t o t h e s e t t e s t e r p r o v i d e s an e a s y means f o r g e t t i n g a t t h e v a r i o u s v o l t a g e s and c u r r e n t s s i n c e a l l you need t o do, a f t e r s e t t i n g up t h e t e s t e r f o r o p e r a t i o n , i s t o manipulate t h e g r o p e r b u t t o n s , s w i t c h e s and d i a l s provided on t h e t e s t e r p a n e l f o r c o n n e c t i n g t h e a- c and d-c m e t e r s i n t o t h e tube c i r c u i t s end t h e n Our d i a g r a m of v a r i o u s t e s t e r c i r c u i t s which you w i l l observe t h e readi:lgs. c3me t o a l i t t l e l & t e r i n t h i s l e s s o n e x p l a i n e x a c t l y how t h e n e t e r s and c i r c u i t s a r e a r r a n g e d and c o n t r o l l e d .
A t h i n g t o keen i n mind i n t h i s work i s t h a t a l l r e c e i v e r s a r e fundamentally a l i k e insoPar t h a t c e r t a i n c i r c u i t s a r e d i r e c t l y s u p p l i e d r i t h p o t e n t i a l s from t h e pomer s u p ~ l ys x s t e n and such c i r c u i t s u s u a l l y t e r m i n a t e i n one way or a n o t h e r a t t h e c o n t a c t s of t h e d i f f e r e n t t u b e s o c k e t s , whereas, c e r t a i n o t h e r c i r c u i t s may o r may n o t connect d i r e c t l y t o t h e paver s u p p l y system o r t o any of t h e r z c e i v ~ rs o c k e t s .

I e s s o n 38

s n e s t :5

s in the latter class would require the use of another test nt, the continuity tester, which is described under that subject. TWO examples of circuits found in many receivers for which a socket-analysis test,sucb as the one illustrated in Figure 1 wculd not be applicable,are the input, or antenna circuit and the output, or loudspeaker circuit. In modern set design the loudspeaker windings are connected to the power circuits only indirectly through a transformer or a condenser and choke coil combination, and the antenna system is in many cases inductively coupled to the input, or grid eircuit comprising the 1st r-f stage of amplification. However, in the case of circuits which are included in the class previously mentioned first, or circuits associated directly with the power system and the vacuum tubes, they are to be thought of as a number of arteries leeding into and out of the tubes by way of the tube sockets. For instance, each plate, grid, filament and cathode circuit centers at some tube socket contact and, therefore, when these circuits are supplied with potentials the potentials will in turn be applied to corresponding electrodes in the tube itself, that is, to the plate, grid and so on. Of course, the circuits and tube must be in good condition and the tube properly seated in its socket before the potentials will be effectively impressed on the electrodes. ~ h u s , is easy to understand that by placing a tester plug in one of the it sockets of a receiver and the tube in the set tester socket, as shown in Figure 1, the voltages and currents can be quickly and accurately checked to cover one section of the receiver. By making tests in this manner at all of the tube sockets in succession you obtain readings on the meters which give you a good part of the information needed for determining the operating characteristics of the entire receiver. Remember,that with power on an electric set every socket should be supplied wit11 a tube, hence, when a series of readings are to be taken only one tube should be renroved at a time, never more, the exception being in the case of the socket at which the test is made and,as we have already explained, this socket must hold the tester plug and the tube which was removed should be placed in the set tester socket. If an"e1ectri.c Set were operated with one or more tubes missing from their sockets it would place some additional load on the remaining tubes. This would be noticeable in particular with regard to the filament and heater voltages. These voltages, which are furnished by secondary windings of the power transformer, would. go up above normal values and, hence, excessive current would pass through the filament and heater wires of the tubes affected and if allowed to persist this might cause permnent damage to them. Moreover, the readings obtained under such circumstances woulc: not indiccte true circuit conditions; if possible, keep all circuits intact Electrical tests which involve the use of a set tester are usually made with the receiver .placed in as near normal operating condition as possible, that is, with the volume control and tuning dial adjusted in the usual way to bring in a signal. Or, it may be preferable in some cases to first take a series of readings wi-chthe volume control set at its maximuu volume position, which gives maximum distribution of voltages and currents through various circuits in the receiver, and then take a second series of readings with the volume control in its normal working position. A comparison of the two sets of readings will show whether any radical difference exists betneen them and if any is found it may prove helpful in checking up the possible source of trouble. Lesson 38

sheet 4

ed, then before you turn on the operating switch it t to make sure that the set is connected into an electric lightit of the proper voltage,a-c or d-c, and if the power source is a-c its frequency must be correct for the characteristics of the power transPormer used in the set. The frequency generated in most of the power stations throughout the country is 50-60 cycles and in only a few localities vill you find 25 cycles or other miscellaneous frequencies used.

If tests were to be run on a battery operated set you would make surethat
the batteries were properly connected and that the voltage of each battery was sufficient for normal working conditions and, also, if the set were provided with a rheostat you would ascertain whether the rheostat needed adjusting to supply the correct filament voltage to the tubes. Electrical testing through tube-socket analysis, that is, measuring voltages andcurrents at tube sockets as shown in Figure 1, is by no means limited to a-c receiving sets. It can be applied to all types of receivers which includes a-c and d-c electrically operated sets, battery operated sets, and radios which use socket-power devices, such as "An "B" and "C" eliminators, but were originally designed for battery operation. Eefore getting into the numerous details which are involved in radio set testing we will cover some of the more general points on service equipment and routine testing. Therefore, let us again refer to Figure 1 and use this on illustration to explain h r certain iring and parts in the receiver shown can be quickly analyzed by the indications on the set tester meters. There are three meters on the set tester which read as follows:
(1) The a-c voltmeter on the lert is indicating the a-c voltage supplied to the heater of the screen-grid tube. The voltage for this circuit is obtained from the heater winding of the pomer transformer which provides unrectified a-c, commonly called raw a-c.
(2)

The d-c voltmeter in the center shows the d-c potential supplied to the tube's plate and when normal value is indicated it means that every circuit and part thereof that carries this d-c power is operating satisfactorily. This includes the resistor or resistors in the voltage divider system which furnish this particular voltage and, also, the filter and rectifier circuits.

The d-c millimeter on the right allows you to read the 3 value of direct current passing through the plate circuit of this tube. The fact that a flow of current is indicated tells you that the plate circuit is continuous or unbroken throughout its entirety. This circuit takes in the vacuous space within the tube from cathode to plate, the primary coil of the first radio-frequency transformer, portions of the power supply system, the plate return or-B circuit which includes in this case a grid bias resistor and, also, other items that would affect the operation of this circuit, such as socket contacts, tube prongs, wiring and so on. Since the meters on the set tester in Figure 1 are shorn readine continuously it is well to mention that by different forms of mechanical construction in the dials, buttons or switches used to control tester oircuits the meters can be kept in circuits under test as long as desired. This perrlits Lesson 38

- sheet 5

Another thing we should mention concerns the arrangement of binding posts on the set tester panel. The binding posts connect to the various meters and, therefore, by attaching suitable test leads to certain related pairs 6f binding posts the different scale ranges of the instruments are made available for any external use. For instance, the meters could be used for taking voltage and current measurements directly on batteries, socket-power devices and for making continuity tests, or for any purpose, of course, within the limits of the meter scales in checking circuits which cannot be conveniently reached through the plug and tube-socket analysis. It should be noted that on certain tester panels you will find pin jacks supplied instead of binding posts for making connection to the meters when they are to be used independent of the tester circuit itself. The small sketch in Figure 2 shows a receiver chassis which has been removed from its cabinet and is being subjected to a socket-analysis test with a set tester equipped with two meters. One meter is used for measuring a-c values and the other for a-c values. A n instrument like this one can be designed to provide the same ranges of a-c and d-c voltage and current values as the . three-meter tester shown in Figure 1 Multi-scale meters are used on set testers and other types of instruments so that each meter may be used for measuring wide ranges of voltage or current values, or both. The scales or ranges provided, of course, depends upon the practical application of the meter. From your previous study about meters you will recall that in order to calibrate e meter scale to a new range it is necessary to connect a resistor of specified value either in shunt or in series with the meter according to whether it is intended for use in measuring voltage or current in a circuit.

Figure 2 Let us again review these principles: In the case of current reading meters f the resistor must be connected across the terminals o' the meter or, as we say, in shunt with it in order to increase the renge. The resistor may be located either within the meter instrument case or external to it and different sizes of resistors are selected to make the instrument read amperes or milliamperes as desired. The idea of the shunt or parallel connection is that two paths are furnished through which the main current can flow. One path is through the meter and the other through the shunt and the amount of current carried by each path will depend upon their comparative resistances, that is, the ratio between the shunt and meter resistances. Lesson 38

sheet 6

always far greater than the resistance of the winding in the meter,and, as you know, it will take more of the available voltage to force the same current through the higher resistance. The result is that only a very small value of e.m.f. remains to be impressed on the meter to make it function. So, with a suitable arrengement of switches and shunt and multiplier resistors we can make one meter provide many scales or readings. To illustrate a the practical use of shunt resistors let us suppose, for example, t h ~ t certain milliammeter is already provided with two ranges, say 20 and 100 milliamperes, and that either range may be used by throwing a toggle switch, and,also,suppose that by the proper use of other shunt resistors and switches we have increased its range to 2 and 10 amperes. These four ranges would make the meter very flexible because it could now be used for many purposes. For instance, the plate currents of different types of tubes could be read on the milliampere scales, and in testing certain types of dynamic speakers the current in the windings could be read on the 2 ampere scale, and with the 10 mpere range the charging current of storage batteries could be determined. In regard to the proper scale to select on a meter when making any sort of electrical tests let us suggest that if you do not know the exact or approxinate reading to expect it is advisable before connecting in the meter to obtain some idea of values from data on tests or experinients of a similar order. Iiemember that just the least bit of carelessness or oversight in improperly using a meter may result in a burned-out instrument unless it is protected by some means. Milliammeters in particular are often opereted in conjunction with a suitable lamp or switch to protect the meter in the event of an overload.

ROUTINE PLAX FOR T!3STING RECEIVERS. When servicing a receiver a good routine to follow.unti1 vou feel capable of working on your own iniative.is outlined in these paragraphs. First- ask a few quesgions- the person who registered of the coniplaint in regard to the set and its operation with the hope that some information will be obtained that will aid you in more quickly diagnosing the trouble. Then give the entire installation a careful visual examination. This means that you should look at the antenna and ground wiring and connections and all parts associated with these circuits, such as ground clamps, window lead-in straps, lightning arresters, and so on. Then closely inspect accessories of any description thet ray be used, such as socket-power devices, eliminators, relay switches and so forth and note their condition. Remember that many service complaints originate from improper installation of a set in the first place due mainly to the fact that in every line of work there are a few persons who make it a habit of neglecting important details because to them the details are seemingly unimportant.
Now, if everything is found to be in good order and properly connected,so far as you can see,then it will save much time if you next proceed to test all of Lesson 38 sheet 7

the tubes i n the s e t by means of a tube checker o r t e s t e r u n l e s s you a r e eouioaed w i t h an assortment of known good tubes and wish t o s u b s t i t u t e these for i h e ones i n the r e c e i v e r . Many s e r v i c e men make it a p r a c t i c e when r e sponding t o a s e r v i c e c a l l t o first, check t h e c o n d i t i o n of a l l tubes of t h e s e t t o be serviced b e f o r e attempting t o make t e s t s o r r e p a i r s of any kind. They do t h i s because they know from experince a d e f e c t i v e tube can be t h e cause of p r a c t i c a l l y any f a u l t y i n d i c a t i o n i n t h e o p e r a t i o n of a r e c e i v e r and a l a r g e proportion of s e r v i c e c a l l s a r e d i r e c t l y r e s u l t a n t from worn-out o r impaired tubes. If you have not l o c a t e d t h e t r o u b l e thus f a r you could next check t h e source of v o l t a g e s u p ~ l y which may be e i t h e r power l i n e v o l t a g e , a-c o r d-c, o r t h e v o l t a g e of b a t t e r i e s according t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r installation. A f t e r vou have comuleted t h e o r e l i m i n a r v i n s a e c t i o n a s o u t l i n e d i n t h e f o r e going paragraphs i% sugges%ed t h a t ybu now make a quick check of the susis pected r e c e i v e r by running a s e r i e s of e l e c t r i c a l t e s t s a t kl.1 of t h e sockets while the s e t i s i n f u l l o p e r a t i o n using f o r t h i s purpose any standard s e t t e s t e r connected t o t h e r e c e i v e r a s shown i n Figure 1. This s e r i e s of t e s t s can be made with t h e c h a s s i s remaining i n t h e c a b i n e t . If any of the readi n g s obtained a t the s o c k e t s a r e a t too g r e a t a v a r i a n c e with readings t h a t should be i n d i c a t e d t o provide s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n of t h a t p a r t i c u l a r r e c e i v e r then readings which a r e e i t h e r high o r low w i l l guide you more o r l e s s c l o s e l y t o t h e c i r c u i t i n which the d e f e c t may be found. Note t h a t a s e t t e s t e r when i n o p e r a t i o n a s p i c t u r e d i n Figure 1 t e s t s tubes under t h e same conditions a s e x i s t when i n t h e i r sockets.
A suggested order f o r checking through a r e c e i v e r i s t o s t a r t with t h e power supply c i r c u i t which includes t h e r e c t i f i e r . Then check each tube socket i n t u r n i n the order i n which t h e s i g n a l passes through t h e s e t . I n o t h e r words, a f t e r the power c i r c u i t and r e c t i f i e r a r e c a r e f u l l y checked we suggest t h a t you begin with the antenna s t a g e , o r 1st r-f a m p l i f i e r s o c k e t , and take a l l of the voltage and c u r r e n t readings p o s s i b l e a t each socket i n succession u n t i l you f i n i s h up with t h e power audio- amplifier s t a g e , o r output of t h e r e c e i v e r . By making a systematic check-up w i t h a s e t t e s t e r i t can be seen t h a t c e r t a i n important terminal voltage t e s t s can be quickly made t o d e t e r mine whether power is being supplied t o the s e t and whether t h e proper v o l t a g e s e x i s t a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s i n t h e c i r c u i t s . You should j o t down t h e v a r i o u s readings a t t h e time you observe them, it being b e s t t o use a s p e c i a l r u l e d form f o r t h i s purpose about which we w i l l d i s c u s s l a t e r .
&

I f , a f t e r completing your preliminary examination and socket- analysis t e s t a s we have suggested and you then d e f i n i t e l y decide t h a t t h e t r o u b l e does l i e i n the i n s t a l l a t i o n , o r power source, o r tubes, o r loudspeaker, o r access. o r i e s such a s socket-power devices i f such a r e used,then i t would be reasona b l e t o assume t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t y r e s t e d i n t h e c i r c u i t s of the r e c e i v e r i t s e l f , Your next s t e p would be governed by conditions p r e s e n t a t t h e time of t h e t e s t and the n a t u r e of t h e complaint. For example, suppose t h e v o l t a g e v a l u e s you obtained i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l t e s t s agreed somewhat c l o s e l y with v a l u e s t h a t were considered normal f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s e t and the s e r v i c e complaint was r e g i s t e r e d f o r "low voluine" o r "poor s e l e c t i v i t y " . With t h i s i n f o m a t i o n you would n a t u r a l l y look t o the radio- frequency c i r c u i t s and a s c e r t a i n whether o r n o t they a r e i n exact resonance with one another. To p l a c e the r-f s t a g e s i n resonance,or synchronism with one another you would e i t h e r have t o c o r r e c t t h e alignment of t h e main tuning condensers o r a d j u s t Lesson 38

- sheet 8

the trinrmer condensers according t whatever work needed to be done to put o the receiver in good operating condition. As a guide in deciding when the best adjustmnts are obtained in the process of synchronizing r-f circuits a progressive serviceman would use' a modulated oscillator coupled to the antenna lead of the set to furnish a steady signal of uniform strength and, slso,an output meter connected to the output of the receiver to provide an accurate indication of maximum output signal current. Now, suppose you were reasonably certain from the nature of the complaint, or from any symptoms you may have observed during your preliminary check-up that the difficulty lay in the wiring or internal parts of the receiver then it mould be necessary for you to run another series of tests, called continuity tests.If the set being servicedwere in a cabinet it would be necessary to remove the chassis from the cabinet for convenience in getting at the parts and wiring for continuity testing. A continuity tester consists simply of a pair of headphones and a battery, or a voltmeter and battery. Most servicemen prefer to use the voltmeter method in continuity testing because it enables them to work with much more certainty by judging conditions from indications on a meter rather than from clicks or sounds heard in headphones. With the continuity tester the condition of all wiring and connections can be checked for opens and shorts and grounds and the continuity of the windings of transformers, choke coils, resistors and so on can be determined. Tf a volt-ohmeter were used instead of an ordinary voltmeter the continuity tester would provide a further check on such parts because it would give their resistance values directly in ohms and these values could be compared to the correct values specified by the manufacturer of the set. Let us mention that an ohmmeter is really a voltmeter whose scale is calibrated to read ohms and receives its power usually from a battery of suitable voltage. Along with your continuity tests in hunting down troubles you will often find occasion to check tuning condensers and fixed condensers. Oftentimes a continuity test is not sufficient to prove whether or not a suspected condenser is O.K. and in such cases other methods must be elnploged for testing as explained in another lesson on this subject. As a rure continuity tests of the major circuits should be made first to determine whether these circuits are continuous or unbroken from one extreme end to the other. To be sure that you understand what is meant by testing m j o r circuits we will go into greater deteil. Suppose that you decide to check entirely through a cert~linplate circuit with a continuity tester and to do this you place your test leads across extreme points in this circuit or, let us say, you place one test lead at the plate contact of the tube socket and the other test lead at some convenient but remote point in the plate circuit from the first test lead. In other words, try to span or include as much of this circuit as possible in your first continuity test. A good place to touch the second lead is at the point of attachment of this plate circuit to the voltage supply system. Then, supposing your tester indicated a closed circuit you would at least know the wiring or connections were not open or broken at any point. On the other hand, suppose the plate circuit were to test "open" then you would proceed to check each component part and all wiring from point to point until you found the trouble. An open in a plate circuit could be caused by a loose connection, a burned-out transformer winding, or if a plate resistor were used inntcad of a transformer the resistor might be defective. You B will also find it necessary at times to check plate circuits where the Lesson 38 sheet 9

r e t u r n s i d e c o n t a i n s a g r i d b i a s r e s i s t o r and t h i s u n i t would be checked along w i t h o t h e r p a r t s i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t t o determine i t s condition. The r e a s o n we mention t h e l a t t e r item s p e c i f i c a l l y i s because a g r i d b i a s r e s i s t o r might be l o c a t e d i n t h e extreme -B end of the p l a t e c i r c u i t and when t a k i n g v o l t a g e r e a d i n g s you might $ e t a r e a d i n g of p l a t e v o l t a g e a t t h e tube socket and y e t t h e w i r i n g i n tb g r i d b i a s r e s i s t o r might be open o r burnedout. The v o l t a g e r e a d i n g i n t h i s case would be obtained between t h e p l a t e c o n t a c t of t h e s o c k e t and t h e n e g a t i v e B Output s i d e of t h e v o l t a g e supply system. You can s e e t h a t between the two p o i n t s j u s t mentioned you have n o t included t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t from - B v o l t a g e supply t o i t s p o i n t of attachment t o t h e cathode o r filament c i r c u i t s . So, i n t h i s manner, you would consider each item i n any c i r c u i t which you might t e s t , p l a t e , g r i d and so on. This proceedure is followed w i t h a l l main c i r c u i t s i n an e f f o r t t o i s o l a t e t h e t r o u b l e and once you know t h a t i t i s l o c a t e d i n a c e r t a i n p o r t i o n of t h e r e c e i v e r you can narrow down'the number of p l a c e s where you f e e l j u s t i f i e d i n c o n c e n t r a t i n g your e f f o r t s and u s i n g v a l u a b l e time i n g e t t i n g a t t h e exa c t cause of t h e d i f f i c u l t y . From our explanation i n t h e preceding parq r a p h you can r e a d i l y s e e t h d t i f an i n c o r r e c t i n d i c a t i o n were n o t i c e d when checking any of the m a i r i c i r c u i t s t h e one a t f a u l t would t h e n be given a thorough check-up by t e s t i n g from p o i n t t o p o i n t along t h e w i r i n g and conn e c t i o n s and checking each i n d i v i d u a l p a r t as found n e c e s s a r y according t o p r e v a i l i n g conditions. This work should be done w i t h t h e a i d of a wiring d i a gram of t h e s e t . The manufacturers of many standard s e t s f u r n i s h t a b l e s of c o n t i n u i t y t e s t v a l u e s which t e l l you t h e c o r r e c t e f f e c t s t h a t should be i n d i c a t e d on your t e s t o u t f i t . If no readings o r i n c o r r e c t r e a d i n g s o r i n d i c a t i o n s a r e observed t h e s e t a b l e s should be consulted f o r t h e y o f f e r many suggestions as t o t h e l i k e l y causes of d i f f e r e n t common t r o u b l e s and, a l s o , t r o u b l e s t h a t a r e p e c u l i a r t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r s e t under examination.

Figure 3 Before running a c o n t i n u i t y t e s t on a r e c e i v e r you should f i r s t disconnect a l l power from t h e s e t , t h e r e f o r e , i f a set were b a t t e r y operated a l l b e t t e r i e s would be removed end if e l e c t r i c a l l y operated t h e p l u g and cord Would be removed from t h e socket o r w a l l r e c e p t a c l e . It is a l s o b e s t t o disconnect Lesson 38

sheet 1 0

the antenna and ground leads from the set and,before we forget it,let us mention that all tubes should be removed from their sockets during a continuity test. Radio servicing when boiled down to.a final analysis is a study of cause and effect and practically all faults and troubles in receivers are found by the rocess of elimination. We depend on the meter readings of our test equip%en% to help us find the cause of most difficulties. The set tester pictured in Pigure 3-is provided with two meters as you can observe. Remember, however, a meter indication shows only the effect and,therefore, you should never be too hasty in forming conclusions as to the probable cause of trouble if a on meter indication haw~ensto vary a little from the value ~ i v e n a data chart for the partichar test at hand. Briefly stated, every trouble has its cause and displays a certain effect, It will be found that the majority of service complaints fall into a class called general troubles which includes items such as, low volume, poor selectivity, poor tone quality, noisy operation and so on. Again, let us mention that you should familiarize yourself with the details of the various well-known symptoms and their probable causes for the =ore comon radio ailments as explained in our lesson on common faults and troubles. Several examples of causes which produce the same effect are presented below in connection with the more common sources of a-c hum. First,let it be understood that a-c receivers have a slight characteristic huni which should not be noticeable at a distance from the-loudspeaker. Excessive hum is usually caused by a defect in either the receiver proper or its tubes, of course, assuming that no electrical interference is entering the set from the outside. A. strong hum is sometimes the result of a defective unit which may be either open or short-circuited while a light hum might be due to an unbalanced condition in one of the electrical circuits, for instence, from an incorrectly wound center-tap resistor, or from a power transformer which has developed a defect and whose plate winding delivers a higher voltage on one side of center tap than on the other. Other possible causes for hum are as follows: Open,or ungrounded,or otherwise defective center-tap resistor. Ungrounded,or open grid bias resistor. 2 . 3. Grounded filament circuit. 4 Defective audio-power tube. . 5 Defective detector tube. . 6 . Shorted grid by-pass condenser. 7 Loose laminations on filter choke. . 8 Defective rectifier tube. . By systematically checking through outlines similar to the one given above, but dealing with different cor~plaintS,it ill no doubt help you in most cases to solve the usual problems encountered in servicing receivers and thus eliminate the necessity of making further and more time-consuming tests. Bear in mind that all voltages are interdependent to a certain extent. To cite an example: Suppose the voltage at some point in a receiver is zero, which for the sake of explanation is, let us say, the heater of one of the r-f tubesjthen the a-c voltages at the heater terminals of all other tubes Lesson 58

1 .

- sheet 11

ii$.s voltage were zero;then upon measuring other plate voltages they would be Pound to be somenhat highex than normal. And so, we could go on indefinitely giving many combinations of causes and their effects.

:~:

Another thing to keep in mind when testing circuits is that one faulty part may cause the breakdown of some other part and when cases of this kind are met in servicing you should not only replace or repair the defective part or parts but you should also be sure to correct the underlying source of the trouble. If you neglect to follow this advice the same trouble might occur again in a short time and the receiver would then need further servicing for the same complaint. When a thorough inspection and electrical analysis of a faulty receiving set is made in accordence with some definite plan like we have just described it will not only make your work easier but it will prevent delays which would be caused through unnecessary dismantling of the set or in taking things apart in general, Let us give you a word or two of advice on testing-do not jump at conclusions- on the other hand,always make your tests accurately, use any available diagrams, charts or tables that will assist you in this work and consider your test indications carefully with reference to the nature of the complaint. If you couple this advice with the application of a little sound reasoning and common sense you will know what you are doing and will be able to correctly diagnose and treat radio troubles.

USE OF CIiARTfj AND TEST DATA. In view of the wide-spread popularity of receivers onerated from a-c power lines the present day serviceman must at tiines make use of the elecbical data given in manufacturer*^ service manuals or of similar data supplied by the makers of electrical instruments. Consequently, we will say a word or two about measurements and the purpose of a radio set chart of voltage and current readings which is usually called an "analytical chart". The use of a set tester permits readings to be taken while the receiver is in operation and the readings, therefore, represent load conditions, a knowledge of which is, in most instances, necessary to locate trouble. These charts are of the greatest value when investigating a radio set for trouble when used in conjunction with the radio set tester. . A sample analytical chart will be found below in Figure 4 By making an
TABLE OF SOCKET VOLTAGE iLND CURRENT READINGS FOR AN AR3EtAGE RECEIVER
Type Position of Tube of Tube Y-224 Y-224 Y-224 Y-227 X-245 X-245 X-280
IfAM

Volts

ngn Volts 175 175 175 290 250 250

Screen-Grid Plate % A . Normal Volts Volts 2.5 2.5 2.5 27 45 45 70 70

"C"

1st R-F 2.4 2nd R-F 2.4 3rd H-F 2.4 Detector 2.4 Audio P.P. 2.4 Audio P.P, 2.4 Rectifier 4 6 .

3.5 35 . 3.5 2 30 30 55 position

I

L V (~ine .. voltage)= 115 Figure 4

VOLUME .CONTROL ~axi=

Lesson 38

- sheet 12

a n a l y s i s of a r e c e i v e r a co a n d y z e d a s a whole ~ n d measures may be taken i f necessery t o c o r r e c t a&y existing difficulty. Thus,the measurements taken on s e t t e s t e r s i n g e n e r a l t e l l the serviceman whether t h e p r i n c i p a l c i r c u i t s of a r e c e i v e r a r e opera t i n g w i t h i n c e r t a i n h i g h and low l e v e l s of v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t values. J u s t what e l e c t r i c a l v a l u e s a r e t o ' b e maintained f o r any p a r t i c u l a r r e c e i v e r should be taken from t h e s e r v i c e d a t a c h a r t s and t a b l e s furnished by t h e manufacturer of t h e s e t s i n c e v a l u e s given by t h e manufacturer a r e p r e f e r r e d t o those obtained i n any o t h e r way. m e n t h e readings l i s t e d i n Figure 4 were taken t h e p a r t i c u l a r r a d i o r e c e i v ing s e t t o which they apply was operated under o r d i n a r y conditions with t h e volume c o n t r o l i n " f u l l onw p o s i t i o n throughout t h e t e s t and a t a time when t h e a-c l i n e v o l t a g e was 115 v o l t s . The p l a t e v o l t a g e s were measured from p l a t e t o cathode, g r i d v o l t a g e s were measured from g r i d t o cathode and screen- grid v o l t a g e s were measured from screen- grid t o cathode. Observe t h a t tubes i n a s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n i n the s e t show s i r r i l a r readings when normal conditions e x i s t . Ue must be c a r e r u l when i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e a d i n g s obtained i n our e l e c t r i c a l t e s t s . The v a l u e s given i n a n a l y t i c a l c h a r t s , l i k e t h e one i n Figure 4, a r e o r d i n a r i l y t o be tulien a s an,average f o r normal o p e r a t i n g conditions and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e s e v a l u e s do o t r e p r e s e n t exact v a l u e s t h a t you must s t r i v e t o o b t a i n when s e r v i c i n g a a u l t y r e c e i v e r . Hence, t h e e l e c t r i c a l values t h a t should be i n d i c a t e d on t e s t meters placed a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s througho u t a r e c e i v e r can only be approximate ones s i n c e v a r i a t i o n s w i l l be caused by tubes and l i n e v o l t a g e s , A s a r u l e u n l e s s the measured v o l t a g e s d i f f e r by more than 25 p e r c e n t from those given i n the c h a r t f o r the p a r t i c u l a r r e c e i v e r i n q u e s t i o n i t should n o t be taken as a d e f i n i t e i n d i c a t i o n of a f a u l t . However, any d e v i a t i o n g r e a t e r than 25 p e r c e n t u s u a l l y means trouble.

If t h e v a l u e s recorded on a c h a r t were taken on a s e t o p e r a t i n g on a 110 v o l t l i n e and i f t h e same s e t , o r another s e t of t h e same model were a t t a c h e d t o a 115 v o l t l i n e then i t i s only n a t u r a l t o expect t h a t the measured v o l t a g e s would d i f f e r from those given i n t h e c h a r t i n approximately the same r a t i o , o r t h e r a t i o of 110 t o 115. I t should now be c l e a r t h a t a l l t h e v a l u e s found i n c h a r t s made up f o r t h i s purpose a r e t o be used only a s a b a s i s of comparison. It i s important f o r t h e s t u d e n t t o understand t h a t v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t r e a d i n g s obtained i n checking c i r c u i t s a r e dependent a l s o on t h e type of meters employed, but s i n c e the v e l u e s on our c h e r t s a r e o n l y anproximate t o b e g i n w i t h then i t is s a f e t o say t h a t when meters of any of-hi g h- grade make a r e used, the i n d i c a t i o n s w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t l y accur a t e f o r t h i s c l a s s of work. I t is suggested t h a t i n c o m e r c i a l s a v i c i n g a record of the c o n d i t i o n of a s e t under t e s t be made on a form arranged s i m i l a r l y t o t h e c h a r t i n Figure 4. Such a record may prove valuable f o r f u t u r e r e f e r e n c e and, a t l e a s t , it w i l l help you i n your work on the part i c u l a r job a t hand s i n c e i n d i v i d u a l readings a r e d i f f i c u l t t o remenber f o r purposes of conparison, e s p e c i a l l y with present- day r e c e i v e r s .
R A D I O SET TESTERS I N GENERAL.

s i s of the been d a i l y p a l phases studie,: of

Since tube t e s t i n g and s e t t e s t i n g by analyv o l t a g e s and c u r r e n t s a t the v a r i o u s sockets of a r e c e i v e r have growing i n importance and a r e now considered two of the p r i n c i of r a d i o s e r v i c i n g it w i l l be of s p e c i a l value t o you i n your t h i s s u b j e c t t o have a g e n e r a l knowledge of t h e operation of

Lesson 38

- sheet

13

standard comercia1 instruments with diagrams showing the layout of circuits designed expressly for this work. After carefully studying the text and diagrams which are to follow you will learn that service equipment has become highly standardized and practically the sane principles are incorporated in the various testers to provide readings of an identical kind. That is to say, each tester provides some convenient means for making the meters available for external measurements,for example,through the use of binding posts, pin jacks, switches and so forth. To explain further, suppose for example, a meter in one particular tester were used to give a reading of plate voltage during a socket-analysis test then if another instrument were used to take a sircilar reading the circuits of this instrument would be arranged to connect electrically in the tube's plate circuit like the first instrument. Hence, a socket-analysis of a receiver would be conducted with any of the instruments described in this section according to the general plan explained in connection with Figure 1 .

An examination of the photographs in Figures 5 and 6 will give you a clear idea of how the meter ranges compare on a two-meter and a three-meter set tester of standard design. These descriptive views, which are labelled in such detail that they are practically self-explanatory, are of Weston Electrical Company instruments,models 566 and 565 respectively, Model 565, besides being a complete set tester,is designed to provide additional tests and its circuits include an oscillator, a double-range direct reading ohmmeter and a tube checker which gives reading of a-c and d-c values for this purpose.

YXTERNAL D.C. JOLTMETER RANGES,

I SELECTOR SWITCH FOR A.G.VOLTMETER. A.C.AMMETER AN0 FILAMENT VOLTAGE6 FOR TUBE CHECKER.

Figure 5

Lesson 38

- sheet 14

A few of the t e s t s t h a t may be performed with the Weston t e s t e r i n Figure 6 w i l l now be explained. One s e r i e s of t e s t s t h a t can be run with the t e s t e r p l u g i n s e r t e d i n d i f f e r e n t sockets of a r a d i o s e t and t h e tube i n s e r t e d i n t h e proper socket i n the t e s t e r a r e a s follows:

The f 1 0 v o l t range of the d-c voltmeter would be used t o read filament, v o l t a g e s , and the 4, 8, o r 1 6 v o l t range of t h e a-c voltmeter would give both h e a t e r and filament v o l t a g e s of a-c tubes. P l a t e v o l t a g e s could be read on the 250 o r 1,000 v o l t range of the d-c voltmeter. .To provide b i a s v o l t a g e readings a t t h e tube base you would use e i t h e r t h e 10, 25, 100 o r 250 v o l t range of t h e d-c voltmeter according t o the c i r c u i t conditions. The cathode voltages i n these t e s t s would be read on t h e 50 v o l t s c a l e of t h e d-c voltmeter while f o r c o n t r o l g r i d voltages you would connect i n one 100 v o l t range. of t h e s c a l e s on the d-c v c l t m e t e r , e i t h e r the f 5 o r Screen c u r r e n t could be read on the 2.5 o r 25 n.a. range of the d-c v o l t milliammeter, p l a t e c u r r e n t on t h e 25 o r 10G m.8. range of the d-c milliammeter, and the d-o m i l l i a m e t e r s could a l s o be used t o measure the p l a t e c u r r e n t of full-wave r e c t i f i e r tubes giving simultaneous readings on both plates.

+.

Other t e s t s which make use of the meters through t h e voltage and current binding p o s t s a r e c a l l e d e x t e r n a l t e s t s . For such purposes the t e s t c i r c u i t s and meters may be used t o check tubes; provide r e s i s t a n c e measurements on t h e s c a l e s c a l i b r a t e d i n ohms; f u n c t i o n a s an o s c i l l a t o r and so on. The next few paragraphs a r e devoted t o d e t a i l e d explanations on the use of meters and s c a l e s t o g i v e you p r a c t i c a l ideas which you should know about concerning t y p i c a l metering equipment. sheet 1 5 Lesson 38

used t o measure the a-c v o l t a g e a c r o s s a power transformer secondary windi n g from i t s c e n t e r tap. One of t h e ranges of t h e a-c meter, e i t h e r the 4, 8, o r 16 v o l t scale,would be used t o read the h e a t e r v o l t a g e a t a power pack. The p l a t e c u r r e n t i n any p o r t i o n of a r e c e i v e r could be measured a t v a r i o u s "Bn supply t k p s by using e i t h e r t h e 20 o r 100 m.a. s c a l e s of t h e d-c m i l l i m e t e r . The d-c voltmeter would provide readings of t h e "Bn supply a t power packs by u s i n g e i t h e r t h e 250 o r f 1000 v o l t range. To check the c o n d i t i o n of a l l types of r a d i o b a t t e r i e s , k n o m a s "A" "B" and "CW b a t t e r i e s , you would use one of t h e d-c voltmeter s c a l e s , e i t h e r t h e 1 0 , 25, 1 0 0 , o r 250 v o l t s c a l e s .

To make a c o n t i n u i t y t e s t of a complete c i r c u i t o r some i n d i v i d u a l p a r t of a c i r c u i t 'the c o n t i n u i t y t e s t c i r c u i t would be p u t i n t o use. This c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d 4.5 v o l t b a t t e r y arranged i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e d-c voltmeter which can b e operated t o provide a r e s i s t a n c e of e i t h e r 100 o r 1000 ohms p e r v o l t a s desired. The r e s i s t a n c e r a t i o b e s t t o use i n any case t o g e t 'the most a c c u r a t e r e a d i n g would be determined by whether a high or low r e s i s t a n c e a a s t o be measured. This voltmeter i s c a l i b r a t e d a s a d i r e c t - r e a d i n g ohmmeter with ranges of 0-10,000 and 0-100,000 ohms and, hence, when making c o n t i n u i t y t e s t s t h e r e s i s t a n c e i n d i c a t i o n s obt a i n e d s e r v e a s a f u r t h e r check on t h e p a r t s being t e s t e d . You can measure t h e l i n e c u r r e n t inp.iL- o r an a- c s e t on t h e 4 ampere range of t h e a-c ammeter and f o r small a-c measurements such a s c u r r e n t s i n t h e voice c o i l of a speaker e i t h e r t h e 20 o r 100 m.a. range of t h e a-c milliammeter would be employed. When a s e r v i c e c a l l is answered and i t is found t h a t a r e c e i v e r must be n e u t r a l i z e d , o r s p c h r o n i z e d , o r t e s t e d and a t t h e time t h e r e is no s i g n a l on the a i r , o r if t h e r e i s one and it i s not s u f f i c i e n t l y s t e a d y o r constant i n s t r e n g t h t o s e r v e a s a guide i n making f i n e adjustments,then t h e modulated r-f o s c i l l a t o r i s brought i n t o p l a y and z i t h i t s t h r e e f r e q u e n c i e s covering the broadcast band t h e work can be completed s a t i s f a c t o r i l y and mitho u t i n t e r r u p t i o n . An output meter which may be connected i n t o the output' of a r e c e i v e r , t h a t i s , t o the output of t h e l a s t audio s t a g e , is supplied with a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d c u r r e n t transformer Por checking t h e output of a s e t , making comparison of s i g n a l s t r e n g t h s and s o on. A grid- dip meter is a l s o provided f o r i n d i c a t i n g when resonance is obtained between radio- frequency c i r c u i t s . The tube checker f e a t u r e s incorporated i n t h i s type of i n s t r u ment p e r m i t s a l l f i l a m e n t and heater- type tubes t o be t a s t e d with power obt a i n e d from t h e a-c l i n e . typic a l s e t t e s t e r , such a s t h e one p i c t u r e d i n Figure 6 , shows t h a t o n l y t h r e e meters a r e e c t i : ~ a l l yr e q u i r e d because each meter i s equipped w i t h a multis c a l e d i a l . For example: The a-c meter reads v o l t s , amperes and m i l l i amperes i n t h e following v a l u e s , 0-4-8-18-200-1000 v o l t s , 0-20-100 milliamperes One of the d-c meters r e s d s v o l t s , ohms and m i l l i and a l s o 0-4 amperes. smpercs i n t h e s e v a l u e s , 0-5-10-25-50-100-250-1000 v o l t s , and two r e s i s tance s c z l e s c a l i b r a t e d f o r 0-10,000 and 0-100,000 ohms r e s p e c t i v e l y , and, a l s o , 0-1-2.5-25-100 milliainperes. A second meter, which is a d-c m i l l i a ~ n c e t e r ,has two ranges reading 0-20-100 n i l l i a m p e r e s . Lesson 38
A sumrlary of t h e explanations on the use of v a r i o u s instruments i n a

- sheet 16

and a s e l e c t o r switch t o connect the v a r i o u s meter ranges t o the c i r c u i t s is i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 7. You w i l l observe t h a t only two s c a l e s a r e p r i n t e d on t h e meter d i a l but 22 ranges a r e a v a i l a b l e since higher ranges a r e read by merely m u l t i p l y i n g t h e p o i n t e r i n d i c a t i o n by 10 or-100 as the case may be. This instrument i s a Supreme s e t a n a l y z e r having f i v e ranges f o r readings of p l a t e c u r r e n t , g r i d c u r r e n t , screen- grid c u r r e n t , p l a t e cu-rrent of 280 r e c t i f i e r s and so on,and s i x ranges each a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r d-c p l a t e v o l t a g e , d-c Tilament v o l t a g e , cathode v o l t a g e , control- grid v o l t a g e , screen- grid v o l t a g e , the a-c v o l t a g e supplied t o the p l a t e s of 280 r e c t i f i e r s and s o on. A l l voltage r e a d i n g s , b o t h a-c and d-c, a r e a v a i l a b l e i n the following ranges: 0-3, 0-9, 0-30, 0-90, 0-300, 0-900. A l l c u r r e n t r e a d i n g s , both a-c asd d-c, a r e read i n milliamperes i n t h e following ranges: 0-3, 0-9, 0-30, 0-90, 0-300. The v a r i o u s p i n jacks l o cated on the p a n e l s e r v e t o make connections t o t h e meter ranges f o r use i n e x t e r n a l t e s t i n g . A s i n g l e meter which r e a d s both a- c and d-c v a l u e s l i k e the one i n Figure 7 has a copper oxide r e c t i f i e r incorporated i n its design.

Figure 7 - b o t h e r instrument t h a t provides a g r e a t many conbinations between i t s c i r c u i t s and meters is the Supreme three- meter t e s t e r i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 8. Besides t h e p i n jacks shown on t h e p a n e l t h e r e a r e a number of o t h e r p i n jacks l o c a t e d on t h e back s i d e o f t h e instrument through which access can be made t o a l l of the apparatus contained i n the i n s t r u n nent f o r e x t e r n a l use. O the l e f t of the p a n e l you s e e the o s c i l l a t o r c o i l i n p l a c e and when the c i r c u i t which enlploys t h i s c o i l is o p e r a t i n g a modulated s i g n a l is furnished t o a r e c e i v i s l g ' s e t f o r t e s t i n g purposes. Arranged i n f r o n t of the instrument a r e a number of miscellaneous p a r t s , such as t e s t prods o r p o i n t s , t e s t e r plug with c a b l e a t t a c h e d , a d a p t e r , Lesson 38

sheet 17

a m p l i f y i n g s t a g e of a r e c e i v e r and t h e p r o p e r - s w i t c h e s a r e manipulated the a c t i o n of t h e milliammeter on t h e p a n e l r s a f a i r g u i d e a s t o t h e d e g r e e of d i s t o r t i o n i n t h e a u d i o c l r c u i t s . When a s i g n a l 1s coming through t h e r e c e i v e r and i t s c i r c u i t s are f u n c t i o n i n g c o r r e c t l y t h e n e e d l e should rem i n s t e a d y r e g a r d l e s s of the f l u c t u a t i o n i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h . If t h e n e e d l e should d e f l e c t upward w i t h t h e s i g n a l impulses we would know t h a t t h e "C" v o l t a g e was too h i g h f o r t h e "B" v o l t a g e b e i n g used, o r i t might b e t h e o t h e r way around, t h a t i s , t h e "BW v o l t a g e might p o s s i b l y b e t o o low f o r t h e "C" v o l t a g e b e i n g used. Remember t h a t a t e s t o f t h i s k i n d g i v e s a n a c c u r a t e g u i d e of c i r c u i t c o n d i t i o n s o n l y when t h e t u b e s i n t h e r e c e i v e r a r e i n good c o n d i t i o n , If t h e r e a d i n g on t h e o u t p u t meter gave a n o t i c e a b l e d e f l e c t i o n , by c o n s i d e r a b l e movement up t h e s c a l e under such condit i o n s , you s h o u l d proceed t o make a d j u s t m e n t s i n t h e c a s e of a n e l e c t r i c s e t , i f any a d j u s t m e n t s were p r o v i d e d , t o o b t a i n normal r e s u l t s . Bn uns a t i s f a c t o r y i n d i c a t i o n on t h e o u t p u t meter when it is connected t o a b a t t e r y o p e r a t e d s e t would most l i k e l y be Cue t o worn o u t b a t t e r i e s and i f s u c h was found t o b e t h e c a s e t h e n , o b v i o u s l y , a r e n e w a l of b a t t e r i e s would b e i n o r d e r . L e t u s s u g g e s t t h a t whenever "BV b a t t e r i e s a r e r e p l a c e d it i s a good p l a n t o renew t h e " C w b a t t e r i e s a t t h e same t i n e .

Figure 8
The diagram i n F i g u r e 9 g i v e s t h e c i r c u i t c o n n e c t i o n s and p a r t s i n a J e w e l l s e t a n a l y z e r model 199. T h i s diagram w i l l h e l p you t o a b e t t e r understandi n g of your work i n s e r v i c i n g r e c e i v e r s s i n c e i-t shows t h e method of a r r a n g i n g s w i t c h e s o r b u t t o n s t o make t h e s c a l e s on t h e m e t e r s a v a i l a b l e f o r v a r i o u s t e s t s . A f r o n t view of t h i s J e w e l l s e t a n a l y z e r is g i v e n i n F i g u r e shows t h e d i f f e r e n t push b u t t o n s j u s t r e f e r r e d t o f o r o b t a i n i n g 10. 1%

Lesson 38

s h e e t 18

Figure 9

Figure 10

readings on any d e s i r e d range provided by the two meters. The a-c v o l t meter i s l o c a t e d on the l e f t and i t has readings of 0-4-8-16-160 v o l t s t o n meet the needs of a-c r a d i o t e s t i n g . O the r i g h t i s the d-c meter which v o l t s and 0-12-60-300 milliamperes. has ranges of 0-6-30-60-120-300-600 The v o l t m e t e r q s r e s i s t a n c e i s 1,000 ohms p e r v o l t and consequently i t draws b u t such a very small c u r r e n t t h a t voltage readings can be made without d i s t o r t i o n of s e t conditions. The small "C" b a t t e r y shown a t the upper r i g h t can be e a s i l y replaced by means of t h e two s h o r t l e a d s which run t o t h e 4.5 v o l t binding p o s t s . This b a t t e r y i s so ired i n the analyzer c i r c u i t t h a t when a g r i d t e s t of a tube is made t h e b a t t e r y is placed i n s e r i e s with t h e g r i d c i r c u i t which causes t h e g r i d p o t e n t i a l t o s h i f t 4.5 v o l t s p o s i t i v e . This i s s u f f i c i e n t change i n g r i d p o t e n t i a l t o a f f e c t t h e e l e c t r o n stream passing t o the p l a t e and, hence, t h i s t e s t g i v e s a v e r y d e f i n i t e change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t i n d i c a t i n g i n a g e n e r a l Nay whether o r not a tube i s i n good condition. O f course, f o r some purposes outside t h e scope of r a d i o s e r v i c i n g i t may be d e s i r a b l e t o know t h e all- around perf o r m n c e o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a c e r t a i n tube and i n t h i s case it would ba necessary t o express the c o n d i t i o n of the tube i n terms of a m p l i f i c a t i o n constant and mutual conductance. The s e t analyzer i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 3,which has been r e f e r r e d t o b e f o r e , may be used t o make r o u t i n e tube-socket t e s t s a s we have j u s t mentioned a n d , i n a d d i t i o n , t h i s t e s t e r has & c o n t i n u i t y t e s t c i r c u i t which may a l s o be used t o measure r e s i s t a n c e by t h e f a l l of p o t e n t i a l method. To f i n d %he r e s i s t a n c e being measured a t any given throw of the meter p o i n t e r , t h e meter reading i s noted and a c h a r t f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s e t t e s t e r , which i s a DayRae instrument, is r e f e r r e d t o and t h e r e s i s t a n c e determined with a good degree of accuracy. When t e s t i n g r a d i o r e c e i v e r s , t h e v a r i o u s d-c ~ o l t r a e ' & e r milliammeter and a-c voltmeter readings may be noted as follows: The f i l a ment o r h e a t e r .voltage, e i t h e r a-c o r d-c, the p l a t e v o l t a g e , t h e g r i d - b i a s v o l t a g e , cathode v o l t a g e , p l a t e c u r r e n t , screen- grid v o l t a g e of screen- grid t u b e s , control- grid v o l t a g e of screen- grid tubes and,also,the readings necessary i n the g r i d t e s t which i s used t o g e t a rough check on tube cond i t i o n . The s e l e c t o r switch shown on the panel of the t e s t e r in. Figure 3 Lesson 38

- sheet 19

until-the meter push-b;ttbn is depressed. This eliminates the possibility of damaging a meter by operation of the selector switch. On the d-c meter are the following six ranges: 0-20-100-200-600 volts and 0-20-100 milliamperes and on the a-c meter are fpur ranges: 0-4-8-16-800 volts. All ranges of both meters are available externally through tip jacks at the lower edge of the panel. In addition to the above tests, the tester may be used to test plate voltages of the helium non-filament type rectifier . as well as the 280 and 281 filament type rectifiers. DETAILED EXPLANATION OF A TYPICAL SET TESTER AND ITS USE. The first part o f our lesson contains sufficient instruction about set tester equi~ment -and practical diagrams to give you a good general knowledge of the subject. Now we will go into a more detailed discussion of one type of set tester to explain just how it would be used in practice and what tests could be made with it. The instructions, therefore, in this part of our lesson have been written in considerable detail because of the many factors involved in radio set testing. For this purpose we will use the diagram in Figure l . l which illustrates one type of Weston instrument. Vith the circuit in Figure 11 the various a-c and d-c voltages normally supplied by batteries, or electric power supply units to operate receiving sets can be measured and the tubes can be tested under the same conditions as exist in their sockets. This diagram illustrates the use of bi-polar selector switches and dials for connecting in the various meter ranges with circuits when making tests. Also, the diagram shows how the wires in the cable attached to the tester plug go to the contacts of the LX and UY sockets and to other parts of the tester circuit.

Figure 11 Lesson 38

sheet 20

a r i o u s types of 4 and 5 h o l e s o c k e t s . This i s a p r a c t i c a l example of one way of arrangi n g t h e component p a r t s ; such a s t h e shunt and m u l t i p l i e r r e s i s t o r s , t h e c o n t i n u i t y t e s t c i r c u i t , t h e g r i d t e s t c o n s i s t i n g of t h e llC1lb a t t e r y and switch i n t h e upper l e f t corner which i s used f o r determining t h e g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n of a tube and,also, t h e group of binding p o s t s placed around t h e panel which allow t h e meters t o be used independently of t h e t e s t e r i t s e l f f o r any measurement purposes, of course, w i t h i n t h e ranges provided by t h e meters. When using t h e binding p o s t s t h e t e s t e r plug should n o t be connected t o t h e r a d i o s e t . provide readings. The two switches,marked d i a l #1 and d i a l #2,are arranged s o t h a t t h e meters cannot be connected a c r o s s any two c i r c u i t s a t t h e same time and, hence, f o r a l l r e a d i n g s on d i a l #2, d i a l #1 must be placed i n p o s i t i o n "SW. #2." The a-c voltmeter has t h e following ranges: 0-4-8-16-150-750 v o l t s . Any of t h e t h r e e lower ranges can be connected d i r e c t l y a c r o s s t h e f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l s of t h e t e s t e r plug by placing t h e s e l e c t o r switch on t h e c o n t a c t which provides t h e d e s i r e d range. These lower ranges a r e f o r t h e purpose of measuring t h e f i l a m e n t o r h e a t e r v o l t a g e s of tubes whose f i l a m e n t s a r e heated with u n r e c t i f i e d a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , o r , a s s t a t e d b e f o r e , c u r r e n t known as rawa-c. With t h e 150 v o l t range you can measure a-c l i n e v o l t a g e s and w i t h t h e 750 v o l t r a n g e t h e h i g h a-c v o l t a g e of power transformers can be checked. The d-c volt-milliammeter i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e diagram h a s 8 ranges a s follows: 0-5-10-50-100-250-750 v o l t s and 5 and 100 milliamperes. The 250 and 750 v o l t ranges a r e f o r p l a t e "Bn v o l t a g e measurements; tine 5, 50 and 100 ranges a r e f o r g r i d b i a s r e a d i n g s but t h e 50 range may a l s o be used f o r cathode v o l t a g e readings;and t h e 5 v o l t range i s e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d f o r u s e i n making c o n t i n u i t y t e s t s . The 5 milliampere range i s s u f f i c i e n t l y low t o provide good readings of screen- grid c u r r e n t of screeng r i d tubes and t h e 100 milliampere range i s s u i t e d f o r p l a t e c u r r e n t readi n g s of r e c t i f i e r tubes. The d-c milliamtueter a t t h e r i g h t h a s two ranges, 20 and 100 m.a.,either one of which may be used by placing t h e t o g g l e switch i n t h e 20 o r 100 p o s i t i o n s . I n one of t h e foregoing paragraphs we s a i d t h a t whenever a r e c e i v i n g s e t i s t o be t e s t e d you should p l a c e t h e s e t i n a s n e a r good o p e r a t i n g cond i t i o n a s p o s s i b l e by making such adjustments a s a r e n o r a a l l y r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g i n a s i g n a l and a f t e r making v a r i o u s e l e c t r i c a l t e s t s explained i n our l e s s o n you w i l l know t h e l o c a t i o n of any e x i s t i n g t r o u b l e and be i n a p o s i t i o n t o t e l l whether i t i s i n t h e r e c e i v e r c i r c u i t s , i n t h e tubes, o r i n t h e power supply system. Each s t e p i n t h i s check-up of a troublesome r e c e i v i n g s e t i s explained i n y t h e following paragraphs according t o a plzn we w i l l now o u t l i n e . B studying from a plan of some s o r t , such a s t h i s one, our s t u d e n t s w i l l be b e t t e r a b l e t o understij,xLi t h e numerous f a c t o r s t h a t must be considered i n work of t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n . The p l a n suggested f o r analyzing ';he v a r i o u s r e c e i v e r C i r c u i t s which a r e d i r e c t l y supplied with power i s given on t h e following page. Lesson 38
A s i n d i c a t e d on t h e diagram i n Figure 1 t h e r e a r e t h r e e meters used t o 1

sheet 21

2.

3.

Eliminators, Power Packs and so on. Checking Receiving S e t C i r c u i t s . a. R e c t i f i e r c i r c u i t analysis. n n b. P l a t e c. Grid ( c o n t r o i ) " w d. Screen- grid n n e. Cathode n n f . Filament-Heater n n Tests on Tubes.

T h i s check would be made on e i t h e r b a t t e r i e s , e l i m i n a t o r s , power packs, socket-power devices, a-c o r d-c supply l i n e s , o r , i n o t h e r words, on whatever source of power supply was being used t o o p e r a t e t h e s e t . To make t h e s e t e s t s t h e voltmeters I n t h e diagram I n Figure 1 a r e used 1 independently of t h e t e s t e r c i r c u i t s and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e t e s t e r plug i s n o t t o be i n s e r t e d i n any socket of t h e r e c e i v e r a t such times.

Checking Radio S . The i r s t t o check 1 !r) et h ee i vr ei ncge i v ePower Supplyont ot h e powere t supplyr fproper eol epucerrt ear it icnhagal tvetohsl ett a gceirrs .c u i t s on c s t should be t o make s t of e r a r e being supplied with t h e i

To t a k e measurements of s e t s operated from d i r e c t c u r r e n t t h e c e n t e r meter i s connected t b t h e d-c voltmeter binding p o s t s by s e t t i n g d i a l # t o 1 p o s i t i o n marked W W . #2n and s e t t i n g d i a l #2 t o W V M . BP.1 Then by a t t a c h i n g two f l e x i b l e t e s t l e a d s t o t h e s e p o s t s t h e c e n t e r meter could be used a s a m u l t i - s c a l e d-c voltmeter t o measure t h e i n p u t o r o u t p u t voltage of a d-c c i r c u i t o r t h e v o l t a g e s a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s throughout a d-c c i r c u i t . Let us caution you never t o be c a r e l e s s i n checking power c i r c u i t s and take chances on r e c e i v i n g a shock by permitting your hands t o come i n c o n t a c t with any p a r t of t h e c i r c u i t . A p o i n t t o eme ember i s t h a t i f i n d-c work a c o l o r scheme were used f o r t e s t l e a d s t h e black cord should be a t t a c h e d t o --minus binding p o s t and t h e red cord t o whatever + p l u s binding p o s t would provide t h e s c a l e d e s i r e d , 5 o r 10 o r 250 and s o on.
I f a r e c e i v e r i s b a t t e r y operated the condition of the v a r i o u s b a t t e r i e s would be @necked by making u s e of t h e t e s t l e a d s connected a s suggested i n tine foregoing pardgraph, It would be b e t t e r t o t e s t the b a t t e r i e s with t h e s e t t~brnedcompletely un,if t h i s P s p r a c t i c a b l e , i n order t o place a l o a d on them. They should then g i v e approximately t h e i r r a t e d voltage readings, and i f any b a t t e r i e s a r e found t o be t o o low f o r proper o p e r a t i o n t h e y should be replaced o r recharged a s t h e case may be. I n checking througll t h e b a t t e r y operated r a d i o s e t be s u r e t h e b a t t e r i e s a r e p r o p e r l y coLmected and t h a t no weak b a t t e r i e s a r e allowed t o remain connected t o t h e s e t when you complete your s e r v i c e c a l l . Also, d o n ' t f o r g e t t o a d j u s t t h e filament r h e o s t a t i f one i s provided s o t h a t t h e tube f i l a m e n t s w i l l g e t t h e i r c o r r e c t working v o l t a g e when you test a b a t t e r y s e t .

l i n e voltage should be measured t o make s u r e t h a t i t i s c o r r e c t f o r t h e s a t . For t h i s measurement t e s t l e a d s a r e connected t o 'I-" and "250" binding p o s t s . If a r e c e i v e r i s supplied w i t h power from an a-c house l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t and i t i s d e s i r e & t o measure t h e l i n e voltage then t h e a-c voltmeter i s used by

If x r e c e i v e r i s e l e c t r i c a l l y operated from a d-c house l i g h t i n g main t h e

Lesson 38

s h e e t 22

a t t a c h i n g t h e test l e a d s t o t h e p a i r of a-c binding p o s t s marked n+lland "150" r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d , of course, this range can be used t o check a-c v o l t a g e s i n any c i r c u i t when n o t g r e a t e r than 150 v o l t s . The t e s t l e a d s would be a t t a c h e d t o t h e a-c binding p o s t s "+_"and "750" r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o measure t h e high v o l t a g e of p l a t e supply transformers up t o 750 v o l t s e i t h e r s i d e of c e n t e r tap. I n r e g u l a r s e r v i c e work you w i l l meet many s e t s t h a t were o r i g i n a l l y designed f o r b a t t e r y o p e r a t i o n but t h a t a r e being powered from socket-power devices connected t o a-c l i n e s . If you find,when t e s t i n g r a d i o s i n this c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , t h a t t h e r e i s a r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e from t h e s p e c i f i e d c u r r e n t r e a d i n g i t u s u a l l y i n d i c a t e s a d e f e c t i v e tube, o r i m proper r e l a t i o n between t h e "B" and "C" v o l t a g e s of t h e radio. The l a t t e r i s n o t an unusual t r o u b l e where socket-power d e v i c e s a r e attached t o r a d i o s o r i g i n a l l y designed f o r b a t t e r y operation. Wherever this t r o u b l e i s encountered, t h e "Bn v o l t a g e should be a d j u s t e d t o t h e proper value f o r t h e W" v o l t a g e used. Otherwise,the tubes w i l l be s u b j e c t e d t o strenuous usage and t h e reproduction w i l l n o t be s a t i s f a c t o r y i n q u a l i t y . I n the case of an a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t r a d i o s e t t h e i n p u t t o the power c i r c u i t , o r primary c i r c u i t of t h e power transformer, should be a d j u s t e d t o t h e e x i s t i n g l i n e v o l t a g e i f t h e r e i s some means provided f o r making an adjustment of this kind. The m a j o r i t y of a-c s e t s a r e equipped with e i t h e r a switch o r two s e t s of f u s e c l i p s and f u s e f o r connecting t h e l i n e supply t o t h e h i g h " H I w o r low "LOlo p o s i t i o n s of t h e power transformer i n p u t . I t i s customary t o use t h e W O p o s i t i o n f o r l i n e v o l t a g e s of 100 t o 115 v o l t s Ln and t h e "HI" p o s i t i o n f o r 115 t o 135 l i n e v o l t s . A f t e r you a r e assured t h a t normal v o l t a g e i s befng supplied t o t h e r e c e i v e r from t h e source, whether it be from b a t t e r i e s , a-c o r d-c power mains and s o on, then you should proceed t o make an a n a l y s i s of t h e various c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v e r , beginning w i t h the r e c t i f i e r p o r t i o n of t h e s e t , as we p r e v i o u s l y explained. ( a ) R e c t i f i e r C i r c u i t Analysis. The e l e c t r i c a l t e s t a t t h e r e c t i f i e r socket of a r e c e i v e r i s made by removing t h e r e c t i f i e r t u b e and placing i t i n t h e UX socket of t h e s e t t e s t e r and then i n s e r t i n g t h e t e s t e r plug i n t h e r e c t i f i e r ' s socket. When a r e c t i f i e r tube of t h e f i l a m e n t type i s t o be 1 1 t e s t e d with t h e c i r c u i t i n Figure 1 , f i r s t t u r n d i a l # t o positiorm marked fqSW. #2" and then t u r n d i a l #2 t o "RECT. TUBE-100 M.A.1' and, a l s o , s e t t h e m i l l i a m e t e r t o g g l e switch, shown i n t h e upper r i g h t of t h e diagram, t o Remember, however, t h a t n o t u n t i l t h e d i a l s a r e p r o p e r l y s e t 100 m.a. should you i n s e r t t h e t e s t e r plug i n t h e r e c t i f i e r socket and t h e tube i n t h e s e t t e s t e r sockel. When running a t e s t ifke %his one m y reading which you would observe on. the m i f l i a m e t e ~ would be the t o t a l d i r e c t c u r r e n t output of the tube i f 8 it were a half-wave rectSe"ler, o r one of t h e p 1 type; but i f a full-wave r e c t l . f i e r were being t e s t e d , or one of t h e '80 type which has two p l a t e s . snd two f i l a m e n t s , t h e m z l l . l i m e t e r w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i n one p l a t e and t h e meter i n the c e n t e r w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e c w r e n t i n the ocher p i a t e , Xence, t o g e t t h e t o t a l c a r r e n t with a full- wave r e c t i f i e r tube i n t h e socket t h e two p l a - t e c u r r e n t readings should be added.. A tube in good c o n d i t i o n should g i v e p l a t e readings which a r e v e r y n e a r l y a l i k e and i f any d i f f e r e n c e i s observed between them i t 3,s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e m i s s i o n of one f i l m e n t i s lower than t h e o t h e r , o r perhaps the v o l t a g e on one p l a t e is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t than t h e o t h e r , Lesson 38

sheet 23

To read t h e f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e of t h e r e c t i f i e r tube with t h e c i r c u i t i n 1 Figure 1 you would s e t t h e d i a l s i n t h e p o s i t i o n s a s f o r measuring f i l a ment voltage of any type of tube. The r e c t i f i e r c i r c u i t a n a l y s i s t e l l s many t h i n g s about t h e power supply u n i t s . For example, i f a l l readings a r e found t o be normal you can be assured t h a t t h e a-c l i n e v o l t a g e i s c o r r e c t and t h e power transformer primary i s O.K. and,also, t h a t t h e secondary winding which supplies the r e c t i f i e r f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e i s supplying i t s r a t e d a-c output and, furthermore, t h a t the tube i s i n good condition. The n e x t s t e p , a f t e r having checked the l i n e voltage and source of power i n t h e s e t o r t h e r e c t i f i e r , would most n a t u r a l l y be t o check t h e voltages e and c u r r e n t s supplied t o each tube and,as w s a i d once before,the most l o g i c a l order t o follow i n a s e r l e s of t e s t s i s t o t a k e each socket i n t u r n i n t h e order i n which t h e s i g n a l passes through them. Hence, we would begin with t h e 1st r-f s t a g e o r i n p u t from t h e antenna and proceed through t h e r e c e i v e r from socket t o socket ending w i t h t h e output o r power audio- amplifier stage. (b) P l a t e C i r c u i t Analysis. The p l a t e c u r r e n t under l o a d conditions i s a very good guide t o g e n e r a l conditions since t h e c u r r e n t flow i n this c i r c u i t i s t h e r e s u l t of t h e p o t e n t i a l s supplied t o t h e t u b e ' s electrodes. The p l a t e c u r r e n t reading obtained on t h e d-c milliammeter g i v e s t h e value of t h i s c u r r e n t normally passing through t h e tube md p l a t e c i r c u i t connecting t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r socket a t which a t e s t i s being run under t h e several f a c t o r s then e x i s t i n g which govern t h i s flow, namely, p l a t e voltage, g r i d voltage, f i l a m e n t or h e a t e r v o l t a g e and screen- grid voltage and so on depending upon t h e type of tube used. One of t h e most common v a r i a t i o n s i n a tube's values, found i n t e s t i n g , i s t h e d e v i a t i o n of p l a t e c u r r e n t from normal. By reading t h e values given on a s e r v i c e voltage and c u r r e n t c h a r t , o r i f one i s n o t a t hand then you could use t h e t a b l e of tube c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s a guide i n determining the approximate r e l a t i o n between p l a t e v o l t s , g r i d v o l t s , p l a t e c u r r e n t and so f o r t h , o r you could r e f e r t o our t a b l e o f values. When using the c i r c u i t i n Figure 1 t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i s read on e i t h e r tne 1 20 o r 100 m.a. range of t h e d-c milliammeter by s e t t i n g t h e toggle switch used f o r t h i s purpose t o whichever s i d e i s desired s i n c e t h e meter i s connected i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t at a l l times. A more a c c u r a t e reading i s always obtained by using t h e range on which the g r e a t e r d e f l e c t i o n of t h e meter's needle i s obtained. The student should understand t h a t i t i s n o t q u i t e so important t o have t h e p l a t e voltage any exact value a s it i s t o have t h e Wff voltage properly proportioned t o it. To c i t e an example t o make our p o i n t c l e a r , suppose t h e p l a t e voltage on a 1 7 1 tube were 172 v o l t s i n s t e a d of 180 v o l t s , no n o t i c e a b l e d i f f e r e n c e i n s e t operation would r e s u l t providing the g r i d voltage was reduced a c e r t a i n amount so t h a t a c u r r e n t value a l i t t l e under 20 milliamperes would be obtained. To g e t t h i s r e s u l t would r e q u i r e t h a t t h e g r i d voltage, which i s o r d i n a r i l y about 40.5 v o l t s f o r a 180 v o l t p l a t e p o t e n t i a l , be lowered t o approximately 38 v o l t s . Always bear i n mind, however, t h a t you should f o l l o w t h e ma;?ufacturerts s p e c i f i e d values i n regard t o c i r c u i t requirements. Thus, i f the ? l a t e c u r r e n t i s very much d i f f e r e n t frc

Lesson 38

sheet 24

what i t i s supposed t o be under t h e c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n g a t t h e time of t h e t e s t and f o r t h e tube being used then you should endeavor t o r e s t o r e any i n c o r r e c t v o l t a g e more n e a r l y t o i t s normal value. I t w i l l be found t h a t decreasing t h e g r i d p o t e n t i a l a p p l i e d t o a tube w i l l have more e f f e c t on i n c r e a s i n g t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t than w i l l be had by any reasonable i n c r e a s e of p l a t e p o t e n t i a l providing, of course, o t h e r f a c t o r s remain equal.

I n making a check on t h e p l s t e supply and c i r c u i t s of s e t s i t w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t a v o l t a g e reading obtained with a tube i n i t s socket which p l a c e s a load on t h e v o l t a g e supply c i r c u i t w i l l be l e s s than t h e reading obtained w i t h t h e tube o u t of i t s socket o r without t h e c i r c u i t loaded. The reason f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s simply t h a t t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n I R drop, o r c u r r e n t - r e s i s t a n c e d r o p , c a l l e d v o l t a g e drop, i n any c i r c u i t through which c u r r e n t i s flowing and t h i s i s t h e c a s e i n a "Bn supply device. A s a r u l e when t h i s v o l t a g e drop i s much g r e a t e r than 1 v o l t f o r e v e r y milliampere drawn by t h e tube then s t e p s should be taken t o a d j u s t t h e v o l t a g e of t h e power u n i t . If t h e s e t i s b a t t e r y operated i t w i l l r e q u i r e t h e replacement of t h e 11B" b a t t e r i e s , o r i f t h e s e t i s an e l e c t r i c one t h e r e c t i f y i n g tube may need r e p l a c i n g .
I n most socket power devices means a r e provided f o r a d j u s t i n g p l a t e volt a g e t o any value s p e c i f i e d f o r a c e r t a i n tube or s o c k e t which i s under 1 t e s t . P l a t e voltage i s readl,direc:ly,,on t h e d-c voltmeter i n Figure 1 by s e t t i n g d i a l #1 t o e i t h e r B 250 o r B 750"according t o t h e s c a l e des i r e d a n d , a s we s a i d before,use t h e one on which t h e v o l t a g e can be read w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t accuracy. Some of t h e more common t r o u b l e s t h a t might cause improper reading t o be obtained on t h e p l a t e voltmeter and milliammeter a r e a d e f e c t i v e r e c t i f i e r tube; open primary winding of a transformer; open s e r i e s p l a t e r e s i s t o r ; l o o s e connection i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t o r an open o r poor connection somewhere i n t h e tube s o c k e t o r t u b e ' s prongs n o t making good e l e c t r i c a l connection w i t h t h e socket c o n t a c t s ; s h o r t e d by-pass condenser; o r weak o r exhausted "Bn b a t t e r i e s . ( c ) G r i d C i r c u i t Analysis. Note t h a t t h i s a n a l y s i s d e a l s with t h e g r i d in three- electrode tubes and t h e c o n t r o l g r i d i n f o u r - e l e c t r o d e o r screena r i d tubes which,in e i t h e r c a s e , i s t h e g r i d and c i r c u i t t h a t i s supplied w i t h t h e s i g n a l i o l t a g e . The reading obtained f o r t h i s t e s t g i v e s the n e g a t i v e b i a s on t h e g r i d with r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f i l a m e n t o r cathode.
1 1 To r e a d 1fC" b i a s v o l t a g e with t h e c i r c u i t i n Figure 1 s e t d i a l # t o t h e p o s i t i o n marked "Neg. C-50" and i f t h e 50 v o l t s c a l e were used you would read t h e value d i r e c t l y a s i n d i c a t e d , whereas, if t h e 100 v o l t s c a l e were used(and s i n c e t h i s i s a c t u a l l y read on t h e 1 0 v o l t r a n g e ) t h e i n d i c a t i o n must be m u l t i p l i e d by 10 t o g e t t h e t r u e reading.

Suppose, when taking a measurement of the f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e of a d-c operated s e t t h e voltmeter i n d i c a t e s an up- scale d e f l e c t i o n with d i a l #1 s e t a t llA Rev", then t h e W!1I b i a s measurement should be made with d i a l #2 a t IrC-50 A Reva a f t e r f i r s t s e t t i n g d i a l #1 t o p o s i t i o n marked nSW. #211 which i s done i n o r d e r t o use t h e 50 v o l t s c a l e .

1
IB

Lesson 38

s h e e t 25

I t i s t o be understood t h a t a g r i d b i a s reading g i v e s t h e d-c value of g r i d voltage a t i t s p o i n t of attachment t o t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t which i s u s u a l l y t h e c e n t e r t a p on a r e s i s t o r connected a c r o s s t h e f i l a m e n t i n t h e c a s e of a-c tub'es of t h e f i l a m e n t type. However, f o r conditions i n h e a t e r type tube c i r c u i t s which u s e tubes with 5-prong bases t h e b i a s reading i s t h e g r i d voltage measured t o t h e cathode. Then again, f o r c o n d i t i o n s i n g e n e r a l i n a b a t t e r y operated r e c e i v e r t h e b i a s reading on t h e voltmeter i s t h e g r i d v o l t a g e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of the f i l a m e n t a d i n t h i s case i n o r d e r t o g e t t h e t r u e b i a s i t would be necessary t o subt r a c t t h e f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e of t h e tube from t h e observed g r i d voltage. Hence, t h e use of t h e Revn provides a reading which i s t h e t r u e voltage t o t h e negative s i d e of t h e f i l a m e n t .

I n r e c e i v i n g s e t s which u s e b a t t e r i e s f o r supplying t h e "C" bias you should geC, p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same g r i d v o l t a g e reading with t h e tube i n o r o u t of t h e socket because normally t h e r e i s only a very small flow of c u r r e n t i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t . Iiowever, i n the case of a r e c e i v e r t h a t g e t s i t s g r i d b i a s from t h e voltage drop a c r o s s some r e s i s t o r t h e tube must be i n i t s socket s o t h a t c u r r e n t w i l l pass through t h e r e s i s t o r . To check t h e c o n t r o l g r i d c i r c u i t of a screen- grid tube the s h o r t l e a d 1 shown a t t h e upper r i g h t i n Figure 1 should be connected. t o t h e metal cap o r t i p of t h e tube and t h e long l e a d should be attached t o t h e tube c l i p i n t h e r e c e i v e r t o complete the c o n t r o l g r i d c i r c u i t t o t h e t e s t e r . After these connections a r e made t h e d i a l #1 should b e turned t o p o s i t i o n IfSW. #2" a n d d i a l #2 t o lfCONT. G R I D - 5 f f o r "CONT. GRID-100.n If t h e tube under t e s t i s being used a s a screen- grid a m p l i f i e r the voltmeter needle w i l l g i v e an up- scale d e f l e c t i o n on t h e VOMT. GRID-5'1 s e t t i n g but i f t h e tube i s being used a s a space charge a m p l i f i e r t h e needle w i l l give an ups c a l e movement on the,"CONT. GRID-100" s e t t i n g . When checking the c o n t r o l g r i d voltage of screen- grid tubes you w i l l f i n d t h a t the voltage under normal conditions i s u s u a l l y very low, or about 1 o r 2 v o l t s . When analyzing from t h e d e t e c t o r tube socket of a r e c e i v e r t h a t employs grid- leak d e t e c t i o n only a very small value of g r i d voltage w i l l normally be obtained because! t h e high r e s i s t a n c e of the g r i d l e a k c u t s down t h i s reading. Therefore, i f i t i s d e s i r e d t o g e t a t r u e g r i d v o l t a g e reading when working with t h i s type of c i r c u i t you should temporarily s h o r t c i r c u i t t h e g r i d leak. I f a v o l t a g e reading were n o t observed on a tube some of t h e more common p l a c e s t o i n v e s t i g a t e f o r l o c a t i n g t h e source of t r o u b l e would be a poor g r i d c o n t a c t i n the tube socket, open i n a g r i d b i a s r e s i s t o r , open i n a g r i d suppressor r e s i s t o r , o r an open i n a transformer winding. I t may be n o t i c e d sometimes i n checking tubes o t h e r than screen- grid tubes t h a t g r i d c u r r e n t i s p r e s e n t i n a m p l i f i e r tubes by t h e d e f l e c t i o n of the needle t o t h e l e f t of zero on t h e c e n t e r meter whenever t h e switches a r e s e t f o r screen- grid c u r r e n t . Assuming t h a t g r i d c u r r e n t was observed it ~ l i i g h tbe due t o a gaseous tube, o r perhaps t o an o s c i l l a t i n g o r unbalanced condition i n t h e c i r c u i t s . ( d ) Filament and Heater C i r c u i t Analyses. If t h e r e c e i v e r under t e s t i s operated from b a t t e r i e s , o r any d-c source t h e f i l a m e n t voltage a t each tube 1 socket would be read with t h e c i r c u i t i n Figure 1 by s e t t i n g d i a l #1 t o

Lesson 38

sheet 2 6

"A" o r "A Revn t o g i v e an up- scale d e f l e c t i o n . The a-c s e l e c t o r switch should be i n t h e "OFF" p o s i t i o n a t the time and t h e reading would be observed on t h e 10 v o l t s c a l e of the c e n t e r meter.

I n t h e case of an a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t s e t t h e a-c read on t h e a-c voltmeter by s e t t i n g t h e s e l e c t o r A s a matter of suggestion i t would be b e s t t o use checking 224, 226, 227, o r 245 types of tubes and 171, 210, o r 250 types of tubes.

f i l a m e n t voltage would be switch t o t h e d e s i r e d range. t h e 4 v o l t a-c range when t h e 6 v o l t range f o r 112,

I t i s e s p e c i a l l y important n o t t o have t h e f i l a m e n t o r h e a t e r voltages abnormally high o r low. If f i l a m e n t s o r h e a t e r s a r e operated a t a low voltage the emission w i l l be low and t h i s would r e s u l t i n low volume o r no output from the r e c e i v e r and,on the o t h e r hand, i f excessive voltage i s applied t h e a d d i t i o n a l c u r r e n t c a r r i e d by t h e f i n e wires i n t h e tubes might cause them t o burn o u t i n a s h o r t time and t h e l i f e of t h e tubes, t h e r e f o r e , would be considerably shortened. While no exact statement can be made r e garding t h i s p o i n t we might say t h a t no harm w i l l be done,or t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e s e t w i l l n o t be s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d if t h i s v o l t a g e i s maintained between normal and a value n o t l e s s than 7% o r 6% below normal.

Always keep i n mind t h a t tubes of t h e t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e type a r e completely connected i n c i r c u i t when they a r e placed i n t h e s e t t e s t e r socket and t h e t e s t e r plug i s i n t h e t u b e ' s socket i n t h e r e c e i v e r . However, tubes of t h e four- electrode o r screen- grid type r e q u i r e t h e attachment of an e x t r a l e a d t o t h e cap on t h e metal t i p of t h e tube and t h e connection of t h e l e a d i n the s e t which o r d i n a r i l y goes t o t h i s metal t i p . Thus, i t i s obvious t h a t no use i s made of screen- grid l e a d s when checking t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e tubes. ( e l Cathode C i r c u i t Analysis. To o b t a i n a voltage reading of t h e cathode 1 b i a s supplied t o a tube you would s e t d i a l #1 i n Figure 1 t o t h e p o i n t marked "SWITCH #2" and then s e t d i a l #2 t o the p o i n t marked ffK Neg.-50n o r "K Pos.-50" according t o whichever g i v e s an up- scale d e f l e c t i o n and then observe the reading on the 50 v o l t s c a l e of t h e c e n t e r meter. The cathode voltage employed i n a tube i s measured with r e f e r e n c e t o the h e a t e r . Hence, i n r e c e i v e r s where the cathode i s connected d i r e c t l y t o t h e h e a t e r the cathode v o l t a g e n a t u r a l l y w i l l be zero b u t on t h e o t h e r hand i n r e c e i v e r s where t h e cathode i s grounded through t h e g r i d b i a s r e s i s t o r w i t h t h e h e a t e r connected t o some p o i n t i n t h e c i r c u i t whose p o t e n t i a l i s posit i v e t h e cathode v o l t a g e read on the meter w i l l be n e g a t i v e w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e h e a t e r . There i s s t i l l another i n d i c a t i o n t h a t may be found when t e s t i n g various type of a-c r e c e i v e r s i n which t h e cathode w i l l read posit i v e i n reference t o t h e h e a t e r and t h i s r e s u l t i s obtained i n a c i r c u i t where the cathode is grounded through t h e g r i d b i a s r e s i s t o r with t h e h e a t e r grounded. You should now understand why r e v e r s e readings may be obtained where cathode v o l t a g e s a r e concerned and t h a t t h e switch should be placed i n t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t w i l l make t h e needle read foward on t h e meter s c a l e . Cathode c i r c u i t s a r e seldom t h e cause of r a d i o t r o u b l e s but i f a cathode voltage reading should be m a t e r i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e value s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e tube and t h e tube socket being analyzed i t would most l i l i e l y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e biasing r e s i s t o r i s s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d , e i t h e r p a r t i a l l y o r completely. Let u s add t h a t i f you encounter some p a r t i c u l a r case where Lesson 38

s h e e t 27

no means a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r obtaining a check on t h e cathode b i a s and t h e b i a s was i n c o r r e c t o r t h e r e w a s none a t a l l the e f f e c t of i t would probably r e s u l t i n an excessive h-m being heard from t h e loudspeaker.
( f ) Screen-Grid C i r c u i t Analysis. When analyzing screen- grid sockets t h e r e a d i n g s obtained w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l on t h e screen g r i d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e cathode when t h e tube i s of t h e cathode- heater type, whereas, f o r filament type tube t h e reference p o i n t i s t h e f i l a m e n t of t h e tube. Let u s r e p e a t t h a t t o g l a c e a screen- grid tube i n o p e r a t i n g condition you must connect t h e s h o r t l e a d on t h e t e s t e r t o t h e metal cap on t h e tube and t h e l e a d i n t h e r e c e i v e r which o r d i n a r i l y goes t o t h i s cap must be c l i p p e d t o a terminal on t h e t e s t e r plug provided f o r t h i s purpose. To 1 t a k e a reading with t h e c i r c u i t i n Figure 1 t u r n d i a l #1 t o nPOS. C-100" o r W O . C-5OVand read t h e value on the 50 v o l t range of t h e d-c voltmeter PS d i r e c t l y , o r f o r the 100 v o l t range i t would be read on t h e 10 v o l t s c a l e and whatever value was observed would be m u l t i p l i e d by 10 t o g i v e the c o r r e c t reading.

I n regard t o screen- grid c u r r e n t i t can be read by s e t t i n g d i a l #1 t o IfSW. #2" and then t u r n i n g d i a l #2 t o "SCREEN 2.5 M.A.ll which connects t h e 50 scale- range of t h e c e n t e r meter t o t h e c i r c u i t and, hence, t o g e t t h e a c t u a l reading t h e n e e d l e i n d i c a t i o n must be d i v i d e d by 10. To g e t a rough check on the c o n d i t i o n of a tube a t e s t c a l l e d " g r i d t e s t " i s made by simply causing the g r i d b i a s t o be decreased by 4.5 v o l t s which i s t h e voltage of t h e small nC" b a t t e r y contained i n t h e s e t t e s t e r . To make t h e t e s t you f i r s t n o t e t h e reading on t h e d-c milliammeter i n Figure 1 and then depress t h e button marked "GRID TESTn t o g e t a second 1 reading and i f t h e tube were i n good condition t h e r e should be a d e f i n i t e i n c r e a s e i n p l a t e c u r r e n t due t o t h e lowering of t h e n e g a t i v e b i a s . The amount of i n c r e a s e w i l l vary f o r d i f f e r e n t types of tubes and j u s t what change i n c u r r e n t should be expected f o r any tube i s determined from a c h a r t e s p e c i a l l y prepared f o r t h i s purpose. k c h a r t of t h i s kind i s given i n one hs of our l e s s o n s on r a d i o s e r v i c i n g . I t i s t o be understood, however, t h a t t i does n o t r e p r e s e n t a complete check on the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a vacuum tube inasmuch a s i t only shows the c o n t r o l exercised by a change i n g r i d p o t e n t i a l over t h e amount of p l a t e c u r r e n t passing through t h e tube, but t h i s can be accepted a s a f a i r guide i n most cases i n t e l l i n g whether o r n o t a tube i s 1 good enough f o r use. When employing t h e c i r c u i t i n F i g u r e 1 a g r i d t e s t of screen- grid tubes i s made by f i r s t measuring t h e c o n t r o l g r i d b i a s by 1 s e t t i n g d i a l # t o "SW, #2n and then s e t t i n g d i a l #2 t o WONT. GRID -5."

(3) Tube Test.

PARTS REQUIRED I N THE ASSEMBLY O A SET TESTER. A s m a l l and compact s e t F t e s t e r c i r c u i t which would be s u i t a b l e f o r making v a r i o u s t e s t s on r e c e i v i n g s e t s and checking tubes and measuring t h e v o l t a g e s and c u r r e n t s i n a-c and d-c c i r c u i t s within t h e ranges of t h e meters i s shown i n Figure 12. For t h o s e who would l i k e t o assemble such a c i r c u i t we have given i n t h e l i s t which follows t h e diagram a d e s c r i p t i o n of most a l l t h e necessary p a r t s w i t h t h e exception of t h e p a n e l on which t h e p a r t s would be mounted. To make i t easy t o i d e n t i f y t h e p a r t s we have numbered them on t h e diagram according t o t h e numbers appearing o p p o s i t e t h e names of t h e p a r t s i n t h e l i s t . From t h e many photographs and diagrams of t y p i c a l s e t t e s t e r s i l l u s t r a t e d i n our l e s s o n i t should be easy f o r you t o s e t t l e on some panel arrangement

f o r t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e p a r t s t h a t would be t o your own l i k i n g and the w i r i n g could be made i n any convenient way s o long as t h e connections were e l e c t r i c a l l y c o r r e c t . Always u s e rubber-covered wire i n making connections on t e s t equipment,and while we a r e speaking of t h i s m a t t e r l e t us mention t h a t t h i s i s a good r u l e t o f o l l o w a t any time i f you have occasion t o r e p l a c e wiring i n a r e c e i v e r ; t h a t i s , u s e only rubber- covered wire. The d i a l which c o n t r o l s t h e c i r c u i t s and t h e binding p o s t s a r e p l a i n l y marked so t h a t i f ever you were t o a c t u a l l y u s e a t e s t e r of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r type t h e manipul a t i o n of i t would be found t o be v e r y simple a f t e r handling i t a few times i n running t e s t s . I t i s important t o mention i n t h i s connection t h a t t h e c o s t of t h e meters and o t h e r p a r t s r e q u i r e d t o assemble t e s t equipment of t h i s g e n e r a l type o f t e n amounts t o n e a r l y a s much a s t h e c o s t of a standard commercial instrument and, t h e r e f o r e , we would n o t urge you t o go about b u i l d i n g equipment of t h i s type without f i r s t considering t h i s point. Furthermore, i n most c a s e s where many shunt and m u l t i p l i e r r e s i s t o r s must be used t o i n c r e a s e t h e range of meters i t w i l l be found t h a t f a c t o r y b u i l t s e t t e s t e r s w i l l perhaps g i v e g r e a t e r accuracy of r e a d i n g s than t e s t e r s which a r e n o t b u i l t as a u n i t and, moreover, i t might be p o s s i b l e t o run a g r e a t e r v a r i e t y of t e s t s with commercial set t e s t e r s because of t h e s p e c i a l c i r c u i t arrangements which t h e y employ.
A l l of t h e p a r t s and instruments of the three- meter s e t t e s t e r shown i n Figure 1 2 may be e a s i l y obtained; a d e s c r i p t i o n of each item i s given i n t h e l i s t appearing a t the t o p of t h e next page.
PLhTE VOLTAGE.. 800-100 . C.BIAS . . . . . . .....
SCREEN VOLTAGE} 10Q-20 CONTROL GRID..... 8

WTUODE .......... 8 0 A - VOLTAGE . . . 8 ...

USE TH19 SOCKET

SCREEN GRID TUBES

Figure 1 2 Lesson 38

s h e e t 29

The p a r t s and t h e instruments i n t h e s e t t e s t e r described i n t h e diagram i n Figure 1 2 a r e l i s t e d a s follows: 0-4-8-150 v o l t s . d-c voltmeter model 301. 0-8-200 v o l t s . 11 3 1 " bi- polar switch with r e s i s t o r f o r above. n 4 1 '7 d-c milliammeter model 301. 0-15 m.a. n 5 1 " shunt r e s i s t o r f o r above f o r t h e 150 m.a. range. n 6 4 " push button switches #N.D. 63395. n 7 1 " f i l a m e n t s e l e c t o r switch and d i a l . 11 8 1 R e s i s t o r u n i t f o r meter range 72,000 ohms. I1 9 1 I? 1 1 II It w 600,opo ohms. w 1 1 11 80,000 ohms. 10 1 7 1 1 1 1 1 fl It 1 1 12,000 ohms. " 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 Weston f i v e - s t r a n d c a b l e and plug. 11 13 1 fl adapter f o u r t o f i v e prong. UY socket. 1 4 1 Eby n 1 5 1 R UX socket. " 1 6 1 " UX socket. n 17 1 Double-pole double-throw switch. 1 Binding p o s t s . 1 * Xote t h a t the numbers i n t h e 1st column, from Nos. 1 t o 1 7 , i d e n t i f y t h e p a r t s on t h e diagram i n Figure 12. No.
n

l* 1 Weston a-c voltmeter modei 476.

"

A COMPLETE EXPLa4NATION O A R A D I O TEST P m L . If any volume of work i s t o be F done i n r a d i o s e r v i c i n g and r e p a i r i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o have a s e t t e s t e r and a tube t e s t e r which w i i l meet t h e requirements of t h e present- day r a d i o s e t s . A t e s t panel t h a t could be assembled by any s e r v i c e man and w i t h which numerous t e s t s could be made i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 13. This i s t h e f s o n t view of a t e s t panel whose dimensions a r e approximately 124" by 18". I t makes a very convenient s i z e f o r mounting over a work bench. The p a r t s and i n struments needed t o assemble t h i s panel a r e obtainable from t h e Jewel1 Elect r i c a l Instrument Co. If you p l a n t o c o n s t r u c t such a p a n e l you w i l l f i n d the a c t u a l assembly t o be q u i t e siIxple i f you c l o s e l y examine t h e v a r i o u s accompanying photographs and wiring diagram. The diagrtun i s given i n Figure 1 4 and a photograph of t h e r e a r view with t h e p a r t s mounted i s shorn i n Figure 15. The view i n Figure 16 shows t h e r e s i s t o r s t r i p which supports t h e v a r i o u s m u l t i p l i e r and shunt r e s i s t o r s while t h e view i n Figure 17 i l l u s t r a t e s how t h e panel appears when completely wired. After having f i n i s h e d studying the d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e o p e r a t i o n of a t y p i c a l s e t t e s t e r i n t h i s l e s s o n you should r e a d i l y understand from t h e markings on t h e binding p o s t s and p a r t s i n Figure 13 what each one i s intended t o be used f o r .

An explanation of t h e f e a t u r e s incorporated i n t h i s bench type t e s t e r panel i s contained i n t h e following paragraphs and a s you read through you w i l l n o t i c e t h a t t h e d i s c u s s i o n c e n t e r s c h i e f l y around t h e d i f f e r e n t meters. The wiring i s so arranged that four of t h e meters w i l l g i v e simultaneous readings of p l a t e , f i l a m e n t and g r i d v o l t a g e s and p l a t e c u r r e n t . Observe t h a t each meter has a complete s e t of f i g u r e s p r i n t e d on i t s d i a l t o cover every range provided by t h e meter and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e needle i n d i c a t i o n s do n o t have t o be m u l t i p l i e d by some number o r f a c t o r t o g e t t h e t r u e v a l u e , t h a t i: a l l v a l u e s can be read d i r e c t l y . Lesson 38

sheet 30

Figure 13 To continue.our discusgion of the t e s t e r panel i n t h e diagram i n Figure 14: The a-c voltmeter has ranges of 0-4-8-i6-160-800 v o l t s , the f i r s t t h r e e being used f o r f i l a m e n t voltages, t h e 160 range f o r l i n e voltage, and t h e 800 range f o r measuring t h e output of t h e p l s t e secondaries of power transformers. The d-c meter used f o r measuring g r i d , filament and cathode v o l t a g e s has two scales, 0-10 and 0-100. The t r i p l e s c a l e d-c meter f o r reading p l a t e c u r r e n t has ranges of 0-10-100-125 milliamperes. P l a t e voltages a r e read on a d-c meter which has two voltage ranges of 0-300-600 v o l t s and t h e or p l a t e voltages s i n c e i t meter i s e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d f o r checking A switch f o r reversing t h e v o l t h a s a r e s i s t a n c e of 1000 ohms per v o l t . meter ranges i s f u r n i s h e d with t h i s panel s i n c e such a switch i s necessary when t e s t i n g cathode voltages i n many s e t s which have the cathode t o h e a t e r c u r r e n t reversed and i t i s a l s o needed i n t e s t i n g t h e screen- grid of tubes i n screen- grid s e t s . The ohmmeter which i s supplied with voltage from t h e 22.5 v o l t b a t t e r y has ranges of 0-3,000, and 0-30,600, and 0-50,000 and i t i s supplied with an adjustment t o compensate f o r high and low voltages. The capacity meter i s c a l i b r a t e d t o read values d i r e c t l y i n microfarads and w i t h i t s ranges of 0-1.5 and 0-15 microfarads p r a c t i c a l l y a l l of the f i x e d condensers used i n power packs and f i l t e r systems can be t e s t e d f o r breakdowns within t h e limits of t h e meter. This meter i s connected t o t h e a-c l i n e and i s placed i n s e r i e s with t h e condenser -under t e s t through t h e t e s t l e a d s attached t o t h e proper binding p o s t s a t t h e bottom of t h e panel. Lesson 38

s h e e t 31

Figure 14

Tubes may be checked by t h e g r i d t e s t method. A 22.5 v o l t b a t t e r y mounted on t h e r e a r of panel a s shown i n Figure 15 i s used f o r t h i s purpose so t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e g r i d may be s h i f t e d e i t h e r 4.5 o r 22.5 v o l t s , t h e l a t t e r voltage being b e t t e r s u i t e d f o r power tubes of t h e 145 o r 150 type t o provide a d e f i n i t e change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t . When t e s t l e a d s a r e used i n connection with t h e b a t t e r y and one of the voltmeters, c o n t i n u i t y t e s t s of c i r c u i t s and p a r t s can be quickly made and open c i r c u i t s and s h o r t e d condensers can be found. I n t h e f r o n t view photograph i n Figure 13 you can observe t h e f l e x i b l e cable with t h e t e s t e r plug attached f o r making socket-analysis t e s t s of r e c e i v e r s . Row t o use a Bench Test Panel. Many of our s t u d e n t s may wish t o t r a c e through the wiring and switching arrangement of a t y p i c a l r a d i o s e r v i c e bench t e s t panel. For t h i s purpose we again r e f e r you t o Figure 14. The t e s t explained i n the f o l l o w i n g paragraphs would be made with t h e tube i n t h e socket on the panel and t h e t e s t e r plug i n t h e t u b e ' s socket i n t h e radio set. To check power supply t o a r a d i o s e t you would check t h e f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e of t h e r e c t i f i e r tube by t u r n i n g switch #18 t o 8 v o l t s , and the voltage would be read on the 8 v o l t s c a l e of meter ( A ) . Then t o check t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t p a s s i n g through t h e r e c t i f i e r tube you would t u r n switch # 2 l t o "250 X1.A." and read t h e current on t h e 250 milliampere s c a l e of meter ( D ) . Should t h e c u r r e n t i n d i c a t e a value l e s s than 100 milliamperes, change switch f 2 1 and read on t h e 100 milliampere s c a l e . The c u r r e n t r e a d i n g obtained is the t o t a l c u r r e n t passing ~ h r o u g ha half-wave ('81 type) r e c t i f i e r tube, o r one-half t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t p a s s i n g through a full-wave ( ' 8 0 type) r e c t i f i e r tube, t h a t i s , t h e c u r r e n t through only one p l a t e . To check t h e c u r r e n t through t h e second p l a t e of a full- wave r e c t i f i e r tube you would use the 4 hole, 5 prong adapter and t a k e one reading with the r e c t i f i e r tube i n the UX sockY e t (H) and one reading w i t h the a d a p t e r i n the U s o c k e t (G) of the t e s t I-Ience, t h e t o t a l p l a t e c u r r e n t i s t h e sum of t h e two readings. panel. To check f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e of a d i r e c t c u r r e n t s e t operated from b a t t e r i e s t u r n switch #23 t o "D-C FILv p o s i t i o n and t h e f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e a v a i l a b l e on t h i s tube w i i l be i n d i c a t e d on the 10 v o l t s c a l e of meter ( B ) . If the meter r e a d s reversed you should t u r n switch #22 t o "REWRSE" p o s i t i o n which w i l l ow ever, i f an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s e t were cause t h e meter t o read foward. being t e s t e d t u r n switch #18 t o the "4 VOLTv p o s i t i o n f o r the following type of t u b e s , namely, 224, 226, 227, or 245 and read t h e f i l a m e n t voltage on t h e 4 v o l t s c a l e of meter ( A ) . For t h e 112, 171, 210, o r 250 types of t u b e s , t u r n switch #18 t o t h e " 8 VOLTw p o s i t i o n and read on t h e 8 v o l t s c a l e . I n o t h e r words. t u r n switch #18 t o the proper p o s i t i o n , depending, of course. upon t h e fiiament o r h e a t e r v o l t a g e of the tube t o be t e s t e d and read on t h e corresponding s c a l e of meter ( A ) . With the tube i n t h e t e s t panel, t u r n switch #23 o r switch #18 f o r proper v o l t a g e a s j u s t described.
7

A r e a d i n g o f g l a t e v o l t a g e could be had by t u r n i n g s w i t c h #20 t o the '"00

Volt w

p o s i t i o n and t h e 600 v o l t s c a l e of meter ( C ) would g i v e the p l a t e v o l t a g e of t h i s tube. If t h e r e a d i n g were s u f f i c i e n t l y low and w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of t h e 300 v o l t s c a l e then s e t switch #20 accordingly t o the l a t t e r s c a l e and t h u s o b t a i n a c l o s e r e a d i n g on t h i s s c a l e . P l a t e c u r r e n t of the tube and socket under t e s t is i n d i c a t e d on meter ( D ) and inasmuch a s i t i s continuousl y i n the c i r c u i t , i t is b e s t t o keep switch #21 on the "250 M.A." position Lesson 38

s h e e t 33

F i g u r e 16

F i g u r e 17

Lesson 38

sheet 34

a s a matter of p r o t e c t i o n and then change t o the "100 X . A . " a s required.

o r "10 M.A."

scale

Then g r i d v o l t a g e , t h a t i s , the c o n t r o l g r i d v o l t a g e of a tube i s t o be read you would t u r n switch ,Y23 t o "GRID-CATHODE" and switch #19 t o " GRID" , e i t h e r t o the "10 Vn o r "100 Vn p o s i t i o n , a s the case may be, and read the v o l t a g e on meter ( B ) . For a r e a d i n g of screen- grid v o l t a g e s w i t c h # 1 9 would be t u r n ed t o "GRID 100" p o s i t i o n and, a l s o , s n i t c h lf22 t o "REVZRSErt and t o connect i n meter ( B ) . This r e a d i n g i s t h e p o s i t i v e v o l t a g e of t h e screen w i t h r e f e r ence t o t h e cathode i n t h e case of h e a t e r type t u b e s , o r the filament i n t h e case of f i l a m e n t t n e tubes. Now, when a r e a d i n g of cathcae v o l t a g e i s d e s i r e d switches AL23 and i19 a r e turned t o "CATHODEw p o s i t i o n and t h e value is r e g i s t e r e d on meter ( B ) . Where cathode v o l t a g e s a r e encountered which g i v e a r e v e r s e r e a d i n g , due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e cathode is p o s i t i v e with r e s g e c t t o t h e h e a t e r , switch #22 should be turned t o "REVERSE" i n a d d i t i o n which w i l l cause t h e needle t o read foward on i t s s c a l e . I f , i n any of the foregoing t e s t s , you found occasion t o t e s t a four- prong tube i t would be necessary t o use an a d a p t e r w i t h t h e r e g u l a r t e s t e r plug on t h e end of the c a b l e s i n c e t h i s plug has f i v e prongs which i s the customa r y way of arranging t h e c i r c u i t s to the plug i n standard equipment. Now we w i l l g i v e t h e u s e of every binding p o s t shown on t h e diagram of the t e s t p a n e l i n Figure 14. The f i r s t t h i n g t o know is t h a t a l l ranges of each meter a r e brought t o t h e binding p o s t s t o provide r e a d i n g s from s e p a r a t e p i e c e s of apparatus. For i n s t a n c e , the v o l t a g e of a "Bw e l i m i n a t o r alone may be d e s i r e d , i n which case l e a d s may be run t o t h e high v o l t a g e termin a l s of t h e meter, proper switches manipulated, and t h e r e a d i n g s taken. Low v o l t a g e s , such a s those of an "A" b a t t e r y may be read by t u r n i n g switch #23 t o the "D-C FIL w p o s i t i o n and r e a d i n g voltage on meter marked ( B ) through binding p o s t s #9 and #lo. Hence, when u s i n g t h e binding p o s t s , .the t e s t p a n e l p l u g should n o t be connected t o a r a d i o s e t and t h e r u l e a p p l i e s t o a l l t e s t equipment of t h i s kind. Beginning w i t h binding p o s t s # and #2 w f i n d that t h e y a r e used f o r use 1 e i n measuring low v o l t a g e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t s . This p a i r of binding p o s t s connects w i t h t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t meter ( A ) , t h e proper range bei n g c i r c u i t e a through switch #la, s o t h a t e i t h e r the "4Vq', "8Vn, o r "16Vn s c a l e may be s e l e c t e d by merely t u r n i n g switch #18 t o the proper p o s i t i o n . For checking l i n e v o l t a g e s or f o r o t h e r a-c v o l t a g e s ranging up t o 160 v o l t s we would use binding p o s t s #3 and #4, which a r e marked "160 TOLT A-Cw. When l i n e v o l t a g e s a r e measured a r e g u l a r cord and p l u g is used f o r conveniently For measuring h i g h v o l t a g e a-o c i r c u i t s making connection t o l i n s supply. ranging up t o 800 v o l t s you would u s e t h e t e s t l e a d s s u p p l i e d w i t h t h e p a n e l and connecting them t o t h e p a i r of b i n d i n g p o s t s marked #4 and #5. Thls h i g h v o l t a g e a-c s c a l e w i l l permit you t o check the v o l t a g e supplied by a power transformer t o t h e p l a t e o r p l a t e s of a r e c t i f i e r tube. I n t h e case of a full-wave r e c t i f i e r tube the t o t a l v o l t a g e from p l a t e t o p l a t e should be approximately double t h a t which each p l a t e r e c e i v e s , the voltage on each p l a t e being, of course, t h e v o l t a g e a c r o s s e i t h e r h a l f o f the p l a t e winding, t h a t i s , between mid-tap and e i t h e r extreme end of t h i s winding. Lesson 38,- sheet 35

There a r e t h r e e binding p o s t s , #6, #?, and #8 which a r e used f o r c a p a c i t measurements a s follows: The source of the v o l t a g e f o r o b t a i n i n g d surements i s provided through the cord and plug i n s e r t e d i n the lamp socket o r w a l l o u t l e t of the a-c power system. F i r s t , connect t h e cord t i p s of t h e cord and plug assembly t o binding p o s t s #3 and #4 and p l a c e the p l u g i n t h e lamp socket and meter ( A ) w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e a-c l i n e voltage on i t s 160 v o l t s c a l e . A condenser c a p a c i t y is measured by connecting the terminals of t h e &ondenser under t e s t d i r e c t l y across binding p o s t s #6 and #7, o r a c r o s s p o s t s #6 and #8 by means of t h e flexible t e s t leads. When making condenser t e s t s be s u r e t h e proper p o s t s a r e used, depending on whether o r not t h e condenser c a p a c i t y value is g r e a t e r than 1.5 microfarads o r w i t h i n the 1 5 microfarad range. Since t h e c a p a c i t y i n d i c a t e d is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the l i n e frequency and t h e s c a l e c a l i b r a t i o n of the meter is f o r 60 c y c l e s t h e n i f used on a 50 cycle l i n e , the a c t u a l capacity of the condenser would be 1.17 times t h a t i n d i c a t e d , and on 25 c y c l e s , 2.4 times t h a t indicated. A l s o , . s i n c e t h e c a l i b r a t i o n of the c a p a c i t y meter is f o r an a-c v o l t a g e O f 115 v o l t i , then should readings be made with a l i n e voltage varying from t h i s value, the r e s u l t i n g readings w i l l be correspondingly high o r low. If a condenser i s s h o r t - c i r c u i t ed t h e a-c c u r r e n t i n p a s s i n g r i g h t through the condenser from p l a t e t o p l a t e would cause t h e p o i n t e r t o swing t o the right end of the s c a l e o r t o t h e p o i n t marked nSHORTn. I n t h e case of an open c i r c u i t t h e r e would be no proper connection t o the condenser's p l a t e s and, consequently, t h e p o i n t e r would not move a t a l l ; i t would remain a t t h e "OPENn p o s i t i o n on t h e s c a l e . The next p a i r of binding p o s t s , #9 and # l o , a r e used i n reading low v a l u e s of d-c v o l t a g e s on meter ( B ) , t h e range d e s i r e d being s e l e c t e d by s e t t i n g switch $19 t o "CATBODE 10" o r wCATHODE 100". m e n high a-c v o l t a g e v a l u e s 1 a r e t o be measured, binding p o s t s # 1and #12 a r e used t o connect meter ( C ) t o the c i r c u i t and t h e d e s i r e d range i s s e l e c t e d by means of switch #20. Khere a check up of the c u r r e n t i n a d-c c i r c u i t i s d e s i r e d binding p o s t s 313 and $14 a r e used, the reading being taken on meter ( D ) and the range being s e l e c t e d by means of switch #21. I n a d d i t i o n switch #27 must be i n t h e "PLATE CURRENT" p o s i t ion.
NO doubt,the most f r e q u e n t l y used binding p o s t s on any t e s t p a n e l a r e thosk which a r e used f o r making c o n t i n u i t y and r e s i s t a n c e measurements. O t h e n diagram i n Figure 14 t h e s e p o s t s a r e #15, #16, and #17. To p l a c e t h i s c i r c u i t i n r e a d i n e s s f o r such t e s t s you would a t t a c h r e s p e c t i v e ends of t h e t e s t l e a d s t o t h e proper p a i r of binding p o s t s and the opposite ends of t h e l e a d s , on which would be found the t e s t prods o r p o i n t s , would be placed a c r o s s the p o r t i o n of t h e c i r c u i t t o be t e s t e d . VoLtage f o r t h e s e measurenients i s supplied from a 22.5 v o l t tapped b a t t e r y mounted on the r e a r of t h e panel, s o t h a t f o r low and medium ranges you could u s e 1.5 v o l t s , and f o r higher ranges 19.5 v o l t s . The r h e o s t a t shown on t h e panel permits you t o a d j u s t a l l ranges t o t h e e x i s t i n g b a t t e r y v o l t a g e and t o make t h i s adj u s t ~ e n tyou need only t o s h o r t - c i r c u i t t h a t range a t the binding p o s t s and a d j u s t the r h e o s t a t u n t i l t h e p o i n t e r of meter ( E ) i n d i c a t e s zero r e s i s t a n c e a t t h e right- hand end of i t s s c a l e .

Whenever the c o n t i n u i t y t e s t is used t o check c i r c u i t s o r p a r t s f o r "opens" t h e n you should connect one of t h e t e s t l e a d s o r p o i n t s t o one end of t h e c i r c u i t being t e s t e d , and touch t h e o t h e r t e s t p o i n t momentarily t o v a r i o u s p o i n t s along t h i s c i r c u i t , s t a r t i n g where the f i r s t mentioned t e s t l e a d is connected. Thus by t h i s means you can e a s i l y f i n d a break o r open, because Lesson 38 - sheet 36

when the faulty place in the circuit is reached there will be no indication on the meter, that is, no movement of the needle will be observed. Of course, you must remember that when testing a perfect condenser alone it will show an open circuit on a continuity test. Hence, you should exercise care in such tests and not become confused when a condenser is involved. For instance, a condenser in a receiver might show a short circuit test but in reality you may be testing through some resistor or transformer or choke winding which may be shunted around the condenser in question. So, we advise you to be careful when making such tests. To be absolutely sure that any condenser which is shunted by a wire' circuit or a metallic circuit is in good condition the condenser shouldbe disconnected fromits circuit during the test. How to use the test circuit in Figure 14 for measurintz low, medium, and hi& resistances: A measurement of low resistance would be obtained by connecting the test leads to binding posts #15 and #16, and placing switch #28 in the "MED. RES." position, and the reading observed on the 30,000 ohm scale of meter (E)would be divided by 10 to get the true value. For medium resistance measurements, bindmg posts #15 and #16 could be used with switch #28 in the "MED. RES." position, and hence the true value in this case would be had by dividing the reading taken on the 50,000 ohm scale of meter ( E ) by 1 . For high resistance measurements the circuit or unit under test is 0 connected to binding posts #16 and #17, and the resistance value is read directly on the 500,000 ohm scale of meter (E). To cite one example of a correct resistance indication for a given test we will explain what effects you would expect to obtain on your meter when testing a'lightning arrester. This device should be checked for a very low resistance circuit between the antenna terminal and the set terminal, and a very high resistance or open circuit between the antenna and set terminals and the ground terminal. m e r e a certain type of lightning arrester is supplied with one common terminal for the antenna and set connections the arrester should check open circuit or a very hlgh resistance between this terminal and the ground terminal. The panel in Figure 14 also provides a tube test by changing the grid bias a definite amount, the amount of the change of grid bias being controlled by switch #26. This switch should be placed in the left hand or "4.5 Vn position when testing amplifier tubes However, for power tubes, such as types '45 and '50, switch #26 should be turned to the right hand or "22.5 Vqt position in order to get a larger grid change for such tubes operating with greater power. In the case of any three-electrode tube the grid change is obtained by operating switch #24 from the nNORMALw to the "SHIFTw position, but for four-electrode or screen-grid tubes the shift is obtained by operating switch #25 from the "NORMALn to the "SHIFTn position. As we have stated before in our lesson this definite change in grid voltage should change the value of the plate current a definite amount for a normal tube.

To summarize this lesson we learn that the purpose of set testing equipment is to Drovide a means for quickly and accurately checking all tubes, testing thk nrimary and secondary windings of power transformers, measuring the voltages at the source of the po-qer supply and taking it all-in-all, subjecting the various circuits of a receiving set to a critical analysis. Any readings obtained during the tests that are found to be at considerable variance from normal readings usually lead the serviceman to the location of the trouble. In other lessons on this subject of radio servicing we Lesson 38

- sheet 37

have taken up d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e Oontinuity s e t t e s t e r , ohmmeter, tube t e s t e r , grid- dip qieter, output meter and so on and,also, t h e r e a r e numerous p o i n t s included on the p o s s i b l e causes of f a u l t y o p e r a t i o n i n rec e i v i n g s e t s powered from a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t l i n e s .

=INATION
1.

LESSON 38

Give a b r i e f o u t l i n e f o r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t e s t i n g a r e c e i v i n g s e t which you were c a l l e d upon t o s e r v i c e , assuming you had no previous i n s t r u c t i o n about t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e s e t o r t h e p o s s i b l e cause of t h e d i f f i c u l t y . (a) H w may t h e range of a voltmeter be extended? o p r i n c i p l e governing t h i s method? (a) H w may the range of an ammeter be extended? o principle. (b) What i s t h e (b) Zxplain t h e

2 .
3.
4.

What i s meant by a socket- analysis t e s t and of what advantage i s i t in'servicing a receiver? Name each of t h e p r i n c i p a l c i r c u i t analyses t h a t may be taken w i t h t h e average type s e t t e s t e r and t e l l what you can about each a n a l y s i s . I n t h e diagram i n F i g u r e 1 what i s t h e 4.5 v o l t b a t t e r y used f o r ? 1 Before attempting t o s e r v i c e a r e c e i v e r and t u r n i n g power on t h e s e t what precautions would you take? Mention one o r more c i r c u i t s i n c e r t a i n types of r e c e i v e r s t h a t o cannot be reached by socket- analysis t e s t i n g . H w a r e they t e s t e d ? To i n d f c a t e c o r r e c t working conditions i s i t n e c e s s a r y t o have t h e e l e c t r i c a l v a l u e s o b t a i n e d a t t h e v a r i o u s s o c k e t s and o t h e r p o i n t s i n a r e c e i v e r always compare e x a c t l y with t h e v a l u e s given on t h e manufacturer's c h a r t f o r t h a t s e t ? Give t h e r e a s o n s f o r your answer. ( a ) Would you r u n a s e r i e s ' t e s t s on an a-c set with a s e t t e s t e r i f each sooket of t h e reoeivc o t h e r than t h e s o c k e t which held t h e plug, was not supplied w i t h a t; j? Why? ( b ) When making socket- ana sis t e s t s of d i f f e r e n t types of r e c e i v e r s why i s i t you may g e t r e v ~ r s e dreadings of oathode v o l t a g e ?

5.

6.

7.
8.
9.

10.

Lesson 38

- sheet

38

Technical Lesson 39

A very good point always to keep in mind in radio service work is that the circuits of all receivers may be divided into four main sections, namely, (1) the radio-frequenc amplifier or tuning circuits which select and amplify the desired signal, ( 2 y the detector which separates the a-f component from the r-f component of an Pnooming signal, (3) the audio-frequency amplifier which receives the a-f component as it comes from the detector and build* up the audio frequencies until they are sufficiently strengthened to operate the loudspeaker satisfactorily,and (4) the power supply' system. If, when servicing a troublesome $eb, you come to the conclusion that the cause of ! faulty operation is due fb some sort of trouble in the receiyer itself then the difficulty must lie in one of the circuits we have just mentioned. Knowing this to be the case we can map out a logical way of approaching our work in radio trouble shooting. Our aim now is to separate the four main sections ' according to a plan that wvll enable us to prove whether or not each section is performing as it should,and then if one section is found to be at fault we can concentrate on the wiring and parts associated with that particular section until we have cor~ectedthe trouble.

'I

So then, if you fully understand our purpose in considering the main circuits of a receiver by sections and treating each one as a separate unit, we will proceed to the first part of this lesson wherein we deal with the relating to the use-of a standard set tester or analyzer. A serie nations will be given to cover the principles Of testing circuits

Figure 2 s o c k e t s of a r e c e i v e r and each explanation w i l l be centered around a c e r t a i n s e c t i o n of a t y p i c a l r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t . The photograph i n Figure 1 shows a standard s e t t e s t e r being used t o take v a r i o u s v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t r e a d i n g s a t the s o c k e t s of a r e c e i v e r . When you f i n i s h studying t h i s p a r t of the l e s s o n you w i l l understand how and why t h e s e t e s t s a r e performed. From your p r e v i ous work on t h i s s u b j e c t you know t h a t when a t e s t set- up is used l i k e t h e one shown i n t h e photograph,the t e s t e r plug must be i n s e r t e d i n the d e s i r e d socket of t h e r e c e i v e r and t h e tube which normally o p e r a t e s i n t h i s socket . must be i n s e r t e d i n t h e s e t t e s t e r socket. These r e p r e s e n t t h e conditions under which our s e r i e s of explanations a r e made. For a t y p i c a l r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t on which t o base our s e r i e s of explanations w have s e l e c t e d a screene g r i d r e c e i v e r t h a t o p e r a t e s from an a-c power l i n e , t h e complete schematic diagram of t h e r e c e i v e r being shown i n Figure 2. The r e c e i v e r c o n s i s t s of two s t a g e s of radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n having i n a l l t h r e e tuned r-f c i r c u i t s . Each radio- frequency s t a g e employs a 222 type screen- grid tube. The d e t e c t o r u s e s a 227 tube, and t h e s t a g e of s t r a i g h t audio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n t h a t follows a l s o u s e s a 227 tube. I n t h e f i n a l audio-frequency s t a g e two 245 tubes a r e used i n push- pull and t h e s e tubes feed the loudspeaker. The f i l a m e n t s and h e a t e r s a r e energized with a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of t h e proper v o l t a g e which comes from the s e v e r a l secondaries of t h e power transformer while a high- voltage winding on t h i s same transformer del i v e r s i t s a-c output t o a full-wave r e c t i f i e r of t h e '80 type. The r e c t i f i e r tube s e r v e s t o change t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i n t o a p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t c u r r e n t and the f i l t e r system smoothes o u t t h e p u l s a t i o n s t o provide a s u b s t a n t i a l l y s t e a d y flow of d i r e c t c u r r e n t which is r e q u i r e d f o r t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v e r . Before g e t t i n g down t o t h e a c t u a l explanation of t h e p r i n c i p l e s involved i n tube- socket t e s t i n g we w i l l b r i e f l y o u t l i n e t h e p r a c t i c a l operat i o n of a standard s e t t e s t e r t h e n used under t h e c o n d i t i o n s shorn i n Figure 1 . Lesson 39
A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e r e c e i v e r diagram i n Figure 2 i s a s follows:

- sheet

You can see i n Figure 1 t h a t v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t r e a d i n g s a r e being taken a t t h e sockets of a r e c e i v i n g s e t . The t e s t s would be made somewhat a s follows: To read f i l a m n t o r h e a t e r v o l t a g e a t a tube socket the t e s t b u t t o n c o n t r o l l i n g the d e s i r e d meter s c a l e i s degressed. For example, i f t h e h e a t e r voltage of a 222 type t u b s is d e s i r e d a b u t t o n which might be marked "FIL. 4 V A-C" i n c e r t a i n anal y z e r s would be used. The h e a t e r v o l t a g e of a 227 tube would be read i n t h e same manner, t h a t i s , by u s i n g t h e same b u t t o n and voltmeter s c a l e . T h e p l a t e v o l t a g e of a tube may be read by d e p r e s s i n g a b u t t o n which might be marked "B VOLTS 300 V" and the i n d i c a t i o n i n t h i s i n s t a n c e would be observed on the 300 v o l t s c a l e of the d-c voltmeter. The p l a t e u r r e n t of a tube may be read by d e p r e s s i n g a button which might be marked "PLAT3 M.A. 1 5 M.A." and t h e c u r r e n t reading would be noted on the milliammeter s c a l e corresponding t o the b u t t o n used, o r 0-15 m.a. s c a l e . I n c e r t a i n analyzers the button j u s t mentioned could be used t o measure the p l a t e c u r r e n t of v a r i o u s tubes w i t h t h e exception of t h e 171 t-ype and f o r the l a t t e r tube i t mould be necessary t o u s e a higher s c a l e , which f o r example, might be a s c a l e c o n t r o l l e d by a button marked "PLATE M. A. 150 M.A.

".

The g r i d b i a s o r "Cv* v o l t a g e of a tube may be read by depressing a b u t t o n which might be marked " C VOLTS 75 V" and t h i s would connect t h e 0-75 v o l t s c a l e of t h e d-c voltmeter i n t o the c i r c u i t . The h e a t e r b i a s of a tube, f o r example a 222 o r 227 tube, may be read by d e p r e s s i n g a b u t t o n which might be marked "CATHODE VOLTS 7 5 Vw. This b u t t o n would c o n t r o l the corresponding s c a l e on t h e d-c voltmeter. From t h e d e s c r i p t i o n j u s t given concerning t h e o p e r a t i o n of a s e t t e s t e r i t i s easy t o understand t h a t v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t r e a d i n g s of t h e v a r i o u s tube c i r c u i t s a r e taken by manipulating c e r t a i n b u t t o n s on t h e t e s t e r panel which i n t u r n cut i n t h e d e s i r e d meter s c a l e s i n t h e , c i r c u i t s under t e s t . The drawi n g s i n Figures 3, 4, 5, and 6 t e l l a t a g h n c e the s t o r y of j u s t where meters would be l o c a t e d i n t h e tube c i r c u i t s f o r each t e s t t h a t might be taken a t a tube soclcet. F PRINCIPLES APPLYING TO THE USE O A SET TESTER OR ANALYZER. By examining F i g u r e s 3. 4. 5. and 6 you w i l l s e e t h a t we have c u t up t h e r e c e i v e r d i a ~ r a m , i n U ~ i g u r e i n t o its f b u r main s e c t i o n s according t o t h e p l a n p r e v i o u s l y out 2, l i n e d . Each s e c t i o n i s drawn i n enlarged form t o a l l o w u s t o c l e a r l y show t h e p o s i t i o n occupied by each meter d u r i n g t h e tests. By considering t h e sect i o n s s e p a r a t e l y and e x p l a i n i n g each and every i n d i v i d u a l t e s t you w i l l o b t a i n a c l e a r p i c t u r e of how c i r c u i t s a r e checked by means of meters. Remember t h a t o n l y one reading can be taken a t a time w i t h a s e t t e s t e r equipped w i t h only one meter,whereas,two o r more r e a d i n g s can be t a k e n simultaneously i f more meters a r e provided. Now examine Figure 2 and then c a r e f u l l y study t h e p r i n c i p l e s given i n Explanations Nos. 1 t o 4 beginning on the next page.

Lesson 39

- sheet

Figure 3 XXPLANATION NO. 1 . Refer t o Figure 3. O u r f i r s t explanation concerns the l o c a t i o n of meters a t the v a r i o u s terminals of socket #1. This is a r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r s o c k e t employing a screen- grid tube. Our i l l u s t r a t i o n e x p l a i n s t h e method a s a c t u a l l y used i n p r a c t i c e t o o b t a i n voltage and curr e n t readings by means of a s e t t e s t e r as i n Figure l. The l o c a t i o n and purpose of each meter is a s follows: Meter i n p o s i t i o n A. c o n t r o l g r i d and cathode of t h e tube and it meas u r e s t h e b i a s i n g voltage on the g r i d . This shows a d-c voltmeter connected between the p l a t e and cathode of t h e tube and measures p l a t e voltage. This shows an a-c voltmeter connected a c r o s s the two l e a d s which supply h e a t i n g c u r r e n t t o t h e h e a t e r wire l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e cathode thimble, hence, t h e meter reads a-c h e a t e r voltage. T h i s shows a d-c milliammeter i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e p l a t e supply and, consequently, i t reads t h e d i r e c t ourrent flowing i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t .
T h i s shows a d-c voltmeter connected between the

T h i s shows a 6-c voltmeter connected between the

, I

I,

1 1

B.

It

C.

It

1 1

D .
E.

1 1

cathode and h e a t e r c i r c u i t s of t h e tube and, hence, the meter reads cathode voltage.

I1

F.

s c r e e n g r i d and cathode and it r e a d s t h e p o s i t i v e v o l t a g e on the s c r e e n g r i d . With d i f f e r e n t a d j u s t ments of t h e volume c o n t r o l t h i s v o l t a g e w i l l vary.

T h i s shows a d-c milliammeter placed i n s e r i e s w i t h

T h i s shows a a-c voltmeter conneated between t h e

It

0.

t h e screen- grid and it measures screen- grid current.

After readings a r e completed a t socket #l then t h e same procedure would be c a r r i e d out i n making t e s t s a t socket #2 which a l s o holds an r-f a m p l i f i e r tube. Consequently, t h e meters would be placed i n both c i r c u i t s i n t h e same r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s and t h e explanat ions given above would apply i n e i t h e r case. I f you examine t h e two r-f s t a g e s c a r e f u l l y YOU w i l l f i n d each One t o be e x a c t l y a l i k e . Lesson 39

- sheet

It

Figure 4 EXPLANATION NO. 2. Refer t o Figure 4. The d e t e c t o r and 1st a-f amplifying s t a g e , a t s o c k e t s #3 and $4 r e s p e c t i v e l y . a r e t h e c i r c u i t s next t o be s t-u d i e d .-- - - he-diagram above shows t h r e e - e i e c t r o d e - t u b e s i n t h e s e sockets. eme ember t h a t t h e l e t t e r s A , B y C , and s o on a r e merely r e f e r e n c e l e t t e r s used t o i d e n t i f y each meter on t h e drawing with i t s explanation i n t h e t e x t below. The meter connections a t t h e d e t e c t o r s o c k e t , o r socket #3, a r e as follows: Meter i n p o s i t i o n A. This shows a d-c voltmeter connected between the detect o r g r i d and cathode. Only a very s l i g h t i n d i c a t i o n may be observed on a meter when connected between t h e s e two e l e c t r o d e s because of the presence of the high r e s i s t a n c e g r i d l e a k which i s about 1 megohm i n t h i s case. If t h e g r i d l e a k were s h o r t e d with a wire a more n o t i c e a b l e r e a d i n g might be observed on t h e voltmeter. T h i s shows a d-c voltnieter connected between p l a t e and cathode and it reads t h e p o t e n t i a l supplied t o t h e p l a t e . T h i s shows an a-c voltmeter connected between t h e h e a t e r t e r m i n a l s and it i n d i c a t e s t h e a-c v o l t a g e supplied by one of t h e secondaries of t h e power transformer. This shows a d-c milliammeter connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e p l a t e supply and, t h e r e f o r e , i t r e a d s the d i r e c t c u r r e n t p a s s i n g through t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t . This shows a d-c voltmeter connected between t h e cathode and h e a t e r c i r c u i t s and measures the v o l t a g e of t h e cathode w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o the h e a t e r c i r c u i t .

A f t e r a l l t h e readings a r e completed a t socket if3, a s o u t l i n e d above, then you would proceed t o make t e s t s a t socket #4. A s the drawing above, i n Figure 4, i n d i c a t e s , t h e meters a r e a g a i n connected t o the d i f f e r e n t tube c i r c u i t s of s o c k e t ff4 f o r each t e s t i n t h e same manner as f o r t e s t s a t socket #3 and, cons e q u e n t l y , t h e s e t e s t s need n o t b e repeated. There is one t h i n g t o mention, however, a d e f i n i t e b i a s i n g v o l t a g e is supplied t o t h e g r i d of socket #4 accordi n g t o the p l a t e v o l t a g e used s i n c e t h e tube i n t h i s socket is an a-f a m p l i f i e r . Remember t h a t a d e f i n i t e g r i d b i a s reading is n o t t o b e expected i n t h e case of t h e d e t e c t o r a t socket #3 because i t employs g r i d - l e a k d e t e c t i o n . Lesson 39 - sheet 5

Figure 5 EXPLANATION NO; 3. Refer t o Figure 5. You a r e now ready t o make t h e next s e r i e s of routine. t e s t s a t the sockets of the oush-oull amulifier.- - - "-- at Reein - . . .. socket $5 which h o l d s one of t h e 245 power tubes. b em ember t h a t t o put everyt h i n g i n r e a d i n e s s f o r t e s t s a t s o c k e t lf5 the 245 tube must be removed from t h i s socket and i n s e r t e d i n the mt socket i n the s e t t e s t e r a f t e r which the t e s t e r plug i s i n s e r t e d i i l p l a c e of t h e tube i n s o c k e t 85. The purpose of the meters and t h e i r ' l o c a t i o n s i n t h e tube c i r c u i t s a r e as follows:Meter i n p o s i t i o n A. This shows a d-c voltmeter connected between g r i d and f i l a m e n t which provides a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i v e g r i d b i a s supplied t o t h i s tube. This shows a d-c voltmeter connected between p l a t e and f i l a m e n t and the reading i n v o l t s observed on i t s s c a l e t e l l s u s the v a l u e of t h e p o s i t i v e potent i a l s ~ p p l i e dt o the p l a t e . This shows an a-c v o l t m t e r connected a c r o s s t h e fillqment and i t shows the i n p u t t e r m i n a l voltage which s e t s up a flow of c u r r e n t i n t h e filament wire, and t h e c u r r e n t i n t u r n h e a t s the wire and causes it t o emit e l e c t r o n s . This shows a a-c m i l l i m e t e r aonnected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t and it i n d i c a t e s t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t p a s s i n g between t h e p l a t e and f i l a m e n t e l e c t r o d e s of t h e tube and through the wiring and p a r t s which comprise the p l a t e c i r c u i t e x t e r n a l t o t h e tube.

B.

C.

TT

D.

o The above s t e p s complete t h e check-up a t socket #5. N w remove the t e s t e r p l u g from socket #5 and a l s o remove t h e 245 tube from t h e t e s t e r socket and r e p l a c e t h e tube i n s o c k e t #5. Having completed o u r t e s t of socket jf5 we w i l l go t o socket #6. To t a k e readings a t socket #6 remove t h e o t h e r 245 tube from t h i s socket and i n s e r t i t i n the t e s t e r UX socket end t h e n i n s e r t the t e s t e r p l u g i n socket #6. A l l of t h e t e s t s t o be made a t socket #6 a r e exa c t l y s i m i l a r t o those given above for socket #5 s i n c e t h e two 245 tubes a r e i n push- pull r e l a t i o n , and, t h e r e f o r e , you w i l l f i n d them t o b e worked under s i m i l a r conditions

Lesson 39

- sheet 6

EWLANaTION NO. 4. Refer t o Figure 6. The next s e t of readings t o be cons i d e r e d a r e those which a r e taken a t the r e c t i f i e r socket. A study of the diagram i n Figure 6 shows how meters could be connected t o provide readings which might a i d a serviceman i n l o c a t i n g t r o u b l e . The readings t e l l u s the following f a c t s about the power u n i t and r e c t i f i e r i n the above diagram. Meter i n p o s i t i o n A.
T h i g shows a d-c milliammeter connected i n s e r i e s with one p l a t e of a full- wave type '80 r e c t i f i e r

tube. This meter measures the d i r e c t c u r r e n t outp u t of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p l a t e c i r c u i t .

n n
n

B.

This shows a d-c milliammeter connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e o t h e r p l a t e of t h e type '80 r e c t i f i e r and i t measures the d i r e c t c u r r e n t output of t h e second p l a t e c i r c u i t . The r e a d i n s obtained on a m i l l i ammeter i n e i t h e r ( A ) o r B) p o s i t i o n s should be n e a r l y a l i k e f o r a normal tube. If the readings were abnormally low it would probably mean t h a t the e l e c t r o n emission of the f i l a m e n t was low, o r p o s s i b l y t h e a-c v o l t a g e output of the secondary which s u p p l i e s t h e s e p l a t e s might be considerably l e s s than normal. By adding the c u r r e n t v a l u e s i n each p l a t e c i r c u i t you g e t t h e t o t a l d i r e c t c u r r e n t , o r r e c t i f i e d a-c which p a s s e s f i r s t t o the f i l t e r system and thence t o the r e c e i v i n g tubes.

C.

T h i s shows an a-c voltmeter c o ~ e ~ t between t h e e d two p l a t e s of the r e c t i f i e r and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e meter is a l s o connected t o t h e extreme ends of t h e power transformer p l a t e winding as you can see. Hence, t h e meter measures t h e a-c output voltage of t h i s winding. Since the winding is tapped a t i t s c e n t e r the v o l t a g e a c t u a l l y on each p l a t e is b u t one-half of t h e v o l t a g e a c r o s s t h e f u l l winding.

This shows an a-c voltmeter placed between one p l a t e and t h e midtap o r c e n t e r of t h e p l a t e windin&?of the transfomer.and t h e mete2 i n this PO---s i t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h e a & v o l t a g e generated a c r o s s ( c o n t v d on next page)
w
n

D.

Lesson 39

- sheet 7

t h e t u r n s which comprise t h i s p o r t i o n of t h e winding. t h e primary winding of the power transformer and when t h e power is on t h e r e c e i v e r , as it would be 6uring t e s t s of t h i s kind, the meter w i l l a l s o be connected a c r o s s the a-c house l i g h t i n g supply. A t t h i s p o i n t l e t us mention t h a t i n c e r t a i n s e t t e s t e r s which a r e equipped with lamp cord and p l u g arrangement you need o n l y t o i n s e r t t h e plug i n the a-c socket and p r e s s t h e appropriate b u t t o n t o take a l i n e v o l t a g e reading. Otherwise you would have t o use t e s t l e a d s attached t o t h e proper binding p o s t s t o connect the a-c voltmeter t o t h e l i n e supply and i n t h i s case the meter m u l d b e used a s a n e x t e r n a l meter. The t e s t described i n (D) on t h e previous page measures t h e v o l t a g e on e i t h e r s i d e of t k c e n t e r tap of the p l a t e supp l y transformer. If t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a s e t t e s t e r w i l l not permit you t o take t h e s e measurements through t h e t e s t e r p l u g and socket you could use t h e a-c v o l t m e t e r independently a s f o r any e x t e r n a l measurements, through the a-q terminal p o s t s and t e s t l e a d s . Meter i n p o s i t i o n G. Filament a-c voltmeter measures f i l a m e n t e.m.f. The foregoing, Explanations 1 t o 4, complete our tube- socket a n a l y s i s t e s t s of t h e r e c e i v e r shown i n Figure 2 , and you should now have a c l e a r i d e a of the p r i n c i p l e s concerning the use of meters i n s e t t e s t e r s , o r analyzers, Other t e s t s which have n o t been mentioned h e r e t o f o r e b u t which some s e t anal y z e r s a f f o r d a r e discussed i n the next few paragraphs. A t e s t which may b e n hel ..-n f u l i n l o c a t i n g t r o u b l e i n a r e c e i v e r i s shown by d o t t e d l i n e s a t "F and F . i n P i m e 6, o u t l i h n s t h e p o s i t i o n s of meters which would be connected i n t h e output of t h e r e c t i f i e r when t h e b u t t o n s which c o n t r o l t h e s e meters were p r e s s e d , For t h i s t e s t t h e '80 r e c t i f i e r t u b e would be l e f t out of t h e anal y z e r and, hence, you would read the v o l t a g e d e l i v e r e d by each h a l f of t h e secondary of t h e power transformer through the f i l t e r and v o l t a g e supply s y s tem. When you p u t t h e ' 0 tube back i n the a n a l y z e r socket a f t e r t h e t e s t 8 j u s t mentioned and the b u t t o n is not r e l e a s e d you may n o t i c e a n increase of v o l t a g e on the a-c s c a l e which i s accounted f o r by t h e back a c t i o n of t h e f i l t e r condensers, they being charged up t o the a-c peak v o l t a g e of the t r a n s former output and, a s you know, a-c v o l t m e t e r s do n o t read peak v o l t a g e s b u t only working voltages. I t is a l s o w e l l t o mention i f i n s t e a d of working w i t h a f i l a m e n t type r e c t i f i e r , such as t h e '80 type, you were making t e s t s on a n e l i m i n a t o r o r socket-power u n i t u s i n g a gaseous type r e c t i f i e r , such as t h e Raytheon B H , then t h e s e l e c t e d voltage b u t t o n i n some a n a l y z e r s would permit .. you t o read t h e secondary v o l t a g e of t h e power transformer of t h e e l i m i n a t o r o r socket-power u n i t . Then, by p u t t i n g t h e r e c t i f i e r tube i n t h e analyzer and p r e s s i n g the b u t t o n which c o n t r o l s t h e a-c nilliammeter the p l a t e c u r r e n t outp u t of t h e tube could b e measured. Another use of a d-c voltmeter i n c e r t a i n t y p e s of analyzers is one i n which a certain b u t t o n which might b e m r k e d " ~ r i d - t o - p l a t e voltage"wou1d be pressed Lesson 39 Meter i n p o s i t i o n E.
T h i s shows an a-c v o l t n e t e r connected a c r o s s

- sheet 8

p l a t e of a tube a s shown by the dashed important t o mention t h a t where s e t s w i t h series f i l a m e n t s a r e t e s t e d , i t is imperative t o s h u t o f f the main power supp l y while s h l f t i n g from one socket t o another. F u r t h e r , no readings a t r e c e i v e r tube sockets should be taken with the tube o u t of the t e s t e r , s i n c e u s u a l l y necessary f o r the filament c i r c u i t t o be i n t a c t when tests are made. Filameqt v o l t a g e , p l a t e v o l t a g e , and s o on, s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , be en o n l y with t h e t u b e i n p l a c e i n t h e a n a l y z e r and i t s cord and plug i n s o c k e t of the r a d i o s e t . Under these c o n d i t i o n s t e s t s may proceed norand the u s u a l v a l u e s taken.
The following simple t e s t s a r e sometimes made t o l o c a t e t h e f a u l t y s e c t i o n t h a t i s preventing s i g n a l s from p a s s i n g through a r e c e i v e r , t h a t i s , t o determine whether t h e t r o u b l e is i n the radio- frequency o r audio- frequency s i d e of t h e s e t . After t h e s e t i s turned on and t h e tubes a r e allowed t o h e a t if t h e n you remove the d e t e c t o r tube from i t s socket t h i s should cause a c l i c k t o bc

heard i n t h e loudspeaker, p r o v i d i n g the a-f c i r c u i t s a r e f u n c t i o n i n g between t h e d e t e c t o r and the speaker. If no c l i c k were heard you would look f o r t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n the a-f c i r c u i t s . On t h e o t h e r hand i f a c l i c k were heard you would n a t u r a l l y look t o the r-f c i r c u i t s f o r the f a u l t . A quick way of t e s t i n g t h e r-f c i r c u i t s i s t o g e t a modulated o s c i l l a t o r i n t o a c t i o n , providing t h i s instrument is a v a i l a b l e , and s e t it t o g e n e r a t e a good s t r o n g s i g n a l and t h e n connect the pickup l e a d i n some convenient way t o t h e t e r m i n a l s on each of t a e s t a t o r p l a t e s of t h e tuning condensers i n s u c c e s s i o n and l i s t e n f o r t h e i n d i c a t i o n s i n the loudspeaker. O r , i f you were u s i n g an output meter when t e s t i n g you would g e t t h e i n d i c a t i o n s on t h e meter. I t is suggested t h a t you f i r s t connect the pickup l e a d on the s t a t o r t e r m i n a l of the tuning condenser i n t h e r-f s t a g e ahead of t h e d e t e c t o r . You w i l l s e e t h a t t h e s i g n a l is being d e l i v e r e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e i n p u t of t h e d e t e c t o r and r-f s t a g e s between t h e antenna c i r c u i t and t h e s t a g e you a r e t e s t i n g a r e n o t now c a l l e d upon t o do any work. If you g e t a f a i r l y s t r o n g s i g n a l through i t proves t h a t the d i f f i c u l t y r e s t s somewhere i n t h e r-f s t a g e s not used. Suppose t h i s is n o t t h e c a s e , however, and you have thus f a r f a i l e d t o b r i n g i n a s i g n a l , then t h e procedure would b e t o connect t h e pickup l e a d t o the s t a t o r of each tuning condenser i n succession working f r o n t h e r-f s t a g e ahead o f t h e d e t e c t o r towardthe antenna input o r toward t h e 1st r - f s t a g e of the r e c e i v e r . With a r e c e i v e r i n good o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n and c a r e f u l l y tuned t o t h e o s c i l l a t o r ' s frequency o r t o a broadcast s t a t i o n the s i g n a l should i n c r e a s e i n s t r e n g t h when each succeedi n g s t a g e of r-f amplication i s c u t i n , hence, i f t h e s i g n a l comes through when t e s t i n g a t one p o s i t i o n b u t n o t i n some o t h e r you w i l l know i n what sect i o n of the r e c e i v e r t h e f a u l t i s centered.

Figure 7

Figure 8

The p r i n c i p l e s of a t e s t which is o f t e n made a r e shown i n F i g u r e s 7 and 8. You should t r a c e o u t t h e s e c i r c u i t s which have been s p e c i a l l y drawn t o show how t h e g r i d and p l a t e of a tube may connect a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s on t h e power Lesson 39

- sheet

g r i d t o p l a t e r e g a r d l e s s of i t s value w i l l s u f f i c e t o t e l l u s t h a t t h e i n u i t y of the p l a t e c i r c u i t i s complete. I f a s o c k e t of a r e s i s t a n c e l e d a m p l i f i e r were being analyzed on a g r i d - t o - p l a t e t e s t the g r i d r e would a c t a s a m u l t i p l i e r and t h e v o l t a g e reading obtained would be much l e s s t h a n t h a t of t h e p l a t e v o l t a g e alone, t h a t is, t h e v o l t a g e measured between p l a t e and cathode. CONTINUITY TESTER OR OPEN C I R C U I T TESTER. c o n t i n u i t y t e s t c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of a p a i r of headphones with not l e s s than 4.5 v o l t s i n s e r i e s , o r a voltmeter and b a t t e r y . The arrangement of a continu i t y t e s t c i r c u i t u s i n g headphones and b a t t e r y i s shown i n Figure 9 and one u s i n g a voltmeter and b a t t e r y i s shown i n Figure 10. A c o n t i n u i t y t e s t i t s e l f i s used t o prove whether a wire c i r c u i t , o r m e t a l l i c c i r c u i t i s open o r closed by t h e i n d i c a t i o n s on the t e s t instrument. If a v o l t m e t e r i s u s n t should have a range of s u f f i c i e n t s i z e t o g i v e n e a r l y a f u l l s c a l e d e f l e c t i o n when connected t o the b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l s . I n t e s t s of t h i s kind i n d i c a t i o n can be
TELEPHONE

4 % VOLT "c:. BATTERY ;

Figure 10 judged more e a s i l y by g e t t i n g a s l a r g e a movement o f t h e p o i n t e r a s p o s s i b l e . For example, if a 4.5 v o l t b a t t e r y were used the v o l t m e t e r should have a t l e a s t a 0 t o 5 v o l t range. When t h e t e s t p o i n t s a r e touched t o t h e r e s p e c t i v e ends of a closed o r m e t a l l i c c i r c u i t under t e s t , a s t e a d y flow of d i r e c t curr e n t w i l l p a s s through t h e c i r c u i t and, hence, a c l i c k w i l l be heard i n the headphones i f t h e y a r e used, o r i f a voltmeter i s used i t w i l l give a s t e a d y reading. If t h e c i r c u i t b e i n g t e s t e d has a r a t h e r high r e s i s t a n c e a low readi n g on t h e voltmeter w i l l be observed b u t i f the c i r c u i t has a comparatively low r e s i s t a n c e a higher r e a d i n g w i l l be noted. An open c i r c u i t w i l l give no i n d i c a t i o n on t h e c o n t i n u i t y t e s t e r s i n c e t h e r e would be no p a t h furnished through which t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t might flow. There a r e many uses t o which a t e s t c i r c u i t of t h i s kind may be put a s have been explained i n considerable d e t a i l i n another l e s s o n on t h i s s u b j e c t . Lesson 39

- sheet

10

OHMMETER

TEST POINTS

#'

Figure 1 1

Figure 1 2

USING A MILLIAMMETER AS A VOLWTER OR OHMEWER. A m i l l i m e t e r measures c u r r e n t , a voltmeter measures e.m.f., and an ohmmeter measures r e s i s t a n c e values. I t i s sometimes economical towmakeone meter do t h e work of two and even t h r e e meters. W have i n mind how a milliammeter may be used a s a v o l t e meter by supplying the,,correct r e s i s t a n c e i n s e r i e s with i t and how a meter s c a l e i f c a l i b r a t e d i n vo1ts"can a l s o be used t o read"ohms."
I t i s only necessary t o i n s e r t a high r e s i s t a n c e , c a l l e d a " m ~ l t i p l i e r ~ n , i~ s e r i e s wlth a milliammeter t o convert it i n t o a voltmeter. Assuming t h a t t h e meter i n the upper s k e t c h ( ~ i g u r e11)is a milliammeter: it shows how a m u l t i p l i e r would be connected t o make it a voltmeter which could be used f o r a c o n t i n u i t y t e s t e r . To f i g u r e out t h e s i z e of t h e m u l t i p l i e r r e s i s t a n c e needed f o r a given milliammeter you can make use of t h e following formula and subs t i t u t e v a l u e s f o r the l e t t e r s a s follows: The formula i s R = V + M . The R s t a n d s f o r t h e number of ohms of r e s i s t a n c e required f o r t h e m u l t i p l i e r , which is the unknown q u a n t i t y i n t h i s case; the M is the f u l l s c a l e reading of t h e milliammeter expressed i n the u n i t ampere, which you g e t from the meter i t s e l f ; and the V is t h e f u l l s c a l e d e f l e c t i o n i n v o l t s which you must decide upon. If you decide on v o l t a g e v a l u e s which would be even m u l t i p l e s of the v a l u e s a l r e a d y marked on the milliammeter s c a l e then t h e s c a l e would not need r e - c e l i b r a t i n g . This i s a l l explained i n the following example. Suppose you s e l e c t f o r t h i s purpose a milliammeter with a 0 t o 50 m.a. s c a l e , t h e n you could have r e a d i n g i n v o l t s from 0 t o 500 v o l t s . Hence, you would know t h a t if t h e needle moved t o t h e 50 d i v i s i o n mark when used t o t e s t a c i r c u i t t h e v o l t a g e would a c t u a l l y be 500 v o l t s , o r i f the needle moved h a l f way a c r o s s t h e s c a l e , o r t o the 25 d i v i s i o n mark,the v o l t a g e would be 250 v o l t s . Any v o l t a g e reading i n d i c a t e d on the s c a l e would be m u l t i p l i e d by 1 0 , which i s an even m u l t i p l e , t o g e t t h e a c t u a l v o l t a g e ,

N w t o apply t h e formula f o r the m i l l i m e t e r and v o l t a g e s c a l e s just sugo g e s t e d , o r one i n which the 0-50 m.a. range w i l l permit you t o read 0-500 v o l t s , Since 50 milliamperes is the e q u i v a l e n t of .05 ampere then M is .05; V i s 500; Lesson 39

- s h e e t 11

go a s t e p f u r t h e r and e x p l a i n about the p r a c t i c a l conversion of a t e r s c a l e t o read ohms, t h a t i s , t o u s e a voltmeter a s an ohmmeter a s u r i n g r e s i s t a n c e s . A meter of t h i s kind is c a l l e d a "volt-ohmmeteryy. i s explanation l e t us assume t h a t t h e meter i n Figure 1 1 is a v o l t e r with a 0-8 v o l t s c a l e and i t i s always used w i t h a 4.5 v o l t b a t t e r y t o ck r e s i s t a n c e s and,also,assume the v o l t m e t e r l s r e s i s t a n c e t o be 1000 ohms v o l t ; then t h e ohm s c a l e given below would apply t o such a c i r c u i t when d t o measure r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e s w i t h i n the l i m i t s of the s c a l e . The v o l t a g e r e a d i n g s on t h e 8 v o l t s c a l e a r e shown i n one column and t h e corresponding r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e s i n t h e a d j o i n i n g column. When t h e t e s t p o i n t s a r e touched t o the r e s p e c t i v e ends of a c i r c u i t , o r r e s i s t o r under t e s t you g e t a v o l t a g e r e a d i n g a n d , m t h e r e f o r e , by marking t h e voltmeter s c a l e of t h i s 0-8 v o l t v o l t meter with khe corresponding r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e s and always u s i n g the meter w i t h a b a t t e r y of e x a c t l y 4.5 v o l t s you would have an instrument f o r d i r e c t l y i n d i c a t i n g . r e s i s t a n c e s from a few hundred ohms t o 100,000 ohms.
-

Unknown Resistance
0

Reading on 8 Volt S c a l e

Unknown Resistance

Reading on
8 Volt Scale

Figure 1 shows t h e r e s i s t a n c e of a g r i d b i a s r e s i s t o r being measured by means 1 of an ohmmeter; n o t e t h a t i t i s only necessary t o make a s e r i e s c i r c u i t of t h e meter and i t s m u l t i p l i e r , the b a t t e r y and t h e r e s i s t a n c e u n i t t o be measured. One type of a commercial volt-ohmmeter is shown i n Figure 12. It i s a comb i n a t i o n high r e s i s t a n c e v o l t m e t e r and a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d ohmneter. This instrurnent,which i s a Jewel1 model, o p e r a t e s a s a d-c voltmeter with t h r e e r a n g e s , namely, 0-30-300-600 v o l t s t a n d a s an ohmmeter i t s ranges a r e 10,000 and 100,000 ohms f u l l s c a l e , t h e lower s c a l e being a v a i l a b l e by means of a push button. The meter g e t s i t s v o l t a g e supply from a small 4.5 v o l t b a t t e r y mounted i n s i d e of t h e c a s e and a compensator i s provided f o r a change i n b a t t e r y v o l t a g e . Before u s i n g t h e meter i t should be a d j u s t e d so t h a t t h e needle w i l l r e g i s t e r on z e r o ohms which is t h e l a s t d i v i s i o n a t t h e r i g h t of t h e s c a l e , o r i n the f u l l - s c a l e v o l t a g e p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e two "ORM" jacks s h o r t e d by a jumper. When the p o i n t e r w i l l n o t d e f l e c t to the f u l l s c a l e v o l t a g e p o s i t i o n o r z e r o ohrns,with t h e "ohms" jacks s h o r t e d and the a d j u s t ment p r o p e r l y made, t h e b a t t e r y h a s become so weak t h a t i t needs r e p l a c i n g w i t h a f r e s h b a t t e r y . The r e s i s t a n c e t o be measured is connected t o the two Lesson 39

- sheet 12

~ p a p g e d *OHESn through t e s t l e a d s used w i t h t h e meter. The t e s t a d s shorn a t the r i g h t a r e i n s e r t e d i n t h e d e s i r e d p a i r of p i n jacks shown t t h e top of t h e meter p a n e l when v o l t a g e r e a d i n g s a r e t o be taken.

INCREASING THE RANGE O VOLTMETERS. While on the s u b j e c t of meters we w i l l F e x p l a i n a method used t o extend the v o l t a g e range of a given voltmeter t o r e a d higher v o l t a g e s . W l e a r n from t h i s work t h a t a voltmeter may be cone s i d e r e d a s t r a i g h t m i l l i m e t e r with a r e s i s t o r connected i n s e r i e s w i t h i t as shown i n Figure 1 and such a meter would have o n l y two terminal p o s t s . 1
A method f o r f i g u r i n g o u t t h e e x t e r n a l s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e necessary t o ex-

tend t h e range of a v o l t m e t e r follows: F i r s t determine the value of t h e m u l t i p l e by which it is d e s i r e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e f u l l - s c a l e reading of t h e p r e s e n t s c a l e and s u b t r a c t one from t h i s m u l t i p l e . The remaining value i s t h e n m u l t i p l i e d by t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e v o l t m e t e r t o f i n d the ext e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e . The t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e e q u a l s the number of ohms p e r v o l t m u l t i p l i e d by t h e top o r maximum reading of the p r e s e n t s c a l e . The m u l t i p l e is determined a s follows: I f the p r e s e n t range of a voltmeter is SO t o 50 and you wish t o i n c r e a s e i t s range t o 0 t o 250 t h e maximum v o l t a g e t h a t could be read would b e 5 times h i g h e r and t h e m u l t i p l e would b e 5. O r , i f a v o l t meter's range is 0 t o 100 and you d e s i r e t o extend i t $0 0 t o 1000 v o l t s t h e m u l t i p l e i n t h i s case would be 10 and so on.
EXAMPLE: Suppose, f o r the sake of explanation, we have a milliainmeter w i t h a range of 0 t o 1 milliampere and suppose i t is a l r e a d y provided with a re s i s t o r which makes i t a voltmeter and suppose t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e is 50,000 ohms which includes t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e meter i t s e l f and t h e s e r i e s res i s t o r , t h e n the range of t h i s voltmeter would be 0 t o 50 v o l t s and it would have a r e s i s t a n c e of 1000 ohms p e r v o l t . Also, suppose you wish t o extend t h e p r e s e n t range of 0 t o 50 t o 0 t o 250. The m u l t i p l e i n t h i s case is 5, from which we s u b t r a c t 1, thus 5-1= 4 and 4 is t h e f i g u r e t h a t must be multi p l i e d by the r e s i s t a n c e of t h e meter, o r 50,000 ohms, t o f i n d the r e q u i r e d e x t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e ; hence 50,000 x 4=200,000 ohms,the v a l u e of t h e e x t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e . N w l e t u s f i g u r e the o t h e r way around t o prove t h i s method. o With a voltmeter r e s i s t a n c e of 50,000 ohms and a n e x t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of 200,000 ohms the t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e is 250,000 ohms and the v o l t a g e r e q u i r e d t o make the needle move over t o f u l l s c a l e d e f l e c t i o n (whjch means t h a t a curr e n t of 1 milliampere o r .001 ampere i s forced through the c i r c u i t ) w i l l be E = I x R , o r E = . 0 0 1 x 250,000, o r E = 2 5 0 v o l t s .

I t may be both i n t e r e s t i n g and i n s t r u c t i v e t o many of our s t u d e n t s t o d i s c u s s t h i s s u b j e c t s t i l l f u r t h e r . I f a v o l t m e t e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e is 1000 ohms p e r v o l t (which means t h a t t h e r e is a r e s i s t a n c e of 1000 ohms f o r every 1 v o l t d i v i s i o n on t h e s c a l e ) and i t h a s a range of 0 t o 8 v o l t s t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f the i n s t r u ment would be 1000 x 8 , o r 8000 ohms. N w apply Ohm's law. If 8 v o l t s were o impressed a c r o s s t h e t e r m i n a l s of such a voltmeter, o r one with 8000 ohms r e s i s t a n c e , w know the c u r r e n t flow through both the meter i t s e l f and i t s s e r i e s e R o r I= 8+8000 o r I = ,001 amp., o r 1 milliampere. r e s i s t a n c e would be I = E Thus, f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r meter it t a k e s 1 m.a. t o make the needle move t o t h e fu.11 s c a l e reading by applying e x a c t l y 8 v o l t s t o t h e meter terminals. N w o t h e n , i f a r e s i s t a n c e of unknown value which i t was d e s i r e d t o measure by means 1 of t h i s voltmeter were added i n s e r i e s a s shown i n Figure 1 and t h e needle only moved half way a c r o s s the s c a l e you would know t h a t a current of 1/2 of 1 m.a. ( o r .0005 amp.) was flowing, o r i f t h e needle moved only 1/5 the d i s t a n c e

Lesson 39

s h e e t 13

and so on. Therefore, knowing t h a t a , d i r e d t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between curr e n t and r e s i s t a n c e according t o Ohms law you could f i g u r e o u t the value of t h e added r e s i s t a n c e , o r t h e r e s i s t a n c e under measurement a s follows: Assumi n g t h a t i n a t e s t a s shown i n Figure 1 t h e needle moved h a l f way a c r o s s t h e 1 s c a l e , o r t o t h e 4 v o l t mark s i n c e t h e s c a l e is c a l i b r a t e d from 0 t o 8 v o l t s ; t h e c u r r e n t , a s j u s t f i g u r e d o u t , would be .0005 amp.; and t h e t o t a l r e s i s tance o r t h a t of the complete c i r c u i t would be R = E f I o r R = 8 i .0005, o r R=16,000 ohms. But t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e i n t h i s case equals t h e v o l t m e t e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e p l u s t h e e x t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e under measurement and, t h e r e f o r e , knowing t h e voltmeter r e s i s t a n c e t o b e 8000 ohms,as we determined a t t h e begining,we have merely t o s u b t r a c t the v o l t m e t e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e from t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e t o g e t t h e v a l u e of t h e unknown r e s i s t a n c e , o r 16,000-8,000=8,000 o m s . Hence,on t h e h a l f - s c a l e mark w know a r e s i s t a n c e of 8,000 ohms is e being measured by t h e voltmeter. Remember t h a t t h e degree of accuracy of readings obtained on a given meter would depend upon t h e accuracy of any r e s i s t o r which you might use i n connection with t h e meter i f you attempt t o extend i t s range. The p r i n c i p l e regarding t h e r e H E TO CALIBRATE A VOLTMETER SCALE I N OHMS. O lntion - -- - - - -- of v o- t and ohm r e a d i n g s on the same s c a l e of a meter can be e a s i l y - l understood and f i g u r e d o u t by-proportion. W w i l l work o u t an example t o exe p l a i n t h i s p o i n t and i n doing so we w i l l t r y t o make t h e a r i t h m a t i c as simple a s p o s s i b l e . There a r e f o u r q u a n t i t i e s involved i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h i s k i n d , t h r e e of which you know-they a r e : (1) t h e v o l t m e t e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e , ( 2 ) the f u l l s c a l e v o l t a g e r e a d i n g on the meter s c a l e , and (3) the d e f l e c t i o n o f ' t h e p o i n t e r on v o l t m e t e r scale-when taking a reading. Hence, you can f i n d t h e remaining o r f o u r t h quantity,which i s t h e unknown r e s i s t a n c e , b y employing a p r o p o r t i o n expressed a s follows:

o t a l r e s i s t a n c e is t o V o l t m e t e r r e s i s t a n c e a s F u l l - s c a l e v o l t a g e i s t o V o l t a g e r e a d i n { -Note t h a t " t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e " is t h e sum of t h e unknown r e s i s t a n c e and t h e v o l t m e t e r r e s i s t a n c e . I n a p r o p o r t i o n of t h i s kind t h e product of t h e two outs i d e q u a n t i t i e s ( c a l l e d t h e extremes) equals t h e product of t h e two i n s i d e q u a n t i t i e s ( c a l l e d t h e means). N w l e t us assume v a l u e s f o r t h e known q u a n t i t i e s and work o u t the problem. o L e t t h e v o l t m e t e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e equal 10,000 ohms, t h e f u l l - s c a l e v o l t a g e readi n g 1 0 v o l t s , and l e t u s say t h a t when checlting a c e r t a i n r e s i s t a n c e t h e needle d e f l e c t s t o the 4 v o l t d i v i s i o n mark on the s c a l e . I n s t e a d of w r i t i n g "is t o " and "as'! we w i l l use t h e symbols : and : : which r e p r e s e n t "is to" and "asw i n our proportion. NOW w r i t e t h e p r o p o r t i o n with the known v a l u e s i n s e r t e d , t h u s R ( t o t a 1 r e s i s t a n c e ) : 10,000 :: 10 : 4 Multiplying theWextremes" and the"means"as explained above we g e t R ( t o t a 1 ) x 4 = 10,000 x 'LO or R( t o t a l ) x 4 = 100,000 R ( t o t a l ) = 100.000 Hence,
w

= 25,000 ohms.

Since t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e i s the combined r e s i s t a n c e of t h e unknown r e s i s tance under measurement and t h e v o l t m e t e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e then t o f i n d t h e unknown i t i s only n e c e s s a r y t o s u b t r a c t the v o l t m e t e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e , o r 10,000, from t h e t o t a l , o r 25,000. Completing t h i s l a s t s t e p i n our computation we g e t R(unknown r e s i s t a n c e ) = 2 5 , 0 0 0 - 1 0 , 0 0 0 , o r 15,000 ohms. Ans. Lesson 39

- sheet 14

Thus you w i l l n o t i c e t h a t 15,000 i s marked on t h e s c a l e o p p o s i t e the 4 v o l t d i v i s i o n on t h e same s c a l e shown below i n Figure 13. The needle of a v o l t n e t e r provided with t h i s s c a l e would i n d i c a t e 4 v o l t s i f an unknown r e s i s t a n c e were measured on t h e voltmeter which has a r e s i s t a n c e of 10,000 ohms and a range of 0-10 v o l t s and when the t e s t c i r c u i t is operated with an e.rn.f. of 10 v o l t s d-c. Any v o l t a g e value converted i n t o an ohm v a l u e on t h l s s c a l e could be f i,pred out by the same method. The drawing on t h i s page of a voltmeter s c a l e c a l i b r a t e d i n ohms f o r d e t e r mining v a l u e s of unknown r e s i s t a n c e s should give you a good idea of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between ohms and v o l t s on the same instrument. The meter has a r e s i s t a n c e of 1000 ohms p e r v o l t and if i t i s connected t o a source of 10 v o l t s d-c when making r e s i s t a n c e measurements t h e unknown r e s i s t a n c e readings on t h e s c a l e m i l l be noted a s f o l l o w s ; Using the 10 v o l t s c a l e t h e meter's r e s i s t a n c e i s 10 x 1000, o r 10,000 ohms, and the unknown r e s i s t a n c e s w i l l be v a l u e s given i n the f i r s t column f o r corresponding r e a d i n g s t h a t would be observed on t h e v o l t a g e s c a l e given i n t h e second column.

Ohms

Volts

Direct Current

Figure 13 This instrument c o n s i s t s of a s u i t a b l y arranged TUBZ CHECKER OR TUBE TESTER. c i r c u i t f o r supplying o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e s t o d i f f e r e n t types of vaccumtubes s o t h a t they may be roughly checked t o d e t e r n i n e whether o r n o t they a r e i n good condition. For all - around purposes a tube checker should be capable of t e s t i n g the c o n d i t i o n of p r a c t i c a l l y a l l t h e d i f f e r e n t types of tubes used i n r e c e i v i n g s e t s and i t should b e easy t o p l a c e i n operation. Therefore, a checker t h a t can be worked from a n a-c power l i n e through a power transformer s i m i l a r t o one t h a t i s used i n a- c s e t s w i l l be found t o be t h e most advantageous t o use f o r o r d i n a r y tube t e s t i n g . The diagram of one tyye of tube checker t h a t o p e r a t e s from any 110 v o l t , 60 c y c l e , l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t i s shown i n Figure 1 4 . This c i r c u i t w i l l permit a l l tubes t o be t e s t e d , a-c and d-c tubes having f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e s of 1.5, 2.5, 3.3, 5 . 0 , o r 7.5 v o l t s and, a l s o , r e c t i f i e r t u b e s of the filament type. Note t h a t when a tube t o be t e s t e d is placed i n a s o c k e t i t is supp l i e d with filament o r h e a t e r v o l t a g e , a s the case imy b e , from one of t h e secondaries of t h e power transformer and the p l a t e v o l t a g e i s obtained d i r e c t from t h e a-c l i n e with a milliammeter i n s e r t e d i n t h e p l a t e supply l i n e t o measure p l a t e c u r r e n t . The types of tubes t h a t can be t e s t e d w i t h t h i s instrument a r e marked a l o n g s i d e of the socket i n which the tube t o be t e s t e d would be i n s e r t e d . Refer t o Figure 15. Lesson 39

- sheet 1 5

u
C - A-C LINE
L

Figure 1 4

lo The c o n d i t i o n of a t e s t e d tube i s determined by comparing Vv meter readings which a r e taken mith t h e tube o p e r a t i n g under d i f f e r e n t g r i d v o l t a g e condit i o n s and checking t h e v a l u e s observed a g a i n s t v a l u e s which r e p r e s e n t averaEe t e s t s taken on thousands of known good tubes t e s t e d on t h a t p a r t i c u l a r kynd of a t e s t c i r c u i t . The g r i d t e s t i s accomplished by s l r i f t i n g the g r i d o t e n t i a l from one v a l u e t o a n o t h e r thereby providing a d e f i n i t e change i n ; l a t e c u r r e n t ; t h e change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t t o be expected depends, of course, upon t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two g r i d p o t e n t i a l s . This s h i f t i n g r i d pot e n t i a l can be obtained i n d i f r e r e n t ways. One way i s by connecting a 4.5 o r 22.5 v o l t b a t t e r y i n s e r i e s w i t h the g r i d of t h e tube t o be t e s t e d a s we have explained i n a n o t h e r l e s s o n on r a d i o s e r v i c i n g where t h e " g r i d b i a s t ' f t e s t c i r c u i t i s incorporated i n t h e design O a s e t t e s t e r . Another way is by employing a f i x e d r e s i s t o r and c u t t i n g this"in"and"out"of r e l a t i o n v i t h t h e g r i d c i r c u i t a s would be done when u s i n g a checker c i r c u i t of the type shown i n Figure 16. If you t r a c e o u t t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t connections coning from e i t h e r t h e UX o r UY s o c k e t s you w i l l s e e t h a t t h e p l a t e r e t u r n s i d e in cludes t h e g r i d r e s i s t o r marked R 1 which may be c u t i n o r o u t by means of t h e switch shunted around t h i s r e s i s t o r . S i n c e a change i n g r i d p o t e n t i a l should produce a d e f i n i t e change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t , depending on t h e mutual conductance of the tuhe, t h i s method provides a v e r y good check on t h e tube i t s e l f . This diagram i s given through t h e courtesy of "Radio w .

If a tube checker i s provided w i t h a v o l t a g e a d j u s t e r by means of which you can compensate f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n l i n e v o l t a g e and a f t e r once s e t t i n g the adjustment t o t h e proper p o s i t i o n i t i s only necessary t o change t h e s e t t i n g when a change i n l i n e v o l t a g e occurs. To operate t h e average type checker you have merely t o connect t h e instrument t o the v o l t a g e supply, i n s e r t t h e tube t o be t e s t e d i n t h e proper socket and t a k e two p l a t e c u r r e n t readings \ a s explained i n t h e f o r e g o i n g paragraph. I f a tube checker i s equipped w i t h
Lesson 39

- sheet 16

o n l y two s o c k e t s f o r h o l d i n g r e c e i v i n g t u b e s t h e n you w i l l f i n d a f i l a m e n t o r h e a t e r v o l t a g e d i a l p r o v i d e d which s h o u l d b e s e t a t t h e r a t e d v o l t a g e of t h e tube before i n s e r t i n g the tube i n t h e socket. A f t e r t h e s e preliminary o p e r a t i o n s a r e made and t h e t u b e is i n t h e s o c k e t it s h o u l d b e a l l o w e d t o h e a t f o r a few moments b e f o r e t a k i n g r e a d i n g s ; i n t e s t i n g a h e a t e r t y p e t u b e you would a l l o w more time f o r t h e t u b e t o h e a t t h a n i n t h e c a s e of a f i l a ment type. A r e a d i n g o f t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e t u b e s h o u l d t h e n be r e a d on t h e m i l l i m e t e r . T h i s is t h e first r e a d i n g . A b u t t o n , which i s u s u a l l y marked nPRESS FOR GRID TEST", is now p r e s s e d and t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t r e a d i n g i s a g a i n noted. T h i s is t h e second r e a d i n g . The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two p l a t e r e a d i n g s g i v e s a v a l u e which i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e mutual conductance of t h e t u b e and t h e g r e a t e r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e t h e b e t t e r t h e t u b e . C e r t a i n t u b e c h e c k e r s a r e p r o v i d e d w i t h a two-range m i l l i ammeter t o accomodate t h e h i g h e r p l a t e c u r r e n t r e a d i n g s o f power t u b e s . The *HIGH RANGEw s c a l e would be used o n l y i n c a s e s where t h e c u r r e n t r e a d i n g d i d n o t come w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of t h e lower s c o l e . See F i g u r e 1 4 . To check t h e c o n d i t i o n of t u b e s f o r o r d i n a r y s e r v i c e work i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e mutual conductance o f t h e t u b e be a c t u a l l y measured i n micromhos; i t i s o n l y n e c e s s a r y t o know t h e minimum a l l o w a b l e d i f f e r e n c e i n p l a t e cur. r e n t t h a t should be o b t a i n e d f o r a g i v e n t u b e when u s i n g t h e "GRID TEST" where a r e a d l n g of p l a t e c u r r e n t i s r e a d w i t h t h e t e s t b u t t o n up and a new r e a d i n g i s taken w i t h itand comparing t h e d i f f e r e n c e o r i n c r e a s e i n c u r r e n t . T a b l e s o r c h a r t s which show t h e comparative v a l u e s f o r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f t u b e s can o n l y a p p l y t o a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t s i n c e t h e s e v a l u e s a r e b a s e d on t e s t s made on a l a r g e number of t u b e s which were known t o b e i n good condit i o n . The DayRad t u b e c h e c k e r i l l v s t - r a t e d i n F i g u r e 15 h a s a t a b l e o f v a l u e s engraved on i t s p a n e l and t h e s e v a l u e s a r e good o n l y f o r t h i s c h e c k e r ; t h e t a b l e o f v a l u e s c l a s s i f i e s t h e t u b e s i n t o good, f a i r , and p o o r t u b e s according t o t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t change t h a t i s o b t a i n e d .

Figure 1 5 Lesson 39

sheet 17

GCFPP

G F

OYEP-HEAD

CONNEtTlOll

OVERHERD HEATER ADAPTER

F i g u r e 16
A t u b e checker of t h e t y p e shown i n F i g u r e 1 5 w i l l t e s t t h e c o n d i t i o n of p r a c t i c a l l y a l l t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of t u b e s used i n r e c e i v i n g s e t s . It w i l l t e s t a m p l i f i e r , d e t e c t o r , power and rectifier t u b e s of t h e f o l l o v ~ i n gt y p e s ; UX-12, 112-A, 120, 171-9, 199, 201-8, 210, 222, 224, 226, 227, 240, 245, 250, 280, 281, Kellog, Cardon, P e n t o d e , and overhead h e a t e r t y p e and t h e new s e r i e s 2 v o l t t u b e s , 230, 231, and 232. Also, t e s t s a r e p r o v i d e d f o r helium non- filament r e c t i f i e r t u b e s by o o e r a t i n g them under a l o a d . When t e s t s a r e t o b e made on s c r e e n - g r i d and overhead h e a t e r - f i l a m e n t t u b e s t h e e x t r a l e a d s The diagram of t h e t u b e checker i n r e q u i r e d should be p r o p e r l y connected. F i g u r e 1 4 shows t h e t e r m i n a l s provlded f o r t h e s e 1 e a d s ; t h e t e r m i n a l s a r e marked "HW and "R" and "SCREEN-GRID T I P n r e s p e c t i v e l y .

It is t o be understood t h a t s e r v i c e tub- checkers of t h e g e n e r a l t y p e desc r i b e d i n our l e s s o n g i v e t h e m u t u d conductance of t u b e i n d i r e c t l y i n terms of " g r i d difYerencel' r e a d i n g . Mutual conductance, you w i l l r e c a l l from t h e d e f i n i t i o n , is t h e r a t i o of t h e change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t t o t h e change i n g r i d p o t e n t i a l producing i t , under the c o n d i t i o n of a f i x e d o r c o n s t a n t p l a t e v o l t age. A c h a r t is g i v e n i n F i g u r e 17 t o show a v e r a g e t e s t v a l u e s of good t u b e s when checked on a Veston tube checker model 555.
Type of

Tube

Rated Filament Voltage

Power Tubes
'20

'71-A '10 '50 '45

'12-A

Rectifier Tuber '0 8 '1 8

F i g u r e 17 Lesson 39

- s h e e t 18

v e n t excessive c u r r e n t ~ i h e nt e s t i n g a tube i n which one e l e c t r o d e touches ano t h e r , t h a t is, when the e l e c t r o d e s a r e shorted a g a i n s t one another. A colinlon method used t o accomplish t h i s p u r p o s e i s shown i n Figure 1 6 where s m a l l f l a s h l i g h t bulbs a r e used i n c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s a s shown. There a r e three bulbs which connect t o dry c e l l s and t o terminals of t h e UX and U Y sockets and these c i r c u i t s are c o n t r o l l e d by a push- button switch marked SN-1, With the switch i n t h e p o s i t i o n shown, o r n o m l p o s i t i o n , and with a tube i n e i t h e r socket,one o r the o t h e r of t h e s e b u l b s w i l l l j g h t i f the t u b e ' s e l e c t r o d e s a r e shorted. These c i r c u i t s a r e e a s i l y t r a c e d out and show t h a t the top bulb w i l l l i g h t if p l a t e and filament a r e s h o r t e d , t h e middle bulb w i l l l i g h t with a g r i d - f i l a ment s h o r t , and t h e lower bulb w i l l l i g h t with a cathode- heater s h o r t . The f o u r t h bulb i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e milliammeter i s placed t h e r e s o t h a t if the vari a b l e r e s i s t a n c e R 2 were lowered too much t h e v o l t a g e of the f l a s h l i g h t b a t t e r y would be impressed on bulb and milliammeter i n s e r i e s . Another method i s t o connect a s t m d a r d 10 w a t t lamp i n s e r i e s with t h e m i l l i m e t e r and then shunt a switch a c r o s s t h e meter t e r m i n a l s ; with a tube i n t h e t e s t socket t h e switch i s opened f o r a p l a t e c u r r e n t reading only when t h e lamp does n o t glovr. Explaining the Operation of a Typical S e t Tester. See Figure 1 6 . A r e g u l a r power transformer, s i m i l a r t o t h e kind found i n a- c r e c e i v i n g s e t s , i s used t o supply t h e necessary p l a t e , filament and h e a t e r v o l t a g e s . The voltage outp u t of the transformer, however, s q p l i e s only t h e p l a t e v o l t a g e f o r a r e c t i f i e r tube under t e s t , a n d t h e p l a t e v o l t s g e f o r a r e c e i v i n g tube which would be i n s e r t e d i n e i t h e r t h e UX o r UY socket i s obtained d i r e c t from the a-c l i n e . FIence, when a r e c e i v i n g tube is being t e s t e d you g e t a r e a d i n g of r e c t i f i e d a-c on t h e p l a t e milliammeter. A c i r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g of a v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e R 2 , a f l a s h l i g h t bulb and a 1.5 v o l t c e l l is connected i n s e r i e s with t h e milliammeter t o provide a c u r r e n t whlch bucks o r opposes t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t p a s s i n g through the meter. S o , i f you were a c t u a l l y making a tube t e s t with a t u b e i n e i t h e r t h e UX o r UIr socket you would push switch SW-1 t o c l o s e t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t and the p l a t e c u r r e n t then r e a d i n g on t h e meter should be b a l anced o u t by a d j u s t i n g r e s i s t a n c e R 2 t o give a z e r o reading. During t h i s time 3 s w i t c h SW- should be closed t o g i v e %he tube a c e r t a i n g r i d b i a s . The readi n g t h a t w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e tube i s t h e n taken by opening s w i t c h SiT-3 which p l a c e s a d i f f e r e n t p o t e n t i a l on t h e g r i d and with a good t u b e i n the socket t h e r e should be d e f i n i t e change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t which is shown by the movement of t h e needle from zero t o some d i v i s i o n on the s c a l e . Of course, you would a d j u s t the d i a l a t the lower r i g h t t o provide the c o r r e c t filament o r h e a t e r v o l t a g e f o r the tube under t e s t . The g r i d b i a s r e s i s t o r R1 i s s o connected from g r i d t o f i l a m e n t t h a t the p l a t e c u r r e n t must flow through i t and thus provide t h e v o l t a g e drop whlch i s used t o f u r n i s h t h e b i a s i n g pot e n t i a l t o t h e g r i d . S e v e r a l tubes of d i f f e r e n t types known t o be good would have t o be t e s t e d on t h i s c i r c u i t , a s would be the c a s e f o r any tube t e s t e r , t o a s c e r t a i n t h e p l a t e v a l u e s t o be expected. m e n a t e s t is t o be made on a r e c t i f i e r tube it is i n s e r t e d i n the proper s o c k e t a s marked on t h e diagram and the c i r c u i t s a r e c o n t r o l l e d by switch SW-2 which is shown i n normal p o s i t i o n , With a full-wave r e c t i f i e r tube i n e i t h e r s o c k e t t h e c u r r e n t through each p l a t e i s measured s e p a r a t e l y by throwing s w i t c h SW- f i r s t t o t h e r i g h t and then t o the l e f t , t h e switch being one of 2 t h e non-locking v a r i e t y always r e t u r n s t o the normal p o s i t i o n shown on the diagram when it is r e l e a s e d . To permit the milliammeter t o c a r r y the higher c u r r e n t s of r e c t i f i e r t u b e s t h e r e a r e two shunt r e s i s t o r s , R 3 and R 4 , so a r ranged t h a t they connect a c r o s s the meter terminals when SN-2 i s manipulated, and t o t e s t a r e c t i f i e r tube under load conditions a r e s i s t o r R 5 is placed i n Lesson 39

A Method f o r P r o t e c t i n g t h e llilliarnmeter of a Tube T e s t e r . A tube t e s t e r should be provided with some s o r t of p r o t e c t i o n f o r i t s milliammeter t o o r e -

sheet 19

s e r i e s w i t h t h e c e n t e r - t a p l e a d of t h e p l a t e winding o f t h e t r a n s f o r m e r . The s m a l l s k e t c h e s a t t h e r i g h t show t h r e e a d a p t e r s by means o f which v a r i o u s t y p e s o f r e c e i v i n g t u b e s may b e t e s t e d ; t h e d r a w i n g s c l e a r l y show how t h e i n ternal c o n n e c t i o n s f r o m t h e p r o n g s t o t h e s l e e v e s would b e a r r a n g e d and, a l s o , c t i o n s o f t h e e x t r a c l i p s and l e a d s needed f o r a-c and d- c s c r e e n s and t o p - h e a t e r t u b e s . R 3 and R 4 a r e a l i k e ; t h e y depend on m e t e r r a n g e .

ize t h i s s e c t i o n i t i s s e e n t h a t similar p r i n c i p l e s a r e used i n ser#e c h e c k e r s whereby t h e w o r t h of a t u b e i s judged b y t h e c o n t r o l

by changes i n g r i d p o t e n t i a l upon t h e f l o w o f p l a t e c u r r e n t .

EXAMINATION

IJ2SSON 39

L e t us assume power is o n a n a- c s e t and a s o c k e t - a n a l y s i s t e s t is b e i n g made of a f u l l- w a v e '80 t y p e r e c t i f i e r t u b e . ( a ) Show by a c l e a r l y marked d i a g r a m where m e t e r s would b e c o n n e c t e d t o p r o v i d e t e s t s w i t h t h e t u b e i n i t s s o c k e t . ( b ) Where would m e t e r s b e connected t o provide t e s t s with tube out of i t s socket? ( a ) Show i n a s m a l l s k e t c h where m e t e r s c o u l d b e c o n n e c t e d t o prov i d e v a r i o u s v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t r e a d i n g s i n a s o c k e t a n a l y s i s t e s t o f a s c r e e n - g r i d t u b e used i n t h e r-f a m p l i f i e r s t a g e of a t i c a l a- c s e t . ( b P E x p l a i n t h e p u r p o s e o f e a c h meter shown i n y o u r s k e t c h and b e s u r e t o i d e n t i f y them c l e a r l y , u s i n g e i t h e r l e t t e r s o r numbers.

Wy i s i t t h a t when t e s t i n g an a- c s e t which i s i n good c o n d i t i o n h you should o b t a i n a v o l t a g e r e a d i n g between g r i d and p l z t e of a n amplifier tube f o r e x m p l e ?

U s i % a s t a n d a r d s e t a n a l y z e r how would you t e s t t h e g r i d of t h e d e t e c t o r of a n a-c r e c e i v e r employing g r i d - l e a k d e t e c t i o n ? What r e a d i n g s h o u l d b e e x p e c t e d when making a g r i d t o c a t h o d e t e s t by t h i s means ?

How would you c o n v e r t a m i l l i m n e t e r w i t h a r a n g e of 0 t o I m i l l i ampere i n t o a v o l t m e t e r w i t h a r a n g e of 0 t o 100 v o l t s ? E x 3 l a i n f u l l y .

( a ) Draw t h e c i r c u i t of a c o n t i n u i t y t e s t e r and name e a c h p a r t . (b) S x p l a i n i t s g e n e r a l use. ( c ) By what o t h e r name i s i t o f t e n c a l l e d ?

How does a n a v e r a g e t y p e t u b e t e s t e r o p e r a t e t o check receiving t u b e s ?

If a v o l t m e t e r ' s r a n g e is O t o 1 5 0 v o l t s and i t h a s a r e s i s . t a n c e of 1000 ohms p e r v o l t s t a t e e x a c t l y how t h i s r a n g e c o u l d be extended t o 0 t o 450 v o l t s ? Shorn a l l y o u r work i n y o u r answer.
S t a t e a l l o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s you can t h i n k o f t o e q ) l a i n t h e d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r which a r e c t i f i e r t u b e would b e t e s t e d a s compared t o a r e c e i v i n g t u b e when u s i n g t h e s e t t e s t e r i n F i g u r e 16. D e s c r i b e a m e t h o d by which t h e m i l l i a m m e t e r i n a t u b e t e s t e r may be p r ot e c t e d a g a i n s t b u r n o u t i f t h e e l e c t r o d e s of a t u b e u n d e r t o s t a r e s h o r t e d

c.A. INSTE"g
INC.
firmerfy?
M A R C O N / INSTITUTE

Mih m @i D , m
%Qu,JP'' '

s u n d e d t909

Technical Lesson 40
INSTRUMENTS USED IN RADIO SERVICING AND PRINCIPLES OF SET TESTING This lesson deals With various types Of radio servicing equipment not described in other lessons on the subject of radio servicing and in addition you will find in this lesson a detailed explanation of the principles of continuity testing and many hints on service problems. Again our subject will deal principally with the use Of meters. It is well known that more accurate testing of receivers is now required than in previous years and this means that a serviceman to be proficient in his work must have a thorough knowledge of testing equipment. He must know how various types of test circuits are arranged and be able to interpret the readings he observes on the test meters. To accomplish all this requires that each one put forth a little concentration on this work and carefully study all diagrams, explanations and points concerning this branch of radio. MODUL4TED OSCILLATOR. Unless a serviceman is certain that a satisfactory broadcasting station will be on the air at the time of his service call he will be handicapped unless he carries a modulated oscillator. This simple in piece of test equipme~t, reality, is a miniature broadcasting station that can be quickly placed in operation to send out a modulated high-frequency wave which is especially suited for making comparative tests in the audio output of a receiver. Its signal is more often desired by servicemen than a regular broadcast signal because its note is steady and uniform in strength and is not affected by outside conditions, or conditions beyond control of the serviceman. A modulated oscillator, therefore, is a very useful instrument to possess since tests can be made on receivers at any place and at any time without depending upon broadcasting stations to supply the signal energy. This instrument can be easily constructed to generate frequencies covering the broadcast band by arranging a feed-back circuit with an inductance of suitable size and shunted by a variable condenser of correct capacitance. The range of broadcast frequencies is between 550 and 1500 kilocycles, or 200 to 546 meters. ?e By using frequencies in the upper, middle, and lower ends of i h broadcast band,when checking up the performance of a receiver,it gives one an assurance that a complete resonance check has been made over the entire tuning range of the radio-frequency circuits. As a general rule the best point of operation is in the neighborhood of 1,400 kc., at one of the higher frequencies, and the desired frequency may be determined by rotating the oscillator's condenser until its wave is picked up on the receiver by setting the receiver's dial to that particular frequency as designated on the dial. Among the most important uses to which a modulated oscillatbr can be put is for furnishing a good steady signal by which the tuned stages of single-dial control receiving sets may be placed in resonance with one another. This is

Printed in U.S.A. Contents copyrighted 1930.

done by making adjustments e i t h e r t o t h e main t u n i n g condensers o r condensers may be used t o adc a l l e d "trimmer w condensers. A l s o , a modulated 0 S ~ i l l a t o r vantage i n n e u t r a l i z i n g the radio- frequency s t a g e s of c e r t a i n r a d i o s e t s and when matching tubes f o r b e s t p e r f o r m n c e . The c i r c u i t diagrams of two modulated o s c i l l a t o r s t h a t work on s i m i l a r p r i n c i p l e s a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e s 1 and 2. The o s c i l l a t o r i n Figure 1 can be made i n t o a compact p o r t a b l e instrument because a l l t h a t i s r e q u i r e d t o s e t t h e o s c i l l a t o r system i n t o 0 s ~ i l L a t i 0 n t o p l u g i n on e i t h e r a n a-c o r is d-c power l i n e of 110 v o l t s . It is p o s s i b l e t o o p e r a t e such a c i r c u i t on a power l i n e because a s t a n d a r d 25 watt lamp i s i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e filament c i r c u i t . The o s c i l l a t o r i n Figure 2 r e e e i v e s i t s o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e s [ e n t i r e l y from b a t t e r i e s a s t h e diagram i n d i c a t e s .
I t can be r e a d i l y s e e n i n Figure 1 t h a t a 50 t u r n c o i l wound w i t h No.20 double cotton- covered wire on a form 2% inches i n diameter comprises the s i n g l e inductance used i n t h i s c i r c u i t and t h i s c o i l i s shunted by a .0005 mfd. v a r i a b l e condenser t o complete t h e tuned c i r c u i t elements. A t a p i s taken o f f a t t h e 25th t u r n of t h i s winding and t h e wire t h a t connects t h i s tap t o t h e f i l a ment provides the g r i d and p l a t e r e t u r n c i r c u i t s of t h e tube. The upper h a l f of t h e c o i l forms t h e g r i d c i r c u i t inductance and t h e lower h a l f t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t inductance and t h e coupling between t h e two c o i l s e c t i o n s provides t h e r e q u i s i t e fe,ed-back v o l t a g e . This v o l t a g e is power t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t and t h i s v o l t a g e causes t h e system to g e n e r a t e continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s . A second c o i l , c a l l e d a pick-up c o i l , c o n s i s t i n g of 4 t u r n s of rubber- covered w i r e i s wound over t h e l a r g e c o i l , and when i t i s p r o p e r l y connected t o t h e input t e r m i n a l p o s t of a r e c e i v e r t h e pick-up c i r c u i t c a r r i e s the s i g n a l energy from t h e o s c i l l a t o r t o t h e r e c e i v e r .

The g r i d condenser and l e a k r e s i s t a n c e combination modulates t h e output of t h e o s c i l l a t o r and i f a change of tone is d e s i r e d i t can be obtained by changi n g t h e value of the l e a k r e s i s t a n c e . W recommend, however, t h a t f o r a c i r e c u i t of t h i s type t h e p i t c h of t h e audio- frequency modulating n o t e w i l l be s a t i s f a c t o r y i f you u s e a g r i d l e a k r a t e d a t 4 megohms. The o s c i l l a t o r i n F i g u r e 1 w i l l have a 60 c y c l e modulating n o t e i f i t is operated on a 60 c y c l e , 110 v o l t l i n e , b u t t h i s audio n o t e obtained due t o t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t w i l l n o t s e r i o u s l y impair- t h e sharpness of t h e s i g n a l wave s e n t o u t by t h i s c i r c u i t .
If you intend t o b u i l d up a t e s t i n s t r y e n t of t h i s kind it would be b e s t t o assemble the p a r t s e i t h e r inl'breadboard f a s h i o n o r on an i n s u l a t e d p a n e l and t h e n mount t h e assembled u n i t i n a small metal box o r c a b i n e t . t o completely
4 - m PICK-UP ~ ~
COIL

110 VOLTS D.C.OR A.C. (IF D.C. CONNECT POLARITY

Figure 1

s h i e l d t h e o s c i l l a t o r ; a t i n box o r a wooden box which is t i n o r copper l i n e d a i l 1 answer the purpose. I f you b u i l d a socket-powered o s c i l l a t o r you should guard a g a i n s t a p o s s i b l e s h o r t - c i r c u i t between t h e 110 v o l t l i n e supplytng t h e o s c i l l a t o r and the ground of the r e c e i y i n g s e t being s e r v i c e d by using rubbercovered wire f o r the pick-up c o i l and o t h e r main wiring connections. When employing a modulated o s c i l l a t o r i n conjunction w i t h a r e c e i v e r the o s c i l l a t o r should be placed about s i x f e e t away from the r e c e i v e r and t h e pick-up l e a d should be connected t o t h e antenna p o s t of the r e c e i v e r and t h e n , prov i d i n g the r e c e i v e r i s f u n c t i o n i n g a s 'it should, you w i l l hear a n u s i c a l n o t e ( i n t h e loudspeaker, o r i f an output meter i s connected t o t h e loudspeaker t e r minals t h e needle of t h e meter w i l l d e f l e c t and i n d i c a t e t h e presence of t h e s i g n a l current i n the c i r c u i t .

When synchronizing radio- frequency s t a g e s , o r compensating, o r phasing t h e s e s t a g e s which mean the same t h i n g , you should have a good connection of t h e pick-up l e a d from t h e modulated o s c i l l a t o r t o t h e antenna t e r m i n a l p o s t of t h e r e c e i v e r and t h e o s c i l l a t o r should b e so a d j u s t e d t h a t i t s s i g n a l energy w i l l be very weak and, furthermore, you should u s e the r e g u l a r tubes on which the receiver ordinarily operates.
I t i s a matter of convenience t o have some means of c o n t r o l l i n g the s t r e n g t h of t h e o s c i l l a t o r ' s s i g n a l and one simple way t o accomplish t h i s i s t o ins e r t a v a r i a b l e condenser i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e pick-up lead. By varying t h e capacitance of t h i s condenser t h e p a t h through which the s i g n a l c u r r e n t must flow can be made t o o f f e r more o r l e s s o p p o s i t i o n due t o t h e r e a c t a n c e s e t up by t h e condenser which tends t o oppose the flow. Control of t h e o s c i l l a t o r output i n t h e c i r c u i t i n Figure 2 is a f f e c t e d by a d j u s t i n g t h e v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e connected i n t h e pick-up c i r c u i t . I f no p r o v i s i o n were made t o r e g u l a t e the s i g n a l s t r e n g t h of a n o s c i l l a t o r you could h e l p m a t t e r s by r e moving t h e pick-up l e a d from t h e r e c e i v e r t e r m i n a l p o s t , wrap a p i e c e of paper o r a rubber band around t h e p o s t and t h e n t w i s t t h e pick-up wire around t h i s i n s u l a t i o n and, t h u s , w i t h t h i s arrangement t h e r e would be no d i r e c t meta l l i c connection between t h e pick-up wire and t h e post. It i s q u i t e import a n t t h a t the s i g n a l s t r e n g t h be under c o n t r o l s o that i t can be i n t e n s i f i e d according t o requirements.

Lesson 40

sheet 3

To keep l o s s e s of energy from t h e o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t a t a minimum t h e conn e c t i o n l e a d s between the tube s o c k e t t e r m i n a l s and the r-f c o i l and i t s p a r i a b l e condenser and g r i d - l e a k combination should be as s h o r t as i s p r a c t i c a b l e t o make them and t h e pick-up wire should be brought through a n i n s u l a t i n g bushing i n the s i d e of t h e cabinet. Also remember t h a t the radio- frequency c o i l should never be mounted too c l o s e t o the s h i e l d because t h e metal has a tendency t o absorb s i g n a l s t r e n g t h and i f t h i s were allowed t o occur i t would decrease the output of t h e o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t .
The o p e r a t i o n of a modulated o s c i l l a t o r w i l l i n no way i n t e r f e r e w i t h regul a r broadcast r e c e p t i o n on neighboring s e t s i f i t i s enclosed i n a s h i e l d and i f t h e pick-up wire used i s a shielded wire - a l e n g t h of copper- braided rubber- covered wire. The pick-up i n Figure 2 should n o t r a d i a t e .

L e t us e m l a i n t h a t if a s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g switch is shunted a c r o s s t h e g r i d leak- condenser u n i t i n F i g u r e s 1 and 2 and t h i s s w i t c h is closed t h e r-f o s c i l l a t i o n s generated by t h e o s c i l l a t o r w i l l n o t be modulated and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e instrument Would be c a l l e d an r- f o s c i l l a t o r s i n c e it would send out cont i n u o u s o s c i l l a t i o n s of c o n s t a n t amplitude s i m i l a r t o t h e c a r r i e r frequency of a broadcasting s t a t i o n . t h e range of 175 kc., o r i n t h e intermediate frequency range, is r e q u i r e d f o r t e s t i n g t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e a m p l i f i e r s of superheterodyne r e c e i v e r s b u t inasmuch a s t h e s e c i r c u i t s a r e e s p e c i a l l y designed f o r c e r t a i n intermediate f r e q u e n c i e s used i n d i f f e r e n t makes of r e c e i v e r s we w i l l not go i n t o a furt h e r d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s type of o s c i l l a t o r otherwise than saying t h a t t h e same p r i n c i p l e i s employed i n both types of o s c i l l a t o r s t o g e n e r a t e t h e osc i l l a t i o n s , t h a t is, t h e y both employ a f eed-back c i r c u i t and inductance and capacitance u n i t s of s u i t a b l e values.
HOW TO USE AN OUTPUT RlETER F R W I N G AUDIO OUTPUT COMPARISONS. When making O adinstments o r t e s t s t h a t r e q u i r e an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f q u a n t i t i v e values t o de%ermine the b e s t o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n of a r e c e i v e r ' s c i r c u i t s you can g e t more a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s by employing a s e n s i t i v e meter i n t h e output of t h e r e c e i v e r t o show t h e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of volume of t h e s i g n a l coming through t h a n if you depended upon your hearing and judged t h e s e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s by sounds produced i n e i t h e r headphones o r loudspeaker. Everyone is q u i t e aware of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e a r is n o t a s r e l i a b l e as t h e eye a s a n i n d i c a t o r f o r comparing q c a n t i t i v e v a l u e s , s u c h a s the s t r e n g t h of any outnut audio comparisons, b u t i t should a l s o be understood t h a t t h e r e a r e s t i l l some persons i n
D.C.THERMOCOUPU OR A.C.METER USED AS INDICATOR

A s e r v i c e t e s t o s c i l l a t o r which covers a band of f r e q u e n c i e s somewhere i n

VOICE COIL OF OYNeiMlC SPEAKER

Figure 3 Lesson 40

sheet 4

r a d i o who p r e f e r t o u s e t h e a u d i b l e method and l i s t e n t o t h e s i g n a l , l a r g e l y because they have become accustomed t o the l a t t e r p r a c t i c e . To g e t maximum r e s u l t s from a r e c e i v e r a l l of t h e tuned r-f s t a g e s should be i n c l o s e synchro nism o r resonance over t h e e n t i r e tuning range, If one o r more of t h e tuned s t a g e s a r e completely out of synchronism the s i g n a l w i l l n o t p a s s through t h e r e c e i v e r and f o r s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s i n resonant c o n d i t i o n s due e i t h e r t o m i s alignment of tuning condensers,or i n c o r r e c t afiustment of trimmer condensers, then t h e s e r-f c i r c u i t s w o u l d a l l o w s i g n a l s t o pass,but t h e s i g n a l s would b e more o r l e s s weak and the tuning would be considerably broadened. When making adjustments t o trimmer condensers, or a l i g n i n g tuning condensers, o r when n e u t r a l i z i n g r-f c i r c u i t s a modulated o s c i l l a t o r could be used t o supp l y a steady s i g n a l and the o u t p u t meter would measure t h e a l t e r n a t i n g o r p u l s a t i n g component of t h e s i g n a l c u r r e n t . !Vhen t h e tuned c i r c u i t s of a r e c e i v e r a r e being synchronized the s t r e n g t h of t h e output s i g n a l i n c r e a s e s a s resonance is approached and t h e t e s t meter m i l l i n d i c a t e t h i s i n c r e a s e and as each of t h e tuned c i r c u i t s a r e brought more i n t o resonance t h e r e a d i n g w i l l continue t o increase u n t i l f i n a l l y a maximum readi n g w i l l be observed when a l l s t a g e s a r e i n resonance. For making audio comp a r i s o n t e s t on r e c e i v e r s t h a t do not have an output transformer, such a s you f i n d i n the modern s e t s , a s u i t a b l e output meter f o r t h i s purpose could be e a s i l y made up w i t h an a-c milliammeter a t t a c h e d to t h e "low s i d e v of a t o y transformer having a r a t i o of 20 t o 1 or a v o l t a g e r e d u c t i o n transformation n of 110 t o 5 and t h e "high side" a t t a c h e d t o t h e r e c e i v e r ' s output. A a-c milliammeter with a 0-100 m.a. s c a l e could be used w i t h such a transformer. An output meter may be used a s an i n d i c a t o r when n e u t r a l i z i n g a r e c e i v e r and i n t h i s case t h e b e s t adjustment f o r a given n e u t r a l i z i n g condenser i s taken t o be the p o i n t where t h e meter g i v e s a minimum d e f l e c t i o n . The lowering of t h e r e a d i n g i s accounted f o r i n t h i s case because a 'tdummyv tube i s used when n e u t r a l i z i n g and t h e s i g n a l should not pass through a p r o p e r l y adjusted r-f s t a g e holding a wdummywtube s i n c e t h e f i l a m e n t of such a tube i s made ino p e r a t i v e and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e can b e no e l e c t r o n emission, but the g r i d and p l a t e a r e l e f t i n t a c t . O f course, when t h e " d m y " t u b e is removed and r e placed by a normal t u b e t h e s i g n a l s w i l l come through and you should then c e t a maximum i n d i c a t i o n on t h e o u t p u t meter providing t h e tuned s t a g e s a r e i n synchronism o r resonance.
A s i n g l e d i a l r e c e i v e r of modern type i s provided w i t h some mechanical means of a d j u s t i n g i t s r-f s t a g e s thus making i t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e serviceman t o comp e n s a t e f o r any v a r i a t i o n i n condenser u n i t s t h a t would cause a d i f f e r e n c e i n synchronism between t h e s e v e r a l tuned r-f s t a g e s . I n g e n e r a l , these mechanical adjustments a r e made by means o f adjustment n u t s o r screws on small v a r i a b l e c a p a c i t o r s , c a l l e d trimmer condensers, which a r e incorporated i n the design of each tuning s e c t i o n of a gang-condenser, o r i f s e p a r a t e u n i t s a r e used you might f i n d v e r n i e r condensers which a r e used f o r p r a c t i c a l l y the same purpose. Then a g a i n i n c e r t a i n r e c e i v e r s t h e alignment of tuning condensers is made by means of set- screw adjustments which allow t h e r o t o r p l a t e s e c t i o n s t o be s l i p ped on t h e i r comtxon s h a f t , o r i n some types a b e l t d r i v e o r l e v e r d r i v e , if used, may need a d j u s t i n g , and t h e r e a r e cases t h a t you w i l l perhaps encounter where t h e capacitance of an r-f s t a g e i s a l t e r e d by s l i g h t l y bending the condenser p l a t e segments.

Lesson 40

- sheet 5

t o p e r r o r n the work i n the s h o r t e s t p o s s i b l e time, W can s e e t h a t although t h e mechanics of a l i g n i n g o r synchronizing an r-f e a m p l i f i e r may d i f f e r w i t h d i f f e r e n t s e t s y e t t h e p r i n c i p l e s always remain t h e same. A r a d i o serviceman can e a s i l y cope with t h i s problem because he h a s two places where he can connect a s e n s i t i v e meter t o g i v e t h e proper i n d i c a t i o n ; he can choose between p l a c i n g t h e meter i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r , o r i n t h e output of t h e s e t , t h a t is, i n t h e output o r the l a s t audio s t a g e . I f the meter is t o be i n s e r t e d i n t h e d e t e c t o r p l a t e c l r c u i t a d-c m i l l i ammeter would be r e q u i r e d and i t s range should provide a f u l l - s c a l e r e a d i n g j u s t s l i g h t l y higher t h a n t h e normal p l a t e c u r r e n t of the p a r t i c u l a r t ~ ~ b e x i t h which i t would be used. It w i l l be found t h a t i n the c a s e of d e t e c t o r s which i n g e n e r a l employ a g r i d - l e a k condenser combination t h a t a g r e a t e r change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t can be expected =hen t h e s i g n a l i s coming through t h a n from a r e c e i v e r u s i n g a power d e t e c t o r . And, furthermore, i n the case of t h e g r i d - l e a k grid- condenser d e t e c t o r t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l drop below normal and, hence, a minimum r e a d i n g i s taken t o i n d i c a t e when t h e r e s o n a n t p o i n t has been reached between t h e d i f f e r e n t radio- frequency s t a g e s of t h e s e t . O t h e o t h e r hand, i n t h e case of a power d e t e c t o r t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l n i n c r e a s e above normal and, t h e r e f o r e , maximum c u r r e n t i n t h i s case i s taken to indicate resonant conditions.
If t h e i n d i c a t o r is t o be used i n the output of a r a d i o s e t t h e f o l l o w i n g p o l n t s should be considered, namely, whether the l a s t audio s t a g e c o n s i s t s of a s i n g l e tube o r two t u b e s i n push- pull and whether o r not an output t r a n s former i s supplied.In e i t h e r case a therm-couple galvanometer,if used, should be connected t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t through a Step-down transformer such a s is customarily u s 4 t o connect the Output w i t h the voice c o i l of a dynamic s p e a k e r . , O f course, i f a t r a n s f o r m e r is a l r e a d y provided t h e n you would need only conn e c t t h e thermo-couple galvanometer t o the two transformer t e r m i n a l s t o which t h e voice c o i l is normally connected. If you come a c r o s s a r e c e i v e r which has i t s output c i r c r it connected t o a dynamic speaker b u t t h e r e is no convenient means provided t o disconnect t h e voice c o i l l e a d s you could i n t h i s case conn e c t the meter d i r e c t l y a c r o s s t h e v o i c e c o i l thus p e r m i t t i n g t h e l a t t e r t o remain i n t h e c i r c u i t . Our diagram i n Figure 3 shows t h e connections.
9 e c a r e f u l when making adjustments t o t h e r-f s t a g e s of a s e t t o s e e t h a t t h e i n ~ u t i g n a l does n o t vary i n s t r e n g t h and t h a t the r-f s t a g e s a r e k e p t cons

t i & o u s l y i n tune with t h i s s i g n a l . The most s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s can be exDected i f you use a t e s t o s c i l l a t o r t o supply t h e s i g n a l a s we have a l r e a d y kxplained and s i n c e t h e o p e r a t i o n of an o s c i l l a t o r i s d i r e c t l y under your cont r o l i t is b e s t t o a d j u s t the s t r e n g t h of the input s i g n a l t o g i v e readings on t h e meter about two- thirds a c r o s s i t s s c a l e where t h e changes i n c u r r e n t s r e more e a s i l y read. Several types of meters a r e g e n e r a l l y used a s output i n d i c a t o r s f o r making i~dio comparison t e s t s among which a r e t h e following: a-c milliammeters having jcales of 0-1 m.a., 0-3 m.a., 0-5 m.a., and a-c voltmeters having s c a l e s of

Lesson 40

sheet 6

0-3 and 0 - 5 v o l t s . A thermo-couple galvanometer marked i n e q u a l d i v i s i o n s from 0-100 and whlch t a k e s approximately 112 m.a. t o give a f u l l s c a l e r e a d i n g and 1s r a t e d a t 4.5 ohms makes a v e r y s u i t a b l e meter t o b e used with a n output transformer. The higher r e a d i n g meters a r e most g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d because they do n o t overload s o r e a d i l y and a r e b e t t e r s u i t e d f o r a l l around t e s t i n g . Remember, a d-c meter used a s an i n d i c a t o r i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t . I n making output audio comparative t e s t s a serviceman is n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n the exact v a l u e s of c u r r e n t o r v o l t a g e obtained b u t only i n the degree of d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i n t e n s i t y of the s i g n a l output of t h e r e c e i v e r .

OSCILLATOR MAY BE USED A S A WAVEMETER. To p l a c e e i t h e r t h e o s c i l l a t o r i n Yigure 1 o r Figure 2 i n c o n d i t i o n f o r c a l i b r a t i n g t h e d i a l r e a d i n g s on the tuning condenser a g a i n s t wavelength,or f r e q u e n c y v a l u e s t h e o s c i l r a t o r may be used a s a wavemeter. To make t h i s c a l i b r a t i o n proceed a s follows: Remove the g r i d l e a k and g r i d condenser and connect t h e g r i d d i r e c t l y t o t h e tuned c i r c u i t , or connect a jumper wire a c r o s s the g r i d l e a k and g r i d condenser, o r shunt a switch a c r o s s t h i s Combination. Without t h e g r i d leak- condenser comb i n a t i o n i n the g r i d c i r c u i t you have a s t r a i g h t r-f o s c i l l a t o r without modulation.
fd

g l a c e a r e c e i v e r i n o p e r a t i o n and tune i n t h e s i g n a l s of a broadcast s t a t l m whose frequency i s known o r can be e a s i l y a s c e r t a i n e d and couple t h e osc i l l a t o r t o the r e c e i v e r so t h a t t h e o s c i l l a t o r ' s frequency w i l l be impressed on the incoming b r o a d c a s t frequency. By tuning t h e o s c i l l a t o r c a r e f u l l y you can make i t g e n e r a t e a frequency e i t h e r a l i t t l e above o r below t h e broadcast frequency t o s e t up a heteqodyne b e a t n o t e which w i l l be heard as a s h r i l l v h l s t l e i n the loudspeaker. The frequency of t h e b e a t n o t e is t h e numerical d i f f e r e n c e between t h e o s c i l l a t o r frequency and t h e b r o a d c a s t s i g n a l frequency. :he beat frequency i s made t o come w i t h i n t h e audio range by v a r y i n g t h e osc l l l a t o r ' s tuning condenser,as j u s t suggested,but always keeping t h e d i a l of t h e r e c e i v e r i n a f i x e d p o s i t i o n according t o th.e broadcast s i g n a l used f o r this test. - L , a t the p o s i t i o n where you hear t h e b e a t note,you r o t a t e t h e o s c i l l a t o r condenser d i a l slowly back and f o r t h you w i l l l o c a t e a p o i n t on t h e d i a l where no b e a t note o r w h i s t l e i s heard: t h i s n o i n t i s known a s t h e "dead s a o t n . I f you move t h e d i a l j u s t a l i t t l e e i t h e r bne way o r t h e o t h e r from t h i s "dead s p o t w the n o t e w i l l reappear. The dead spot i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r - f c i r c u i t s of 3 0 t h the r e c e i v e r and t h e o s c i l l a t o r a r e i n exact resonance and, t h e r e f o r e , i r e tuned t o the same frequency. You have now l o c a t e d one frequency p o i n t on :3e o s c i l l a t o r d i a l and you could mark down t h i s freouencv which corresoonds : the broadcast s t a t i o n i s frequency whose program o r s i g n a l s you a r e t h e d o .n on. Other s t a t i o n s of known frequency covering the broadcast band could 8 tuned- in and checked i n t h e same manner and t h e o s c i l l a t o r d i a l could be s c r k e d with t h e f r e q u e n c i e s of those s t a t i o n s and the d i a l could be thus c a l i r a t e d from one end t o t h e o t h e r , By l o c a t i n g about 8 o r 10 p o i n t s evenly c r o s s the d i a l t h e s e c a l i b r a t i o n s could a l s o be p l o t t e d on c r o s s s e c t i o n paper r.d a l l n e drawn t o connect t h e known p o i n t s would g i v e a f a i r l y a c c u r a t e curve r mhlch you could r e a d o t h e r i n t e r m e d i a t e f r e q u e n c i e s n o t a c t u a l l y c a l i b r a t e d . y a s l g n a l of known frequency. Your curve would be constructed i n the u s u a l a j b:r drawlng through i n t e r s e c t i n g p o i n t s a f t e r p l o t t i n g f r e q u e n c i e s on one x i s 2nd d m 1 d i v i s i o n s on t h e o t h e r .
::OF
7 .

Lesson 40 - sheet 7

1
1
I

> . _ t s r er. o s c l l l a t s r 1s once calibrated it will come in handy whenever it is d e s i r e d t o c h e c k t h e frequency of any particular setting of the tuning dial of a receiver. To check up the frequency marking on a receiver's dial you

would have the oscillator's signal modulatedland tune the receiver for this signal the same as you would do to bring in a regular broadcast signal and when the signal is heard in the loudspeaker with greatest intensity you know that all radio-frequency circuits are in resonance. Or, if an output meter were used you would look for a maximum indication to denote resonance. There is still another way to check up the frequency markings on a receiver's dial by connecting a milliammeter in series with the oscillator grid in place of the grid leak-condenser combination and use the oscillator circuit as a grit dip meter. When the condition of resonance is approached between the receiver and oscillator a certain amount of r-f energy will be extracted from the oscillator tuned circuit by the receiver'stuned circuits and you will be aware of this fact because the pointer of the milliammeter will swing backward on the scale and then, at the exact point of resonanoe the pointer will have its maximum backward dip. Thus,either a visual or audible indication will serve as a check on resonant conditions between an oscillator and a receiver. GRID DIP METER. The diagram in Figure 4 shows how an r-f oscillator may be easily converted into a grid dip meter by merely inserting a low range milliammeter in series with the grid circuit. This meter will show whenever energy is induced into some other oscillatory circuit from the oscillator's tuned circuit. If r-f energy is extracted from the oscillatory circuit of an oscillator it reduces the amount of feed-back current that normally flows to the grid and any slight change in load drain on this account can be observed through the movement of the meter's pointer. Thus, the use of a milliammeter in the grid circuit of an oscillator provides a good means for checking up resonant conditions between two r-f circuits.
C M l D r 6 r COIIDeWIP.

G l l l D DIP MbTER

5 0 TURNS ' 2 0 D C C COPPER waar ON a>2' o m TUBE

If any r-f circuit to be tested is suitably coupled to the oscillator and both circuits are tuned to the same frequency, that is, they are in resonance,the r-f circuit under test will absorb the maximum amount of energy and, obviously, the oscillator at that time will loose the most energy, and this condition is immediately evident by watching the milliammeter. It's pointer will dip backward toward zero at the resonant point. Then if you alter the setting of the respective dials of either r-f circuit by rotating the dials one way or the other it will throw the circuits out of resonance, that is, it will detune

0 Lesson 4

- sheet 8

Y l e ~ aod t h e -e'er xi11 a g a i n i n d i c e t e m a x i n u \ c u r r e n t i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t , i: F e n c e , a gi?. t: x t e r cen be used t o compare t u n e d r-f c i r c u i t s of r e c e i v e r s and a l l o w s u s a c e a s y means f o r t e s t i n g c o i l s , c o n d e n s e r s , and s o on.
A d-c m i l l i m e t e r w i t h a r a n g e o f e i t h e r 0-1, o r 0-1.5 m.a. makes a s a t i s f a c t o r y i n s t r u m e n t t o b e u s e d i n a g r i d d i p m e t e r c i r c u i t . The same m e t e r c o u l d b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o a v o l t m e t e r o r ohmmeter b y u s i n g a s u i t a b l e r e s i s t a n c e i n s e r i e s a s we have a l r e a d y e x p l a i n e d .

A few p o i n t s on t h e p r a c t i c a l o p e r a t i o n of a g r i d d i p m e t e r f o l l o w : I t is b e s t t o have l o o s e c o u p l i n g between t h e o s c i l l a t o r and r e c e i v e r , o r t h e tuned c i r c u i t b e i n g checked. If t h e tuned c i r c u i t s of a r e c e i v e r a r e b e i n g t e s t e d i t i s s u f f i c i e n t , i f t h e o s c i l l a t o r is not shielded.30 l o c a t e it within a f o o t o r two of t h e r e c e i v e r , o r i f t h e pick- up w i r e is u s e d i t would b e a t t a c h e d t o t h e t e r m i n a l p o s t of t h e r a d i o s e t , o r t h e w i r e may b e p l a c e d c l o s e t o t h e ant e n n a l e a d w i t h o u t b e i n g e l e c t r i c a l l y connected t o i t . When o t h e r tuned c i r c u i t s a r e checked which a r e n o t s h i e l d e d t h e i n d u c t a n c e o f t h e c i r c u i t under t e s t s h o u l d b e p l a c e d i n t h e f i e l d of t h e o s c i l l a t o r Tor t h e p r o p e r t r a n s f e r of r-f energy. If t h e c i r c u i t s a r e p r o p e r l y c o u p l e d t h e m e t e r p o i n t e r w i l l g r a d u a l l y d r o p back u n t i l t h e p o i n t o f r e s o n a n c e is r e a c h e d and t h e p o i n t e r w i l l g r a d u a l l y r e t u r n t o normal p o s i t i o n a f t e r t h e p o i n t o f r e s o n a n c e has b e e n p a s s e d . I n s u f f i c i e n t c o u p l i n g would b e i n d i c a t e d b y t h e tuned c i r c u i t h a v i n g l i t t l e o r no e f f e c t upon t h e m e t e r r e g a r d l e s s of i t s f r e q u e n c y s e t t i n g . If t h e c i r c u i t s were coupled t o o c l o s e i t would be i n d i c a t e d by t h e p o i n t e r f l y i n g forward on t h e s c a l e t o maximum p o s i t i o n when t h e r e s o n a n c e p o i n t was p a s s e d . It w i l l n o t p r o v e e n e a s y m a t t e r t o l o c a t e t h e e x a c t p o i n t o f r e s o n a n c e between two r-f c i r c u i t s when t h e c o u p l i n g i s t o o c l o s e .

The r e s o n a n c e i n d i c a t o r shown i n F i g u r e 5 i s a v e r y s i m p l e d e v i c e c o n s i s t i n g of a vacuum t u b e , a d-c m i l l i a r n m e t e r . a r h e o s t a t a n d - b a t t e r y . I t i s known as a Fleming v a l v e i n d i c a t o r a f t e r t 6 e o r i g i n a l i n v e n t o r of t h e t w o - e l e c t r o d e vacuum t u b e ; a t u b e which w a s b u i l t w i t h o n l y a p l a t e and a f i l a m e n t . A s t h e diagram shows t h e g r i d and p l a t e a r e t i e d t og e t h e r t o make t h e s e e l e m e n t s a c t s i m i l a r t o a s i n g l e p l a t e s o t h a t any o o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l on t h e p l a t e w i l l a t t r a c t e l e c t r o n s from t h e h o t f i l a m e n t and s e t up a f l o w of c u r r e n t through t h e m i l l i a m m e t e r . O f c o u r s e , no c u r r e n t w i l l f l o w w h e n a n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l is a p p l i e d t o t h e p l a t e . Thus, t h e m i l l i ammeter measures t h e r e c t i f i e d c u r r e n t . The r h e o s t a t c a n b e a d j u s t e d t o con-

FUMING VALVE INDICATOR.

Figure 5 Lesson 40

sheet 9

t r o l the h e a t of the f i l a m e n t ~ r h i c hi n turn c o n t r o l s t h e e l e c t r o n emissron and, hence, a s u i t a b l e c u r r e n t d e f l e c t i o n can be o b t a i n e d f o r t h e purpose of comparing d i f f e r e n t i n t e n s i t i e s of the s i g n a l output of a r e c e i v e r .
A v e r y compact and extremely responsive c i r c u i t may be e a s i l y constructed by u s i n g a d-c milliammet6r with a ranee of 0 t o 1.5 m.a., a small tube such a s a UX-199, a 25-50 ohm r h e o s t a t and 3 d r y c e l l s ; don't p u t more than 3.3 v o l t s on t h e f i l a m e n t of t h i s type O f tube. I n p r a c t i c a l o p e r a t i o n the two terminals, marked nINPUT", a r e connected a c r o s s the voice c o i l terminals of a dynamic type speaker e x a c t l y t h e sane a s f o r any output meter a s a l r e a d y explained. However, i f t h e c i r c u i t is t o be used t o t e s t a r e c e i v e r ' s output t h a t does n o t employ a dynamic speaker a v a r i a b l e r e s i s t o r should be shunted a c r o s s t h e i n p u t , a s shown i n the diagram, t o p r o t e c t t h e milliammeter a g a i n s t burnout from excessive c u r r e n t and, a l s o , a p a i r of headphones could be connected a c r o s s t h e input c i r c u i t which would permit you t o l i s t e n t o t h e s i g n a l .

p~cmh TCTBE VOLTMETER.

A vacuum tube voltmeter i s an instrument which i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o c u r r e n t and voltage changes and, t h e r e f o r e , i t provides a n extremely a c c u r a t e i n d i c a t o r when used t o make audio o u t p u t comparative t e s t s .

The p r i n c i p l e on which a vacuum tube voltmeter o p e r a t e s i s t h a t of a d e t e c t o r . If an e.m.f. o r v o l t a g e i s impressed on the g r i d it causes a c e r t a i n change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t t o t a k e p l a c e and f o r a given s e t of working conditions t h e same v a l u e of impressed v o l t a g e on the g r i d w i l l produce t h e same change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t . By looking a t t h e diagram of a t y p i c a l vacuum tube voltmeter i n Figure 6 i t is e v i d e n t t h a t the input v o l t a g e is a p p l i e d between the g r i d and f i l a m e n t of t h e tube.

Figure 6

I n s e t t i n g up a vacuum tube voltmeter you should use a well-aged tube and a d-c milliammeter w i t h a range of approximately 0 t o l m . a . and a t the s t a r t make adjustments r e q u i r e d t o p l a c e t h e m i l l i m e t e r p o i n t e r on "0". It i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e c i r c u i t t o which the vacuum tube voltmeter I s connected be s o arranged t h a t t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t b i a s i n g v o l t a g e i s applied t o t h e g r i d . The range of u s e f u l n e s s of t h e tube voltmeter may be extended somewhat by v a r y i n g t h e p l a t e v o l t a g e and g r i d b i a s t o s u i t a b l e p r o p o r t i o n s and,also,bg employing tubes of d i f f e r e n t types. Any of s e v e r a l types of tubes a r e s u i t a b l e f o r t h i s purpose, such a s 112- 8, 201-A, o r 199 tubes. sheet 10 Lesson 40

I f you have prevl3usljr a p p l l e d known val-ues of a-C v o l t a g e s t o t h e input of t h e tube voltmeter and n o t i c e d t h e amount Of d e f l e c t i o n on t h e milliammeter f o r d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s when o p e r a t i n g t h e C i r c u i t under c e r t a i n f i x e d condit i o n s t h e meter r e a d i n g could b e c a l i b r a t e d i n terms of a-c v o l t s ; t h i s would a l s o apply t o d i f f e r e n t d-c v o l t a g e s t h a t might be a p p l i e d t o the input of t h e tube voltmeter. Thus, with a c a l i b r a t e d s c a l e you could measure g a i n , hum, o u t p u t , and s o on. To measure extremely low v o l t a g e s , such a s hum, i t might be necessary t o connect i n a s t a g e Of audio a m p l i f i c a t i o n ahead of t h e voltmeter tube input.

Let us now d i s c u s s t h e g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s of t h e tube voltmeter c i r c u i t shown i n Figure 6. The purpose of potentiometer R2 and r e s i s t o r R3 i s t o supply a r e v e r s e c u r r e n t through the m i l l i a m e t e r t o t h a t of t h e normal o r s t e a d y p l a t e c u r r e n t . This p e r m i t s you t o a d j u s t t h e c i r c u i t t o g i v e a zero readi n g on t h e meter b e f o r e you begin a s e r i e s of measurements o r comparisons. There a r e times when you might wish t o a d j u s t t h e meter p o i n t e r f o r f a l s e z e r o a t a d i v i s i o n on the s c a l e , f o r example a t .1 m.a. o r higher t o work the meter where it w i l l g i v e t h e b e s t i n d i c a t i o n . &other way t o supply a curr e n t t h a t w i l l balance o u t the s t e a d y p l a t e c u r r e n t t h a t flows when no s i g n a l v o l t a g e i s applied t o the t u b e ' s g r i d i s t o s e t up a b a t t e r y and r h e o s t a t and p r o t e c t i v e bulb a c r o s s t h e meter t e r m i n a l s a f t e r the m n n e r described i n your t e x t r e l a t i n g t o a tube t e s t e r .
If t h e vacuum tube v o l t m e t e r i s connected t o a c i r c u i t t h a t w i l l not pass t h e b i a s i n g v o l t a g e , a s p r e v i o u s l y r e f e r r e d t o , a blocking condenser C2 and g r i d l e a k R4 should be used i n the p o s i t i o n s shown by t h e dashed l i n e s . The v a l u e s of these u n i t s w i l l depend upon c i r c u i t c o n d i t i o n s , b u t i n g e n e r a l a condenser of l a r g e capacitance should be used t o o f f e r a s l i t t l e reactance t o the a-c input a s p o s s i b l e and t h e r e s i s t a n c e of the l e a k should be of a comparatively lower order. A condenser of about 2 mfd.and a r e s i s t o r of about 250,000 ohms w i l l u s u a l l y answer the purpose.

A method f o r c a l i b r a t i n g a vacuum tube voltmeter is shown i n t h e sketch a t t h e l e f t of the t u b e voltmeter diagram i n Figure 6. I t shows t h a t a known v o l t a g e i s impressed on a v o l t a g e d i v i d e r and a c e r t a i n p a r t of t h i s v o l t a g e i s i n t u r n a 2 p l i e d between g r i d and f i l a m e n t of t h e tube, t h e e x a c t amount being governed by t h e p o s i t i o n of the movable arm on t h e potentiometer. The r e s i s t a n c e s of s e c t i o n s A and B on the d i v i d e r a r e a l s o known q u a n t i t i e s , and t h e terminals marked T 1 and T2 a r e connected by s h o r t l e a d s t o terminals ~3 and T4 wheh c a l i b r a t i n g the instrument. To c a l i b r a t e t h e s c a l e on t h e meter N i n v o l t s , t h e v o l t readings would be the numerical r e s u l t obtained a f t e r d i v i d i n g A i n t o the measured v o l t a g e V, o r i n p u t v o l t a g e applied t o t h e divider. A+B

With a n o r d i n a r y millicmmeter of 0 t o 1.5 m.a. range used a t M the voltage range on a c a l i b r a t e d s c a l e would be of a f a i r l y low o r d e r , o r i n o t h e r words input s i g n a l v o l t a g e s from about 0.5 t o 3.0 v o l t s could be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y measured. For t h e g r e a t e s t accuracy you should a d j u s t such a c i r c u i t , t h a t i s , a d j u s t t h e r e l a t i o n of g r i d b i a s v o l t s t o p l a t e v o l t s t o g e t the g r e a t e s t swing of the m e t e r ' s p o i n t e r f o r a given i n p u t s i g n a l voltage. There v e r y c l o s e measurements a r e r e q u i r e d a 0 t o 200 microammeter i s g e n e r a l l y used and the e n t i r e u n i t , except the input terminals and c o n t r o l knobs and meter, is mounted i n a s h i e l d e d box o r cabinet t o prevent s t r a y energy from a f f e c t i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e c i r c u i t .

Lesson 40

- sheet

1 1

galvanometer w i t h an evenly dlvlded s c a l e of 0 t o 100 i s a s u i t a b l e instrument f o r use when making resonance t e s t s between r-f circuits. Since an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s e s s e n t l s l l y of inductance and capacitance we can u s e a standard of one t o h e l p us s e l e c t a r e q u i r e d v a l u e of t h e other. I n o t h e r words, you may wish t o meas u r e t h e frequency range of a c e r t a i n radio- frequency ? o i l and t h i s could be done by conducting a resonance t e s t by u s i n g a condenser of known c a p a c i t a n c e which i n most c S e s would be a v a r i a b l e condenser having a capacitance range equal t o t h e tuning condenser g e n e r d l l y used w i t h t h e c o i l i n question. I n making such a t e s t on a c e r t a i n r-f c o i l , t h e c o i l should be connected i n s e r i e s with a condenser of known value and t h e thermo-couple galvanometer. Any t e s t o s c i l l a t o r p r e v i o u s l y described would b e operated a s a s t r a i g h t r-f o s c i l l a t o r with i t s o u t p u t c a r r i e d t o t h e c o i l e i t h e r by means of t h e pick-up l e a d which could be l o c a t e d c l o s e t o t h e coi1,or t h e l e a d could b e r u n through t h e c e n t e r of t h e c o i l and around i t i n t h e form of an open-end loop. Then t h e condenser of known capacitance i s s e t f o r maximum value and t h e 0sc i l l a t o r v s condenser i s r o t a t e d u n t i l t h e galvanometer i n t h e unknown c o i l c i r c u i t i n d i c a t e s a maximum d e f l e c t i o n , You can read t h e frequency o r wavel e n g t h on t h e o s c i l l a t o r ' s condenser d i a 1 , p r o v i d i n g i t has been p r e v i o u s l y c n l i b r a t e d , a n d t h i s s e t t i n g w i l l be t h e maximum wavelength, o r lowest frequency f o r t h e unknown c o i l when used with t h e condenser of given value. The minimum wavelength, o r the h i g h e s t frequency i s obtained i n t h e same manner by s e t t i n g t h e known condenser t o i t s minimum value, t h a t is, w i t h i t s r o t o r and s t a t ? r p l a t e s completely o u t of mesh and a l s o lowering t h e o s c i l l a t o r condenser cap a c i t a n c e u n t i l t h e galvanometer a g a i n r e a d s maximum, thus indicatine: t h a t t h e l a r g e s t amount of r-f energy i s being induced i n t h e r-f c i r c u i t under t e s t . By r e a d i n g the markings on t h e o s c i l l a t o r d i a l you can determine t h e low wavel e n g t h o r maximum frequency of t h e c i r c u i t under t e s t . Thus, we g e t upper and lower frequency o r wavelength l i m i t s of t h e c o i l under t e s t when used w i t h t h e known condenser. By employing t h e same p r i n c i p l e a condenser of a c e r t a i n s i z e can be s e l e c t e d by u s i n g a standard of inductance, o r t h e inductance t h a t i s g e n e r a l l y employed w i t h a condenser of t h e p a r t i c u l a r type t o b e s e l e c t e d .
If you wish t o match a radio- frequency c o i 1 , o r i f you wish t o match condensers t o some o t h e r c o i l s h a v i n g a s i m i l a r inductance v a l u e you could make a resonance t e s t between t h e o s c i l l a t o r and one c o i l and condenser combination and by subs t i t u t i o n you could r e p l a c e e i t h e r t h e c o i l o r condenser o r both u n t i l s i m i l a r r e s o n a n t c o n d i t i o n s were o b t a i n e d a l l around. It is t o be understood t h a t f o r most o r d i n a r y s e r v i c e work where i t i s d e s i r e d t o t e s t r-f c o i l s f o r s h o r t s , o r t o match c o i l s and condensers f o r replacement purposes you could u s e a g r i d d i p meter i n the test o s c i l l a t o r t o i n d i c a t e r e s o n a n t c o n d i t i o n s i n s t e a d of t h e thermo-couple galvanometer although t h e l a t t e r i s p r e f e r a b l e .

Procedure f o r Balancing Radio-Frequency C i r o u i t s . The r e c e i v e r i s placed i n f u l l o p e r a t i o n w i t h normal t u b e s i n p l a c e and tuned t o a t e s t o s c i l l a t o r s i g n a l of about 1400 kc. A s p e c i a l tube must be used t h a t i s e n t i r e l y normal except i t s f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t must remain open t o p r e v e n t e l e c t r o n emission s o t h a t - a s i g n a l w i l l n o t p a s s through t h e tube. When t h i s fpdummyntube i s s e l e c t e d about one-half of one of i t s f i l a m e n t prongs should be sawed o f f . Remove t h e r-f tube i n t h e l a s t r-f s t a g e and i n s e r t t h e dunnny tube i n p l a c e o n l y f a r enough t o allow t h e t h r e e long prongs t o make c o n t a c t and a d j u s t t h e n e u t r a l i z i n g o r b a l a n c i n g condenser f o r t h i s s t a g e u n t i l t h e s i g n a l d i s a p p e a r s . There w i l l b e no s i g n a l o r perhaps a minimum s i g n a l when t h e s t a g e i s p r o p e r l y neut r a l i z e d . N w remove t h e dummy tube and r e i n s e r t t h e normal tube and s i g n a l s o should a g a i n come i n s t r o n g . Repeat t h i s o p e r a t i o n a t each r-f s t a g e . Lesson 40

- sheet 12

m i l e some o f the e x p l a n a t i o n s about r a d i o s e r v i c i n g given i n our l e s s o n s may be familiar t o a few who have had a l i t t l e exuerience i n t h i s branch of r a d i o t h e r e i s no doubt b u t t h a t c e r t a i n parts w i i l bear r e p e t i t i o n because they u s u a l l y r e p r e s e n t t h e v e r y .items t ~ a a t more experienced serviceman would consider when shooting t r o u b l e on a r a d i o , receiving set.
MEANING CIF C O N T I f J U I T Y TESTING.

A c o n t i n u i t y t e s t c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of a telephone headset and b a t t e r y , o r a voltmeter and b a t t e r y , o r a n ohmmeter and b a t t e r y and s u i t a b l e t e s t l e a d s . A c o n t i n u i t y t e s t s e t made w i t h a v o l t m e t e r , a "C" b a t t e r y , a n d t h e necessary w i r e s i s p i c t u r e d i n Figure 7. Note t h a t one t e r m i n a l of t h e b a t t e r y and one t e r m i n a l of t h e voltmeter a r e connected t o g e t h e r w i t h a s h o r t l e a d and t h e two remaining terminals a r e connected py a p a i r of long rubber covered l e a d s w i t h t e s t prods o r p o i n t s . These p o i n t s c o n s i s t of i n s u l a t e d handles through which a r e run t h e w i r i n g and t h e metal p o i n t s o r prods themselves. I n t h e cons t r u c t i o n of such a c i r c u i t t h e maximum v o l t m e t e r range should n o t be much g r e a t e r than the v o l t a g e of the b a t t e r y so t h a t t h e p o i n t e r of t h e meter w i l l g i v e a comparatively l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n when t e s t i n g through a c i r c u i t w i t h a f a i r l y low r e s i s t a n c e . A convenient way t o e x p r e s s t h e i n d i c a t i o n we g e t on a meter is t o say we g e t a d e f l e c t i o n of 1/4, 1 / 2 , 3/4,and s o on depending how f a r t h e needle moves a c r o s s t h e s c a l e . I n Figure 7 t h e drawing shows a c o n t i n u i t y t e s t e r being used t o check a winding of a transformer. A schematic of t h i s c i r c u i t u s i n g symbols f o r t h e p a r t s is given i n Figure 8.

T h i s p a r t of your work i s d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r s e c t i o n s t o give you t h e p r a c t i c a l methods employed t o check t h e c o n d i t i o n of p a r t s and w i r i n g t h a t c o n s t i t u t e a r a d i o s e t and t h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s should prove a guide f o r anyone performing t h i s work f o r the first time. O f course, a f t e r each one of us has had some exp e r i e n c e i n analyzing s e t t r o u b l e s and making t e s t s w work according t o a syse tem which b e s t s u i t s our needs. The f o u r s e c t i o n s a r e : (1) Testing d i f f e r e n t forms of windings o r c o i l s , power transformers, audio- fre uency transformers, and radio- frequency t r a n s f o r m e r s , ( 2 ) Testing r e s i s t o r s , 3) T e s t i n g v a r i a b l e t u n i n g condensers and l a r g e and small f i x e d condensers and condenser blocks, and ( 4 ) Testing o r checking through c i r c u i t s i n which c o i l s , condensers, and r e s i s t o r s a r e wired t o g e t h e r a s you might f i n d them t o be i n a r e c e i v i n g s e t e o r power system. For t h e l a t t e r puspose w have s e l e c t e d a t y p i c a l f i l t e r c i r c u i t such a s i s used i n t h e m a j o r i t y of r e c e i v e r s today and, a l s o , a simple c p r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g of a c o i l , two r e s i s t o r s , and a condenser w i t h ground conn e c t i o n s made a t two p o i n t s i n t h i s c i r c u i t .

"c

u (1) O r f i r s t e x p l a n a t i o n w i l l d e a l w i t h t e s t i n g c o i l s and windings.

The c o n t i n u i t v t e s t s a s p i c t u r e d i n F i g u r e s 7 and 9 areconducted a s follows touch the- t e s t p o i n t s t o the primary "Pn t e r m i n a l s Suppose a s show^ and t h e v o l t m e t e r does n o t read i t i n d i c a t e s a n open o r break i n t h e winding. If the winding were p e r f e c t t h e v o l t meter would g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n and t h e d i s t a n c e t h e needle moved a c r o s s the s c a l e would be governed by t h e r e s i s t a n c e of the c o i l . If an ohmmeter were used i n s t e a d of a v o l t m e t e r you could g e t a d i r e c t r e a d i n g of t h e r e s i s t a n c e i n ohms. Now, i f the t e s t p o i n t s a r e touched t o t h e two secondary "Sn t e r m i n a l s t h e meter w i l l n o t read if t h i s winding i s open b u t i t w i l l read i f t h e winding makes a complete c i r c u i t through which the d i r e c t c u r r e n t can flow. By touching one t e s t p o i n t t o a "P" t e r m i n a l and t h e o t h e r t e s t p o i n t t o an "S" t e r m i n a l we should g e t no r e a d i n g s i n c e t h e s e c o i l s a r e e n o t connected i n any way, b u t i f w d i d g e t a n i n d i c a t i o n on t h e Lesson 40

- s h e e t 13

" 6 ' OI1"C" BATTERY

'

YOITMETES~

TEST I ND I C ATE S CLOSED CIRCUIT

TEST INDICATES OPEN CIRCUIT

TEST INDICATES CLOSED CIRCUIT

TEST INDICATES OPEN C1REUIT

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

Fig* 9

Fig. 1 0

Fig. 11

meter we would know that the turns of one coil touched the turns ofatheother and this would constitute a short-circuit. This is practically all there is to testing any form of winding for its continuity, that is, to determine whether the winding is open or closed and whether its turns touch the turns o another f winding,or a metallic part for instance, from which the coil you are testing is supposed to be insulated. We will also mention that if one test point i s touched to either a "PW or "SW terminal and the other test point to the *on core there should be no indication since the turns comprising the windings are carefully insulated from the iron; a reading would mean that the turns at some location are touching the iron and if this occurred the winding would be shorted to the core. In Figures 10 and 11 we show a radio-frequency coil being tested in exactly the same manner as the transformer windings in Figures 7, 8,and 9. The indications to be expected for "openw and *closedn circuit conditions in continuity testing are plainly marked on each drawing.
(2)

Our second explanation will deal with testing resistances or resistors. The continuity tests as pictured i Figures 12, 13 and 1 are as follows: n 4 The second part of our instructions on continuity testing deal with checking resistors for resistance as well as for continuity. The same method is used as for windings of any description as you see by examining the drawings i Figures 12, 13 and 14. n Suppose you touch the test points to the terminals of the resistor in Figure 12 as shown, the voltmeter or ohmeter,which ever is used,will read if the winding is continuous or unbroken.
STEADY READING STEhDY READING

RESISTOR (LOW RESISTANCE)

RESISTOR (HIGH RESISTANCE)

BROKSN WIRE

TEST INDlChTES CLOSED CIRCUIT

TEST IND1CATES CLOSED CIRCUIT

TEST INDICATES OPEN CIRCUIT

Fig. 12

Fig. 13

Fig. 1 4

A high voltmeter reading will be observed when measuring any type resistor of low resistance,and a comparatively lower voltmeter
Lesson 40

sheet14

course, i f an o?-met&? IS used i t w i l l give t h e ohmage d i r e c t -o n i t s s c a l e provldlnp the r e s l s t h n c e value comes w l t h m the l i m i t s of the ohmmeter1s s c a l e . By-maklng a comparison b e t ~ e e n Figure 13,which shows a hlgh r e s i s t a n c e being checked,and Figure 12 showing a low r e s i s t a n c e under measurement you can s e e t h e comparative in d i c a t i o n s on the voltmeter f o r e i t h e r case. Suppose you now t e s t a r e s i s t o r whrch has e i t h e r a burned out o r broken wire then the i n d i c a t i o n w i l l be a s shown i n Figure 1 4 ; the meter w i l l give no r e a d i n g s i n c e t h e c i r c u i t is open and w i l l not p a s s c u r r e n t . If any of t h e turns of a r e s i s t o r were s h o r t e d you could d e t e c t t h i s by u s i n g an ohnrmeter and knowing t h e r e s i s t o r ' s r a t e d value i n ohms. One way t o t e s t a g r i d l e a k f o r c o n t i n u i t y i s t o u s e a t e s t c i r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g of headphon6s and a "B" b a t t e r y of about 22.5 v o l t s i n s e r i e s with t h e l e a k and each time t h e c i r c u i t i s "made" by touchi n g t h e t e s t p o i n t s you should hear a c l i c k providing t h e l e a k r e s i s t a n c e i s n o t open a t any l o c a t i o n and forms a complete c i r c u i t . W mentioned p r e v i o u s l y t h a t headphones and b a t t e r y may be used f o r e o r d i n a r y c o n t i n u i t y t e s t i n g and t h i s method i s c a l l e d the " c l i c k t 1 t e s t .
3

Our t h i r d explanation about p r a c t i c a l t e s t i n g d e a l s with condensers. The t e s t s and t h e c o r r e c t and i n c o r r e c t i n d i c a t i o n s a s p i c t u r e d below i n F i g u r e s 15, 16, 1 7 , and 18 a r e p r a c t i c a l l y self- explanatory. I n g e n e r a l , t h e r e a r e two types of condensers, t h e v a r i a b l e a i r type or tuning condenser and the f i x e d type; t h e l a t t e r being c l a s s i f i e d u s u a l l y i n t o two groups, namely, small capacity and l a r g e c a p a c i t y condensers. The v a r i o u s t e s t s on condensers'are made a s follows: When t e s t i n g f i x e d condensers a serviceman wants t o make s u r e of two t h i n g s , one i s t h a t t h e condenser i s n o t s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d o r open- circuited and t h e o t h e r i s t h a t i t has the a b i l i t y t o take on a charge and hold i t a c e r t a i n time and then discharge. A t e s t c i r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g of headphones and b a t t e r y a s shown i n Figure 1 5 could be used i n t e s t i n g small c a p a c i t y condensers which range from about . O 1 mfd. and l e s s . With lower c a p a c i t i e s the displacement c u r r e n t i s s o small t h a t an o r d i n a r y meter i s not a f f e c t e d by i t , whereas, headphones a r e very s e n s i t i v e t o minute c u r r e n t s and a n o t i c e a b l e c l i c k i s heard upon making c o n t a c t w i t h t h e t e r m i n a l s of a condenser I f the condenser were s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d which i s not open- circuited. you would g e t a v e r y loud c l i c k , i n f a c t j u s t a s loud a s though you were t o touch t h e t e s t p o i n t s together without t h e condenser i n the
NEEOLE MAY DEFLECT MOMENTARILY WHILE CURRENT FLOWS AND CHARGES THE CoNoENsERl NO INDICATION ON METER'.

FULL READING OF BATTERY VOLTt!GE

TEST INDICRTES CONDENSER IS NOT OPEH ORSHORT-CIRCVITED

TEST INDICATES OPEN CIRCUIT

TEST INDICATES SHORT CIRCUIT

Fig. 1 5

Fig. 16

Fig. 1 7

Fig. 18 Lesson 40

- sheet 15

circuit. After the short-circuit test is completed you should then make an open-circuit test that you can depend on by connecting the condenser across a voltage supply, say a 45 volt "B" battery, for a couple of seconds. Then disconnect the battery and ,touch the phone tips across the condenser terminals being sure, of course, to hold only the insulated part of the phone cords so that your fingers will not touch the metal part of the tips. If you do not take this precaution you will get an erroneous indication. A click will be heard when you first make contact if the condenser is in good condition. This test proves that the condenser took on a charge, held it for a few moments and then sent its discharge current through the phone windings. The loudness of the click will depend upon the intensity of the discharge current, and it will be louder for condensers of higher capacities and comparatively weaker for lower capacities.

A continuity test circuit consisting of a battery of about 45 volts and a voltmeter, as shown in Figure 16, may be used to good advantage when testing condensers of medium capacity, or those in the neighborhood of .Ol mfd, capacity. When a condenser under test is 6 connected to the test circuit as shown in Figure 1 and the meter does not give a steady reading you can be assured that no short exists. Bear in mind, however, that you might get a slight momentary deflection of the meter pointer,as indicated in Figure 16, which is perfectly 0.K. since this movement is caused by the flow of displacement current that charges up the condenser. After the condenser is charged the pointer should immediately drop back to zero.
It has been repeated many times that: when you connect a source of e.m.f. to a condenser's terminals you simply charge up the condenser which means that a flow of current is set up momentarily. Hence, if a condenser is fully charged and you again connect the charging source to the same condenser you should not notice the usual small spark that occurs between the test point and the condenser terminal at the moment of contact at the original charging of the condenser. If a spark is observed each time you connect the voltage supply to the condenser terminals without discharging the condenser in the meantime it indicates that the condenser is "shot", that is, it will not take on a full charge and hold it. It is to be understood that no spark will be seen either at the time of charge or discharge when testing condensers of small capacities. Testing Condensers used in High Voltage circuits. ~t is often necessary to a-p ~ l y fairly high voltage when testing by-pass and filter condensers of the - - a type found in filter systems and socket power units and so on. The first 3teo when testing such condensers is to make certain that the condenser is not-short- circuixed or open-circuited and as we already suggested this rule should apply to all condenser test procedure. Figures 19 and 20 illustrate
FILW~ENTTYPE

j
I
I

PROTECTIVE

TO VOLTPIGE

SUPPLY
CHkUGING HIGH VOLTDIGE TYPE FILTER CONDENSER

RUBBER COVERED WIRE

DLSCHPiRGlNG CONDENSER

Figure 19

Figure 20 Lesson 4 0

sheet 1 6

how a condenser u.nder t e s t can be f i r s t charged from a high v o l t a g e source through a p r o t e c t i v e lamp and l a t e r discharged by means of a s h o r t l e n g t h of mire, A rubber-covsrecl wire should be used f o r t h i s purpose and only %he extreme ends should b e bared where c o n t a c t i s t o be made. Some persons use a wooden handled screw d r i v e r using t h e metal shank t o form a s h o r t between the condenser Ds t e r m i n a l s , Always be c a r e f u l when d i s c h a r g i n g a high v o l t a g e condenser by t h i s method and hold only t h e i n s u l a t e d p a r t of the wire, o r t h e wooden handle of t h e screw d r i v e r i f t h e l a t t e r i s used, o r i n o t h e r words neveT permit any p a r t of your body t o touch t h e metal p a r t s am3 thus avoid a p o s s i b l e shock, Condensers with c a p a c i t i e s ranging from about .01 mfd. t o 10 mf'ds. o r more may be t e s t e d by t h i s means. I n some s e r v i c e s t a t i o n s a v o l t a g e a s high a s '200 v o l t s i s used t o charge c e r t a i n condensers t o g e t a p o s i t i v e i n d i c a t i o n of t h e condenser's c o n d i t i o n , lionever, s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s may be e w e c t e d i n t h e u s u a l l i n e of s e r v i c i n g by taking power from the 110 v o l t l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t with a s e r i e s l a m p i n the c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 1 9 , A standard 110 v o l t filament type lamp o r a 1x0 v o l t neon lamp may be used i n t h e t e s t socket, M barn mould be done even i f a shorted condenser mere connected t o o t h i s c i r c u i : because Che lam:, would c a r r y t o f u l l v o l t a g e of the l i n e . If either lamp glowed t o i t s f u l l b r i l l i a n c y with a condenser i n t h e l i n e a s shown i t could be assumed t h a t the condenser was shorted. Upon dischargi n g a condenser of high c a p a c i t y you should g e t a good snappy spark and o f t e n you w i l l g e t a second s p a r k d i s c h a r g e i f you a g a i n s h o r t the t e r m i n a l s ; t h e second spark, of course, w i l l be much weaker than t h e i n i t i a l discharge spark. Figure 2 1 shows how a f i x e d condenser i s placed i n s e r i e s ~ i t a c a p a c i t y h meter and t h e l i n e supply t o read t h e capacity of the condenser d i r e c t l y i n microfarads, The range on the n e t e r s c a l e i s s e l e c t e d according t o t h e part i c u l a r condenser under examination; no r e a d i n g would i n d i c a t e an open w condenser and f u l l - s c a l e r e a d i n g , o r a c e r t a i n p o i n t marked on t h e s c a l e , would i n d i c a t e a " shorted w condenser.
CbPAClPY

METER READS MICROFARADS

FIXED CONDENSER
U N D E R TEST

Figure 2 1 "~eakys'condenser. If a condenser of f a i r l y high c a p a c i t y i s leaky i t can be e a s i l y discovered by charging i t up i n t h e u s u a l manner and then wziting about f i v e minutes b e f o r e d i s c h a r g i n g it. If you d i s c h a r g e t h e condenser a f t e r t h i s l e h g t h of time and g e t a good h e a l t h y s p a r k of the s a m i n t e n s i t y a s you would g e t when d i s c h a r g i n g i t immediately a f t e r charging i t then you c m be r e s t assured t h a t t h e condenser i s O.K. A condenser that; w i l l n o t hold i t s charge i s c a l l e d a "leaky" condenser,as $he name implies, and t h e quicker i t l o s e s i t s charge t h e g r e a t e r is t h e leakage. A s a r u l e small capac i t y condensers do n o t hold t h e i r charge very long b u t they can b e t e s t e d b y charging them with a ''R8 b a t t e r y and i n a few moments discharging them through a telephone headset as p r e v i o u s l y explained. Testing a Condenser Block o r Condenser Bank. Each condenser i n a condenser bloc:: must be t e s t e d s e p a r a t e l y i f you suspect t r o u b l e . Before m a k i n g a n Lesson 40

sheet 17

a c t u a l t e s t a l l l e a d s exoept t h e common l e a d should b e disconnected from t h e t e r m i n a l s t o f r e e t h e condensers from t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c i r c u i t s s o t h a t t h e r e cannot be any p o s s i b i l i t y of a n e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t a c r o s s any condenser through o t h e r p a r t s i n the r a d i o s e t , Each condenser i s then t e s t e d i n t h e u s u a l way by charging it and discharging i t , o r by employing a c a p a c i t y meter i f one i s a v a i l a b l e , Let us add a t t h i s time t h a t you should never apply an a l t e r n a t i n g c m r e n t t o an e l e c t r o l y t i c type condenser f o r t e s t purposes a s i t may r e s u l t i n damaging o r d e s t r o y i n g the c o n d i t i o n of t h e e l e c t r o d e s s i n c e they a r e polarized.
(4)

Our f o u r t h e x p l a n a t i o n d e a l s w i t h c o n t i n u i t y t e s t i n g of a c i r c u i t and, hence, Y O U m ' i l l f i n d the n e x t part of your work t o be a combination of , & p l a n a t i o n s 1, 2 , and 3 which- you have j u s t s t u d i e d , The c o n t i n u i t y t e s t s p i . c % ~ ~ i n F i g u r e s 22 and 23 a r e p r a c t i c a l examples of how v a r i o u s nd p a r t s , suc!; 'as e o i l s , r e s i s t o r s , and condensers might be connected together and t o t h e ground s i d e of a r e c e i v e r t o form a c e r t a i n s e c t i o n of a c i ~ c u i t , F i r s t l e t us mention t h a t you should c a r e f u l l y go over a .-i i terminal and soldered connections, screws, n u t s , and s o on, t o be s u r e t h a t there is s good e l e c t r i c a l connection a t a l l points,and if necessayy use a s t i c k of wood, such a s a dowel s t i c k , f o r prying f i r m l y but g e n t l y a g a i n s t a l l connections t o open up and l o c a t e any p o o r l y s o l d e ~ e djo:ints,or l o o s e connections,or miring broken under i t s i n s u l a t i o n .
"

A c o n t i n u i t y t e s t such a s these drawings suggest may be used t o check all of tho c i r c u i t s i n a r a d i o s e t and i t w i l l be found t o be one of t h e quickest ways f o r l o c a t i n g t r o u b l e within t h e s e t a f t e r making a socketa n a l y s i s t e s t * To perform a t e s t you simply touch t h e two t e s t l e a d s t o the respeczive ends of the c i r c u i t o r s e c t i o n of t h e c i r c u i t under examinacicn, Zust where you would s t a r t i n any c a s e would depend upon t h e conditions p r e s e n t a t the time of t h e t e s t , o r i n o t h e r words, depending upon whether o r n o t you have l o c a l i z e d t h e t r o u b l e .
10 TUBE Pl4TE CIRCUI?

OPEN CONNECT!ON

CIRCUIT

T H

Figure 22

Figure 2 3

If t h e wiring i n e i t h e r of the above c i r c u i t s is continuous, and a l l connections are i n good condition the meter w i l l give a f u l l s c a l e reading when you touch your t e s t p o i n t s along d i f f e r e n t p o r t i o n s of t h e w i r ing. A low reading would i n d i c a t e a high r e s i s t a n c e j o i n t , and no readi n g an cjpen connection o r broken mire. Vheo t e s t i n g through a windin$ o r a r e s i s t o r of high r e s i s t a n c e by touching t h e t e s t l e a d s t o t h e t e r minals of the u n i t w should g e t a low r e a d i n g alnd v i c e versa. Thus, by e g e t t i n g a r e a d i n g which i s e i t h e r zero, maximum, o r too high o r too low you can i n a o s t c a s e s determine whether a winding i s open, s h o r t e d , o r normal, To sum up t h e s e p o i n t s we can s a y t h a t when touching the t e s t

Lesson 40

s h e e t 18

l e a d s a c r o s s a m e t a l l i c c i r c u i t we should g e t a r e a d i n g on t h e meter and the a c t u a l reading w i l l d i f f e r w i t h t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c i r c u i t o r p a r t under t e s t . I n t h e case of condensers w should g e t no s t e a d y reading on t h e meter e when touching the t e s t l e a d s a c r o s s a condenser's t e r m i n a l s , except perhaps we might n o t i c e a small momentary d e f l e c t i o n due t o t h e charging c u r r e n t . You should be c a r e f u l n o t t o confuse a s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n d i c a t i o n when t e s t i n g a by-pass condenser i n i t s c i r o u i t which might be caused by t h e shunting e f f e c t of some m e t a l l i c p a r t such as a transformer winding,or choke coi1,or some e o t h e r u n i t i n t h e c i r c u i t . That i s why w suggested t h a t a t l e a s t one termina l wire should be disconnected from a condenser when t h e c i r c u i t diagram t e l l s you t h a t o t h e r p a r t s a r e connected around t h e condenser i n question. The c o r r e c t and i n c o r r e c t i n d i c a t i o n s f o r c o n t i n u i t y t e s t i n g of the c i r c u i t s i n F i g u r e s 22 and 23 a r e a s follows: Refer t o Figure 2 2 . With t e s t l e a d s #1 and #2 touchina ~ o i n t s and B you should g e t a readA N; reading i n d i c a t e s an o p en'-circuit. You shbuld g e t the same i n d i c a t i o n s with the t e s t l e a d s on t h e following p o i n t s : A and C , B and C , D and E , F and G which a r e both grounds i n t h e r a d i o s e t . Also,you should g e t the same i n d i c a t i o n between p o i n t s E and G, b u t you w i l l not, i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , because w have purposely shown t h e wire connection broken.The e meter w i l l n o t read with t e s t l e a d s $ and #2 on p o i n t s E and G. With t h e 1 t e s t l e a d s on p o i n t s C and D we should g e t no r e a d i n g , t h a t i s , no steady reading. A r e a d i n g would i n d i o a t e a shorted condenser.

ing,

Refer t o Fiaure 23. With t e s t l e a d s #1and #2 touching p o i n t s A and C you should g e t a readina. N readina would i n d i c a t e an oven c i r c u i t . o You should g e t t h e same Induication, t h a z i s , a closed c i r c u i g i n d i c a t i o n between a l l of the f o l lowing p o i n t s : C and E , E and G, G and C , B and D, D and F, A and G, b and E , and any o t h e r combinations where a m e t a l l i c c i r c u i t is formed through which t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t of t h e b a t t e r y can flow, There should be no i n d i c a t i o n when t e s t i n g across e i t h e r of t h e t h r e e f i l t e r condensers. I n t e s t i n g from A t o B , o r C t o D, o r E t o F, you should g e t no reading a s j u s t s t a t e d , but i f you d i d i n an a c t u a l r a d i o s e t i t could b e taken t o mean t h a t e i t h e r a condenser was shorted o r some m e t a l l i c c i r c u i t was shunted around the condenser. The t h i n g t o do i n a case l i k e t h i s i s t o disconnect a t l e a s t one terminal wire of each condenser and then make your c o n t i n u i t y t e s t o r o t h e r condenser t e s t s a s o u t l i n e d i n . t h e foregoing paragraphs. Of course, you should g e t a reading between H and J, J and K , o r when t e s t i n g between any two grounded p a r t s of the s e t o r the wiring which connects t o the ground.
I t i s an easy matter t o t e s t f o r a posa v a r i a b l e condenser. To make t h i s t e s t you p l a c e one t e s t p o i n t - o f your c o n t i n u i t y t e s t e r on one terminal of t h e condenser and the second t e s t p o i n t on the o t h e r terminal, and then r o t a t e t h e movable p l a t e s slowly back and f o r t h completely a c r o s s t h e d i a l . If a r o t o r p l a t e touches a s t a t o r p l a t e a t any poin-t i t w i l l be evidenced by a r e a d i n g on the t e s t meter s i n c e t h e c i r c u i t would be closed a t t h a t point. The condenser should be disconnected from any c o i l o r p a r t t h a t might f u r n i s h a shunt c i r c u i t around t h e condenser which would i n t e r f e r e with your t e s t i n d i c a t i o n . There a r e s u f f i c i e n t h e l p f u l suggestions given i n t h e f o r e going exylanations t o enable most anyone t o work i n t e l l i g e n t l y when making a c o n t i n u i t y t e s t of a r e c e i v e r ' s c i r c u i t s , o r when checking up on t h e i n d i vidual parts.
sible s h o r t between t h e a l a t e s of

Testing Variable Type Condensers,

Lesson 40

- sheet

19

common s e r v i c e complaints and t h e v a r i o u s t r o u b l e s t h a t a r e i n g e n e r a l accountable f o r t h e s e complaints. With t h i s knowledge a t hand i t i s o f t e n poss i b l e t o go more d i r e c t l y t o t h e s e a t of t r o u b l e t h a t i s causing a r e c e i v e r t o give u n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s . I f imperfect o p e r a t i o n of a r e e e i v e r i s not due t o any of t h e causes we have given under the following headings t h e cause might be due t o some c o n d i t i o n p e c u l i a r t o a c e r t a i n s e t and i n t h i s event i t would be b e s t t o c o n s u l t the s e r v i c e notes f o r t h i s s e t i f they a r e a v a i l a b l e .
WEAK RECEPTION OR LOW VOLUAG3.

COMwTON SdRVICE COhPLAIMTS AND POSSIBLE CAUSES O TROUBLE. F It would be advisable f o r a serviceman t o f a m i l i a r i z e himself w i t h t h e more

Defective tubes o r d i r t y prongs on tubes. Tubes o p e r a t i n g with i n c o r r e c t v o l t a g e s , High r e s i s t a n c e j o i n t s o r poor contacts. Open by-pass condenser. Radio-frequency c i r c u i t s out of balance. Open antenna c i r c u i t . Open ground c i r c u i t . Reversal antenna and ground connections. Low v o l t a g e s from s o c k e t power u n i t . Defective s o c k e t power u n i t . Defective r-f transformer. Compensating condenser out of adjustment. Trimmer condenser o u t of adjustment. Defective main tuning condenser. Nake s u r e g r i d c l i p s on screen- grid tubes make good contact. Magnetic pick- up w i l l h e l p check t h i s t r o u b l e . If pick-up ope r a t e s p e r f e c t l y t h e t r o u b l e is i n t h e radio- frequency s i d e , otherwise t h e t r o u b l e must be i n the d e t e c t o r o r audio-frequency c i r c u i t s .

P O T N QUALITY OR DISTORTION. OR OE Defective tubes. One o r more tubes working w i t h i n c o r r e c t v o l t a g e s . Defective speaker o r o u t of adjustment. Open by-pass condenser o r d e f e c t i v e o t h e r w i s e . Poor connections e s p e c i a l l y i n v o i c e c o i l c i r c u i t . Ground on b i a s r e s i s t o r would a l l o w c e r t a i n t u b e t o overload. I n c o r r e c t p r e s s u r e o r d i r t y c o n t a c t arm of volume c o n t r o l . Defective a-f transformer. Volume c o n t r o l advanced too f a r . P O SELECTIVITY OR BROAD TUNING OR NO RECEPTION ON BIGRER FREQUEITCIES. OR Unmatched r- f c o i l s . Radio-frequency c i r c u i t s o u t of balance.
NO SIGNAL.

Defective tubes. One o r more t u b e s working w i t h i n c o r r e c t v o l t a g e s o r no voltage. Open antenna. Grounded antenna. Reversal of antenna and ground connections. Open r-f c o i l . N power on t h e s e t o r no v o l t a g e supplied t o one o r more C i r c u i t s . o Tuning condenser p l a t e s m y be touching and causing a s h o r t , Wiring may be open a t some p o i n t . s h e e t 20 Lesson 40

Loudspeaker may b e inoperative- open i n cone o r voice c o i l c i r c u i t . High r e s i s t a n c e connection o r r o s i n j o i n t i n r-f c i r c u i t wiring. I n s u l a t e d p l a t e of a compensating condenser may be grounded. Defective o p e r a t i n g switch. Loose volume c o n t r o l arm. Defective transformer. I n d-c e l e c t r i c s e t s t h e socket plug must be i n s e r t e d c o r r e c t l y t o provide p o s i t i v e v o l t a g e t o the corresponding p o s i t i v e v o l t a g e s i d e of t h e r e c e i v e r s s c i r c u i t s , FADING. Defective tubes. Poor connections. Atmospheriu conditions may account f o r t h i s f o r which t h e r e is no remedy. S i g n a l s e n t out by the broadcasting s t a t i o n may change i n t e n s i t y . NOISY RECEPTION. Defective tubes- microphonic tube o r caused by audio feed back. One o r more t u b e s working on i n c o r r e c t v o l t a g e s . Outside i n t e r f e r e n c e - n a t u r a l s t a t i c o r man-made s t a t i c . I n e l e c t r i c s e t s t h e attachment p l u g may need r e v e r s i n g i n socket. cone o u t of adjustment o r cone d e f e c t i v e . Loudspeaker r a t t l e s Open g r i d c i r c u i t i n any s t a g e may cause howling,

OSCILLATION.

N e u t r a l i z e r - f c i r c u i t s i n s e t s u s i n g t h i s system. I n c o r r e c t screen- grid v o l t a g e . Voltage t o o high on c e r t a i n tubes. Coupling between r-f s t a g e s - l a c k of s h i e l d i n g . Defective cathode by-pass condenser. Radio-frequency choke c o i 1 s ; i n c o r r e c t inductance. Volume c o n t r o l r e s i s t a n c e grounded. Cathode s i d e of a cathode b i a s r e s i s t o r might be grounded,thus reducing b i a s t o zero.

Laminations

l o o s e on f i l t e r choke. Defective tubes. One o r more t u b e s working on i n c o r r e c t v o l t a g e s . Grounded f i l a m e n t . Attachment p l u g ( s o c k e t p l u g ) - r e v e r s e s o c k e t plug. Antenna and- ground l e a d s reversed Arrangement of w i r i n g n o t good. Line v o l t a g e low. Defective c e n t e r tapped r e s i s t a n c e U n i t . S h o r t - c i r c u i t i n f i l t e r choke. Open i n f i l t e r c i r c u i t condenser. Defective phonograph pickup switch which i s c o n t r o l l e d by volume c o n t r o l . Check f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t of output power tube and h e a t e r c i r c u i t of o t h e r tubes. Make s u r e o n l y proper grounds a r e on t h e h e a t e r and f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t s ; t h e s e a r e u s u a l l y made a t c e n t e r t a p r e s i s t o r shunting filament c i r c u i t and midtap o r h e a t e r winding of power transformer A 100,000 ohm r e s i s t o x shunted a c r o s s t h e secondary of t h e l a s t a-f input transformer of t h e push- pull type may e l i m i n a t e hum, o r a f i x e d condenser of approximately ,002 mfd. connected t o e i t h e r end of t h i s winding and grounded may improve conditions.

Lesson 40

- sheet

81

PROBABLE CAUSES F R VOLTAGE OR CURRENT BEING TOO HIGH OR TOO LOW. The items O which a serviceman might look t o f o r determining t h e cause of hieh o - - - .. - - - - r 7nw v o l t a g e s o r c u r r e n t s i n t h e p r i n c i p a l c i r c u i t s a r e c l a s s i f i e d under t h r e e headings, namely, (1) p l a t e c i r c u i t v o l t a g e and c u r r e n t , ( 2 ) g r i d c i r c u i t , ( 3 ) filament or heater c i r c u i t .

(1) PLATE CIRCUIT VOLTAGE OR CURRENT HIGH OR L W OR ZERO. P o s s i b l e causes a r e : O

Defective tube o r tubes. D i r t y tube prongs o r loose o r d i r t y s o c k e t c o n t a c t . Poor connections. Open, ground o r s h o r t i n wiring. Shorted by-pass condenser, d e t e c t o r p l a t e c i r c u i t . Defective transformer primary. Filament o r h e a t e r v o l t a g e low. "BW b a t t e r y weak o r connections reverse&. "Aw b a t t e r y weak o r connections reversed. "C* b a t t e r y o r b i a s r e s i s t o r connections reversed. G r i d b i a s v o l t a g e too high o r too low. I n c o r r e c t connections a t power supply. Defective f i l t e r condenser i n power u n i t . I I 11 n Defective f i l t e r choke Defective v o l t a g e d i v i d e r r e s i s t o r i n power u n i t . Defective high v o l t a g e winding of powsr transformer. Line v o l t a g e too low o r wrong v o l t a g e t a p adjustment. Shorted p l a t e r e s i s t o r , r e s i s t a n c e coupling. Shorted coupling condenser, r e s i s t a n c e o r impedance cougling. Defective volume c o n t r o l . Open g r i d c i r c u i t g e n e r a l l y causes f l u c t u a t i n g voltage.
(2)

G R I D CIRCUIT VOLTAGE HIGH OR LW OR ZERO. O "Cn b a t t e r y low.

P o s s i b l e causes a r e :

Bias r e s i s t o r r e s i s t a n c e t o o low. Bias r e s i s t o r s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d . Cathode-grid s h o r t i n s i d e of tube. Open c i r c u i t o r w i r i n g grounded. Socket c o n t a c t and prongs making poor contact.

(3) FILAMENT OR HEATER VOLTAGE HIGH OR LOW OR ZERO. P o s s i b l e causes a r e : Defective tube, h e a t e r o r f i l a m e n t burned out. Open, o r complete s h o r t i n wiring. Wiring p a r t i a l l y broken under insu1ation;only a few s t r a n d s c a r r y current. Broken terminal connection. Line v o l t a g e low. Power unit;d-c output low, Line v o l t a g e high w i t h i n c o r r e c t l i n e v o l t a g e tap adjustment, Defective wOFF-ON" switch. D i r t y o r loose s o c k e t connections. Defective s o c k e t otherwise. "An b a t t e r y discharged. "9" b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l connections corroded. Filament r e s i s t o r o r r h e o s t a t open o r otherwise d e f e c t i v e . Improper type tube i n s e r t e d i n socket. I n s e r i e s f i l a m e n t w i r i n g open shunt r e s i s t o r . I n a-c s e t , one tube f i l a m e n t o r h e a t e r burned o u t , thus decreasing load on c i r c u i t .

Lesson 40

s h e e t 22

TOOLS A.iTl INSTRUMENTS FOR TIE SERVICE HIT. Time is a very important factor in our service work and, therefore, the testing instruments and general equipment should conform to a standard that will enable a serviceman to perform his service work satisfactorily and in the shortest possible time. The weight of a service kit should be given due consideration if it is to be carried around any great distance in making service calls and where you must rely on trains and cars for transportation. Through careful selection the kit should contain only such equipment that will meet your immediate needs and,hence, it would be quite impossible to suggest a list of too1.s 'that would satisfy the requirements of every serviceman. However, in the list immediately below you will find practically all of the items that one might consider essential in present day servicing. It is obvious, of course, that tnere is no limitation as regards either weight or assortment of test equipment when it is intended only for use in the shop, or if an automobile or motorcycle is used for transportation. Our suggestion of a serviceable kit holding the absolute minimum of tools and intruments that a serviceman should carry with him on a service call is outlined in the following list. One standard set tester or analyzer. Note: These are often combined in one case, One standard tube tester. or instrument. A combination continuity and ohmmeter tester. Several screw drivers of assorted sizes as follows: 1 long thin screw driver. 1 short thin screw driver for use on set screws of knobs, dials, etc. 1 balancing screw driver or wrench to fit the slot or head of the adjustment screw or nut on the trimmer or neutralizing condenser of the receiver to be serviced. For making adjustments of this kind in certain receivers you may need a tool made of insulating material, such as bakelite or other similar material. You should determine what type of tool will be needed before going out on a service call. Several pairs of pliers as follows: 1 long nosed type. 1 short nosed type. 1 regular duty type with flat nose and side cutter. An electric soldering iron rated at about 75 watts. Solder. Non-corrosive flux. Large cloth to lay your tools on. If possible carry three or four tubes of types most generally used. Also, take along any literature you may have such as service notes, schematic diagram or wiring diagram, and data on voltage and current values to be expected in a socket-analysis test of the particular set to be serviced. Other articles that are useful in service work are given in the list below which is continued on the following page. File. Small hand drill with assortment of drills. Jack knife. Lesson 4 0

I-

- sheet 23

(contTd from preceding page,) Pipe stem cleaner. This article cones in handy for cleaning out dirt and dust between condenser plates. Short stick of wood about 3" long; a wooden dowel pin pointed at one end will ao. This stick is to be used for locating broken and loose joints or defective soldering by gently but firmly prying against the wiring connections. Small reamer. This tool is needed occasionally when replacing parts for enlarging mounting holes which do not exactly line up. Set of socket wrenches made especially for radio work. One pair of telephone receivers (headset). One sheet of fine sandpaper for cleaning prongs on tube bases. Pocket flash light. Small pocket mirror for inspection of wiring and parts in inaccessible places. Spare coil of No.18 rubber-oovered stranded wire. Roll of insulating friction tape. 4 5 volt "C" battery. This battery is usually included . in a set tester. Vacuum tubes. It is suggested that a serviceman ascertain what kind of tubes are used in the set to be serviced and carry at least one good tube of each type for substitution. The following types represent the tubes in most common use today: 199, 201-8, 171-8, 222, 224, 226, 227, 245,and a 280. All tubes should have been previomly tested both for normal operation and for microphonic tendencies. Hydrometer. This instrument is needed whenever any amount of storage battery testing is to be done. d hydrometer should always be carried in a metallic container to prevent damage from acid or breakage. Modulated oscillator and output meter. These instruments may or may not be needed according to broadcast conditions prevailing in your neighborhood. More accurate comparative tests on receivers can be conducted by visual means through the use of said instruments than by relying on the broadcast signals and aural reception through the use of headphones or loudspeaker. Meters. If a set tester is not at hand you should be provided with at least two meters; one d-c voltmeter and one a-c voltmeter both with suitable ranges. It is quite unnecessary to go into an explanation about the use of ordinary everyday tools, such as, screw drivers, pliers, and so forth and, therefore, we will merely offer our students e. word of advice on the care that should be exercised in general when working on radios. Be careful in your soldering not to make rosin joints or break any wires which are used in making connections; do not damage or burr the edges on nuts or binding posts; do not damage insulation on wires when making tests; do not allow wires to become frayed or cut wherethey pass through holes or rest against sharp edges of parts or chassis, and be very careful in handling all radio parts and cabinets in general, and especially when removing a chassis from or reinstalling it in its cabinet. Lesson 4 0

- sheet

24

NORMAL CHANGES IN PLATE CURRENT IN MILLImERES W E A GRID TEST IS W E HN ?ypeof Tubf Plate Voltage

Note: A 4 5 volt grid shift was used throughout to give the various readings . jn the above chart. If a 2 . volt shift were used on any tube the change in 25 plate current would be correspondingly greater. RELATION OF PLIiTE VOLTS, GRID VOLTS, AND PLATE CURRENT OF V iRIOUS ' I B S USED AS AMPLIFIERS 1 1SE Gr I d Grid Plate Type of Volts Volts Volts Tube 4.5 20 . 6. 75 '01-A 40 . 15.0 90 2. 25 80 .. 135 30 . 1.5% 2 50 on Screen Grid 350 3. 45 26.0 425 51.5 32.0 135 54.0 35.0 157 63.0 45.0 is0 70.5 55.0 90 84.0 55.0 135 16.0 27 .O 135 33.0 18.0 With 45 Volt 40.5 20.0 15 . 1.0 30 . 1.7 4.5 25 .

Lesson 40

sheet 25

EXILMINATION

LESSON 40

( a ) What is the purpose of a modulated o s c i l l a t o r ? ( b ) Describe one type of modulated o s c i l l a t o r w i t h which you a r e familiar.
HOW may the s i g n a l s t r e n g t h of a modulated o s c i l l a t o r be c o n t r o l l e d ?
Is t h e r e more than one p l a c e where an output meter may be connected t o a r e c e i v e r ? Explain.

Show by a schematic diagram how a g r i d d i p m e t e r c i r c u i t is arranged and, a l s o , explain i t s operation. Are there any precautions t o be observed i n b u i l d i n g o r handling a socket-powered modulated o s c i l l a t o r ? Explain. h ( a ) O what p r i n c i p l e does a vacuum tube voltmeter function? ( b f W y n do you a d j u s t t h e meter i n t h i s instrument t o g i v e a zero o r n e a r l y zero reading before t a k i n g measurements with i t ? ( c ) I n g e n e r a l what aTe the p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n regard t o o p e r a t i o n and s e t t i n g ug a vacuum tube voltmeter t o make audio comparison t e s t s ? Describe a method f o r checking up on a radio- frequency c o i l i n a r e c e i v e r t o determine Whether o r n o t i t s t u r n s a r e shorted. I t is assumed t h a t you cannot determine t h i s f a u l t by v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n because the t u r n s i n the c o i l under examination a r e s o arranged t h a t you cannot s e e a l l of the windings. Describe t h r e e methods f o r t e s t i n g small and l a r g e condensers used i n r a d i o r e c e i v e r s and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d power and f i l t e r c i r c u i t s . I n neat form draw a small sketch of each method you d e s c r i b e and i n some way i d e n t i f y each s k e t c h so t h a t we w i l l know e x a c t l y what drawings you r e f e r i n your d e s c r i p t i o n s . Let us suppose t h a t you a r e using an output meter t o check up on d i f f e r e n t r e c e i v e r s t h a t you a r e c a l l e d upon t o s e r v i c e . ( a ) I f you were n e u t r a l i z i n g the r - f c i r c u i t s of a c e r t a i n r e c e i v e r how would you know from the meter's i n d i c a t i o n when you had Pound t h e b e s t adjustments? ( b ) I f you were synchronizing the tuned r- f c i r c u i t s of a s i n g l e - d i a l r e c e i v e r how would you know from the Deter when you a r r i v e d a t the b e s t adjustments? Can you use a c o n t i n u i t y t e s t e r t o check with a b s o l u t e c e r t a i n t y t h e cond i t i o n of a f i x e d condenser? Give reasons f o r your answer.

Lesson 40

- sheet

26

INC.
firmer&.
MARCON/ /NSTI?WTE

S u n d e d /go9

Technical Lesson

41
BA LANCED ARMATURE LOUD SPEAKERS

The loud speaker i s a device u t i l i z e d t o convert a varying c u r r e n t i n t o varying a i r waves. When t h e s e varying a i r waves a r e impressed upon the human e a r they produce t h e s e n s a t i o n of sound. The u l t i m a t e purpose of t h e loud speaker then, i s t o produce sound. The reproducing u n i t s used t o a t t a i n t h i s r e s u l t may be divided mainly i n t o t h r e e types: ( a ) The electromagnetic type ( b ) The balanced armature type ( c ) The electrodynamic type The f i r s t , explained i n a previous l e s s o n , i s w e l l known and, although i t was not termed a loud speaker, n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e e x p l a p a t i o n given i n Lesson 20, s h e e t 7, and Lesson 22, s h e e t 1, thoroughly cover t h e If the r e c e i v e r shown fundamentals of t h i s type of reproducing u n i t . i n Figure 1, Lesson 22, had a horn f i t t e d t o t h e cap o f t h e u n i t , an electromagnetic t y p e of loud speaker would have been constructed. The balanced armature type loud speaker u n i t i s used i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of cone speakers and a l s o i n making many of t h e higher grade horn type speakers a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , the exponential horn. T h i s u n i t u t i l i z e s a powerful permanent horse shoe magnet, shown i n Figure 1, with s p e c i a l l y formed pole p i e c e s which a r e secured t o t h e ends of t h e magnet with machine screws. The reason f o r t h e s p e c i a l pole p i e c e s i s t o provide two magnetic poles of North p o l a r i t y close t o t h e armature on one s i d e and two poles of South p o l a r i t y on t h e opposite s i d e . The armature supports a small energizing c o i l , t h e two outside l e a d s of which connect t o the output of the r e c e i v e r . When no c u r r e n t i s flowing through t h e energizing c o i l of the armature, t h e f l u x supplied by t h e permanent horse shoe magnet d i v i d e s i t s e l f e q u a l l y across the s p e c i a l "u" shaped pole p i e c e s and, a s a r e s u l t of t h i s even d i v i s i o n of f l u x , the armature tends t o remain i n a s t a t i o n a r y p o s i t i o n and no movement of t h e loud speaker cone takes place. When, however, a c u r r e n t passes through t h e windings of t h e armature c o i l s an electromagnetic f i e l d w i l l s p r i n g up about t h i s c o i l and develop an N, o r n o r t h p o l e , a t one end of t h e armature c o i l winding and an S , o r south p o l e , a t t h e opposite end of t h e armature c o i l winding. Since t h e armature a c t s a s a core t o t h i s c o i l i t w i l l a l s o develop magnetic poles which w i l l correspond t o t h e electromagnetic poles of the coil. Contents Copyrighted 1930 Pl'fnted i n U.S.A.

To emphasize t h i s p o i n t r e f e r t o F i g u r e 2 which, i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , r e p r e s e n t s a n a r m a t u r e c o i l . W w i l l assume, f o r example, t h a t a n e l e o e t r i c c u r r e n t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e c o i l i n a downward d i r e c t i o n . The t o p end of t h e c o i l w i l l d e v e l o p a n o r t h p o l e and t h e b o t t o m w i l l d e v e l o p a s o u t h p o l e b e c a u s e t h e e l e c t r i c a l law c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o l a r i t y of a h e l i x o r s o l e n o i d , ( a n d t h a t i s e x a c t l y what t h e a r m a t u r e c o i l i s ) , s t a t e s t h a t i f a solenoid o r electromagnet i s s o grasped w i t h the r i g h t hand t h a t t h e f i n g e r s p o i n t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f l o w of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t , t h e thumb w i l l p o i n t t o t h a t end of t h e c o i l which i s t h e N , o r n o r t h p o l e , of t h e c o i l . T h e r e f o r e i f t h e t o p end o f t h e c o i l . i n F i g u r e 2 i s o f N p o l a r i t y t h e bottom end must be of S p o l a r i t y .

Figure 1 Now i f we p l a c e a n i r o n c o r e i n t h e c o i l a s shown i n F i g u r e 3 t h e l i n e s of f o r c e composing t h e f i e l d a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e i r o n c o r e . T h i s i s t r u e because i r o n o f f e r s a much lower r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e m a g n e t i c A s a consequence we d e v e l o p a s t r o n g f i e l d about t h e f i e l d than air. a r m a t u r e which t a k e s t h e same p o l a r i t y a s t h e c o i l b e c a u s e , when a n i r o n c o r e i s p l a c e d i n a s o l e n o i d o r h e l i x , i t , $ges noL change t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e c o i l .

NOJV l e t u s r e f e r t o F i g u r e 1, wherein i s shown t h e permanent magnet P, w i t h t h e s p e c i s l p o l e p i e c e s P-1 a n d P-2. Between t h e s e p o l e p i e c e s i s p i v o t e d t h e a r m a t u r e A around w h i c h i s wound a c o i l , C. I n order t o s t u d y t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a c t i o n of t h e a r m a t u r e l e t u s s u p p o s e t h a t a b a t t e r y i s s o c o n n e c t e d t o c o i l C , F i g u r e 4 , t h a t c u r r e n t f l o w s downward; t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e t o p of t h e c o i l i s N, a l s o t h e t o p of t h e
Lesson 4 1

- sheet 2

a r m a t u r e A w i l l t e M, and t h e bottom of t h e c o i l and a r m a t u r e w i l l be of south p o l a r i t y .

With t h e a r m a t u r e p i v o t e d a t i t s c e n t e r t h e upper end o f t h e a r m a t u r e w i l l be r e p e l l e d from t h e N p o l e o f t h e permanant magnet aod a t t r a c t e d t o t h e s o u t h p o l e of t h e permanant magnet. The bottom end of t h e armat u r e , b e c a u s e i t i s of S p o l a r i t y , w i l l be r e p e l l e d from t h e S p o l e o f t h e permanant magnet and a t t r a c t e d t o t h e n o r t h p o l e o f t h e permanant magnet. By r e v e r s i n g t h e a r m a t u r e c o i l c o n n e c t i o n s a t t h e b a t t e r y t h e r e v e r s e a c t i o n w i l l t a k e p l a c e . W i t h the a r m a t u r e i n m o t i o n t h e cone i s made t o move by means of t h e d r i v i n g r o d t h r u s t p i n and c o n n e c t i n g r o d a s shown i n F i g u r e 1.
NORTH

POLE

DIRECTION OF CURRENT IN

DIRECTION OF CURRENT OUT

Figure 2

IRON CORE

Figure 4

Figure 3

When t h e u n i t i s o p e r a t i n g i n a r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t t h e c u r r e n t d o e s not change i t s d i r e c t i o n . P r a c t i c a l l y , t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t from t h e r e c e i v i n g s e t a m p l i f y i n g t u b e d o e s n o t change i n d i r e c t i o n b u t i t does r i s e and f a l l i n v a l u e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , by t h e p r o p e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n b e i n g t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t r e l a t i v e t o t h e v a r y i n g f i e l d c a u s e d by a v a r y i n g c u r r e n t i t c a n be r e a d i l y u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e a r m a t u r e of t h i s t y p e of u n i t w i l l b e i n a c o n t i n u a l s t a t e of m o t i o n moving toward t h e permanent magnet p o l e s p i e c e s and away from the111 b e c a u s e of t h e c o n t i n u a l l y varyi n g p l a t e c u r r e n t v a l u e s . The msgnitnde of t h e m o t i o n produced w i l l n a t u r a l l y depend upon t h e poner i n t h e p l a t e c u p r e n t o f t h e a m p l i f i e r t u b e , and t h e r a t e a t which t h e motion t a k e s p l a c e w i l l be c o n t i w e n t upon t h e f r e q u e n c y a t which t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t changes.
Such a s p e a k e r u n i t may b e u s e d on any t y p e of r e c e i v e r and c a n be conn e c t e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e o u t p u t of t h e s e t w i t h d i s r e g a r d a s t o p o l a r i t y , and w i t h o u t o u t p u t c o u p l i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s when u s i n g p l a t e c u r r e n t v o l t a g e s which p a s s c u r r e n t u n d e r 1 0 m i l l i a m p e r e s . It i s good p r a c t i c e , however, t o u t i l i z e some method of c o u p l i n s t h e o u t p u t of t h e r e c e i v e r to t h e l o u d s p e a k e r b e c a u s e much b e t t e r r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d i f o n l y t h e changes of p l a t e c u r ~ e n t ,which c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e a u d i b l e v a r i a t i o n s of t h e l o u d s p e a k e y , a r e a l l o w e d t o f l o w t h r o u s h t h i s u n i t . When t h e

Lesson 4 1

sheet 3

s p e a k e r i s c o n n e c t e d i n t h e p l a t e c i r o u i t w i t h o u t t h e u s e of some form of c o u p l i n g , t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t from t h e p l a t e v o l t a g e s o u r c e i s a l l o w e d t o p a s s d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h t h e a r m a t u r e c o i l and it w i l l t e n d t o keep t h e a r m a t u r e more t o one s i d e o f i t s normal p o s i t i o n t h a n t o t h e o t h e r . Means a r e p r o v i d e ? f o r a d j u s t i n g t h e a r m a t u r e t o compensate f o r a s t e a d y tension t h a t would be caused by t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c o i l by f o r c i n g t h e a r m a t u r e i n a d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t o t h e s t e a d y p u l l caused by tile d i r e c t c u r r e n t , t h e r e b y m a i n t a i n i n g a complete b a l a n c e between t h e permanent magnet p o l e p i e c e s u n d e r a l l normal working c o n d i t i o n s .

C
Figure 5 The maximum t o and f r o motion of t h e a r m a t u r e i s t h e n o b t a i n e d and t h u s produce's t h e g r e a t e s t v a r i a t i o n i n t h e cone i t s e l f , because of t h e r i s e and f b l l of c u r r e n t o f a n a u d i o f r e q u e n c y n a t u r e i n t h e w i n d i n g of t h e a r m a t u r e c o i l . If p l a t e v o l t a g e s p a s s i n g over 1 0 m i l l i a m p e r e s a r e i n e f f e c t t h e n some method o f c o u p l i n g t h e o u t p u t of t h e r e c e i v e r t o t h e louC s p e a k e r s h o u l d be used. Three c i r c u i t a r r a n g e m e n t s t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s r e s u l t a r e shown i n F i g u r e 5, A , B, and C. Lesson 4 1

- sheet

I n c i r c u i t A i f . t h e condenser i n t h e p l a t e l e a d breaks down the c o i l s of t h e loud speaker would t h e n be connected i n shunt w i t h th& choke cail and s u f f e r no i n j u r y by passing excessive c u r r e n t . I t s disadvantage i s t h a t comparatively small vaJues of r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e "B" b a t t e r y supply c u r r e n t w i l l cause a howl i n t h e A . F . a m p l i f i e r because t h e c u r r e n t passi n g through t h e "B" b a t t e r y i n i t s r e t u r n t o t h e negative s i d e of t h e filament.

MAGNET COILS

\\

SILVER

SOLDER

ARMATURE I

THRUST LEVER

1
CONE

SOFT

SOLDER
Figure 6 Lesson 41

(MAKE ADJUSTMENTS WITH SOLDERING I R O N )

CONE

- sheet

I n c i r c u i t B, Figure 5, it can be r e a d i l y seen t h a t t h e c u r r e n t p a s s i n g through t h e speaker c o i l s does not have a "B" supply d i r e c t l y connected i n t h e r e t u r n l e a d t h e r e f o r e e l i m i n a t i n g t h e disadvantage of c i r c u i t A . The disadvantage of c i r c u i t B i s t h i s ; i f t h e condenser breaks down t h e e n t i r e "B" supply would be s h o r t c i r c u i t e d through t h e speaker armature c o i l s which would probably burn them out. The value of the choke t o u s e i n making up t h i s output coupling arrangement i s an i r o n core inductance of 30 h e n r i e s o r more having a D. C. r e s i s t a n c e of not more than 1,000 ohms. The c a p a c i t y of t h e condenser should be from 4 t o 8 m f d s . The t h i r d scheme o f coupling i s the use of an output transformer as shbwn i n C , Figure 5. The t u r n r a t i o should be 1 t o 1 and of s u i t a b l e design t o f u n c t i o n p r o p e r l y f o r t h i s purpose because of the f a c t t h a t t h i s transformer must c a r r y l a r g e values of Direct Current. Magnetic s a t u r a t i o n i s l i a b l e t o occur causing u n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s , t h e r e f o r e c o r r e c t design i s imperative. The Radiola 100-k and 103 speakers employ a balanced armature u n i t , operating on t h e p r i n c i p l e s j u s t discussed. Figure 6 shows t h e cons t r u c t i o n a l d e t a i l s of t h e u n i t . LOUDSPEAKER PROBLEMS Loudspeaker problems confronting t h e s e r v i c e man may be c l a s s e d as: Distortion Noise Rattle Poor reproduction, o r N reproduction o
If you should be c a l l e d upon t o s e r v i c e speakers t h e following i n f o r mation w i l l be of m a t e r i a l a s s i s t a n c e i n s i m p l i f y i n g t h e work.

I n many i n s t a n c e s t h e loud speaker i s considered t o be t h e base of r a d i o reproducing t r o u b l e s whereas, i n r e a l i t y , t h e cause l i e s i n t h e r e c e i v e r i t s e l f hence, a s a p r e l i m i n a r y measure, i t i s good p r a c t i c e t o make a check by connecting a p a i r of head telephones i n t h e output of t h e recdver, determining i n t h i s way whether s i g n a l s a r e a c t u a l l y coming through and If so whether they a r e d i s t o r t e d . Since t h e loud speaker i s a reproducing device only, any d i s t o r t i o n i n t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l be d u p l i c a t e d i n t h e loud speaker and the loud speaker cannot be held r e s p o n s i b l e when t h e t r o u b l e o r i g i n a t e s i n t h e s e t . I f , on making t h e head phone t e s t , a sigpal of good volume and q u a l i t y i s d e l i v e r e d from t h e s e t , i t then w i l l be necessary t o make a c l o s e examination of the loud speaker t o l o c a t e therein t h e cause of f a u l t y reproduction. Model 100-A loud speaker c o n s i s t s of a metal housing ( c a s t i r o n ) w i t h a n ornamental g r i l l e a t t h e f r o n t and back, a cone, a frame which supports t h e permanent magnet, t h e reproducing motor u n i t , and a f i l t e r system. The 103 speaker i s p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l t o the 100-A except i n t h e housing. As a matter of f a c t all balanced armature speakers operate on t h e s a m e principle. Lesson 41

- sheet

To s e r v i c e the 100-A speaker, the reproducing system must be removed f r o m the metal housing. This i s a simple operation. Remove t h e f o u r screws and f i b e r s h e e t found a t the base of the housing, then, w i t h t h e l e f t hand, support the mechanism assembly i n s i d e t h e housing, and loosen the f o u r screws holding t h e g r i l l e i n place. When t h e s e screws a r e c l e a r t h e e n t i r e u n i t can be l i f t e d out of t h e housing. Figure 7 c l e a r l y shows t h i s operation.

Figure 7
W i t h t h e u n i t c l e a r of t h e housing a thorough i n s p e c t i o n can be made. F i r s t , examine the motor mechanism t o see if d i r t o r f o r e i g n matter has

become lodged about t h e u n i t i n such manner a s t o cause f a u l t y armature a c t i o n . Unless t h e armature operates f r e e l y poor reproduction w i l l r e s u l t . When d i r t i s found between the armature and pole p i e c e s use a p i e c e of copper or b r a s s , ( t h e maximum t h i c k n e s s of which should not exceed 0.010 i n c h e s ) , or a piece of s t i f f paper t o remove any d i r t o r f o r e i g n m a t t e r which might be i n t e r f e r i n g with t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e armature. DISTORTION OR RATTLES by t h e armature cone or both pole pieces. Such a c o n d i t i o n can be usua l l y checked by i n s p e c t i o n , but n o t always. The contact between t h e armature and pole pieces may be s o s l i g h t t h a t i t cannot be r e a d i l y determined from i n s p e c t i o n . It then becomes necessary t o make a c a r e f u l adjustment of t h e armature. To p r o p e r l y a d j u s t t h e armature a s e t of Lesson 4 1
A u n i t which r a t t l e s or d i s t o r t s t h e output o f t h e r e c e i v e r may be caused

- sheet

s p e c i a l t o o l s a r e needed which t h e s e r v i c e man can make e a s i l y from t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s which follow. The stock f o r t h e t o o l s i s phosphorous bronze. From a s t r i p of t h i s m a t e r i a l 0.010 inches t h i c k , and 0.25 inches wide, f a s h i o n i t t o resemble t h e views i n Figure 8, c a r e f u l l y observing t h e measurements given t h e r e i n It i s necessary t o have two of these t o o l s ; one i s placed i n the space between t h e armature and p o l e piece of the moving p a r t of t h e mechanism a t t h e end next t o t h e f i l t e r u n i t . The other one i s placed a t the oppslte end of t h e armature i n such a manner a s t o c l e a r the d r i v i n g rod which i s l o c a t e d a t t h i s end.
With these t o o l s i n p l a c e , loosen screws A and B a s shown i n Figure 9.

Any t e n s i o n i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n t h a t may have been holding t h e armature i n a n abnormal p o s i t i o n i s r e l e a s e d and t h e spacer t o o l s w i l l provide t h e c o r r e c t clearance o r spacing. I n o t h e r words, w i t h t h e spacer t o o l s i n p l a c e and screws A and B loose, t h e armature w i l l immediately take up i t s proper p o s i t i o n between t h e pole pieces.

-3:. -~

. ~.

..

.-

Figure 8, With t h e above proceedwe c a r r i e d out leave t h e spacer t o o l s i n p o s i t i o n and apply a hot s o l d e r i n g i r o n t o t h e d r i v i n g rod p i n a t t h e point where i t passes through t h e t h r u s t l e v e r a t p o i n t C , Figure 10. Heat the sol& a t t h i s point u n t i l i t flows; t h e connecting r o d w i l l now f i n d i t s normal p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e t h r u s t l e v e r through which i t passes. Remove Wx? i r o n and allow p o i n t C t o c o o l u n t i l s o l d e r s e t s , then t i g h t e n screws A and B and remove t h e spacer t o o l s . If t h i s has been c a r e f u l l y executed t h e armature should now be i n p e r f e c t alignment and so balanced t h a t no abnormal t e n s i o n i s being e x e r t e d upon i t i n any d i r e c t i o n .
THE CONE

I n some i n s t a l l a t i o n s t h e cone may be found improperly aligned; t h i s causes a s t r a i n t o be e x e r t e d upon t h e d r i v i n g rod due t o t h e cone not c e n t e r i n g a s it should on t h e d r i v i n g rod. Such a c o n d i t i o n w i l l be
Lesson 4 1

- sheet 8

a t t e n d e d by poor reproduction. This t r o u b l e i s not l i k e l y t o be found i n a new f a c t o r y adjusted speaker, but i s more l i a b l e t o be the r e s u l t of r e p l a c i n g a cone.

Figure 9 When it i s found necessary t o replace a cone it shoul6 be c a r e f u l l y a l i g n e d o r s e a t e d by f i r s t f i t t i n g t h e cone apex over t h e connecting rod and c a r e f u l l y a d j u s t i n g the cone s e a t i n g nut located on t h e conn e c t i n g rod close t o the t h r u s t lever. Refer t o Figure 1 . The con1 n e c t i n g rod which i s threaded on the end and p r o j e c t s through t h e apex of the cone w i l l now r e c e i v e a lock nut and washer which should be run on t h i s threaded end but not tightened. u n t i l the edge of t h e cone i s fastened. The holes around the edge of the cone should now be l i n e d up w i t h the h o l e s i n t h e metal frame and the outside r i n g l i g h t l y a t t a c h e d w i t h s i x machine screws and n u t s provided f o r t h a t purpose, The nut on t h e threaded connecting r o d i n t h e cone apex i s now tightened by using a socket wrench. Once tightened a drop of s e a l i n g wax should be dropped on it -to prevent i t from loosening due t o the v i b r a t i o n of t h e cone.

,.

Lesson 41

- sheet

Next t i g h t e n t h e s i x machine screws successively u n t i l they a r e a l l t i g h t . When t h i s o p e r a t i o n i s properly executed t h e speaker should operate e f f i c i e n t l y . Figure 1 shows t h e p o s i t i o n of the s i x screws 1 and cone t i g h t e n i n g n u t ,

1 Figure 1 THE THRUST LEVER

The t h r u s t l e v e r shown i n Figure 1 may, due t o v i b r a t i o n , work loose. T h i s , however r a r e l y occur; i f i t does n o i s y reproduction accompanied by a pronounced r a t t l e w i l l be noticed. I n correcting t h i s trouble f i r s t t i g h t e n up on t h e t h r u s t l e v e r mounting screw shown i n Figure 12 a t "g", I f t h e t i g h t e n i n g of t h i s screw does not c l e a r t h e t r o u b l e a readjustment of t h e armature a s explained under t h e caption "Distortion should be c a r r i e d o u t . or ~ a t t l e s " When making an examination of t h e cone motor mechanism a l l screws st~ould be inspected f o r loose p a r t s . A loose nut or screw anywhere on t h i s u n i t w i l l produce a r a t t l e when the speaker i s i n operation.

Figure 12 Lesson 4 1

- sheet 10

A view o f t h e f i l t e r u n i t . t o g e t h e r w i t h a s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of t h e filter

c i r c u i t connected t o t h e a r m a t u r e c o i l s of t h e s p e a k e r i s p i c t u r e d i n F i g u r e 13 showing t h e p r o p e r c o n n e c t i o n s o f t h e f i l t e r used w i t h t h e 100A and 105 s p e a k e r s . D e f e c t i v e armature coi3.s o r a d e f e c t i v e f i l t e r w i l l c a u s e poor r e p r o d u c t i o n and i f t h e f i l t e r i s c c n n e c t e d i n t h e c i r c u i t c o n t r a r y t o t h e s c h e m a t i c diagr.arn of F i g u r e 13, d i s t o r t i o n w i l l r e s u l t .

Figure 1 3 The c l i c k t e s t which h a s been d e s c r i b e d i n p r e v i o u s l e s s o n s may be used t o t e s t t h e s p e a k e r , a r n i a t u r e c o i l s , and t h e f i l t e r c i r c u i t . The follming c h a r t h a s been worked o u t a s a g u i d e t o t h e s e r v i c e man and i t g i v e s h i m t h e r e s u l t s t h a t he s h o u l d o b t a i n when t e s t i n g e i t h e r of t h e s e u n i t s . Before t e s t i n g t h e f i l t e r u n i t f o r c o n t i n u i t y d i s c o n n e c t t h e armature magnet c o i l s and t h e l o u d s p e a k e r c o r d , t h e n p r o c e e d a s f o l l o w s .
W i t h one t e s t t i p on

And t h e o t h e r t e s t t i p on F i l t e r terminal M F i l t e r temninal N

The c i r c u i t s h o u l d test Closed; i . e . a c l i c k s h o u l d be heard Open; i . e . no c l i c k should be heard

If t h e c i r c u i t t e s t s

F i l t e r terminal L F i l t e r terminal L

Open, 1 . e . no clic.k, t h e c o i l between "L" and "M" i s open Closed, i . e . , i f a c l i c k i s heard the f i l t e r condenser between L and N i s short circuited Closed, i.e., i f a c l i c k i s heard, t h e f i l t e r condenser between p o i n t s M and N i s open

F i l t e r terminal M

F i l t e r terminal N

Open; i . e . n o c l i c k should be heard

The f o l l o w i n g t e s t i s f o r c h e c k i n g t h e loud s p e a k e r c o r d and a r m a t u r e c o i l s . When c o n d u c t i n g t h i s t e s t s e e t h a t t h e a r m a t u r e c o i l l e a d s of t h e s p e a k e r a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t e r m i n a l s M and N o f t h e f i l t e r u n i t and t h e s p e a k e r phone c o r d i s c o n n e c t e d t o t e r m i n a l s L and N of t h e f i l t e r unit

Lesson 4 1

- sheet

11

W i t h one t e s t

t i p on The j a c k ' t i p

And the o t h e r t e s t t i p on F i r s t L, then.N

The c i r c u i t should test

If closed when on L t h e n open on N, o r vice versa

If t h e c i r c u i t tests

Open, one s i d e o f phone cord i s defect i v e or not making .good e l e c t r i c a l cont a c t a t jack or f i l t e r terminals Open, one s i d e of phone cord i s defect i v e or not making good e l e c t r i c a l cont a c t a t jack or f i l t e r terminals I f an open r e s u l t i s obtained i t i n d i c a t e s e i t h e r the armature c o i l s a r e open o r the l e a d s connecting them a r e broken o r othemise not making e l e c t r i c a l contact

The jack sleeve

First L then N

If closed when on N t h e n open on L

or v i c e versa

F i l t e r terminal M

F i l t e r terminal N

Closed

Any d e f e c t i v e e l e c t r i c a l connection i n t h e loud speaker cord or the conn e c t i o n s leading t o and from t h e armature c o i l s w i l l cause noisy reprod u c t i o n and i n some i n s t a n c e s such d e f e c t s w i l l r e s u l t i n no reproduction a t all. Due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e wear on the armature c o i l leadsand connections i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t r o u b l e w i l l a r i s e from t h i s source. Hawe v e r a t t h e point where the cord e n t e r s t h e speaker housing, and the end of the cord which e n t e r s t h e phone plug, t h e r e i s always a p o s s i b i l i t y of a n open o r sk,ort c i r c u i t developing due t o t h e cord a t these p o i n t s being subjected t o sxcessive wear through handling. I n t h e plug i t s e l f the l u g s which hold t h e phone cord t e r m i n a l s become loose o r broken a f t e r long usage and may cause noise o r an i n t e r r u p t i o n of t h e s i g n a l . When t h e s e p o i n t s have been t e s t e d , showing no d e f e c t s e x t e r n a l t o the housing of the speaker, t h e base of the speaker should be removed and t h e l u g s of the cord a t t a c h e d t o the f i l t e r u n i t examined. Finding no d e f e c t a t t h i s point t h e r e i s but one o t h e r t e s t t o conduct. Disconnect t h e phone cord e n t i r e l y from the speaker and s u b j e c t it t o a continuty t e s t by using a 4& v o l t b a t t e r y and phones and moving a l l p a r t s of t h e cord t o determine i f a break e x i s t s i n any p a r t of it. A broken cord or loose connection w i l l make i t s e l f apparent by a c r a c k l i n g noise i n t h e t e s t phones.

Lesson 4 1

sheet 12

Technical Lesson 42
THE ELECTRODYNAMIC SPEAKER

The electrodynamic speaker d i f f e r s from the electromagnetic and balanced armature types i n t h a t i t u t i l i z e s no diaphram a s found i n t h e e l e c t r o magnetic t y p e , o r armature a s found i n t h e balanced armature type, Figure 1 i s a c r o s s s e c t i o n a l view of the electrodynamic speaker. It c o n s i s t s of a l a r g e electromagnet t h a t i s energized by passing a c u r r e n t through t h e c o i l , shown wound on t h e c e n t e r l e g of t h e electromagnet. The two o u t s i d e l e g s of t h i s electromagnet c e n t e r l e g i s of opposite p o l a r i t y . When c u r r e n t passes through t h e c o i l on t h e c e n t e r l e g a very s t r o n g magnetic f i e l d or f l u x e x i s t s between t h e s e opposite poles. By r e f e r r i n g t o Figure 1 i t w i l l be seen t h a t the t h r o a t or small end of t h e cone supports a c o i l of wire w i t h i n t h e space between t h e p o l e s of t h e electromagnet, t h e terminals of which l e a d t o t h e output of t h e r a d i o r e c e i v e r . The edge of the cone i s supported by a s o f t l e a t h e r edge which i s screwed f a s t t o t h e frame of t h e speaker. With c u r r e n t flowing through t h e s t a t i o n a r y c o i l a very powerful f i e l d i s produced between t h e opposite poles of the electromagnet and embrace t h e c o i l wound on the s m a l l end of t h e cone.

TO THE MOVABLE COIL-</

'4

CO N E

Figure 1

'!&en no c u r r e n t i s passing through t h e small c o i l connected t o t h e output of t h e r e c e i v e r i t i s non-magnetic and w i l l have no tendency t o move. However, a s soon a s c u r r e n t from t h e output of t h e r e c e i v e r i s allowed t o pass through t h e c o i l wound on t h e small end of t h e cone, i t s e t s up a magnetic f i e l d of i t s own. Because t h e c u r r e n t value changes i n t h i s small c o i l i n accordance with t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n p l a t e c u r r e n t from t h e Contents Copyrighted 1930

Printed in U, S A. .

"3

r e c e i v e r a m p l i f i e r output i t s f i e l d w i l l a l s o vary. W now have two d i s t i n c t and s e p a r a t e magnetic f i e l d s . One f i e l d i s e produced by t h e s t a t i o n a r y c o i l of t h e electromagnet and i s uniform because t h e c o i l r e c e i v e s i t s c u r r e n t from a steady source, such a s a storage b a t t e r y or by means of an e l i m i n a t o r . The small c o i l on t h e end of the cone r e c e i v e s i t s c u r r e n t supply from t h e r e c e i v e r output which i s c o n s t a n t l y varying i n accordance w i t h t h e s i g n a l picked up by t h e receiver.

~ l a c e ~ a d i o104 on Ruq ia or Blanket

Remova ~ o u : ~ u t s and Washers from Mountinq Plate

Figure 2 The r e s u l t s produced, t h e r e f o r e , due t o t h e a c t i o n t a k i n g place between t h e varying f i e l d of t h e small c o i l and t h e constant f i e l d of the e l e c t r o magnet tends t o s e t the small c o i l i n motion and it moves back and f o r t h In t h e electrorpagnetic f i e l d . Since the small c o i l i s wound on t h e cone i t s e l f i t i s p a r t of t h e cone and any motion t h e small c o i l undergoes must n e c e s s a r i l y produce a corresponding motion throughout t h e e n t i r e cone. Since the cone moves it causes t h e a i r immediately surrounding i t t o be a g i t a t e d thus producing sound waves.

It i s on t h e foregoing p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e R.C.A. operate.

models 104 and 105s-s

Lesson 42

- sheet 2

When i n s t a l l i n g t h e 104 speaker the f i r s t o p e r a t i o n i s t o observe t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s a s shown i n Figure 2. Then unpack t h e loudspeaker u n i t which w i l l be found i n t h e bottom of the packing case and follow t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s a s s e t f o r t h i n Figure 3, bringing t h e two f i e l d l e a d s which p r o j e c t through the bushings i n t h e r e a r end of t h e loud speaker u n i t down t o the top of t h e cabinet where a clamp w i l l be found. Pass the leads under t h i s clamp and t i g h t e n i t down. Next s e t t h e speaker u p r i g h t a s shown i n Figure 4.

S e t L o u d 5 p a a k w U n i t in Place and Praw it Forward Against Falt Rlnq

,q,-,, ,\-y...L", --, Washcrs a n d Nuts. and Tiqhten S a c u r e l wtth Wrench ~rovijed

Figure 3 Remove the connection plug shown a t t h e r i g h t and push the lock t o t h e r i g h t ; t h i s allows t h e hinged door of t h e Power Amplifier Unit A.P.-951 t o be opened. Now connect t h e terminals of the f i e l d l e a d s j u s t clamped t o t h e top of t h e c a b i n e t t o t h e terminal p o s t s marked "FIELD LEADS" on t h e amplifier u n i t . Examine t h e o t h e r c a b l e connections and see t h a t they correspond w i t h the connections shown i n Figure 4. Also be s u r e t h a t t h e filament jumper connecting t e r m i n a l s 5 and 6, ( r e a d i n g from t h e l e f t ) i s closed and t h a t a l l t h e screws a r e properly seated. Unpack the tubes and c a p e f u l l y i n s e r t them i n t h e proper sockets a s shown i n Figure 5. I f t h e frequency and voltage of the l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t t o which t h e speaker i s t o be connected i s between 50 and 60 cycles a t 105 t o 125 v o l t s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t use t h e UV-876 tube. When 40 t o 45 c y c l e s , 105 t o 125 v o l t s Lesson 42

- sheet

a l t e r n a t i n g current only i s a v a i l a b l e , use t h e UV-886 tube.

CaLlti.on: Do not use t h e UV-876 on an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t supply of a

frequency l e s s than 50 cycles.
W i t h the tubes properly seated close the hinged door and ( s e e Figure 6 )

push the lock knob t o t h e l e f t which locks the door. I n s e r t t h e corneci=l.cn plug i n i t s socket and place t h e v e n t i l a t i n g s t a c k over the W-876, or (UV-886 t u b e ) , pushing i t well down and locking it by turning i t t o t h e r i g h t . Care should be exercised i n handling t h i s s t a c k when t h e s e t i s i n operation a s it becomes extremely hot. It should never be handled until has been disconnected from t h e power supply c i r c u i t and a f t e r the s ~ e a k e r allowed t o cool.

Connact Output Cabla t o LovdspeakarTcim#nals

Flold
Lands

OF Cables on Torrntnol Board

/ - connect FIELD Lsads t o F l d d Terrnlnals

Connoctlon Piuq
Removed

Radiotron

UX-h0

U - ;B X'? ~~11874 Ractrons Rad~otron Radiotron Power-Arnplifiar Unit-

Figure 4 Replace the cabinet door, Figure 7 , and connect t h e speaker t o t h e s e t w i t h which i t i s t o be used. I n connecting t h e 104 loud speaker t o any models, t h e diagram shown i n Figure 8 , together r e c e i v e r , other t h a n R.C.A. w i t h t h e following i n s t r u c t i o n , should be followed. Remove a l l the "B" b a t t e r i e s from the r e c e i v e r and, i n any convenient place, mount t h e input t e r m i n a l board of the loudspeaker. This may be done i n s i d e the cabinet o r i t may be mounted o u t s i d e t h e cabinet, providing t h e f i v e foot telephone cord w i l l reach t h e telephone jack of the r e c e i v e r . When t h e input t e r m i n a l board of t h e speaker i s i n s t a l l e d connect t o i t Lesson 42

- sheet

+45 and -B+A,

t h e t h r e e l e a d s of t h e r e c e i v e r cable formerly connected t o t h e +90, r e s p e c t i v e l y . P l a t e voltages t o 90 v o l t s a r e now provided. The " A " b a t t e r y connections of the s e t should remain unchanged.

I f a +I35 v o l t "B" p l a t e voltage was formerly employed be sure t h i s lead i s disconnected from any source of p o t e n i a l and t h e end c a r e f u l l y taped. Examine a l l remaining b a t t e r y corlnections f o r loose c o n t a c t s . Remove the second audio frequency t u b e from i t s socket and a d j u s t t h e filament rhextat f o r proper filament v o l t a g e , using a s low a s e t t i n g a s p o s s i b l e consistent w i t h good q u a l i t y o f reproduction. The telephone plug from the i n p u t tennia 1 board can now be i n s e r t e d i n the f i r s t audio frequency jack and t h e set placed i n operation.

Potentiomater Knob

Ventilatinq S t a c k in Place 1

Operatin Switch

cl0se'~in~ed Door

Then 1nscrt1 Connection Plug

Figure 6 TROUBLES AM) REMEDIES The R e c t i f i e r Power Amplifier u n i t of t h i s speaker employs t h e follovrlng t u b e s , t h e use of which w i l l be explained. The UX-210 i s a super-power amplifying tube and i s capable of handling tremendous volume without d i s t o r t i o n . The two 216-13 tubes a r e r e c t i f i e r s t h a t convert t h e a l t e r n a t c u r r e n t from the l i g h t i n g mains i n t o p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t c u r r e n t . It i s Lesson 42

- sheet 5

then passed through a f i l t e r system which smoothes it out i n t o a c o n t k m s d i r e c t current. The UX-874 i s a voltage r e g u l a t i n g tube which f u n c t i o n s t o maintain a cons t a n t voltage on the p l a t e s of t h e r e c e i v i n g tubes. The UV-876 (and W-% ) a r e c u r r e n t r e g u l a t i n g t u b e s , g e n e r a l l y c a l l e d " b a l l a s t tubes" ; t h e i r use i s t o maintain a constant c u r r e n t i n p u t t o the primary c i r c u i t of thepower transformer t o which t h e y a r e connected. The r e s i s t a n c e of t h e filament i n these tubes change w i t h every i n c r e a s e or decrease of c u r r e n t . A s t h e c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s t h e filament r e s i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s and when t h e c u r r e n t decreases t h e filament r e s i s t a n c e decreases. I n t h i s manner t h e c u r r e n t i s maintained p r a c t i c a l l y constant. The UV-876 i s employed only when t h e frequency of the house l i g h t i n g c u r r e n t i s betmen 50 and 7 5 cycles, w h i l e t h e UV-886 i s used when the frequency i s between 40 and 4 5 cycles. Figure 9 shows t h e i n t e r n a l mechanism and placement of the various p a r t s .
Operating Switch,
( O u t p u t Cable
7

Connect These Thi-eo -B.+45 &+90 Terminals of Radio

Leads to

( 4
-0 bP

Receiver Respactively

Figure 7

Figure 8 Lesson 42

- sheet 6

If t h e s p e a k e r s h o u l d s u d d e n l y c e a s e t o o p e r a t e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y look f o r t h e f o l.lowing f a u l t s : One of t h e t h r e e f i r s t t u b e s , c o u n t i n g from t h e l e f t when f a c i n g t h e b a c k o f t h e sweaker c a b i n e t , may c e a s e t o o p e r a t e . It s h o u l d be r e p l a c e d by

Figure 9 L e s s o n 42

- sheet 7

a good tube. The f o u r t h tube from t h e l e f t , a UX-874, should show a v i o l e t o r pink glow. If i t f a i l s t o show t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c glow and t h e t h r e e preceeding tubes a r e functioning r e p l a c e the UX-874 w i t h a p e r f e c t tube. If i t f a i l s t o glow check t h e house l i g h t i n g l i n e v o l t age. Test the b a l l a s t tube, t h e UV-876 or UV-886 tube, and t h e 2 mfd. condenser next t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s . See diagram Figure 10. If the voltage reads between 105-125 v o l t s r e p l a c e the UV-876, o r UV-886. If any of t h e other t u b e s a r e found d e f e c t i v e , o r t h e condenser s h o r t drcu9te d , r e p l a c e with p e r f e c t u n i t s . I f t h e UV-874 i n t e r m i t t e n t l y f l a s h e s when the branch telephone cord i s disconnected from t h e r e c e i v e r t h e tube should be replaced w i t h a good one. Do not confuse a f l i c k e r i n g a c t i o n of t h i s tube w i t h f l a s h i n g because abnormally strong s i g n a l s , o r heavy s t a t i c d i s c h a r g e s , w i l l produce a s l i g h t f l i c k e r i n g when the telephone cord i s connected t o t h e r e c e i v e r ,

-P

Figure 1 0

and a prolonged loud s i g n a l w i l l decrease t h e b r i l l i a n c y of t h i s glow a s long a s t h e s i g n a l i s impressed. The b a l l a s t tube UV-876, or UV-886, a s t h e case may be, has very l i t t l e o r no v i s a b l e b r i l l i a n c y r e l a t i v e t o the f i l a m e n t . When it i s functioni n g properly i t does, however, throw off considerable h e a t when inoperation. If a l l of t h e t u b e s i n t h e R e c t i f i e r Power Amplifier f a i l t o l i g h t o r perform a s o u t l i n e d above make t h e following check t o l o c a t e t h e t r o u b l e . Lesson 42

- sheet

Main c u r r e n t supply from t h e house mains i s not reaching t h e a m p l i f i e r ; loose connection or blown f u s e i n house l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t . Poor contact i n t h e o p e r a t i n g switch, t h e l o c a t i o n of which i s shown i n Figure 9. P r o t e c t i v e plug shown i n Figure 9 not making proper c o n t a c t . Tube UV-876 o r W-886, burned o u t , o r not making good e l e c t r i c a l contact i n socket. Tube UX-874 d e f e c t i v e , o r making poor socket connection. The house l i g h t i n g c u r r e n t may.not be a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . I f t h i s i s t h e case t h e filament of t h e UV-876, o r UV-886, w i l l burn a t a b r i g h t red brilliancy.

NO SIGNALS
When a l l t h e t u b e s a r e known t o be p e r f e c t and p r o p e r l y f u n c t i o n i n g and s t i l l no s i g n a l s a r e heard from t h e loud speaker, make a t e s t a t t h e r e c e i v e r t o determine i f t h i s p a r t of t h e apparatus i s functioning. If t h e r e c e i v e r i s working normally look f o r the following t r o u b l e s :

INPUT

VUTPUT

TIUHtNl

15V

9OY

llflO

Figure 1 0 ~
Telephone plug, cord, o r connections a r e d e f e c t i v e . The c a b l e connections a t t h e i n p u t terminals on t h e R e c t i f i e r Power Amplifier terminal board a r e loose o r open. The 30 f o o t l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t cable i s d e f e c t i v e . The f i l a m e n t of t h e UX-210 may be touching t h e g r i d element, thus causi n g a filament t o g r i d s h o r t . The g r i d prongs on any of t h e tubes may be d i r t y and n o t making a good e l e c t r i c a l contact. The s m a l l movable c o i l on t h e t h r o a t of t h e cone may be open c i r c u i t e d . The R e c t i f i e r Power Amplifier unit may be d e f e c t i v e . (Method of t e s t i n $ t h i s w i l l be explained under " Continuity t e s t " ) . REPRODUCER TROUBLE The l a r g e s t a t i o n a r y f i e l d c o i l of t h e Electromagnet ( c a l l e d the pot magnet) may be open. T h i s t r o u b l e i s e a s i l y determined because t h e UX-210 and UX-216-B t u b e s w i l l b r i l l i a n t l y l i g h t and t h e UX-874 w i l l not l i g h t a t a l l .

Lesson 42

sheet 9

r d may have worked loose thus producing t h e e f f e c t of an open f i e l d . If these conn e c t i o n s a r e found t o be t i g h t t h e e n t i r e u n i t w i l l have t o be put under test.

EXCESSIVE HUM
T h i s e f f e c t i s g e n e r a l l y caused by:

(1) A r e v e r s e d i n p u t plug from the a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t supply source. ( 2 ) The 2 mfd. condenser l o c a t e d next t o t h e 7 mfd. condenser, Figure 10, short c i r c u i t e d . ( 3 ) The laminations of the transformer may be loose. ( 4 ) Power l i n e i n t e r f e r e n c e w i l l a l s o cause hum. This can be a s c e r t a i n e d by removing the loop o r antenna from the s e t and t h e n n o t i c i n g i f t h e hum ceases.

UX-210 TUBE TROUBLE If t h e p l a t e element of t h e UX-210 becomes e x c e s s i v e l y hot c u t o f f t h e power supply a t once and t e s t t h e following u n i t s .
(1) Test Resistance unit R4, Figure 10, f o r an open; t h i s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e p l a t e becoming white h o t . ( 2 ) The 2 mfd. condenser, Figure 10, l o c a t e d next t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s may be s h o r t c i r c u i t e d . ( 3 ) The W-874 may have developed a *short c i r c u i t . Replace any of t h e s e units found d e f e c t i v e .

UX-216-B TUBE TROUBLES When t h e UX-216-B p l a t e elements show excessive heat immediately cut o f f t h e power supply and check the following u n i t s f o r s h o r t c i r c u i t s .
(1) The 7 mfd.. condenser l o c a t e d between t h e 7 , or 4 mfd., and 2 mfd. condenser. Figure 10. ( 2 ) The 7 mfd. condenser i n extreme r i g h t hand u n i t Figure 10. ( 3 ) Check f o r a s h o r t c i r c u i t i n t h e power transformer, r e placing a l l the eefective units.
If one IJX-21645 tube becomes red hot while the o t h e r a p p a r e n t l y remains normal, and no r e p r o d u c t i o n i s heard f r o m t h e loud speaker u n i t , t h e It may appear t o be t r o u b l e i s probably due t o a d e f e c t i v e UX-216-B. f u n c t i o n i n g normally; however, i t has l o s t i t s emission and throws t h e e n t i r e load on the o t h e r UX-216-B, causing it t o h e a t e,xcessively. Rep l a c e t h e one which does not show excessive heat.
DISTORTION

Any of the folLowing may cause d i s t o r t i o n : Lesson 42

sheet 10

F a u l t y or poor input from r e c e i v e r . The 2 m f d . condenser l o c a t e d next t o t h e 7 mfd. condenser, Figure 10. ( 3 ) The movable c o i l on the cone may be making e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t with t h e pot magnet producing a s h o r t c i r c u i t . If so t h e cone must be replaced, ( 4 ) Defective UX-210 ( 5 ) Leads of movable c o i l broken away from cone thus producing a r a t t l e . S h e l l a c them f a s t . ( 6 ) The cone may be out of alignment.
(1)

(2)

The cone i s e a s i l y re- aligned by removing t h e f r o n t g r i l l e work and caref u l l y a d j u s t i n g t h e round head screw found i n t h e apex of the cone, a s shown i n Figure 11. Care should be taken s o t h a t t h e cone i s not damaged by t h e screw d r i v e r being p u l l e d out of your c o n t r o l because of the pot magnet located d i r e c t l y back of t h e cone,

1 Figure 1

If any of t h e t h r e e 2 mfd. condensers, Figure 10, a r e l e a k i n g , d i s t o r t i o n w i l l r e s u l t . The f a i l u r e of t h e s e condensers i s g e n e r a l l y accompadd by a l o s s of f i l a m e n t voltage i n t h e R.P.A. tubes. Tkia d e f e c t i v e c o n d e m can be l o c a t e d by disconnecting a l l cable connections a t t h e R.P.A. t e r m s n a l board. Remove t h e m e t a l case and replece a l l cable connections. Disconnect one of t h e 2 mfd. condensers, Figure 12, o p e r a t e t h e s e t and note
Lesson 42

- sheet 11

t h e r e s u l t i n g r e p r o d u c t i o n from t h e l o u d s p e a k e r . If t h e d i s t o r t i o n i s . s t i l l p r e s e n t t u r n o f f t h e i n p u t c u r r e n t , r e p l a c e and s o l d e r t h e conn e c t i o n s t o t h e c o n d e n s e r just d i s c o n n e c t e d , and t r y t h e 2 mfd. condewer, r e p e a t i n g t h i s p r o c e e d u r e u n t i l a l l t h e 2 mfd, c o n d e n s e r s have b e e n tested.

If d i s t o r t i o n i s e l i m i n a t e d a f t e r a c e r t a i n condenser i s a i s c o n n e c t e d t h a t condenser must be r e p l a c e d .

T h i s t e s t s h o u l d be r e s o r t e d t o o n l y a s a l a s t r e s o r t . Try a 1 1 o t h e r means p o s s i b l e t o c o r r e c t t h e d i s t o r t i o n b e f o r e g o i n g t o t h i s extreme.

UX-874 TUBE TROUBLE

If t h e UX-S74 d o e s n o t glow when t h e power s u p p l y i s on it i s a f a i r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h i s t u b e i s not r e c e i v i n g t h e p r o p e r v o l t e g e s u p p l y t o cause it t o f u n c t i o n n o r m a l l y due, p r o b a b l y , t o one o r n o r e of t h e f o l l o w ing causes.
The 2 mfd. condenser l o c a t e d n e x t t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s i s s h o r t c i r c u i t e d . See Figui-e 10. ( 2 ) The p o t magnet c o i l may be open. ( 3 ) The 90 v o l t c o n n e c t i o n may b e s h o r t c i r c u i t e d o r open. ( 4 ) A d e f e c t i v e UX-216-B. 11 UX-874.
(5)

(1)

Lesson 42

- s h e e t 12

NO "B" V L A E OT G

Look f o r the following d e f e c t s : The 2 mfd. condenser next t o the r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s s h o r t circuited. See Figure 10. ( 2 ) Defective UX-874 tube or socket. I1 UX-216-B " I' I' (3) ( 4 ) Short c i r c u i t e d or open "B" voltage connections.
SIGNALS F D AE

(1)

S i g n a l s which f a d e from causes, o t h e r than t h e normal d r o p i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h , a f t e r t h e speaker has been placed i n o p e r a t i o n , may be due t o t h e conditions outli,ned below:
TERMINAL ,,'BOARD

TERMlNPlL BOARD DOOR LO.CK

Figure 13
(1) Defective UX-210 attended by u n n a t u r a l and r a s p y reproduction. ( 2 ) Defective UV-876 o r W-886 tube. (3) . . Defective r e s i s t a n c e i n R.P.A. u n i t . The f a u l t y r e s i s t o r i n t h i s case w i l l become e x c e s s i v e l y hot. his-does not apply, however, t o r e s i s t o r R4 which becomes very hot d u r i n g normal operation.

BLASTING This t r o u b l e may be apparent when operatinge t h e 104 speaker w i t h any type of r e c e i v e r , i n c l u d i n g the Radiola 25 and 28 super- heterodyne, when I n c r e a s i n g the d i s t a n c e between t h e r e c e i v e r completely A .C operated. afid t h e loudspeaker w i l l i n most cases s t o p t h e b l a s t i n g . I n some i n s t a n c e s interchanging t h e tubes i n the r e c e i v e r w i l l c o r r e c t t h e trouble.

PREPARING F R TRE COMPWTE CONTINUITY TEST O Before a complete c o n t i n u i t y t e s t can be conducted on t h e R e c t i f i e r Power Amplifier u n i t of t h e 104 loudspeaker remove a l l the tubes from t h e i r sockets and proceed as folloms: Once the speaker h a s been i n o p e r a t i o n t h e 7, and 7 o r 4 mfd., condensers b u i l d up and o f t e n hold a charge. Before doing any work on the Lesson 42

- sheet 13

u n i t i t i s t h e r e f o r e a d v i s a b l e t o short c i r c u i t t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h i s bank of condensers a s a precautionary measure. T h i s may be accomplished by s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g t h e connections a t the t e r m i n a l board l e a d i n g t o t h e t e r m i n a l s of these condensers. Secure a s h o r t l e n g t h of i n s u l a t e d wire, bare both ends, a t t a c h one end t o contact No. 5 ( c o u n t i n g from t h e l e f t of t h e t o r n i n a l board when f a c i n g t h e back of t h e c a b i n e t ) , and t h e n f o r c e the o t h e r end t o make contact with t e r m i n a l No. 1 0 , pushing i t i n t o

Figure 14
13.

c o n t a c t with a screw d r i v e r possessing an i n s u l a t e d handle. See Figure Repeat t h i s proceedure a t contact No. 1 . The a d v i s a b i l i t y of taking 1 t h i s s t e p i s t o avoid t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of r e c e i v i n g a d i s a g r e e a b l e shock i f you a c c i d e n t a l l y make c o n t a c t . Condensers very o f t e n r e t a i n a charge f o r a considerable l e n g t h of time.

Remove the s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g wire and disconnect a l l t h e cable connections from the terminal board shown i n Figure 12. The equipment t o conduct t h e t e s t r e q u i r e s a high r e s i s t a n c e voltmeter w i t h a b a t t e r y voltage s u f f i c i e n t t o give approximately a f u l l s c a l e d e f l e c t i o n when connected d i r e c t l y across t h e b a t t e r y terminals. For example, a 45 v o l t b a t t e r y connected i n s e r i e s w i t h a voltmeter having a s c a l e reading from zero t o f i f t y v o l t s i s s a t i s f h c t o r y . The contact p o i n t s of t h i s t e s t i w equipment must not touch any m e t a l l i c p a r t of the u n i t except t h e t e r m i n a l s s p e c i f i e d . Figure 14 shows t h e t e s t i n g equipment s e t up w i t h t h e t e s t points t o m c o n t a c t s No. 5 and No. 7. Lesson 42

- sheet 14

Refer t o Figures 10 and 10A a s each t e s t i s made. Figure 1 0 i s t h e schematic wiring diagram of t h e u n i t , while 10A i s a p i c t u r e diagram of t h e t e r m i n a l board.
THE TEST
with one t e s t
And t h e o t h e r

t i p on

t e s t t i p on

The voltmeter should show

A deflection

If t h e meter shows

Terminal No. 1 Terminal No. 2

N d e f l e c t i o n , the o primary of t h e input transformer i s open N deflection indicates o t h e secondary winding of t h e output t r a n s former t o be open. N deflection indicates o t h a t t h e ground l e a d i s open N deflection points o t o a n open c i r c u i t i n t h e secondary winding of t h e input transformer N d e f l e c t i o n shows an o open c i r c u i t i n t h e upper h a l f of t h e p l a t e winding of t h e power transformer N d e f l e c t i o n would o denote t h e lower h a l f of t h e p l a t e winding of t h e power transformer t o be open c i r c u i t
If no d e f l e c t i o n i s obtained r e s i s t o r KO. 2

Terminal No. 3 Terminal No. 4

11

Terminal No. 3

Metal frame of unit To t h e g r i d cont a c t of tube socket No. 1 To the p l a t e contact of tube socket No. 2

Terminal No. 5

I I

Terminal No. 5

11

Terminal No. 5 To t h e p l a t e contact of tube socket No. 3

Terminal No. 5 Terminal No. 6

and r e s i s t o r No. 3 a r e open c i r c u i t e d Terminal No. 5 Terminal No. 7

11

I f no d e f l e c t i o n i s obtained r e s i s t o r No. 2 end r e s i s t o r No. 3 a r e open c i r c u i t e d N deflection indicates o t h e lower h a l f of f i l a ment I1 winding of t h e power transformer t o be open c i r c u i t e d Lesson 42

Terminal No. 7 To negative f i l a ment contact of tube socket No. 1

It

- sheet 15

Terminal No. 7

To p o s i t i v e filament contact of tube socket No. 1

A deflection

N d e f l e c t i o n shows o t h e upper h a l f of f i l a m e n t I1 winding of t h e poser t r a n s former t o be open circuited I f t h e voltmeter needle f a i l s t o s b w a deflection the res i s t o r R 1 i s open N deflection indio c a t e s t h e wire conn e c t i o n between these p o i n t s i s broken o r making a poor e l e c t r i c a l connection N daf l e c t i o n s i g n i o fies resistor R 1 t o be open c i r c u i t e d N d e f l e c t i o n shows o t h e connection between these p o i n t s t o be making poor e l e c t r i c a l connection N d e f l e c t i o n shows o r e s i s t o r R 4 t o be open c i r c u i t e d N deflection indio c a t e s t h e primary winding of the output t r n n s f o m e r t o be open circuited N d e f l e c t i o n shows o t h e upper h a l f of Blament I winding of power transformer t o be open circuited

Terminal No. 7

To t e r m i n a l
NO.

Terminal No. 7

To negative f i l a ment contact of t u b e socket No. 4

Terminal NO. 8

Terminal

NO.

O Terminal No. 9 T griU contact of tube socket NO. 4

Terminal No. 9

Terminal No. 10

Terminal No.10

To p l a t e contact of tube socket NO. 1

Terminal No.11

To p o s i t i v e f i l a ment contact of tube No. 2

Terminal No.11

To negative f i l a ment contact of t u b e No. 2

No d e f l e c t i o n denotes t h e lower h a l f of f i l a ment I winding of t h e power transformer t o be open c i r c u i t e d

N d e f l e c t i o n shows o t h e primary winding of t h e power t r a n s former t o be open circuited Lesson 42 sheet 16

Terminal B which i s the 110 V plug

To t h e p l a t e cont a c t of tube socke t No. 4

The metal s h e l l of the f i f t h tube socket

To p o s i t i v e f i l a ment contact of tube socket No. 4

A deflection

N deflection indio c a t e s t h e wire conn e c t i o n between t h e s e two p o i n t s t o be broken o r making poor e l e c t r i c a l contact. N deflection o i n d i c a t e s thc s h o r t wire connection between these p o i n t s open
A

The center contact of tube socket

NO.

T O "T" t e r m i n a l

Terminal No. 5

Terminal No. 1 1

deflection i n d i c a t e s the 7 o r 4 mfd. condenser located next t o t h e power condenser t o be s h o r t c i r c u i t e d

Terminal

NO.

Terminal W . 10 o

A small deflection

If f u l l d e f l e c t i o n i s obtained t h e 7 mfd. condenser and f i r s t 2 mfd. condenser t o t h e l e f t i s short circuited

If f u l l d e f l e c t i o n i s noted t h e 2 mfd. condenser, t h e second condenser t o t h e r i g h t from the resistor units, i s short circuited

Terminal NO. 5

Terminal No. 7

Terminal No. 7

To t h e c e n t e r contact of socket No. 5

N deflection o

A deflection

indicates the t h i r d t h e r i g h t of r e s i s t o r u n i t s i s short c i r cuited

2 mfd. condenser t o

Terminal No. 7

Terminal No. 9

A s m a l l de-

A f u l l deflection

flection

shows t h e 2 rnfd. condenser next t o t h e r e s i s t o r t o be open c i r c u i t e d

Lesson 42

- sheet 17

EXAMINATION

- LESSON

42

I n what manner does t h e Electrodynamic speaker d i f f e r m a t e r i a l l y from t h e balanced armature type? What i s the purpose of the s t a t i o n a r y c o i l ? Explain t h e purpose of t h e small wound c o i l on t h e t h r o a t of t h e cone, What precautions should be observed when i t i s necessary t o work on the UV-876, o r UV-886 tube? What i s t h e purpose of t h e UX-2164 tubes? Name two reasons why t h e speaker might suddenly c e a s e t o operate. Name two mechanical d e f e c t s t h a t might be t h e cause of no s i g n a l s being received. m a t a r e t h e p r e c a u t i o n s t o be t a k e n when t a k i n g voltmeter readings t e r m i n a l board? a t t h e R.P.P.. What e f f e c t w i l l l o o s e laminations i n t h e transformer of t h e R.P.A. u n i t produce?
(10) If " b l a s t i n g n occurs v?hat i s l i k e l y t o be t h e cause?

Lesson 42

s h e e t i8

INC.
firmer&.
MARCONf INSTITUTE

Scmded 1909

Technical Lesson 43
RADIOLA 28

A. C. Operated

The Radiola 28 may be converted for complete alternating current operation by installing the A.C. package and employing the type 104 speaker. The A.C. package, consisting of the following parts, can be used only 8 with the Radiola 2 .
(a) 1 Condenser unit with attached terminal board. (b) 1 Resistance rod used for battery setting rheostat. (0) 1 Cable to make connection between condenser and tube socket unit terminal boards. (d) 1 Volume control rheostat. (e) 1 UP-591 resistance unit. (f) 1 Resistance strip for connecting to special screw terminals on rear of tube socket unit. (g) 4 Round-head wood screws for mounting condenser unit.

Figure 1 These parts are shown in Figure 1 They can be used in conjunction . with the 2 only when employed with the loudspeaker model 104, and on9 8 on a house lighting circuit of proper Voltage and freqmncy, namely: 105 to 125 volts, 50 to 60 cycles A.C. There are five operattans in converting the 28 receiver from a battery Contents Copyrighted 1930
a

..

.--,

I - - @

operated s e t t o one t h a t depends upon t h e A.C. l i g h t i n g source f o r i t s complete operation. They a r e c l a s s i f i e d as follows:

1st. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. 5th.

Remove t h e o p e r a t i n g panel. Necessary changes i n t h e r e c e i v e s u n i t . tt n " " cabinet. Replacement of t h e panel. Changes i n t h e 104 loudspeaker.

Complete i n s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e conversion follow i n t h e order a s mentioned above. F i r s t : The loop antenna must be removed from i t s socket, allowing t h e l i d of t h e r e c e i v e r t o be r a i s e d s o t h a t a l l tubes may be removed. A metal guide cup a t t h e t o p of t h e loop socket may i n some models extend above the lower edge of t h e wood c r o s s p i e c e which extends across t h e f r o n t of t h e cabinet. If such i s t h e case t h e metal cup w i l l have t o be removed before t h e panel can be withdrawn from t h e c a b i n e t . To accomplish t h i s t a k e out t h e round head screws found a t t h e bottom of t h e cup. Upon completion of the above d e t a i l r a i s e the e n t i r e upper s e c t i o n of t h e cabin e t u n t i l it l o c k s i t s e l f i n t h e open p o s i t i o n by means of the s t a y arm S, Figure 2. This b r i n g s t o view t h e b a t t e r y compartment. Disconnect and remove a11

Screw
LOCI(

and Washer.

stay

Arm

Figure 2 Figure 3 of t h e b a t t e r i e s ; a l s o remove t h e f o u r screws and l o c k washers which w j l l be found on t h e under s i d e of t h e r a i s e d s e c t i o n of t h e cabinet. Two of t h e s e screws a r e shown i n Figure 2. Release t h e s t a y arm anc? lower t h i s s e c t i o n t o the c l o s e d p o s i t i o n . Raise t h e l i d of t h e cabinet next and g e n t l y f o r c e the panel and receiving u n i t forward about t h r e e inches. T h i s w i l l make p o s s i b l e t h e loosening Lesson 43

sheet 2

of a l l t h e screws s e c u r i n g t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e b a t t e r y cable t o the terminal s t r i p a t t h e r e a r of t h e tube socket u n i t . See Figure 3. The cable and i t s a s s o c i a t e d t e r m i n a l s t r i p i s now removed from the t e r m i n a l board which allows t h e panel and r e c e i v i n g unit t o be completly withdrawn from t h e c a b i n e t .

One more o p e r a t i o n i s necessary before the changes i n t h e r e c e i v e r u n i t can be made. This involves t h e removal of t h e clamps holding t h e c a b l e , just disconnected from t h e t e r m i n a l board and t h e removal of t h e condenser and f i t t i n g s shown i n the upper r i g h t hand corner of Figure 3. To make t h e changes i n t h e r e c e i v e r unit proceed a s o u t l i n e d below.

Loosen Nineteen Screws

Then ~ernove Connection S t r i p

Figure 4

Figure 5

s t r i p which i s secured i n p l a c e t o t h e terminal board by n i n e t e e n screws. C a r e f u l l y loosen a l l of t h e s e screws and remove t h e s t r i p by s l i d i n g it out of one s i d e of t h e u n i t a s shown i n Figure 4. S u b s t i t u t e i n i t s place t h e r e s i s t a n c e s t r i p , a view of which i s shown i n Figure 1, designated by t h e l e t t e r "Fn. Figure 5 shows the r e s i s t a n c e s t r i p "F" i n place. Lock t h e s t r i p s e c u r e l y i n place by tightening the n i n e t e e n screws. Next remove t h e wire wound r e s i s t o r rod found i n t h e b a t t e r y s e t t i n g r h e o s t a t , Figure 6, and s u b s t i t u t e i n i t s p l a c e the rod B of t h e accesso r i e s shown i n Figure 1, taking s p e c i a l p r e c a u t i o n t o so place t h e rod t h a t the c o n t a c t arm r i d e s on t h e b a r e d p a r t of the enameled wiring, t h u s making a good e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t . Work on t h e volume c o n t r o l next. A s o l d e r i n g i r o n i s necessary i n t h i s operation t o unsolder t h e two l e a d s connected t o t h e volume c o n t r o l r h e o s t a t . Remove t h i s r h e o s t a t from the panel and s u b s t i t u t e i n i t s place t h e r h e o s t a t supplied w i t h the A . C . package shown i n D, Figure 1, and res o l d e r t h e l e a d s which were removed from the old r h e o s t a t . A s these l e a d s ma;y be r e v e r s e d i t i s not necessary t o t a k e s p e c i a l precautions t o replace them e x a c t l y a s o r i g i n a l l y found. Lesson 43

~t the r e a r of t h e t u b e socket u n i t w i l l be found a terminal connection

sheet 3

On t h e filament switch shown i n Figure 6 unsolder e i t h e r one of t h e two l e a d s and r e s o l d e r i t t o t h e same connector a s t h e o t h e r l e a d , t h e n uns o l d e r and tape t h e end of t h e l e a d which was connected t o t h e voltmeter c l i p n e a r e r the volume c o n t r o l , but do not d i s t u r b t h e connection t o the voltmeter c l i p n e a r e s t t h e b a t t e r y s e t t i n g r h e o s t a t . I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s e t open wiring i s shown under t h e panel. Other s e t s may have braided c a b l e i n place of the exposed w i r i n g a s shown i n Figure 6. The changes i n e i t h e r c a s e , however, a r e made i n e x a c t l y t h e same manner. CABINET C A G S HNE
A 3/4 i n c h hole must be d r i l l e d through t h e bottom of t h e b a t t e r y com-

partment t o allow t h e c a b l e of t h e 104 loudspeaker t o be brought through,

Replare "VOLUME CONTROL" Rhcosral on Sat with one h i s h e d with the AC Package

Unsoldelder

Solder Both these Leads

Filament

Switd,

Figure 7
Solder these Leods in place as they were

Figure 6 u n l e s s t h e cabinet i s a l r e a d y so equiped. Measurements f o r l o c a t i n g the p o s i t i o n of t h i s opening a r e shown i n Figure 7. Locate t h e condenser pack A , shown i n Figure 1, near t h e r i g h t hand end of t h e b a t t e r y compartment a s shown by t h e view i n Figure 8, securing it i n place by means of t h e f o u r round head wood screws G , Figure 1, which hold t h e metal b r a c k e t s of t h e pack t o t h e f l o o r and t h e i n s i d e f r o n t s e c t i o n of the c a b i n e t . REPLACING T E PANEL H Release t h e s t a y arm and lower t h e upper compartment, and replace t h e panel and r e c e i v i n g u n i t i n t h e c a b i n e t . Leave t h e panel p r o j e c t i n g about t h r e e inches a s shown i n Figure 9 and connect t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p of the s h o r t cable D, Figure 1, t o t h e r e c e i v e r t e r m i n a l board being sure

Lesson 43

- sheet

t h a t the terminal l u g s of t h e cable l i n e up w i t h t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e r e c e i v e r terminal board i n such a manner t h a t t h e yellow l e a d w i t h t h e r e d t r a c e r i s connected t o t h e t e r m i n a l a t t h e extreme l e f t hand s i d e of s t h e t e r m i n a l board of t h e s e c e i v e r . Refer t o Figure 8. I n s p e c t a l l m t o see t h a t t h e y a r e well seated. The o t h e r end of t h i s cable D, Figure 1, i s f e d through t h e opening i n t h e f l o o r near t h e back of the cabinet, and t h e r e c e i v e r pushed a l l t h e way i n . Close t h e l i d and again r a i s e t h e upper s e c t i o n of t h e cabinet and lock i t i n place by t h e s t a y arm. Replace the f o u r screws and lock washers which hold t h e r e c e i v e r unit md panel i n place. Before going f u r t h e r , make c e r t a i n t h a t the 104 speaker i s not connected t o t h e l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t . Then remove the t e r m i n a l board from the end of t h e input cable of the 104 loudspeaker. (Note: T h i s t e r m i n a l board w i l l n o t be used u n l e s s i t i s equipped with a s e p a r a t e f i v e f o o t telephone cord a t t a c h e d t o two t e r m i n a l s . Input terrnin3I.a &e n o t f u r n i s h e d on the terminal board of the conclenser u n i t ) .

Force t h e end of t h e c a b l e through t h e 3/4 i n c h opening i n t h e f l o o r of t h e b a t t e r y compartment and connect t h e l e a d s of b o t h t h e 30 f o o t input cable and t h e short c a b l e from t h e r e c e i v e r t e r m i n a l board of t h e condenser u n i t , shown i n Figure 8 , making c e r t a i n t h a t t h e marking on each metal t a g of t h e c a b l e a g r e e s w i t h t h a t on t h e condenser terminal board. Lesson 43

- sheet

There a r e two types of i n p u t cables supplied w i t h d i f f e r e n t models of t h e 104 loudspeaker. I n one type t h e telephone cord emerges from t h e 30 f o o t cable, extending s e v e r a l f e e t , a t t h e end of which i s c o n n e w a telephone plug. Wnen t h i s type of cable i s supplied t h e two input-nalson t h e condenser t e r m i n a l board a r e l e f t vacant and i t i s necessary only t o i n s e r t t h e phone plug i n t h e f i r s t audio s t a g e jack of t h e receiver. The o t h e r type of input c a b l e which i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 8, h a s two s h o r t l e a d s with metal t 8 g e marked "INPUT", one brown and the o t h e r black w i t h a brown t r a c e r . A separate f i v e f o c t telephone cord w i t h a telephone plug on one end i s furnished with t h i s type of input cable. A t t h e o t h e r end two l e a d s , one brown and t h e o t h e r b l a c k with brown t r a c e s , a r e equipped w l t h spade terminals. T h i s end of t h e cord i s passed up through t h e hole i n t h e f l o o r of t h e b a t t e r y compartment.

Figure 9 Connect t h e t w o brown l e a d s t o one of the i n p u t t e r m i n a l s of the condenser u n i t and t h e two b l a c k leads w i t h t h e brown t r a c e r t o the o t h e r input t erruinal

Note: I f the condenser t e r m i n a l board i s not equipped w i t h "INPUT" t e r m i n a l s , use t h e two " I N P U T " t e r m i n a l s on t h e loudspeaker 104 termin a l s t r i p ( o r i g i n a l l y connected t o t h e end of t h e 30-foot input c a b l e ) t o j o i n the l e a d s from t h e f i v e - f o o t cord t o t h e "I NPUT" l e a d s of t h e 30-foot input c a b l e . If t h i s method i s used, t i g h t e n t h e two "INPUT" t e r m i n a l s securely, then wrap i n s u l a t i n g t a p e round t h e exposed connecti0ns The t i e cord a t t h e end of t h e telephone cord should be f a s t e n e d t o a p o r t i o n of t h e condenser bracket and the s h o r t t e r m i n a l s t r i p allowed t o r e s t on t h e cabinet f l o o r .

A t i e cord a t the end of t h e f i v e foot telephone cord i s supplied which

should be secured around t h e condenser t e r m i n a l board so a s t o r e l i e v e Lesson 43

- sheee.'

any s t r a i n t h a t might be placed on t h e e l e c t r i c a l connections made t o t h e condenser t e r m i n a l board by a sudden j e r k or undue s t r a i n of t h e cord. When a l l connections t o the condenser t e r m i n a l board a r e made t i g h t , lower t h e r a i s e d p o r t i o n of t h e c a b i n e t , i n s e r t t h e telephone plug a t tached t o t h e f i v e f o o t cord i n t o t h e f i r s t audio frequency jack, ( t h e l e f t hand j a c k ) and i n s e r t t h e UX-199 t u b e s i n s o c k e t s 1 t o 7 , socket No. 1 being on t h e extreme l e f t a s you f a c e t h e f r m t of t h e s e t .
O p e r a t i n g Switch

--...

Hinged

Door

Remove UX-874 Tube

Connection

Plug

Figure 1 1 Figure 1 0 D not p l a c e any tube i n t h e extreme r i g h t hand s o c k e t , i n which t h e o UX-120 i s used, when t h e s e t i s opersted on d r y c e l l s , a s t h e a d d i t i o n a l a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s now obtained by means of t h e UX-210 l o c a t e d i n t h e Power Amplifier U n i t of t h e 104 loudspeaker. The l i d of t h e s e t can now be closed and t h e l o o p r e p l a c e d . C A G S NECESSARY I N THE: 104 SPEAKXR H N E Open t h e r e a r door of t h e 104 loudspeaker, Figure 10, and remove t h e UX-874 tube, Figure 11, r e p l a c i n g i t w i t h t h e UP-591 u n i t , Figure 12. This u n i t i s shown f u l l y i n E, F i e m e 1, Lesson 43

g)

- sheet

l e f t t o r i g h t should. now be: UX-210, UX-216-B, UP-591AandUV-876 i f the power supply i s 50 t o 60 cycles, 105 t o 125 v o l t s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . A UV-886 i s user? i n s t e a d of the UV-876 i f t h e power supply i s 40 t o 50cycles, 105 t o 125 v o l t s , A.C. The extreme r i g h t hand tube of t h e power a m p l i f i e r u n i t w i l l t h e r e f o r e depend upon t h e frequency of the l i g h t c i r c u i t mains. The UV-876 should never be used when the frequency of t h e l i g h t i n g circuit i s l e s s t h a n 50 cycles. The next s t e p i s t o remove the connection p l u g a t t h e lower r i g h t hand corner of the power a m p l i f i e r and push t h e lock now t o the r i g h t . T h i s permits t h e r a i s i n g of t h e hinged door a s shown i n Figure 11. With t h e hinged door opened, a s shown i n Figure 13, remove the f i l a m e n t connecting l i n k which connects the f i f t h and s i x t h t e m i n a l s from the l e f t of t h e power a m p l i f i e r terminal board. Be sure t o r e t i g h t e n the screws which h e l d t h i s connecting s t r a p i n place; a l s o i n s p e c t a l l o t h e r screws on t h i s board t o make s u r e they a r e w e l l t i g h t e n e d . Close the hinged door, push t h e lock knob t o the l e f t , and r e i n s e r t the connection

Figure 1 2

Figure 13

plug i n i t s socket. The power a m p l i f i e r w i l l now appear a s shown i n Figure 11. Replace t h e r e a p door of the loudspeaker c a b i n e t , a view of which i s shown i n Figure 1 0 , and i n s e r t the e i g h t f o o t attachment plug, Figure 10, i n a convenient l i g h t socket.
With the foregoing i n s t P u c t i o n s followed t h e s e t i s now ready f o r opera t i o n . The c u r r e n t supply f o r t h e e n t i r e combination i s turned on o r o f f

by means of t h e o p e r a t i n g switch on the s i d e of the 104 speaker. c a t i o n of t h i s switch i s shown i n Figure ll.

The l o -

Lesson 43

sheet 8

t e r i s t i c s o f the A . C . operated Radiola 28 i s exactly y b a t t e r i e s a r e employed, with t h e exceptions a s

)

The filament switch on t h e r e c e i v e r

aP;t t u r n t h e current

( b ) The- b a t t e r y s e t t i n g r h e o s t a t nefi t u r n t h e c u r r e n t o f f . Before t h e operating switch of t h e loudspeaker i s turned the battery s e t t i n g r h e o s t a t should always be turned QEE because t h e f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t may be a t f i r s t excessive. When t h e s e t has been i n o p e r a t i o n f o r a s h o r t i n t e r v a l of time t h e b a t t e r y s e t t i n g r h e o s t a t should be advanced.

( c ) The filament v o l t a g e cannot be measured a t t h e filament voltmeter jacks a s was the c a s e when t h e s e t was b a t t e r y operated. (d) N tube i s used i n No. 8 socket, ( t h e extreme r i g h t hand s o c k e t ) . o

( e ) S i g n a l s cannot be heard from t h e second audio frequency jack. The plug on t h e cord from t h e 104 speaker i s always plugged i n t h e f i r s t audio frequency jack. I f the i n s t a l l a t i o n o u t t h e r e should be s e t . If d i f f i c u l t y t h e following t e s t s of t h e A.C, package UP-972 h a s been c a r e f u l l y carried no d i f f i c u l t y experienced i n o p e r a t i n g t h e 28 A.C. should be experienced i n t h e o p e r a t i o n of the s e t , mav be a p p l i e d t o l o c a t e t h e t r o u b l e . TEST F R VOLTAGE READINGS O

The following v o l t a g e readings should be obtained when voltmeter readings a r e taken across t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p a t the back of catacomb. The termi n a l s a r e counted from l e f t t o r i g h t when f a c i n g t h e s e t . A high r e s i s t a n c e voltmeter of a t l e a s t 600 ohms r e s i s t a n c e per v o l t , o r t h e "no c u r r e n t voltmeter" , which w i l l be d i s c r i b e d i n a subsequent paragraph, should be used when making t h e s e t e s t s

follow t h e diagram i n Figure 14.

A v a r i a t i o n i n t h e voltage readings obtained i s allowable, which may be 5 v o l t s higher o r 5 v o l t s lower t h a n normal. When making t h i s t e s t

TEST NO. 1 w i t h p o s i t i v e lead of voltmeter on t e r m i n a l number And negative l e a d of voltmeter on

W i t h the battery

s e t t i n g near "off" and a l l t u b e s l i t , t h e voltmeter should read

31 v o l t s

This t e s t w i l l i n d i c a t e whether the e x t e r n a l connections t o t h e catacomb a r e complete and w i l l a l s o show whether t h e connections i n s i d e t h e c a t a comb pro,per a r e c o r r e c t . When r e f e r e n c e i s made t o t e r m i n a l numbers i t r e P e r s t o t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p a t the r e a r of t h e catacomb and the count i s mzde a s before from l e f t t o right. Before conducting t h e t e s t t h e operator must make c e r t a i n t h a t the volume c o n t r o l r h e o s t a t s and f i l a m e n t c o n t r o l r h e o s t a t s a r e a d j u s t e d so t h a t h a l f t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e i s c u t i n t h e c i r c u i t . The loop must be removed from i t s socket and t h e cable disconnected from t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p a t t h e back of t h e catacomb. The t w o methods mentioned i n previous l e s s o n s may be used t o conduct t h e t e s t , namely the c l i c k t e s t which employs phones and a 4& v o l t d r y b a t t e r y , o r by t h e use of the high r e s i s t a n c e voltmeter, capable of g i v i n g a f u l l s c a l e d e f l e c t i o n . The c l i c k method w i l l be used i n t h i s l e s s o n . Reference should be made t o Figure 14 c o n t i n u a l l y while making t h e c o n t i n u i t y check. The f i r s t p a r t of t e s t No. 2 w i l l take i n t h e condensers of t h e catacomb. Be sure t o disconnect t h e cable. Remove a l l tubes and remove t h e loop.
TEST NO.

2
If a c l i c k i s heard i t indicates that

With one t e s t t i p on The p l a t e cont a c t of tube socket No. 6 Terminal No. 9

And t h e o t h e r t e s t t i p on The p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l No. 6

Between these points N click o

Condenser No. 3 o r No. 4 i n s i d e t h e catacomb i s s h o r t circuited The n e u t r a l i z i n g condenser w i t h i n t h e catacomb i s short circuited
If a pronounced

The p l a t e cont a c t tube socke t No. 2 The g r i d cont a c t of tube socket No. 6

N click o

Terminal NO. 9

N c l i c k should o be heard, a f a i n t c l i c k may be heard i f s o t h e t e s t i s O.K. C i r c u i t should be open hence no c l i c k should be heard

c l i o k i s heard t h e g r i d condenser of the detector i s short c i r c u i t e d I f t e s t indicates closed c i r c u i t condenser No. 1 i s short circuited

Terminal No. 14

Terminal No. 1 1

A.C. PACHAGE CHANGES

Figure 1 4

Lesson 43
I Llc * ll

- sheet 11

TEST NO. 2

oad p a r t of t e s t No. 2 i n c l u q e s r h e t u n i n g inc1.1:ctances w i t h i n

acomb t o g e t h e r w i r h t h e conncct i o n s p e r t a i n i n s t h e r e t o . Retore u c t i n g t h i s - t t s t be s u r e t h z t t h e t u b e s - a r e rerno;ed from t h e i r s o c k e t s , t h e c a b l e d i s c o n n e c t e d from t h e catacomb t e r m i n a l s t r i p , and t h e l o o p removed f r o m i t s s o c k e t .
Y i t h one t e s t t i p on

And t h e o t h e r t e s t t i p on The g r i d cont a c t of t u b e s o c k e t No. 1 The g r i d cont a c t of t u b e s o c k e t No. 3 The p l a t e cont a c t of t u b e s o c k e t No. 3

The r e s u l t ,obtained should indicate Closed c i r c u i t ; i.e., a c l i c k should be h e a r d

If no c l i c k i s heard

Terminal No. 2 Teminal No. 6 Terminal No. 7 Terminal llo. 9

The l e a d between these points i s open

The g r i d cont a c t of t u b e s o c k e t No. 2

E i t h e r t h e low- half o f c o i l No. 2, t h e connecting l e a d s l e a d i n g t o o r f'rom the coil, or that p o r t i o n of t h e r e sistance s t r i p l y i n g between p o s i t i o n 4 and 5 i s open. Closed c i r c u i t , i.e., a c l i c k should be h e a r d E i t h e r c o i l No. 4 , . connecting l e a d s , or t h a t portion of r e s i s t a n c e s M p l y i n g between p o s i t i o n s 5 and 6 , i s open. C o i l No. 1 o r conn e c t i n g l e a d s open,

Terminal NO. 9

The g r i d cont a c t of tube s o c k e t No. 4.

Terminal NO, 10 Terminal No. 1 0

The p l a t e cont a c t of t u b e s o c k e t No. 1 The p l a t e cont a c t of t u b e s o c k e t No. 6 The p l a t e cont a c t of t u b e s o c k e t No. 2

C o i l No., 7 o r connecting leads open C o i l No. 3 o r conn e c t i n g l e a d s open. Lesson 43

Terminal mo. 1 . 1

- s h e e t 12

The p l a t e cont a c t - of t u b e s o c k e t No. 4

A closed c i r c u i t ; l .e. a c l i c k

should be h e a r d

C o i l No. 5 o r connecting l e a d s open C o i l No. 9 o r connecting l e a d s open Lead between t h e s e points open Lead between these points open Lead between these points open Lead between these points open C o i l No. 10 o r connecting l e a d s open c o i l NO. 8 o r connecting l e a d s open

Terminal No. 1 7 The g r i d cont a c t of t u b e s o c k e t No. 5 The p l a t e con-, t a c t of tube s o c k e t No. 5 Teminal No. 1 6 Terminal No. 18 Terminal N O . 20 Terninal NO. 22 The p l a t e cont a c t of tube s o c k e t NO. 7 The p l a t e cont a c t of tube s o c k e t No. 8 The g r i d cont a c t of t u b e s o c k e t No. 8 The g r i d cont a c t of tube s o c k e t No. 7

T h i s p a r t of t e s t No. 2 e n a b l e s t h e o p e r a t o r t o c h e c k t h e c o n t i n u i t y of a 1 1 c o i l s , c o n n e c t i n g l e a d s , t e l e p h o n e j a c k s , and f i l a m e n t c o n t r o l rheostat, which a r e p a r t s e x t e r i o r t o t h e cotacomb. It i s c a l l e d t h e " p a n e l t e s t " . Before c o n d u c t i n g t h e t e s t remove a l l t u b e s and t h e l o o p , d i s c o n n e c t t h e c a b l e from t h e catacomb t e r m i n a l s t r i p , and remove t h e r e s i s t a n c e s t r i p . lh!ith one t e s t t i p on Terminal
NO.

And t h e o t h e r t e s t t i p on Terminal NO. 2

The r e s u l t s obtained should indicate Closed c i r c u i t ; i.e., a c l i c k s h o u l d be h e a r d

If no c l i c k i s heard
The f i r s t r a d i o frequency c o i l No. 1 3 o r connecting leads open The volune cont r o l rheostat open

Terminal NO. 5

Terminal NO. 4

Lesson 4 3

s h e e t 13

Terminal 1 No. 1

Terminal No. 7

Closed c i r c u i t ; i.e., a c l i c k s h o u l d be h e a r d

The r a d i o freouency c o i l No. 1 4 o r connecting leads open The o s c i l l a t o r 1 c o i l No. 1 o r connecting leads open The o s c i l l a t o r c o i l No. 1 2 o r connecting leads open The f i r s t a u d i o f r e q u e n c y jack o r connecting l e a d s open The f i r s t a u d i o frequency telephone jack defective

Terminal No. 13

Terminal No. 1 1

Terminal No. 1 4

Terminal No. 1 2

Terminal No. 1 6

Terminal 1 No. 1

Terminal No. 17

Terminal No. 1 6

Note.: B e f o r e t e s t i n g between t e r m i n a l s 17 and 1 6 f i r s t i n s e r t a t e l e p h o n e p l u e t h a t h a s been s h o r t c i r c u i t e d i n t h e f i r s t a u d i o f r e q u e n c y t e l e p h o n e jack. Terminal No. 22 Terminal No. 2 1 Closed c i r c u i t . , i.e. a c l i c k s h o u l d be h e a r d The f i l a m e n t c o n t r o l . rheostat open

O making t h i s t e s t remove t h e s h o r t c i r c u i t e d t e l e p h o n e p l u g from t h e n f i r s t A.F. jack.

FOURTH TEST No. 2 P a r t f o u r of t e s t No. 2 s e r v e s t h e p u r p o s e of c h e c k i n g t h e c o n d e n s e r s . To conduct t h i s t e s t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o remove o n l y t h e l o o p from i t s socket. With one t e s t t i p on Terminal No. 8 And t h e o t h e r t e s t t i p on Terminal No. 6 The r e s u l t obtained should be An open c i r c u i t ; i.e. no c l i c k s h o u l d be h e a r d
If a c l i c k i s heard

E i t h e r the loop condenser o r t h e compensating condenser i s short circuited The s m a l l n e u t r a l i z i n g condenser between t h e s e terminals i s short circuited

Terminal
NO.

Terminal NO. 7

Lesson 43

- sheet

14

TEST NO.

It i s sometimes necessary, when shooting t r o u b l e on t h i s s e t , t o check t h e value of t h e various s e c t i o n s of t h e r e s i s t a n c e s t r i p which i s m d i r e c t l y behind t h e catacomb. One of the s i m p l e s t means of determining t h e r e s i s t a n c e of an appliance i s t o pass a c u r r e n t through i t . The c u r r e n t i s measured w i t h an ammeter, and the voltage by means of a v o l t meter. The r e s i s t a n c e i s t h e n found by applying Ohm's Law.

This method i s c a l l e d t h e "Voltmeter-ammeter n method and i s t h e one which w i l l be described t o measure t h e values of t h e r e s i s t a n c e s t r i p shown i n Figure 14.
A voltmeter having a s c a l e of 0 t o 7 and milliamneter w i t h a s c a l e of

15.

0 t o 500, should be used and connected i n t h e c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure Since a m i l l i a m e t e r i s used t h e c u r r e n t r e a d i n g t a k e n i s i n milliamp e r e s ; i . e . 1/1000 ampere. It i s necessary t o m u l t i p l y t h e product of E/I by 1000 t o o b t a i n t h e r e s i s t a n c e value i n ohms.

The complete formula, t h e r e f o r e , i s w r i t t e n a s follows:

R

1000 x

x q
i n Ohms i n Volts

Where R
E

= Resistance
= E.M.F.
=

Current i n Amperes

There a r e nine t e r m i n a l s on t h e r e s i s t a n c e s t r i p numbered 1 t o 9 , inclusive, counting from t h e l e f t t o r i g h t when f a c i n g the f r o n t of t h e s e t . The values t h a t should be obtained between t h e various t e r m i n a l s a r e given below. An a c t u a l t e s t taken between terminals No. 1 and No. 2 i s shown i n Figure 15. TEST NO. 3
With one t e s t

t i p on

And t h e o t h e r t e s t t i p on

The value i n Ohms should be

The lowest value permissibLe f o r proper f u n c t i o n of set i s

The highe s t value permissible f o r proper f u n c t i o n of

set i s
Terminal NO. 1 9Verminal NO. 2 Terminal NO. 2 Terminal
NO.

190 Ohms 400

185 Ohms
350
I'

195 Ohms
450

"

"
15

Lesson 43

- sheet

Terminal No. 3 Terminal NO. 4 Terminal No. 5 Terminal No. 6 Terminal No. 7 Terminal No. 8

Terminal NO. 4 Termi na 1 No. 5 Terminal

163 Ohms 155 130 120 115 50

158 O h m s 150 125 116

11 1

168 O h m s 160 135 124 119

55

"
"

"
I'

" " "

n

No. 6
Terminal No. 7 Terminal No. 8 Terminal No. 9

"
"

"
"

"

45

"

"

a This t e s t a p p l i e s t o t h e models i n which t h e r e s i s t a n c e s t r i p i s not l e f t open. The volume c o n t r o l i n t h i s i n s t a n c e h a s a r e s i s t a n c e value of 375 ohms. I n models i n which t h i s s t r i p i s l e f t open t h e v o l m e cont r o l should have a r e s i s t a n c e value of 187.5 ohms. I n o t h e r model s of t h e Radiola 28 r e c e i v e r where the volume c o n t r o l has a value of 250 ohms r e s i s t a n c e t h e f o l l o w i n g s e t of r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e s should be read between t e r m i n a l lugs.
With one t e s t t i p on

~ n dh e o t h e r t t e s t t i p on

The value i n ohms should be

The lowest value permissi b l e f o r proper f u n c t i o n of s e t should be 260 O h m s L e f t open 230 Ohms 191 176 146 137 45
It

The h i g h e s t value permissible for p r ~ r function ofset should be 282 Ohms Left open 243 Ohms 203

Terminal NO. 1 Terminal NO. 2 Terminal No. 3 Terminal NO. 4 Terminal NO. 5 Terninal NO. 6 Terminal NO. 7 Terminal No. 8

Terninal NO. 2 Terminal

NO.

271 Ohms L e f t open 236.5 Ohms 197 183.5 154.5 145.5 50

n

Terminal NO. 4 Terminal No. 5 Terminal No. 6 Terminal

NO.

"
" "

"

"

" " "

163

"

Terminal No. 8 Terminal NO. 9

55

"

Lesson 43

- sheet

1,6

The r e s i s t a n c e s t r i p s a r e a l l interchangeable providing t h e volume cot&rol r e s i s t a n c e used w i t h t h e s t r i p i s of t h e c o r r e c t value. The method sf determining t h e c o r r e c t value of t h e volume c o n t r o l h a s been explained i n t h e forgoing r e s i s t a n c e s t r i p t e s t s . O TROUBLES TO LOOK F R FIHST When conducting t e s t s i n an e f f o r t t o l o c a t e a p o s s i b l e source of t r o u b l e , and more p a r t i c u l a r l y where voltage t e s t s t a k e n a t t h e catacomb terminal s t r i p i n d i c a t e t r o u b l e , a recheck should be taken t o make sure t h a t t h e f i r s t t e s t was c o r r e c t . T h i s may be determined by t a k i n g voltage readings a t t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p of the condenser bank and a l s o a t the terminalboard of t h e R e c t i f i e r Power Amplifier (R.P.A.) u n i t which i s l o c a t e d i n t h e 104 loudspeaker c a b i n e t . If the voltage readings a t t h e s e t h r e e p o i n t s a r e t h e same i t i s a good i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e t r o u b l e i s i n the R . P . P . u n i t and i s not being caused by a p o s s i b l e d e f e c t i n e i t h e r the c a b l e or condenser bank. Examination should be made of t n e cable, accompanying t h e A.C. package, which connects the catacomb t e r m i n a l s t r i p of t h e s e t t o t h e condenser bank, and t h e 30 f o o t cable connecting the condenser bank t o the RectJqle Power Amplifier u n i t of t h e loudspeaker, t o determine t h e condition of t h e l e a d s a t t h e ends of t h e s e c a b l e s . I f t h e ends of t h e s e c a b l e s are worn o r t h e t e r m i n a l s soldered t o each o t h e r a r e corroded or l o o s e , proper measures should be t a k e n t o r e s t o r e them t o good condition.
PROBABLN CAUSES O HIGH, LOW, OR NO VOLTAGE READINGS TAKEN AT THF: TEHMIF NAL STRIP OF T E SET. H

EST TIPS ACCROS

TO BE MEASURED
HE RESISTPINCE

RE5157ANCE STRIP--

Figure 15 Any one of t h e above c o n d i t i o n s may be the r e s u l t of d e f e c t s i n t h e A.C. package, o r i n t h e R e c t i f i e r Power Amplifier u n i t .
A t e s t taken a t t h e t e r m i n a l board of the R e c t i f i e r Power Amplifyingunit l o c a t e d i n t h e 104 loudspeaker cabinet w i l l i n d i c a t e whether the t r o u b l e i s i n t h e cable o r i n t h e condenser bank of t h e A.C. package.

Lesson 43

- sheet

17

When t h e condenser bank o r cable i s found t o be c l e a r of t r o u b l e t h e t e s t should then be extended t o t h e R e c t i f i e r Power Amplifier u n i t when the following c o n d i t i o n s should be observed. (The tube f i l a m e n t s should be burning a t normal b r i l l i a n c y and otherwise f u n c t i o n i n g normal). If no voltage reading i s obtained a t the t e r m i n a l board of t h e R e c t i f i e r Power P.mplifier u n i t , t h e cause may L due t o : e The r e s i s t o r u n i t UP-591, which i s found i n t h e place of tube UX-874, may be s h o r t c i r c u i t e d . Look f o r a n open connection a t t h e t e r m i n a l board of t h e R.P.A. unit. The 7 mfd. or 4 mfd. f i l t e r condenser may be broken down o r s h o r t c i r c u i t e d which condition would be i n d i c a t e d by t h e p l a t e element of t h e UX-216-B becoming e x c e s s i v e l y hot. The 2 mfd. condenser of t h e pack might be s h o r t c i r c u i t e d when a voltage reading below normal i s obtained a t the R.P.A. u n i t t e r m i n a l board. Look f o r t r o u b l e i n the power transformer i n t h e n a t u r e of s h o r t c i r c u i t e d t u r n s i n t h e h i g h voltage windings. Check t h e UX-216-B t u b e s f o r sub-normal e l e c t r o n e m i s s i o n . Test t h e 7 mfC. and 4 mfd. f i l t e r condenser t o detemnine i f they a r e i n a leaky condltion. The 2 mfd. condensers may be i n a leaky condition. Check a l l r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s f o r d e f e c t s . unit indicates When t h e voltage t e s t a t t h e terminal board of t h e R.P.A. a voltage i n e x c e s s of t h e h i g h voltage l i m i t t h e cause may be found i n :
(1) A d e f e c t i v e pot magnet of the loudspeaker. (2)

The r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s may be d e f e c t i v e . circuited.

( 3 ) The primary t u r n s of t h e power transformer may be s h o r t

1

(4)

The r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s , R2 or R 3 , may be open.

For those who do not possess a h i g h r e s i s t a n c e voltmeter w i t h which t o measure t h e p l a t e o r f i l a m e n t voltages of t h e A . C . operated Radiola 28 c o n s t r u c t i o n a l d e t a i l s a r e herewith given. The c i r c u i t w i t h i t s a s s o c i a t e d p a r t s i s shown i n Figure 16. It c o n s i s t s of a 0 t o 7.5 voltmeter, equipped with a m u l t i p l i e r ( t h a t t h e lower s c a l e may be used t o read volt.ages up t o 150 v o l t s , D.C.), a galvanometer, Lesson 43

- sheet 18

potentiometer, s a f e t y r e s i s t a n c e , r e v e r s i n g switch, and a UX-199 plug; a l s o an e x t e r n a l voltage supply i n excess of t h a t t o be measured. When t h e UX tube base i s employed t o measure t h e filament voltage of a UX-199 tube i t i s necessary t o have a r e s i s t a n c e u n i t of 50 ohms connected a c r o s s t h e filament t e r m i n a l s of t h e UX base, T h i s r e s i s t a n c e , shunted a c r o s s t h e filament t e r m i n a l s of the UX base a c t s a s a compensating d e v i c e , supplying t h e l o s s of filament r e s i s t a n c e due t o t h e removal of t h e UX-199 tube from i t s socket i n t h e s e t . When t h e measurment of any D.C. should be observed: voltage i s undertaken t h e following r u l e s

(1) The voltmeter s c a l e , covering t h e voltage t o be measured, should be used; t h a t i s , when any voltage from a maximum value of 7 . 5 v o l t s t o zero i s t o be r e a d , use t h e t o p s c a l e . When 7.5 v o l t s , and up t o and including 150 v o l t s i s t o be read, use the m u t l i p l i e r and read t h e bottom s c a l e .
( 2 ) When t h e UX plug connected a c r o s s t h e t e r m i n a l s marked " t e s t " , Figure 16, i s not i n use disconnect i t , and a l s o t h e 50 ohm compensating resistance. ( 3 ) Adjust t h e potentiometer until. the voltmeter g i v e s a reading a s near a s p o s s i b l e t o t h a t of t h e voltage t o be measured.
( 4 ) Then connect t h e e x t e r n a l voltage supply t o the binding posts marked " battery " .

( 5 ) Connect t h e f l e x i b l e leads t o the proper t e r m i n c l s of the voltage t o be measured and s e t t h e r e v e r s i n g s w i t c h on t h e contacts giving c o r r e c t p o l a r i t y t o t h e meters.
( 6 ) Then w i t h t h e push button open, a c r o s s which t h e 1,000 ohm p r o t e c t i v e r e s i s t ~ n c ei s shunted, a d j u s t the potentimeter u n t i l zero r e a d i n g i s obtajned on t h e galvanometer. With the galvanometer reading a t zero close t h e p r o t e c t i v e push b u t t o n and a g a i n a d j u s t t h e potentiometer u n t i l t h e galvanometer r e a d s zero.

Upon completing t h i s f u n c t i o n t h e voltmeter can be read which w i l l be t h e c o r r e c t voltage of t h e c i r c u i t upon which measurement i s being made. The operating t h e o r y , when measuring the filament voltage of an A.C. operated catacomb, i s t h e same a s t h e foregoing w i t h t h e exception t h a t t h e compensating r e s i s t a n c e and t h e UX tube base i s u t i l i z e d t o supply t h e c i r c u i t with t h e source of voltage t o be measured. The theory upon which t h e "no c u r r e n t voltmeter" o p e r a t e s i s based on t h e condition t h a t i f an e x t e r n a l voltage i s a p p l i e d through a s u i c a b l e c i r c u i t so t h a t i t w i l l be made t o oppose the voltage of t h e c i r c u i t under measurment t h e galvanometer w i l l i n d i c a t e zero when t h e two voltages a r e e x a c t l y the same. The purpose of t h e voltmeter connected across t h e c i r c u i t , through which t h e opposing voltages f l o v ~ s , i s t o provide a Lesson 4 3

- sheet

19

s i n p l e means f o r determining the e x t e r n a l vpltage necessary t o produce an exact e l e c t r i c a l balance i n t h e c i r c u i t under measurment. The r e mainder of t h e l e s s o n i s devoted t o t r o u b l e s and remedies, which may be c l a s s i f i e d a s follows: (a) (b) Howling Blasting Fading of s i g n a l s

(c)

( d ) Fluttering (e) Loudspeaker

( a ) Howling i n many i n s t a n c e s i s caused by t h e sound waves emitted from t h e loudspeaker which, on passing t h e tube, may s e t I t s elements; i . e . f i l a n e n t , g r i d or p l a t e , i n a c t u a l mechanical v i b r a t i o n . T h i s v i b r a t i o n happens because one o r more of the elements a r e loose i n t h e i r mountine;~ and, being l o o s e , t h e v i b r a t i n g a c t i o n changes t h e spacing between the v i b r a t i n g element and t h e o t h e r elements of t h e tube. When t h i s happens thc a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r of t h e tube i s changed and a low hum perhaps i s t h e f i r s t i n d i c a t i o n of t h i s t r o u b l e which b u i l d s up i n volume u n t i l a t e r r i b l e howl r e s u l t s i n the loudspeaker which can be of s u f f i c i e n t m a g n i tude t o e n t i r e l y drown out t h e voice or music, Locating t h e microphonic tube, a s t h e tube i s c a l l e d which lends i t s e l f t o mechanical v i b r a t i o n , interchange i t f o r one of t h e t u b e s i n t h e in@mediate or r a d i o frequency s t a g e s ; t h i s w i l l i n most i n s t a n c e s e l i m i n a t e the trouble. ( b ) B l a s t i n g i s a c o n d i t i o n which may be found t o a r i s e when the volume c o n t r o l i s a d j u s t e d t o t h e p o i n t of maximum, or n e a r l y maximum volume, and a l s o when t h e s i g n a l s a r e being received from broadcasting s t a t i o n s l o c a t e d near the r e c e i v e r .
T h i s f a u l t can, i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l c a s e s , be overcome and t h e r e c e i v e r r e s t o r e d t o normal a c t i o n by interchanging t h e tubes. Replacing t h e UX-210 by another may a l s o c l e a r up t h e t r o u b l e . I n c r e a s i n g o r changi n g p o s i t i o n of t h e loudspeaker w i l l i n some i n s t a l l a t i o n s e l i m i n a t e the trouble.

It sonetimes becomes necessary t o make use of a choke c o i l t o prevent b l a s t i n g . This i s connected a c r o s s t h e catacomb t e r m i n a l s t r i p between t e r m i n a l s N O . 10 and No. 16. The impedance of t h i s choke i s t h e same a s t h a t of t h e primary winding of a model 104 loudspeaker input t r a n s former

( c ) Fading of s i g n a l s i n t h i s i n s t a n c e does not r e f e r t o t h e n a t u r a l fading phenomenon, nor t o t h e r e d u c t i o n i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h which occurs due t o t h e normal drop t a k i n g place s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e 104 speaker h a s been placed i n o p e r a t i o n , but t a k e s i n t o account a d e f e c t i v e UV- 876 o r UV- 886 tube a s t h e cause of t h i s deficiency. Lesson 43

- sheet 20

A d e f e c t i v e UX-210 tube may a l s o cause t h i s t r o u b l e i n which cake t h e

t o n a l q u a l i t i e s of t h e reproduced s i g n a l w i l l be g r e a t l y impaired, givi n g u n n a t u r a l and h a r s h reproduction. The r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s i n t h e R e c t i f i e r Power Amplifier u n i t w i l l a l s o have t h e tendency t o cause f a d i n g and can be g e n e r a l l y t r a c e d by the excessive h e a t c r e a t e d i n t h e d e f e c t i v e r e s i s t o r . T h i s a p p l i e s t o a11 the r e s i s t o r s i n t h e a m p l i f i e r pack w i t h the exception of u n i t R 4 which, due t o i t s design, becomes v e r y h o t d u r i n g normal operation. ( d ) When t h e t u n i n g condensers i n an A.C. i n s t a l l a t i o n a r e manipulated t h e y b r i n g t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u i t t o a resonant condition. F l u t t e r i n g w i l l occur i n some of the A.C. operated 28 s e t s when t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s reached and i s recognized by a loud A.C. 60 cycle hum. To c o r r e c t t h i s f a u l t any means may be taken t h a t w i l l change t h e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the audio frequency c i r c u i t s . The remedies which follow a r e suggested a s a means t o prevent f l u t t e r i n g .
(1) Make a complete interchange of t h e UX-199 tubes,. ( 2 ) Counting from t h e l e f t t o r i g h t on t h e catacomb t e r m i n a l s t r i p l o c a t e terminals 10 and 1 5 and connect a choke c o i l a c r o s s t h e s e terminals. A choke c o i l having an inductance of from 30 t o 50 h e n r y s w i l l answer t h e purpose.
( 3 ) A f u r t h e r remedy t o be t r i e d , i f t h e above two f a i l , i s 60 connect i n a s e r i e s arrangement a condenser having a c a p a c i t y of 2 mfd. and a choke having an inductance of 30 h e n r t e s . Connect t h e f r e e lead of t h e choke t o t e r m i n a l 15 of t h e cntacomb t e r m i n a l s t r i p and t h e f r e e l e a d of t h e 2 mfd. condenser on t e r m i n a l 22 of t h e catacomb t e r m i n a l s t r i p .

(4)

Change t h e A.C.

package.

( e ) Loudspeaker d i s t o r t i o n may be caused by some f a u l t i n t h e loudspeaker reproducing u n i t i t s e l f , o r i t may o r i g i n a t e due t o a c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n of t h e cone. S e v e r a l reasons a r e advanced a s p o s s i b l e causes, any one of which may be t h e t r u e cause, o r i t may happen t h a t two o r more causes a r e a c t i n g t o g e t h e r t o produce t h e r e s u l t c a l l e d * d i s t o r t i o n n .

F i r s t : t h e d i s t o r t i o n may be t h e r e s u l t of a f a u l t y input from the s e t proper; a check should be made t o determine whether t h i s i s t h e case. Second: t h e 2 mfd. condenser i n t h e condenser block of t h e R e c t i f i e r Power Amplifier u n i t l o c a t e d adjacent t o t h e 7 mfd, condenser may be found d e f e c t i v e . It should be t e s t e d and r e p l a c e d by a p e r f e c t u n i t i f found d e f e c t i v e . Third: t h e UX-210 r e c t i f i e r tube may be d e f e c t i v e . placed by a new one. Fourth: t h e movable c o i l on t h e t h r o a t
Of

If s o i t must be r e -

t h e cone may, due t o bad alignment, Lesson 43

- sheet 2 1

s c r a p e a g a i n s t t h e p o t magnet p o l e p i e c e s thus s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g them. t h i s c o n d i t i o n e x i s t s t h e e n t i r e cone must be r e p l a c e d by a new one.

If

F i f t h : two s m a l l l e a d s r u n from t h e edge of t h e cone t o t h e movable c o i l a t t h e t h r o a t of t h e cone. They may f o r some r e a s o n b r e a k away froni t h e cone s u r f a c e t o which t h e y a r e s e c u r e d . The remedy i s t o f a s t e n them i n p l a c e by s h e l l a c . S i x t h ; t h e cone i t s e l f may not be p r o p e r l y a l i g n e d . T h i s c o n d i t i o n can be r e c t i f i e d by a d j u s t i n g t h e s m a l l round head screw i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e cone.

I
1.
2.
3.

EXAMINATION
Can t h e A.C.

- LESSON 43

package b e used w i t h any s e t ?

That change i s made i n t h e volume c o n t r o l r h e o s t a t s when c o n v e r t i n g t h e Model 28 f o r R . C . o p e r a t i o n ? What may be u s e d i n p l a c e of t h e UX- 874 t u b e ? Does t h e f i l a m e n t s w i t c h on t h e s e t c o n t r o l t h e f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t a f t e r t h e s e t h a s been c o n v e r t e d f o r A . C . o p e r a t i o n ? \Then making a t e s t of t h e e x t e r n a l catacomb c o n n e c t i o n s what s h o u l d be done w i t h t h e volume and f i l a m e n t c o n t r o l r h e o s t a t s ? What two methods may be used t o conduct a c o n t i n u i t y t e s t ? Give t h r e e r e a s o n s why no v o l t a g e r e a d i n g may be o b t a i n e d a t t h e unit. t e r m i n a l board o f t h e R.P.A. What i n your e s t i m a t i o n w i l l cause t h i s s e t t o howl? why i s i t sometimes n e c e s s a r y t o i n t e r c h a n g e t u b e s from one s o c k e t t o another, S t a t e two c o n d i t i o n s t n a t might cause d i s t o r t i o n i n t h i s s e t .

4.
5.

6.

7,
8.
9.

10.

Lesson 43
i

- sheet

22

POTENTIOMETER VOLTMETER

PUSH BUTTON

-.. ',

9TEST BATTERY REVERSE POTENTIOMETER

VOLTMETER ALVANOMETER PROTECTIVE RESISTANCE 1000 O H M S ( T HI S MAY /VARY A CC O R D IN G T O RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER USED

@+

VALUE OF METER RESISTANCE DEPENDS ON TYPE OF DOUBL RANGE VOLTMETER USED

.
)

PROTECTIVE RESISTANCE

@ LOW

VOLTAGE

SWITCH

FLEXIBLE LEAD

---*

Figure 16
TECHNICAL LESSON 43

....

.
INC.
firmerly
M A RCOM /NsrIrurL

s u n d e d 1909

* .

J
Technical Lesson 44
VICTOR MICRO-SYNCHRONOUS RADIO R-32 R-52 RE-45 and RE-75
3sl:a,: ,

. ,

h*~, ...
+ :

"t*

he Victor BBicro-Synchronous set is a power operated tuned radio-freq eceiver of the antenna type, employing an antenna coupling stage and stages of tuned and neutralized radio-frequency amplification, a detector, a first stage audio, and apower stage of push pull amplification.
,

A high,degree of 'sensitivity is made possible by means of a system of micro meter adjustments on the tuning condensers, permitting precision automatic alignment or synchronization of the tuned radio-frequency stages throughout the entire tuning range at all times. Each set of condensers is thus properly aligned at the factory and locked into position. A new method,of stabilizing the radio-frequency circuit permits a high degree of selectivity without causing any decrease in sensitivity. .. .
I W I W BINDM6 POST-

r r c x m rm raoutw.
5

cwrr

LUllMHI
CO~L

CABLE CLhMP*\\

TUNING CO*D:*BER SPIIING I

'.

CI B,,M U

ICREWf

TWIN PI" d I C X tyPYT UNIT

,,,w
I'I*

3 BY-PLEI

WYDmTERI

UFO.

r m

The instrument comprises three standard units as follows: Radio, in which are contained the r-f stages and the detector; Power Amplifier, containing the first audio, the power stage of push pull amplification, and the rectifier; ( ) Electro-dynamic Reproducer. The units are so designed ;hat all 3 parts are readily accessible for servicing. Six vacuum tubes UX-226 are used in the r-f and first audio amplifier stages, a UY-227 detector, and two UX-245 in the power stage. The UX-280 is used as a rectifier.
( 1 (2

The Victor radio is designed for operation on 105 to 120 volts, 50 to 60 cycles, alternating current. Special equipment is available for operation on 105 to 120 volts, 25 to 4 cycles. The power consumption when operating 0 the radio is approximately 105 watts, and approximately 160 watts when operating tha Electrola. Figures 1A and 1B show top and side views, respectively, of radio with cover removed. Figure 2 is a top view of the power amplifier unit, and Figure 3 is a bottom view of the power amplifier unit. INSTALLATION Antenna. For best average sensitivity and selectivity the antenna should be from 50 to 75 feet long including the lead-in and ground wires, and should be as high above ground as possible. A short antenna tends to decrease the sensitivity and increase the selectivity whereas a long antenna tends to increase the sensitivity and decrease the selectivity. For local reception sufficient sensitivity can usually be obtained except in shielded locations by using a five or six foot length of wire as an antenna. Ground. A good ground connection is highly important for the proper operation of the instrument and must be used at all times. The connection should be made to a well scraped and cleaned portion of a water pipe by clamping with
4 Lesson 4

sheet 2

a ground clamp. If such a connection is not available, a pipe or metal rod may be driven three or four feet into the ground, preferably where the soil is moist. Attention is called to the fact that a spark may be produced if the ground is connected to the instrument while the power plug is attached. This condition, which is caused by the condenser discharge from the power line, is quite normal and will cause no harm to the instrument. Power Line Voltage. The power line voltage should be'measured with an a-c voltmeter at the time of installation. If the voltage is above 125 volts, a tapped resistor should be connected in series with one side of the power line and the resistance varied until input voltage at the instrument is 115 volts. If the voltage fluctuates badly, the co-operation of the power company should be secured, and an attempt made to eliminate such fluctuation.

Adjusting Hum Controls. The two hum control potentiometers, shown in Figure 3, should be adjusted at the time of installation in the following manner: a . b . c . Place the transfer switch in the wrecordw position to the right. With a small screw driver turn the UX-226 hum control in the base of the power amplifier unit slightly in either direction as required until the hum is minimum. Turn the transfer switch to the left to the "radio" position, turn the radio volume control to minimum, and adjust the UP-227 hum control near the UY-227 in the radio set until the hum is a minimum. Lesson 4 4

sheet 3

Adjusting Harmonic Modulator. The harmonic modulator or tone control in the bottom of the power amplifier controls emphasis on the bass section of the scale, increasing the bass and decreasing the high notes as the adjusting 'screw is turned to the right. Ordinarily, the control will not require any change in setting from that made in the factory. It may be desirable in some cases, however, to change the adjustment because of unusual room characteristics, a customer's preference for stronger bass, or to reduce record scratch and static. The control arm can be turned with a small screw driver.
VOLT^ D W ~ O ~ R . R ~ S ~ O
rtrrn rwye con

w&?~[m2urD.)

couomsnr (VIMFo.) S: rW (iW0F.l WL6m 1 W I OF .IPIYW WIE nWRE 3- BOTTOM VlEW OF POWEn AMPLIFIER U U I T , S R O W M P W S .

BI-P~T

SDI~EI

BY-PAIS

;OX~EMSEIU

1 AMPERE

PO&.* TnfiHSFOWCR

GENERAL TESTS
Excessive Hm. a . This condition can be caused by:

Improperly adjusted or faulty hum controls. Refer to the preceding paragraph on the subject, WAdjusting Hum control^.^ b Defective UX-280 or UY-227. . c . Wire or terminal grounded to the frame, or open circuit in any of the various ground connections. d . Shorted condenser across UX-226 filament supply. e Open or shorted center tap resistor across UX-226 filament supply. . f . Shorted condenser across power line in power-amplifier unit. g . Shorted condenser in condenser bank of power-amplifier unit. Howl. a . b .

Microphonic howl can be traced to: Defective vacuum tube, particularly in the detector or audio stages. Improper neutralization. (See the section Wpecial Adjustmentsn on sheet 1 ) 2 Lesson 4 4

sheet 4

FIGURE 4

- CIRCUIT

FOR TUBE VOLTMETER

Lesson 44

sheet 5

Speaker not felt insulated from baffle. Remove speaker and arrange felt properly. d. Open condenser. e Loose metal parts such as shielding, screws, etc., or improperly . centered cone may set up a howl or mechanical rattle. (See the subject "Special Adjustmentsn on sheet 32 for metho& of centering the c n . oe) Distorted Reproduction. Distortion may be caused by any of the following:
e .
a.

b.

c. d.

e .

Low emission vacuum tube, particularly in the detector or in the power supply unit. For best reproduction the plate currents of the two UX-245 should balance within 2 milliamperes. Operation with volume control advanced too far on powerful local stations, causing overloading of the detector. Incorrect setting of the tone control in the base of the power-amplifier. Improper neutralization. Cone in speaker unit improperly centered.

Noisy Reproduction. Station carrier noise, static, and power line disturbance should not be confused with noise which is set up within the receiver. This latter condition may be caused by any one of the following: a . Volume Control. Dirt or corrosion on the resistance wire or contact arms of the volume control will produce noise when the control is operated. This condition can usually be corrected by rubbing the parts lightly with very fine sandpaper and then cleaning with gasoline. Shorted Tuning Condenser. If the plates of one or more of the tuning condensers are shorted, noise will be produced when the tuning lever is operated. If such a condition is found, the faulty condenser should be replaced. Intermittent short or open circuit in any of the various soldered connections or in power switch. High resistance grid leak. Any of the grid leaks which have developed Lesson 44

b .

c . d .

sheet 6

FIGURE 8

MULT1 PLUG T E R M I N A S

FIGURE 9 -

TOP VIE(V OF R~Io,SHDWING WIRING BETWEEN TERMINALS

Lesson 44

sheet 7

.
I i '

.
'

resistance w i l l produce a "frying noise." to transformer will also produce this same type noise.
This condition can be caused by:

.
b .

c . d. e .

Faulty antenna, characterized by weak reception, intermittent reception, or grating noise. Examine the antenna for poor contact at the leadin connection to the radio set, poor soldered connections, grounded or partially grounded lightning arrestsr, or contact with surrounding objects. Faulty ground, characterized by weak reception, intermittent reception, grating noise, or oscillation. Examine the ground wire for poor contact at the ground binding post connection of the radio set, poor soldered connections, corroded connection at ground clamp. Low power line voltage. Test power outlet with a-c voltmeter. The voltage should be between 105 and 125 volts for radio instruments, and between 105 and 120 volts for instruments with Electrola. Defective tube in any of the various sockets. Defect in radio set or power amplifier.

4
FIGURE 10- SCHEMATIC WIRING D I A G W M OF VICTOR RADIO AND VICTOR RADIO WITH ELECTROLA

Lesson 4 4

sheet 8

FIGURE 11- BOTTOM VIEW OF AMPLIFIER, SHOWING WIRING BETWEEN

TERMINALS

f.

Improper n e u t r a l i z a t i o n . This condition i s characterized by a tendency of the s e t t o o s c i l l a t e . Improper alignment of tuning condensers.

Color Scheme. Refer t o Figure 8. A 1 1 of the connecting wires a r e covered with colored material so t h a t they may be e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d . They a r e a s follows: Brown-white tracer-UX-226 Filament Blue- Transfer Switch Filament Brown-white tracer-UX-226 White-Transfer Switch Brown-blue tracer-UP-227 Filament Black-red tracer-Power Switch Brown-blue tracer-UP-227 Filament Black-red tracer-Power Switch Braided Copper Shield-Ground Brown-red tracer- Pilot Red-yellow tracer-B UX-226 Brown-red tracer- Palot Lamp Red-yellow tracer- Field White-Voice Coil Red-green tracer- Field Black-Voice Coil Lesson 44
C

sheet 9
-

Lack of ~ e p r o d u c t i b n - P r e l i m i n a r y T e s t s . After i t h a s been d e f i n i t e l y determined t h a t t h e t r o a b l e i s n o t due t o a f a u l t y t u b e , antenna o r ground. p l a c e t h e instrument i n o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e t r a n s f e r switch i n t h e ~frecor;" p o s i t i o n . Note t h a t a l l tubes a r e l i g h t e d , and t h a t a l l c a b l e s a r e connected. I n t h e combination models, play a r e c o r d i n t h e u s u a l Eanner with t h e volume c o n t r o l advanced t o maximum. O t h e r a d i o models without Elecn t r o l a , connect two w i r e s t o t h e t e r m i n a l s of a dry c e l l o r t o t h e 1.5 v o l t t e r m i n a l s of a "C" b a t t e r y . Touch t h e s e wires a c r o s s t h e two p i n jack t e r m i n a l s marked "Phone," and n o t e any c l i c k i n t h e reproducer when t h i s i s done. If t h e record r e p r o d u c t i o n i s c o r r e c t , o r i f t h e r e i s a n o t i c e a b l e c l i c k when t h e pickup p i n jack t e r m i n a l s a r e t e s t e d i n t h i s manner, t h e t r o u b l e must l i e i n t h e r a d i o s e t , and reference should be made t o s u b j e c t "Lack of Reproduction-Radio," following. If t h e r e i s no record reproduction, t h e n t h e t r o u b l e l i e s i n t h e loudspeaker o r power a m p l i f i e r u n i t . I t i s recommended t h a t a tube voltmeter, such a s shovrn i n Figure 4, and a Weston of Jewel1 t e s t box ba used f o r i s o l a t i n g t r o u b l e i n t h e r a d i o s e t .
READISC: NO SIGNAL
HEIDINC: WIT11 S I G N A L
.A5 Mllliampcrca

Lack of Reproduction-Iiadio. A f t e r d e f i n i t e l y determining t h a t t h e t r o u b l e l i e s i n t h e r a d i o s e t , make t h e following t e s t s with t h e tube voltmeter and . t e s t box: a. b. c. Place t h e t r a n s f e r switch i n t h e nradiolt p o s i t i o n . Remove t h e UY-227 d e t e c t o r tube, and i n s e r t t h e UY a d a p t e r i n t h i s s o c k e t . Hemove t h e tube i n socket No. 1, Figure 5, (coupling s t a g e ) , p l a c e t h e UX adapter i n t h i s s o c k e t with t h e UX-227 i n t h e socket of t h e a d a p t e r . Note t h e meter reading when a l l connections a r e made i n accordance with Figure 4 and no s t a t i o n i s being r e c e i v e d . P l a c e t h e UX a d a p t e r i n s o c k e t No. 2, Figure 5, ( 1 s t r-f), and n o t e a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e d meter reading when a powerful l o c a l s t a t i o n i s tuned i n . Note: If such a broadcast s i g n a l i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , a modulated o s c i l l a t o r , such a s shown i n Figure 6, can be used. Take readings i n t h i s same manner f o r s o c k e t s 3, 4 and 5. An a d d i t i o n a l i n c r e a s e , corresponding t o an i n c r e a s e i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h , should be noted a s readings a r e t a k e n p r o g r e s s i v e l y , from one s o c k e t t o another. I n t h e f i r s t r-f socket which does n o t show any f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n meter reading from t h a t of t h e preceding s o c k e t w i l l be found t h e source of t r o u b l e . These readings a r e e n t i r e l y a r b i t r a r y and a r e i n tended t o i n d i c a t e g a i n per s t a g e only. They w i l l vary with d i f f e r e n t s t a t i o n s and with d i f f e r e n t m i l l i a m e t e r s . The following i s a t y p i c a l s e t of readings obtained i n t h i s t e s t . A f t e r l o c a t i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a r s t a g e i n which t h e t r o u b l e e x i s t s , t e s t with t h e Weston o r Jewel1 t e s t box t o determine t h e e x a c t l o c a t i o n of t h e f a u l t y p a r t o r connection. The "Radio Voltage T e s t s N t a b l e l i s t s t h e approximate v o l t a g e readings which should be obtained i n

d.

e.

f.

Lesson 44

s h e e t 10

RADIO VOLTAGE TESTS

---

NOTE:-The following teefs are to be msde after determlnlag t h a t the trouble lies In t h e radlo receiver and nor the power lmpflaer unit aa described i n subject 6 abow.
TEST

SOCKET NO. I 2 3 4 5 6 I 2

Fllemenf

Plate

3 4

Gdd

5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

NORMAL VOLTAGE 1.40 Volts A. C. 1.40 Volfs A. C. 1.40 Volfa A. C. 1.45 Volt8 A. C. 2.1 Volts A. C. 1.50 Volts A. C. 105 Volts D. C. lo5 D' C' 105 Volrs D. C. 105 Volts D. C. 40 Volfa D. C. 105 Volfa D. C. 9 volts D. C. D, C, 9 Volt8 D. C. 9 Volfa D. C. 0 Yolfa D. C. 9 Volta D. C.

LACK OF VOLTAGE OR ABNORMAL VOLTAGE lNDICATES Poor aocket contact, broken connection, shorted condenaer. 10, Flu. 1.

Poor socket contacf. broken c o n n e d o n . o en 20 ohm redator 43 Flg. 1; open grid blas r e h o r . 44. Plg. 1; sho~re8condenaer. ~ l g . ' l ; bpen 10, p ~ l m a r y F. transformer. shorted nent. condenser open R. F. choke R. 22, FIB. I : faulty transfer switch; shorted ,001mfd.candenser. 15. Pig. I:

Poor socket contact. broken connection. open 20 ohm reslator 43 Fig. I, ecroaa Blament dx-226; open gdd bias reslator. (4. FIB. I ; ' s h k d conden10 Fle. 1. open eecondary R. F. Pansformer. shorted neur. condenser'; f&lw vAlume control and R. F. choke. 42 add 46, Fig. 1.

POWER AMPLIFIER VOLTAGE TESTS

NORMAL LACK OF VOLTAGE OR ABNORMAL VOLTAGE INDICATES PWI oockef eootacf; b m k m connection; defectlve UX-226 (ampl.1 618ment windlog of power tmnsformcr. 57. Pb?. 2.

I
I

1 1 2
1 X-2nO
1.6 Volu A. C 230 Volfe D. C.

Poar socket contact; brokcn coonletlon; defectlsa UX-260 filnmenr ~ l n d -

inu In power Panatormu. 57. F a . 2.

I
I

Low emlasion UX-280. poor aoeket contact. broken connection. open prir n a v , output Panafirmer. 58. open f i l t k choke. 5 5 shorred'condenaer in condenser bank. 56; defecthe roltaue dlllder reslaior. 60. Flgs. 2 and 3.
or Low e d a s i o n UX-280; p o aocket c o n t a c t broken connection. open 8=0nda.y, input transformer. 59. defectise'voltage dlvlder resls&r. 60. poor or o m contact In UX-226 &urn confml. 681 ehorted condenser 1 ; condenem bank. 56. Fib. 2 and 3 .

40 Volts D. C.

Low e r n i d o n UX-280. poor socket contact. broken connection. open w n d a r y . Interafega jrsnaf-er. 58; defwhre s o l n g e dlllder r;?slstor. 60; shorted condeneer in condenser bank. 56. Flea. 2 and 3.

CABLE TERMINAL VOLTAGE TESTS

TEST BETWEEN TERMINALS 1 and 3 VOLTAGE 1.70V0Im A. C.

LACK OF VOLTAGE OR ABNORMAL VOLTAGE INDICATES

-

Broken connection; defecriss UX-226 (radio) secondary windlnu of powel power trsnsformer. 57, PIG. 3.

5 and 7

2.35 Volfs A. C.

2 and 9

39 Volt8 D. C.

I
I

Bmken eonnecnon; defectlve UY-227 secondary wlndlng of parer P a m former. 57. FIB. 3. Defecflve UX-280; broken connection; open radio prlmary, input trans. former. 59. openalter choke; 61. defective voltage divlder redstor. 60. shmfed condanaer, 56. Figa. 2 and 3. Defective UX-280; broken eonnecflon; defectlee voltage dlvider reelstor; open choke 61; shorted condenser. 56. Figs. 2 a n d 3. Low e d s s i o n UX-280; poor socket contact broken connectlon; o m choke. 61, defective soltege dlvlder, 60; shorted condenser i n condmbank. 56. Fig8 I and 2.

105 Volfa D. C.

185 Volta D. C.

Lesson 44

- sheet 11

each of the sockets at 110 volts power input and the possible location of the fault if these readings are not obtained. If the above tests do not locate the trouble the fault must then be caused by improper neutralization, defective volume control, or improper alignment or shorted plates of tuning condensers. Speaker. If there is no reproduction on either radio Lack of Heproductionor record. the trouble may be in t r field or voice coil or in the cable he off leads of the speaker. T G ~ the power switch, remove the speaker cable' plug from the amplifier, test for voice coil continuity between terminals 1 and 1 (black and white), and for field continuity between terminals 13 4 6 and 15 (red with green tracer and red with yellow tracer.)

..
F16URE 13- CENTERING COME IN ELECTRO WNhMIC REPROWCER FIGURE 12- TERMINAL STRIP AND PARTS OF ELECTRO DYNAMIC REPRODUCER

Lack of Reproduction-Power-Amplifier Unit. If the speaker has been found correct, the trouble must then lie in the power-amplifier unit, which should b tested in the following manner: e Make the power-amplifier socket voltage tests with the Weston or Jewel1 test box. The UPower-Amplifier Voltage Tests11 table lists the approximate volta&e readings which should be obtained in each of the sockets at 110 volts power input, and the possible location of the fault if these readings are not obtained. b If the trouble is not yet located, remove the screws in the metal . cap over the terminal connections in the multi-plug, and make the Cable Terminal Voltage Tests with the plug in its socket of the amplifier, and the radio set in operation. c. Connect a 4 5 volt "Cn battery in series with the voltmeter binding . posts of the test box, and with the cable plugs disconnected from the amplifier test between the following multi-plug socket terminals for contiquity. a. SPECIAL ADJUSTMENTS Neutralizing. Improper neutralization is characterized by oscillation and lack of sensitivity. First be sure that the instrument has a good ground Lesson 4 4

sheet 12

connection, since a poor ground will also cause oscillation. If oscillation still persists, the set should be neutralized in the following manner, using a dwnmy tube made by cutting off one of the filament prongs of a UX-226. a . b . Remove the four hex nuts which hold the plate. Tune in a powerful local station, preferably near the high frequency end of the scale. If such a signal is not available, a modulated oscillator, such as shown in Flgure 6, can be used to supply the signal. If the oscillator is used, it should be placed near the radio set and approximately three feet of wire used as an antenna on the set. Remove the OX-226 from the first tuned r-f stage (socket No. 2, Figure 5 ) replace with the dummy UX-226, and adjust the corresponding neutralizing condenser to give minimum signal in the loudspeaker. The volume control may be set to obtain a signal loud enough for accurate neutralization, but not so loud as to cause t h e minimum to be blurred.

c.

FIGURE 15

- REPLACIN6 STATION SELECTOR DIAL

F16URE 14

METHOD OF NEUTULIZING VICTOR RADIO

d .

Replace the UX-2.96 in socket No. 2, and repeat the procedure for sockets 5 , 4 and 5, adjusting the corresponding neutralizing condenser in each case. After completing the neutralization in this manner, turn back the neutralizing condenser for socket No. 5 approximately 1/2 turn counter-clockwise. Note: the first UX-226, antenna coupling stage, is not neutralized. If the instrument continues to oscillate, it is probable that the condensers are out of alignment.

Centering Cone in Electro-Dynamic Reproducer. Improper centering of the fabric cone in the speaker is characterized by a noticeable rattle or buzz when the volume control is advanced. Such a rattle can sometimes be traced to faulty tubes in the detector or audio stages; this possibility should first be eliminated before attempting to center the cone. If the voice coil is improperly centered: a. Remove the large mounting screw in the base of the speaker and pull the unit away from the front of the cabinet.

Lesson 4 4

sheet 13

b . c . d . e .

f .

Place the instrument in operation with the transfer switch in the "recordn position. Turn the UX-226 hum control all the way to the right or left to produce a loud 60 cycle hum. Loosen the center screw as shown in Figure 13, and then re-tighten it. Ordinarily, the cone should now be properly centered, which condition can be determined by the sound of the 60 cycle vibration. When the cone is improperly centered, a 60 cycle mechanical buzz will be heard as contrasted with a 60 cycle musical note when the coil is free and properly centered. In some cases it may be necessary to press the outer edge slightly while tightening the center screw in order to obtain proper voice coil clearance. Replace the speaker and re-adjust the UX-226 hum control.

Replacing Cloth Cone. Should it become necessary to replace the cloth cone because of an open voice coil or other defect, resort to the following: a . b . Unsolder the voice coil leads (black and white) frotn the terminals on the side of the frame. Carefully pull the felt insulating material away from the frame flange.

FIGURE

16-

ELECTRIC PICKUP, PICKUP ARM &NO BASE

c . d. e . f.

Remove the eight screws which hold the retaining ring against the cone, and also remove the center screw and washer. Remove the retaining ring, and lift the old cone from the unit. Replace with the new cone and assemble in the reverse order from that given above, using Victor turntable cement to fasten the felt to the metal flange. Center the cone as previously described.

Lesson 44

sheet 1 4

Replacing and Re-Adjusting Selector Scale. The following procedure should be used when replacing or s h i f t i n g the s e l e c t o r scale. a.
b .

c. d.

e.
f.

Disconnect the cable and wires t o the radio s e t , and remove the s e t from the cabinet. I n s e r t a screw d r i v e r through the holes i n the back of the p i l o t lamp compartment a s shown i n Figure 16, and loosen the clamps oh the old scale.- ---Remove the old scale, and place the new one i n position with the ends under t h e metal clamps. Before tightening the clamps, tune i n a s t a t i o n of known broadcast frequency, and s l i d e t h e s c a l e s l i g h t l y t o the r i g h t or l e f t u n t i l the number corresponding t o the known frequency of the s t a t i o n i s i n l i n e with the center mark of the c e l l u l o i d indicator. Check t h i s position on one or two other s t a t i o n s of known broadcast frequency. Holding the scale i n the proper position, re- tighten the screws a s shown i n Figure 16.

Adjusting E l e c t r i c P i c k u ~ . Faulty record reproduction with noticeable blasting, p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e bass notes, may be caused by worn records, needles or by improper centering of the pickup armature. If such a cond i t i o n i s traced t o improper adjustment of the pickup, the armature should be centered i n the following manner: I.
2 .
3.
4.

5.

6.

Remove the cover by taking out the needle screw and the cover screw, taking care t h a t the magnet i s not pulled away from the assembly. Loosen both round head screws i n the armature adjusting p l a t e with a small screw d r i v e r . Move the p l a t e u n t i l the armature i s properly centered between the pole pieces. Hold the p l a t e securely i n i t s centered position, and re- tighten the screws. When c e r t a i n t h a t the armature i s properly centered, replace a l l p a r t s of the pickup assembly. While making adjustments t o the pickup, the l u b r i c a t i o n between the pickup arm and base should be checked. Victor motor grease should be placed on the bearing surface t o insure f r e e motion of the arm.

Lesson 44

sheet 15

EXAMINATION

LESSON 4 4

1 (a) . (b)
2 .
3 .

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a short antenna? Of a long antenna?

What does a rattle or buzz denote in a dynamic loudspeaker when the volume control is advanced? How could you tell if this radio is improperly neutralized?

4 What is the most common cause of lack of reproduction? .

5 .

What are the hum potentiometers used for?

6. If you wanted to install this receiver in a home that was wired to give voltage above 125 volts would you take any special precautions?
j;

7 If you did not know the voltage in the home where the set is to be . installed, how would you determine it?
8 .

If there was any doubt in your mind as to whether the house was wired for d-c. or a-c. what steps would you take to determine which supply was available? Nhat is the purpose of the harmonic modulator? What is usually the cause of faulty record reproduction and what steps are taken to remedy .this trouble?

9 . 1. 0

4 Lesson 4

sheet 1 6

..

e%w=
t~ ., %

firrnerltj
M A R CON/ /NST/TUTE

sunded./909

3 Technical

Lesson 4 5
GENERAL ELECTRIC MODEL H - 3 1

RADIOLA M D L 80 OE

- GRAYBAR MODEL 700

- WESTINGHOUSE UODEL WR-5

INTRODUCTION. These models a r e nine- tube a-c operated screen g r i d superheterodyne r a d i o r e c e i v e r s . The e l e c t r i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of t h e s e various models a r e t h e same; they d i f f e r only i n cabinet design. Included i n t h e c a b i n e t i s an improved dynamic type reproducer u n i t which, t o g e t h e r with t h e r e c e i v e r , g i v e s a q u a l i t y of reproduction c l o s e l y approaching t h e o r i g i n a l . 4 f e a t u r e of t h e s e s e t s i s t h e c a l i b r a t e d kilocycle d i a l . This d i a l i s f a i r l y a c c u r a t e a s t o t h e d i v i s i o n s on the s c a l e and a s t a t i o n w i l l always appear around o r about i t s c o r r e c t k i l o c y c l e marking on t h e d i a l . This g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e s t h e l o c a t i o n of s t a t i o n s of known frequency even though t h e y have n o t been previously received.
A l o c a l - d i s t a n t switch i s provided which, i n a d d i t i o n t o providing two d i f f e r e n t degrees of s e n s i t i v i t y , changes t h e s e l e c t i v i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r s . A t t h e l o c a l i.'osition t h e r e c e i v e r s a r e l e s s s e n s i t i v e and l e s s s e l e c t i v e , but p have a b e t t e r high frequency response. A t t h e f f d i s t a n t f f o s i t i o n of t h e switch t h e s e l e c t i v i t y i s increased w i t h a s l i g h t l o s s i.n tone q u a l i t y . This s e l e c t i v i t y allows d i s t a n t s t a t i o n s t o be logged e a s i l y and g i v e s ten- kilocycle s e p a r a t i o n on most s t a t i o n s a t any frequency i n t h e broadcast spectrum.

These s e t s use f o u r 224 tubes. two 227 tubes, two 245 tubes and one 280 tube. - . . E x c e l l e n t s e n s i t i v i t y , s e l e c t i v i t y , and t o n e r q u a l i t y a r e secured through t h e u s e of t h e s e tubes t o g e t h e r w i t h a l a r g e power output. The output i s about 3 w a t t s which approaches t h a t of a 250 tube. E l e c t r i c a l Specifications Voltage Rating 105-125 Volts 50-60 Cycles, o r 25-40 Cycles Frequency Rating 110 Watts Power Consumption Recomme~dedAntenna Leng t.................... h.................... 25-75 F e e t A-C Screen-Grid Super-Heterodyne Type of C i r c u i t Type and Number of Tubes 4 UY-224, 2 UY-227, 2 UX-245, 1 UX-280 Number of Radio Frequency Stages 1 Type of F i r s t Detector Tuned I n p u t G r i d B i a s Number of Intermediate Stages 2 F u l l Wave, UX-280 Type of R e c t i f i e r Power Grid Bias Type of Second Detector 1 (Push-pull) Number of Audio Stages Type of Loudspeaker Dynamic 1 0 (110 V. 85 L A . ) Wattage D i s s i p a t i o n i n L.S. F i e l d Undistorted Output 3.0 Watts

............................................... ............................. ............................................. ........................... ............ ......................................... ............................... ............................................ ........................................ .................................... ....................................... ............................................. ...................... ...............................................

Figure 1

R ASSEMBLY. The Receiver Assembly schematic diagram is shown in Figure 1 Starting from the antenna circuit and following through each . stage we find the following action taking place. The antenna is coupled to a tuned link circuit by means of a high inductance concentrated coil connected from antenna to ground. The inductance is of a sufficient value that variations in the antenna system have but little effect on the tuning of this circuit.
The tuned circuit consists of a coil and condenser which tunes exactly with the tuned r-f and first detector. The purpose of this circuit is to eliminate any cross modulation from stations to which the set is not tuned, or heterodyne whistles as far as possible, and to improve the selectivity of the receiver. There is no amplification gain in this circuit, it being merely a selection circuit.

"

A tuned radio-frequency stage follows which uses a 224 tube. This stage gives about the same amplification as that obtained from two r-f stages
Lesson 45

- sheet 2

of an average good r e c e i v e r . The output of t h i s t i v e l y t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of the f i r s t d e t e c t o r a small condenser. The p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e r-f c o i l which provides a high impedance, i n t o which t u b e work i n order t o g e t good a m p l i f i c a t i o n .

s t a g e i s coupled capacio r mixing tube by means of s t a g e has a h i g h inductance i t i s necessary t o have t h e

a l s o t o t h e g r i d c o i l of t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r . I t s output, however, i s i n d u c t i v e l y i n s t e a d of c a p a c i t i v e l y coupled t o t h i s c i r c u i t . This i s a tuned g r i d c i r c u i t o s c i l l a t o r using a 227 tube and having a c l o s e l y coupled p l a t e c o i l t h a t g i v e s s u f f i c i e n t feed-back t o provide s t a b l e operation. The g r i d c i r c u i t i s so designed t h a t by means of a c o r r e c t combination of c a p a c i t y and inductance a c o n s t a n t frequency d i f f e r e n c e between t h e o s c i l l a t o r and t h e tuned r-f c i r c u i t s throughout the range of t h e r e c e i v e r i s obtained. The n e x t c i r c u i t t o examine i s t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r . The c i r c u i t i s tuned by means of one of t h e gang condensers t o t h e frequency of t h e incoming s i g n a l . I n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t t h e r e i s present t h e incoming s i g n a l and t h e o s c i l l a t o r s i g n a l , t h e l a t t e r being a t a 175 k i l o c y c l e d i f f e r e n c e from t h e former. The f i r s t d e t e c t o r i s b i a s e d so as t o o p e r a t e a s a p l a t e r e c t i f i c a t i o n d e t e c t o r and i t s purpose i s t o e x t r a c t t h e d i f f e r e n c e o r b e a t frequency, produced by combining t h e s i g n a l and o s c i l l a t o r frequencies. The beat frequency of 175 kc appears i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of the f i r s t d e t e c t o r which i s accurately tuned t o 175 kc, The t u b e used a s a f i r s t d e t e c t o r i s a 224. The n e x t two c i r c u i t s a r e t h e f i r s t and second i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a g e s which g i v e a very high degree of a m p l i f i c a t i o n . The g r i d s and p l a t e s of both s t a g e s , a s w e l l a s t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r and t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e second d e t e c t o r , a r e tuned t o 175 kc. Two r e s i s t a n c e s a r e arranged f o r connecting t o t h e f i r s t i n t e r m e d i a t e frequency transformer, t h e connection o r disconnection of which c o n s t i t u t e s t h e a c t i o n of t h e " l o c a l - d i s t a n t f switch. A t t h e " l o c a l " p o s i t i o n a 40,000 ohm r e s i s t o r i s connected a c r o s s t h e primary of t h i s transformer and a 500 ohm r e s i s t o r i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e secondary and one s i d e of t h e tuning condenser. The e f f e c t of t h e s e r e s i s t o p s i s t o decrease t h e s e n s i t i v i t y , broaden t h e s e l e c t i v i t y and thus improve t h e f i d e l i t y of t h e s e t . A t t h e " d i s t a n t " pos i t i o n t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s o u t of both c i r c u i t s and t h e o r i g i n a l s e n s i t i v i t y and s e l e c t i v i t y i s obtained. After t h e high a m p l i f i c a t i o n i n t h e intermediate s t a g e s , t h e s i g n a l appears i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e second d e t e c t o r . The second d e t a c t o r i s a high- plate voltage, grid- biased type d e t e c t o r which g i v e s s u f f i c i e n t o u t p u t t o d r i v e two 245 tubes connected i n push- pull w i t h o u t an i n t e r m e d i a t e audio s t a g e . The purpose of t h e second d e t e c t o r i s t o e x t r a c t t h e audio- frequency component of t h e r-f s i g n a l which r e p r e s e n t s t h e voice o r musical modulations produced i n t h e s t u d i o of t h e broadcasting s t a t i o n . The audio component i s e x t r a c t e d and used t o d r i v e t h e power tubes while t h e r-f c u r r e n t i s by-passed and n o t used any f u r t h e r . Figure 2 i s a t o p view of t h e r e c e i v e r assembly and shows t h e p a r t s l o c a t e d thereon. Figure 3 i s a bottom view of the r e c e i v e r assembly and shows such p a r t s a s a r e located there.

A t t h i s p o i n t t h e o s c i l l a t o r should be considered, a s i t s output i s coupled

Lesson 45

sheet 3

SOCKET POWER UNIT. The socket power u n i t , Figure 4, contains a l l t h e p a r t s used i n t h e r e c t i f i e r and povier a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t s together with the reproducer u n i t . This makes f o r u n i t construction and easy assembly, t o g e t h e r with e f f i c i e n t operation.
The povier s t a g e comprises two 245 tubes connected i n push- pull. These tubes g i v e a l a r g e u n d i s t o r t e d output which i s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e cone c o i l of t h e dynamic type loudspeaker by means of a center- tapped primary step-down t r a n s former connected i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e 245 tubes. The primary impedance i s of a value t o match t h e p l a t e impedance of t h e two tubes, and the secondary of a value t h a t matches t h e cone c o i l of the reproducer u n i t . Thus, t h e f u l l output of t h e two 245 tubes i s e f f i c i e n t l y applied t o t h e loudspeaker. I n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e i n p u t transformer, a 60,000 ohm r e s i s t o r i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e c e n t e r t a p of the i n t e r s 5 a g e transformer. The purpose of t h i s r e s i s t o r i s ' t o e l i m i n a t e audio o s c i l l a t i o n s .
GANG CONDENSER ASSEMBiY LINE.UP CONDENSERS SELECTOR DIAL

I F TUNING CONDENSERS

Figure 2 The r e c t i f i e r i s a 280 tube which provides a f u l l wave r e c t i f y i n g device of ample capacity f o r providing a l l p l a t e and g r i d v o l t a g e s used i n t h e r e c e i v e r and power a m p l i f i e r , a s w e l l a s power f o r t h e f i e l d of t h e reproducer u n i t . A s p e c i a l l y designed f i l t e r system removes a l l r i p p l e from t h e d-c output of &he r e c t i f i e r . This r e s u l t s i n t h e r e c e i v e r having no a-c hum o r o t h e r extraneous n o i s e o t h e r than t h a t picked up i n t h e antenna system. The reproducer f i e l d i s used a s a r e a c t o r i n t h e f i l t e r i n g system, thus r e c e i v i n g i t s energy and a c t i n g a s a u n i t i n t h e f i l t e r i n g system a t t h e same time. Figure 5 i s a view of t h e bottom of t h e socket power u n i t .
A s t h e f i l t e r i n g system i n t h i s r e c e i v e r i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t from t h e u s u a l arrangement a word of explanation may h e l p t h e serviceman t o properly unders t a n d i t s action. F i g u r e 1 shows t h e f i r s t s t a g e of t h e f i l t e r having two

condensers and a tapped r e a c t o r . The condensers f u n c t i o n i n t h e u s u a l manner, a c t i n g a s r e s e r v o i r s t o hold t h e c u r r e n t from one impulse t o t h e next. The tapped r e a c t o r f u n c t i o n s somewhat d i f f e r e n t from t h e u s u a l manner, however. The d-c c u r r e n t flows through one s e c t i o n of i t , t h e o t h e r s e c t i o n being connected t o a condenser. However, an a-c v o l t a g e i s p r e s e n t a c r o s s t h e Lesson 45
8

sheet 4

o t h e r s e c t i o n due t o i t s transformer a c t i o n , s i m i l a r t o an auto- transformer. This voltage i s 180 degrees o u t of phase with t h e r i p p l e voltage a c r o s s the second condenser and t h e r e f o r e t o a l a r g e e x t e n t c a n c e l s out a l l r i p p l e flowing from t h e t a p t o succeeding c i r c i l i t s . This r e s u l t s i n t h e output of t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e f i l t e r being s u b s t a n t i a l l y f r e e from r i p p l e . The f i e l d of t h e reproducer u n i t i s connected i n s e r i e s with t h i s output and f u r t h e r removes t h e s l i g h t r i p p l e voltage remaining. The condensers a r e of ample capacity, being one 2 mfd. and two 3 mfd. i n capacity, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
A s i n g l e filament winding on the power transformer provides a l l filament
4

and h e a t e r voltages used, with t h e exception of t h e 280 tube which has a s e p a r a t e winding. I t a l s o s u p p l i e s c a r r e n t t o t h e d i a l lamp.
3.0 1. E TRANSFORMER
BY.P&SS CONOENSER 1 I . TRANSFORMER VOLUME CONTROL

IS' DETECTOR
COlL

OSCILLATOR TRIMMING CONOENSER

R F CHOKE

2"?/1.F. TRANSFORMER

RESISTOR ASSEMBLY

1s: R F PLATE COlL

OSCIILAlOR COILS

\ BY-PASS CONDENSERS

Figure 3

FILTER REACTOR

SWITCH

L INE ~ O L T A G E A O J U S T M E N T FUSE

CORD

STRIP

Figure 4
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e 50-60 c y c l e models, 25-40 cycle models a r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e . The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e 50-60 cycle and t h e 25-40 c y c l e r e c e i v e r s i s t h e . power transformer and an a d d i t i o n a l f i l t e r c a p a c i t o r t h a t i s showninFigure 1

Due t o t h e h i g h s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e s e r e c e i v e r s t h e ANTENNA (Outdoor Type). antenna l e n g t h need be o n l y 25 t o 75 f e e t . I n remote d i s t r i c t s t h i s l e n g t h may be extended t o s e c u r e improved pick-up of d i s t a n t broadcasting s t a t i o n s . The antenna should be e r e c t e d a s high a s p o s s i b l e and be removed from a l l o b s t r u c t i o n s . The l e a d - i n should be a continuation of t h e antenna i t s e l f , thus avoiding a l l s p l i c e s which might introduce a d d i t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e and, i n time, corrode s u f f i c i e n t l y t o s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t r e c e p t i o n . If i t i s a b s o l u t e l y necessary t o s p l i c e t h e lead- in t o t h e antenna t h e j o i n t must be c a r e f u l l y soldered t o i n s u r e a good e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t . Clean o f f a l l excess flu and tape t h e connection, t o p r o t e c t i t from t h e oxidation e f f e c t s of t h e atmosphere. High grade g l a s s o r p o r c e l a i n i n s u l a t o r supports a r e required, and a t no p o i n t should t h e antenna o r lead- in wire come i n c o n t a c t with any p a r t of t h e building. Bring t h e l e a d - i n wire from t h e o u t s i d e through a p o r c e l a i n tube o r o t h e r approved i n s u l a t o r t o t h e i n s i d e of t h e house f o r connection t o t h e receiver. f Lesson 45

sheet 5

Ttie antenna should n o t c r o s s e i t h e r over or under any e l e c t r i c l i g h t , t r a c t i o n or power l i n e and should be a t r i g h t angles t o t h e s e l i n e s and o t h e r antennas. A outdoor antenna should be p r o t e c t e d by means of an n approved l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t e r , i n accordance with t h e requirements of t h e National F i r e Underwriters 1 Code.

ANTENNA (Indoor T y ~ e ) . Where t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of an outdoor antenna i s n o t

p r a c t i c a l , s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s may g e n e r a l l y be obtained by using an indoor antenna of 25 t o 50 f e e t of i n s u l a t e d wire strung around the p i c t u r e moulding or placed under a rug. I n buildings with s t e e l framework o r where metal l a t h i n g i s .employed, s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s a r e n o t always p o s s i b l e with t h i s type of antenna. However, due t o i t s s e n s i t i v i t y , t h i s instrument w i l l g e n e r a l l y give e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y reception with an indoor antenna.
A F TRANSFORMER
CONNECTIONS CAPACIJOR PACK CONNECTIONS 69,000 OHM GRlD RESISTOR POWER TRRNSFORMER CONNECTlOpS

no.aao OHM

RESISTOR

CENTER.TAPPE0 RESISTOR

UX-245 GRID BIAS RESISTOR

FILTER R ~ A C T O R CONNECTIONS

Figure 5 SPECIAL AXTENNA INSTALLATIONS FOR N O I S Y LOCATIONS. I n l i n e with o t h e r rec e i v e r s , when t h e s e s e t s a r e i n s t a l l e d i n some c i t y l o c a t i o n s , such a s aoartment houses. h o t e l s and o f f i c e buildings, i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e l e v e l 02 n o i s e compared w i t h t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h o f - t h e d e s i r e d s t a t i o n may be such t h a t t h e s t a t i o n cannot be received without an o b j e c t i o n a b l e n o i s e background. This n o i s e may be d e f i n e d a s i n d u c t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e from e l e c t r i c a l devices such a s e l e v a t o r motors, g e n e r a t o r s , v i o l e t r a y nachines, p r o f e s s i o n a l equipment, e t c . I t may have no apparent radio- frequency peak, o r i t may have a broad peak. The e f f e c t of t h e n o i s e may be divided i n t o t h e following t h r e e g e n e r a l c l a s s e s :
1.
2.

Where t h e n o i s e l e v e l i s zero with no antenna o r ground, but i s equally g r e a t on e i t h e r an indoor o r outdoor antenna, Where t h e n o i s e i s e q u a l l y g r e a t with t h e antenna and ground e i t h e r connected o r disconnected. Where t h e n o i s e l e v e l i s g r e a t e r when t h e o u t s i d e antenna i s connected than when an i n s i d e antenna i s used; t h e i n s i d e antenna, however, n o t giving s u f f i c i e n t pick-up f o r satisfactory reception.

3,

Lesson 45

sheet 6

STATION SELECTOR'.,

LOCAL-DISTANT SWITCH

,r.

VOLUME CONTROL

5i
<

5~

S. P.U: REPRODUCER ASSEMBLY

O P E R A T I N G SWITCH

'A.C. I N P U T PLUG

Complete laydut of all assemblies and cable connections

Lesson 45- sheet 7

it i s a t on& . a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e i s n o t being brought i n t o t h e r e c e i v e r over t h e power supply l i n e s . I t h a s been found i n such c a s e s t h a t an antenna f i v e f e e t long i n s i d e t h e room picked up a s much n o i s e a s when an e n t i r e o u t s i d e antenna l e a d - i n were used. T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t the n o i s e i s within t h e building and, i n t h e case of t h e o u t s i d e antenna, i s being picked up on t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e l e a d - i n that e n t e r s and goes through t h e building. I n such c a s e s t h e r e c e i v e r should be l o c a t e d c l o s e t o t h e p o i n t where t h e outs i d e lead- in e n t e r s t h e building. If t h i s i s i m p r a c t i c a l t h e r e c e i v e r can be placed i n any l o c a t i o n and a copper braid placed over t h e i n s i d e p o r t i o n of t h e lead- in wire. T h i s b r a i d is not grounded. If the n o i s e l e v e l i s s t i l l appreciable a good r e c e i v e r ground with a s h o r t l e a d may be obtained. A long l e a d i s n o t d e s i r a b l e , a s it may pick up n o i s e . Placing a s h i e l d over t h e ground wire, b u t n o t grounding t h e s h i e l d , may help.

b i t ' e b u a l l y g r e a t w i t h e i t h e r an indoor o r outdoor antenna,

I n (2) t h e n o i s e i s picked up w i t h no antenna o r ground connected t o t h e r e c e i v e r . This i n d i c a t e s t h e n o i s e i s e n t e r i n g t h e r e c e i v e r through t h e power l i n e s . I n t h i s c a s e f i l t e r s must be placed i n t h e power supply a t t h e source of t h e n o i s e o r a t t h e r e c e i v e r , depending on conditions. If t h e t r o u b l e i s c l e a r e d up i n t h i s manner when t h e antenna and ground a r e disconnected, but a g a i n appears with t h e use of the antenna system, t h e remedies suggested i n (1) must a l s o be applied.

Voltage supply circuit

Condenser drive cord amangement

Figure 7

Figure 8

I n (3) t h e n o i s e i s g r e a t e r when t h e o u t s i d e antenna i s connected than when an i n s i d e antenna i s used. The use of t h e i n s i d e antenna, however, does n o t g i v e s u f f i c i e n t pick-up f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y r e c e p t i o n . I n t h i s c a s e t h e pick-up i s probably occurring on t h e l e a d - i n w i r e between t h e r e c e i v e r and t h e antenna. Copper b r a i d should be placed over the e n t i r e lead- in from t h e r e c e i v e r t o t h e f l a t p o r t i o n of t h e antenna. Also changing t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e antenna should be t r i e d and t h e lead- in connected from t h e end of t h e antenna t h a t g i v e s t h e b e s t r e s u l t s . The copper b r a i d may o r b e s t r e s u l t s being determined by experiment. The may n o t be grounded c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n g in any l o c a l i t y must be analyzed and placed i n i t s c o r r e c t category. A l i t t l e p a t i e n c e and experimenting w i l l u s u a l l y r e s u l t i n a satisfactory installation.

Lesson 45

sheet 8

A good ground i s q u i t e a s important a s a good antenna. N s p e c i f i c o recommendations can be given i n t h i s matter a s c o n d i t i o n s vary i n d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s . Water and steam p i p e s u s u a l l y make good grounds. Gas pipes make poor grounds and, a s a r u l e , a r e t o be avoided. If n e i t h e r water nor steam p i p e s a r e a v a i l a b l e , a pipe o r metal rod may be d r i v e n i n t o t h e ground t o a depth of s e v e r a l f e e t . The success of this type of ground depends upon t h e moisture p r e s e n t i n t h e s o i l . The ground l e a d should be a s s h o r t a s p o s s i b l e and connected by means of an approved ground clamp t o a s e c t i o n of pipe t h a t h a s been scraped and thoroughly cleaned. The connection should be inspected from time t o time t o make c e r t a i n t h a t a c l e a n and t i g h t e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t e x i s t s between t h e clamp and pipe. The serviceman should experiment with v a r i o u s grounds, and employ t h e one giving t h e b e s t r e s u l t s .

GROUND.

VACUUM TUBES.

This s e t u s e s n i n e vacuum tubes, f o u r 2 2 4 ' ~two 227ts, two ~ 2 4 5 f s and one 280. The t u b e s should be placed i n t h e i r c o r r e c t sockets a s shown i n Figure 6. A f t e r p l a c i n g t h e r e c e i v e r i n o p e r a t i o n i t i s best t o t r y interchanging t h e tubes i n t h e following manner s o as t o g e t t h e b e s t r e s u l t s from a given s e t of tubes. Always t u r n t h e o p e r a t i n g switch "Off" before removing a tube.
1. Interchanging t h e two 227 tubes and l e a v e t h e one i n t h e o s c i l l a t o r socket t h a t g i v e s t h e loudest s i g n a l a t a given p o s i t i o n of t h e volume c o n t r o l . If another 227 t u b e i s a v a i l a b l e t r y interchangfng i t w i t h t h e one i n t h e d e t e c t o r socket and t u r n t h e volume up t o i t s maximum output. Use t h e tube t h a t g i v e s t h e g r e a t e s t u n d i s t o r t e d output.

2.

The 224 tubes should be t r i e d i n the f i r s t d e t e c t o r and f i r s t r-f s t a g e u n t i l t h o s e giving t h e l o u d e s t s i g n a l on a given s t a t i o n with t h e same s e t t i n g of t h e volume c o n t r o l a r e found. The remaining t u b e s should be placed i n t h e two intermediate s t a g e s . The two 2457s a r e placed i n t h e push- pull s t a g e and t h e 280 i n t h e r e c t i f i e r socket.

LOCATION O RECEIVER. F The r e c e i v e r should be t r i e d i n v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s i n t h e room i n which i t i s t o be operated and t h e l o c a t i o n giving the b e s t a c o u s t i c a l r e s u l t s used. However, t h e e i g h t - f o o t a-c cord may prove a n l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i f an a-c o u t l e t i s n o t within i t s r a d i u s . A extension cord may be used i n c a s e s of this kind a s t h e b e t t e r r e s u l t s u s u a l l y j u s t i f y i t s small c o s t .

The antenna and ground l e a d s should be separated a s much a s p o s s i b l e u n t i l they connect t o t h e r e c e i v e r , otherwise a r e d u c t i o n i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h w i l l r e s u l t due t o t h e c a p a c i t y between l e a d s .
ADJUSTMENT F R L W LINE VOLTAGES, O O
A f u s e i s provided fn t h e primary c i r c u i t of t h e power transformer which, i n a d d i t i o n t o a c t i n g as a p r o t e c t i v e device, allows proper adjustment t o be made f o r l i n e s having d i f f e r e n t voltages.

The f u s e i s so placed a t t h e f a c t o r y t h a t t h e s e t w i l l g i v e normal r e s u l t s on a-c l i n e s of 115 t o 125 v o l t s . If t h e l i n e i s always l e s s than 115, t h e s e t may be adapted t o i t f o r b e s t r e s u l t s i n t h e following manner:

Lesson 45

- sheet

1.

Remove the cover over t h e f u s e by loosening i t s r e t a i n i n g screw and l i f t i n g c l e a r . Underneath the cover w i l l be seen t h r e e f u s e c l i p s with a small c a r t r i d g e f u s e i n s e r t e d between two of them. See Figure 6. One o u t s i d e c l i p i s marked 110 and t h e o t h e r 120. I n i t s o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n t h e f u s e i s placed between t h e center one and t h e one marked 120.
L i f t t h e f u s e from i t s o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n and i n s e r t i t between

2.

t h e c l i p marked 110 and t h e center c l i p . So connected t h e s e t w i l l g i v e b e s t r e s u l t s on l i n e s n o t exceeding 115 v o l t s . To r e p l a c e a f u s e , remove t h e cover and o l d f u s e and place t h e new f u s e i n t h e same l o c a t i o n . Then r e p l a c e t h e cover.
aLOWN FUSE.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A blown f u s e may be causea by t h e following:

Connecting t h e s e t t o t h e d-c l i n e . P l a t e t o p l a t e s h o r t of 280 tube. Shorted condenser i n c a p a c i t o r pack. Shorted f i l a m e n t o r h e a t e r c o n t a c t s o r d i a l lamp socket. Defective power transformer.

Any of t h e above causes must be c l e a r e d up before a new f u s e i s i n s t a l l e d , otherwise t h e new f u s e w i l l blow a s soon a s t h e o l d one i s replaced and t h e power turned nOn.n
J E R K Y ACTION 0F.STATION SELECTOR. Should o p e r a t i o n of t h e s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r be s t i f f o r jerky a l i t t l e o i l dropped on each condenser bearing w i l l e f f e c -

t i v e l y remedy t h i s condition. When experiencing t h i s t r o u b l e i t i s a l s o w e l l t o check t h e c a b l e t e n s i o n s p r i n g t o make s u r e t h a t s u i t a b l e tension i s being applied t o t h e condenser-drive cable.

USE O llLOCAL-DISTANT" SWITCH. The l l l o c a l - d i s t a n t " switch i n t h e r e c e i v e r F performs a somewhat d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n from t h e u s u a l l o c a l - d i s t a n t switch used i n o t h e r r e c e i v e r s . A t t h e l o c a l p o s i t i o n t h e r e c e i v e r i s s t i l l very s e n s i t i v e , but i t s s e l e c t i v i t y i s impaired s l i g h t l y i n order t o g e t b e t t e r t o n e q u a l i t y . The s e t should normally be operated w i t h t h i s switch i n t h e fllocalll p o s i t i o n . I n t h e " d i s t a n t " p o s i t i o n b e t t e r s e n s i t i v i t y and select i v i t y i s obtained, and throwing t h e switch t o t h i s p o s i t i o n w i l l give b e t t e r volume on extremely weak s i g n a l s and on a l l s i g n a l s t h e frequency of which i s but s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from powerful l o c a l s t a t i o n s . The d i f f e r e n c e i n tone q u a l i t y of t h e two p o s i t i o n s of t h e switch while n o t i c e a b l y b e t t e r a t t h e l o c a l p o s i t i o n i s s t i l l very good a t e i t h e r p o s i t i o n . A t times when t h e n o i s e l e v e l i s high, throwing t h e switch t o t h e l1distantn p o s i t i o n , even when r e c e i v i n g a l o c a l s t a t i o n , may g i v e b e t t e r r e s u l t s . PRECAUTIONS F R EXCESSIE3LY LOUD SIGNALS. I n some l o c a t i o n s , very c l o s e t o O nxtremelv oowerful s t a t i o n s . i t may be a d v i s a b l e t o place a switch i n s e r i e s --- - - - w i t h thesahtenna and discon6ect t h e antenna when r e c e i v i n g such s t a t i o n s . If t h e volume c o n t r o l does n o t g i v e proper cut- off from such s t a t i o n s remove t h e 6000 ohm r e s i s t o r shunted a c r o s s i t . This may be done without removing t h e r e c e i v e r from t h e c a b i n e t by using a small p a i r of s i d e c u t t i n g p l i e r s . I n some cases under such c o n d i t i o n s i t may be necessary t o interchange t h e r-f and f i r s t i n t e r m e d i a t e frequency tubes.
-

Lesson 45

sheet 10

A g r a t i n g n o i s e may be caused by a poor lead- in connection t o the antenna, o r t h e antenna touching some m e t a l l i c s u r f a c e such a s t h e edge of a t i n roof, d r a i n pipe, e t c . By disconnecting t h e antenna and ground l e a d s t h e serviceman can soon determine whether the cause of complaint i s w i t h i n o r e x t e r n a l t o t h e r e c e i v e r and plan his s e r v i c e work accordingly.
AIJTENNA SYSTEU FAILDRES.

&

The tube sockets used i n t h i s s e t a r e of an i m proved type having a l a r g e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e and should r e q u i r e a minimum of s e r v i c e work. I n order t o g e t b e s t r e s u l t s , however, t h e tube prongs should be p e r i o d i c a l l y cleaned because d i r t y prongs o f t e n cause n o i s y operation. Fine sandpaper may be used t o c l e a n them so a s t o i n s u r e a good contact surface. The u s e of emery c l o t h o r s t e e l wool i s n o t recommended. Before r e - i n s e r t i n g the tubes i n t h e i r sockets wipe t h e prongs and base c a r e f u l l y t o make c e r t a i n t h a t a l l p a r t i c l e s of sand a r e removed. NOISY VOLUME CONTROL. Noisy o p e r a t i o n of t h e volume c o n t r o l i s u s u a l l y caused by d i r t between t h e r e s i s t a n c e element and t h e c o n t a c t arm. Turning t h e volume c o n t r o l back and f o r t h s e v e r a l times w i l l u s u a l l y c l e a r the trouble. If i t does not, however, t h e u s e of a pipe c l e a n e r and one o f t h e various c i g a r e t t e l i g h t e r f l u i d s , using t h e pipe c l e a n e r t o apply t h e f l u i d t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e element, w i l l u s u a l l y c l e a r up t h e t r o u b l e . If n e i t h e r of t h e s e remedies c l e a r s the t r o u b l e , t h e volume c o n t r o l must be replaced.
BROKEN CONDENSER DRIVE CORD. The gang condenser i s driven from t h e s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r knob bv means of a cord arrannement t h a t a l s o f u n c t i o n s a s a v e r n i e r c o n t r o l . This cord i s of rugged c o n s t r u c t i o n and a s p r i n g i s used t o maintain an even t e n s i o n a t a l l times. Should t h e cord become disengaged from thedrum o r a new c o r d . b e r e q u i r e d f o l l o w t h e arrangement i n d i c a t e d i n Figure 8 f o r t h e c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n of t h e cord on t h e drum, otherwise t h e cord l e n g t h w i l l be i n c o r r e c t o r t h e s t o p s on t h e s h a f t w i l l engage a t t h e wrong time.
- -

TUBE SOCKETS AND PRONGS.

EXCESSIVE HW.

Excessive hum may be caused by: Replace with one i n known good condition.

Defective 280 tube.

Defective f i l t e r r e a c t o r . A f i l t e r r e a c t o r w i t h shorted t u r n s , o r one i n which t h e c e n t e r t a p has become open w i l l cause hum i n t h e loudspeaker. Open f i l t e r condenser. An open of any of t h e f i l t e r condensers w i l l cause a hum t o develop. Defective f i e l d c o i l i n reproducer u n i t . A s the f i e l d c o i l of t h e reproducer i s a p a r t of t h e r e c t i f i e r f i l t e r supply, shorted t u r n s o r a grounded c o i l may cause hum. Any d e f e c t i v e p a r t must be r e p a i r e d o r replaced. Grounded o r s h o r t e d by-pass condensers. T e s t a l l condensers and r e p l a c e any condenser found d e f e c t i v e . Defective c e n t e r tapped r e s i s t a n c e . A s h o r t of one s e c t i o n o r any open i n t h i s r e s i s t a n c e w i l l cause a loud hum. Lesson 45

- sheet 11

7.

Grounded f i l a m e n t l e a d . This may occur a t t h e S.P.U. (socket power u n i t ) t e r m i n a l s t r i p due t o t h e screw t h a t holds t h e cover i n p l a c e touching one f i l a m e n t lead. Acoustic howl may be caused by:

ACOUSTIC HOWL.
1.

Defective rubber cushions. I f the cushions on which t h e c h a s s i s i s supported h a s become aged o r hardened, t h e y should be replaced. Any d e f e c t i n t h e support of t h e c h a s s i s t h a t prevents i t from being e n t i r e l y supported by rubber may cause a c o u s t i c howl. Microphonic d e t e c t o r tube. A microphonic tube, while r a r e , i n t h e d e t e c t o r socket may cause a howl. The remedy i s t o r e p l a c e the t u b e or use i t i n another socket. Low volume may be caused by:

2.

3.

LOW VOLUME.

Defective tubes. Try interchanging a l l tubes with o t h e r of s i m i l a r type known t o be i n good condition. Poor antenna system. Receiver n o t p r o p e r l y aligned. F i r s t , r e p l a c e t h e o s c i l l a t o r tube. Second, a d j u s t o s c i l l a t o r trimming condensers, i n t e r mediate frequency tuning condensers, and gang condenser vanes. Defective a-f transformer. The a-f transformers, t h e i n t e r n a l connections of which a r e shown i n Figure 15, a r e i n a metal cont a i n e r . A l l c o i l s should be t e s t e d f o r c o n t i n u i t y and i f o t h e r d e f e c t s a r e considered l i k e l y , the c o i l s should be measured f o r d-c r e s i s t a n c e . Shorted t u r n s may be d i s c l o s e d by s u b s t i t u t i n g an e n t i r e l y new u n i t f o r t h e one i n use. Low v o l t a g e s from S.P.U. Measure a l l v o l t a g e s and i f low, r e p l a c e t h e 280 tube o r any d e f e c t i v e p a r t s t h a t a r e causing low v o l t a g e s i n t h e S.P.U. Open, s h o r t s o r grounds i n r e c e i v e r assembly. T e s t with cont i n u i t y t e s t s and make any r e p a i r o r replacement necessary. Shorted f i e l d c o i l i n reproducer u n i t . Any d e f e c t t h a t reduces t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e reproducer u n i t w i l l reduce t h e o u t p u t of t h e r e c e i v e r . Check t h e c u r r e n t (85 M.A.) i n t h e f i e l d and t h e voltage drop (110 v o l t s ) a c r o s s it. A n open f i e l d c o i l w i l l cause the r e c e i v e r t o be i n o p e r a t i v e . DISTORTED REPRODUCTION. t h e following:
1.

D i s t o r t e d reproduction may be caused by any of

Vacuum tubes. A d e f e c t i v e tube w i l l cause d i s t o r t i o n and can be d e f e c t i v e even though i t l i g h t s . Defects o t h e r than h e a t e r

Lesson 45

sheet 12

or filament f a i l u r e s a r e checked only by s u b s t i t u t i o n h i t h a tube of known q u a l i t y or by t e s t i n g t h e tube.

Defective a-f transformers. An open i n t h e secondary of t h e i n p u t transformer o r shorted t u r n s i n any winding may cause d i s t o r t i o n . T e s t by means of c o n t i n u i t y o r r e s i s t a n c e measurement t e s t s and make replacement i f necessary. O s c i l l a t i o n in r e c e i v e r assembly. O s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e r e c e i v e r assembly o t h e r than that of t h e o s c i l l a t o r w i l l cause d i s t o r t i o n t o be experienced w i t h tuning i n a s t a t i o n . This d i s t o r t i o n w i l l be accompanied by a w h i s t l e when t h e s t a t i o n i s tuned i n . Receiver improperly aligned. Improper alignment of t h e rec e i v e r i n a d d i t i o n t o a f f e c t i n g i t s s e n s i t i v i t y and s e l e c t i v i t y , w i l l cause d i s t o r t i o n of any s i g n a l received. I n c o r r e c t tuning. If t h e r e c e i v e r i s n o t a c c u r a t e l y tuned t o the s t a t i o n being received, d i s t o r t i o n w i l l r e s u l t . Follow i n s t r u c t i o n s given on t h e i n s t r u c t i o n card accompanying each s e t when tuning. Heterodyne between s t a t i o n s too c l o s e i n frequency. This i s no d e f e c t i n t h e r e c e i v e r and, t h e r e f o r e , cannot be remedied except by s h i f t i n g t h e frequencies of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s .

1
i
'-1400 K.C.TRIMMING COWDENSERIP'

Figure 10

Figure 9
7.

Strong l o c a l s t a t i o n . S e t "Local- Distant" switch i n "Local n p o s i t i o n . S h i f t r-f t u b e s and f i r s t i- f tubes. Shorten antenna. P l a c e a s w i t c h i n antenna lead. Open by-pass condensers o r connections. Any f a i l u r e t h a t w i l l cause a by-pass condenser n o t t o f u n c t i o n w i l l r e s u l t i n d i s t o r t i o n . Repair o r r e p l a c e any such d e f e c t . Check by means of Defect i n Receiver Assembly o r S.P.U. c o n t i n u i t y t e s t s and make any replacement necessary. Lesson 45

8.

9.

s h e e t 13

S t a t i o n s too c l o s e i n frequency. This i s a f a u l t of t h e broadcasting t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n s and no f a u l t of t h e r e c e i v e r . Such a howl w i l l be picked up on any type of r e c e i v e r . Open by-pass condensers. A open of any of t h e by-pass n condensers may cause an audio howl. Receiver O s c i l l a t i o n . A o s c i l l a t i n g r e c e i v e r w i l l give n a w h i s t l e when a s t a t i o n i s tuned i n . Defective tubes i n push- pull o r d e t e c t o r s t a g e . A d e f e c t i v e tube i n t h e push- pull o r d e t e c t o r s t a g e may cause t h e r e c e i v e r t o develop a howl. Replace any d e f e c t i v e tube. Vibrating elements i n t h e r e c e i v e r tubes. A g r a d u a l l y developed howl may be due t o t h e loudspeaker, causing t h e r e c e i v e r tube elements t o v i b r a t e . OSCILLATION.
1.

O s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e r-f and i-f s t a g e s may be due to:

F a i l u r e of s h i e l d i n g of t h e 224 tubes, o r t h e i r c o n t r o l g r i d l e a d s n o t i n place. Make s u r e a l l s h i e l d i n g and l e a d s a r e as o r i g i n a l l y intended. Any f a i l u r e should be r e p a i r e d . Open by-pass condensers i n r e c e i v e r assembly. a n y , r e p a i r o r replacement necessary. Test and make

2
3.

Lead from by-pass condenser n o t p r o p e r l y connected. A s e p a r a t e l e a d i s brought o u t of t h e by-pass condenser case f o r the ground connection t o the condenser t h a t i s connected t o r-f and i-f p l a t e v o l t a g e supply l e a d s . While t h e condenser i s s t i l l e l e c t r i c a l l y i n t h e c i r c u i t , i f t h i s l e a d i s n o t connected, o s c i l l a t i o n i n the intermediate stages w i l l r e s u l t . Defective 224 tube. A d e f e c t i v e 224 t u b e may cause o s c i l l a t i o n and should be replaced by a tube known t o be i n good o p e r a t i n g condition.

4.

ADJUSTEBiT O R-F LINE-UP AND OSCILLATOR TRIWIdING CONDENSERS. Five F a d i u s t a b l e condensers are ~ r o v i d e df o r l i n i n g up t h e r-f c i r c u i t s and s h i f t i n g t h e o s c i l l a t o r frequency so t h a t i t - w i l l be a t a 175 kc d i f f e r e n c e from t h e incoming r-f s i g n a l throughout t h e tuning range of t h e s e t . Poor q u a l l t y , i n s e n s i t i v i t y and p o s s i b l e i n o p e r a t i o n of the r e c e i v e r may be caused by t h e s e condensers being o u t of adjustment.

If o t h e r adjustments have n o t been tampered w i t h - t h e intermediate t h e following procedure tuning and gang-condenser line- up condensers may be used f o r a d j u s t i n g t h e s e condensers.

1.

Procure an r-f o s c i l l a t o r giving a modulated s i g n a l a t e x a c t l y 1400 k c and 600 kc. The General Radio Co., type 320 o r 360 a f t e r c a l i b r a t i o n by G.R. Co., w i l l be s u i t a b l e or one may be Lesson 45

s h e e t 14

constructed by assemblinn and wirinn t h e a ~ ~ a r a t u s indicated i n Figure 10.- A n o n - n e t k l i c screw-driver-i/4" i n diameter i s a l s o necessary.
T h i s may be a c u r r e n t squared galvanometer connected t o t h e secondary of t h e output transformer i n s t e a d of t h e cone c o i l of t h e reproducer u n i t , a 0-5 m i l l i m e t e r connected in s e r i e s with t h e p l a t e supply t o t h e second d e t e c t o r ( l e a d Eo. 1 ) o r t h e output devices included i n t h e General Radio o s c i l l a t o r s . I n t h e type 320 the meter l e a d s should be connected i n t h e second d e t e c t o r p l a t e c i r c u i t and i n t h e t y p e 360 a c r o s s t h e cone c o i l connections of t h e loudspeaker. The cone c o i l may remain i n p l a c e o r be disconnected, s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s being obtained i n e i t h e r case.

An output i n d i c a t o r i s necessary.

Locate t h e 600 kc trimming condenser, Figure 9, and t u r n t h e a d j u s t i n g screw u n t i l i t i s about three- quarters of t h e way i n . S e t tKe "Local- Distant" switch a t "Distant." S e t t h e o s c i l l a t o r i n o p e r a t i o n a t e x a c t l y 1400 kc. Place the s e t i n o p e r a t i o n and tune i n t h e s i g n a l . Make s u r e t h e r e c e i v e r i s properly grounded and has an average antenna. Adjust t h e volume c o n t r o l u n t i l a reading i s obtained i n t h e output meter. While making adjustments r e g u l a t e t h e volwne c o n t r o l so t h a t an exc e s s i v e reading i s n o t obtained. Then a d j u s t t h e s e l e c t o r knob u n t i l t h e s c a l e r e a d s 1400 kc. N w a d j u s t t h e o s c i l l a t o r , 1st o d e t e c t o r , r-f and l i n e c i r c u i t trimming condensers i n t h e order given u n t i l maximum o u t p u t i s obtained. S e t t h e o s c i l l a t o r a t e x a c t l y 600 kc. Tune i n t h e s i g n a l on the s e t and a d j u s t t h e 600 kc o s c i l l a t o r trimming condenser, Figure 9, f o r maximum output while rocking t h e gang condenser back and f o r t h . The d i a l s c a l e should read e x a c t l y 600 kc. If it does n o t read 600 kc, loosen t h e screws t h a t hold t h e s c a l e and s l i p it u n t i l i t reads one-half t h e e r r o r from 600 kc on t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e of 600 kc. For example, i f t h e s c a l e reads 620 kc. a t maximum o u t p u t s e t t h e s c a l e a t 590 kc. Another example would be i f t h e s c a l e read 580 kc t o s e t i t a t 610 kc. S h i f t t h e o s c f l l a t o r frequency t o 1400 kc and s e t t h e s e l e c t o r o s c a l e a t e x a c t l y 1400 kc. N w a d j u s t t h e f o u r trimming condensers i n t h e order given under 4 u n t i l maximum output i s obtained. Place t h e o s c i l l a t o r again i n operation a t 600 kc and tune i n t h e s i g n a l with t h e r e c e i v e r . If adjustments have been properly made, t h e s i g n a l w i l l be received a t maximum output when t h e s c a l e r e a d s e x a c t l y 600 kc. If n o t , then t h e o p e r a t i o n s given under 5 and 6 must be again repeated. With t h i s adjustment so that t h e s c a l e i s e x a c t l y a t 600 and 1400 a l l o t h e r d f a l readings w i l l be c o r r e c t w i t h i n a very c l o s e l i m i t .

Lesson 45

sheet 1 5

Two screen- grid i n t e r m e d i a t e frequency a m p l i f i e r s t a g e s a r e used i n this s e t . Three t r a n s f o r m e r s a r e necessary f o r coupling t h e s e two s t a g e s . Both t h e primary and secondary of each t r a n s former i s a c c u r a t e l y tuned t o 175 k c and t h e c o r r e c t functioning of t h e r e c e i v e r i s dependent on t h e proper alignment of t h e i-f s t a g e s . The f i r s t i-f transformer t h e one i n t h e copper c o n t a i n e r - has i t s two windings very l o o s e l y coupled, t h i s condition being f u r t h e r accentuated by having a copper s h i e l d placed between each winding, which makes p o s s i b l e very sharp tuning of t h i s f i r s t i-f s t a g e u n l e s s t h e "Local-Distant,, switch i s i n t h e l o c a l p o s i t i o n and r e s i s t a n c e i s a r t i f i c i a l l y added t o t h e c i r c u i t s . overcoupled The o t h e r two transformers have t h e i r winding c l o s e l y coupled so t h a t a broad top e f f e c t i s obtained i n t h e tuning curve. The reason f o r d i s c u s s i n g t h e i-f curve i s t h a t t h i s type of coupling h a s a bearing on t h e method t o be used f o r l i n i n g up t h e i - f transformers. The second and t h i r d transformers being overcoupled, t h e i r tuning condensers a r e a d j u s t e d u n t i l a p l u s o r minus equal frequency s h i f t of t h e i- f o s c i l l a t o r frequency w i l l g i v e t h e same output and a f l a t top e f f e c t i s obtained on t h e tuning curve. This i s n o t t h e adjustment of t h e condensers t h a t w i l l g i v e a maximum output and i s a d i f f e r e n t procedure from t h a t used i n previous super- heterodyne r e c e i v e r s . The f i r s t transformer being c l o s e l y coupled t h e tuning condensers a r e a d j u s t e d f o r maximum output.

ADJUSTUENT O I-F T U N I N G CONDENSERS. F

A d e t a i l e d procedure f o r making t h e s e adjustments follows: A modulated r-f o s c i l l a t o r g i v i n g a s i g n a l a t 175 kc and having a v e r n i e r

condenser f o r s h i f t i n g t h i s frequency from 1 7 1 kc t o 179 kc i s necessary f o r a l i g n i n g .the i-f s t a g e s . The General Radio C o . 1 ~ type 360 o s c i l l a t o r g i v e s t h i s frequency v a r i a t i o n , but c a l i b r a t i o n of t h e s e secondary p o i n t s must be made on instruments purchased p r i o r t o June 1, 1930. O t h e s e e a r l i e r n models and on t h e o l d e r General Radio type 320 o s c i l l a t o r s t o which t h e 175 kc frequency h a s been added, t h e General Radio Co. w i l l add such c a l i b r a t i o n s , t o g e t h e r w i t h a 600 k c and 1400 kc c a l i b r a t i o n , a t a nominal c o s t .
A non- metallic screw d r i v e r 1 / 4 i n c h i n diameter i s a l s o necessary f o r making t h e s e adjustments. W i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y equipment a t hand, proceed a s follows:

1.

P l a c e t h e s e t i n such a p o s i t i o n t h a t a c c e s s t o a l l mechanism i s obtainsd. P l a c e t h e r e c e i v e r i n normal o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e volume c o n t r o l a t minimum and then remove t h e o s c i l l a t o r tube. (socket No. 2 , ) Make s u r e a good ground connection has been made. Connect o u t p u t meter i n c i r c u i t . The meter l e a d s of t h e type 320 o s c i l l a t o r should be connected i n s e r i e s with l e a d No. 1 of t e r m i n a l s t r i p . The type 360 output meter should be t h e S.P.U. s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e cone c o i l of t h e reproducer u n i t and the switch on t h e o s c i l l a t o r s e t a t WDynami~.~ P l a c e t h e o s c i l l a t o r i n o p e r a t i o n a t 175 kc and connect the coupling l e a d t o t h e c o n t r o l g r i d connection of t h e second i-f tube (Socket If e x c e s s i v e o u t p u t i s obtained disconnect t h e coupling No. 4.) l e a d from t h e o s c i l l a t o r and p l a c e i t a s h o r t d i s t a n c e away, but i n such a p o s i t i o n t h a t w i l l cause an i n d i c a t i o n i n t h e output meter without causing t h e n e a d l e t o go beyond t h e s c a l e . Lesson 45

2.

3.

s h e e t 16

4.

Adjust t h e secondary and then t h e primary ( s e e Figure 9) of t h e t h i r d i - f transformer u n t i l a maximum reading i s obtained i n t h e o u t p u t meter. A f t e r o b t a i n i n g maximum o u t p u t we know t h e two windings a r e c l o s e l y a d j u s t e d t o t h e same frequency. Mw t h e y o must be r e a d j u s t e d u n t i l a f l a t top e f f e c t i s obtained i n t h e tuning curve. The f l a t p o r t i o n should be a t l e a s t 5 kc wide and g e n e r a l l y w i l l n o t exceed 7 kc i n width. The method of doing t h i s i s t o s h i f t t h e o s c i l l a t o r frequency back and f o r t h from 171 kc t o 179 kc and n o t i n g , when t h e condensers a r e a d j u s t e d , t h a t no apprec i a b l e change i n output reading i s obtained from 172.5 kc t o 1 7 7 . 5 k c . Also t h e drop i n o u t p u t should be t h e same a t 171 kc and 179 kc. This i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e f l a t t o p i s c e n t e r e d a t 175 kc. The u s u a l method t o o b t a i n t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s , a f t e r a d j u s t i n g t o maximum output, t o a d j u s t t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e secondary condenser u n t i l t h e f l a t t o p e f f e c t i s obtained. I t w i l l probably n o t be centered a t 175 kc. I t i s , however, easy t o s h i f t i t s c e n t e r p o i n t by i n creasing each condenser s l i g h t l y t o s h i f t i t t o a lower frequency o r decreasing both condensers s l i g h t l y t o i n c r e a s e i t s frequency. To make t h i s adjustment t h e f i r s t time w i l l be somewhat d i f f i c u l t , but a f t e r a l i t t l e experience i t i s e q u a l l y a s easy a s o t h e r superheterodyne adjustments.

l l l l U I l l H Y SmlW FOR 1120 K C .

ADJYIIING IC1IIW FOR Be0 R.C.

AOIYSTINC S W I W FOP. 100 X C

( I O ~ Y I I Y I OS i R l W

*On 600 K C .

nu"tTN6 ;caw FOR 510 8.C

B . C D Gang condazser a d j i ~ s t m c n t positions

Figure 1 1
5.

A f t e r a d j u s t i n g t h e t h i r d i-f transformer, s h i f t t h e coupling l e a d t o t h e c o n t r o l g r i d connection of t h e 1st i-f tube and p l a c e i t a t a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e from t h e o s c i l l a t o r . Then advance t h e volume c o n t r o l t o maximum. If necessary, reduce t h i s coupling t o an even g r e a t e r e x t e n t so t h a t t o o g r e a t an i n d i c a t i o n i s n o t obtained i n t h e o u t p u t meter. N w a d j u s t t h e secondary and primary condensers u n t i l maximum o output i s obtained. Then r e a d j u s t i n t h e same manner a s with t h e t h i r d transformer u n t i l a f l a t t o p e f f e c t i s obtained. This may n o t be q u i t e a s broad a s t h e t h i r d transformer. I f t h e " Local- Distant w switch i s n o t a l r e a d y so a d j u s t e d , place i t i n t h e f f D i s t a n t w p o s i t i o n . Then s h i f t t h e coupling lead t o t h e c o n t r o l g r i d connection of t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r (Socket No. 3 ) . N w a d j u s t t h e volume c o n t r o l u n t i l t h e meter reading i s not exo c e s s i v e and then a d j u s t t h e secondary and primary of t h e i s t i- f transformer condensers u n t i l maximum o u t p u t i s obtained. This transformer tunes very s h a r p l y and no f u r t h e r adjustments a r e necessary.

6.

7.

Lesson 45

s h e e t 17

T h i s completes t h e i - f tuning adjustments and when s o made, t h e s e t w i l l perform a t maximum e f f i c i e n c y . However, i t i s b e s t a t this p o i n t t o check

t h e o s c i l l a t o r trimming and r-r' line- up condenser a d j u s t a e n t s .

The four-gang condenser used i s a having f e a t u r e s n o t found i n s i m i l a r condensers. The outstandinn new t y ~ e of t h e s e f e a t u r e s a r e t h e s t e e l c o n s t r u c t i o n and t h e a d j u s t i n g screws provided f o r l i n i n g up each condenser i n exact e l e c t r i c a l alignment w i t h a l l t h e o t h e r condensers. F i v e such screws a r e provided on each u n i t which allows f i v e adjustments t o be made, each of which i s independent of t h e o t h e r adjustments. These adjustments a r e made a t t h e f a c t o r y and, u n l e s s tampered with, w i l l n o t r e q u i r e any readjustments. If, however, adjustment i s necessary a step- by- step procedure f o r making such adjustment follovrs:
SINE-UP ADJUSTNZNTS O GANG CONDENSER. F

Remove t h e r e c e i v e r assembly from the c a b i n e t . Procure a small socket wrench and a modulated o s c i l l a t o r ( s e e Figure 10) covering t h e broadcast range. A 0-2 milliammeter i s necessary t o p l a c e i n t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r p l a t e c i r c u i t . This may be done with an a d a p t e r t h a t breaks t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h i s tube, o r by unsoldering t h e wire t h a t i s connected t o t h e p l a t e s o c k e t c o n t a c t and connecting t h e meter t o t h i s l e a d and t h e socket c o n t a c t . Remove t h e o s c i l l a t o r tube and connect a 20,000 ohm r e s i s t o r from t h e o s c i l l a t o r socket p l a t e connection t o t h e cathode connection. Make a good ground connection t o t h e r e c e i v e r .

Figure 1 2

P l a c e t h e r e c e i v e r i n o p e r a t i o n and couple t h e o s c i l l a t o r t o t h e antenna l e a d of t h e s e t . Turn t h e s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r knob u n t i l t h e first vanes of t h e gang condenser f u l l mesh w i t h t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s and t h e n e x t s e t i s f r e e . This i s shown i n Figure 1 1 - A . N w t u r n t h e screws on a l l t h e p a r a l l e l trimming condensers o u n t i l they a r e a t t h e i r minimum c a p a c i t y p o s i t i o n . Adjust t h e o s c i l l a t o r u n t i l a d e f l e c t i o n i s obtained i n t h e milliammeter, T h i s w i l l be a t about 1120 kc. If t h e condensers a r e a c c u r a t e l y aligned, a d j u s t i n g any of t h e screws t h a t hold the f i r s t group of vanes i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n of t h e l i n k c i r c u i t , r-I" c i r c u i t and f i r s t d e t e c t o r condenser w i l l cause a decreased reading i n the meter. If any, however, should cause an increased capacity reading due t o being p u l l e d away from i t s a d j a c e n t p l a t e reduced then i t should be a d j u s t e d f o r maximum output. If an

Lesson 45

s h e e t 18

increased amount of c a p a c i t y i s r e q u i r e d a t any vane t o i n c r e a s e t h e output, i . e . t h e vanes brought c l o s e r t o t h e a d j a c e n t p l a t e , then the o s c i l l a t o r should be increased i n frequency s l i g h t l y and t h e o t h e r two vanes r e a d j u s t e d . This would be a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e i r capacity. The reason f o r t h i s s h i f t of frequency i s t o make s u r e t h a t t h e condensers a r e a l i g n e d w i t h t h e minimum c a p a c i t y possible, a s otherwise t h e d i a l s c a l e may r e a d i n a c c u r a t e l y .
4.

After a l i g n i n g t h e l i n k , r-f and f i r s t d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t , the bus bar i n d i c a t e d i n Figure 9 should be s h i f t e d t o t h e p o s i t i o n i n d i c a t e d by t h e d o t t e d l i n e . The vanes on t h e o s c i l l a t o r condenser may now be s h i f t e d f o r maximum o u t p u t . N w s h i f t t h e gang condenser s o t h a t t h e f i r s t and second s e c t i o n s o a r e f u l l y meshed w i t h t h e s t a t o r p l a t e s , S h i f t thb o s c i l l a t o r frequency u n t i l a d e f l e c t i o n i s obtained i n t h e output meter and a d j u s t t h e second group of vanes i n t h e same manner a s t h e f i r s t were adjusted. S h i f t t h e bus bar and a d j u s t t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r condenser a l s o . Follow t h i s same procedure through u n t i l a l l t h e vanes have been adjusted. A f t e r t h e i r c o r r e c t alignment t h e s e t must be realigned. If t h e i-f condensers r e q u i r e adjustment, t h e y should be checked a f t e r the gang condenser adjustment has been made a s j u s t described and before t h e s c a l e and o s c i l l a t o r condensers a r e adjusted.

5.

6.

DIAL SCALE NOT READING CORRECTLY. Should t h e d i a l s c a l e g i v e a l a r g e e r r o r i n t h e i n d i c a t e d s c a l e reading i t may be due t o any of t h e following:

1, Dial screen n o t i n p o s i t i o n . Sometimes t h e d i a l screen may s l i p s l i g h t l y o u t of i t s p o s i t i o n . Readjust a t t h e low frequency end of t h e s c a l e . I t i s r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e f r o n t h e r e a r . Also check any p o s s i b l e bending of t h e d i a l lamp bracket.

2 .
3.

S e t n o t p r o p e r l y aligned. O s c i l l a t o r used f o r a l i g n i n g n o t properly c a l i b r a t e d .

VOLTAGE SUPPLY SYSTW. Figure 8 shows t h e v o l t a g e supply system and t h e v a l u e s of c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e d i f f e r e n t c i r c u i t s t o g e t h e r with the values It w i l l be noted t h a t t h e s e r i e s method of v o l t a g e of t h e various r e s i s t o r s , supply i s used except i n t h e volume c o n t r o l c i r c u i t . This keeps t h e c u r r e n t d r a i n on t h e r e c t i f i e r tube a t a minimum voltage.

The following v o l t a g e s a r e taken a t t h e S.P.U, terminal s t r i p w i t h a d-c and a-c voltmeter. The d-c meter should have a r e s i s t a n c e o f - a t l e a s t 1000 ohms per v o l t . Line v o l t a g e 120, f u s e a t 120- volt p o s i t i o n , volume c o n t r o l a t maximnm.
Terminals

VOLTAGE READINGS AT TEFWINAL STRIP.

Volts
2.6 A.C.

4 to 5

250 D.C.

Lesson 45

sheet 19

VOLTAGE READING SERVICE DATA CHART. The s e r v i c e d a t a c h a r t on sheet 21 provides a means of diagnosing t r o u b l e from socket voltage readings taken a t t h e tube sockets with any of t h e u s u a l s e t analyzers. These readings a r e average, and a r e n o t obtained with any p a r t i c u l a r t e s t s e t .
VOLTAGE READINGS AT TUBE SOCKETS. The following v o l t a g e s taken a t each tube socket w i t h t h e r e c e i v e r i n operating condition should prove of value when checking w i t h t e s t s e t s such a s t h e Weston Model 547, Type 3 , o r o t h e r s giving s i m i l a r readings. The p l a t e c u r r e n t s shown a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y accurate f o r each tube, a s the cable i n t h e t e s t s e t w i l l cause some c i r c u i t s t o o s c i l l a t e , due t o i t s added capacity. Small v a r i a t i o n s of v o l t a g e s w i l l be caused by d i f f e r e n t tubes and l i n e v o l t a g e s . Therefore, t h e following values must be taken a s approximately those t h a t w i l l be found under varying conditions. The numbers i n column 1 i n d i c a t e t h e tube socket numbers shown i n Figure 6. VOLTAGE READINGS AT TUBE SOCKETS

Cathode to Heater
D'C.

cathode to I Cathode or ScreR1 Grid ; z a ~ ~ ; t Grid Volts, D.C. D,C, Volts, D.C.

%$ ; $ & tocontrol

Plate

CMyAet

Heater or Screen Grid Filament Current Volts M. A.

Volume Control at Maximum

Volume Control at Minimum

'Not true reading due t o resistor in circuit.

CONTINUITY TZST.

The t e s t s shown on s h e e t s 23 and 24 w i l l show conplete coiitinuity f o r the r e c e i v e r assembly and socket power u n i t of t h i s instrument. Disconnect the antenna and ground l e a d s ; the cable connections a t t h e termin a l s t r i p of the S.P.U., and t h e a-c supply cord a t i t s o u t l e t .

A p a i r of headphones with a t l e a s t 44 v o l t s i n s e r i e s ; o r a voltmeter with s u f f i c i e n t b a t t e r y t o g i v e a good d e f l e c t i o n when connected a c r o s s the b a t t e r y terminals should be used i n making these t e s t s .

Lesson 45

s h e e t 20

Lesson 45

sheet 21

The r e s i s t a n c e of t h e v a r i o u s c i r c u i t s a r e shown i n t h e column t i t l e d Ifcorrect Effect." Checking t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c i r c u i t s adds an add i t i o n a l check on t h e i r c o r r e c t functioning. This may be done by means of a d i r e c t reading "Ohmmeter,w a r e s i s t a n c e bridge, t h e voltmeter-ammeter method o r t h e method suggested i n t h e following paragraph. The r e c e i v e r and S.P.U. tube s o c k e t s , numbers, l u g s and t e r m i n a l s used i n making t h e s e t e s t s a r e shown i n F i g x r e 6. The r e c e i v e r wiring diagram i s shown i n wiring diagram i n Figure 15. F i g u r e 14 and t h e S.P.U. a r e i n metal containers. The i n t e r n a l wiring diagram i s shown i n Figures 1 4 and 15. The condensers can b e s t be t e s t e d by charging them w i t h approximately 200 v o l t s d-c and then noting t h e i r a b i l i t y t o hold the charge. After charging, s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g t h e condenser t e r m i n a l s with a screw d r i v e r should produce a f l a s h , t h e s i z e of t h e f l a s h depending on t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e condenser and t h e v o l t a g e used f o r charging. A condenser t h a t w i l l n o t hold i t s charge, o r a choke t h a t c l i c k s open i s d e f e c t i v e and r e q u i r e s replacement of t h e e n t i r e u n i t . The values of t h e v a r i o u s r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s i n t h i s r e c e i v e r a r e shown i n t h e schematic diagrams i n Figures 1 and 8 . When t e s t i n g a r e c e i v e r f o r d e f e c t s t h e v a r i o u s values of r e s i s t a n c e should be checked. This may be done by a r e s i s t a n c e bridge; t h e voltmeter-ammeter method, o r by t h e following method. For r e s i s t a n c e s of low value, 5000 ohms o r l e s s , u s e a voltmeter having a r e s i s t a n c e n o t g r e a t e r than 100 ohms per v o l t . For high values of r e s i s t a n c e u s e a meter of 1000 ohms o r more per v o l t . The Wesfon Meters, Type 301 o r 280, each have a r e s i s t a n c e of 62 ohms per v o l t and a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r t h e low values. Use s u f f i c i e n t b a t t e r y t o g i v e a good d e f l e c t i o n on t h e meter, f o r example, a 45- volt "Bff b a t t e r y f o r a 0-50 v o l t meter. Take two readings, one of t h e b a t t e r y alone, and one of t h e b a t t e r y w i t h t h e unknown r e s i s t a n c e i n s e r i e s . Then apply t h e following formula: Reading obtained of b a t t e r y alone Reading obtained w i t h r e s i s t a n c e i n s e r i e s
CHECKING RESISTANCE VALUES.

TESTINGFILTER The f i l t e r and by-pass condensers

-1

Resistance , Unknown of meter Resistance

CALIBRATION O R-F AND I- F OSCILLATORS. I n s e r v i c i n g t h i s r e c e i v e r i t i s F e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e frequency of t h e i - f and r-f o s c i l l a t o r s used f o r making adjustments be a c c u r a t e l y known. Even w i t h t h e b e s t of m a t e r i a l and cons t r u c t i o n o s c i l l a t o r s w i l l s h i f t t h e i r frequency and a p e r i o d i c check i s both d e s i r a b l e and necessary.

I-F O s c i l l a t o r s
An easy way t o check t h e frequency of t h e i-f o s c i l l a t o r i s t o check i t s f o u r t h harmonic a g a i n s t a s t a t i o n operating a t t h a t harmonic frequency. I n t h e case of t h e 175 kc o s c i l l a t o r used f o r t h i s r e c e i v e r t h e broadcasting s t a t i o n o p e r a t i n g a t t h i s f o u r t h harmonic frequency would be WLW, o p e r a t i n g a t 700 kc. The check i s b e s t made by tuning i n t h e s t a t i o n a c c u r a t e l y on a r a d i o r e c e i v e r and then s e t t i n g t h e o s c i l l a t o r i n o p e r a t i o n coupled t o t h e r e c e i v e r antenna s u f f i c i e n t l y so t h a t i t w i l l be heard. Then a d j u s t t h e L i - f o s c i l l a t o r u n t i l t h e beat n o t e between t h e f o u r t h harmonic and WW w i l l

Lesson 45

sheet 22

RECEIVER ASSEMBLY CONTINUITY TESTS

Terminals Ant. to Ground Stator tuning condenser No. 1 (See Figure 7) to Ground C1 and C4 to Ground Correct Effect Closed (40 ahms) Closed (5 ohms) Incorrect Indication Open Open Short Effect Caused By

Open antenna coupling coil Open link circuit coil Shorted link circuit tuning or trimming condenser Open 170 ohm resistor o r volume control Shorted .I mid. condenser Open R.F. grid coil Shorted R.F. tuning or trimming condenser Open 18,000 ohms, 170 ohm resistor or volume control Shorted .1 mid. condenser Shorted .5 m i d condenser Opcn R.F. plate coil

Closed (V.C. at Open Min.) 4170 ohms Short Closed (5 ahms) Open Short

CGI to Ground

SGI, 3, 4, a i ~ d to Ground 5

Closed (V.C. at Open Min.) (22,liO ohms) 18.000 ohins Short

P I to Lug No. 5 G2 to Ground

Closed (42 ohms) Closed (42,000 ohms) Closed (6030 ohms) 10.000 ohms 3pen Short

Shorted 720 mmid. oscillator grid condenser Shorted .1 mfd condenser Ozen 40,000 or 2000 ohm resistor Grounded 6000 or 40,000 ohm resistor Open oscillator plate coil

Closed (1 ohm) C2 and C3 to Ground P 3 to L u g No. 5

Closed (2000 ohms) Closed (39 ohms)

Open Short 3pen Short

Open 2000 ohm resistor Shorted .I mid. condenser Open primary oi 1st I.F. transiormer Shorted 1st I.F. primary tuning condenser Open secondary of 1st I.F. transiormer Shorted 1st I.F. secondary tuning condenser Open primary of 2nd I.F. transformer Shorted 2nd I.F. transformer tunina condenser
h e n secondary of 2nd I.F. transformer Shorted 2nd I.F. transformer tuning condenser

CG4 to Ground

Closed (41 ohms)

Short :Local-Distant it "distant")

P4 to Lug No. 5

Closed (39 ohms) Clased (41 ohms)

CG5 to Ground

C5 to Ground PS to Lug No. 5

Closed (2000 ohms) Closed (39 ohms)

3pen 2000 ohm resistor Shorted .1 mid. condenser 3pen primary of 3rd I.F. transformer jhorted 3rd I.F. transformer primx r v tunine condenser >pen 14,300 ohm resistor

SGS to Lug No. 5

llased :14,300 ohms)

Lesson 45

sheet 23

RECEIVER ASSEMBLY CONTINUITY TESTS-Continued

I

Terminals C6 to Ground
G6 to Ground

Correct Eftect Closed (10,OW ohms) Closed (41 ohms) Open Closed (80 ohms) Closed Closed

Incorrect Effect Indication Open Open

i
I
I
I

Caused By Open 10,000 ohm resistor Open secondary of 3rd I.F. transformer Shorted ,0024 mid, condenser Open R.F. choke coil Open heater connection Open heater connection

C6 to P6
P6 to Lug No. 1

Closed Open Open

Lug No. 2 to one heater contact of all sockets. (Remove dial lamp)
Lug N O. 3 to other heater contact of all sockets. (Remove dial lamp)

Open

I I

II I

S.P.U. REPRODUCER CONTINUITY TESTS

Terminals Across filament contacts of sockets 7 or 8 Correct Effect Closed Open Caused By Open filament winding and center tapped resistor O ~ e filament windinz n Open UX-245 grid bias resistor Shorted .05 mfd. condenser Open secondary of push-pull input transformer Open secondary of push-pull input transformer or 60.000-ohm resistor Open primary of push-pull input transformer 40.000-ohm resis!or Open primary of push-pull Input transformer Open primary of output transformer Open primary of output transformer or center tap connection Open cone coil
. -

55 ohms
Either filament contact of Closed sockets 7 or 8 to Ground (715 ohms) Closed (13,000 ohms) G7 o r ' G8 to Ground Terminal 1 to Terminal 5 Clased (66,500 ohms) Closed Open Snort Open Open Open 40.000 ohms Closed (350 ohms) P7 or P 8 to Terminal No. 5 Across cone coil (unsolder
I~lrl)

Open

Closed (10 ohms) Closed ( 8 ohms) Closed Closed (350 ohms) Closed I1890 ohms) Closed (3.5 ohms) (Operatinq, switch "on ) Open Open

Closed (175 ohms)

Across output leads to terminal strip (cone coil disconnected) Across UX-280 contacts filament

Open secondary of output transformer Open UX-280 filament winding Open high voltage winding of power transformrr Open high voltage winding of power transformer, filter reactor or field of reproducer unit Open primary of power transformer qr fuse

P to P of UX-280 socket

Either P of UX-280 socket to Ground

Across A.C. input plug

Open

Open

Lesson 45

sheet 24

wiring diagram of receiver assembly

Figure 13 approach zero frequency (zero b e a t ) . A t t h i s p o i n t both t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n and t h e harmonic of t h e o s c i l l a t o r a r e a t t h e same frequency. The fundamental must t h e r e f o r e be a t one- fourth of t h e frequency, o r 175 kc.
A n i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t i n connection with t h i s check i s t h a t t h e e i g h t h harmonic of 175 kc i s 1400 kc. This check on t h e i-f frequency w i l l t h e r e f o r e serve a s an a d d i t i o n a l check on t h e 1400 kc p o s i t i o n by tuning i n t h i s harmonic on a r e c e i v e r .

R-F O s c i l l a t o r s

The r- f o s c i l l a t o r may be c a l i b r a t e d i n t h e same manner a s t h e i-f o s c i l l a t o r w i t h t h e exception t h a t i t s fundamental frequency should beat a g a i n s t numerous broadcasting s t a t i o n s and a curve p l o t t e d so t h a t a l l frequencies w i l l be known. Such a curve i s shown i n Figure 15. A s t h e d i a l of t h e r e c e i v e r i s ad.justed a t both 1400 kc and 600 kc i t i s very important t h a t t h e s e two places on an o s c i l l a t o r used f o r t h a t work be a c c u r a t e l y known. P. step- by- step procedure f o r making such a c a l i b r a t i o n follows: Lesson 45

s h e e t 25

1.

Tune i n a s t a t i o n with the r e c e i v e r a t t h e high frequency end of t h e s c a l e . Place the o s c i l l . a t o r t o be c a l i b r a t e d i n o p e r a t i o n and couple i t t o t h e antenna system of t h e r e c e i v e r . Adjust t h e d i a l of the o s c i l l a t o r u n t i l i t s s i g n a l i s heard a t maxirnum i n t e n s i t y i n the r e c e i v e r o r zero beat i s obtained with t h e broadcasting s t a t i o n . Note t h e reading of t h i s p o s i t i o n on t h e o s c i l l a t o r d i a l and p l o t t h i s p o s i t i o n on t h e c h a r t shown i n Figure 16. The v e r t i c a l d i v i s i o n r e p r e s e n t s frequency an8 t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i v i s i o n s , the o s c i l l a t o r s c a l e readings.
Now r e p e a t t h i s procedure a t a s t a t i o n s l i g h t l y lower i n frequency and p l o t t h i s p o i n t on the c h a r t .

2.
3.

4.

5.

As many s t a t i o n s a s p o s s i b l e , tuned i n a t v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s throughout t h e d i a l s c a l e , should be checked by t h i s method, and a f t e r a l l p o i n t s have been located on t h e c h a r t , t h e p o i n t s should be connecteci by lneans of a l i n e . This l i n e w i l l r e p r e s e n t t h e c a l i b r a t i o n curve of t h e o s c i l l a t o r . Figure 15 shows a t y p i c a l c a l i b r a t i o n curve.
OUTPUT TRANSFORMER INTFRHAI CDHN6CTlONS O F CIIP(LCIT0R PACK INTERNAL CONNECTIONS OF POWER TRlWSFORMER

INTERSTAGE TRANSFORMER

40.000

111DliND PINK

5 5 n CENTER..,. TAPPED RESISTOR

. .INPUT PLUG
Figure 1 4

OPERATING SWITCH

Lesson 45

- s h e e t 26

TO REMOVE RECEIVER ASSWBLY. 1. 2.

Remove t h e r e c e i v e r assembly a s follows:

Remove two screws t h a t hold t h e wooden back p l a t e t o t h e s i d e s of t h e c a b i n e t . Loosen t h e screw t h a t holds t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p cover and r e l e a s e the c a b l e a t t a c h e d t o t h e terminals l o c a t e d under t h i s cover. Eemove t h e f o u r screws and n u t s t h a t hold t h e r e c e i v e r assembly f a s t e n i n g blocks t o t h e cabinet. The r e c e i v e r assembly may now be l i f t e d c l e a r of t h e cabinet and placed i n a p o s i t i o n convenient f o r work. To r e p l a c e , proceed i n t h e r e v e r s e manner of t h a t used t o remove it.

3.

Figure 1 5

CONDENSER SCALE READING

Figure 1 6
TO REMOVE S.P.U. REPRODUCER ASSEMBLY. The p a r t s comprising t h e socket power u n i t and t h e reproducer assembly a r e a l l mounted and wired on one base. To remove t h i s u n i t f o r r e p a i r s proceed a s follows: 1. 2.

Release r e c e i v e r a s s e n b l y cable and wooden back p l a t e a s described i n t h e foregoing. Release o p e r a t i n g switch by removing c o l l a r on o u t s i d e of cabinet and removing s t a p l e on i n s i d e and then p u l l i n g mechanism toward t h e i n s i d e of c a b i n e t . Remove t h e f o u r screws, n u t s and washers t h a t hold t h e S.P.U. Reproducer assembly t o the bottom of t h e cabinet. The S.P.U. may now be l i f t e d c l e a r and placed i n a p o s i t i o n convenient f o r work. Lesson 45

s h e e t 27

REPLACING REPRODUCER CONE. Should replacement of t h e reproducer cone be n e c e s s a r y , proceed a s follows: Remove t h e S.P.U. Reproducer assembly a s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e foregoing.

Remove t h e f e l t r i n g glued t o t h e f r o n t of t h e reproducer u n i t . Remove t h e n i n e n u t s , screws and lock washers t h a t hold t h e metal r i n g and cone edge i n place. Remove t h e cone c e n t e r i n g screw. The cone c o i l i s connected by means of two soldered terminals l o c a t e d a d j a c e n t t o t h e cone b r a c k e t . Unsolder these l e a d s . The cone may now be removed. Plzce t h e new cone i n t h e p o s i t i o n occupied by t h e o l d one, and r e p l a c e cone r i n g , t h e n i n e screws, n u t s and t h e lock washers. D n o t t i g h t e n t h e s e screws. o Place t h r e e p i e c e s of cardboard t h e t h i c k n e s s of a v i s i t i n g card and approximately 19 x ) inches i n s i z e fn t h e space between t h e i n s i d e of t h e cone c o i l and t h e pole piece. This i s shown i n F i g u r e 17. N w r e p l a c e t h e cone c e n t e r i n g screws and screw i n p l a c e t i g h t l y . o Tighten the n i n e screws t h a t hold t h e cone edge and r e p l a c e the f e l t r i n g . Solder t h e cone c o i l l e a d s i n place.

V i e w s h o w i n g loudspeaker a d j u s t i n g s t r i p s

Figure 1 7

EXAMINATION
1.

LESSON 45
(b) A f i l t e r condenser?

(a) H w would you t e s t a by-pass condenser? o

What comprises t h e vtunedtl c i r c u i t i n these r e c e i v e r s and what purpose does i t serve? switch? What i s t h e advantage of t h e nLocal-Distant~f How may very loud s i g n a l s t r e n g t h from near-by powerful s t a t i o n s be reduced? What i s l i k e l y t o be t h e r e s u l t of a d e f e c t i v e d e t e c t o r tube?
If t h e f i v e a d j u s t a b l e condensers a r e o u t of adjustment what l i k e l y w i l l be the r e s u l t ?

I f any of the by-pass condensers i n t h e r e c e i v e r assembly a r e "open n what w i l l be t h e r e s u l t ? What w i l l be the r e s u l t of a grounded f i l a m e n t l e a d ? What a r e t h e n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t s of a microphonic d e t e c t o r tube? What i s t h e purpose of t h e second d e t e c t o r ?

Lesson 45

s h e e t 29

il

li

i r *

Technical Lesson 4 6
GENERAL ELECTRIC M D L R-51 AND H-71 O ES

- WESTINGHOUSE BdDDELS WR-6

GRAYBAR M D L 770 AND-900 O ES

A N D M

RADIOLA MODELS 82 AND 86

INTRODUCTION F R H-51, WR-6, RADIOLA 82 AND GRAYBAR 770. These i n s t r u x e n t s O employ t h e same c i r c u i t s and c h a s s i s a s t h e r e c e i v e r s described i n Lesson 45 with t h e exception t h a t they i n c l u d e a tone c o n t r o l .

The assembly wiring i s shown i n Figure 1. The e l e c t r i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i s c i r c u i t i s given i n Lesson 45 and w i l l n o t be repeated here. The tone c o n t r o l i s , however, a new f e a t u r e and t h e r e f o r e a d e s c r i p t i o n of i t s a c t i o n seems necessary. The tone c o n t r o l c o n s i s t s of a 40,000 ohm potentiometer i n s e r i e s with a .025 mfd. f i x e d condenser. This arrangement i s shunted around a choke placed i n t h e second d e t e c t o r p l a t e c i r c u i t . With t h e r e s i s t o r arm a t the extreme "high n p o s i t i o n , t h e r e a c t o r i s shorted and t h e f u l l amount of t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s placed i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e condenser, t h u s giving t h e normal f i d e l i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r . A s the potentiometer arm i s moved toward the extreme "low" p o s i t i o n , t h e choke and condenser both become e f f e c t i v b , and t h u s reduce t h e h i g h frequency output of the r e c e i v e r . The amount of t h i s r e d u c t i o n i s dependent on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e potentiometer arm, operated by t h e tone c o n t r o l knob. Figure 2 shows t h e c o r r e c t connections f o r a t t a c h i n g a magnetic pick-up. E l e c t r i c a l Soecifications Voltage Rati)lg 105-125 Volts 50-60 Cycles, o r 25-40 Cycles Frequency Rating 60 Cycles-120 Watts; 25 Cycles-125 Watts Power Consumption 25-75 F e e t Recommended Antenna Length A-C Screen-Grid Super-Heterodyne Type of C i r c u i t 4 UY-224, 2 UY-227, 2 UX-245, 1 UX-280 Type and Number of Tubes 1 Number of Radio-Frequency Stages Type of F i r s t Detector Tuned Input G r i d Bias 2 Number of Intermediate S t a g e s Power G r i d Bias Type of Second Detector Variable r e s i s t a n c e i n s e r i e s with condenser Type of Tone Control a c r o s s o u t p u t of second d e t e c t o r 1 (Push- pull) Number of Audio Stages F u l l Wave, UX-280 Type of R e c t i f i e r Dynamic Type of Loudspeaker 1 0 (110 V., 85 M.A.) Wattage D i s s i p a t i o n i n L.S. F i e l d Undistorted Output 3.0 Watts

.............................................. ............................. ................ ..................................... .......................... ........... ........................................ .............................. ........................................... ................................... ......... ...................................... ....................................... ........................................ .................... ..............................................

OPERIITING SWITCH

'A.C. INPUT PLUG

I
Figure 1

Lesson 46

sheet 2

INSTALLATION. The s t u d e n t i s r e f e r r e d t o Lesson 45 f o r t h e following d a t a on i n s t a l l a t i o n :

&Itenna Outdoor type). Antenna Indoor type). S p c c i a l antenna i n s t a l l a t i o n f o r noisy l o c a t i o n s . Ground. Tubes.

Location. Adjustment f o r l i n e voltages. J e r k y a c t i o n of s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r . Use of l o c a l - d i s t a n t switch. Precautions f o r e x c e s s i v e l y loud s i g n a l s . Removal of shipping blocks and screws.

BLOWN FUSE.
1. 2. 3. 4.

A blown f u s e may be caused by t h e following:

5.

Connecting t h e s e t t o a d-c l i n e P l a t e t o p l a t e s h o r t of the 280 tube. Shorted condenser i n c a p a c i t o r pack. Shorted f i l a m e n t o r h e a t e r c o n t a c t s o r d i a l lamp socket. D e f e c t i ~ epower transformer.

Any of t h e above causes rnust be cleared up before a new f u s e i s i n s t a l l e d ; otherwise t h e new f u s e w i l l blow a s soon a s t h e old one i s replaced and t h e power turned "On."

A . F T R ANSFORMER OF PROPER RATIO FOR ,PICK.UP BEING USED

VOLUME

MAGNETIC

Figure 2
SERVICE DATA ON RECEIVER.
~ ~

The r e c e i v e r assembly and S.P.U.

a r e very silnilar

Lesson 45. For s e r v i c e information on t h e s e u n i t s o t h e r than t h a t contained h e r e i n t h e s t u d e n t i s r e f e r r e d t o Lesson 45. T h i s includes: Antenna systelu f a i l u r e s . Tube sockets and prongs. Noisy volume c o n t r o l . Broken condenser d r i v e cord. Excessive hum. Acoustic howl. Low volume. D i s t o r t e d reproduction. Audio howl. Oscillation. Adjustment of r-f line- up and o s c i l l a t o r trimming condensers. Adjustment of i - f tuning condensers. Line-up adjustments of gang condensers. Dial s c a l e reading i n c o r r e c t l y . Lesson 46

i n. both mechanical and e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o t h a t described i n .

sheet 3

Lesson 46

sheet 4

ELECTRICAL TESTS. The e l e c t r i c a l t e s t s given i n Lesson 45 a r e a l l a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e s e r e c e i v e r s . There i s one s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e t o remember, however, and t h a t i s t h e a d d i t i o n a l 1300 ohm choke and -000745 mfd. condenser i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e 2nd d e t e c t o r t h a t i s n o t p r e s e n t i n t h e s e s e t s .
F i g u r e 3 shows t h e schematic c i r c u i t diagram. F i g u r e 4 shows t h e s i m p l i f i e d schematic c i r c u i t of t h e r e c e i v e r assembly. F i g u r e s 5 and 6 show t h e wiring diagrams of t h e r e c e i v e r assembly and S.P.U., respectively.
MAKING REPLACEMENTS IN RECEIVER A S M L OR S.P.U. SE BY Edaking replacements of i s very similar t o those d e s c r i b e d p a r t s i n t h e r e c e i v e r assembly and S.P.U. i n Lesson 45. The r e a d e r i s t h e r e f o r e r e f e r r e d t o Lesson 45 f o r information on t h e f olloviing:
-

To remove r e c e i v e r assembly. . To remove S.P.U. reproducer assembly. Replacing reproducer cone.

Simplified sohornntic of .receiver useemblll

Figure 4

Lesson 46

sheet 5

Lesson 46

sheet 6

Lesson 46

sheet 7

SERVICE DATA CHART

Before using tlw following Service Data Chart, when experiencing no reception, low volume, poor quality, noisy or intermittent reception, howling a r d fading, tirst look for defective tubrs, o r a poor antenna system. I f imperfect operation is not due to thcsc causes the "Service h t a Chart" should be consulted lor further detailed causes.
.~ ~ . .
-~
~

..- .

-Cause

Indication

No Reception

Turn line current "On" No current at outlet Repair or replace operating switch lkfective operating switch Repair cause of bloun fuse and replacc Blown fuse T e s t and repair any defective parts Ihfective parts in S P. U. . Ikfective parts in receiver assem. Test and repair any ddcctivc p a r t s hly Repair o r replace open held c d Open tield coil of reproducer Replace defective cone Open cone coil of reproducer
I.ow voltages from S. P. U. Defective socket power unit Defective receiver assembly Poor antenna system Repair any cause of low voltage Repair oPreplace any defective part in S. P. I ) Repair o r replace any defect in receiver assembly Install antenna system as suggested on instrnctinn card \ h g n I. F. transformers correctly. Aligr, R. F. trimming condensers correctly Repair any defect in reproducer

Poor >uality

Tune receiver correctly when receiving stations Receiver not properly tuned I.ocal-Distant switch not oper- Be sure to use "l.ocal" whrn receiving nearby strong stations ated properly Replace defective transfornwr IMeetive A. F. transformer Replace defective tone control parts Defective tone control parts Align receiver correctly Receiver improperly aligned Defective or grounded 60,000-ohm Replace defective resistor or repair ground resistor in S. P. U.

Shipping blocks not removed Defective rubber cushions Radiotrons

Remove shipping blocks from receiver assembly Replace any aged or hardened ruhber cushions Check Radiotrons rlserl in detector and pushpull sockets Replace defective Radiotron Replace defective part Repair any ground in heatrr ]cad? Repair o r replace tield coil Readjust dial screen at law freqaenry end ol scale Bend dial lamp bracket hack to norm;rl 41ign set corrmtly Calibrate mcillator accurately

Defective Radiotron UX-280 Defective p a r t in S. P. U. Grounded heater lead Defective field coil Dial screen not in position Iial reads nrorrrctly Dial lamp bracket bent j e t not properly aligned Dscillator used for aligning not calibrated correctly

Lesson 46

sheet 8

RADIOLA 86

- WR-7 - H- 71 - GRAYBAR 900

E l e c t r i c a l Specifications Voltage Rating 105-125 Volts 50-60 Cycles; o r 25-30 Cycles Frequency Rating GO Cycles-120 Watts; 25 Cycles-125 Watts Power Consumption Radio lone) GO Cycles-155 Watts; 25 Cycles-200 Watts Power Consumption phonograph) A-C Screen-Grid Super-Heterodyne Type of C i r c u i t 4 UY-224, 2 UY-227, 2 UX-245, 1 UX-280 Type and Number of Tubes Nmber of Radio-Frequency S t a g e s 1 Type of F i r s t Detector Tuned Input G r i d Bias 2 Number of Intermediate S t a g e s Power G r i d Bias Type of Second Detector Variable r e s i s t a n c e i n s e r i e s with condenser Type of Tone Control a c r o s s o u t p u t of second d e t e c t o r Number of Audio Stages 1 (push-pull) Number of Audio Stages Phonograph o r Recording) 2 Type of Magnetic Pick-up Low Impedance Inertia Type of Tone A r m Diameter of Turntable 12 Inches Full Wave, UX-280 Type of R e c t i f i e r Electro-Dynamic Type of Loudspeaker Wattage D i s s i p a t i o n i n L.S. F i e l d 10 (110 V., 85 M A ) .. Undistorted Output 3.0 Watts

............................................. ............................ .... 1 ..... .......................... ........... ........................................ .............................. .......................................... ................................... ......... .............................. ........................ .................................... .................................................. ........................................... ....................................... ....................................... .................... ..............................................

ELECTRICAL DESCRIPTION O CIRCUITS. These instruments a r e combination r a d i o F r e c e i v e r s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e described i n t h e f i r s t p a r t of this lesson, an e l e c t r i c phonograph employing an improved type of magnetic pick-up and tone arm and a home recording mechanism by which e i t h e r a r a d i o program o r sound production i n the home may be recorded on home recording record blanks. These s e t s i n c o r p o r a t e t h e tone c o n t r o l of those j u s t described and when t h e r o t a r y switch i s i n t h e "Radiofl p o s i t i o n , i t i s e l e c t r i c a l l y t h e same. The schematic c i r c u i t i s shown i n Figure 7. I t s o p e r a t i o n i n t h e o t h e r p o s i t i o n s follows: PHONOGRAPH. When t h e r o t a r y s e l e c t o r switch i s i n t h e "Phonographv p o s i t i o n , t h e r a d i o p o r t i o n of t h e r e c e i v e r i s made i n o p e r a t i v e and the second d e t e c t o r i s used a s an audio s t a g e t o g e t h e r with t h e power a m p l i f i e r . The magnetic pick-up i s suspended by t h e new " i n e r t i a " type tone arm. This name o r i g i n a t e s from t h e method of weighting and then counter- balancing s o as t o have s u f f i c i e n t weight and mass p r e s e n t f o r b e s t reproduction. This weight prevents t h e tone arm and pick-up from v i b r a t i n g with t h e r e c o r d v a r i a t i o n s and prov i d e s t r u e reproduction, due t o t h e needle following e x a c t l y t h e record v a r i a t i o n s . The phonograph p a r t s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 10. The output of the pick-up i s f e d i n t o an auto- transformer which i n t u r n a p p l i e s t h i s voltage t o t h e g r i d of t h e second d e t e c t o r . The g r i d b i a s of t h i s tube has been changed i n o r d e r t o have i t o p e r a t e a s an audio a m p l i f i e r . The output of t h i s tube i s then a p p l i e d t o t h e two UX-245fs, a c t i n g a s a power a m p l i f i e r , t h e output of which i s i n t u r n d e l i v e r e d t o t h e reproducer u n i t . The volume of output i s c o n t r o l l e d by a 60 ohm potentiometer connected a c r o s s t h e magnetic pick-up. Lesson 46

sheet 9

Lesson 46

sheet 10

RADIO RECISRDING.

Any r a d i o program may be recorded on a home recording blank with t h i s instrument. The a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l r e q u i r e d i s a record blank and a s p e c i a l home recording needle.

The e l e c t r i c a l f u n c t i o n s of recording a r a d i o program a r e t h e same a s t h a t of receiving such a program with t h e exception t h a t t h e pick-up i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e cone c o i l of the reproducer u n i t . The cone c o i l i s then connected aoross the output with a 150 ohm s e r i e s r e s i s t o r i n t h e c i r c u i t and t h e reproducer i s used a s a monitor. When a c t i n g a s a c u t t e r g r e a t e r pressure i s required on t h e record than when reproduction i s i n progress. Therefore a small weight i s provided f o r placing on t h e pick-up head while recording. After making a record, i t may be played e i t h e r on t h e p r e s e n t instrument o r any o t h e r 2honograph i n t h e u s u a l manner with t h e exception t h a t the s p e c i a l needle used f o r recording must a l s o be used f o r reproducing. I f t h e p r e s e n t instrument i s used, i t i s important t h a t t h e weight on t h e pick-up head be removed, otherwise t h e record w i l l be damaged.

Circuit changes f o r 25-cycle and 40-cycle operation

Figure 8
A small hand microphone i s provided f o r recording t h e voice o r o t n e r programs o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e hone. This microphone i s connected i n s e r i e s with t h e b i a s r e s i s t o r of the first d e t e c t o r and a c r o s s a t a p on t h e pick-up i n p u t transformer. About 10 milliamperes then flows through t h e microphone. The c i r c u i t s then f u n c t i o n a s i n "Phonograph R e p r o d ~ c t i o n 'except t h a t t h e output of t h e 245 tube i s f e d i n t o t h e pick~ up i n s t e a d of the reproducer u n i t . The weight must be used on t h e pick-up a s i n r a d i o recording.

HOME RECORDING.

11

The operation of t h e audio c i r c u i t s with s e l e c t o r i n i t s various p o s i t i o n s i s shown i n Figure 9. Models a r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e f o r 25-30 c y c l e o p e r a t i o n and t h e s e may be adapted t o 40-cycle operation Sy means of a s p e c i a l motor condenser. The d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e 25-cycle and t h e 60-cycle models are: The power transformer; t h e a d d i t i o n a l f i l t e r c a p a c i t o r ; t h e r o t a r y switch; and t h e motor condenser. These p a r t s a r e shown i n Figures 7 and 8. Lesson 46

sheet 1 1

I
Figure 9

Lesson 46

sheet 12

LNSTALLATION. The aturlent i s r e f e r r e d t o Lesson 45 f o r t h e following data on i n s t a l l a t i o n : Antenna Outdoor type). Antenna Indoor type) S p e c i a l antenna i n s t a l l a t i o n s f o r noisy l o c a t i o n s . Ground Tubes.

Location. Adjustment f o r l i n e voltages. J e r k y a c t i o n of s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r . Use of l o c a l - d i s t a n t switch. Precautions f o r excessively loud s i g n a l s . Removal of shipping blocks and screws.

BLOWN FUSE.

A blown f u s e may be caused by t h e following:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Connecting t h e s e t t o a d-c l i n e . P l a t e t o p l a t e s h o r t of t h e 280 tube. Shorted condenser i n c a p a c i t o r pack. Shorted f i l a m e n t o r h e a t e r c o n t a c t s o r d i a l lamp socket. Defective power transformer.
UOML RECOROING MICROPHONE USED NEEDLE

CUP \

NEEDLE CASE CLIPS

NEW NEEDLE CYP

View of phonograph pa~ls

Figure 10
Any of t h e above causes must be cleared up before a new f u s e i s i n s t a l l e d ;

otherwise t h e new f u s e w i l l blow a s soon a s t h e o l d one i s replaced and t h e power turned "On." ADJUSTMENT OF L I D MECHANISM. A spring mechanism i s provided t h a t balances t h e l i d a t any opening p o s i t i o n . F a i l u r e of proper operation i s i n d i c a t e d bv t h e l i d e i t h e r continuing t o open o r c l o s e a f t e r t h e hand i s removed. I? t h i s condition i s p r e s e n t a d j u s t a s follows:

Lesson 46

- sheet 13

I.

If the l i d continues t o open a f t e r being r e l e a s e d ,

too much t e n s i o n i s p r e s e n t on t h e spring. Reduce che t e n s i o n by turning t h e a d j u s t i n g screw counter- clockwise g r a d u a l l y u n t i l normal o p e r a t i o n i s secured.

2.

If t h e l i d c l o s e s upon r e l e a s e of t h e hand i n s u f f i c i e n t tension e x i s t s a t t h e spring. I n c r e a s e t h e t e n s i o n g r a d u a l l y by turning t h e a d j u s t i n g screw clockwise u n t i l normal o p e r a t i o n i s secured.

If t h e spring has l o s t i t s t e n s i o n i t must be replaced.

If a replacement s p r i n g i s n o t a v a i l a b l e t r y removing a t u r n from t h e o l d spring.

Disassembling the nutgnetic pick-up

-Magnetic pick-up a m t u r e spacing tool

Figure I1

Figure 1 2

SERVICE DATA ON RECEIVER. The r e c e i v e r assembly and S P U . . . of t h i s rec e i v e r i s very s i m i l a r i n both mechanical and e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o those described i n Lesson 45. For s e r v i c e information on t h e s e u n i t s o t h e r than t h a t contained h e r e i n t h e student i s r e f e r r e d t o Lesson 45. T h i s includes: Antenna system f a i l u r e . Tube sockets and prongs. Noisy volume control. Broken condenser d r i v e cord. Excessive hum. Acoustic howl. Low volume. D i s t o r t e d reproduction. Audio howl. Oscillation. Adjustment of r-f line- up and o s c i l l a t o r trimming condensers. Adjustment of i-f tuning condensers. Line-up adjustments of gang condenser. Dial s c a l e reading i n c o r r e c t l y .

ELECTRICAL TESTS. The e l e c t r i c a l t e s t s given i n Lesson 45 a r e a l l a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e ~ r e s e n tinstrument when t h e r o t a r y switch i s i n t h e " radio reproductionn p o s i t i o n . There i s one s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e t o remember, however, and t h a t i s t h e 1300 ohm choke and .000745 mfd. condenser i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e second d e t e c t o r iq t h e p r e s e n t instrument t h a t i s n o t i n t h e r e c e i v e r s d e s c r i b e d i n Lesson 45.

Lesson 46

s h e e t 14

SERVICE EATA ON MAGNETIC PICK- UP. Service work on t h e magnetic pick-up may be divided i n t o the following classes:
I. 2. 3. 4.

Adjustment of t h e armature. Replacing rubber p i v o t supports and damping block. Replacing c o i l . Replacing armature.
RESISTOR AN0 REACTOR CONTAINER MOTOR

4.5 MFD. CONDENSER

ARMATURE SPACING TOOL

SELECTOR SWITCH\

PHONOGRAPH VOLUME\ CONTROL

Maynetio pick-xp in visa

Figure 13
Bottom view of the phonogvaph w o l o ~ mounting bowd, showing various parts.

Figure 1 4

BDJUSTMENT OF ARMATURE. Adjustment of t h e armature c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y of having i t i n i t s e l e c t r i c a l c e n t e r between t h e two pole p i e c e s . Need f o r t h i s adjustment i s u s u a l l y evidenced by d i s t o r t i o n during phonograph reproduction with b l a s t i n g , e s p e c i a l l y on the l o r n o t e s . Tha following procedure should be adopted when making t h i s adjustment:
1. 2.

Remove screws A and B ( s e e Figure 11) from t h e pick-up, a d remove t h e cover thereby r e l e a s e d . Mark t h e magnet p o l e s and t h e pole p i e c e s s o t h a t when they a r e replaced they w i l l be i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n . The magnet may now be r e l e a s e d . Place a keeper such a s a l a r g e n a i l a c r o s s t h e magnet p o l e s and remove t h e magnet from t h e pole pieces. Another way i s t o s l i d e t h e magnet over t h e pole pieces u n t i l i t i s on t h e opposite s i d e of t h e armature a d j u s t i n g screws. (See Figure 11.)
If t h e magnet i s r e l e a s e d from t h e pole p i e c e s o r keeper even f o r an i n s t a n t t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e pick-up a s a r e c o r d c u t t e r i s s e r i o u s l y impaired. Becareful n o t t o l e t t h i s happen and i f i t does, remagnetize t h e magnet before and a f t e r reassembling.

Lesson 46

s h e e t 15

3.

With

a s m a l l screw d r i v e r loosen screws C and D. The small p i e c e of metal t h a t holds t h e damping block may now be moved e i t h e r way u n t i l t h e armature i s approximately between the two pole p i e c e s . Judging t h e c e n t e r by t h e eye i s s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e f o r t h i s adjustment.

4.

A f t e r the c e n t e r h a s been l o c a t e d t h e two screws, C and D, should be t i g h t e n e d . The magnet may now be replaced, t h e keeper removed and t h e pick-up reassembled i n t h e r e v e r s e manner of t h a t used t o remove it. While reassembling be s u r e t h a t a l l d i r t i s completely removed from any p a r t of t h e magnet, armature o r o t h e r p a r t s of t h e pick-up.

REPLACING RUBBER PIVOT SUPPORTS AND DUPING BLOCK. A f t e r considerable time, ts o r due t o c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s , t h e rubber o i v o t s u ~ ~ o r and t h e rubber damping block may become hardened and r e q u i r e replacement. Such hardening i s u s u a l l y evidenced by t h e armature being s e t t o one s i d e and n o t moving e a s i l y . A s w i t h o t h e r rubber a r t i c l e s , t h e s e p a r t s g i v e b e s t l i f e when used f r e q u e n t l y . The pick-up should n o t be supported, when n o t i n use, by t h e needle r e s t i n g on t h e record o r t u r n t a b l e as such use w i l l tend t o s e t t h e armature t o one s i d e . The pick-up should hang f r e e . Usually t h e rubber p i v o t supports and damping block w i l l r e q u i r e replacement a t t h e same time, and a r e t h e r e f o r e supplied i n s e t s of three. When a replacement i s necessary such a s e t should be procured. If such a s e t i s n o t a v a i l a b l e and a r e p a i r i s u r g e n t l y needed, t h e damping block may be c u t from a p i e c e of automobile i n n e r tube. The rubber s t r i p s f o r t h e p i v o t support may be c u t from t h e t h i n p o r t i o n of .a baby's rubber n i p p l e . Use t h e following procedure when making replacements: Procure magnetic pick-up armature spacing t o o l . This i s l i s t e d i n t h e manufacturerls spare p a r t s c a t a l o g , o r it may be e a s i l y constructed by r e f e r r i n g t o Figure 12. Remove t h e pick-up c a s e and t h e magnet from t h e pole pieces. Unsolder t h e l e a d s t o t h e c o i l a t t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p i n s i d e of 1 the pick-up ease. Remove n u t s E and F, Figure 1 , and r e l e a s e Now remove screws C and t h e pole p i e c e s from t h e back support. D and disassemble t h e pole pieces, armature and c o i l . The old rubber should be completely removed from a l l p a r t s , and t h e p a r t s should be scraped c l e a n w i t h a k n i f e . Place t h e new rubber p i v o t supports i n t h e i r proper place. This may e i t h e r be tubing o r s t r i p s . Reassemble t h e pole p i e c e s and c o i l , and new rubber damping block i n p l a c e with o armature spacing t o o l i n place a s shorn i n Figure 13. N w place i n a small v i s e and clamp t h e pole p i e c e s t o g e t h e r , a s shown i n Figure 13, with t h e spacing t o o l i n place. Tighten n u t s E and F, remove pick-up from v i s e and remove spacing t o o l . Reassemble t h e magnet and cover, making s u r e t h e small magnet clamp i s i n place a t t h e top of t h e magnet. Lesson 46

s h e e t 16

HFPLACING PICK-UP COIL. The pick-up c o i l may be r e p l a c e d i n t h e same manner a s t h e rubber supports and damping blocks, t h e d i f f e r e n c e being t h a t t h e c o i l i s r e p l a c e d i n s t e a d of t h e rubber p i e c e s . The pick-up armature may be replaced i n t h e same manner a s t h e rubber supports or c o i l , t h e d i f f e r e n c e being t h a t t h e armature i s t h e p a r t replaced. A l l adjustments a r e t h e same. I n some c a s e s replacement of t h e armature i s made necessary due t o r u s t . If a new armature i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , t h e old one may be temporarily r e p a i r e d by removing a l l r u s t with sandpaper. This i s n o t a permanent r e p a i r due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e sandpapered s u r f a c e w i l l q u i c k l y r u s t , s o t h e r e f o r e a new armature should be i n s t a l l e d a s soon a s a v a i l a b l e . TESTING XAGNETIC PICK-UP A.ND TONE ARM. After a magnetic pick-up has been r e p a i r e d i t i s good p r a c t i c e t o t e s t i t on a c t u a l records. The following Victor records a r e v e r y d e s i r a b l e f o r t e s t purposes. For t e s t i n g t h e a b i l i t y of t h e pick-up and tone arm t o t r a c k t h e r e c o r d groove use: "Funeral March of a Marionette"
REPLACING PICK-UP ARbUTURE.

No. 6639.

%ampan

No. 55985.

For a voice as w e l l a s low frequency t e s t a t t h e same time: "A Gay Caballeron No. 21735.

For dance music which h a s an evidence of h i g h frequency a s w e l l a s low frequency response use: " B u l l F i d d l e Blues n No. 2155.

For checking low f r e q u e n c i e s mainly use: "Aloha Oetl No. 21121, w h i c h . a t t h e v e r y end h a s about 50 c y c l e s recorded on it, a l s o "Andantino" - No. 35845. For t e s t i n g r a t t l e of pick-ups:

"My C a r o l i n a Sunshine G i r l "

No.40096.

P O O R P NOTOR SERVICE DATA. The phonograph motor used i s of t h e i n d u c t i o n H N G AH The d i s c type and i s unusually rugged i n c o n s t r u c t i o n . (See Figure 14.) following covers t h e d e t a i l s of any s e r v i c e t h a t may become necessary.
CATION O MOTOR. F The various bearings and g e a r s of t h e motor should be kept c l e a n and should be l u b r i c a t e d a t l e a s t once every s i x months. Phonograph motor o i l and motor g r e a s e should be used and a p p l i e d t o t h e p o i n t s i n d i c a t e d i n Figure 15. Should phonograph motor o i l and g r e a s e n o t be a v a i l a b l e , any high g r a d e l i g h t engine o i l may be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e o i l and v a s e l i n e f o r t h e g r e a s e . Before l u b r i c a t i n g i t i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t the p a r t s f i r s t be cleaned with carbon t e t r a - c h l o r i d e , (Carbona), and a l l d i r t and old g r e a s e removed. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e g u l a r l u b r i c a t i o n a l l b r i g h t m e t a l l i c p a r t s , except t h e motor d i s c , should be covered with a l i g h t f i l m of o i l t o prevent r u s t i n g .

SPEED REGULATION, A stroboscope d i s c i s included w i t h each instrument which makes speed adjustments v e r y easy. The i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r i t s use a r e p r i n t e d on each d i s c and w i l l n o t be repeated here. If a stroboscope d i s c i s n o t a v a i l a b l e t h e method on s h e e t 1 9 may be used f o r c o r r e c t speed adjustments.
1 .

Place a r e c o r d on t h e t u r n t a b l e and i n s e r t a small p i e c e of paper under t h e edge of t h e r e c o r d t o s e r v e a s an i n d i c a t o r . Lesson 46

sheet 17

MAGNETIC PICK-UP SERVICE DATA CHART

Indication

Cause

Remedy

Poor volume control contact betweer arm and resistance \'o reproduction Open pick-up coil or connections

:lean volume control resistance with a pipe cleaner and any of the various agarette lighter fluids

k p a i r any loose connections by resoldering or replace an open coil

Loose needle

Yighten needle in socket with needle set screw

Dirty contact in volume control

:lean volumc control resistance and contact arm

Veak or distorted reproduction

-4rmature out of adjustment

:enter armature as described

Defective rubber damping block o pivot supports

leplace rubber damping block and pivot supports

Dirt in armature air gap

:lean all dirt from air gap by means ol a blower or disassemble pick-up and clean. Remove rust from armature ii necessary

Weak magnet

temagnetire magnet by taking t o mag. nato repair shop. Place keeper across pole faces until magnet is again in place in the pick-up. Making repair: without placing a kveper on the magnet is the easiest way of having thr magnet lose i t s magnetism.

Xeedle holder rattle

f the needle hole of the pick-up cove1 touches the set screw that holds thf needle, a rattle will result.

Lesson 46

sheet 18

2.

P l a y t h e record i n t h e normal manner and count t h e number of r e v o l u t i o n s made by t h e t u r n t a b l e f o r one minute. The speed should be 78 r e v o l u t i o n s per minute. Turning t h e speed r e g u l a t i n g screw ( ~ i g u r e 10) clockwise allows t h e motor t o run f a s t e r , and counter- clockwise, slower. Adjust by t r i a l u n t i l t h e speed i s 78 r e v o l u t i o n s per minute a s determined from a f u l l minute's count.

3.

.NOTE: The speed of t h e machine should be checked a t l e a s t f o u r o r f i v e times a year. Improper speed w i l l cause d i s t o r t i o n .
The governor w i l l maintain a c o n s t a n t speed of t h e motor within a range of sudden v o l t a g e changes of 20 v o l t s , providing a l l t h e p a r t s a r e c o r r e c t l y a d j u s t e d . Any adjustment made on t h e motor ( i n c l u d i n g l u b r i c a t i o n ) w i l l have a c e r t a i n e f f e c t on t h e r e g u l a t i o n of speed and t h e speed a d j u s t ment should be checked before t h e u n i t i s a g a i n placed i n s e r v i c e .
GOVERNOR.
OIL UPPER SPINDLE BEARING AND GOVERNOR SHAFT BEARING &WITH MOTOR OIL

LUBRICATE SPIRAL OF SHAFT AN0 GEAR WITH MOTOR GREASE

OIL GOYERNOR'SHAFT BEARlN6. GOVERNOR SLIDING SLEEVE AN0 LOWER SPINDLE WITH MOTOR OIL.

Lubvication points of the phonograph motor

Figure 15 NOISY OPERATION s 1. Governor Springs. A n o i s e o r r a t t l e may sometimes be caused by loose o r broken governor springs. Tighten a l l t h e governor s p r i n g screws. If t h i s does n o t s t o p t h e n o i s e , loosen t h e screws on t h e gear end of the governor s p r i n g s and allow t h e motor t o run f o r a minute o r two t o allow t h e s p r i n g s t o assume t h e i r c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n . Stop t h e motor and r e t i g h t e n t h e screws. If any of t h e s p r i n g s a r e broken o r badly o u t of balance, they should be replaced.
2.

Governor Bearings. The t h r u s t bearing a t t h e gear end of t h e governor may cause n o i s e while t h e motor i s running. Hold one f i n g e r over t h e end of t h e bearing and loosen t h e s e t screw which holds t h e bearing i n p o s i t i o n . Adjust t h e bearing t o t h e most q u i e t running p o s i t i o n and r e t i g h t e n t h e s e t screw. If t h i s procedure i s n o t s u c c e s s f u l t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e governor s p i r a l

Lesson 46

- s h e e t 19

r e l a t i v e t o t h a t of t h e governor d r i v e gear should be s h i f t e d s l i g h t l y u n t i l a c o n d i t i o n of minimum s p i r a l t o gear n o i s e i s obtained. To do t h i s t h e s e t screw holding t h e t h r u s t bearing a t t h e gear end of t h e governor s p i n d l e i s loosened and t h e bearing s h i f t e d s l i g h t l y and reclamped (loosening t h e bearing on t h e opposite end of t h e s h a f t f i r s t i f n e c e s s a r y ) . Now, with t h e bearing a t t h e d i s c 'end of t h e s p i n d l e loosened and one f i n g e r a g a i n s t i t t o prevent i t from s l i p p i n g out, s t a r t t h e motor. While t h e motor i s running, p r e s s l i g h t l y a g a i n s t t h i s bearing and clamp t h e s e t screw t o hold i t i n place. The c e n t e r of t h e worm should be approximately oppos i t e t h e c e n t e r of t h e worm gear. If t h i s i s n o t t h e case f o r t h e p o s i t i o n of minimum n o i s e a d e f e c t i v e o r poorly l u b r i c a t e d worm o r worm gear i s i n d i c a t e d . A bent governor s p i n d l e may a l s o be t h e cause. Governor Spindle. A bent governor s p i n d l e w i l l cause binding i n t h e g e a r s and bearings a s w e l l a s n o i s e . The bent s p i n d l e should be replaced with a new one. Removal of t h e governor can be accomp l i s h e d by loosening t h e two governor bearing screws, one a t each end of t h e governor s h a f t , and l i f t i n g t h e governor from t h e frame. Governor Driving Gear. Remove t h e motor s p i n d l e and examine t h e gear f o r wear. I f t h e wear on t h e t e e t h i s uneven on o p p o s i t e s i d e s of t h e gear t h e t u r n t a b l e s p i n d l e i s bent and both gear and s p i n d l e should be replaced. Turntable Spindle and Disc. Abent t u r n t a b l e s p i n d l e , o r a bent o r improperly a d j u s t e d d i s c w i l l cause n o i s e . The bent s p i n d l e may cause t h e d i s c t o r u b a g a i n s t t h e i r o n c o r e of one of t h e c o i l s . A bent s p i n d l e can be d e t e c t e d by p l a c i n g a p e n c i l f l a t on t h e motor board with t h e point a g a i n s t t h e s p i n d l e ; i f the p e n c i l p o i n t touches t h e spindle on one s i d e only while t h e motor i s running, t h e s p i n d l e i s bent and should be replaced. If t h e d i s c i s bent and rubs a g a i n s t t h e cores o f t h e m o t o r c o i l s t h e lower s p i n d l e bearing should be a d j u s t e d , o r t h e d i s c should be replaced, depending upon the e x t e n t of t h e damage. I f t h e motor "bumps" ( t u r n t a b l e jumps up and down), i t may be due t o a f a u l t y o r worn g e a r o r worm; i n s u f f i c i e n t g r e a s e o r poor g r e a s e on t h e worms; o r n o t enough t u r n s on one of t h e upper motor c o i l s .
HEATING. Normal o p e r a t i o n of t h e motor w i l l . produce more h e a t than can comfortably be t o l e r a t e d while touching any of t h e c o i l u n i t s . This i s mentioned i n order t h a t the s e r v i c e man w i l l n o t misconstrue t h i s heating a s an i n d i c a t i o n of a d e f e c t .

CONTINUITY OF UOTOR CIRCUITS. Due t o t h e absence of a motor terminal board i t i s b e s t t o disconnect t h e motor and t e s t f o r c o n t i n u i t y of c i r c u i t d i r e c t l y a t the motor c o i l s . T h l s may be done by any of t h e methods used f o r r e g u l a r c o n t i n u i t y t e s t s . Associated c i r c u i t s should be checked by r e f e r r i n g t o t h e diagram, Figure 16.

Lesson 46

s h e e t 20

Assembly wiri?~g d i n g v e m of t h e vad,io-phonograph combination i n s t m m e n t

F i g u r e 16

Lesson 46

sheet 21

PHONOGRAPH MOTOR SERVICE DATA CHART

T h e f o l l o w i n g S e r v i c e D a t a C h a r t i n d i c a t e s t h e cause and remedy for any difficulties w h i c h may be e n c o u n t e r e d i n the o p e r a t i o n of the phonograph motor. These are l i s t e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r i n d i c a t i o n s : Indication Cause perating switch or record switc "off" or defective
o

Remedy 'urn switches "On" or repair fective switches

any

de-

A.C. power a t socket outlet

:heck with a 0-150-V. A.C. voltmeter Lepair any defective connections

- -

oosr or open connection in the cor nector cord or plug Failure to run i r o n g or open connections of mot( coils ~ m r n e dmotor

:heck wiring and make any repairs necessary lotate turntable b y hand with power n. If jammed examine, mo!or a!ld xeplace or repair part causlng Jamnlmg k m o v e paper wedges if used between disc and coils to hold motor during shipment :heck line voltage with a 0-150 Volt A.C. voltmeter while motor is running and phonograph is in operation. T h e voltage must be between 105-125 for proper operation. txamine moving parts, bearings and gears. If oil and grease is gummy clean and lubricate .oosen the three motor mounting screws and Fighten alternately while motor is runnmg. D o not tighten any screw sufficiently to cause binding o r slowing down of the motor Ceplace a worn hall bearing Lfter checking all the above causes and the motor still fails to maintain speed replace one o r both of the motor coils

hipping wedges not removed

ow line voltage

npropei lubrication

Motor fails to ma tain correct spec,

[otor improperly mounted or jarrt in shipping

lorn motor spindle ball bearing leak motor coils

It is possible for them to test elec. trieally 0. K. but be weak in operation

oose coils or coil laminations Hum abinet hum Cighten screws that hold coil cores to. gether. If this does not correct thf hum place a small wooden wedge be. tween inside of coil and core righten motor mounting screws or re. place the rubber between motor ant cabinet

Lesson 46

sheet 22

TO REMOVE MOTOR. I f i t i s necessary t o remove the phonograph motor, i t may be done i n t h e following manner:

1.
2.
3.

Place t h e pick-up and tone arm t o t h e s i d e , c l e a r of t h e turnt a b l e . Remove n e e d l e from pick-up and remove t u r n t a b l e . Gain access t o t h e r e a r and remove a l l wiring t o t h e motor. Remove t h e t h r e e n u t s , washers and rubber p i e c e s from t h e motor supporting b o l t s , being s u r e t o hold. t h e motor so t h a t i t w i l l n o t drop. I t may now be moved t o a place convenient f o r work.

View of m o t o ~ boavd with turntable removed

Figure 17
REPLACING THE MOTOR COILS.. Should t h e n e c e s s i t y a r i s e f o r r e p l a c i n g t h e c o i l s of t h e i n d u c t i o n d i s c phonograph motor proceed a s follows:

Remove t h e motor a s o u t l i n e d i n the foregoing paragraph. Open the l u g s holding t h e black power l e a d s t o t h e motor frame and remove t h e s e l e a d s t o one s i d e . Release t h e round head machine screws holding t h e c o i l u n i t , which i s t o be replaced, t o t h e motor frame. P u t the new c o i l u n i t i n place and r e p l a c e t h e c o i l u n i t mounting screws, t i g h t e n i n g them c a r e f u l l y . Replace the black power l e a d s under t h e l u g s and reconnect t h e power l e a d s t o t h e proper p o i n t s on t h e terminal board a s shown i n F i g u r e 16. L u b r i c a t e motor i f necessary. Replace motor and t u r n t a b l e and t e s t f o r o p e r a t i o n and speed. Lesson 46

s h e e t 23

REPLACING THE M T R GOVERNOR PARTS. If i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o remove t h e goverOO nor, t o r e p l a c e t h e governor s p i n d l e o r s p r i n g s use t h e following procedure:
1.

Remove t h e motor.

2 Unscrew governor bearing screw. .

3.
4.
5.

Push t h e governor s p i n d l e a g a i n s t t h i s bearing s o a s t o start i t o u t of i t s socket, and remove t h i s bearing. Remove t h e governor s p i n d l e with i t s a s s o c i a t e d p a r t s .
A l l governor p a r t s are now r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e and i t may be d i s assembled. The governor spring holding c o l l a r i s f a s t e n e d t o t h e governor s p i n d l e by means of a s m a l l s e t screw, and t h e s p i n d l e i s nspottedw t o f a c i l i t a t e proper replacement.

6.

Replace t h e governor s p i n d l e and i t s assembled p a r t s by placing t h e o u t e r t i p of t h e s p i n d l e i n t h e o u t e r t h r u s t bearing socket f i r s t , and then i n s e r t i n g t h e i n n e r t i p i n t o i t s bearing, a f t e r which t h e o u t e r bearing i s replaced, and i t s s e t screw tightened, being c a r e f u l t o l e a v e a l i t t l e p l a y i n t h e bearings.

7 .
8.

I t i s u s u a l l y a good plan t o l u b r i c a t e t h e u n i t whenever s e r v i c e work i s done.

Replace motor and t u r n t a b l e , and test f o r o p e r a t i o n and speed.

REPLACING THE UOTOR SPINDLE, DISC OR GOVERNOR DRIVING GEAR.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Remove motor from c a b i n e t . Open t h e l u g s holding t h e power l e a d s t o t h e motor frame and move t h e s e l e a d s t o one s i d e . Remove t h e t h r e e mounting screws from t h e c o i l u n i t on the opposLte s i d e of t h e motor from t h e governor, and remove t h i s c o i l u n i t . P r e s s down on t h e speed r e g u l a t i n g arm s o a s t o r e l e a s e t h e p r e s s u r e on t h e governor f r i c t i o n d i s c , and t u r n t h e motor d i s c s o t h a t t h e s e t screws i n t h e hub of t h e motor d i s c and t h e governor d r i v i n g gear a r e r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e . Loosen both s e t screws far enough t o back them o u t of t h e r e c e s s e s provided f o r them i n t h e motor s p i n d l e and. draw o u t t h e spindle.

5.

6.

The motor should now be reassembled i n t h e r e v e r s e of t h e above

procedure, making any necessary replacetnents.

NOTE: Care should be t a k e n t o s e e t h a t t h e b a l l bearing under t h e lower end of t h e motor s p i n d l e i s n o t l o s t .

Lesson 46
F -

s h e e t 24

7.

A f t e r assembling t h e motor t h e l o c k n u t s around t h e s p i n d l e a d j u s t i n g screw should be loosened and t h e s p i n d l e a d j u s t i n g screw should be a d j u s t e d u n t i l t h e motor d i s c t u r n s f r e e l y i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e a i r gap of t h e c o i l u n i t s . Tighten t h e s p i n d l e a d j u s t i n g screw lock n u t . Replace t h e motor and t u r n t a b l e . Lubricate t h e motor. Reconnect, following t h e wiring diagram, F i g u r e 16, and t e s t f o r o p e r a t i o n and speed.

8.

9.

10.
1 . 1

REPLACING THE MOTOR SPINDLE BALL BEARING. A worn motor s p i n d l e b a l l bearing w i l l cause slow o r varying speed and should be r e p l a c e d as follows: P l a c e t h e pick-up and tone arm c l e a r of t u r n t a b l e , remove any needle which may be i n t h e pick-up and remove t h e t u r n t a b l e . Loosen t h e s p i n d l e a d j u s t i n g screw lock n u t and remove t h e motor s p i n d l e a d j u s t i n g screw. The b a l l bearing may now be removed. P l a c e t h e u n i t i n i t s normal o p e r a t i n g p o s i t i o n . The motor d i s c w i l l now r e s t on t h e p o l e f a c e s of t h e lower o r c u r r e n t c o i l . Lay a card a c r o s s t h e motor mounting panel, a g a i n s t t h e motor s p i n d l e , and mark t h e s p i n d l e l i g h t l y a t t h e p o i n t of contact.
L i f t t h e s p i n d l e u n t i l t h e motor d i s c touches t h e p o l e f a c e s of t h e upper o r v o l t a g e c o i l s and a g a i n mark t h e s p i n d l e .

Put tkie new b a l l bearing i n p l a c e and r e p l a c e t h e motor s p i n d l e a d j u s t i n g screw, a d j u s t i n g it s o t h a t t h e c a r d placed a c r o s s t h e motor board w i l l make c o n t a c t a g a i n s t t h e s p i n d l e j u s t half-way between t h e two marks p r e v i o u s l y made. This should p l a c e t h e motor d i s c i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e a i r gaps. If t h e d i s c i s warped an a d d i t i o n a l adjustment one way o r t h e o t h e r may be necessary t o preveut i t from rubbing a g a i n s t t h e p o l e p i e c e s i n operation. L u b r i c a t e , r e p l a c e t u r n t a b l e and t e s t f o r o p e r a t i o n and speed. SERVICE DATA ON MICROPHONE. The small hand microphone used f o r home recordi n g i s of rugged c o n s t r u c t i o n and w i l l g i v e good s e r v i c e .
If any d i f f i c u l t i e s be encountered, however, r e p a i r s o t h e r than replacement of t h e cord, the handle and s h e l l , o r t h e mechanism should n o t be attempted. The adjustment of t h e diaphragm and carbon p r e s s u r e i s made a t t h e f a c t o r y and i s p r a c t i c a l l y impossible t o d u p l i c a t e i n t h e f i e l d . F i g u r e 18 shows t h e e s s e n t i a l elements of t h e microphone which may be r e p l a c e d .

Lesson 46

s h e e t 25

SERVICE DATA ON AUTOMATIC SWITCH YECHANISM. A s p e c i a l mechanism i s provided which a t t h e end of a Victor e c c e n t r i c groove record. onensthe Dower t o t h e motor and s h o r t c i r c u i t s t h e magnetic pick-u p . he-absence o f - a brake e l i m i n a t e s any mechanical n o i s e t h a t might be p r e s e n t while t h e turnt a b l e i s being stopped and t h e s h o r t i n g of t h e pick-up prevents any needle s c r a t c h from being reproduced. The e f f e c t i s t h a t a t t h e end of a record a s l i g h t c l i c k i s heard and then s i l e n c e u n t i l t h e n e x t record i s played. PICK-UP SWITCH FAILURE. Should t h e motor s t o p a t t h e end of a record, but t h e pick-up switch f a i l t o work, r e s u l t i n g i n a r e c o r d s c r a t c h while t h e t u r n t a b l e i s stopping, i t may be due t o any of t h e following causes:
1. 2.
3 .

Poor connections a t pick-up switch. nections i f necessary.

Check and r e p a i r con-

Contact arm b e n t o r i t s t e n s i o n l o s t s o t h a t c o n t a c t s do n o t c l o s e . Repair o r r e p l a c e i f necessary. Adjustment of c o n t a c t i n r e l a t i o n t o arm n o t properly made. Loosen t h e screws t h a t hold t h e switch t o t h e base p l a t e and s h i f t e n t i r e switch u n t i l t h e l a t c h arm properly engages t h e switch c o n t a c t .
CARBON PRESSURE ADJUSTMENT.

MICROPHONE UNIT-

CONNECTOR

SIX DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTMENT.SCREWS DO NOT DISTURB ORIGINAL ADJUSTMENT

Details of the microphone

Figure 18
MOTOR SWITCH FAILURE. If t h e motor f a i l s t o s t a r t when t h e tone arm i s p u l l e d t o t h e r i g h t , t h e s w i t c h should be examined t o s e e t h a t it i s o p e r a t i n g properly. See F i g u r e 19.

The left- hand screw holding t h e switch t o t h e base p l a t e passes through an oversized round h o l e i n t h e switch body and t n e right- hand screw passes through an elongated h o l e i n t h e switch body. T h i s permits of a considera b l e adjustment of t h e swltch on t h e base p l a t e . Lesson 46

s h e e t 26

1.

Remove the s i n g l e small screw holding t h e switch cover i n place. S e t t h e tone a r m t o t h e "On" p o s i t i o n and examine the switch c o n t a c t s t o s e e t h a t t h e y close.
If t h e switbh does n o t c l o s e and t h e s w i t c h moved away from t h e switch contact, l e a v i n g contacts, t h e movable c o n t a c t spring should i n c r e a s e i t s t e n s i o n and cause the c o n t a c t s

2.
3.

cam l e v e r may be a gap between t h e be bent s o a s t o t o close.

4.

If t h e switch cam l e v e r does n o t have a s u f f i c i e n t l y f r e e movement t o permit t h e c o n t a c t s t o close, both switch mounting screws should be loosened, and t h e switch should be a d j u s t e d on t h e base p l a t e (with t h e tone arm i n t h e nOnn p o s i t i o n ) , so t h a t t h e r e i s a space of 1/52 i n . between t h e switch cam l e v e r and t h e l a t c h cam, and about 1/16 i n . between t h e switch cam l e v e r and t h e s p r i n g anchor pin. When t h i s adjustment has been made t i g h t e n t h e switch mounting screws.

5.

Clean t h e switch c o n t a c t s with 00 sandpaper t o remove any corrosion t h a t may be p r e s e n t .

6, Replace t h e switch cover p l a t e .

7.

Replace t h e t u r n t a b l e with t h e tone arm i n tks "On" p o s i t i o n so a s t o c l e a r t h e brake l e v e r arm of t h e i n s i d e r i m of t h e t u r n t a b l e , and r o t a t e t h e t a b l e by hand t o permit t h e s l o t i n t h e t u r n t a b l e t o s l i p over t h e pin i n t h e motor spindle.

F R I C T I O N LEVER

/3

STARTING POSITION

Automatic switch meohanism

Figure 19

Lesson 46
:,< ;. :

sheet 27
\.

AUTOMATIC SWITCH MECHANISM SERVICE DATA CHART

-

Indication

Cause

Remedy

Loose latch plate

Tighten latch plate screws with plate in correct position. (See Fig. 19)

Failure to trip

Latch trip does not engage latch Increase tension on latch trip plate properly Defective latch plate. If the friction Remove all burrs from the latch plate lever swings with the eccentric rcc- with a pime of emery cloth or a fine ord groove, but the operating lever file. Also make sure no burrs are on fails to swing or swings slightly, the edge of the latch trip the latch trip is probably caught in a burr on one of the teeth of the latch plate Worn surface

Premature tripping Insufficient tension

I1

Examine the contact surfaces between the brake lever and the latch (point "A," Firmre 19). These two surfaces mdst besqiare:. 1f the; have become worn round. thev should he souared I with a fine file

If the latch does not strike the latch stop pin "B" (Figure 1 9 ) , when the brake lever is pulled to the "On" position, increase the tension of the latch spring

EXAMINATION

LESSON 46

I f the phonograph motor bumps up and down what i s l i k e l y t o be the trouble? H w i s t h e speed of t h e phonograph motor regulated? o What w i l l happen i f a WR-7 r e c e i v e r i s connected t o a d-c l i n e ? I f d i s t o r t i o n o r b l a s t i n g occurs when a record i s being played what i s l i k e l y t o be t h e t r o u b l e ? W y i s i t necessary t o p l a c e a ffkeeper" a c r o s s t h e pole pieces h of t h e magnetic pick-up when i t i s disassembled? H w would you e l i m i n a t e humming caused by t h e phonograph motor? o I f no reproduction could be obtained from t h e phonograph what would i i k e l y be the t r o u b l e ? If the Dower transformer i n a Radiola 86 should become d e f e c t i v e with t h e r e c e i v e r i n o p e r a t i o n what would happen? If the volume should become t o o low what s t e p s would you take t o remedy t h i s f a u l t ? What would you do i f t h e volume c o n t r o l operated n o i s i l y ?
-

Lesson 46
a*

sheet 28

Technical Lesson

47
CROSLEY R.F.L.
90---ZENITH 17

The Crosley R.F.L. 90 r e c e i v e r i n c o r p o r a t e s t h r e e s t a g e s of tuned r a d i o frequency, a non- regenerative d e t e c t o r , and t w o s t a g e s of transformer coupled audio frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n . Manufacturers of tuned r a d i o frequency c i r c u i t s employ various methods of c a n c e l l i n g out the e f f e c t of i n t e r - e l e c t r o d e c a p a c i t i e s of t h e vacuum t u b e , thus e l i m i n a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of o s c i l l a t i o n s . I n c e r t a i n types of r e c e i v e r s f i x e d r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s a r e connected d i r e c t l y i n the g r i d l e a d s of t h e r a d i o frequency t u b e s t o prevent o s c i l l a t i o n s , and i s known a s t h e " g r i d suppressor" method. C i r c u i t s employing t h i s method were taken up i n a previous lesson. I n t h e c i r c u i t which i s the s u b j e c t of t h i s l e s s o n t h e i n t e r - e l e c t r o d e c a p a c i t i e s of t h e r a d i o frequency t u b e s are c a n c e l l e d ; t h a t i s , balanced out by means of o s c i l l a t i o n c o n t r o l . When employing a balanced c i r c u i t of t h i s type t h e manufacturer b u i l d s it up about a c e r t a i n type of vacuum tube and f o r t h i s reason only vacuum tubes having t h e proper c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s should be used i n t h e r a d i o frequency s t a g e s . The c i r c u i t of t h e R.F.L. 90 i s designed and s o balanced a t the f a c t o r y t h a t only t h e UX-201A or CX-3O1A type of vacuum tube, or vacuum tubes having i d e n t i c a l l y the same or very s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , should be used i n the r a d i o frequency stages. Proper use of vacuum tubes i n t h e r a d i o frequency s t a g e s i s t h e r e f o r e important i f t h e b e s t r e s u l t s a r e t o be obtained. I n the d e t e c t o r s t a g e a vacuum tube of t h e 200-A o r 201-8 type should be e~nployedbecause t h e f i x e d filament r e s i s t a n c e connected i n t h e filament c f r c u i t of t h i s tube i s designed t o be used i n connection w i t h vacuum tubes of t h e q u a r t e r ampere type. The use of vacuum tubes drawing one ampere should not be used, a s f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e UV-200 type because it w i l l overload t h i s f i x e d r e s i s t o r and i f allowed t o remain i n t h e socket w i l l cause the r e s i s t o r t o be damaged. The d e t e c t o r tube socket i s t h e extreme r i g h t socket a s seen when f a c i n g the f r o n t of the s e t . S a t i s f a c t o r y r e c e p t i o n may be obtained by using t h e UX-201A type vacuum tube i n both audio frequency s t a g e s . To e l i m i n a t e the p o s s i b i l i t y of d i s t o r t i o n , however, i f maximum volume i s d e s i r e d , a UX-112 or UX-171 type power tube should be i n s e r t e d i n t h e l a s t audlo frequency tube socket. Additional "B" and "C" b a t t e r y terminals a r e provided i n the l a s t audio frequency stage t o make p o s s i b l e t h e use of proper p l a t e p o t e n t i a l and g r i d b i a s necessary f o r good reproduction when e i t h e r , t h e UX-112 o r UX-171 power tube i s employed.

Contents Copyrighked 1930 P r i n t e d i n U.S.A.

a t e p o t e n t i a l s from 90 t o 135 v o l t s and a. g r i d b i a s of 4.5 t o 9 v o l t s i s applied when employing t h e UX-112 power tube. 90 t o 180 v o l t s p l a t e p o t e n t i a l w i t h g r i d b i a s of 16.5 t o 40.5 i s applied when t h e UX-171 t y p e power tube i s placed i n t h e c i r c u i t . The i n s t a l l a t i o n of a power tube i n the l a s t s t a g e of t h i s s e t i s l a r g e l y a matter of personal opinion. One type i s i n s t a l l e d a s e a s i l y a s t h e If more t h a n other and no changes i n t h e c i r c u i t i t s e l f a r e necessary. 135 v o l t s p l a t e voltage ( B b a t t e r y ) i s u t i l i z e d when the UX-171 power tube operates i n t h e l a s t s t a g e it t h e n becomes necessary t o i n s t a l l a one t o one r a t i o transformer between t h e power t u b e output terminals and the loudspeaker t o prevent damage t o the windings of the speaker u n i t . (See Figure 4 ) . A white arrow on t h e sub-panel of the tube socket shelf' designates t h e socket i n which the power tube should be i n s e r t e d .
A l l tubes i n t h i s s e t should be of t h e storage b a t t e r y type. By s t o r a g e b a t t e r y tubes i s meant those r e q u i r i n g filament voltage of f i v e v o l t s f o r normal operation. It i s t h e r e f o r e recommended t h a t e i t h e r a 6 v o l t s t o r g a e b a t t e r y of a t l e a s t 80 ampere hour c a p a c i t y , or an e f f i c i e n t "A" b a t t e r y e l i m i n a t o r be used.

For a l l a m p l i f i e r t u b e s , both r a d i o and audio frequency, not over 90 v o l t s of "B" b a t t e r y should be a p p l i e d , w i t h t h e exception of t h e power tube. For t h e d e t e c t o r tube use 45 v o l t s "B" b a t t e r y . The proper "C" b a t t e r y voltage t o use w i t h various power t u b e s w i l l always be found on the d a t a sheet accompanying each tube. Antenna and Ground: Generally an antenna 50 t o 100 f e e t i n length w i l l be found e f f i c i e n t . To advise an antenna of s p e c i f i c l e n g t h i s not good p r a c t i c e because of t h e varying r e c e p t i o n conditions t h a t a r e found i n e d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s of t h e country. A 25 f o o t a e r i a l i n N w York C i t y would probably p i c k up s u f f i c i e n t s i g n a l energy t o operate the s e t a t maximum e f f i c i e n c y , while i n the country, miles from a broadcasting station, 100 f e e t of a e r i a l wire would be necessary t o produce t h e same r e s u l t s . If the s e t i s l o c a t e d very close t o a broadcasting s t a t i o n even 1 5 o r 20 f e e t , including l e a d - i n , w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t , and because t h i s c i r c u i t i s very s e n s i t i v e s h o r t antennas a r e recommended when the l o c a t i o n i s i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y of powerful t r a n s m i t t e r s . When i n s t a l l i n g t h i s s e t t h e s e r v i c e man should t r y out various antenna l e n g t h s u n t i l the one operating the most e f f e c t i v e i s found. The ground lead should be connected e i t h e r t o a water pipe or t o a rod d r i v e n i n moist e a r t h . Never use a gas pipe a s the ground. F i r e underw r i t e r s r u l e s should be followed whenever possible r e l a t i v e t o the i n s t a l l a t i o n of antenna and ground connections of r e c e i v i n g s e t s . Connectins: B a t t e r i e s t o Terminal Boarfl: The t e r m i n a l board a t t h e r e a r of the s e t i s provided w i t h twelve terminal posts. Reading from l e f t t o r i g h t a s you face t h e f r o n t of the s e t t h e y a r e : Antenna p o s t s , (Vo1.A) and (Sel.A), ground ( G ) , P o s i t i v e "A" b a t t e r y , Negative "B" b a t t e r y ( A + B- ), loudspeaker output terminals marked "Musicone", P o s i t i v e "B" b a t t e r y 90 t o 180 v o l t s (B+90 t o 1 8 0 ) , P o s i t i v e "B" b a t t e r y 90 v o l t s (B+90). P o s i t i v e "B" b a t t e r y 45 v o l t s ( B + 4 5 ) , Negative "G" b a t t e r y 0 Lesson 47

- sheet 2

t o 40 v o l t s (C-0 t o 4 0 ) , Negative " C n b a t t e r y 0 t o 6 v o l t s (C-0 t o 6 ) , Figure 1 i s a diagram P o s i t i v e "C" b a t t e r y , Negative " A" b a t t e r y ( C + A - ) . of the terminal board of t h e Crosley Model R.F.L. 90, showing antenna, groun6, storage b a t t e r y , "B" b a t t e r y , and loudspeaker connections. A s i x v o l t storage b a t t e r y i s included f o r supplying c u r r e n t t o t h e tube f i l a m e n t s , and two 45 v o l t "B" b a t t e r i e s t o f u r n i s h voltage t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t s of t h e tubes. The diagram, Figure 1, should be followed when s i x UX-201A vacuum tubes a r e employed and no "C" b i a s i n g b a t t e r y . The metal jumpers which w i l l be found connecting t h e "B" p o s i t i v e 90 t o 180 binding post t o t h e "B" p o s i t i v e 90 v o l t binding post should be l e f t connected a s shown, likewise t h e jumpers connecti t h e "C" negative zero t o 40 v o l t s . "C" negative zero t o 6 v o l t s , andqCs p o s i t i v e " A " negative binding p o s t s should be connected a s shown i n Figure 1. The antenna should be temporarily connected t o f i r s t t h e a e r i a l binding post " ~ o l . ~t h e n t o a e r i a l binding post " S e l . ~ " , and permanently con" nected t o t h e one g i v i n g t h e b e s t r e s u l t s , r e g a r d l e s s of the o v e r a l l l e n g t h of the antenna wire. The white arrow on the tube socket and i s the O the extreme r i g h t w n point out the d e t e c t o r extreme l e f t p o i n t s t o t h e second audio frequency only socket i n which a power tube i s t o be i n s e r t e d . i l l be found a second white arrow which serves t o tube socket.

Figure 2 i s the w i r i n g diagram t o be followed when s i x UX-201A type rec e i v i n g tubes are employed t o g e t h e r with a "c" b a t t e r y . Since a "C" b a t t e r y i s now included i n the complement of b a t t e r i e s , the metal jumper connecting the binding posts marked C-0 t o 6 and C+A-must be opened. The f i g u r e c l e a r l y shows t h i s operation a s well a s t h e added "c" b a t t e r y . When a UX-112 power tube i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e l a s t audio frequency s t a g e a n a d d i t i o n a l "B" b a t t e r y and an e x t r a "C" b a t t e r y i s necessary. The diagram, Figure 3, shows how t h e b a t t e r i e s a r e connected when f i v e UX-201A tubes a r e used w i t h a UX-112 power tube. Since 135 v o l t s p l a t e voltage i s applied t o the power tube t h e jumper between t h e B+90 t o 180 and B+90 binding p o s t s i s opened and separated s o t h a t no m e t a l l i c connection e x i s t s between t h e s e posts. The jumper between C-0 t o -40 and C-0 t o -6, C-A- binding p o s t s a l s o must be opened. The proper s i z e "C" b a t t e r y , equipped w i t h t a p s , t o d e l i v e r t h e c o r r e c t "C" b i a s must be used. When 135 v o l t s p l a t e p o t e n t i a l i s impressed on a UX-112 power tube 9 v o l t s " C n b i a s must be used on the g r i d . If 1576 v o l t s i s applied t o t h i s tube, lo* v o l t s "c" b i a s i s necessary. Figure 4 shows t h e b a t t e r y connections when a UX-171 tube i s employed i n t h e l a s t stage. 180 v o l t s "BR b a t t e r y and 40 v o l t s "C" b a t t e r y i s u t i l i zed i n t h i s i n s t a n c e . The i n s t r u c t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o opening the jumpers between t h e binding p o s t s before i n s t a l l i n g "c" b a t t e r y and "Bn b a t t e r i e s , when over 90 v o l t s i s used, must be c a r e f u l l y followed. To neglect t h i s w i l l r e s u l t i n r a p i d l y running down and r u i n i n g b o t h "B" and "c" b a t t e r i e s . Lesson 47

sheet 3

Figure 1

Figure 3

Lesson 47

- sheet

ControL: N filament r h e o s t a t i s incorporated i n t h i s s e t t o o c o n t r o l the filament c u r r e n t ; b a l l a s t ; i.e., f i x e d r e s i s t o r s a r e connected i n the filament c i r c u i t which automatically r e g u l a t e s t h e filament c u r r e n t . Turning the filament c u r r e n t "onn o r " o f f n i s accomplished by simply p u l l i n g out o r pushing i n t h e filament switch shown i n Figure 5. The volume i s controLled by means of a r h e o s t a t connected i n t h e filament c i r c u i t of t h e t h r e e radio frequency tubes. To increase volume t u r n t h i s r h e o s t a t "ON". A decrease i n volume i s a t t a i n e d by t u r n ing t h i s r h e o s t a t t o t h e "OFF" p o s i t i o n . When searching f o r a s t a t i o n t h i s control should always be turned on f u l l u n t i l t h e s t a t i o n i s l o c a t e d , a f t e r which i t can be g r a d u a l l y turned off u n t i l t h e d e s i r e d volume r e s u l t s . F a i l u r e t o observe t h i s p o i n t may r e s u l t i n not l o c a t i n g many weak s i g n a l s which would otherwise be heard.
: -

u n i : Tuning i s accomplished by means of two drum type c o n t r o l s c a l l e d s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r s " and two o t h e r c o n t r o l s knows a s "acuminators". Figure 5 c l e a r l y shows t h e i r p o s i t i o n on the panel of the s e t . To tune i n a s t a t i o n s i g n a l , f i r s t a d j u s t t h e volume c o n t r o l t o i t s maximum "onn posit i o n ; t h i s causes the f i l a m e n t s of the t h r e e r a d i o frequency tubes t o h e a t t o the maximum normal temperature. The acuminators should then be s e t t o the approximate p o s i t i o n f o r the s t a t i o n d e s i r e d t o be heard. The s e t t i n g of t h e s e c o n t r o l s i s l e a r n e d through p r a c t i c e a s the e x a c t posit i o n may vary s l i g h t l y w i t h d i f f e r e n t i n s t a l l a t i o n s . S t a t i o n s e l e c t o r s 1 and 2 should t h e n be r o t a t e d u n t i l a s i g n a l i s heard. N w make close o adjustments of both t h e s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r s and acuminators u n t i l t h e s i g n a l i s received w i t h maximum volume.
I f , a t t h i s stage of t h e tuning procedure, the volume i s excessive, t u r n t h e volume c o n t r o l toward t h e " o f f " p o s i t i o n u n t i l t h e reproduction i s p l e a s i n g both a s t o volume and c l a r i t y . The volume c o n t r o l i s t h e only c o n t r o l t h a t should be manipulated when a r e d u c t i o n of volume i s d e s i r e d . Detuning t o o b t a i n t h i s r e s u l t w i l l i n many cases cause t h e reproduced s i g n a l t o be d i s t o r t e d . Detuning i s , a s t h e word i m p l i e s , t h e opposite of tuning.

Tuning i s t h e a c t of making such zdjustments t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e of the r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t , t o a p a r t i c u l a r frequency, i s reduced t o t h e lowest p o i n t . When t h i s i s accomplished the c i r c u i t i s t h e n , i n t h e t r u e sense of the word, tuned t o t h e frequency of the s i g n a l being received. Detuning i s t h e a c t of changing e i t h e r t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e t u n i n g condenser, or t h e inductance of t h e tuning c o i l , so t h a t t h e combination of capacity and inductance i s no longer resonant; t h a t i s , the combinat i o n no longer o f f e r s t h e lowest possible r e s i s t a n c e o r opposition t o t h e frequency of t h e s i g n a l . What r e a l l y happens i s t h e r e s i s t a n c e of the c i r c u i t t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r frequency has been increased. T h i s method of c o n t r o l l i n g volume i s , t h e r e f o r e , not s a t i s f a c t o r y a s i t d e s t r o y s t h e s e l e c t i v i t y of the r e c e i v e r and i n many cases produces d i s t o r t i o n because otlier s t a t i o n s t r a n s m i t t i n g on frequencies close t o t h e frequency of t h e s i g n a l being received w i l l pass through t h e c i r c u i t and t h i s , of course, i s not d e s i r a b l e . S t a t i o n s e l e c t o r s and acuminator c o n t r o l s then should be a d j u s t e d u n t i l t h e c i r c u i t i s resonant t o t h e s i g n a l frequency being r e c e i v e d and t h e volume brought t o t h e d e s i r e d i n t e n s i t y by adjustment Lesson 47

- sheet 5

6 VOLT i' BATTtRY

, W A l t R PIPE

GROUND

Figure 5

Figure 6

Lesson 47

- sheet 6

of t h e volume c o n t r o l knob only. The various c o n t r o l s of t h e s e t shown i n Figure 5 a r e :

1 and 2 3 and 4

5
6

Station selectors Acuminator knobs Volume c o n t r o l Filament switch

- 0 : Figure 6 i s a schematic diagram of t h e Crosley Model R.F.L. 90. The antenna c i r c u i t i s coupled t o t h e input of the f i r s t r a d i o frequency s t a g e RF1 by means of the r a d i o frequency transformer ~ 2 , t h e primary of which i s untuned. Two t a p s a r e provided on t h i s primary c o i l t o vary t h e coupling. The t a p s marked "Vol A " which i s an abbreviat i o n f o r "Volume ~ n t e n n a " , connects a l l of t h e t u r n s of t h i s c o i l i n t h e c i r c u i t thus providing t h e g r e a t e s t coupling which i s conducive t o maximum volume, "Sel A" i s t h e symbol given t o t h e second t a p , an a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r "Selective ~ n t e n n a " . I n e f f e c t , the antenna inductance i s decreased when t h i s t a p i s u t i l i z e d o r , s t a t e d another way, t h e antenna has been shortened e l e c t r i c a l l y . Decreased coupling i s obtained and t h e system a s a whole i s more s e l e c t i v e .
The main tuning condensers C 1 , C2, and C 3 a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l ( s h u n t ) t o t h e secondary windings of the r a d i o frequency transformers L 1 i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e , and L6 i n the second and t h i r d s t a g e s r e s p e c t i v e l y . One of the s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r drums c o n t r o l condenser C 1 across t h e seconda r y c o i l L1, while t h e remaining s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r drum c o n t r o l s t h e two condensers C 1 connected a c r o s s the secondary c o i l s L6 o f t h e second and t h i r d R .F. transformers r e s p e c t i v e l y . Connected i n shunt t o t h e main condensers of t h e second and t h i r d R.F. s t a g e s are two small condensers marked C 3 on t h e schematic diagram. Their f u n c t i o n i s t o provide a means of f i n e o r s h a r p tuning. I n o t h e r words t h e c i r c u i t may be a d j u s t e d t o resonance f o r a frequency which would be impossible t o r e c e i v e by r o t a t i n g the main t u n i n g condenser alone. These condensers a r e operated by means of t h e knobs on the f r o n t of t h e panel marked cuminat at or". palancinq: The f i r s t two s t a g e s of t h i s c i r c u i t a r e balanced t o prevent uncontrolled o s c i l l a t i o n s by means of t h e ,balancing c o i l s L5 and t h e small a d j u s t a b l e condensers C2. The advantage of t h i s method of balancing i s t h a t i t i s independent of the wavelength of t h e received s i g n a l , making p o s s i b l e good balance throughout t h e e n t i r e broadcast wavelength range without s a c r i f i c i n g s i g n a l volume a t t h e longer wavelength. The t h i r d r a d i o frequency stage (RF 3 ) i s bolanced by means of t h e small condensers C6, C5, and C2, with a small f i x e d r e s i s t a n c e R 2 shunted across C6, The condenser C2 i s a d j u s t a b l e and s e t a t t h e f a c t o r y . N balancing o c o i l s are used i n t h i s s t a g e . The condensers C2, which a r e found i n each of' the r a d i o frequency s t a g e s , a r e small a d j u s t a b l e condensers i n s t a l l e d t o balance t h e c i r c u i t f o r the 201A type tubes before t h e s e t leaves the f a c t o r y . The adjustment of these condensers should not be changed u n l e s s tubes having d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s than t h e type named a r e used. Lesson 47

sheet 7

Detector and Audio Frequency Stages: The t h i r d r a d i o frequency stage d e l i v e r s i t s energy t o the d e t e c t o r throu h an impedence transformer " ~ 2 " . Condenser "C4" i s t h e g r i d condenser, "RljS t h e g r i d l e a d , and condenser I I C ~ I I a by-pass condenser connected between t h e p l a t e and p o s i t i v e s i d e o f t h e d e t e c t o r filament f o r t h e purpose of by- passing the r a d i o frequency component of the p l a t e c u r r e n t around the primary winding of t h e f i r s t audio frequency transformer "Tl". The two audio frequency s t a g e s a r e transforrier coupled. Each trnnsformer i s of 4 t o 1 r a t i o and completely enclosed i n a grounded metal case. The primary and secondary t e r m i n a l windings a r e brought through the case by means of i n s u l a t e d s t u d s . Near each terminal s t u d t h e metal case i s stamped with proper markings which designate t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e two windings i s marked P 1 ; t h e For example, t h e p l a t e t e r m i n a l of t h e primary windi opposite end of t h i s winding which connects t o t h e b a t t e r y i s marked P2. The t e r m i n a l of t h e secondary winding which connects t o the g r i d element of the succeeding tube i s marked "S2" while t h e opposite end of t h i s winding, which connects t o the C- and thence t o f i l e m e n t A-, i s marked "Sl".

"3

The condenser "C" i n t h e audio frequency c i r c u i t , and shown i n the schematic diagram Figure 6, connected a c r o s s t h e B+90 t 6 180 binding post and t h e p o s t , i s a by-pass condenser placed t h e r e t o by-gass negative filament "A-'I t h e r a d i o frequency component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t around the "B" b a t t e r y .
0

From the schematic diagram Figure 6 i t w i l l be frequency s t a g e s a r e provided w i t h "C" b a t t e r y terminals. Two "C" t e r m i n a l s a r e provided s o t h a t a g r e a t e r b i a s may be applied t o the p l a t e of the l a s t audio frequency s t a g e i f a power tube r e q u i r i n g high p l a t e voltage i s employed. I f no "c" b i a s i s used and t h e jumpers ( s e e b a t t e r y wiring diagram Figure 1) a r e l e f t i n t a c t t h e g r i d s of the audio frequency tubes a r e connected d i r e c t ; i.e., through the a u d b frequency transformer secondaries t o the f i l a m e n t of t h e audio frequency tubes. Since t h e r e i s no voltage drop between t h e filament and g r i d throu* t h e medium of a f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t or b a l l a s t r e s i s t a n c e , a s i n soroe r a d i o s e t s , t h e only b i a s i n g voltsge applied t o the g r i d i s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t o f t h e "c" b a t t e r i e s used.
vcu

B~~~~~~

Testing: Before a t e s t i s s t a r t e d the a c c e s s o r i e s , a e r i a l and ground, should be thoroughly examined because i n many i n s t a n c e s t h e f a u l t can be t r a c e d t o t h e a c c e s s o r i e s . To make a c i r c u i t t e s t of t h e s e t remove t h e c h a s s i s , supporting the c i r c u i t wiring and p a r t s , from t h e cabinet and l a y i t bottom s i d e up on t h e t e s t t a b l e . This procedure w i l l expose t o view the more important p a r t s and wiring. By means of a small camel h a i r brush remove a l l d u s t o r o t h e r accumulation of d i r t p a r t i c l e s from the i n t e r i o r of t h e c h a s s i s , e s p e c i a l l y near u n i n s u l s t e d p o r t i o n s of the wiring and terminals. The usual t e s t i n g equipment may be used; t h a t i s , a p a i r o f phones i n s e r i e s with a f o u r v o l t b a t t e r y , o r the volt- meter method. I n t e s t i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h i s c i r c u i t f o r f a u l t y c o n t a c t s , open or s h o r t c i r c u i t s , t h e c h a r t i n Figure 7 has been prepared t o f a c i l i t a t e Lesson 47

- sheet 8

t h e work. For example, i f t h e primary winding of t h e second audio f r e quency transformer i s t o be t e s t e d i t i s only necessary t o place the t e s t t i p s on the terminals i n d i c a t e d by the arrows of the c h a r t which p o i n t t o the P 1 and P2 t e r m i n a l s of t h i s transformer. When t e s t i n g condensers r e f e r e n c e should bebmade t o the schematic diagram Figure 6 and i f t h i s drawing i n d i c a t e s a c o i l t o be shunted across any condenser t o be t e s t e d , remove t h e l e a d s from one of t h e condenser terminals
ANTENNA
COIL PRIYARY

ANTENNA COIL SECONDARY

Is? R. F. BALANCING COIL

R.F. PRIMARY

R. F. SECONDARY

3 ' R.F. 57 BALANCING

CONDEYSERS

R. F.
PRIMARY

7R.F.
SECONDARY

\ZP

R.F. BALANCING COIL

Figure 7 before making t h e t e s t .

T h i s i s important and should not be overlooked.

The v a r i a b l e condensers a r e not shown i n Figure 7 a s t h e y a r e mounted on t h e opposite o r t o p s i d e of the c h a s s i s . The method of t e s t suggested f o r t h e s e condensers i s t o connect a dry c e l l and a p a i r of headphones i n s e r i e s . This combination w i l l give the o p e r a t o r two f r e e l e a d s . Connect one of t h e leads of t h i s combination t o t h e r o t o r and the remaining l e a d t o the s t a t o r p l a t e s of the condenser, t h e n slowly r o t a t e t h e r o t o r p l a t e s and a t the same time, l i s t e n f o r sounds i n t h e headphones. If sharp c l i c k s a r e heard, a s h o r t c i r c u i t due t o improper a l i g m e n t of e i t h e r t h e r o t o r or s t a t o r p l a t e s of t h e confienser i s i n d i c a t e d . A v i s u a l examination w i l l t h e n determine the p o i n t a t which the s h o r t c i r c u i t contact i s being made and necessary s t e p s can be taken t o separate t h e p l a t e s a t t h i s point. Occasionally t h e small balancing condensers C2, shown i n Figure 6 , a r e changed by tampering from t h e i r c o r r e c t adjustment which i s made a t t h e Lesson 47

sheet 9

f a c t o r y . When -,his i s a s c e r t a i n e d they w i l l have t o be r e a d j u s t e d . To o b t a i n a good balance, however, p r a c t i c e and s k i l l a r e r e q u i r e d , and unl e s s they a r e unquestionably out of balance they should never be touched. To balance any one s t a g e see t h a t t h e s e t i s i n conciition t o perform a s would be t h e case i n normal o p e r a t i o n . Tune i n a s i g n a l t h a t i s strong enough t o g i v e good volume. Locate t h e t u b e belonging t o the s t a g e t h a t i s t o ke balanced; remove t h e t u b e and p l a c e a p i e c e of paper between one of the filament prongs of t h e tube base and t h e corresponding socket contact i n such a way t h a t when t h e tube i s r e s e a t e d t h e tube f i l a m e n t w i l l not l i g h t . With t h e tube f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t broken, a d j u s t t h e condenre r C 2 of t h a t s t a g e with a socket wrench made of some i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l , such a s a good grade of hard r u b b e r , or b a k e l i t e , having a small metal t i p . The l e s s metal used i n t h e t i p of the wrench t h e l e s s body c a p a c i t y e f f e c t s w i l l be n o t i c e d when naking the adjustment, and a l s o g r e a t e r e f f i c i e n c y w i l l be obtained i n naking t h e r o r r e c t l o n s . Each s t a g e should be c a r e f u l l y a d j u s t e d u n t i l no sound of t h e received s t a t i o n can be heard i n t h e speaker. When t h e c o r r e c t i o n s have been made remove t h e paper i n s u l a t i n g t h e f i l a m e n t prong of t h e tube and proceed i n t h e same manner f o r o t h e r s t a g e s t h a t may be found out of adjustment. From p r a c t i c a l experience t h i s o p e r a t i o n i s very r a r e l y necessary. A i n s t a n c e n where a complete r e b a l a n c i n g of t h e c i r c u i t i s n e c e s s a r y i s when r e c e i v i n g t u b e s having c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h e 201A type a r e employed. ZENITH 17 KECEIVER The z e n i t h Model 17 i s an e l e c t r i c a l l y operated s e t employing two s t a g e s of r a d i o frequency, a d e t e c t o r , and t h r e e s t a g e s of trar.sformer coupled audio frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n . This s e t i s a v a i l a b l e i n a t a b l e model, a s p i n e t base model, and console model. The a d d i t i o n of t h e console or s p i n e t base does not i n f l u e n c e t h e r e c e p t i o n b u t answers t h e requirements r e l a t i v e t o the t a s t e o f t h e owner, or a s a m a t t e r of convenience. The console base houses two b u i l t i n loudspeakers, one f o r reproducing t o n e s of the h i g h r e g i s t e r , and one f o r t h e tones of low r e g i s t e r . Power supply u n i t s a r e i n s t a l l e d i n spaces provided f o r t h a t purpose a t e i t h e r end of t h e c a b i n e t and a r e s u p p l i e d w i t h t h e r e c e i v e r . These u n i t s operate t h e s e t d i r e c t l y from t h e house l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t without the use of batteries. Before t h e s e t can be placed i n o p e r a t i o n t h e following a c c e s s o r i e s must be procured. Five 201A or 3 O l A tubes. " One 1 7 1 or 371 Four Type B-H Raytheon Tubes. One console base or an e x t e r n a l loudspeaker. Equipment necessary f o r t h e antenna system, namely; a e r i a l , ground equipment and. l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t o r . Lesson 47

- s h e e t 10

f o -

The best r e s u l t s a r e obtained from any r e c e i v e r when due c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s given t o i t s l o c a t i o n i n t h e house w i t h respect t o the point of e n t r a n c e of t h e antenna l e a d - i n wire and i t s proximity t o metal masses, such a s s t e e l columns concealed i n t h e w a l l of the b u i l d i n g , a s would be t h e case i n l a r g e apartments, or t o concealed wiring and piping. When p o s s i b l e , s e l e c t a l o c a t i o n where t h e s e t w i l l be w e l l c l e a r of metel o b j e c t s and where t h e l e a d - i n wire can be made a s s h o r t a s possible and connected d i r e c t l y t o the s e t ' w i t h o u t passing c l o s e t o concealed w i r i n g , p i p e s , o r o t h e r metal masses.

Location of Power S U D D ; ~ ~The power supply u n i t "zE 5" i s housed by t h e : compartment a t t h e extreme l e f t hand s i d e of t h e r e c e i v e r cabinet a s you look a t t h e back of t h e s e t . If t h e s e r v i c e man i s c a l l e d upon t o i n s t a l l one of t h e s e u n i t s care should be t a k e n t o see t h a t i t i s placed i n t h e compartment i n such a way t h a t t h e switch can be reached by opening t h e r i g h t hand door from t h e f r o n t of t h e cabinet. The f i l t e r u n i t should be placed i n the compartment a t t h e extreme r i g h t hand s i d e of the cabinet s o t h a t t h e end c a r r y i n g t h e two loudspeaker binding posts. i s a t t h e back of t h e cabinet.

I n connecting t h e s e t (Figure 8 ) f i r s t see t h a t t h e long cord from t h e power supply u n i t "zE 5", extends out of t h e cabinet. This cord i s d i s tinguished by t h e plug a t i t s end which connects t h e house l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t t o the power u n i t . Do not connect t h i s plug t o t h e 110 v o l t house c u r r e n t l i n e u n t i l ail1 o t h e r connections have been made. The s h o r t cord from t h i s u n i t connects w i t h i t s mate which i s secured t o t h e r e c e i v i n g s e t chassis.
From t h e f i l t e r u n i t "ZE 6" extends t h r e e cords. Pass a l l t h r e e throu&h t h e hole i n t h e right- hand wooden p a r t i t i o n . The l o n g e s t of t h e cords w i t h t h e round and square plugs a t t h e end should be extended over t h e t o p of t h e metal s h i e l d of the c h a s i s , through t h e h o l e i n the l e f t hand wooden p a r t i t i o n , and i n t o t h e l e f t hand compartment were t h e round plug should be i n s e r t e d i n t h e round socket of t h e power supply u n i t , and t h e square plug i n t o the square socket. The long s i n g l e wire marked "B AMP+" should a l s o be extended a c r o s s t h e c h a s s i s and connected t o t h e binding post marked ltB AMP+" which w i l l be found on t h e base of t h e c h a s s i s . The remaining cord w i t h the attached multiplug should then be i n s e r t e d i n i t s socket on t h e base of t h e c h a s s i s . When using a n outdoor antenna connect it t o t h e antenna post marked "I,ongl', an indoor antenna t o t h e post marked ".Shortn, and t h e grounding wire t o t h e post marked "GROUNDt1. The loudspeaker connects t o t h e two binding p o s t s on t h e r e a r of the f i l t e r u n i t "ZE 6". A l l loudspeaker t e r m i n a l s a r e marked w i t h p l u s or minus d e s i g n a t i o n s , e i t h e r w i t h t h e symbols " + " and "-" r by means of colored o t r a c e r t h r e a d s . If t h e l a t t e r metbad i s employed t h e g e n e r a l r u l e , u n l e s s otherwise s t a t e d by t h e manufacturer, i s t o connect t h e speaker terminal c a r r y i n g a colored t r a c e r t o the p o s i t i v e binding p o s t . The p o l a r i t y , however, i s r e a l l y of no importance when connecting a speaker t o t h i s s e t

Lesson 47

sheet 1 1

ANTENNA

-a

MULTIPLUG ATTACHED

n.c.
GROUND

LINE ONLY
GROUND

Figure 8

Figure 9

Lesson 47

s h e e t 12

a s t h e D.C. components of t h e loudspeaker c u r r e n t have been removed by a suitable f i l t e r . The f o u r B-H Raytheon tubes are now i n s e r t e d i n the sockets just For. proper operai n s i d e the r e a r opening of the power supply u n i t "ZE 5" t i o n , these tubes must have the same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; t h a t i s , they must be p e r f e c t l y aatched. Never s u b s t i t u t e an o l d , or worn out Ragthem tube before attempting t o operate t h e s e t , Use matched and t e s t e d t u b e s only. I n s e r t the f i v e 201A t u b e s i n the R.F. d e t e c t o r and A . F . sockets and t h e 171 povier tube i n t h e power tube socket. The placement of t h e tubes i s c l e a r l y shown i n the p l a n view of the r e c e i v e r , Figure 9.
:

Detector tubes such a s the 200A type may be used i n s t e a d of t h e 201A type i f the h i s s i n g noise which t h e s e tubes sometimes produce i s not objection a b l e . Some of these t u b e s are q u i e t e r than o t h e r s . I f t h i s type tube i s used i t w i l l perhaps be noticed t h a t t h e apparent s e l e c t i v i t y of the s e t i s lowered; t h i s i s not because of any d e f e c t i n the r e c e i v e r i t s e l f but i s due t o t h e g r e a t s e n s i t i v i t y of the tube.
NOTE: After t h e r e c e i v e r has been i n operation a s h o r t while t h e u n i t "zE 5" w i l l become h o t and w i l l produce a maximum temperature of 130 degrees i n t h e end compartment. This i s expected, i s normal, and w i l l not harm t h e wood-work o r mechanism of the r e c e i v e r .

Operation: These s e t s a r e designed f o r use on a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of 110 v o l t s a t 60 cycles. Before connecting t h e s e t , be sure t h a t the house l i g h t i n g c u r r e n t supply i s of the proper c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Adjustments a r e provided s o t h a t s u c c e s s f u l operation may be obtained w i t h voltages o ranging from 90 t o 125 v o l t s , and f r o m 50 t o 60 cycles. D not under any consideration connect t h i s s e t t o a D i r e c t Current l i n e . To do so w i l l r e s u l t i n an immediate burn out, thus r u i n i n g t h e r e c e i v e r . The attachment cord, shown i n Figure 8, may be connected t o any convenient o u t l e t near the s e t . This cord, however, should not be draped d i r e c t l y over or i n back of t h e s e t , but should be kept a t l e a s t s i x o r e i g h t inches from the c a b i n e t . This precaution should be observed because o f inductive e f f e c t s . The f i e l d about the cord, when c u r r e n t i s passing through i t , w i l l cause a 60 cycle hum t o be heard i n t h e reproducer i f t h e cord i s placed d i r e c t l y over or close t o the back of the c a b i n e t . To place the s e t i n o p e r a t i o n open t h e hinged door a t t h e right- hand end of the cabinet and t u r n t h e "toggle" switch toward p o s i t i o n No. 1. The " o f f " p o s i t i o n i s w i t h the switch arm s t r a i g h t out and i n the c e n t e r . The meter on t h e f a c e of t h e panel of the r e c e i v i n g s e t should p o i n t t o a p o s i t i o n a t or near t h e two arrows t h a t i n d i c a t e t h e proper operating p o i n t f o r t h e s e t . The d i a l should now be i l l u m i n a t e d from t h e l i g h t mounted behind the panel. If t h e hand on the meter comes t o r e s t i n a p o s i t i o n between t h e arrow marks on t h e meter s c a l e no f u r t h e r adjustment need be made. I f , however, t h e hand i s t o t h e l e f t of the arrow marks which i n d i c a t e t h e proper operating range, t h e switch should be moved t o p o s i t i o n No. 2. P o s i t i o n No. 3 g i v e s s t i l l more power and should be used when necessary t o make t h e hand on the meter r e s t between the arrow marks.

Lesson 47

sheet 13

The reading of the meter should be observed o c c a s i o n a l l y while the s e t i s i n operation t o see t h a t i t remains i n the proper p o s i t i o n . The t o g g l e switch should be changed when necessary t o accomplish t h i s .
T o prevent damage t o the s e t always t u r n the switch t o p o s i t i o n No. 1 a s preliminary procedure when i t i s d e s i r e d t o place t h e s e t i n operation. Change the switch t o p o s i t i o n No. 2 i f the meter hand on the panel i s

not up t o the low mark on the d i a l . I n c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s it mag be nece s s a r y t o s e t t h e switch a t p o s i t i o n No. 3 . T h i s procedure must-never be reversed. If t h e meter hand swings above the h i g h mark on t h e meter d i a l and remajns t h e r e a long t i m e , overheating mag occur, r e s u l t i n . i n dnrnage g t o p a r t s of the s e t .

y a q : The arrangement of t h e knobs on the panel i s shown i n Figure 10. Knob 'M" i s t h e main tuning c o n t r o l , "c" i s a c o r r e c t i o n v e r n i e r , and "V" i s t h e volume c o n t r o l . A f t e r tuning i n a s t a t i o n s e t t h e knob 'En i n what appears t o be the b e s t adjustment, and t h e n move knob "c" t o t h e p o s i t i o n where t h e s i g n a l i s loudest. Adjust t h e volume w i t h the knob V. Under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s a loud h i s s i n g may be produced by advancing knob "V" t o o f a r t o t h e r i g h t . To c o r r e c t t h i s c o n d i t i o n t u r n knob "V" t o t h e l e f t u n t i l the h i s s i n g c e a s e s . The use of knob "C" w i l l very seldom be r e q u i r e d a s i t s e r v e s only t o c o r r e c t f o r the detuning caused by t h e animna.
I f the t u b e s do not l i g h t i n s p e c t the tubes themselves and t h e contact of t h e t u b e s i n the sockets. Check t h e tube f i l a m e n t s i n d i v i d u a l l y , Make sure t h a t power i s being a p p l i e d t o the s e t from t h e l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t , t h a t the switch of t h e s e t i s "ON" and the four Raytheon tuoes a r e prop e r l y seated. Make a check of the various plugs i n t h e i r sockets t o see t h a t t h e y a r e making good e l e c t r i c a l contact. I f t h e t u b e s l i g h t but the s e t i s dead, check a l l tubes i n t h e i r s o c k e t s , and t h e c o n t a c t s of t h e various plugs i n t h e i r sockets. Inspect t h e loudspeaker and loudspeaker cord t o see t h a t t h e y a r e i n good working c o n d i t i o n and p r o p e r l y connected. Tap the d e t e c t o r g e n t l y w i t h t h e f i n g e r . I f a loud sound i s heard i n t h e loudspeaker check up on t h e antenna and ground connections a s t h e t r o u b l e i s l i k e l y t o l i e h e r e , or t h e r a d i o frequency t u b e s may be defective. If no such sound i s heard look f o r t r o u b l e i n t h e audio frequency tubes o r loudspeaker

Be s u r e t h a t t h e hand on the meter r e s t s between t h e two : arrow narks when t h e s e t i s operated. Check t h e antenna and ground wires f o r c o n t i n u i t y and f o r p o s s i b l e s h o r t c i r c u i t t o some m e t a l l i c object. Check a l l t u b e s and t u b e sockets.

Paor

Howling: A loud s i n g i n g or howling sound w i l l , under c e r t a i n conditions, be heard i n t h e loudspeaker, g r a d u a l l y b u i l d i n g up and sometimes reaching g r e a t volume. This sound i s u s u a l l y of low p i t c h and i s p r a c t i c a l l y unaf f e c t e d by moving t h e t u n i n g c o n t r o l s . A sound of t h i s n a t u r e may be caused by a microphonic tube; interchanging the t u b e s w i l l u s u a l l y c l e a r t h i s trouble.

Iium: T h i s sound i s a weak continous musical l i k e n o t e and mag be occasion. m y heard i n t h e loudspeaker, forming a continous background and i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l y when no s t a t i o n s i g n a l s a r e being received. Such a sound i s due t o i n d u c t i o n from the l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t w i r e s i n t h e house

Lesson 47

- sheet 14

and may be caused by the antenna or lgad-in wire running close o r p a r a l l e l t o e l e c t r i c l i g h t o r power l i n e s , o r t h e cord t o t h e l i g h t i n g socket from the s e t runs t o o close t o t h e back of t h e s e t , o r t h e t r o u b l e may be t h a t the ground used f o r t h e s e t i s t h e same a s t h e ground used by t h e e l e c t r i c l i g h t company f o r t h e i r ground connections on t h e l i g h t i n g mains. To remedy t h i s c o n d i t i o n change t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e antenna w i r e , move t h e attachment cord and t r y a d i f f e r e n t ground connection. Reversing t h e p o l a r i t y o f the attachment plug i n the sockets from w?~ichthe power f o r t h e s e t i s obtained may a l s o eliminate the t r o u b l e . C o w : The v a r i a b l e condensers an4 t h e c o i l s i n t h e s e s e t s a r e balanced a t t h e f a c t o r y on a s p e c i a l form of A.C. b r i a g e of very g r e a t accuracy which makes it u t t e r l y impossible t o r e a d j u s t them o u t s i d e the f a c t o r y , t h e r e f o r e t h e c o i l s o r condensers should never be tampered with. l o c a l i t i e s t h e l i n e voltage on t h e l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t s may, due t o poor r e g u l a t i o n , drop even below 90 v o l t s , and a s 90 v o l t s i s the low minimum a t which t h e s e r e c e i v e r s w i l l operate i t w i l l be impossible t o f i n d a p o s i t i o n of t h e switch.lever i n the r i g h t power t o b r i n g t h e hand on t h e hand compartment t h a t w i l l give e n ~ u g h meter between t h e two arrow marks. Under such c o n d i t i o n s the operation of t h e s e t w i l l s u f f e r . If t h e s e extreme cases a r e met with i t w i l l be necessary t o i n s t a l l a " booster" transformer obtained froril t h e Zenith f a c t o r y e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h i s s e t which w i l l r a i s e t h e l i n e voltage t o t h e proper value. Single c o n t r o l r e c e i v e r s operate most e f f i c i e n t l y a t the lower wavelengths when t h e tubes i n the r a d i o frequency and d e t e c t o r tube sockets have t h e same i n t e r - e l e c t r o d e C a p a c i t i e s . This c a l l s f o r matched or balanced tubes. It i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t h a t t h e t u b e s be matched up by means of a so- called "tube t e s t e r " . Matching i n t h i s sense i s accomplished by t r y i n g a l l of t h e 201A tubes i n various combinations i n t h e s o c k e t s t o secure the combination t h a t gives t h e b e s t r e s u l t s . h y t h i s inter- change of tubes when a weak s t a t i o n i s tuned i n a s t h e e f f e c t i s much more pronounced t h a n i f c a r r i e d out when a s t r o n g s i g n a l i s being received. S e l e c t i v i t g : When c a l l e d upon t o i n s p e c t a s e t f o r s e l e c t i v i t y i t should f i r s t be a s c e r t a i n e d whether the l a c k of s e l e c t i v i t y i s a c t u a l o r apparent. The d i a l of t h i s s e t covers 360 degrees while d i a l s o f many o t h e r r e c e i v e r s cover only 180 degrees, hence a s t a t i o n w i l l occupy a g r e a t e r p o r t i o n of the d i a l on the former t h a n on t h e l a t t e r and does not always i n d i c a t e a l a c k of s e l e c t i v i t y . I n case of t h e Zenith 17 i t i s an apparent and not an a c t u a l lack of s e l e c t i v i t y . Instances have occured where a long antenna has been connected t o the s h o r t antenna binding post. T h i s , of course, i s wrong and w i l l cause over a g r e a t e r p o r t i o n of t h e d i a l than they nearby s t a t i o n s t o s ~ r e a d normally would i f t h e antenna were connected p r o p e r l y t o t h e long antenna post. Lesson 47

L o w I n certain :

Tube s e l e c t i o n :

sheet 1 5

Volume Low on D i s t a n t S t a t i o n s : This condition may e x i s t due t o t r o u b l e o r i g i n a t i n g from one o r more of t h e f o l l o v i n g causes: ( a ) A short o r i n s i d e antenna connected t o t h e long antenna p o s t . s h o r t antenna should be connected t o the s h o r t antenna post. (b) ( c) (d) (e) The

A poor e l e c t r i c a l j o i n t or broken connection i n t h e antenna system.

Grounded or p a r t i a l l y grounded antenna. One or more d e f e c t i v e 2OlA tubes.

A d e f e c t i v e power tube.

( f ) Defective loudspeaker. If t h e speaker i s of t h e a d j u s t a b l e type i t should be a d j u s t e d f o r greate&volume without r a t t l i n g o r d i s t o r t i o n .

Convinced t h a t t h e tubes and i n s t a l l a t i o n a r e i n good o r d e r and, on a t tempting t o b r i n g up t h e volume by means of t h e volume c o n t r o l on a weak d i s t a n t s i g n a l , t h e t u b e s go i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n before the d e s i r e d volume i s reached, i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s i g n a l i s t o o weak t o be tuned i n . The s e t , i n such i n s t a n c e s , should not be considered i n e f f i c i e n t or d e f e c t i v e f o r i t i s not p o s s i b l e w i t h any r a d i o s e t t o audibly tune i n e v e r y c a r r i e r wave or w h i s t l e t h a t i s audible i n t h e loudspeaker.

w :a ) (

One or more d e f e c t i v e Raytheon t u b e s w i l l cause a buzzing noise t h a t sounds l i k e a hum.

(b) Loose laminations on t h e l a r g e transformer i n t h e "zE-5" u n i t . The remedy i s t o t i g h t e n t h e b o l t s t h a t hold t h e laminations of the t r a n s former core t o g e t h e r . A s h o r t c i r c u i t e d choke c o i l i n t h e f i l t e r u n i t "zE-6", or if any of t h e by-pass condensers i n t h e l a r g e condenser u n i t of the "YE-6" u n i t have developed an open, a hum w i l l r e s u l t .
Make c e r t a i n t h a t t h e p a r a l l e l cable leading from the "ZE-5" t o t h e "ZE-6" u n i t i s p r o p e r l y placed between t h e spacer blocks nnd f r o n t metal panel. If not i t w i l l be too c l o s e t o t h e d e t e c t o r tube and a hum w i l l r e s u l t . Antenna or gound w i r e s which a r e t o o close o r p a r a l l e l t o an A . C . c a r r y i n g wire of any kind w i l l pick up a hum. current

:= e h It i s not advisable t o use any Raytheon tubes i n t h e "%E-5" u n i t o t h e r t h a n those t h a t a r e known t o have been e s p e c i a l l y t e s t e d f o r use with t h i s model r e c e i v e r . F a i l u r e t o observe t h i s may r e s u l t i n causing damage t o t h e " ZE-5" u n i t or cause t h e o t h e r Raytheon t u b e s t o f u n c t i o n below t h e i r normal e f f i c i e n c y .
A method of t e s t i n g t h e s e tubes f o r t h i s r e c e i v e r f o l l o w s .

As t h i s t e s t i s a very s p e c i a l t e s t applying only t o t h i s r e c e i v e r , and a s i t p l a c e s a severe s t r a i n on both t h e apparatus of t h e s e t and t h e remaining Raytheon s& g u W c e s s a r u , and only when no t u b e s , i t & QZ& & u. ! & &&&&&L o t h e r means of t e s t i n g i s a v a i l a b l e , t h e r e f o r e use t h i s t e s t with d i s cretion. Lesson 47

- sheet 16

The Test: F i r s t remove a l l but one of t h e Raytheon tubes from t h e i r s o c k e t s i n t h e power supply u n i t "ZE-5". Then, w i t h t h e r i g h t hand on t h e c o n t r o l switch of t h i s u n i t ( l o c a t e d i n t h e r i g h t hand compartment), watch the hand on t h e meter mounted on the panel of t h e s e t . Throw t h e switch l e v e r t o p o s i t i o n No. 1 f o r a period not t o exceed ONE SECOND and i m ~ e d i a t e l y h e r e a f t e r r e t u r n t h e switch l e v e r t o t h e c e n t e r or I'off" t p o s i t i o n . Carefully n o t e the approximate maximum r e a d i n g of t h e hand d u r i n g t h e time the s w i t c h i s " O N " A good Haytheon tube which i s f u n c t i o n i n g properly w i l l d e f l e c t t h i s hand n e a r l y a l l t h e way t o the lower of the t w o arrow marks on the meter d i a l . I n t h e same manner, r e p e a t the process w i t h each of t h e o t h e r Raytheon t u b e s , one a t a time. Replace any tubes which do not f u n c t i o n , or which r e a d low, w i t h a new type B.H. tube which g i v e s approximately t h e same reading a s t h e o t h e r t u b e s . The Raytheon t u b e s accompanying t h e r e c e i v e r a r e t e s t e d p r i o r t o l e a v i n g the Zenith f a c t o r y and need not be t e s t e d b e f o r e i n s t a l l a t i o n i n the set.

m h Line Voltage: T h i s w i l l be i n d i c a t e d by the meter needle hand swingi n g beyond t h e f u r t h e s t arrow mark when t h e switch on t h e "zE-5" u n i t i s turned t o p o s i t i o n No. 1. This s e t w i l l f u n c t i o n p r o p e r l y on a l i n e v o l t age up t o approximately 125 v o l t s . F a i l u r e of Needle t o Reach Arrow Marks: I f t h e hand of t h e meter f a i l s t o reach t h e arrow mark, when t h e switch on t h e "YE-5" i s turned t o p o s i t i o n No. 3, it i n d i c a t e s one or more d e f e c t i v e Raytheon t u b e s , o r t h a t one o r more o f t h e one- tenth mfd. by-pass corrlensers i n t h e "ZF-5" u n i t have developed a s h o r t c i r c u i t . I f one of t h e s e condensers i s s h o r t c i r c u i t e d i t w i l l a l s o r e s u l t i n t h e burning out of a p o r t i o n of the secondar7 winding of t h e l a r g e transformer i n the "ZE-5" u n i t .
CONTINUITY TEST

The u s u a l equipment f o r making c o n t i n u i t y t e s t which has been described i n previous l e s s o n s may be employed. If followed c a r e f u l l y i t w i l l allow t h e s e r v i c e man t o d e f i n i t e l y l o c a t e the source of any t r o u b l e within t h e Model 17 c h a s s i s o r power and f i l t e r u n i t s . Refer t o t h e diagram, Figure -T h i s t e s t can be grouped i n t o twelve s e c t i o n s covering: Filament c i r c u i t s . I1 Grid I! Plate Fixed condensers. Transformer p r i m a r i e s of "zE 5" u n i t . Transformer secondaries of "733 5" u n i t . II n II Condenser u n i t !I F i l t e r condenser u n i t of "zE 6" It It II Double choke I1 It II single I' !I 11 It Condenser n 11 n Resistance Lesson 47

- sheet 17

3 MEG.

UX-171 POWERTUBE

Figure 1 2

___---

Figure 13

Lesson 47

- sheet

18

When u s i n g t h e voltmeter t e s t method a d e f e c t i o n OX t h e meter needle w i l l i n d i c a t e complete c i r c u i t . N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s a broken o r loose cono n e c t i o n between t h e p o i n t s Seing t e s t e d . I n t e s t i n g t h e filament c i r c u i t a voltmeter reading should be obtained i n a l l t h e following t e s t s u n l e s s otherwise s t a t e d .
(1) Place one t e s t t i p on t h e " ~ e d "contact of the multiplug socket t o one filament s p r i n g of t h e second audio frequency t u b e socket. ( 2 ) From the o t h e r f i l a m e n t s p r i n g of the second a u d i o frequency socket t o one filament spring of the f i r s t audio frequency socket.
( 3 ) From t h e o t h e r f i l a m e n t s p r i n g of the f i r s t a u d i o frequency socket t o one filament s p r i n g of t h e second r a d i o frequency socket.

( 4 ) From t h e o t h e r f ilament s p r i n g of t h e second r a d i o frequency socket t o one filament spring of t h e f i r s t r a d i o frequency socket. ( 5 ) From the o t h e r f i l a m e n t s p r i n g of the f i r s t r a d i o frequency socket t o t h e metal s h i e l d . (This t e s t t a k e s i n t h e f i v e ohm r e s i s t a n c e c a r t r i d g e and if t h i s c a r t r i d g e winding i s open, or t h e c a r t r i d g e n o t properly s e a t e d i n i t s c l i p s , no r e a d i n g w i l l be obtained on the voltmeter.
(6)

From the metal s h i e l d t o one filament s p r i n g of t h e d e t e c t o r socket.

( 7 ) From t h e o t h e r f i l a m e n t s p r i n g of the detect:or socket t o t h e m i l l i ammeter terminal which i s n e a r e s t t h e v a r i a b l e condenser gang.

( 8 ) From the o t h e r t e r m i n a l of t h e m i l l i m e t e r t o t h e green oontact of t h e mu.ltiplug socket. ( 9 ) Place the t e s t t i p s a c r o s s b o t h . t e r m i n a l s of t h e m i l l i m e t e r . r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s a burned out meter).

(No

( 1 0 ) Test a c r o s s t h e two prongs of t h e double c o n t a c t male plug when a 171 power tube i s not Ln i t s socket. T h i s t e s t s t h e d i a l lamp and a meter d e f l e c t i o n should b e o b t a i n e d u n l e s s t h e d i a l lamp i s burned out.
(11)T e s t from one prong of t h e double contact male plug t o one f i l a m e n t s p r i n g of the power t u b e socket. T e s t from t h e o t h e r prong t o the o t h e r filament spring of t h e power t u b e socket.

THE GRID CIRCUIT TEST

(1) Test from t h e m e t a l s h i e l d t o t h e g r i d s p r i n g of t h e f i r s t r a d i o frequency tube socket. A meter d e f l e c t i o n should r e s u l t . This t e s t t a k e s C i n t h e f i r s t r o t o r c o i l , o r " ~ n t e n n a o r r e c t i o n Vernier" , and t h e seconda r y winding of t h e antenna c o i l , or c o i l No. 1. When making t h i s t e s t t u r n the antenna c o r r e c t i o n knob back and f o r t h t o a s c e r t a i n whether t h e connections t o t h i s r o t o r c o i l a r e secure. N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e o winding of e i t h e r c o i l i s open o r t h a t t h e connections t o e i t h e r c o i l o r t o t h e g r i d s p r i n g of t h e f i r s t r a d i o frequency socket a r e broken or loose.

Lesson 47

- sheet 19

( 2 ) From t h e g r i d s p r i n g of t h e second r a d i o frequency socket t o (minus) filament s p r i n g i n t h e same socket. This t e s t takes i n the secondary winding of c o i l No. 2. Meter d e f l e c t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h e secondary winding of c o i l No. 2 ; i.e. second R.F. transformer winding i s p e r f e c t . N reado i n g i n d i c a t e s t h i s c o i l i s open or a broken connection.
( 3 ) Next t e s t from t h e g r i d s p r i n g of t h e d e t e c t o r socket t o one s i d e of the g r i d condenser which should show a reading. Test a c r o s s the .00025 mfd. g r i d condenser, T h i s t e s t should show no reading. A reading i n d i c a t e s a s h o r t c i r c u i t e d condenser. Test from t h e o t h e r s i d e of the g r i d condenser t o the m e t a l s h i e l d . This t a k e s i n t h e secondary winding of o c o i l No. 3. A meter d e f l e c t i o n shoule r e s u l t . N reading i n d i c a t e s t h i s c o i l t o be open or a broken connection.
( 4 ) Test from t h e g r i d s p r i n g of t h e f i r s t audio frequency socket t o t h e ( p l u s ) filament prong of the f i r s t r a d i o frequency socket; t h i s should O show a L W reading. T h i s t a k e s i n t h e secondary winding of t h e f i r s t audio frequency transformer. A f u l l reading i n d i c a t e s a s h o r t c i r c u i t e d transformer winding. N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s an open transformer winding o o r broken connection.

( 5 ) Test from t h e g r i d s p r i n g of t h e second audio frequency socket t o (minus) filament s p r i n g of t h e f i r s t audio frequency socket. This t e s t t a k e s i n t h e secondary winding of t h e second audio frequency transformer and should show a low reading.
( 6 ) Next t e s t from t h e g r i d s p r i n g of the second audio frequency socket t o t h e metal s h i e l d . N r e a d i n g should be obtained u n l e s s t h e 0.001 mfd. o by-pass condenser which i s between t h e s e two p o i n t s i s s h o r t c l r c u i t e d o r the transformer winding i s grounded t o i t s core.
( 7 ) Test from the g r i d s p r i n g of t h e power tube socket t o the "green" / c o n t a c t of the multiplug socket. T h i s t a k e s i n t h e secondary winding of t h e t h i r d audio frequency transformer and should show a LOW meter reading. I n making t h e s e t e s t s the reading through the f i r s t audio frequency t r a n s former winding should be l e s s t h a n through the second and t h i r d transformers a s the f i r s t transformer i s of higher r a t i o .

PLATE C I R C U I T TEST

(1) Place t h e t e s t p o i n t s a c r o s s t h e p l a t e spring of the f i r s t r a d i o frequency socket and t h e blue c o n t a c t of t h e multiplug socket. With t h e volume c o n t r o l turned completely t o the r i g h t t h i s t e s t should give a f u l l meter reading. Turning the volume c o n t r o l t o t h e l e f t w i l l cause d e f l e c t i o n of t h e meter needle. This t e s t t a k e s i n t h e r o t o r and primar y winding of c o i l No. 2. I f no r e a d i n g i s obtained when t h e volume cont r o l i s turned t o t h e r i g h t , it would i n d i c a t e open r o t o r o r primary c o i l winding, loose or a broken connection.

( 2 ) T e s t i n g from t h e p l a t e s p r i n g of the second r a d i o frequency socket t o t h e blue contact of the multiplug socket which t a k e s i n t h e r o t o r and primary windings of c o i l No. 3. The r e s u l t s of t h i s t e s t should be the same a s t e s t No. 1. Lesson 47

- s h e e t 20

From the p l a t e s p r i n g of t h e d e t e c t o r socket t o the "red n contact of the multiplug socket which t a k e s i n t h e primary winding of t h e f i r s t audio frequency transformer should show a low readlng. F u l l reading would i n d i c a t e a short c i r c u i t e d transformer winding. If no reading a t a l l i s observed t h e transformer winding i s open or a broken connection e x i s t s .
(3)

( 4 ) Testing between t h e p l a t e s p r i n g of the d e t e c t o r socket t o t h e metal s h i e l d should i n d i c a t e no reading u n l e s s t h e 0.001 mfd. by-pass condenser, which i s between t h e s e two p o i n t s , i s s h o r t c i r c u i t e d .

(5)

From t h e p l a t e s p r i n g of t h e f i r s t audio frequency socket t o t h e

" p i n k " contact of t h e multiplug socket a low reading should be observed.

This t e s t t a k e s i n t h e primary winding of t h e second audio frequency transformer. A f u l l r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s a s h o r t c i r c u i t e d transformer winding. N reading a t a l l shows t h e transformer t o be open, o r a broken o connection.
( 6 ) From t h e p l a t e s p r i n g of t h e second audio frequency socket t o t h e "pink" contact of t h e multiplug socket t a k e s i n t h e primary winding of t h e t h i r d audio frequency transf-ormer. The r e s u l t s f o r t h i s t e s t a r e t h e same a s t e s t No. 5.

( 7 ) Testing from the p l a t e spring of the power tube socket t o t h e "B" a m p l i f i e r p l u s binding p o s t should show a f u l l reading. N r e a d i n g i n d i o c a t e s a broken connection.

FIXED C N E S R TEST O DNE There are t h r e e of t h e s e condensers each having a c a p a c i t y value of 1 mfd. and a r e numbered No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3. T h e i r a c t u a l placement on t h e sub-panel i s shown i n Figure 12.
(1) Touch t h e t e s t t i p s t o both connections of t h e condenser under A s l i g h t r e a d i n g each time contact i s t e s t . N r e a d i n g should r e s u l t . o madd i n E c a t e s a l e a k y condenser. A f u l l reading each time i n d i c a t e s a s h o r t c i r c u i t e d condenser. Another t e s t without t h e use of a meter may be applied. Momentarily connect a "B" b a t t e r y a c r o s s t h e conclenser termin a l s . This w i l l p l a c e a charge on t h e condenser. I f the condenser i s I n proper condition a spark should t h e n be obtained when s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g t h e condenser w i t h a piece of wire.
( 2 ) If condenser No. 1 i s open there w i l l be no n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t on t h e operation of the r e c e i v e r , but i f condenser No. 2 o r No. 3 i s open t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l not o s c i l l a t e on the longer wavelengths.

THE "ZE-5" POWER UNIT

Transformer Primary: For t h i s t e s t p l a c e t h e t e s t t i p s a c r o s s t h e prongs ww of the male lamw cord - 1 . A f u l l meter readinfi should be obtained when <he switch i s e i t h e r p o s i t i o n s No. 1, No. 2 o r No. 3 on t h e panel. These p o s i t i o n s a r e t a p s taken from t h e primary of t h e power transformer shown i n Figure 13.

in

Lesson 47

- sheet 2 1

( a ) Transformer Secondaries: Touching one t e s t l e a d t o each filament prong of one Raytheon tube socket w i l l take i n one secondary winding of t h e transformer. A reading should be obtained of a l i t t l e b e t t e r than one-half of the voltage of t h e b a t t e r y used i n making t h e t e s t . T h i s t e s t should be made on a l l four of t h e Raytheon sockets. ( b ) Testin@;from one f i l a m e n t prong of any Raytheon tube socket t o t h e square plug jack, which t a k e s i n one-half of one secondary winding of t h e transformer, a r e a d i n g should be obtained somewaht higher than i n When making t h i s t e s t i t should be made from a l l e i g h t f i l a t e s t "A". ment prongs of the f o u r Raytheon tube sockets. A f u l l reading would i n d i c a t e one-half of one secondary winding of t h e transformer being s h o r t ed out by t h e one- tenth mfd. condenser. This may r e s u l t i n a burned. out
y D O U B L E CHOKE-

SINGLE CHOKE

Figure 1 4 transformer winding. Test of t h e secondary winding f o r the power tabe

i s made by p l a c i n g t h e t e s t t i p s a c r o s s t h e double c o n t a c t of t h e minia t u r e socket plug. A f u l l reading should be obtained. N r e a d i n g i n d i o

c a t e s t h i s p a r t of t h e winding burned out. Condenser Unit: T e s t i n g between one contact of t h e miniature socket t o t h e square h o l e jack should give a low momentary r e a d i n g , a s i t t a k e s t h e 2000 ohm r e s i s t a n c e and t h e 1 mfd. condenser. A f u l l rehding would i n d i c a t e t h a t the 1 mfd. condenser was s h o r t c i r c u i t e d . Testing between t h e round hole and t h e square hole jacks should r e s u l t i n no reading o t h e r t h a n a momenta~yd e f l e c t i o n of t h e needle. A readi n g i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e 1 mfd. condenser s h o r t c i r c u i t e d . When t e s t i n g any of t h e condensers i n t h i s u n i t , and i f any s i n g l e condenser i s found f a u l t y , it w i l l be necessary t o r e p l a c e t h e e n t i r e condenser "Cann a s one i n d i v i d u a l condenser u n i t cannot be removed or r e placed.
THE "zE-6" FILTER UNIT

i l t e r Condenser Unit: The "ZE-6" f i l t e r unit i s shown i n Figure 14. n t h e t e s t p o i n t s a r e placed a c r o s s the square plug phone t i p and t h e Lesson 47

- sheet

22

round phone plug t i p t h e meter needle should be momentarily d e f l e c t e d , immediately r e t u r n i n g t o zero. Such a d e f l e c t i o n i s sometimes c a l l e d a "kick forward." I f a s t e a d y reading i s obtained i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t one o r more of the condensers u n i t s w i t h i n t h e can a r e s h o r t c i r c u i t e d . A s i t i s not p o s s i b l e t o remove separate u n i t s from t h e can i t should be replaced bp a new can. The Double Choke: To t e s t t h i s choke touch one t e s t point t o t h e round plug phone t i p and t h e o t h e r t o the t e r m i n a l on t h e s i n g l e choke t h a t has t h e "yellow" wire a t t a c h e d t o i t . A reading of a t r i f l e more t h a n one-half of t h e v o l t a g e of t h e b a t t e r y used i n t e s t i n g should r e s u l t . A higher reading i n d i c a t e s one choke c o i l i s s h o r t c i r c u i t e d . A f u l l reading i n d i c a t e s b o t h chokes a r e short c i r c u i t e d . N r e a d i n g a t a l l o would i n d i c a t e an open choke winding. Single Choke: Touch one l e a d of t h e t e s t equipment t o one terminal of t h e s i n g l e choke and t h e o t h e r t e s t point t o t h e o t h e r choke terminal. A reading should r e s u l t of a t r i f l e over one-half of t h e b a t t e r y voltage used i n t e s t i n g . F u l l r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s t h e choke t o be s h o r t c i r c u i t e d . N rending a t a l l i n d i c a t e s t h e choke c o i l t o be open. o Condenser: Test from t h e minus loudspeaker post t o t h e pink prong of t h e multiplug. No reading should r e s u l t . Only a s l i g h t d e f l e c t i o n of t h e meter needle should be observed when t h e t e s t l e a d s a r e f i r s t a p p l i ed. A f u l l d e f l e c t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e 1 mfd. condenser between t h e s e p o i n t s i n t h e condenser can i s short c i r c u i t e d . When t e s t i n g from t h e plus loudspeaker p o s t t o t h e "B" plus a m p l i f i e r wire no r e a d i n g should r e s u l t . Only a s l i g h t d e f l e c t i o n of t h e meter needle when t h e t e s t l e a d s a r e f i r s t applied should be observed. This t e s t s t h e 2 mfd. condenser. If t h e condenser i s open no d e f l e c t i o n w i l l r e s u l t . e s i s t a n c e s : From t h e r e d t o blue contncts of t h e multiplug a low readfng should be observed. This t e s t t a k e s i n the 310 ohm s e c t i o n of t h e vitrohm r e s i s t a n c e u n i t . N reading i n d i c a t e s a broken connection o r o open r e s i s t a n c e u n i t . T e s t i n g from t h e blue t o p i n k c o n t a c t s of t h e multiplug t a k e s i n t h e 175 ohm s e c t i o n of the vitrohm r e s i s t a n c e u n i t . N reading i n d i c a t e s an open i n t h i s s e c t i o n , o r broken connection. o From t h e pink of t h e multiplug t o t h e yellow wire on t h e s i n g l e choke o t a k e s i n t h e 325 ohm s e c t i o n of the vitrohm r e s i s t a n c e . N r e a d i n g , i n d i c a t e s an open i n t h i s s e c t i o n of the r e s i s t a n c e , o r a broken connection. Testing from t h e r e d contact of the multiplug t o t h e yellow wire on t h e s i n g l e choke t a k e s i n a l l t h e 810 ohms of' r e s i s t a n c e . The higher t h e r e s i s t a n c e t e s t e d t h e lower should be the r e a d i w on t h e t e s t meter.

Lesson 47

- sheet

23
_ _ _ I

EXAMINATION

- ~ S S O 47 N

Can t h e Zenith 17 r e c e i v e r be operated from a source of d i r e c t current? What i s the method of c o n t r o l l i n g the tube f i l a m e n t s i n t h e Crosley 90 receiver? What method i s employed t o control t h e volume of t h e Crosley 90 receiver? What i s the most p r a c t i c a l method of matching t u b e s f o r use i n any s e t ? When using a Zenith 17 r e c e i v e r , what procedure i s necessary wNen t h e l i n e voltage i s c o n s i s t e n t l y below normal?

How i s sharp tuning accomplished w i t h the Crosley 90?

What precautions should be exercised r e l a t i v e t o t h e use of r e c t i f i e r tubes i n the "zE-5" u n i t of t h e Zenith 17? What type of vacuum tube i s t h e Crosley 90 designed f o r ? What e f f e c t may be produced i n the Zenith 17 i f t h e laminations of t h e large transformer of t h e "zE-5'kunlt a r e loose? What type c i r c u i t does t h e Crosley 90 employ?

INC.
MARCON/ INSTITUTE

sunded./909

Technical Lesson 48
PRACTICAL RADIO CONSTRUCTION

W now come t o t h e s u b j e c t O f s t a b i l i z a t i o n i n tuned radio- frequency e a m p l i f i e r s . S t a b i l i z a t i o n i s a term applied t o t h e v a r i o u s methods employed t o suppress the highly, u n d e r s i r a b l e o s c i l l a t i o n s which r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r s a r e s o l i k e l y t o produce. The methods used t o supp r e s s o s c i l l a t i o n s i n radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r s a r e numerous, but can be c l a s s i f i e d under two g e n e r a l headings; (1)methods which accomplish t h e i r purpose by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e i n the a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t s , and ( 2 ) t h e methods which prevent o s c i l l a t i o n s t h r o w h t h e use of c i r c u i t s designed t o e s t a b l i s h a c o n d i t i o n of e l e c t r i c a l balance.
O f t h e s e two g e n e r a l methods t h e l a t t e r i s by f a r the more p r e f e r a b l e f o r

such c i r c u i t s can be a d j u s t e d t o a conditfon of e l e c t r i c a l balance without n e c e s s a r i l y i n t r o d u c i n g e l e c t r i c a l l o s s e s ; whereas, on t h e o t h e r hand, those systems which suppress o s c i l l a t i o n i n a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r by t h e use of r e s i s t a n c e s a r e fundamentally and e s s e n t i a l l y l e s s e f f i c i e n t because t h e very presence of r e s i s t a n c e i n such c i r c u i t s causes l o s s of' valuable s i g n a l energy. These methods a r e g e n e r a l l y termed " l o s s e r n methods- t h e d e r i v a t i o n of t h e t e m being obvious from the immediately preceeding c o n s i d e r a t ions. This l e s s o n w i l l d e a l w i t h a method of suppressing o s c i l l a t i o n i n a radiofrequency a m p l i f i e r by one of t h e approved "balance" methods; f o r t h e r e i s no gainsaying t h e statement t h a t such balancing methods c o n s t i t u t e t h e b e s t engineering p r a c t i c e . O s c i l l a t i o n i n a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube i s caused s o l e l y by feedback from p l a t e t o g r i d c i r c u i t s and i f such feed- back could be completely e l i m i n a t e d o s c i l l a t i o n Would be non- existent. Unfortunately t h e very s t r u c t u r e of t h e t u b e , a s w e l l a s t h e operating c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the c i r c u i t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the tube, r e n d e r s i t impossible t o achieve such a complete i s o l a t i o n of the p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i b s . There remains but one a l t e r n a t i v e and t h a t i s t o do what we can t o minimize t h e causes of feed-back and t h e n t o apply c o r r e c t i v e measures t o o f f - s e t t h e harmful e f f e c t s of t h a t remaining. Having minimized feed- back a s much a s c i r c u i t and r e c e i v e r d e s i g n w i l l permit, the problem of s u c c e s s f u l l y combating t h e remaining feed- back i s somewhat s i m p l i f i e d . The p r i n c i p l e causes of o s c i l l a t i o n i n a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r have been s e t f o r t h i n Lesson 36 and, before continuing w i t h t h i s lesson, it would be w e l l t o review b r i e f l y the p o i n t s emphasized i n t h a t lesson. R e f e r r i n g t o Figure 1, i n o r d e r t h a t t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube give maximum response t o a n i n c o m i n g s i g n a l i t i s nacessary t h a t its g r i d c i r c u i t be tuned t o e x a c t resohance w i t h t h a t s i g n a l by proper adjustment
..

I
i .i
2

1 1

of inductance L1, and condenser C 2 . When c i r c u i t L l C l i s t h u s resonated, t h e incoming s i g n a l w i l l cause maximum f l u c t u a t i o n of t h e a r i d voltage o f t h e tube. These changes i n the t u b e r s g r i d voltage cause c o m p a r a t i v ~ l y l a r g e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n i t s p l a t e current; and a s t h i s f l u c t u a t i n g c u r r e n t flows through the p l a t e c o i l P i t causes corresponding changes i n i t s magnetic f i e l d . Inasmuch as c o i l P i s coupled t o c o i l L2, any v a r i a t i o n i n t h e s t r e n g t h of i t s magnetic f i e l d w i l l induce v o l t a g e s i n c o i l L2. Because L2 i s t h e g r i d c o i l of t h e d e t e c t o r tube it i s e s s e n t i a l , i n order t o secure maximum response, t h a t the voltages induced t h e r e i n by c o i l P be a s g r e a t a s p o s s i b l e . This i s accomplished by using a condenser i n shunt t o c o i l L2 and a d j u s t ing i t u n t i l c i r c u i t L2C2 i s i n resonance with the frequency of t h e amplif i e d signal energy flowing i n c o i l P. This a u t o m a t i c a l l y b r i n g s c i r c u i t L2C2 i n t o resonance w i t h the g r i d c i r c u i t L l C l inasmuch a s both are tuned t o resonance with t h e same s i g n a l frequency.

I J
'R"
t45v.

G ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ I ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ + J J
"A"
t~ov.

Figure 1 The f a c t should not be overlooked t h a t , s i n c e the tuned c i r c u i t L2C2 i s i n d u c t i v e l y coupled t o c o i l P , t h e c i r c u i t L2C2 w i l l a l s o serve t o tune t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube; t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e tuning e f f e c t of c i r c u i t L2C2 w i l l make i t s e l f f e l t upon t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t o f t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube being dependent upon the degree of t h e coupling between t h e s e two c o i l s . This point may not seem t o be of importance u n t i l one r e c a l l s what t a k e s place when t h e p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s of a tube a r e tuned t o t h e same wavelength. A s s t r e s s e d i n previous l e s s o n s , when t h e g r i d and p l a t e c i r c u i t s of a tube a r e i n resonance, o s c i l l a t i o n i s t h e i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t . I n a c i r c u i t such a s t h a t i n Figure 1, wherein i s shown a stage of tuned radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n followed by a vacuum tube d e t e c t o r , i t can be r e a d i l y a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t i n order t o r e c e i v e a s i g n a l it i s e s s e n t i a l Lesson 48

- sheet 2

t h a t the g r i d and p l a t e c i r c u i t s of the radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube be brought i n t o resonance with each other. The r e s u l t i n g osci1l.ation of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube could be stopped by e i t h e r loosening t h e coupling between c o i l s P and L2 and thereby decreasing t h e t u n i w e f f e c t of c i r c u i t L2C2 upon i t s p l a t e c i r c u i t ; or by detuning c i r c u i t ~ 2 C 2and thereby throwing t h e g r i d and p l a t e c i r c u i t s of t h e r a d i o - f r e quency a m p l i f i e r tube out of resonance w i t h each o t h e r . This l a t t e r method, however, cannot be employed i n t h i s instance inasmuch a s c i r c u i t L2C2 i s not only a p a r t of the radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e ' s p l a t e c i r c u i t , but it i s a l s o t h e tuned cil-cuit connected t o t h e grid of t h e d e t e c t o r tube. Such being t h e c a s e , i f the c i r c u i t L2C2 i s detuned t o an e x t e n t g r e a t enough t o cause oscill.ations i n the radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube t o cease, t h e d e t e c t o r ' s g r i d c i r c u i t tuning, which i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h i s sane tuned c i r c u i t , L2C2, w i l l f a i l t o respond appreciably t o the incoming signal.
O u r only recourse t h e n i s t o t h a t c o n t r o l of o s c i l l a t i o n provided by varying t h e coupling between c o i l s P and L2. T h i s method of o s c i l l s t i o n c o n t r o l i s e f f e c t i v e , but i t possesses t h e formidable disadvantage of being a v a r i a n t with wavelength. The o p e r a t i o n of t h e r e c e i v e r described i n Lesson 36 demonstrates t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l degree of co'upling between c o i l s P and L2, which g i v e s maxi mu,.^ s i g n a l s t r e n g t h without o s c i l l a t i o n , i s much l e s s when t h e r e c e i v e r i s tuned t o t h e s h o r t e r wavelengths i n t h e v i c i n i t y of 200 meters t h a n when tuned t o the longer wavelengths of about 500 meters; t h e r e f o r e , i t must be varied each time t h e tuning of the r e c e i v e r i s changed i n order t o r e a l i z e f u l l a m p l i f i c a t i o n and hence secure maximum s i $ n a l s i g n a l s t r e n g t h . This means an a d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e c o n t r o l and where but one s t a g e of R.F. a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s made use of t h i s a d d i t i o n a l c o n t r o l i s not o b j e c t i o n a b l e f o r , by enabling t h e user t o keep t h e tube j u s t below the o s c i l l a t i n g point and thereby r e a l i z i n g t h e f u l l b e n e f i t s of r e g e n e r a t i o n , it j u s t i f i e s i t ' s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e r e c e i v e r . But, i n r e c e i v e r s where two, t h r e e or f o u r s t a g e s of tuned radio-frequent? amplif i c a t i o n a r e used, t o make use of v a r i a b l e coupling between the primary and secondary of each i n t e r - s t a g e radio- frequency transformer i s q u i t e out of t h e q u e s t i o n f o r t h e simple reason t h a t t h e r e s u l t a n t m u l t i p l i c i t y of c o n t r o l s would r e n d e r t h e tuning adjustments of t h e r e c e i v e r a p a i n s t a k ing t a s k even f o r a person f u l l y conversant w i t h t h e operating c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of such a r e c e i v e r ; t o t h e average broadcast l i s t e n e r tuning such a r e c e i v $ r would be a labor of Hercules. For t h i s reason, r e c e i v e r s a r e almost i n v a r i a b l y b u i l t w i t h f i x e d coupling between t h e primary and seconda r y windings of t h e i n t e r - s t a g e radio- frequency transformers.

I n view of foregoing c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e degree of coupling between primar y and secondary must be made s u f f i c i e n t l y loose s o t h a t oscill:!tion does not occur a t the s h o r t e s t wavelength t o which t h e r e c e i v e r i s designed t o respond. This loose coupling i s u s u a l l y secured by u s i n g very few t u r n s of wire i n t h e primary winding, f o u r t o e i g h t t u r n s being t h e nunber used i n t h e radio- frequency transformer primaries of many r e c e i v e r s . Hence, t h e number of t u r n s of wire i n t h e primary winding a r e few i n order t o keep the coupling s u f f i c i e n t l y loose so t h a t t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube w i l l not o s c i l l a t e a t the lowest wavelength t o which t h e tuned c i r c u i t s w i l l be resonated; i n t h i s case 200 meters. A l t h o u g h t h e t r a n s f e r

Lesson 48

- sheet

3
,-**.

of s i g n a l energy from primary P, t o secondary L2, w i l l be poor with s u c h . loose coupling, t h e r e c e i v e r , n e v e r t h e l e s s , w i l l be capable of good amplif i c a t i o n a t t h e s h o r t e r wavelengths near 200 meters. T h i s i s because a t t h e s e short wavelengths t h e radio-frequsncy a m p l i f i e r tube i s near the o s c i l l a t i n g p o i n t and t h e consequent r e g e n e r a t i o n w i l l cornpensate f o r t h e looseness of coupling between P and L2.
A s t h e r e c e i v e r i s tuned t o longer wavelengths r e g e n e r a t i o n decreases

very r a p i d l y and soon disappears entil-ely; aqd a t the same time t h e t r a n s f e r of energy from P t o L2 a l s o decreases markedly. Thus, the a m p l i f i c a t i o n of the radio- frequency stage decreases r a p i d l y w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n wavelength u n t i l , a t t h e higher wavelengths i n t h e v i c i n i t y of 500 meters, the radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s but a mere f r a c t i o n of what i t was a t 200 meters. A experiment which w i l l conclusively demonstrate just how s e r i o u s t h i s n decrease i s i n a m p l i f i c a t i o n a t t h e longer wavelengths can be performed with t h e r e c e i v e r b u i l t i n accordance with the i n s t r u c t i o n s contained i n Lesson 36. Perform the experiment a s follows: Tune i n a s t a t i o n t r a n s m i t t i n g on a wavelength of 200 t o 250 meters w i t h the c o u p l i q between P a n c l L2 a d j u s t ed s o t h a t the R.F. a m p l i f i e r tube does not q u i t e o s c i l l a t e . Take caref u l note of t h i s value of coupling a s i n d i c a t e d on i t s d i a l . N w tune i n o the another s t a t i o n operating on a wavelength of 450 t o 550 meters longer the b e t t e r . When tuning t h e longer wave s t a t i o n a d j u s t the coupling between P and L2 s o t h a t the R.F. tube does not q u i t e o s c i l l a t e .

Take c a r e f u l note of t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h and t h e n reduce t h i s coupling t o t h e value found b e s t f o r t h e 200-meter s t a t i o n . The pronounced decrease i n s i g n a l ' s t r e n g t h which accompanies t h i s r e d u c t i o n i n coupling i s convincing proof of the l o s s of a m p l i f i c a t i o n s u f f e r e d i n a r e c e i v e r where the coupling between t h e primary and secondary of t h e radio- frequency transformer i s kept a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y low value t o avoid o s c i l l a t i o n a t t h e lower wavelengths i n t h e v i c i n i t y of 200 meters. O the o t h e r hand, n i f t h e coupling i s s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e t o give good t r a n s f e r of energy and consequent good a m p l i f i c a t i o n a t a wavelength, f o r i n s t a n c e , of 500 meters, the r e c e i v e r w i l l o s c i l l a t e a s soon a s i t s t u n i n g i s reduced t o a wavel e n g t h , say, of 475 meters. The p r i n c i p l e cause of a l l t h i s t r o u b l e due t o o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r tube i s the i n t e r - e l e c t r o d e c a p a c i t i e s w i t h i n t h e vacuum tube. O these t h r e e i n t e r - e l e c t r o d e c a p a c i t i e s ; i.e. p l a t e - t o f f i l a m e n t , grid - to - filament and p l a t e - t o - g r i d , t h e p l a t e - g r i d c a p a c i t y i s the most troublesome inasmuch a s it i s through t h i s c a p a c i t y t h a t t h e feedback from p l a t e t o g r i d c i r c u i t s , t a k e s place i n amounts s u f f i c i e n t t o cause o s c i l l a t i o n . his p l a t e - g r i d c a p a c i t y i s i n d i c a t e d i n d o t t e d l i n e s a s Cpg i n Figure 1. Through t h i s p l a t e - g r i d c a p a c i t y of t h e tube, feed- back from p l a t e t o g r i d c i r c u 4 t s t a k e s place and t h e feed- back voltage t h u s introduced i n t o the g r i d c i r c u i t i s sufficient t o cause vigorous and p e r s i s t e n t o s c i l l a t i o n when the conditions a l r e a d y s e t f o r t h p r e v a i l ; i.e., when the p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s a r e tuned t o resonance with each o t h e r ( a s t h e y must be Lesson 48

- sheet 4

i n order t o receive a s i g n a l a t a l l ) and when t h e coupling between t h e primary P, and seconGary L2, of the radio- frequency transformer i s c l o s e enough t o e f f e c t a r e a l l y good t r a n s f e r of energy from primary t o secondary. Nevertheless, such a c l o s e degree of coupling c a n be used and yet o s c i l l a t i o n avoided by a d j u s t i n g t h e c i r c u i t s so t h a t a s t a t e of e l e c t r i c a l balance e x i s t s between p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s of t h e radio- frequency amplif i e r tube. When such a balance i s secured t h e coupling between primary and secondary of t h e radio- frequency transformer may be made s u f f i c i e n t l y close t o i n s u r e good a m p l i f i c a t i o n throughout t h e wavelength range of t*~e r e c e i v e r w i t h complete freedom from o s c i l l a t i o n .

Figure 2 The method employed t o o b t a i n t h i s d e s i r a b l e freedom from o s c i l l a t i o n i s a s ingenious i n i t s conception a s it i a simple i n i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . It can be b r i e f l y summarized a s follows: A t t h e i n s t a n t t h e feed- back v o l t age i s f e d back from t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t v i a the p l a t e g r i d capacity, Cpg-to i n t r o d u c e i n t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t a n o t h e r voltage e x a c t l y equal t o t h e feed- back voltage i n s t r e n g t h , but of o o s i t e Being of t h e same s t r e n g t h a s t h e troublesome feed- abk voltage olarit opposite p o l a r i t y t h i s second voltage w i l l counter- act t h e feedback voltage and completely n u l l i f y i t . By t h u s n u l l i f y i n g t h e feed-back voltage w remove t h e cause of o s c i l l a t i o n and a s t a b l e , n o n - o s c i l l a t i n g e and e f f i c i e n t radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r i s t h e r e s u l t .

w.

9%--

The manner i n which t h i s i s accomplished i s shown i n Figure 2. It w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t t h i s diagram i s t h e same a s t h a t of F i g u r e 1 except t h a t another c o i l , "Sn, has been included and t h i s c o i l i s c l o s e l y coupled t o t h e primary P. I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e t h i s close coupling between these two c o i l s i s secured by winding c o i l S upon the same form a s P and i n c l o s e proximity t o i t , t h e r e being no space between t h e windings. As a matter Lesson 48

sheet 5

of f a c t t h e two c o i l s appear t o be, and may be considered a s being, a s i n g l e c o i l tapped a t i t s c e n t e r f o r t h e "B" b a t t e r y connection. Needless t o say, the s l i g h t e s t v a r i a t i o n i n the c u r r e n t flowing through c o i l P w i l l induce i n c o i l S a voltage; and i t i s t h i s voltage which i s used t o counter- act t h e feed-back t a k i n g place through t h e p l a t e - g r i d capacity of t h e tube. T h i s " s t a b i l i z i n g " v o l t a g e , a s i t i s termed, i s applied t o When, a t any g i v e n the g r i d through t h e small v a r i a b l e condenser C s . i n s t a n t , t h e flow of radio- frequency current i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t causes a voltage of p o s i t i v e ( + ) p o l a r i t y t o be f e d back t o t h e g r i d , t h i s same current flowing through c o i l P induces i n c o i l S a voltage which when impressed upon the g r i d through condenser C s , i s of negative ( - ) p o l a r i t y . A t t h e next i n s t a n t when t h e radio- frequency c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t r e v e r s e s , it consequently r e v e r s e s t h e voltage f e d back t o t h e g r i d through t h e tube c a p a c i t y t o negative, and t h i s same r e v e r s a l i n the radio- frequency c u r r e n t flowing i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t , a3d hence i n c o i l P , causes a r e v e r s a l i n t h e voltage induced i n c o i l S which, when a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d through Cs, i s of opposite ( p o s i t i v e ) It i s i n t h i s manner t h a t t h e counter voltage o r " s t a b i l i z i n g " polarity. voltage, i s secured and a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i l of t h e tube s o t h a t a t every i n s t a n t t h e feed-back voltage t a k i n g place through t h e t u b e ' s p l a t e - g r i d capacity f i n d s i t s e l f opposed by a voltage opposite i n p o l a r i t y . If t h e s e two voltages a r e equal i n value then, a s they a r e of opposing p o l a r i t y , one completely counteracts the o t h e r and hence t h e i r t a t a l e f f e c t i s n i l . This i s done by making t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage t h e equal of t h e feed- back voltage by adjustment of t h e small condenser Cs. As t h i s condenser i s v a r i a b l e i t serves as t h e means of i n c r e a s i n g o r decreasing the s t a b i l i zing voltage u n t i l it e q u a l s t h e feed-back voltage and when t h i s a d j u s t ment i s secured t h e feed-back voltage w i l l be completely n u l l i f i e d by t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage. Inasmuch a s t h e feed-back voltage i s the cause of o s c i l l a t i o n , when i t s e f f e c t i s cancelled by an equal amount of s t a b i l i zing voltage the cause of o s c i l l a t i o n i s removed and t h e r e s u l t i s a s t a b l e , n o n - o s c i l l a t i n g radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r . The condition of e l e c t r i c a l balance which e x i s t s between p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s of the radio- freauencv a m n l i f i e r tube when such an adjustment i s secured i s given i n t h e foliowing equation.

Before complete s t a b i l i z a t i o n can be secured t h e t i o n must be s a t i s f i e d . For example, i f c o i l s P c a p a c i t y of C s must be made equal t o t h a t of Cpg t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e ; i f S i s only t h e n Cs must be made twice a s l a r g e a s Cpg; i f S then G must be one-half a s l a r g e a s Cpg, and s o s

conditions of t h i s equaand S a r e equal t h e n the i n order t o s t a b i l i z e one-half a s l a r g e a s P , i s twice a s l a r g e a s P , on.

It can be r e a d i l y a a a r e c i a t e d t h a t c o i l S s e r v e s t o provide us with a source of s t a b i l i z i n g voltage only approximately of the c o r r e c t value and t h i s voltage i s t h e n a d j u s t e d t o e x a c t l y t h e c o r r e c t value by means However, i t i s not a t a l l necessary t o use a sgparate of condenser C s . and d i s t i n c t c o i l such a s S i n order t o secure a voltage s u i t a b l e t o s t a b i l i z i n g pa-poses. W a l r e a d y have a c o i l coupled t o t h e primary P , namely, e Lesson 48

- sheet 6
i

the secondary c o i l L2, and although L2 i s p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e purpose of coupling t o the g r i d c i r c u i t of the d e t e c t o r tube, t h e r e i s no reason why i t cannot be used a t t h e same time a s a source of s t a b i l i z i n g voltage and i n t h i s way dispense w i t h c o i l S. This i s t h e method followed i n the r e c e i v e r of t h i s l e s s o n and t h i s minor change i n t h e c i r c u i t i s shown i n diagram of Figure 3. The primary P , o f the radio- frequency the s c h e ~ a t i c t r m s f o r m e r i s coupled t o t h a t end of t h e secondary w i n d i ~ gL2 which i s connected t o t h e filament c i r c u i t . The s t a b i l i z i n g t a p S, i s made a t about 1 5 t u r n s from t h e f i l a m e n t end of t h e secondary winding. T h i s 15t u r n s e c t i o n of the secondary t h e n a c t s i n the same manner a s c o i l S i n Figure 2, and i n t h i s way dispenses w i t h t h e need of an a d d i t i o n a l c o i l such a s S. The number of t u r n s included between t h e filament end of t h e secondary L2, ar.d the s t a b i l i z i n g t a p S, (15 t u r n s i n t h i s i n s t a n c e ) w i l l determine t h e amount of s t a b i l i z i n g voltage a v a i l a b l e f o r balancing purposes. The s t a b i l i z i n g voltage thus secured need be only approximetely t h e r i g h t value necesstiry f o r complete s t a b i l i z a t i o n inasmuch a s t h e small s t a b i l i z i n g condenser Cs serves t h e pursose of a d j u s t i n g the s t a b i l i z i n g voltage t o p r e c i s e l y t h e r i g h t value. Hence, the placement of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g t a p S need not be of prime accuracy because any change i n t h e value of i t s

Figure 3 s t a b i l i z i n g voltage caused by s h i f t i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of t h i s t a p s e v e r a l t u r n s along t h e c o i l can be compensated f o r by t h e small v a r i a b l e condenser

cs.

The equation P/S s cs/cpg, i n d i c a t i v e of the c o n d i t i o n s necessary t o secure an e l e c t r i c a l balance i n t h e c i r c u i t of Figure 2, a p p l i e s e q u a l l y w e l l t o t h e c i r c u i t of Figure 3; keeping i n mind, however, t h a t i n the l a t t e r c i r c u i t a s e c t i o n of t h e secondary has been s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e s e p a r a t e s t a b i l i z i n g c o i l of Figure 2.

Lesson 48

- sheet

The layout of t h e apparatus i n t h i s r e c e i v e r i s t h e same a s t h a t i n Lesson 36; moreover, t h e c i r c u i t i s t h e same a s i n t h a t l e s s o n except t h a t i n t h e r e c e i v e r i n t h i s l e s s o n s t a b i l i z a t i o n has been added t o t h e r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r t o i n s u r e freedom from oscill+ition. The f i r s t s t e p i s t o mount the small s t a b i l i z i n g condenser a s near a s p o s s i b l e t o t h e g r i d t e r m i n a l of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube socket. I f a small b r a s s angle i s obtainable i t should be screwed t o t h e baseboard a s j a c c n t t o the g r i d t e r m i n a l of t h i s socket and t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser f a s t e n e d t o t h i s b r a s s angle. If a b r a s s a n g l e i s not a v a i l a b l e a short l e n g t h of s t i f f copper wire may be soldered t o t h e g r i d terminal of the socket, forming a support t o keep t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser a short d i s tance above and c l e a r of t h e baseboard. The s t a b i l i z i n g condenser f u r n i s h e d with t h e k i t has two s e t s of s t a t o r 0nl.y one s e t of p l a t e s of two p l a t e s each, and a s i n g l e r o t o r p l a t e . s t a t o r p l a t e s i s ueed, however, and t h i s should be connected t o t h e g r i d t e r m i n a l of t h e tube socket.

Now l e t us t u r n our a t t e n t i o n t o t h e " p i c t u r e " wiring diagram on page 5 of Lesson 36. Therein i s a drawing of the " t h r e e - c i r c u i t t u n e r " which i n t h e r e c e i v e r of t h i s l e s s o n f u n c t i o n s a s t h e tuned radio- frequency transformer P-L2. Along t h e lower edge of t h i s device i s a row of f i v e terminals and now, be$inning with t h e terminal f u r t h e s t t o the l e f t , number these t e r m i n a l s 1,2,3,4 and 5.
Disconnect t h e wires t h a t a r e soldered t o t h e t i c k l e r c o i l terminals and connect these two w i r e s i n s t e a d t o t h e lower t e r m i n a l s 1 and 2. By making t h i s change t h i s movable c o i l ceases t o be t h e primary of t h e radio- frequency transformer a s i t was i n Lesson 36, and t h e s m a l l e r of t h e two f i x e d c o i l s now becomes the primary. N other connections a r e made t o the movable o c o i l ' s terminals a s t h i s c o i l i s not used i n t h e r e c e i v e r of t h i s lesson.
NOW reverse t h e l e a d s connected t o terminals 4 and 5. That i s , t h e wire now connected t o t e r m i n a l 5 i s connected i n s t e a d t o t e r m i n a l 4, and t h e wire whlch was u n t i l a moment ago connected t o t e r m i n a l 4 i s now connected t o t e r m i n a l 5.

The connections are completed by connecting t h e c e n t e r terminal, number 3, t o t h e r o t o r of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser C s . W a r e now ready t o e tune t h e r e c e i v e r t o a t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n and a d j u s t i t f o r s t a b i l i zation. The tunnlng of t h i s r e c e i v e r i s the same a s t h a t of Lesson 36 except t h a t t h e v a r i z b l e c o n t r o l of coupling between t h e primary and secondary of t h e radio- frequency transformer i s eliminated inasmuch a s a f i x e d c o i l i s now being used f o r t h e primary minding. Tuning i s accomplished by adjustment of t h e two v a r i a b l e t u n i n g condensers and, when the r e c e i v e r i s resonated t o a s p e c i f i c wavelength, the d i a l s mounted on the condenser s h a f t s should read a l i k e , o r n e a r l y so. To s t a b i l i z e t h e s t a g e of radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n , proceed a s follows: Set the s t a b i l i z i n g condenser a t minimum c a p a c i t y and. t h e n tune t h e r e c e i v e r Lesson 48

- sheet 8

t o a s t a t i o n t h a t comes i n w i t h good volume t h e louder t h e b e t t e r . T h i s s t a t i o n should be o p e r a t i n g on a wavelength p r e f e r a b l y of about 300 meters. The received s i g n a l should be heard a s a squeal due t o t h e o s c i l l a t i o n of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube r e s u l t i n g from i t s l a c k of s t a b i l i z a t i o n . N w open t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube by d i s o connecting t h e w i r e c o n w c t e d t o one of t h e f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l s of i t s s o c k e t . This permits t h e r e s t of t h e tubes t o remain l i g h t e d and, even with t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e turned o f f , t h e s i g n a l should s t i l l be heard much weaker, of c o u r s e , y e t audible when using t h e headphones. D not use a o loudspeaker headphones o n l y w i l l prove s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n securing a c c u r a t e adjustment of s t a b l i z a t i o n i n t h i s or any o t h e r r e c e i v e r where s t a b i l i z a t i o n i s employed. The s i g n a l should s t i l l be heard due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p l a t e - g r i d c a p a c i t y of t h e radio- frequency amplifying tube now a c t s a s a very small coupling c a p ~ c i t y which s e r v e s t o pass a small amount of t h e d g n a l energy i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube t o i t ' s p l a t e c i r c u i t and t h e n c e , by i n d u c t i v e coupling between P and L2, t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r tube. Note t h a t i f t h i s p l a t e - g r i d c a p a c i t y d i d not e x i s t t h e s i g n a l would be unable t o g e t through t o t h e d e t e c t o r t u b e and hence would be i n a u d i b l e . The c a p a c i t y of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser should now be slowly i n c r e a s e d u n t i l a p o i n t i s reached. where t h e s i g n a l begins t o weaken and f i n a l l y d i s a p p e a r s e n t i r e l y .

That t h e s i g n a l can no longer be heard i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser has been a d j u s t e d t o such a value t h a t i t conp l e t e l y counter- acts t h e c a p a c i t y e x i s t e n t between t h e p l a t e and g r i d of t h e tube. (Note: It i s a t times impossible t o g e t a b s o l u t e z e r o s i g n a l s t r e n g t h , but f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes w consdier t h e r e s u l t a s z e r o e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h ) . The e f f e c t of t h e p l a t e - g r i d c a p a c i t y of t h e tube havi n g t h u s been counter- acted, or balanced o u t , t h e s t a g e of radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s s a i d t o be s t a b i l i z e d . The d i s c o n n e c t e d f i l a m e n t l e a d i s now re- connected t o t h e f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l of t h e tube socket from which i t was removed. S i g n a l s can now be received w i t h normal volume and t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube w i l l be s t a b l e i n i t s o p e r a t i o n ; i . e . , i t wil.1 not o s c i l l a t e . The s t a b i l i z i n g condenser should be equipped with a n i n s u l a t i n g knob o r handle i n o r d e r t h a t t h e body- capacity e f f e c t t h a t would r e s u l t from b r i n g i n g t h e hand i n c l o s e proximity t o such h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e p o r t i o n s of t h e c i r c u i t w i l l n o t i n f l u e n c e t h e accuracy of adjustment of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser. The foregoing method i s t h e b e s t t o use when s t a b i l i z i n g a r e c e i v e r i n which a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d two or more s t a g e s of tuned radio- frequency amplif i c a t i o n . Beginning w i t h t h e f i r s t s t a g e t h e method i s a p p l i e d t o e a c h s u c c e s s i v e s t a g e u n t i l t h e a m p l i f i e r a s a whole has been s t a b i l i z e d . I n a r e c e i v e r such a s t h i s where hut one s t a g e of tuned radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s used a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t 2rocedure may be r e s o r t e d t o one which i s simpler i n i t s a p p l i c a t i o n and f u l l y a s e f f e c t i v e a s t h e method f i r s t d e s c r i b e d . I n t h i s method t h e f i l a m e n t of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube i s allowed t o remain l i g h t e d . The c a p a c i t y of t h e s t s b i l i z i n g condenser Lesson 48

ehcet 9

i s g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d u n t i l a s e t t i n g i s reached a t which t h e t u b e s t o p s o s c i l l a t i n g . Continue t o i n c r e a s e the c a p a c i t y of t h i s condenser u n t i l t h e n reduce i t s c a p a c i t y t o a value t h e tube a g a i n begins t o o s c i l l a e e , midway between t h e s e t w o s e t t i n g s . This w i l l b e t h e value of c a p a c i t y necessary t o e f f e c t complete s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e t u b e . It i s q u i t e possible t h a t varying t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser w i l l have a s l i g h t e f f e c t upon t h e t u n i n g o f the r e c e i v e r , so t h a t while ~ d j u s t i n g t h i s condenser t o i t s c o r r e c t v a l u e it may be n e c e s s a r y t o make s l i g h t readjustments of t h e two t u n i n g c o n d e n s e r s .
When the i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n t a i n e d 5 n t h i s l e s s o n a r e c a r e f u l l y c a r r i e d out, i t w i l l be found p o s s i b l e t o e f f e c t complete s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e , and t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l m n c t i o n w i t h complete freedom from o s c i l l a t i o n . EXAMINATION

- LFSSON 48
amplifier?

What i s t h e purpose of c o n d e n s e r Cs? What i s t h e purpose of c o i l S i n Figure 2? W y i s i t necessary t o u s e " s t a b i l i z a t i o n " i n a n R.F. h Hw i s " s t a b i l i z a t i o n " a c c o m p l i s h e d ? o What i s the p r i n c i p l e s o u r c e I n what way does t h e c o u p l i = of feed- back? between P and L2 a f f e c t ~ ~ ~ i l l a t i ~ n

W y cannot o s c i l l a t i o n be o v e r c o m e by detuning c i r c u i t L2C2? h What i s meant by " l o s s e r " m e t h o d ? What i s meant by " s t a b i l i z a t 3 L o n n method? What i s the purpose of t a p S on t h e secondary c o i l , L2?

Lesson 48
.

s h e e t 10

.-*

Lesson 49
RADIO RETAILING

- SALESbqANSHIP

Many and varied q u e s t i o n s a r e asked by t h o s e engaged i n t h e r a d i o business, end by those who d e s i r e a business of t h e i r own. Largely these q u e s t i o n s a r e : R w much money i s r e q u i r e d ? What s t o c k o r merchandise should I o c a r r y ? Hw should I a d v e r t i s e ? I s r a d i o s e r v i c i n g a s a s i d e - l i n e profitable? o Grouping a l l of t h e s e q u e s t i o n s t o g e t h e r r e s u l t s i n t h e one q u e s t i o n , "HOW should I conduct a r a d i o business t o make i t p r o f i t a b l e ?
1.

Establishin our own business. T h i s i s seemingly a stumblir& block t o a grea nwn e r o anTljTtious young men because of l a c k of s u f f i c i e n t funds t o g e t t h e b u s i n e s s s t a r t e d . A s a matter of f a c t a " fortune" i s by no means necessary.

4-

Your very f i r s t s t e p should be i n a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e a c t u a l need of a r a d i o business ( o r another r a d i o b u s i n e s s ) i n your c o m u n i t y , o r i n some community i n which you t h i n k t h e b u s i n e s s may be p r o f i t a b l e . This i s not a hard t h i n g t o do. I n s o many i n s t a n c e s a new s t o r e i n a community, l a r g e o r small, i s s u c c e s s f u l , whereas an o l d e r e s t a b l i s h e d b u s i n e s s may n o t be s u c c e s s f u l . The new man i s s u c c e s s f u l c h i e f l y because of t h r e e reasons. They a r e , (1) he knows r a d i o ; ( 2 ) he knows how t o merchandise h i s goods and conduct h i s s t o r e ; ( 3 ) he knows what apparatus w i l l render t h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y service. There i s a town of f i f t e e n thousand i n h a b i t a n t s i n t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of N w Jersey t h a t s u p p o r t s t h r e e r a d i o s t o r e s . A f r i e n d of mine i n t h i s e town owns a f i v e tube tuned r a d i o frequency r e c e i v e r which r e c e n t l y became i n o p e r a t i v e . H does not know t h e f i r s t t h i n g about a r a d i o s e t o t h e r e e t h a n t o t u r n i n on and o f f , and tune i t , H obtained t h e " e x p e r t n s e r v i c e s of t h e t h r e e r a d i o d e a l e r s , e a c h attempting t o put h i s s e t i n operation: f i r s t one d e a l e r and t h e n t h e next. A f t e r t e n days of " f u s s i n g n and "fuming" he wrote t o m f o r help. I drove t o his home t h e following Sunday and i n e t h i r t y minutes had h i s s e t i n p e r f e c t operation. H e had a p a r t i a l l y grounded antenna, a poor ground connection, two loose i n t e r n a l soldered connections, and a poor "A" b a t t e r y connection due t o s u l p h a t i o n forming on t h e b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l s . T h i s i s merely an example, but t h i n k of what a r e a l " l i v e w i r e n could do i n t h i s town i f he r e a l l y knew r a d i o . H e would g e t t h e b u s i n e s s because he would soon have a r e p u t a t i o n and t h e confidence of t h e c i t i z e n s . There a r e thousands of towns t h a t a r e i n t h e same c l a s s a s t h i s NewJersey community a s r e g a r d s r a d i o e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . You undoubtedly know r a d i o d e a l e r s who can and d o s e l l r e c e i v e r s and a c c e s s o r i e s but who a r e l a c k i n g i n r a d i o knowledge. They know a vacuum tube from a transformer but t h e y do not know r a d i o ; i n so manx i n s t a n c e s they cannot t a l k i n t e l l i g e n t l y on t h e "whys" and "wherefors of t h e s u b j e c t . I f t h e r a d i o d e a l e r o r Contents Copyrighted 1930 inted in U. S. A.

d e a l e r s i n your community a r e not r a d i o men i f t h e y do not r e a l l y know t h e n you have a most f a v o r a b l e outlook. I f t h e y do know r a d i o radio your opportunity i s good providing you know more about it t h a n the o t h e r fellow and you conduct your business on a sound b u s i n e s s b a s i s .
2. H w much ca i t a l i s r e q u i r e d ? This s u b j e c t has been discussed "pro" o and "o = * g . cn dn% Some actv-a1 c a p i t a l i s r e q u i r e d y e t I have known many young men who have e s t a b l i s h e d themselves i n b u s i n e s s with no c a p i t a l of t h e i r own. I f you have a r e p u t a t i o n of being honest and u p r i g h t , and t h e outlook f o r t h e b u s i n e s s i s f a v o r a b l e i n your community, or I n t h e community i n which you a r e d e x r o u s of l o c a t i n g t h e b u s i n e s s , you can s o l i c i t f i n a n c i a l a i d from your bank, o r from anyone who i s i n a p o s i t i o n , f i n a n c i a l l y , t o h e l p you. The r a d i o jobber from whom you contemplate s e curing your merchandise w i l l a l s o h e l p you by extending c r e d i t u n t i l you a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o pay f o r goods w i t h i n t h i r t y days a f t e r r e c e i v i n g them. .The jobber wants a s many o u t l e t s f o r h i s merchandise a s he can sec u r e and you can i n t e r e s t h i m i n your p r o p o s i t i o n which, i f sound, w i l l warrant h i s a t t e n t i o n and a s s i s t a n c e . F i f t e e n hundred d o l l a r s i n a c t u a l s a s h i s ample t o s t a r t a r a d i o e n t e r p r i s e i n a more o r l e s s small communitg.

H w l a r e should m s t o r e be and where should i t be l o c a t e d ? A s t o r e o s h o u ~ s b d g enougst-e~ ~ p ~ s ~ merchandise o f ? and ~ t o enable you-to f a v o r a b l y demonstrate t h e various appliances t h s t you c a r r y i n stock. It should be l o c a t e d convenient t o p r o s p e c t i v e customers. It should not by any means be a two by f o u r or a "hole i n t h e wall" establishment. There i s much t r u t h i n the statement t h a t " t o be s u c c e s s f u l you have your t o appear successful" . You observe t h a t c o n d i t i o n a l l around you s u c c e s s f u l merchants, lawyers, and d o c t o r s a r e examples.
3.

A r a d i o s t o r e f i f t e e n f e e t i n width and t h i r t y - f i v e f e e t i n l e n g t h i s

q u i t e commodious and p r o v i d e s ample space f o r d i s p l a y and demonstration, c o u n t e r s and shelves. A few f e e t more o r l e s s i n w i d t h and l e n g t h w i l l make no m a t e r i a l d i f f e r e n c e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s t o r e i t s e l f a space spproxirnately f i f t e e n f e e t square should be provided i n the r e a r of t h e s t o r e t o te used e x c l u s i v e l y a s a work shop, wherein v a r i o u s r e p a i r s can be made.

It i s d e s i r a b l e t o have window d i s p l a y space of approximately f i v e f e e t i n depth.

The s t o r e should be s o l o c a t e d a s t o b e r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e and convenient. The c o s t of r e n t may p r o h i b i t a l o c a t i o n on %lain S t r e e t " , y e t i t should n o t be s i t u a t e d on an unfrequented s t r e e t . If t h e r e a r e o t h e r r a d i o stores I n t h e town l o c a t e your s t o r e near them, o r n e a r the p o s t - o f f i c e . A s t r e e t s i g n should be conspicuously displayed s o t h a t it may be seen r e a d i l y . It should be i l l u m i n a t e d a t n i g h t . Your d i s p l a y wrind-ow should a l s o be i l l u m i nated a t night. T h i s i s a v e r y good means of p e r p e t u a l l y a d v e r t i s i n g your business. What merchandise should I c a r r y ? F i r s t of a l l s t o c k only merchandise t h a t r b a h k e d by the=aZturers r e p u t a t i o n and t h a t i s n a t i o n a l l y here a r e many good l i n e s - o f equipment and s e v e r a l a r e + e l l advertised, known t o almost e v e r y one because they a r e n a t i o n a l l y a d v e r t i s e d ; t h a t i s ,
4.

Lesson 49

- sheet

t h e y are a d v e r t i s e d i n t h e l e a d i n g magazines and papers throughout t h e United S t a t e s . Keep away from the p r a c t i c a l l y unknown apparatus. There a r e many m a n u f a c t u r ~ e r sof a l l kinds of "dynes" and " f l e x e s w ; t h e y a r e sypposed t o and do give b i g discounts t o d e a l e r s but, i n t h e case of many of them, t h e i r s e t s should r i g h t l y be c a l l e d "fraud-o-dynes" and " g r i e f flexes" . Let your motto be " instruments w i t h a r e p u t a t i o n " .

--

The wealth of the c i t i z e n s i n your town should be your guide i n t h e s e l e c t i o n of merchandise. If t h e g r e a t e r m a j o r i t y of them have small incomes you should not s t o c k your s t o r e with c o s t l y apparatus. I f , on the o t h e r hand, you know t h e r e i s "moneyn i n your town you can c a r r y t h e more expens i v e s e t s . You may gauge t h i s by the r a t i o of automobiles t o i n h a b i t a n t s . Any one who owns an automobile can own a radio. If t h e g r e a t e r number of people d r i v e inexpensive c a r s t h e y w i l l not want t o buy expensive r e c e i v ine s e t s .- If the i n h a b i t a n t s a r e c l a s s e d a s " ~ 0 0 ~ "".f a i r l y well t o do". . - - " q u i t e well t o do" and " wealthy n , you should szock appaxatuG which s e l l s * a t various p r i c e s . Bear t h i s i n mind: There i s 5 r a d i o f o r every purse. Every home should have a r a d i o .

--

--

To cover a d e s i r a b l e " s e l l i n g c o s t " p r i c e range i t i s o f t e n necessary f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l r a d i o d e a l e r i n smaller communities t o c a r r y t h e products of two d i f f e r e n t manufacturers. Some manufacturing o r g a n i z a t i o n s do not produce a r e c e i v e r low enough i n c o s t t o enable t h e d e a l e r t o p r o f i t a b l y c a r r y only one product, whereas o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s manufacture only low p r i c e d instruments. Considerable money has been made by d e a l e r s i n t h e s a l e of r a d i o p a r t s . Home c o n s t r u c t i o n i s waning t o a very marked degree c h i e f l y because it c o s t p r a c t i c a l l y a s much t o c o n s t r u c t a s e t a s it does t o buy a f a c t o r y job, and i n most i n s t a n c e s t h e "home-made" s e t i s i n f e r i o r t o t h e f a c t o r y product. For t h i s reason the d e a l e r should n o t s t o c k an over supply of p a r t s . To "round out" h i s merchandise and have a s t o c k of s a l a b l e r a d i o equipment on hand t h e d e a l e r should c a r r y a l i m i t e d q u a n t i t y of s t a b l e p a r t s such a s transformers, s o c k e t s , r h e o s t a t s , jacks, condensers and panels.

i n s t o c k , a s w e l l a s " A" 9 "B" and "C" b a t t e r i e s , c h a r g e r s and e l i m i n a t i n g devices. These should be standard and w e l l known a c c e s s o r i e s . Avoid unknown products t h a t give you a b i g p r o f i t and which may discourage f u t u r e s a l e s t o your customers. There keep away from b a t t e r i e s t h a t do a r e only a very few r e a l good b a t t e r i e s not have a good r e p u t a t i o n .
A complete l i n e of vacuum tubes should be c a r r i e d

pdany r a d i o d e a l e r s , e s p e c i a l l y those i n smaller communities, c a r r y e l e c t r i c a l appliances. Items such a s bulbs, f l a t - i r o n s , foot- pads, t o a s t e r * and o t h e r smaller goods may be handled a s a s i d e l i n e . T h i s p a r t of the business, i n many i n s t a n c e s , grows t o be very p r o f i t a b l e and t h e r e f o r e j u s t i f i e s a more completely equipped e l e c t r i c a l department t o i n c l u d e t h e s a l e of washi n g machines, vacuum c l e a n e r s , h e a t i n g devices and s t o v e s , and s o on. The expansion of any b u s i n e s s i s e n t i r e l y dependent upon t h e d e a l e r and the r e p u t a t i o n he b u i l d s up. The p u b l i c wants t o buy w i t h confidence.

i
d

Lesson 49

- sheet 3

5. Where m a g I o b t a i n r a d i o merchandise? The products of t h e l a r g e r man-ers F e m e m i l e r v i a d i s t r i b u t o r s , o r wholesale houses. These d i s t r i b u t o r s o r wholesalers a r e sometimes known a s "jobbers". It would e n t a i l an e n d l e s s amount of r o u t i n e f o r t h e manufacturer t o s e l l d i r e c t t o e a c h d e a l e r , hence, t h e n e c e s s i t y of t h e d i s t r i b u t o r . The manuf a c t u r e r has, perhaps, a few hundred jobbers l o c a t e d advantageously thrcughout t h e country. Each jobber may serve s e v e r a l hundred r e t a i l e r s . I n many i n s t a n c e s t h e r a d i o jobber c a r r i e s a complete l i n e of standard e l e c t r i c a l appliances.
If you are d e s i r o u s of merchandising a c e r t a i n r a d i o r e c e i v e r , w r i t e t o t h e manufacturer d i r e c t and ask f o r t h e name of h i s d i s t r i b u t o r i n your community. When t h i s informatton i s obtained you can t h e n arrange t o see t h e manager of the d i s t r i b u t i n g company f o r f u l l d e t a i l s . H w i l l have e more or l e s s knowledge of the opportunity and outlook f o r a business i n t h e commmity i n which you contemplate e s t a b l i s h i n g i t . I f he informs you t h a t he t h i n k s t h e r e a r e a s u f f i c i e n t number of d e a l e r s i n your town do not h e s i t a t e t o t e l l him why you know t h a t you can make a "go" of i t . D o n f t h e s i t a t e t o t a k e t h e b u l l by t h e horns when p l a c i n g your proposition b e f o r e anyone. You w i l l have g i v e n time and thought t o the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of making a success of the b u s i n e s s plus t h e f a c t t b a t you have already s d the e x i s t i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ; i n o t h e r words you w i l l know what you a r e t a l k i n g about when you make t h e move t o a c t u a l l y g e t s t a r t e d . 6. Radio S e r v i c i n Here i s a f i e l d t h a t can be made highly p r o f i t a b l e , d l e r and h i s s e r v i c e man r e a l l y know r a d i o . Many d e a l e r s but l o s e out on t h i s f e a t u r e because t h e y l a c k a r e a l knowledge of r a d i o and, of course, cannot r e n d e r e f f i c i e n t and s a t i s f a c t o r y s e r v i c e . They do not g e t t h e r e p u t a t i o n of "knowing t h e i r stuff" when it comes t o placing a " d e f e c t i v e s e t i n " ~ 1condition.

w i

and t h e b e s t of them develop occasional aches and p a i n s . The t r o u b l e may be s l i g h t , due perhaps t o a poor tube o r loose connection, but nevert h e l e s s it w i l l r e q u i r e a t t e n t i o n and the average owner does n o t know what t o do when something of t h i s n a t u r e goes wrong. There w i l l always be a demand f o r s e r v i c e .

A l l t y p e s of r e c e i v e r s r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r c o s t o r model o r type, a r e capable of becoming i n o p e r a t i v e . A r a d i o s e t i s a p i e c e of machinery t o some extent

The c o s t of s e r v i c i n g a r a d i o should be based on t h e "time f a c t o r " involved. An h o u r l y charge should be made on a job t h a t r e q u i r e s considerable time. There should be a minimum charge of so much f o r each job undertaken even i f t h e work involves only t h e replacement of a tube. J u s t what t h e c u s t m r should be charged depends e n t i r e l y upon l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s ; t h a t i s , your r e n t , s a l a r i e s and g e n e r a l over-head. I n some l o c a l i t i e s t h e hourly charge I s $1.00, whereas i n o t h e r s i t i s $2.50. The minimum charge v a r i e s from one d o l l a r t o two d o l l a r s .

It would appear t o be r i d i c u l o u s t o charge a customer $1.50 f o r merely s u b s t i t u t i n g a good tube f o r a poor one. I n case t h a t proved t o be t h e only t r o u b l e t h e s e r v i c e man could check over t h e s e t i n g e n e r a l , t e s t t h e b a t t e r i e s , and examine t h e a e r i a l and ground. The thcught here i s t h a t you want t o r e a l l y do something f o r the charge you cannot do i t

Lesson 49

- sheet 4

--

f o r nothing, even though t h e only t r o u b l e may be a poor tube, because i f you do not make a charge you w i l l be swamped w i t h " c h a r i t y c a l l s " gour time i s monex don't f o r g e t t h a t .

There i s no questioning t h e f a c t t h a t " i n s t a l l Cash and time '7. e s ment p u r c ~ i ~ a e n a g r e a t boon t o American business. It has g i v e n t h e poorer c l a s s an Opportunity t o possess t h e n i c e r t h i n g s i n l i f e . Today p r a c t i c a l l y anything may be purchased on the i n s t a l l m e n t plan. It i s n o t considered good b u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e f o r t h e d e a l e r , p e r s o n a l l y , t o extend c r e d i t . Finance companies take over and handle t h e c o l l e c t i o n s a f t e r t h e d e a l e r makes t h e s a l e and s e c u r e s t h e "down payment". T h i s r e l i e v e s t h e dealer of t h e r i s k involved i n extending c r e d i t and a l s o r e l i e v e s h i m of t h e many necessary book-keeping d e t a i l s .

==F=

More business i s done on t h e i n s t a l l n e n t b a s i s . S a l e s under $25 a r e u s u a l l y on a may secure f u l l and complete p a r t i c u l a r s t h e manufacturer, concerning i n s t a l l m e n t

purchasing p l a n t h a n on a cash s t r i c t l y cash b a s i s . The d e a l e r from t h e d i s t r i b u t o r , o r from sales.

8 . Business and s t o r e conduct. T h i s s u b j e c t of b u s i n e s s and s t o r e conduct i s perhaps t h e one most-frequently neglected. So o f t e n t h e s u c c e s s f u l s t o r e owner n e g l e c t s t h e s e l i t t l e t h i n g s t h a t a r e s o important t o h i s f u t u r e success. The l i t t l e t h i n g s a r e t h e b i g t h i n g s .

--

he s t o r e should always be kept c l e a n s p i c k and span and t h e salesman a pleasant greetshould always be n e a t l y dressed. Courtesy, p o l i t e n e s s ing a r e t h e B I G l i t t l e t h i n g s . There i s a c l a s s of people who w i l l buy in any s t o r e r e g a r d l e s s of t h e s t o r e ' s appearance i n g e n e r a l . On t h e o t h e r hand there i s the c l a s s O f people who only p a t r o n i z e t h e well-appointed s t o r e . The former c l a s s w i l l a l s o p a t r o n i z e t h e well- appointed s t o r e . Maintain your s t o r e i n such a manner a s t o make i t a t t r a c t i v e t o a l l c l a s s e s .

Consider your establishment a s a business house t h e boys".

and not a "hangout f o r

of a d v e r t i s i n g i s t h e p r e d i c t i o n and c o n t r o l of human behavior i n a s p e c i l i z e d f i e l d of a c t i v i t y ; namely, t h e purchase of goods n . bringing t o the a t t e n t i o n your a d v e r t i s i n g i s j u s t what we know it t o be, of a s many p o t e n t i a l buyers a s p o s s i b l e t h e f a c t t h a t you c a r r y a h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e l i n e of a p p a r a t u s , and t h a t you render r e a l s e r v i c e .

: D r . Poffenberger, i n h i s book, "Psychology i n Advertising

",

It has been c o n s e r v a t i v e l y e s t i m a t e d t h a t n o t more t h a n f o u r per. cent of t h e groes income of a r e t a i l merchant should be spent i n a d v e r t i s i n g . o 1 . H w t o secure more business: Bearing i n mind t h a t you c a r r y only 0 r e l i a b l e and n a t i o n a l l y a d v e r t i s e d products, and t h a t your s t o r e i a conv e n i e n t l y s i t u a t e d and well- appointed, you w i l l f i n d t h e r e a r e ways t o secure business o t h e r t h a n merely a d v e r t i s i n g i n your town and county papers. Here i s a l i s t of ways t o secure p r o s p e c t s suggested by one of t h e l a r g e s t r a d i o manufacturers: ( a ) Radio and Service Customers: One of t h e major p r i n c i p l e s of merchand i s i n ~ i s t t o " ~ e etp e o l d customers s o l d n . Keep a l i s t of every Radio h Lesson 49

--

- sheet 5

owner t o whom you have sold. If you know owners who bought from competing d e a l e r s , l i s t them t o o . S e t s grow o l d , many mo.dels now i n use a r e p r a c t i c a l l y obsolete owners w i l l be i n the market f o r new s e t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y b a t t e r y - s e t owners who want complete AC operation. A l l t h e s e people a r e customers, but t h a t does not mean they w i l l buy from you next time. Keep show them a t t e n t i o n and l e t them know you value t h e i r busimss. them "sold" Then, when t h e y a r e i n t h e market f o r new s e t s , a c c e s s o r i e s and s e r v i c e , t h e y w i l l be nore a p t t o come t o you. Permanent success i s b u i l t on holding o l d customers and adding new ones t o them.

( b ) Radio Census by H i & School Students: Among t h e b e s t and foremost metho-ng a p r o s m i s t i s house to house census work, and it i s not expensive. High School s t u d e n t s , boys or g i r l s , w i l l make i d e a l census t a k e r s i n your community, and t h e y work f o r l i t t l e money; u s u a l l y two t o t h r e e c e n t s a name. D not confine t h e census t a k i n g t o o t h e "high c l a s s " neighborhoods. The prosperous miedle c l a s s d i s t r i c t s , which form t h e backbone of t h e United S t a t e s , a r e t h e most f r u i t f u l f i e l d s today. The average s t u d e n t , working a f t e r school hours, w i l l t u r n i n 30 t o 40 c a l l s p e r day. Supply each student w i t h a number of "Radio Census ~ e p o r t " a r d s s i m i l a r t o the one shown below. When i t has been f i l l e d out c it w i l l give you t h e i n f s r m a t i o n you want. Does t h e prospect own a r a d i o ? I s i t b a t t e r y o r AC operated? What make? I s t h e prospect t h i n k i n g of buying a new s e t ? Does t h e s e t he i s now u s i n g need s e r v i c e ? Does t h e

RADIO CENSUS REPORT

hlrab,

.....................

DU~. . . . . . . . . . ... .

.........

prospect have f r i e n d s who a r e t h i n k i n g of buying a s e t ? The school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o r high school p r i n c i p a l w i l l suggest capable s t u d e n t s f o r t h i s work.
( c ) Re i s t r a t i o n List f o r S e c i f i e d Makes of Automobiles: NO f i n e r l i s t t h r o u g ~ u t i l i z a t i o nof t h e automobile of r a o prospec s can b s b u i l i s t of s p e c i f i e d makes of c a r s . These l i s t s are a l r e a d y compiled f o r your town, and t h e y can b e purchased a t a reasonable r a t e . They should, (See paragraph "I" however, be checked very c a r e f u l l y by your postmaster. Any s t r a t a of buying power you s e l e c t f o r d e t a i l s of how t o do t h i s ) .

8-7 9-

Lesson 49

- sheet 6

can be hod from automobile r e g i s t r a t i o n s . If you want t o push t h e s a l e of high- priced r a d i o s e t s , you can s e l e c t a l i s t of f i n e c a r owners. If you want t o r e a c h t h e s u b s t a n t i a l medium classed marked, t h e people who l i v e i n good neighborhoods and who l a r g e l y own t h e i r own homes, s e l e c t t h e owners of Buicks, C h r y s l e r s , Studebakers, and s i m i l a r cars. If you w i s h t o r e a c h t h e s l i g h t l y lower p r i c e c l a s s , l i s t t h e Ford and Chevrolet owners

From t h e s e r e g i s t r a t i o n s you can p i c k your names by neighborhoods, and your own l o c a l information of your c i t y . ( d ) R.F.D. Routes f o r Small Town Dealers: One of t h e g r e a t e s t markets h ~ t e b e ~ m io s t ~ i c t market. It i n v i t e s t h e r s ~ in t small town d e a l e r t o c u l t i v a t e it. Here a r e people who a r e n a t u r a l l y b e t t e r p r o s p e c t s t h a n t o m r e s i d e n t s . They a p p r e c i a t e t h e d e l i g h t s of r a d i o ent e r t a i n m e n t s more because t h e y do n o t have t h e counter a t t r a c t i o n s t o take t h e i r time. The r u r a l m a i l c a r r i e r s w i l l be g l a d of t h e opportunity t o make a l i t t l e e x t r a money by p u t t i n g your a d v e r t i s i n g c i r c u l a r i n e a c h mail box. You can g e t t h e exact number of c i r c u l a r s p r i n t e d by consulting t h e m a i l c a r r i e r s . Small town d e a l e r s w i l l f i n d t h a t i t w i l l pay, and h pay BIG, t o c u l t i v a t e t h i s market. W y leave i t s o l a r g e l y with t h e mail o r d e r houses? R u r a l r e s i d e n t s w i l l t r a d e w i t h a home d e a l e r , i f s u f f i c i e n t l y urged.
( 6 ) C i t y and Telephone Directory: I n some c i t y d i r e c t o r i e s , t h e p r a c t i c e p r e v a i l s of c l a s s i f y i n g a l l r e s i d e n t s according t o s t r e e t s and numbers i n t h e back of t h e book. I n such case, t h e s e l e c t i o n of names f o r a prospect l i s t i s i m p l i f i e d . T h i s l i s t should not be accepted on i t s f a c e value because of l i k e l y changes i n address. The l i s t can be made accurate by (Refer t o paragraph "I n ) . u s i n g t h e s e r v i c e s of your l o c a l postmaster.

( f ) Clubs, S o c i e t i e s , Churches: Chamber of Commerce, c i v i c clubs l i k e ~ o t a r ~ ' i w a n i s : lodges l i k e Masons. Odd-Fellows, E l k s , K. of C., and w many khurches have - p r i n c e & names of members which a r e u s u & l l g easy t o obtain.
. . .

And by a l l means do n o t overlook womenfs c l u b s and organizations. I f t h e y do not c a r r y p r i n t e d membership l i s t s , arrangements can be made w i t h s e c r e t a r i e s o r members t o copy the names. The advantage of t h e s e names on your prospect l i s t i s t h a t you a r e reaching t h e "Keyn people; t h o s e who l i f t t h e i r heads above t h e average l e v e l and whose spoken word and example w i l l i n f l u e n c e o t h e r people. Do not l i s t ulenls names by their b u s i n e s s addresses, however, If you do your l i t t l e mailed a d v e r t i s e m e n t s a r e l i k e l y t o r e a c h t h e waste basket. If you have a manta b u s i n e s s address gou can somehow o r o t h e r g e t t h i s home address. It i s b e t t e r t o mail your c i r c u l a r t o t h e wife, r a t h e r than t o the husband.

Go a f t e r s p e c i a l b u s i n e s s groups who can and do use t h e more expensive

r a d i o s e t s a s a h e l p i n t h e i r business. Such groups a r e : Hotels, Clubs, r e s t a u r a n t s , soda p a r l o r s and drug a t o r e . I n t e r e s t t h e doctors and d e n t i s t s i n a r a d i o f o r t h e i r w a i t i n g rooms. Lesson 49

- sheet 7

( 8 ) Voter's Re i s t r a t i o n L i s t s : Town and County Voting l i s t s a r e u s u a l m t e f o r t e a u m t i e s and, g e n e r a l l y , can b e e a s i l y obtained. Take t h e - m a t t e r up w i t h your alderman, councilman, committeeman,-or any f r i e n d who Is a c t i v e i n p o l i t i c s .

a-;k7-

Voting l i s t s a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n p r e c i n c t s , or wards. T h i s enables you t o s e l e c t e x a c t l y t h e d i s t r i c t s you want t o c i r c u l a r i z e . Your f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h your t e r r i t o r y informs you which d i s t r i c t s have t h e buying power t o furnish good prospects. But again, remember t h a t A E A E earning power VR G makes GOOD r a d i o prospects. You want t o go a f t e r ALL t h e buyers you can. I n this connection, remember t h a t voting l i s t s a r e not e n t i r e l y comprehensive secures, due t o t h e f a c t t h a t many people do not r e g i s t e r , y e t t h e y a r e r a d i o buyers. Therefore voting l i s t s should not be used a s t h e o n l y source of prospect names. Wonen v o t e r s make gooa prospect l i s t s . The f a c t t h a t t h e y r e g i s t e r i n d i c a t e s t h e y have t h e i n i t i a t i v e t o make t h e i r own d e c i s i o n t o buy a f t e r a salesman p r e s e n t s h i s p r o p o s i t i o n . When s e v e r a l members of t h e family a r e r e g i s t e r e d , s e l e c t t h e name of one; p r e f e r a b l y t h e mother o r wife. ( h ) Miscellaneous Sources of Names: Excellent p r o s p e c t s a r e those sugg e s t e a by your -own s a t i s f i e h c u s t o m e r s . ~t amounts t o almost a personal I n t r o d u c t i o n i f you give one of your customers a s a r e f e r e n c e . One succ e s s f u l d e a l e r h a s h i s s e r v i c e man g e t the names of prospective buyers. H i s plan i s t h i s : f o r t h e names of a "few f r i e n d s n , o r have him ask, "Does you$ neighbor mm a radio?" S e r v i c e men have access t o homes where salesmen o f t e n do n o t , hence t h e i r s i s a b e t t e r opportunity f o r securing information. Get your names of p r o s p e c t s wherever you can, t h e n check them over f o r a c c u r a t e home address, l i s t them and make them pay you. They w i l l i f you w i l l make an e f f o r t . ( 5 ) Your Post Office w i l l Check L i s t s f o r Accurac : Accuracy i s t h e mse t h e p r o s p e c t t s c o r r e c t u v t first= name, i n i t i a l s and a d d r e s s . Inaccuracy i s , f i r s t of a l l , i r r i t a t i n g t o t h e prospect. Wrong i n i t i a l s and misspelled names on a d v e r t i s i n g has s p o i l e d many s a l e s , and s e n t buyers t o competing d e a l e r s . I n t h e second your time and your salesinants time. p l a c e , wrong addresses waste t i m e Therefore, it i s a r i g i d n e c e s s i t y t o check ALL your l i s t s c a r e f u l l y and thoroughly, r e g a r d l e s s of who compiled them. The telephone d i r e c t o r y i s r e l i a b l e f o r t h i s purpose but t h e very b e s t method i s t o leave t h i s work t o your l o c a l postmaster. Post Office r u l i n g s r e q u i r e him t o do i t a t your request a t a charge of 65 c e n t s per hour.
A s your s e r v i c e man c a l l s on r e g u l a r customers have him a s k

mist1w.x

If your postmaster i s n o t f a m i l i a r with t h i s r u l i n g , r e f e r him t o Section 508, Order 3214, dated J u l y 31, 1925, o r t o P o s t a l B u l l e t i n 14,555, dated December 25, 1927.

Lesson 49

sheet 8

RADIO SERVICE
We Will Call A t Your Home For
Test your Radio Tubes. Test your "A" Battery. Test your "B" Batteries or "B" Eliminator. Test your "C" Batteries. Test your loud speaker. Fill your "A" Battery with distilled water Check your aerial. Check your ground. Test your lightning arrester. Remove sulphation from "A" Battery terminals.

Prevent Last Minute Disappointments

JOIN OUR RADIO SERVICE CLUB

$10.00 A YEAR
provider you with a monthly inrpe~tionof your radio, s that you can feel o srsured that your set is in good working ordu.

COURTEOUS AND ACCURATE SERVICE

WRITE

TELEPHONE

OR CALL

EAST HAVEN RADIO CO.

RADIO SERVICE CLUB

M ...............................................................................
is entitled to one service on h ..... radio (make ............................................................................................ ) O from ..........................................-.--to ............................................... consisting of 12 monthly inspections or when called. For which the sum of $10.00 has hem paid. g . . EAST HAVEN RADIO CO; Telephone Beacon 813 C) EAST HAVEN,CONN. 6 BRADLEY Am, C X TYLER T. O. S signed ............................... ........................................

X 3.

I-

TRADE IN YOUR OLD SET FOR A NEW ( name of set )

East Haven Radio Co,

W e Specialize in Radio Service TELEPHONE BEACON 813 6 BRADLEY AYE., OR.TYLER ST. C EAST HAVEN, CQNN.

Lesson 49

sheet 9

(j) T e l l i Your S t o r g t o t h e Pros e c t : You cannot p e r s o n a l l y c a l l on ~ e a l l y d t o f p r o s p e c K t -rrg,?;; t h a t you a r e i n t h e r a d i o b u s i n e s s and t h a t you want t o serbve t h e . Put t h e m on you m a i l i n g l i s t and send them a small a d v e r t i s i n g c i r c u l a r occasionally. The i d e a i s t o keep your sooner o r l a t e r your p r o s p e c t s w i l l name and business b e f o r e the p u b l i c buy even i f t h e y have a r a d i o now. You want t h e people t o say, "That f e l l o w Jones s u r e l y i s a live- wire d e a l e r " , and t h a t means MORE BUSINESS. The manufacturers of t h e equipment you s e l l can and w i l l inform you from t i m t o time on t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of small a d v e r t i s i n g c i r c u l a r s t o send out.

One of our s t u d e n t s had forms p r i n t e d e x a c t l y l i k e t h e on% shown on the e preceding page. H mailed them out s e v e r a l months ago' and i s s t i l l g e t t i n g r e s u l t s from them. The s e t owner w i l l u s u a l l y place a n o t i c e of t h i s kind "under t h e l i d n i n h i s r a d i o c a b i n e t f o r r e f e r e n c e i n case his r a d i o r e q u i r e s an overhauling. One of our Canadian g r a d u a t e s mailed a q u a n t i t y of c i r c u l a r s l i k e the one shown on t h e next page. The r e s u l t s he obtained were splendid.
B g Demonstration: You remember t h e o l d s a y i n g j " t h e proof i : * t h w n g i s i n t h e eatTng." This a g p l i e s t o r a d i o a s it does t o

eoerything e l s e . The proof o f - t h e customeEs d e s i r e t o own a c e r t a i n type of r a d i o s e t i s i n i t s performance. T e l l t h e customer t h a t you want t o demonstrate t h e s e t i n h i s home. If he p e r m i t s you t o do t h i s t h e s e t i s a s good a s sold providing it i s one t h a t you know w i l l give r e s u l t s . Often the s e r v i c e man can make a s a l e . Have h i m demonstrate a new type of speaker when he i s c a l l e d upon t o s e r v i c e a r e c e i v e r , i f he t h i n k s tk+e new speaker would improve t h e q u a l f t y of reproduction,^^ i f t h e s e t i s b a t t e r y operated have t h e s e r v i c e man suggest t o t h e owner t h a t he t r y out t h e type of b a t t e r y e l i m i n a t o r h i s s t o r e c a r r i e s . Usually t h e d e a l e r allows the s e r v i c e man a commission of f i v e t o t e n p e r c e n t i n a d d i t i o n t o s a l a r y , on s a l e s which he, t h e s e r v i c e man, s e c u r e s ; t h i s commission w i l l keep t h e s e r v i c e man on h i s t o e s and on t h e look- out f o r business. ETHICS OF SERVICE There i s a phase of " s e r v i c e " a s i d e from the a c t u a l i n s t a l l a t i o n and r e p a i r of r a d i o s e t s , which t o o o f t e n i s overlooked, but which when given of proper a t t e n t i o n i n t h e t r a i n i r ~ a s e r v i c e f o r c e w i l l measurably i n fluence t h e success o r f a i l u r e of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h i s phase of s e r v i c e though somewhat i n t a n g i b l e and d i f f i c u l t of d e f i n i t i o n perhaps can be b e s t summed up a s t h e " Ethics of Service." The d i c t i o n a r y d e f i n e s " ~ t h i c s "a s p e t h e " ~ a s i c r i n c i p l e s of r i g h t a c t i o n " . W might t h e n c o n s i d e r t h e E t h i c s of Service t o 5 e t h e Basic p r i n c i p l e s of r i g h t a c t i o n i n s e r v i c e .

It i s common knowledge that no c h a i n i s s t r o n g e r t h a n i t s weakest l i n k . H w f o r t u n a t e t h a t t h i s i s not s t r i c t l y t r u e i n a b u s i n e s s organization. o Yet w do know t h a t weak l i n k s weaken t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a s a whole. Then e why not s t r e n g t h e n t h e whole o r g a n i z a t i o n through t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s e r v i c e man by t r a i n i n g h i m i n the b a s i c each l i n k t h e E t h i c s of S e r v i c e ? L e t u s consider some p r i n c i p l e s of r i g h t a c t i o n of t h e s e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s which should be a p a r t of each Radio Service

Lesson 49

sheet 1 0

CALL LAncaster 9868

Oldest Rad3o store in MomRight in the centre of the Commercial District

Orthophenic Vlctrolas
and

Latest Electric Radio Sets

Sold on WEEKLY PAYMENTS

Ample Accommodation of Gramophone Booths

To HEAR VICTOR RECORDS

Gramophones and Radio Sets Repaired

Storage Batteries
Called for Charged and Delivered Complete stock of Radio Accessories Ask Fur Our P I K ~ List

Irl

11 1

LAncaster 9868
Hector McPherson Mgr. Dir.

Lesson 49

sheet 11

manfs equipment, i n a d d i t i o n t o hls t o o l kit, i f he Is t o be r e a l l y succ e s s f u l . They a r e i n t h e o r d e r i n which t h e y a r e brought t o t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e customer:

1 . 2.
3. 4. 5. 6.

Punctuality. Personal appearance. Manner and Bearing. Intelligence. Knowledge of s u b j e c t (Technical) Ability.

The h a b i t of being t h e r e a t t h e appointed hour i s one which If developed w i l l save t h e s e r v i c e man and h i s f i r m from many unpleasant experiences and w i l l avoid many complaints. N s e r v i c e man can hope t o thoroughly s a t i s f y a customer whose r e s p e c t he o cannot g a i n and no one can deny t h a t personal appearance goes a long way toward determining t h e amount of r e s p e c t which one can command. F i r s t impressions a r e o f t e n l a s t i n g impressions and it i s , t h e r e f o r e , very important t h a t a good impression be c r e a t e d e l s e many o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r f u t u r e s a l e s and s e r v i c e may be l o s t . Courtesy, p o i s e and a c e r t a i n amount of s e l f confidence a r e necessary $f t h e s e r v i c e man i s t o s e l l himself which i s h i s f i r s t b i g t a s k , and upon which h i s success so largely depends. Frequently the a c t u a l i n s t a l l a t i o n o r r e p a i r of a r a d i o s e t i s only one d e t a i l of the s e r v i c e c a l l . The s e r v i c e man may f i n d an angry or unreasona b l e customer who a t t h e same time may be a p o t e n t i a l f r i e n d . This i s o f t e n t h e case and t h e s e r v i c e man i s a t once placed i n t h e r o l e of d i p l o mat or salesman. I n t e l l i g e n c e , which enables h i m t o make t h e b e s t of any s i t u a t i o n , i s a prime r e q u i s i t e t o the good s e r v i c e man.

of course a l l of t h e s e a s s e t s a v a i l l i t t l e , i f t h e s e r v i c e man does n o t have a thorough knowledge of r a d i o . " Bluff n w i l l sometimes work, but not and who wants t o be a " b l u f f e r " . One cannot t h r i v e on b l u f f i n g . always The service man must know t h e fundamentals of e l e c t r i c i t y and be thoroughl y f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e equipment which he s e r v i c e s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o knowing t h e equipment the s e r v i c e man must have t h e a b i l i t y t o hand-le t o o l s and perform t h e a c t u a l r e p a i r work without causing h i s customer inconvenience o r concern. H should l e a v e t h e customer's premises e i n the same c o n d i t i o n i n which he found them and always conduct himself i n a manner worthy of h i s customer's confidence and good w i l l . a s you would have o t h e r s do t o gou. m a t would you t h i n k of h e t x t o l l you the i d e a t h a t t h e water p i p e s i n your house should be removed and new piping i n s t a l l e d when t h e t r o u b l e was only, perhaps, a l e a k i n one j o i n t ? O r i f t h e c a r p e n t e r t o l d you t h a t you needed a new roof simply because a l e a k o r two developed during a v e r y hard r a i n ? You would t h i n k you were being s o l d . By the same token t h e r a d i o d e a l e r should be f a i r t o h i s customers. The s e r v i c e man should not recommend new t u b e s , b a t t e r i e s , o r o t h e r p a r t s u n l e s s t h e y a r e r e a l l y required. Do t o - -p-o t h e r s your

--

Lesson 49

- sheet 1 2

The t r u e value of s e r v i c e can only be c a l c u l a t e d by t a k i n g i n t o considerat i o n the value of t h e f r i e n d s h i p and good w i l l which i t c r e a t e s . It i s w e l l then t o develop t h o s e t h i n g s which do more t h a n anything e l s e t o t h e " Ethics of Service". create friendship

Be on t h e Job: I saw t h e following i n " Hits and B i t s n . TZ true.

Every word of i t

"why do some people r e p o r t f o r work a t t e n a f t e r e i g h t instead of e i g h t ? Why do some people r u n t o c a t c h t h e same s t r e e t c a r every morning i n s t e a d of being one minute e a r l y ? Eabit? No, w e wouldtnt say so. It i s j u s t the l a c k o f a l i t t l e will-power t o a r i s e a few minutes e a r l i e r . Those few e x t r a minutes i n bed mean nothing, a s f a r a s l i f e i s concerned, but t h e y do mean a And when a person ignores t h a t l o t i n keeping one i n a RUT. l i t t l e voice, c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n t o those l i t t l e t h i n g s which mean s o much toward advancement, he i s just digging himself i n , i n s t e a d of out. J u s t l i k e an automobile i n s o f t mud without every t u r n of t h e wheels d i g s i n . A r u t i s j u s t a s chains and t h e sooner he begins digging out, deep a s a man d i g s it t h e sooner he w i l l be on h i s wag down t h e road t o success" .

OUTSIDE SELLING There a r e about 26,000,000 f a m i l i e s i n the United S t a t e s . Nearly 20,000,000 of t h e s e f a m i l i e s a r e p r o s p e c t s f o r a r a d i o s e t . More t h a n 19,000,000 of them already have automobiles, y e t only a l i t t l e over 8,000,000 own r a d i o s e t s today. These few b a s i c f a c t s show t h e tremendous s a l e s possi b i l i t y f o r r a d i o . The market has h a r d l y been touched. The ones who a l ready have r a d i o s e t s bought them without any s a l e s e f f o r t whatever on t h e p a r t of t h e d e a l e r . There i s a wonderful f i e l d f o r t h e salesman who i s w i l l i n g t o do some door b e l l r i n g i n g f o r many f a m i l i e s i n each community a r e waLting f o r someone t o t e l l them about r a d i o and e x p l a i n how t o buy one. Some people a r e i n d i f f e r e n t when it comes t o buying o t h e r than a b s o l u t e n e c e s s i t i e s such a s food, c l o t h i n g , e t c . They have t o be shown. Make i t e a s y f o r them by c a l l i n g on them w i t h a s e t ready t o i n s t a l l and demonstrate. The following p o i n t s w i l l prove h e l p f u l t o t h e salesmen who c a l l on prospects:

1.
2.

Dress w e l l and use good language.

S e l l yourself f i r s t .

When c a l l i n g s t e p back from t h e door a f t e r you r i n g don't crowd in.

3.

Remove your h a t p o l i t e l y and appear a s i f you expected t o do n o t attempt t o g i v e your s t o r y on t h e be i n v i t e d i n door- step. Greet t h e prospect by using h i s or h e r nane, t h e n quickly give your own nane and t h e name of your company. Greet t h e c h i l d r e n , t o o , i f t h e y cone t o t h e door f r e q u e n t l y h e l p i n family d e c i s i o n s . Lesson 49

4.

5.

- they

- sheet 13

Try t o s e e t h e husband, too, a s w e l l a s t h e wife this i s important i n t h e s a l e of a r a d i o s e t , i n f a c t he i s a p t t o make t h e f i n a l d e c i s i o n . S e l l i n g i s s t i l l , a f t e r a l l , S e l l i n g . Despite t h e c o u n t l e s s mail order ads t h a t speak of t h e New S e l l i n g Psychology, s e l l i n g s t i l l remains a human a c t i v i t y i n v o l v i n g common sense. Do n o t p r a c t i c e so- called s e l l i n g methods on anyone. Be y o u r s e l f . Show an i n t e r e s t i n i n c i d e n t s o r remarks made by p r o s p e c t s t h a t may not have any bearing on your mission but t h a t seem of t h e g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t t o h i m or her. Remember t h a t eye appeal i s f o u r tiines s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e r e f o r e look r i g h t y o u r s e l f and always have e a r appeal a v a i l a b l e i n t e r e s t i n g m a t e r i a l o r p i c t u r e s t h a t you can show t o t h e prospect. Mention t h e name of a f e l l o w townsman o r f r i e n d of t h e p r o s p e c t t h a t h a s bought a r a d i o from you. Show t e s t i m o n i a l l e t t e r s from s a t i s f i e d customers. Bring out t h e S o c i a l Value of owning a r a d i o s e t i s one of t h e show p l a c e s of t h e home.
A s o c i o l l e a d e r has a Radio.

- how it
-

l o c a l people who have one

t h e names prominent - t hUser endorsementof counts. ei

Watch t h e prospect a t a l l times f o r i d e a s which arouse h i m t h e "follow up hard" on t h a t s u b j e c t . Try t o c l o s e t h e s a l e when t h e prospect seems convinced do not t a l k yourself o u t of t h e s a l e .

Enthusiasm makes s a l e s . You must supply most of i t , a s t h e prospect w i l l always be l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c t h a n you a r e .

If t h e prospect appears t o be on t h e p o i n t of r e f u s i n g t o buy, i t i s much b e t t e r t o make an appointment t o see h i m l a t e r . When a prospect has once d e f i n i t e l y s a i d " N O " it i s u s u a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o secure another i n t e r v i e w .

Never knock a competitive r a d i o s e t . Remember $hat knoyking i s a game t h a t can be played by both s i d e s and seldom does anybody win. T e l l your s t o r y w e l l and do not become involved i n arguments about o t h e r makes. You may not be f a m i l i a r w i t h o t h e r s e t s but you do know t h e proved q u a l i t y of t h e t y p e of r a d i o s t h a t you s e l l . S t i c k t o your s t o r y . Be p o l i t e . Remember t h a t t h e p r o s p e c t i s a c t u a l l y c o n f e r r i n g a f a v o r upon you by allowing you t o take up h i s o r h e r time. Lesson 49

- s h e e t 14

20.

Answer a l l o b j e c t i o n s p o l i t e l y and c a r e f u l l y , f o r remember t h a t o b j e c t i o n s are u s u a l l y r e q u e s t s f o r information. Objections serve t o c o r r e c t wrong i d e a s . They a r e v a l u a b l e because they show you what i s going on i n t h e p r o s p e c t ' s mind.
EXAMINATTON

- LESSON 49

1 .

A r a d i o s e r v i c e man i s a s p e c i a l i z e d mechanic. Why, then, should he possess c e r t a i n a t t r i b u t e s o t h e r than a knowledge of how t o r e p a i r sets?

2.
3.

What a r e some of t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a s u c c e s s f u l salesman? What i s your understanding of t h e r e a s o n s f o r a d v e r t i s i n g ?

If you were t r y i n g t o s e l l a piece of merchandise would you condemn your competitor's goods? Why?
If you were c a l l e d upon t o r e p a i r a r a d i o l o c a t e d two o r t h r e e blocks from your s t o r e and t h e only t r o u b l e was a l o o s e b a t t e r y connection, how much would you charge t h e owner of t h e s e t ?

4.
5.

fj.

What a r e t h e most important c h a r a c t e r i s t i ~ s d e a l e r o r s e r v i c e man a should possess? Where should a r a d i o s t o r e be l o c a t e d ?

If you could s e c u r e a d e a l e r discount of f i f t y p e r c e n t on a more o r l e s s unknown l i n e of apparatus, and perhaps t h i r t y percent on a n a t i o n a l l y known and proven l i n e , which would you attempt t o s e l l ?

7.
8.

9.

If you were a d e a l e r what would you do about extending c r e d i t ?

(a)

10.

Have you e v e r done any kind of s e l l i n g ? ( c ) Do you l i k e t h i s t y p e of lesson?

( b ) Were you s u c c e s s f u l ?

Lesson 49
i

s h e e t 15

INC.
M A R C O N / /NST/TUTE

S u n d e d ./909

Technical Lesson 50
GREBE

--

BATTERY AND A.C

RECEIVERS

The Grebe Synchrophase s e t i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e example of a f i v e tube tuned radio- frequency r e c e i v e r . It c o n s i s t s of two s t a g e s of tuned r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n , a non- regenerative d e t e c t o r , and two s t a g e s of transformer coupled audio amplification. The diagrammatic w i r i n g l a y out of the r e c e i v e r system i s shown i n Figure 1 . The f e a t u r e s of a s i n g l e - d i a l c o n t r o l l e d r e c e i v e r a r e maintained and, a t t h e same time, some of t h e f l e x i b i l i t y of m u l t i p l e c o n t r o l i s possible. The tuning elements c o n s i s t of t h r e e v a r i a b l e condensers each a d j u s t a b l e by means of a h o r i z o n t a l l y mounted d i a l on t h e f r o n t of the panel. A l l of the d i a l s may be c o n t r o l l e d from t h e master, o r c e n t e r d i a l , o r each radio- frequency c i r c u i t may be i n d i v i d u a l l y tuned t o increase s e l e c t i v i t y by simply r e l e a s i n g thumb nuts provided f o r t h a t purEose. Equal spacing of broadcasting s t a t i o n s over t h e d i a l s c a l e i s accomplished by the use of s c i e n t i f i c a l l y shaped condenser p l a t e s . Condensers of t h i s type a r e When known a s s t r a i g h t l i n e f requency (abbreviated, S-L-F ) condensers tuning with condensers of t h i s kind it w l l l be found t h a t t h e spreading out of s t a t i o n s uniformally prevents of crowdim of s t a t i o n s along t h e lower end of t h e t u n i n g range; i.e. a t t h e s h o r t wave or high frequency end of t h e broadcast spectrum.

The f r o n t panel view, i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 2, shows t h e operating c o n t r o l s . The l e f t hand d i a l t u n e s t h e f i r s t radio- frequency c i r c u i t , t h e middle o r master. d i a l t h e second radio- frequency c i r c u i t , and t h e r i g h t hand d i a l t h e d e t e c t o r stage. The volume c o n t r o l i s f o r the purpose of r e g u l a t i n g t h e s t r e n g t h of the s i g n a l a f t e r i t has been a c c u r a t e l y tuned i n . It cons i s t s of a v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e placed i n t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t of the f i r s t and second radio- frequency tubes, thus p e r m i t t i n g a continuous v a r i a t i o n of filament voltage supplied t o these tubes. T h i s c o n t r o l a l s o serves aa an "ON" and "OFF" s w i t c h which automatically c o n t r o l s t h e filament v o l t a g e of t h e d e t e c t o r and two audio frequency a m p l i f y i q tubes. The c o n t r o l of volume by detuning t h e r a d i o frequency c i r c u i t s a f t e r a s i g n a l i s r e c e i v e d i s not recommended because t h e q u a l i t y of tone w i l l be a l t e r e d . A small d i a l l i g h t connected a c r o s s t h e filament c i r c u i t I l l u m i n a t e s t h e d i a l numbers on t h e c e n t e r c o n t r o l and a l s o s e r v e s a s a p i l o t lamp which i s u s e f u l a s a v i s u a l p r e c a u t i o n a g a i n s t leaving t h e f i l a m e n t s i n operation unnecessarily.
A c o n t r o l knob, marked "TONE CO L O R ", i s a t t a c h e d t o a switching arrangement which allows v a r i o u s c a p a c i t i e s t o be s e l e c t e d from a bank of condensers shunted a c r o s s t h e secondary winding of t h e second audio t r a n s former. The i n t e r n a l wiring diagram of t h e r e c e i v e r i n Figure 3 c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h e r e l a t i o n of t h i s condenser bank t o t h e input o r g r i d c i r c a i t The purpose of t h e l a s t audio a m p l i f i e r , marked on t h e drawing 2nd A.F.

Contents Copyrighted 1930 P r i n t e d i n U.S.A.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Lesson 50

- sheet 2

of t h i s adjustment of c a p a c i t y i s t o permit h i g h o r low audio f r e q u e n c i e s t o be e i t h e r accentuated or suppressed, t h u s making i t p o s s i b l e t o a l t e r t h e timbre o r depth of t h e voice o r insCrument of a broadcast r e n d i t i o n . The Synchrophase c i r c u i t i s e s p e c i a l l y designed and balanced t o operate with UX201-A o r C301-A t y p e vacuum tubes. These tubes a r e of t h e 5- volt, 0.25-ampere v a r i e t y . An unbalanced or o s c i l l a t i n g c o n d i t i o n may be experienced whenever tubes a r e used having i n t e r n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s unsuited t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r balance adjustments of t h e r a d i o frequency s t a g e s of t h e r e c e i v e r . Although t h e 201-A type tube i s known a s an all- purpose or g e n e r a l u t i l i t y tube and may be used i n a l l s t a g e s of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r r e c e i v e r , yet i t w i l l be found t h a t when employed i n t h e l a s t audio s t a g e t h e amount of s i g n a l v o l t a g e which t h e g r i d can handle without overloading i s somewhat l i m i t e d , That i s , the l i m i t of u n d i s t o r t e d power i s low. The 201-A w i l l prove adequate f o r an ordinary s i z e d room where l a r g e volwne i s not a requirement and when o p e r a t i n g i n conjunction w i t h a loudspeaker having favorable c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . However, modern r a d i o r e c e p t i o n most g e n e r a l l y demands a l a r g e output of u n d i s t o r t e d volume and t o s a t i s f y t h i s requirement a UX-112 or CX- 112 type power tube can be used i n t h e l a s t n audio frequency stage. A improvement i n tone q u a l i t y and volume may not be noticed by merely s u b s t i t u t i n g the 112 power tube f o r t h e ordinary 201-A. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e 112 power tube make a h i g h "B" voltage necessary t o o b t a i n maximum r e s u l t s . The p o t e n t i a l a g p l i e d t o t h e p l a t e i s increased by means of an a d d i t i o n a l 22& or 45 v o l t "B b a t t e r y provided only 90 v o l t s a r e being used. The " C " voltage should always be p r o p e r l y a d j u s t e d f o r any v a r i a t i o n s i n "B" supply i n order t h a t t h e t u b e w i l l operate s a f e l y below t h e d i s t o r t i o n point l i m i t ; i.e., so t h a t p e r f e c t r e p r o d u c t i o n and It c l a r i t y may be expected a t a l l times even on loud passages of music. i s always advisable t o adhere t o t h e manuf'acturerts r a t i n g , never exceeding t h e maximum values t h a t a r e s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e various tubes. The operating c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e power t u b e make i t e s s e n t i a l t o keep t h e proper r e l a t i o n between t h e "C" b i a s v o l t a g e and t h e "B" p l a t e voltage. A p l a t e voltage of 135 o r higher i s recornended f o r t h e 112 tube, the maximum allowed being 157 v o l t s . F a i l u r e t o provide t h e c o r r e c t " C " b i a s pot e n t i a l w i l l not only be a l i k e l y cause of d i s t o r t i o n but may s e r i o u s l y lower the a v a i l a b l e output power supplied t o t h e speaker. It should be borne i n mind t h a t vacuum tubes of s i m i l a r type o f t e n vary i n t h e i r g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . When u n o a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n of the r e c e i v e r i s experienced and s e v e r a l tubes of a s i m i l a r type, such as t h e 201-2, s t a g e , a r e used i n various c i r c u i t s , w i t h t h e exception of t h e f i n a l audio or output s t a g e , i t i s suggested t h a t the t u b e s be interchanged i n d i f f e r e n t sockets u n t i l b e s t r e s u l t s a r e obtained. It w i l l be found t h a t c e r t a i n tubes a r e sometimes more p a r t i c u l a r y s u i t e d f o r radio- frequency t h a n f o r audio f r e quency amplification. I n order t o prevent damage t o t h e d e l i c a t e f i l a m e n t wire i n t h e tubes, and t o c o i l s which form p a r t of the p l a t e c i r c u i t s , t h e f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t should be turned off before removing o r i n s e r t i n @ ;t u b e s I n t h e sockets. While w a r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e r e l a t i v e performances of d i f f e r e n t types of e a m p l i f i e r tubes i t seems advisable a t the same time t o g i v e a b r i e f explanat i o n of t h e t h e o r y involved i n t h e use of proper amounts of f i x e d g r i d and Lesson 50

- sheet

Figure 3 p l a t e voltages. When a tube i s o p e r a t i n g a s a n a m p l i f i e r and t h e i n p u t s i g n a l energy i s t o o g r e a t , o r t h e v o l t a g e s supplied by t h e "B" and "C" b a t t e r i e s a r e i n c o r r e c t l y a d j u s t e d , t h e normal working p o i n t on t h e curve r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s t a t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e tube w i l l go beyond the l i m i t s of t h e l i n e a r or s t r a i g h t p o r t i o n , and d i s t o r t i o n w i l l r e s u l t . There a r e two improper e f f e c t s t o b e n o t i e d , one when t h e "c" voltage i s t o o low, and the o t h e r when t o o high. I n t h e case of i n s u f f i c i e n t "C" b i a s a l a r g e s i g n a l i n p u t v o l t a g e may a c t u a l l y overcome t h e "c" v o l t a g e , and it f o l l o w s t h a t t h e g r i d p o t e n t i a l w i l l swing t o the p o s i t i v e s i d e thus i n t r o d u c i n g d i s t o r t i o n i n t h e speaker. T h i s a c t i o n may be accounted f o r by t h e f a c t t h a t whenever t h e g r i d i s allowed t o become p o s i t i v e i t a t t r a c t s an e x c e s s i v e number of t h e e m i t t e d e l e c t r o n s coming from t h e f i l a m e n t ; t h e s e e l e c t r o n s mould otherwise o r d i n a r i l y r e a c h t h e p l a t e . E l e c t r o n s absorbed by t h e g r i d means, when expressed i n terms of c u r r e n t flow, t h a t t h e g r i d draws a s m a l l amount of c u r r e n t which causes a considerable d r o p i n t h e i n p u t v o l t a g e only on t h e p o s i t i v e a l t e r n a t i o n s . O t h e o t h e r hand, when t o o much "c" b i a s voltage n i s used, t h e g r i d e l e c t r o d e becones charged w i t h a heavy n e g a t i v e e l e c t r i c p o t e n t i a l causing i t t o r e p e l l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of emitted e l e c t r o n s . Consequently, fewer e l e c t r o n s r e a c h t h e p l a t e t h a n would be t h e case when Lesson 50

- sheet 4

o p e r a t i n g the g r i d under normal conditions. A r e d u c t i o n i n e l e c t r o n flow t o t h e p l a t e i s e q u i v a l e n t of s t a t i n g t h a t t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i s lowered t o a n amount l e s s t h a n normal, hence, t h e working c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e a m p l i f i e r i s f o r c e d down from t h e s t r a i g h t p o r t i o n of t h e curve t o t h e lower bend. D i s t o r t i o n i s t h e n s e t up, producing extraneous sounds of h i g h f requencg which a r e n o t included i n t h e oraginal broadcast program. The p o s s i b i l i t y of d i s t o r t i o n being produced i n a vacuum tube a m p l i f i e r can only be prevented by u s i n g c o r r e c t g r i d and p l a t e v o l t a g e s , a s mentioned h e r e t o f o r e , t h u s o p e r a t i n g the tube so t h a t a l l p l a t e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n s a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the a l t e r n a t i n g voltage d e l i v e r e d t o t h e g r i d from the secondary of t h e audio transformer. When t h i s c o n d i t i o n o b t a i n s i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t a normal value of p l a t e c u r r e n t flows i n t h e output of t h e tube because t h e tube i s being operated on t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e of i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve. Now, when t h e g r i d r e c e i v e s t h e s i g n a l energy a s an a l t e r n a t i n g voltage it w i l l cause t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t t o r i s e during a p o s i t i v e a l t e r n a t i o n and f a l l d u r i n g a negative a l t e r n a t i o n , a l l v a r i a t i o n s being p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e input s i g n a l voltage. T h i s r e s u l t s i n a f l u c t u a t i o n of p l a t e c u r r e n t which c a r r i e s t h e t r u e reproduction of t h e o r i g i n a l speech or music.

Let us now consicler t h e tuning system and synchronizing t h e c i r c u i t s of

t h e r e c e i v e r . Tandem tuning of condensers, g e n e r a l l y known a s s i n g l e c o n t r o l , i s used t o decrease t h e number of s e p a r a t e c o n t r o l s . There a r e s e v e r a l methods which w i l l permit t h e ganging of tuning condensers. An examination of t h e photograph of the i n t e r i o r arrangement of the s e t c l e a r l y shows t h e chain and p u l l e y system used t o l i n k t h e d i a l s . Here t h e c e n t e r d i a l c o n t r o l l i n g tuned c i r c u i t No. 2 ( t h e second stage of radio- frequency a r c p l i f i c a t i o n ) I s equipped w i t h two p u l l e y s which a r e r i g i d l y attached and move ~ i t i t , t h u s imparting movement t o t h e chains coupling the o t h e r h two tuned c i r c u i t s . The tuned c i r c u i t No. 1 i s coupled t o t h e antenna system, and No. 3 t o t h e d e t e c t o r .
If s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s a r e t o be obtained t h e output and input c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each tuned radio- frequency s t a g e should be a l i k e . The wiring diagram shows how t h e tuned c i r c u i t of one tube works i n t o t h e g r i d tuned c i r c u i t of t h e following tube. Although t h e c o i l s and condensers i n e a c h s t a g e may be designed w i t h s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p r o v i s i o n i s made t o permit a f l e x i b l e c o n t r o l i n the event t h a t f o r any reason i t i s found t h a t one of t h e radio- frequency s t a g e s w i l l not tune i n e x a c t s t e p w i t h t h e o t h e r two stages. T h i s i s accomplished i n c e r t a i n types of r e c e i v e r s by employing some compensating device. T h i s device i n some c a s e s c o n s i s t s of a v a r i a b l e condenser, one of low c a p a c i t y , c a l l e d a midget condenser, shunted a c r o s s t h e main t u n i n g condenser, t h e combination r e q u i r i n g nn a d d i t i o n a l tuning c o n t r o l . The e q u a l i z i n g of the tuned c i r c u i t s i n t h e Synchrophase r e c e i v e r , however, i s made p o s s i b l e through a mechanical adjustment of thumb-nuts, by which t h e ri@;ht and left- hand d i a l s may be r e l e a s e d , thus p e r m i t t i n g a l l t h e d i a l s t o be r o t a t e d independently. O r , the t h r e e radio- frequency c i r c u i t s mag be tuned t o e x a c t resonance by allowing s u f f i c i e n t s l a c k i n t h e left- hand chain t o move d i a l No. 1 ( c o n t r o l l i n g t h e f i r s t radio- frequency s t a g e ) about t h r e e degrees without moving c e n t e r d i a l No. 2 ( t h e second r a d i o frequency s t a g e ) . The chain coupling t h e o t h e r d i n 1 No. 3 ( t h e t h i r d radio- frequency s t a g e ) t o t h e c e n t e r d i a l

Lesson 50
. . .. .

- sheet 5

.. . . .. . . . .

..

1 " :.. r. .:

, .. , . - . - .. . . -. . .

should be given s u f f i c i e n t s l a c k amounting t o a movement of about two degrees. S l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s i n the s e t t i n g s of t h e d i a l s may be c o r r e c t e d i n t h i s way. The b r o a d c a s t i n g of l o c a l s t a t i o n s should be heard r e a d i l y by t u r n i n g t h e main o r c e n t e r d i a l slowly, t h u s synchronizing a11 t h r e e tuned c i r c u i t s simultaneously u n t i l resonance i s e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h t h e des i r e d s i g n a l frequency. If t h e r e c e p t i o n r e q u i r e s c l e a r i n g up, a f i n e tuning adjustment can be e f f e c t e d by s l i g h t l y moving t o t h e r i g h t or l e f t the v e r n i e r wheels l o c a t e d d i r e c t l y under t h e t u n i n g d i a l s . The dimensions of a p a r t i c u l a r antenna system w i l l i n f l u e n c e the s e t t i n g of t h e left- hand d i a l , s i n c e t h e v a r i a b l e condenser a t t a c h e d t o t h i s d i a l r e g u l a t e s t h e frequency of t h e input c i r c u i t . The e f f e c t of the antenna upon t h i s f i r s t tuned c i r c u i t may be compensated and t h e c i r c u i t brought i n t o exact resonance a t any of the wavelengths by u t i l i z i n g the i n d i v i d u a l d i a l c o n t r o l f e a t u r e s p r e v i o u s l y explained. t o p r a c t i c a l o p e r a t i o n on v a r i o u s s i z e s of a n t e n n a s , or loop antenna, according t o t h e demands of l o c a t i o n or I n s t a l l a t i o n l i m i t a t i o n s . Two l i n k switches marked A and B a r e s u p p l i e d f o r t h i s purpose. The drawing shows l i n k A disconnected which p l a c e s a s m a l l f i x e d condenser i n s e r i e s w i t h the antenna c i r c u i t . A s e r i e s condenser d e c r e a s e s t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e antenna system and t h e r e f ore lowers i t s fundamental wavelength. Consequently, t h e condenser should be connected i n o n l y when an oversized antenna i s used o r when a d d i t i o n a l s e l e c t i v i t y i s r e q u i r e d . When l i n k A i s c l o s e d , i t a c t s a s a s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g jumper a c r o s s t h e s e r i e s condenser, thus i n c r e a s i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l l e n g t h of t h e antenna, t h i s adjustment being suggested whenever a 125 f o o t antenna i s used or when a d d i t i o n s 1 volume i s d e s i r e d . It i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h i s l i n k be c l o s e d when employing loop r e c e p t i o n . The l i n k i s l o c a t e d on t h e instrument board d i r e c t l y t o the r e a r of t h e f i r s t radio- frequency tube. A outdoor antenna c o n s i s t i n g of a s i n g l e copper wire n o t exceeding 125 n f e e t i n length, including the lead- in, w i l l usually bring i n signals w i t h g r e a t e r volume and g r e a t e r range of r e c e p t i o n t h a n antennas of s h o r t e r l e n g t h s o r of t h e l o o p type. I f an outdoor antenna of t h e s i z e suggested above makes s e l e c t i v i t y d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n i t w i l l be necessary t o s h o r t e n it t o about s i x t y o r seventy- five f e e t i n l e n g t h . A loop i n h e r e n t l y posse s s e s d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which i n c r e a s e s t h e s e l e c t i v i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r and o f t e n times proves advantageous when c l o s e t o broadcasting s t a t i o n s t r a n s m i t t i n g on considerable power. Although a loop does not pick up s i g n a l energy from a passing e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c wave comparable i n s t r e n g t h t o an outdoor antenna, o r a s u i t a b l y i n s t a l l e d indoor antenna y e t i f the r e c e p t i o n i n g e n e r a l i n a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n i s s a t i s f a c t o r y i t i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n e f f i c i e n t r e s u l t s providing t h e loop i s one of wi average s i z e and WOW t h t h e proper number of t u r n s . Link B i s provided f o r t h e purpose of c u t t i n g out the antenna coupling c o i l and connecting d i r e c t l y t o a loop. The s u b s t i t u t i o n of a l o o p f o r t h e antenna c o i l w i l l cause a l a r g e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e tuning adjustments of the f i r s t condenser d i a l from those of t h e o t h e r two d i a l s . T h i s i s a n a t u r a l r e s u l t t o expect s i n c e the c o n s t a n t s of t h e f i r s t or input radio- frequency c i r c u i t w i l l be a l t e r e d due t o t h e f a c t t h a t a l o o p has a wide d i f f e r e n c e i n d i s t r i b u t e d and extraneous c a p a c i t y from t h a t of t h e c o i l and antenna system Lesson 50
A s t u d y of t h e c i r c u i t diagram w i l l show t h a t t h e r e c e i v e r may be adapted

- sheet

which i t replaced. The tuned c i r c u i t s may b%,p e r f e c t l y synchronized by r e l e a s i n g t h e coupling chains and a d j u s t i n g t h e d i a l s i n d i v i d u a l l y . The f ollovring s p e c i f i c a t i o n s g i v e approximately t h e o v e r a l l dimensions of loops of various s i z e s , equipped w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e t a p s t o allow t h e use of fewer t u r n s on t h e lower wavelengths. S i z e of Loop Measured a t Average Turn. 1 5 inches " 18 24 32 Total Turns 24 20 15 12 Tap a t Turn No. 12 10 7
6

Tap a t Turn No.

" "

It should be remembered t h a t r e c e p t i o n w i l l not be s a t i s f a c t o r y when a s e t i s operated from a loop i n a b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t e d of w i r e mesh o r metal l a t h , or i r o n or s t e e l beams, o r where l a r g e amounts of metal r e i n forecenent a r e used. The m e t a l a c t s t o absorb t h e energy i n a r a d i o wave t h u s preventing a l l o r p a r t of it from reaching t h e l o o p and i n t h i s case the d i r e c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e loop a r e destroyed. Under such c o n d i t i o n s i t i s u s u a l l y found n e c e s s a r y t o p o i n t the loop toward t h e i r o n c o n s t r u c t i o n i n order t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e r e c e p t i o n and not n e c e s s a r i l y toward t h e a c t u a l d i r e c t i o n of t h e s t a t i o n whose s i g n a l s a r e t o be r e c e i v e d . T h i s p e c u l i a r condftion i s due t o metal masses p i c k i n g up o r absorbing energy s i m i l a r t o an antenna conductor and r e r a d i a t i n g it t o t h e loop. A loop should be used only when t h e r e i s no o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e i n r e g a r d t o t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of an antenna.
The d e t e c t o r and radio- frequency s t a g e s a r e tuned by a s p e c i a l t y p e ' I f i e l d l e s s " c o i l , known a s t h e " binocular" c o i l , which s e r v e s t o remove t h e tendency toward o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t . Absence of an ext e r n a l magnetic f i e l d around t h e s e inductances i s due t o t h e method of balancing the component p a r t s . The secondary inductance of t h i s s p e c i a l l y designed transformer c o n s i s t s of two s e p a r a t e c o i l s connected i n s e r i e s but with t h e i r t u r n s wound i n opposite direct'i,ons upon c y l i n d r i c a l t u b i n g and mounted s i d e by s i d e , a s shown i n Figure 4. The primary, or p l a t e c o i l , i s placed w i t h i n one of t h e secondary s e c t i o n s and cannot be seen i n the illustration. Observe from t h e diagram i n Figure 3 t h a t t h e p r i m a r i e s of the second and a r e tapped i n t h e t h i r d r a d i o transformers, marked R.F.T.2 and R.F.T.3, center and from each r e s p e c t i v e t a p a l e a d connects t o t h e " B ' b a t t e r y supplying d-c p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n t o t h e tube a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e transformer, whereas t h e other l e a d s a r e attached r e s p e c t i v e l y t o two small a d j u s t a b l e condensers, C - 5 and C- 6, %hich a r e provided f o r t h e purpose of balancing o r n e u t r a l i z i n g t h e i n t e r - e l e c t r o d e c a p a c i t i e s of t h e r a d i o a m p l i f i e r tubes. A more d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e s e condensers i s given i n subsequent paragraphs. These s p e c i a l designed c o i l s w i l l n o t respond t o outside i n f l u e n c e , hence t h e only r o u t e f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of s i g n a l impulses i n t o t h e c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v e r t s through t h e antenna system. S e l e c t i v e t u n i n g i s only p o s s i b l e when t h e i n t e r n a l elements of a s e t cannot d i r e c t l y p i c k up a s t r o n g broadcast s i g n a l . Lesson 50

- sheet 7

Figure 5

P d

2nd Radio Tuning. Condenser

rklin

mning
A .

&,,jo

Master Control Pulley

Antenna
Wave

Tuning
Condenser I

Chge Mechanism

2nd Avdie High Frequency

Figure 6

Lesson 50

sheet 8

It stands t o reason t h a t t h e tuning of a broadcast r e c e i v e r must be s u f f i c i e n t l y sharp t o d i s c r i m i n a t e between s t a t i o n s o p e r a t i n g on d i f f e r e n t wavel e n g t h s t o produce c l e a r r e c e p t i o n of t h e d e s i r e d s t a t i o n . And y e t , it i s w e l l known t h a t t h e tuned c i r c u i t s should b e broad enough t o t a k e i n a l l the audio f r e q u e n c i e s t r a n s m i t t e d by the d e s i r e d s t a t i o n , which i n c l u d e s f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes a band t e n - k i l o c y c l e s wide, and exclude everyt h i n g o u t s i d e it. T h i s point i n r e g a r d t o t h e degree of s e l e c t i v i t y r e a l i zed i n t h e p r a c t i c a l t u n i n g O f radio- frequency c i r c u i t s may indeed be emphasized. E l i m i n a t i o n of i n t e r f e r e n c e from unwanted s t a t i o n s working on neighboring wavelengths can b e expected only when t h e s i g n a l energy f e e d s from t h e antenna system t o t h e f i r s t tuned radio- frequency stage (composed of t h e b i n o c u l a r c o i l marked "antenna inductance w and t h e v a r i a b l e condenser C 1 ) and thence through t h e successive tuned s t a g e s c o n t r o l l e d by condensers C 2 and C3. I n t h l s manner t h e p u l s a t i n g e l e c t r i c a l energy conveying t h e chosen s i g n a l w i l l be amplified through each s t a g e and undesired ones r e duced i n s t r e n g t h . The g a i n i n a m p l i f i c a t i o n per s t a g e determines t h e amount of s i g n a l voltage d e l i v e r e d t o t h e g r i d of t h e d e t e c t o r tube.

Mounting f i e l d l e s s c o i l s w i t h t h e i r c e n t e r axes a t a p a r t i c u l a r angle w i t h one another i s unnecessary a s t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n i n Figure 5 c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s . The p o s i t i o n of t h e t h r e e c o i l s i s such t h a t t h e i r c e n t e r axes a l l l i e i n t h e same plane. The i l l u s t r a t i o n shows t h e paths t a k e n by some of t h e magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e which e s t a b l i s h themselves around t h e second or middle b i n o c u l a r c o i l when c u r r e n t flows t h e r e i n . It i s easy t o understand t h a t a l i m i t e d number of l i n e s w i l l r e a c h t h e two o u t e r c o i l s . A c l o s e examination of t h e d o t t e d l i n e s and arrows d e s i g n a t i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e magnetic l i n e s w i l l r e v e a l t h a t i n t h e two o u t e r transformers t h e f i e l d s from one-half of t h e second transformer a r e counteracted by t h e f i e l d s from t h e o t h e r h a l f . The two magnetic f i e l d s a r e equal i n magnitude and opposed i n d i r e c t i o n which a c t u a l l y r e s u l t s i n no f i e l d e x i s t i n g a t a l l , and t h e r e f o r e magnetic coupling between t h e t r a n s f o r m e r s i s e l i m i nated. Moreover, it could be shown by drawing a d d i t i o n a l l i n e s of f o r c e o r i g i n a t i n g from t h e o t h e r t r a n s f o r m e r s , t h a t t h e s e f i e l d s would be i n t e r posed i n a s i m i l a r manner, w i t h t h e same r e s u l t s ; i.e., n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o r c a n c e l l a t i o n of magnetic e f f e c t s i n t h e space s e p a r a t i n g t h e radio- frequency stages.
A f e a t u r e of t h e Syncrophase r e c e i v e r d i s c u s s e d i n t h e t e x t of t h i s l e s s o n i s t h e low-wave extension. The mechanical arrangement of t h i s device i s shown i n t h e complete r e c e i v e r i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 6, where a l l of t h e component p a r t s a r e l a b e l l e d . A s t u d i e d comparisbn of t h i s layout should be made w i t h t h e diagrammatical wiring diagram h e l d before you i n order

t h a t you may n o t only o b t a i n p r a c t i c e i n t h e r e a d i n g of diagrams but become f a m i l i a r w i t h the a c t u a l arrangement of the elements forming t h e various c i r c u i t s .

By providing two ranges of t u n i n g t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l perform with f u l l e f f i c i e n c y over t h e e n t i r e band of broadcast wavelengths from 550 t o 200 meters, o r , i n terms of frequency, from 550 t o 1500- kilocycles. Although t h e S-L-F condensers w i l l permit p r a c t i c a l t u n i n g without apparent crowdi n g of s t a t i o n s a t t h e lower end ( s h o r t wave or h i g h frequency) of t h e d i a l s yet t h e e l e c t r i c a l d e s i g n of radio- frequency c i r c u i t s do not permit of maximum e f f i c i e n c y f o r the complete range. The two ranges of tuning
Lesson 50

- sheet 9

p r a c t i c a l l y g i v e s t h e equivalent of two s e t s , each one capable of e f f i c i e n t l y covering i t s own frequency band. Ordincry adjustments of t h e d i a l s tunes t h e radio- frequency c i r c u i t s i n t h e "high range", from 550 t o 240-meters, or 550 t o 1250- kilocycles. By r o t a t i n g the master ( o r c e n t e r ) d i a l attached t o condenser C 2 a s f a r as p o s s i b l e past zero, the range i s automatically s h i f t e d t o the "low-range" t o r e c e i v e s t a t i o n s t r a n s m i t t i n g between 360 and 150-meters, or 830 t o 2,000 k i l o c y c l e s . The tuned c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v e r a r e sgain r e t u r n e d t o t h e "high range" when t h e master c o n t r o l d i a l i s r o t a t e d past d i v i s i o n mark 100 on t h e s c a l e . The mechanical o p e r a t i o n of the h i g h and low-wave range i s accomplished by t h e movement of a s l i d e switch ( l o c a t e d d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t of t h e r a d i o frequency c o i l s ) when the master d i a l i s moved beyond zero or beyond the

Figure 7 hundredth d i v i s i o n a s w have j u s t mentioned. When t u r n i n g t h e master e d i a l t h e observer w i l l n o t i c e a s l i g h t i n e r t i a of i t s movement a s t h e zero mark i s approached. If you could examine the mechanism it would be apparent t h a t a metal l e v e r extending out from under t h e master d i a l would move i n the d i r e c t i o n i n which the d i a l might be r o t a t e d , thus a c t u a t i n g t h e wave-'changing switch throwing i t f a r enough t o c l o s e a l l connections. B r i e f l y , the inductance of t h e binocular c o i l s i s reduced and the antenna coupling c o i l i s a l s o changed by the t a p arrangement when t h i s switch i s brought i n t o play. It w i l l be noticed i n the view of Figure 7 t h a t t h e switch i s thrown t o t h e l e f t and the two halves of each binocular c o i l a r e connected t o g e t h e r a t about t h e i r mid-points. I n e f f e c t the shunted c o i l s e c t i o n s form them i n t o smaller binocular c o i l s c o n s i s t i n g of one-half t h e number of t u r n s . I n order t o prevent, a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e , any l o s s e s t h a t might occur i n t h e a c t i v e s e c t i o n s of each c o i l , owing t o t h e presence of the unused upper t u r n s , t h a t s h o r t - c i r c u f t i n g i s a c t u a l l y made through a very low r e s i s t a n c e and s h o r t leads. Furthermore, t h e change i n t h e inductance of t h e antenn c o i l by c u t t i n g out from f i f t e e n t o t e n t u r n s w i l l be found t o be advantageous f o r the following reasons. The first o r antenna tuning condenser C 1 can be kept i n alignment with condensers C2 and C 3 by maintaining t h e antenna coupling inductance i n i t s proper r e l a t i o n f o r low waves. The decrease i n t h e number of t u r n s used i n t h i s c o i l has the e f f e c t of reducing antenna coupling, r e s u l t i n g i n g r e a t e r s e l e c t i v i t y . Also the volume from the loudspeaker w i l l be s l i g h t l y reduced a s compared w $ t h t h e

Lesson 50

- shee* 10

r e s u l t s obtainable when u s i n g t h e "high range w but t h i s decrease i n volume i s not s e r i o u s . Remember, t h a t i n the o p e r a t i o n of a l l tuned c i r c u i t s a s l i g h t g a i n i n s e l e c t i v i t y can be obtained with some s a c r i f i c e i n s e n s i t i v i t y , an? the converse of t h i s i s a l s o t r u e . The low-range adjustment f i n d s i t s p r i n c i p a l u s e f u l n e s s whenever a s t a t i o n l o c a t e d a t about 40 on t h e d i a l i s d i f f i c u l t t o s e p a r a t e from i n t e r f e r i n g s t a t i o n s . I f a comparative d i a l s e t t i n g was approximated f o r the e n t i r e range of t h e r e c e i v e r it would i n d i c a t e , t a k i n g , f o r example a s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n on t h e d i a l , t h a t a broadcast s t a t i o n tuned i n a t 38 on the highrange would be heard a t about 78 on the low-range. The two ranges overl a p from 240 t o 350 meters and s t a t i o n s t r a n s m i t t i n g i n t h i s band w i l l g e n e r a l l y be r e c e i v e d w i t h g r e a t e r s e l e c t i v i t y on t h e low-range and g r e a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y on the high- range. This switch should be examined o c c a s i o n a l l y t o prevent any p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e s p r i n g s c o n t a c t s making poor e l e c t r i c a l contact.
C 5 and C6, r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h i s l e s s o n , r e q u i r e r e a d j u s t -

Now, l e t us consider how we a r e t o determine when the balancing condensers

e ment. Before proceeding f b t h e r w might e x p l a i n t h a t a s m a l l balancing condenser a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a c e r t a i n amount of inductance i s shunted a c r o s s t h e g r i d and p l a t e e l e c t r o d e s of a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube i n order t o form what i s known a s a b r i d g e c i r c u i t . When t h e bridge i s balanced by c o r r e c t l y a d j u s t i n g t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e small condenser t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c coupling between t h e g r i d and p l a t e i s n u l l i f i e d or n e u t r a l i z e d . The coupling e f f e c t r e f e r r e d t o here i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t whenever t h e g r i d and p l a t e a r e charged e l e c t r i c a l l y t h e space between possesses a l l of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e d i e l e c t r i c of a condenser. I n o t h e r words, t h e t u b e elements and t h e space s e p a r a t i n g them a r e i n e f f e c t a small condenser having a d e f i n i t e amount of capacity. Consequently, i f t h i s c a p a c i t y e f f e c t i n the tube can be n e u t r a l i z e d ; t h a t i s , made a s though it d i d not e x i s t a t a l l , t h e tube w i l l n o t t h e n a c t i n conjunction wi$h t h e c o i l s and capacit i e s of t h e r a d i o c i r c u i t s t o promote t h e g e n e r a t i o n of unwanted radiofrequency o s c i l l a t i o n s . If we assume t h a t such u n c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e allowed t o be produced t h e y a r e e a s i l y d e t e c t a b l e by t h e following w e l l known i n d i c a t i o n s . If a d i s t i n c t w h i s t l e o r howl i s heard when a l l of t h e tuned radio- frequency c i r c u i t s a r e e x a c t l y synchronized by means of t h e d i a l s , or a b l o t t i n g out of a broadcast s t a t i o n i s n o t i c e d when t u n i n g i n a d i s t a n t or l o c a l s t a t i o n t h i s i s almost p o s i t i v e e v i d e n m t h a t t h e c i r c u i t s a r e o s c i l l a t i n g o r i n an unbalanced s t a t e . One can only be s u r e of t h i s deduction, however, i f i t i s d e f i n i t e l y known t h a t t h e whistle i s not emanating from a l o c a l o s c i l l a t i n g r e c e i v e r , o r due perhaps t o t h e phenomenon known a s heterodyning. I n t h e l a t t e r case t h e audible w h i s t l e i s a r e s u l t a n t energy p r ~ d u c e dthrough t h e combining of r a d i o o s c i l l a t i o n s picked up by t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna from two s t a t i o n s t r a n s m i t t i n g simultaneo u s l y a t f r e q u e n c i e s within a f r a c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e of one another. There i s no cure f o r t h e annoyance which a w h i s t l e of t h i s kind causes when l i s t e n i n g t o a broadcast program. The remedy l i e s e n t i r e l y i n t h e hands of t h e Radio Commission a t Washington who have recognized t h i s c o n d i t i o n and a r e r e - a l l o c a t i n g t h e a s s i g n e d f r e q u e n c i e s of many s t a t i o n s t o prevent f u r t h e r u n d e r s i r a b l e i n t e r a c t i o n of r a d i o waves.

[
f

The following precedure i s suggested f o r changing t h e balance adjustment. Lesson 50

- sheet 11

The r e c e i v e r must be placed i n i t s u s u a l normal o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n before a l t e r i n g the c a p a c i t i e s of the balancing condensers. The antenna and ground connections should be complete. Tubes known t o be p e r f e c t by p r e v i ous t e s t should b e i n s e r t e d i n t h e sockets w i t h t h e f i l a m e n t voltage a d j u s t ed u n t i l normal c u r r e n t i s supplied, a l s o , t h e " A ", "Bn and " C n b a t t e r i e s and loudspeaker should b e p r o p e r l y connected. The voltage of a l l b a t t e r i e s should be checked and i f any a r e found t o be low t h e necessary c o r r e c t i v e measures should be a p p l i e d . Before making any readjustments it i s suggested t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e adjustment screw heads be n o t i c e d so t h a t i f d e s i r e d t h e o r i g i n a l adjustment could be duplicated.
With t h e r e c e i v e r completely connected, t u r n on t h e proper c o n t r o l f o r f u l l

volume by means of t h e Tone Color switch and t h e Volume Control r h e o s t a t . The wave changing mechanism should be s e t f o r high-wave r e c e p t i o n . The thumb n u t s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e couplin$ chains on t h e d i a l should next be loosened s o t h a t a l l d i a l s tune independently. The d i a l s should be r o t a t e d t o t h e following p o s i t i o n s : Left hand d i a l c o n t r o l l i n g t h e frequency of t h e f i r s t o r antenna tuned c i r c u i t i s s e t on 100. Master o r c e n t e r d i a l c o n t r o l l i n g the i n p u t c i r c u i t of t h e second r a d i o a m p l i f i e r i s s e t on 40. With a s m a l l b a k e l i t e wrench ( w i t h a s l o t c u t t o f i t t h e hexagon lock nut on t h e balancing condenser screws) loosen t h e nut on balancing condenser C6, meanwhile r o t a t i n g t h e o master d i a l between 30 and 50 u n t i l a c l i c k i s heard. N w t i g h t e n t h e adjustment u n t i l t h e c l i c k disappears and, f i n a l l y t i g h t e n i n g t h e balancing condenser, screw about a q u a r t e r t u r n beyond. This should be followed by s e t t i n g a l l d i a l s a t 40, and t h e n r o t a t i n g t h e l e f t hand d i a l between 30 and 50 observing t h e same c l i c k i n g n o i s e and making s i m i l a r adjustments t o balancing condenser C5 a s d e s c r i b e d f o r condenser C6. A f t e r t h i s procedure i s completed t h e d i a l s should be r o t a t e d u n t i l a l l t h e tuned c i r c u i t a r e i n If t h e r e i s resonance f o r t h e r e c e p t i o n of s i g n a l s on various wavelengths. any tendency f o r the c i r c u i t s t o o s c i l l a t e on t h e h i g h wavelengths, screw i n balancing condenser C5 s l i g h t l y f u r t h e r , whereas, i f o s c i l l a t i o n i s experienced on t h e lower wavelengths, screw i n balancing condenser C6. If t h e f i r s t attempt t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e tube c a p a c i t i e s i s unsuccessful t h i s procedure should b e repeated. The compensating condenser shown i n the wiring diagram of F i g u r e 3, shunted a c r o s s tuning condenser C 3 , may be a d j u s t e d i f found necessary i n order t o e x a c t l y synchronize t h e second and t h i r d tuned c i r c u i t s c o n t r o l l e d by t u n i n g condensers C2 and C3. The c o r r e c t adjustment w i l l make t h e r i g h t hand and middle d i a l s tune t o i d e n t i c a l numbers f o r a g i v e n s t a t i o n . N o adjustment of t h e compensating condenser should be made u n t i l balancing condenser C 5 and C 6 have been f i n a l l y a d j u s t e d , and t h e s t a t i o n received f o r t h i s t e s t should be one which tunes i n on t h e d i a l s between 10 and 20 degrees. If t h e righthand d i a l reading i s higher t h a n t h e middle d i a l screu i n compensating condenser adjustment and, i n t h e c o n t r a r y , i f t h e d i a l reading i s too low screw out on the adjustment. Adjustments of t h i s condenser w i l l be p r a c t i c a l l y unnoticed on t h e h i g h e r r e a d i n g s of the d i a l s . E l e c t r i c a l Testing: The e l e c t r i c a l t e s t i n g f o r t h e c o n t i n u i t y of a c i r c u i t 'is a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l a t t i m e s when i t becomes n e c e s s a r y t o quickly d e t e r mine t h e n a t u r e of c e r t a i n t r o u b l e s t h a t a r e p o s s i b l y ' i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h Lesson 50

sheet 1 2

functioning of t h e r e c e i v e r . Whenever d i f f i c u l t y i s experienced and it appears t o be l o c a t e d i n t e r n a l l y i n t h e r e c e i v e r , - a n d not i n a c c e s s o r i e s such a s t u b e s , b a t t e r i e s or loudspeaker, e t c . , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n incorporated i n the following paragraphs w i l l be of m a t e r i a l a s s i s t a n c e i n t e s t i n g p a r t s and wiring of the c i r c u i t s .
A complete t e s t of a r e c e i v e r can only be e f f e c t e d when t h e c h a s s i s i s r e moved from t h e cabinet. The c h a s s i s mounting board i s h e l d s e c u r e l y i n place i n t h e cabinet by t h r e e screws on each side. These screws and t h e cover support screw must be removed before t h e c h a s s i s can be removed. The instrument should be r a i s e d evenly i n order t o allow t h e p a n e l t o s l i d e up through t h e supporting grooves i n t h e s i d e s of t h e c a b i n e t . If t h i s i s not c a r e f u l l y done binding and s t r a i n on t h e grooves w i l l r e s u l t .

The most p r a c t i c a l equipment f o r c o n t i n u i t y t e s t i n g purposes c o n s i s t s of a d-c voltmeter w i t h a s c a l e r e a d i n g from 0-100 v o l t s , and 45 t o 90 v o l t s obtained from one or two "B" b a t t e r i e s connected i n s e r i e s , a s shown by t h e sketch i n Figure 9. The c o r d s used f o r t e s t i n g should be a t l e a s t t h r e e f e e t long f o r convenience. Test l e a d ends should be covered w i t h s p a g h e t t i i n s u l a t i o n t o e l i m i n a t e leakage through t h e hands. Reference t o t h e e l e c t r i c a l t e s t layout c h a r t i n Figure 8 shows t h e l o c a t i o n of a l l t e r m i n a l lug connections w i t h i d e n t i f y i n g numbers. The various t e s t s Chart I n s t r u c t i o n s " must be c a r e f u l l y made by touchspecified i n t h e " ~ e s t i n g t h e t e s t p o i n t s t o t h e various lugs or connections on t h e s e t correspondi n g t o t h e numbers on t h e chart. I f d e f e c t i v e p a r t s a r e l o c a t e d i t i s obvious t h a t t h e remedy c o n s i s t s i n a replacement, using a p e r f e c t p a r t of s i m i l a r type. Adjustments, s h o r t c i r c u i t s , and open c i r c u i t s i n w i r i n g may be c o r r e c t e d e a s i l y a f t e r having found the s e a t of t h e d i f f i c u l t y . Notice t h a t a l l of t h e e l e c t r i c a l t e s t s s e t f o r t h i n t h e c h a r t of i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e numbered i n t h e f i r s t column. The numbers i n t h e second and t h i r d columns r e f e r t o t h e numbered l u g s o r connections on the t e s t c h a r t layout t o which the t e s t p o i n t s should be touched a t various p l a c e s when t h e r e c e i v e r i s being t e s t e d . The r e s u l t s t o be expected a s shown by t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e meter vane a r e l i s t , e d i n the f o u r t h column..
If t h e i n c o r r e c t e f f e c t i s observed by the meter r e a d i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o be r e s p o n s i b l e t h e r e f o r e a r e i n d i c a t e d i n t h e l a s t column headed "Remarks". P r a c t i c a l l y every o r d i n a r y t r o u b l e t h a t might a r i s e i n t h e s e t can be e x p e d i t i o u s l y l o c a t e d i n some one of t h e t e s t s suggested. T e s t s should be c a r e f u l l y made and t h e numbers checked t o avoid i n c o r r e c t i n d i c a t i o n s . A few examples w i l l be h e l p f u l i n i l l u s t r a t i n g the u s e of t h e t e s t c h a r t : Test No. 2 should be used i n o r d e r t o a s c e r t a i n whether t h e primary winding of t h e second radio- frequency transformer i s i n p e r f e c t condition. This t e s t i s made by p l a c i n g one t e s t p o i n t on l o c a t i o n 1, which i s the s h e l l of t h e fuse lsmp socket, and the o t h e r t e s t p o i n t t o l o c a t i o n 33 which i s t h e s t a t i o n a r y p l a t e of t h e balancing condenser (marked C 5 i n t h e wiring diagram of Figure 3 ) mounted on t h e s i d e of t h e center v a r i s b l e tuning condenser a s shown i n Figure 10. According t o t h e c h a r t the meter needle should show a d e f l e c t i o n i n d i c a t i n g a c l o s e d c i r c u i t . With t h e t e s t point kept on l o c a t i o n 1 t h e o t h e r t e s t point i s moved from l o c a t i o n 33 t o 1 l o c a t i o n 1 which i s the p l a t e contact t e r m i n a l of t h e second radio- frequency

Lesson 50

sheet 13

Figure 9

BALA N C I N G CONDENSER T U N I N G CONDENSER

Figure 10 Lesson 50

sheet 14

5:on showing-a closed c i r c u i t . Each t e s t h a s - i n d i c a t e d t h a t both haloes 'the p r h a r y winding a r e i n p e r f e c t condition.

st mber
Location Numbers Test P o i n t s Placed O n
1- 34 and 14

,?'~-

soaket,
- -

d e f l e c t i o n of the needle w i l l a g a i n i n e i c n t e a n o r n s l con-

Correct I n d i c a t i o n s Meter Reading Deflection Circuit Condition Closed

Remarks

PLATE C IRCUITS N o a a i n g signifies open Primary i n F i r s t Iiadio Frequency Transformer.

1- 33 and 1 1

It

It

N reading o open Primary of Second Radio Frequency Transformer

.
-

N reading o open Primary of F i r s t Radio Frequency Transformer

-CIRCUITS
GRID

Note: Before t e s t ing g r i d c i r c u i t s s e t a l l t u n i n g condenser d i a l s a t "O'! : of condenser p l a t e s a r e shorted t h i s w i l l not a f f e c t other tests. Loop N reading o Link Switch open or not making contact. Open N reading o Secondary F i r s t Radio Frequency Transformer. Open N reading o Antenna Coil. Open N reading o Secondary F i r s t Audio Frequency Transformer.

Lesson 50

- sheet 15

Deflection

Closed

N reading o Open Secondary Second Audio Frequency Transformer.

N Deflection o

Open

If reading i s obtain-

ed i t i n d i c a t e s Primary F i r s t Radio Frequency, i s s h o r t e d t o Secondary, o r No. 1 or No. 2 Balancing Condenser (marked C5 or C6 i n w i r i n g diagram). O r , primary of Second Audio Trans. grounded o r "B" B a t t e r y ByPass Condenser shortEd.

If reading i s obtsairr ed It shows Primary of F i r s t Audio F'req. Transformer i s grourd e d , or Primary and Secondary shorted.

I f reading i s obtain ed Primary and Secorda r y of Second Audio Freq. Trans. shorted.

If reading i s obtain ed i t shows Primary of Second Radio F r e q Trans. i s s h o r t e d t o Secondary. If reading i s obtained it shows Second Radio Freq. Trans. Second-ary i s s h o r t e d t o Primary.
3- 6 and 35 Deflection Closed Shows cores of Audio Trans. a r e groundeb
VOLUME CONTROL

RRETSTAT
Turn Volume Control on f u l l , i f meter flickers it indicates

5- 8 and 43 and 44

Lesson 50

sheet 16

c o n t a c t arms not making good e l e c t r i c a l contact with r e s i s t a n c e wire. CONDENSERS N Deflection o Open
If r e a d i n g i s o b t a i m d i t shows Dectector EyPass condenser shorted.

I)

If reading i s obtained i t shows shorted "C" B a t t e r y By-Pass Condenser

I f r e a d i n g i s obtained it shows shorted "Bn B a t t e r y By-Pass Condenser. I f reading i s obteined i t shows s h o r t e d Grid Condenser. The l e a k should be removed when making t h i s t e s t . Deflection Closed If no reaaing i s obtained it shows t h i r d Balancing Condenser (marked Compensating Condenser on wiring diagram) i s not i n c i r c u i t o r Second Radio Freq. Trans. Secondary i s open. Note: Test "B" B a t t e r y BY-Pass condenser f o r grounded case by touchi n g one t e s t point t o case and o t h e r t o l o c a t i o n 1.

3- 37 and 39

N Deflection o

Open

If reading i s obtained i t shows t h a t Balancing Screw i s s h o r t i n g Balancing Condenser.

A d e f l e c t i o n shows

3- 36 and 38

Deflection

Closed

t h a t one s i d e of Balancing Condenser i s connected i n c i r c u i t correctly. Lesson 50

- sheet

17

NOTE: When t e s t i n g 1 MFD. by- pass Condensers t h e meter s h o u l d show a v e r y s m a l l momentary d e f l e c t i o n ; i.e., one which w i l l f a l l q u i c k l y t o z e r o when t e s t p o i n t s a r e f i r s t a p p l i e d t o t h e c o n d e n s e r t e r m i n a l s . T h i s movement of t h e n e e d l e d o e s n o t i n d i c a t e a s h o r t c i r c u i t , b u t m e r e l y r e g i s t e r s t h e s m a l l c h a r g i n g c u r r e n t f l o w i n g t o t h e c o n d e n s e r . A second d e f l e c t i o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d by r e v e r s i n g t h e t e s t l e a d s . F i g u r e 9 shows a by- pass cond e n s e r and a t e s t c i r c u i t . TOhT C L R CONTROL OO

23

3- 17

No D e f l e c t i o n

Open

Moving t o n e - c o l o r s w i t c h s h o u l d show no d e f l e c t i o n . If r e a d i n g , i t i n d i c a t e s s h o r t e d Tone-Color. T h i s t e s t applies only t o c e r t a i n s e t s equipped w i t h the No. 289 C o l o r Tone Condenser Switch. T e s t i n g P i l o t Lamp C i r c u i t , t e s t p o i n t s should be touched t o p a n e l supporting brackets. If reading i s obtained with lamp removed i t i n d i c a t e s a s h o r t e d P i l o t Lamp socket. Testing ''B" B a t t e r y Fuse Lamp. Tcuch one t e s t p o i n t t o l o c a t i o n 1 and other t o binding post underneath. This should show c l o s e d , b u t i f no r e a d i n g i s observed i t i n d i c a t e s Fuse ~ a m bi s e i t h e r burnt out or not f i r m l y screwed down i n t h e s o c k e t . The p r o t e c t i v e f u s e lamp i s a s m a l l 1.25 o r 1 . 5 v o l t f l a s h l i g h t bulb. Remove Fuse Lamp. Same t e s t s h o u l d show no circuit. If r e a d i n g i s o b t a i n e d it i n d i c a t e s socket i s leaking o r s h o r t e d , due t o f i b r e washer i n socket becomi n g wet o r s l i p p i n g o u t of p l a c e .

Lesson 50

- s h e e t 18

NO

~eflectidn

Open

If meter reads i t shows shorted "C" b a t t e r y

wiring. 2A- 4 and 5

I1
11

If meter reads i t i n d i c a t e s a s h o r t t o negat i v e "An and p o s i t i v e "A" r e s p e c t i v e l y .

2A- Loudspeaker Negative

I f meter reads it i n d i cates grid short t o p l a t e of Second Audio Socket.

TESTING RADIO AND AUDIO

FREQUENCY TRANSFORMEFS Although t h e t e s t s a l ready mentioned w i l l i s o l a t e any d e f e c t s i n t h e Radio Frequency and Audio Transformers, t h e following t e s t s may be employed i f d e s i r e d t o t e s t these transformers s e p a r a t e l y . Deflect ion Closed N reading indicates o open i n Secondary of F i r s t Radio Freq. Trans. N reading i n d i c a t e s o open i n Primary of F i r s t Radio Freq. Trans.

N reading indicates o open i n secondary of Second Radio Freq. Trans. N reading indicates o open i n Primary of Second Radio Freq. Trans.

No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s Antenna C o i l open.
Lesson 50

- s h e e t 19

If it i s d e s i r e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e windi n g s of an Audio Transformer, i t should be held s o t h a t you a r e f a c i n g t h e r i v e t heads, and t h e f i b r e t e r m i n a l s t r i p s are nearest t o you. I n t h i s p o s i t i o n t h e Primary winding i s on t h e Left and t h e Secondary on t h e Right.

O t e s t , the Primary n winding of e i t h e r type Audio Transformer should show s l i g h t l y l e s s than f u l l reading. On t e s t , t h e Secondary winding of e i t h e r type Audio Transformer should show one-half t o onet h i r d value of f u l l r e a d i n g depending upon t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e meter employed i n t h e s e tests. The f u s e lamp ( f l a s h l i g h t b u l b ) i s intended t o s e r v e a purpose which i s i a e n t i c a l t o a wire f u s e . That i s , i f a s h o r t c i r c u i t occurs, it w i l l burn out t h e f i l a m e n t thus opening t h e e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t , which provides p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t f u r t h e r damage u n t i l the cause of t h e t r o u b l e has been l o c a t e d and c o r r e c t e d . It i s not intended t h a t t h e small lamp should l i g h t a t any time, and a s a m a t t e r of f a c t i f i t d i d l i g h t up t h e filament would burn out almost immediately because it would be s u b j e c t e d t o excessive t h e lamp would r e c e i v e t h e same "B" voltage used t o e n e r g i z e t h e voltage p l a t e s of the r a d i o a m p l i f i e r tubes.

The i n s t a l l a t i o n of the b a t t e r y connecting c a b l e w i l l now r e c e i v e considerat i o n . A reproduction of t h e wiring t o the a n t e n n a , ground, loudspeaker, "A", "B", and "C" b a t t e r i e s i s shown i n Figure 1 . 1
A b a t t e r y cable should be procured havirg a s u f f i c i e n t number of l e a d s t o make every necessary connection t o " A " , "B" and "C" b a t t e r i e s . I n most cables two l e a d s a r e s u p p l i e d , t h e s e being made up from l a r g e r s i z e d s t r a n d ed wire t h a n o t h e r l e a d s . The two h e a v i e r w i r e s a r e proportioned t o c a r r y a heavy current load and a r e t o be used e x p r e s s l y f o r t h e filament supply which i s obtained from t h e "A' s t o r a g e b a t t e r y . Each l e a d i s covered w i t h a d i s t i n c t i v e colored c o t t o n b r a i d which s i m p l i f i e s making connections between the t e r m i n a l p o s t s on t h e r e a r of the c h a s s i s an6 t h e b a t t e r i e s . A s a f e procedure i s t o a t t a c h a l l connections t o t h e r e c e i v e r f i r s t and by s e l e c t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c e r c o l o r l e a d , one t h a t has a l r e a d y been

Lesson 50

sheet 20

GRID 81A5 FOR Z: K , AUDIO A M P L I F I E R

TO PLATE OF 2KD AUDIO AMPLIFIER

Bt

bMPLIFIER

\ T O DETECTOR PLATE

Figure 11

Figure 12

Lesson 50

- sheet

21

a t t a c h e d t o a t e r m i n a l p o s t , i t w i l l suggest t h e c o r r e c t l e a d i n t h e o t h e r end of the cable t o be used i n making a corresponding connection t o a b a t t e r y terminal. I f a b a t t e r y cable i s not procurable a s u f f i c i e n t number of connecting l e a d s of proper l e n g t h could be used. Por t h i s purpose a rubber covered No. 18 B & S gauge stranded wire w i l l be found s a t i s f a c t o r y . The ends of t h e wire. should be pared about a d i s t a n c e of one-half t o t h r e e q u a r t e r s of an i n c h and t h e s t r a n d s c a r e f u l l y t w i s t e d t o form a neat s o l i d end. When using w i r e s which cannot be i d e n t i f i e d by a t r a c e r c o l o r scheme, i t i s t h e s a f e s t method t o connect up o n l y one wire a t a time, one end t o t h e r e c e i v e r termi n a l post and t h e o t h e r t o t h e proper t e r m i n a l on t h e b a t t e r y .
GREBE ALTERNATING CURRENT RECEIVER

Radio r e c e i v i n g s e t s a r e grouped i n t o two g e n e r a l c l a s s e s , namely: (1)S e t s designed f o r o p e r a t i o n on b a t t e r i e s , and ( 2 ) f o r complete operation on a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s u p p l i e d from t h e house l i g h t i n g system. The standard term nsocket-powern i s used t o d e s c r i b e t h e u n i t or device which s u p p l i e s nA n 9 "B" and "C" v o l t a g e s from t h e l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t by t h e throwing of a switch. The modern a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t r e c e i v e r i s s e l f - contained, t h e r e c e i v e r proper c o n s i s t i n g of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r s w i t h tuning system, t h e d e t e c t o r , and t h e audio amplifying system being mounted on one metal base o r c h a s s i s with t h e power u n i t , which i s composed of a power t r a n s former, a s i n g l e tube full- wave r e c t i f i e r , a f i l t e r system and a s e t of r e s i s t a n c e s . The r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s a r e known a s t h e v o l t a g e d i v i d e r system because from them t h e v a r i o u s p l a t e c i r c u i t s and c e r t a i n g r i d c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v i n g t u b e s a r e supplied w i t h t h e proper v o l t a g e s f o r e f f i c i e n t performance. The v o l t a g e s r e q u i r e d t o e n e r g i z e t h e f i l a m e n t s a r e obtained from i n d i v i d u a l windings on t h e power transformer. The Grebe "A.C. Six n d e s c r i b e d i n t h e following paragraphs i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e type of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t r e c e i v e r . It i n c o r p o r a t e s c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s which a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e standard Syncrophase r e c e i v e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e tuned r a d i o frequency c i r c u i t s . The complete schematic diagram of t h e r e c e i v e r and t h e power u n i t included i s shown i n Figure 12. A l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t u b e s of t h e 226 e r 326 type a r e used throughout t h i s r e c e i v e r , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e f i n a l s t a g e of audio a m p l i f i c s t i o n , c a l l e d the audio output and t h e d e t e c t o r tube. A r e g u l a r type vacuum tube of t h e 1 7 1 t y p e , known a s a power t u b e , i s used i n t h e audio output stage because it d e l i v e r s a l a r g e amount of s i g n a l power, f r e e from d i s t o r t i o n , t o t h e loudspeaker when worked w i t h c o r r e c t amounts of p l a t e and g r i d v o l t ages. This tube i s not a s p e c i a l a-c tube, it i s s u i t a b l e f o r operation i n t h e output of e i t h e r a d-c o r a-c r e c e i v e r . The 226 o r 326 type a-c t u b e s used f o r the t h r e e r a d i o frequency s t a g e s and f i r s t audio s t a g e a r e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h a s p e c i a l f i l a m e n t wire of l a r g e diameter, i t s s i z e being c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e wire used i n t h e r e g u l a r d-c type vacuum tube. A l a r g e s i z e d f i l a m e n t w i r e i s q u i t e necIt can be r e c a l l e d e s s a r y when t h e wire i s heated by a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . Lesson 50

- sheet

22

t h a t during c e r t a i n p e r i o d s of an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t cycle t h e c u r r e n t f a l l s t o zero value; t h i s decrease i n c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h would t e n d t o allow t h e wire t o c o o l off s l i g h t l y . A l a r g e wire, however, r e c e i v e s s u f f i c i e n t h e a t from t h e average c u r r e n t i n t e n s i t y throughout a cycle t o maintain a p r a c t i c a l l y uniform t e m p e r a t w e . Hence, t h e f i l a m e n t emits e l e c t r o n s i n p r a c t i c a l l y unvarying q u a n t i t i e s f o r a t t r a c t i o n by t h e p l a t e . Remember, i f the f i l a m e n t d i d n o t r e t a i n i t s heat t h e r e would be a p e r i o d i c f l u c t u a t i o n i n temperature which would be evidenced by a 60-cycle hum reproduced i n the loudspeaker. The UY-227 o r C-327 a-c. h e a t e r cathode tube i s used f o r the d e t e c t o r . This tube u t i l i z e s an independent element c o n s i s t i n g of an oxide coated c y l i n d e r mounted over t h e filament wire f o r t h e purpose of allowing t h e h e a t produced by the filament t o be communicated t o t h i s c y l i n d e r . When heated t o the c o r r e c t temperature t h e oxide c o a t i n g on t h e c y l i n d e r becomes t h e eource of e l e c t r o n s i n t h e t u b e , and i s known a s t h e cathode. I n t h e For convenience u s u a l type vacuum tube t h e hot f i l a m e n t i s t h e .cathode. e i n i d e n t i f y i n g the elements i n t h e 227 or 327 tube w r e f e r t o t h e f i l a ment a s t h e " h e a t e r n and the e l e c t r o n e m i t t i n g c y l i n d e r a s t h e "cathode". The r e g u l a r s p i r a l wound g r i d surrounds t h e cathode while the p l a t e encloses a l l of the o t h e r elements i n t h e tube. The t h e o r e t i c a l a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e heater- cathode type t u b e does not d i f f e r from t h e r e g u l a r type; t h e s i g n a l v o l t a g e s a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d serve t o c o n t r o l the amount of e l e c t r o n s which a c t u a l l y reach t h e p o s i t i v e charged p l a t e . There i s , however, a s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n i n t h e w i r i n g from t h e socket of t h i s tube t o the r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t because t h e f i l a m e n t , heated with a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , does not a c t u a l l y form p a r t of t h e r a d i o c i r c u i t proper. T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t a f i x e d p o t e n t i a l of s u i t a b l e value be maintained between t h e cathode and h e a t e r ( t h e f i l a m e n t ) o p e r a t i n g t h e h e a t e r w i t h a negative p o t e n t i a l w i t h regard t o t h e cathode prevents t h e h e a t e r from e x e r c i s i n g an a t t r a c t i o n f o r e l e c t r o n s emitted by the cathode. The stream of e l e c t r o n s normally t r a v e l w i t h i n t h e tube from cathode t o p l a t e or anode, and t h e r e f o r e any e l e c t r o n energy d i v e r t e d from t h i s p a t h , f o r i n s t a n c e toward t h e h e a t e r or f i l a m e n t , would simply d e s t r o y t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e tube.
A convenient switch p e r m i t s t h e r e c e i v e r t o be used w i t h a long or s h o r t antenna. This switch o p e r a t e s t o p l a c e a small condenser of 0.00025 mfd.

c a p a c i t y i n s e r i e s w i t n t h e antenna c i r c u i t o r t o remove it from t h e c i r c u i t . A e x p l a n a t i o n of how a s e r i e s condenser w i l l a l t e r t h e n a t u r a l n wavelength of an antenna c i r c u i t i s included i n t h e descriptior. d e a l i n g w i t h t h e Synchrophase r e c e i v e r . The diagram i n Figure 12 shows t h a t t h e antenna i s a t t a c h e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e primary c o i l of t h e f i r s t r a d i o f r e q uency transformer when u s i n g a s h o r t antenna. Various l e n g t h s of antennas n o t i c e a b l y e f f e c t t h e c o n s t a n t s of the f i r s t tuned c i r c u i t . The e f f e c t i s known a s t n e detuning e f f e c t , and would, i f allowed t o e x i s t , d i s t u r b t h e synchronism of t h e remaining tuned c i r c u i t s . It i s t h e r f o r e q u i t e necessary t o provide some compensating adjustment which may be e a s i l y s e t a f t e r t h e r e c e i v e r i s connected t o a p a r t i c u l a r antenna. his r e g u l a t i o n of t h e f i r s t tuned stage i s accomplished i n a p r a c t i c a l manher through a v a r i a b l e inductance i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e secondary c o i l . The compensating c o i l i s drawn i n t h e diagram a t r i g h t angles t o Lesson 50

- sheet

23

t h e secondary c o i l , t h i s being done t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e c o i l s a r e mounted mechanically i n p o s i t i o n s which prevent t h e e s t a b l i s h i n g of mutual induct a n c e between them. That i s t o say, t h e r e i s no magnetic coupling e x i s t i n g between them. The compensating inductance simply p e r m i t s t h e inductance of t h e secondary c i r c u i t t o be changed according t o t h e requirements and a f t e r once being a d j u s t e d i t needs no f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n u n l e s s t h e dimensions of t h e antenna a r e a l t e r e d . The c o r r e c t adjustment of t h e compensating inductance w i l l permit t h e accurate operation of t h e f o u r ganged condensers, which allows s i n g l e - d i a l tuning control. The c a p a c i t i e s of t h e s e t u n i n g condensers, marked C 1 , C2, C 3 , and C 4 on t h e diagram, a r e varied simultaneously when manipulating t h e one d i a l . The condensers have p l a t e s shaped s o t h a t t h e broadcasting channels a t the lower wavelengths a r e spread a c r o s s t h e d i a l a t s u f f i c i e n t i n t e r v a l s t o provide easy s e l e c t i o n of a d e s i r e d s t a t i o n without s a c r i f i c ing s e l e c t i v i t y . The r a d i o frequency s t a g e s employtransformers of t h e binocular type. T h i s r e s u l t s i n the e l i m i n a t i o n of e x t e r n a l magnetic f i e l d s i n t h e spaces between t h e c o i l s , a f e a t u r e which s t a b i l i z e s these c i r c u i t s and has already been d e a l t with i n t h e Synchrophase r e c e i v e r . The volume c o n t r o l used i n t h i s r e c e i v e r c o n s i s t s of a v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e of 2500 ohms connected i n shunt t o t h e primary winding of t h e f o u r t h r a d i o frequency t r a n s f o r m e r . The manipulation of t h i s c o n t r o l r e g u l a t e s t h e amount of s i g n a l v o l t a g e generated a c r o s s t h e primary o r p l a t e c o i l . T h i s c o n t r o l of s i g n a l energy i n t h e primary of t h e transformer i n t u r n governs t h e voltage induced i n t o t h e secondary and f i n a l l y t h e amount of s i g n a l voltage admitted t o t h e d e t e c t o r g r i d . It i s t o be observed t h a t t h i s method of r e g u l a t i n g t h e output of t h e s e t does not d i s t u r b t h e normal voltages applied t o t h e f i l a m e n t s , and consequently, t h e r e i s no unbalancing of the filament c i r c u i t which might cause an i n t e r f e r r i n g "hum" t o be produced.
A " l o c a l " and " d i s t a n c e " s w i t c h c o n t r o l s a r e s i s t a n c e of 170 ohms shunted a c r o s s the p l a t e c o i l o t t h e second r a d i o frequency transformer. The purpose of t h i s arrangement i s t o provide maximum t o n e q u a l i t y when r e c e i v i n g l o c a l broadcast programs. With t h e r e s i s t a n c e p l a c e d i n t h e c i r c u i t by means of the switch t h e t u n i n g i s s l i g h t l y broadened r e s u l t i n g i n a g r e a t e r sideband response. S t a t i n g t h i s i n another way, i t means t h a t t h e t u n i n g q u a l i t i e s of the c i r c u i t w i l l not a c t t o c u t o f f o r choke out f r e q u e n c i e s which l i e outside a s p e c i f i e d band and which c a r r y c e r t a i n harmonics of t h e voice o r music t h a t g i v e t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n t h e n a t u r a l n e s s of the o r i g i n a l sounds d i r e c t e d toward t h e microphone of t h e broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r . Nhen t h i s f i x e d r e s i s t a n c e i s cut o u t , t h e c i r c u i t i s i n a c o n d i t i o n f o r sharper tuning. Although some of t h e s i d e band f r e q u e n c i e s , j u s t r e f e r r e d t o a s harmonics, may be cut o f f due t o s h a r p e r t u n i n g and hence cannot be reproduced i n t h e loudspeaker, n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e r e i s a n o t i c e a b l e g a i n i n t h e degree of s e l e c t i v i t y and s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r which i s e s p e c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e when tuning i n a d i s t a n t s t a t i o n through l o c a l i n t e r f e r e n c e .

Let us now consider t h e e l e c t r i c a l f e a t u r e s The power u n i t i s designed f o r o p e r a t i o n on a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , and f u r n i s h e s complete ages t o the s e t . T h i s u n i t i s divided i n t o

of t h e r e c e i v e r under d i s c u s s i o n . 110 t o 120 v o l t s , 60 c y c l e f i l a m e n t , p l a t e and g r i d v o l t two s e p a r a t e power transformers, Lesson 50

- s h e e t 24

b o t h of which t a k e power from t h e a-c house l i g h t i n g system. One t r a n s former, marked T-1, o p e r a t i n g i n conjunction w i t h a full-wave r e c t i f i e r t u b e , converts t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i n t o d i f e c t c u r r e n t of s u f f i c i e n t voltage f o r energizing t h e p l a t e s of t h e r e c e i v i n g t u b e s . The second transformer, T-2, s u p p l i e s a l t e r n a t i n g voltages t o the v a r i o u s "A or filament c i r c u i t s of which t h e r e a r e t h r e e . The number of t u r n s of wire used on t h e primar and t h r e e secondary windings of T-2 are c a l c u l a t e d t o lower o r "step-down t h e 110 or 120 v o l t s t o t h e necessary values a s i n d i c a t e d on t h e diagram.

One secondary of T-2 s u p p l i e s 1.5 v o l t s t o e a c h of t h e four 226 or 326 type t u b e s , the f i l a m e n t s of t h e s e tubes being connected i n p a r a l l e l and shunted by a 27 ohm r e s i s t a n c e which i s mid-tapped and grounded f o r hun balance. The movable contact arm provided on t h i s r e s i s t a n c e permits the e l e c t r i c a l balance of t h e filament c i r c u i t t o be e a s i l y obtained. Another s e p a r a t e secondary of power t r a n s f o r m e r Tnsup?lies approximately 2.25 v o l t s t o t h e d e t e c t o r tube f i l a m e n t . The filament of t h i s tube, type 227 or 327, i s t e c h n i c a l l y known a s t h e h e a t e r a s p r e v i o u s l y mentioned. A potenti3meter, marked R-1, shunted a c r o s s t h i s h e a t e r , has i t s mid- tap f i x e d and a t t a c h e d t o t h e negative 40 v o l t l e a d supplying t h e g r i d b i a s i n g voltage t o t h e audio output tube a s shown i n t h e diagram. This t u b e ' s f i l a m e n t o b t a i n s the r e q u i s i t e o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e from t h e secondary of T-2. A s s t a t e d h e r e t o f o r e , t h e tube employed i n t h e output i s a 171 o r 371 type, c l a s s i f i e d a s a power t u b e , t h e filament consuming .25 amperes a t a t e r m i n a l e.m.f. of 5 v o l t s . The c u r r e n t supply t o t h i s tube i s shunted by t h e potentiometer R-2, w i t h i t s mid-point grounded f o r hum balance.
It i s a good point t o remember t h a t i f a t any time a balancing potentiometer a c c i d e n t l y burns out or opens, o r should e i t h e r s i d e of t h e filament c i r c u i t s from t h e transformer windings t o the tube s o c k e t s be grounded, a d i s agreeable 60 cycle hum w i l l be heard i n t h e loudspeaker. A hum r e s u l t i n g from t h i s cause cannot be reduced t o a minimum or suppressed by means of t h e adjustments provided. The remedy f o r t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s t o e i t h e r r e p l a c e the d e f e c t i v e p a r t or remove t h e ground a s t h e case may be.

W can now s e e from t h e foregoing explanations t h a t t h e power transformer e T-2, c o n s i s t i n g of a primary and t h r e e secondary windings, i s u t i l i z e d s o l e l y t o supply a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t o h e a t t h e f i l a m e n t s of t h e t h r e e radio- frequency and f i r s t audio t u b e s , the d e t e c t o r t u b e h e a t e r , and t h e a u d i o power tube. The purpose of power transformer T - 1 i s t o "step- up n t h e 110 v o l t s a.c. t o a h i g h e r voltage, a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , of t h e r e q u i r e d value f o r p l a t e supply. The transformer i s designed t o d e l i v e r an e.m.f. of s e v e r a l hundred v o l t s a t t h e secondary t e r m i n a l s of S-2 i n o r d e r t o allow f o r l o s e s t o be encountered i n t h e r e c t i f y i n g and f i l t e r i n g systems which a r e t o follow.

It i s necessary t o supply d i r e c t c u r r e n t t o t h e p l a t e s of t h e r e c e i v i n g t u b e s . This i s accomplished by connecting t h e filament type r e c t i f y i n g tube t o t h e output of t h e transformer i n the manner shown i n the diagram. The o p e r a t i o n of this d e v i c e i s a s follows. The tube c o n s i s t s of two f i l a ments and two p l a t e s , each p l a t e being a t t a c h e d t o o p p o s i t e ends of the transformer secondary. Filament c u r r e n t f o r the r e c t i f i e r tube I s obtained
Lesson 50

- sheet 25

from a low voltage secondary winding marked S-1. Notice t h a t a mid-tap taken on t h i s c o i l i s t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e output of t h e r e c t i f i e r and a mid-tap on t h e p l a t e c o i l S-2 i s t h e negative s i d e . Now, by t h e a c t i o n of t h e tube t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t passing t o i t from S-2 w i l l be changed i n t o a p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t c u r r e n t ; t h a t i s , a c u r r e n t which flows i n one d i r e c t i o n only, but r i s e s and f a l l s i n s t r e n g t h between zero and maximum values. The r e c t i f i c a t i o n process i s based upon t h e p e c u l i a r a c t i o n going on i n a l l vacuum t u b e s operated w i t h a hot f i l a m e n t ; t h e e l e c t r o n s e m i t t e d by t h e filament can only r e a c h t h e p l a t e when t h e l a t t e r l s charged w i t h a p o s i t i v e e l e c t r i c p o t e n t i a l . E l e c t r o n s cannot p a s s from p l a t e t o f i l a m e n t through the vacuous space w i t h i n because t h e p l a t e i s a comparatively cold element and cannot give off e l e c t r o n s . The a l t e r n a t i n g v o l t a g e across S-2 i s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e p l a t e s of t h e r e c t i f i e r tube which causes each p l a t e t o become e x c i t e d a l t e r n a t e l y by p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e charges. It i s , however, only d u r i n g t h o s e periods when e i t h e r p l a t e i s charged w i t h a posi t ive p o t e n t i a l t h a t t h e e l e c t r o n xtream, which. c o n s t i t u t e s current f low, passes between t h e f i l a m e n t and p l a t e . Thus, it i s seen r e a d i l y t h a t c u r r e n t w i l l flow f r e e l y through t h e tube i n one direction, but i t a c t s pract i c a l l y a s an i n s u l a t o r f o r c u r r e n t i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n . Since two p l a t e s a r e employed, one w i l l be a c t i v e during t h e p o s i t i v e h a l f - c y c l e s ( a l t e r n a t i o n s ) and t h e o t h e r i d l e d u r i n g negative h a l f c y c l e s . It t h e n f o l lows t h a t c u r r e n t p a s s e s through one o r t h e o t h e r p l a t e s e a c h h a l f - c y c l e , or 120 p u l s a t i o n s of u n i - d i r e c t i o n a l c u r r e n t a r e produced by t h e r e c t i f i e r tube. It i s f o r t h i s reason t h a t a tube, w i t h two p l a t e s and u t i l i z i n g both halves of t h e a-c. c y c l e , i s known a s a full- wave r e c t i f i e r . The p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t c u r r e n t provided by t h e r e c t i f i e r tube i s f o r energizing t h e p l a t e s ; i t r e q u i r e s a s t e a d y d i r e c t c u r r e n t posit-ive p o t e n t i a l of unvarying v a l u e , so i t becomes necessary o r smooth out t h i s c u r r e n t t o provide a n o n - f l u c t u a t i n g flow. through a s i n g l e s e c t i o n " brute f o r c e " f i l t e r c o n s i s t i n g of an choke c o i l and two h i g h voltage condensers of 4 and 5 mfd. not s u i t a b l e t o ive a t o 'filtertt T h i s i s done i r o n core

To complete the power u n i t it simply remains t o d i s t r i b u t e t h i s c u r r e n t t o

The output of t h e f i l t e r f u r n i s h e s a steady d i r e c t c u r r e n t of h i g h voltage.

t h e various p l a t e c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v i n g t u b e s a t s p e c i f i e d voltages. I n order t o accomplish t h i s e f f i c i e n t l y a s e t of r e s i s t a n c e s , c a l l e d a v o l t age d i v i d e r , and by-pass condensers, a r e connected a c r o s s t h e output of t h e f i l t e r between p o i n t s A and B. A good understanding of t h e c i r c u i t we a r e d e s c r i b i n g w i l l b e had by r e f e r r i n g t o t h e schematic diagram where i t w i l l be seen t h a t t h e v o l t a g e d i v i d e r s u p p l i e s t h e c o r r e c t voltages t o t h e radio- frequency, d e t e c t o r , and audio tube p l a t e s and t o t h e g r l d s of a l l t h e tubes with t h e exception of t h e d e t e c t o r . The g r i d of t h e d e t e c t o r i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e ground. The voltage d i v i d e r r e s i s t a n c e c o n s i t s O f s i x s e c t i o n s a s follows. The f i r s t s e c t i o n marked 750 ohms reduces t h e output voltage of the f i l t e r t o 180 v o l t s r e q u i r e d by t h e power a m p l i f i e r tube. The next r e s i s t a n c e , r a t e d a t 2800 ohms, w i l l cause a l o s s i n voltage or voltage- drop of 80 v o l t s which reduces the v o l t a g e a v a i l a b l e a t t h i s point t o 100 v o l t s f o r t h e f i r s t audio and t h r e e radio- frequency tube p l a t e s . The r e s i s t a n c e s e c t i o n of 5900 ohms lowers t h e voltage t o 45 v o l t s f o r t h e d e t e c t o r p l a t e supply. A voltage drop of 45 v o l t s , provided by t h e 6300 ohm r e s i s t a n c e , l e a d s t o Lesson 50

- sheet

26

t h e common connection -E + C of the r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t proper. The next s t e p i s t h e supplying of t h e b i a s i n g v o l t a g e s t o t h e g r i d s of t h o s e t u b e s which depend upon s p e c i f i e d negative voltages f o r e f f i c i e n t operation. A 95 ohm r e s i s t a n c e s e c t i o n connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e r e s i s t a n c e s a l ready described, s u p p l i e s a 4.5 v o l t s negative "c" b i a s t o t h e g r i d s of t h e t h r e e radio- frequency and f i r s t audio tube. A n a d d i t i o n a l voltage drop of 40 v o l t s obtained a c r o s s the r e s i s t a r c e s e c t i o n of 695 ohms i s spplied t o the g r i d of t h e output audio tube. These v a l u e s w i l l v a r y s l i g h t l y w i t h f l u c t u a t i o n s i n l i n e voltages from t h e house l i g h t i n g mains, which, novrever, should have no n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t on t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e receiv,er w i t h i n t h e s p e c i f i e d 110 t o 120 o p e r a t i n g range. Whenever p o s s i b l e a good a-c. voltmeter should be used t o measure t h e house l i g h t i n g l i n e voltage s o t h a t t h e tubes i n t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l n o t be over-loaded with excess v o l t a g e . The two- position switch included i n the primaries of transformers T - 1 and T-2 should be placed i n t h e 120-v p o s i t i o n where the a-c. l i n e v o l t a g e i s h i g h e r t h a n 115 v o l t s , and i n t h e 110-v p o s i t i o n where the l i n e voltage i s l e s s t h a n 115 v o l t s . If i t i s not known t h a t the l i n e voltage v a r i e s over a range of v o l t a g e a t d i f f e r e n t times of t h e d a y and n i g h t , o r from day t o day, reaching v a l u e s over 115 v o l t s , t h i s switch should be kept i n t h e 120 v o l t - p o s i t i o n . If you a r e i n doubt a t any time a s t o the normal l i n e voltage supplied t o an e l e c t r i c a l l y operated r e c e i v e r of any t y p e , be sure t o place a switch o f t h i s kind, when one i s provided, i n t h e h i g h voltage (120-V) p o s i t i o n . The schematic d i a gram c l e a r l y shows t h a t fewer t u r n s of wire a r e u t i l i z e d on t h e primary when t h e l i n e voltage switch i s i n the 110-v p o s i t i o n ; t h i s r e d u c t i o n i n the primary t u r n s used i n c r e a s e s t h e step- up r a t i o of t h e transformer. Some form of loudspeaker coupling should be placed between t h e 171-power tube and t h e loudspeaker i n order t o prevent the h i g h p l a t e c u r r e n t of passing through t h e windings. The speakapproximately 20 milliamperes f ~ o m e r u n i t can be i s o l a t e d from t h e p l s t e c i r c u i t and t h u s avoid the p o s s i b i l i t y of burn-out by enploying an output transformer w i t h a r a t i o of one t o one (1:1),or any choke c o i l and condenser combination of c o r r e c t e l e c t r i c a l values f o r use w i t h t h e 171 or 371 type tube. The transformer method of coupling i n d i c a t e d i n d o t t e d l i n e s on t h e diagram s e r v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e i d e a of one form of coupling arrangement.
EXAMINATION 1.

- LESSON 50

What e f f e c t upon t h e t u n i n g q u a l i t i e s of t h e r e c e i v e r i s n o t i c e d when u s i n g a s h o r t o r long antenna? Name the piece of apparatus t h a t i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y added t o the antenna system when a long antenna i s employed and connected t o t h e "Long Antenna" t e r m i n a l post of t h e r e c e i v e r . 'Why i s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p a r t not required when a s h o r t antenna I s e r e c t e d ? Explain how t h e c o n t r o l of volume i s accomplished I n both the b a t t e r y operated and e l e c t r i c a l l y operated r e c e i v e r s .

2.

3.

Lesson 50

- sheet 27

4.

W y a r e t h e l i n k c h a i n s , connecting t h e tuning condensers of t h e h b a t t e r y operated r e c e i v e r , designed w i t h a l o c k i n g device t h a t may be unlocked a t t h e w i l l of t h e operator thereby p e r m i t t i n g t h e d i a l s t o be r o t a t e d independently? What i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e betvieen t h e "heater- cathod" type and " filament" type tube? ( a ) H w a r e t h e g r i d negative b i a s e s obtained f o r t h e a-c tubes? o ( b ) From what source a r e the p l a t e v o l t a g e s obtained, and ( c ) Filament voltages?
It i s suggested i n t h i s l e s s o n t h a t a coupling device of some kind be used between t h e p l a t e or output of t h e l a s t a u d i o (power) tube and t h e loudspeaker of t h e a- c. s e t . S t a t e b r i e f l y t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s suggestion.

5 .
6.

7.

8.

( a ) Exalain t h e vurpose of t h e b i n o c u l a r type c o i l . ( b ) What i s t h e g e n e r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n and method of winding a c o i l of t h i s kind? Draw a simple s k e t c h of t h r e e binocular type t r a n s f o r m e r s and show by means of d o t t e d l i n e s and arrows t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e magnetic f i e l d s produced by e a c h c o i l .
(a) What e f f e c t i s produced upon t h e tuned c i r c u i t s of t h e b a t t e r y operated r e c e i v e r when t h e number of t u r n s used on t h e binocular c o i l s i s reduced? ( b ) When should t h e switching arrangement which c o n t r o l s t h i s f e a t u r e be put i n t o p r a c t i c a l u s e ?

9.

10.

Lesson 50

- sheet 28

i s designed f o r o p e r a t i o n on 105-125 v o l t s , 50 t o 7 5 cycle 25-50 c y c l e s ; and 220 v o l t s , 50-60 c y c l e s .

l a r device t o be used.

r f r e q u e n c y , d i f f e r e n t from t h a t s p e c i f i e d

i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t , nor on an a l t e r n a t

o p e r a t i o n from a d i i n t h i s iqsson.

For t h i s r e a s o n a r e c t i f y i n g device i s incorporated i n the e l i m i n a t o r , t h e f u n c t i o n of which i s t o change t h e form of t h e c u r r r e n t i n such a way t h a t it does not r e v e r s e i t s d i r e c t i o n b u t l e a v e s t h e r e c t i f i e r i n t h e form of a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l p u l s a t i n g c u r r e n t a s shown i n Figure 2; the c u r r e n t i n t h i s form i s s t i l l u n f i t t e d f o r u s e because of t h e rapid changes i n each pulse of c u r r e n t , A f i l t e r system i s t h e r e f o r e necessary t o smooth i t out i n t o a d i r e c t c u r r e n t a s shown g r a p h i c a l l y i n Figure 3. The "B" power e l i m i n a t o r , i f p r o p e r l y designed, w l l l f u r n i s h a s t e a d y u n f l u c t u a t i n g c u r r e n t without any o b j e c t i o n a l hum.

Figure 1
UNIDIRECTION&L PULSATING DIRECT CURRENT FORM -AFTER PASSING THROUGH THE FILTER SYSTEM

Figure 2

Figure 3

To be a b l e t o thoroughly understand t h e o p e r a t i o n of a power u n i t of t h i s kind it i s b e s t t o d i v i d e t h e e n t i r e u n i t i n t o f o u r main p a r t s , and study each p a r t s e p a r a t e l y by following t h e schematic diagram of Figure 4.

The f i r s t p a r t of e v e r y a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t e l i m i n a t o r i s t h e power t r a n s former which t a k e s t h e r e q u i r e d power from t h e house l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t and s t e p s it up t o a value s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h t o overcome t h e l o s s e s i n t h e system and l e a v e a v a i l a b l e adequate power t o e f f i c i e n t l y operate the r e c e i v e r . Connected t o t h e secondary t e r m i n a l s of t h e transformer i s t h e second p a r t of t h e power u n i t , t h e r e c t i f y i n g device, which may be one of f i v e t y p e s , (1)the f i l a m e n t type which u t i l i z e s t h e e l e c t r o n stream between t h e heated f i l a m e n t and t h e p l a t e t o o b t a i n one way cond u c t i v i t y ; ( 2 ) t h e gasesous non- filament type which makes use of t h e i o n i z a t i o n of a g a s a t low p r e s s u r e between t h e e l e c t r o d e s of the tube t o e f f e c t r e c t i f i c a t i o n ; ( 3 ) t h e e l e c t r o l y t i c type; ( 4 ) t h e d r y m e t a l l i c type and ( 5 ) t h e v i b r a t i n g mechanical type. These r e c t i f y i n g devices serve t o change t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t output of the transformer t o a p u l s a t i n g u n i d i r e c t i o n a l c u r r e n t which must s t i l l undergo a f u r t h e r change I n f orm before it can bf+f17applied t o t h e r e c e i v e r It i s t h e r e f o r e passed on t o t h e t h i r d p a r t OF t h e system, t h e f i l t e r , which smooths out t h i s p u l s a t i n g u n i d i r e c t i o n a l : c u r r e n t t o a smooth continuous d i r e c t c u r r e n t

The d i r e c t c u r r e n t , a f t e r passing t h e f i l t e r system, may be of t h e c o r r e c t voltage f o r t h e power t u b e used i n t h e l a s t audio frequency stage but must be passed on t o t h e f o u r t h p a r t , t h e voltage r e g u l a t o r , which c o n s i s t s Lesson 5 1

- sheet

of r e s i s t a n c e s of v a r i o u s values used t o reduce t h e voltage t o t h e proper v a l u e s f o r t h e d e t e c t o r , t h e radio- frequency amplifying tube, and t h e audio- frequency amplifying tube ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e power tube.) R e c t i f i e r tubes: A s p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d t h e r e a r e two types of r e c t i f i e r t u b e s , one employing a f i l a m e n t , o f t e n c a l l e d t h e hot cathode t y p e , and t h e other which has no filament and 2s known a s t h e gaseous r e c t i f i e r . Before going f u r t h e r we should understand the meaning of t h e words cathode l . and anode. Cathode means a ne a t i v e e l e c t r o d e ; anode a o s i t i v e e ~ o t h m h e s ~ m f ~ e k r a d i o l in e r a t u r z ; o r example. t cathod r e f e r s t o t h e filament of a vacuum t u b e t o d i s t i n g u i s h i t i"r& the p l a t e o r anode.
SECONDbW OF POWER TRbNSFORMER;
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

+-

FILTER SY,STEM

VOLTAS DIVIDER-., 0tl00

TUBE:

B+90

DET.

PRIMARV OF! POWER--' TRANSFORMER

] I
Figure 4

B-

When d i s c u s s i n g t h e gaseous r e c t i f i e r , Anode i s t h e name given t o t h e two small e l e c t r o d e s , while t h e Cathode a p p l i e s t o t h e s i n g l e l a r g e e lectrode. The filament type r e c t i f i e r t u b e f u n c t i o n s a s a r e c t i f i e r due t o t h e p r o p e r t y of t h e h e a t e d f i l a m e n t t o emit; t h a t i s , throw off e l e c t r o n s which move i n one d i r e c t i o n , toward the p l a t e . The two p l a t e s i n t h e f u l l wave r e c t i f i e r t u b e a r e connected t o opposite ends of t h e secondary winding of the power transformer and has a l t e r n a t e l y impressed on them a p o s i t i v e and negative charge by t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t cycle; t h a t i s , during t h e time t h a t one of t h e p l a t e s i s charged p o s i t i v e by one half of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c y c l e , t h e o t h e r p l a t e w i l l b e charged negative. A r e v e r s a l of t h i s a c t i o n t a k e s place on t h e next half cycle. During e a c h cycle one of the p l a t e s i s p o s i t i v e f o r one a l t e r n a t i o n and t h i s same p l a t e becomes negative the next a l t e r n a t i o n ; t h i s a c t i o n r e v e r s e s each a l t e r n a t i o n and t h e p l a t e which was p o s i t i v e d u r i n g t h e f i r s t a l t e r n a t i o n now becomes negative and t h e previously n e g a t i v e p l a t e becomes p o s i t i v e . The e l e c t r o n s e m i t t e d from t h e filament p a s s t o t h e p o s i t i v e l y charged p l a t e and a r e r e p e l l e d by the n e g a t i v e l y charged p l a t e . I n t h i s way both halves of t h e cycle of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t a r e u t i l i z e d t o produce a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l c u r r e n t i n t h e output c i r c u i t of t h e r e c t i f i e r . Lesson 51

- sheet

A h a l f wave r e c t i f i e r o p e r a t e s upon t h e same p r i n c i p l e a s described f o r f u l l wave r e c t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e exception t h a t o n l y one h a l f of the c y c l e i s u t i l i z e d . Figure 5 shows t h e connections f o r t h i s type of f i l a m e n t r e c t i f i e r tube.

Gaseous r e c t i f i e r : The gaseous tube r e c t i f i e r has no f i l a m e n t ; i t s a c t i o n depends upon a gas content which, upon being i o n i z e d , permits a c u r r e n t t p flow through the gas. A c i r c u i t adapted f o r t h i s t u b e i s shown i n Figure 6. The tube h a s two s m a l l e l e c t r o d e s and one l a r g e one. The s m a l l e l e c t r o d e s are connected t o opposite ends of t h e power transformer seconda r y terminals while t h e l a r g e e l e c t r o d e connects t o t h e e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t , helium (an i n e r t and the space between the e l e c t r o d e s i s C i l l e d w i t h g a s ) a t low p r e s s u r e .

Figure 5 The a c t i o n of t h e gaseous tube: Perhaps you have seen an Xray machine I n operation. You observed t h e s o f t purple glow e m i t t e d by the tube. Ionization This subdued l i g h t was caused by what i s known a s I O N I Z A T I O N . i s the s p l i t t i n g up o r s e p a r a t i n g of e l e c t r o n s from an atom and may a p p l y e i t h a r t o a g a s , chemical s o l u t i o n , or chemical compound.
A l l atoms, when i n a normal s t a g e , manifest no unusual e l e c t r i c a l charact e r i s t i c s but i f by some means an e l e c t r o n i s taken away from o r added t o a normal atom t h e n e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e atom so changed a r e e x h i b i t e d by a t t r a c t i v e and r e p u l s i v e e f f e c t s . The atom i s t h e n s a i d t o be ionized.

Therefore when a normal atom f o r any reason takes on an a d d i t i o n a l e l e c t r o n ,

Figure 6 Lesson 51

- sheet 4

o r an e l e c t r o n i s caused t o leave a normal atom, the p a r t i c l e t h u s formed by t h e f i r s t c o n d i t i o n i s c a l l e d a " negative ion" and by t b second cond i t i o n a " p o s i t i v e ion." T h i s process a s a whole i s temned " ionization" . The small gas c o n t e n t i n a r e c t i f i e r tube r e p r e s e n t s b i l l i o n s and b i l l i o n s of atoms. They a r e c o n t i n u a l l y on t h e move; t h e i r movement i s s i m i l a r t o so many rubber b a l l s dumped i n t o a confined space a l l t a k i n g haphazared paths i n t h e i r l i n e of f l i g h t , but of Eourse t h e atoms move a t tremendouslg h i g h speeds.
#

For many y e a r s it w a s known t h a t gas, under c e r t a i n treatment, possessed t h e property of being an i n s u l a t o r and t h e n , under o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , it would become a p e r f e c t conductor. T h i s phenomenon was f o r many y e a r s a mystery. The c o n s t a n t r e s e a r c h work by t h e p h y s i c i s t t o l e a r n more about m a t t e r 7 has, however, d i s c l o s e d many wonderful t h i n g s and t h e study of i o n s , e l e c t r o n s , and atoms, which c o n s t i t u t e m a t t e r , i s a very important one.

In connection w i t h t h e gaseous r e c t i f i e r it was found t h a t when a h i g h p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s between e i t h e r of t h e s m a l l e l e c t r o d e s and t h e l a r g e e l e c t r o d e of thegaseous t u b e i t would cause t h e g a s atoms t o be s e t i n t o v i o l e n t a g i t a t i o n sending them i n e v e r y conceivable d i r e c t i o n and a t t e r r i f i c speeds, bumping i n t o e a c h o t h e r w i t h such f o r c e t h a t each time a c o l l i s i o n between t h e atoms occurred an e l e c t r o n would be knocked f r e e , and thus i o n i z a t i o n of t h e gas was accomplished.
The gas atom on l o s i n g an e l e c t r o n becomes p o s i t i v e l y charged and i s o f t e n t e r n e d a POSITIVE ION. A s a r e s u l t , t h e n , of i o n i z a t i o n t h e p r e v i o u s l y normal atom now shows e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s i n c e i t i s minus i t s r e g u l a r complement of e l e c t r o n s i t a t once seeks t h e cathode element where it t a k e s on a n e l e c t r o n t h u s completing i t s balence o n l y t o be crashed i n t o a g a i n by some neighboring atom and r e i o n i z e d , upon which it a g a i n r e t u r n s t o t h e cathode t o a c q u i r e another e l e c t r o n . This a c t l o n t a k e s place over and over again. The e l e c t r o n s r e l e a s e d by the c o l l i s i o n s a t once seek a p o s i t i v e l y charged e l e c t r o d e . It i s t h e s e r e l e a s e d e l e c t r o n s t h a t a c t a s c a r r i e r s of e l e c t r i c i t y t h u s c r e a t i n g a f l o w of e l e c t r i c i t y from cathod t o anode and thence through the e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t . I f t h e cathode and anodes were made t h e same s i z e c u r r e n t would flow a s w e l l i n one d i r e c t i o n a s i n t h e o t h e r which would d e f e a t t h e purpose of r e c t i f i c a t i o n , but by making t h e two anodes very s m a l l i n comparison w i t h t h e cathode t h e p o s i t i v e i o n may e a s i l y come i n c o n t a c t w i t h one e l e c t r o d e and pick up i t s r e q u i r e d e l e c t r o n ; b u t w i t h t h e p o t e n t i a l reversed t h e i r a b i l i t y t o s t r i k e t h e s m a l l e l e c t r o d e i s g r e a t l y diminished and, i n t h e i r attempt t o make c o n t a c t w i t h t h i s small e l e c t r o d e , they p i l e up a p o s i t i v e charge which tends t o r e p e l l any f u r t h e r p o s i t i v e i o n s attempting t o r e a c h t h i s e l e c t r o d e . A few e l e c t r o n s , because of t h e i r t e r r i f i c speed, manage t o f o r c e t h e i r way through t h i s p o s i t i v e charge and cause a small back c u r r e n t t o b e s e t up. For a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, however, t h i s i s s o minute t h a t we may consider i t a s n e g l i g i b l e .

F i l t e r system: Having a r e c t i f i e d c u r r e n t now t o d e a l w i t h , but p u l s a t i n g v r t o F i g u r e 2. W e w i l l d i r e c t our a t t e n t i o n t o t h e t h i r d p a r t of t h e e l i m i n a t o r u n i t whose f u n c t i o n i s t o t a k e t h e "humpsn out of t h e p u l s a t i n g u n i d i r e c t i o n a l c u r r e n t and change it t o a smooth d i r e c t Lesson 51

- sheet

c u r r e n t . The t h i r d p a r t of t h e e l i m i n a t o r , shown i n Figure 4, i s s e e n t o c o n s i s t of choke c o i l s and condensers.

The f i l t e r system, a s shorn i n ths diagrams of t h i s l e s s o n i s p r a c t i c a l l y

u n i v e r s a l i n ' u s e alld i s known a s Uhe " brute f o r c e f i l t e r " . Figure 7 shows one adaption of t h i s f i l t e r , known a s t h e s i n g l e f i l t e r , while Figure 8 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e double type which i s simply two choke c o i l s i n s e r i e s , and an a d d i t i o n a l condenser

P r a c t i c a l l y a l l f i l t e r systems a r e b u i l t up, according t o t h e l a t t e r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . The value of t h e choke c o i l i s i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l cases 15 t o 30 henrys while the values of t h e condensers may v a r y depending upon t h e type of e l i m i n a t o r used. C 1 can be any valae from 2 t o 4 mfd. c a p a c i t y ; C2 the same a s C 1 , and C 3 from 6 t o 8 mfd. c a p a c i t y .

Figure 7

Figure 8

Let u s study t h e f u n c t i o n Of t h e f i l t e r system t o l e a r n t h e purpose of each p a r t . It has been p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e c t i f y i n g device changes t h e a1ternat;ing c u r r e n t t o a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l p u l s a t i n g c u r r e n t which i s s t i l l i n such form t h a t i t cannot be applied d i r e c t l y t o the tube elements e of t h e r e c e i v e r . If w r e f e r t o Figure 2 we f i n d t h a t t h i s p u l s a t i n g curr e n t c o n s i s t s of a number of p u l s e s of c u r r e n t r i s i n g from zero value t o a maximum s t r e n g t h and t h e n f a l l i n g a g a i n t o zero, t h e n a s h o r t i n t e r v a l of time e l a p s e s before t h e next pulse of c u r r e n t comes along. These p u l s e s of c u r r e n t , a s t h e y come from the r e c t i f i e r t u b e , a r e a s v a r i e d i n magnitude a s t h e varying magnitude of t h e A.C. producing them. I t , t h e r e f o r e , can b e r e a l i z e d t h a t a c u r r e n t having such v a r i a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s cannot be d i r e c t l y a p p l i e d t o t h e p l a t e s O vacuum t u b e s without producing an f e f f e c t which i s c a l l e d " r i p p l e " o r "hum". W know t h a t the p l a t e of t h e vacuum t u b e must have a source of c o n s t a n t e p o t e n t i a l appl-ied t o i t , such a s would be obtained from a b a t t e r y . The e n t i r e f i l t e r system, t h e n , i s designed t o g i v e u s a source of p o t e n t i a l j u s t a s c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l i n g t h a t which would be obtained from a b a t t e r y a s can be had, and i n order t o have t h a t form of energy f rom a widely varying p u l s a t i n g c u r r e n t our f i l t e r system must perform c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s . When a c u r r e n t changing i n value i s passed through t h e choke c o i l s an electromagnetic f i e l d i s s e t up about t h e windings of t h e c o i l s and t e n d s o t o prevent any change i n the c u r r e n t flowing through it. N w r i g h t h e r e i s where condenser C 1 of Figure 8 begins t o work. The c u r r e n t , being Lesson 51

- sheet 6

opposed by the choke c o i l , f i n d s i n condenser C 1 what might be called a reservoir i n t o which it flows, s w r i n g up u n t i l a change takes place t h a t w i l l permit $ t s r e t u r n t o the c i r c u i t . This change takes place just as soon as the pulse of current has reached i t s maximum o r peak value.

The l i n e s of force which were b u i l t up about the choke c o i l during the r i s e i n value of the pulse of current now collapse on t h e choke c o i l windings and t h i s time they tend t o promote current flow. Condenser C 1 now gives up t o t h e c i r c u i t the current i t stored during the increase of the current pulse, thus tending t o continue the curra&t f l o w on the tirc u i t a f t e r the pulse from t h e r e c t i f i e r has decreased t o zero. Condenser C 1 then a c t s a s a r e s e r v o i r absorbing energy during the r i s e of the curr e n t wave and returning it t o t h e c i r c u i t a t t h e lower values of the decreasfng current wave, thus tending t o maintain a more nearly constant f l o w of current i r r e s p e c t i v e of varying l o a d conditions. Condenser C a l s o goes through a process of s t o r i n g and releasing energy 2 but i t s chief function i s t o suppress any remaining current variations, thus eliminating the hum by a f u r t h e r smoothing out of t h e current as passed t o i t from t h e f i r s t choke and condenser C 1 . In practice it has 2 been found t h a t the c i r c u i t functions best when both C 1 and C a r e made equal i n value. Condenser C 3 is a t h i r d e l e c t r i c a l storage house and Punctions t o supply the receiver with a d d i t i o n a l energy when required; f o r example, when a frequency which produces the bass notes of t h e lower r e g i s t e r passes through the tubes more p l a t e current i s necessary t o f a i t h f u l l y reproduce such notes. Condenser C3 therefore functions a t t h i s p a r t of the work and supplies the required energy. W have, then, i n t h e f i l t e r system a e device which changes the widely f l u c t u a t i n g unidirectional pulses i n t o a smooth d i r e c t current and a l s o stores up energy t o be released i n t o the c i r c u i t as i t i s required. By means of t h e f i l t e r , t h e t h i r d part of the eliminator, w now have e D.C. a t a voltage s u f f i c i e n t l y high t o operate a power tube which requires the greatest plate energy of any tube employed i n the receiver. This energy, however, i s too great t o be supplied t o t h e radio-frequency tubes, t h e detector, and possibly the f i r s t audio-frequency tube. This brings us t o t h e f o u r t h part of the eliminator c i r c u i t , a p a r t known as the voltage divider, which i s shown i n Figure 4. This p a r t of the u n i t i s simply a s e r i e s of resistance u n i t s connected across the output of the f i l t e r c i r c u i t with taps taken off a t t h e proper places, thus u t i l i z i n g the voltage drop across the correct amount of resistance t o be applied t o the p l a t e s of the tubes i n t h e receiver. The voltage divider can be one continuous winding of resistance wire with t aps taken off a t various points, o r adjustable r e s i s t o r s may take t h e place of fixed res i s t o r u n i t s , thus making possible a close adjustment of t2E voltages required. The value of these r e s i s t o r s i s dependent upon t h e current required by t h e tubes they supply. Values of the various r e s i s t o r s are shown i n Figure 6. Resistor R 1 may be an adjustable r e s i s t o r having a range from Lesson 51

- sheet. 7

10,000 t o 100,000 ohms, R 2 may be approximately 10,000 ohms, while R 3 may be a v a r i a b l e r e s i s t o r having a range from 2,000 t o 10,000 ohms r e sistance.

D i r e c t Current E l i m i n a t o r s

where d i r e c t c u r r e n t i s a v a i l a b l e a s a source of pow%r, t h e e l i m i n a t o r * problem i s g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d a s t h e r e i s no power transformer involved i n the c i r c u i t and the e l i m i n a t o r comprises simply a f i l t e r c i r c u i t , 'the f u n c t i o n of which i s t o e l i m i n a t e t h e commutator r i p p l e of t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t generator supplying t h e l i n e from which the e l i m i n a t o r power i s taken. The voltage d i v i d e r operates on the same p r i n c i p l e a s i n any type of Elimlnat or.

Figure 9

An e l i m i n a t o r c i r c u i t f o r supplying p l a t e p o t e n t i a l only i s shown i n Figure 9; approximately 90 v o l t s i s the maximum voltage obtainable due t o t h e l o s s e s i n the f i l t e r c i r c u i t , t h e g r e a t e s t l o s s of voltage occurring i n t h e choke c o i l . If more t h a n 90 v o l t s i s required, 45 v o l t "B" b a t t e r y blocks may be connected i n t h e p o s i t i v e l e g of t h e c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 10.
Figure 10 shows a d i r e c t c u r r e n t e l i m i n a t o r designed f o r " A " and "B" power. Since t h e device i s operating from a d i r e c t c u r r e n t l i n e of 110 v o l t s t h e l o s s e s of the system w i l l reduce t h e a v a i l a b l e voltage a t p o i n t B + t o approximately 90 o r 100 v o l t s , t h e r e f o r e i f more voltage i s r e quired i t i s a simple matter t o connect 45 v o l t heavy d u t y "B" b a t t e r y block u n i t s i n t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e output u n t i l t h e value r e q u i r e d
X.

; 6
Figure 10

A+

Lesson 51

sheet 8

t o operate t h e tube used i n t h e power s t a g e i s r e a c h e d . The values of tlr: r e s i s t a n c e s R and R 1 w i l l depend upon t h e t o t a l amount of current i n amperes t h a t t h e tube f i l a m e n t s of the s e t draw, and t h e n u s e t h e proper r e s i s t a n c e i n ohms. For f i v e UX 2 0 1 A type t u b e s the values given are c o r r e c t . Place a voltmeter a c r o s s t h e "A" source a s shown; i f i t r e a d s over 5 v o l t s a d j u s t R and R 1 u n t i l 5 v o l t s i s read. The precautions when u s i n g t h i s type of e l i m i n a t o r a r e : (1) Always connect a f i x e d condenser having a c a p a c i t y value of a t l e a s t 0.5 mfd. i n s e r i e s with the ground l e a d of t h e r e c e i v e r . ( 2 ) Make s u r e t h e antenna i s f r e e ( 3 ) See t h a t e l l t h e tubes a r e p r o p e r l y from any p o s s i b i l i t y of grounding. seated i n t h e sockets. ( 4 ) Do not remove a tube from i t s socket u n t i l a f t e r the f i l a m e n t switch of t h e set has been opened. Chemical R e c t i f i e r The chemical, o r e l e c t r o l y t i c r e c t i f i e r , i s one t h a t employs a chemical s o l u t i o n i n which two d i s s i m i l a r metals a r e immersed. One of these metals a c t s a s a conductor t o b r i n g t h e c u r r e n t i n c o n t a c t with t h e chemical s o l u t i o n ( e l e c t r o l y t e ); t h e o t h e r metal i s c a l l e d t h e "valve metal" because it allows c u r r e n t t o pass i n one d i r e c t i o n only. There a r e a are aluminumber of metals s u i t a b l e a s a valve e l e c t r o d e , a few of ~ f h i c h num, t u n g s t e n , magnesium and bismuth. The o t h e r e l e c t r o d e niay be any i n e r t metal which i s n o t s u b j e c t t o a t t a c k by t h e e l e c t r o l y t e , f o r example, l e a d or i r o n . The l e a d e l e c t r o d e has no p a r t i n the r e c t i f i c a t i o n a c t i o n o t h e r t h a n o f f e r i n g a means t o l e a d t h e c u r r e n t i n t o the e l e c t r o l y t e . The e l e c t r o d e a c t i n g as t h e "valve e l e c t r o d e " i s always connected t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e f i l t e r system when the r e c t i f i e r i s used f o r vacuum tube p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n . Where t h i s type of r e c t i f i e r i s employed a s a t r i c k l e charger t h e valve e l e c t r o d e i s always connected t o t h e p o s i t i v e terminal of t h e b a t t e r y t o b e charged. The two metals most commonly employed a r e aluminum, which i s the valve metal, and l e a d a s the e l e c t r o d e t o lead t h e c u r r e n t i n t o t h e e l e c t r o l y t e . When aluminum and lead a r e used a s the e l e c t r o d e s t h e e l e c t r o l y t e i s made by d i s o l v i n g ammonium phosphate, or common Borax, i n d i s t i l l e d w a t e r , combining t h e c r y s t a l s w i t h t h e d i s t i l l e d water u n t i l the s a t u r a t i o n p o i n t has been reached; the point of s a t u r a t i o n i s reached when t h e c r y s t a l s w i l l no longer d i s o l v e and combine with t h e water. The s o l u t i o n should be mixed i n an e a r t h e r ware container and, when thoroughly mixed, t h e c l e a r l i q u i d poured i n t o t h e c o n t a i n e r s used a s r e c t i f i e r j a r s or c e l l s .
It i s v e r y important t h a t t h e water and the chemical used be pure; i .e., f r e e from f o r e i g n substances. I m p u r i t i e s such a s c h l o r i n e w i l l , i f combined w i t h t h e water used i n t h e e l e c t r o l y t e , r e t a r d t h e r e c t i f y i n g a c t i o n and may s t o p it e n t i r e l y . Since c i t y water i s i n many i n s t a n c e s t r e a t e d w i t h c h l o r i n e it should never be used. D i s t i l l e d o r f i l t e r e d r a i n water only i s t h e b e s t t o use i n t h e e l e c t r o l y t i c r e c t i f i e r . The aluminum e l e c t r o d e should be pure aluminum. The commercial grade may prove s a t i s f a c t o r y but i n many i n s t a n c e s i t w i l l not because of t r a c e s of copper which i t may c o n t a i n and which w i l l cause the e l e c t r o d e t o overheat. The j a r s should never be e n t i r e l y enclosed; a f r e e c i r c u l a t i o n of a i r around each j a r i s necessary t o prevent t h e u n i t a s a whole from overheating.

Lesson 51

- sheet 9

The p r i n c i p a l upon which the e l e c t r o l y t i c r e c t ' l f i e r operates i s by v i r t u e

of a f i l m of bubbles which forms on t h e aluminum e l e c t r o d e ( the valve metal i n t h i s i n s t a n c e ) . T h i s f i l m i s an i n s u l a t o r and forms a d i e l e c t r i c between t h e aluminum p l a t e and t h e e l e c t r o l y t e . Since the aluminum and t h e e l e c t r o l y t e a r e b o t h conductors a condenser e f f e c t i s formed by t h e f i l m , t h e i n s u l a t i n g p r o p e r t y of which i s dependent upon t h e amount of gas covering t h e aluminum e l e c t r o d e . This f i l m a c t i n g a s t h e d i e l e c t r i c about the aluminum e l e c t r o d e prevents c u r r e n t from flowing through the device when the aluminum e l e c t r o d e i s made p o s i t i v e by one h a l f cycle of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . m e n t h e l e a d e l e c t r o d e i s made p o s i t i v e by t h e next a l t e r n a t i o n t h e f i l m does not form a t e i t h e r e l e c t r o d e thus allowing a f r e e path f o r the c u r r e n t t o flow.

RF 8t

DET.

The advantage of t h e e l e c t r o l y t i c r e c t i f i e r l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t t h e voltage drop w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n load i s l e s s t h a n o t h e r types of r e c t i f i e r s due t o t h e low i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c e l l s . It i s objection a b l e , however, f r o n t h e standpoint of i t s s i z e and t h e care necessary f o r i t s up-keep. Figure 1 shows a n e i g h t c e l l e l e c t r o l y t i c r e c t i f i e r u n i t w i t h i t s 1 a s s o c i a t e d f i l t e r system and voltage d i v i d e r . The r e s i s t o r s of t h e v o l t age d i v i d e r may be any of t h e commercial forms of v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e s made f o r t h e work. Metallic R e c t i f i e r s The m e t a i l i c c o n t a c t r e c t i f i e r s are d i f f e r e n t from a l l o t h e r types. They c o n s i s t of a number of prepared p l a t e s of a s p e c i a l copper a l l o y which a r e pressed t o g e t h e r h y d r a u l i c a l l y and t h e n b o l t e d t o i n s u r e a s near a s p o s s i b l e a p e r f e c t c l o s e contact between t h e d i f f e r e n t p l a t e s . The t h e o r y of operation regarding t h i s type of' r e c t i f i e r i s based on c e r t a i n phases of t h e e l e c t r o n theory. I n any body of metal t h e r e a r e a few e l e c t r o n s which a r e f r e e t o s h i f t Lesson 5 1

- sheet

10

about, the number a b l e t o change i n p o s i t i o n depending upon t h e metal. These f r e e e l e c t r o n s move i n an e l e c t r o n i c f i e l d and may t r a v e l only a s h o r t d i s t a n c e from t h e s u r f a c e of t h e metal and &e t h e n drawn back. The t h e o r y of one way c o n d u c t i v i t y i s based upon t h i s e l e c t r o n i c f i e l d produced by t h e d i f f e r e n t a l l o y s used t o make up t h e p l a t e s of t h e r e c t m . If t h e e l e c t r o n i c f i e l d of one i s more dense t h a n t h e o t h e r , e l e c t r o n s w i l l pass with comparative ease toward t h e metal having the more dense o r s t r o n g e r f i e l d , while they w i l l be prevented from reaching t h e p l a t e having t h e l e s s dense o r weaker e l e c t r o n i c f i e l d . The a c t u a l passage of t h e e l e c t r o n s t a k e p l a c e only a t t h e j u n c t i o n p o i n t where t h e two e l e c t r o n i c f i e l d s meet and, a s t h e e l e c t r o n can move only an extremely s h o r t d i s t a n c e from t h e s u r f a c e of t h e metal, perhaps l e s s t h a n a h a l f m i l l i o n t h p a r t of a n inch, a p e r f e c t m e t a l l i c contect must be maintained between t h e a l l o y p l a t e s . The Vibrating R e c t i f i e r
T h e v i b r a t i n g r e c t i f i e r i s a mechanical device f o r changing a l t e r n a t i n g

TO (10 VOLTS

A.C. CURRENT
SUPPLY

L I N E SWITCH--'

Figure 12 c u r r e n t t o a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l c u r r e n t f o r b a t t e r y charging purposes. T h i s t y p e of charger i s used p r i n c i p a l l y f o r charging 6 and 12 v o l t storage "A" b a t t e r i e s .

A s t e p down t r a n s f o r m e r , shavn i n Figure 12, i s incorporated i n the device f o r reducing t h e v o l t a g e of t h e house l i g h t i n g system t o a proper value. The transformer not only s t e p s down t h e voltage b u t , by means of a c e n t e r t a p t a k e n off t h e secondary winding, it provides a r e t u r n f o r t h e r e c t i f i & D.C. c u r r e n t .

When connected t o t h e b a t t e r y and w i t h t h e l i n e switch closed, the c u r r e n t f l o w s from one end of t h e secondary windin@;of t h e transformer through t h e r e g u l a t i n g r e s i s t a n c e , through one s e t of c o n t a c t s CC which c l o s e a t t h e c o r r e c t i n s t a n t , thence t o t h e c e n t e r p o i n t of t h e moving armature from which i t passes t o the p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l of t h e b a t t e r y under charge. T h i s completes one a l t e r n a t i o n . During t h e next a l t e r n a t i o n of the cycle t h e voltage of t h e second'ary winding i s r e v e r s e d ; t h i s time c u r r e n t flows Lesson 51

- sheet 11

from the other half of t h e secondary winding through the regulating res i s t a n c e t o the other set of contacts C 1 C 1 t o the center of the moving amnature, and t h e n t o t h e positive terminal of the b a t t e r y . The e f f i c i e n t operation of t h i s device i s dependent upon a vibrating mechanism which opens and closes contacts CC and C 1 C 1 exactly i n synchronism with the voltage r e v e r s a l s so t h a t t h e current carrying c i r c u i t t o the b a t t e r y i s opened a t the time t h e current flow i s zero. The vibrating part of the system consists of a polarized r e l a y which i s caused t o function by two a l t e r n a t i n g current magnets i n such a manner t h a t i t moves backward and forward i n s t e p with the a l t e r n a t i o n s of the current. The bar marked D,C. magnet i s energized by a c o i l which i s connected i n shunt t o the b a t t e r y so t h a t i t s p o l a r i t y never changes. The two permanant electro-magnets shown a s A.C. magnets are wound i n such n a way t h a t the ends PP a r e of the same p o l a r i t y a t the same time. O one a l t e r n a t i o n the current flows through t h e A.C. magnet windings i n one d i r e c t i o n and, w w i l l say, cau,ses the ends PP t o become of north polarity. e With t h i s condition e x i s t i n g the south end of the D . C . magnet w i l l be

magnets of north p o l a r i t y and since t h e arm marked a t t r a c t e d t o t h e A.C "moving armature" i s r i g i d l y secured a t t h e center point of the D.C. magnet (one end of *ich has now been a t t r a c t e d toward the A.C. electromagnets) one s e t of contacts w i l l close. When the A.C. current r e v e r s e s on the succeeding a l t e r n a t i o n both the A.C. electromagnet ends PP w i l l become of south p o l a r i t y and then the n o r t h end of t h e D.C. magnet w i l l be a t t r a c t e d toward the permanant A.C. magnets, thus closing the other s e t of contacts secured t o the moving armature. This w i l l reverse t h e connection of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g current c i r c u i t t o t h e d i r e c t current c i r c u i t , but the d i r e c t i o n of current has a l s o reversed t h e r e f o r e the current flows i n t o the c i r c u i t supplying the b a t t e r y a s i t did on t h e f i r s t alternation. The contacts CC and C 1 C 1 are thus opened and closed each time the curr e n t reverses i n a r e c t i o n and, because of t h i s , a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l pulsating current i s continually f e d i n t o the battery i n t h e proper direction. i A adjustable r e s i s t a n c e i s provided and c o ~ e c t e d n s e r i e s w i t h the a l t e r n nating current magnets s o t h a t e x a c t timing f o r t h e opening of the d i r e c t Lesson 51

- sheet 1 2

c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g c i r c u i t i s secured a t t h e i n s t a n t when t h e b a t t e r y and transformer voltages a r e opposite and e q u a l and no c u r r e n t flowing. T h i s tends t o i n s u r e a minimum amount of sparking a t t h e contact points. The condensers a r e connected a c r o s s t h e c o n t a c t s t o f u r t h e r a s s i s t i n reducing t h e sparking a t t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e s due t o a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e l i n e volt age. The Hot Cathode Gas F i l l e d R e c t i f i e r Figure 13 shows t h e connections of a h a l f wave r e c t i f i e r i n which i s employed t h e "hot cathode type r e c t i f i e r " . It c o n s i s t s of t h e tube w i t h cathode and anode. The cathode c o n s i s t s of a f i l a m e n t of small t u n g s t e n

Figure 1 5

Figure 1 4 wire c o i l e d i n t o a c l o s e l y wound s p i r a l , w h i l e t h e anode i s a p l a t e made of g r a p h i t e which i s secured t o 6 r o d by m a n s of a ecrew thread.

A transformer and a compensator, w i t h which i s combined t h e f i l a m e n t transformer and r e a c t a n c e , i s a l s o a p a r t of t h i s r e c t i f i e r u n i t . The

compensator i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n the drawing as an a d j u s t a b l e r e s i s t a n c e . This r e s i s t a n c e i s not a c t u a l l y used i n p r a c t i c e , but we have shown it i n place of the compensator f o r t h e purpose of s i m p l i f y i n g t h e drawing. An i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e r e c t i f y i n g tube i s shown i n F i g u r e 14. When f u l l wave r e c t i f i c a t i o n i s d e s i r e d t h e c i r c u i t shown i n F i g u r e 15, which i s i n simple form, i s employed.

For a number of y e a r s s c i e n t i s t s have known t h a t a vacuum tube containing a hot and a cold e l e c t r o d e f u n c t i o n s a s a r e c t i f i e r and it w a s from t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s t h a t t h e Tungar Hot Cathode gas f i l l e d r e c t i f i e r was developed.
A vacuum i s c r e a t e d i n the g l a s s envelop containing t h e Cathode and Anode

Lesson 5 1

- sheet 13

and t h e n a small q u a n t i t y of i n e r t gas (Argon), a t low p r e s s u r e , i s i n comes from t h e Greek, meaning l a z y o r i n a c t i v e , troduced. The name n ~ r g o n n because it coabines w i t h no other element. E l e c t r o n s a r e e m i t t e d from t h e cathode when i t i s heated t o incandescence, i o n i z i n g t h e argon gas p a r t i c l e s which i n t h i s s t a t e a c t s a s the p r i n c i p a l c u r r e n t c a r r i e r . R e c t i f i c a t i o n t a k e s place because, on t h e h a l f c y c l e , when t h e g r a p h i t e anode i s p o s i t i v e t h e e l e c t r o n s e m i t t e d from t h e incandesent cathode a r e being drawn toward t h e Anode due t o t h e voltage impres& ed a c r o s s the anode and cathode by t h e secondary of t h e transformer. The e l e c t r o n s c o l l i d e w i t h the gas molecules and i o n i z e t h e m ; t h a t i s , make them conductive i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of Anode t o Cathode. During the o t h e r h a l f c y c l e when t h e Anode i s n e g a t i v e , e l e c t r o n s t h a t a r e emitted a r e f o r c e d back t o t h e filament so t h a t t h e gas ctoes n o t f o m a conducting p a t h during t h a t half c y c l e . Assume, f o r example, t h a t s i d e C , Figure 13, of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t supply i s p o s i t i v e , t h e c u r r e n t t h e n follows t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e arrows through t h e b a t t e r y b e i n g charged, through t h e compensator, shown a s a r h e o s t a t i n t h e Figure, t o t h e Anode, across t h e vacuum made p o s s i b l e by t h e i o n i z e d gas, t o t h e cathode and thence r e t u r n s t o t h e opposite s i d e of the a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t l i n e .
,---TRbNSFORMER VOLTAGE

Figure 16 N w t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t supply r e v e r s e s and t h e s i d e D becomes p o s i t i v e ; o t h e c u r r e n t w i l l be prevented from flowing because any e l e c t r o n s e m i t t e d a r e now yanked back t o t h e cathode s o t h a t t h e g a s i n t h e tube i s nonconductive during t h i s i n t e r v a l . From the f o r g o i n g w s e e t h a t the c u r r e n t i s allowed t o pass from t h e e Anode t o t h e Cathode d u r i n g one a l t e r n a t i o n of each c y c l e and thence t o the external c i r c u i t . The p r i n c i p l e on which t h e s t o r a g e b a t t e r y i s charged from t h i s type of r e c t i f i e r i s g r a p h i c a l l y shown I n Figure 16. The i l l u s t r a t i o n shows one cycle of half wave r e c t i f i c a t i o n . During t h e upper h a l f of t h e c y c l e , when t h e transformer voltage exceeds t h e b a t t e r y v o l t a g e , p o i n t A , t h e Anode of t h e tube becomes p o s i t i v e making t h e tube conductive and t h e charging c u r r e n t flows through t h e b a t t e r y . When t h e transformer voltage drops below t h e b a t t e r y voltage, p o i n t B, t h e t u b e i s no longer conductive and t h e charging c u r r e n t ceases
,
\

Lesson 51

- s h e e t 14

on the lower half of t h e a l t e r n a t i o n . The transformer voltage adds t o the b a t t e r y voltage and since the Anode does not become p o s i t i v e , the tube cannot conduct current.
A r e c t i f i e r , then, i s a device f o r converting a l t e r n a t i n g current t o unidirectional current.

The f u l l wave r e c t i f i e r u t i l i z e s both a l t e r n a t i o n s of the a l t e r n a t i n g current cycle. Both the positive and negative impulse of the cycle pass through the r e c t i f i e r .
The half wave r e c t i f i e r r e c t i f i e s only one of the a l t e r n a t i o n s , therefore only one impulse of current passes through it f o r each f u l l cycle of a l t e r n a t i n g current. The other a l t e r n a t i o n i s not l o s t but simply prevented from passing through t h e r e c t i f i e r t o t h e output c i r c u i t .
EXAMINATION

- LESSON 51

1 .

N m two types of eliminators. a e W y are a l t e r n a t i n g current eliminators i n g r e a t e r demand than D.C. h types? What i s the function of the transformer i n an eliminator? Name four types of r e c t i f i e r s . What i s meant by t h e term ( a ) Cathode? ( b ) Anode? What gas i s employed i n the gaseous r e c t i f i e r ? what name i s given ( a ) an Atom which i s minus an e l e c t r o n ( b ) one which has taken on an a d d i t i o n a l e l e c t r o n ?
O f what use i s a f i l t e r system?

I s the voltage d i v i d e r necessary? N m two types of b a t t e r y chargers. a e

' \

'~.,

Lesson 51

sheet 1 5

- ..
INC. firmedy.
MARCON/ /NST/TUTE

~unded. #O$

Technical Lesson 52
PRACTICAL RADIO C I R C U I T S

- - - PART I

The c i r c u i t t o be considered i n this lesson bears a marked resemblance t o t h a t of Lesson 48 insofar as it incorporates a vacuum tube detector which i s preceded by a stage of tuned radio-frequency amplification. The p l a t e (output) c i r c u i t of t h i s radio-frequency amplifier tube i s coupled t o the g r i d ( i n p u t ) c i r c u i t of the detector tube by a tuned radio-frequency . transformer, RFT2 i n Figure 1

PRIMARY OF A.F.TRANSFORMER

TO PHONES OR

Figure 1 m t h e r m o r e , i n order t o secure e f f i c i e n t t r a n s f e r of s i g n a l energy fkom the p l a t e c i r c u i t of the radio-frequency amplifier tube t o the tuned g r i d c i r c u i t of the detector tube, and i n t h i s way insure good amplification, r a t h e r t i g h t coupling i s provided between the primary and secondary windings of t h i s transformer. Inasmuch as t h i s i s hlghly conducive t o oscill a t i o n i n the radio-frequency amplifier tube ( f 07 reasons already s e t f o r t h i n preceding lessons) means must be provided which w i l l preclude the p o s s i b i l i t y of o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h i s tube. This i s accomplished, a s i n the preceding lesson, by adjusting the c i r c u i t t o a condition aP e l e c t r i c a l balance; i.e., by s t a b i l i z i n g i t . A s i n t h e preceding lesson, t h i s i s done by introducing i n t o the g r i d c i r c u i t of the ractio-frequency amplif i e r tube a s t a b i l i z i n g voltage which i s equal t o the troublesome feedback voltage taking place through t h e inherent plate- grid capacity oP the tube. Moreover, t h i s s t a b i l i z i n g voltage i s of opposite p o l a r i t y t o t h a t of the feed-back voltage and, being equal t o i t i n strength, thus completely Contents Copyrighted 1930 Printed in U.S.A.

counter- acts t h e u n d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t of t h e p l a t e - g r i d c a p a c i t y . Inasmuch a s t h i s feed-back voltage i s t h e cause of o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e radio-frequency a m p l i f i e r , counter- acting i t i n t h i s manner removes t h e cause of o s c i l l a t i o n , and s t a b i l i t y of o p e r a t i o n r e s u l t s .

I n t h e c i r c u i t of t h i s r e c e i v e r , however, t h e method of s e c u r i n g t h i s v e r y necessary s t a b i l i z i n g voltage and t h e manner i n which it i s a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube d i f f e r s from the method u t i l i z e d i n t h e r e c e i v e r of t h e preceding lesson. A l t h o w g h these two c i r c u i t s seek t o achieve t h e same o b j e c t i v e ; i r e . , s t a b l e , n o n - o s c i l l a t i n g o p e r a t i o n of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e , t h e manner i n which t h i s o b j e c t i v e i s a t t a i n e d i n the c i r c u i t of t h i s Lesson d i f f e r s s u f f i c i e n t l y from t h a t of Lesson 48 t o s e t it a p a r t a s a d i s t i n c t i v e method of s t a b i lization.
A glance a t Figure 2, o r Figure 3, i n Lesson 48 r e v e a l s t h a t in t h e receiver of that l e s s o n t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage i s 9ecured by coupling t h e c o i l S t o t h e primary P of t h e tuned i n t e r - s t a g e radio- frequency transformer.

T h i s s t a b i l i z i n g v o l t a g e i s t h e n a p p l i e d t o the g r i d of t h e radio-frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e through t h e condenser C s , and inasmuch as t h i s condenser i s v a r i a b l e it enables t h e u s e r t o ad j u s t t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage t h u s secured t o e x a c t l y t h e c o r r e c t value f o r completd s t a b i l i z a t i o n . The f u n c t i o n i n g of t h i s c i r c u i t was d e s c r i b e d i n some d e t a i l i n Lesson 48 and a b r i e f summary of i t s method of s e c u r i n g and applying t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage may be made a s follows: The s t a b i l i z i n g voltage i s secured by i n d u c t i v e coupling t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e , and it i s then a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d of t h i s tube through c a p a c i t i v e coupling. Let u s now t u r n our a t t e n t i o n t o t h e method of s e c u r i n g and applying t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage i n t h e c i r c u i t used i n t h e r e c e i v e r of t h i s lesson.
A glance a t Figure 1 w l l l r e v e a l t h a t t h i s c i r c u i t i n c o r p o r a t e s the u s u a l

s t a g e of tuned radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n . To t h i s fundamental c i r c u i t has been added a s m a l l v a r i a b l e condenser, C s , and a c o i l , Lp. T h i s condenser and c o i l i s t o enable u s t o secure s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e radiofrequency a m p l i f i e r . It w i l l be noted t h a t t h e condenser, C s , i s ccarnected from t h e p l a t e of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube t o one t e r m i n a l of t h e c o i l Lp, t h e o t h e r t e r m i n a l of t h i s c o i l being connected t o the f i l a ment c i r c u i t . Thus, a p a t h i s provided f o r t h e flow of radio- frequency c u r r e n t from t h e p l a t e of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e through cond e n s e r C s and c o i l Lp t o f i l a m e n t . Whenever t h e g r i d of t h i s t u b e i s a c t u a t e d by t h e voltage of a n incoming s i g n a l t h e r e w i l l b e a corresponding, and g r e a t l y amplified, flow of r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h i s t u b e , and some of t h i s amplified s i g n a l energy w i l l flow through condenser Cs and c o i l Lp t o filament

As c o i l Lp i s c l o s e l y coupled t o t h e g r i d c o i l Lg, any flow of radio-

frequency c u r r e n t through c o i l Lp w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e i n d u c t i o n of voltages i n the g r i d c o i l Lg. These v o l t a g e s t h u s induced i n c o i l Lg by t h e flow of radio- frequency c u r r e n t through c o i l Lp w i l l , a t any given i n s t a n t , Lesson 52

- sheet 2

be of opposite p o l a r i t y t o t h e feed-back v o l t a g e caused by the t u b e l s p l a t e - g r i d capacity. Here, then, we have a s t a b i l i z i n g v o l t a g e and a l l t h a t remains i s t o a d j u s t it t o a value e q u a l t o t h a t of t h e troublesome feed-back v o l t a g e due t o t h e t u b e ' s p l a t e - g r i d capacity. T h i s can be done by adjustment of t h e small v a r i a b l e condenser, C s . Inasmuch a s t h i s s t a b i l i z i n g condenser i s i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e c o i l Lp i t s c a p a c i t i v e r e a c t a n c e , a s d e t e r mined by i t s c a p a c i t y , w i l l l i m i t t h e amount of radio- frequency c u r r e n t flowing through c o i l Lp. Therefore, a s t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage induced i n t h e g r i d c o i l Lg i s p r i n c i p a l l y determined by t h e amount of radio- frequency c u r r e n t flowing i n c o i l Lp, t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser, C s , i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s t r e n g t h of t h i s c u r r e n t , s e r v e s a s a means of a d j u s t i n g t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage t o t h e c o r r e c t value; i.e., t o a value equivalent t o t h e u n d e s i r a b l e feed-back voltage caused by t h e p l a t e - g r i d c a p a c i t y of t h e tube. This d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e method employed i n t h i s c i r c u i t t o secure and apply t h e n e c e s s a r y s t a b i l i z i n g v o l t a g e can b e summed up a s follows: The s t a b i l i z i n g voltage i s obtained by c a p a c i t i v e coupling t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e and t h i s voltage i s t h e n the necessary a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d of t h e t u b e by i n d u c t i v e coupling v a r i a t i o n of t h i s s t a b i l i z i n g voltage being acccanplished by adjustment of t h e coupling c a p a c i t y , C s .

From t h i s i t can b e r e a d i l y a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t t h e method of securing and applying t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage i n t h i s c i r c u i t i s q u i t e t h e r e v e r s e of t h e method employed i n t h e r e c e i v e r of Lesson 48. I n t h e c i r c u i t of Lesson 48 an approximately c o r r e c t value of s t a b i l i z i n g voltage i s secured by i n d u c t i v e coupling t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube. I n the c i r c u i t of t h i s Lesson t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage i s secured by c a p a c i t i v e coupling t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e radio- frequency amplif i e r tube. B thermore, i n t h e c i r c u i t of Lesson 48 t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage was a p p l i e d t o t h e gFid of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube by coupling; whereas, i n t h e c i r c u i t of t h f s l e s s o n i t i s applied through i n d u c t i v e coupling. Thus, it i s apparent t h a t s t a b i l i z a t i o n i n this c i r c u i t i s achieved i n a manner q u i t e t h e opposite of t h a t i n Lesson
48.

T h i s method of s t a b i l i z i n g a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r i s somewhat modified i n i t s commercial a p p l i c a t i o n a s incorporated i n manufactured r e c e i v e r s ( s u c h a s t h e Radiola 2 0 ) and t h i s change i s shown i n t h e wiring diagram of FLgure 2.

The g r i d c o i l , Lg, and t h e p l a t e c o i l , Lp, must be c l o s e l y coupled and

t o secure t h i s necessary closeness of coupling t h e s e two c o i l s a r e wound end t o end on t h e same winding fomn; a s a m a t t e r of f a c t , t h e y have t h e appearance of a s i n g l e c o i l w i t h a t a p a t t h e proper p o i n t f o r t h e f i l a ment connection, F. Furthermore, t h e tuning condenser, C , i s connected a c r o s s both c o i l s and, t h e r e f o r e , b o t h Lg and Lp form a p a r t of the r e sonant c i r c u i t , Lg Lp C , by which it i s p o s s i b l e t o t u n e t h e input of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e t o t h e incoming s i g n a l . By t h u s combining c o i l Lp t o form a p a r t of t h e resonant c i r c u i t , t h e expense of manufacturi n g and i n s t a l l i n g a s e p a r a t e c o i l f o r Lp i s saved; and inasmuch a s the Lesson 52

- sheet

c o i l formed by t h e s e combined p l a t e (Lp) and grid (Lg) windings i s smaller and more compact, a f u r t h e r econonly i s effected from the standpoint of conservation of space. However, despite the f a c t t h a t the p l a t e c o i l , Lp, has been combined with the g r i d c o i l , Lg, t o form, i n conjunction w i t h condenser C , a tuned c i r c u i t , i t s o r i g i n a l purpose remains unchanged from t h a t shown i n Figure 1; namely, t o introduce i n t o t h e grid c i r c u i t of the radio-frequency amplif i e r tube a s t a b i l i z i n g voltage controllable by condenser C s . The t o t a l inductance of t h e c o i l composed of the t w o windings Lg and Lp i s determined, i n conjunction with condenser C , by t h e wavelength range t o be covered i n t h i s instance 200 t o 550 meters. I n other words, the

Figure 2 combined inductance of t h e s e t w o windings must be of such a value t h a t when the condenser C i s varied between i t s minimum and maximum values of capacity t h i s c i r c u i t w i l l be resonated t o minimum and maximum wavelengths of 200 and 550 meters respectively. With the inductance of the c o i l , Lg Lp, fixed a t a d e f i n i t e value by su& wavelength range considerations, the r e l a t i v e s i z e s of t h e t w o sections of the c o i l w i l l be determined by the filament t a p , F; and, furthermore, t h e position of t h i s t a p w i l l a l s o determine the mount of capacity necessary i n t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser, Gs, necessary t o e f f e c t s t a b i l i z a t i o n . P r a c t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l considerations have shown t h a t t h i s tap, F, preferably should be placed a t the center of t h e g r i d c o i l , thus making s e c t i o n Lp equal t o s e c t i o n Lg. When Lp i s t h u s made equal t o Lg the radio-frequency amplifier tube can be s t a b i l i z e d by adjusting the capacity of the s t a b i l i z i n g condenser, Cs, t o a value approximately equal t o t h e plate- grid capacity of the tube.

The manner i n which the r e l a t i v e values of Lg and Lp e f f e c t the capacity of condenser C s i s shown by the simple equation:
Lesson 52

- sheet

T h i s equation verS'f%es t h e statement just made t h a t i f Lg and Lp a r e e q u a l , t h e n condenser Cs must e q u a l t h e p l a t e - g r i d c a p a c i t y (Cpg) of t h e tube i n o r d e r t o secure t h e e l e c t r i c a l balance necessary t o prevent o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r . According t o t h i s same equation, should ? , t h e f i l a m e n t t a p , I be made a t such a p o i n t on t h e c o i l t h a t Lp would be, say, h a l f a s l a r g e a s Lg, t h e n i t would be n e c e s s a r y t o make t h e c a p a c i t y of C s twice a s l a r g e a s t h e t u b e ' s p l a t e - g r i d c a p a c i t y (Cpg) i n order t o secure s t a b i l i z a t i o n . The changes i n t h e w i r i n g of t h e r e c e i v e r necessary t o convert t h e c i r c u i t of Lesson 48 t o t h a t of Figure 2 i n t h i s Lesson a r e a s follows: Trace t h e w i r e leading from t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser t o t h e t a p on t h e secondary of t h e n disconnect t h i s w i r e from both instruments the three- circuit tuner and remove i t e n t i r e l y from t h e r e c e i v e r . The s t a b i l i z i n g condenser i s now disconnected from t h e g r i d of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube and connected i n s t e a d t o t h i s same t u b e r s p l a t e t e r m i n a l .

N w l e t u s turn our a t t e n t i o n t o radio- frequency transformer marked L1 i n o t h e * t p i c t u r e nwiring diagram of Lesson 36. On t h e r i g h t end of t h i s i n s t r u ment a r e t h r e e t e r m i n a l s . Mark t h e t o p one number 1 . A t t h e other end o f t h i s instrument a r e two t e r m i n a l s one of which i s shown without any conn e c t i o n . Mark t h i s one number 2. Trace t h e wire which l e a d s from termin a l number 1 on t h i s c o i l t o t h e negative "C" b a t t e r binding p o s t . T h i s wire should now be disconnected from t h e n e g a t i v e "CK b a t t e r y binding p o s t and connected i n s t e a d t o t h e r o t o r p l a t e of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser. A s i n t h e preceding Lesson o n l y one of t h e two s e t s of s t a t o r p l a t e s i n t h i s condenser a r e used and t h i s one s e t of s t a t o r p l a t e s should be connected t o t h e p l a t e t e r m i n a l of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube. An examinat i o n of t h i s same radio- frequency transformer w i l l r e v e a l t h a t t h e seconda r y winding i s tapped a t i t s c e n t e r and t h a t t h i s t a p i s connected t o t h e t e r m i n a l now d e s i g n a t e d a s number 2. A wire should now be connected from t h i s t e r m i n a l t o t h e n e g a t i v e "c" b a t t e r y binding p o s t .

T h i s completes the n e c e s s a r y changes i n t h e w i r i n g and t h e r e c e i v e r should novi be s t a b i l i z e d . This can be accomplished by e i t h e r of the two methods d e s c r i b e d i n Lesson 48. However, t h e method recommended i s t h a t i n which t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube remains l i g h t e d and t h e s t a b i l i z i n g s t a b i l i z a t i o n being condenser a d j u s t e d while t h i s tube i s o s c i l l a t i n g i n d i c a t e d when o s c i l l a t i o n ceases.

PART I1

The r e c e i v e r w i t h which w s h a l l d e a l i n t h i s p a r t o f ' t h e l e s s o n i s one e t h a t has won widespread approval. It h a s been p l a c e d before t h e p u b l i c i n the form of a r e ~ u l a r l y manufactured r e c e i v e r , and it has proved t o be popular among amateur s e t b u i l d e r s . It h a s a l s o been widely d i s t r i k t e d i n " k i t " form, and i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l q u a r t e r s i t h a s been t h e r e c i p i e n t of wholehearted endorsement and commendation. Such success i s w e l l deserved, Lesson 52

- sheet 5

f o r this type of r e c e i v e r i s by no means c o s t l y t o build; i t s construction is comparatively simple* it i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s e l e c t i v e t o meet any reasonable requirements and i t i s s e n s i t i v e and e a s i l y handled.
his type of r e c e i v e r has appeared under a v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t names, but t h e c i r c u i t upon which i t i s based remains t h e same. Various i n d i viduals have used t h i s c i r c u i t as a vehicle by which t o b r i n g t h e i r names within t h e s p o t l i g h t of p u b l i c i t y , but t h e i r "achievements w have been a l most i n v a r i a b l y limited t o minor v a r i a t i o n s i n i t s design. Seldom have they displayed genuine ingenuity, and i n no instance have they achieved a r e a l l y important improvement upon the fundamental c i r c u i t which incorporates a stage of tuned and s t a b i l i z e d radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n and a regenerative d e t e c t o r followed by two, and sometimes t h r e e , s t a g e s of audio-frequency amplification.

Like any standard c i r c u i t , t h i s one i s subject t o numerous v a r i a t i o n s which make themselves evident mostly i n matters of design and, i n t h i s c i r c u i t , such v a r i a t i o n s o f t e n make themselves evident i n t h e manner i n which the b a s i c p r i n c i p l e of s t a b i l i z a t i o n i s applied t o t h e stage of I n the receiver of t h i s p a r t of the tuned radio-frequency amplification. Lesson t h e stage of tuned radio- frequency amplification i s s t a b i l i z e d i n a manner d i f f e r i n g somewhat from the methods previously described.

In Figure 3 i s shown the b a s i c c i r c u i t of t h i s method of applying stabil i z a t i o n t o t h e radio- frequency amplifier tube. S t a b i l i z a t i o n i s secured by means of t h e small v a r i a b l e condenser, Cs, and t h e c o i l , Lp. The functioning of t h i s c o i l and condenser i s very s i m i l a r t o the corresponding c o i l and condenser i n Figure 1, as w i l l be evident from t h e following consideration. A p a r t of the radio-frequency current flowing i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e radio- frequency amplifier tube w i l l be d i v e r t e d through condenser C s and thence w i l l flow through c o i l Lp. This c o i l i s c l o s e l y coupled t o c o i l Lg and t h e r e f o r e t h e radio- frequency current flowing through c o i l Lp w i l l induce i n c o i l Lg voltages which a r e s u i t a b l e t o s t a b i l i z i n g purposes. Inasmuch a s condenser Cs i s v a r i a b l e it serves t o c o n t r o l the amount of radio- frequency current flowing through c o i l Lp and I n t h i s way r e g u l a t e s t h e amount of s t a b i l i z i n g voltage induced i n c o i l Lg. Therefore, by properly a d j u s t i n g t h e value of c a p a c i t y of condenser Cs t h i s s t a b i l i z i n g voltage can be r e g u l a t e d t o just the r i g h t value t o completely suppress o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e radio- frequency amplifier tube.
It i s not a t a l l necessary t o employ a separate c o i l f o r winding Lp; a s a matter of f a c t , a p o r t i o n of t h e winding Lg may be used f o r t h i s purpose, a s shown i n Figure 4.
Making t h e winding Lp a p a r t of c o i l Lg, and thus combining the two c o i l s i n t o one, does n o t i n the l e a s t change the functioning of winding Lp. Radio-frequency current flowing through winding Lp induces i n winding ~g a s t a b i l i z i n g voltage which is regulated t o the c o r r e c t value by adjustment of condenser C s . I n the a c t u a l c o i l used i n t h i s r e c e i v e r the c o i l i s divided i n t o s e c t i o n s Lg and Lp by a t a p taken o f f a t the center of the winding.

It w i l l now be necessary t o again r e f e r t o the " picture" diagram of Lesson

Lesson 52

- sheet 6

36.

Therein t h i s c o i l i s shown a s c o i l L1, and. t e r m b a l number 2 i s t h e mid-tap of t h e winding ( t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h i s c o i l being numbered i n accordance with t h e d i r e c t i o n s on s h e e t 5, paragraph 4, of t h i s l e s s o n ) .

The changes i n t h e w i r i n g of t h e preceding r e c e i v e r which a r e necessary t o convert i t t o t h e p r e s e n t c i r c u i t a r e a s follows: The s t a t o r p l a t e s of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser, C s , remain connected t o t h e p l a t e of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e , but t h e wire which i s connected t o t h e s t a t o r p l a t e of t h i s condenser should be disconnected therefrom and be t " connected i n ~ t e a d o t h e n e g a t i v e n ~ b a t t e r y binding p o s t . The wire which l e a d s from t h e mid-tap ( t e r m i n a l number 2 ) on c o i l L 1 t o t h e negative

Figure 3

PRIMARY OF A.F.TRANSFORMER

Figure 4 Lesson 52

- sheet 7

"c* b a t t e r y binding post should be disconnected from t h i s binding p o s t and connected i n s t e a d t o t h e r o t o r p l a t e of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser. The t i c k l e r c o i l should now be connected i n t o t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r tube. T h i s i s done by disconnecting t h e wire a t t a c h e d t o t h e p l a t e t e r m i n a l of t h e d e t e c t o r tube socket and connecting i t i n s t e a d t o one of t h e t i c k l e r c o i l t e r m i n a l s on t h e upper end of t h e t h r e e - c i r c u i t tuner. A wire i s now connected from t h e o t h e r t i c k l e r c o i l terminal t o t h e p l a t e t e r m i n a l of t h e d e t e c t o r tube socket.
The r e c e i v e r i s now ready t o be s t a b i l i z e d and t h i s i s done i n t h e manner described i n preceding l e s s o n s . B r i e f l y , a s t a t i o n i s tuned i n on t h e r e c e i v e r and t h e s t a b i l i z i n g condenser, C s , i s c a r e f u l l y a d j u s t e d u n t i l t h e squeal, which i s caused by o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e radio- frequency amplif i e r , disappears,
T h i s r e c e i v e r possesses a v e r y d e s i r a b l e advantage i n t h a t i t does n o t r a d i a t e even though t h e d e t e c t o r tube i s o s c i l l a t i n g . (See Lesson 32, sheet 5, paragraphs 1 t o 5 ) . I n any r e c e i v e r , i f a tube which i s coupled e i t h e r d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y t o t h e antenna i s allowed t o o s c i l l a t e , some of t h i s o s c i l l a t o r y c u r r e n t w i l l be t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e antenna by t h i s coupling between it and the o s c i l l a t i n g t u b e , and t h e radio- frequency

c u r r e n t t h u s introduced i n t o t h e antenna w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e r a d i a t i o n of

a weak r a d i o wave.
This can be overcome by employing a s t a g e of p r o p e r l y s t a b i l i z e d radiofrequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n between t h e antenna and t h e tube which i s l i a b l e t o o s c i l l a t e ( t h e d e t e c t o r tube i n t h i s i n s t a n c e ) . That t h i s i s so i s evident when one s t o p s t o c o n s i d e r t h a t s t a b i l i z a t i o n i s t h e e l e c t r i c a l balancing of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t i n order t o prevent excessive feed-back of r adio- frequency ( o s c i l l a t o r y ) energy from t h e plate t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t . Onee t h i s s t a t e of e l e c t r i c a l balance has been secured i t w i l l prevent feed- back from t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t t o the g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r tube, and it w i l l be e q u a l l y a s e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t o s c i l l a t o r y c u r r e n t produced by an o s c i l l a t i n g d e t e c t o r tube t o which t h e plate c i r c u i t of t h e s t a b i l i z e d radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e i s coupled. A l t h o w h t h e r a d i o wave r a d i a t e d from an o s c i l l a t i n g r e c e i v i n g tube i s weak it can, n e v e r t h e l e s s , cause s e r i o u s i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h o t h e r receivers over a considdrable area. Thus, i t can be r e a d i l y a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t i t i s a decided, and h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e , advantage t o block such o s c i l l a t o r y curr e n t from reaching t h e antenna e s p e c i a l l y i n t h i c k l y populated d i s t r i c t s where l a r g e numbers of r e c e i v e r s are found w i t h i n comparatively small a m .

Lesson 52

- sheet 8

EXAMINATION

- LESSON 52

1 .

W y i s s t a b i l i z a t i o n necessary? h

2.

What should be t h e s t r e n g t h of the s t a b i l i z i n g voltage as compared t o the s t r e n g t h of t h e feed-back voltage due t o t h e tube's plate- grid capacity? R e f e r r i q t o Figure 1 what i s t h e purpose of c o i l Lp? , What should be t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage a s r e l a t e d t o the feed-back voltage due t o t h e tubers plate- grid capacity? H w i s t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t a b i l i z i n g voltage adjusted t o the c o r r e c t o value i n the c i r c u i t of Figure 2? Descr-ibe b r i e f l y a method of adjusting a r e c e i v e r i n order t o s t a w e it.
I s the d e t e a t o r tube i n Figure 3 regenerative o r non-regenerative? why?

3.

4.

5.

6.
7.

8 .
9.
10.

Referring t o Figures 1 and 2, what i s t h e advantage of combining c o i l s Lp and Lg? H w i s regeneration secured i n the c i r c u i t of Figure 4? o What i s t h e advantage of employing a stage of s t a b i l i z e d radio-frequency amplification ahead of a d e t e c t o r which may p o s s i b l y o s c i l l a t e ?

Lesson 62

- sheet 9

I
1

INC.
firmer&+
M A R C O N / INSTITUTE

s u n d e d 1909

Technical Lesson 53
PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICALLY OPERATED TUNED R-F C I R C U I T S Inasmuch a s t h e Atwater-Kent Model 40 c i r c u i t i s t y p i c a l of s o many of t h e standard tuned radio- frequency r e c e i v e r s w s h a l l make use of i t t o d e s c r i b e e t h e various p r i n c i p l e s involved. A complete schematic diagram of t h e c i r c u i t and socket power u n i t i s shown i n Figure 1. Alternating- current tubes a r e used i n t h e r a d i o c i r c u i t and a full-wave r e c t i f y i n g tube i s employed f o r t h e power supply. The complete assembly of s e t s of t h i s type c o n s i s t s of t h e r e c e i v e r u n i t proper and t h e power pack b u i l t i n t o one compact u n i t on a metal c h a s s i s . The r e c e i v e r c o n s i s t s of two s t a g e s of radio- frequency amplif i c a t i o n i n conjunction w i t h an untuned antenna coupling c i r c u i t , a tuned d e t e c t o r , and two s t a g e s of audio-frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n . With t h e exception of a few minor v a r i a t i o n s t h e d e t e c t o r and audio a m p l i f i e r portionsof t h e rec e i v e r are standard and s i m i l a r t o o t h e r models of t h i s r e c e i v e r . The r e c e i v e r h a s i t s tuned radio- frequency s t a g e s synchronized and tuning i s accomplished e n t i r e l y with one d i a l . There a r e only three- c o n t r o l s on t h e panel; namely, t h e power supply switch used t o place t h e s e t i n and o u t of operation o r , a s we most g e n e r a l l y say, " t o t u r n t h e s e t on and o f f , " t h e s t a t i o n d i a l f o r s e l e c t i n g t h e program, and t h e volume c o n t r o l . The power u n i t i s designed f o r u s e on standard 110 v o l t , 50-60 cycle, a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t l i g h t i n g systems. A s p e c i a l model employing a s p e c i a l l y designed power transformer i s r e q u i r e d where the frequency of t h e a-c supply i s 25 c y c l e s . The power u n i t r e c e i v e s an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of one voltage, c a l l e d the l i n e voltage, through t h e attachment cord and changes t h i s voltage t o a-c v o l t a g e s of lower o r d e r s , and d-c voltages of both h i g h and low o r d e r s t o supply complete p l a t e , f i l a m e n t and g r i d v o l t a g e s t o o p e r a t e t h e tubes i n the receiver.
I t i s w e l l t o keep i n mind t h a t whenever r e c e i v e r s of t h i s general type u t i l i z e t h r e e s t a g e s of tuned radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n , i n s t e a d of two tuned s t a g e s a s i n t h i s case, t h e c i r c u i t s w i l l n o t be b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from each other. Therefore, when an a d d i t i o n a l tuned radio- frequency s t a g e i s b u i l t i n t o a r e c e i v e r t h e c o i l s and condensers comprising t h i s s t a g e must be e x a c t l y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of t h e o t h e r tuned s t a g e s . Thus, each tuned s t a g e must possess i d e n t i c a l e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; t h a t i s , t h e output and i n p u t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n which t h e tuned a m p l i f i e r s f u n c t i o n must be the same f o r each stage.

The tuned radio- frequency c i r c u i t s a r e i n themselves simple i n design, each c o n s i s t i n g of a vacuum tube working a s an a m p l i f i e r , a radio- frequency t r a n s former, a v a r i a b l e condenser and a d d i t i o n a l unit o r u n i t s f o r suppressing u n c o n t r o l l e d r a d i o o s c i l l a t i o n s . The design of t h e u n i t s r e f e r r e d t o i m mediately above i s governed by t h e method used f o r combating the tendency of . s e l f - o s c i l l a t i o n s t o be s e t up i n a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t . The method used i n t h i s r e c e i v e r i s known a s t h e Ifgrid suppressor w method and Contents copyrighted 1931. P r i n t e d i n U.S.A.

makes use of a s m a l l r e s i s t o r of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 600 o h m , i n s e r t e d d i r e c t l y i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e g r i d of t h e t u b e i n t h e manner shown i n t h e diagram. The e n e r g y i n unwanted o s c i l l a t i o n s which may be s e t up due t o t h e i n t e r e l e c t r o d e c a p a c i t y of t h e r a d i o t u b e s i s d i s s i p a t e d by means of t h i s r e sistor. I n t e r e l e c t r o d e c a p a c i t y means simply, t h a t i n a h i g h f r e q u e n c y amp l i f i e r t u b e t h e p l a t e and g r i d a r e connected by e l e c t r o - s t a t i c l i n e s of f o r c e which s e t up t h e d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l between t h e s e e l e c t r o d e s t h u s c e u s i n g a s m a l l c a p a c i t y t o e x i s t between them. A s e p a r a t e r e s i s t o r i s e n ployed i n e a c h t u n e d a n p l i r i e r which a l l o w s t h r e e s t a g e s t o be brought i n t o synchronism w i t h o u t f e a r of any a n d e s i r e a b l e c o u p l i n g e f f e c t s which v e r y o r t e n a r e j u s t r i g h t f o r s e t t i n g up r a d i o frequency o s c i l i a t i o n . Analyzing t h e schematic c i r c u i t d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 1, i t w i l l be s e e n t h a t a l l of t h e e l e m e n t s i n v o l v i n g t h e r e c e i v e r p r o p e r a r e shown above t h e d o t t e d l i n e w h i l e t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e drawing below t h i s l i n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e power u n i t which e n e r g i z e s t h e t u b e s i n t h e r e c e i v e r . Tandem t u n i n g of a l l t h r e e v a r i a b l e condensers marked C - 1 , C- 2 and C - 3 i s p o s s i b l e , u s i n g a s i n g l e c o n t r o l d i a l , because t h e s e c i r c u i t s p o s s e s s s i n i l a r electrical characteristics. A s we have j u s t e x p l a i n e d c i r c u i t s of t h i s k i n d a r e s a i d t o be a d j u s t e d a c c u r a t e l y i n phase when synchronism i s e s t a b l i s h e d . It w i l l b e n o t i c e d t h a t t u b e No. 1, t h e f i r s t r a d i o a m p l i f i e r , i s coupled t o t h e a n t e n n a s;rsteril i n s u c h a manner t h a t t h e s i g n a l e n e r g y c o l l e c t e d by t h e a n t e n n a e n t e r s t h e s e t v i a t h e r e s i s t a n c e , marked "volume c o n t r o l , " and t h e a n t e n n a c o u p l i n g t r a n s f o r m e r , and t h e n c e f e e d s d i r e c t l y t o t h e g r i d of t h i s t u b e .

Lesson 6 3

- sheet

One should always keep i n mind t h a t t h e average antenna possess a somewhat high r e s i s t a n c e and i s t h e r e f o r e n a t u r a l l y broad i n t u n i n g , and consequently a l l of t h e broadcast frequencies a r e picked up by an untuned antenna of t h i s type. The power or i n t e n s i t y of t h e s i g n a l can, however, be governed by t h e use of the volume c o n t r o l shown i n t h e diagram. Larger s i g n a l voltzges w i l l be obtained from t h i s u n i t when moving t h e a d j u s t a b l e arm i n t h e downward e d i r e c t i o n . T h i s i s a c o n d i t i o n t o be expected when w r e c a l l t h a t while c u r r e n t i s flowing a g r e a t e r voltage drop w i l l be obtained from any device functioning upon t h e potentiometer p r i n c i p l e when a g r e a t e r number of t u r n s of t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s used t o supply voltage t o the c i r c u i t being energized o r , i n t h i s case, t h e coupling transformer and the f i r s t tube. A untuned antenna of t h i s design does not r e q u i r e a separate c o n t r o l , genn e r a l l y c a l l e d a "trimmer," so a s t o compensate f o r any e f f e c t of the a n t e ~ n a c i r c u i t and permit a c c u r a t e tuning. It i s obvious t h a t tuning i s accomplished i n t h i s r e c e i v e r only i n the r a d i o frequency c i r c u i t s t h a t follow the f i r s t tube. I n b r i e f , no a d j u s t a b l e tuning f e a t u r e i n the antenna system i s needed because t h e f i r s t tube merely a c t s a s a coupling device, i t s value a s a r a d i o a m p l i f i e r being r a t h e r l i m i t e d .

It has been aentioned i n a foregoing paragraph t h a t t h e untuned antenna responds t o t h e s i g n a l s of a l l s t a t i o n s whose frequencies l i e w i t h i n the broadcast range and t h a t a separate tuning c o n t r o l f o r t h e antenna c i r c u i t i s eliminated by u t i l i z i n g t h e f i r s t tube i n t h e r e c e i v e r merely a s a coupling device. Thus, when antennas of d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h s a r e i n s t a l l e d w i t h a r e c e i v e r of t h i s design t h e r e w i l l not be any apparent detuning e f f e c t s on t h e tuned r a d i o frequ%r?cgr stages.
Let u s now consider how the s i g n a l energy t r a v e l s through t h e successive c i r c u i t s i n e l e c t r i c a l impulses u n t i l i t i s f i n a l l y transformed by t h e loudspeaker i n t o a c o u s t i c energy or sound waves which f a i t h f u l l y reproduce t h e music o r speech as o r i g i n a l l y rendered a t t h e broadcast microphone. The modulated c a r r i e r wave e m i t t e d by a broadcast antenna s t r i k e s t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna and s e t s up an o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t i n the conductors of the antenna system. This a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t passing through the antenna c o i l marked "volume c o n t r o l " produces a r a d i o frequency voltage of a c e r t a i n amount a c r o s s i t s t u r n s , depending upoh the p o s i t i o n of t h e movable arm. This a c t i o n has already been explained. The a l t e r n a t i n g voltage supplied by t h i s c o i l i s a p p l i e d t o t h e coupling transformer c o i l and t o t h e g r i d or input of t h e f i r s t tube. The g r i d p o t e n t i a l now a l t e r n a t e s and v a r i e s i n magnitude according t o t h e s i g n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and t h e g r i d a c t i n g upon t h e e l e c t r o n stream i n t h e tube causes corresponding v a r i a t i o n s i n the amount of e l e c t r o n s reaching t h e p l a t e ; t h a t i s t o say, t h e g r i d p o t e n t i a l v a r i a t i o n s cause s i m i l a r p l a t e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n s , only somewhat enlarged. The p l a t e c u r r e n t cannot r e v e r s e i t s d i r e c t i o n of flow a s does t h e o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t passing t o t h e g r i d ; t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t simply r i s e s and f a l l s i n s t r e n g t h according t o whether t h e g r i d i s e x c i t e d w i t h e i t h e r a p o s i t i v e o r negative a l t e r n a t i o n of a c e r t a i n value. The p l a t e c u r r e n t , then, can be s a i d t o be a p u l s a t i n g c u r r e n t which conveys a l l of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the modulated s i g n a l wave. When a s i g n a l i s being received t h e p l z t e c u r r e n t v a r i e s i n t h i s way and it be noticed t h a t i t must flow tlwough t h e primary of the f i r s t r a d i o frequency t r a n s former s i n c e t h i s winding i s i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s w i t h the p l a t e c i r c u i t . Lesson 53

sheet 3

Hence, t h e r e i s i n s t a n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d a fluctuating magnetic f i e l d about t h i s winding which i n t u r n induces a radio frequenc:~ voltage a c r o s s the secondary It i s i n t h i s manner t h a t t h e s i g n a l i s t r a n s winding of t h i s transformer. f e r r e d from the p l a t e or output of the f i r s t t u b e , i n t o t h e g r i d or input of the second t u b e , t h e transformer a c t i n g a s a resonant coupling device. broadcast s i g n a l s i n t e r c e p t e d by the antenna a r e scrambled up, a s i t were, and a c t u a l l y are represented i n the p u l s a t i o n s of p l a t e c u r r e n t of the f i r s t tube. However, i t should be f u l l y understood t h a t t h e r a d i o frequency voltage induced a c r o s s -t h e secondary w i l l reach h i g h values only f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s i g n a l whose frequency corresponds t o t h e frequency a t which t h e tuned c i r c u i t L-1, C - 1 i s s e t . Any frequency w i t h i n the range of t h e r e c e i v e r may be s e l e c t e d t o t h e exclusion of o t h e r frequencies by varying the capacity o f tuning condenser C - 1 , shunted across t h e secondary winding L-1. O f course, a d d i t i o n a l s e l e c t i v i t y i s obtained by t h e use of the two subsequent tuned s t a g e s of the r a d i o a m p l i f i e r system c o n s i s t i n g of L-2, C-2 and L -3, C3 r e s p e c t i v e l y , through which c i r c u i t s t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l passes u n t i l i t reaches the g r i d of t h e d e t e c t o r . These a m p l i f i e r s t a g e s serve t o reduce t h e voltage of undesired frequencies while t h e resonant frequency, or frequency t o which t h e c i r c u i t s are tuned, w i l l be increased i n s t r e v g t h t o an e x t e n t depending upon t h e g a i n i n a m p l i f i c a t i o n of the second and t h i r d tubes. From previous e x p l a n a t i o n s two important f a c t s concerning a conventional tuned r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r p o r t i o n of a r e c e i v e r should be understood; f i r s t , t h e s i g n a l v o l t a g e s impressed upon the g r i d of a c e r t a i n a m p l i f i e r w i l l be g r e a t e r t h a n t h e voltage on t h e g r i d of a preceeding tube by t h e g a i n i n a m p l i f i c a t i o n provided by the preceeding tube and, secondly, t h e r a d i o transformers between t h e tubes merely serve a s resonant coupling dev i c e s which a c t t o t r a n s f e r t h e s i g n a l energy from one c i r c u i t t o anot,her. The p r i n c i p l e s of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c induction a r e applied i n any a c t i v e transformer; f o r example, l e t us consider t h e r a d i o transformers i n our c i r c u i t of Figure 1; here t h e changing magnetic f i e l d c u r r o u n d i w each primary i s s e t up by t h e p u l s a t i n g p l a t e c u r r e n t flowing t h r o ~ ~ g h s t u r n s it and a s t h i s f i e l d l i n k s through the secondary t u r n s a f l u c t u a t i n g voltage i s induced t h e r e i n which i n t u r n causes an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t o t r a v e r s e t h e tuned c i r c u i t comprising t h e secondary winding and v a r i a b l e condenser. Thus it i s evident t h a t t h e c a p a c i t i e s of the t h r e e tuning condensers a r e varied simultaneously t o p l a c e the r a d i o frequency c i r c u i t s i n resonance w i t h t h e c a r r i e r frequency and when t h i s i s done t h e l a r g e s t amount of s i g n a l voltage w i l l be a v a i l ~ b l ef o r the e x c i t a t i o n of the d e t e c t o r g r i d . The i n t e r i o r view of t h e r e c e i v e r i n Figure 2 shows t h e r o t o r p l a t e s of t h e t h r e e condensers C-1, C-2 and C - 3 ganged t o g e t h e r t o provide one t u n i n g c o n t r o l on t h e f r o n t of t h e r e c e i v e r panel. One of the metal b e l t s , l i n k i n g t h e s h a f t s of t h e f i r s t and second condensers i s v i s i b l e i n the extreme lower l e f t of t h e photograph. The o t h e r b e l t coupling t h e second and t h i r d condensers can j u s t be seen toward t h e middle and below the edge of t h e metal panel supporting t h e t h r e e condensers. This view a l s o shows t h e t h r e e i n t e r s t a g e t r a n s f o r m e r s ( r a d i o frequency t r a n s f o r m e r s ) mounted w i t h t h e i r c e n t e r axes a t 90 degrees t o one another i n order t o eliminate t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of u n d e s i r a b l e coupling e f f e c t s between these stages. Lesson 53

.at t h i s point i n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n w d e s i r e t o emphasize t h e f a c t t h a t a l l e

sheet 4

Socket No. 7 for UX 280 or

House Plue

Antenna Binding

Amplifying

Amplifying
I

for UX 226 or CX 326 Amplifyme

Socket N o . 5 for UX 226 or CY 326 Amplifying

Figure 2
AS

we already s t a t e d , t h e g r i d suppressor r e s i s t o r s used i n the second and t h i r d a m p l i f i e r s a r e f o r t h e purpose of s t a b l i z i n g these c i r c u i t s , t h u s preventing s e l f ' - o s c i l l a t i o n .

W w i l l now d i s c u s s some p o i n t s regarding t h e o p e r a t i o n of the d e t e c t o r tube e working i n conjunction w i t h the g r i d condenser and g r i d l e a k r e s i s t a n c e . when s i g n a l s a r e not being r e c e i v e d the d e t e c t o r p l a t e c u r r e n t flows s t e a d i l y a t a constant value, c a l l e d the normal value, and depends f o r one t h i n g upon the value of t h e l e a k r e s i s t a n c e . This r e s i s t a n c e has an automatic c o n t r o l l i n g e f f e c t upon t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t f o r t h e following reason. During normal operation of t h e tube a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r o n s l i b e r a t e d by t h e hot cathode i n t h e i r t r a v e l toward t h e p o s i t i v e l y charged p l a t e e c t u a l l y s t r i k e and c o l l e c t upon t h e f i n e c o i l wire comprising the g r i d and, once upon t h e g r i d , they cannot g e t off because the g r i d does not emit e l e c t r o n s , i t being a comparatively cold element. The e l e c t r o n s a r e i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y small p a r t i c l e s of negative e l e c t r i c i t y . They a r e v i r t u a l l y trapped on the g r i d because t h e g r i d condenser a c t s as a b a r r i e r t o t h e flow of a current of e l e c t r i c i t y (remember t h a t t h e movement of e l e c t r o n s through a cod-actor cons t i t u t e s is Plow of c u r r e n t ) and t h e r e f ore t h e i r only p a t h o escape back t o f t h e i r source, the h o t cathode, i s through t h e h i g h r e s i s t a n c e leak. Yow, t h i s l e a k has such a l a r g e value of r e s i s t a n c e , i n t h e order of one o r two megohms,that when t h e c o r r e c t value i s used t h e e l e c t r o n s flow th?ov.gh it a t a very slow r a t e (compared t o the high f r e q u e n c i e s ) . Hence, a uniform Lesson 53

- sheet

q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r o n s a r e always held back, t h u s maintaining t h e g r i d a t some predetermined n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l . The d e t e c t o r g r i d , then, i s s l i g h t l y negative t o b e g i n w i t h even though s i g n a l s a r e not coming through. When a s i g n a l i s tuned- in t h e voltage i s impressed a c r o s s t h e tuned c i r c u i t L- 3, C-3, which i s the i n p u t c i r c u i t t o t h e d e t e c t o r , and the g r i d condens e r permits t h i s a l t e r n a t i n g voltage t o pass through r e a d i l y t o the g r i d . But we must now consider the e f f e c t of t h i s s i g n a l v o l t a g e on t h e g r i d while t h e g r i d i s already s l i g h t l y negative and continues t o add e l e c t r o n s t o i t s e l f and which pass off slowly through t h e g r i d l e a k . Let us suppose f o r a moment t h a t t h e g r i d l e a k be removed and t h a t t h e incoming s i g n a l causes t h e g r i d t o be charged a l t e r n a t e l y p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e . Nw since the o g r i d i s held a t some negative value the a c t u a l p o t e n t i a l it assumes a t any time i s t n e d i f f e r e n c e between i t s negative v o l t a g e , due t o e l e c t r o n s c o l l e c t i n g upon i t , and t h e amount of the p o s i t i v e and negative s i g n a l voltsges; i . e . , the amplitude of t h e incoming wave. What happens t h e n i s t h a t the g r i d p o t e n t i a l f l u c t u a t e s , becoming a l t e r n a t e l y more n e g a t i v e than p o s i t i v e because p o s i t l v e s i g n a l v o l t a g e s cause the g r i d t o a t t r a c t e l e c t r o n s i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s t h u s augmenting t h e number which normally c o l l e c t upon it due t o t h e p o s i t i o n i t occupies between t h e cathode and t h e p l a t e . I n any event t h e grid p o t e n t i a l becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y negative which e f f e c t i s repeated i n t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t . That i s t o say, t h e r i s e and f a l l values or voltage amplitudes a c t u a l l y on t h e g r i d become a l t e r n a t e l y more negative than positive. I n f a c t , w i t h e f f i c i e n t d e t e c t o r d e s i g n t h e s e values a r e a l l thrown or s h i f t e d over toward t h e negative s i d e which simply means t h a t t h e e g r i d i s a c t u a l l y charged t o g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r degrees of negative. A s w have j u s t mentioned t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i s a f f e c t e d by v a r i a t i o n s i n g r i d pot e n t i a l ; a negative g r i d causes a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t . Futhern o r e , the varying g r i d causes t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t t o r i s e and f a l l and i t s i n s t a n t ~ n e o u svalues o r amplitudes a t any moment w i l l be l e s s t h a n t h e normal flow. T l i s a c t i o n i s known a s t h e " d e t e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c " because t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i s made t o drop t o a c o n s i d e r r b l e e x t e n t from i t s usual normal value by tke g r i d ' s i n f l u e n c e . O r i n o t h e r words, t h e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t decrease more than t h e y i n c r e a s e which r e s u l t gives u s an average c u r r e n t change whose wave form corresponds t o t h e wave form of t h e modulation component of t h e incoming s i g n a l . This average change i s c a l l e d the "audio frequency component" s i n c e i t conveys t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e t o be communicated, and i f t h i s p l a t e c u r r e n t i s now made t o flow through telephone r e c e i v e r s it w i l l s e t up a varying magnetic f i e l d about t h e windings which w i l l a c t upon t h e diaphrams t o produce audible sou116 waves. Thus the presence of the s i g n a l energy i n t h e r e c e i v e r i s d e t e c t e d . It can t h e n be s a i d t h a t the d e t e c t o r serves t o s e p a r a t e t h e modulation component of an incoming s i g n a l wave from the c a r r i e r o r h i g h frequency component. I f an audio transformer primary i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e d e t e c t o r ' s p l a t e c i r c u i t , 8s i s t h e case i n our c i r c u i t under d i s c u s s i o n , t h e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n s w i l l s e t up changing magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e permeating t h e i r o n core which w i l l produce corresponsing voltnges i n t h e transformer secondary, and t h e s e , i n t u r n m i l l be a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d of t h e tube following t h e d e t e c t o r . This tube i s known a s the f i r s t audio frequency a m p l i f i e r and i t s s o l e purpose i s t o strengthen t h e s i g n a l voltage it r e c e i v e s from t h e d e t e c t o r output without i n any way a l t e r i n g t h e p e c u l i a r wave form of the modulation Lesson 53

sheet 6

frequency which r e p r e s e n t s the voice of music being broadcasted. The following b r i e f remarks w i l l no doubt prove s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p l a i n t h e e f f e c t upon t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l when the g r i d l e a k i s not of t h e c o r r e c t value. The proper amount of r e s i s t a n c e n e c e s s a r y f o r a g r i d l e a k must be c a r e f u l l y determined when d e s i g n i n g a r e c e i v e r . If t h e g r i d l e a k i s t o o higlz, e l e c t r o n s cannot escape from t h e g r i d r a p i d l y enough, r e s u l t i n g i n t h e accumulation of a l a r g e n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l on t h e g r i d which w i l l soon b l o c k t h e flow of p l a t e c u r r e n t on s t r o n g s i g n a l s . O t h e o t h e r hand, a g r i d l e a k n whose r e s i s t a n c e i s t o o low, and t h e r e f o r e a l s o u n s u i t e d f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r d u t y which i t i s supposed t o perform, w i l l allow e l e c t r o n s t o l e a k off t o o r a p i d l y and, i n t h i s c a s e t h e g r i d w i l l not become s u f f i c i e n t l y n e g a t i v e a t any time t o f o r c e t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t t o undergo a l a r g e v a r i a t i o n from i t s normal value. N a t u r a l l y a p l a t e c u r r e n t changing w i t h i n only narrow l i m i t s i s capable of producing b u t a s m a l l change i n magnetism i n t h e reproducing u n i t o r i n t h e audio t r a n s f o r m e r , t h u s r e s u l t i n g i n t h e r e c e p t i o n of a weak s i g n a l . The o b j e c t t h e n , i n a l l d e t e c t o r a c t i o n , i s t o cause t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t t o vary between t h e g r e a t e s t l i m i t s i n o r d e r t o produce the l a r g e s t p o s s i b l e change i n magnetism i n t h e windings which c a r r y the p l a t e c u r r e n t . From the foregoin@;w can see t h a t i t i s not t h e a c t u a l value of p l a t e cure r e n t i n a d e t e c t o r o u t p u t , o r f o r t h a t m a t t e r i n an audio a m p l i f i e r o u t p u t , t h a t determines t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s i g n a l , but i t i s t h e e x t e n t with which t h i s c u r r e n t can be made t o change i n order t h a t i t may u l t i m a t e l y cause l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n s o r movements of t h e diaphram of t h e reproducing u n i t t o a c t s t r o n g l y upon t h e surrounding a i r . Note t h a t t h e small by-pass condens e r connected between p l a t e and ground i n t h e d e t e c t o r , a s shown i n Figure 1, provides a resonant p a t h f o r t h e c a r r i e r frequency t o pass through, and when t h u s removed from t h e audio amplifying system t h i s high frequency e n e r g y cannot p o s s i b l y cause u n d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t s i n t h e s e c i r c u i t s . Reference t o t h e schematic diagram shows t h a t conventional t r a n s f o r m e r coupling. i s employed i n t h e a u d i o a m p l i f i e r system and a n output choke and by-pass condenser i s provided, a c r o s s which a r e l o c a t e d t h e spenlcer b i n d i n g p o s t s . The by-pass, or coupling condenser, i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e l e a d a t t a c h e d t o the t o p of the choke. This form of coupling i s used t o prevent t h e p l a t e d i r e c t curr e n t of t h e power tube from p a s s i n g through t h e loudspeaker c o i l s . The l a r g e s t amount of s i g n a l voltage i s built up through t h e audio transformers by t h e u s e of t h e s o f t i r o n c o r e , f o r a l a r g e magnetic f l u x w i l l c i r c u l a t e through t h e i r o n f o r a g i v e n p l a t e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n . The f i n a l audio s t e e employs a power t u b e of t h e UX-171A o r CX-371A t y p e i n o r d e r t h a t t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h w i l l be r a i s e d t o i t s maximum a u d i b l e a m p l i f i c a t i o n , t h u s a s s u r i n g ample power and a n u n d i s t o r t e d output. There i s no p o l a r i t y t o t h e output c u r r e n t from the coupling condenser through t h e loudspeaker winding and t h e r e f o r e t h e l a t t e r should be connected i n the manner t h a t a f f o r d s t h e most p l e a s i n g r e p r o d u c t i o n . The following paragraphs r e l a t e t o t h e v a r i o u s c i r c u i t f u n c t i o n s i n c i d e n t a l t o a- c. o p e r a t i o n . The p a r t s comprising t h e power u n i t assembly a r e the power t r a n s f o r m e r , w i t h i t s s i n g l e primary winding and f i v e s e c o n d a r i e s , t h e v o l t a g e d i v i d e r r e s i s t a n c e s , f i l t a r choke c o i l s and condensers, and t h e full-wave f i l a n e n t type r e c t i f i e r t u b e , a l l arranged i n t h e c i r c u i t according t o the diagram i n FjCz;ure 1. Lesson 53

sheet 7

~ l of these p a r t s , with t h e exception of t h e r e c t i f f i n g tube and i t s socket, l are incorporated i n a compct u n i t l o c a t e d i n a metal can a s shown i n Figure 2 , t h e cover a c t i n g a s a s h i e l d a s well as t o house t h e p a r t s . I n regard t o t h e use of metal cans l e t us o f f e r t h i s suggestion. If a t any time a r e c e i v e r o r power u n i t i s encountered where c e r t a i n p a r t s a r e imbedded i n s e a l ing compound and form a block or s e c t i o n and, i n t h e event such p a r t s a r e found t o be d e f e c t i v e , i t i s suggested t h a t no attempt be made t o r e p a i r t h e damaged block but t h a t i t be removed and replaced by a p e r f e c t one. Usually only f a c t o r i e s and main d i s t r i c t s e r v i c e s t a t i o n s have t h e f p c i l i t i e s f o r r e p a i r i n g s p e c i a l p a r t s made up i n t h i s manner.

he power transformer winding, which i s connected t o t h e house l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t , i s known a s t h e input o r primary. A l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t passing through t h e primary winding c r e a t e s a magnetic f l u x which perneates t h e laminated i r o n core and t h e s e l i n e s t h r e a d i n g through t h e t u r n s o r wires of t h e several secondaries, or output windings, s e t up an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i n each of them a t some c e r t a i n voltage. The voltage i n e a c h case i s governed by the r h t i o of t u r n s i n t h e primary and secondary windings. The output voltage w i l l be stepped up i f the secondary h a s more t u r n s t h a n t h e primary, whereas t h e output voltage i n t h e secondary w i l l be stepped down t o a value l e s s than tllat a p p l i e d t o t h e primary providing t h e secondary i s wound with l e s s t u r n s t h a n t h e primary. T h i s voltage t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and i t s dependence upon t u r n s r a t i o i s d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e t o any windings found on t h e transformer.

I n previous l e s s o n s i t has been explained t h a t power transformers u t i l i z e d i n a-c r e c e i v i n g s e t s a r e made i n two t y p e s , e i t h e r f o r half-wave or f u l l wave r e c t i f i c a t i o n , and the d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two i s merely i n t h e design of t h e winding supplying the h i g h p l a t e voltage. A half-wave system employs a s i n g l e continuous winding and t h e full- wave system a s p l i t winding w i t h a midtap which forms t h e negative d-c. s i d e of t h e r e c t i f i e r output. Full-wave r e c t i f i c a t i o n i s used i n the c i r c u i t i n Figure 1, t h e p l a t e windi n g being i d e n t i f i e d by t h e mark S-5. Reference t o t h i s diagram shows t h a t each o u t s i d e connection of 8-5 l e a d s t o a p l a t e o r anode of t h e full- wave r e c t i f y i n g tube. By t h i s center- tapped arrangement each h a l f of winding 5-5 s u p p l i e s t h e r e q u i r e d p l a t e voltage t o i t s r e s p e c t i v e p l a t e i n the tube. For example, a transformer of t h i s type designed f o r use with a UX-280 type r e c t i f i e r w i l l d e l i v e r about 300 v o l t s a-c. from each h a l f of i t s s p l i t p l a t e w i n d i q . The f i l a m e n t of t h e r e c t i f i e r i s supplied w i t h i t s r e q u i s i t e t e r minal e.m.f. by t h e winding marked S- 4. The UX-380 c o n s i s t s of two p l a t e s . a s s o c i a t e d w i t h two f i l a m e n t s , each p l a t e surrounding a f i l a m e n t . The f i l a m e n t s a r e connected i n s e r i e s , thus if e i t h e r f i l a m e n t burns out t h e t u b e becomes t o t a l l y i n o p e r a t i v e . I f the tube were not so c o n s t r u c t e d , but t h e f i l a m e n t s were i n p a r a l l e l , t h e n perhaps t h e tube might a t sometime or a n o t h e r s t r u g g l e along performing only h a l f i t s d u t y i n the event one f i l a m e n t became damaged. I n t h e diagram w show only e one filament f o r t h e r e c t i f i e r tube when, a s a matter of f a c t , t h e r e are a c t u a l l y t w o , t h i s being done i n order t o s i m p l i f y t h e drawing. The filament c i r c u i t of t h e r e c t i f i e r serves a s t h e p o s i t i v e d-c. side of the r e c t i f i e r output. Observe a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t S-4 does not c & r r y a tapped r e s i s t o r shunted between i t s t e r m i n a l s a s do t h e o t h e r t h r e e secondaries shown above S-4. A r e s i s t o r i s not r e q u i r e d because t h i s p o r t i o n of t h e c i r c u i t Lesson 53

- sheet 8

"bum" i n the loudspeaker.

L e t us now t u r n our a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r e c t i f i e r tube and the f i l t e r system attached t o i t s output. A f a i r l y high a l t e r n a t i n g voltage of 60 cycles i n t h e secondary 3-5 i s a p p l i e d t o t h e p l a t e s of the r e c t i f i e r i n t h e manner heretofore explained, t h u s each p l a t e a l t e r n a t e l y r e c e i v e s a p o s i t i v e and negative p o t e n t i a l but only t h a t p l a t e which i s charged p o s i t i v e l y w i l l be a c t i v e i n a t t r a c t i n g e l e c t r o n s emitted by t h e f i l a m e n t and pass c u r r e n t through the l i n e . As each a l t e r n a t i o n or h a l f - c y c l e i s applied t o t h e r e c t i f i e r i t d e l i v e r s a pulse of d i r e c t current through the e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t f r o m p o s i t i v e + t o negative according t o t h e s i g n s a s shown i n the diagram. A b e t t e r understanding of t h i s a c t i o n w i l l be obtained by observing the arrows i n Figure 3 which i n d i c a t e the d i r e c t i o n of c u r r e n t flow through t h e system. The pulses of d i r e c t c u r r e n t a r e unsuited f o r e x c i t a t i o n of the p l a t e s of t h e r e c e i v i n g tubes f o r t h e y would s e t up a very objectionable humming sound i n t h e loudspeaker. Hence, t h i s p u l s a t i n g or undulating c u r r e n t f r o m the r e c t i f i e r must be smoothed out t o provide a s u b s t a n t i a l l y steady flow of d i r e c t current and it i s here t h a t t h e combined f i l t e r chokes and f i l t e r condensers C- 4, C-5 and C - 6 a r e given a very important t a s k t o perform. The a c t i o n of t h i s f i l t e r network i s b r i e f l y a s follows: The laminated i r o n core choke c o i l s b u i l d up strong magnetic f i e l d s which tend t o oppose any change of c u r r e n t flowing through them, t h i s e f f e c t being due t o the s e l f inductance of t h e chokes; t h a t i s , t h e magnetic l i n e s of force produced by t h e changing current a c t upon t h e same t u r n s which a r e responsible f o r s e t t m up the l i n e s and induce i n t h e s e conductors, o r t u r n s , a v o l t a g e , c a l l e d r e actance voltage, which t e n d t o prevent e i t h e r an i n c r e a s e or decrease

i n t h e c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h . The reactance voltage induced i n t h e c i r c u i t , because of t h i s i n h e r e n t opposition offered by t h e chokes, charges the f i l t e r condensers. Whenever t h e c u r r e n t tends t o decrease through t h e chokes, a s during t h e decay of current i n each p u l s e of r e c t i f i e d current, t h e charged condensers g i v e up t h e i r stored energy and f u r n i s h a new voltage t o t h e d-c. l i n e which maintains t h e voltage a t a p r a c t i c a l constant value. Remember t h a t t h e s t o r e d energy i n t h e condensers was placed t h e r e by t h e reactance voltage generated d u r i n g a previous i n c r e a s e i n t h e r e c t i f i e d p u l s a t i o n s . It i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t a choke c o i l possess two p r o p e r t i e s i n order t o o b t a i n the d e s i r e d f i l t e r i n g a c t i o n ; i . e . , i n order t h a t the f i l t e r output be a pure d-c. F i r s t i t must possess a h i g h inductance with t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t passing through i t obtained by u s i n g a winding of many t u r n s on a n i r o n core, and second, it must not allow i t s core t o becone s a t u r a t e d with magnetism. A s a t u r a t e d core w i l l not l o s e and take on magnetism quickly due t o h y s t e r e s i s , which i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e b u i l d i n g up of a reactance voltage upon which the whole system f u n c t i o n s . This means t h a t a s a t u r a t e d core w i l l not a c t s t r o n g l y t o prevent s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s i n c u r r e n t and t h e r e f o r e t h e d-c. output would not be f r e e from t h e s l i g h t r i p p l e , known a s the a-c. component. Furthermore t h e d-c. r e s i s t a n c e of t h e choke must be comparatively low o r e l s e a l a r g e voltage drop w i l l occur a c r o s s t h e choke winding with consequent r e d u c t i o n i n t h e output voltage. A a i r gap of s u f f i c i e n t width i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e i r o n n magnetic c i r c u i t reduces t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s a t u r a t i o n . It i s f o r these r e a s o n s t h a t a d e f e c t i v e choke c o i l i n a power u n i t should always be r e placed with one possessing s i m i l a r e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I f an improper choke c o i l be used, f o r i n s t a n c e one r a t e d a t a lower c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l choke it r e p l a c e d ; f o r example, one r a t e d t o c a r r y only 60 m i l l i a n p e r e s where a 125 milllampere choke i s req u i r e d , t h e following r e s u l t s would be sure t o happen: The flow of exc e s s i v e current would overheat t h e winding and perhaps damage t h e insu l a t i o n , t h e core would become s a t u r a t e d , t h u s lowering t h e c o i l ' s e f f e c t i v e inductance w i t h a consequent r e d u c t i o n I n f i l t e r i n g a c t i o n . The l a t t e r c o n d i t i o n would become apparent a t once by the presence of a noticeable f l u c t u a t i o n of d-c. v o l t a g e and subsequent "hum" i n t h e loudspeaker. W made mention of t h e t h r e e f i l t e r condensers i n a previous paragraph, but e l e t u s here s t a t e more p r e c i s e l y the f u n c t i o n of each one i n t u r n . A f i l t e ~ network l i k e the one shown i n Figure 1, c o n s i s t i n g of two chokes and t h r e e c a p a c i t i e s C - 4 , C-5 and C-6, i s k n o w a s a " brute f o r c e f i l t e r . " This i s t h e conventional f i l t e r arrangement found i n a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of a-c. r e c e i v e r s i n use a t t h e p r e s e n t t i n e . Zefore proceeding w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l f u n c t i o n s of t h e *condensers l e t u s mention t h a t any r i p p l e i n t h o d-c. w i l l be impeded by t h e choke c o i l s , and t h e condensers w i l l each a c t s i m i l a r l y i n reducing t h i s r i p p l e because they o f f e r a p a t h of low impedance (low o p p o s i t i o n ) t o a-c. energy. It i s t o be understood t h a t t h e r i p p l e voltage and t h e c u r r e n t i t s e t s up i s t h e a-c. component. Hence, a l l condensers i n a f i l t e r system will be e f f e c t i v e t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t i n by-passing the a- c. component i n the r e c t i f i e r ' s output. The f i r s t condenser C-4 serves a s a r e s e r v o i r condenser f o r t h e output of t h e r e c t i f y i n g tube because of i t s a b i l i t y t o s t o r e up e n e r g y a t one time and l a t e r r e t u r n t h i s energy t o t h e c i r c u i t , t h u s c o n t r i b u t i n g , i n a measure, t o the s a t i s f a c t o r y r e g u l a t i o n of t h e voltage. Also, a s we j u s t mentioned, t h i s condenser provicies a p a t h of low impedance (low o p p o s i t i o n ) t o t h e a-c. component. Condenser C-5 a i d s Lesson 53

sheet 10

i n t h e f i l t e r i n g p o c e s s by b y - p a s s i n g any r i p p l e not e f f e c t i v e l y removed by t h e f i x ' s t choke, and b y - p a s s i n g any r i p p l e o r r e a c t a n c e v o l t a g e s e t up by t h e impeding a c t i o n of t h e s e c o n d choke. Condenser C - 6 , b e i n g a d j a c e n t t o t h e v o l t a g e d i v i d i n g c i r c u i t s u p p l y i n g t h e t u b e s of t h e r e c e i v e r , i s known a s t h e o u t p u t condenser and s h o u l d be one whose c a p a c i t y i s q u i t e l a r g e , h i g h e r t ? , a n perhaps 2 o r 4 mdfs. of c a p a c i t y . T h i s condenser n o t o n l y s e r v e s i n t h e manner o u t l i n e d f o r t h e o t h e r condenser t o by- pass w h a t e v e r r i p p l e may be p r e s e n t a t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e c i r c u i t , b u t i t h a s a f a r more L n p o r t a n t d u t y i n t h e whole scheme because i t h a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e upon t h e t o n e q u a l i t g of t h e reproduced b r o a d c a s t program. T h i s i s e a s i l y undeystood when we s t o p f o r a moment and c o n s i d e r t h e c o n s t a n t l y changing r e q u i r e m e n t s imposed upon t h e r a d i o f r e q u e n c y and a u d i o f r e q u e n c y t u b e s . A t t i m e s t h e g r i d s of t h e s e t u b e s a r e impressed w i t h l a r g e v o l t a g e swings which demand f u l l p l a t e c u r r e n t . ~f t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t s u p p l y i s a d e q u a t e t o meet u n u s u a l demands t h e n we might s a y t h a t it i s c a p a b l e of f f i i t h f u l l y r e p e a t i n g t h e characteristics of any s i g l l a l v o l t a g e s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e g r i d . It s t a n d s t o r e a s o n t h e n t h a t i n p r a c t i c a l o p e r a t i o n of a r e c e i v e r , a n a d d i t i o n a l s u p p l y o f c v r r e r t t must be p r o v i d e d a t t i m e s from some s o u r c e . T h i s s o u r c e i s t h e s t o r e d e n e r g y i n t h e o u t p u t c o n d e n s e r ; i t g i v e s up e n e r g y a t s u c h moments, hence we may c a l l t h i s condenser a " t a n k " c o n d e n s e r . A l l of t h e c o n d e n s e r s s h o u l d have a d- c. worki n g v o l t a g e a t l e a s t e q u a l t o t h e peak v o l t a g e o u t a u t of t h e t r a n s f o r m e r . ;.bout 400 v o l t s r a t e d d - c . working v o l t a g e i s a s a t i s f e c t o r y r a t i n g t o p r e v e n t p o s s i b l e r u p t u r e of a f i l t e r condenser used w i t h a power t r a n s f o r m e r d e s i g n e d I n t h e e v e n t of a condenser breakdown, and f o r su-pplying a 171-A power t u b e . where t h i s p a r t i s a c c e s s i b l e and can be removed t h e new condenser should n o t be u s e d u n l e s s i t h a s t h e c a p a c i t y and d- c. working v o l t a g e r a t i n g of t h e damaged conderiser. I n many r e c e i v e r s t h e s e c o n d e n s e r s a r e a l l mounted i n a compact u n i t and s e a l e d and cannot be i n d i v i d u a l l y r e p l a c e d when damaged. A S we have mentioned p r e v i o u s l y i n t h e s e t under d . i s c u s s i o n t h e power u n l t i s s e a l e d i n a s i n g l e m e t a l c o n t a i n e r , o r can. >:ow we v : i l l c o n s i d e r t h e g e n e r a l f a c t s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e d e s t r i b u t i o n of t h e d - c . v o l t a g e s t o t h e p l n t e s of t h e r e c e i v i n g t u b e s and t h e method employed f o r s u p p l y i n g t h e r e q u i s i t e n e g a t i v e g r i d b i a s v o l t a g e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , by c a u s i n g t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t of a c e r t a i n t u b e c i r c u i t t o f l o w t h r o u g h a s u i t a b l e r e s i s t a n c e and t h u s o b t a i n a v o l t a g e d r o p a c r o s s t h e r e s i s t a n c e . T h i s method of o b t a i n i ~ g d e s i r e d v o l t a g e by u t i l i z i n g t h e d r o p of p o t e n t i a l a a c r o s s a r e s i s t a n c e may be e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d b y r e c a l l i n g t h e t e r m s of O h m ' s Law. T h i s w e l l known and v a l u a b l e law t e l l s u s t h a t t h e d r o p i n p o t e n t i a l a c r o s s any p a r t of a n e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t i s e q u a l t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h a t p a r t i n ohms m u l t i p l i e d by the c u r r e n t i n amperes f l o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e p a r t . The s t u d e n t should be s u r e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s law and what we mean when m e s a g " t h e v o l t a g e d r o p a c r o s s a c e r t a i n p a r t i s governed b y t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e p e r t and t h e c u r r e n t p a s s i n g through i t . Thus, b y a s i m p l e m a t h e m a t i c a l c e l c u l a t i o n , we need o n l y t o m u l t i p l y c u r r e n t i n amperes t i n e s r e s i s t a n c e i n ohms t o f i n d t h e v o l t a g e d r o p a c r o s s any c o n d u c t o r of e l e c t r i c i t y . The p r o cedure c a n be c a r r i e d o u t f o r a l l k i n d s of r e s i s t a n c e i r r e s p e c t i v e of s i z e and form. The d - c . v o l t a g e s o b t a i n e d from t h e o u t p u t of any r e c t i f i e r and O f course, i n order t o calculate f i l t e r system i s an a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s law. a r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e which w i l l g i v e a p r e d e t e r m i n e d v o l t a g e d r o p a c r o s s i t , one must f i r s t a s c e r t a i n t h e amount of c u r r e n t t h n t w i l l be t a k e n by t h e c i r c u i t i n which t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s p l a c e d . Lesson 53

sheet 1 1

In t h e c i r c u i t i n Figure several r e s i s t o r s are inserted i n series w i t h p l a t e l e a d s and proper connections made t o supply f o u r values of p o s i t i v e p l a t e v o l t a g e , which a r e approximately a s f o l l o v ~ s :44 v o l t s t o the d e t e c t o r p l a t e obtained a t p o i n t Ei through the drop i n Voltage across r e s i s t o r marked " d e t e c t o r r e s i s t a n c e " ; 155 v o l t s t o t h e f i r s t audio a m p l i f i e r obtained a t point J through t h e voltage drop across t h e r e s i s t o r marked "1st. A.F. r e s i s t a n c e ; " 160 v o l t s t o p l a t e s of a l l r a d i o frequency a l i f i e r s obtained a t m point G through t h e voltage drop a c r o s s r e s i s t o r marked 'R.F. plate circuit r e s i s t a n c e , " and 180 v o l t s t o the power tube from t h e p o i n t a t t h e output of the second choke, t h i s being the h i g h voltage s i d e of t h e r e c t i f i e r output. 1 s l i g h t l o s s i n v o l t a g e , or voltage drop, w i l l be accounted f o r a c r o s s the chokeswhen t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t of t h e device flows throught them, but t h i s voltage w i l l not be s u f f i c i e n t t o cause any marked r e d u c t i o n i n a v a i l a b l e voltage and t h e whole combination i s c a r e f u l l y designed t o allow f o r such f i x e d c i r c u i t conditions.
~ l of the f i l a m e n t s of t h e r e c e i v i n g tubes operate on raw a-c. and i t i s e s l s e n t i a l t h a t t h e a-c. v o l t a g e s obtained from t h e secondaries S-1, S-2 and S-3 be c o r r e c t f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l tubes. A l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t tubes of t h e U X - 2 2 6 o r CX-326 type w i t h a four- prong base a r e used i n a l l r a d i o frequency s t a g e s , and i n t h e f i r s t audio amplifying s t e g e . These f i l a m e n t s a r e arranged i n p a r a l l e l a s shown i n Figure 1, and connect t o secondary S - 1 which s u p p l i e s approximately 1.45 v o l t s a- C. w i t h e a c h filament drawing about 1.05 amperes. The d e t e c t o r tube, type W-227 or C-327, w i t h a five- prong base, i s known a s t h e "Cathode eater" t y p e , i t s f i l a m e n t being used merely t o i n d i r e c t l y heat t h e oxide coated cathode which, when heated t o a predetermined temperature, becomes t h e source of t h e e l e c t r o n energy. The f i l a m e n t i s c a l l e d t h e " h e a t e r " and i t operates a t an e.m.f. of about 2.35 v o l t s a-c. from h e a t e r winding S-2. The UX-171A or CX-371A power a m p l i f i e r tube i n t h e second audio frequency or output stage operates s a t i s f a c t o r i l y when e i t h e r a-c. o r d-c. i s supplied t o i t s f i l a m e n t . I n t h i s c i r c u i t , o f course, a- C. i s supplied f o r t h i s tube f r a n winding S- 3 w i t h an output of about 4.8 v o l t s . I n order t o have a good understanding of t h e method used f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e g r i d b i a s i n g p o t e n t i a l s of all. t h e t u b e s , w i t h t h e exception of t h e d e t e c t o r , w have rearranged t h e c i r c u i t e a s shown I n Figure 3. This c i r c u i t can be r e a d i l y i n t e r p r e t e d ~ f t e a few r e minutes of c a r e f u l examination f o r it i s evident t h a t w have shown only the p o r t i o n s of t h e r e c e i v e r and power u n i t i n which w a r e immediately i n t e r e s t e d . e Tfioreover, t h i s diagram shows by means of arrows how t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t flows through t h e system including t h e d i f f e r e n t p l a t e c i r c u i t s . The t o t a l d i r e c t c u r r e n t from t h e r e c t i f i e r i s a v a i l a b l e a t p o i n t +P, t h e high p o t e n t i a l s i d e of t h e system. The t o t a l c u r r e n t f l o w i r g from t h i s p o i n t d i v i d e s a t A,B,C and D, and t h e s e p a r a t e p l a t e c u r r e n t s a f t e r passing through these branches a g a i n r e u n i t e and w f i n d t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t flowing a t point-N, t h e low p o t e n t i a l e s i d e of t h e system. The sum of t h e c u r r e n t s drawn i n branches A , B, C and D equals the t o t a l c u r r e n t output of t h e r e c t i f i e r .

Let us analyze t h e c i r c u i t beginning with branch No. 1. Although t h i s branch shoc,s only one s e t of c i r c u i t elements yet i t i s intended t o r e p r e s e n t t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t s of t h e t h r e e r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r s . R - 1 i s t h e s e r i e s p l a t e r e s i s t o r used t o d r o p t h e voltage a t " A " t o the s p e c i f i e d value f o r these p l a t e s , or 160 v o l t s ; L - 1 r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a d i o frequency transformer primaries of t h e s e tubes, while S-1 and P-1 i n d i c a t e t h e Tilament winding on t h e power transformer and t h e potentiometer used f o r "hum" balance. Resistance between E and G makes it p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t o o b t a i n a s u i t a b l e b i a s i n g Lesson 53

- sheet

12

voltage f o r t h e g r i d s of t h e r a d i o a m p l i f i e r s and f i r s t audio a m p l i f i e r . The value r e q u i r e d i s approximately 13 v o l t s . Notice t h a t t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t drawn by t h e s e f o u r t u b e s flows through r e s i s t a n c e E G and hence t o 4 s i d e of t h e c i r c u i t and t h u s causes a voltage drop a c r o s s t h i s r e s i s t a n c e . The p o l a r i t y of t h i s voltage i s negative w i t h regard t o t h e negative s i d e , -N s i d e , of t h e c i r c u i t . S i m i l a r l y , i f w w i s h t o o b t a i n a second value of g r i d b i a s w have merely e e t o employ a second r e s i s t a n c e , which i n t h i s case i s r e s i s t o r G F, i n s e r t e d i n t h e p l a t e r e t u r n l e a d of t h e power tube. This branch i s marked No. 4. L-4 i s the speaker choke, while S-3 and P-3 are r e s p e c t i v e l y t h e filament h e a t i n g winding and potentiometer used f o r "hum" balance. The p r i n c i p l e s involed i n obtaining a voltage drop of any required value a r e again a p p l i c a b l e and accordingly w may r e p e a t t h a t t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t of the power tube flowe i n g through r e s i s t o r E G causes a drop i n voltage between p o i n t s G and G. me value t h i s time i s about 45 v o l t s . Branch No. 3 i s t h e f i r s t audio a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t ; t h e tube t a k e s i t s f i l a ment supply from S-1 which a l s o feeds t h e tubes i n branch No. 1, a s w have e a l r e a d y explained. L- 3 i s t h e primary of the second audio transformer and R - 3 t h e s e r i e s p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e used t o drop the voltage a t B t o the s p e c i f i e d value f o r the p l a t e of t h e f i r s t audio a m p l i f i e r tube. Observe t h a t a l l of t h e g r i a s a r e grounded and t h e r e f o r e a r e a c t u a l l y connected t o point G since t h i s p a r t of t h e c i r c u i t i s a l s o grounded. Branch No. 2 i s t h e d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t . Inasmuch a s g r i d condenser and g r i d l e a k d e t e c t i o n i s employed it i s obvious t h a t under such c o n d i t i o n a b i a s i n g voltage i s not r e q u i r e d . Hence, w f i n d t h e g r i d r e t u r n grounded and thus e connected i n e f f e c t d i r e c t l y t o t h e cathode since t h i s e l e c t r o d e i s a l s o grounded. W have attempted t o i l l u s t r a t e how t h e c o n t i n u i t y of the p l a t e e c i r c u i t i s completed by drawing a wire from the cathode down t o mid-tap wire of P-2 and thence t o point G and to- N. a l l of t h i s p o r t i o n of the d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t i s grounded, consequently no a c t u a l wires w i l l be found between p o r t i o n s of r e l a t e d c i r c u i t s i n the r e c e i v e r whenever ground r e t u r n s a r e used. The c o n t i n u i t y of any p l a t e c i r c u i t can be e a s i l y t r a c e d by following t h e arrows. For i n s t a n c e , p l a t e c u r r e n t of t h e d e t e c t o r flows from point R through R-2, t h e s e r i e s r e s i s t o r used t o drop t h e d-c. voltage a s p e c i f i e d amount i n order t o o b t a i n t h e c o r r e c t voltage f o r energizing t h e d e t e c t o r p l a t e . Then the p l a t e c u r r e n t continues through L-2, the f i r s t audio t r a n s former primary, t h e n t o t h e cathode, t h e e l e c t r o n e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o d e , down and thence through the p l a t e winding of the power t r a n s t o point G to-N former, through t h e r e c t i f y i n g tube, through t h e two chokes t o point + P and e now r e t u r n s t o B, t h e place from whence w s t a r t e d t h i s l i t t l e excursion through c i r c u i t No. 2 . Note t h a t the filament of t h e cathode- heater type tube i n branch No. 2 , and i t s h e a t e r winding S-2 and potentiometer P- 2, are not a c t u a l l y considered a component p a r t of t h e r a d i o frequency c i r c u i t , or g r i d c i r c u i t . However, t h i s i s not the c o n d i t i o n of ~ f f a i r s when a tube of t h e r e g u l a r type i s used f o r the d e t e c t o r , because the hot filament i n t h i s case i s a c t u a l l y the source of t h e t u b e ' s e l e c t r o n energy. Here the filament bears a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t o the g r i d c i r c u i t .

Lesson 53

- sheet 13

CwRING
TlUYImRHlR

NOTE: TM

F I L ~ T Y TCOYT~CT

IE &R
coNmrcm

-UTE8

- 2

SPRlNCI ARE *I8IU(ED'Alllrllt'

COND<"TER

m w mRmnwr maposrs.

---'/

BOTTOM

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6 Lesson 53

- sheet

14

SERVICING I n t h e event t h a t e i t h e r t h e r e c e i v e r o r power u n i t develops t r o u b l e t h e numerous t e s t s given i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n t i n u i t y t e s t t a b l e s w i l l be h e l p f u l e i n expediting s e r v i c e work. I n Pigurc 4 w have shown %he layout of the tube s o c k e t s , the filament contact s p r i n g s being marked " P o s i t i v e t ' and "Negative" simply t o i d e n t i f y them f o r t e s t i n g purposes. Figure 4 i s t o be used i n conj u n c t i o n w i t h Figure 5 , which i s the wiring diagram of t h i s model. The colors i n d i c a t e d i n the f i r s t column of the t e s t chart r e f e r t o t h e cable l e a d s , a s i n d i c a t e d on t h e wiring diagram i n Figure 5. Before conducting any of t h e t e s t s suggested i n t h e c h a r t s f i r s t remove a l l tubes and the cable connection p z n e l from t h e power u n i t . These t e s t s are very simple t o perform since a mi~imumof equipment i s r e q u i r e d . The t e s t c i r c u i t should c o n s i s t of t e s t l e a d s , a good grade voltmeter and "~"r "B" b a t t e r y connected i n s e r i e s . The voltmeter used should g i v e n e a r l y a f u l l s c a l e d e f l e c t i o n when t h e t e s t p o i n t s a r e touched. The view i n Figure 6 shows t h e approximate p o s i t i o n of leads i n t h e power u n i t from the s e a l e d container t o t h e panel assembly r e c t i f i e r socket, and s o on.
CONTINUITY TESTS F R RECEIVER O

Locations on which t e s t points are t o be ?laced To Red-Ween tracer

+F2A

Correct Indications

Circuit Condition. Wrong Readin@; Indicates

Remarks and Further Possibilities

Meter Reading F u l l deflection Open i n c a b l e or connection Examine a l l leads and soldered connections a t cable connection pane1 and s e t when incorr e c t meter indication i s obtained

Black-Green tracer ~ed-White tracer Black-White tracer Red wire Black wire Green-Yellow tracer
+FlA -F 1 A
n
11 II 11

n n

Speaker Post N o NO. 2

Lesson 53

- sheet 1 5

Green wire Brown wire White wire

Ground Post P2A No. 4 (shown on R.F. P l a t e Resistance)

It

11
I !

Note: The l o c a t i o n marks a r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s follows: For example, +F2A stands f o r the p o s i t i v e f i l a m e n t contact of 2nd audio a m p l i f i e r socket; -FD stands f o r negative filament contact of d e t e c t o r s o c k e t , e t c . Green wire
P1 A

I deflection D

Grounded 1 s t A.F. p l a t e circuit Grounded de tector plate circuit

11

I1

PD

11

O r shorted phone

condenser
O r sh0rtedR.F. by-pass condenser

I1

I1

P3R

It

Gr0undedR.F. plate circuit Grounded R.F., 1 s t A.C. f i l a ment c i r c u i t Grounded de tector f i l a ment c i r c u i t Grounded 2nd A.F. f i l a m e n t circuit

11

'

11

+F3R and -F3R

11

It

11

+FD

11

and
11

-PD
+F2A and -F2A GR 2 and G3R

Partial

N reading i n d i o c a t e s open g r i d resistcrr o r seconda r y of e i t h e r o r both 1st and 2nd radio freq. transformers. F u l l reading i n d i c a t e s shorted grid c i r c u i t Open antenna coupling t r a n s former

T e s t s should be made across r e s i s t o r s and secondaries s e p a r a t e l y (Res i s t o r s are mounted .on back of R .F. v a r i a b l e condenser) Volume c o n t r o l i n f u l l right position

Lesson 53

sheet 16

11

II

G1 A

Partial

N reading i n o d i c ~ t e sopen s e c . of 1 s t A.F. t r a n s f . N reading ino d i c a t e s open s e c . of 2nd A . F . t r a n s f .

F u l l reading indicates s h o r t e d secondary F u l l reading indicates shorted secondarg

II

11

Stator p l a t e s of detector tuning condenser

Full

Open secondary of l a s t R.F. t r a n s f ormer

Open cathode l e a d Nnite wire No. 3 (on R.F. plate circuit res.)
P l R , P2R and P3R

Partial

N r e a d i n g indi.o c a t e s open R.F. plate circuit resistance N reading i n d i o cates primary of l s t , 2nd or 3rd R .F. t r a n s f

F u l l reading ind i c a t e s shorted R.F. p l a t e c i r cuit resistance

II

11

Yellow

"

PD

I I

N reading indio c a b s open primary of 1 s t A.F. t r a n s f . ( o r open i n c a b l e connection) N reading indio c a t e s open primary of 2nd A.F. t r a n s f . ( o r open i n c a b l e connection)

F u l l reading indicates shorted primary F u l l reading indicates shorted primary

tracer

lack-~ed

P1 A

NOTE :

ADDITIONAL TESTS

Ground

St a t or plates a f detector tuning cmde nser Speaker Post N a 1

NO

If r e a d i n g i s obt a i n e d it indicates shorted g r i d condenser

Reading i n d i c a t e s s h o r t e d speaker f i l t e r condenser

T h i s condenser i s mounted on back of d e t . t u n i n g condenser

P2A

11

Lesson 53

sheet 17

Ant. t e r minal

F u l l dePlection

N reading i n d i o c a t e s open antenna connection

VOLUME CONTROL. NOTE: Inspect t h e

volume c o n t r o l c a r e f u l l y . Bend t h e s l i d e r s o it makes f i r m contact with resistance wire. Clean t h e contact end t o p edge of t h e r e s i s t a n c e u n i t and always use a slider of l a t e s t type f o r replacement
If t h e volume cont r o l i s found defective, repair o r i n s t a l l new cont r o l . Resolder Red lead

To t e s t Volume Cont r o l unsolder Red l e a d from Antenna Coupling Transformer and t e s t a c r o s s Antenna and Ground t e r m i n a l s while t u r r r i n g t h e Control Knob.

Meter vane should d e f l e c t smoothly and give n e a r l y f u l l reading

N reading indio c a t e s open i n r e s i s t a n c e winding. E r r a t i c reading i n d i c a t e s damaged r e s i s t a n c e winding or s l i d e r

CONTINUITY TESTS F R POWER UNIT O KOTE:

The view i n Figure 6 shows t h e T o c a t i o n s r e f e r r e d t o i n t h i s c h a r t .

+B 2nd A.F.

+B X.F.

Partial

N reading indio c a t e s open speake r ( o u t p u t ) choke N reading indio c a t e s open 1 s t A.F. p l a t e c i r cuit resistance N reading indio c a t e s open detector plate circuit resistance Reading i n d i c a t e s shorted f i l t e r condenser N reading indio c a t e s open p l a t e supply f i l t e r choke Reading i n d i c a t e s shorted by-pass condenser

F u l l reading ind i c a t e s shorted speaker choke

+BlstA.F.

Small

+B Dectector

Very small

Ground

N reado ing Partial

F l (on Rectifier tube socket) Ground + Detector B

N reado ing

Lesson 53

- sheet 18

One s i d e of 2nd A . F. f i l a ment supply One s i d e of R.F.andlst A.F. f i l a ment supply One s i d e of Detector Filament supply
+B 1st A.F.

Partial

N reading indio c a t e s open 2nd A.F. g r i d b i a s resistance N reading indio c a t e s open R.F.or 1 s t A.F. g r i d bais r e s i s t a n c e N reading indio c a t e s open connection t o center t a p of d e t e c t o r f i l a m e n t shunt resistance Reading i n d i c a t e s shorted by-pass condenser N deflection ino d i c a t e s open h i g h v o l t a g e secondary winding Deflection indic a t e s grounded primary of power transformer

F u l l reading i n d i c a t e s shorted bias resistance F u l l reading indicates shorted bias resistance Examine a l l conn e c t i o n s under panel assembly

Partial

F u l l reading

NO

reading
P 1 and P2 ( o n Recti f ier t u b socket )

Nearly full deflection N reado ing

Each termin a l of A.C.plUg

I n s p e c t A.C. cable and s w i t c h leads f o r acc i d e n t a l grounds

NOTE : ADDITIONAL TESTS

T e s t a c r o s s t h e termin a l s of A.C. p l u g w i t h t o g g l e switch i n " O N " position

Full reading

Wo r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open primary of t r a n s f o r m e r o r open cable or

o r switch l e a d s

Test from P1 t o F2 on
r e c t i f i e r tube socket T e s t from one s i d e of 2nd A.F. f i l a m e n t supp l y t o speaker r e t u r n terminal

Full reading
Full reading

N reading i n d i c a t e s open r e c t i f i e r o f i l a m e n t winding o r connections N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open connection o t o c e n t e r - t a p of 2nd A.F. filament shunt r e s i s t a n c e

Lesson 53

- sheet

19

The c h a r t appended below w i l l be found e s p e c i a l l y convenient f o r q u i c k l y a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e various important a-c. and d- c. voltages while t h e s e t i s i n operation. For measuring a-c. voltages use a 0-5 v o l t a- c. v o l t meter and f o r d-c. p l a t e and b i a s voltages use a h i g h grade h i g h r e s i s t a n c e m u l t i - s c a l e d-c. voltmeter w i t h s u i t a b l e ranges t o cover the t e s t s .
VOLTAGE TEST CH4RT

Filament Voltages : Use A.C. Voltmeter Detector Radio Freq. Amplif i e r s and 1 s t Audio Freq. Amplifier Power Amplifier (2nd A.F.) P l a t e Voltages: Use D.C. Voltmeter Detector Radio Freq. Amplifi e r s

Test Terminals T e s t from Red-\mite t r a c e r t o Black-White t r a c e r Test from Red t o Black

B

Approximate Voltage 2.35

Test from Red-Green t r a c e r t o Black-Green t r a c e r

From Red-White t r a c e r t o Yellow From Red t o any R.F. tube P l a t e contact marked "P ," (through eyelet) From s o l i d Red t o Black-Red tracer From Red-Green t r a c e r t o s o l i d brown w i r e

44 160

1st Audio Freq.

Amplif i e r Power Amplifier (2n A.F.) Bias Voltages: Use D.C. Voltmeter O Power tube g r i d n

From F t o G ( s o c k e t marked 2A, through e y e l e t s )

O Grid of Radio Freq. From F t o G (socket marked lA, n Amplifiers and 1 s t through e y e l e t s ) Audio Amplifier

Lesson 53

- sheet

20

EXAMINATION

- IXSSON 53

1. Draw a simple s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m showing t h e power u n i t , p l a t e , f i l a m e n t and g r i d c i r c u i t s s i m i l a r t o t h e diagram i n F i g u r e 3. Now l a b e l a l l of t h e p a r t s w i t h t h e i r p r o p e r names.

2. ( a ) why a r e t h e g r i d s u p p r e s s o r r e s i s t a n c e s n e c e s s a r y ? ( b ) Why do we n o t f i n d a g r i d s u p p r e s s o r r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e g r i d o f t h e f o u r t h t u b e , c o u n ti n g from t h e l e f t i n t h e s c h e m a t i c diagram of F i g u r e l ? What a r e t h e g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s t o be s a t i s f i e d i n t h e d e s i g n of a r e c e i v e r i n o r d e r t o p e r m i t two o r more r a d i o f r e q u e n c y a m p l i f i e r s t a g e s t o be t u n e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h a s i n g l e c o n t r o l d i a l ?

3.

4.

What r e a l purpose d o e s the f i r s t t u b e i n t h e Atwater Kent Model 40 r e ceiver serve?

5. ( a ) I n a r e c e i v e r of t h i s d e s i g n d o the s i g n a l c u r r e n t s of more t h a n one b r o a d c a s t s t a t i o n p a s s t h r o u g h t h e o u t p u t o r p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e f i r s t r a d i o f r e q u e n c y t u b e ? S t a t e b r i e f l y why? ( b ) Name e a c h c i r c u i t i n sequence which i s d e s i g n e d e s p e c i a l l y t o p e r m i t t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e t r a n s m i t t e d f r e q u e n c y of t h e b r o a d c a s t s t a t i o n which t h e l i s t e n e r - i n d e s i r e s t o h e a r .

I

6.

( a ) HOW a r e t h e g r i d b i a s v o l t a g e s o b t a i n e d ? ( b ) How a r e t h e p l a t e v o l t a g e s o b t a i n e d ? ( c ) From what s o u r c e i s t h e f i l a m e n t h e a t i n g c u r r e n t s u p p l i e d ?

Let u s a s s m e t h a t a c e r t a i n d e t e c t o r tube i s b e i n g o p e r a t e d s o t h a t a c o m p a r a t i v e l y h i g h v a l u e of p l a t e c u r r e n t (normal c u r r e n t ) f l o w s s t e a d i l y i n i t ' s p l a t e c i r c u i t . Would t h i s h i g h normal c u r r e n t be a p o s i t i v e i n d i c a t i o n t o you t h a t a s t r o n g s i g n a l would be h e a r d when t u n i n g - i n a s t s t i o n ? S t a t e your r e a s o n s c o n c i s e l y . (Note: Assume t h a t t h e s i g n a l e n e r g y p i c k e d up bg t h e a n t e n n a i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l r e c e p t i o n and t h e r e y o r e t h i s p o i n t d o e s n o t r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n your a n s w e r ) .
7.
8.

I n b r i e f what i s t h e g e n e r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e UX- 280 r e c t i f i e r t u b e and how a r e t h e f i l e v e n t s c o n n e c t e d ? Does t h i s method o f f i l a m e n t c o n n e c t i o n have any p r a c t i c a l v a l u e and why?

9. why a r e p o t e n t i o m e t e r s u s e d a c r o s s f i l a m e n t h e a t i n g windings of a power t r a n s f o r m e r and why a r e t h e s e r e s i s t a n c e s t a p p e d ? 10. What f u n c t i o n s a r e performed by t h e l a s t condenser i n t h e f i l t e r system of t h e power u n i t ? ( T h i s condenser i s marked C - 6 i n F i g u r e 1.) If you had o c c a s s i o n t o s e r v i c e a Model 40 r e c e i v e r and found one of t h e main f & l t e r condensers broken down and s h o r t e d would you a t t e m p t t o r e p l a c e t h i s damaged condenser? what would you do?

Lesson 53

sheet 21

M A R C O N / INSTIJUTE

Technical Lesson 54

S u n d e d ./909

ELECTRICALLY OPERATED TUNED R-F AND SUPER-HETERODYNE RECEIVERS I n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s l e s s o n we t a k e up Tuned Radio- frequency R e c e i v e r s . S i n c e t h e t h e o r y o f o p e r a t i o n of a l l tuned r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y c i r c u i t s a r e p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same w e make u s e o f a s t a n d a r d l d a j e s t i c A-C s e t which i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e p r i n c i p l e s t o be d i s c u s s e d . I n t h e second p a r t o f t h e l e s s o n on E l e c t r i c a l l y O p e r a t e d Super- heterodyne r e c e i v e r s t h e R a d i o l a 60 i s used a s a means of a c q u a i n t i n g you w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h i s t y p e o f c i r c u i t .
A s c h e m a t i c diagram o f t h e M a j e s t i c r e c e i v e r ' i s shown i n F i g u r e 1. E i g h t vacuum t u b e s a r e employed, seven o f which o p e r a t e i n t h e r e c e i v e r p r o p e r , and t h e e i g h t h i n t h e -s o c k e t power u n i t . The l a t t e r t u b e i s a f i l a m e n t t y p e r e c t i f i e r used f o r c o n v e r t i n g t h e a- c s u p p l y i n t o d i r e c t c u r r e n t . By r e f e r r i n g t o F i g u r e 1 i t w i l l be s e e n t h a t t h e r e c e i v e r i s of t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y t y p e employing ganged v a r i a b l e c o n d e n s e r s which p e r m i t t h e u s e o f a s i n g l e d i a l t u n i n g c o n t r o l . The t u n i n g c o n d e n s e r s a r e marked on t h e diagram C-1, C-2, C - 3 and C-4. I t can be o b s e r v e d t h a t e a c h t u n i n g condenser i s connected a c r o s s b o t h t h e s e c o n d a r y i n d u c t a n c e o f t h e r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y t r a n s f o r m e r and a b a l a n c i n g c o i l . Th purpose of t h e l a t t e r c o i l i s e x p l a i n e d i n a s u b s e q u e n t p a r a g r a p h . A s p e c i a l e a t u r e i s t h e u s e of a p u s h - p u l l power a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t . T h i s arrangement p r o v i d e s an u n d i s t o r t e d o u t p u t and i s d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e i n c o n j u n c t i o n viith a n e l e c t r o- d y n a m i c s p e a k e r . The s p e a k e r o b t a i n s i t s d-c e n e r g i z i n g c u r r e n t from t h e o u t p u t o f t h e r e c t i f i e r .

The design of the input system, which d e l i v e r s energy from the s i g n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s passing through the antenna t o t h e g r i d of t h e f i r s t tube, and volume c o n t r o l which r e g u l a t e s the amount of t h i s s i g n a l energy, r e q u i r e s p e c i a l consideration. The c o n t r o l of volume i s e f f e c t e d by varying t h e amount of r e s i s t a n c e used i n the antenna c i r c u i t and t h u s any d e s i r e d voltage drop may be obtained from a c r o s s t h i s u n i t providing, i n t u r n , any degree of volume. The s e l e c t i v i t y of t h e input c i r c u i t i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e antenna "trimmer which i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e antenna inductance. Adjustment of the p o s i t i o n of t h e trimmer cup w i t h r e s p e c t t o the i n ductance a l t e r s t h e inductance of t h e antenna and consequently i t s frequency. The r a d i o frequency f i e l d surrounding the inductance i s a f f e c t e d by t h e presence of t h i s metal cup. By moving t h e cup, a s we have j u s t s t a t e d , t h e i n p u t c i r c u i t can be a d j u s t e d t o exact resonance w i t h the o t h e r t h r e e tuned c i r c u i t s . D i s t a n t s t a t i o n s may o f t e n be tuned- in because of t h e selectivity provided by t h e trimmer c o n t r o l which i s d e s i r a b l e where a number of l o c a l s t a t i o n s a r e spread w e l l over t h e broadcast frequency range.
f

F i g u r e s 2 and 3 i l l u s t r a t e t h e schematic diagram and w i r i n g diagram r e s p e c t i v e l y of t h e i n p u t system. The i n t e r n a l view of t h e c h a s s i s w i t h bottom removed i s shown i n Figure 4. The f i v e u n i t s which comprise t h i s r e c e i v e r a r e c l a s s i f i e d as f o l l o w s : ( l ) The c h a s s i s , on which i s mounted the i n p u t c i r c u i t with volume c o n t r o l , t h e balancing condensers, by-pass condensers, and t h e t h r e e audio frequency transformers. (2) The tuning condenser assembly, which c o n s i s t s of four-gang v a r i a b l e a i r condensers, and t h e panel lamp which i l l u m i n a t e s t h e d i a l . ( 3 ) The r a d i o frequency transformers a r e mounted w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l metal c o n t a i n e r s which a c t a s a n e l e c t r o s t a t i c and electromagnetic s h i e l d , ( 4 ) The terminal s t r i p f o r t h e power cable on which i s mounted t h e g r i d cond e n s e r , the g r i d leak, t h e d e t e c t o r p l a t e r a d i o frequency by-pass coxlenser, t h e center- tapped r e s i s t a n c e s , and two b i a s r e s i s t a n c e u n i t s , and ( 5 ) t h e w i r i n g cable completes t h e assembly u n i t s . The r e v e r s e s i d e of t h e s e t t e r m i n a l block showing t h e f i x e d r e s i s t o r s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 5. secondaries on t h e power transfomher. The arrangement of t h e tubes i n t h e r e c e i v e r , looking a t t h e c h a s s i s from the r e a r and counting the order from l e f t t o r i g h t i s a s follows: The r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r tubes, type UX-226 o r CX-326, a r e Nos. 1, 2, and 3. The d e t e c t o r i s No. 4 u s i n g t h e h e a t e r cathode type tube, UY-227 of C-327. Tube No. 5 i s the f i r s t a u d i o a m p l i f i e r , type UX-226 o r CX-326. The push- pull power a m p l i f i e r s a r e Nos. 6 and 7 and a r e of t h e UX-1738 o r CX-3738 type. The e.m.f. a t t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e f i l a m e n t s i s s l i g h t l y l e s s t h a n t h e i r normal voltage r a t i n g , t h i s being done t o i n c r e a s e t h e u s e f u l l i f e of t h e tubes. The s t a b i l i z i n g of each r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t t o prevent s e l f o s c i l l a t i o n i s accomplished through a balancing c i r c u i t known a s t h e LMC c i r c u i t , t h i s d e s i g n being l i c e n s e d by t h e Radio Fre4quencyLaboratories. T h i s c i r c u i t uses a f i x e d value of inductance and a n a d j u s t a b l e capacity. The inductance i s a small c o i l mounted w i t h i n the transformer secondary and a t right a n g l e s t o it. The balancing inductances and c a p a c i t i e s a r e consists e a s i l y recognized i n t h e diagram. Each r a d i o frequency a m p l i f i e ~ of a n inductance and condenser which i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each c i r c u i t . Lesson 54

a l l of the tube f i l a m e n t s a r e supplied w i t h r a n a-c, from t h e s e v e r a l

sheet 2

LON RUT 3.7 -7.

\ I

3K01

'T

T O @ I K.F.

w\v

Figure 3 Lesson 54

- sheet 3

They are marked as follows: C-5 and L-1 constitute the balancing circuit for the first radio amplifier; C-7 and L-2 for the second amplifier; C-9 and L-3 for the third amplifier. The input tuned circuit to the detector does not require neutralizing. The main tuning condensers, C-1, C-2, C-3 and C-4 are each shunted by a small adjustable condenser, known usually as the trimmer condenser, used for the purpose of establishing synchronism between the tuned stages. These trimmer condensers are marked C-6, C-8 and C-10. After once adjusting these condensers they do not as a rule require further adjustments unless parts are replaced in the tuned stages. The input signal voltage obtained from the antenna resistance is impressed across a 0.001 &d. condenser which is part of the resonant circuit of the first r.f. amplifier. This form of coupling: the antenna to the first tube input circuit is known as "conductive coupling." The degree of coupling is controlled by the relative reactances of the component parts of the circuit.

HUM BALANCE

RESISTOR BY- PASS

SPEAKER TERMINALS

R.F. BY-PASS

CONDENSER

Figure 4 Lesson 54

- sheet 4

The antenna r e s i s t a n c e i s operated a s a potentiometer o r simple voltage d i v i d e r and connected a c r o s s the 0.001 mfd. condenser and, a s can be r e a d i l y seen i n t h e diagram, t h e movable arm a t t a c h e d t o the antenna l e a d c o n t r o l s the amount of r e s i s t a n c e used and hence c o n t r o l s t h e ~ i g n a l v o l t a g e impressed a c r o s s t h i s condenser. This provides t h e volume c o n t r o l t h a t w have a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o i n a foregoing paragraph. e

Figure 5

/
I

The purpose of the antenna trimmer i s t o provide means f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g resonance between the input tuned s t a g e and the following t h r e e tuned r a d i o frequency s t a g e s . I n e f f e c t , t h e antenna trimmer a c t s a s a v e r n i e r a d j u s t ment varying the inductance of t h e i n p u t system and t h e r e f o r e i t can be used t o compensate f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n r e f l e c t e d antenna c a p a c i t i e s a t the v a r i o u s broadcast f r e q u e n c i e s throughout t h e range of the r e c e i v e r . I n the event a v e r y s h o r t antenna i s used, and i f t h e r a d i o frequency tube s h i e l d s a r e not i n place, a condition which m i g h t happen; f o r example,when a s e t i s being serviced, it w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t t h e minimum volume does not occur when t h e volume c o n t r o l knob i s i n t h e extreme low p o s i t i o n , a few degrees toward t h e l e f t b u t r a t h e r a t some advanced p o s i t i o n a few deg r e e s toward the r i g h t . T h i s p e c u l i a r r e s u l t i s t o be expected i n such circumstances because of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l a c t i o n between t h e small pickup of energy from a s h o r t antenna and t h e correspondingly l a r g e pickup o f t h e unshielded tubes themselve s. Anyone who s e r v i c e s r e c e i v i n g s e t s should make a mental n o t e of t h i s c o n d i t i o n a s i t w i l l o f t e n save considerable time f o r i t i s a n a t u r a l r e s u l t and one might a t f i r s t thought a t t r i b u t e i t t o a d e f e c t i v e volume c o n t r o l .
A c l e a r and simple diagram of t h e socket power u n i t i s shown i n Figure 1. Two power transformers a r e used, one f o r t h e p l a t e v o l t a g e supply and t h e o t h e r f o r the filament h e a t i n g c w r e n t of t h e tubes. The a l t e r n a t i n g current output of t h e p l a t e v o l t a g e transformer f e e d s i n t o t h e full- wave rectifying tube. The p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t c u r r e n t provided by the r e c t i f y i n g a c t i o n of t h i s tube passes t o t h e choke c o i l and t o the dynamic speaker f i e l d c o i l and condensers comprising t h e f i l t e r system. Hence t h e smoothed out d-c. flows through the various r e s i s t o r s t o g i v e the proper p l a t e v o l t a g e s f o r energizing t h e v a r i o u s tubes and the proper "C-bias" t o t h e two power n tubes. A examination of t h e diagram shows t h a t t h e inductance of t h e f i e l d of the dynamic speaker i s used a s one choke c o i l i n t h e f i l t e r system. Also t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h i s winding u t i l i z e s t h e f a l l of p o t e n t i a l method t o reduce the h i g h "B-voltage" output of the r e c t i f i e r tube t o t h e lower v o l t a g e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e t h r e e r a d i o frequency tubes and t h e f i r s t audio frequency a m p l i f i e r tube. It r e q u i r e s a dynamic c o i l r e s i s t a n c e of 3100 ohms t o drop t h e v o l t a g e from 220 v o l t s t o 96 v o l t s , t h e c o i l being shown connected t o t h e t e r m i n a l s marked 220 v o l t s and 96 v o l t s . Thelowervoltage i s used f o r t h e r a d i o and f i r s t audio a m p l i f i e r s a s p r e v i o u s l y mentioned. ~ h u s t can be seen t h a t t h e speaker f i e l d c o i l serves a double purpose i i n t h i s power u n i t , t h e f i r s t i s t o f u r n i s h the s t r o n g and steady magpetic f i e l d i n which t h e small cone c o i l from t h e output of t h e power tubes t r a n s f o m e r i s placed, and t h e second t o provide r e s i s t a n c e t o o b t a i n a c e r t a i n voltage drop f o r tube place e x c i t a t i o n .

The r e s i s t a n c e of 1500 ohms provides a voltage drop of 46 v o l t s , thus reducing the 96 v o l t s p o s i t i v e t o 50 v o l t s p o s i t i v e f o r t h e d e t e c t o r p l a t e supply. The f a l l of p o t e n t i a l a c r o s s t h e 4180 ohms when c u r r e n t flows i s 50 v o l t s , hence t h e lower end of t h i s u n i t i s t h e -B s i d e of t h e power c i r c u i t . The h i g h g r i d b i a s of the- 40 v o l t s 1s obtained from t h e voltage drop a c r o s s t h e r e s i s t o r marked 1000 ohms. A r e s i s t a n c e b a l l a s t i s incorporated i n the design of t h e power transformer. T h i s r e s i s t o r i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e p r i m a r i e s of t h e transformers Lesson 54

sheet 6

and i t f u n c t i o n s a s a n a u t o m a t i c l i n e v o l t a g e ' c o n t r o l t o g i v e a p r a c t i c a l l y uniform v o l t a g e a c r o s s t h e t r a n s f o r m e r s f o r l i n e v o l t a g e f l u c t u a t i o n s between t h e l i m i t s of 90 and 1 3 0 v o l t s . T h i s f e a t u r e i n s u r e s t h a t a p r a c t i c a l l y normal v o l t a g e w i l l be s u p p l i e d t o ' t h e f i l a m e n t s , p l a t e s and t h e g r i d s r e q u i r i n g a b i a s , u n d e r a l l normal c o n d i t i o n s .

A s k e l e t o n w i r i n g diagram of c e r t a i n p o r t i o n s of the r e c e i v e r and power u n i t showing t h e b i a s and c e n t e r - t a p p e d r e s i s t o r s a n d b y - p a s s c o n d e n s e r s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 6. The "humff b a l a n c e p o t e n t i o m e t e r s a r e shown connected a c r o s s t h e power t r a n s f o r m e r s e c o n d a r i e s . The v a l u e s of t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r r e s i s t a n c e s a r e marked on t h e diagram, a s w e l l a s t h e v a l u e s of t h e d- c. p l a t e v o l t a g e s , t h e p l a t e r e s i s t o r s , and f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l v o l t a s e s . The p l a t e c u r r e n t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l t u b e c i r c u i t s c a n b e e a s i l y t r a c e d when u s i n g a diagram of t h i s k i n d . It would be e x c e l l e n t p r a c t i c e if you would t r y your s k i l l drawing a c i r c u i t of t h i s t y p e from t h e main s c h e m a t i c diagram of a n y model r e c e i v e r and i n t h i s w a g you w i l l undouotedly become f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e e x a c t c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s c i r c u i t s of modern s o c k e t powered r a d i o r e c e i v e r s . It may be d i f f i c u l t t o do t h i s a t f i r s t , b u t p e r s e v e r e and you will e v e n t u a l l y f i n d i t q u i t e s i m p l e t o t a k e t h e complexity o u t of a n y diagram.

Figure 6 Lesson 54

sheet 7

and i t f u n c t i o n s a s a n a u t o m a t i c l i n e v o l t a g e ' c o n t r o l t o g i v e a p r a c t i c a l l y uniform v o l t a g e a c r o s s the t r a n s f o r m e r s f o r l i n e v o l t a g e f l u c t u a t i o n s between t h e l i m i t s of 90 and 130 v o l t s . T h i s f e a t u r e i n s u r e s t h a t a p r a c t i c a l l y normal v o l t a g e w i l l b e s u p p l i e d t o t h e f i l a m e n t s , p l a t e s and t h e g r i d s r e q u i r i n g a b i a s , u n d e r a l l normal c o n d i t i o n s .
A s k e l e t o n w i r i n g diagram of c e r t a i n p o r t i o n s o f the r e c e i v e r and power u n i t showing t h e b i a s and c e n t e r - t a p p e d r e s i s t o r s a n d b y - p a s s c o n d e n s e r s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 6. The "hum" b a l a n c e p o t e n t i o m e t e r s a r e shown

connected a c r o s s t h e power t r a n s f o r m e r s e c o n d a r i e s . The v a l u e s of the p o t e n t i o m e t e r r e s i s t a n c e s a r e marked on t h e diagram, a s w e l l as t h e v a l u e s of t h e d- c. p l a t e v o l t a g e s , the p l a t e r e s i s t o r s , a n d f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l v o l t a g e s . The p l a t e c u r r e n t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l t u b e c i r c u i t s c a n b e e a s i l y t r a c e d when u s i n g a diagram of t h i s k i n d . It would be e x c e l l e n t p r a c t i c e if you would t r y your s k i l l drawing a c i r c u i t of t h i s t ~ p e from t h e main s c h e m a t i c diagram of a n y model r e c e i v e r and i n t h i s way you w i l l undou>tedly become f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e e x a c t c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s c i r c u i t s of modern s o c k e t powered r a d i o r e c e i v e r s . It may be d i f f i c u l t t o do t h i s a t f i r s t , b u t perseve1.e and you w i l l e v e n t u a l l y f i n d it q u i t e s i m p l e t o t a k e t h e complexity o u t of a n y diagram.

Figure 6 Lesson 54

- sheet

Figure 7

The method used i n t h i s r e c e i v e r f o r obtaining t h e g r i d biases i s by groundi n g t h e g r i d s of t h e a m p l i f i e r s and applying a p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l t o t h e f i l a m e n t s . It w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t i n some types of b a t t e r y operated s e t s t h e f i l a m e n t s a r e a t ground p o t e n t i a l and a negative b i a s i s a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d s themselves,by a "C" b a t t e r y . The methods d i f f e r only i n a p p l i c a t i o n because i t i s obvious t h a t i n e i t h e r case we have a d i f f e r e n c e of p o t e n t i a l between t h e g r i d and f i l a m e n t of t h e tube t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e b i a s . There a r e twelve c o n t i n u i t y t e s t s t o cover t h i s Peceiverimmediatelyfollowing, They a r e t o be used w i t h t h e c o n t i n u i t y c h a r t i n Figure 7 which shows t h e seven tube sockets and the t e r m i n a l s t r i p . V!hen t h e t e s t clips a r e placed a t t h e l o c a t i o n s suggested i n t h e accompanying t e s t c h a r t and a r e a d i n g i s obtained on the voltmeter, when making each t e s t w i t h t h e exception of No.12, it i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e s p e c t i v e c i r c u i t s a r e continuous from one end of t h e r e s p e c t i v e cable l e a d s t o t h e s p r i n g c o n t a c t s i n the sockets. T h i s procedure t e s t s both the w i r i n g and t h e a s s o c i a t e d apparatus.

Lesson 54

- sheet

TESTS

1.

To determine i f t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t s of t h e r a d i o frequency tubes a r e continuous, t e s t from socket t e r m i n a l s , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, continuous t o both E and F on the terminal s t r i p . 2. To determine i f t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r i s continuous, t e s t from socket t e r m i n a l s 7 and 8 continuous t o both G and H.

3.

To determine i f t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t of t h e f i r s t audio tube i s cont i n u o u s , t e s t from socket t e r m i n a l s 9 and 10 continuous t o both I and J.

/j
E

4. To determine i f t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t s of t h e push- pull power tubes a r e continuous, t e s t from socket terminals 11, 12, 13, and 14 continuous t o both K and L.

!
P.

5. T O determine i f the g r i d c i r c u i t s of t h e t h r e e r a d i o frequency and t h r e e audio tubes a r e p r o p e r l y grounded, t e s t from socket t e r m i n a l s 15, 17, 19, 24, 26 and 28 continuous t o ground.

' I

r'1 'fi $1
@
?. :

To determine i f t h e g r i d c i r c u i t the d e t e c t o r i s continuous, t e s t from socket t e r m i n a l 22, through t h e g r i d l e a k , continuous t o ground.

6.

of

hi

:! .

7. To determine i f t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t s of t h e t h r e e r a d i o frequency tubes and t h e f i r s t audio frequency tube a r e continuous, t e s t from socket termin a l s 16, 18, 20 and 25 continuous t o C.
To determine i f t h e d e t e c t o r h e a t e r and p l a t e c i r c u i t s a r e continuous, 8. t e s t from socket t e r m i n a l s 7, 8 and 21 continuous t o B.
9. To determine i f t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t s of t h e two 171A power tubes and t h e p r i m a r i e s of t h e i n p u t push- pull transformer a r e continuous, t e s t from socket t e r m i n a l s 27 and 29 continuous t o D o
10.

iz
I

1
I

To determine i f the d e t e c t o r cathode c i r c u i t i s continuous, t e s t from socket t e r m i n a l 23 continuous t o ground.

1 . To determine i f t h e center- tapped r e s i s t o r s and b i a s r e s i s t o r s of 1 t h e t h r e e r a d i o frequency tubes and t h e f i r s t audio frequency tube a r e continuous and e f f e c t i v e i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c i r c u i t s , t e s t from socket t e r m i n a l s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 and 10 continuous t o ground.

/
I
I

12. To determine i f t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t s of t h e two power t u b e s and t h e h e a t e r c i r c u i t of t h e d e t e c t o r a r e n o t grounded a t any p o i n t , t e s t from socket terminals 7 , 8, 11, 12, 13 and 14 o ~ e no ground. t Disconnect t h e power u n i t system from t h e terminal s t r i p b e f o r e proceeding w i t h a l l t e s t s given above.

1 i

Lesson 54

- sheet

EIGHT-TUBE SUPER-HETERODYNE RECEIVER, R . C .A. MODEL 60

The R . C . A . Model 60 Super-heterodyne r e c e i v e r i s completely socket power operated by simply plugging the extension cord of the power u n i t i n t o a convenient l i g h t i n g socket. The transformer i n the power u n i t i s designed t o operate on 50-60 c y c l e s a-c. of from 105 t o 125 v o l t s . By r e p l a c i n g a 50-60 cycle transformer w i t h another one having s u i t a b l e e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the r e c e i v e r may be operated on 25-40 cycles. A replace ment of t h i s kind should only be undertaken by one who i s f a m i l i a r with general s e r v i c i n g and r e p a i r of r e c e i v e r s . Each one of the e i g h t t u b e s i n the super-heterodyne c i r c u i t performs one d i s t i n c t f u n c t i o n and no r e f l e x i n g i s used. The c i r c u i t employs seven tubes of the cathode- heater type, UY-227, and one type UX-17lA i n t h e r e c e i v e r u n i t . R e c t i f i c a t i o n of t h e v o l t a g e s f o r p l a t e and g r i d supply throughout t h e r e c e i v e r i s accomplished by the full- wave r e c t i f y i n g tube,

Figure 8 type UX-280, l o c a t e d i n t h e socket power u n i t . Because of the i n d i r e c t l y heated cathode used i n t h e UY-227 the use of t h i s tube i n a l l sockets, except the power tube socket, a s s u r e s almost complete freedom from t h e "hum" c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Remember t h a t the e l e c t r o n 1 i S e r a t i n g cathode c o n s i s t s of a n oxide-coated sheath covering a n i n s u l a t i n g sleeve and t h e h e a t e r wire passes through t h e c e n t e r of the i n s u l a t e d sleeve. The r e c e i v e r c i r c u i t comprises one untuned coupling s t a g e , one tuned r a d i o frequency s t a g e , one tuned heterodyne d e t e c t o r ( f i r s t d e t e c t o r ) c i r c u i t , an o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t , two s t a g e s of intermediate frequency amplification, a second (power) d e t e c t o r , and one stage of power audio frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n . The schematic diagram of t h e r e c e i v e r assembly and socket power u n i t , i s shown i n Figure 8. Tuning of t h i s r e c e i v e r i s accomplished e n t i r e l y by s i n g l e - d i a l c o n t r o l , and i n a d d i t i o n , the o t h e r c o n t r o l s necessary f o r operation a r e t h e volume c o n t r o l and t h e "OFF" and "ON" power switch. A small p i l o t l i g h t used t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e d i a l a l s o serves a s an i n d i c a t o r t h a t t h e c u r r e n t i s "on" o r "off." Lesson 54

sheet 10

The component p a r t s of t h e Model60 are shownin the f o u r views i n Figure 9. The f r o n t of the panel i s shown i n t h e upper view w i t h c o n t r o l knobs and w i t h the toggle type power switch. Next i s the top view of the r e c e i v e r assembly showing the drum d i a l , the e i g h t sockets and t h e t h r e e ganged tuning condensers mounted,in a r i g i d s t e e l "tub" which maintains them i n p e r f e c t mechanical and e l e c t r i c a l alignment t h u s p e r m i t t i n g uni- control. t The photograph n e ~ below i s the r e c e i v e r sub- chassis assembly showing t h e l o c a t i o n of various p a r t s , while the lower view i s t h e socket power u n i t . W f r e q u e n t l y hear the q u e s t i o n asked, "HOW much does i t c o s t t o operate e an a-c. r e c e i v e r ? " A s e t u t i l i z i n g a s many a s e i g h t tubes, c i t i n g t h i s r e c e i v e r a s an example, operates a t a cost of about one f i f t h t h e c o s t of an e l e c t r i c f l a t iron. To be more p r e c i s e , such a s e t w i l l consume 90 watts an hour and, e s t i n a t i n g the average r a t e of e l e c t r i c a l power a t 10 c e n t s per k i l o w a t t hour ( t h i s r a t e , of course, v a r i e s according t o t h e power companies) t h e expense f o r c u r r e n t p e r hour w i l l average about one cent. The volume c o n t r o l , shown i n Figure 8, changes t h e b i a s on the r a d i o frequency and intermediate frequency tubes. T h i s method g i v e s a c e r t a i n In t h e study of reduction of s i g n a l s t r e n g t h even on nearby s t a t i o n s . r a d i o r e c e i v e r s w f i n d t h a t any one of s e v e r a l methods of volume c o n t r o l e

VOLUME CONTROL- - \

AUDIO FREOUENC TRANSFORMER PRESSED S T E E L

ETECTORTUBE PRONG GUIDES STEELTUB HOUSING TUNING CONDENSERS

VOLUME CONTRO INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY RANSFORMERS SHIELDING CASES OSCILLATOR COIL TRANSFORMER FILTER S Y S T E M LINE VOLTAGE FILTER C H O K E S D l 0 FREQUENCY RANSFORMERS

Figure 9 Lesson 54

sheet 1 1

can be employed, such a s t h e c o n t r o l of g r i d b i a s v o l t a g e a s used i n the c i r c u i t under d i s c u s s i o n , the r e d u c t i o n of filament temperature, v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e i n the antenna C i r c u i t , o r r e s i s t a n c e a c r o s s e i t h e r r a d i o frequency or audio frequency transformers. The sequence of t h e tubes i n the r e c e i v e r , not i n c l u d i n g t h e r e , c t i f y i n g tube which i s l o c a t e d i n t h e socket power u n i t , i s shown i n Figure 10. I n t h i s sketch we a l s o find t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e adjustments f o r intermediate frequency n e u t r a l i z i n g and tuning condensers, o s c i l l a t o r trimming cond e n s e r s , and the r a d i o frequency compensating condenser. These condensers a r e used t o a c c u r a t e l y balance a l l c i r c u i t s and, i n p a r t , make p o s s i b l e t h e reduction of tuning d i a l s t o a u n i t - c o n t r o l . A metal s h i e l d ismounted d i r e c t l y i n back of the tube sockets, a s shown i n the second view i n Figure 9, t o prevent i n t e r - a c t i o n between t h e tube elements and the v a r i a b l e tuning condensers. Let u s now d i s c u s s t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s involved i n t h e r e c e p t i o n of a broadcast s i g n a l p a n d i t s a m p l i f i c a t i o n and d e t e c t i o n i n t h e c i r c u i t s of t h e super-heterodyne r e c e i v e r . The c i r c u i t i s shown i n Figure 8. F i r s t w w i l l give i n concise form the general o p e r a t i o n of a c i r c u i t of e t h i s type. The c i r c u i t employs r a d i o frequency amplifying s t a g e s h ' o r d e r t o b u i l d up the inconilng s i g n a l c a r r i e r frequency which f e e d s i n t o t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r ; t h i s c i r c u i t may be thought of a s a mixing c i r c u i t . A s e p a r a t e vacuum tube c i r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g of t h e o s c i l l a t o r and its associated inductances and c a p a c i t i e s i s operated t o produce r a d i o o s c i l l a t i o n s o f a predetermined frequency and t h i s energy a l s o f e e d s i n t o t h e mixing c i r c u i t , o r f i r s t d e t e c t o r . The t u n i n g of the c i r c u i t s i s so designed t h a t t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g frequency ( c a r r i e r frequency) of t h e s t a t i o n received w i l l be u n l l k e the l o c a l o s c i l l a t o r frequency. Thus two oscQlating c u r r e n t s of differe n t frequencies a r e simultaneously introduced i n t o t h e f i r s t d e t e c t o r . These energies now combine, o r "heterodyne," w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t a "beat" e f f e c t causes the s e t t i n g up of another frequency of a hwr order and different from e i t h e r of t h e two f r e q u e n c i e s which produced i t . The frequency obt a i n e d through t h i s phenomenon of heterodyning i s known a s the ?LntermedJate" frequency. A l l of t h e modulation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e incoming s i g n a l a r e preserved i n t h e modulated intermediate frequency. The o s c i l l a t o r can be made t o keep a constant frequency d i f f e r e n c e when tuned w i t h a ganged condenser, and i n t e r m e d i a t e frequency transformers can be designed w i t h square topped tuning c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . This permits t h e modulatedintermediate frequency t o be passed through two intermediate s t a g e s of a m p l i f i c a t i o n w h i c h w i l l e f f i c i e n t l y pass t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s without a f f e c t i n g t h e s e l e c t i v i t y . A l a r g e s i g n a l voltage i s obtained i n t h i s manner and d e l i v e r e d t o t h e . g r i d of the second d e t e c t o r . The second d e t e c t o r converts t h e modulated i n t e r mediate frequency t o a modulated d i r e c t c u r r e n t known a s t h e "audio frequency." The audio frequency output of t h e second d e t e c t o r i s amplified i n t h e customary way and f i n a l l y p a s s e s i n t o t h e loudspeaker c i r c u i t . The superheterodyne c i r c u i t may o r may n o t employ a loop antenna. The Xodel 60 r e c e i v e r uses a s h o r t outdoor o r indoor antenna which i s more s a t i s f a c t o r y t h a n a loop, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n apartment houses and s h i e l d e d l o c a t i o n s . .

Lesson 54

- s h e e t 12

t h a t t h e full-wave c t i f i e r UX-280 i s connected t o the p l a t e winding S-2 and t o a small a t i n g winding 3-1 of the power transformer. The power transformer i s impregnated with a moisture-groof compound and shielded a s shown inF-e 9. Again r e t x r n i n g t o Figure 8, the r e c t i f i e d a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t supplied by t h e UX-280 passes t o t h e f i l t e r system c o n s i s t i n g of two f i l t e r r e a c t o r s (chokes) and two 2 mfd. condensers f o r t h e purpose of smoothing out the p u l s a t i o n s i n the r e c t i f i e d output. The f i l t e r r e a c t o r s , working i n conjunction w i t h the high v o l t a g e condensers, provide a s u b s t a n t i a l l y steady flow of d i r e c t c u r r e n t t o t h e voltage d i v i d e r r e s i s t a n c e s . Two low voltage secondary windings, 3-3 and S- 4, supply a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of the c o r r e c t v o l t a g e t o h e a t t h e f i l a m e n t s of the power a m p l i f i e r and t h e seven cathodeh e a t e r type tubes. Note t h a t the seven UY-227's a r e a l l connected i n p a r a l l e l and t o S - 4 . Two potentiometer r e s i s t o r s a c r o s s S-3 and 5-4 r e s p e c t i v e l y provide the e l e c t r i c a l c e n t e r of the l i l a m e n t supply and a r e f o r "hum" balance.

If a l l of the r e c e i v i n g tubes were removed f o r any reason, w i t h power e n t e r i n g the s e t , t h e load on t h e r e c t i f i e r system would be reduced with a consequent r i s e i n v o l t a g e i n t h e output of t h e power u n i t . To avoid such a condition a f i x e d r e s i s t a n c e of 20,000 ohms i s shunted a c r o s s the supply c i r c u i t a s shown i n t h e diagram.

As we have previously mentioned t h e d-c. from t h e output of the f i l t e r systenl i s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e v o l t a g e d i v i d e r sectbn comuosed of various r e s i s t o r u n i t s . The elec trical v a l u e s f or these mt s a r e indicated on the diagram. The terminal s t r i p between the r e c e i v e r u n i t and socket power u n i t provides a convenient l o c a t i o n f o r t a k i n g voltage readings a c r o s s t h e a-c. and d-c. l e a d s which c a r r y power t o t h e r e c e i v i n g tubes. Also the c i r c u i t s of t h e r e c e i v e r and power u n i t can be quickly i s o l a t e d by removing t h e l e a d s conn e c t e d t o the terminal l u g s on t h i s s t r i p .
A l i n e voltage adjustment switch, provided i n t h e p r i ~ a r y of t h e power

transformer, permits t h e r e c e i v e r t o be operated without overloading the tubes on a- c. c i r c u i t s w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of 105 t o 125 v o l t s . It h a s been demonstrated by experience t h a t l i n e v o l t a g e v a r i a t i o n s a r e within t h i s range throughout v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s of t h e country. The "two-may" switch i s l o c a t e d i n the power u n i t . It i s good p r a c t i c e t o keep t h e switch i n t h e 120- volt p o s i t i o n u n l e s s it i s d e f i n i t e l y known t h a t t h e l i n e voltage i s always below 115- volts; t h a t i s , a t a l l hours and from day t o day. Nothing s h o r t of a voltmeter r e a d i n g should be accepted a s an i n d i c a t i o n of the l i n e voltage. Bear i n mind t h a t the tubes a r e l i k e l y t o be damaged or t h e i r u s e f u l l i f e shortened i f t h e switch remains i n 110- volt p o s i t i o n when the s e t i s connected t o a supply l i n e exceeding 115- volts. A l i t t l e r e f l e c t i o n on the s u b j e c t of t u r n s r a t i o and voltage transformation i n a power transformer w i l l i m e d i a t e l y t e l l you why t h e p r e c a u t i o n s we have j u s t o u t l i n e d a r e both p r a c t i c a l and necessary. Let u s a g a i n examine t h e schematic diagram i n Figure 8 f o r t h e purpose of determining how t h e v a r i o u s g r i d , f i l a m e n t , and p l a t e v o l t a g e s a r e o b t a i ~ e d . 1 The diagram i n Figure 1 a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s the arrangement of t h e voltage Lesson 54

sheet 13

supply system and i n t h i s form t h e e l e c t r i c a l r e l a t i o n between the component elements can be e a s i l y v i s u a l i z e d . I n Figure 8 t h e tapped r e s i s t o r R prov i d e s t h e various g r i d and cathode voltages. The voltage drop a c r o s s each s e c t i o n of t h i s u n i t i s equal t o the product of the r e s i s t a n c e i n ohms times t h e value of the c u r r e n t flowing through. The r e s i s t a n c e values a r e i n d i c a t e d on the diagram. They can be checked when t r o u b l e i s experienced w i t h a r e c e i v e r , and when It i s thought t h a t the d i f f i c u l t y i s centered i n t h e s e p a r t s . This check can be made by means of a wheatstone bridge o r , i f t h i s instrument i s not a v a i l a b l e , a close approximation can be obtained by e m ~ l o g i n gthe "volt-ampere" method. The voltage and c u r r e n t readings obtained permit a quick computation f o r determining t h e value of an unknown r e s i s t a n c e . Refer t o your l e s s o n on Ohm's Law. Resistances of high values, such a s s e v e r a l thousand ohms o r more, can be checked i n p r a c t i c a l work by measuring the voltage drop a c r o s s then with a h i g h r e s i s t a n c e d-c. voltmeter of s u i t a b l e range while c u r r e n t of a known value flows through. (Note t h a t t h e r e s i s t o r s t r i p R i s placed i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e p l a t e r e t u r n l e a d . ) Control of volume i s accomplished by moving t h e s l i d e r a l o n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e marked 450 ohms; t h i s change i n r e s i s t a n c e r e g u l a t e s t h e g r i d b i a , s i n g v o l w on the r . f . and intermediate t u b e s , a s explained i n t h e foregoing paragraph. H w t h e p l a t e voltage supply f o r a l l r e c e i v i n g tubes i s obtained can be o understood by t r a c i n g out t h e c o n t i n u i t y of the p l a t e c i r c u i t , beginning a t t h e h i g h p o t e n t i a l s i d e of t h e power u n i t a t t h e l o c a t i o n marked "+POS." From t h i s p o i n t note t h a t t h e voltages a r e d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e p l a t e s a s follows: The p l a t e d-c. supply f o r t h e power a m p l i f i e r tube, No. 8 i n t h e c i r c u i t , passes through t h e output choke c o i l which i s used i n conjunction with t h e 0.5 mfd. condenser t o couple t h e r e c e i v e r output t o the loudspeaker. The v o l t a g e on t h e p l a t e of No. 8 i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e voltage a t p o i n t 'kPos." and the v o l t a g e drop a c r o s s t h e output choke. The p l a t e o f second d e t e c t o r , No, 7, i s supplied d i r e c t l y through t h e audio transformer primary around which i s shunted a 40,000 ohm r e s i s t o r . The voltage on t h e p l a t e s of t h e o s c i l l a t o r and f i r s t d e t e c t o r , tubes No. 6 and No. 3, i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between the v o l t a g e a t "+Pas." and t h e voltage drop a c r o s s t h e s e r i e s p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e of 14,300 ohms. A l l of t h e r a d i o frequency and i n t e r m e d i a t e frequency t u b e s r e c e i v e t h e i r p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n through the 2,250 ohm r e s i s t a n c e which provides t h e r e q u i s i t e v o l t a g e drop. Thus i t i s seen t h a t t h e r e s i s t o r s must have c o r r e c t r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e s i n order t o provide t h e s p e c i f i e d v o l t a g e s f o r t h e p l a t e s . I n order t o o b t a i n maximum performance from t h e super- heterodyne r e c e i v e r t h e UY-227 tubes should be interchanged i n t h e sockets. It i s obvious t h a t t h e UX-173A cannot be transposed w i t h t h e o t h e r r e c e i v i n g tubes, it being a d i f f e r e n t type anCi equipped w i t h only f o u r prongs. The t u b e s b e s t s u i t e d f o r p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n s a r e determined a s follows. A tube which w i l l n o t o s c i l l a t e should be i n s e r t e d i n t h e tuned r a d i o frequency s t a g e , marked No.2. The compensation condenser can be r e a d j u s t e d t o s u i t a p a r t i c u l a r tube u n t i l no o s c i l l a t i o n s occur. A tube g i v i n g t h e loudest s i g n a l when t h e s e t i s tuned- in should be used i n t h e o s c i l l a t o r s t a g e , marked No. 6. The second d e t e c t o r should be a tube which w i l l g i v e the g r e a t e s t volume before overl o a d i n g occurs. The o t h e r tube c i r c u i t s a r e n o t c r i t i c a l . Among any seven t u b e s of s i m i l a r type no d i f f i c u l t y w i l l be found i n o b t a i n i n g a good l i n e up by t r a n s p o s i n g them in t h e sockets. Lesson 54

- sheet 14

The Model 60 Super-heterodyne d i f f e r s from t h e Model 62 and Model 64 i n the 1 following r e s p e c t s . 1 new t m e dynamic speaker i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e Model 62. The d-c. of c o r r e c t voltage f o r t h e electromagnetic f i e l d of t h e recroducer u n i t i s obtained from a dry d i s c type r e c t i f i e r which permits t h e load on t h e r e c t i f i e r tube UX-280 t o be maintained a t a minimum value. a The Model 64 e m ~ l o y s UX-250 power tube t o d r i v e t h e dynamic speaker. An automatic volume c o n t r o l operated by a s p e c i a l tube o f f s e t s t h e e f f e c t s of f a d i n g by maintaining t h e s i g n a l a t a predetermined l e v e l r e g a r d l e s s of the s t r e n g t h of t h e s i g n a l wick-up. A meter i s mounted on t h e f r o n t of thepanel a s a means f o r tuning w i t h p r e c i s i o n by s i g h t r a t h e r than by sound. The s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e r e c e h e r i s a l s o under the c o n t r o l of t h e o p e r a t o r , The following c o n t i n u i t y t e s t s a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e Model 60. Eefore attempting t o make any of the following c o n t i n u i t y t e s t s disconnect t h e antenna and ground leads. Also disconnect the twelve l e a d s on t h e termin a l s t r i p which connects t h e r e c e i v e r t o the socket power u n i t , and the attachment cord a t the l i g h t i n g socket o u t l e t .
FROM
TO
CORRECT EFFECT

RM R S E AK
GRID C I R C U I T TESTS

Antenna lead
II

Ground l e a d
G 1 (Grid of tube No. 1)

Meter d e f l e c t i o n
11

II

N reading Indicates o open antenna r e s i s t o r N reading indicates o open connection N reading i n d i c a t e s o open secondary of 1st R.F. t r a n s f o m e r

G 2

Ground

G 3

Lug No. 5

II

I I

No reading i n d i c a t e s open secondary of 2nd R.F. transformer

N reading i n d i c a t e s o open secondary of 1 s t I.F. transformer N reading i n d i c a t e s o open secondary of 2nd I.F. t r a n s f ormer N reading indicates o open secondary of 3rd I.F. transformer o r resistance unit

Ground

I1

Lesson 54

- sheet 1 5

Lug No. 6

No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open s e c o n d a r y of audio transformer o r re.sistance unit No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open r e s i s t a n c e u n i t o r volume c o n t r o l No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open volume c o n t r o l c o n t a c t arm o r poor connection
PLATE CIRCUIT TESTS

Lug No. 5

Lug No. 7

Ground

Lug No. 7

Lug No. 3

No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open p r i m a r y i n 1st R.F. transformer No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open p r i m a r y i n 2nd R F transformer

Lug No. 3

..

Lug No. 4

No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open p r i m a r y i n 1 s t R.F. t r a n s f o r m e r No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open p r i m a r y i n 2nd I. F. t r a n s f o m e r No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open p r i m a r y i n 3 r d I.F. t r a n s f o r m e r No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open p l a t e c o i l of oscillator coils No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open p r i m a r y of audio transformer No r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open c o n n e c t i o n FILAMENT CIRCUIT TESTS

Lug No. 3

Lug No. 3

Lug No. 4

Lug No. 2

Lug No. 1

Cathodes Nos.1, 2 , 4 and 5

Lug No. 6

Koyading indicates .open connection

Lesson 54

sheet 16

Cathodes NOS. 3, 6 and 7 Lug No. 8

Lug No

No reading indicates open pick-up winding of oscillator or connection

I, tt

One filarnent contact of socket No.8 Other closed filament contact socket No. 8 One heater contact of sockets Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6 and 7 Other heater contact of sockets Nos. 1, 2, 3 , 4, 5, 6 and 7

No reading indicates open connection No reading indicates open connection

Lug No. 9

,I

,,

Lug No.30

No reading indicates open connection

Lug No.11

If

It

KO reading indicates open connections

No deflection

Reading indicates shorted compensating condenser Reading indicates shorted neutralizing; condenser Reading indicates shorted neutralizing condenser

Cathode 6 Lug NO. 5

Weak deflection deflection

No reading indicates open oscillator grid leak No reading indicates open resistance unit or secondary of audio frequency transformer No reading indicates open secondary of eudio frequency transformer or open volume control Lesson 54

Lug No. 7

sheet 1 7

Socket Power Unit Continuity T e s t s Before proceeding w i t h t h e t e s t s o u t l i n e d in t h e c h a r t below remove t h e r e c t i f i e r tube UX-280 and disconnect t h e l e a d s a t t a c h e d t o t h e terminal. FO RM
T0
CORRECT EFFECT

FE A R iM RS T e s t s a t UX-280 socket

Grid

Plate

Deflection

N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open o h i g h v o l t a g e winding ( p l a t e winding) of power transformer N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open i n o resistance unit o r output choke N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open i n o resistance unit o r output choke N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open o resistance u n i t

Terminal No. 1 Terminal NO, 1 Terminal No. 3 Terminal No. 4 Terminal NO. 5 Terminal No. 5 Terminal No. 8

No. 3
NO.

No. 6 No. 5 No. 6

,NO.

N reading o
It
11

Reading i n d i c a t e s shorted 0.5 mfd. condenser Reading i n d i c a t e s s h o r t e d 0.5 mfd. condenser Reading i n d i c a t e s shorted 0.2 mfd. condenser

7 Deflection

No. 9

N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open i n o UX-17U f i l a m e n t h e a t i n g winding of power transformer and r e s i s t a n c e u n i t (potentiometer) N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open i n o UY-227 f i l a m e n t winding and resistance unit

Terminal N O , 10 One loudspeaker jack The o t h e r loudspeakr jack

NO.

1 1

No. 1

N reading o

A d e f l e c t i o n on meter would

i n d i c a t e a s h o r t e d output condenser Deflection N r e a d i n g would i n d i c a t e a n o open connection somewhere i n this circuit N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open o UX-280 f i l a m e n t h e a t i n g wirding of power t r a n s f o m e r N r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s open i n o output choke o r f i l t e r reactars Lesson 54

No. 5

Test across the filament contacts of UX-280 socket T e s t from one f i l a m e n t contact of UX-280 socket t o t e r m i n a l No. 1

It

I1

- s h e e t 18

A.C.

AND D.C.

VOLTAGE READINGS

A s h i z l d covering the t e r m i n a l s t r i p must be removed before any voltage measurements can be made, No. 1 on the terminal s t r i p i s the terminal near the f r o n t of the s e t a n d t h e numbers i n c r e a s e toward the r e a r , No. 11 being near the r e a r .

TERXINALS

CORRECT VOLTAGE

Take measurements From

It

It

Z
3

to "
"

7
7

200 210 160 110

d-C. d-C. d-C. d-C. 5 a- c. 2.25 a- c.

Theorg of Or~eration Adiustment of C i r c u i t s . Looking a t the schematic d i a g r a m i n Figure 8 you w i l l observe t h a t a d j u s t a b l e condensers a= located i n :he intermediate fre q uenc y s t a g e s . It i s -o f utmost importance t o the performance of the super-heterodyne s e t t h a t i t s intermediate s t a g e s be c o r r e c t l y synchronized. This i s accomplished by means of t h e a d j u s t a b l e condensers j u s t r e f e r r e d t o above, and you w i l l f i n d them placed a c r o s s t h e secondaries of intermediate transformers which a r e the a i r - c o r e type. The condensers a r e marked C - 4 , C-5, C - 6 and C- 7, the l a t t e r two being connected i n p a r a l l e l . Notice t h a t the primary condensers, C-8, C-9 and C-10 a r e of t h e f i x e d type. The balancing of t h e intermediate s t a g e s i s necessary because a c i r c u i t of t h i s t m e lends i t s e l f t o a constant "band p a s s , " by which i s meant t h e voice and musical frequencies super-imposed upon t h e c a r r i e r wave r a d i a t e d by a broadcast s t a t i o n antenna w i l l be a m p l i f i e d e q u a l l y over the e n t i r e tuning range of the r e c e i v e r ; t h a t i s , from one end of the s c a l e t o the o t h e r . The tuning process c o n s i s t s of p l a c i n g the intermediate s t a g e s i n resonance with each o t h e r a t a frequency of 180 kc., which i s the frequency of t h e b e a t note of the f i r s t d e t e c t o r output. The c o r r e c t adjustment i s determined by the v i s u a l method. When a d j u s t i n g the tuning condensers the observer w i l l be sure t h a t resonance h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d between t h e i n t e r mediate s t a g e s when a maximum reading i s i n d i c a t e d on a milliammeter inserted i n s e r i e s with t h e second d e t e c t o r p l a t e suuply. ?hen t h i s condition o b t a i n s each intermediate s t a g e i s tuned t o a frequency of 180 kc. Let us now consider t h e procedure f o r n e u t r a l i z i n g t h e c i r c u i t s and t h e equipment needed f o r t h i s work. Figure 10 shows t h e l o c a t i o n of the adj u s t i n g screws f o r the tuning condensers of the t h r e e i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a g e s . It w i l l be necessary t o take t h e following s t e p s before t h e a c t u a l t a s k of a d j u s t i n g the condensers can be s t a r t e d . The r e c e i v e r assembly and socket power u n i t a r e f i r s t removed from t h e cabinet. The main v a r i a b l e ganged condenser assembly mounted i n t h e s t e e l tub must then be removed from i t s p o s i t i o n on t h e c h a s s i s because t h e a d j u s t i n g screws a r e l o c a t e d under t h i s u n i t . I n order t o remove t h e condenser assembly a screw holding the ground l e a d i n contact with t h e c h a s s i s frame must be removed and it should be Lesson 54

sheet 19

c a r e f u l l y replaced t o make good contact a f t e r t h e ganged condenser assembly i s removed. A l l of t h e l e a d s i n t h e cable except No. 2, i n d e n t i f i e d by a r e d colored b r a i d , should be connected t o t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i ? . A mllliamrneter w i t h a 0-50 m.a. s c a l e , o r lower, should be connected i n s e r i e s with t h i s "red" lead and t h e No. 2 t e r m i n a l post on the S t r i p , which p l a c e s t h i s resonance i n d i c a t i n g meter i n the second d e t e c t o r p l a t e c i r c u i t . A s p e c i a l t e s t o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t designed t o t r a n s m i t r a d i o power on a frequency of 180 k i l o c y c l e s i s now s e t up and a coupling l e a d and coupling c o i l i s connected f r o v the output of t h i s t e s t o s c i l l a t o r , c a l l e d t h e " d r i v e r , " t o t h e g r i d c o i l , L- 4, of the f i r s t d e t e c t o r . The next s t e p i s t o place the coupling c o i l under the c e n t e r c o i l o f t h e transformer, marked 2nd R.F.
TRIMMING CONDENSERS COMPENSATING COND.

Figure 10

Lesson 54

sheet 20

--

transformer i n the diagram, i n s e r t a l l tubes i n t h e i r sockets except the o s c i l l a t o r tube, and connect the loudspeaker t o the p i n jacks provided f o r t h a t purpose. Both c i r c u i t s should now be placed i n operation. The r e c e i v e r i s operated by throwing the toggle type power switch, and t h e d r i v e r by placing i t s operating switch i n the "on" p o s i t i o n . The frequency of the d r i v e r i s s e t by means of i t s v e r n i e r condenser a t 180 kc., and the note generated i s t r a n s m i t t e d through the coupling lead and c o i l t o the r e c e i v e r and i t w i l l be heard d i s t i n c t l y i n the houdspeaker when t h e s e t i s tuned. Using a non- metallic screw d r i v e r the tuning condensers a r e a d j u s t e d on the t h i r d , second, and f i r s t intermediate frequency transformers f o r maximum d e f l e c t i o n of the meter vane, and a l s o f o r the loudest response i n t h e loudspeaker. I f t h e milliammeter s c a l e i s too low f o r the second d e t e c t o r p l a t e c u r r e n t when resonance i s e s t a b l i s h e d , the volume c o n t r o l should be reduced u n t i l t h e vane w i l l not go beyond the scale. Suppose t h a t you hear a loud howl, o r perhaps no s i g n a l comes through, then you may be assured t h a t t h e n e u t r a l i z i n g condensers B- 2 and B-3 of the intermediate s t a g e s a r e s e t a t e i t h e r extreme and a readjustment of t h e i r c a p a c i t i e s w i l l be necessary. Novf remember, t h a t i f you i n t e n d t o check the n e u t r a l i z a t i o n of the i n t e r mediate frequency s t a g e s do not d i s t u r b any of the adjustments j u s t made a s o u t l i n e d above, o r a l t e r t h e p o s i t i o n of the t e s t i n g apparatus. The proper adjustment of c a p a c i t i e s B-2 and B-3 i s made by s u b s t i t u t i n g a heads e t f o r the loudspeaker, and employing a special.1y prepared UY-227 type tube. This tube should be normal, but with one h e a t e r prong sawed o f f , so t h a t i t s filament w i l l remain cold when the tube i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e socket. Sane service men have found i t p r a c t i c a b l e t o use a tube a l r e a d y i n t h e s e t and simply insul a t e the h e a t e r prong of the tube from the socliet s p r i n g contact by placing a n ordinary soda f o u n t a i n d r i n k i n g straw over t h e prong. With the c i r c u i t i n o p e r a t i o n and the "cold f i l a m e n t tube" i n the f i r s t intermediate frequency socket, the n e u t r a l i z i n g condenser B-2 on the f i r s t intermediate transformer condenser i s a d j u s t e d f o r a condition of e i t h e r "no s i g n a l " o r "minimum si@C: The adjustment i s not c r i t i c a l . N w replace t h e normal tube i n t h e f i r s t o intermediate socket and t h i s time use the s p e c f a l tube, o r t h e r e g u l a r tube with i t s h e a t e r prong i n s u l a t e d i n the manner suggested, i n t h e second i n t e r mediate tube socket. Condenser B-3 on the second intermediate transformer should be adjusted u n t i l t h e p o s i t i o n of minimum o r zero s i g n a l i s a g a i n obtained. After completing t h i s t e s t t h e main ganged tuning condensers should be replaced and a l l connections made a s o r i g i n a l l y found. The s i n g l e - d i a l c o n t r o l i n a super-heterodyne r e c e i v e r i s made p o s s i b l e by t h e design of the o s c i l l a t o r and i t s a s s o c i a t e d c i r c u i t s which r e q u i r e t h a t t h e a d j u s t a b l e c a p a c i t i e s be c o r r e c t , otherwise f a u l t y o p e r a t i o n may be expected. It i s advisable t o check the adjustments of t h e o s c i l l a t o r trimmer condensers, T - 1 and.T-2, shown i n Figure 8, while t h e o s c i l l a t o r t e s t c k c u i t o r d r i v e r i s s e t up. The adjustment of these condensers i s made by placing t h e coupling lead o f the d r i v e r n e a r t h e antenna l e a d of t h e r e c e i v e r . With t h e r e c e i v e r i n complete operation; i , e , , a l l t u b e s i n p l a c e , a d j u s t the d r i v e r c i r c u i t by means of i t s v e r n i e r condenser t o a frequency of 1400 kc., and then tune the r e c e i v e r t o t h i s s i g n a l . A maximum reading on the m i l l i ammeter w i l l i n d i c a t e resonance. This reading should be improved i f p o s s i b l e , by a d j s u t i n g the trimming condenser on the l e f t , a t t h e r e a r of t h e c h a s s i s , a s shown i n F i g r e 10. A f t e r t h i s adjustment a t 1400 kc. i s completed s h i f t Lesson 54

sheet 21

t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h e d r i v e r t o 600 k c . , and a g a i n t u n e i n t h e s i g n a l f o r maximum i n t e n s i t y by m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e knob c o n t r o l l i n g t h e main t u n i n g c o n d e n s e r s . Again t r y f o r maximum d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e p o i n t e r b y a d j u s t i n g t h e second trimming c o n d e n s e r , t h e one t o t h e r i g h t and a t t h e r e a r of t h e c h a s s i s . One more a d j u s t m e n t might be r e q u i r e d i n t h e e v e n t t h e r a d i o f r e q u e n c y s t a g e t e n d s t o o s c i l l a t e a t any p o i n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e t u n i n g r a n g e when t u n i n g i n b r o a d c a s t s t a t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s . An o s c i l l a t i n g c o n d i t i o n i n t h e r a d i o amplifier c i r c u i t can be c o r r e c t e d by changing t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e compensating condenser B - 1 i n F i g u r e 8. It i s , of c o u r s e , u n d e r s t o o d a f t e r t h e completion of such t e s t s t h e r e c e i v e r u n i t and s o c k e t power s h o u l d be ~ e t u r n e dt o t h e c a b i n e t and t h e mhole assembly p l a c e d i n normal o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n . NOTES ON THE DYNAMIC TYF'E SPEAKER T h e r e i s u s u a l l y l i t t l e s e r v i c i n g t o be done on t h e dynamic s p e a k e r because i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n i s s o v e r y s i m p l e . O f c o u r s e , a cone winding o r a magnet w i n d i n g may p o s s i b l y b r e a k a t some p l a c e and open t h e c i r c u i t , b u t such o c c u r r e n c e s a r e r a r e . Extreme c a r e should be e x e r c i s e d when assembling o r s e r v i c i n g a s p e a k e r o f t h i s t y p e i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t s m a l l f o r e i g n particles, e s p e c i a l l y i r o n f i l i n g s which sometimes a t t a c h t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e i r o n c o r e of t h e l a r g e magnet, f r o m l o d g i n g I n t h e a i r gap between t h e cone c o l l a r and t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t . Also, t h e small c o l l a r on which i s wound t h e cone c o i l should n o t be p e r m i t t e d t o s t r i k e a n y s t a t i o n a r y p a r t of t h e u n i t which might be t h e c a u s e of a r a t t l e o r b u z z i n g sound i n t h e o u t p u t of t h e s p e a k e r . T h i s i s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n and i f a t a n y time t h e c e n t e r a l i g n l a g screw 1 s l o o s e n e d i t should n o t be screwed down i n p l a c e f o r f i n a l a d j u s t m e n t u n l e s s t h e s m a l l c o l l a r i s e x a c t l y c e n t e r e d t o prov i d e s u f f i c i e n t c l e a r a n c e , t h u s a l l o w i n g i t p e r f e c t freedom of motlon. Remember t h a t t h e small c o i l i s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e cone c o l l a r and i t s movements s e t up t h e sound v i b r a t i o n s from the cone. The f l u c t u a t i n g magnetism around t h e small c o i l , when s i g n a l c u r r e n t s p a s s t h r o u g h i t , i s a c t e d upon by t h e s t r o n g and s t e a d y magnetism of t h e main magnet c o i l and t h e r e f o r e t h e motion of t h e s m a l l c o i l w i t h i t s c o l l a r must n o t be impeded i n a n y way. EXAMINATION

LESSON 54

( a ) How many t u b e s are employed i n t h e K a j e s t i c r e c e i v e r ? Kame each ( b ) What t u b e i n sequence a c c o r d i n g t o i t s f u n c t i o n i n t h e c i r c u i t . method of c o u p l i n g i s u s e d between t h e o u t p u t of t h e r e c e i v e r and t h e loudspeaker? M y i s t h i s necessary?
Vhat i s t h e trimmer cup, how i s it c o n t r o l l e d , and what purpose does it serve i n this r e c e i v e r ?

D i s c u s s b r i e f l y how t h e c o n t r o l o f volume i s accomplished. ( a ) From what s o u r c e i s t h e dynamic s p e a k e r f i e l d c o i l e n e r g i z e d ? i n a d d i t i o n t o i t s u s e i n the l o u d s p e a k e r ?

( b ) Do you know of a n y o t h e r f u n c t i o n performed b y t h i s magnet c o i l

Lesson 54

s h e e t 22

5.

( a ) What method of n e u t r a l i z a t i o n i s employed i n t h e tuned r a d i o f r e q u e n c y c i r c u i t s of t h e M a j e s t i c r e c e i v e r ? ( b ) Name t h e p a r t s r e q u i r e d i n each tuned r a d i o frequency c i r c u i t i n o r d e r t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e c i r c u i t . Now draw a simple s k e t c h of o n l y one t u n e d r a d i o amplif i e r s t a g e showing t h e i n p u t and o u t p u t c i r c u i t s ( t h e s o u r c e of t h e e . m . f f s . need n o t be shown) and p r o p e r l y connect t h e n e c e s s a r y p a r t s ( c ) Would you proceed t o n e u t r a l i z e t h i s r e you have j u s t mentioned. c e i v e r i n t h e same manner a s i n t h e c a s e of a n y o t h e r make o r model r e c e i v e r which a l s o u t i l i z e d a d j u s t a b l e b a l a n c i n g c o n d e n s e r s ? ( d ) Suppose you were a c t u a l l y n e u t r a l i z i n g a r e c e i v e r and w h i l e a d j u s t i n g one of t h e b a l a n c i n g c o n d e n s e r s you found i t p o s s i b l e t o a l m o s t reduce t h e incoming s i g n a l t o a p o i n t of i n a u d i b i l i t y . (You w i l l r e c a l l t h a t a tube n o t s u p p l i e d w i t h f i l a m e n t h e a t i n g c u r r e n t 2 s u s e d i n t h e s o c k e t of t h e r a d i o f r e q u e n c y c i r c u i t u n d e r a d j u s t m e n t . ) E x p l a i n b r i e f l y j u s t what t h i s e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e s i g n a l means t o you i n r e g a r d t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s of n e u t r a l i z a t i o n . Name and g i v e t h e f u n c t i o n of e a c h t u b e employed i n t h e super- heterodyne r e c e i v e r Model 60, ( a ) Does t h e incoming s i g n a l e n e r g y a c t u a l l y p a s s t h r o u g h t h e o s c i l l a t o r of t h i s r e c e i v e r ? ( b ) Could t h i s r e c e i v e r r e p r o d u c e a b r o a d c a s t program i f t h e o s c i l l a t o r t u b e suddenly ceased t o f u n c t i o n ? S t a t e your r e a s o n s . i
' ( a ) Rhat i s t h e purpose of b a l a n c i n g t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e f r e q u e n c y t r a n s f o r m e r s ? ( b ) I f you t h o u g h t that t h e improper o p e r a t i o n of a c e r t a i n s u p e r- h e t e r o d y n e r e c e i v e r was due t o a l a c k of synchronism between t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e a m p l i f i e r s t a g e s how would you proceed t o c o r r e c t t h i s ?

6.

7.

--

8.

9.

( a ) \\,'hy i s i t sometimer n e c e s s a r y t o i n t e r c h a n g e t u b e s of s i m i l a r t y p e i n t h e d i f f e r e n t s o c k e t s ? ( b ) Is t h i s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n ? ( c ) Are a l l of t h e e i g h t t u b e c i r c u i t s of t h e super- heterodyne c r i t i c a l i n t h i s r e s p e c t ? ( d ) If you were s e r v i c i n g t h i s r e c e i v e r horn vmuld you d e c i d e l ~ h e nt h e t u b e b e s t s u i t e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s o c k e t h a d been found Answer f u l l y . Suppose t h a t no o u t p u t d- c, v o l t a g e s from t h e power u n i t could be obt a i n e d a s would be i n d i c a t e d when t a k i n g r e a d i n g s a c r o s s t h e d i f f e r e n t t e r m i n a l s on t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p w i t h a d-c. v o l t m e t e r and a l s o assume t h a t you n o t i c e d t h a t t h e f i l a m e n t s of t h e UX- 280 r e c t i f i e r d i d n o t l i g h t . Where do you t h i n k t h e t r o u b l e m i g h t be c e n t e r e d and what t e s t s would yon make .in o r d e r t o l o c a t e t h e t r o u b l e ?

10.

Lesson 54

s h e e t 23

--.

//

6.A.~ N S r ~ ~ ~ r & s
INC.
fir-mer&-

M A R CON/ /NSTITUTE

%unded./909

Technical Lesson 55
INTERFERFNCE ELIMINATION

Radio i n t e r f e r e n c e may be c l a s s i f i e d under six headings, a s follows:

1. Broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r s r a d i a t i n g energy on the same, o r n e a r l y the same, wavelength. 2.

Nearby powerful broadcasting s t a t i o n s .

3 . A neighboring r e c e i v e r i n a n o s c i l l a t i n g c o n d i t i o n w i l l a c t as a miniature transmitter.

4. E l e c t r i c a l atmospheric d i s t u r b a n c e s a r i s i n g i n space and commonly known a s atmospherics, o r s t a t i c , cause i n t e r f e r e n c e .

5.

F a u l t y p a r t s of a r e c e i v e r a t times w i l l g i v e r i s e t o d i s t u r b i n g noises.

6. L a s t l y , we have i n t e r f e r e n c e which o r i g i n a t e s from c o m e r c i a l e l e c t r i c a l machines, power l i n e s , t r o l l e y c a r s , e l e v a t e d systems, subways, home elect r i c a l a p p l i a n c e s , and e l e c t r i c a l a p p a r a t u s used i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l f i e l d s , such a s X-ray and v i o l e t r a y equipment.

The term i n t e r f e r e n c e , i n t h e broad sense of t h e word, means, t h a t when Usteni n g t o a broadcast program, sounds a r e heard from t h e loudspeaker which a r e not a p a r t of t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l . These sounds form a d i s t u r b i n g background t o a n otherwise enjoyable program and may appear i n d i f f e r e n t forms. They a r e u s u a l l y u n i n t e l l i g i b l e sounds which may be described a s c r a c k l i n g , sputtering, squealing o r queer w h i r r i n g and buzzing noises. The cause of many of these d i s t u r b i n g sounds t h a t d e t r a c t from t h e r a d i o program a r e r e a d i l y understood, while the cause of o t h e r s i s r e c o g n i z e d -u s u a l l y only by t h e s e r v i c e man who h a s a c t u a l l y become experienced i n t h i s phase o f t h e work. I n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e n a t u r e o u t l i n e d under the f i r s t heading may be due t o transmission problems o r t o l a c k of s e l e c t i v i t y i n t h e r e c e i v e r . By t r a n s mission problems i s meant t h e p o s s i b l e f a u l t s i n t h e frequency c o n t r o l dev i c e s of the t r a n s m i t t i n g equipment, o r where two s t a t i o n s a r e operating on o r about the same frequency a t t h e same time, o r on f r e q u e n c i e s not separ a t e d by a t l e a s t 10 k i l o c y c l e s , Conditions of t h i s kind, however, a r e r a p i d l y d i s a p p e a r i n g due t o the workof t h e Radio C o m i s s i o n , a s s i s t e d by t h e o f f i c i a l s of broadcasting s t a t i o n s . Cooperation between o f f i c i a l s of broadcasting s t a t i o n s and t h e Commission r e s u l t s i n e i t h e r a r e a l l o c a t i o n of wavelengths, a more a c t i v e watch being maint a i n e d on frequency c o n t r o l devices, o r some e q u a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y p l a n i s put i n t o p r a c t i c e whereby t h i s p a r t i c u l a r form of i n t e r f e r e n c e i s eliminated.

, Prinked

Contents Copyrighted 1930 i U. S. A. n

sometimes caused by broadcasting s t a t i o n s t r a n s m i t t i n g on a d j a c e n t frequencies l e s s than t e n k i l o c y c l e s a p a r t . When t h e proper s e p a r a t i o n of frequencies i s n o t maintained, and t h e r e c e i v e r i s tuned t o e i t h e r of t h e s t a t i o n s o p e r a t i n g under such conditions, two c u r r e n t s of d i f f e r e n t frequency p a s s simultaneously through the r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t producing an e n t i r e l y new frequency which i s audible. The production of a t h i r d frequency, o r beat n o t e , when one frequency I s superimposed upon another, i s c a l l e d "heterodyning." T h i s phenomenon exp l a i n s the meaning o f t h e expression, " the heterodyning of two s t a t i o n s . " From what h a s j u s t been s a i d , you can r e a d i l y r e a l i z e that t h e s e r v i c e man i s not expected t o c o r r e c t t r o u b l e s of t h i s nature. These d i f f i c u l t i e s must be removed by t h e engineers of t h e s t a t i o n s a t f a u l t . The s e l e c t i v i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r p l a y s an important p a r t i n e l i m i n a t i n g i n t e r ference coming w d e r t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . A s e l e c t i v e r e c e i v e r possesses c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which enable it t o s e l e c t any one of a s e r i e s of frequencies, allowing the s e l e c t e d frequency t o p a s s through t h e c i r c u i t , b u t excluding t h e undesirable ones

A s h r i l l w h i s t l e which forms a background t o t h e program being received i s

A t times the s e n s i t i v i t y of a r e c e i v e r a f f e c t s i t s s e l e c t i v i t y . Receivers which a r e extremely s e n s i t i v e t o a v e r y weak incoming s i g n a l u s u a l l y reproduce powerful s i g n a l s from t h e loudspeaker. Hence, a r e c e i v e r of t h i s d e s m i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l cases w i l l make a n i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l a u d i b l e under c e r t a i n conditions, where a l e s s s e n s i t i v e r e c e i v e r , d e l i v e r i n g l e s s loudspeaker volume, w i l l n o t reproduce t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e . T h i s means t h a t t h e i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l may be p r e s e n t i n t h e l e s s s e n s i t i v e r e c e i v e r but it i s reduced below the p o i n t of a u d i b i l i t y .

The s e n s i t i v i t y of most of t h e modern r e c e i v e r s i s governed by means of a volume c o n t r o l which f u n c t i o n s independently of t h e s e l e c t i v i t y c o n t r o l , t h e r e f o r e , t h e procedure t o adopt when i n t e r f e r e n c e i s experienced w i t h a n extremely s e n s i t i v e r e c e i v e r i s t o reduce t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r by the volume c o n t r o l . The fundamental p r i n c i p l e upon which t h e s e l e c t i v i t y of a l l r e c e i v e r s i s based i s the i n c o r p o r a t i o n of Inductance and c a p a c i t y i n t h e c i r c u i t . The c o i l s form t h e inductance, and t h e condensers provide t h e major capacity. Such a c i r c u i t w i l l p r e s e n t a minimum of opposition ( r e a c t a n c e ) a t a frequency t o which i t i s tuned, which means, that by so p r o p o r t i o n i n g t h e v a l u e s of inductance and c a p a c i t y ( o r vice- versa) a predetermined frequency can be made t o pass through t h e c i r c u i t w i t h the l e a s t p o s s i b l e opposition. This r e s u l t s i n maximum v o l t a g e o r c u r r e n t a v a i l a b l e a t t h i s particular frequency.
W i t h a c i r c u i t t h u s tuned t o a predetermined frequency, any o t h e r frequency above o r below t h e s p e c i f i e d frequency w i l l f i n d r e a c t i v e f o r c e s a t work which w i l l cause a g r e a t e r a t t e n u a t i o n , t h a t i s , dwindlfng o r dying out of c u r r e n t s a t f r e q u e n c i e s o t h e r than those which t h e c i r c u i t i s tuned t o pass. It i s upon t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s t h a t t h e r a d i o broadcast r e c e i v e r i s designed.

1 r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t , however, which i n c o r p o r a t e s only one tuned c i r c u i t

7uld prove inadequate I n providing f i n e s e l e c t i v i t y because of p r e s e n t

\

Lesson 55

- sheet 2

day interference problems. The current response produced by the voltage of a frequency above o r below the desired frequency, but close t o i t , w i l l be l e s s than the frequency t o which the c i r c u i t i s tuned, but i t may not be small enough t o be absorbed t o the extent t h a t i t s i n t e r f e r i n g e f f e c t s w i l l be eliminated. The neoessity of employing methods t h a t w i l l increase the s e l e c t i v i t y of the receiver must be put i n t o practice. T h i s i s accomplished by employing a s e r i e s of tuned c i r c u i t s , commonly spoken o f as "tuned radio frequency stages," each stage coupled t o the other. By t h i s system the desired frequency i s sel e c t e d and the s i g n a l energy, together w i t h the energy of the undesirable frequency, i s made t o pass through successively tuned c i r c u i t s . The desired s i g n a l energy f i n d s i t s way through each of the c i r c u i t s with l i t t l e or no d i f f i c u l t y because, by adjusting the variable condenser, the r a t i o of inductance t o capacity can be a l t e r e d t o the extent t h a t the l e a s t possible reactance (opposition) i s offered t o the radio frequency currents of the frequency t o which the c i r c u i t i s adjusted (tuned). But the currents of the undesirable frequency a r e materially weakened a s they pass through each successive stage u n t i l a point i s reached where they become too weak t o produce audible response i n the loudspeaker. Because of t h i s the s e l e c t i v i t y of the receiver i s improved. Receivers now used f o r radio braodcast reception may be clasgLtlLed as follows:
1. Those which u t i l i z e one stage of tuned radio frequency and variable regeneration. 2. Those which u t i l i z e three stages of tuned radio frequency without the e f f e c t i v e balancing of coupling betveen the radio frequency stages, each stage, however, being h e a v i l y damped by what i s termed the "grid suppressor" method which prevents o s c i l l a t i o n s between the R.F. c i r c u i t s .
3.

Those which u t i l i z e three radio frequency stages without the g r i d damping r e s i s t o r s and employing more or l e s s complete balancing of inter- stage coupling between the r a d i o frequency stages.

4. Receivers i n which both radio frequency and intermediate frequency tuning stages a r e u t i l i z e d . Receivers under c l a s s i f i c a t i o n (1) a r e more s e l e c t i v e than receivers cons i s t i n g of a detector and audio frequency amplification only. Class ( 2 ) has a higher degree of s e l e c t i v i t y than c l a s s ( l ) ,and g r e a t e r s e l e c t i v i t y may be a t t a i n e d with c l a s s ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) than e i t h e r of the preceding types. Individual receivers, however, may vary r e l a t i v e t o the degree of s e l e c t i v i t y they a r e supposed t o possess regardless of t h e i r design, and especially when located i n close proximity t o a powerful broadcasting s t a t i o n . The types of receivers subject t o interference because of t h e i r l o c a t i o n t o a nearby powerful broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r a r e those mentioned under c l a s s ( ) and others not c l a s s i f ied, such a s the single c i r c u i t type, and some of the home cons t r u c t e d sets. The majority of receivers outlined under ( 2 ) , (3) and ( 4 ) a r e usually f a c t o r y products, and l i t t l e orrn trouble w i l l be experiencedwiththen. Lesson 55

- sheet 3

Occasionally, however, any r e c e i v e r w i l l Vary a s t o i t s c a p a b i l i t y of s e l e c t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r frequency, t o t h e exclusion of o t h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y when located close t o a powerful t r a n s m i t t e r . When t h i s i s the case, a deviceknown a s a "wave t r a p " may be employed t o overcome t h e d i f f i c u l t y .
A wave t r a p i s a device designed t o reduce o r e l i m i n a t e r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e when t h i s i n t e r f e r e n c e i s caused by S t a t i o n s o t h e r t h a n t h e one d e s i r e d . There a r e two pl*inciple t g p e s of wave t r a p s ; one i s known a s t h e "absorption" type, and the o t h e r t h e " r e j e c t o r " type.

A s Shown, t h e r e a r e two c o i l s wound on a t h r e e i n c h form i n such a manner t h a t inductive coupling i s provided between t h e two windings. The small c o i l c o n s i s t s of from 5 t o 8 t u r n s of No. 22 double c o t t o n covered wire c l o s e l y wound. This c o i l i s connepted d i r e c t l y i n t h e antenna a s shown i n t h e Figure.

A diagram of the a b s o r p t i o n type appears i n Figure 1.

3 I N C H TUBE-,

CO!L
, *

# 2 2 D.C.C.WIRE

( 1 ) 5-8TURNS

"COIL (2) 5 5 - 6 O T U R N S

,'#Z8

O.C.C. W I R E

CONDENSER

The l a r g e c o i l i s wound w i t h 55 t o 60 t u r n s of No. 28 double c o t t o n covered wire. A 0.0005 mfd. v a r i a b l e condenser i s connected a c r o s s t h i s c o i l . The degree of coupling between these windings a f f e c t s both the e l i m i n a t i o n of the i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l and t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e t u n i n g c o n t r o l s of t h e r e c e i v e r . To o b t a i n c l o s e coupling, wind c o i l 1 c l o s e t o c o i l 2, thus dec r e a s i n g the d i s t a n c e between them. T h i s w i l l m a t e r i a l l y a s i n e l i m i n a t i n g t h e i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l b u t i t h a s a g r e a t e r e f f e c t upon t h e p o s i t i o n of the t u n i n g c o n t r o l s of t h e r e c e i v e r . To secure loose coupling, wind c o i l 1 and 2 i n such a manner c h a t an open space s e p a r a t e s t h e two windings. The r e s u l t s obtained w i l l now be the r e v e r s e of those when c l o s e coupling was employed. The c o r r e c t spacing t o allow between t h e two c o i l s so t h a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l i s secured (and a t t h e same time a f f e c t i n g the l e a s t change i n the r e c e i v e r c o n t r o l s from t h e i r normal tuning Lesson 55

- sheet

p o s i t i o n ) i s found by a l i t t l e experimenting and, when once found, I t can be -. made permanent. u s e t h e wave t r a p s e t t h e condenser t o zero, tune t h e r e c e i v e r u n t i l t h e i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l i s r e c e i v e d w i t h maximum volume, t h e n r o t a t e the t r a p condenser u n t i l t h e undesired s i g n a l i s reduced t o minimum s t r e n g t h , carr e a d j u s t the r e c e i v e r c o n t r o l s t o t h e i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l t h e second time and r e a d j u s t the t r a p condenser u n t i l the undesired s i g n a l e n t i r e l y d i s a p p e a r s o r i s reduced t o minimum i n t e n s i t y . The wave t r a o c o n t r o l i s now left i n t h i s p o s i t i o n a s long a s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r frequency i s t o be eliminated. The r e c e i v e r i s operated i n t h e u s u a l way t o s e l e c t % h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l .
TO

The wave t r a p f u n c t i o n s a s a resonant c i r c u i t i n which a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i s flowing. By varying t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e v a r i a b l e condenser t h e c a p a c i t i v e reactance (condenser o p p o s i t i o n ) i s made equal t o t h e i n d u c t i v e reactance ( c o i l opposition) t h u s c a n c e l l i n g out these two forms of o p p o s i t i o n which oppose c u r r e n t flow a t a p a r t i c u l a r frequency. The c i r c u i t i s t h e n reduced t o one possessing only ohmic r e s i s t a n c e , thereby allowing t h e maximum c u r r e n t

CONOENSER

Figure 2 flow. The purpose of t h e wave t r a p i n Figure 1 ( t h e a b s o r p t i o n t y p e ) i s t o ih absorb the p a r t i c u l a r frequency t o which i t i s tuned (and ~ ~ h i c s a n undes i r e d frequency) so t h a t l i t t l e o r none of it w i l l r e a c h t h e r e c e i v e r .
A view and schematic diagram of t h e r e j e c t o r type wave t r a p i s shown Ln Figure 2. It i s composed of a t h r e e inch tube on which i s c l o s e l y wound 50 t o 55 t u r n s of No. 22 double c o t t o n covered w i r e , and a 0.0005 mfd. v a r i a b l e condenser. The condenser i s connected i n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e c o i l .

The operation of t h i s wave t r a p i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e type just described and i t h a s p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same e f f e c t upon the t u n i n g of t h e r e c e i v e r a s t h e former type.

Lesson 55

sheet 5

The c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s O f a n inductance ( c o i l ) and c a p a c i t y (condenser) connected i n p a r a l l e l . T h i s combination, i n t u r n , i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e antenna. By means of t h e v a r i a b l e condenser i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a d j u s t t h e t r a p c i r c u i t t o resonance w i t h t h e frequency of t h e i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l . When t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s obtained t h e t r a p c i r c u i t o f f e r s t h e l e a s t impedance t o t h e i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l frequency and "by-passes" i t from t h e main antenna c i r c u i t thereby allowing it t o flow back and f o r t h between the condenser and c o i l . f n t h i s manner i t prevents the undesirable frequency from reaching the r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t . T h i s arrangement i s most s u c c e s s f u l when the antenna i s e x c e p t i o n a l l y long, o r where t h e r e c e i v e r i s connected t o a poor ground. The wave t r a p , t h e r e f o r e , can be advantageoualy used i n conjunction w i t h t h e mare o r l e s s nm-selectiw types o r e c e i v e r s which a r e l o c a t e d near lxoadcasting stations. f p s c i l l a t i m Receivers. Regeneration i s t h e process of feeding back energy from t h e p l a t e t o t h e g r i d i n a vacuum tube c i r c u i t . T h i s i s permissible and i n f a c t an a s s e s t t o a receiver. When c a r r i e d beyond a c e r t a i n point,however, r e g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e $roper sense of t h e word ceases, and t h e r e c e i v i n g circuit becomes an o s c i l l a t i n g C i r c u i t . A s such i t i s a g e n e r a t o r of h i g h frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s ; i n this condition it i s i n r e a l i t y a transmitter. The power of t h e r a d i a t e d energy from an o s c i l l a t i n g r e c e i v e r i s weak when compared t o t h a t of a broadcasting t r a n s m i t t e r , y e t it r a d i a t e s s u f f i c i e n t energy t o o c c a s i o n a l l y d e s t r o y a broadcast program being r e c e i v e d by a neighboring s e t if t h e two s e t s a r e tuned t o the same program. Hamfacturers of modern r e c e i v e r s employing a r e g e n e r a t i v e d e t e c t or always design the c i r c u i t s o that o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h i s nature a r e prevented from reaching t h e antenna, b u t some of t h e e a r l i e r types of r e c e i v e r s were not designed t o t a k e c a r e of such a condition. Many of these o l d e r s e t s a r e s t i l l i n use and i n t e r f e r e n c e caused as a r e s u l t of t h e i r improper o p e r a t i o n should be recognized immediately by t h e s e r v i c e man.
If a s h r i l l w h i s t h i s heard, a t t i m e s breaking i n t o t h e program with a v i o l e n t c h i r p and a t o t h e r times g r a d u a l l y r i s i n g and f a l l i n g i n p i t c h when the c o n t r o l s of t h e r e c e i v e r a r e not being manipulated, i t i s a f a i r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t someone i n t h e immediate neighborhood i s o p e r a t i n g a r e c e i v e r i n an o s c i l l a t i n g condition.

t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e r e s u l t s w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r r e c e i v e r he i s operating, and i n an endeavor t o g e t maximum volume he f o r c e s t h e s e t beyond t h e best opera t i n g p o i n t , s e t t i n g t h e c i r c u i t i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n . There i s very l i t t l e t h a t one can do t o e l i m i n a t e t h i s type of i n t e r f e r e n c e o t h e r t h a n t o l o c a t e t h e owner of the offending s e t and inform h i m t h a t he i s c r e a t i n g i n t e r ference i n h i s e f f o r t t o o b t a i n g r e a t e r volume. A t m o s ~ h e r i cI n t e r f e r e n c e . S t a t i c { H w o f t e n w have heard t h a t word. I t s o e tendency t o i n t e r r u p t , and i n many i n s t a n c e s e n t i r e l y r u i n r a d i o broadcast r e c e p t i o n , i s not a n uncommon occurrence. "Atmospherics" and "Strays" a r e synonymous expressions f o r " s t a t i c . " A l l t h r e e of t h e s e words r e f e r t o the r o a m i k e l e c t E i c a l phenomena which a r e produced i n n a t u r e . " S t a t i c n i s a s h o r t Gay of s a y i n g - " s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y , " and because s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y concerns us a t this time, we should know something more about it. Lesson 55

In t h e m a j o r i t y of c a s e s t h e l i s t e n e r - i n does not know when he i s obtaining

sheet 6

The atmosphere of the e a r t h i s f i l l e d a t a l l times with what i s termed "charges of f r e e e l e c t r i c i t y . " T h i s f r e e e l e c t r i c i t y i s s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y . where i t comes f r o m no one d e f i n i t e l y knows. Many opinions have been expressed i n an attempt t o a r r i v e a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y explanation of i t s exact Many origin; it s t i l l remains, however, one Of the s e c r e t s of nature. opinions are advanced, therefore, t h a t must be given due consideration.
A most vivid manifestation of the presence of s t a t i c charges i n t h e a i r i s during thunder s t o r m s . The lightning seen a t such times i s the discharge between the clouds and e a r t h (and between cloud and cloud) of great accumul a t i o n s of s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y . A discharge O t h i s nature i s immediately f made known by a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c crashing noise being emitted from the loudspeaker. W say t h i s noise i s caused by s t a t i c . e

Fine weather may p r e v a i l a t the l o c a t i o n of the receiver but the lightning discharges of a d i s t a n t storm w i l l s t i l l have i t s e f f e c t upon the receiver even though i t i s thousands of miles away. why the receiver i s affected by s t a t i c is because of the discharge of s t a t i c accumulations which s e t up an electromagnetic disturbance in the atmosphere. A thunder storm a c t s a s t h e g r e a t e s t producer of t h i s f orm ofalectrical disturbance. Carriers of S t a t i c Charges. When l i s t e n i n g - i n t o a program during a r a i n o r snow storm it i s not an uncommon occurrence t o r e c e i v s a slinhb hissinn scmd. The r a i n drops and snow f l a k e s a r e c a r r i e r s O f minute static- char g es aKd, a s they come i n contact w i t h the antenna wire, they impart t h i s charge t o the a e r i a l system. Each of these charges setsup a minute current which passes through the receiving c i r c u i t t o e a r t h , producing a s l i g h t o s c i l l a t o r y impulse i n the tuned c i r c u i t which, in turn, i s emitted from the speaker a s a h i s s . I n d r y hot weather the a i r i s f i l l e d with small dust p a r t i c l e s . These are a l s o c a r r i e r s of s t a t i c charges which, on s t r i k i n g the antenna, give up an accumulated charge and produce i n t e r f e r i n g e f f e c t s

Other c h a r a c t e r i s t i c noises heard from the reproducing u n i t of a receiver, because of the e f f e c t of charged p a r t i c l e s s t r i k i n g the antenna are irregular "clicking n sounds or crashes resembling t h a t which woul6 be heard by throwing pebbles against a wall. t h e r Sources of Atmoszrheric Disturbance. It i s not uncommon, since radio {roadcasting became popular, t o read amounts of the ' ~ o r t h e r nLights" (Aurora Borealis) and i t s e f f e c t upon radio broadcast reception. W y the h ~tii-ora Borealis should a f f e c t radio reception i s not d i f f i c u l t t o understand when w accept the s c i e n t i f i c reasoning t h a t i s s e t f o r t h a s a possle ble explanation of the phenomenon. Bodies i n space a r e considered t o be one of the sources of e l e c t r i c a l phenomena affecting radio reception. This i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of the sun which may be thought of as an nnormous generator, and which not only r a d i a t e s heat and l i g h t waves, but e l e c t r i c a l waves a s well. The one p a r t i c u l a r form of e l e c t r i c a l phenomenon i n which w are i n t e r e s t e d , i s one which i s v i s i b l e t o e us on earth; namely, the Northern Lights. Because of the tremendously high temperature of the sun, a continual forming, combining, and decomposing of Lesson 55

- sheet

i t s elements i s i n progress, and t h e atmosphere surrounding t h i s body i s considered t o be of a gaseous nature. Heated g a s e s o r i g i n a t i n g w i t h i n the body of the sun r i s e t o g r e a t h e i g h t s and i n moving away t h e y expand and cool. I n cooling t h e y n a t u r a l l y become h e a v i e r than t h e heated gases below them and they then have t h e tendency t o f a l l back toward t h e surface of t h e sun. A opening may occur a t a lower l e v e l i n t h e s u n s s atmosphere, o r pern haps a t some spot on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e sun i n t o which these cooled g a s e s sink. A s they f a l l back they i n c r e a s e i n v e l o c i t y , rushing toward t h e openi n g s a t tremendous speeds u n t i l f i n a l l y t h e y become stupendous cyclonic storms embracing a r e a s thousands of m i l e s i n diameter. T h i s w h i r l i n g body of gas rushing i n t o t h e sun i s considered t o be charged w i t h e l e c t r i c i t y and, i n i t s downward motion, it s e t s up a magnetic d i s t u r b a n c e of g r e a t prop o r t i o n s ; so g r e a t i n f a c t t h a t t h e y extend m i l l i o n s of m i l e s i n t o space. m e n a magnetic f o r c e of t h i s n a t u r e emanates from t h e sun, and the e a r t h i s i n a l i n e w i t h this f o r c e , it may make i t s presence known by t h e e f f e c t i t produces; namely, t h e Aurora Borealis.

m e l i g h t s of t h e Aurora B o r e a l i s a r e considered t o b e a condition oficmization of t h e gases i n t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere. T h i s does n o t take p l a c e on the surface of t h e e a r t h but a t high a l t i t u d e s c a l l e d t h e "Auroral" region. T h i s region i s perhaps two o r t h r e e hundred m i l e s i n h e i g h t , a t which p o i n t t h e gases of the e a r t h ' s atmosphere a r e v e r y low i n p r e s s u r e ; i.e., r a r e f i e d .

The e a r t h , i n moving about i t s o r b i t cat a speed of over 1000 m i l e s a minute, p a s s e s o c c a s i o n a l l y through one of t h e s e magnetic f i e l d s produced by disturbances on t h e s u n The r a r e f i e d gases o f t h e a u r o r a l r e g i o n t h e n perform much l i k e a closed conductor being f o r c e d through a magnetic field. An e l e c t r o motive f o r c e i s produced and c u r r e n t flows through t h e g a s p a r t i c l e s causing it t o glow, r e s u l t i n g i n a b r i l l i a n t d i s p l a y of g r e a t ribbons of l i g h t a c r o s s t h e heavens. This glow appears only a t t h e h e i g h t s i n t h e atmosphere where the p r e s s u r e i s of t h e value that w i l l cause i o n i z a t i o n t o t a k e place.
he magnetic f o r c e , however, extends t o t h e e a r t h and, a s t h e e a r t h rushes through one of t h e s e magnetic storms, c u r r e n t i s induced i n t o a l l conducting mediums, such a s antennas, telephone and t e l e g r a p h l i n e s , and s o on. These, i n t u r n , produce t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c l i c k s c a l l e d " S t a t i c . " The e f f e c t on an i n d i v i d u a l antenna may n o t always be so pronounced, b u t i n t h e case of telephone and t e l e g r a p h l i n e s , which extend f o r m i l e s a c r o s s the country, t h e induced v o l t a g e i s o f t e n of s u f f i c i e n t magnitude t o completely d i s r u p t normal operation f o r s e v e r a l hours.

From the foregoing paragraphs i t i s understood t h a t e l e c t r i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e s which a f f e c t t h e r e c e p t i o n of r a d i o broadcast programs"orig1nate from d i f f e r e n t sources, and they c r e a t e i n t e r f e r e n c e on a l l wavelengths.
A tuned r a d i o c i r c u i t cannot e n t i r e l y e l i m i n a t e t h e s e d i s t u r b a n c e s b u t it may g r e a t l y reduce them. If t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e i s p r e s e n t on t h e same wavel e n g t h a s the s i g n a l being received, there i s no way t o prevent i t from passing through t h e c i r c u i t and causing a u d i b l e response i n t h e loudspeaker.

Many devices have been invented i n a n attempt t o e l i m i n a t e s t a t i c , but s o f a r the only p r a c t i c a l method of reducing i t s e f f e c t s i s by employing loosely Lesson 55

sheet 8

coupled c i r c u i t s and s h o r t antennas, o r D u s i n g a loop. S t a t i c e l i m i n a t o r s y which have produced encouraging r e s u l t s a r e so e l a b o r a t e a s t o p r o h i b i t t h e i r g e n e r a l use. Noise O r i g i n a t i w i n t h e Receiver. Noises which i n t e r f e r e w i t h a broadcast program a r e o f t e n c a l l e d s t a t i c , when i n r e a l i t y , t h e y o r i g i n a t e i n p a r t s of t h e r e c e i v e r . It i s much b e t t e r t o c l a s s i f y t h i s kind of i n t e r f e r e n c e a s n o i s e , because s t a t i c , s t r i c t l y speaking, i s the r e s u l t of t h e antenna system absorbing e l e c t r i c a l charges p r e s e n t i n the atmosphere. Receiver noises a r e due t o f a u l t y u n i t s of t h e s e t , i t s a c c e s s o r i e s , poor design, and c a r e l e s s c o n s t r u c t i o n work. Harsh, Scratchy, and Crackling Noises. If the "on" and " o f f " switch becomes worn, the r e s u l t w i l l be a c o n t i n u a l s e r i e s of s c r a t c h y sounds. The worn cont a c t s of the switch a r e s u b j e c t t o minute v i b r a t i o n s which may o f t e n causethe f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t t o be opened and closed. A l o s s i n sound i n t e n s i t y a l s o may r e s u l t , due t o poor o r d i r t y c o n t a c t s i n the switch p a r t s . A change of r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t i s caused by badly worn or dirty switch contacts. Rotor p l a t e s of v a r i a b l e condensers may become bent because of abuse and, when r o t a t e d , they w i l l s h o r t c i r c u i t the condenser by making contact with t h e stator p l a t e s . When t h i s occurs, a c l i c k or msping sound w i l l be heard from the ladspeaker. F a u l t y f l e x i b l e l e a d s of a variometer w i l l produce c r a c k l i n g n o i s e s when t h e variometer i s r o t a t e d .
A l l binding p o s t s screws o r t e r m i n a l s t r i p s should be inspected and, when found t o be loose, t h e y should be t i g h t e n e d so t h a t t h e wire ends o r "spade1' t e r m i n a l s from t h e b a t t e r i e s w i l l n o t s h i f t p o s i t i o n due t o v i b r a t i o n .

Broken p l a t e l e a d s i n t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l produce loud c l i c k i n g noises. Poor "B" b a t t e r y connections w i l l produce t h e same e f f e c t .

a t t h e s e terminals i s a source of t r o u b l e , sometimes completely preventing

Storage b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l s o f t e n become corroded. The a c i d s a l t s accumulating

t h e flow of c u r r e n t . The i n c r e a s e d r e s i s t a n c e t o the c i r c u i t caused by storage b a t t e r y terminal c o r r o s i o n w i l l c a u s e a f a i n t h i g h p i t c h e d w h i s t l e i n some receivers. Corroded soldered j o i n t s a r e producers of undesirable n o i s e . Excessive d i r t o r d u s t accumulations about open wiring, between condenser p l a t e s , and on t h e s p r i n g contac,ts of tube s o c k e t s w i l l o f t e n be the source of c r a c k l i n g sounds. Filaments of i n f e r i o r t u b e s w i l l o f t e n produce n o i s e a f t e r t h e y have been i n operation f o r a s h o r t time. Poorly designed and cheap grld leaks a r e very l i k e l y t o give considerable trouble. "Popp$ngn which occurs a t morear l e s s r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s may be due t o a g r i d l e a k of wrong value; t r y r e p l a c i n g w i t h varioua valuesuntUtfiepopping ceases. Lesson 55

- sheet 9

Howlinq. Howling may occur when t h e r e c e i v e r cabinet o r any of i t s c o n t r o l s a r e touched, or i t may even occur when no one i s near t h e r e c e i v e r . T h i s i s caused u s u a l l y by a microphonic tube. The howl caused by a microphonic tube if p r i n c i p a l l y a problem of mechanical v i b r a t i o n . A s you know, "sound" i s the r e s u l t of v i b r a t i n g a i r p a r t i c l e s and t h e v i b r a t i o n s of a loudspeaker wave motions. I f t h e speaker i s s e t t h e a i r about t h e speaker i n t o c o m ~ l e x r e s t i n g on a t a b l e , v i b r a t i o n s a r e imparted t o t h e t a b l e top. The t a b l e t o p a c t s a s a conductor f o r t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s and t r a n s m i t s them t o o t h e r o b j e c t s upon t h e surface of t h e t a b l e . The v i b r a t i o n s from t h e loudspeaker mag f i n d t h e i r way t o the tubes through the a i r . o r by way of t h e t a b l e top. With t h e speaker i s o l a t e d from t h e support h o l d i n g the r e c e i v e r , opening t h e l i d of t h e CP~P ~ o a o TO THE TULE-~ cabinet w i l l o f t p r e s u l t i n t h i s howl, which w i l l cease when t h e l ~ ids closed. It i s c l e a r i n a case of t h i s kind t h a t the v i b r a t i o n s a r e reaching t h e microphonic tube b g way of the a i r . Consider another case where t h e loudspeaker i s r e s t i n g upon t h e same t a b l e supportine; t h e r e c e i v e r . A s soon a s the s e t i s placed i n o p e r a t i o n t h e howl s t a r t s ; by removing the speaker from t h e t a b l e t h e howl ceases. T h i s time. i t i s evident t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n s were being t r a n s m i t t e d from t h e loudspeaker d i r e c t l y t o the tubes by way of t h e t a b l e top c a b i n e t , and t h e tube sockets. A remedy which i s very o f t e n s u c c e s s f u l i n preventing microphonic tube howl i s t o " load" t h e tube with a heavy cap. This cap i s s l i p p e d over t h e t o p of t h e tube a s shown i n Figure 3. A arrangement of t h i s kind n i T U B E P R O N GS p r e v e n t s t h e tube from moving f r e e l y . It i s s t i l l f r e e t o swing when v i b r a t i o n s s t r i k e i t , b u t n o t t o the same Figure 3 e x t e n t . Spring sockets a l s o tend t o absorb shocks and v i b r a t i o n s which would otherwise cause the tube elements t o v i b r a t e . The v i b r a t i o n period of t h e t u b e , when weighted down w i t h a heavy cap, i s perhaps only seven o r e i g h t times a second. A v i b r a t i o n p i t c h of t h i s magnitude i s f a r below the a u d i b i l i t y range and w i l l n o t be h e a r d i n t h e loudspeaker. The new a- c. tubes r a r e l y , i f e v e r , show microphonic tendencies and very l i t t l e t r o u b l e of t h i s n a t u r e should be experienced i n t h e new s e t s . V i b r a t i o n i s i n d i r e c t l y the cause of t h i s microphonic t r o u b l e but not t h e a c t u a l cause, f o r why should i t occur w i t h one tube and not another? A microphonic tube i s simply a n o r d i n a r y tube i n whlch one o r more of t h e elements a r e l o o s e l y mounted when assembled. It i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t a l l of t h e tube elements ( g r i d , p l a t e , and f i l a m e n t ) be so mounted and supported t h a t a r i g i d f i x e d p o s i t i o n i s maintained between them. I f any of t h e elements move, t h e spacing between them i s changed and, a s a r e s u l t , the normal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e tube a r e changed. For example, a tube designed t o have a low voltage a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r i s so constructed t h a t t h e g r i d and p l a t e elements a r e mounted close t o g e t h e r , while i n a tube designed t o have a h i g h voltage a m p l i f i c a t i o n t h e g r i d i s Lesson 55

- sheet 10

v i b r a t i o n s cause t h e tube t o move, the loose elements w i l l a l s o move. The d i s t a n c e between t h e s e elements consequently a r e changed and t h e p l a t e curr e n t w i l l follow t h e s e changes. The p l a t e c u r r e n t changes a r e then magnified by the amplifying s t a g e s following the microphonic tube and reproduced i n t h e loudspeaker a s a swinging howl, varying i n p i t c h a s t h e v i b r a t i o n p i t c h of the tube changes. I n some cases interchanging t h e t u b e s i n t h e i r sockets w i l l eliminate t h i s t r o u b l e . A tube having extreme microphonic tendencies should never be used. nductive I n t e r f e r e n c e . When a spark discharge occurs i n an e l e c t r i c a l e <Ipcuit,i n t e r f e r e n c e i s t h e r e s u l t . W term t h i s , " inductive i n t e r f e r e n c e . " \$,henit i s r e a l i z e d t h a t a small e l e c t r i c spark c r e a t e d by e l e c t r i c a l machines, or apparatus, produces e l e c t r i c a l waves of v a r i o u s f r e q u e n c i e s , i t i s apparent a t once t h a t t h e antenna system of a r a d i o r e c e i v e r w i l l i n t e r c e p t such waves, and they w i l l be conveyed t o the r e c e i v e r i n p r e c i s e l y t h e same manner a s t h e high frequency energy r a d i a t e d from a broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r . A spark l e s s than a centimeter i n l e n g t h i s a p o s s i b l e source of t h i s type of i n t e r f e r e n c e and w do not have t o look f a r t o f i n d innumerable t y p e s of apparatus which e a r e capable of doing t h i s v e r y thing. To l i s t every conceivable kind of machine o r piece of a p p a r a t u s t h a t might come under such a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n would r e q u i r e a huge volume. The following l i s t , however, i s s u f f i c i e n t t o give a comprehensive i d e a of where t o look f o r p o s s i b l e causes of i n t e r f e r e n c e .
(1) Automatic o i l burners, ( 2 ) E l e c t r i c washing machines, ( 3 ) E l e c t r i c refrigera t o r s , ( 4 ) E l e c t r i c warming pads, ( 5 ) Clapper switches on e l e v a t o r c o n t r o l s , ( 6 ) E l e c t r i c v i b r a t o r s , ( 7 ) X-ray machines, ( 8 ) Motors o p e r a t i n g d e n t a l equipment, ( 9 ) Violet r a y apparatus, (10) Bare power l i n e s swinging a g a i n s t t r e e branches, (11) Telephone r i n g e r s , ( 1 2 ) E l e c t r i c door b e l l s , (13) T r o l l e y c a r s and elevated systems, ( 1 4 ) Farm l i g h t i n g systems, ( 1 5 ) High v o l t a g e laboratary equipment, ( 1 6 ) Vacuum c l e a n e r s , (17) E l e c t r i c s i g n f l a s h e r s , (18) Defective lamp sockets, ( 1 9 ) Rapidly moving l e a t h e r b e l t s , (20) Buzzers, (21) E l e c t r i c p l a y e r pianos, ( 2 2 ) Rotary convertors of motion p i c t u r e equipment, ( 2 3 ) Def e c t i v e e l e c t r i c f l a t i r o n plugs, ( 2 4 ) Defective a r c lamps.

Sparking i s caused by t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n of a c u r r e n t flow d u r i n g the o p e r a t i o n of c e r t a i n kinds of e l e c t r i c a l apparatus, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h those designed t o operate with a make and break mechanism. E l e c t r i c motors of a l l kinds a r e p o s s i b l e causes of i n t e r f e r e n c e . Thermostatic c o n t r o l d e v i c e s , b e l l r i n g i n g apparatus, and s i g n f l a s h e r s a r e sources of considerable trouble. The f i r s t i n s t a n c e produces sparking, g e n e r a l l y because of t h e poor contact made between i n c o r r e c t l y f i t t e d brushed and t h e r e v o l v i n g commutator segm?nts, or collector rings. Thermostatic devices cause i n t e r f e r e n c e because c e r t a i n of i t s p a r t s depend upon the "make and break" 0.f t h e c i r c u i t t o produce r e s u l t s t h a t t h e apparatus i s designed f o r .

Lesson 55

sheet 1 1

n t a c t s , such a s might occur i n the connections of lamp s o c k e t s , f l a t e l e c t r i c t o a s t e r input plugs, unsoldered o r l o o s e l y made s p l i c e s , t h e charge o r leaking of e l e c t r i c a l energy t o ground because of f a u l t y insuo r s , a r e a l l p o s s i b l e sources of i n t e r f e r e n c e .

The high frequency energy t r a n s m i t t e d by spark d i s c h a r g e s becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y objectionable a s t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e spark i n c r e a s e s . A sudden v a r i a t i o n i n t h e s t r e n g t h of c u r r e n t flowing i n a c i r c u i t w i l l cause what i s known a s a "surge," due t o some f a u l t i n t h e c i r c u i t , which w i l l r e s u l t i n wave motion of v a r i o u s f r e q u e n c i e s being s e t up i n t h e space surrounding t h e p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u i t . Power l i n e s i n which t h i s t r o u b l e may e x i s t a c t a s antennas, and t h e y a s s i s t i n t h e r a d i a t i o n of a n i n t e r f e r i n g wave of t h i s n a t u r e which may t r a v e l g r e a t d i s t a n c e s t o e i t h e r s i d e of t h e a c t u a l l o c a t i o n of t h e t r o u b l e . Disturbances of t h i s kind a r e o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o cope w i t h and s p e c i a l a p p a r a t u s i s r e q u i r e d t o t r a c e it. Elimination Procedure. To e l i m i n a t e i n t e r f e r i n g e l e c t r i c a l impulses, use i a made of condensers and choke c o i l s , o r a combination of both. A u n i t of t h i s kind i s c a l l e d a " f i l t e r . " The c o n s t r u c t i o n of' a f i l t e r u n i t i s a simple m a t t e r and i t s i n s t a l l a t i o n i s by no means d i f f i c u l t . Caution, however, should be exercised when connecting such a device t o a power c i r c u i t . Kake c e r t a i n t h a t t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n i s made i n compliance w i t h t h e r u l e s of t h e Board of F i r e Underwriters. F i r e h a z a r d s a r e t o be avoided i n a l l cases. F i g u r e s 4 t o 9 a r e schematic diagrams showing v a r i o u s f i l t e r c i r c u i t s . Exact s p e c i f i c a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o the c a p a c i t y of t h e condensers, o r t o t h e inductance of t h e choke c o i l s , a r e n o t shown i n t h e s e diagrams because of t h e p o s s i b l e v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e s of t h e s e u n i t s when a p p l i e d t o d i f f e r e n t conditions.

I n many cases where f i l t e r s a r e c a l l e d upon t o elimfnate i n t e r f e r e n c e a c e r t a i n amount of study of t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n w i l l be required. One

o r more of t h e v a r i o u s hook-ups shown i n F i g u r e s 4 t o 9, i n c l u s i v e , may be employed. It may b e necessary t o s u b s t i t u t e v a r i o u s v a l u e s of c a p a c i t y and inductance b e f o r e the c o r r e c t combination i s found that w i l l e f f e c t i v e l y produce the d e s i r e d r e s u l t s .

/
/
1I

The condenser used i n any of the f i l t e r c i r c u i t s shown, should be capable of withstanding a 1000 v o l t d i r e c t c u r r e n t t e s t when connected a c r o s s a 110 and 220 v o l t supply l i n e . The choke c o i l s must be wound w i t h t h e proper s i z e and l e n g t h of wire t o g i v e t h e reactance d e s i r e d and t o s a f e l y c a r r y the c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e c i r c u i t i n which t h e y a r e connected.

1
i
j

With t h e knowledge, t h e n , t h a t hard and f a s t r u l e s cannot be given r e l a t i v e t o d e f i n i t e v a l u e s of condenser c a p a c i t y and choke c o i l inductahce, we can continue w i t h a few s p e c i f i c c a s e s i n which approximate s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e and which w i l l , i n many i n s t a n c e s , prove s u c c e s s f u l i n curbing the interference. When an i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s been made and the d e f e c t i v e e l e c t r i c a l device has been l o c a t e d , t h e a p p l i c a t l u n of the f i l t e r unit i s the next step. Figure 10 Lesson 55

j
i

- s h e e t 12

lUPUT

TERMIN~LS OF DEVICE CAUSING INTERFERENCE

l-

TO 110 VOLT POWER LINE

TO DEVICE CAUSING INTERFERENCE

TO HO VOLT POWER LINE

Figure 5

TO DEVICE CAUSING INTERFERENCE

TO IIOVOLT POWER LINE

TO DEVICE CAUSING INTERFERENCE

TO IIOVOLT POWER LINE

*
Figure 6 Figure 7

TO DEVICE CkUSING INTERFERENCE 4

-= -

m TO 110 VOLT POWER LINE

INTERFERENCE

TO DEVICE CAUSING

1
7

TO 110VOLT POWER LINE

*
Figure 9

Figure 8

r e p r e s e n t s a device u t i l i z i n g a small motor known a s t h e u n i v e r s a l type motor, t h a t i s , one which o p e r a t e s from e i t h e r a- c. o r d-c. A small 0.5 mfd. cap a c i t y condenser i s shown connected a c r o s s t h e motor i n p u t terminals. Figure 1 i l l u s t r a t e s a motor of t h e washing machine type equipped w i t h a 1 f i l t e r u n i t wired according t o Figure 8; t h e condensers may be 0.5 t o 1.0 mfd. capacity. The choke c o i l s a r e wound w i t h about 100 t o 150 t u r n s of i n s u l a t e d copper wire on a 2 i n c h form, t h e s i z e of the wire depending upon t h e c u r r e n t & drawn by t h e motor. I n i n s t a l l a t i o n s of t h i s kind i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e f i l t e r s shown i n F i g u r e s 4, 5, and 7 may e l i m i n a t e t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e , the capacity of the condensers remaining approximately the same. The choke of Figure 7 should have approximately t h e same number of t u r n s of wire and of a s i z e suff i c i e n t t o c a r r y t h e c u r r e n t drawn by the device t o which i t i s connected. The inductance of any choke c o i l should be a t l e a s t 1.5 milli- henrys. Figure 12 shows a n e l e c t r i c a l h e a t i n g pad. The t h e r m o s t a t i c u n i t producing the i n t e r f e r e n c e i s shown i n F i g u r e 13 a, b, and c, i n a s i m p l i f i e d form. Heating pads have t h e r m o s t a t i c c u r r e n t controlswhich a r e made up of two d i s similar metals, each having a d i f f e r e n t c o e f f i c i e n t of expansion. The f i r s t Lesson 55

sheet 13

metal, we w i l l say, expands more r a p i d l y than t h e second, t h e r e f o r e , a t a c e r t a i n h e a t the r a p i d expansion of t h e f i r s t metal w i l l f o r c e the c o n t a c t s a p a r t , i n t h i s way breaking t h e c i r c u i t a s shown a t "b." W hen s u f f i c i e n t l y cooled the e n t i r e arm D drops back on contact E a s shown a t "a1' and c u r r e n t a g a i n flows through t h e t h e r m o s t a t i c a l l o y . Because of c e r t a i n conditions, t h i s arm D may open j u s t f a r enough a t times so t h a t t h e l e a s t v i b r a t i o n w i l l cause i t t o r a p i d l y make a s e r i e s of "makes" and "breaks" a s shown a t "c", and an a r c w i l l be drawn each time. It i s t h i s p a r t of t h e device t h a t causes intepference from h e a t i n g pads. Figure 12 shows a 1.0 mf'd. condenser connected a s c l o s e t o the thermos a s possible; i . e . , a t t h e socket connection of t h e t w i s t e d wirescoming from the h e a t i n g element of t h e pad. Sign f l a s h e r s a r e very numerous. A g r e a t many t y p e s have e l e c t r i c a l l y d r i v e n mechanism which a l l o w s c u r r e n t t o operate lamps arranged t o i n t e r m i t t e n t l y s p e l l words, and a l s o t o b u l l d up e n t i r e scenes. The c o n t r o l l i n g mechanism may be so designed a s t o f l a s h i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y the e n t i r e message o r scene t h a t the s i g n i s designed t o p r e s e n t , o r t o b u i l d the message o r scene up sten- by- step by f l a s h i n g l e t t e r s o r scenes s u c c e s s i v e l y , u n t i l t h e e n t i r e b b j e c t appears.

Figure 12

Figure 10

POWER SUPPLY

Figure 1 1

Figure 13 Lesson 55

sheet 14

A s a r u l e e l e c t r i c a l s i g n s of t h i s type have a l l t h e c o n t r o l mechanism enclosed by a metal housing which i s u s u a l l y grounded t o c a r r y off i n t e r f e r i n g waves caused by sparking t h a t occurs a t the "make" and "breakn of t h s c u r r e n t supplied t o t h e s i g n lamps.

Another type which depends upon t h e $ h e m o s t a t i c c o n t r o l i s shown i n Figure 14. Again we have the p r i n c i p l e of an expanding metal. I n t h i s case, however, t h e metal "M" i s heated by a c o i l "C" which opens the c o n t a c t s "A" 0 ooling, contact i s made a g a i n a t D and t h e s i g n i l l u m i n e t e s . The condensers r e q u i r e d may be of any capacity from 1.0 t o 5.0 mfd., while the choke c o i l should c o n s i s t of a t l e a s t 250 t u r n s of i n s u l a t e d wire on a form 3 inches i n diameter and of a s i z e s u f f i c i e n t t o c a r r y the current drawn b y the lamps i n t h e sign. I n cases of t h i s kind f i l t e r u n i t s a s shown i n Figure 8, employing two choke c o i l s , may be required.
POWER SUPPLY LINE
*-.

11

MOTOR-,

f=-,

Figure 14

Figure 1 5

Dental motors o f t e n cause i n t e r f e r e n c e several'hundred f e e t from t h e i r act u a l l o c a t i o n . I n c a s e s of tinis kind one of t h e f i l t e r u n i t s of the type shown i n Figures 5, 7, o r 8 w i l l u s u a l l y c l e a r t h e t r o u b l e . The condenser r a t i n g of t h e f i l t e r of Figure 5 should be a t l e a s t 1.0 mfd. capacity, and of F i g u r e s 7 and 8, of 0.5 mfd. capacity. The choke c o i l s should c o n s i s t of 80 o r 100 t u r n s of No. 14 d. c. c. copper mire, lump wound on a 2 inch form. Such a n i n s t a l l a t i o n i s shown i n Figure 15. The o p e r a t i n g e l e c t r i c a l equipment of automatic o i l b u r n e r s o f t e n causes i n t e r f e r e n c e , and because no two may respond t o t h e same treatment r e l a t i v e t o t h e e l i m i n a t i n g of r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e , no s p e c i f i c remedies can be given. The g e n e r a l method of procedure, however, i s a v a i l a b l e and i s shown i n F i g u r e s 16, 17, and 18. The transformer "T" i s of t h e high t e n s i o n type del i v e r i n g i n t h e neighbothood of 10,000 v o l t s a c r o s s t h e secondary which i s used t o i g n i t e t h e vaporized o i l a s i t i s d r i v e n i n t o t h e furnace. The cond e n s e r s should be from 0.5 t o 2.0 mfd. capacity. Choke c o i l s c o n s i s t i n g of Lesson 55

- sheet 15

about 150 t u r n s of No. 16 d.c.C. copper wire wound on a 2 inch form, lump wound, w i l l have s u f f i c i e n t inductance. By lump wound i s meant, wound without r e s p e c t t o any n e a t o r o r d e r l y f a s h i o n a s would be t h e case if wound s i n g l e l a y e r o r bank wound. X-ray Equipment. X-ray equipment, when c o n s i s t i n g of a r e c t i f i e r of r o t a r y synchronous type, w i l l i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l i n s t a n c e s produce cons i d e r a b l e r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e which may be e f f e c t i v e i n e i t h e r b l o t t i n g out t h e broadcast s i g n a l s e n t i r e l y , o r a t l e a s t causing enough i n t e r f e r e n c e t o make i t very annoyins. The b e s t the s e r v i c e man can do i n a case of t h i s kind i s t o t r y out a l l t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s of f i l t e r s u n t i l one i s found t h a t w i l l m a t e r i a l l y reduce t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e . To e l i m i n a t e a l l i n t e r f e r e n c e from machines of t h i s type should not be expected by applying any combin a t i o n of f i l t e r because a g r e a t proportion comes from t h e long high tension l e a d s leading from the apparatus t o t h e electrodes. The s h i e l d i n g of these l e a d s , t h e r e f o r e , i s n o t s a t i s f a c t o r y because i t i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e i r f r e e use. The most p r a c t i c a l method i s t o s h i e l d t h e e n t i r e room with a f i n e copper mesh, an expensive undertaking. hlotion P i c t u r e E q u i ~ m e n t . The motor e n e r a t o r s e t employed t o f u r n i s h power t o the a r c s of motion p f c t u r e p r o j e c t on apparatus w i l l sometimes cause i n t e r f e r e n c e f o r a d i s t a n c e -o f perhaps-300 yards. A f i l t e r of the type shown i n Figure 5 w i l l i n most cases improve conditions. The condenser capacity should be a t l e a s t 2.0 mfd. Connect the u n i t a c r o s s t h e g e n e r a t o r output a s shown i n Figure 19, p r o t e c t i n g the g e n e r a t o r from s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g o r breaking down

'f

POWER SUPPLY

Figure 17
POWER
SUPPLY

I
,O.C.6ENERP,TOR
FILTER COYDENSEUS

Figure 18

Figure 1 9 Lesson 55

sheet 16

t h e condensers by i n s e r t i n g 5 ampemfuses i n t h e f i l t e r c i r c u i t a s sh The f i l t e r u n i t should be enclosed i n a metal box. The f i l t e r shown i n Figure 9 i s c a l l e d a "compound choke" and i s sometimes s u c c e s s f u l when a l l of t h e o t h e r combinations f a i l . Usually, however, i t w i l l n o t be necessary t o go t o t h i s extreme. Figure 20 shows a f i l t e r connected i n a t h r e e wire system. The choke c o i l s must be l a r g e enough t o c a r r y t h e c u r r e n t t o be drawn from t h e l i n e . The condenser values may vary from 0.5 t o 2.0 mfd. c a p a p i t y and should be f u s e d w i t h 5 ampere f u s e s . Figures21 and 22 show p o s s i b l e sources of i n t e r f e r e n c e due t o sparking when the i r o n i s moved a c r o s s t h e board. The remedy i s t o r e p a i r t h e d e f e c t s by i n s t a l l i n g new p a r t s o r by making good soldered s p l i c e s . Power Lines. Lines c a r r y i n g h i g h p o t e n t i a l a r e always a p o s s i b l e source of i n t e r f e r e n c e . The r a d i o s e r v i c e man should never attempt t o e l i m i n a t e a suspected t r o u b l e on any high t e n s i o n , power d i s t r i b u t i o n , o r t r a c t i o n l i n e . The v e r y f i r s t reason i s t h a t he i s l i k e l y t o pay f o r such work w i t h h i s l i f e . A power l i n e c a r r y i n g hundreds of thousands of v o l t s i s no r e s p e c t o r of persons and t o attempt t o tamper w i t h i t i s extremely dangerous. The second reason i s t h a t t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s of t h i s kind a r e p r i v a t e property and persons not o f f i c i a l l y connected w i t h t h e power company should never a t tempt t o r e p a i r d e f e c t i v e apparatus. Power and t r a c t i o n companies a r e always willing; t o cooperate w i t h o u t s i d e i n t e r e s t s i n running down t r o u b l e s t h a t a r e p o s s i b l e sources of i n t e r f e r e n c e . lhben r a d i o r e c e p t i o n i s i n t e r r u p t e d by some d e f e c t i n power o r t r a c t i o n systems, a complaint should be presented t o t h e proper o f f i c i a l s who a r e always g l a d G O know of such d e f e c t s a s i t means a l o s s of power (and consequently money) t o the company.
A s a matter of knowledge, however, i t i s w e l l t o know of conditions t h a t

c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e o r i g i n a t i o n of r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e and of t h e d i f f i c u l t y encountered i n f i n d i n g t h e cause of t h e t r o u b l e . T r a c t i o n Systems. Sources of i n d u c t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e due t o t r o l l e y , e l e v a t e d , and subway t r a c t i o n l i n e s a r e : Sparking commutator, sparking of motors d r i v i n g t h e a i r compressors on t h e c a r s , sparking a t t h e c o n t a c t o r s of t h e c o n t r o l l e r s , f a u l t y l i n e i n s u l a t o r s , and poor r a i l bonding. A long l i s t could be w r i t t e n b u t t h i s i s s u f f i c i e n t t o show t h e many p o s s i b l e sources. Disturbances from any of t h e above causes c r e a t e l i t t l e o r no i n t e r f e r e n c e c l o s e t o t h e i r source, b u t t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s generated i n such cases may t r a v e l by means of the r a i l s o r power l i n e s f o r considerable d i s t a n c e s . I n some l o c a l i t i e s , t r o l l e y and f e e d e r w i r e s o f t e n run p a r a l l e l w i t h telephone, t e l e g r a p h , o r l i g h t wires. H i g h frequency impulses o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e t r o l l e y and f e e d e r w i r e s t r a n s f e r t h i s energy by i n d u c t i o n t o t h e o t h e r l i n e s p a r a l l e l with them, and i n t h i s way the i n t e r f e r e n c e which s t a r t e d i n one l i n e may extend f o r g r e a t d i s t a n c e s i n o t h e r l i n e s . It i s conditions of t h i s kind t h a t make r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e hunting sometimes "will-01-the-wisp" and d i f f i c u l t t o l o c a t e . Lesson 55

- sheet 17

E 1
O

Figure 20
CUTOUT HANDLE

Figure 23

Figure 21
CONSTANT USE CAUSES STRANDS OF FLEXIBLE W I R E TO BREAK AND ARCING TAKLS PLACE:\.

Figure 22

Figure 24

Spark discharges between the s h a f t and bearing through t h e o i l f i l m on r o t a r y convertors have been known t o cause i n t e r f e r e n c e , T h i s t r o u b l e was cleared by i n s u l a t i n g t h e base o r by making a n e l e c t r i c a l connection between the base and t h e s h a f t by means of a wiping c o n t a c t . Examples of t h i s kind a r e i n t e r e s t i n g because they serve t o show t h e u n l i k e l y p l a c e s t h a t may be t h e source of r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e . Defective lamp sockets, grounds caused by t h e power .gsupply l i n e s coming i n t o contact w i t h the branches of t r e e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n wet weather, and l o o s e s p l i c e s , a r e causes of r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e . Loose primary cut- outs of transformers o f t e n cause t r o u b l e . Figure 23 shows the g e n e r a l p o s i t i o n of t h e cut- out i n a n a c t u a l i n s t a l l a t i o n . When good t i g h t c o n t a c t i s n o t made by a cut- out, s l i g h t pole v i b r a t i o n s w i l l cause slight i n t e r r u p t i o n s i n t h e c u r r e n t supply because of t h e bad cut- out. A condition of t h i s kind w i l l r e s u l t i n s l i g h t surges f o r g r e a t Lesson 5.5

- sheet 18

d i s t a n c e s e i t h e r s i d e of t h e d e f e c t i v e u n i t . A l l l i n e s p a r a l l e l t o the l i n e i n which the f a u l t y p a r t i s connected w i l l pick up t h i s disturbance by i n d u c t i o n and propagate i t f o s miles. m e a r c i n g t o the transformer case from t h e primary l e a d s & a high p o t e n t i a l l i n e produces a h a r s h buzzing sound from the loudspeaker. T h i s i s i n many c a s e s of such magnitude a s t o completely blot out broadcast r e c e p t i o n f o r hours. H i ~ h o t e n t i a l Svstems. High v o l t a g e transmission l i n e s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e P r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e problems because of leaky condensers; a l s o b r heavv surges of c u r r e n t because of some f a u l t y u n i t which, by induction, t r a & s f e r s " t h e :isturbance t o o t h e r p a r a l l e l systems causing i n t e r f e r e n c e f o r perhaps 20 m i l e s from t h e source. Horn-gap l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t o r s shown i n Figure 24 w i l l discharge during snow and s l e e t storms, causing heavy c l i c k i n g and snapping which h a s i t s e f f e c t on r a d i o r e c e i v e r s . From what has been s a i d , it i s r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e , due t o d e f e c t i v e p a r t s on power and t r a c t i o n l i n e s , i s t o be undert a k e n only by men q u a l i f i e d t o work on t h e s e systems. e Location o f Trouble. W come now t o t h e work of d e f i n i t e l y l o c a t i n g the source of r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e . In t h i s work the a s s i s t a n c e of broadcast l i s t e n e r s i s o f t e n of g r e a t h e l p i n quickly l o c a t i n g t h e t r o u b l e . For example, owners of s e t s who a r e experiencing excessive i n t e r f e r e n c e mag o f t e n be requested by t h e power companies i n t h e i r l o c a l i t y t o keep a log of t h e time t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e begins,, i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c sound, and the time i t ceases, whether i t comes i n w i t h a c e r t a i n r e g u l a r i t y , o r only now and again. Information of t h i s n a t u r e i s very h e l p f u l i n making a preliminary s t u d y of the s i t u a t i o n before a c t u a l f i e l d work i s begun. I n a measure, it a i d s t h e men seeking t h e t r o u b l e t o determine whether they w i l l have t o a t t a c k the problem from t h e standpoint of a f i x e d source from which the i n t e r f e r e n c e i s being propagated, o r because of t r a n s i e n t phenomena. A f t e r a study of t h e t r o u b l e has been made and it i s d e f i n i t e l y determined t h a t t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e i s o r i g i n a t i n g from some o p e r a t i n g equipment, a f a u l t y unit., o r from some e l e c t r i c a l l i n e o u t s i d e of t h e b u i l d i n g where the broadc a s t r e c e i v e r i s i n s t a l l e d , t r a c i n g down t h e l o c a t i o n i s accomplished with t h e a i d of a n automobile and a p o r t a b l e loop r e c e i v e r of good s t a b l e design. The body of a closed c a r c o n s i s t s of considerable metal s h i e l d i n g and d i s t o r t i o n of a s i g n a l r e s u l t s , hence an open c a r i s p r e f e r r e d f o r t h i s work. The Receiver. Figure 25 shows a schematic diagram of a r e g e n m a t i v e rec e i v e r s u i t a b l e f o r t r a c i n g i n t e r f e r e n c e . The c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of a loop antenna, a r e g e n e r a t i v e d e t e c t o r , and two s t a g e s of audio- frequency amulific a t i o n . Regeneration and o s c i l l a t i o n a r e produced i n t h i s c i r c u i t by means of t h e 0.00015 v a r i a b l e condenser. When t h i s condenser i s a d j u s t e d near i t s minimum p o s i t i o n , r e g e n e r a t i o n i s obtained. Advancing t h e adjustment of the condenser w i l l , a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t , s e t the c i r c u i t i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n and i t Lesson55

- sheet 19

t h e n g e n e r a t e s a h i g h frequency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . T h i s high frequency combines w i t h t h e incoming s i g n a l frequency, and a t h i r d frequency i s produced. The r e s u l t a n t , o r t h i r d frequency, i s c a l l e d a " b e a t c u r r e n t " which i s made a u d i b l e by adjustment of t h e 0.00C5 v a r i a b l e condenser. The loop h a s d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h a t i s , i t w i l l receive the g r e a t e s t amount of s i g n a l energy when it p o i n t s toward t h e source of t h e i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l , This i d e a i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 26.
APPROX. 2 2 TURNS OF

'18 WIRE

; ,1

RPlDlO FREQUENCY CHOKE COIL M6DE W WINDING L SINGLE LAYER COlL ON A TUBE THE COlL SHOULO OF IN DIAMETER. ATOUT 3 0 0 TURNS OF a 3 2 S.C.C.COPPER WIRE.

I AUOIO F

2 % AUDIO FREQUENCY ,AMPLIFIER

CONSTRUCTION OF LOOP

SEW uros F n o u i o d p in CANVAS STRkP KEEPINGTHEU SPACED a i L E A S T wmi. MAINTAIN THIS SPACING TO THE BINDING POST STRIP OF SET.

'" ,

FILAMENT CONTROL JACK LOOP TERMINhL BINDING POSTS 0.00015 MFO. VARIABLE CONDENSERTO CONTROL' REGEVERATION

,' ,
IF STORAGE BLTTERY 15 EMPLOYED THE 201-6 T I P TUBES ARE USED. I F ORY CELLS ARC EMPLOYED FOR FILLMEIIT HELlTlNG USE THE I 9 9 TYPE. 45VOLTS"VBRlTERY 15 SUFFICIENT.

V O L U ME C O N T ~ L

Figure 25 I n t h e c i t y t h e loop may show l i m i t e d d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s because of the n e t work of power, l i g h t i n g , and t r a c t i o n f e e d w i r e s . For t h i s r e a s o n t h e l o c a t i o n of i n t e r f e r e n c e i s not accomplished by employing t h e d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e loop, but by what i s termed the " i n t e n s i t y of s i g n a l " method. S t a r t i n g from t h e b u i l d i n g vlhere t h e complaint i s r e c e i v e d , place t h e r e c e i v e r i n o p e r a t i o n . I n s e r t t h e headphone p l u g which a u t o m a t i c a l l y l i & t s t h e f i l a m e n t s of t h e t u b e s . Turn t h e loop i n a plane p a r a l l e l with overhead power o r l i g h t i n g l i n e s . Adjust the t u n i n g c o n t r o l f o r maximum i n t e n s i t y , which may a t times seem of e q u a l i n t e n s i t y anywhere on t h e tuning d i a l . Reduce t h e volume c o n t r o l u n t i l t h e s i g n a l i s b a r e l y a u d i b l e and, without changing t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e loop, proceed f o r a s h o r t d i s t a n c e along t h e l i n e suspected of radiating. t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e . Take ano t h e r r e a d i n g again, reducing t h e volume i f p o s s i b l e which w i l l i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e source of i n t e r f e r e n c e i s nearer. T h i s i s continued u n t i l the volume c o n t r o l i s reduced t o i t s minimum s e t t i n g . A t t h i s p o i n t t h e source of t h e t r o u b l e i s u s u a l l y found. If t h e l o c a t i o n seems t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t r o u b l e i s on a p a r t i c u l a r poLe, it I s t h e n s t r u c k l i g h t l y i n order t h a t t h e w i r e s o r d e v i c e s a t t a c h e d t o It w i l l v i b r a t e . Poor c o m e c t i o n s o r o t h e r d e f e c t s w i l l t h e n make themselves known by spasmodic and i r r e g u l a r sounds I n t h e headphones. Lesson 55

sheet 20

If a t any time d u r i n g t h e t r a c i n g of t r o u b l e , t h e f i l a m e n t o r volume cont r o l h a s t o be i n c r e a s e d t o make the s i g n a l a u d i b l e , it i s a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t the r e c e i v e r i s being moved away from t h e source and not toward i t , hence the only course t o t a k e i s t o move i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n .
A more s e n s i t i v e equipment i s d e s i r a b l e f o r this work a t times, i n which case a p o r t a b l e super- heterodyne r e c e i v e r , such a s shown i n Figure 27,

i s employed.

The d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a loop i s n o t g e n e r a l l y accepted t o be t h e b e s t method of l o c a t i n g f a u l t s t h a t cause i n t e r f e r e n c e because of t h e f a c t t h a t it w i l l p o i n t t o t h e n e a r e s t conductor which i s c a r r y i n g t h e d i s turbance even though t h e a c t u a l source may be l o c a t e d m i l e s away.

M~XIMUM ENERGY INDUCED IN LOOP WHEN TURNED EDGEWISE OR I N PLANE OF SIGNAL TO B E RECEIVED.

INTERFERENCE

7,LESS ENERGY RECEIVEDANGLE AS LOOP TURNEO AT AN

IS

TO THE INCOUING SIGNAL.

TH E LOOP AT RIGHT ANGLES TO

THE SIGNAL TO BE RECEIVED AVAILABLE FOR THE RECEIVER.

Figure 26

Lesson 55

- s h e e t 21

LOOP INCLOSED

-...il,li

1.

mat

i s meant by t h e term, " inductive i n t e r f e r e n c e ? "

2. 3. 4. 5.
6.

7.
8 .
9.

1. 0

Draw a schematic diagram of a wave t r a p connected t o a r e c e i v e r . Name some of t h e causes of s t a t i c interfellence. Under what c o n d i t i o n s would you use a wave t r a p ? J u s t why a r e some r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t s more s e l e c t i v e t h a n o t h e r s ? Describe a form of t h e r m o s t a t i c control. Draw a schematic diagram of a f i l t e r u n i t u t i l i z i n g two condensers and one choke c o i l . Name f i v e sources of I n d u c t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e . ( a ) Why i s it t h a t a vacuum tube w i l l cause a r e c e i v e r t o "howl?" (b) What a r e some of t h e s t e p s t a k e n t o overcome t h i s ? What causes a r e c e i v e r t o o s c i l l a t e ?

Lesson 55
<-

- eheet 22

INC.
firme&

MARCON/ /NSTITUTE

S u n d e d /go9

Technical Lesson 56
COMMERCIAL LONG AND SHORT WAVE RECEIKERS

Type IP-501 Receiver. The Type IP-501 r e c e i v e r i s designed f o r operation a s a r e a e n e r a t i v e d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t t o r e c e i v e t h e s i g n a l s s e n t out bv saark " s t a t i o n s , and f o r r e g e n e r a t i v e b e a t r e c e p t i o n t o respond t o continuous wave (C.W.) signals.

The vacuum tube d e t e c t o r i s mounted on t h e panel w i t h t h e t u n i n g apparatus, . a r e a r view of which i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 1 The complete c i r c u i t diagram i s shown i n Figure 2. A f r o n t view of t h e p a n e l showing the tuning c o n t r o l s , filament voltmeter and filament r h e o s t a t c o n t r o l , i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 3, A schematic diagram of t h e IP-501 i s shown i n Figure 3A.
A c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r may be connected t o t h e two binding p o s t s marked "Crystal" f o r t h e r e c e p t i o n of s p a r k s i g n a l s or modulated C.I.V., and t h e four- pole double-throw switch permits a quick changeover from c r y s t a l t o vacuum tube operation. When the s w i t c h handle i s i n t'ne center p o s i t i o n , marked "send," t h e r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t s a r e disconnected f r o m t h e d e t e c t o r which should be t h e a d j u s t n e n t when s i g n a l s a r e being t r a n s m i t t e d .

The wavelength range of t h e r e c e i v e r i s from 300 meters t o 8000 meters. E x t e r n a l loading inductance c o i l s may be i n s e r t e d i n t h e primary, secondary and t i c k l e r c i r c u i t s t o r e a c h t h e maximum range of t h e r e c e i v e r . The "long wave loading u n i t " i s shown mounted over t h e main r e c e i v e r c a b i n e t i n Figure 4, while t h e schematic w i r i n g diagram of t h i s same u n i t i s shown i n Figure 5. The binding p o s t s on b o t h panels a r e placed e x a c t l y opposite t o allow conv e n i e n t and accurate connection between t h e c i r c u i t s . When t h e loading c o i l s a r e used t h e metal s t r a p s a t t a c h e d t o t h e t h r e e p a i r s of binding p o s t s on t h e r e c e i v e r panel must be removed. Connection between t h e lower antenna post of t h e loading u n i t and t h e antenna p o s t of t h e r e c e i v e r i s required.
A t h r e e p o s i t i o n r o t a r y switch on t h e loading u n i t p a n e l connects t h e circuit t o a low, medium and h i g h wavelength range. When t h e switch i s i n "LOW" p o s i t i o n a l l of t h e loading c o i l s a r e s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d and t h e r e c e i v e r i s

t h e n i n a c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e r e g u l a r adjustments which a r e c a r r i e d out when a d d i t i o n a l inductance i s not used. I n "~edium"p o s i t i o n t h e primary and t i c k l e r c o i l s a r e added t o t h e c i r c u i t while only a p o r t i o n of t h e secondary l o a d i n g inductance i s c u t in. On t h e " ~ i g h "p o s i t i o n a l l of t h e loading c o i l s a r e added t o t h e r e s p e c t i v e c i r c u i t s . The coupling between t h e przmary and secondary loading c o i l s i s v a r i a b l e , w i t h a lock provided t o hold t h e adjustment. The t i c k l e r c o i l coupling i s a l s o v a r i a b l e and l i k e w i s e provided w i t h a lock.
The r e c e i v e r i s a n i n d u c t i v e l y coupled type having independent primary and secondary c i r c u i t s which must. be in tune w i t h the wavelength afthe signals deaired.
.. , .
,

C.ontens Copyrighted -1930.

:i.,

:@mints& n i

lJ,S .A.

..

Spring Tickler suspension coil Grid leak Detector socket and cqndenser

Primary Secondary Inductance Inductance Tickler coil Secondary connection I coupli g -coil

Rheostat
Figure 1

LONG WIVE TICKLER

SEC.LOID

It

PRI. LOAD

,SECONDARY

Em-@ ANT.

GROUNDING-_-CONDENSER

ANTENNA (PRIMARY) CONDENSER

SEC.
COND.

@--

b G 3 - 4 6
PLATE BATTERY

@ BUZZER

FILAMENT BATTERY

BATTERY

Lesson 56

- sheet 3

Figure 3

Figure 3A
...
.. . .

....

--.

56

- .-.- . .

sheet 4

To t h e r i g h t of the main r e c e i v e r cabinet i n Figure 4 i s shown the two-step audio a m p l i f i e r u n i t . Five v o l t t u b e s of the 201-A type are employed i n t h e d e t e c t o r and a m p l i f i e r c j r c u i t s , t h e filaments being energized by a 6 volt s t o r a g e b a t t e r y . The r e c e i v e r and a m p l i f i e r u n i t s a r e e l e c t r i c a l l y connected by a t t a c h i n g a jumper wire from each "telephone" binding post t o each " i n p u t " binding post, t h e corresponding binding posts of the two instruments being e x a c t l y opposite. Separate filament r h e o s t a t c o n t r o l s a r e provided f o r each t u b e , and each p l a t e c i r c u i t i s equipped with a phone jack, t o allow f o r r e c e p t i o n of s i g n a l s d i r e c t l y from t h e d e t e c t o r , or a f t e r t h e s i g n a l s have passed through one or two s t a g e s of a m p l i f i c a t i o n . The amplifier u n i t i s provided with terminals f o r connecting t h e 6 v o l t "A" b a t t e r y , the "C" b a t t e r y t o f u r n i s h a negative b i a s t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t s , and t h e "B1' b a t t e r y t o supply the p o s i t i v e p l a t e p o t e n t i a l s . The e.m.f. of t h e "En b a t t e r y may range from 90 t o 135 v o l t s , and t h e p o t e n t i a l of the "C b a t t e r y should be between 4.5 and 9 v o l t s depending upon t h e amount of "R" voltage used. The main r e c e i v e r u n i t i s a l s o provided with b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l s f o r t h e d e t e c t o r tube only. Leads can be connected t o t h e filament p o s t s from t h e storage b a t t e r y supplying the a m p l i f i e r . The I! B 11 b a t t e r y may be tapped a t t h e 45 v o l t terminal and a l e a d c a r r i e d t o t h e " p o s i t i v e p l a t e b a t t e r y " bindi n g post.
A small p r o t e c t i v e spark gap i s mounted on t h e extreme l e f t of t h e r e c e i v e r

p a n e l d i r e c t l y i n t h e c e n t e r , and a t h i n card should be s l i p p e d i n between t h e two angle-shaped p o s t s o c c a s i o n a l l y a s a t e s t t o make s u r e t h a t t h e gap i s not short- circuited. Antenna C i r c u i t or Primary C i r c u i t . The antenna or open o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of t h e antenna, t h e primary c y l i n d r i c a l l o a d i n g c o i l , t h e primary inductance bank-wound on threaded tubing, the antenna inductance switch, t h e v a r i a b l e a i r type condenser, and t h e gnound conductor. The primary inductance i s tapped and made v a r i a b l e i n s i x s t e p s with conn e c t i o n s t o t h e r o t a r y c o n t r o l switch i n d i c a t e d on t h e panel from A t o F. This switch i s equipped w i t h an arrangement f o r dead-ending the unused p o r t i o n s of t h e inductance. The diagram shows how the end s w i t c h automatically connects and opens, or e n t i r e l y disconnects and s h o r t - c i r c u i t s t h e s e c t i o n s of i n ductance when t h e f i v e s w i t c h blades make d i f f e r e m c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s t u d s . The primary inductance i s mounted a t an angle t o t h e main secondary inductance w i t h a heavy sheet metal s h i e l d placed between the c o i l s t o n e u t r a l i z e electro s t a t i c coupling d f f e c t s . The coupling between t h e c i r c u i t s i s p u r e l y electromagnetic a s provided by a movable coupling c o i l which i s p a r t of t h e t o t a l inductance of t h e secondary. By t h e switch arrangement f o r s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g t h e unused s e c t i o n s of t h e inductance, i n t e r f e r e n c e i s minimized. If the unused t u r n s were allowed t o remain i n the c i r c u i t t h e s e l f - c a p a c i t y ( d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y ) and inductance of t h e s e t u r n s would of themselves form an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t and t h e r e would be a l o s s of high- frequency c u r r e n t . A t t h e same time t h e r e s u l t i n g magnetic f i e l d would r e a c t upon t h e main inductance t o change i t s s e l f - i n ductance. This would tend t o d e s t r o y t h e resonant s e t t i n g of the c i r c u i t and broaden t h e tuning. Lesson 56

- sheet

The primary condenser remains i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e antenna c i r c u i t a t a l l times. It has a c a p a c i t y of between 0.00008 mfd. and 0.0045 mfd. being a l s o of t h e self- balanced type w i t h s u i t a b l e gearing t o provide a v e r n i e r motion. When t h e condenser i s r o t a t e d between 0 and 180 degrees a very f i n e v a r i a t i o n i n c a p a c i t y i s o b t a i n a b l e by means of the v e r n i e r c o n t r o l . ::%en t h e inductance s w i t c h i s moved, a mechanism a t t a c h e d t o i t moves a p o i n t e r t o successive cirdles which a r e engraved on t h e condenser d i a l , and t h e wavelength c a l i b r a t i o n s may t h e n be marked on t h e d i a l f o r f u t u r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Secondary or Closed C i r c u i t . The secondary o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of t h e secondary inductance, a l s o bank-wound, on a form of threaded b a k e l i t e d i l e c t o tubing. Also t h e secondary v a r i a b l e a i r t y p e condenser shunted between one end of t h e inductance and t h e inductance switch, and t h e small c o i l i n s e r t e d w i t h i n t h e primary tubing which provides t h e coupling between both The secondary loading inductance i n t h e "long-wave u n i t " becomes a circuits p a r t o f t h i s c i r c u i t , providing t h i s long-wave u n i t i s used.

The secondary inductance is tapped and made v a r i a b l e i n s i x s t e p s , the s e c t i o n s b e i n g added t o the c i r c u i t i n progressive order when t h e secondary inductance s w i t c h i s r o t a t e d from p o i n t 1 t o p o i n t 6. This switch a l s o i s equipped w i t h t h e automatic arrangement f o r c u t t i n g out and s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g t h e unused s e c t i o n s of t h e c o i l . The capacitance of t h e secondary condenser i s r a t e d from about 0.00006 mfd. t o 0.0032 mfd. and it i s a l s o equipped w i t h v e r n i e r c o n t r o l . The condenser d i a l i s engraved w i t h rows of c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s a c r o s s which t h e p o i n t e r moves when the inductance Switch i s r o t a t e d , s i m i l a r t o t h e mechanical arrangement of t h e primary condenser. o u p l i m t h e primarv and Secondary. The t r a n s f e r of radio- frequency o s c i l f a t i o n s from t h e primary t o t h e secondary i s obtained by t h e mutualinductance between a movable coupling c o i l , which i s p a r t of t h e secondary inductance, and t h e low wavelength end of t h e primary inductance. The photograph shows t h e movable c o i l mounted w i t h i n and toward one end of t h e primary inductance. The v a r i a b l e magnetic coupling between t h e two c i r c u i t s enables the primary and secondary t o be a d j u s t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y t o a given wavelength, thus a f f o r d i n g sharp t u n i n g t o one wavelength. When t h e windings of t h e two c o i l s a r e p a r a l l e l t h e coupling i s maxlmum and i t i s then t h a t t h e induced s i g n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s r e a c h t h e i r h i g h e s t c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h , but under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s s e l e c t i v i t y i s reduced. If t h e coupling c o i l i s r o t a t e d t o occupy a p o s i t i o n where i t s windings a r e i n a plane a t r i g h t angles t o t h e primary t u r n s t h e n the coupling i s l o o s e s t o r a t minimum ( z e r o ) . The coupling c o i l may be r o t a t e d a few degrees beyond t h i s point of z e r o coupling where t h e r e s p e c t i v e windings a r e a t a n angle of 90 degrees t o what i s c a l l e d a small r e v e r s e coupling. By u t i l i z i n g r e v e r s e coupling it i s p o s s i b l e i n p r a c t i c e t o secure a p o i n t of m i n i m coupling between the primary and secondary c i r c u i t s on a l l wavelengths w i t h i n t h e range of t h e r e c e i v e r . Capacity coupling between t h e c i r c u i t s i s n e u t r a l i z e d by means of t h e small r e v e r s e coupling which h a s t h e e f f e c t of sharpening t h e tuning considerably, e and thereby reducing i n t e r f e r e n c e . A s w have p r e v i o u s l y explained the cap a c i t y coupling between t h e c i r c u i t s i s e n t i r e l y e l i m i n a t e d by enclosing t h e elements forming t h e primary and secondary i n s e p a r a t e heavy s h e e t copper box= The metal s h e e t s a c t a s a s h i e l d i n blocking and absorbing s t a t i c

Lesson 56

- sheet 6

Figure 5

Figure 6

Lesson 56

- sheet

energy an2 are grounded a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e diagram. The coupling between t h e c i r c u i t s i s p u r e l y electromagnetic and depends upon t h e degree of coupling a s determined by t h e angular r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t i n g between t h e movable secondary c o i l and the primary inductance. i c k l e r Coil f o r Reaeneration and Beat Recevtion. The t i c k l e r c o i l i s cau7ected Tn s e r i e s with t h e d e t e c t o r tube p l a t e c i r c u i t and i s mounted a t t h e s h o r t wavelength end of the secondary iLductance. The t i c k l e r inductance, sometimes known a s the r o t o r , i s wound on a ball- shaped form, small enough i n diameter t o r o t a t e w i t h i n t h e t u b i n g on which t h e secondary t u r n s a r e wound. The c o i l i s mounted on a s h a f t c o n t r o l l e d by t h e r o t a r y s w i t c h knob on t h e p a n e l marked " ~ i c k l e r , "with t h e s c a l e graduated from 0 t o 180 degrees. The inductive r e l a t i o n between t h e t i c k l e r and secondary being c o n t r o l l a b l e , and being dependent upon t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of t h e two windings, allows a c l o s e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e amount of energy which f e e d s back, o r i n t r a n s f e r r e d back, from t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t . The a c t i o n of t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i s b r i e f l y a s follows: When s i g n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e induced i n t o t h e secondary c i r c u i t from t h e primary, t h e g r i d i n charged w i t h an a l t e r n a t i n g voltage which causes t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t t o p u l s a t e a t a s i m i l a r frequency. The r i s e and f a l l of p l a t e c u r r e n t i n t h e t i c k l e r c o i l induces an a l t e r n a t i n g e .m.f i n t h e secondary because of the mutual inductance e x i s t i n g between the two c i r c u i t s , The mutual inductance i s v a r i a b l e by changing t h e angular p o s i t i o n s between t h e c o i l s when t h e t i c k l e r i s r o t a t e d .

The s i g n a l energy i s new re- introduced i n t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t . The e..-.f. induced i n t h e secondary charges t h e g r i d w i t h an a l t e r n a t i n g e .m.f causing t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t t o a g a i n r i s e and f a l l , but a t a much g r e a t e r value, f o r w e know t h a t a small g r i d voltage v a r i a t i o n w i l l be r e p e a t e d i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t w i t h correspondingly l a r g e p l a t e c u r r e n t p u l s a t i o n s . T h i s i s due t o t h e i n h e r e n t a m p l i f i c a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e vacuum tube. The functlonof the t i c k l e r Coil m a y a e c l a s s i f i e d according t o t h e two proc e s s e s t h a t take p l a c e , namely; F i r s t , t o provide f o r a m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e s i g n a l by t r a n s f e r r i n g p a r t of t h e t h e power i n t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t a l t e r n a t i o n s produced by t h e incoming o s c i l l a t i o n s back i n t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t . This process i s c a l l e d "r.egenerative amp l i f i c a t i o n " and t h e c i r c u i t w i l l respond e f f i c i e n t l y , when i n t h i s condition, t o damped waves of t h e spark t r a n s m i t t e r , or modulated continuous waves (C.W.).
~f a regenerative d e t e c t o r i s s e t i n t o s e l f - o s c i l l a t i o n when damped o s c i l l a t i o n s such a s those generated by spark t r a n s m i t t e r s a r e being received, only p a r t i a l b e a t s a r e formed by the combining of the two s e t s of oscillaticns. klthough a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s secured, complete b e a t formations, such a s a r e produced from continuous wave s i g n a l s , cannot be obtained because of the damping and d i s c o n t i n u i t y of t h e spark wave. The normal note of t h e spark t r a n s m i t t e r i s d i s t o r t e d , and a b e a t n o t e of a rough q u a l i t y i s heard.

ia)%enspark s i g n a l s a r e t o be received, the coupling should be c a r e f u l l y adj u s t e d t o the verge of o s c i l l a t i o n ; i . e . , only c l o s e enough t o re- enforce t h e p l a t e current a l t e r n a t i o n s through t h e feed- back a c t i o n , b u t not s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t t o s e t t h e tube i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n . I n o t h e r words, t h e c i r c u i t shouldbe Lesson 56

- sheet 8

operated a s a r e g e n e r a t i v e a m p l i f i e r , and not a s a r e g e n e r a t i v e beat r e c e i v e r . Secondly, i f t h e t i c k l e r coupling i s increased t o a p o i n t where the p l a t e energy t r a n s f e r r e d t o the g r i d i s g r e a t e r than t h e energy which i s l o s t i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t due t o i t s oppositions, such a s r e s i s t a n c e , e t c . , t h e n t h e tube w i l l become r e t r o a c t i v e , and generate o s c i l l a t i o n s of radio- frequency. If t h e frequency of t h e s e l o c a l l y generated o s c i l l a t i o n s i s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e s i g n a l frequency t h e two a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s w i l l combine or heterodgne t o produce a "beat c u r r e n t , " which w i l l s e t up v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e telephone diaphragms. T h i s process i s known a s " r e g e n e r a t i v e beat reception:' and e n a b l e s t h e r e c e i v e r not only t o c a r r y out t h e f u n c t i o n of r e g e n e r a t i v e a m p l i f i c a t i o n , but permits r e c e p t i o n of continuous wave s i g n a l s . The explanations and suggestions r e l a t i n g t o primary and secondary coupling and p r o p o r t i o n s of inductance and c a p a c i t y used t o secure s e l e c t i v e tuning, which. have been discussed i n previous l e s s o n s , a r e e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h i s circuit. The buzzer c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of t h e push b u t t o n switch, ( t h e buzzer mounted a t t h e l e f t of t h e p a n e l ) a n e x t e r n a l b a t t e r of about t h r e e v o l t s connected t o Battery,' and a small c o i l of inductance t h e binding p o s t s marked " ~ u z z e r coupled t o the antenna l e a d a s shown i n the diagram. When the c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e buzzer c i r c u i t i s i n t e r r u p t e d a t each make and break of t h e c i r c u i t , a s by t h e opening and c l o s i n g of t h e contact p o i n t s , t h e induced e.m.f. of s e l f inductance e x c i t e s t h e c i r c u i t c a r r y i n g the buzzer inductance, causing t h e l a t t e r c o i l t o r a d i a t e groups of damped o s c i l l a t i o n s s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g t o a f f e c t the antenna c i r c u i t . Each impulse causes t h e antenna o r primary c i r c u i t t o o s c i l l a t e a t i t s own n a t u r a l frequency, which of course depends upon t h e t u n i n g adjustments, and a buzz o r note w i l l be heard i n t h e ~ e c e i v e r s . The buzzer may t h e n be used t o a d j u s t a c r y s t a l , i f one i s used a s i n the case of a n emergency, o r i t w i l l s e r v e t o i n d i c a t e when t h e vacuum tube i s o s c i l l a t i n g , i n which case a low h i s s i n g sound w i l l be heard. The "stopping" or telephone condenser i s a mica condenser, v a r i a b l e i n f i v e s t e p s by t h e r o t a r y c o n t r o l switch mounted on t h e panel. iThen t h e c o r r e c t c a p a c i t y i s found the groups of damped o s c i l l a t i o n s from a spark t r a n s m i t t e r w i l l discharge through t h e telephones with a l a r g e cumulative e f f e c t . The g r i d condenser of 0.00025 mfd. c a p a c i t y and t h e g r i d l e a k r e s i s t a n c e shunted across t h e condenser allows t h e excess accumulation of e l e c t r o n s s t o r e d up on t h e g r i d d u r i n g a group of o s c i l l a t i o n s t o l e a k off and r e s t o r e t h e g r i d t o i t s normal n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l . The f u n c t i o n of t h e g r i d condenser i s t o place a negative p o t e n t i a l b i a s on t h e g r i d t o produce a l a r g e audiofrequency average v a r i a t i o n of p l a t e c u r r e n t , r e s u l t i n g i n a g r e a t e r def l e c t i o n of t h e telephone diaphragm. The impedance o r i r o n core r e a c t a n c e c o i l shown i n t h e diagram i s connected i n s e r i e s with t h e telephone windings and i t a c t s t o b u i l d up the e.m.f. of s e l f i n d u c t i o n caused by the a u d i o v a r i a t i o n of c u r r e n t p a s s i n g through the t e l e phone c i r c u i t , thus g i v i n g a s t r o n g s i g n a l . However, w i t h very high r e s i s t a n c e telephone r e c e i v e r s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a c c o m ~ l i s ht h i s r e s u l t without the r e actance c o i l , but such h e a d - s e t s possessing t h e proper impedance a r e not always a v a i l a b l e . Lesson 56

- sheet

small f i x e d condenser a c t i n g a s a "by-pass" condenser i s shown i n t h e diagram t o t h e r i g h t of t h e v a r i a b l e stopping condenser. By following out t h e c o n t i n u i t y of t h e c i r c u i t i t can be seen t h a t when t h e four- pole doublethrow c o n t r o l switch i s i n t h e " ~ r y s t a l "p o s i t i o n t h e f i x e d condenser and stopping condenser a r e connected i n s e r i e s and shunted a c r o s s t h e reactance coil. Refer t o F i g u r e 2.

Let us observe t h e c i r c u i t arrangement when t h e c o n t r o l switch i s moved t o t h e " ~ u b e ~ p o s i t i o n .Both condensers a r e s t i l l connected i n shunt w i t h t h e r e actance c o i l , but from t h e common p o i n t , which j o i n s them i n s e r i e s , another l e a d i s c a r r i e d t o t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t . T h i s p l a c e s t h e condensers a c r o s s a l l of t h e e x t e r n a l impedance i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e reactance c o i l and t h e magnet windings of t h e r e c e i v e r s . The f u n c t i o n of t h e condensers i s t o provide a low reactance p a t h f o r t h e high- frequency a l t e r n a t i n g component of t h e p l a t e current t o flow through and d i s s i p a t e t h i s energy. By removing t h i s o s c i l l a t i n g energy, o r high- frequency a l t e r n a t i n g component immediately a f t e r t h e incoming s i g n a l s o s c i l l a t i o n s have a c t e d upon t h e d e t e c t o r t u b e , it allows only t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t , carrying t h e audio- frequency v a r i a t i o n s , t o pass through e i t h e r t h e telephone r e c e i v e r s , or a two-stage audio a m p l i f i e r unit

I f , however, t h e r e i s no means provided f o r t h e d i s s i p a t i o n of t h e highfrequency component i t w f l l pass through t h e p a t h formed by t h e d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y of t h e windings. Under such conditions t h e s e p a r a s i t i c c u r r e n t s , which they now become, may be c a r r i e d along w i t h t h e audio- frequency c u r r e n t s and perhaps mar t h e p e r f e c t reproduction of t h e o r i g i n a l s i g n a l wave, or c r e a t e disturbances i n t h e audio c i r c u i t s .
P r a c t i c a l Operation of the IP-501 Receiver
(1) when t h e vacuum t u b e d e t e c t o r i s employed move t h e c o n t r o l switch t o t h e " r i g h t , t o "Tube , I ' ( sometimes marked ' ' ~ u d i o n . )
( 2 ) The r h e o s t a t should be i n t h e "Off" p o s i t i o n b e f o r e o p e r a t i o n (1) i s performed. Nw increase t h e f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t by moving t h e c o n t r o l handle i n t h e o d i r e c t i o n marked " ~ n c r e a s e "until the filament voltmeter i n d i c a t o r i s on 5volts.

( 3 ) For s h o r t wave work s e t t h e secondary inductance p o i n t e r a t d i v i s i o n 2, and f o r long waves a t d i v i s i o n 4 , and f o r t h e r e c e p t i o n of Spark s i g n a l s t h e T i c k l e r should be s e t a t about 120 degrees. I n any event t h e tube should not be o s c i l l a t i n g , but i n a c o n d i t i o n f o r r e g e n e r a t i v e a m p l i f i c a t i o n when r e c e i v i n g spark or modulated C.!V.signals.

( 4 ) To pick up a s i g n a l , i n c r e a s e the coupling and a d j u s t t h e Antenna I n ductance i n s t e p s and f o r every change swing t h e Antenna Condenser e n t i r e l y a c r o s s the s c a l e . 3 t e r the s i g n a l - i s heard, loosen t h e coupling, and t u n e t h e secondary c i r c u i t t o resonance w i t h the primary by means of t h e Secondary Inductance and Secondary Condenser. ( 5 ) Adjust t h e telephone condenser u n t i l maximum s i g n a l i s heard, bearing i n mind t h a t t h e highest s e l e c t i v i t y on spark s i g n a l s i n obtained by using a minimum amount of c a p a c i t y i n t h i s condenser. Lesson 56

- s h e e t 10

( 6 ) Rote, t h a t f o r "Stand-By" adjustment, or pick-up work, t h e coupling between primary and secondary should be close, but f o r s e l e c t i v i t y the couplind should be reduced t o a p o i n t c o n s i s t e n t with s a t i s f a c t o r y r e c e p t i o n .

Oueration For Continuous Wave ( C .VI.

i

Receution

(1) Throw the c o n t r o l switch t o " ~ u b e "and i n c r e a s e t h e f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t u n t i l t h e voltmeter reads 5.0 v o l t s .

( 2 ) Adjust the T i c k l e r coupling c o n t r o l t o abodt 45 degrees and s e t t h e stopping or telephone condenser a t p o i n t 3 or 4 c u t t i n g i n about h a l f of i t s capecity.
( 3 ) The tube should now g e n e r a t e o s c i l l a t i o n s , which can be e a s i l y determined when a c l i c k i n g sound i s heard i n t h e r e c e i v e r s while applying the following tests:

i s shorted and consequently no inductive feed-back a c t i o n w i l l take place; hence, every time t h e b u t t o n i s pressed t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l cease, being

( a ) When the push b u t t o n marked " O s c l f n Test" I s depressed t h e t i c k l e r c o i l

manifested by t h e phone c l i c k . ( b ) When t h e antenna c i r c u i t i s brought i n t o resonance w i t h t h e secondary by tuning with a medium amount of inductance coupling between t h e c i r c u i t s .
( c ) When t h e t i c k l e r coupling i s t i g h t e n e d ( p e r i o d i c c l i c k s . )

( d ) If t h e tube i s o s c i l l a t i n g and t h e t e s t buzzer i s operated, a s o f t h i s s ing sound w i l l be heard.

(4) S e t t h e coupling c o n t r o l , marked "Coupling," a t about 80 degrees.

(5) Adjust t h e Antenna Inductance and vary t h e Antenna Condenser u n t i l t h e antenna system i s i n resonance w i t h t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l wave, following t h e g e n e r a l procedure f o r tuning i n spark s i g n a l s . However, i n C.W. r e c e p t i o n t h e s i g n a l i s often tuned i n and out with a small v a r i a t i o n i n capacity and t h e r e f o r e the condenser should be r o t a t e d very slowly. For e v e r y change i n t h e capacity of the primary or antenna condenser, t h e secondary condenser should be slowly r o t a t e d back and f o r t h and each time t h e p o i n t i s reached when the secondary i s tuned t o resonance w i t h t h e primary it w i l l be marked by a s l i g h t c l i c k heard i n t h e phones. Continue varying t h e primary capacity slowly and f o r every change swing t h e secondary condenser back and f o r t h past .. n o t e of t h e s t a t i o n i s tuned t h e resonant point u n t i l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c C$ i n . The p i t c h of the n o t e can be a l t e r e d t o s u i t t h e i n d i v i d u a l e a r #but i n p r a c t i c e it i s found t h a t t h e b e s t note, one t h a t i s not t o o h i g h l y pitched, i s heard a t a s e t t i n g s l i g h t l y above o r below t h e resonant p o i n t .
(61 Loosen the t i c k l e r coupling a s much a s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n s e l e c t i v e r e c e p t i o n of C.W. s i g n a l s and a l s o use t h e l o o s e s t (minimum) i n d u c t i v e coupling between t h e primary and secondary.
( 7 ) F a i l u r e t o o b t a i n o s c i l l a t i o n s may be due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t t i c k l e r coupli n g or t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e "B b a t t e r y connection may be r e v e r s e d .

Lesson 56

- sheet 11

I P 5 0 1 - A Receiver. T h i s r e c e i v e r , t h e f r o n t view of which i s shown i n 6 , comprlses an i n d u c t i v e l y coupled t u n e r , a vacuum tube d e t e c t o r , e and two-stage audio a m p l i f i e r . Except f o r t h e compact grouping of t h e s e components i n one c a b i n e t , t h i s r e c e i v e r d i f f e r s only s l i g h t l y from t h e well known IP 501 r e c e i v e r .

Type 106D Commerical Receiver. The type 1 0 6 - D Receiver i s of t h e i n d u c t i v e l y coupled t y p e , having independent primary and secondary c i r c u i t s , both of which must be tuned t o resonance with t h e wavelength of t h e - d e s i r e d s i g n a l . The fundamental diagram of the r e c e i v e r i s Shown i n Figure 7 . The f r o n t Dane1 view showing t h e t u n i n g c o n t r o l s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n - ~ i g u r e8, and the r e a r view photograph i n Figure 9. The sketch, Figure 10, shows t h e mechanical arrangement of the various p i e c e s of apparatus. The vacuum tube d e t e c t o r and two s t e p audio a m p l i f i e r u n i t i s mounted i n a s e p a r a t e c a b i n e t , connections being made from t h e main r e c e i v e r panel t o t h e vacuum tube c i r c u i t s by t h e four l e a d s i n d i c a t e d on t h e diagram w i t h l e t t e r s P, G , T 1 and T2. Antenna or Primary C i r c u i t . The primary c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of t h e antenna, an 'inductance made v a r i a b l e by two multi- point switches, a v a r i a b l e a i r type condenser (which may be a u t o m a t i c a l l y connected i n and disconnected from t h e c i r c u i t ) , t h e secondary c o i l of t h e buzzer transformer, and t h e ground conductor.

of t h e antenna t o a value l e s s t h a n i t s fundamental wavelength.

I n s e r t i n g t h e primary condenser i n t h e antenna system shortens t h e wavelength

The winding of the primary inductance i s tapped a t each of t h e f i r s t t e n t u r n s w i t h the l e a d s connecting t o t h e " ~ n i t s "switch. The remainder of the c o i l i s tapped i n s t e p s of t e n t u r n s and l e a d s c a r r i e d t o t h e "Tensf1 switch. The main primary inductance i s included between contact s t u d s "On and "190," i n d i c a t e d by the ens" switch. When t h i s switch blade i s placed on s t u d s marked from 190 t o 290 a s e p a r a t e loading c o i l i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e c i r c u i t . T h i s c o i l i s shown mounted on the bottom board i n t h e r e a r view panel photograph.
BY manipulating both "Units" and "Tens" switches of t h e transformer primary any number of t u r n s on t h e e n t i r e inductance a s w e l l a s t h e loading c o i l ma$ be used. The "Tens" switch i s equipped with t h r e e copper segments o r drums which r o t a t e w i t h t h e s h a f t . These drums a c t t o disconnect and open e n t i r e l y t h e i n d i v i d u a l s e c t i o n s of t h e inductance which a r e unused. A s w i t c h of t h i s type i s c a l l e d a n "end-turn1' o r "dead end drum" switch. I t s use a i d s i n minimizing l o s s e s of radio- frequency c u r r e n t s which occur when t h e unused p o r t i o n s of t h e inductance remain i n t h e c i r c u i t , and i t a l s o tends t o l e s s e n i n t e r f e r e n c e . Sharper tuning r e s u l t s , because t h e self- inductance of t h e used p o r t i o n s i s t h e n only s l i g h t l y a l t e r e d by t h e presence of t h e unused s e c t i o n s of t h e c o i l .

The end- turn switch breaks t h e winding i n t o groups f o r d i f f e r e n t ranges of frequencies. Such a switch, however, does n o t wholly e l i m i n a t e a l l of the l o s s e s i n c u r r e d due t o t h e presence of the unused t u r n s . The undesirable e f f e c t s of the unused t u r n s can be overcome only by removing them completely from t h e magnetic f i e l d s e t up around the used t u r n s , T h i s i s an i m p r a c t i c a l consideration i n a commercial s h o r t and long wave r e c e i v e r . Lesson 56

- sheet 12

I
Figure 8

Lesson 56

- sheet

13

Figure 10 Lesson 56

- sheet 14

The copper sements (drums) a r e staggered on t h e s h a f t i n such a way t h a t when t h e "Tens" switch i s on s t u d 30, t h e Segments 1, 2 and 3 a r e diconnected from t h e primary inductance s e c t i o n s S, T and U, and hence a t t h i s time, only s e c t i o n R and t h e "Units" s e c t i o n remain i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t . When t h e "Tens" switch i s on s t u d 60, segment 1 i s then i n a p o s i t i o n t o connect s e c t i o n R w i t h S, but segments 2 and 3 w i l l be i n a p o s i t i o n t o disconnect s e c t i o n s T and U.
S and T a r e connected i n the circuit while the loading c o i l , s e c t i o n U, i s disconnected. With t h e switch on s t u d 290, segments 1, 2 and 3 make contact w i t h t h e r e s p e c t i v e ends of every s e c t i o n and the e n t i r e inductance i s t h e n c u t i n ; i . e . , added t o the c i r c u i t .
W i t h t h e "Tens" switch on 190, s e c t i o n s R,

The primary condenser i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e antenna c i r c u i t and provides a f i n e v a r i a t i o n of t u n i n g . It i s o f t e n used on t h e longer waves, even a t a s a c r i f i c e i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h , i n order t o i n c r e a s e t h e s e l e c t i v i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r . To disconnect t h e primary condenser from t h e c i r c u i t , t h e d i a l should be r o t a t e d t o t h e p o s i t i o n marked "Out" on t h e f r o n t of t h e panel. Secondary C i r c u i t . The secondary c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of t h e secondary inductance mounted on t h e base board of t h e r e c e i v e r i n s p o s i t i o n a t r i g h t angles t o t h e primary inductance, t h e secondary tuning condenser which i s shunted a c r o s s t h e used p o r t i o n s of t h e secondary c o i l , and t h e d e t e c t o r . The secondary i s wound i n f o u r s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n s o r groups a s t h e photograph c l e a r l y shows, and t h e s e s e c t i o n s a r e only connected t o g e t h e r when i n c r e a s i n g t h e wavelength by t h e segments of t h e "dead-end" switch, which i s mounted on t h e s h a f t of t h e "transformer secondary" switch. The mutual inductance between t h e primary and secondary i s a f f e c t e d t u r n movable coupling c o i l which i s p a r t of t h e secondary inductance. The coupling c o i l i s mounted a t t h e s h o r t wavelength end of t h e primary i n ductance, t h e movement of t h e c o i l i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s m a l l e r of the two coupling knobs on t h e panel. The inductive r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e primary and secondary depends upon t h e angular r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two inductances. To secure minimux coupling t h e coupling c o i l i s t u r n e d a t r i g h t angles t o the primary i n d i c a t e d by '0" on t h e d i a l s c a l e . The p o s i t i o n of t h e coupling c o i l i n t h e photograph i s one v e r y near t o t h a t of minimum coupling. To o b t a i n maximum coupling t h e c o i l i s r o t a t e d t o occupy a p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e c y l i n d r i c a l tubing upon which the primary i s wound. The electromagnetic I n d u c t i o n between t h e two c i r c u i t s w i l l be maximum when t h e c e n t e r axes of t h e two c o i l s l i e i n t h e same plane. A t the p o s i t i o n of maximum o r close coupling it can be seen t h a t t h e winding on the coupling c o i l w i l l be p a r a l l e l t o and c l o s e s t t o t h e primary winding, i n d i c a t e d by "4" on t h e d i a l s c a l e . The secondary inductance i s not tapped between t h e s e c t i o n s A , R , C and D. Each s e c t i o n i s added t o t h e c i r c u i t i n progressive order by t h e segments a, b and c of t h e "dead-end" drum switch when the switch arm of t h e tl'ansformer secondary i s placed on contact s t u d s 1, 3 and 5 r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n d i c a t e d on the p a n e l . Although t h e r e a r e t e n s t u d s t o permit of smooth r o t a t i o n of t h e l e v e r arm only t h e t h r e e s t u d s mentioned a c t u a l l y cut i n t h e f o u r s e c t i o n s of t h e inductance. Studs 1 and 2 a r e shorted t o g e t h e r , a c t i n g i n e f f e c t as one s t u d , a s a r e 3 and 4 ; a l s o 5, 6 and 7 , and s i m i l a r l y 8, 9 and 10. With t h i s arrangement t h e wavelength value i s not changed when moving t h e secondary switch arm Lesson 56

- sheet 15

from one stud t o another s t u d i f t h e s t u d s a r e connected by a s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g jumper. The e x t r a s t u d s a r e used a s terminal l u g s , making convenient connection of l e a d s running from t h e ends of t h e secondary c o i l s e c t i o n s t o t h e brushes r e s t i n g on t h e segments of t h e mechanical "dead-end" switch. The t h r e e segments on t h e secondary switch used t o disconnect t h e unused s e c t i o n s of t h e secondary inductance a r e shown i n t h e r e a r view photograph of 1 t h e r e c e i v e r . The mechanical c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e segments i s shown i n F i g u r e 1 . The secondary tuning condenser remains i n t h e c i r c u i t a t a l l times and permits a c l o s e and continuous v a r i a t i o n of the frequency of t h e secondary. T i c k l e r C o i l f o r Regeneration and Beat Reception. The t i c k l e r system c o n s i s t s of a movable c o i l mounted a t t h e top of t h e secondary inductance. c l o s e t o t h e f i r s t - s e c t i o n A , which i s t h e short-wavelength end of t h e c o i l . he diagram shows t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n always f orms p a r t of t h e secondary inductance, being connected t o contact s t u d 1 on t h e transformer secondary switch. The t i c k l e r c o i l i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of the vacuum tube d e t e c t o r , through binding post T 1 and T2 on t h e t e r m i n a l board of the r e c e i v e r . The inductive r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e t i c k l e r c o i l and secondary i s c o n t r o l l e d by the l a r g e r of t h e two coupling knobs on t h e f r o n t of t h e panel. The "feed-back of radio- frequency energy from the p l a t e c i r c u i t t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t i s maximum when t h e t i c h l e r i s p a r a l l e l and c l o s e s t t o t h e n secondary, i n d i c a t e d by "4" on t h e d i a l s c a l e . O t h e o t h e r hand, l o o s e s t coupling between the c i r c u i t s i s obtained when the t i c k l e r c o i l i s r o t a t e d t o occupy a p o s i t i o n where i t s windings a r e a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e secondary winding, i n d i c a t e d by "0" on t h e d i a l s c a l e . The t i c k l e r c o i l i s shown i n t h e p o s i t i o n of minimum coupling i n t h e photograph. Buzzer C i r c u i t . The buzzer c i r c u i t i s e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l f o r t e s t i n g t h e adustment of a c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r , i f one i s used, a s i t might be i n an emergency. it w i l l be noted t h a t t h e c i r c u i t provides f o r t h e connection of a c r y s t a l and i s equipped w i t h a stopping ( t e l e p h o n e ) condenser and phone jack. The buzzer c i r c u i t may a l s o be used t o i n d i c a t e when t h e vacuum tube i s osc i l l a t i n g , i n which case a low h i s s i n g sound w i l l be heard i n t h e receiver. ~f t h e tuning buzzer i s s e t i n t o o p e r a t i o n by depressing t h e push button, t h e buzzer c i r c u i t i s rapid-ly opened and closed by t h e make and break a t the contact p o i n t s of the armature. The magnetic f i e l d expanding and c o n t r a c t i n g about t h e buzzer c o i l of t h e buzzer transformer w i l l induce o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t o t h e antenna c i r c u i t a t t h e n a t u r a l frequency of t h e antenna. The secondary may t h e n be tuned t o resonance w i t h t h e primary t o r e c e i v e t h e buzzer s i g n a l .

O account of t h e energy which i s l i b e r a t e d each time t h e magnetic f i e l d n around the magnet c o i l s of t h e buzzer i t s e l f i s changed, it i s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n a c l e a r note when u s i n g t h e vacuum tube d e t e c t o r .
Vacuum Tube C i r c u i t s . The vacuum tube apparatus i s mounted i n s i d e a s e p a r a t e case and, when connections a r e made w i t h t h e main r e c e i v e r , care should be w e x e r c i s e d t o o b t a i n t h e c o r r e c t t i c k l e r c o i l r e l ~ t i o n i t h t h e secondary. The t i c k l e r l e a d s T 1 and T2 should be r e v e r s e d and t e s t s made i f t h e r e i s any f a i l u r e t o o b t a i n o s c i l l a t i o n s when t h e t i c k l e r i s s e t a t maximum coupling.

Lesson 56

sheet 16

CONTACT
STUDS

CONTACT SEGMENTS

Figure 1 1

+ w
2
Y1

LL

5
_1

0 U1

570 600 630

WAVELENGTH IN METERS

Lesson 56

- sheet

1'7

Each tube i s provided w i t h a c u r r e n t c o n t r o l f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t , and each p l a t e c i r c u i t i s equipped w i t h a phone jack, t o permit weak s i g n a l s t o be amplified through one o r two s t a g e s of audio a m p l i f i c a t i o n . If t h e s i g n a l s have good a u d i b i l i t y , however, t h e y may be read d i r e c t l y i n the output of t h e d e t e c t o r . P%en t h e telephone plug i s i n s e r t e d i n e i t h e r one of t h e double- circuit jacks, t h e o u t e r two leaves w i l l spread breaking contact w i t h t h e two i n s i d e l e a v e s , t h u s disconnecting t h e primary of t h e audio transformer from the p l a t e c i r c u i t . The telephone r e c e i v e r s a r e then i n s e r t e d i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t because t h e t i p and shank of the plug make connection r e s p e c t i v e l y w i t h t h e o u t e r leaves of t h e jack. Operation of t h e Receiver. I f t h e c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r i s t o be used, t h e phones should be plugged i n t h e jack a t t h e f r o n t lower r i g h t s i d e of t h e r e c e i v e r panel, provided f o r t h a t purpose, The c r y s t a l should be adjusted t o maximum s e n s i t i v i t y by means of t h e t e s t buzzer. The f i l a m e n t switch f o r each vacuum t u b e c i r c u i t i s t o be i n t h e " o f f n p o s i t i o n . m e n a c r y s t a l i s used which doe^ not r e q u i r e a b a t t e r y , t h e potentiometer must be s e t a t zero. However, when a b a t t e r y operated c r y s t a l i s used, such a s carborundum, t h e potentiometer pointer i s moved t o e i t h e r one s i d e o r t h e o t h e r p a s t z e r o "0" p o s i t i o n u n t i l loudest s i g n a l s a r e heard, e i t h e r from a d i s t a n t sending s t a t i o n o r from t h e t e s t buzzer c i r c u i t . The c r i t i c a l p o i n t i n the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve of t h e d e t e c t o r i s reached when t h e p o t e n t i a l applied t o t h e c r y s t a l w i l l cause t h e l a r g e s t change i n t h e current flowing through t h e telephone magnet c o i l s f o r a given i n t e n s i t y of t h e incoming s i g n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s . The s e n s i t i v e s p o t of t h e c r y s t a l i s found by exploring i t s s u r f a c e with t h e f i n e whisker wire.

If t h e vacuum tube d e t e c t o r i s t o be used, t h e c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t must be open, and t h e phone plug removed from t h e jack i n t h e vacuum tube panel. The d e t e c t o r filament r h e o s t a t i s now turned t o t h e r i g h t , c u t t i n g out r e s i s t a n c e Vacuum t u b e s g r a d u a l l y , u n t i l the f i l a n e n t i s l i g h t e d t o normal b r i l l i a n c y . employing the t h o r i a t e d filament a r e operated a t a lower temperature t h a n the oxide coated filament t y p e , and i t i s perhaps d i f f i c u l t t o determine i f t h e s p e c i f i e d normal voltage has been applied t o t h e f i l a m e n t t e r m i n a l s when a voltmeter I s not a v a i l a b l e . I n order t h a t t h e f i l a m e n t wire w i l l not be subj e c t e d t o an excess c u r r e n t flow it i s suggested t h a t t h e r h e o s t a t be a d j u s t e d u n t i l a h i s s i n g sound i s heard, a f t e r which t h e c u r r e n t should be reduced by i n c r e a s i n g t h e r h e o s t a t r e s i s t a n c e u n t i l t h e h i s s i n g d i s a p p e a r s and a c l a r i f i e d sound i s heard i n t h e telephones.
Reception of Spark S i g n a l s . Re e n e r a t i v e Amplification. To r e c e i v e s p a r k (aamped o s c i l l a t i o n s ) o r any m u a e continuous o s m a t i o n s , such a s modu-a%T-o l a t e d C.V. of t e l e g r a p h y o r telephony, t h e tube c i r c u i t should not be i n an o s c i l l a t i n g condition. Hence, t h e t i c k l e r c o i l coupling i s g r a d u a l l y increased, a f t e r t h e s i g n a l s from a s p a r k t r a n s m i t t e r a r e picked up t o i n c r e a s e amplif i c a t i o n by the phenomenon of r e g e n e r a t i o n , but t h i s a m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e s i g n a l u n f o r t u n a t e l y can be c a r r i e d only t o t h e region j u s t below t h e point a t which c r i t i c a l coupling between t h e p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s w i l l cause t h e tube t o break i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n ; The tube c i r c u i t w i l l t h e n g e n e r a t e continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s and t h e s p a r k s i g n a l s w i l l be s l i g h t l y d i s t o r t e d i n t o mushy sounds. The r e c e i v e r i s i n a "stand- by n adjustment t o p i c k up t h e s i g n a l s from a t r a n s m i t t e r when t h e primary and secondary a r e c l o s e l y coupled, a f f o r d i n g broad tuning, indicated when t h e coupling p o i n t e r i s set a t "4" on t h e d i a l s c a l e . The primary condenser i s t h e n s e t a t "0utt' and t h e amount of inductance i n t h e primary and secondary i s found by a d j u s t i n g t h e multi- point switches. Lesson 56

- s h e e t 18

I n a d j u s t i n g t h e r e c e i v e r c i r c u i t s t o resonance w i t h t h e s i g n a l frequency it should be borne i n mind t h a t t h e primary and secondary may have e x a c t l y t h e same fundamental frequency although using d i f f e r e n t p r o p o r t i o n s of inductance and capacity. O r d i n a r i l y t h e loudest s i g n a l s a r e obtained when t h e secondary c i r c u i t i s formed w i t h a minimum amount o' c a p a c i t y a f * a correspondingly l a r g e amount of inductance. However, i t i s p o s s i b l e a t times t o secure g r e a t e r s e l e c t i v i t y , and avoid i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l s . T h i s Can be done working w i t h t h e l o o s e s t coupling p r a c t i c a b l e between primary and secondary and t h e n u s i n g small amounts of secondary inductance while tuning t h e c i r c u i t t o resonance by means of the secondary condenser, unti!. a n e a s i l y readable s i g n a l i s brought in. It should always be remembered t h a t f o r any i n c r e a s e or g a i n i n s e l e c t i v i t y t h e r e w i l l b e some s a c r i f i c e i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h , and vice- versa. I n p r a c t i c e it i s found t h a t s e l e c t i v i t y may be f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d by u t i l i z i n g t h e primary condenser. The c a p a c i t y of t h i s condenser i s placed i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y of t h e antenna system and consequently t h e t o t a l capaciLy used f o r a g i v e n wavelength must be compensated f o r by u s i n g a l a r g e r amount of primary inductance. The i n t e n s i t y of t h e s i g n a l w i l l be lowered somewhat, a s w i l l be experienced whenever t h e n a t u r a l frequency of an antenna c i r c u i t i s a r t i f i c i a l l y a l t e r e d by means of c a p a c i t y i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s w i t h the circuit. The r e c e i v e r has a range .of wavelengths from 200 t o 3,500 meters. The lowest wavelength range i s o b t a i n a b l e when t h e primary condenser i s used and t h e primary "Tens n switch i s set a t z e r o (O), while t h e primary "Units" switch i s placed on stud 10, and a t the same time using t h e lower p o i n t s of secondary inductance. The primary condenser i s slowly r o t a t e d u n t i l t h e s i g n a l i s heard and, i f a t 180 degrees, t h e s i g n a l i s s t i l l weak, i t may t h e n be nedessary t o add primary inductance i n s t e p s of " t e n t u r n s n a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e ens" switch. A good r u l e t o f o l l o w w i t h each change i n t h e primary inductance i s t o swing t h e secondary condenser slowly back and f o r t h once a c r o s s t h e s c a l e , f o r we must a t some time p a s s t h e point of resonance where t h e c i r c u i t w i l l respond t o t h e s i g n a l s . The primary and secondary must be i n resonance t o r e c e i v e t h e loudest s i g n a l , and since t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s i g n a l s i s t h e only i n d i c a t i o n we have t h a t t h e r e c e i v e r i s i n tune w i t h t h e incoming s i g n a l wave it i s imperative t o f u l l y undepstand t h e e f f e c t s of c l o s e and loose coupling and t h e proportions of c a p a c i t y and inductance used i n t h e two o s c i l l a t o r y tuned c i r c u i t s . Reception of Continuous Waves (C .W. ) Regenerative Beat Reception. To r e c e i v e s i a n a l s f r o m e ' i t h e r an a r c t r a n s m i t t e r . o r vacuum tube continuous wave (C.W.) t r a n s m i t t e r , t h e ' t i c k i e r coupling i s a d j u s t e d t o t h e p o i n t wh&e t h e "feedback" energy from t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n o s c i l l a t i o n s . The coupling should not be any c l o s e r t h a n i s cons i s t e n t w i t h a good a u d i b l e s i g n a l . Upon reaching t h i s p o i n t of o s c i l l a t i o n t h e u s u a l i n d i c a t i o n i s a pronounced c l i c k i n t h e telephone r e c e i v e r s . The antenna c i r c u i t i s a d j u s t e d t o resonance w i t h t h e wavelength of t h e s i g n a l s we w i s h t o r e c e i v e by t h e methods a l r e a d y explained f o r picking up spark simals. The process of continuous wave r e c e p t i o n i s based upon t h e heterodyning o r combining O f two a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s having s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t frequencies, Lesson 56

s h e e t 19

which provides t h e necessary 'beat" w i l l respond.

c u r r e n t t o which t h e telephone diaphrams

The frequency of the incoming o s c i l l a t i o n s i s governed by t h e inductance and c a p a c i t y of t h e d i s t a n t t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna, and t h e maximum s i g n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e induced i n t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna when i t s c i r c u i t s a r e i n tune w i t h the transmitter. I n t h e case of continuous wave r e c e p t i o n we know t h a t t h e secondary, which i s g e n e r a t i n g continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s a t a frequency determined by i t s L C values (inductance and c a p a c i t y v a l u e s ) , must be tpned s l i g h t l y out of resonance w i t h t h e primary t o produce t h e "bezt" note.
AS t h e secondary condenser i s slowly r o t a t e d , i t ' w i l l be found i n p r a c t i c e t h a t a s l i g h t c l i c k w i l l be heard when t h e resonant p o i n t i s reached; t h a t i s , when the frequency of t h e l o c a l l y generated o s c i l l a t i o n s coincide with t h e frequency of t h e s i g n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s .

Having accomplished t h i s , w should now r o t a t e t h e condenser d i a l t o a s e t t i n g e s l i g h t l y below or above t h e resonant p o i n t , u n t i l t h e c l e a r e s t note i s r e ceived. The p i t c h of t h e note i s varied f o r each change i n c a p a c i t y , and t h e note b e s t s u i t e d t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l e a r should be s e l e c t e d . Furthermore, i n t e r f e r e n c e may be miminized by changing t h e note o r by loosening the coupling a f t e r w have picked up t h e d e s i r e d s t a t i o n . e For any change i n coupling between two o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t s , t h e mutual i n ductance i s a l t e r e d and t h e magnetic f i e l d s r e a c t upon t h e r e s p e c t i v e i n ductance c o i l s i n such a manner a s t o cause a V a r i a t i o n i n t h e self- inductance of each c i r c u i t . This, of course, throws t h e c i r c u i t s s l i g h t l y out of r e sonance and t h e s i g n a l s a r e weakened. It i s a simple matter t o retune t h e s e t by a d j u s t i n g f i r s t one c i r c u i t and then the other u n t i l a l l c i r c u i t s a r e a g a i n i n resonance, which i s manifest when t h e s i g n a l s a r e a t t h e i r l o u d e s t . The f a i l u r e t o obtain o s c i l l a t i o n s may be due t o r e v e r s e d t i c k l e r c o i l conn e c t i o n s , or i n s u f f i c i e n t t i c k l e r coupling t o maintain t h e tube i n a s t a t e of continuous o s c i l l a t i o n . A f t e r reaching t h e c r i t i c a l p o i n t where a tube f a l l s i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n w should t i g h t e n the coupling; t h a t i s , i n c r e a s e the couple i n g w i t h an adjustment of a few degrees beyond t h i s p o i n t t o promote a s t a b l e condition.
T O t e s t f o r o s c i l l a t i o n s t h e t i c k l e r c o i l coupling i s v a r i e d from minimum t o maximum s e v e r a l times and it should be accompanied by p e r i o d i c c l i c k s i n t h e headphones. Also, t h e secondary switch may be tapped w i t h t h e f i n g e r , p r e f e r a b l y moistened, when t h e added "body capacity" w i l l d e s t r o y t h e resonance of t h e c i r c u i t .

I f t h e tube i s o s c i l l a t i n g , a c l i c k w i l l be heard e a c h time t h e f i n g e r makes c o n t a c t with, or i s removed from t h e switch blade.

It i s advisable t o f r e q u e n t l y check up on t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e "E" b a t t e r y conn e c t i o n s which supply t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e p o t e n t i a l s f o r t h e vacuum tubes, and a l s o t o t e s t t h e "E" voltage. A p a r t i a l l y run d o ~ m"A" b a t t e r y may not supply s u f f i c i e n t voltage t o t h e tube f o r obtaining o s c i l l a t i o n s .

~t i s necessary i n any r e c e i v e r equipped w i t h switch blades and contact s t u d s t o make an occassional i n s p e c t i o n f o r p e r f e c t contact and a good f i r m p r e s s u r e .
Lesson 36

- s h e e t 20

between them. A weak pressure can be remedied by removing t h e screw i n the c e n t e r of the knob, p u l l i n g the knob off of t h e s h a f t , and removing the screws which hold t h e switch blades i n place. The blades may be bent t o secure the proper t e n s i o n and replaced. Undue t e n t i o n should not be brought t o bear between t h e blade and s t u d s because a groove w i l l be r a p i d l y cut i n the s t u d s , causing unnecessary wear. Prover Adjustment of C o u ~ l i n g . Radio operators know t h a t loose coupling g i v e s g r e a t e s t s e l e c t i v i t y and sharp tuning. Many o p e r a t o r s b e l i e v e loose coupling a l s o means r e d u c t i o n i n s i g n a l strength. T h i s i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e . For every wavelength w i t h i n the range of t h e r e c e i v e r t h e r e i s a degree of coupling which w i l l g i v e t h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s from the combined viewpoint of s i g n a l s t r e n g t h and sharpness of tuning. This i s c a l l e d " C r i t i c a l Coupling." Figure 12 i l l u s t r a t e s how s e l e c t i v i t y and r e ceived s i g n a l s vary f o r d i f f e r e n t degrees of coupling. The conditions (coupling) under which t h e s e curves were taken w i t h t h e t i c k l e r a t zero, and w i t h both primary and secondary c i r c u i t s tuned t o 800 meters, a r e marked on each curve. The conclusions drawn from Figure 12 a r e a s follows: 1. The l o o s e r the coupling, the s h a r p e r the resonance curve ( t h e g r e a t e r t h e s e l e c t i v i t y ) but l o o s e r t h a n c r i t i c a l coupling considerable rediwes t h e s i g n a l strength.
2. Close coupling makes t h e r e c e i v e r resonant t o two wavelengths a t t h e same time; one below and one above t h e d e s i r e d wavelength, 800 meters.

C r i t i c a l coupling occurs a t t h a t adjustment a t which t h e primary c i r c u i t produces no r e a c t i o n on t h e secondary. T h i s f a c t f o r t u n a t e l y makes i t easy f o r t h e operator t o t e s t t h e r e c e i v e r adjustment t o a s c e r t a i n i f t h e coupling i s approximately a t t h i s d e s i r e d c r i t i c a l value. To Test For C r i t i c a l Coupling. Assume t h e secondary condenser i s s e t a t t h e d e s i r e d wavelength. Advance t h e t i c k l e r s l i g h t l y be.yond t h e o s c i l l a t i n g point. R o t a t e t h e primary condenser slowly back and f o r t h , n o t i n g t h e "double c l i c k " i n t h e telephones a s t h e primary passes through resonance w i t h t h e secondary c i r c u i t . As t h e coupling i s loosened t h e s e "double c l i c k s n w i l l merge i n t o one f a i n t c l i c k . A t t h i s s e t t i n g t h e r e c e i v e r i s a d j u s t e d f o r c r i t i c a l coupli n g . Observe t h a t t h e value of c r i t i c a l coupling changes w i t h wavelength. "The Double Click" i s f a m i l i a r t o operators of o s c i l l a t i n g r e c e i v e r s . This sound i n t h e telephones r e s u l t s from the sudden change of p l a t e current when t h e d e t e c t o r s t o p s and s t a r t s o s c i l l a t i n g due t o t h e primary wavelength being v a r i e d through t h a t a t which t h e o s c i l l a t i n g secondary i s set. The g r e a t e r t h e distanoe on the primary condenser d i a l between t h e s e click^'^ the c l o s e r t h e coupling between t h e c i r c u i t s

..

Before w o b t a i n t h i s "double c l i c k " i n d i c a t i o n , we must have: ( a ) the antenna e connected s:, t h a t t h e primary c i r c u i t i s complete and can be resonated t o the secondary; ( b ) t h e t i c k l e r so s e t t h a t t h e d e t e c t o r o s c i l l a t i o n s are n e i t h e r t o o s t r o n g nor t o o weak; ( c ) t h e coupling adjusted t o be a t l e a s t g r e a t e r than critical.

EXAMINATION

- LESSOIU' 56

1. Draw a schematic diagram of the type IP-501 commerical r e c e i v e r and l a b e l the parts.
2.

I n concise t a b u l a t e d form w r i t e a l l of the s t e p s necessary t o place the 1P.-501 r e c e i v e r i n p r a c t i c a l operation t o receive a C.W. s i g n a l .

3. I n b r i e f , how should the r e c e i v e r be adjusted f i r s t t o tune i n a spark s i g n a l , and second, t o tune i n a C.T. s i g n a l ?
4. ( a ) H w i s the t i c k l e r c o i l connected and i n g e n e r a l what position should o i t occupy t o provide maximum "feed-back" of p l a t e energy? ( b ) If the c i r c u i t f a i l e d t o o s c i l l a t e what do t h i n k might be the probable cause or causes? ( c ) Suppose you a r e on a r a d i o watch and your r e c e i v e r i s tuned t o pick up a d i s t a n t spark s t a t i o n and the s i g n a l s came i n w i t h considerable d i s t o r t i o n . .,hat do you t h i n k would be accountable f o r t h i s condition and how would you remedy i t ?
5. ( a ) Are t h e r e any p r a c t i c a l considerations i n regard t o t h e amounts of i n ductance and capacity t o be used i n t h e tuned c i r c u i t s when manipulating t h e c o n t r o l knobs t o tune i n a s i g n a l ? ( b ) I s i t of any p a r t i c u l a r advantage t o know the t h e o r e t i c a l operation of a tuned c i r c u i t i n order t o be capable of a d j u s t i n g such a c i r c u i t t o the best advantage i n convnercial operating? Explain b r i e f l y .
6. ( a ) I s i t always necessary t o employ extreme close coupling between primary and secondary t o o b t a i n a good readable s i g n a l ? Why? ( b ) When i s the s e r i e s antenna condenser used and how may it be cut out of t h e c i r c u i t ?

7. Give some general advice i n regard t o tuning a commercial r e c e i v e r t,o a (Be b r i e f i n your r e p l y but answer t h i s question as c e r t a i n incoming s i g n a l . though you were i n s t r u c t i n g a fellow- operator i n t h e best p r a c t i c a l methods necessary t o accomplish t h i s important assignment ).

o 8. ( a ) ;'bat i s meant by "stand-bfr adjustment? (b) Hw i s coupling a l t e r e d ? ( c ) 'Ifhat causes t h e lldouble-click heard i n the phones and how does t h i s t e s t f o r c r i t i c a l coupling?
9. ( a ) What elements comprise the primary and secondary c i r c u i t s . of the type 106-D commercial r e c e i v e r ? ( b ) What i s a "dead-end" switch and of what p r a c t i c a l value i s i t ? ( c ) Should it be examined occassionally and why? ( d ) Xhat a r e the two c o n t r o l knobs l o c a t e d d i r e c t l y i n the c e n t e r of t h e f r o n t panel of the 106-9 r e c e i v e r ?

10.

Draw a schematic diagram of t h e type 106-D r e c e i v e r and l a b e l the p a r t s .

Lesson 56
<*

- sheet

22

~~

...,...-

~. . , .

~.~

M A R C O N / /NST/TVFE

giiunded 1909

SPARK TRANSMISSIDN
. .

equired t o produce electromagne.tic waves f o r w i r e l e s s t e l e g r a p a t one time obtained by t h e u s e of a n i n d u c t i o n c o i l . k and, a t t h e b e s t , A l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t gen i r power and economical operation, v e r y soon supplanted f o r r a d i o t e l e g r a p h i c work. Before proceeding f u r t b r i e f review. r e l a t i v e 'to some of t h e c o n t r i b u t i n g so be i n t e r e s t i n g . e the;.@rth a s one con ssfw@g transmit e l e r However t h a t t h e phenomeno l y separate c i r c u i t s .

ectromagnet i c indu n t s of commercial ceived t h e hypothes a substance which he non of l i g h t . Far o n s t r a t e d i n 1845 t h t h e same medium. electromagnetism. H e he predicted t h e e l e c t y and telephony.
: '

-."
$?

I n 1880 Professor Trowbridge of Harvard U n i v e r s i t y determined t h a t s i g n a l l i n g was possible by e l e c t r i c conduction through t h e e a r t h , o r through water, and , :.:..:. i n 1882 experiments c a r r i e d out by Alexander Graham B e l l under t h e Tronbrid$y ::;: i d e a r e s u l t e d i n the d e t e c t i o n of s i g n a l s through water f o r the g r e a t dista.nce;f.' of 1& miles.

The next important l i n k i n t h e development of r a d i o wrs closed by Hwtz,.a Germax? s c i e n t i s t , who, i n working on p r i o r fundamental t h e o r i e s l a i d d&n Faraday and Maxwell, a c t u a l l y produced electromagnetic waves which f a l l t h e known laws of l i g h t waves. The apparatus used by Hertz what a s shown i n Figure 1. This t r a n s m i t t i n dudtion c o i l which was energized by a b a t t e r t h e secordary winding of t h i s c o i l were conn l a t o r n , formed by two b r a s s spheres "SS" a t t by $he connecting b r a s s rods "BB", and i t w n eledt~ic waves w&re r a d i a t e d .

The Hertz r e c e i v e r was simply a loop of wire with t h e ends ,brought c l o s e t o g e t h e r , the space between t h e ends of t h e wire forming the spark gap I1Gn a s shown i n Figure 2. With t h i s apparatus Hertz had complete equipment f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g and r e c e i v i n g e l e c t r i c waves. When he. e n e r i z e d t h e induction c o i l a sperk jumped the a i r gap between the spheres "SS.' O t h e other s i d e of n theexperimental room he suspended h i s r i n g of wire ( r e c e i v e r ) . The o s c i l Lating waves produced by h i s t r a n s m i t t e r t r a v e l l e d through space at a speed of 186,000 miles per second and, sweeping by the r i n g r e c e i v e r , induced s u f f i c i e n t electromotive f o r c e i n i t t o cause a spark t o jump t h i s gap a l s o . I n t h i s way t h e Maxwell t h e o r y was proved and thus transmission of s i g n a l s through space without t h e use of m e t a l l i c conductors was begun. Many i m provements were necessary, however, before an e f f i c i e n t system could be deM
BRrJ04

Figure 2 Figure 1

OSCILLATOR

Figure 3

v i s e d t h a t would operate s u c c e s s f u l l y on a commercial scale. The Hertz r e c e i v e r , f o r example, r e q u i r e d s o much energy t h a t t h e a f f e c t s were noticed only a t s h o r t d i s t a n c e s . I n 1879 Hughes discovered t h a t loose m e t a l l i c f i l i n g s would "cohere", t h a t t h e v i o i n i t y . T h i s l e d t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e device known a s the "coh e r e r " , developed i n 1892 by Professor Branly of P a r i s . Branly f i l l e d a small g l a s s tube w i t h i r o n f i l i n g s and stopped each end of t h e tube w i t h metal plugs t o which he connected leads from the r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t . T h i s d e v i c e was used t o d e t e c t t,he presence of Hertzian waves. I n i t s o r i g i n a l form the coherer was u s e f u l only i n d e t e c t i n g t h e v e r y s t a r t of t h e e l e c t r i c wave, (Hertzian wave) f o r a t t h e f i r s t spark the m e t a l l i c p a r t i c l e s would s t i c k together and r u i n i t s p r o p e r t i e s a s a d e t e c t o r . Popoff, a Russian s c i e n t i s t , using t h e coherer i d e a t o study atmospheric e l e c t r i c i t y , made a b r i m a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e w i r e l e s s development by combining an e l e c t r i c b e l l w i t h the Branly coherer. He u t i l i z e d t h e hammer of t h e b e l l t o l i g h t l y t a p t h e g l a s s tube c o n t a i n i n g t h e f i l i n g s . This was a wonderful advance f o r i t made p o s s i b l e the measurement of the H e r t z i a n wave. This improvement was named t h e "decoherer

i s , s t i c k and hold f i r m l y t o g e t h e r when an e l e c t r i c s p a r k was discharged i n

."

It was a t t h i s time t h a t Marconi, b a r e l y out of h i s ' t e e n s , began h i s experiments w i t h a bold v i s i o n of l i n k i n g t h e e n t i r e world t o g e t h e r by m a n s of w i r e l e s s telegraphy. (And nothing need be s a i d of how w e l l h i s v i s i o n has been r e a l i z e d ) . I n t h e course of h i s experiments, which was w i t h t h e Hertz o s c i l l a t o r , he made t h e d i s c o v e r y t h a t when one s i d e of t h e s p a r k gap was
~

Les s m 57

'

- sheet 2
-

connected t o e a r t h , and t h e other connected t o a wire suspended i n t h e a i r , t h e e l e c t r i c waves t r a v e l l e d a much g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e t h a n those produced by t h e Hertz o s c i l l a t o r i n i t s o r i g i n a l form. Refer t o Figure 3. The Marconi r e c e i v e r was s i m i l a r t o t h e r e c e i v e r used by Popoff, b u t embodied many i m provements i n c o n s t r u c t i o n a l design. The Tear 1896 saw w i r e l e s s communication c a r r i e d on by Marconi f o r a d i s t a n c e miles and, due t o improvements, he i n c r e a s e d t h i s d i s t a n c e t o 18 miles of 1~ one year l a t e r . I n 1902 he mcceeded i n spanning t h e A t l a n t i c ocean; a r e markable achievement a t t h a t time. The imagination does not have t o be s t r e t c h e d t o r e a l i z e t h a t communication by w i r e l e s s was not t h e r e s u l t of one mants work, nor was i t accomplished over night. Rather i t i s t h e r e s u l t of work by many men over a long period of time. From 1902, however, r a p i d advancement was made i n w i r e l e s s communic a t i o n ; w i r e l e s s had ceased t o be a l a b o r a t o r y p l a y t h i n g ; i t had passed i n t o t h e commercial world and was ready f o r p r a c t i c a l use.

Figure 4 ocean-going s h i p s were soon provided w i t h sending and r e c e i v i n g apparatus which enabled them t o exchange messages w i t h land. The apparatus a t t h i s time was s t i l l i n t h e form of a n i n d u c t i o n c o i l ; t h e primary winding was e x c i t e d by an a l t e r n a t o r i n s t e a d of a b a t t e r y . F u r t h e r improvements were made i n spark t r a n s m i s s i o n a p p a r a t u s , and it i s t h e o b j e c t of t h i s lesson t o b r i n g t o the student a working knowledge of t h e a p p a r a t u s he may be c a l l e d upon t o operate.
A s s t a t e d i n t h e f i r s t p a r t of t h e lesson, t h e g e n e r a t o r i s a more economical way t o produce e l e o t r i c waves, and s i n c e the average power required i s 2K.W. t h e g e n e r a t o r s u s u a l l y have a r a t i n g of 100 v o l t s , and 500 cycles. The app a r a t u s required f o r g e n e r a t i n g h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s i s shown i n Figure 4. It c o n s i s t s of a n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t generator "G" and a s t e p up transformer "T," which r e c e i v e s c u r r e n t i n t h e primary "P" a t a p r e s s u r e of 110 v o l t s , and s t e p s i t up t o 20,000 v o l t s i n t h e secondary "S." The h i g h voltage i s t h e n f e d i n t o t h e condenser " c , ~ which s t o r e s it up u n t i l t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t

Lesson 57

- sheet

I
i

I
I

pressure t o break down t h e a i r gap "AG" When t h i s takes place the condenser discharges across t h e gap, t h e spark providing a p a t h f o r the current t o flow which, upon l e a v i n g the condenser, passes a c r o s s t h e gap through i n ductance c o i l L c a l l e d t h e closed c i r c u i t o s c m a t f o n transformer. The curr e n t now flows $;ck i n t o t h e condenser a t C 1 , t h u s charging t h e condenser t o t h e opposite p o l a r i t y ; it immediately discharges, t h i s time i n t h e r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n . As a r e s u l t of t h e c u r r e n t passing through c o i l L1, l i n e s of f o r c a r e s e t up which t h r e a d through and induce c u r r e n t i n c o i l Lg, This p a r t of t h e c i r c u i t i s c a l l e d t h e "secondary" or "open c i r c u i t ' ' of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n transformer and, s i n c e t h e antenna i s connected t o t h i s c o i l , energy i n t h e form of electromagnetic waves i s r a d i a t e d through space.

----

.--

E
Figure 5 pnal~sis of t h e Spark Discharge. I n order t o s t u d y t h e s p a r k discharge c r e a t e d by a condenser we w i l l i s o l a t e t h a t p a r t of t h e fundamental diagram shown w i t h i n the d o t t e d l i n e s of Figure 4 and study It from Figure 5. J u s t previous t o t h e f i r s t discharge t h e charge i n t h e conc?snser t a k e s t h e form of an e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d which i s s t o r e d up between t h e p l a t e s a s i n Figure 5 A . The s t r a i n i s such t h a t a spark l e a p s from t h e p o s i t i v e e l e c t r o d e t o t h e nega t i v e e l e c t r o d e of t h e gap; t h a t i s , the c o l l a p s e of t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d causes a current t o flow a c r o s s t h e spark gap through t h e inductance L1, whic s e t s up a magnetic f i e l d around t h e c o i l L l and connecting l e a d s a s i n Figure 5B. Since a l l of t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d i s converted t o c u r r e n t , t h e magn e t i c l i n e s of f o r c e c o l l a p s e back upon t h e c o i l L 1 (and connecting l e a d s ) ; t h e induced c u r r e n t r e s u l t i n g there- from recharging the condenser t o t h e opp o s i t e p o l s r i t y as i n Figure 5 C . Although charged i n t h e opposite sense, a q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r i c i t y l e s s t h a n t h a t of t h e i n i t i a l charge i s s t o r e d between t h e p l a t e s , some of t h e energy having been expended by the r e s i s t a n c e of the c i r c u i t a nd t h e production of h e a t , l i g h t and sound. The condenser now d i s c h a r g e s a c r o s s t h e s p a r k gap i n t h e d i r e c t i o n opposite t o t h a t i n d i c a t e d i n Figure 5B and t h e c o i l L 1 once more i s surrounded by a f i e l d , Figure 5D, but which i s opposite i n p o l a r i t y t o t h a t of Figure 5B. These l i n e s of f o r c e c o l l a p s e and recharge t h e condenser t o t h e p o l a r i t y indicated a t t h e beginning of t h e cycle in Figure 5E, but a charge l e s s i n q u a n t i t y i s s t o r e d between i t s p l a t e s t h e n a t t h e beginning of discharge,

Lesson 57

- sheet

~ l t h i s may be summed up by saying t h a t when a n i s o l a t e d charge of e l e c l

t r i c i t y i s applied t o a condenser, and t h e p l a t e s a r e connected t o g e t h e r by a n e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t , t h e i r charges do not completely n e u t r a l i z e a t t h e f i r s t i n s t a n t of discharge b u t , i n f a c t , s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i o n s of c u r r e n t take place before equilibrium i s r e s t o r e d . This g r a d u a l e x t r a c t i o n of energy from t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s s e t up by t h e condenser i s termed t h e "damping of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s " and t h e decrease i n amplitude of t h e successive cyelea c a n b e expressed i n a logarithmic percentage. The number of o s c i l l a t i o n s taking place across t h e spark gap c a n b e vnried t o a considerable e x t e n t by a d j u s t i n g t h e number of t u r n s i n t h e closed c i r c u i t o s c i l l a t i o n transformer L and a d j u s t i n g t h e l e n g t h of t h e spark gap. Vhen the adjustments a r 6 such &at t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s occurring , a t e a c h d i s charge have the shape and appearance of Figure 6 t h e y a r e s a i d t o be "excess i v e l y damped," t h a t i s , t h e y die out very r a p i d l y . The t r a n s m i t t e r i s t h e n said t o b e very b r o a d l y tuned and w i l l r a d i a t e a v e r y broad i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l ,

Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 7 shows h i g h l y damped o s c i l l a t i o n s while Figure 8 i l l u s t r a t e s o s c i l l a t i o n s of a f e e b l y damped character. When adjustments a r e made i n a spark t r a n s m i t t e r so that the conditions of damping shown i n Figure 8 extend and Figure 4, t h e energy apply t o t h e secondary, o r open o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t L of t h e r a d i a t e d wave i s l a r g e l y donfined t o a s i n g l e Frequency and t h e e f f e c t a t t h e r e c e i v e r i s c a l l e d "sharp tuning." A s h a r p l y tuned wave r e q u i r e s very c a r e f u l adjustment of a d i s t a n t r e c e i v e r i n order t o place t h e r e c e i v i n g apparatus i n resonance w i t h t h e t r a n s m i t t e d s i g n a l wave.

It i s n a t u r a l t h a t an operator would not d e s i r e t o receive s i g n a l s under cond i t i o n s where a t r a n s m i t t e r was e m i t t i n g a wave of excessive damping f o r t h e reason t h a t such a t r a n s m i t t e d wave would " blanket" o t h e r s i g n a l s . Under such a condition a l l t h e adjustments he could p o s s i b l y make w i t h h i s r e c e i v e r cont r o l s would not r e s u l t i n tuning out t h e broad wave t h u s r a d i a t e d . It i s very cXear then, t h a t a t r a n s m i t t e r must not r a d i a t e a broaa wave, i.e., one i n which the o s c i l l a t i o ~ sof each spark discharge d i e r a p i d l y t o zero.
N O W going t o the o t h e r extreme, it i s e q u a l l y undesirable when working with

spark transmission t o have a t r a n s m i t t e r s o a d j u s t e d t h a t t h e wave i s "feebl y damped." I n o p e r a t o r ' s parlance, such a wave would be "extremely sharp," and it would r e q u i r e considerable s k i l l and p a t i e n c e t o a d j u s t t h e r e c e i v e r c o n t r o l s t o hear and a c t u a l l y copy the s i g n a l . Therefore, a compromise must be a f f e c t e d between t h e s e two extremes whereby i t w i l l not be e i t h e r an extremely broad nor a n extremely sharp wave but w i l l be somewhere between t h e two.

Lesson 57

- sheet

It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o know j u s t how this c o n d i t i o n can be r e a l i z e d , but i n t h e 'explanation a new term w i l l have t o be introduced, which i s "Logarithmic Decrement." It w i l l be a l s o necessary t o review our study of t h e word, "0sn c i l l a t i o n " and"~mp1itude. Each time a spark d i s c h a r g e t a k e s place a c r o s s t h e gap "AG," Figure 4, energy i s r a d i a t e d from t h e antenna i n t h e form of wave t r a i n s , each t r a i n being made up of a number of o s c i l l a t i o n s which decrease i n amplitude a t each succ e s s i v e o s c i l l a t i o n . Each of t h e s e o s c i l l a t i o n s i s assumed t o decrease i n

TIME
A8

As
A4

\- AMPLITUDE OF NEGATIVE H A L F OF OSCILLATION

'"'la?

OSClLLATlON STARTS.

Figure 9

Figure 10 amplitude according t o t h e law t h a t the r a t i o of any o s c i l l a t i o n t o t h e one preceding or f ollovring i t i s constant. To make t h i s c l e a r , l e t us r e f e r t o Figure 9. Here w e s e e one wave t r a i n c o n s i s t i n g of f o u r complete o s c i l l a t i o n s . The amplitude A 1 , t h e f i r s t , being t h e most i n t e n s e , t h a t i s , having the g r e a t e s t value, and all the following ones showing a s t e a d i l y a e c r e a s i n g value u n t i l t h e y die away t o zero. W s a i d , however, t h a t t h e r a t i o of a n y c a c i l l a t i o n e t o t h e one preceding i t was constant. If t h i s i s s o l e t A 1 , A2, Ag9 e t c . , r e p r e s e n t the m a x i r m amplitudes of successive a l t e r n a t i o n s . . Then, according t o t h e above statement, and beginning w i t h A 1 , a d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p of dec r e a s e w i l l e x i s t between t h e amplitndes of a l l t h e following successive a l t e r n a t i o n s of e a c h o s c i l l a t i o n . W may then s a y t h a t t h e decrease i n amplie tude A 1 i s t o the decrease i n amplitude 83, a s t h e d e c r e a s e i n amplitude A3 i s t o t h e decrease i n amplitude A5, and a s t h e d e c r e a s e i n A s , i s t o decrease i n amplitude A 7 , and s o on, t o t h e end of t h e wave t r a i n . Lesson 57

- sheet 6

This constant r a t i o of decrease i n amplitude of e a c h succeeding a l t e r n a t i o n i s c a l l e d t h e *dampingn of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s and t h e decreasing r a t i o of one o s c i l l a t i o n t o the following i s c a l l e d t h e 'logarithmic decrement." The e x a c t meaning of the logarithmic decrement of the o s c i l l a t i o n s i n radio- telegraphy may be b e t t e r understood by considering t h e o s c i l l a t i n g movements of a pendulum i n mechanics. Suppose f o r example, a plumb bob i s a t t a c h e d t o the end of a s t r i n g and suspended f r e e l y a s i n Figure 10. Drawn t o one s i d e , and r e le.ased, the bob w i l l v i b r a t e t o and f r o u n t i l t h e o s c i l l a t i o n i s completely damped out. If a piece of cardboard, f o r i n s t a n c e , were a t t a c h e d t o the s t r i n g , t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e pendulum would come t o a s t o p i n a much s h o r t e r period; t h e y would be s a i d t o b e h i g h l y damped. This corresponds t o the damping of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s i n a r a d i o o s c i l l a t i o n c i r c u i t having considerable r e s i s tance. Nw t h e time period of one complete o s c i i l a t i o n of t h e pendulum can o be obtained by counting t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s f o r one minute and d i v i d i n g t h e i r number by 60. Hence i f 60 complete o s c i l l a t i o n s took place per minute, t h e time period of pne o s c i l l a t i o n would be one second. T h i s could be e a s i l y . arranged i f the s t r i n g of t h e pendulum had a c e r t a i n l e n g t h and t h e bob a c e r t a i n weigllt

Assume t h a t t h e bob i s o s c i l l a t i n g i n f r o n t of a s c a l e c a l i b r a t e d i n inches a s i n Figure 10 and t h a t a t t h e beginning of t h e f i r s t o s c i l l a t i o n i t was drawn from the zero p o s i t i o n outward t o a d i s t a n c e of 1 5 inches. O account n of wind f r i c t i o n , a t t h e end of one-half o s c i l l a t i o n t h e bob would not have t r a v e l l e d 15 inches from t h e zero p o s i t i o n . Under s u i t a b l e conditions it would move outward, l e t u s sag, 14.2 inches and i n t h e r e t u r n swing, i t s second o s c i l l a t i o n would be 1~inches l e s s t h a n t h e i n i t i a l o s c i l l a t i o n . If we observe t h e l e n g t h of t h e successive swings and p l o t t h e r e s u l t s a s i n 1 e Figure 1 w would o b t a i n a group of decaying o s c i l l a t i o n s which would bear t h e following r a t i o t o one another. I f t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s A , E, i s divided i n t o seconds, and the amplitude of t h e r i g h t and l e f t swings of t h e pendulum shown by the n o t a t i o n s on t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s , (0 t o 15, i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n ) theA t h e amplitude a t t h e t e r m i n a t i o n of a complete p e r i o d o r a t any p a r t i e l period of o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l be a s follows: A t t h e end of t h e f i r s t h a l f p e r i o d , t h e amplitude of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l be 14.2; a t t h e end of a complete p e r i o d , 13.5. After the pendulum has been i n o s c i l l a t i o n f o r 1 seconds, t h e ampli* tude w i l l be 12.8 and a t t h e end of two seconds, 1 2 . 1 and so on.
It i s t o be e s p e c i a l l y noted t h a t t h e r a t i o of the amplitude of t h e successive 1.11, o s c i l l a t i o n s i s c o n s t a n t ; t h a t i s 1 5 i 13.5 = 1.11; 13.5 i12.1 and s o on. This r a t i o w i l l be constant t o t h e end of t h e swings of t h e pendulum because i t i s a law of a l l mechanical o s c i l l a t i n g motions t h a t t h e 0sc i l l a t i o n s w i l l d i e away a t such r a t e s t h a t t h e r a t i o of successive amplitudes remains constant. This i s t h e c o n d i t i o n assumed t o e x i s t i n t h e spark 61scharge c i r c u i t s of r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r s .

It should be c l e a r from t h e foregoing t h a t If t h e f r i c t i o n ( r e s i s t a n c e ) t o t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e pendulum i n Figure 10 were i n c r e a s e d by a t t a c h i n g a piece of cardboard t o t h e pendulum t o dampen i t s movement, t h e t o and f r o swings would d i e out more r a p i d l y and t h e r a t i o of t h e successive amplitudes would become g r e a t e r , t h a t i s , t h e damping of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s would be inLesson 57

sheet ?

creased. From t h i s we l e a r n t h a t slow damping corresponds t o a g r e a t number of swings of t h e pendulum, while r a p i d damping corresponds t o a small number of swings of t h e pendulum.
NOW, i n a spark t r a n s m i t t e r t h e damping of t h e e l e c t r i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n s can be made slow by connecting i n more t u r n s Of wire on t h e o s c i l l a t i o n t r a n s former which corresponds t o t h e damping p r i n c i p l e j u s t explained; i . e . , of adding r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e C i r c u i t , o r rapid damping can be accomplished by reducing the r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c i r c u i t . The tuning q u a l i t i e s of a t r a i n of e l e c t r i c waves from a g i v e n t r a n s m i t t e r depends g r e a t l y upon t h e decrement of the o s c i l l a t i o n s and, t h e r e f o r e , t h i s i s an important f a c t o r .

A i d e a l c o n d i t i o n i n s p a r k transmission i s r e a l i z e d by a d j u s t i n g the closed n and open o s c i l l a t i o n c i r c u i t s of a spark t r a n s m i t t e r (L1 and L2 of Figure 4 ) i n such a manner t h a t f o r e v e r y spark discharge each wave t r a i n i s found t o c o n s i s t of e x a c t l y 24 complete o s c i l l a t i o n s .

It i s a l s o found t h a t l e s s t h a n 24 complete o s c i l l a t i o n s per spark discharge m i l l tend toward a broad i n t e r f e r i n g wave, and more t h a n 24 w i l l r e q u i r e s h a r p
tuning i n t h e r e c e i v e r . Because of t h e foregoing a U. S, law was made t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t a decrement of 0.2 must be maintained b y spark t r a n s m i t t e r s ; t h i s decrement i s possible when 24 complete o s c i l l a t i o n s occur f o r each spark discharge. A l l of t h i s means t h a t i f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s i n a given antenna c i r c u i t have a decrement of 0.2 t h e logarithm Of t h e r a t i o of A t o A3 w i l l be 0.2, and t h e number corresponding t o t h e logarithm of 0.2 i s 1.2, t h e r e f o r e i n a c t u a l r a d i o pract i c e t h e r a t i o of a u p l i t u d e s A 1 t o A 3 of Figure 9 _must be 1.2 f o r a decrement of 0.2 required by U. S. law. pesonance. The c o n d i t i o n of e l e c t r i c a l resonance was discussed i n Lesson 25. T h i s phenomenon i s v e r y s t r i k i n g i n r a d i o frequency c i r c u i t s . It i s d e s i r a b l e i n r a d i o t r a n s m i s s i o n t o a d j u s t the c i r c u i t s L 1 and L2, Figure 4, i n such manner t h a t the most e f f e c t i v e t r a n s f e r of electromagnetic induction t a k e s place between t h e two c i r c u i t s . C i r c u i t s f o r demonstrating the phenomenon of resonance appear i n Figure 1 . Two c i r c u i t s of r a d i o frequency LCG 1 and L 1 , C 1 , A , a r e m a g n e t i c a l l y coupled a t t h e c o i l s L and L1. I f c i r c u i t LCG i s s e t i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n and c i r c u i t L 1 , C 1 , A , c a r e f u l l y adjusted by varying the number of t u r n s used i n L1, or by varging t h e c a p a c i t y C 1 , a p o i n t w i l l be found where t h e hot wire ammeter "A w i l l give a maximum def l e c t i o n and a t a l l o t h e r p o i n t of adjustment t h e ammeter w i l l show a lower reading. From t h i s we l e a r n t h a t t h e adjustment of t h e second c i r c u i t where t h e d e f l e c t i o n of the ammeter i s maximum, i s such t h e t t h e two c i r c u i t s have s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same period of o s c i l l a t i o n , o r i n o t h e r words, the same n a t u r a l frequency. It i s under t h e s e adjustments only t h a t l a r g e values of c u r r e n t can be induced i n t h e c i r c u i t L1, C1, A. The L e m t h of ElectPomamet i c Naves. The standard wavelengths f o r spark transmission a r e a s f o l l o w s : 600,706,750,800, and 900 meters. To c a l c u l a t e the approximate wavelength two f a c t o r s must be known. F i r s t , the number of complete waves passing a given p o i n t i n one second of time, and second, t h e Lesson 57

- sheet

speed t h a t electromagnetic waves t r a v e l . As an example, assume t h a t 1,000,000 complete waves pass i n one second. The speed they t r a v e l i s the same a s t h e speed of l i g h t waves, o r 186,000 miles i n one second. Measured i n meters i t i s 300,000,000 meters. A 300 meter wavelength t h e n would be The wavelength may a l s o be found e q u a l t o 300,000,000 d i v i d e d by 1,000,000. if the inductance and c a p a c i t y of t h e antenna are known. Without going i n t o higher mathematics a w r y p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n whichgives a good working approximation of t h e r e s u l t i s a s f o l l o w s : Suppose you have a s i n g l e wire antenna and you want t o know i t s n a t u r a l wavelength. A l l you have t o do i s add t h e f l a t or h o r i z o n t a l l e n g t h t o t h e l e n g t h o f the lead - in, p l u s t h e l e n g t h from t h e s e t t o ground, and m u l t i p l y t h i s sum by 1.5. For example, t h e antenna 20 + 10 = 105 f e e t , t o shown i n Figure 12 has t h e dimensions given, 75 t a l . 105 x 1.5 = 157.5 meters, t h e n a t u r a l wavelength of t h e antenna.

Figure 1 1

Figure 1 2

O s h i p board a d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n e x i s t s . Here the quick method of approxn imating t h e n a t u r a l wavelength of a f o u r wire a e r i a l w i t h t h e wires spaced 2Q f e e t a p a r t i s 4.4 times t h e t o t a l l e n g t h of t h e antenna i n meters from the f a r end of t h e a e r i a l t o t h e s e t . A s an example of c a l c u l a t i n g the approximate wavelength of a s h i p a e r i a l 225 f e e t i n l e n g t h , w reduce f e e t t o meters e (1 f o o t = 0.3048 m e t e r s ) and m u l t i p l y by 4.4: 225 x 0.3048. = 68.58 meters = 301.75 approximate wavelength. 68.58 x 4.4 The values 1.5 and 4.4 a r e c a l l e d "eonstants" and a r e a r r i v e d a t by a c t u a l l y conducted experiments. A measurement of t h i s n a t u r e b r i n g s out an important p o i n t . It shows t h a t t h e e l e ~ i x o m a g n e t i cnaves r a d i a t e d f r o m an antenna can be v a r i e d , t h a t i s , shortened o r lengthened by simply changing the length of the antenna. I n p r a c t i c e t h i s i s done by means of an inductance, c a l l e d a "tuning c o i l , " which i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e antenna. By tapping t h e c o i l a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s more wire may be connected i n or t a k e n out of t h e circuit. Antenna Resistance. As explained i n Lesson 25 the r e s i s t a n c e i n an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t must be small. W a r e now d i s c u s s i n g such a c i r c u i t and t h e e antenna and c o i l s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h it. It was stated i n Lesson 25 t h a t i f t h e r e s i s t a n c e of an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e square r o o t of t h e inductance divided by t h e c a p a c i t y and t h i s r e s u l t m u l t i p l i e d by two, 2 m , t h e c i r c u i t w i l l not o s c i l l a t e on the discharge of t h e condensers across the a ir gap. (The r e s i s t a n c e of t h e a i r gap i s not conside r e d i n the c a l c u l a t i o n . ) This t e l l s us t h a t t o make a good o s c i l l a t o r y

Lesson 57

- sheet

c i r c u i t of an antenna t h e r e s i s t a n c e must be k e p t a s low a s possible. I n p r a c t i c e t h i s i s accomplished by using l a r g e phosphor bronze a e r i a l wire and providing good ground connections thereby keeping t h e antenna r e s i s t a n c e a t a minimum. oducim o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e Antenna. The conductive ( d i r e c t ) method of g o d u c i n g o s c i T l a t i o n s i n a n a e r i a l i s shown i n Figure 13. The advantage of \ t h i s method l i e s i n i t s s i m p l i c i t y of connections. It a l s o has t h e very g r e a t disadvantage i n t h e f a c t t h a t the o s c i l l a t i o n s produced a r e r a p i d l y damped out and t h e waves r a d i a t e d w i l l be broad and thereby i n t e r f e r e w i t h s i g n a l s from o t h e r s t a t i o n s . A g r e a t s t r a i n i s a l s o placed on t h e antenna i n s u l a t i o n when t h i s method of coupling i s employed. The conductive method of e x c i t i n g o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e antenna a r e t h e r e f o r e never used except when a powerful and broad i n t e r f e r i n g wave i s d e s i r e d , a s f o r i n s t a n c e , i n the case of an SOS.

= -

Figure 14 The i n d u c t i v e l y coupled method, Figure 14, i s t h e manner em2loyed t o e x c i t e a l l present day spark t r a n s m i t t e r s . I n f a c t t h e d i r e c t coupled method j u s t spoken of i s p r o h i b i t e d by law, hence t h e i n d u c t i v e method i s almost e n t i r e l y used. The advantages of producing o s c i l l a t i o n s i n a n antenna i n t h i s manner l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e closed c i r c u i t condenser "Cn a c t s as a r e s e r v o i r of energy, and since t h e c a p a c i t y of the condenser i n the closed o s c i l l a t i o n c i r c u i t i s g e n e r a l l y s e v e r a l times t h a t of t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e a e r i a l , it permits t h e closed c i r c u i t t o use l a r g e amounts of power f o r the same wavelength. The spark gap "Gn i s placed i n t h e closed c i r c u i t CGL. The o s c i l l a t i o n s generated i n t h i s c i r c u i t a r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e open 0scillation circuit L where t h e y a r e r a d i a t e d from t h e antenna i n the form of electromagnetic J i v e s . pow Wavelength i s Chawed. Because of t h e d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s of t r a f f i c i n r a d i o t e l e g r a p h i c s e r v i c e t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g apparatus must be capable of bei n g changed e a s i l y w i t h respect t o t h e l e n g t h of t h e r a d i a t e d wave produced. An example of how t h i s i s c a r r i e d out i s shown i n Figure 1 5 where the waveLength i s being s h i f t e d from 900 t o 600 meters. The c l i p i s s h i f t e d on c o i l L1 t o t h e p o s i t i o n shown by the d o t t e d l i n e s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t u r n s have

Figure 13

Lesson 57

- sheet

10

been cut out of t h i s c o i l . C l i p No. 2 i s moved upward on c o i l L;j ( t h e antenna tuning c o i l ) a l s o c u t t i n g t u r n s out of t h i s c o i l . Various Types of Antennas.- Five general types of a e r ' i a l s a r e i n use:
(1) The v e r t i c a l o r f a n a e r i a l ; ( 2 ) The umbrella a e r i a l ; ( 3 ) The i n v e r t e d "L" f l a t t o p a e r i a l ; ( 4 ) The "T" a e r i a l ; ( 5 ) The "Cage a e r i a l .

"

(1) The v e r t i c a l a e r i a l shown i n Figure 16 c o n s i s t s of a f a n o r harp o f copper or s i l i c o n bronze wires held v e r t i c a l l y i n t o space by a wooden mast, a s t e e l tower, o r any convenient s t r u c t u r e of s u f f i c i e n t height. The wires of t h e harp may o r may not be joined a t t h e top. A l l wires, however, must converge a t t h e lower end where t h e y e n t e r t h e s t a t i o n house and a r e connected t o the apparatus. The f r e e end of t h e v e r t i c a l a e r i a l must be well i n s u l a t e d , t o prevent t l i r e c t leakage t o t h e supporting h a l y a r d s o r s t a y s , and a t t h e lower end the w i r e s must be stayed t o take t h e s t r a i n o f f t h e s t a t i o n house roof i n s u l a t or.

Figure 1 5

Figure 16

- .-

, " h .A -

Figure 17

~ l t h o u g h h e v e r t i c a l a e r i a l i s acknowledged t o be t h e b e s t r a d i a t o r of e l e c t tromagnetic waves p r a c t i c a l l y equal r e s u l t s can be obtained from a f l a t t o p a e r i a l (of increased dimensions) w i t h a l e s s expensive supporting s t r u c t u r e . I r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e degree of e f f i c i e n c y obtained, a v e r t i c a l a e r i a l could not p o s s i b l y be used aboard v e s s e l s on account of the d e r r i c k booms, mast guys and smoke funnels which t a k e up the space t h a t would be required f o r erection.
( 2 ) The umbrella a e r i a l shown i n Figure 17 r e c e i v e s i t s name from i t s g e n e r a l shape and s i m i l a r i t y t o a n umbrella. It w i l l be noted i n t h i s diagram t h a t a number of wires spread r a d i a l l y i n s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s from a common c e n t e r a t t h e t o p of t h e mast, and t h a t a wire extends therefrom t o the apparatus i n the s t a t i o n house. The r i b s of the umbrella g e n e r a l l y a r e about two- thirds t h e l e n g t h of the mast, but t h e a y i n g out wires must be s i x t o seven times t h e l e n g t h of t h e v e r t i c a l p a r t . Although it has been found t o be of some value f o r p o r t a b l e m i l i t a r y s e t s , t h e umbrella a e r i a l i s s c a r c e l y employed i n commercjal p r a c t i c e .

Lesson 57

- sheet 11

(3) The i n v e r t e d 'Ln f l a t t o p a e r i a l on Figure 18 i s most commonly employed f o r s h i p s e r v i c e and q u i t e e x t e n s i v e l y i n broadcasting. It c o n s i s t s of a number of p a r a l l e l w i r e s s t r e t c h e d between two masts and a t t a c h e d on e i t h e r end t o wooden or metal s p r e a d e r s , which a r e thoroughly i n s u l a t e d from t he supporti n g halyards. The h o r i z o n t a l wires A t o B a r e c a l l e d t h e " f l a t t o p p o r t i o n " and t h e v e r t i c a l wires, t h e " lead- ins n .

The l e a d - i n w i r e s , which should have e q u a l c b i ~ d u c t i v i t yt o t h e w i r e s i n the f l a t t o p , a r e a t t a c h e d t o one end of t h e h o r i z o n t a l w i r e s , t h e n passed through a deck i n s u l a t o r and f i n a l l y connected the t h e a p p a r a t u s w i t h i n t h e s t a t i o n . The f l a t tops of t h e m a j o r i t y of ships vary from 75 t o 250 f e e t i n l e n g t h and t h e lead- ins from 70 t o 150 f e e t .
If t h e lead- ins a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e c e n t e r of t h e f l a t t o p , as i n Figure 1 9 , t h e a e r i a l i s s a i d t o be of t h e "T" type.

Figure 18

Figure 19

E i t h e r "T" o r "L" a e r i a l s a r e most s u i t e d t o merchant v e s s e l s , p r i n c i p a l l y because t h e y a r e nore convenient t o i n s t a l l . They g e n e r a l 1 have 2, 4 o r 6 w i r e s ; t h e majority, however, have four w i r e s spaced from 2 9 t o 39 f e e t . The fundamental wavelength of t h e "T" a e r i a l i s i n v a r i a b l y l e s s t h a n t h a t of t h e i n v e r t e d "L" type of the same dimensions. When t h e lead- ins of a g i v e n a e r i a l a r e removed from the end of t h e f l a t t o p and a t t a c h e d t o t h e c e n t e r , t h e t o t a l inductance w i l l b e l e s s t h a n w i t h t h e previous connection, and s i n c e by t h i s change t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e system remains p r a c t i c a l l y unchanged, t h e l e n g t h of t h e r a d i a t e d wave w i l l be l e s s t h a n i n t h e case of t h e "L" a e r i a l . T h i s i s e a s i l y understood i f considered i n t h e following manner: Beginning a t t h e p o i n t where t h e lead- ins a r e attached, the two ends of t h e f l a t t o p may be considered a s two a e r i a l s i n p a r a l l e l , and, a s i s w e l l known, t h e i n ductance of two p a r a l l e l conductors i s l e s s t h a n t h a t of e i t h e r t a k e n s e p a r a t e l y ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e t o t a l inductance of t h e antenna w i l l be reduced and t h e r a d i a t e d wave reduced accordingly. To i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o i n t : A four- wire i n v e r t e d L t y p e of a e r i a l , 100 f e e t i n l e n g t h , 60 f e e t i n h e i g h t , has c a p a c i t y of .0004 microfarads, and inductance of 62,000 centimeters. A "T" a e r i a l of t h e same dimensions has c a p a c i t y of . 0 4 microfarads, and inductance of 37,000 centimeters. Keeping i n mind the 00 simple formula ( A = 3 8 X VSZ) f o r computing t h e wavelength of a r a d i a t i v e o s c i l l a t o r , t h e change i n wavelength brought about by t h i s connection i s e a s i l y determined. The wavelength of t h e "L" a e r i a l w i l l be approximately 188 meters and t h e 'IT" a e r i a l , approximately 145 meters.
( 5 ) The cage antenna i s r a p i d l y becoming popular i n t h e amateur t r a n s m i s s i o n f i e l d and it i s a l s o used by a few broadcasting s t a t i o n s . It has been adopted

Lesson 57

- sheet 12

i n c o m e r c l a l r a d i o s e r v i c e on a l a r g e number of f o r e i g n v e s s e l s but i s not g e n e r a l l y employed on American s h i p s . I t s p r i n c i p l e of c u r r e n t r a d i a t i o n i s , of course, the same a s o t h e r f l a t t o p a e r i a l s . The h i g h frequency c u r r e n t s flowing along a multi-wire f l a t t o p a e r i a l have a tendency t o "edge" toward t h e outside wires, w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e s e o u t s i d e w i r e s c a r r y more t h a n t h e i r p a r t of t h e c u r r e n t thereby i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h i s p o r t i o n of antenna. However, a l t h o u g h t h i s increased r e s i s t a n c e i s not of g r e a t import a n c e , i t s e f f e c t i s e n t i r e l y e l i m i n a t e d i n t h e cage type antenna a s a l l w i r e s a r e o u t s i d e w i r e s , a s shown i n Figure 20. The low r e s i s t a n c e of t h e cage, while i t has l e s s c a p a c i t y t h a n t h e o r d i n a r y f l a t t o p , makes it p r e f e r a b l e i n many cases.

Figure 20 !r,ie may sum up t h e advantages o r disadvantages of t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s of = r i a l s b r i e f l y , as follows: The v e r t i c a l a e r i a l i s a w r y e f f i c i e n t r a d i a t o r of e l e c t r i c waves; but i f l a r g e amounts of energy a r e t o be r a d i a t e d , a l a r g e a e r i a l and a very high supuorting s t r u c t u r e a r e r e q u i r e d ; t h e c o s t of t h e l a t t e r mag be p r o h i b i t i v e . The u m b r e l l a s e r i a l does not q u i t e p o s s e s s t h e r a d i a t i n g prope r t i e s of t h e v e r t i c a l a e r i a l and due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r i b s of t h e umbrella must be guyed out s e v e r a l hundred f e e t from t h e base of t h e supporting mast, a l a r g e a r e a I s r e q u i r e d f o r i t s e r e c t i o n . But w i t h t h i s disadvantage, t h e umbrella a e r i a l i s found t o be of some value i n p o r t a b l e m i l i t a r y s t a t i o n s , where t h e r i b s of the a e r i a l a c t a s guy supports a s w e l l a s r a d i a t o r s of t h e e l e c t r i c waves, The "L" and ' I T " a e r i a l s a l s o do not r a d i a t e q u i t e a s e f f i c i e n t l y a s t h e simple v e r t i c a l a e r i a l of t h e same dimensions, but t h e y have s l i g h t l y l o m r n a t u r a l decrements, and t h e r e f o r e , r a d i a t e a sharp wave w i t h l e s s l o c a l i z e d inductance. F l a t top a e r i a l s can be e r e c t e d more economically t h a n v e r t i c a l a e r i a l s of much s h o r t e r l e n g t h and t h e y prove t o be jm t a s e f f e c t i v e a t l e s s i n i t i a l expense. Over a l l , i t must be kept i n mind t h a t i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e degree of e f f i c i e n c y obtained, t h e f l a t t o p a e r i a l only can b e c o n v e n i e n t l y employed aboard ship. Cage a e r i a l s a r e considered f l a t top. Standard TransmittfnB Aeriab. N w t h a t t h e fundamental d e s i g n of t h e v a r i o u s o a e r i a l s has been shown, t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a s t a n d a r d shipps a e r i a l (Radio Marine Corporation) w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l . It w i l l be noted from the diagram of Figure 21 t h a t the f l a t t o p contains s i x s i l i c o n bronze wires, each containing 7 s t r a n d s , No. 18 wire. The wires a r e p r e f e r a b l y e q u a l l y spaced and a r e a t t a c h e d t o spruce s p r e a d e r s from 14 t o 18 f e e t i n l e n g t h which i n t u r n are a t t a c h e d t o t h e running halyards by a b r i d l e which i s made up of s t r o p i n s u l a t o r s . These i n s u l a t o r s c o n s i s t of 5/8 i n c h Russian boat rope which i s p a r t l y covered bg a hard rubber tube. The space between t h e tube and Le.sson 57

- sheet

13

t h e rope i s f i l l z c ' p i t h h s t sulphur which when c o l d , hardens and keeps out e m o i s t u r e . ~ o t k n d s of t h e b r i d l e t e r m i n a t e i n a heart- shaped shackle t o which a galvanized s t e e l h a l y a r d wire f o r r a i s i n g and l o v ~ e r i n gt h e a e r i a l i s a t tached. To prevent t h e s p r e a d e r s from swaying, s i d e s t a y s a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e ends ( o f t h e s p r e a d e r ) and f a s t e n e d t o t h e mast. Twenty-four-inch hard rubber rod i n s u l a t o r s a r e i n s e r t e d i n t h e rope t o p r e v e n t leakage of t h e c u r r e n t i n wet weather. It w i l l be s e e n a l s o t h a t e a c h wire of t h e a e r i a l i s i n s u l a t e d by a 2- foot hard r u b b e r rod. which i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e s p r e a d e r by an e y e b o l t .
iNSJL$VJRS

Figure 21 The l e a d - i n w i r e s a r e a t t a c h e d t o one end of t h e f l a t t o p andfkstened t o t h e deck or c a b i n i n s u l a t o r . To remove t h e s t r a i n from t h i s i n s u l a t o r , two hard r u b b e r rod i n s u l a t o r s a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e a e r i a l and f a s t e n e d t o t h e deck by a wood screw a s shown i n t h e drawing. P o s i t i v e connection i s made between t h e l e a d - i n s and t h e f l a t t o p by means of a McIntyre connector shown i n F i g u r e 22, The g e n e r a l d e s i g n shown i n Figure 2 1 i s not always d u p l i c a t e d i n d e t a i l , b u t wherever p o s s i b l e i t i s adhered t o . he ~~~k I n s u l a t o r . The t r a n s m i t t i n g a e r i e 1 mst be w e l l i n s u l a t e d a t t h e :oint where i t e n t e r s t h e r a d i o o p e r a t i n g c a b i n by a n i n s u l a t o r t h a t w i l l withs t a n d a t l e a s t 30,000 v o l t s . One form of deck i n s u l a t o r i s shown i n Figure 23. A long hard r u b b e r t u b e T about 2 i n c h e s i n d i a m e t e r h a s a b r a s s rod extending through i t which t e r m i n a t e s a t e a c h end i n a wire connecting l u g , W e The t u b e 1s t h r e a d e d a t t h e c e n t e r t o take two wooden b l o c k s , A , B , one of which i s p l a c e d above t h e deck, t h e o t h e r underneath. A f t e r t h e s e blocks a r e drawn up t i g h t l y , t h e wood screws a r e i n s e r t e d . To i n s u r e a w a t e r t i g h t j o i n t , a p i e c e of canvas s t r i p i s p l a c e d underneath the b l o c k s and thoroughly covered w i t h white l e a d . A m e t a l hood, H, f a s t e n e d t o t h e exposed end of t h e tube p r o t e c t s it from dampness.

Lasson 57

- sheet

14

A l a t e type o f deck i n s u l a t o r i s shown i n Figure 24, wherein a l a r g e e l e c t r o s e i n s u l a t o r has a heavy b r a s s rod moulded s e c u r e l y i n t o i t which t e r m i n a t e s a t e i t h e r end i n a connecting lug. The outside of t h e i n s u l a t o r i s threaded, and a f t e r i t i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e hole i n t h e deck, i t i s drawn up t i g h t by t h e c o l l a r , E, which i s threadedonthe i n s i d e . Other types of deck i n s u l a t o r s a r e i n use, b u t those j u s t d e s c r i b e d a r e i n d i c a t i v e of modern practice.

u s t a l l a t i o n of t h e A e r i a l . If possible a s h i p ' s a e r i a l should be i n s t a l l e d i n such a way t h a t t h e lead - ins w i l l be f r e e and c l e a r of a l l mast, guys, o r d e r r i c k booms. The f u r t h e r removed they a r e from p a r a l l e l conductors of an$ kind, t h e l e s s w i l l be t h e danger of induced c w r e n t s .
T H E S E ENDS SHOULD BE AT LEAS? 10'' LONG F L A T TOP
WIRE

*7-18 WIRE.SOLDERED
NOT T W I S T E D .

Figure 22 Figure 2 3 Figure 24 I n measuring off t h e l e n g t h of the f l a t t o p wires, approximately t e n f e e t must be allowed a t each end f o r the b r i d l e , t h e i n s u l a t o r s , and t h e r e e f block; hence 20 f e e t must be s u b t r a c t e d from t h e d i s t a n c e between masts. This can g e n e r a l l y be obtained from t h e s h i p ' s plans or by a c t u a l measurement from mzst t o mast on the deck. Each wire i s a c c u r a t e l y measured between two p o i n t s msrked off on the deck and t he wire cut snd a t t a c h e d t o t h e i n s u l a t o r s . S i x or e i g h t inches must be allowed f o r serving t h e wire through t h e eye of the antenna i n s u l a t o r .
A l l connections a r e thoroughly made on t h e deck, a f t e r which t h e h a l y a r d s a r e

passed through the r e e f bloek and f a s t e n e d t o t h e s h a c k l e on t h e b r i d l e , The a e r i a l i s then p u l l e d i n t o space, it being f r e e d from a l l o b s t r u c t i o n s by t h r e e or more a s s i s t a n t s .

The connection from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g apparatus t o t h e e a r t h p l a t e shouild be d i r e c t a s p o s s i b l e and t h e conductor should be one of h i g h conductivity. I n marine i n s t a l l a t i o n s t h e e a r t h wire i s simply f a s t e n e d t o t h e metal bulkhead by a b o l t , t h e e a r t h connection being t h u s made through t h e h u l l . Usually t h i s connection i s not more t h a n two or t h r e e f e e t long, On wooden v e s s e l s connection i s made t o the p r o p e l l e r s h a f t i n t h e engine room o r t o the water d r i p a t t h e smoke f u n n e l s , I n s t a l l a t i o n s grounded or e a r t h e d i n t h i s manner g e n e r a l l y do not t r a n s m i t a s f a r a s t h o s e on v e s s e l s w i t h s t e e l h u l l s . Occasionally a wooden v e s s e l i s placed i n drydock and 200 o r 300 f e e t of copper or yellow metal n a i l e d on t h e bottom f o r an e a r t h capac i t y . A s t r i p of copper i s t h e n l e d from i t t o t h e r a d i o cabin.

Lesson 57

- sheet 1 5
3

_he ea?th p i a t e f o r t h e land s t a t i o n i s sometimes w r y e l a b o r a t e and may cons i s t of a g r e a t number of copper o r zinc p l a t e s b u r i e d i n moist e a r t h t o a depth of s e v e r a l f e e t . I n a d d i t i o n a number of w i r e s a r e spread r a d i a l l y from the s t a t i o n i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s , being l a i d p a r t i c u l a r l y d i r e c t l y underneath the f l a t top portion of t h e a e r i a l . If t h e s t a t i o n i s l o c a t e d on rock or d r y s o i l , the e a r t h wires a r e merely l a i d on t h e surface of t h e ground underneath t h e a e r i a l . 9 1 wires a r e t h e n joined t o a common t e r m i n a l and connected t o 1 t h e apparatus i n t h e s t a t i o n , The e a r t h p l a t e s and connections a t the Radio Corporation t r a n s - A t l a n t i c s t a t i o n s are very e l a b o r a t e and expensive. A number of z i n c p l a t e s are l a i d i n a c i r c l e of 100-foot r a d i u s , the t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n b e i w s i t u a t e d a t the center. About 250 copper cables connect from the t r a n s m i t t i n g apparatus t o each of t h e z i n c p l a t e s . A number of copper c a b l e s s t r e t c h out r a d i a l l y from t h e zinc p l a t e s , some of which l i e d i r e c t l y underneath the a e r i a l . I n a d d i t i o n , a number of w i r e s may be l a i d d i r e c t l y underneath t h e a e r i a l on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground, I f the ground i s p a r t i c u l a r l y damp or marshy, modified arrangements may be used. u p e P- 8 Panel Transmittex. As shown by the photographs, Figures 25, 26, 27 and 28, t h e P- 8 t r a n s m i t t e r c o n s i s t s of a t r a n s m i t t i n g panel on which a r e mounted the measuring instruments a v a r i a b l e inductance, a f i x e d inductance, and a movable inductance, a spark gap and various switches and r h e o s t a t s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e wavelengths and power emitted by t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r , The motor generator i s mounted on wood s k i d s and i s secured t o t h e f l o o r of the operatin$ room back of the c o n t r o l panel. The s t a r t i n g and stopping r e s i s t a n c e i s mounted i n a separate case which i s provided w i t h l e g s s o t h a t i t maybe f a s t e n e d t o t h e f l o o r of the o p e r r t i n g room behind and t o t h e l e f t of t h e motor genera t o r . The ttransformer i s imgersed i n o i l i n an i r o n case and i s placed behind t h e motor generator and t o tile r i g h t of the s t a r t i n g and stopping r e s i s t a n c e . Two spark gaps a r e provided with t h i s s e t , The quenched gap i s mounted on a p a n e l , which by means of hinges, can be swung open from e i t h e r s i d e . The r o t a r y spark gap i s mounted on t h e end of t h e motor g e n e r a t o r . A switch i s provided so t h a t e i t h e r gap can be used a t w i l l .

A automatic s t a r t e r i s provided which permits t h e n o t o r generator t o be s t a r t n ed and stopped from any convenient place, such a s the operating t a b l e . This automatic s t a r t e r i s s o constructed t h a t , when t h e g e n e r a t o r i s t o be stopped, a r e s i s t a n c e i s connected a c r o s s the motor t e r m i n a l s i n s u c h a manner t h a t t h e motor generator i s quickly brought t o r e s t . An over- load r e l a y i s provided which opens t h e motor c i r c u i t when t h e c u r r e n t through i t becomes excessive, This c i r c u i t remains open u n t i l the c o n t r o l s w i t c h i s opened. It i s then automatically closed so t h a t t h e motor can be immediately s t a r t e d a g a i n when the c o n t r o l switch i s c l o s e d , u n l e s s t h e r e i s a permanent s h o r t - c i r c u i t on t h e l i n e , i n which case t h e r e l a y w i l l open again. This automatic s t a r t e r mechanisrr t h e over-load r e l a y and t h e i r appliances a r e mounted on a panel together w i t h a D. C . l i n e switch, a g e n e r a t o r f i e l d switch and a n A . C. l i n e switch. Terminals a r e mounted f o r a 1 w i r e s running from t h i s panel t o other apparatus. 1 These terminals a r e marked s o a s t o designate t h e i r proper connections.

The motor generator c o n s i s t s of a 110 v o l t D. C . motor d i r e c t l y connected t o a 500 cycle A. C. g e n e r a t o r . The motor i s s o c o n s t r u c t e d t h a t i t rill operate Lesson 57

- sheet

1E

Lesson 57

- sheet 1 7

Figure 28

Lesson 57

sheet 18

A f i e l d r h e o s t a t i s mounted on t h e t r a n s m i t t e r p a n e l f o r r e g u l a t i n g t h e speed of t h i s motor w i t h i n narrow l i m i t s .

on v o l t a g e s varying from 95 t o 115 v o l t s w i t h very l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n of speed.

The g e n e r a t o r i s of t h e r o t a t i n g armature type and has a normal open c i r c u i t voltage of approximately 350 v o l t s and a working or load voltage of 140 v o l t s . T h i s voltage can be varied by means of a r h e o s t a t which i s mounted on the t r a n s m i t t i n g panel. This r h e o s t a t i s i n s e r i e s w i t h the generator f i e l d and permits varying t h e c u r r e n t through the f i e l d , which i s e x c i t e d Promthe d i r e c t current l i n e . Condensers a r e provided f o r t h e purpose of p r o t e c t i q the motor and g e n e r a t o r from excessive p o t e n t i a l s caused by t h e o p e r a t i o n of the t r a n s m i t t i n g apparatus These condensers e a c h have one of t h e i r terminals connected together and t o the f r a m o f t h e machine, t h e frame of t h e machine being connected t o the groun The o t h e r t e r m i n a l of e a c h condenser i s connected t o t h e t e r m i n a l of t h e motor generator i n such a manner t h a t each t e r m i n a l of the motor generator i s connected t o the ground through i t s r e s p e c t i v e condenser. The motor generator i s connected t o t h e c o n t r o l panel by means of l e a d covered wires i n two groups, v i z : t h e motor group and the g e n e r a t o r group. The l e a d coverings of t h e s e wires a r e connected t o g e t h e r and grounded t o t h e machine and t o t h e pans1 frame. The transformer i s of t h e c l o s e d core type and i s immersed i n non- liquid o i l . The primary i s connected t o the c o n t r o l panel by means of l e a d covered wires which have t h e i r coverings grounded t o t h e transformer case and t o t h e panel frame. The secondary of t h e transformer i s brought out through two i n s u l a t o r s , on which-the t e r m i n a l s a r e mounted. A p r o t e c t i v e spark g a p i s provided which permits a discharge when t h e p o t e n t i a l s become e x c e s s i v e . T h i s transformer i s so constructed t h a t it can be secured t o t h e f l o o r of t h e operating room back of t h e c o n t r o l panel. The secondary t e r m i n a l s of t h i s transformer a r e connected t o t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e h i g h p o t e n t i a l condenser of the t r a n s m i t t i n g circuit. The elements of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t s , w i t h t h e exception of the s p a r k g a p , a r e a l l mounted on i n s u l a t o r s back of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g panel and i n such a manner t h a t a l l changes or adjustments can b e made by means of handles on t h e f r o n t of t h e panel. The t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t s c o n s i s t e s s e n t i a l l y of a closed o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t and a n open o r r a d i a t i n g c i r c u i t , known a s the a e r i a l c i r c u i t . These two c i r c u i t s a r e i n d u c t i v e l y coupled. This coupling can b e vari e d by means of a handle (marked coupling) mounted on the f r o n t of t h e panel. The t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t s are s o constructed t h a t f i v e d i f f e r e n t wavelengths can be t r a n s m i t t e d , v i z : 600 meters, 706 meters, 750, 800 and 900 meters. The closed c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s o f a high p o t e n t i a l condenser so constructed t h a t e i t h e r h a l f o r a l l of i t s c a p a c i t y can be thrown i n c i r c u i t . The t o t a l capac i t y of t h i s cotdenser i s .012 mfd; mounted i n a frame s o t h a t i t can be e a s i l y removed and replaced. T h i s condenser i s mounted d i r e c t l y back of the quenched gap panel and i t i s necessary t o swing t h i s panel open when it i s d e s i r e d t o remove or r e p l a c e i t . The change of wavelength i s made by varying the amount of inductance i n t h e closed o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t and a l s o t h e amount of capacity. The switch handle marked " ~ a v e l e n g t h "perf orms the function of varying the wavelength of t h e c l o s e d c i r c u i t and a t t h e same time iniffcates the wave. length. sheet 19 Lesson 57

The open or a e r i a l c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of an inductance which i s f i x e d r e l a t i v e t o the panel. T h i s i s c a l l e d t h e secondary and i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h two o t h e r inductances, one of which i s v a r i a b l e by means of t h e handle parked " a e r i a l inductance" and t h e other ( c a l l e d loading i n d u c t a n c e ) i s v a r i a b l e i n any d e s i r e d amount by means of contact c l i p s . The o u t e r end of t h e secondary inductance i s connected t o the e a r t h through t h e antenna meter. Taps a r e taken off o f t h i s inductance a t t h e necessary p o i n t s , which, i n t u r n , a r e connected t o t h e wavelength switch. Another s e t of c o n t a c t s a r e provided which c o m c t w i t h p o i n t s on t h e loading c o i l of t h e a e r i a l inductance, The inner t e r n i ~ a lof t h i s inductance i s connected t o t h e movable arm of t h e v a r i a b l e inductance. The o u t e r t e r m i n a l of t h e v a r i a b l e inductance i s connected t o the a e r i a l c i r c u i t through t h e antenna switch. The o b j e c t of t h e s e connecteons and t h e wavelength switch i s t o provide means f o r varying the amount of i n ductance i n the a e r i a l c i r c u i t and a t t h e same time m a i n t a i n the necessriry coupling ~ e t v i e e n h e primary and secondary c i r c u i t without varying t h e A i s t t a m e between t h e two inductances, This permits changing t h e wavelength by throwing a s i n g l e switch. T h i s mattex- w i l l be t r e a t e d i n d e t a i l l a t e r on under the heading "tuning t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . "
A changeover s w i t c h i s provided i n t h e closed o s c i l l a t i n g o r primary c i r c u i t which permits e i t h e r t h e quenched gap o r the r o t a r v gap t o b e used. a t w i l l . When t h e swftch i s thrown i n p o s i t i o n f o r u s i n g t b rotary. gap i t i s necessary t o s h o r t - c i r c u i t t h e quenched gap. This i s done by means of the c l i p s which a r e connected t o t h e same p l a t e .

The r a d i a t i o n or antenna meter f u r n i s h e d w i t h t h e s e s e t s i s of t h e thermo type and c o n s i s t s of a wire heated by the antenna c u r r e n t which, i n t u r n , h e a t s a thermo- junotion; t h i s therno- junction o p e r a t e s a d i r e c t c u r r e n t meter or i n d i c a t i n g instrument. The h e a t i n g wire i s connected i n s e r i e s i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t and t h e i n d i c a t i n g ammeter i s connected t o t h i s thermno-junctfon, which i s contained i n t h e ammeter.
A wattmeter i s provided whieh i n d i c a t e s the power consumed i n t h e transformer

c i r c u i t . The c u r r e n t c o i l of t h i s instrument i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e transformer primary and t h e p o t e n t i a l c o i l a c r o s s it. To meet the Government requirements, provision i s made f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g on low power. This i s accomplished by throwing a f i x e d r e s i s t a n c e i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e f i e l d , which, i n t u r n , reduces the p o t e n t i a l of the generator. T h i s i s accomplished by opening t h e switch marked "low powern and a t t h e same time, connecting i n one gap only of the quenchedgap, This low power c o n d i t i o n cannot be obtained when u s i n g t h e r o t a r y gap. The foregoing i s a g n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n of the a p p a r a t u s and i t s o b j e c t i s t o give a g e n e r a l i d e a of i t s type and f u n c t i o n s . To b e t t e r und.erstand and operate t h i s apparatus, i t w i l l be necessary t o d e s c r i b e i n d e t a i l the d i f f e r e n t p a r t s a s w e l l a s t h e method of t u n i n g and manipulating them.
'' t h e antenna ammeter, "BY i s t h e wattmeter, "El1 i s t h e I n Figure 29, A"S antenna inductance handle and i n d i c a t o r . The p o i n t e r i n d i c a t e s the number of t u r n s i'nserted i n ths antenna v a r i a b l e inductance. A thumb n u t a t t h e cen"c" i s t e r of t h i s handle permits locking t h e same i n any d e s i r e d p o s i t i o n .

Lesson 57

- s h e e t 20

t h e motor r h e o s t a t . "D" i s t h e g e n e r a t o r r h e o s t a t . "F" i s the handle and i n d i c a t o r of t h e wavelength switch which v a r i e s t h e wavelength of t h e c l o s e d o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t , v a r i e s t h e wavelength of t h e antenna c i r c u i t and v a r i e s by f i x e d amounts t h e coupling between t h e two c i r c u i t s . "G" i s t h e handle and i n d i c a t o r f o r varying t h e coupling and i n d i c a t i n g t h e amount. A thumb "HIf nut i s a l s o 2rovided f o r l o c k i n g t h i s handle i n any d e s i r e d p o s i t i o n . a r e t h e quenched gap t e r m i n a l s and f l e x i b l e l e a d s . "J" i s t h e wenched gap. "SS" i s t h e screw f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e necessary p r e s s u r e on t h e g a s k e t s of t h e "11" are t h e hinges which permit t h e panel on which t h e gap i s mounted gap. t o swing out so t h a t t h e condenser may be removed. The p i n s of t h e h'nges a r e removable so t h a t t h e gap m a y b e swung from e i t h e r s i d e . "14" i s t h e automatic s t a r t e r movement, which a u t o m a t i c a l l y c u t s i n t h e s t a r t i n g and stopping resistance. "N" i s t h e over-load r e l a y which opens t h e motor c i r c u i t when opens t h e f e e d t h e c u r r e n t becomes e x c e s s i v e . The s w i t c h marked "D. C. ~ i n e " l i n e and disconnects t h e s e t e n t i r e l y from i t s source of power. A s t h e motor f i e l d s a r e permanently connected a c r o s s t h e l i n e when o p e r a t i n g t h e s e t , t h i s switch should be open when t h e s e t i s not i s o p e r a t i o n , otherwise t h e motor f i e l d w i l l be on continuously. The snritch marked " A . C. Gen." should be open It i s when any adjustments a r e xade while t h e motor g e n e r a t o r i s running. "FFs' w e l l a l s o t o open t h e m i t c h marked "Gen. F i e l d " when making adjustments, i s t h e m o t o r g e n e r a t o r which i s mounted on t h e wood s k i d s "MM". These s k i d s keep the motor g e n e r a t o r o f f t h e f l o o r and a l s o permit s l i d i n g i t over t h e "K" i s t h e r o t a r y spark gap. "0" i s t h e handle which permits floor easily. This i s necessary t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e case t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t e r m i n a l "L" t o a d j u s t t h e spark gap f o r proper phase r e l a t i o n , The proper adjustment of t h i s gap i s i n d i c a t e d by a smooth and uniform n o t e . Figure 30 i s a s i d e view of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r showing t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n t elements of t h e o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t s and a l s o t h e motor generato* t r a n s f o r m e r , and s t a r t i n g and stopping r e s i s t a n c e . "P" i s a s l i d i n g c o n t a c t which i s r o t a t e d by means of handle "E" t w o u g h t h e b e v e l g e a r s "s". T h i s c o n t a c t s l i d e s along t h e s p i r a l inductance "Q", c u t t i n g i n o r out any d e s i r e d amount of inductance. "R" i s another s p i r a l inductance ( c a l l e d loading i n d u c t a n c e ) t o which t h e a d j u s t a b l e c o n t a c t s a r e connected, "RR" i s a g e a r mechanism f o r r o t a t i n q t h e p o i n t e r or i n d i c a t o r a t "E". "V" i s t h e c o n t a c t "U" i s a p l a t e of i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l arm which i s moved by t h e handle "Fn which c a r r i e s a s e t of c o n t a c t s f o r v a r ~ i n gt h e wavelength of t h e antenna c i r "QQ" i s a g e a r mechanism f o r operc u i t and i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e handle "F "2" i s a screw whfch causes "Y" t o approach or r e a t i n g t h e i n d i c a t o r "G" cede from "Xu by t u r n i n g t h e handle "G" "Yt' i s t h e inductance i n t h e closed o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t ( c a l l e d primary) and i s i n t h e form of a s p i r a l . "AA" i s "XXt9 i s t h e changet h e condenser r a c k which i s mounted on i n s u l a t i n g rods. over s w i t c h f o r changing from quench gap t o r o t a r y gap. "CC" i s t h e a i r d u c t for carryi t h e a i r t o t h e quenched gap f o p t h e purpose of cooling .it. The i s s o c o n s t r u c t e d a s t o act a s a blower, which not o n l y cools r o t a r y gap% i t s e l f when it i s o p e r a t i n g a s t h e spark gap, but a)so f u r n i s h e s a i r f o r c o o l iw t h e quenched gap. "L" a r e t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e r o t a r y gap which a r e con"BR" i s a window which nected t o t h e lower t e r m i n a l s of t h e changeover switch. can be opened f o r i n s p e c t i o n and adjustment of t h e r o t a r y gap. Thi s i n s p e c t i o n window i s f o r t h e purpose of i n s p e c t i n g t h e s p a r k gap and making t h e n e c e s s a r y adjustments. The s t a t i o n a r y t e r m i n a l s a r e mounted i n p o r c e l a i n i n s u l a t o r s , "TT" i s a ground c o n t a c t which which i n s u l a t e e a c h t e r m i n a l f r o m t h e casing.

"

Lesson 57

- sheet

21

Figure 30 Figure 29

Lesson 57

- sheet

22

makea contact with t h e end of t h e motor generator s h a f t f o r t h e purpose of grounding it t o "K" so t h a t c u r r e n t w i l l not flow through t h e b e a r i n g s . "EE" i s t h e s t a r t i n g and stopping r e s i s t a n c e u n i t . "x" i s t h e secondary or "NNn p a r t of t h e inductance i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t and i s i n form of s p i r a l . i s t h e transformer. "DD" i s t h e p r o t e c t i v e gap of the transformer. "LLn i s a brace f o r supporting t h e i n s u l a t i n g rods c a r r y i n g the d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t . T h i s brace has a d j u s t a b l e f e e t and should be caref u l l y s e t so t h a t t h e r e i s not undue s t r a i n on t h e rods which they support. Figure 31 i s a f r o n t view of t h e s t a r t i n g panel showing t h e e s s e n t i a l p a r t s of the automatic s t a r t e r and over- load r e l a y . The r e s i s t a n c e cut- out movement of t h i s s t a r t e r i s operated by means of a s o l e n o i d , which i s energized by t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t of the l i n e and c o n t r o l l e d by means of a c o n t r o l switch.

Figure 31 When t h e c o n t r o l s w i t c h i s closed t h e solenoid i s energized and moves a cont a c t p l a t e i n a v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n so a s t o make c o n t a c t a t c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l s of time w i t h t h e c o n t a c t arms, The speed of t h e motion i s l i m i t e d by m a n s of a dash pot which can be a d j u s t e d ao a s t o p r o p e r l y time t h e c u t t i n g out of r e s f s t e n c e . Contacts "F"I "Gi' A H , and "I" a r e s o a d j u s t e d t h a t the c o n t a c t p l a t e "K" makes c o n t a c t w i t h them a t c e r t a i n predetermined times. " 0 " i s t h e "K" i s a contact which moves i n solenoid which i s enclosed i n a metal case. v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n when t h e solenoid "0" i s energized. It f i r s t engages t h e contact "F" which c l o s e s t h e c i r c u i t through t h e armature of t h e motor, and through t h e s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e . After an i n t e r v a l of time i t engages "G" and It next engages "H" and c u t s c u t s out a p o r t i o n of t h e s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e . out another p o r t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e and f i n a l l y it engages "I" and c u t s out a l l of t h e s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e . Immediately a f t e r c l o s i n g "I", it c l o s e s "J" which energizes t h e f i e l d of t h e generator. The f i e l d of t h e generator being open u n t i l t h e s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e i s e n t i r e l y c u t o u t , This prevents operating t h e t r a n s m i t t e r u n t i l t h e motor g e n e r a t o r i s up t o f u l l speed. The bar "I$" i s i n s u l a t e d from t h e bar "K" by i n s u l a t o r "Lw. T h i s bar "M" i s Lesson 57

- sheet

23

s o constructed t h a t when t h e - solenoid i s n o t energized i t connects t h e cont a c t s "N" and "N". These c o n t a c t s throw a r e s i s t a n c e across t h e motor armat u r e w h i c h b r i n g s t h e machine t o a s t o p i n a s h o r t p e r i o d of time. The r a t e a t which t h e contact p l a t e "X" moves and consequently c u t s out r e s i s t a n c e i s governed by t h e screw "P" T h i s screw a d j u s t s t h e admission of a ir i n t o t h e dash pot under the solenoid. The proper time for t h e complete s t a r t i n g of t h e motor i s approximately 1 2 seconds, t h e r e f o r e , the adjustment of "P" should be c a r e f u l l y made. There i s a l s o means f o r a d j u s t i n g t h e time of contact between These adjustments a r e c a r e f u l l y t h e c o n t a c t s "F" 9 "G", "H", "I", and "J" made i n the f a c t o r y and should not need f u r t h e r adjustments u n l e s s they have been changed a f t e r l e a v i n g t h e f a c t o r y . The c o n t a c t "X" and "z" which are s i t u a t e d between t h e p a n e l and t h e dash pot are f o r t h e purpose of c u t t i n g a r e s i s t s n c e i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e solenoid "Of' a f t e r t h e p l a t e "K" has moved i n t o f i n a l p o s i t i o n . These should open one- eighth of an i n c h when "K" i s i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n . It r e q u i r e s considerable energy o r c u r r e n t flow t o move t h e p l a t e "K" a g a i n s t t h e upper contacts, but when "K" i s i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n , it only r e q u i r e s a small amount of c u r r e n t t o hold i t ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e i s connected i n a t t h e proper time t o prevent t h e solenoid from becoming overheated by t h e e x c e s s i v e c u r r e n t which would otherwise flow. Care should be t a k e n t o see t h a t t h i s contact opens a t t h e proper time and a l s o t h a t t h e res i s t a n c e a e r o s s t h e c o n t a c t i s i n working condition. If t h i s r e s i s t a n c e should become broken t h e p l a t e "K" would tend t o v i b r a t e l i k e an e l e c t r i c b e l l , a s t h e c i r c u i t would t h e n be opened a s soon a s t h e contact "9" opened. The over- load r e l a y c o n s i s t s of an electro-~xltlgnethaving an armature whieh has i t s d i s t a n c e from t h e poles of t h e magnet a d j u s t a b l e so t h a t f o r each adjustment a c e r t a i n s t r e n g t h of c u r r e n t i s necessary t o l i f t i t . This armat u r e operates a c o n t a c t which, when i n the down p o s i t i o n , c l o s e s t h e c i r c u i t it through t h e solenoid "0" and when i n the upper p o s i t i o n , o r ~ f t e r has b e e n l i f t e d by the magnet, i t engages t h e upper c o n t a c t which c l o s e s a c i r c u i t through the holding winding, t h u s holding t h e lower c o n t a c t open. When t h i s lower contact f s opened, t h e c i r c u i t through %be s t a r t e r solenoid i s opened, anfi thLs causes t h e p l a t e "K" t o drop and open t h e c i r c u i t through t h e motor armature. A s soon a s t h e c o n t r o l switch i s opened t h e armature of t h e r e l a y drops and c l o s e s t h e c i r c u i t through t h e s t a r t e r s o l e n o i d , but a s t h i s c i r c u i t E s s t i l l open a t t h e c o n t r o l s w i t c h , it i s necessary t o c l o s e t h e e o n t r o l switch again t o s t a r t t h e motor generator. The c o i l "E" i s composed of two windings. One i s c a l l e d a s e r i e s c o i l and i s i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e motor armature s o t h a t a l l t h e motor curpent passes through it. When t h i s c u r r e n t becomes e x c e s s i v e the armature "QR i s r a i s e d and t h e contact between "T" and '8S"i s broken, T h i s i n t u r n opens t h e c i r c u i t between "K" and "F". When the armat u r e "Q" i s r a i s e d , a c o n t a c t i s made between "T" and "R" which c l o s e s a d r c u i t through t h e shunt winding on t h e magnet which holds up the armature "Q" u n t i l t h e c o n t r o l s w i t c h i s opened. A p l a t e "x" has a s c a l e i n d i c a t i n g t h e point t o which t h e armature must be s e t f o r d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s of c u r r e n t . The screw "u" r e g u l a t e s t h i s p o s i t i o n . The normal working p o s i t i o n of t h i s r e l a y i s f o r 40 amperes. When a s h o r t c i r c u i t o r over- load occurs and t h i s r e l a y i s operated, a l l t f i a t f s necessary t o r e - s t a r t t h e machine f s t o open and c l o s e the c o n t r o l s w i t c h unless t h e r e i s a permanent s h o r t - c i r c u i t on t h e l i n e , i n which case t h e r e l a y w i l l a g a i n open t h e c i r c u i t , The s h o r t - c i r c u i t must then be removed. Lesson 57

- sheet 24

The shunt c o i l should be connected t o "A" and "B'' and t h e s e r i e s c o i l t o "Gn and "D" If t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e shunt c o i l should become r e v e r s e d f o r any r e a s o n , t h e r e l a y w i l l not work properly. This c o n d i t i o n w i l l be i n d i c a t e d by t h e f a i l u r e of t h e shunt c o i l t o hold t h e armature up. When a s h o r t - c i r c u i t occurs t h e armature w i l l v i b r a t e slgwly. I f t h i s occurs, t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e shunt c o i l should be r e v e r s e d a t "A and "B". Figure 32 shows a s i d e view, a t o p view, and encl view of t h e t r a ~ s f o r m e r . Diagram 1, Figure 3 2 , i s a t o p view of t h e trans for me^. The t o p i s held i n p l a c e by a number of screws. A f e l t gasket i s p l a c e d between t k t o p of t h e

Figure 32 "h" and "i"a r e t r a n s f o r m e r and the c a s i n g f o r the purpose of packing same. handles py which the t o p may be l i f t e d off when t h e holding screws a r e removed. The core w i t h windings and a11 connections a r e sequreit t o t h e t o p so t h a t when i t i s removed they a r e removed w i t h it. A s t h e can i s e n t i r e l y f i l l e d w i t h a non- liquid g r e a s e , i t w i l l be necessary t o warm t h e t r a n s f o r m e r before removing t h e top. The grease i s non- liquid a t o r d i n a r y temperature, but when warned 11 a 11 and "bts art. the secondary t e r m i n a l s t o which t h e up i t becorres l i q u i d . "el' i s a p r o j e c t i o n of t h e l i d which s a f e t y gaps "0" and 'Id" a r e a t t a c h e d . permits t h e d i s c h a r g e t o t a k e p l a c e t o t h e c a s i n g s when p o t e n t i a l s become exc e s s i v e . The casing of t h i s t r a n s f o r m e r must be grounded. The secondary t e r m i n a l s " a n and "b" p a s s through t h e bushings i n t h e cover which i n s u l a t e "f" and "g n a r e t h e primary t e r m i n a l s which a r e i n s u l a t e d them from t h e case. from t h e cover "xum". "k" and "kt' a r e f e e t which have h o l e s , "p", through them f o r securing t h e t r a n s f o r m e r t o the f l o o r of t h e o p e r a t i n g room. s h e e t 25 Lesson 57

Diagram 2, Figure 32, i s an end view of t h e t r a n s f o r m e r . The d o t t e d l i n e s r e p r e s e n t t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e core and t h e windings i n s i d e t h e case. The d o t t e d r e c t a n g l e s marked L , L, L, e t c . a r e t h e secondary c o i l s . The d o t t e d r e c t a n g l e s marked " j " i s t h e core of t h e t r a n s f o r m e r . I n diagram 3, Figure 32, t h e d o t t e d l i n e shows t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e core and c o i l s i n s i d e t h e t r a n s f o r m e r . The d o t t e d c i r c l e marked L i s t h e o u t l i n e of t h e secondary c o i l , while t h e r e c t a n g l e " j " i s t h e o u t l i n e of t h e core. T h i s core and winding are secured t o t h e cover of the t r a n s f o r m e r . Figure 33 shows a f r o n t view of t h e quenched gap p a s t l y i n s e c t i o n , This gap c o n s i s t s of a number of copper d i s c s or p l a t e s having p a r a l l e l sparking s u r f aces ,and s e p a r a t e d from e ach o t h e r by means of paper r i n g s specially t r e a t e d w i t h a n i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l . These p l a t e s a r e s e t i n a trough i n

F i g u r e 33 such a manner t h a t t h e y can be clamped t o g e t h e r so as t o make t h e enclosed I n t h e drawing "b" i s a screw which p a s s e s space between t h e d i s c s a i r - t i g h t through the end bracket "c" and engages t h e p l a t e "g". The nut "a" locks t h e "k" i s t h e o t h e r end b r a c k e t , t h e two end b r a c k e t s being screw i n p o s i t i o n . The r o d s "1" a r e covered h e l d t o g e t h e r by means of t h e r o d s "1" and n u t s "d" These i n s u l a t i n g k b e s a r e so placed t h a t t h e y form by i n s u l a t i n g tubes "e" a trough o r support f o r t h e s p a r k i n g p l a t e s and g a s k e t s . "f" i s a d i s c of i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l which i n s u l a t e s the end p l a t e s from t h e b r a c k e t s "k" and 11 ?P Between t h e p l a t e s " 0 " and "o", e t c . , a r e p l a c e d t h e g a s k e t s "n", "n" 9 etc. " j " i s t h e sparking f a c e of t h e p l a t e "o",

"p" and "q" a r e c o n t a c t c l i p s f o r connecting t h e gap i n t h e o s c i l l a t i n g circuit. I n s e t t i n g up t h i s gap, c a r e should be t a k e n t h a t t h e s p a r k s u r f a c e s a r e abs o l u t e l y c l e a n and smooth. The paper d i s c s or r i n g s should a l s o 'ce c l e a n . The gap should be s e t up a s shown i n t h e drawing. There a r e 15 p l a t e s , g i v i n g 14 spark gaps. T h e two end p l a t e s have only one s p a r k i n g s u r f a c e . %hen t h e gap i s p r o p e r l y placed i n t h e h o l d e r , t h e screw "a" should be s e t up h a r d w i t h a 1 0 i n c h wrench. The gap i s mounted on t h e panel by screws through t h e tlrnll e t c . , i n t h e end b r a c k e t s . h o l e s %I"

If the gap i s not a i r - t i g h t , t h e note produced w i l l b e i r r e g u l a r . T h i s i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e gap i s l e a k i n g and i t should be t h e r e f o r e t a k e n a p a r t , t h e s p a r k surfaces cleaned, and reassembled u s i n g new g a s k e t s . The gap should not be used t o any e x t e n t a f t e r i t once s t a r t s t o leak. T h i s gap i s cooled Lesson 57

s h e e t 26

by means of an a i r - b l a s t brought i n from t h e back of t h e p a n e l through a duct which connects w i t h t h e r o t a r y spark gap and blower. The number of gaps may be a d j u s t e d by changing t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e c l i p s " p n and "qn. I n case one of t h e gaps should become d e f e c t i v e , i t can be s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d by means of a metal c o n t a c t o r , which i s f u r n i s h e d f o r t h a t purpose. The d e f e c t i v e gap can be d e t e c t e d by means of a s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g c o n t a c t on an i n s u l a t i n g handle ( c a l l e d t e s t r o d ) . The gaps can be s u c c e s s i v e l y s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d u n t i l t h e gap which i s d e f e c t i v e i s s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d , a f t e r which t h e tone w i l l become u n i form. A permanent s h o r t - c i r c u i t can t h e n be made on t h i s p a r t i c u l a r gap. Sparking s u r f a c e s of t h e gap c a n be cleaned a n d smoothed up by means of a v e r y f i n e sand paper. Care should be t a k e n t o keep the s u r f a c e s p e r f e c t l y f l a t , so t h a t the opposing s u r f a c e s a r e p a r a l l e l . When the gap i s i n proper working If c o n d i t i o n the spark s u r f a c e s show a uniform c o l o r i n g over t h e whole area. t h e s u r f a c e s of t h e gap a r e b l a c k or dark colored, i t i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t ' t h e gap i s not p r o p e r l y seasoned. If t h e p l a t e s a r e rough, i t i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e gap i s not a i r - t i g h t . It r c q u i r e s a continuous running of from 1 t o 2 hours t o properly season t h e p l s t e s f o r t h i s gap. The note w i l l not be c l e a r u n t i l t h e gap i s seasoned. Figure 34 shows t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e r o t a r y s p a r k gap and blower. T h i s gap i s contained i n a c a s t i r o n base which i s mounted on t h e g e n e r a t o r end of t h e motor g e n e r a t o r by means of f o u r l u g s c a s t on t h e b e a r i n g bracket of t h e machine. The back p l a t e of t h e c a s t i n g i s screwed t o t h e s e l u g s by means of f o u r screws. The c a s i n g i s removable from t h i s p l a t e and may a l s o be r o t a t e d on t h e p l a t e , i t being h e l d by means of a r i n g . Diagram 1, Figure 34, i s a f r o n t view of t h e c o r n w e gap and blower. The d o t t e d l i n e s show t h e r o t a t i n g d i s c , o r r o t o r and b l a d e s ; and thearrow t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n . "d" and are a d j u s t i n g n u t s which permit t h e s t a t i o n a r y e l e c t r o d e s t o be moved i n a r a d i c a l d i r e c t i o n . Diagram 2 , Figure 34, i s a s e c t i o n of t h e gap showing t h e method of mounting t h e r o t o r on t h e s h a f t and a l s o t h e method of mounting t h e c a s i n g on t h e generator. "e" i s the adjusting nut f o r adjusting the s t a t i o n a r y electrodes. "c" i s a thumb nut f o r clamping t h e i n s p e c t i o n window i n place. "b" i s a r e d g l a s s p l a t e which permits viewing t h e spark d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . "i"and "i" r e p r e s e n t t h e space between the b l a d e s c a r r i e d on t h e r o t o r and t h e casing. This space should be one- sixteenth of an inch. Care must be e x e r c i s e d when s e t t i n g t h i s r o t o r t o see t h a t t h e end p l a y of t h e s h a f t does not exceed one- thirty- second "v" of an inch. Means f o r a d j u s t i n g t h i s end p l a y w i l l be d e s c r i b e d l a t e r . and "v" a r e t h e s t u d s on t h e b e a r i n g b r a c k e t of t h e motor g e n e r a t o r and support t h e p l a t e "w" , nk" i s t h e c a s i n g which i s r o t a t a b l e around t h e p l a t e "w" and The clamps a r e secured t o the casing secured t o same by means of clamps "g 'I. "k" by means of screws. When t h e screws a r e removed, t h e c a s i n g can be r e moved. " f " shows t h e s p a r k t e r m i n a l s c a r r i e d on t h e r o t o r by means of s t u d s which pabs i n a r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n 8 t;;hrough t h e r i m of t h e r o t o r and a r e held "h n and h a r e the blades of the r o t o r whichtake t h e s e c u r e l y by lock n u t s . a i r from t h e c e n t e r of t h e c a s i n g through a number of h o l e s and f o r c e i t t o t h e upper space ,of the casing, where i t passes through a p o r t and duct t o t h e "a" i s a nut c a r r y i n g a c o n t a c t which engages t h e c e n t e r of quenched gap. This i s f o r t h e purpose of grounding t h e s h a f t d i r e c t l y t o t h e s h a f t "s" t h e case and under no circumstances must t h e s e t be operated without t h i s contact i n p r o p e r . p o s i t i o n . A l i t t l e o i l should be a p p l i e d t o t h e p o i n t of t h i s c o n t a c t about once each week.

Lesson 57

s h e e t 27

Diagram 3, Figure 34, i s a back view of t h e r o t a r y gap showing t h e upper por'Idf' and "e" a r e the a d j u s t i n g n u t s which engage i n a thread t i o n i n section. i n t h e s t u d s "1". T h i s permits t h e a d 'ustnent of the stud i n a r a d i a l d i r e c t i o r T h i s s t u d i s c a r r i e d i n t h e bushing "p rf A spring i s inserted i n t h e center "r" i s a nut which clsmps the bushing i n t h e f l e x i b l e l e a d and of t h e r o t o r . makes t h e t h e necessary contact. " f " i s the spark p o i n t on t h e r o t o r and "3"

Figure 34 i s t h e locking nut. "Jn i s s t u d housing. " z " i s a r i n g which h o l d s t h e c a s i n g t o the back p l a t e . "h" and "hfl a r e t h e bosses which engage t h e s t u d s which hold the casing t o t h e motor g e n e r a t o r frame. Diagram 4, Figure 34, shows t h e d e t a i l s and method of keying t h e r o t o r t o t h e 'Is" i s the s h a f t of t h e motor generator. "n" i s the keyway i n the shaft. s h a f t "s". n W n i s a wedge shaped key having a threaded h o l e through i t s o a s t o engage t h e screw "7". "x" i s another wedge shaped key which i s counter bored so a s t o engage the head of t h e screw "y". !Then t h e r o t o r i s put i n proper p o s i t i o n , t h e screw "y" i s t u r n e d up u n t i l thewedges s e c u r e l y clamps the r o t o r t o t h e s h a f t " s n . Diagram 5, Figure 34, shows a f r o n t view of t h e r o t o r " t " , s h a f t "s" and key rrX" To remove t h e r o t o r from the s h a f t , a l l t h a t i s necessary i s t o t u r n ths screw out u n t i l i t s head i s exposed, when a s l i g h t t a p of t h e hammer handle or A s soon a s t h i s wedge "w" any hard piece of wood w i l l loosen t h e wedge "w" i s loosened, a s l i g h t t a p on t h e hub of t h e r o t o r w i l l loosen t h e wedge "x" s o t h a t t h e r o t o r may be e a s i l y removed. Lesson 57

- sheet

28

Diagram 6, F i r e 34, shows i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e ground contact a t the end of t h e s h a f t sf'. " A l n 1 8 a b r a s s c o l l a r threaded on t h e outside so a s t o engage a thread i n t h e c a s i n g "k n . This c o l l a r passes i n t o t h e nut by means of t h e same t h r e a d r The s t e e l point "b" i s r e t a i n e d i n t h i s c o l l a r and held i n place by means of a spring. The point of "b" should make good contact i n the e x a c t center of the s h a f t "s". Diagram 7, Figure 34, i s a s e c t i o n of t h e s t a t i o n a r y s p a r k gap t e r m i n a l and t h e r o t a t i n g terminals. "dn i s t h e a d j u s t i n g nut which has eight h o l e s bored i n the under s u r f a c e andequally spaced around the c e n t e r . C - 1 r e p r e s e n t s one of t h e s e holes which engages i n t h e p i n D - 1 so t h a t t h i s nut cannot be r o t a t e d u n t i l i t i s l i f t e d out of t h e engagement w i t h t h e pin.

Figure 35 Diagram 8, Figure 34, shows t h e under f a c e of t h i s n u t and t h e p o s i t i o n of the h o l e s s Each turn of t h e nut r e p r e s e n t s a r a d i a l movement of .037 of an inch, and a s t h e r e a r e e i g h t h o l e s e q u a l l y spaced i n t h e f a c e of t h e nut, the movement of one hole r e p r e s e n t s a r a d i a l movement of approximately -005 of an inch. I n a d j u s t i n g t h e d i s t a n c e between spark p o i n t s 1 and f , i t i s necessary t o use g r e a t care and t h i s adjustment should never be made while t h e machine i s running, The t i p s of t h e r o t a t i n g p o i n t s are a l l t r u e d t o t h e c e n t e r of t h e r o t o r t h s r e f o r e i f t h e s p a r k t e r m i n a l 1 i s a d j u s t e d so a s t o j u s t touch the r o t o r , t h e n t h e number of h o l e s which t h e nut makes i n the t u r n i n g w i l l be a measure of t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e spark p o i n t s X and f . The proper working d i s t a n c e f o r t h i s gap i s between .005 i n c h and .010 inch. The gap should not be s e t l e s s t h a n .005 i n c h o r over.010 inch. After t h e gap has been s e t t o the prop e r working d i s t a n c e t h e s e t should t h e n be s t a r t e d a n d the gap adjusted by means of t h e handle "o". This adjustment i s an a n g u l a r one and brings t h e and spark p p i n t s "In "f" t o maximum. I f t h e gap does not have t h e proper angul a r p o s i t i o n , t h e e l e c t r o d e s w i l l not be i n proper phase r e l a t i o n w i t h the generator voltage. sheet 29 Lesson 57

Figure 35 i s a top and s i d e view of t h e type "C" key. II a II and "b" are t h e "u" i s a l e v e r terminals of t h e key t o which t h e connections can be made. which i s pivoted i n t h e supports "d" and "d" "C" i s a screw which allows adjustment of the l e v e r "u" i n a downward p o s i t i o n . "g" i s a screw which perm i t s adjustment of the s p r i r ~ ~ on the l e v e r "u" "Slf "h" i s a nut f o r locking t h e screw i n p o s i t i o n . "i" s a screw which passes through t h e l e v e r "u" and i c a r r i e s t h e s i l v e r c o n t a c t "q" which engages a f i x e d contact "it'mounted on t h e base of t h e key. The screw "i"should be a d j u s t e d so t h a t t h e c o n t a c t f a c e s of "q" and "r" a r e e x e c t l g p a r a l l e l when i n c o n t a c t , It should t h e n be secured b y means of nut " j " i n t h i s p o s i t i o n . The screw "C" should then

Figure 36 Figure 36A be adjusted t o allow t h e necessary movement f o r opening t h e contact. The pressure of the s p r i n g "s" should then be a d j u s t e d by t h e screw "g" . u n t i l the d e s i r e d amount i s obtained. "k" i s a knob by which t h e key i s manipulated. "1" i s the base of t h e key which i s s e c u r e d t o t h e operating t a b l e . The l e g s w o n and "p" pass through t h e t o p of the operating t a b l e through t h e bushings I I ~ I I and "n". The A e r i a l Chame-over Switch. A plan view and s i d e e l e v a t i o n of t h i s switcn i s shown i n Figures 36 and 36A. Several s t e e l d i s c s , "A", which make conn e c t i o n w i t h t h e s p r i n g c o n t a c t s "B" on e i t h e r s i d e of t h e r o d , a r e mounted on a hard rubber rod "C". #!hen t h e handle "H" i s thrown downward a long s t e e i b a r I'D" c l o s e s the c i r c u i t t o the primary winding ,of -the power transformer through t h e c o n t a c t s "8" and "9". When t h i s b a r "D" i s thrown in t h e opposite p o s i t i o n i t s e p a r a t e s t h e s p r i n g c o n t a c t s "E" and "E" disconnecting t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g o s c i l l a t i o n t r a n s f o r m e r f r o m t h e a e r i a l during t h e period of reception.

Lesson 57

- sheet

30

Complete c i r c u i t diagram of the P-8 Spark Transmitter

The connections shown a r e described a s follows:

(1) Connects t o t h e a e r i a l . ( 2 ) Connects t o .the a e r i a l o s c i l l a t i o n transformer tuning inductance. ( 3 ) . Connects t o t h e r e c e i v e r antenna post. (4- 5) Connects t o remote c o n t r o l b u t t o n when used. (6- 7) Connects t o generator f i e l d . (8-9) Connects t o t h e a.c. generator l i n e .

Lesson 57
.

- sheet

31
//

EXAMINATION
1 .

LESSON 57

Describe the o s c i l l a t o r y discharge of condenser i n a t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t . What i s meant by t h e t e r n , " ~ o g a r i t h m i c Decrement?" Where i s the ground connection u s u a l l y made on ship- board? What purpose does t h e quenched gap serve? What i s a f e e b l y damped wave? W y a r e p r o t e c t i v e condensers used on a motor g e n e r a t o r ? h What i s an " a e r i a l inductance?" Name the most important p a r t s of a spark t r a n s m i t t e r . What i s t h e purpose of the a e r i a l change-over switch? What type antenna i s b e s t s u i t e d f o r ship- board use when a spark transmission i s employed?

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.
8. 9.
I 1

10.

Lesson 57 - s h e e t 32

'

Technical Lesson 58
ARC TRANSMITTERS

Federal Arc T r a n s m i t t e r s . The standard a r c t r a n s m i t t e r s manufactured by t h e Federal Telegraph Company a r e based upon t h e method of obtaining r a d i o frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s by means of an e l e c t r i c a r c . The a r c i s enclosed i n a chamber w i t h a n atmosphere containing hydrogen and the e l e c t r o d e s are placed between t h e poles of a powerful electromagnet, which produces a strong t r a n s v e r s e magnetic f i e l d t e n d i n g t o blow the a r c out. Carbon or n r a o h i t e i s used f o r t h e negative e l e c t r o d e . while t h e p o s i t i v e i s made of copper, and water cooled.

- -

The a r c t r a n s m i t t e r shown i n Figures 1 and 1 A c o n s i s t of t h e following main u n i t s:

(1) A Source of D i r e c t Current of S u i t a b l e Voltage, ( 2 ) An Arc Converter.
( 3 ) An Antenna Loadim Inductor. ( 4 j An Antenna and round System. ( 5 ) A S i g n a l Device. ( 6 ) A u x i l i a r y and Control Apparatus,

The e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s of such a t r a n s m i t t e r . and t h e main c i r c u i t s a r e outl i n e d i n Figure 2. The a r c c o n v e r t s the power s u p p l i e d by t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t generator i n t o r a d i o frequency energy w i t h undamped c u r r e n t i n the antenna c i r c u i t . The antenna c i r c u i t i n c l u d e s t h e antenna, t h e loading inductor, t h e e l e c t r o d e s of t h e a r c , and t h e ground system. The choke c o i l prevents t h e f l m of r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t from t h e a r c back i n t o the power machinery and serve t o s u s t a i n and s t e a d y t h e a r c i t s e l f . The frequency of t h e undamped c u r r e n t i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t depends upon t h e inductance and capacitance of this c i r c u i t . The frequency and t h e r e f o r e t h e wavelength may be a l t e r e d by ohangi n g t h e value of e i t h e r t h e inductance or t h e capacitance, or both. Since t h e capacitance i s f u r n i s h e d by the antenna and i s , t h e r e f o r e f i x e d , t h e i n ductance of t h e c i r c u i t i s varied i n making changes of wavelength. This i s accomplished by changing t h e connections t o t h e antenna loading inductor. I n e l e c t r i c power p r a c t i c e r o t a r y c o n v e r t e r s a r e used t o convert a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of 60 c y c l e s , or o t h e r c o m e r c i a l frequencies, i n t o d i r e c t current. I n t h e f i e l d of r a d i o communication a r c c o n v e r t e r s a r e used t o convert d i r e c t c u r r e n t i n t o a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of very high frequency,- - for example, 60,000 cycles. The r o t a r y c o n v e r t e r , however, involves heavy r o t a t i n g p a r t s , comut a t o r s , e t c . , while the a r c converter i s a s t a t i o n a r y machine. A l l p a r t s of an a r c converter a r e s t a t i o n a r y except the carbon e l e c t r o d e , which i s r o t a t e d very slowly i n o r d e r t h a t it may burn evenly, and whicW i s made s o t h a t it may be screwed i n and out i n order t o s t r i k e and a d j u s t t h e arc. I n operation, t h e l e n g t h of t h e a r c flame i s a d j u s t e d t o secure maxbnm antenna c u r r e n t and Contents Copyrighted 1930 P r i n t e d i n U.S.A.

t h i s i s t h e only adjustment, or a t t e n t i o n required. After the a r c has been s t a r t e d and adjusted only occasional s l i g h t adjustments a r e needed. The c a r bon does not burn away a s i n an ordinary a r c , but, on t h e o t h e r hand, u s u a l l y very slowly b u i l d s up, depending on t h e chemical composition of t h e gas i n t h e chamber. This v e r y convenient f e a t u r e makes i t p o s s i b l e t o operate an e r c con v e r t e r f o r hours a t a time w i t h only a few s l i g h t adjustments of t h e carbon. The hydrogen gas i n t h e a r c chamber i s obtained by t h e decomposition of alcoho: which i s f e d i n , drop by drop, and vaporized by t h e i n t e n s e heat of t h e arc. Kerosene may a l s o be used. It gives very good o p e r a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y on s h o r t waves, but has t h e disadvantage of causing a n e x c e s s i v e l y l a r g e amount of s o o t i n t h e chamber. I l l u m i n a t i n g gas may be used when a v a i l a b l e .

Signaling. While t h e a r c i s i n operation t h e r e w i l l be a continuous flow of undamped current i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t u n l e s s a means i s provided whereby t h e r a d i a t e d energy may be broken up i n t o d o t s and dashes. S i g n a l s may be t r a n s m i t t e d by any of t h e t h r e e following methods: (1) Back Shunt S i g n a l i n g System. ( 2 ) Coupled Compensation Signaling System. ( 3 ) By means of a Chopper used t o g e t h e r w i t h e i t h e r of the above methods, The t r a n s m % t t e r s f o r which t h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e w r i t t e n a r e equipped with the back shunt method a s t h e p r i n c i p l e means o f s i g n a l i n g . PI coupled compensation system i s supplied a s an a u x i l i a r y . The s e t s a r e a l s o equipped with a chopper f o r use on s h o r t waves when t r a n s m t t i n g t o a r e c e i v e r which i s u s i n g a c r y s t a l detector.

Figure 1 A

Lesson 58

sheet 3

'pack ~ h u n t " Method of S i ~ - l i n g . The e s s e n t i a l u n i t s of t h i s method of s i g naling are: (1) The Back Shunt C i r c u i t . ( 2 ) The Back Shunt Relay Key. ( 3 ) The Morse Hand Key. The c i r c u i t s employed f o r s e t s equipped w i t h t h e bzck shunt method of s i g n a l i n g a r e outlined i n Figure 3. 1:lhen t h e movable c o n t a c t of the back shunt r e l a y key presses against t h e s t a t i o n a r y contact which i s connected t o the bottom of t h e antenna l o a d i n g inductor, the r a d i o frequency current flows i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t . When t h e movable contact p r e s s e s a g a i n s t the o t h e r s t a t i o n a r y c o n t a c t , t h e r a d i o frequency current flows i n t h e back shunt c i r c u i t and t h e r e i s no c u r r e n t i n the antenna because i t i s t h e n disconnected from t he arc. The r e l a y key i s adjusted s o t h e movable c o n t a c t makes connectior w i t h one s t a t i o n a r y contact before it breaks w i t h t h e o t h e r . Thispermits t h e a r c t o remain i n constent o p e r a t i o n while being t r a n s f e r r e d from the antenna c i r c u i t t o t h e back shunt c i r c u i t .
ANTENNA LOADING INDUCTOR
\\

ANTENNA LOADING INDUCTOR------_ COMBINED CHOKE COIL AND ARC --, MAGNET WINDING ' ,

STATIONARY CONTACT-.,
q

=-El---'
ARC CONVERTER

RELLY KEY SOLENOID., MORSE HkND KEY--,,

4

"

w J
MOVEhBLE ,CONTACT RESISTOR RbJIO FREQUENCY INDUCTOR

TO 0. C. SUPPLY
4

'D. C. GENERATOR

? EARTH

R u c :k ,

COMBINED CHOKE COIL AND ARC---\ MAGNET WINDING

COPPER CONVERTER CONDENSER

7 D . C . GENERATOR

Figure 3 The back shunt c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of a r e s i s t o r , i n d u c t o r , and condenser connected i n s e r i e s . The r e s i s t a n c e of t h e back shunt c i r c u i t i s made variable i n order t h a t t h e r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t may be t h e same whether t h e a r c i s o p e r a t i n g on t h e antenna c i r c u i t o r t h e back shunt c i r c u i t . I n p r a c t i c e , t h e back shunt r e l a y key i s operated by an electromagnet, which i s i n t u r n c o n t r o l l e d by a small Morse hand key. When t h e hand key i s pressed down, t h e electromagnet i s energized and the movable c o n t a c t connects t h e a r c w i t h t h e antenna c i r c u i t . When the hand key i s r e l e a s e d , a spring causes t h e movable contact t o connect t h e a r c wit'n t h e back shunt c i r c u i t . Current t h e r e f o r e flows i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t only when the hand key i s depreesed.

-d l e of S i g a a l h g . The c i r c u i t s used when s i g n a l i n g by t h e coupled compensation method a r e o u t l i n e d i n Figure 4. The coupled compens a t i o n loop i s a s i n g l e , t u r n of cable placed around t h e lower end of t h e antenna
Lesson 58

- sheet

loading inductor. By means of the a u x i l i a r y hand key, t h e loop may be s h o r t c i r c u i t e d a t t h e w i l l Of t h e operator. With t h e a r c i n operation and the e a u x i l i a r y hand key open, r a d i o frequency energy w i l l D r a d i a t e d a t a c e r t a i n wavelength. I f t h e key be depressed, t h e energy w i l l be r a d i a t e d a t a s h o r t e r wavelength than before. T h i s change i n wavelength i s due t o transformer a c t i o ~ and t h e mutual induct?nce between t h e main c o i l and t h e s h o r t c i r c u i t e d loop. Radio frequency energy i s t h u s r a d i a t e d a t two d i s t i n c t wavelengths. The r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n must tune t o hear only the h o r t e r wave since t h i s i s the one used t o transmit s i g n a l s by depressing the hand key.
h W N N A LORDING INDUCTOR.,
\
A

ANTENNA

COMBINED CHOKE

COMBINED CHOKE COIL AND ARC MAGNET WINDING.'.,

--

COUPLED COMPENSATION LOOP ---,

CHOPPER COMMUTATOR WHEEL,

'-D.C.GENERRTOR

EARTH

+EARTH c

SHORTING SWITCH

Figure 4

Figure 5

Signaling With Chopper. T h e frequency of thewave r a d i a t e d by an a r c r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r i s g r e a t e r t h a n can be heard by t h e human e a r . I n transmitting t o a s t a t i o n whick~i s r e c e i v i n g w i t h a c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r , it i s t h e r e f o r e necessary t o break up t h e r a d i a t e d energy i n t o wave t r a i n s of an audible f r e quency. This i s accomplished by t h e chopper which c o n s i s t s of a commutator wheel e r i v e n by a s m a l l motor. Referring t o Figure 5, t h e chopper commutator wheel, when r o t a t e d , opens and s h o r t - c i r c u i t s the coupled compensation loop a t a speed w h i c h g i v e s a musical note i n t h e r e c e i v e r . The r a d i o frequency energy i s t h u s emitted s. t two wavelengths a s when u s i n g t h e a u x i l i a r y hand key, b u t i n t h i s case t h e wavelength r a p i d l y a l t e r n a t e s between t h e maximum and minimum value. A continuous music a l note i s thus produced which may be heard by r e c e i v e r s u s i n g c r y s t a l detectors. S i g n a l s may be t r a n s m i t t e d e i t h e r by means of t h e a u x i l i a r y hand key connected i n s e r i e s i n t h e c i s c u i t between t h e loop and the chopper, o r by means of t h e back shunt method of s i g n a l i n g . When t h e a u x i l i a r y hand key i s used, t h e r a d i a t e d wave i s broken i n t o wave t r a i n s of audible frequency only when the key i s closed and the r e c e i v e r t h e r e f o r e h e a r s nothing when t h e key i s open. When t h e chopper i s used w i t h the "back shunt"method of s i g n a l i n g , the a u x i l i a r y key i s s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d by a small switch. The chopper i s e f f e c t i v e whenever c u r r e n t i s flowing i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t and s i g n a l i n g i s accomplished by allowing c u r r e n t i n the antenna i n accordance w i t h d o t s and da3hes a s described i n the paragraphs on t h e back shunt methods of s i g n a l i n g . Lesson 58

- sheet

pece~tion Si~nals of From Arc Radio Transmitters. The s i g n a l s emitted by an a r c t r a n s m i t t e r may be e i t h e r i n the form of undamped r a d i o frequency energy o r undamped energy broken i n t o wave t r a i n s of audible frequency. Receiving s e t s must be equipped t o receive e i t h e r type of s i g n a l s . A l l s i g n a l s produced by the a r c without t h e u s e of t h e chopper a r e of undamped r a d i o frequency energy, while those t r a n s m i t t e d by using the chopper a r e of undamped r a d i o frequency broken i n t o wave t r a i n s . Transmitted s i g n a l s of undamped r a d i o frequency energy occur a t such high frequencies t h a t t h e y a r e not audible i n t h e telephone r e c e i v e r s of a r e c e i v i n g s e t using a c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r , t h e r e f o r e t h e "Heterodyne Method" i s used t o r e c e i v e s i g n a l s of undamped r a d i o frequency energy. The heterodyne method makes p o s s i b l e t h e r e c e p t i o n of s i g n a l s of undamped r a d i o frequency energy by t h e use of the p r i n c i p l e of b e a t s . A l o c a l undamped c u r r e n t whose frequency i s e i t h e r s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r o r l e s s t h a n t h a t of t h e i n coming wave i s produced i n t h e r e c e i v i n g s e t . This l o c a l c u r r e n t combineswith the incoming energy t o produce a r e s u l t a n t c u r r e n t which has a much lower frequency than e i t h e r t h e incoming wave or the l o c a l c u r r e n t . It i s this current, known a s t h e "beat" c u r r e n t , which i s audible i n t h e telephone r e c e i v e r s . Models "K" and "0." 2 Kw. Arc Transmxtters. There a r e two models of 2 KW. a r c t r a n s m i t t e r s t o which t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e , namely Model "KU and Model "Q". The Model "K" a r c r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r i s f o r use on Naval v e s s e l s and ~ o d e l "Q" i s f o r Merchant s h i p s . A l l t h e apparatus f o r the two s e t s i s t h e same and t h e s e t s a r e i d e n t i c a l i n every way except f o r the range of wavelengths employed.
-

I n the case of t h e Model "K" s e t f o r n a v a l v e s s e l s , metal marking t a g s are supplied w i t h t h e loading c o i l which a r e stamped f o r t h e standard wavelengths between 600 and 2400 meters. I n t h e case of t h e Model "Q" s e t f o r merchant s h i p s , t h e metal marking t a g s f o r t h e loading c o i l a r e stamped with the following: 600, 750, 800, 1600, 1800 and 2300. ~h7iththe Model "K" s e t s t h e chopper i s used on waves below 952 meters. O n 952 meters and above, t h e s e t i s operated as a n undamped wave t r a n s m i t t e r . I n the case of t h e Model "Q" s e t s f o r merchant s h i p s , t h e chopper i s used on a l l waves up t o and including 800 meters. For t h e waves of 1000 meters and over, i t i s operated a s an undamped wave t r a n s m i t t e r . I n g e n e r a l , t h e 2Kw. a r c r a d i o s e t may ?7e operated s s a n undamped wave t r a n s m i t t e r on wavelengths of 950 meters and above. Below 950 meters the chopper i s used. ~otor f o r 2 Kw. Arc .T r The a r c of a 2 Kw. t r a n s m i t t e r a r e q u i r e s d i r e c t c u r r e n t power s u ~ p l i e d t 250-400 v o l t s . This i s furnished by a two-bearing Crocker-Wheeler motor generator s e t which c o n s l s t s of a 100120 v. D. C . motor, d i r e c t l y connected t o a shunt wamd, s e p a r a t e l y e x c i t e d 2 Kw., 400 v. D. C . generator. The generator w i l l d e l i v e r 2 Kw. a t 250 t o 400 v. and i s wound f o r sep.arate e x c i t a t i o n f r o m t h e 120 v. D. C. supply. Lesson 58

- sheet 6

A l l terminals f o r both t h e motor andgenerator are l o c a t e d on an enclosed t e r minal board on t o p of t h e frame. P r o t e c t i v e devices f o r t h e motor and generatox a r e mounted i n s i d e t h e molded i n s u l a t i n g cover which p r o t e c t s t h e terminal board. A digram of connections i s stamped on t h e t e r m i n a l box and t h i s should be c a r e f u l l y observed i n i n s t a l l a t i o n .

Two p r o t e c t i v e devices f o r the motor and generator a r e -. i mounted i n t h e t e r m i n a l box on t o p of t h e u n i t and are connected i n t h e c i r c u i t a t a l l times. These a r e small condensers which absorb any s t r a g r a d i o f r e quency c u r r e n t s which may leak back i n t o the povier machinery c i r c u i t s . )totor S t a r t e r . The motor generator i s s t a r t e d by m a n s of a hand-operated n o t o r s t a r t i n g panel. T h i s i s equigped w i t h an overload c i r c u i t breaker which
HOLDING MAGNET

CIRCUIT BREAKER TRIP

I

SH&T IRON CASE CONTAINING RESISTANCE UNITS & BLOW OUT

Figure 6 Figure 7 opens the motor supply c i r c u i t i n c a s e t h e c u r r e n t becomes excessive. The terminals on t h e s t a r t i r g panel a r e marked t o i n s u r e proper connectinns. The s t e r t e r i s shown i n F i g u r e s 6 and 7. The motor s t a r t e r should always be mounted v e r t i c a l l y t o permit t h e c i r c u i t breaker t o operate properly. To operate t h e motor s t a r t e r , f i r s t close t h e c i r c u i t breaker, t h e n move t h e switch arm slowly t o t h e r i g h t , allowing t h e motor t o a t t a i n maximum speed on each point. When t h e switch arm i s i n running p o s i t i o n i t i s magnetically locked. It w i l l be r e l e a s e d i n case of f a i l u r e of t h e power supply o r i n case t h e c i r c u i t breaker i s opened, e i t h e r by overload o r by hand. The notor may be stopped by t r i p p i n g t h e c i r c u i t breaker or by opening the s e t supply switch on the c o n t r o l panel.The s t a r t e r erm w i l l be r e l e a s e d automatically i n e i t h e r case. It should never be r e l e a s e d by hand a s t h i s would damage the contacts. ;??hen s t a r t i n g t h e motor, t h e switch arm should never b e r e t u r n e d z o t he s t a r t ing p o s i t i o n u n l e s s t h e power supply c i r c u i t i s opened. F a i l u r e t o observe t h i s point w i l l r e s u l t i n damaged. c o n t a c t s on t h e s t a r t e r .

Lesson 58

sheet 7

Generator F i e l d Rkoostat The power output of t h e a r c converter i s r e g u l a t e d of t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t g e n e r a t o r by means of t h e generby a d j u s t i n g the voltage a t o r f i e l d r h e o s t a t , which i s of t h e s i n g l e p l a t e t y p e , shown i n Figure 8. The r h e o s t a t should be i n s t a l l e d where i t can be e a s i l y reached by t h e operator d i n a place where t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t a i r c i r c u l a t i o n t o prevent i t s overheating Arc c o n t r o l Panel, The a r c c o n t r o l panel, shown i n Figure 9 i s t h e switchboard t w o u g h which connections a r e made between the arc converter and t h e It a l s o c a r r i e s a switch through which the e n t i r e d i r e c t c u r r e n t generator. transmitt;er i s supplied w i t h 110-120 V. D. C. O t h e panel a r e mounted: n (1) The Set Supply Switch and Fuses. ( 2 ) The Arc Main Line ,Switch, w i t h overload t r i p c o i l . (3) The Arc S t a r t i n g R e s i s t o r and Shorting Switch. ( 4 ) The D. C. Ammeter f o r the a r c c i r c u i t . ( 5 ) TheD. C . Voltmeter f o r the a r c c i r c u i t . The a r c main l i n e s w i t c h i s a s p e c i a l quick break switch which connects t h e a r c converte r t o the D. C . g e n e r a t o r . It i s provided with a t r i p c o i l which opens t h e switch i n case of overload. The s w i t c h i s non-closea b l e on overload or s h o r t - c i r c u i t . The a r c s t a r t i n g r e s i s t o r i s connected i n s e r i e s between t h e a r c converter and t h e D. G. generator and serves t o p r o t e c t t h e generator from sudden overloads when the a r c i s s t r u c k . It may be s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d by t h e s t a r t i n g r e s i s t o r switch a f t e r t h e a r c has been s t a r t e d . The d i r e c t c u r r e n t ammeter and voltmeter i n d i c a t e t h e power input t o t h e a r c .
CONTACT A M R

The a r c c o n t r o l panel i s designed f o r wall mounting. The metal frame-work should be s e c u r e l y grounded through the t e r m i n a l and lug supplied f o r t h i s purpose. The negative t e r m i n a l o f t h e D. C . voltmeter i s supplied through t h i s ground connection. When t h e handle of t h e a r c main l i n e switch i s pushed down u n t i l it l o c k s , the a r c i s connected t o t h e g e n e r a t o r through t h e ammeter and a r c s t a r t i n g r e s i s t o r . To open t h e switch, t h e o p e r a t i n g handle should be r a i s e d u n t i l t h e switch t r i p s . The a r c s t a r t i n g r e s i s t o r switch i s operated i n t h e It should be closed only same manner. a f t e r the a r c has been s t a r t e d and i s i n operation. These two switches a r e i n t e r locked so t h a t both a r e opened whenever t h e a r c main l i n e switch i s opened. The a r c Lesson 58

Figure 8

- sheet

s t a r t i p * r e s i s t o r i s thus automatically placed i n s e r i e s between the a r c conv e r t e r and the generator whenever the main switch i s opened t o shut down the arc. he switches may be operated s e p a r a t e l y by opening t h e a r c s t a r t i n g switch f l r s t and t h e n t h e main l i n e switch. Care should be observed when s h u t t i n g down t h e t r a r - s m i t t e r t o open the various switches i n t h e following order: f i r s t , t h e a r c main l i n e switch and s t a r t i n g r e s i s t o r switch; and second, t h e s e t supply switch. The a r c s t a r t i n g r e s i s t o r c o n s i s t s of two number D-10 Ward-Lenoard r e s i s t a n c e t u b e s c o m c t e d i n s e r i e s , g i v i n g a t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e of 20 ohms.
0 - 1 5 A . D.C. STANDARD NWY ROUND PATTERN AMMETER; 0 - 5 0 0 V. STANDARD N A V Y ROUND PkTTERN VOLTMETER

, '

ARC MAIN LINE QUICK BREAK SWITCH WITH OVERLOAD TRIP COIL. STARTING RESISTOR QUICK BREkK SWITCH AN0 & R C STARTING RESISTOR MOUNTED ON BACK OF PRNEL.-'-.

ARC MAIN L I N E S W I T C H PROVIDED WlTH OVERLOW RELEhSE NON-CLOSABLE ON OVERLOAD.

1 \
\ ,

RRC S T h R T I N G RESISTOR SWITCH

Figure 9 Arc Converter. a c - The s e r i e Thei e lrd 2 Kw. s f c o n v e r t e r , shown i n Figure 1 has a nominal r a t i n g of c o i l s are designed t o s a f e l y c a r r y 8 amperes, d i r e c t c u r r e n t f o r 5 hours.The maximum d i r e c t c u r r e n t r a t i n g i s 10 amperes f o r 2 hours.

The a r c converter i s designed f o r operation on 250 t o 400 v o l t s D. C . The a voltage necessary t o o b t ~ i n given antenna c u r r e n t on any wavelength depends upon t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e antenna c i r c u i t a t t h a t wavelength. The magnetic c i r c u i t i s o f t h e closed type. Pole t i p s p r o j e c t i n t o the top and bottom of t h e a r c chamber. The s t e e l o u t e r s h e l l of t h e a r c converter forms a r e t u r n p a t h f o r t h e magnetic f l u x .

Lesson 58

- sheet

Serie_s F i e l d Coils Used i n Arc Chamber. The f i e l d winding i s divided i n t o f o u r c o i l s . Three of t h e s e a r e placed below t h e chamber and one i s placed above i t . ~ lf o u r c o i l s a r e connected i n s e r i e s a n d serve 0 0 t h a s a magnetizing winding l and a s choke c o i l s t o prevent t h e flow of r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t back i n t o t h e D . C . generator.
I n case i t becomes necessary t o r e p l a c e any f i e l d c o i l w i t h a spare, it i s highly important t h a t t h e c o i l be i n s e r t e d so t h a t c u r r e n t flows through a 1 1 c o i l s i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n . The magnetic f i e l d must blow t h e a r c flame toward t h e exhaust opening at t h e back of the chamber. The r e v e r s a l of pol a r i t y of one c o i l would be s u f f i c i e n t t o s e r i o u s l y impair the operation of the a r c . When r e p l a c i n g any of the s e r i e s f i e l d c o i l s , c a r e should t h e r e f o r e be taken t o r e p l a c e them according t o i n s t r u c t i o n s .

Arc Chamber. The a r c chamber i s a gas and water t i g h t compartment w i t h i n which t h e a r c burns. The chamber i s enclosed a t t h e t o p and bottom by water cooled bronze p l a t e s . It i s d i v i d e d h o r i z o n t a l l y i n t o two p a r t s by a hinged j o i n t , which permits t h e s e c t i o n containing t h e upper f i e l d c o i l t o be l i f t e d back. T h i s leaves t h e lower p a r t of t h e chamber which c o n t a i n s t h e a r c e l e c t r o d e s e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e f o r cleaning and i n s p e c t ion. The locking p i n which i s used f o r holding the upper s e c t i o n of t h e chamber open, should a l s o always be i n place when t h e chamber i s closed t o prevent any appreciable movement of t h e upper s e c t i o n should a n explosion occur. The gasket between the two chamber s u r f a c e s must be kept f r e e from d i r t . F a i l u r e t o do t h i s w i l l r e s u l t i n a i r l e a k s , causing a nolsy, unsteady arc, and a f a l l i n g off of antenna c u r r e n t .
~ lwater connections must be t i g h t s i n c e w a t e r i n t h e a r c chamber causes a l decrease i n antenna c u r r e n t and r a p i d wearing away of t h e carbon electrode.

The a r c chamber should never be opened u n t i l a t l e a s t one minute a f t e r the a r c has been extinguished, otherwise t h e r e d hot carbon w i l l i g n i t e t n e exp l o s i v e mixture which r c s u l t s when a i r combines w i t h t h e chamber gases. Anode Tio. The anode i s the p o s i t i v e e l e c t r o d e of t h e a r c . It c o n s i s t s of a water cooled copper t i p supported by a s u i t a b l e h o l d e r which i s i n s u l a t e d from t h e a r c chamber by means of a b a k e l i t e d i s c . The copper t i p i s brazed t o a short piece of b r a s s tubing and t h i s u n i t , which i s known a s the anode t i p , i s renewable when i t becomes worn a f t e r a long period of operation.
i s bound t o t h e anode h o l d e r by a small s t e e l nut which i s e a s i l y removed. The anode holder i s f a s t e n e d t o a b a k e l i t e disc by means of a lock nut and t h e d i s c i s i n t u r n held i n place i n the chamber by means of a threaded locking r i n g . Special wrenches f o r the operation of t h e s e nuts and r i n g s a r e included among the t o o l s supplied w i t h t h e arcconverter.

AnodeHolder.t i p The anode

Care of Anode. I n o p e r a t i o n c a r e should be taken t o s e e t h a t t h e r e i s a l ways a supply of water c i r c u l a t i n g through t h e anode and t h a t t h e r e are no water leaks around t h e anode a s any water i n s i d e t h e chamber causes t h e a r c t o become unsteady. The b a k e l i t e d i s c and rubber gasket should be kept c l e a n , otherwise t h e d e p o s i t i n g of soot w i l l u l t i m a t e l y form a conducting path from Lesson 58

- sheet 10

t h e anode t o the chenber and a flash- over may occur which w i l l r e s u l t i n burni n g the b a k e l i t e d i s c . Care should be taken t o see t h a t the anode t i p i s always p r o p e r l y a l i g n e d midway between t h e magnet poles. The anode must always be connected through t h e a r c s e r i e s f i e l d winding t o t h e p o s i t i v e terminal of the D. C . generator. If connected t o t h e negative t e r m i n a l i t w i l l melt very q u i c k l y when t h e a r c i s s t a r t e d .

The negatlve e l e c t r o d e of t h e a r c i s c a l l e d t h e cathode. It c o n s l s t s of a carbon h e l d i n a removable holder which i s , i n t u r n , held within a mechanism which i s slowly r o t a t e d by means of worm g e a r s . The carbon i s clamped i n t h e holder by means of a s p l i t t a p e r c o l l e t and locking nut. The holder i s provided w i t h a molded b a k e l i t e knob by means of which the p o r t i o n of t h e holder which g r a s p s t h e carbon may be screwed i n and out f o r a d j u s t ment of t h e a r c length. When t h e carbon and holder a r e placed i n the a r c converter, t h e carbon i s slowly r o t a t e d by means of t h e worm g e a r mechanism. The worm g e a r s a r e operated by means of a s h a f t w i t h u n i v e r s a l j o i n t s which connects them w i t h another s e t of worm g e a r s upon t h e water c i r c u l a t i n g pump. This pump i s arranged s o t h a t it may be mounted on t h e f l o o r J i r e c t l y underneath t h e a r c converter t h e r e b y p e r m i t t i n g t h e two s e t s of g e a r s t o be connected by t h e s h a f t and u n i v e r s a l j o i n t s and making i t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e motor which d r i v e s the pump t o s e r v e a l s o a s a means of . o t a t i n g t h e a r c carbon. r
-Gearsr

. -

Alcohol Supplg. The hydrogen gas which i s necessary f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e a r c converter i s supplied by t h e decomposition of alcohol. An a l c o h o l cup i s mounted on top of t h e a r c converter. T h i s i s provided with a needle valve and a s i g h t feed g l a s s by means of which t h e flow may be a d j u s t e d and observed. The alcohol d r i p s i n t o t h e chamber through a hole i n t h e upper magnet pole. When it comes i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e a r c flame i t i s decomposed and a percentage of hydrogen i s r e l e a s e a . E i t h e r g r a i n or denatured a l c o h o l may be used. When t h e a r c i s f i r s t s t r r t e d a f t e r a long period of r e s t , it i s necessary t o allow the a l c o h o l t o d r i p r a t h e r r a p i d l y i n t o t h e chamber; but a f t e r the a r c has been running f o r afew minutes the r a t e of flow may be reduced. t o only a few drops p e r minute--only enough t o maintain f u l l antenna c u r r e n t and a smooth running arc.
A pressure e q u a l i z e r pipe w i t h i n the a l c o h o l cup provides a passzge through which gas from t h e chamber i s permitted t o r e a c h t h e upper s u r f a c e of t h e a l c o h o l w i t h i n the s u p p l y cup. This pipe i n s u r e s an equal p r e s s u r e above and below the a l c o h o l and permits t h e use of a g r a v i t y f e e d .

The supply of a l c o h o l should always be t u r n e d off whenever t h e a r c i s shut down f o r more than a minute or two, otherwise a l c o h o l w i l l be wrsted snd the chamber w i l l be flooded. yVater Elow I n d i c a t o r . An i n d i c a t o r i s s u p p l i e s i n order t h a t t h e operator may always be s u r e t h a t water i s flowing through t h e various a r c cooling c i r c u i t s . This c o n s i s t s of a small metal case with a g l a s s f r o n t and back within Lesson 58

- sheet 11

which a colored marble i s placed. When water flows through the i n d i c a t o r , c i r c u l a t i o n i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e motion and r a t t l i n g of the marble. Proper water c i r c u l a t i o n through a l l t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s of the a r c c o n v e r t e r i s very important and t h e o p e r ~ t o rshould, t h e r e f o r e , observe t h e flow i n d i c a t o r whenever the a r c i s s t a r t e d a f t e r a long p e r i o d of r e s t , and occas i o n a l l y during operation.

--

A s alcohol i s supplied continuously t o t h e a r c converter during operation t h e r e w i l l always be a c e r t a i n amount of gas generated withi n the chamber. A hose nipple i s provided by means of which t h e excess gas may be conducted through a s h o r t piece of hose t o t h e u n i t c a l l e d the p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r . The pressure r e g u l a t o r c o n s i s t s of a n aluminum r e c e p t a c l e d i v i d e d i n t o two compartments by means of a rubber diaphragm. This diaphragm s e r v e s t o maintain t h e gases w i t h i n t h e chamber a t approximately atmospheric p r e s s u r e a t a l l times. The p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r i s provided w i t h a n o u t l e t through a hose nipple w i t h a s m a l l opening. This opening p e r m i t s t h e e x c e s s gases t o slowly leak out from t h e r e g u l a t o r through a second rubber hose. This should p r e f e r a b l y be run t o some point out of doors, i n o r d e r t h a t t h e gases w i l l not accumulate i n t h e o p e r a t i n g room.
<

C l a r r b U S Z & ~ X e The main p o i n t s t o be observed i n c a r i n g f o r a n a r c converter a r e : (1) The chamber should be kept reasonably clean. 2 ) N water leaks, however s l i g h t , should be permitted i n s i d e o the chamber. The anode t i p c o n m c t i o n and gasket should be t e s t e d whenever a new t i p i s i n s t a l l e d . ( 3 ) The chamber should be kept a i r t i g h t . The s u r f a c e s of t h e upper and lower chamber s e c t i o n s should always be c l e a n and t h e gasket i n good condition. ( 4 ) The b a k e l i t e anode i n s u l a t i n g d i s c and i t s gasket should be kept clean. ( 5 ) The moving p a r t s of the cathode should be cleaned and o i l e d occasionally.

A c e n t r i f u g a l water pump, shown i n Figure 1 i s provided f o r c i r c u l a t i n g water through the v a r i o u s water cooled p a r t s of t h e a r c converter. he pump i s d r i v e n by a 4-H. P. 110 v o l t D. G. motor which i s mounted upon an extension of t h e pump base and forms a n S n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e pump u n i t .

A s e t of worm g e a r s i s mounted upon the base between t h e pump and the motor and connected w i t h t h e s e u n i t s , by small u n i v e r s a l j o i n t s . These worm g e a r s a r e connected by a s h a f t t o t h e carbon r o t a t i n g mechanism on t h e a r c c o n v e r t e r This c o n s t r u c t i o n makes i t p o s s i b l e t o use one motor f o r d r i v i n g both t h e water pump and t h e carbon rotatingmchanism.
The pump should be mounted upon t h e f l o o r underneath t h e a r c converter. The proper nethod of making water connections i s shown on Figure 10. A pet cock upon t h e pump casing provides a means of allowing t h e a i r t o escape from the pump and piping and t h e r e b y priming the p u p when s t a r t i n g f o r the f i r s t time. gater A 1 5 g a l l o n tank, shown i n Figure 1, i s provided a s a c o n t a i n e r f o r t h e a r c cooling water. It i s necessary t o use f r e s h water f o r the a r c Lesson 58

sheet 12

converter i n order t h a t We anode may be i n s u l a t e d from e a r t h . I f s a l t water were used, i t s presence i n t h e rubber hoses through which cooling water i s supplied t o the anode would f u r n i s h a r e l a t i v e l y good conductor from t h e anode t o t h e chamber and t h e e l e c t r o d e s would t h e r e f o r e be s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d . The tank i s designed so t h a t it may be mounted e i t h e r v e r t i c a l l y o r horizont a l l y . It should be i n s t a l l e d on the bulkhead sonewhat above the l e v e l of t h e a r c converter, i n order t h a t water nay always r e a c h t h e various p a r t s of t h e a r c , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e amount of water i n t h e t a n k . The tank i s provided w i t h 3 t e s t cocks which mey b e used f o r approximately determining the water l e v e l . The water should be renewed o c c a s i o n a l l y i n order t o prevent t h e accumulation of sediment and f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l .

noTP-

werce C#C"C 4r,m 6 ,WWA,<O B I I Y r "DTT* rW0 R I i i l l N G 0- 7"E , ,. n n 6 w!,n,N ,HE .a a , FLOW r * o x a v

m
pm

Pam5 POnP DPCC

PET

m accpf

mrx m

n ALLOW ~

AllC CLINVSerf#

m a CT >I68

F,ue iar

10

.-et n @ The antenna l o a d i n g i n d u c t o r , shown i n 1, It i s i s a c o i l of r a d i o frequency cable wound upon a b a k e l i t e frame-work. connected i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t between t h e a r c converter and the s e r i e s C O I denser from which a connection i s made t o t h e antenna. The c o i l i s provided w i t h t a p s brought out from v a r i o u s points i n t h e winding f o r t h e adjustment of wavelength. When a l a r g e amount of t h e c o i l i s connected i n the antenna c i r c u i t , a r e l a t i v e l y long wavelength w i l l be secured. With a small amount t h e c o i l i n t h e c i r c u i t , t h e wave w i l l be r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t .
A bare copper h e l i x i s b u i l t i n t o t h e lower end of t h e antenna l o e d i m i n d u c t o r i n o r d e r t o provide a means of making v e r y c l o s e adjustments of wavelength. T h i s copper h e l i x i s used i n connection w i t h t h e bottom l a y e r of t h main c o i l . This bottom l a y e r has 4 t a p s t a k e n out a t approximately e q u a l

Lesson 58

- sheet 13

i n t e r v a l s and by m a k i q t h e proper connections between these t a p s and t h e bare h e l i x , it i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n an exact adjustment f o r any g i v e n wavelength. cable i s placed around t h e lower end of t h e antenna loading inductor. This loop provides a means of coupling t h e a u x i l i a r y key c i r c u i t and t h e chopper t o t h e antenna c i r c u i t a s d e s c r i b e d under t h e paragraphs r e l a t i n g t o t h e s e u n i t s . When i n o p e r a t i o n the voltage on the upper end of t h e antenna loading i n d u c t o r i s r e l a t i v e l y higlz'--a>proximately 20,000 v o l t s above e a r t h p o t e n t i a l . I n i n s t a l l i n g t h e c o i l c a r e should t h e r e f o r e be taken t o l o c a t e it a t a p o i n t where the personnel of t h e o p e r a t i n g room w i l l not come i n c o n t a c t w i t h it. Care should a l s o be t a k e n t o p l a c e t h e c o i l as f a r as. p o s s i b l e from other obj e c t s and e s p e c i a l l y from iron. If t h e c o i l i s i n s t a l l e d l e s s t h a n about 12 inches from a s t e e l bulkhead, a l a r g e l o s s of energy w i l l occur because of t h e a c t i o n of t h e h i g h frequency magnetic f i e l d of t h e c o i l upon the i r o n . The s p e c i a l r a d i o f requency c a b l e w i t h which the c o i l i s wound makes i t an i n d u c t o r of very low r a d i o frequency r e s i s t a n c e and care should be t a k e n t o see t h a t t h i s advantage i s not o f f s e t by improper i n s t a l l a t i o n , Two b a k e l i t e s t r i p s an& a small b r a c k e t a r e f u r n i s h e d t o support t h e outer end of t h e c o i l from t h e c e i l i n g i n c a s e t h e base of t h e c o i l i s mounted on t h e bulkhead. Metal t a g s are provided f o r marking t h e p o s i t i o n s of Wawdan&hs. of t h e connections f o r a l l t h e various wavelengths upon which the s e t i s t o be operated. Two f l e x i b l e conductors are supplied f o r making connections t o t h e v a r i o u s t e r m i n a l s of t h e loading inductor. I n order t o make t h e necessary connections t o o b t a i n any g i v e n wavelength t h e following g e n e r a l procedure should be followed: ( 1 ) Connect t h e clamp which i s s u p p l i e d f o r making connection t o t h e bare copper h e l i x t o thelowest t u r n of t h i s h e l i x . Connect the other end of t h e cable t o which t h e clamp i s attached t o the bottom-most t a p on t h e main t e r m i n a l board of t h e loading inductor.. T h i s e l i m i n a t e s both the bare h e l i x and t h e bottom l a y e r of the c o i l from t h e antenna c i r c u i t .
( 2 ) By means of t h e longer of t h e two f l e x i b l e cables, connect t h e antenna s e r i e s condenser w i t h one of t h e upper t e r m i n a l s of t h e antenna loadi n g inductor. If t h e d e s i r e d wave i s r e l a t i v e l y long, t h i s connection should be made t o one of t h e t e r m i n a l s near t h e t o p of t h e c o i l . If a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t wave i s d e s i r e d , t h e connection should be made s o t h a t only a small p o r t i o n of t h e c o i l i s included i n the antenna c i r c u i t .
( 3 ) The a r c may now be s t a r t e d and t h e wavelength observed by means of a waveneter.
A coupled compensation loop c o n s i s t i n g of a s i n g l e t u r n of r a d i o frequency

(4) I n case t h e observed wavelength i s t o o s h o r t , more l a y e r s of t h e c o i l should be included i n the antenna c i r c u i t . If the wave i s too long, a p o r t i o n of t h e c o i l should be cut out by s h i f t i n g t h e connection t o a lower terminal.
(5) When two t e r m i n a l s have been found, one of which gives a wave s l i g h t l y longer t h a n d e s i r e d and the o t h e r s l i g h t l y s h o r t e r , connections may be made t o o b t a i n t h e exact wavelength by using t h e t e r m i n a l which g i v e s t h e s h o r t e r wave and then i n c l u d i n g a p o r t i o n of the b a r e copper h e l i x i n t h e c i r c u i t . This i s done by s h i f t i n g t h e c l a p t o one of t h e upper t u r n s of the
Lesson 58

- sheet 14

h e l i x . I n case t h i s does not s u f f i c i e n t l y increase t h e wavelength, a p o r t i o n of the bottom l a y e r of t h e main loading inductor may be i n c h d e d i n the c i r c u i t by s h i f t i n g t h e connection t o one of the f o u r taps which are brought out from t h i s layer.
( 6 ) After t h e proper p o s i t i o n s f o r t h e various connections have been determined by t r i a l , a s d e s c r i b e d above, t h e s e p o s i t i o n s should be permanently marked by using t h e stamped metal t a g s provided f o r t h i s purpose. Three d i f f e r e n t kinds of t a g s a r e provided; one f o r t h e main terminal board of %he loading c o i l , one f o r t h e bare h e l i x , and another kind f o r the f o u r t a p s i n t h e bottom l a y e r of t h e c o i l . The l a t t e r have c e l l u l o i d surfaces upon which t h e wavelength should be w r i t t e n w i t h I n d i a iTlk a f t e r t h e s e t has been tuned f o r t h e complete s e r i e s of wavelengths. This method of c o n s t r u c t i o n i s necessary f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t it w i l l probably be found t h a t s e v e r a l connections w i l l be made t o one t e r m i n a l Of t h e bottom l a y e r . The t a g s f o r the bare h e l i x should be placed b e s i d e the clamp and t h e clamp i t s e l f should remain upon t h e h e l i x . I n a l l cases t h e t a g s a r e merely a means of marking t h e terminals.

The r e l a y key, shown i n Figure 2 , provides a means of connecting the a r c e i t h e r t o t h e antenna c i r c u i t or t o t h e l o c a l "back-shunt" c i r c u i t a t the w i l l of t h e operator. It c o n s i s t s of a movable contact which i s cont r o l l e d by an electromagnet and a s p r i n g . When t h e o p e r a t o r presses downward upon t h e Morse hand key, t h e electromagaet i s energized and the movable cont a c t then connects t h e a r c converter t o the l o c a l "back-shunt" c i r c u i t . The two s t a t i o n a r y c o n t a c t s through which these connectionsare made a r e so arranged t h a t t h e connection w i t h one c i r c u i t i s made before breaking t h e connection t o t h e o t h e r c i r c u i t . T h i s i s accomplished by the use of springs and a d j u s t i n g screws. The r e l a y key may be i n s t a l l e d e i t h e r on the bulkhead o r on the o p e r a t o r ' s t a b l e . Since i t i s provided f o r electromagnetic c o n t r o l by means of t h e Morse hand key, i t need not be l o c a t e d a t a point which i s w i t h i n reach of t h e operator. It should be placed, however, where it may be e a s i l y inspected, cleaned and adjusted.

Radfo Freamency Ammeter Panel. A r a d i o frequency ammeter, shown i n Figure 1, i s supplied f o r i n d i c a t i n g t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t r This i s a thermo-ammeter w i t h a s e l f - contained thermo-couple The meter i s mounted on a small b a k e l i t e panel which proviides t h e necessary i n s u l t i t i o n between the meter and the bulkhead upon which i t i s i n s t a l l e d . On t h e back s i d e of t h i s b a k e l i t e panel, a small c o i l of heavy copper wire i s shunted d i r e c t l y across t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e meter. This c o i l i s c a l l e d an i n d u c t i v e , p r o t e c t i v e shunt. Due t o t h e high reactance of t h e c o i l , r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t w i l l take t h e more d i r e c t pzth through t h e ammeter, and t h e presence of t h e c o i l a s a shunt around t h e meter m i l l , t h e r e f o r e , not a f f e c t t h e yeading of the instrument. I n case the antenna becomes grounded or i n case a d i r e c t c u r r e n t s h o r t - c i r c u i t occurs anywhere i n the antenna c i r c u i t , t h e c o i l w i l l take most of t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t . It t h e r e f o r e serves a s a p r o t e c t i v e shunt f o r the d i r e c t current without i n f l u e n c i n g t h e reading of the meter f o r r a d i o c u r r e n t s ,

Lesson 58

- sheet 1 5

I n a d j u s t i n g the r e l a y key, c a r e should be taken t o see t h a t t h e movable cont a c t makes connection w i t h one s t a t i o n a r y contact b e f o r e i t breaks w i t h t h e o t h e r . The amount of moti on of t h e c o n t a c t s during t h i s period of common conn e c t i o n should be about 1/32?' t o 1/16". The amount of break betmen the con t a c t s After t h e key has once been c a r e when t h e y a r e open should be about 1/16". f u l l y adjusted i t should r e q u i r e very l i t t l e f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n with t h e exception of an occasional brightening of the c o n t a c t w i t h sand-paper. A small amount of o i l on the moving p a r t s w i l l i n s u r e long l i f e and prevent their sticking.
A s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e f o r the r e l a y key solenoids i s mounted d i r e c t l y on t h e

base of t h e key. This r e s i s t o r i s a number B-350 Ward-Leonard tube. When T h i s r e s i s t a n c e and t h e two solenoids a r e a l l connected i n s e r i e s , the proper c u r r e n t i s obtained by supplying the key w i t h 110-120 v . D.C. thraugh t h e Morse hand key.
t; C i r c m . A l o c a l , non- radiating o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t i s supplied i n order t h a t t h e a r c converter may have a c i r c u i t upon which t o

BAKELITE BASE

'

Figure 1 1 o s c i l l a t e during the i n t e r v a l s between d o t s ana dashes. This l o c a l c i r c u i t i s c a l l e d the "back shunt" c i r c u i t , f o r the reason t h a t i t i s shunted around t h e a r c when i t i s d e s i r e d t o exclude c u r r e n t from t h e antenna. r a n s f e r Switch f o r C h o ~ ~ e r A u z i l i a r v Hand Key. A s i n g l e p o l e , double and Zhrow t r a n s f e r switch i s s u m l i e d i n order t h a t t h e coupled compensation loop around t h e bottom of the antenna loading inductor !%ay be cbnnected e i t h e r t o the chopper or t h e a u x i l i a r y hand key o r t o t h e two i n s e r i e s . A name p l a t e i s supplied w i t h t h i s s w i t c h which may be mounted w i t h i t i n order t o i n d i c a t e t h e proper p o s i t i o n of the switch f o r e a c h c i r c u i t combination. A wiring diagram of the coupled compensation c i r c u i t i s included on t h f s name p l a t e . When t h i s switch i s thrown t o t h e r i g h t , t h e coupled compensation loop i s connected d i r e c t l y with the a u x i l i a r y hand key. Signaling may then be accomplished by t h e coupled compensation method. Lesson 58

sheet 16

When the switch i s thrown t o t h e l e f t t h e chopper i s coknected d i r e c t l y t o t h e coupled compensation loop. Signaling with t h e chopper may then be accomplished by t h e use of t h e back shunt r e l a y key. With the switch open the a u x i l i a r y hand key i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e conpensation loop and t h e chopper. Signals may t h e n be t r a n s m i t t e d w i t h t h e cPropper by using t h e a u x i l i a r y hand key. Chooner. The chopper, shown i n Figure 1, c o n s i s t s of a commutator wheel d r i v e n by a Q-H. P. 110 v. D. C . motor. Segments of t h e commutator wheel a r e connected a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s t o a c e n t r a l r i n g . The chopper brushes a r e s o adjustec? t h a t t h e y b o t h make contact w i t h t h e s e connected segments a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s during t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e wheel. The two brushes a r e connected through a s u i t a b l e switch t o t h e coupled compensation loop which is placed around t h e bottom of t h e antenna loading inductor. The commutator wheel serves t o a l t e r n a t e l y open and s h o r t - c i r c u i t t h i s coupled compensation loop. When the compensation loop i s open, energy i s r a d i a t e d a t a given wavelength. When t h e commutator wheel i s i n a p o s i t i o n which s h o r t - c i r c u i t s t h e compensation loop, energy i s r a d i a t e d a t a s l i g h t l y s h o r t e r wavelength. A u x i l i a r y Hand Xev. The a u x i l i a r y hand key, shown i n t h e diagram Figure 11, i s supplied i n order t h a t s i g n a l i n g may b e accomplished b y t h e coupled compensation method whenever d e s i r e d and i n case of f a i l u r e of t h e back shunt method of s i g n a l i n g . The tuning w i t h an a r c r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r i s very sharp and i n case an a r c s e t i s c a l l i n g a s t a t i o n whose r e c e i v e r is not tuned e x a c t l y , t h e c a l l may n o t be heard. I n order t h a t t h e operator may be a b l e t o s l i g h t l y vary t h e l e n g t h of h i s outgoing wave while c a l l i n g , a Note Varying variometer i s supplied. T h i s variometer, shown i n Figure 1, c o n s i s t s of a s t a t i o n a r y c o i l and a c o i l which may be r o t a t e d w i t h i n the s t a t i o n a r y c o i l . When t h e r o t s t i n g c o i l f s turned i n one d i r e c t i o n , t h e out-going wave i s lengthened; and when it i s turned i n the opposite d i r e c t i o n , t h e wave i s shortened. By r o t a t i n g t h i s c o i l s l i g h t l y , f i r s t i n one d i r e c t i o n and then i n t h e other, t h e operator i s able t o s l i g h t l y vary t h e out-going wave and t h e r e by make h i s c a l l heard by t h e r e c e i v e r .
p. notching device b u i l t i n t o the variometer holds i t i n a c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n except when it i s moved from t h i s p o s i t i o n by t h e o p e r a t o r . The variometer i s connected d i r e c t l y i n s e r i e s i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t between t h e antenna loading inductor and t h e r e l a y key. It may be mounted e i t h e r on t h e t a b l e or on t h e bulkhead a s d e s i r e d .

w .

Antenna Low Power R e s i s t o r . I n order t h a t t h e antenna c u r r e n t may be reduced when communicating w i t h anearby s t a t i o n , a r e s i s t o r , shown i n Figure 1, i s supplied which may be connected i n s e r i e s i n t h e .antenna c i r c u i t f o r o p e r a t i o n on low power. This c o n s i s t s of two Ward-L,eonard r e s i s t a n c e tubes sup ) o r t e d on a s u i t a b l e frame. A s h o r t i n g switch i s mounted near the u n i t . This switch i s closed except when i t i s d e s i r e d t o operate on low power. The antenna low power r e s i s t o r i s connected i n s e r i e s i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t between t h e a r c converter and t h e r a d i o f requency ammeter. Lesson 58

- sheet 17

Send-Ground-Receive Switch. T h i s switch, shown i n Figure 1, provides t h e means of connecting t h e antenna e i t h e r t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r or t o the peceiver, o r t o ground. It c o n s i s t s of a c a s t i r o n base upon which s u i t a b l e insulators and standards a r e mounted. The i n s u l a t o r s a r e made of b a k e l i t e and a r e p r a c t i c a l l y non-breakable. The h i g h voltage p a r t s have b r a s s s h i e l d s made w i t h a r a d i u s curvature which prevents corona. The ground and receive pos i t i o n s a r e mounted w i t h i n a p r o t e c t i v e hood which prevents a flash- over between the h i g h voltage p a r t s and t h e r e c e i v i n g c l i p . I n t e r l o c k contacts a r e provided on t h e Send- Ground-Receive Switch f o r the 110 v. D. C . c i r c u i t which s u p p l i e s t h e r e l a y key and o t h e r a u l i a i a r i e s . The Send-Ground-Recefve switch may be mounted e i t h e r on the bulkhead or on t b t a b l e , wherever it i s w i t h i n convenient reach of t h e operator and where t h e r a d i o frequency connections may be conveniently made. Ample clearance should be allowed around a l l h i g h voltage p a r t s and c a r e should be t a k e n t o place it where the danger of t h e personnel coming i n contact w i t h it i s minimized. o r s e Hand Keg. This i s a Morse hand key of the u s u a l r a d i o t e l e g r a p h t y p e , Figure 1. By means of i t , t h e r e l a y key i s c o n t r o l l e d and s i g n a l i n g i s accomplished by t h e back shunt method. ntenna Series Condenser. This i s a mica condenser mounted w i t h i n a s u i t a b l e A o a s shown i n Figure 1. It i s connected i n s e r i e s i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t bx on a l l wavelengths below 2000 meters and i s placed i n t h e c i r c u i t between t h e Antenna Loading Inductor and t h e Send-Ground-Receive switch. The capacitance of the s e r i e s condenser i s 0.0006 mfd. and it t h e r e f o r e considerably reduces t h e e f f e c t i v e capacitance of the antenna c i r c u i t . This permits t h e use of more antenna loading inductance t h a n could otherwise be used f o r any given wavelength. The increase of inductance and decrease of capacitance i n s u r e s s t e a d i e r operation of the a r c converter, e s p e c i a l l y when used a s an undamped Wave t r a n s m i t t e r on wavelengths between 950 and 2000 meters. For waves over 2000 meters t h e s e r i e s condenser i s shorted out of t h e c i r c u i t by means of a switch mounted upon i t s t e r m i n a l s . The condenser i s mounted a t a point where t h e r e i s minimum danger of t h e personnel of the oparating room coming i n t o contact w i t h i t s h i g h voltage t e r m i n a l s . The condenser has b a k e l i t e l e g s which provide i n s u l a t i o n between i t and e a r t h . The metal a n g l e s a t t h e bottom of t h e s e l e g s a r e grounded. O ~ e r a t i o n Model K or Q. 2 Kw. Arc Radio T r a n s m i t t e r . Before s t a r t i n g t h e of - - for the f i-r s t time. t h e various c i r c u i t s should be t e s t e d t o see t h a t - - - - -- a l l e l e c t r i c connectio& have been made i n the proper manner, The following s t e p s should a l s o be taken:
ant. -

(1) F i l l t h e alcohol cup and see t h a t i t f e e d s properly. ( 2 ) F i l l t h e water t a n k 3/4 f u l l w i t h f r e s h water. ( 3 ) See t h a t t h e v a l v e s of t h e water t a n k a r e open and
(4)

t h a t t h e flow i n d i c a t o r i n d i c a t e s a c i r c u l a t i o n of water when t h e pump i s s t a r t e d . See t h a t a l l moving p a r t s a r e p r o p e r l y l u b r i c a t e d .

Lesson 50

s h e e t 18

To s t a r t t h e s e t a f t e r a long ueriod of r e s t : 1. Close t h e s e t supply switch. 2. Place t h e Send-Ground-Receive Switch i n t h e sending p o s i t i o n . T h i s should s t a r t t h e water pump and t h e carbon r o t a t i n g mechanism which are supplied through i n t e r l o c k contacts. 3. S t a r t t h e motor generator by c l o s i n g t h e c i r c u i t breaker on the s t a r t i n g panel and b r i n g the motor g r a d u a l l y up t o f u l l speed. Adjust the generator voltage t o about 250 v o l t s by means of t h e f i e l d r h e o s t a t . S t a r t the a l c o h o l flowing so that it d r i p s r a t h e r rapidly. ~ d j u s t h e 4. carbon on the a r c s o t h a t t h e r e i s about 1/32" motion when the a r c i s s t r u c k . 5. Close t h e a r c main l i n e switch and s t r i k e t h e a r c . Draw it out as long a s p o s s i b l e without causing it t o break. I n s t a r t i n g f o r t h e f i r s t time, it w i l l be necessary t o keep t h e a r c r a t h e r s h o r t f o r a minute o r two u n t i l s u f f i c i e n t a l c o h o l has been decomposed t o g i v e a p a r t i a l hydrogen atmosphere i n t h e chamber. A s soon a s t h e a r c s t a r t s o s c i l l a t i n g , t h e r a d i o frequency ammeter w i l l i n d i c a t e c u r r e n t i n t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t and the a r c should then be a d j u s t e d t o o b t a i n a maximum reading of t h i s meter. 6. Close t h e a r c s t a r t i n g r e s i s t o r switch and a d j u s t the a r c f o r a m a x i m u m reading of t h e r a d i o frequency ammeter. The a l c o h o l flow may now be reduced t o a few drops p e r minute and t h e generator voltage adjusted t o o b t a i n t h e d e s i r e d antenna c u r r e n t . Sig . Af r t h i g n a l s may mitted Zyo TransmitwithcntiahrlcsuMorseitfefhandemaartce riisanloperatinghi o st frequency cber r ternactni srthrough sending e key. I case r a d u the back shunt it d ers l y from t a i n t h e antenna cuit ,$he r e s i s t a n c e of t h e back shunt c i r c u i t -s h o u l d be a d j u s t e d so t h a t t h e output of t h e a r c converzer i s t h e same f o r both c i r c u i t s .
$0

r c Adjustment. After t h e a r c i s i n operation, it w i l l only be necessary make occasional s l i g h t adjustments of a r c length. These adjustments a r e made t o o b t a i n a maximum r e a d i n g of t h e r a d i o frequency. Only enough a l c o h o l should be used t o o b t a i n f u l l antenna c u r r e n t .

If the a r c breaks o r goes out it w i l l be necessary t o open t h e a r c s t a r t i n g r e s i s t o r switch and s t r i k e t h e a r c again. I n case t h e a r c i s s t r u c k without opening t h i s s w i t c h , a s h o r t c i r c u i t w i l l r e s u l t and a t r i p c o i l w i l l open It i s t h e n necessary t o l i f t t h e handle of t h i s t h e a r c main l i n e switch. switch t o t h e upper p o s i t i o n and r e c l o s e i t ; t h e n s t r i k e t h e a r c and r e c l o s e the s t a r t i n g r e s i s t o r switch.

To s t o p t h e a r c f o r a s h o r t period:
1, Open t h e a r c main l i n e switch ( t h i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y opens t h e arc startlng r e s i s t o r switch). 2. Put t h e Send-Ground-Receive Switch i n t h e r e c e i v i n g p o s i t i o n .

If it i s d e s i r e d t o s t o p t h e motor generator, t h i s may be done by opening e i t h e r t h e s e t S.?@ly SWitCh OP t h e c i r c u i t breaker on t h e motor starting panel.
To s t a r t the a r c a f t e r a s h o r t ~ e r i o d r e s t : of
1.

Put t h e Send-Ground-Receive Switch i n sending p o s i t i o n and s t a r t Lesson 58

- sheet

19

t h e motor generator i f it has been stopped. Close t h e a r c main l i n e switch, s t r i k e and a d j u s t t h e arc. 2. 3. Close the a r c s t a r t i n g r e s i s t o r switch and a d j u s t t h e a r c . To shut down t h e s e t f o r a l o r n ~ e r i o d r e s t . of Open t h e a r c main l i n e switch. Open t h e s e t supply switch ( t h i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e l e a s e s t h e arm of t h e motor starting panel by means of t h e low voltage r e l e a s e c o i l ) . 3. Cut o f f t h e a l c o h o l flow. 4. Place t h e Send-Ground-Receive Switch on send or ground a s d e s i r e d .
1. 2.

choooer w i t h t h e -. o f When it i s des i r e d t o t r a n s m i t s i g n a l s on waves s h o r t e r t h a n 950 meters by means of t h e chopper, t h e f olloviing procedure should be observed :
1. Throw t h e s i n g l e pole double throw t r a n s f e r s w i t c h t o t h e l e f t and c l o s e t h e double pole switch mounted on t h e chopper, thereby connecting the chopper t o t h e coupled compensation loop on t h e l o a d i n g c o i l . 2. S t a r t the chopper motor by closing t h e snap switch. 3. S t a r t t h e motor g e n e r a t o r and a r c converter i n t h e u s u a l manner., 4. Signals may now be t r a n s m i t t e d by using t h e Morse hand key and back shunt c i r c u i t i n t h e u s u a l manner.
. To u,se t h e chopper w i t h t h e a u x i l i a r y hand keg.

1. Open t h e s i n g l e pole, double throw t r a n s f e r switch. Close the double pole s w i t c h mounted on t h e chopper and s t a r t t h e chopper n o t o r by the snap switch. 2. Connect t h e a r c t o t h e antenna c i r c u i t by c l o s i n g t h e s h o r t i n g switch on t h e Norse hand key. 3. S t a r t the motor generator and a r c c o n v e r t e r i n the u s u a l manner. 4. S i g n a l s may now be t r a n s m i t t e d w i t h the chopper by using the a u x i l i a r y hand key.

To-rt d wave signals b p m e a n s of the When i t i s d e s i r e d t o s e d s i g n a l s , using t h e a u x i l i a r y hand key without the chopper:
1. ~ h r o w h e s i n g l e pole double throw switch t o the r i g h t hand p o s i t i o n , t thereby coslnecting t h e a u x i l i a r y hand key d i r e c t l y t o t h e coupled compensation loop on t h e antenna loading inductor. 2. Connect the a r c converter t o t h e antenna c i r c u i t by c l o s i n g the s h o r t i n g switch on the Korse hand key. 3. S t a r t the motor g e n e r a t o r and a r c converter i n t h e u s u a l manner. 4. Signals may now be t r a n s m i t t e d by the coupled conpensation method w i t h the a u x i l i a r y hand key.

See t h a t t h e a r c c o n v e r t e r i s shut down. Change t h e antenna connection on t h e loading inductor t o t h e t e r minal which i s marked f o r t h e new wave.
1. 2.

Lesson 58

sheet 20

3. Change t h e connection between t h e bare copper h e l i x and t h e t a p s i n t h e bottom l a y e r of t h e loading inductor t o t h e p o s i t i o n s which a r e marked f o r the new wavelength.

EXAMINATION

- mSSON 58

1.
2.
3.

Which e l e c t r o d e of t h e a r c r o t a t e s and why? Hw would. you gauge t h e c o r r e c t flow of a l c o h o l i n t h e a r c chamber? o H w i s t h e power output of t h e a r c r e g u l a t e d ? o Name t h e p r i n c i p a l p a r t s of an a r c t r a n s m i t t e r . What i s t h e purpose of t h e chopper? What might happen i f the a r c chamber were opened immediately z t t h e c l o s e of transmission? H w i s hydrogen gas obbained i n t h e a r c chamber? o Hw would you determine i f water was c i r c u l a t i n g through t h e a r c cooling o circuits? What care should be observed when s h u t t i n g down t h e t r a n s m i t t e r ? What i s t h e form of t h e wave emitted by an a r c t r a n s m i t t e r ?

4.
5.

6.

7.
8. 9.

10.

Lesson 58

- sheet

21

ENSTI
ONC. firm.e 3 f -y
M ARCONI

/Nsr/rur~

s u n d e d ./SO9

Technical Lesson 59
RADIO AVIATION EQUIPEEFF
A i r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , a dream of many yeacs,has now become a p r a c t i c a l r e a l i t y , and it i s a comon s i g h t t o s e e a i r p l a n e s c a r r y i n g p a s s e n g e r s , mail and e x p r e s s A s t o be expected, r a d i o h a s become a n important f a c t o r i n connection with f l y ing and i s used t o s e r v e a i r navigation just a s i t does marine navigation. It i s agreed t h a t a r a d i o wave o r beam is the only beam capable of p e n e t r a t i n g

f o g s o r m i s t s t o a n y g r e a t d i s t a n c e and, obviously, r a d i o p r o v i d e s t h e o n l y means of c o n t a c t between an a i r p l a n e i n f l i g h t and t h e ground when atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s make v i s i b i l i t y n a t u r a l l y low. Hence, r a d i o by i t s fundamental n a t u r e a i d s a i r n a v i g a t i o n i n the following important ways: I n f u r n i s h i n g d i r e c t communication between a i r p l a n e s i n f l i g h t and t h e ground, and d i r e c t i o n a l i n d i c a t i o n s t o p i l o t s f o r guiding t h e i r a i r p l a n e s along e s t a b l i s h e d airways. The value of r a d i o t o a v i a t i o n was f u l l y appreciated by t h e Airways Division of t h e Department of Commerce and t o i n c r e a s e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y and s a f e t y of a i r t r a v e l i t planned a system of radiobeacon t r a n s m i t t e r s a t important a i r p o r t s throughout the country. These t r a n s m i t t e r s send out a s i g n a l which produces narrow beams t h a t coincide w i t h t h e l i g h t e d c i v i l airmays a'lreaby e s t a b l i s h e d t o guide a i r c r a f t along a i r r o u t e s over whica most of the f l y i n g t a k e s p l a c e , Beside t h e d i r e c t i o n a l radiobeacon s i g n a l s , s e r v i c e is rendered by broadcasting information i n t h e form of weather r e p o r t s and o t h e r news of importance t o f l i e r s . A a i r r o u t e i s c a l l e d an frairway" and a radiobeacon n s t a t i o n i s r e f e r r e d t o a s a "radio range." Tne d i r e c t i v e p r o p e r t i e s of a cross- loop antenna system a r e used t o produce t h e r a d i o beams i n t h e d e s i r e d d i r e c t i o n s along t h e e s t a b l i s h e d c i v i l airways. S i n c e t h e n a u r a l n type of d i r e c t i v e radiobeacon i s used then any p i l o t , prov i d i n g he i s f l y i n g along a n airway and has h i s r e c e i v e r p r o p e r l y tuned, can l i s t e n t o e i t h e r t h e beacon s i g n a l o r t h e broadcast. The beacon s i g n a l cons i s t s of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Morse code c h a r a c t e r s , l e t t e r s A and N, which a r e heard i n d i v i d u a l l y o r blended t o g e t h e r i n t o a long dash, o r l e t t e r T, depending upon whether t h e plane is on o r off the course. Should t h e a i r p l a n e d e v i a t e from t h e course, t h e s i g n a l s w i l l t e l l t h e p i l o t h i s e x a c t p o s i t i o n and permit him t o l o c a t e i t a g a i n and t h u s d i r e c t him t o t h e a i r p o r t and i n t o the landing f i e l d a t which the radiobeacon s t a t i o n i s l o c a t e d .

To judge how important radio is to aviation we have only to realize that radio is the only means of making contact with airplanes in flight. We will now mention many important services which radio can provide for air navigation. With only a receiving set aboard the aircraft the service between ground stations and aircraft would include the reception of the radio range beacon signals which mark out the airways, weather reports and forecast, and other information such as the proximity of other airplanes and so on. With two-may communication provided by a radio transmitter and receiver on the plane, we can summarize the services as follows: (a) a pilot can remain in direct constant communication o with his home airport, ( b ) he is able t ask for information when shut in by fog, snow, rain, or storms and during night flying, (c) he can summon aid in times of distress as in the case of a forced landing and, (d) he can guide his airplane in flisht along s definite route through the air by means of the direc. tive signals sent out by a radio range like a motorist follows a routed highway.

Figure 1 The interior of the Airways Radio Station St. Louis, Mo.. is shown in Fisrure 1 . Stations similar to this one are located at points~appr&imately 200 miles apart along established airways in the United States. This photograph shows the essential equipment in such a station which consists of a combined 2 km telegraph and telephone intermediate-frequency transmitter for sending out the signal for directive purposes and radio telephone for broadcasting weather service and other information to airplanes for their safety in flight. In addition, a short-wave transmitter, Department of Commerce built, shown at the
of the - -r - - ---. Deoartment of Commerce locatea at

RADIO RANGE OR RADIOBEACON STATION.

Lesson 59

sheet 2

Lesson 59

sheet 3

extreme left in the photograph is used for point-to-point communication. Then there is the receiving equipment necessary to carry on this service which consists of a short-wave and long-wave receiver; the long-wave receiver on the operator's table being a model IP-501. Teletype machines are also provided which print on a paper tape all information important to flyers, and this appears at each station in the circuit and landline telephone and telegraph are also employed in collecting and distributing this information between stations. The procedure now in use is to transmit the radiobeacon signals in conjunction with the radio broadcasts on the same frequency. The signals are sent out continuously except during four three-minute periods at the quarter hours at which time the radio telephone broadcasts are made. The beacon is cut off every 15 minutes and identified by station announcement, followed by correct time and weather reports and other announcements and then,on completion of the broadcast, the beacon is again placed in operation. Frequency channels have been set up for this service by the Federal Radio Commission, a particular channel being used along a given air route regardless of the number Of transport companies flying that route. This system may be interrupted at any time to send emergency messages to pilots in flight. It is to be understood that all airport stations owned by the commercial airport companies operate on a calling and working frequency of 278 kilocycles set up by the Federal Radio Commission. Since airport transmitters are used to give orders to pilots by radiotelephone as to landing procedure when weather conditions make it necessary, their range must not exceed five miles so as to prevent interference between neighboring airports,

RADIO RANGE BEACON SYSTZM FOR AIRWAYS. The map in Figure 2 issued by the Airwavs Division of the Department of Commerce shows the general plan of the civil"airways system and locations of the radio range beacon transmitters which are either in operation or are proposed. The paths of the four routes pointed out by the signals of each transmitter are indicated; these indicated paths are actually radio waves in space and, although they cannot be seen, nevertheless Each beam shoots Out for a distance of about two they arereferred to as hundred niles in a certain direction but covers only a small area in width. When these radio waves or signal beams are picked up by the antenna of an airplane flying a given course and are reproduced by the radio receiver they indicate to the pilot his exact location, that is, whether or not the plane is on the airway marked out by the beacon.

m.

From the map we can see that the important routes or airways across the country and along the coasts do not always lie in a straight line. Since four beams are radiated from the antenna of a radio range and they are normally equally spaced and, therefore, 90 degrees apart, it is necessary in many cases, as the map indicates, to shift the engle between beams in order they they will project out in the proper direction to coincide with the airways. It is of interest to know that in the case of the New York- Cleveland Airway served by the radiobeacon at Bellefonte, it required shifting the angle between the beams from 180 degrees to 166 degrees because Hadley Field, New Brunswick, N. J. is a few miles north of a location which would make this airway lie in a straight Line. Smaller radio beacons cal1ed"marker beacons wlth a transmitting range of about five miles are located at the intersection of adjacent courses and are arranged to send out a special characteristic signal modulated at about 1000 cycles alternately on. the different frequencies used by the intersecting courses. The Lesson 59
11

sheet

marker beacon signal informs the pilot that he is leaving one course and entering the next and, therefore, should retune his receiver to the frequency on which the adjacent radio range is operating. We suggest that you carefully examine the sketch in the lower left of the map because it explains in a simple way the principle upon which the aural type of directive beacon operates.

Figure 3

Figure 4

EXPLANATION OF A RADIOBEACON STATION. A radiobeacon station is usually located as near as practicable to a landing field. The essential circuits for supplying the required signals and the antenna system which produces the beams because of its directional properties are shown in Figure 3. The antenna system consists of two loops placed at right angles to each other and supported on poles as illustrated in Figure 4 . In the small building at the foot of the center pole are theradio transmitter, automatic signalling device, link circuit relay, goniometer, and the two loop antenna units eadh of which is supplied with antenna ameters, and other apparatus required in the operation of the radio range. There are four lead-in conductors which pass through glass insulators in the side of The building and connect the antenna loops to the goniometer and antenna units just mentioned. The link circuit relay and automatic signalling device are mounted in a single unit between the transmitter and goniometer. This unit contains the rheostat for controlling the speed of operation of the signalling device. The goniometer serves to couple the output of the transmitter, or characteristic signal formed by the dots and dashes into the loop antenna system but its main function is to direct the four radio beams in certain directions from the antenna and permit the desired degree of sharpness of the beams to be obtained. .The picture in Figure 4 suggests the size of the two antenna loops which are crossed at an angle of 90 degrees to each other. The approximate physical dimensions of each loop would be represented by a triangle having an altitude of 70 ft. with a bottom line or base 300 %in length, the base being elevated about 10 ft. above the ground. The frequency band covered by radio range equipment is from 285 to 315 kilocycles, or 1050 to 950 meters. First consider the signalling device. It consists of a motor which drives a set of especially shaped discs or cams which wmake"and"breakw the circuit as they rotate and, hence, the device transmits the Morse code characters A and N as you would do if you were sending these letters alternately on two Morse TO be more exact the cams telegraph hand keys. (Letter A is *- and N is are so timed to send the A and N in such a way that no portions of the two characters are transmitted 'simultaneously,and also the two letters are supplied alternately to the two loops by the relay. Thus, the system works as
- 0 )

Lesson 59

- sheet 5

f o l l o w s : The dash i n N i s s e n t f i r s t on one l o o p , t h e d o t i n A i s s e n t n e x t on t h e o t h e r l o o p , t h e d o t i n N is t h e n s e n t on t h e first l o o p , and l a s t l y t h e d a s h i n A is s e n t on t h e second l o o p . So, i f you h e a r d t h e s e s i g n a l s i n your e a r p h o n e s and a l l o f t h e d o t s and d a s h e s f o l l o w e d one a n o t h e r i n s u c c e s s i o n and w i t h o u t i n t e r v a l s and a l l were of e q u a l s t r e n g t h , t h e n , t h e e f f e c t would be t o h e a r one l o n g d a s h of c o n s t a n t s i g n a l s t r e n g t h . When t h e c h a r a c t e r s combine i n t o a l o n g d a s h i t i s r e f e r r e d t o as b l e n d i n g o r " i n t e r l o c k i n g w of t h e A and N s i g n a l s . Hence, t h e r e c e p t i o n o f a s e r i e s of dashes,which would sound l i k e d a h dah- dah- and s o on,would t e l l a f l i e r he i s t r a v e l l i n g i n a d i r e c t l i n e w i t h t h e beam and i s t h e r e f o r e on t h e c o u r s e . Now, i f a n a i r p l a n e were f l y i n g i n a n y a r e a between t h e l i n e of t h e beams one of t h e i n d i v i d u a l l e t t e r s wouldbe h e a r s t r o n g e s t depending upon which s i d e t h e a i r p l a n e was o f f t h e c o u r s e . A l s o , any waviness o f t h e s i g n a l o r k e y c l i c k s h e a r d i n d i c a t e s t h e a i r p l s n e is o f f t h e c e n t e r l i n e . The i n d i v i d u a l l e t t e r s A and N which comprise t h e s i g n a l a r e s e n t a t a r a t e which would c o r r e s p o n d t o a b o u t 2 2 words p e r m l n u t e , c o u n t i n g 5 l e t t e r s t o a word and i n g r o u p s of from 1 t o 1 2 s i g n a l s i n t h e manner t h a t a c l o c k t o l l s t i m e , s o t h a t a beacon s t a t i o n czn be i d e n t i f l e d by t h e number of s i g n a l s p e r group.
VISUAL TYPE RADIOBXACON INDICATOR. A t y p e of r a d i o r a n g e t h a t w i l l o p e r a t e a v i s u a l i n d i c a t o r t o be mounted d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t o f a p i l o t on t h e i n s t r u m e n t board i s b e i n g p e r f e c t e d by e n g i n e e r s of t h e A i r w a y s b i v i s i o n . F i g u r e 5 shows a v i s u a l i n d i c a t o r . I t i s e l e c t r i c a l l y connected t o t h e o u t p u t o f t h e a i r c r a f t beacon r e c e i v e r i n p l a c e of t h e headphones, and c o n s i s t s of two e l e c t r o m a g n e t s and two s t r i p s of m e t a l c a l l e d " r e e d s . " The t i p s o f t h e r e e d s a r e p a i n t e d w h i t e and a r e made of a n a l l o y h a v i n g s u p e r i o r m a g n e t i c p r o p e r t i e s , o r a h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y and a r e mounted a l o n g s i d e o f each o t h e r . With t h e v i s u a l s y s t e m ,
BEACON NDICATOR

Figure 5 when beacon s i g n a l s a r e r e c e i v e d , t h e two ree6.s v i b r a t e v e r t i c a l l y s i n c e t h e y a r e m e c h a n i c a l l y tuned t o two m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s t r a n s m i t t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y by t h e beacon, t h a t i s , t o f r e q u e n c i e s of 65 and 86.7 c y c l e s p e r second. When t h e two f r e q u e n c i e s p a s s t h r o u g h t h e r a d i o r e c e i v e r w i t h e q u a l s t r e n g t h t h e r e e d s respond by v i b r a t i n g w i t h e q u a l a m p l i t u d e s and t h e e f f e c t i s t h a t t h e p i l o t s e e s two broad w h i t e l i n e s which a p p e a r e q u a l i n s i z e . Hence, s o l o n g a s t h e a r e a s of t h e w h i t e l i n e s a r e e q u a l i n s i z e a p i l o t knows h i s a i r p l a n e is

Lesson 59

sheet 6

cou-se. Hozever, i f t h e a i r p l a n e d e v i a t e s from t h e c o u r s e , one r e e d r a t e s w i t h g r e a t e r a m p l i t u d e t h a n t h e o t h e r and t h i s a p p e a r s t o t h e eye a s ugh one l i R e h a s been made l a r g e r o r s m a l l e r t h a n t h e o t h e r . When t h e a i r l i e s t o t h e l e f t of t h e course t h e l e f t reed v i b r a t e s s t r o n g e s t and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e s i z e of t h e l e f t vihite l i n e i s i n c r e a s e d , and t h e r i g h t r e e d i s r e d u c e d , and t h e same h o l d s t r u e i f c o n d i t i o n s a r e r e v e r s e d . The i n d i c a t o r must be t u r n e d by t h e p i l o t t o make e i t h e r t h e words "TO BEACON" o r "FROM BEACON r e a d r i g h t s i d e up d e p e n d i n g upon whether t h e a i r p l e n e 1s f l y i n g toward o r eway from a g i v e n beacon. T h i s is done s o t h a t t h e l o n g e s t r e e d w i l l always i n d i c a t e t h e s i d e o f f c o u r s e and i n f o r m t h e p i l o t t o s t e e r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n t o ~ a r dh e s h o r t e r r e e d . t PRINCIPLE O "BENDING ' OR "SHIFTING" RADIOBEACON BEAMS. It i s well-known t h a t F a simple loop h a s d i r e c t i v e p r o p e r t i e s and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e s i g n a l s i t sends o u t w i l l b e s t r o n g from one s i d e and weak from a n o t h e r . T h i s u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r a d i o e n e r g y i n t h e f i e l d s e t up around a n a c t i v e l o o p a n t e n n a s y s t e m would be d e t e c t e d i f you t r a v e l l e d around making t e s t s w i t h a p o r t a b l e r e c e i v i n g s e t . TO i l l u s t r a t e t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y we u s e c~rcles such a s t h o s e shown i n t h e drawings below. A s i m p l e l o o p e m i t s a wave of maximum i n t e n s i t y i n a d i r e c t i o n i n l i n e w i t h i t s own p l a n e and m i n i mum a t r i g h t a n g l e s t h e r e t o . F i g u r e 6A e x p l a i n s t h l s a s f o l l o w s : C i r c l e s C 1 and C 2 show t h a t t h e e n e r g y r a d i a t e d by t h e "A" l o o p i s maximum i n a n up and down direction l o o k i n g a t t h i s page and minimum i n a d i r e c t i o n a c r o s s t h e page ~ h l s same r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s f o r t h e "Ntt l o o p , i t s d i r e c t i v e p r o p e r t i e s b e i n g These c i r c l e s and h e a r t - s h a p e d c u r v e s c a l l e d shown by c i r c l e s C 3 and C 4 . c a r d i o i d s i l l u s t r a t i n g r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t y o f r a d i o waves i n space a r e c r l l e d "f l e l d p a t t e r n s . "
q

F i g u r e 6A

F i g u r e 6B

Figure 6C

The s f f e c t of normal r a d i a t i o n of t h e c r o s s e d l o o p s o f a r a a i o r a n g e i s p i c t u r e d i n F i g u r e 6 8 , and h e r e we s e e f o u r c o u r s e s p r o v i d e d a t 90 d e g r e e s a p a r t s i n c e t h e r-f c u r r e n t i n e a c h l o o p i s t h e same a n d , h e n c e , t h e r a d i a t i o a i s t h e same. Remember t h a t i n t h e a u r a l s y s t e m a c o u r s e o r r a d i o beam o c c u r s s i n a l i n e a l o n g w h i c h e n e r g y i n t h e qqA1l i g n a l and "N" s i g n a l a r e e q u a l , t h e s e l o c a t i o n s b e i n g marked b y h e a v y d o t s . E n g i n e e r s o f t h e Airways D i v i s i o n have worked o u t two methods f o r b e n d i n g t h e beams t h e d e s i r e d amount t o l i n e them up w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d a i r w a y s . One method f o r o b t a i n i n g the d e s i r e d e f f e c t i s accomplished by t h e u s e o f a s u i t a b l e r e s i s t a n c e i n s e r t e d i n e i t h e r l o o p t o L e s s o n 59

sheet 7

i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e t h e r-f c u r r e n t i n t h e l o o p ; t h i s p r o d u c e s c o u r s e s a s s h o r n i n F i g u r e 6B. Another method c o n s i s t s of s u p p l y i n p t h e c i r c u l a r r a d i a t i o n o f a v e r t i c a l w i r e a n t e n n a i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r a d i a t i o n of t h e l o o p s . A v e r t i c a l a n t e n n a h a s no d i r e c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s ; i t r a d i a t e s e q u a l l y me11 i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s and, h e n c e , i t s e n e r g y a c t s on t h e l o o p e n e r g i e s t o produce a n e f f e c t a s shown i n F i g u r e 6C. Comparing t h e t h r e e drawings which a r e l a r g e l y s e l f e x p l a n a t o r y n o t e how t h e f i e l d p a t t e r n s d i f f e r i n e v e r y c a s e and t h a t wherever t h e A and N s i g n a l s a r e e q u a l a c o u r s e i s produced. S i n c e t h e beams a r e a b o u t 3 d e g r e e s wide and t r a v e l i n a l i n e outward from t h e bezcon f o r a couple of hundred m i l e s , t h e n t h e c l o s e r an a i r p l a n e is t o t h e beacon t h e narrower and s h a r p e r t h e beam becomes.

Figure 7
2 KW. RADIO TRANSMITTER. The t r a n s m i t t e r i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 7 i s used f o r r a d i o r a n g e s e r v i c e a t t h e Airways Radio S t a t i o n a t Hadley F i e l d , j u s t o u t s i d e o f New Brunswick, N. J. A t r a n s m i t t e r o f t h i s k i n d may a l s o be used a t a i r p o r t s f o r p o i n t - t o - p o i n t communication o r f o r con111:unication frorr, ~ i r p o r t s o t a i r c r a f t . Of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t a r e t h e g o n i o m e t e r and t h e two l o o p t u n i n g u n i t s shown mounted on t h e m a l l which a r e b u i l t i n t o met21 frames and comoletel y s h i e l d e d . An a n t e a ammeter i s p r o v i d e d i n each t u n i n g u n i t f o r u s e i n t u n i n g t h e a n t e n n a l o o p w i t h which i t i s used. Observe horn t h e f o u r l e a d - i n c o n d u c t o r s which c o n n e c t t o t h e c r o s s e d- l o o p a n t e n n a s y s t e m p a s s o u t- o f- d o o r s t h r o u g h g l a s s i n s u l a t o r s i n s t a l l e d i n t h e w a l l . F o r r a d i o b e a c o n work t h i s r a n g e eouipment w i l l o r d i n a r i l y use o n l y t o n e modulated t e l e g r a p h y , Chis b e i n g accomplished by m o d u l a t i n g t h e t r a n s m i t t e r t h r o u g h t h e r e g u l a r a u d i o s y s t e m i n c l u d e d i n t h e m o d u l a t o r u n i t , u s i n ? a n a u d i o- f r e q u e n c y o s c i l l a t o r f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e d e s i r e d f r e q u e n c y . When r a d i o t e l e p h o n e t r a n s m i s s i o n i s used f o r broadc a s t i n g w e a t h e r s e r v i c e t h e h i g h- f r e q u e n c y g e n e r a t e d by t h e t r a n s r c i t t e r i s modul a t e d by t h e v o i c e f r e q u e n c i e s p a s s i n g t o i t from t h e microphone and t h e modulator circuits.

Lesson 59

sheet 8

Inasmuch a : the ./a:,-.~ : . ! c,. 'transport companies, or airvay systems as they are sometimes called, are F. ed in flying the mails and carrying passengers and cargo they necessarily [:&g$~:~~xre certain obligations to meet in safeguarding the lives and Dronertv of se who use this modern method of transportation. Also, the service rendermust be reliable to retain the support of the flying public and this reres that established schedules be maintained day-in and day-out and often der the most unfavorable weather conditions. It is easy to appreciate, there. re, that an airways system can facilitate the handling of traffic which i: n udes among other things, the arrival and departure of its planes, by employing radio for communication purposes at airports or terminals under its control. A typical radio transmitter for use at airports is described in the following paragraphs. The transmitter, known as model ET-3666 and pictured in Figure 8, consists of two main units; the unit at the left being the radio-frequency portion of the set, and the one at the right the modulator.
& ~ " -

Figure 8 The equipment for a transmitter of this type includes other apparatus not shown in the photograph such as a telegraph key, start-stop switch, sendreceive switch, microphone, storage battery and so on. When connected to a suitable antenna system the output of the power amplifier will deliver 200 to 350 watts of continuous wave (CW) radio-frequency energy. It is to be noted that such a transmitter provides C O ~ ~ ~ ~ wave telegraphic transmission only, U O U S Lesson 59

sheet 9

and i t is b s t h c addition of the r.odulator unit that televhone transmission is also mad; available. This airport transmitter operates in the low -Ravelength or high-frequency band. Its radio-frequency circuits cover a continuous frequency range of from 2000 to 6000 kilocycles, which in terms of wavelength reuresents a band from 150 to 50 meters. When special coils are used in the transmitter, the r-f circuits will cover a still lower waveband, or one extending from 5900 to 17200 kilocycles, which is 54 to 17.5 meters. By employing the master oscillator-power amplifier type of radio-frequency circuit the simals radiated by the antenna are keDt at vracticall'v a constant frequency, that is to say, the-signals will not waver appreciably above or below the assigned frequency. This condition is to be desired in any transmitter because the operator at the receiving station can copy a code message or listen to a spoken communication depending upon which method of transmissicn is used at the time, without the annoyance of occasionally readjusting his tuning dials. Furthermore, frequency stability in a transmitter tends to lessen or prevent interference between stations in congested wavebands, and especially those which are assigned to aviation.The allowable difference between the frequency assigned and that actually transmitted is governed by the waveband and the class of radio service-broadcast, marine, aviation, and so on. The special features of the control circuits of this airport set are given in the following paragraphs. The transmitter is provided with a localMstart-stopw switoh which is mounted on the front of the transmitter panel and, in addition, an e x t e r n a l u s t o p - s t a r t s ' s w i t c h from a remote point can be connected in parallel with the switch on the panel to enable the operator to control the set from one or the other of these two switches. When thewstart-stopl'switchis placed in the "starto positQon voltage is applied to the filaments of the radio-frequency and rectifier tubes and also to the delay action relay. The relay contacts control the d-c supplied to the plates of the tubes. It is necessary to have a delayed action relay to prevent the load of the plate circuits from being thrown on the rectifier tubes until a certain time has elaused after applying filament voltage to the tubes. A time interval of about 30 seconds in the operation of the relay between the closing of the filament circuits and the plate circuits is sufficient to provide proper protection for the rectifiers The transmitter includes aq'send-receivel'relaycontrolled by asqsend-receivess switch for transferring the antenna and ground connections from the transmitter circuit to a receiver, when a receiver is located close to the transmitter. This send-receive switch interlocks the coil of the main plate contactor in such a way that plate voltage is not supplied to the rectifier tubes excepting when the send-receive relay is in the "sendw position. The control circuits also include a main power switch which serves to remove all power from the various transmitter circuits with the exception of the 6 volt storage battery circuit. Keying the transmitter for telegraphic operation is accom3lished in the usual way by means of a telegraph key generally placed on the operator's table. A test key located above the power control switch on the transmitter panel has its contacts in parallel with the contacts of the telegraph key. The test key is used for convenient operation while adjusting the transmitter at any desired frequency within its band. The power supply from an electrical transmission line required for operating this equipment is 220 volts a-c, 3 phase, 60 cycles. This includes all power for operating the transmitter and rectifier circuits, with the exception of a small amount of energy supplied by a 6 volt storage battery for keying relay and microphone. Lesson 59

sheet 10

modulator units are open which permits a clear view to be had of the vacuuii tubes used in this set. Note that the r-f circuits of the transmitter unit utilize the latest four-element m-860 screen-.grid tubes; there is one K - 8 6 C tube used as a master oscillator and two UX-860's as power amplifiers. In the power circuits six UV-872 tubes are used as rectifiers. A plate transformer which connects to the 220 volt a-c line supplies power to the rectifiers. The tubes required to accomplish telephone operation are in the modulator unit at the right and they consist of one UX-860 used for a speech amplifier and two UX-849's for modulators. Note that the indicating instruments located at the top of the transmitter consist Of a plate ameter, antenna ammzter, plate voltmeter, and filament voltmeter. Directly below this set of instruments, and to the rignt of the panel, is located the control for the antenna tuning capacitor, and belov this is the control for the power amplifier tuning capacitor and directly to the left of the latter is the control for the master oscillator tuning capacitor. Observe that below the tuning controls just mentioned are the master oscillator and power amplifier tubes. On the control panel located below tllese tubes are the power switch, the filament rheostat control, the test key, the internal stop-start switch, and the main line switch. In the bottom compartments below the control panel are seen the rectifier tubes and the terminal board, the various relays and contactors, At the top of the modulator panel are the plate ammeter and filament voltmeter while below these are three tuinbler switches which make it possible to read the individual or collective plate currents of the audio tubes, It should be mentioned that whenever a remote station is operated in conjunction with a main airport station and they are at a considerable distance from each other it will require a line amplifier to boost up the strength of the audio current: in the microphone circuit to a suitable value for operating the audio amplifier in the modulator unit.
100 WATT AIRCRAFT RADIO TRANS&lITTER. The principal units of a typical aircrnft transmitter installation consist essentially of a transmitter, a receive
~

which is described in the latter part of our lesson, a filter unit,.a control box, an antenna ammeter, an antenna reel with 300 ft. of wire, headphones and microphones. Also, an air propeller and double-current generator cdlled a wind-driven generator,or a dynamotor and storage battery are required to suppl: the necessary operating voltages to the set. A receiver would get its power supply Prom the same source as the transmitter. In the illustsatio~~ Figure in we see the separate units of an airplane transmitter, the different components being clearly marked for identification. These units are distributed about the fuselage of the plane in any convenient location and only the control unit and jack box and antenna anieter need be within reach of the pilot or operatop The control unit in the photograph is for a model ET-3655-8 radio aircraft transmitter to provide two-way communicfitionwith stations on the ground. The explanations following will give you a good idea Of the special features concerning a typical light weight and compact aircraft transmitter. By careful designing a complete unit for combined telephone and telegraph transmissio 0 has been produced which weighs only about 28 ibs. In Figures 1 and 11 you wi see the transmitter unit with covers removed. These interior views show the present form of one type of modern aircraft transmitter. Note in the photograph on the left how all of the four tubes are mounted on one side of a Lesson 59

- sheet11

Figure 9

Figure 10

Figure 11

vertical partition or panel which runs lengthwise of the set. In the photograph on the right showing the rear view, note how the different parts which are required in the generation of high-frequency current are supported. The parts include the antenna coupling transformer, neutralizing condenser, several fixed condensers, the master oscillator tuning inductance, resistors and so on. This form of construction makes the parts easily accessible for inspection, testing and servicing which is important in aircraft radio maintenance. A special cable form with disconnector blocks permits the transmitter to be quickly disconnected from the power source. Lesson 59

- sheet 12

The circuits of the transmitter function in a manner similar to other transmitters in that they convert the electric power Output from a generator into a form which when connected to an antenna will produce the radiation of radio waves. Now refer to the schematic diagram of this transmitter in Figure 12. The master oscillator-power amplifier type of circuit with a Hartley oscillator is shown in the diagram. In its circuits are generated the carrier frequency that is delivered to the power aqlifier whose output in turn feeds the antenna system by means of an antenna transformer. Antenna tuning is accomplished by changing the length of the trailing wire, after the desired frequency has been set on the master oscillator. In order to make it possible for the operator to

PDWER AMPLIFIER

THERMG-COUPLE

M~CROPHDNE

MICROPHONES

.-

Figure 12 adjust the antenna tuning satisfactorily, a small meter for indicating resonance, called an antenna ammeter, is coupled to the antenna circuit through a transformer. The meter is mounted conveniently within sight of the pilot or operator. It is provided with a 0-5 ampere scale and is operated from a thermocouple so that no radio-frequency current is carried by the leads connecting the meter to the transmitter. The meter tells at a glance when the antenna is properly resonated and normal antenna output is obtained. There are two methods of signalling proviaed by this transmitter-radio telephone and continuous wave (CW) telegraph. Telephone communication is effected by means of an anti-noise microphone, microphone transformer, and modulation reactor, using the Heising or constant current system Of plate mod-ulation. Lesson 59

- aheet 13

In brief the reactor, marked M on the schematic diagram,keeps the direct current supplied to the plates of the modulator and power amplifier at a substantially steady value, and the audio current in the microphone circuit causes variations in the plate current passing through the tube by varying its grid . in addition voltage through the resistance coupling unit, marked R1, R2, and C to the microphone and output windings, the microphone transformer has a sidetone winding which is connected across the headphones of the two operators and across the receiver output. The purpose of this is to allow the headphones to be used for interphone communication between a pilot and co-pilot, or operator at all times on board the aircraft, and also for listening-in on what is being transmitted over the radiophone and for the reception of incoming radio signals without the necessity of switching any headphone connections. Telegraph communication is obtained by means of a manually operated key, the tubes being biased tc cut off when the key is up, and normal bias and consequently normal output beizg obtained with the key depressed. There is no radiation from the transmitter when the key is up, since plate current is zero. For aviation purposes a special air-tight telegraph key is used which eliminates possibility of sparking contacts igniting fumes,and an anti-noise microphone similar to the type shown in Figure 9 is so constructed that motor and propeller noises have almost no effect on it,5ut when the operator speaks directly in1;o it the diaphragm will be actuated and his voice will be transmitted. The control box unit shown connected to the aircraft transmitter contains switches for changing from "sendw to "receive" and from PfCW telegraphyn to "telephony," and the necessary jacks for inserting the plugs attached to fhe key, microphone, and headphones, In regard to the waveband covered by this 100 watt transmitter it should be mentioned that'transmissioncan be effected on either of two frequency ranges, namely; 2250 to 2750 kc (109 to 133 meters) and 316 to 600 kc (600 to 950 meters), With the radio-frequency circuits adjusted for the latter band either a trailing antenna or fixed antenna may be used. POWER IS OBTAINED FROM A WIND-DRIVEN GENERATOR OR A DYNAXOTOR. In connection with aircraft transmitters the voltage supply for the various circuits offers special problems, At the present stage of development of aircraft radio the transmitters and receivers used in the larger type planes normally obtain their power supply from a wind-driven generator or &dynamotor which is fed from the planess storage battery. The battery usually is a 12 volt landing light battery and is kept in a charged condition by a wind-driven generator. The dynamotor method makes it possible to transmit when a plane is not in flight which would be especially advantageous to a pilot in case of a forced landing. A wind-driven generator is mounted outside the plane, usually on a strut, and is driven by a single blade propeller which is self adjusting so that it maintains the speed of the generator at about 4000 r.p.m. This regulating feature is due to the centrifugal force developed with increased speed which acts on weights so placed as to cause the blade to turn through an angle of pitch. An advantage of this type of drive is that constant voltage is maintained under varying flying speeds. In brief, the torque component acting on the blade overcomes che torque of the generator.
g wind-driven generator for the 100 watt transmitter just described would have a high-voltage winding, marked H.V.in Figure 12, which would deliver 0 4 amperes . (400 ma.) at 1000 volts d-c for plate and bias voltages and also a low-voltage

Lesson 59

sheet 14

winding, marked L.V., which would supply 12 volts to the tube filaments. However, if a dynamotor were used the tube filaments would be connected to a 12 volt landing light battery which puts a drain on the battery of about 64 amperes, and the dynamotor would furnish the required plate potential. A retractable generator is one that can be swung into the fuselage when not in use. WIGNITION SHIELDING" ANE "BONDINGw IN AIRPLANES. Many obstacles have had to be overcome in aircraft construction before it was possible to eliminate interference which prevented clear radio reception. The most noticeable disturbance comes from the ignition wires leading from the magneto to the spark plugs. This is due to the electromagnetic waves which are radiated by the conductors forming a circuit wherein an electrical spark occurs, such as magnetos, for exampla, which generate the high voltage for the spark plugs. To reduce thls difficulty to a negligible amount the ignition cables are covered with a copper-wire braiding which is suitably grounded. In cases it requires shielding of sparlr plugs by means of special copper shields to reduce radiation by the plugs themselves. A11 airplanes on which radio comunication equipment is to be installed must be thoroughly bonded. The term bonding means that all metal parts of the airplane are connected by electrical conductors which are attached during the process of manufacture, this being done to eliminate the danger of sparks between metal parts. AIRCRAYT ANTENNAS AND EQ,UIPNENT. Considerable experimentation is being conducted to find a type of antenna most suitable for aircraft radio transmission and recevtion. There are, in general, two types of antennas used; the fixed antenna and the trailing intenna. one type of fixed antenna, the vertiFal type, i - shown in Figure 13 on a mono~lanewhich carries mil. As the name implies, - s - -- - . -the trailing t h e floats under the plane while it is in flight and, therefore; it must be reeled out after taking-off and later reeled in before a landing is to be made. Note that a vertical antenna is sometimes called a pole antenna.
-

Figure 13

Lesson 59

- sheet 15

Under ordinary flying conditions and at the wavelengths used in aerial navigation, it has been found that a trailing wire of one or two hundred feet is a far better radiator of electromagnetic waves than a short fixed wire of perhaps only 6 to 30 it. or more in length. The usual practlce in antenna construction is to employ a fixed type for a one-man plane because here the pilot is also the operator and he cannot conveniently handle an antenna reel. In a one-man plane if only radio-reception is desired the vertical'pole type usually answers the purpose but where two-way communisation is to be carried on a greater range csn be covered by using either of the horizontal fixed types shown in the sketches in Figure 13. The upper sketch A shows antenna conductors supported by insulators and stretched from the wing tips to the rear of the fuselage to form what is callea a ndoubLet". The conductors join two otber wires celled transroission lines, whP-ch terminate at either end of the antenna inductsnce in the radio equipment. In the lower sketch B a slightly different form is used whici; may be clsssed with a "T" type antenna since the two conductors are connected at the rear and are spliced at this point wlth a wire mhich you would call a lead-in; the latter runs to one end of the antenna inductance and from the other end a connection is made to the ground as shorvq. It is to be remembered that the long trailing wire increases the transmission range over at least twice that of a fixed antenna, A description of the antenria. reel, the antenna mire, and the fairlead follows: The e n t e n n a wire which is usually of copper-clad steel and about 300 ft. long is carried on an insulated reel; the wire passes out through the fuselage by way of sn insulating tube called a fairlead. A clamp holds the tubing in place where it passes through the floor of the plane. A small lever is provided at one side for locking the reel against rotation when sufficient wire is reeled out an& a crank is used to reel in the wire before landing, A small weight attached to the remote end of the wire keeps the wire floating or trailing p r o n e r l y when the plane is in flight,
GROUNDS. The student invariably' asks the question, 'These is the ground made on an airplcine"."' The answer to this is simple. A ground is m8de in the most convenient manner to some metal part of the plane such es a pipe, a strut, or crossbar; since all metal parts that enter the construction of" a plane are "bonded", then, everything metal a b u t the plane represents the ground, No specific reco&imendations can be given in this matter since condSthons vary in different planes, but in general the ground is made 'by means of a brai2ed copper wire attached to er approved ground elamp which is bolted to the metal part r selected after havi.ng rirst thoroughly scraped and cleaned the surfaces to make a good electrical contact between the clamp and the metal part.

The -

advantages and disadvantages ofthe fixed antenna and the trailing anteana: Antenna:

(1)Less flexible as to tuning. (2) Takes up space in hangar. A pole antenna is about 6 ft. high. (3) Possibility of fouling wires in event of breakage in flight. (4) Less range for given power. (5) For reception it has practically no directional tendencies, Trailing ~ntenna:(l) Less ignition interference in receiving, (2) Transmitting range at least twice that of fixed antenna. (3) Possibility of using the antenna Itself as the tuning agency.
Fixed .At this point it should be mentioned that in the csse of the 100 watt transxaitter previously described that when it is to be operated in the highwavelength band from 600 to 95C meters an antenna loading unit, like the one in Figure 9,is used so th~itthe antenna can be resonated properly without requiring a very long trailing mire, It is estimatedthat about 225 ft, of wire is sufficient to cover this band. Of course, in the lower band, from 109 to 133 meters, this unit is not required. sheet 16 Lesson 59

RADIO RECEIVERS USED I N AVIATION.

As already explained in the early part of our lesson, practically every oneman plane engaged in scheduled flying is equipped with a radio receiver, called a beacon receiver, because it is used solely by the 2ilot to pick up directive radio range beacon signals, weather broadcasts, and other information transmitted by the Government airway stations. This kind of information is practically all that a pilot requires to enable him to fly a chosen course with the least delay and with greatest safety. With a beacon receiver in operation the pilot is always listening to either the radio range signals or the broadcast information since both are transmitted on the same frequency. In foggy weather when the visibility is poor and a pilot cannot see land-marks he is then forced to rely on beacon signals to fly along a course and arrive safely at his landing field. Herein lies radio's greatest usefulness to pilots In flight. ?omever, in addition to the beacon receivers, air-transport planes generally have a second receiver operated in conjunction with a transmitter for use in 90-way comunication between the pilot in flight and ground terminals. ~lthough both types of receivers, a beacon and communication receiver, are operated on different frequency bands, yet the receivers have the same general features in that screen-grid tubes are em?loyed and the sets are built extremely light in weight and are designed to stand up under extreme vibrations and severe shocks encountersd during heavy landings. Also, their compact construction enables them to be installed in any available space in the plane. Only the remote control unit with headphones and tuning knob need be mounted within reach of the pilot. In the remainder of this lesson we will give diagrams and describe modern types of aircraft beacon and communication receivers. AIRCRAFT BEACON RECEIV3R. This receiver like all others contains everything necessarv to convert the radio-frequency sign8.l~uicked uv by the antenna into audio-frkquency signals. A glance-at the schematic diagram of this receiver in Figure 14 shows that it consists of three stages of tuned radlo-frequency amplification, or four tuned circuits, a detector, and two stages of audiofrequency amplification. Note that resistance coupllng is used between the detector and the audio-frequency stages and that the plate rectification method of detection is used. The radio-frequency stazes employ UX-222 screen-grid tubes and in the detector and first stage of audio-frequency amplification
A

Lesson 59

sheet 17

UX-240 t u b e s a r e u s e d . E i t h e r a TJX-112-A o r a TJX-171-A t u b e is used as t h e second s t a g e a u d i o o r o u t p u t t u b e . The c i r c u i t l a y o u t i s a r r a n g e d f o r modul a t e d s i g n a l s , no p r o v i s i o n b e i n g made t o r e c e i v e s i g n a l s from c o n t i n u o u s wave transmitters. I n t h e r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y c i r c u i t s u s e is made of tuned impedance c o u p l i n g between t h e UX-222 t u b e s , a n arrangement which makes p o s s i b l e f o u r t u n e d c i r c u i t s . A gang c o n d e n s e r i s used f o r t h e f o u r t u n e d c i r c u i t s and i s t u n e d by a s i n g l e c o n t i n u o u s l y v a r i a b l e t u n i n g c o n t r o l . Due t o t h e wonderful a m p l i f y i n g p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s c r e e n - g r i d t u b e s and d e s i g n o f t h e c i r c u i t t h e o v e r a l l g a i n i n v o l t a g e a m p l i f i c a t i o n w i l l v a r y between one m i l l i o n and s e v e n m i l l i o n . The volume c o n t r o l arrangement t o a d j u s t t h e o v e r a l l g a i n i s a potentiometer c o n t r o l of t h e screen- grid v o l t a g e , t h e potentiometer being l o c a t e d i n t h e remote c o n t r o l u n i t .
AIRCRAFT BEACON REC5IVER Z V A F UX.112-A
\

OPERATOR'S R E M O T E CONTRO: U N I T

I V A F UX-240

DETECTOR UX-240

R.F. TUBES SCREEN GRID UX-222

AIRPLANE BEACON RECEIVER

Figure 1 5

Figure 16

Now l e t u s l o o k a t F i g u r e 1 5 . T h i s shows t h e c h a s s i s o f a beacon r e c e i v e r as i t a p p e a r s a f t e r removal of t h e c o v e r . Note how t h e d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s a r e p l a c e d i n s h i e l d e d compartments and a l s o t h e c o n n e c t o r b l o c k ar, t h e l e f t which p r o v i d e s a c o n v e n i e n t means r o r d e t a c h i n g t h e power l e a d s f r o m t h e r e c e i v e r when s e r v i c i n g t h e s e t . I n t h e f o u r s h i e l d e d compartments d i r e c t l y t o t h e rear of t h e vacuum t u b e s a r e f o u r v a r i a b l e t u n i n g c o n d e n s e r s ; t h e s e cannot be s e e n i n t h e p h o t o g r a p h . The t u b e s a r e g r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t v i b r a t i o n by s p r i n g s o c k e t s and " r u b b e r foam t' s k i r t v i b r a t i o n dampers. The beacon r e c e i v e r u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n i s model AR-1286 and i s d e s i g n e d f o r o p e r a t i o n w i t h a p o l e a n t e n n e , The e n t e n n a c o n s i s t s of a b o u t 6 f t , of i n s u l a t e d w i r e which p a s s e s t h r o u g h a s t r e a m l i n e d wooden m a s t o r i n some installations t h e a n t e n n a i t s e l f i s a n a l l - m e t a l mast which i s t h o r o u g h l y i n s u l a t e d where i t e n t e r s t h e f u s e l a g e ; t h i s t y p e i s u s u a l l y e r e c t e d i n beck o f t h e p i l o t ' s c a b i n . The r e c e i v e r p a r t s a r e p r o p e r l y c u s h i o n e d s o t h a t t h e y w i l l s t a n d up u n d e r exc e s s i v e v i b r a t i o n and s h o c k s due t o heavy l a n d i n g s . From t h e photograph i n F i g u r e 1 6 a good i d e a c a n b e had r e g a r d i n g t h e s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s i n v o l v e d t o Lesson 59

s h e e t 18

provide remote control operation in present-day aircraft radio receivers. The receiver and battery supply unit can be located wherever space is available but the remote control box must be mounted within'easy reach of the pilot or operator. A flexible steel shaft which runs through tubing and shielded conductor cables serves as the connecting links between these parts. The tubing is made long enough to reach from the set to the remote control box and highgear ratio is used on the shaft to reduce the "twistw and "back lashw to a rninimum which otherwise might cause difficulty when tuning. The electrical connections necessary between the receiver, the remote control box, and the battery box and landing light battery are made through shielded conductor cables with suitable plugs and jacks at each end for ease in attaching and detaching.

YOU will see in the photograph that the remote control box includes an "ON-OFF" switch, a volume control, a tuning control with calibrated dial and a headphone jack. The indicating dial is equipped with a set of adjustable stops so that the tuning may be limited to a given band, the two pointers being provided so that the operator may mark certain settings if he desires. It is interesting to mention that all of the important letters and figures on the panel are f'illed in with a luminous paint compound to allow the dial markings to be easily read during night flying.
This beacon receiver requires a filament or "A" battery supply of 6 volts, a plate or "BV supply of 45 and 135 volts, and a bias or "C" battery supply of 1.5, 3, and 9 or 27 volts depending on whether a UX-112-A or a WX-171-A tube is used in the output stage. Since it is customary to ohtain the filament supply from the aircraft's landing light battery a series resistor of suitable t value rnust be inserted in this circuit to drop the 12 volts delivered a the battery terminals to the required 5 volts. Provision is made so that a dynamotor-voltage divider combination may be utilized as the source of power for the plates of the tubes. The schematic diagram shows only the circuits of the receiver up to the tern:inal strip; at this point the battery box cable and the cable fromthe remote control unit are attached'to complete the electrical connections. COl!&UNICATION RECYIVER FOR AIRCRAFT. Since a receiver of this type is used for two-way comr~unication with ground stations it is designed to work on the same antenna as the transmitter and is therefore arranged for reception of telephone, W & and signals. Telephone is obviously the quickest and simplest form of communication, but code is also used on the larger planes which carry an operator or observer, Code is the only type of signal that will get through at times when great distances must be covered and in areas where static is unusually heavy. These adverse conditions are met especially along the international airways system. The diagram in Figure 17 is a schematic of the fourtube communication receiver known as model AR-1308 for use in airp1anes.A~ I I the diagram indicates the circuit arrangement is s i ~ p l e and employs only one I stage of radio-frequency amplification, a detector which operates on the prin1 ciple of grid rectification since it is provided with a grid leak and condenser, I and two stages of transformer coupled audio-frequency aniulification.

An output transformer and jack are used into which the pilot's headphones are plugged. As the arrow in the diagram indicates inductive coupling is provided between the antenna and the first tuned circuit, the coupling being adjusted, however, at the time of installation and only for workinc on the high-frequency band, or from 3300 to 6700 kc. It can also be arranged for working in the
Lesson 59

s3eet 19

intermediate frequency band or from240 to 500 kc. The schematic shows that a UX-222 is used in the radio frequency stage, two UX-201-A's used respectively in the detector which employs regeneration and in the first audio stage, and a UX-112-8 in the second audio or output stage. However, provision is made to use either a UX-201-8 or a UX-171-8 in the output stage depending on the output signal voltage desired.

Figure 17 In regard to its outside physical appearance the communication receiver now under discussion and the beacon receiver pictured in Pigure 17 are constructed somewhat alike inasmuch as both receivers are intended for remote control operation. According to latest developments in aircraft receivers, a combination 12 volt landing light battery and a chzrging,generator is preferred for the "Av supply and in this case a resistance must be inserted in series with the source to lower the battery's 12 volts to the 5 volts required for the filament circuit. SHORT-WAVT RADIO REC3IVER FOR GROUND STATIONS (12-80 METERSi. Figure i8 is a diagram of a commercial high-frequency receiver of the latest type which may be used at airport terminals or at any other place for the reception of continuous wave telegraph signals or radio telephony within a frequency raTge of 3750 to 25,000 kc (12-80 meters) which is covered by three sets of plug-in coils. An additional set of coils may be used to cover 1,200 to 3,750 kc, or 80-150 meters. This is the circuit arrangement of a model AR-1496-D receiver

Figure 1 8 Lesson 59

- sheet 20

Figure 19

and as shown it consists of a tuned radio-frequency amplifier stage, a regenerative detector, and a two stage audio-frequency amplifier. A screen-grid four-element tube, UX-222 is used in the radio-frequency amplifier. Considerable radio-frequency gain is secured due to the high amplification factor of the UX-222 tube and, furthermore, the use of this tube eliminates the need for neutralization. The detector uses either a UX-240 or UX-841 tube and functions on the grid rectification principle with regeneration obtainedby the use of a fixed tickler and controlled by a variable by-pass condenser. The detector regeneration circuit is so a&justed that oscillations start and stop smoothly at a11 frequencies within the range. The output of a two stage audio-frequency amplifier employing either two UX-201-A, or UX-210 tubes can be taken directly from the plate circuit or through an output transformer. Note that jacks are provide&. so that two sets of headphones can be used in parallel and, furthermore, they can be plugged into the output of the first audio or the second audio amplifier. Figure 19 shows (1) the input coupling coil, (2) the variable condenser, r-f grid coil, and by-pass condenser, and (3) the detector and audio stages mounted in three separate shielded compartments in the 12-80 meter set. EXAklINATION

LESSON 59

1 (a) !Vho operates radio range beacon stations? ( b ) What is their purpose? . (c) What essential equipment is required in such a station?

2. 3.

How does radio aid air navigation? What is meant by aural-type, and (b) visual-type of radiobeacon signal?

4 Describe a radio rfinge antenna which provides directional radio beams. .

5,
6.

Give the purpose of each essential circuit of a radio range transmitter. Name and describe two types of antennas used for aircraft. Suppose you were a pilot in a one-man plane and wished to follow a given airway, how would you make use of the aural type of radiobeacon as a guide? What methods are employed to obtain power for an aircraft transmitter? What special features are found in aircraft radio receivers?

7.
8.
,

9 .

10. (a) Explain what "bondingw means. (b) What means are employed to overcome electrical interference caused by airplane motors? Lesson 59

- sheet 21

hnical Lesson 5 9 -A

I(

Two-wav communication in aviation reauires that the equipment and co

A general discussion of the relationship of the various eircuits in an aircraft transmitter will show how many of the radio principles which you have already studied are applied in practice, such as vacuum tube oscillating circuits, how power is obtained for energizing the vacuum tubes and so on. In the following paragraphs we will explain the purpose of these eircuits and also the special features which are peculiar to aviation equipment.

Let us first consider the crystal oscillator. This unit is assembled in an isolantite holder provided with three prongs in the base for connection to the ground, heater, and thermometer contacts and is designed to plug into a socket similar to one which is ordinarily used to hold a vacuum tube. There is a terminal on the top for connection to the grid of the os.cillator tube. The quartz crystal oscillator is clamped firmly between two metal electrodes, one of which is held at a temperature of 55 degrees centigrade by an imbedded electrical heater. The heater is controlled automatically by a thermostat of the mercury-column, contact-making type. The 'temperature control device consists of a cylindrical metal shell, a resistance unit and the contact-making thermometer, and the whole unit operates to control the heat as follows: The thermometer contacts which are short-circuited by the mercury-column at the operating temperature operate a relay which in turn controls the amount of current passing through the wire of the heater element. One end of the shell forms one contact surface for the crystal as is clearly shown in the diagram . in Figure 1 This crystal is used to control the frequency of the oscillations which are generated when the crystal is connectedto a vacuum tube,that is,to the 5 watt oscillator in the circuit diagram'. The crystal is very carefully ground to give it the proper thickness so that the oscillations genera.ted by it will have a carrier frequency which is one-half of the frequency used to radiate for commmlication purposes. Our students should understand that a vacuum tube circuit can be adjusted to produce.several strong harmonics along with its fundamental, and that one of the harmonics will be selected by an associate oscillatory circuit when the latter is made resonant to that particular ha monic frequency. . .
!

.....

: . .

..

......

-.-,,

-..

.......... *.

Lesson 59-A, ., , . sh ,. .
,

Figure 2 Figure 2 is a photograph of the interior of the airplane transmitter under discussion; this view clearly illustrates the position of the crystal holder and the grid connection to the grid of one of the 5 watt tubes. To continue our explanation, a 1050 volt circuit leading from the generator end of the dynamotor, shown in the lower part of the diagram, furnishes the d-c plate voltage required for the 5 matt oscillator tube, but since this voltage is much higher than that required. for a 5 watt tube it must be lowered and this is acconplished by causing the plate current to flow through a series resistance. The drop in voltage obtained across this plate resistor equals the value of its resistance in ohms multiplied by the amount of plate Lesson 59-A

sheet 3

current in amperes passing through it. Also, you will notice a condenser inserted between the low side of this resistor and one side of the filament, which if you trace out the circuit shows that the series resistance and condenser together form a radio-frequency circuit from plate to ground. In the grid circuit of the next tube marked "doublerH, there is a tapped coil which provides the necessary plate inductive reactance for the tube and its associated circuits to oscillate. The osoillator is controlled for simplex operation of the transmitter by a relay which short-circuits the grid coil just mentioned when the transmitter is not in use, this being the position the relay occupies in the diagram. In this transmitter the plate of the oscillator is coupled to the grid of the second 5 watt tube or "doublern by means of a condenser called a "stopping" condenser. The grid circuit of the HdoublerH is untuned and the r-f energy is transferred from the plate of the oscillator through the stopping condenser, the latter being used to prevent the d-c plate voltage of the first tube from being applied directly to the grid of the second tube. This tube in the frequency doubler circuit is given a high negative grid bias provided by a grid leak resistance in addition to the usual bias voltage which is obtained by connecting the grid return to one end of a tapped resistor shown in the lower center part of the diagram, the other end of the resistor being connected to the filament. In addition to the doubler circuit fulfilling the function of providing a desired harmonic which becomes the "carrier," it also amplifies this high-frequency energy to a certain extent as determined by the normal amplifying properties which are common to the action of every vacuum tube. By this we mean that for a given amount of operating voltage applied to the grid there is always produced in the plate circuit a current which fluctuates in greater proportion than the grid voltage which caused the action. The plate circuit of the second tube is tuned to the double frequency and is coupled by a split coil to the grid of the modulating amplifier which is the s third tube. Positive plate voltage forthe second tube i obtained from the high voltage d-c dynamotor through a series resistor,as indicated in the diagram,in order to drop the voltage to the required value. Now that we have the required transmitting frequency provided by the doubler circuit, then it is only necessary to step up the power of the oscillations to increase the transmitting range and to cause them to be modulated according to the voice currents resulting from the sound waves which strike the microphone diaphran when it is spoken into. Both of these functions are performed by the third or final tube in the radio-frequency portion of the transmitter. This is known as the modulating power amplifier. The output of the doubler tube excites the grid circuit of the final radiofrequency amplifier, which is a 50 watt tube,and It delivers a carrier power of 50 watts to the antenna circuit through an antenna coupling transformer marked ACT in the diagram in Figure 1 . This final stage of amplification is neutralized to prevent self-oscillation in this circuit, the neutralizing adjustment being made by a variable condenser marked NC. The plate supply to this final stage is modulated by the introduction into its plate circuit of the speech frequency output of three 50 watt vacuum tubes connected in parallel. This series of tubes comprises the audio-frequency portion of the transmitter. The grids of the three audio amplifiers arefed from the output of the airplane microphone through an input transformer, and the transfer

of the audio-frequency power f r o m t h e s e a m p l i f i e r s t o t h e plate circuit of the radio-frequency amplifier is through the transformer MT previously mentioned. Because of the small space available for radio equipment and the necessity 'for keeping the carrying weight,of the ?lane down to a uiinimum, this entire transmitter has been very compactly designed as the -photograph indicates. Its dimensions are approximately 17n high, 16" wide, and 12" deep, while its weight including tubes is only a little more than 32 lbs.

HOW POYLTR SUPPLY IS OBTAIKED. Two of the most difficult problems encountered in aircraft radio equipment are the source of power and the antenna system for the transmitter. We will first discuss the source of power. There are three methods that can be used to obtain the requisite voltages for the tubes in the transmitter and receiver. These methods are: (a) An engine-driven generator, (b) a wind-driven generator, and ( c ) a dynamotor used in conjunction with a storage battery, Airplanes operated by the various air transport systems carry passengers, mail, and express and, therefore, if the operation of a nlane is to be financially profitable consideration must be given to the "pay loadw, hence, all loads which do not produce a revenue must be necessarily limited. Aside from the fact t r i the radio eouipnent must be light in weight and compactly hnt built there is the problem of voltage regulation which must be considered in the case of power supply when either a wind-driven generator or an engine-driven generator is used.

Figure 3

In the photograph in Figure 3 you see a wind-driven generator fastened to the

struts of a plane. The generator is equipped with a single blade selfregulating propeller.
A brief'outline of the rnain considerations applying to each method for obtain-

ing radio power is given in the following paragraphs.

(A)

When an enpine-driven generator is employed the plate supply for the transmitter is obtained from a generator geared to the airplane engine. Special control must be profided to maintain constant voltage automaticelly at all engine speeds. Lesson 59-A

sheet 5

For a transmitter of the type described in this lesson, 1050 volts would be taken from the plate supply, while the regular airpl-,?e battery floated across the low potential supply would furnish about 12 or 1 volts which would be used for heating the cathodes and the 4 filaments of the tubes, and to supply current to the hezter element of the thermostat control.

(E)

In the case of a wind-driven generator both the high and low voltages. or the plate and filament volte~es.are sumlied bv the genera- . tor, and it is therefore called a double-voltage enerator. since it must be installed outside the plane it is housed in a streamlined case. The generator is driven by the action of the wind on a small, constant speed propeller, the latter being self-regulating with a starting torque such thst any airplane speed in excess of seventy miles an hour is sufficient to cause the generator to come up to speed and deliver its rated output voltages. A double-voltage generator has two commutators and if used for this particular airplane set the generator would be designed for a low-voltage output of 20 amperes at 12 volts, and a high-voltage output of 0.4 amperes (400 milliamperes 8 at 1050 volts.One type of wind-driven generator is shown in Figure 4 .
h

( C ) With the third method a light-weight dynamotor is used for the plate supply. The dynamotor is operated from a twelve volt battery, which directly supplies the filaments of the tubes. A 12-15 volt, 50 ampere generator connected to the engine of the plane is necessary in order to keep the battery charged. Figure 4B shows a typical dynamotor.
In this transmitter the dynamotor method is utilized and a power plug for the transmitter is provided with three pins. Two of these are guide pins and the third is a locking- pin. The locking pin is located diametrically opposite the two guide pins. After the plug is inserted in the socket, a turn of the knurled ring on the outside of the plug locks the plug securely. While anyone of the above methods may be used, the one in ( C ) appears the most practical since with a battery and dynamotor routine testing would be simplified and, furthermore, a pilot would be able to transmit from a forced landing. This type of power supply would include two small dynamotors, one for lorn-voltage plate supply for receiving tubes, and One for high-voltage plate supply for transmitting tubes. A 12 volt airplane battery operates the dynamotors and, also, supplies the filaments. Each dynamotor has two commutators and two sets of windings on its armature, one for the generator and the other for the motor.

Figure 4A

Figure 4B Lesson 59-A

1,

sheet 6

In order to e l m m a t e the commutator ripple of a generator, which is caused by sparking at the brushes, a filter system must be used. This consists of a high-voltage condenser connected in parallel to the high-tension d-c winding of the generator and a choke coil, the latter b e i w inserted, however, directly in series with t h e f B line which is the positive lead feeding the plates of the tubes. If the ripple is not filtered properly it becomes not only a source oP annoyance due to the continual humming sound heard in the phones, but it may set up so much noise that the voices might be "drowned out", or made inaudible, and in this event the telephone reception would be poor and unsatisfactory. Just how the choke and condenser are connected in the circuit is also' shown in Figure 1 . Reference to the transmitter diegram in Figure 1 shows that the filanents of the two 5 watt tubes, marked woscillator" and "doubler," are in series which permits them to be connected across the battery supply, while all the other filaments, or those in the 50 watt tubes are in parallel. At a voltage of between 10-14 volts the battery sunplies a total filament current of approxinately 15 amperes to the transmitting tubes.

TEE AJTTEEPJL FOR THZ AIR?LAiVE, Now, having discussed the different sources of Dower aossible for an aircraft radio set, ve will explain the operation of the i iraili;zg Ijrue of antelca, since this is the tyce which gives the greatest range for transnilsslon purGoses. Many planes use a fixed antenna which may be erected either in a vertical or horizontal position between the wing tips, or in some other mannFr and, while this t~ypehas proven good for reception, yet it considerably limits the transmission range. The radio transmitter described in this lesson operates most efficiently with.a trailing wire antenna, and this requires the installation of an antenna reel and guide in the pilotf& cabin of the airplane. A n insulated reel like the one shown in Figure 5 has been developed for use in paying out and drawing in the trailing wire antenna. The reel may be installed at any place in the fuselage convenient for the pilot or operator. It is equipped with a centrifugal brake to maintain uniform sweed in paying out the antenna, and also a friction brake which holds the antenna to any given length, and a dial which gives approximate readings in meters indicating the length of the antenna wire out at any time. The antenna runs from the reel, through an insulated tube, shown in Figure 6 , to the fairlead or gui5e which projects above and below the floor of the fuselage. There

Figure 5

Figure 6 Lesson 59-8

'

sheet7

is a chamber at the top of the guide containing a steep pitched pulley wheel which grips the antenna tightly, thus insuring a good contact at all times. & insulated antenna lead from the transmitter passes through an opening in I the side of the chamber and makes positive brush contact with the axle of the pulley wheel over which the antenna passes. At the lower part of the photograph in Figure 5 you can see the knob on the crank which is used to reel in the wire when a landing is to be made, while at the top is shown the brake lever. There is always a compromise between using an antenna of the fixed type with its limited range of radio communication and an antenna of the trailing type du, to the fact that in one case the antenna is always in a fixed position and, therefore, requires no attention on the part of the pilot or operator, whereas, in the other case, it does require a certain amount of attention. However, regardless of what type of antenna is used for aircraft, special care must be exercised to prevent the wire from becoming detached or breaking off in flight which might possibly result in its becoming entangled with the control cables of the plane. It is quite obvious that if the control cables ever become fouled from this cause it might result in a serious catastrophe. If it is desired to use a fixed vertical antenna in preference to the trailing wire, this may be accomplished by using a tuning unit designed to couple the transmitter into the antenna. By referring to the phantom view of a complete two-way aircraft communication system, further on in this lesson, you can grasp the idea of how a vertical antenna, also called pole antenna, or strut antenna,is mounted permanently midway between the f'uselage and tail. SHORT-WAVE RADTO RECEIVER FOR THE PLANE. The radio receiver has in all six tubes which are of the Western Electric tme. The first three tubes and their associated circuits constitute a radio-frkuency amplifier, and the fourth tube is a space charge detector tube. These tubes are of the four-electrode variety pr screen grid type 245-A. Following the detector we have the fifth tube which is a three-electrode tube type 244-A, which functions as an audio-frequenov amplifier. Another tube , a 6-8 ballast lamp, is used to keep the filament current constant regardless of normal supply voltage variations. The receiver cathodes and filaments are heated by the plane's 12 volt battery, while the plate voltage is taken from the d-c output of the dynamotor. Notice in the schematic diagram of the aircraft receiver in Figure 7 how the filaments of all the tubes are connected in a series arrangement so that each filament will receive its proper terminal voltage when the entire series is placed across the 12 volt battery, The plate potential supplied to this set is 200 to 220 volts. The diagram shows that there are three tuned radio-frequency circuits; these are adjusted simultaneously to any desired frequency, within certain limits, by a gang construction of the rotor plates of the variable condensers, and they are operated from a remote tuning control unit. The variable condensers are connected across the secondaries of the r-f transformers, or tuning coil assemblies,which are made to plug into sockets similar to those provided for vacuum tubes. In this receiver there are three sets of r-f coils available to cover a frequency band of from 1500 to 6000 kilocycles, or from 200 to 50 meters. An antenna circuit of the untuned or fixed type is employed and it is designed to give some voltage step-up of the signal energy picked up by the antenna and also to reduce the effect of this receiver upon the long-wave receiver when bridged to use the same antenna. Additional selectivity is provided to Lesson 59-A

sheet 8
4

elfminate interference from high-powered broadcasting stations which are for most of the time "on the airn transmitting at frequencies outside the aircraft band.

It is to be understood that the long-wave receiver just mentioned is the one used by the pilot to receive the radio range beacon signals and weather forecast which assist him in flying along one of the civil airways, while the short wave receiver which is now under discussion in this lesson is used only to pick up messages sent out by the ground stations of the transport air companies who operate commercial planes.

Figure 7

Qain refer to the receiver diagram above and note how a switch and taps marked L, M, and H (low, medium, and high) are provided in the input circuit to the first tube in order to adjust this circuit according to the particular r-f coil used, and its coverage of a certain frequency band. This circuit functions similarly to other input circuits insofar as the oscillating signal current set up a fluctuating voltage which is impressed between the control grid and cathod1 of the first tube.

Adequate shielding of the circuit elements and the tuning coils is provided by mounting the parts in individual copper shielded containers or cans, the shield. ing being represented in the diagram by dashed or broken lines. Thorough shielc ing of the parts is necessary because of the use of screen grid tubes. The whole receiver assembly is covered with an easily removable aluminum case as shown in the illustration in Figure 8, and in this photograph you can also see how the remote tuning control is attached to a length of tubing through which runs a flexible shaft.

The high sensitivity of a receiver of this kind is made possible by the wonderful amplifying properties of the screen grid tubes used in the r-f stages. These permit extremely weak signals which may be picked up by the antenna to be boosted sufficiently to give a satisfactory volume of sound in the headphones down t c what is known as normal static level. It is to be understood, of course, that how well voice signals are heard in an airplane by a pilot or observer depends Lesson 59-A

sheet 9

upon the magnitude of all extraneous noises originating from within or without the receiver itself; these include noises set up by static, ignition, motor, propeller, and so on. A receiver of this kind is built so compact and light in construction that it weighs only about 16 lbs.

Figure 8 Before ending our explanation of the aircraft receiver, let us explain what is meant by a space charge detector tube. l7hen a screen grid tube is used as a space charge grid tube its usual connections to the grids are reversed. A glance at the diagram shows that the normal screening grid- the one next to the plate- is used in the detector as the control grid or the one to which the signal voltages are applied, and the other grid- the one closest to the filament-is supplied with a positive voltage. With this change of connection the tube would not function well as an r-f amplifier since the screening effect is lost and potential variations in the plate circuit could then effect the grid. The advantage of this connection for a detector is to give it a lower plate resistance which results in a large amplification factor. When a tube is to be used as an amplifier it is operated on some part of the flat portion of its characteristic curve, or plate current-plate voltage curve, but when it is to be used as a detector it is worked at some place on the curved portion which we call the knee or bend.

A few words explaining what the expression "space charge" means will now be
given. Going back to your study of the action taking place within a vacuum tube you will recall that during normal operation when the filament is heated and the plate is furnished with a positive voltage that many of the electrons are attracted by the plate because of its positive potential. Any electrons which strike the plate pass entirely through the plate circuit and constitute a current flow or the tube's plate current; also, there are a few electrons Lesson 59-A

sheet 10

which never g e t v e r y P a r f r o = t h e f i l a m e n t i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , and some of t h e s e a r e p u l l e d back by t h e f i l a m e n f because i t n a t u r a l l y a t t r a c t s e l e c t r o n s s i n c e i t i s t h e s o u r c e of t h e s u p p l y ; t h e n a g a i n , t h e r e a r e a g r e a t nwnber of e l e c t r o n s which f i l l up t h e s p a c e i n t h e t u b e b e t w e e n f i l a m e n t and p l a t e v e r y much l i k e a cloud o n f o g and i t i s t h e s e e l e c t r o n s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e "space charge." Thus, i t i s e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e c o n t r o l g r i d of t h i s d e t e c t o r t u b e o c c u p i e s a p o s i t i o n i n a cloud of e l e c t r o n s , and t h e r e f o r e t h e s e e l e c t r o n s which r e a c h t h e p l a t e a d c o n s t i t u t e t h e ? l a t e c u r r e n t rnust of n e c e s s i t y f i r s t e n c o u n t e r t h i s cloud of e l e c t r o n s o r s p a c e charge. F o r s i m p l i f y i n g , t h e f o r e g o i n g e x p l a n e t i o c we r e f e r r e d t o t h e f i l a m e n t a s t h e s o u r c e of e l e c t r o n s and w h i l e t h i s would b e t r u e f o r a n o r d i n a r y vacuum t u b e , t h e s t u d e n t s h o u l d remember t h a t t h e f i l a m e n t of t h e s c r e e n g r i d t u b e i n t h i s s e t i s used mereljr t o h e a t a m e t a l l i c s h e a t h i n t h e form of a c y l i n d e r which i s t h e c a t h o d e . cathode e m i t s t h e e l e c t r o n s and n o t t h e filsT h e r e f o r e . s t r i c t l y s -~ e a k i n g ~ t h e ~ e n t . his, however, does n o t e f f e c t o u r space charge e x p l a n a t i o n .

------ RELAY

SET

CONTROL UNITS CONTROL UNITS

- - - - - _ _ - - - DYNAMOTOR

Figure 9 The q u e s t i o n a r i s e s i n a i r c r a f t i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h e d i s p o s a l of t h e s e p a r a t e u n i t s which make i t n e c c e s s a r y t o l o c a t e t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g and r e c e i v i n g s e t s wherever p o s s i b l e i n t h e p l a n e . However, t h e r a 2 i o c o n t r o l s must be d e s i g n e d i n a c o n v e n i e n t form f o r mounting w i t h i n e a s y r e a c h of t h e p i l o t i n a one-man p l a n e , o r n e a r t h e c o - p i l o t i n t h e l a r g e r t r a n s p o r t p l a n e s which c a r r y a p i l o t and a c o - p i l o t . I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e t h e p i l o t i s u s u a l l y Lesson 59- A

REMOTE CONTROL.

sheet 1 1

v e r y busy watching t h e v a r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s t o maneuver t h e p l a n e , e s p e c i a l l y i n f o g g y and stormy weather when t h e r a d i o o f f e r s i t s g r e a t e s t a i d . A good i d e a o f a t y p i c a l a i r c r a f t i n s t a l l a t i o n f o r two-way communication i s p r e s e n t e d by t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n i n F i g u r e 9. Some of t h e c m p o n e n t s of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and r e c e i v e r a r e mounted i n t h e r e a r while a l l t h e c o n t r o l s a r e p l a c e d i n t h e p i l o t ' s c a b i n and c l o s e by a r e t h e dynanlotors and s t o r a g e b a t t e r y . A l l u n i t s must b e c a r e f u l l y cushioned t o p r o t e c t them from p l a n e v i b r a t i o n s i n f l i g h t o r from shocks when making a heavy l a n d i n g .

Figure 10 The photograph i n F i g u r e 1 0 i s one l o o k i n g i n t o t h e c o c k p i t o f a l a r g e t r a n s p o r t p l a n e . A c a r e f u l coniparison s h o u l d be made between t h e c o n t r o l u n i t s p l a c e d i n t h e c o c k p i t i n F i g u r e 9 which a r e c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d and t h e a c t u a l p a r t s themselves a p p e a r i n g i n t h e photograph i n F i g u r e 1 0 . It can be s e e n t h a t t h e c o - p i l o t w i l l have c h a r g e of t h e t u n i n g c o n t r o l s and a n t e n n a r e e l . The r e e l is shown d i r e c t l y i n back o f t h e r i g h t - h a n d wheel. Above t h e r e e l i s a jack Lesson 59- A

sheet 12

box into which are plugged the microphone and telephone headset; the latter two instruments are shown resting on the seat. At the upper left of the wheel are the two remote tuning cont,rolsfor the tuning of the long-wave and shortwave receivers, and at the extreme left below the instrument board are the main control switch and the two remote volume control units, one for each receiver. The following paragraphs explain about these controls in more detail. Each remote tuning control unit is equipped with a luminous dial and gears operate the flexible shaft at a speed 264 times that of the condenser shaft; this is to reduce the lost motion in this drive to a negligible amount. The volume of reception, or gain in signa1,is controlled by a volume control unii which is a tapered potentiometer as shown in Figure 7; all of the screen grids cbnnect to its movable arm thus permitting changes to be made in screen grid voltage over a given range, and this in turn governs signal amplification. The main switch of the radio equipment is called a master control switch and is used to turn the power supply on and off to the long-wave and short-wave receivers and transmitter when dynamotors are employed for power supply. This switch functions as follows: In the first position, marked nOFFn,obviously the circuits are inactive. In the second position, markedMR",which is normal in flight, the storage battery is connected to the receiving tube filaments and, besides, the dynamotor used to supply plate voltage to these tubes and the heater circuit of the quartz-crystal chanber of the radio transmitter are energized. The dynamotor for this receiver operates on an input of 3 to 3.8 amperes at 12 volts with an output of .05 amp. (50 milliamperes) at 200 to 220 volts. In the third position, "T-R", the action in the second position is repeated; also, all power circuits are then ready for sending or receiving since the filaments of the radio transmitter tubes are energized and the dynamotor furnishing the plate supply to the transmitter tubes is started. When the pilot is ready to transmit it is Only necessary for him to start oscil. lations in the radio transmitter by merely pressing a push button or key locat ed in some convenient position; the button actuates relays which perform all necessary switching functions. With the key open there is no radiation from th~ transmitter. Thus, during a conversation between a pilot and the operator in the ground station the push button is pressed while talking and released while button is made in three types, one for listening. This "talkn and tflisten" mounting on the end of the flstick,n another for mounting on a flat surface, and still another which is incorporated with the microphone; the last type is the one illustrated in Figure 10. A comvlete telephone set consists of a microphone, telephone receivers, cord and n l n a. Sets .- this kind are made UD for use with a helmet to be worn by . - - . - - - - of . the pilots of one-man planes. T O enabl; the pilot to use both hands in theogeration of the plane the microuhone is mounted on a swivel, and when not in use it can be s m n g over the pilot's head or under his chin. When there are a pilot and co-pilot, either one of two headsets may be used with the nsilencer" type telephone transmitter or microphone. It is possible to shut out a considerable amount of interference set up especially by noisy airplane motors by careful design of the flying helmet. This will insure that the pilot's speech will be understood when reproduced by the ground station receiver and that the pilot will hear the messages sent to him. One type of microphone like the one in the photograph in Figure 10 is equipped with a soft rubber mouthpiece which is held tightly to the lips, and the microphone itself is especially made so
I

--

Lesson 59-8

sheet 13

that its diaphragm will readily respond or vibrate when voice air waves strike it directly, but outside propeller noises will have practically no effect on it. Also, in this photograph you see telephone receivers which are of the watchcase type with a headband, but it should be mentioned that a special headset is made for aviation purposes. The latter headset consists of small moulded earpieces known as phonettes, weighing less than an ounce and which fit snugly into the ears.

RADIO TRANSMITTER FOR THE GROUND STATION. TO carry on two-ray communication the ground station is equipped essentially with a radio transmitter, a radio receiver, power supply equipment, microphone and telephone headset, and the usual provisions for regulating volume, and switches for controlling the power sunnlied to the various circuits. An examination of the schematic circuit of .the transmitter and rectifier in Figure 11 shows that with the exception of a power amplifier the circuits of the transmitter proper are in many respects similar to those in the aircraft transmitter which have already been described.
L

Figure 11

Of course, in the ground transmitter a power amplifier increases the transmitting range. And, in addition, a rectifier and a suitable filter system are required in order to rectify the alternating current supplied from outside mains and to smooth the rectified a-c into a practically non-fluctuating direct current for energizing the plates of the tubes. In this transmitter the filaments are supplied with a-c of the proper voltage from a step-down transformer, marked FT. The following is a explanation of the special features involved n in the ground transmitter.
Lesson 59-A

sheet 1 4

An i n t e r i o r view of t h e ground t r a n s m i t t e r i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1 2 . T h i s t r a n s m i t t e r c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y of a t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l l e d q u a r t z c r y s t a l o s c i l l a t o r , a f r e q u e n c y d o u b l e r , a modulating a m p l i f i e r , and audio- frequency a m p l i f i e r , and a power a m p l i f i e r ; t h e power a m p l i f i e r havine; been added t o i n c r e a s e t h e o u t p u t power s u p p l y t o t h e antenna. The vacuum t u b e s used i n t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r a r e a l l of t h e Western E l e c t r i c t y p e . The o s c i l l a t o r u s e s a 5 w a t t vacuum t u b e , c o n t r o l l e d i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t by a q u a r t z c r y s t a l s i m i l a r t o t h a t used i n t h e a i r p l a n e t r a n s m i t t e r . The q u a r t z c r y s t a l i s o p e r a t e d a t h a l f t h e d e s i r e d frequency and a second 5 w a t t vacuum t u b e w i t h a h i g h n e g a t i v e g r i d b i a s i s used t o produce harmonics, t h e second harmonic b e i n g s e l e c t e d i n t h e p l a t e

Figure 12 c i r c u i t o f t h i s t u b e and t h e n impressed on t h e g r i d o f a 50 m a t t m o d u l a t i n a a m p l i f i e r tube. The c i r c u i t arrangement o f t h e a u d i o - f r e ~ ~ e n ca m n l i f i e r y ort ti on of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r r e q u i r e s t h r e e 50 watt t u b e s connected i n p a r a l l e l . The a u d i o o u t p u t of t h e s e t u b e s f e e d s through a t r a n s f o r m e r , marked MT i n t h e diagram, and c a u s e s t h e a m p l i t u d e s of t h e high- frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s p r e s e n t i n

Lesson 59- A

s h e e t 15

t h a t c i r c u i t t o undergo a v a r i a t i o n i n a m p l i t u d e s i m i l a r t o t h e v o i c e waves i m p r e s s e d on t h e microphone connected t o t h e s p e e c h i n p u t c i r c u i t . The l a r g e t u b e i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e p h o t o g r a p h i s t h e r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y power a m p l i f i e r which o p e r a t e s w i t h a p l a t e p o t e n t i a l of 2500 v o l t s . The modulated c a r r i e r f r quency i s t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e o u t p u t of t h i s t u b e t o t h e a n t e n n a t h r o u g h a fec l i n e and c o n d e n s e r ; t h i s t y p e of c o u p l i n g e f f e c t i v e l y s u p p r e s s e s harmonics. '?'he o u t p u t of t h e r e c t i f i e r s u p p l i e s a h i ~ h o t e n t i a l of 2500 v o l t s d- c f o r the p power a m p l i f i e r p l a t e , and a low p o t e n t i a l of 1000 v o l t s ' d - c f o r p l a t e s u p p l y t o o t h e r t u b e s , a n d p i d b i a s p o t e n t i a l s o f - 5 5 and- 200 v o l t s . On t h e f r o n t p a n e l a r e t h r e e m e t e r s f o r measuring t h e s e p o t e n t i a l s . A l s o , 1 0 v o l t s a- c i s s u p p l i e d f o r f i l a m e n t s . The power r a t i n g o f t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r i s 400 w a t t s .

F o r reception a t t h e ground s t a t i o n a short- wave r e c e i v e r i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e or i n t h e a i r p l a n e i s u s e d , and employs a similar volume c o n t r o l , b u t t h e t u n i n g d i a l i s mounted on t h e f r o n t o f t h e p a n e l . A d e s k s t a n d microphone v e r y s i m i l t o t h e s t a n d a r d t e l e p h o n e i n s t r u m e n t i s used f o r p i c k i n g up t h e v o i c e of t h e s t a t i o n ' s o p e r a t o r . To summarize t h i s l e s s o n it can b e s a i d t h a t any s y s t e m 'which p e r m i t s two-way communication i s o b v i o u s l y a d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g e b e c a u s e t h e p i l o t of a p l a n e and t h e p e r s o n n e l i n ground s t a t i o n s can remain i n c o n t a c l v i a radio. EXAMINATION
1.
2.

LESSON 59-8

Name and g i v e a b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n of each tube c i r c u i t i n t h e Western E l e c t r i c short- wave a i r c r a f t t r a n s m i t t e r d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s l e s s o n . What a r e t h e a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f two t y p e s of a n t e n n a s used for aircraft? You know t h a t power can be g e n e r a t e d f o r a n a i r c r a f t r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r and r e c e i v e r by d i f f e r e n t methods. What a r e t h e y and e x p l a i n t h e a d v a n t a g e s o r disadvantages i n each? ( a ) How i s t h e a i r c r a f t r e c e i v e r t u n e d a n d , ( b ) how i s volume r e g u l a t e d ? Why i s a s t o r a g e b a t t e r y u s e d i n t h i s equipment and how i s i t charged? F o r t h i s equipment what i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e o u t p u t r a t i n g of t h e dynamotor u s e d f o r p l a t e s u p p l y of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r t u b e s , and t h e dynamotor used f o r p l a t e s u p p l y o f t h e r e c e i v i n g t u b e s ? E x p l a i n how p l a t e v o l t a g e and f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e a r e o b t a i n e d f o r t h e t u b e s i n t h e ground t r a n s m i t t e r .

3.

4.
5.
6.

7.

8.
9.

If you were f l y i n g a l o n g a n a i r w a y and d e s i r e d t o p l a c e t h e r a d i o I n r e a d i n e s s f o r two-way communication what would you do?

( a ) What makes it p o s s i b l e t o a l t e r n a t e l y " t a l k n and " l i s t e n " i n t h e

o p e r a t i o n o f an a i r c r a f t r a d i o s e t ? ( b ) How i s t h e t r a n s m i t t e d wave m a i n t a i n e d a t t h e a s s i g n e d frequency?

, 10.

From t h i s l e s s o n name and d e o c r i b e t h e r a d i o equipment i n s t a l l e d i n t h e c a b i n of a p l a n e c a r r y i n g a p i l o t and c o - p i l o t f o r two-way communication. Lesson 59-A

s h e e t 16
fi

firme)-hj

.
~

MARCON/ /NST/TUTE

Sunded.N O 9

nical Lesson 60
VACUUM TUBES USED I N TRANSItITTING

we$,'

e fundamental p r i n c i p l e of operation of a l l t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e vacuum tubes a l i k e even though t h e i r p h y s i c a l appearances may d i f f e r . Thus, t h e varu s types of t r a n s m i t t i n g power tubes and small r e c e i v i n g t u b e s operate s i m i l a r l y when used f o r t h e same purpose; a s forbexample, a l l tubes f u n c t i o n a l i k e when used a s a m p l i f i e r s .
?

he development of power vacuum tubes has kept pace w i t h t h e demands f o r a rcentage of e f f i c i e n c y i n the o p e r a t i o n of a l l equipment used i n r a d i o c a t i o n , both i n the f i e l d of t e l e g r a p h y and telephony. A l l power e s a r e r a t e d f o r t h e i r power output. I n t h e following paragraphs w w i l l e e a t on t h e various tubes from t h e s m a l l e s t one which i s accorded a place t h e power c l a s s , t h e 7.5 watt type, upward and i n c l u d i n g t h e water cooled ype r a t e d a t 20 k i l o w a t t s .
r e d e a l i n g with any s p e c i f i c types we w i l l review some important f e a t u r e s r d i n g vacuum t u b e s i n g e n e r a l and e s p e c i a l l y ab6ut power r a t i n g . ee c i r c u i t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t h r e e - e l e c t r o d e t u b e a r e designated l e t t e r s A , B and C. These c i r c u i t s a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e f i l a m e n t , the normal o p e r a t i o n of a tube t h e g r i d and p l a t e become e l e c t r i c a l l y d bodies a n l s i n c e they a r e suspended w i t h i n t h e g l a s s envelope i n t i o n surrounding and f a c i n g the f i l a m e n t b o t h g r i d and p l a t e n e c e s s a r i l y t h e i r i n d l v i d u a l i n f l u e n c e s upon t h e e l e c t r o n s given off by t h e f i l a Remember t h a t any e l e c t r o n e j e c t e d by t h e f i l a m e n t i s a c t u a l l y i n f r e e space and being a negative charged p a r t i c l e it i s s u b j e c t t o t h e nce of any body w i t h an e l e c t r i c charge upon i t , f o r such bodies s e t e c t r o s t a t i c l i n e s of f o r c e between themselves and o t h e r .bodies. It w i l l ed t h a t the ends of t h e g r i d and p l a t e c i r c u i t s o u t s i d e of the tube a r e a t t a c h e d t o some s p e c i f i e d point along t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t . These ions a r e c a l l e d t h e g r i d and p l a t e ~ . e t u r nl e a d s and r e p r e s e n t t h e low or low p o t e n t i a l s i d e of t h e vacuum tube c i r c u i t . Thus, i n t r a c i n g complete c o n t i n u i t y of e i t h e r t h e g r i d o r p l a t e c i r c u i t s , we would t t h e y embrace p a r t of t h e filament. Consequently, t h e current flowi t h e r t h e g r i d o r p l a t e must complete I t s p a t h through t h e filament through t h e vacuous space w i t h i n t h e tube by v i r t u e of t h e e l e c t r o n s . r i n g t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t alone i t i s easy t o see t h a t i t i s simply ive c i r c u i t o r w may c a l l i t a c l o s e d m e t a l l i c c i r c u i t through e h e a t i n g c u r r e n t flows. "A* c i r c u i t i n c l u d e s , i n g e n e r a l , a r h e o s t s t o r f i x e d r e s i s t o r voltage a t the fil'ament t e r m i n a l s , and t h e r e i s a l s o t h e s a r y t o provide the, electro- motive f o r c e . I n many c a s e s t h i s

source of e.m.f. c o n s i s t s of a s t o r a g e b a t t e r y o r if t h e f i l a m e n t i s heated w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g ' c u r r e n t , t h e b a t t e r y i s replaced and t h e f i l a m e n t i s a t t a c h e d t o a low voltage c o i l on a power transformer. O r i n c e r t a i n t y p e s of c o m e r c i a l t r a n s m i t t e r s , s l i p r i n g s are supplied on t h e armature of t h e The f i l a motor-generator s e t t o c o l l e c t t h e r e q u i s i t e a l t e r n a t i n g e.m.f. ment, w may t h e n sax, i s t h e e l e c t r o n e m i t t i n g e l e c t r o d e and it i s a l s o e know as the "cathode

The p l a t e o r "B" c i r c u i t includes, i n general, a "BR b a t t e r y , or a d-c generator t o supply p l a t e voltage, and i n the m a j o r i t y of comKercial equipment a p l a t e voltage r h e o s t a t i s a l s o supplied. Ia some cases t h e d-c. output of a r e c t i f i e r device i s used t o f u r n i s h p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n . The p l a t e i s t h e p o s i t i v e l y charged e l e c t r o d e i n t h e tube and i t i s t h e r e f o r e c a l l e d t h e "anoden. llle have mentioned heretofore t h a t t h e p l a t e M c t i o n s t o a t t r a c t the emitted e l e c t r o n s and so, when t h e g r i d i s e x c i t e d w i t h a f l u c t u a t i n g voltage, t h e e l e c t r o n flow i s varied and t h u s t h e p l a t e i n our tube s e r v e s t o supply a f l u c t u a t i n g or a p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t c u r r e n t t o operate any device i n s e r t e d i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t . The device we r e f e r t o may t a k e t h e form of an inductance, or transformer, o r r e s i s t o r . Such a device c o n s t i t u t e s t h e "load" on t h e vacuum tube. Power i s r e q u i r e d t o operate t h e load d e v i c e i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t and hence t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t i s known a s t h e "output" circuit. Next we have t h e g r i d o r "C" c i r c u i t which i s known a s t h e " input" c i r c u i t . The g r i d c i r c u i t i s s o named because t h e g r i d r e c e i v e s i t s e x c i t a t i o n v o l t a g e s from the c u r r e n t s flowing through t h i s c i r c u i t which i s always connected between g r i d and filament. The g r i d c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of e i t h e r tuning elements, an inductance and condenser f o r example, or simply t h e secondary winding of a transformer. I n some c i r c u i t s f i x e d condensers a r e i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e g r i d and r e s i s t o r s connect t h e g r i d t o f i l a m e n t . These condensers should have t h e c o r r e c t c a p a c i t y because t h e input v o l t a g e s , i.e., e x c i t a t i o n v o l t a g e s must be c a r r i e d through them without opposition. Bear i n mind t h a t t h e g r i d i s t h e c o n t r o l l i n g e l e c t r o d e , because when supplied w i t h e l e c t r i c p o t e n t i a l s ( c a l l e d t h e i n p u t v o l t a g e s ) i t w i l l a c t t o r e g u l a t e t h e q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r o n s reaching t h e p l a t e . The whole a c t i o n of any vacuum tube i s dependent mainly upon t h e t i n y e l e c t r o n s which are l i b e r a t e d o r e x p e l l e d by t h e hot filament. These e l e c t r o n s a r e a t t r a c t e d by t h e p o s i t i v e l y charged p l a t e and make up and a c t u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e t h e p l a t e current. Thus, when a p l a t e i s maintained a t a p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l it w i l l e x e r t a continuous a t t r a c t i o n f o r t h e e l e c t r o n s emerging from t h e hot filament

A c e r t a i n value of p l a t e current i s necessary t o i n s u r e the normal o p e r a t i o n of a tube, and w know t h a t t h i s value i s governed p r i m a r i l y by t h e q u a n t i t y e

e of e l e c t r o n s pulled t o t h e p l a t e . If w a r e c a l l e d upon a t any time t o summarize b r i e f l y the various f a c t o r s which c o n t r o l the amount of t h e e l e c t r o n energy reaching the p l a t e we could s t a t e these f a c t o r s a s follows: (1) The value of t h e p o s i t i v e d-c. voltage supplied t o t h e p l a t e ; ( 2 ) The operating temperature of t h e f i l a m e n t ; ( 3 ) The value of g r i d b i a s used; and ( 4 ) The degree of vacuum e x i s t i n g i n the chamber w i t h i n t h e g l a s s envelope.

Lesson 60

- sheet 2

A l l three- electrode t u b e s f u n c t i o n on t h e p r i n c i p l e that when an a l t e r n a t i n g o r f l u c t u a t i n g voltage i s impressed upon the g r i d a t c e r t a i n frequences and i n t e n s i t i e s , t h e amount of e l e c t r o n s p a s s i n g through t h e vacuous space Prom filament t o p l a t e w i l l be made t o vary, t h u s t h e p l a t e d i r e c t current f l u c t u a t e s c o n s t a n t l y and r e g u l a r l y between c e r t a i n maximum and minimum l i m i t s . The frequencies and i n t e n s i t i e s of t h e voltages impressed upon t h e g r i d depend e n t i r e l y upon t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e g r i d input cI.Tcuit.

While w a r e r e l a t i n g f a c t s which are more 0 l e s s g e n e r a l i n regard t o our e ; vacuum t u b e s , it may Prove both i n t e r e s t i n g and i n s t r u c t i v e t o point out t h e similar e f f e c t s s e t up i n a c i r c u i t by e i t h e r a p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t c u r r e n t o r an alternating current. Although a f l u c t u a t i n g or a l t e r n a t i n g voltage on t h e g r i d causes t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t t o vary i n s t r e n g t h from i t s normal value t o e i t h e r g r e a t e r or l e s s e r values, yet i t must be understood t h a t t h i s p l a t e c u r r e n t can flow only i n one d i r e c t i o n . The conduction of e l e c t r o n s w i t h i n t h e tube i s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n only from f i l a m e n t t o p l a t e . Thus t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t f l o w i s u n i d i r e c t i o n a l and it should be e a s y t o understand, t h e n , t h a t i t cannot be e c a l l e d a pure a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . However, w do c a l l t h e instantaneous v a r i a t i o n s of the p l a t e c u r r e n t the "a-c component". It can be shown t h a t t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s do produce a l l of the e f f e c t s of a n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t ; a s , f o r instance, t h e y s e t up a changing magnetic f i e l d surrounding a c o i l i n s e r t e d i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t and pr0duce.a reactance voltage across o r between t h e opposite ends of t h e c o i l . Moreover, by t h e use of a c o i l of s u i t a b l e inductance and a condenser t h e changing p l a t e energy i s capable of placing an e l e c t r o s t a t i c charge i n t h e condenser ard t h e l a t t e r than can be used t o couple the p l a t e c i r c u i t with some neighboring c i r c u i t . You w i l l r e c a l l from your e a r l y l e s s o n s t h a t reactance voltage i s t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t of a c o i l ' s opposition t o any change i n t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e c u r r e n t passing through i t s turns. The c o i l opposes e i t h e r a n i n c r e a s e or decrease i n c u r r e n t value. This opposition voltage or, a s i t i s c a l l e d " reactance voltage" , i s s e t up by the changing magnetic l i n e s of f o r c e c u t t i n g back and f o r t h through the same t u r n s of wire which produced t h e s e magnetic l i n e s , t h a t i s , t h e magnetic l i n e s r e a c t back upon the t u r n s which s e t up these l i n e s . T h i s e f f e c t produced upon a c i r c u i t by a c o i l when it c a r r i e s a current which i s c o n s t a n t l y varying i n s t r e n g t h i s known a s " self- induction" . The voltage generated i s known a s t h e "induced voltage of s e l f - induct ion".
N o w l e t us consider some f a c t s concerning t h e metal which i s used i n t h e manufacture of t h e f i l a m e n t wire. A tremendous amount of s t u d y and r e s e a r c h has been going on s t e a d i l y i n t h e l a b o r a t o r i e s of tube manufactures t o f i n d a metal or combination of m t a l s which would give o f f an abundant supply of e l e c t r o n s f o r the l e a s t expenditure of h e a t i n g c u r r e n t .

The t h r e e m a t e r i a l s used t o any g r e a t e x t e n t a r e t u n g s t e n , oxide-coated platinun and X-L, or t h o r i a t e d tungsten. Tungsten was t h e metal g e n e r a l l y used b e f o r e
D r . I r v i n g Langmuin discovered t h a t the r a r e metal, thorium, was e s p e c i a l l y r i c h i n e l e c t r o n i c energy. H showed t h a t a thorium-coated tungsten filament e h e a t e d t o a temperature of 2,300 degrees Centigrade provided an e l e c t r o n i c emission more than t e n thousand times as g r e a t a s a pure t u n g s t e n filament

Lesson 60

- sheet

heated t o t h e same temperature. Filament wire may be e i t h e r coated w i t h an oxide, o r the wire is more o f t e n t r e a t e d throughout w i t h t h e r a r e m a t e r i a l , thorium. SO, With a comparatively low heating c u r r e n t , t h e modern power tube filament g i v e s off a v a s t l y g r e a t e r supply of e l e c t r o n s than was formerly thought p o s s i b l e . Vihile the f a c t t h a t the X-L filament r e q u i r e s a much lower power t o i n s u r e a proper operating temperature t h a n would be t h e l case i f o t h e r m a t e r i a l s were used of e q ~ a p r a c t i c a l value, y e t another q u a l i t y t h a t t h i s s p e c i a l wire possesses i s t h a t t h e t o t a l e l e c t r o n emission f o r a given power consumption i s comparatively long. Thus the expectancy of tube l i f e i s prolonged many horns. It i s agreed t h a t the operating l i f e of a vacuum tube i s one of the most important f e a t u r e s . L i f e e x p e c t a t i o n s shows up wide v a r i a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o operative c o n d i t i o n s and t o some e x t e n t w i t h i n d i v i d u a l t u b e s of similar type. These f a c t s o u t l i n e i n g e n e r a l the e s s e n t i a l requirements of t h e f i l a m e n t wire used i n power vacuum tubes. The manufacturer designs a tube w i t h t h e c o r r e c t l e n g t h and t h i c k n e s s of t h e filament wire so t h a t when a s p e c i f i e d e.m.f. i s impressed a c r o s s t h e f i l a ment terminals t h e proper c u r r e n t w i l l flow and h e a t t h e wire t o operating temperature

The l i f e of a thorium t r e a t e d f i l a m e n t i s n a t u r a l l y l i m i t e d f o r t h e e l e c t r o n energy i s obtained a t the e x p n s e of the thorium. It i s t o be expected, t h e n , t h a t during o p e r a t i o n of a t r a n s m i t t i n g s e t t h e f i l a m e n t s of t h e various t u b e s a r e c o n s t a n t l y evaporating, o r being used up, a s it were. E l e c t r o n energy d r i v e n off t h e surface of the wire i s replaced by t h e d i f f u s i o n of thorium down i n s i d e t h e wire. The thorium apparently b o i l s out and while t h e a c t u a l amount of thorium l o s t a t any given moment i s very s m a l l t o be s u r e , y e t t h e That i s t o say, t h e u s e f u l l i f e f i l a m e n t w i l l e v e n t u a l l y l o s e i t s emission. of t h e tube w i l l end when t h e supply of thorium i n s i d e t h e filament i s exhausted. O f course, t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n and evaporation of t h e thorium w i l l be very r a p i d i f the f i l a m e n t i s operated at t o o high a temperature. Any power tube i s l i k e l y t o be subjected t o a s h o r t overload, and t h e X-L f i l a ment type h a s proven capable of withstanding t h r e e times i t s normal voltage without a burn-out

Oases a r e given off by t h e p l a t e when t h e tube i s overloaded and under such conditions t h e tube w i l l show considerable color. To reduce t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a hot p l a t e giving off gases during i t s normal l i f e , t h e X-L filament type t u b e s a r e constructed w i t h molybdenum p l a t e s which during the manuf a c t u r i n g process a r e heated t o extremely high temperatures by means of a high- frequency furnace. That i s , t h e eddy c u r r e n t s s e t up due t o highfrequency i n d u c t i o n t e n d t o heat t h e metal p a r t s . Other i n t e r n a l p a r t s of t h e tube a r e a l s o brought t o high temperatures when t h e p l a t e undergoes t h i s treatment and thus a l l m e t a l l i c p a r t s a r e heated t o a higher p o i n t than t h e y e v e r reach during normal operat ion. E l e c t r o n emission i s u s u a l l y lowered temporarily i n t h e event of a severe p l a t e overload, but t h i s condition can o f t e n be r e c t i f i e d by t h e r e a c t i v a t i o n or r e j u v e n a t i o n process which i s explained i n t h e next paragraph. R e a c t i v a t i o n carmot be r e s o r t e d t o i f an a i r l e a k occurs i n t h e tube. The leakage of a i r i s through t h e g l a s s s e a l s o r l e a d s i n t h e base of t h e tube. A p u r p l i s h or p i n k glow can be taken a s a r i n d i c a t ion t h a t a n a i r l e a k e x i s t s whereas a d i s t i n c t l y blue glow would - e s t gases ha4 been r e l e a s e d from the metal p a r t s w i t h i n t h e tube.

\\

Lesson 60

- sheet

While a tube w i t h a low emission i s of no p r a c t i c a l use it may s t i l l have i t s r e l a t i v e l y i n e r t t u n g s t e n wire i n t a c t and i n t h i s case t h e wire i s capable of carrying s u f f i c i e n t c u r r e n t t o heat and l i g h t t o i t s u s u a l degree of incandescence. It i s o f t e n p o s s i b l e t o r e s t o r e a tube i n t h i s condition t o give a d d i t i o n a l hours of s e r v i c e by a very simple process c a l l e d 'rejuvenat i o n " . This process c o n s i s t s of f o r c i n g m e t a l l i c thorium from the inner r e c e s s e s of the filament wire t o i t s s u r f a c e by-heating the wire t o a tempera t u r e s l i g h t l y above normal f o r about 1 5 minutes w i t h t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t open. Voltage must not be supplied t o t h e p l a t e during t h i s operation. T h i s r e a c t i v a t i o n of t h e filament should be c a r r i e d on w i t h t h e voltage about 15%above the normal a s s p e c i f i e d by t h e manufacturer, and i n many i n s t a n c e s w have g i v e n t h e e x a c t l i m i t f o r many t y p e s of power tubes i n t h e e d i s c u s s i o n s which a r e t o follow. H w vacuum tubes used i n power c i r c u i t s a r e r a t e d . The power r a t i n g of o vacuum tubes used i n t r a n s m i t t i n g equipment i s computed by t h e output energy -. of the device r a t h e r than by t h e input energy. A considerable p a r t of t h e power d e l i v e r e d t o t h e p l a t e of a t r a n s m i t t i n g tube i s wasted i n heat. Transmitting tubes a r e used i n t h e c a p a c i t y of e i t h e r an o s c i l l a t o r , a m p l i f i e r , o r modulator. A modulator tube i s so named because of the s p e c i f i c d u t y which it i s intended t o perform, but n e v e r t h l e s s , it i s a tube a c t u a l l y working e w i t h an a m p l i f i e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Hence, w can consider t h a t t r a n s m i t t i n g t u b e s a r e divided i n t o two g e n e r a l 11 c l a s s e s according t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n a c i r c u i t , namely, " o s c i l l a t o r " and a m p l i f i e r n . It should be noted t h a t any type of tube may be used f o r e i t h e r of t h e s e f u n c t i o n s .
The power r e q u i r e d t o e n e r g i z e t h e p l a t e of an a m p l i f i e r o r o s c i l l a t o r tube may be furnished by e i t h e r a "B" b a t t e r y , a d i r e c t c u r r e n t generator or r e c t i f i e d a-c depending upon t h e p a r t i c u l a r t r a n s m i t t i n g equipment. You have l e a r n e d from previous l e s s o n s t h a t a vacuum tube a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a c i r c u i t containing a s u i t a b l e amount of inductance and c a p a c i t y and designed t o provide a feed-back of energy from t h e p l a t e t o g r i d c i r c u i t s through e i t h e r magnetic or c a p a c i t i v e coupling w i l l be capable of generating s e l f - s u s t a i n e d o s c i l l a t i o n s a t a predetermined frequency. The tube used i n a feed-back c i r c u i t i s always known a s an o s c i l l a t o r . The o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e known a s continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s because t h e y a r e c o n s i s t e n t i n frequency and t h e i r amplitudes a r e uniform i n s t r e n g t h ; such energy may be s a i d t o have a smooth-topped a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t wave-form. It e a s i l y can be shown t h a t a l i n e drawn through a l l of t h e amplitude peaks would be a s t r a i g h t l i n e .

W explained i n t h e l e s s o n on "Vacuum Tubes" how any voltage v a r i a t i o n s e impressed upon the g r i d of a tube would be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p l a t e current. Now, i n a p r o p e r l y designed o s c i l l a t o r system when a radio- frequency voltage i s applied t o t h e g r i d the p l a t e c u r r e n t continues t o r i s e and f a l l i n s t r e n g t h and, due t o t h e feed-back a c t i o n , t h e amplitudes of t h e s e p l a t e changes cause f u r t h e r v a r i a t i o n s i n g r i d voltage which r e s u l t i n corresponding v a r i a t i o n s i n p l a t e c u r r e n t , and s o on. A s l i g h t change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t , a s f o r example when a vacuum tube c i r c u i t i s f i r s t placed i n operation, should prove s u f f i c i e n t t o s e t up t h e i n i t i a l voltage impulse on the g r i d t o s t a r t o s c i l l a t i o n s . I n o t h e r words an o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t w i l l be maintained so long a s t h e feed-back power s u p p l i e s g r i d voltage v a r i a t i o n s of s u f f i c i e n t amplitude t o vary t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t w i t h i n l i m i t s which w i l l a g a i n provide Lesson 60

- sheet

8s of power due t o t h e s e t t i n g up of a c u r r a n t flow i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t . s means t h a t the a c t u a l power which a c e r t a i n o s c i l l a t o r tube i s capable delivering., c a l l e d i t s "output power", must be l e s s t h a n t h e power i n p u t the p l a t e . llle could s t a t e t h i s i n another way by saying t h a t a c e r t a i n . amount of energy i s l o s t 2n any o s c i l l a t o r y system through the conversion of

re i s always a e e r k a i n mount of p l a t e power d i s s i p a t e d i n h e a t and a l s o

point which w d e s i r e t o s e t f o r t h i s t h a t i n any o s c i l l a t i n g systein e

d i r e c t current power i n t o a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t power.

R.F. CHOKE COIL;

,MILLIAMMETER

CONDENSERS

FILhMENT IiEATING '--TRANSFORMER

Figure 1 W must t h e n have some means f o r determining t h e ef'f i c i e n c y of a vacuum tube e o s c i l l a t o r or power a m p l i f i e r . The measure of t h e "?3fficiencyfl of our power t u b e s i s merely a comparison between t h e a c t u a l power input i n w a t t s and t h e a c t u a l power output i n w a t t s and the e x p r e s s i o n of t h i s value i n percentage. It i s w e l l known t h a t the e f f i c i e n c y of any device i n percent i s equal t o t h e output divided by t h e input m u l t i p l i e d by 100. E f f i c i e n c y expressed i n terms of power ( w a t t s ) may be w r i t t e n i n t h e following way:

I n Figure 1 w have the diagram of a vacuum tube radio- frequency o s c i l l a t o r e c i r c u i t which can be used f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g purposes by coupling it t o an antenna system i n t h e manner shown. Other methods f o r keying a c i r c u i t of t h i s kind than t h e one i l l u s t r a t e d may be employed f o r telegraphy; f o r - inLesson 60

- sheet

s t a n c e , keying may be accomplished by changing t h e g r i d b i a s from a high t o a low o p e r a t i n g b i a s . T h i s i s done t o reduce'key c l i c k s or thumps t o a minimum, f o r when such sounds a r e reproduced t h e y g r e a t l y i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e r e c e p t i o n of t h e message. Our aim i s merely t o show one type of o s c i l l a t 2 r y c i r c u i t i n which t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t i s d i r e c t l y coupled t o t h e upper end of t h e o s c i l l a t o r y inductance L by a f i x e d condenser marked C - 1 , wherea s t h e g r i d i s coupled d i r e c t l y t o t h e lomer end of L by t h e condenser marked G-2. Although t h e frequency of the generated o s c i l l a t i o n s may be v a r i e d by a d j u s t i n g condenser marked C , t h e frequency i s dependent upon t h e combined v a l u e s of L and C. Another type of o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t and vacuum tube d r i v i n g an antenna system i s shown i n Figure 2 , t h i s c i r c u i t being p a r t of a broadcasting t r a n s m i t t e r . These simple c i r c u i t s a r e given merely t o sugg e s t conventional t y p e s t o a s s i s t i n an understanding of the following exp l a n a t i o n concerning e f f i c i e n c y and power r a t i n g of a power tube.
HkRMONIC SUPPRESSOR

(R.F.
G R I D CONDENSER

C H O K E COIL)'

TO FILRMENT SUPPLY

--._-

Figure 2 Let us supposo t'hat t h e power t u b e i n e i t h e r diagram i s r a t e d a t 50 w a t t s and, a c c o r d i r g t o t h e e l e c t r i c a l d a t a chart of t h e manufacturer, t h e tube draws 125 milliamperes of p l a t e c u r r e n t when t h e p l a t e i s operated w i t h a p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l of 1000 v o l t s d-c. Then, the power i n w a t t s ( W ) i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t i s equal t o the voltage (E) times t h e current ( I ) , or

Vote: 125 milliamperes = .I25 amperes. Then W

= 1000 x ,125 or

WATTS INPUT

= 125.

However, t o compute t h e e p o s s i b l e power output of t h i s tube working i n t o an antenna system, w w i l l f i n d it necessary i n our s t u d y t o a s s i g n two a r b i t r a r y values; one f o r t h e amount of antenna c u r r e n t ( I ) which would o r d i n a r i l y be i n d i c a t e d on the r a d i a t i o n ammeter, and t h e second f o r t h e r e s i s t a n c e ( R ) of t h e antenna c i r c u i t . The output power i n w a t t s i s conveniently expressed a s follows:
WATTS OUTPUT = (ANTENNA CURRENT)2 x (RESISTANCE O ANTENNA) F

It i s a simple matter t o c a l c u l a t e t h e w a t t s i n p u t .

Lesson 60

sheet 7

o r , using t h e symbols : WATTS OUTPUT =

x R

Suppose t h e r e s i s t a n c e of the antenna i s known t o be 10 ohms from previous experimentation, and t h e c u r r e n t a s read on t h e r a d i a t i o n anmeter t o be 3 amperes while the 50 w a t t lxbe i s a c t i v e and d e l i v e r i n g power i n t h e form of an r.f. o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t f o r antenna e x c i t a t i o n . Then s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e numerical values f o r t h e symbols I and E i n t h e formula, we have: W T S OUTPUT = ( 3 ) 2 x 10 = 9 x 10 o r WATTS OUTPUT = 90. AT
0

S e t t i n g down t h e output and i n p u t values i n t h e e f f i c i e n c y formula and solving, w can conclude t h a t t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h i s tube i s equal t o : e W T S OUTPUT AT W T S INPUT AT
loo= x 100 I25

= .72 x

100 = 72%

It i s obvious t h a t t h e a c t u a l power output of t h e tube i t s e l f cannot e q u a l t h e power input of t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t f o r reasons a l r e a d y c i t e d . The power l o s t i s equal t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e w a t t s i n p u t and w a t t s output o r , i n t h i s case, t h e power l o s t i s equal t o 125 minus 90, o r 35 watts.
The amount allowed f o r p l a t e power d i s s i p a t e d i n h e a t , e t c . , i s known a s " p l a t e d i s s i p a t i o n " . T h i s amount should not be exceeded during t h e normal o p e r a t i o n of a tube and a d e f i n i t e l i m i t i s s e t , c a l l e d t h e " safe p l a t e d i s s i pation". Since s a f e p l a t e d i s s i p a t i o n i s r e a l l y t h e power l o s t it i s r a t e d i n watts A l l power tube c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c h a r t s l i s t t h e " safe p l a t e d i s s i p a t i o n " i n w a t t s f o r the v a r i o u s types of tubes, and it should now be understood what i s meant by t h i s term. A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c h a r t i s given a t t h e end of t h i s lesson.

The 50 watt t u b e i n our e x p l a n a t i o n has a s a f e p l a t e d i s s i p a t i o n of 100 w a t t s . Thus, a t 35 w a t t s d i s s i p a t i o n , i t i s being operated w i t h i n s a f e l i m i t s . Any power t u b e worked a t such a low e f f i c i e n c y a s t o permit t h e p l a t e d i s s i p a t i o n t o exceed t h e s a f e l i m i t would be subjected t o considerable abuse and i n a very s h o r t time i t s a b i l i t y t o supply e l e c t r o n i c emission would cease, hence t h e r e i s only one conclusion or r e s u l t , t h e t u b e ' s u s e f u l l i f e would be shortened. The i n t e r i o r of t h e g l a s s envelope of a power tube o f t e n t a k e s on a milky white appearance, which c o n d i t i o n may be a t t r i b u t e d t o operating t h e p l a t e f o r long periods a t an e x c e s s i v e l y h i g h temperature. T h i s smoky white color i n d i c e t e s t h a t c e r t a i n gases have been f r e e d from t h e metal p l a t e . A p l a t e should never be heated t o show more t h a n a c h e r r y red. The h e a t energy d i s s i p a t e d by t h e p l a t e of l a r g e power tubes, i n t h e one k i l o w a t t c l a s s and upward, i s normally so h i g h t h a t water cooling i s r e s o r t e d t o i n order t o o b t a i n a s a t i s f a c t o r y output of power. !Nater cooling i n c r e a s e s t h e e f f i c i e n c y of a power tube because it permits t h e u s e of a much smaller p l a t e a r e a t h a n would otherwise be possible. A smaller p l a t e reduces t h e space charge between t h e e l e c t r o d e s of the tube. The g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s of t h e 20 k i l o w a t t water- cooled tube used i n some modern broadcasting equipment i s given i n a subsequent p a r t of t h i s lesson. Lesson 60

- sheet 8

It should be noted that. .although c u r r e n t i s r e q u i r e d t o h e a t t h e f i l a m e n t ; i . e . energy i n w a t t s i s consumed, yet it i s not reckoned i n t h e foregoing work on power r a t i n g .

Grid current and g r i d b i a s . Let us now recount a few f a c t s regarding t h e g r i d c i r c u i t and t h e c u r r e n t drawn t h e r e i n . Only a smaJ.1 g r i d c u r r e n t should be permitted t o flow, and l e t it be remembered t h a t any c u r r e n t i n excess of a c e r t a i n amount cannot serve any u s e f u l purpose. I n f a c t , excessive g r i d c u r r e n t must be s u b t r a c t e d from t h e current t h a t would otherwise flow i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t , inasmuch as t h e both g r i d and p l a t e c u r r e n t s o r i g i n a t e from e l e c t r o n s e j e c t e d by the hot filament. Thus i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r t h e g r i d t o consume energy which i s a t o t a l waste by t h e excessive f l o w of g r i d c u r r e n t Under such conditions the g r i d a c t s a s a load on t h e vacuum t u b e r e s u l t i n g i n a r e d u c t i o n of i t s output power. Furthermore, a l a r g e g r i d c u r r e n t w i l l introduce d i s t o r t i o n i n any vacuum tube. D i s t o r t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e i n tubes used i n t r a n s m i t t i n g and r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t s which handle speech and musical frequencies, a s i n broadcasting. A l a r g e g r i d c u r r e n t would most l i k e l y heat t h e grid causing it t o emit e l e c t r o n s , and i f t h i s condition were allowed t o occur the g r i d would cease t o be a n e f f i c i e n t c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r i n providing t h e proper v a r i a t i o n s i n p l a t e c u r r e n t . Bear i n mind t h a t t h e e l e c t r o n s absorbed by t h e g r i d flow a s conduction c u r r e n t , i.e., a d i r e c t c u r r e n t through t h e w i r e s , c o i l s , o r r e s i s t o r s contained i n t h e o u t s i d e c i r c u i t connected between g r i d and f i l a m e n t . From t h e foregoing it should be c l e a r why a g r i d must be operated a t some d e f i n i t e negative p o t e n t i a l maintained upon it a t a l l t i m s. Vhat r e a l l y happens when a high f i x e d negative voltage i s a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d i s thaC t h e g r i d i s prevented from a c t u a l l y becoming p o s i t i v e even a t such moments a s when a p o s i t i v e voltage i s a p p l i e d t o i t from t h e c u r r e n t s c i r c u i l a t i n g i n the g r i d c i r c u i t . T h i s i s r e a d i l y eaplained, f o r t h e a c t u a l voltage upon t h e g r i d a t a n y moment i s merely t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e value of t h e negative b i a s and the amplitude values of t h e f l u c t u a t i n g voltages d e l i v e r e d t o t h e g r i d from the g r i d c i r c u i t a s j u s t mentioned. Assordingly, t h e flow of g r i d c u r r e n t must be c o n t r o l l e d and t h i s i s e a s i l y accomplished by maintaining a permanent negative voltage upon it a s a l r e a d y suggested. The value of t h i s negative voltage or g r i d b i a s v a r i e s f o r d i f f e r e n t types of tubes and depends f o r one t h i n g upon t h e amount of p l a t e voltage used. The c o r r e c t g r i d b i a s may be supplied by any one of t h e following methods; (1) t h e b i a s may be obtained from a "Cn b a t t e r y i n s e r t e d i n t h e g r i d r e t u r n l e a d , ( 2 ) the g r i d r e t u r n wire may be a t t a c h e d t o some l o c a t i o n on a r e s i s t o r which supplies t h e necessary drop i n p o t e n t i a l when t h e c u r r e n t flows through t h e r e s i s t o r , ( 3 ) t h e voltage drop obtained a c r o s s a r e s i s t o r i n s e r t e d i n t h e negative l e a d of t h e h i g h voltage p l a t e supply may be u t i l i z e d f o r t h i s purpose, or ( 4 ) a small d-c. generator e s p e c i a l l y b u i l t f o r t h i s purpose i s o f t e n used t o g i v e t h e r e q u i s i t e b i a s . The m a j o r i t y of t r a n s m i t t e r s i n r a d i o broadcast work employ e i t h e r one of t h e f i r s t two methods whereas commercial t e l e g r a p h t r a n s m i t t e r s a r e more l i k e l y t o employ one of t h e l a t t e r two methods.
With no negative bZas on t h e g r i d of a power tube the p l a t e c u r r e n t can r u n

up t o exceedingly h i g h v a l u e s , d i s s i p a t i n g s o much heat t h a t t h e p l a t e w i l l become white- hot and cause s e r i o u s damage t o the t u b e . Lesson 60

- sheet

7.5 Watt Tube Type UX-210. The smallest tube w i t h a power r a t i n g i s the 7.5 watt tube. It i s p a r t i c i i I a r l y s u i t e d f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t s where cost and bulk of t h e apparatus and power supply a r e prime considerations. This tube i s designed f o r use a s an o s c i l l a t o r , modulator o r power a m p l i f i e r i n t r a n s m i t t i n g equipment and i t i s a l s o intended for useinreceiving equipment a s a power a m p l i f i e r with loudspeakers where h i g h outpdt i s required. The 7.5 watt tube i s used i n a l a r g e majority of amateur short-wave s t a t i o n s . It i s known t h a t under f a v o r a b l e conditions t h e s e tubes o f t e n supply s u f f i c i e n t antenna e x c i t a t i o n t o permit messages, c a r r i e d by t h e r a d i o waves, t o be copied a t t h e opposite ends of t h e world. These small t u b e s a r e a l s o adaptable f o r use i n low powered aeroplane t r a n s m i t t e r s and f o r speech amplif i e r s i n broadcasting equipment. When working a s a speech amplifier t h e tube merely f u n c t i o n s t o s t e p up t h e n e c e s s a r i l y f e e b l e voice and musical frequencit i n t h e output of t h e microphone t o l a r g e values before introducing t h e s e frequencies i n t o t h e main modulator- oscillator c i r c u i t s . The object of amplif y i n g t h e voice c u r r e n t s i s t o provide a maximum degree of modulation.
PLATE

The views i n Figure 3 show the complete tube assembly, a l s o the g r i d , f i l a m e n t and p l a t e construction. A s k e t c h i n Figure 4 , looking a t the bottom of t h e tube base, shows t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e prongs. The metal s h e l l of the socket Lesson 60

- -"--

- sheet 10

connected t o ground o r any other p a r t of the c i r c u i t . orma1 output power of t h e UX-210 i s r a t d d a t 7.5 L a t t s . The filament 2.35 amperes when operated a t a filament t e r m i n a l e.m.f. of 7.5 v o l t s . should be e x e r c i s e d t o operate filament4 a t c o n s t a n t voltage r a t h e r n constant c u r r e n t and always a t the r a t e d voltage. A filament voltmeter c t e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e socket terminals should be used t o i n d i c a t e c o r r e c t ng c o n d i t i o n s . It w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t , due t o t h e use of t h e X-L f i l a , i t s b r i l l i a n c y i s much l e s s t h a n t h a t of the o l d e r type tungsten f i l a A low emission t u b e caused by a severe overload and consequent overing may be r e s t o r e d i n some cases by operating t h e filament a t i t s r a t e d

50 WATT TRANSMITTING T U B E BASE

UX-210

7.5 WATT

Figure 4

TUBE BASE

voltage with the p l a t e voltage removed. T h i s r e a c t i v a t i o n process can be a c c e l e r a t e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e filament voltage t o 9 v o l t s , but not t o exceed t h i s value. 'Nhen p o s s i b l e , a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t should be used t o h e a t the f i l a m e n t , b u t i n c e r t a i n cases d i r e c t c u r r e n t i s required, a s i n r a d i o telephone s e t s and p o r t a b l e s e t s . The a-c. i s i n most a l l cases supplied through a step-down transformer and t o provide voltage c o n t r o l a r h e o s t a t should be included i n the primary c i r c u i t of the transformer. With a-c. the p l a t e r e t u r n l e a d should be connected t o t h e mid-tap of the transformer secondary, whereas w i t h the use of d-c. t h i s p l a t e l e a d i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e p o s i t i v e filament terminal. Under normal conditions t h e p l a t e voltage should never be more than 350 v o l t s , t h e r a t e d value, and w i t h t h i s p l a t e e.m.f. a p l a t e c u r r e n t of 50 or 60 milliamperes may be expected. The p l a t e power d i s s i p a t i o n should never be g r e a t e r than 1 5 watts. When t h i s tube i s used i n a non-modulated C.W. t e l e g r a p h s e t ( u s u a l l y c a l l e d s t r a i g h t C.W. ) t h e p l a t e voltage may be r a i s e d t o 450 v o l t s i n order t o o b t a i n extreme output. The a m p l i f i c a t i o n constant of the UX-210 i s approximately 7.5 and t h e mutual conductance value about 2,150 micromhos. These terms w i l l be defined i n a subsequent p a r t of t h i s lesson. Let us mention a t t h i s time, however, t h a t mutual conductance values a r e u s e f u l f o r comparison purposes only s i n c e t h e values a r e computed w i t h t h e tube operating under z e r o g r i d v o l t a g e c o n d i t i o n s T h i s does not r e p r e s e n t the u s u a l operating c o n d i t i o n f o r w know t h a t i n a l l e p r a c t i c a l c i r c u i t s t h e g r i d voltage i s maintained a t some d e f i n i t e negative value and not a t zero. When used a s a power a m p l i f i e r o r a modulator t h e value of t h e negative b i a s used should be s u f f i c i e n t t o l i m i t t h e p l a t e d i s s i p a t i o n , t h a t i s , t h e d i f f e r ence between output and i n p u t , t o i t s normal value or 1 5 w a t t s . N l e s s than o 1 5 v o l t s negative should be applied t o t h e g r i d of t h i s t u b e w i t h a p l a t e . Lesson 60

- sheet 11

p o t e n t i a l of 350 v o l t s . When c a l i b r a t i n g a t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t i t w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t w i t h c e r t a i n adjustments the p l a t e current, i s g r e a t e r than t h e normal amount although t h e c o r r e c t g r i d b i a s voltage i s used. This e f f e c t may be t r a c e d t o an a m p l i f i e r tube which i s o s c i l l a t i n g or perhaps a r a d i o freauency voltage i s being picked up from neighboring c i r c u i t s . This cond i t i o n i s aggravated by t h e use of a g r i d l e a k having a n inductive e f f e c t i n t h e c i r c u i t . A g r i d l e a k should be non- inductive, or i n o t h e r words, i t s e f f e c t should be t h a t of only pure r e s i s t a n c e .

It i s advisable t o i n s e r t e i t h e r a small choke, o r a r e s i s t a n c e of 10 t o 100 ohms, i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of each tube when s e v e r a l a r e operated i n m u l t i p l e i n order t o prevent t h e s e t t i n g up of u l t r a high- frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s .
W mentioned p r e v i o u s l y t h a t t h e UX-210 i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d f o r use i n e conjunction w i t h loudspeakers i n r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t s . When employed i n t h i s connection t h e tube i s c a l l e d a "super-power audio a m p l i f i e r " and i s capable of d e l i v e r i n g a tremendous output without d i s t o r t i o n . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c grid- voltage- plate c u r r e n t curve of t h i s tube i s shown i n Figure 5. The s o - c a l l e d " s t r a i g h t p a r t " of t h i s curve i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e tube i s a t y p i c a l a m p l i f i e r , f o r i t i s e a s i l y seen t h a t t h e slope of t h e curve follows almost

GRID VOLTPlGE

Figure a ' s t r a i g h t or l i n e a r l i n e .

It should be remembered t h a t an e f f i c i e n t a m p l i f i e r tube provides a g r e a t l y e n l a r g e d p l a t e c u r r e n t whose p u l s a t i o n s follow i n exact accordance and r e peat t h e wave form or modulation frequency of t h e s s g n a l voltages impressed upon t$e g r i d . Also, you should f u l l y understand a t t h i s p a r t i n our course t h a t t h e only f u n c t i o n which t h e g r i d ' i s c a l l e d upon t o perform i s t h a t of a c o n t r o l member. Any f l u c t u a t i n g voltage, however small, a p p l i e d t o i t from any source w i l l cause t h e e l e c t r o n stream passing from f i l a m e n t t o p l a t e , i.e., t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t , to,undergo a corresponding v a r i a t i o n . S t a t e d i n a few words, t h i s means a m p l i f i c a t i o n without d i s t o r t ion. Because of t h i s i n b e r e n t g r i d c o n t r o l upon t h e e l e c t r o n stream we t h i n k of t h e vacuum tube a s e s s e n t i a l l y a voltage operatea device.
The s t r a i g h t l i n e v a r i a t i o n , a s shown by the curves, i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e UX210 can be worked a t h i g h o r low p l a t e voltages and, w i t h c o r r e c t g r i d b i a s , Lesson 60

sheet 1 2

w i l l d e l i v e r t h e v o i c e ax! x u s i c a l f r e q u e n c i e s t o t h e l o u d s p e a k e r x i t h t h e
n a t u r n l n e s s of t h e o r i g i n a l r e n d i t i o n i n t h e b r o a d c a s t i f i s s t u d i o . Und i s t o r t e d a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e i n vacu-m t u b e s p o s s e s s i n g such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s because l a r g e g r i d v o l t a g e swings c a n be d e l i v e r e d t o t h e g r i d w i t h o u t it a c t u a l l y becoming p o s i t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f i l a m e n t . A p o s i t i v e g r i d would a t t r a c t e x c e s s i v e e l e c t r o n e n e r g y c a u s i n g a l a r g e g r i d c u r r e n t and a s we a r e a l r e a d y aware t h i s u n d e s i r a b l e c o n d i t i o n would i n t r o duce d i s t o r t i o n . The g r i d . r e t u r n l e a d of t h e UX-210 vrhen u s e d a s a n Outp u t a u d i o a m p l i f i e r should be connected t o t h e n e g a t i v e t e r m i n a l of t h e "C" b a t t e r y . The p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l p o s t of t h e "C" b a t t e r y should be connected t o t h e n e g a t i v e t e r m i n a l of t h e f i l a m e n t .
AS

mentioned h e r e t o f o r e , low power t u b e s a r e u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n short- wave t r a n s m i t t e r s . C o n s e r v a t i v e p l a t e v o l t a g e s and power i n p u t s s h o u l d always b e m a i n t a i n e d i l o r d e r t o be c e r t a i n t h a t t h e t u b e w i l l n o t be harined by e x c e s s i v e v o l t a g e s , c u r r e n t s , o r d i s s i p a t i o n within the tube, Rbnorml conditions are usually e x p e r i e n c e d a t wavelengths l e s s t h a n 50 m e t e r s . The i n t e r - e l e c t r o d e c a p a c i t y between g r i d and p l a t e of t h e t u b e p r o v i d e s a p a t h of low r e a c t a n c e f o r c u r r e n t s of h i g h f r e q u e n c y , o r a t t h e low w a v e l e n g t h s . These c u r - e n t s have damaging e f f e c t s . A t l o n s w a v e l e n g t h s , o r h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s , the capacity reactances a r e s o high t h a t these currents are negligible. F o r wavelength ad j u s t m e a t s below 1 0 meters g r e a t c a r e s h o u l d be e x e r c i s e d t o p r e v e n t b r u s h d i s c h a r g e s i n any p a r t of t h e t u b e which a r e l i i i e l y t o cause breakdown and puncture of t h e t u b e . I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t t r o u b l e of t h i s k i n d i t i s a good r u l e t o recluce p l a t e v o l t a g e a s t h e wavel e n g t h i s reduced. 50 Watt Tubes Types W-203A and W-211. The 50 w a t t t u b e i s manufactured i n two t m e s which d i f f e r o n l y i n late impedance and amplif i c a t ion c o n s t a n t . A phot ;graph of a 50 w a t t t u b e i s shown i n F i g u r e 6. B o t h t y p e s a r e a l i k e i n a p p e a r a n c e and a r e o p e r a t e d a t s i m i l a r p l a t e and f i l a m e n t voltages

The W-203A i s i n t e n d e d f o Y amateur and e x p e r i n e n t a l u s e where v o l t a g e a m p l i f i c b t i o n i s d e s i r e d . The W - 2 1 1 i s u s e d ext e n s i v e l y i n cormercial transmitting c i r c u i t s f o r o s c i l l a t o r s , a m p l i f i e r s , o r morlulators. An i n s p e c t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c h a r t shorn t h a t t h e fi l a m e n t s of b o t h t u b e s n o r m a l l y draw 3.25 amperes a t 1 0 v o l t s , t h e p l a t e power d i s s i p a t i o n b e i n g 100 w a t t s when o p e r a t i n g e i t h e r tu-be a s a n o s c i l l a t o r a t i t s normal p l a t e p o t e n t i a l of 1000 v o l t s . The UV-211 r e q u i r e s a v e r y s t r o n g m e c h a n i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n and r i g i d s u p p o r t of t h e e l e c t r o d e s s i n c e i t i s used i n many marine t u b e t r a n s m i t t e r s . These t r a n s m i t t e r s must s t a n d up under s e v e r e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a t s e a . The p l a t e i s mounted on f o u r s e p a r a t e r o d s i ~ b e d d e di n t h e g l a s s stem of t h e t u b e . Small. h e l i c a l s p r i n g s a t t a c h e d t o t h e upper end of t h e s u p p o r t i n g r o d Lesson 60

sheet 13

roper t a m i o n , thus p r o t e c t i n g

bottom of t h e base.
-203A possesses a very d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c which p r b t e c t s i t from ad. If under any c o n d i t i o n s the tube should s t o p o s c i l l a t i n g or l o s e ~ g a t i v e i a s t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t would not g r e a t l y exceed I t s normal value, b s when o s c i l l a t i n g . T h i s r e s u l t i s due t o t h e h i g h p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e value f the t u b e . O t h e c o n t r a r y , however, i n t h e c a s e of t h e W-211 t u b e , i t s n p l a t e c u r r e n t a t z e r o g r i d would r i s e t o such e x c e s s i v e values that overheati n g of t h e p l a t e would be s u r e t o occur, and i n a s h o r t time serious damage would r e s u l t . T h i s i n h e r e n t p l a t e c u r r e n t c h a r a c t e ~ i s t i c t h e W-211 i s bf due t o t h e low p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e of t h i s tube.
CRYSTAL
I

at?^?:^.

,,R.F.

CHOKE COILS-\.

BLOCKING CONDENSER

OSCILLATORY -,-'CIRCUIT

TO FOLLOWING POWER hMPLIFIER

Figure 7 C e r t a i n types of modern tube t r a n s m i t t e r s u t i l i z e a c r y s t a l c o n t r o l l e d master o s c i l l a t o r , s e v e r a l s t a g e s of intermediate a m p l i f i c a t i o n , and a main power a m p l i f i e r system. A 50 watt tube i s o f t e n used w i t h t h e quartz c r y s t a l . The tube supplies power and t h e c r y s t a l d i c t a t e s t h e frequency a t which t h e continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e generated. Experience has proven t h a t f o r t h e r e l i a b l e o p e r a t i o n of c r y s t a l c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r s it i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t low p l a t e voltage be a p p l i e d t o any tube working i n conjunction with t h e c r y s t a l . Low voltage permits the t r a n s m i t t e r t o be operated without f e a r of s u b j e c t i n g t h e c r y s t a l t o excessive voltage which might cause it t o crack or s h a t t e r . When used i n a c r y s t a l c i r c u i t t h e 50 watt tube i s u s u a l l y worked a t 500 v o l t s d-c. or a t h a l f normal voltage. The schematic diagram i n Figure 7 shows a 50 watt t u b e connected i n a c r y s t a l c o n t r o l c i r c u i t . It i s p r e f e r a b l e t o use a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t o heat t h e f i l a m e n t and i n c e r t a i n commercial s e t s t h i s a-c. i s supplied by means of s l i p r i n g s on t h e motor armature connected t o a step-down transformer. A c e n t e r t a p on t h e transformer secondary should be used f o r p l a t e and g r i d r e t u r n leads. Filament voltage i s u s u a l l y c o n t r o l l e d through a r h e o s t a t placed i n the primary s i d e of t h e h e a t i n g transformer. When it i s necessary t o use d i r e c t c u r r e n t t o e n e r g i z e t h e filament t h e n i t should be remembered t o connect t h e p l a t e r e t u r n l e a d t o the p o s i t i v e filament ter:ninal. A s i n t h e case of a l l X-L f i l a m e n t s a voltmeter should be provided t o check t h e e.m.f. a p p l i e d .
If a n overload decreases t h e e l e c t r o n emission i n t h i s t u b e , t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e filament may be r e s t o r e d by t h e r e a c t i v a t i o n process which simply r e q u i r e s

Lesson 60

sheet 14

t h a t the f i l a n e n t be heated f o r a period of t e n n i n u t e s or longer a t t h e r a t e d filament voltage but w i t h no p l a t e voltage. I f necessary t h e f i l a m n t voltage may be ra;sed t o 12 v o l t s but no higher.
. p r o t e c t i v e fuse which should blow a t about A

-2 t o .25 amperes i s u s u a l l y i n s e r t e d i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t . Remember t h a t no f u s e s should ever be placed i n a g r i d c i r c u i t since a blown fuse would be equivalent t o opening t h e g r i d c i r c u i t and thus removing t h e negative b i a s . A p l a t e voltage r h e o s t a t i s q u i t e necessar-j i n order t h a t t h e p l a t e voltage may be lowered. i n order t o protect t h e tube o r other p a r t s i n case i n c o r r e c t adjustments a r e made, a s f o r i n s t a n c e , when f i r s t c a l i b r a t i n g a new c i r c u i t o r making r e g n l a r adjustments i n a c i r c u i t . The p l a t e voltage may be increased from 1000 v o l t s normal t o 1250 v o l t s only when using t h e s e tubes i n a t r a n s m i t t e r c i r c u i t i n which the t u b e s a r e not a c t u a l l y modulating, i.e., when used i n a non-modulated C .We t e l e g r a p h t r a n s m i t t e r . The W-204A and W-211 are f r e q u e n t l y used a t wavelengths of l e s s t h a n 100 meters. Precautions should be taken i n e v e r y case t o keep the c u r r e n t s a t s a f e v a l u e s , but e s p e c i a l l y i s t h i s t r u e i n t h e case of tubes working i n short-wave circuits. The l a r g e W-2046 250 Watt Transmitting Tube Type W-204A. tube i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure'-! has an output r a t i n g of 250 watts snd it a l s o v - t i l i z e s an X-L f i l a m e n t . The normal p l a t e voltage i s 2000 and t h e filament i s r a t e d at' 42.5 w a t t s , drawing 3.85 amperes when supplied w i t h t h e s p e c i f i e d terrnima1 e.m.f, of 13. v o l t s . The maximurn s a f e p l a t e power d - i s s i p a t i o n i s 250 watts. A very high emission i s obtalned by t h e use of the t h o r i a t e d f i l a m e n t , t h i s emission reaches 1 approximately 5 amperes w i t h t h e filament voltage a t 1 . The h i g h emiss.ion permits t h e tube t o perform very s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n telephone c i r c u i t s because t h e complexities of speech and musical sounds cause l a r g e peak values of c u r r e n t

Two o r more 250 watt tubes e r e sometimes arranged i n multiple a r a l l e l ) t o provide a g r e a t e r ou.tput than t h a t afforded by he use o f s e v e r a l smaller tubes. The Converted P-8 c o w e r c i a l tube t r a r . s n i t t e r , found on many s h i p s , employs two tubes of t h i s type arranged "back t o b~cli."and obtaining t h e i r p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n f r o n a-c. a t 500 cycles s7uppplied.from a 500 cycle a-c. generator feec'.ing i n t o a step-up power t r a n s Figure 8 former. The note received from a t r a n s n i t t e r of t h i s kind whose C.W. i s modulate6 according t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a 500 cycle a-c. c u r r e n t i s somewhat s i m i l a r t o a 500 cycle spark s e t u s i n g 3 quenched gap. The theory i s b r i s f l y a s follows: The t w o t u b e s are connected w i t h t h e i r p l a t e s t o opposite ends of the transformer secondary. Only t h e p o s i t i v e halves of the a l t e r n a t i r g current cycles w i l l be u t i l i z e d . When one p l a t e i s p o s i t i v e t h e o t h e r i s negative and i t i s obvious t h a t only t h a t tube which r e c e i v e s a, p o s i t i v e half cycle w i l l be a c t i ~ ~ n generating the continuous ie high- frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s . Thus each tube a l t e r n z t e l y generates C .W. energy

Lesson 60

- sheet 15

c a l l e d "full-wave s e l f - r e c t i f i c a t i o n n

\ .

Since the p o s i t i v e v o l t a g e s c o n s t a n t l y f l u c t u a t e between zero and maximum and zero values according t o t h e wave form of t h e a-c. output of t h e t r a n s former, then it follows t h a t the r e s u l t a n t modulation produced by r e c t i f y i n g both halves of an a l t e r n a t i v e c u r r e n t power supply w i l l appear a s shown by t h e curve i n Figure 9. There a r e f o u r completely modulated groups shown i n t h i s curve. Each complete modulation produces one c l i c k i n the r e c e i v i n g head s e t and since a 500 cycle a.c. i s supplied and two tubes a r e working "back t o back," t h e r a d i a t e d wave w i l l c o n s i s t of 1000 completely modulated groups per s,econd, hence 1000 c l i c k s per second w i l l be heard i n the head s e t . This i s known a s a 500 cycle note and t h e tone has somewhat t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a s p a r k t r a n s m i t t e r employing a quenched gap a s p r e v i o u s l y mentioned.
~ O O C IWatt Transmitting Tube

Type UV-851. The n e s t l a r g e r sized t r a n s m i t t i n g t u b e has an outvflt r a t i n n of lClOO watts. This power i s obtainable without any increase i n ' p l a t e v o i t a g e over t h e 250 watt tube. The p l a t e of t h e 851 r e q u i r e s 1000 v o l t s d-c. and i t s p l a t e power d i s s i p a t i o n i s 750 watts when the tube i s worked a s an o s c i l l a t o r .

m-

W have already explained about the high e f f i c i e n c y of a thorium filament e

HIGH-FREQUENCY OSCILLATIONS"

Figure 9 Figure 10 over a pure tungsten f i l a m e n t . This d i f f e r e n c e i n m a t e r i a l s , however, may be b e t t e r appreciated a f t e r reviewing t h e following f a c t s i n regard t o t h e p r a c t i c a l o p e r a t i o n of t h e W-851. The X-L f i l a m e n t of t h i s tube r e q u i r e s a power consumption of 170 w a t t s t o give a t o t a l e l e c t r o n emission of approximately .20 amperes whereas, on t h e other hand, a pure tungsten f i l a ment r e q u i r e s a t l e a s t 600 w a t t s t o give an e q u a l e l e c t r o n emission. I n t h e l a t t e r case, i.e., w i t h a tungsten f i l a m e n t , t h e high emission could be obtained only by c o n s i d e r a b l y overheating t h e tube; t h e a d d i t i o n a l power required would have t o be d i s s i p a t e d a t tha p l a t e . When operated under Lesson 60

- s h e e t 16

c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s t h i s tube i s capable of d e l i v e r i n g a radio- frequency output of 1 k i l o w a t t on more. The mechanical c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e lC00 watt type tube d i f f e r s somewhat from t h a t of t h e ordinary t u b e . There a r e four p a r a l l e l f i l a m e n t w i r e s used, each wire being supported by a h e l i c a l s p r i n g t o maintain proper t e n s i o n a t a l l t i m e s . The g r i d i s constructed of a heavy square mesh of molybdenum wire, it being mounted i n a frame which i s anchored t o the p l a t e s t r u c t u r e with an i n s u l a t o r f o r t h e purpose of holding t h e g r i d i n c o r r e c t mechanical r e l a t i o n t o t h e p l a t e . The h e a t generated by t h e p l a t e o r anode i s d i s s i p a t e d w i t h t h e a i d of narrow wings a t t a c h e d t o t h e p l a t e . These t h i n m e t a l pieces are callec radiating fins. UX-860 Four-element Tube Output 75 Watts. Extensive experiments w i t h a new Tour-element tube of t h e s c r e e n g r i d t m e have been conducted r e c e n t l y bv t h e Company i n a n experimental 5 meter engineering s t a f f of t h e ~ e n e r a l - ~ l e c t r i c short-wave t r a n s m i t t e r . A s p e c i a l arrangement p e r m i t s t h e short-wave s e t and i t s antenna wire, which i s o n l y 8 f e e t long, t o be suspended a t an e l e v a t i o n of 300 f e e t between h i g h towers. The engineers have been i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e phronomenon of p o i n t t o point transmission, meaning i n t h i s case t h a t t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and r e c e i v e r a r e l o c a t e d many miles a p a r t and no high b u i l d i n g s o r h i l l s intervene i n a s t z a i g h t l i n e . I n o t h e r words, t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and r e c e i v e r a r e s o l o c a t e d t h a t no object of any kind l i e s i n t h e d i r e c t a i r l i n e p a t h between t h e two s t a t i o n s . The UX-860 tube, e s p e c i a l l y designed f o r use a s a power a m p l i f i e r i n t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t s of t h e h i g h radio- frequency or short-wave type, i s t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h e s e experiments. The high- frequency t r a n s m i t t e r s send out continuous wave (C.W.) t e l e g r a p h s i g n a l s which cover wavelength ranges a s low a s 1 5 t o 50 meters, o r 20,000 t o 6,000 k i l o c y c l e s . T h i s frequency band may a l s o be expressed a s from 20 t o 6 megacycles. One megacycle i s equal t o one m i l l i o n cycles. T h i s 75 watt tube has a p l a t e , filament and two g r i d s , whereas t h e standard three- element tube has a p l a t e , filament and only one g r i d . The a d d i t i o n of t h e e x t r a g r i d , c a l l e d t h e s c r e e n or s h i e l d g r i d , minimiees t h e e f f e c t s of i n t e r - e l e c t r o d e c a p a c i t y , t h a t i s , i t prevents t h e so- called feed-back from p l a t e t o g r i d . This s t a b i l i z e s t h e c i r c u i t i n which t h e tube i s used. Whistles, howls and o t h e r u n d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t s a r e e l i m i n a t e d by the a d d i t i o n of t h e f o u r t h element. The t h e o r y of o p e r a t i o n i s t h a t t h e c o n t r o l g r i d , ( t h e r e g u l a r g r i d l o c a t e d a d j a c e n t t o t h e f i l a m e n t which i s found i n a l l s t a n d a r d t u b e s ) , i s impressed w i t h t h e e x c i t a t i o n v o l t a g e s i n t h e manner s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o r operating any tube, b u t t h e s c r e e n g r i d i s maintained a t a n e u t r a l p o t e n t i a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e o t h e r e l e c t r o d e s by s u i t a b l e connection t o a source of e.m.f. The voltage f o r the s c r e e n g r i d may be obtained e i t h e r from a potentiometer connected a c r o s s t h e p l a t e supply, from t h e d-c. p l a t e supply through a serie.9 r e s i s t a n c e of approximately 70,000 ohms, o r from a separate d-c. source. The r e s i s t a n c e method, u s i n g about 70,000 ohms, i s t h e most p r a c t i c a l method f o r maintaining t h e screen g r l d voltage a t proper value because it provides automatic r e g u l a t i o n . When employing t h e r e s i s t a n c e method, Lesson 60

- sheet 17

t h e filament supply should not be discontinued f o r ally reason while t h e p l a t e voltage i s on, f o r t k i s would cause t h e f u l l p l a t e voltage t o be applied t o t h e screen. When t h e potentiometer method, or s e p a r a t e source method, i s used t h e screen g r i d v o l t a g e should not be applied when t h e p l a t e voltage i s o f f . Under o p e r a t i n g conditions t h e screen g r i d should never be permitted t o read a temperature which would cause i t t o show a c o l o r more t h a n t h a t of a cherry red.
s

When t h e screen grid i s supplier? w i t h a s u i t a b l e p o s i t i v e voltage it a c t s a s an e l e c t r o s t a t i c s c r e e n between t h e c o c t r o l g r i d and t h e p l a t e of the tube.

Figure 1 1 The normal screen g r i d v o l t s f o r t h i s tube when o p e r a t i x e i t h e r a s an o s c i l l a t o r o r r .f power a m p l i f i e r i s 500 v o l t s . The need f o r n e u t r a l i z i n g t h e radio-frequency c i r c u i t s i s e l i m i n a t e d by t h e use of t h i s tube a s we have j u s t s t a t e d . The s k e t c h i n P i g w e 10 shows t h e m e c h a n i c ~ lr e l a t i o n of the f o u r elements. 6. photograph of t h e UX-860 i s shown i n Figure 11. The UX460 r e q u i r e s 3,25 amperes a t 10 v o l t s f o r t h e filament and 2000 v o l t s d-c. f o r t h e p l a t e . This tube nay be employed a s a frequency "doublerr' and i n t e r mediate p o m r amplif i e r i n short-wave commercial t r a n s m i t t e r s . When use8 f o r t h i s purpose t h e t u b e ' s output i s f e d i n t o a main power a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t Lesson 60

- sheet

18

which w i l l a l s o use t u b e s of t h e four-e1-t type but having a g r e a t e r output power. A tube e s p e c i a l l y designed for,handling l a r g e power a t highf r e q u e n c i e s is t h e W-861 type. W-861 Four-element Tube. Output 750 Watts. Model W-861 i s a four-element t u b e of t h e screen g r i d t y p e , designed f o r use a s a Dower a m l i f i e r i n t r a n s mitting circuits. It may-idso be used a s a n o s c i l l a i o r and i s e s p e c i a l l y adapted f o r use i n short-wave t r a n s m i t t e r s . One or more tubes of t h i s type a r e used i n the f i n a l power a m p l i f i e r stage and work d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e antenna. The input voltages f o r t h e W-861's are supplied by one or more UX-8601s located i n the intermediate s t a g e s . The UV-861 i s a l s o constructed w i t h a s h i e l d g r i d , and consequently t h e use of s t a b i l i z i n g methods i n the radio.. frequency c i r c u i t s i s likewise unnecessary a s i n t h e case of t h e UX-860. The normal screen g r i d v o l t s f o r t h i s t u b e i s 750 v o l t s . The i n t e r - e l e c t r o d e c a p a c i t y i s reduced to0.05 mmf8.b~t h e use of t h e s c r e e n g r i d . I n c e r t a i n t y p e s of t r a n s m i t t e r s t h e W-861 p l a t e i s energized by a d-c. double commutator g e n e r a t o r having two 1500 v o l t windings arranged i n s e r i e s t o d e l i v e r t h e normal 3000 v o l t s . A p l a t e c u r r e n t of approximately 0.5 amperes w i l l be drawn a t t h i s p l a t e voltage. Power tubes a r e u s u a l l y provided w i t h a p l a t e voltage r h e o s t a t s o t h a t d u r i n g t h e process of tuning the t r a n s m i t t e r t h e p l a t e voltage may f i r s t be reduced and then l a t e r increased t o normal a s t h e various radio- amplifier s t a g e s . a r e adjusted f o r maximum output i n the antenna. The normal d-c. p l a t e c u r r e n t i s 172 milliamperes but under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s The X-L tungsten of service t h i s c u r r e n t reaches values a s high a s 350 m.a. of 1 v o l t s . 1 filament takes 10 amperes a t a normal t e r m i n a l e.m.f.

I n a m a j o r i t y of t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t s , power t u b e s are connected i n p a r a l l e l , which i s a l s o known a s m u l t i p l e arrangement. The a c t u a l manner i n which

PLLTE CONNECTION

*
TO FILRMENT SUPPLY
4

Figure 12 tubes a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l i s i n i t s e l f a simple method of connecting a l l the g r i d s t o g e t h e r and a l l t h e p l a t e s t o g e t h e r . The f i l a m e n t s a r e energized from t h e same source of supply. When power t u b e s a r e operated i n m u l t i p l e , a small radio- frequency choke c o i l or a r e s i s t a n c e of s u i t a b l e s i z e , f o r i n s t a n c e , one w i t h a r e s i s t a n c e of from 10 t o 100 ohms should be i n s e r t e d i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of each tube a s shown i n Figure 12. These c o i l s , or r e s i s t o r s ( i f u s e d ) should be placed a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e t o t h e g r i d terminal of the socket f o r t h e purpose of suppressing p a r a s i t i c o s c i l l a t i o n s . Lesson 60

- s h e e t 19
\

The unwanted o s c i l l . a t i c n s a r e u l t r a - h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s which. would c i r c u l a t e t h - o u g h t h e c i r c u - i t s and cause u n d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t s i f no p r o v i s i o n were made t o s u p p r e s s them. They a r e s e t up under c e r t a i n r e s o n a n t c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n g between t h e t u b e s and t h e coupled c i r c u i t s . An a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t n a g c o n s i s t of s i x o r more trxhes connected i n m u l t i p l e i n o r d e r t o s u p p l y a n a n t e n o a s y s t e n w i t h a l a r g e power- the s u n t o t e l of
PINS CONNECT.-__--W I T H FILAMENT

- ' W ITH

SCREEN

,PLATE LEADS

CONTROL GRID--

Figure 13 t h e w a t t o u t p u t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l t u b e s u s e d i n t h e system. M u l t i p l e a r r a n g e n e n t p r o v i d e s a p r a c t i c a l means f o r d i v i d i n g t h e l o a d among s e v e r a l low-powered t u b e s , a n d i n t h i s way t h e need f o r a v e r y l a r g e e x p e n s i v e t u b e and power p l a n t i s e l i m i n a t e c ? . A photograph of t h e UV-861 i s shown i n F i g u r e 13. 75 - Watt -S p e c i a l Short-wave T r a n s m i t t i n g Tube Type UX-852. The UX-852 t u b e i l l u s t r a L e d i n F i g u r e 14- is d e s i g n e d f o r use a s a n o s c i l l a t o r , power-arnplif i e r o r modulator i n t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t s o p e r a t i m on 5, 20 and 40 m e t e r s . It i s a l s o well s u i t e d f o r use a s a c r y s t a l - c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r by operating it a t l e s s t h a n t h e r a t e d . p l a t e v o l t a g e . This t u b e h a s a v e r y low i n t e r e l e c t r o d e c a p a c i t y made p o s s i b l e by i t s s p e c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n . I t s p l a t e t o % r i d c a p a c i t y i s on17 3.3 m i c r o ~ i c r o f a r a d sa s compared t o 8.0 mfd. f o r t h e L e s s o n 60

s h e e t 20

UX-210. Observe i n t h e photograph how t h e p l a t e and g r i d e l e c t r o d e s a r e mounted on s e p a r a t e stems w i t h t h e connecting l e a d s e n t e r i n g t h e g l a s s envelope through opposite s i d e s . The filament l e a d s a r e brought t o the prongs on t h e tube base a s i n t h e o r d i n a r y tube. O 20 meters, t h e tube w i l l o s c i l l a t e w i t h s t a b i l i t y and under c e r t a i n condin t i o n s w i l l d e l i v e r power on O.? of a meter. The UX-852 may be employed a s a c r y s t a l c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r w i t h a s l i g h t r e d u c t i o n i n output or r a t e d p l a t e voltage, made necessary because of t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e c r y s t a l . The double end o r T-shaped g l a s s envelope w i t h l e a d s coming out a t s a f e d i s t a n c e s from each o t h e r prevents damaging base f l a s h e s . Connections t o each of t h e g r i d and p l a t e elements i s made through two l a r g e stranded leads brought out from each stem as w have j u s t mentioned. These p a r a l l e l l e a d s e permit l a r g e c i r c u l a t i n g c u r r e n t s t o be c a r r i e d s a f e l y a t t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s and t h e r e f o r e it i s imperative t h a t b o t h l e a d s be always used. The X-L f i l a ment used i n t h e tube g i v e s a h i g h e l e c t r o n emission. The filament power i s r a t e d a t 32.5 watts. The tube base should always be mounted s o t h a t t h e f i l a m e n t w i l l occupy a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n . A l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t should be supplied t o t h e f i l a m e n t whenever possible. P l a t e and g r i d r e t u r n l e a d s should be connected t o t h e e l e c t r i c a l center ( c e n t e r t a p ) of t h e filament h e a t i n g winding of t h e power transformer

~ l t h o u g h h e normal p l a t e voltage f o r t h e tube i s 2000 v o l t s , t h i s voltage t may be r a i s e d t o 3000 provided t h e p l a t e d i s s i p a t i o n does not exceed 100 w a t t s . Radiating f i n s on t h e p l a t e permit a very l a r g e h e a t d i s s i p a t i o n a t t h i s point. Because of the i m p r a t i o a b i l i t y of measuring t h e output of a tube working on short wavelengths i t s c o r r e c t o p e r a t i o n mag be judged s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e by observing t h e p l a t e . P l a t e temperature should never be permitted t o increase above a c e r t a i n value t h a t would cause it t o become more t h a n cherry r e d i n c o l o r . If t h e p l a t e i s heated t o a cherry r e d , t h i s c o l o r may be t a k e n as an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e energy d i s s i p a t e d i n h e a t i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 100 w a t t s , r e s u l t i n g f r o n e l e c t r o n bombardment of t h e anode or p l a t e . Remember t h a t whenever a c i r c u i t employing t h i s tube i s a d j u s t e d , the tube l o s s , t h a t i s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e between output and i n p u t , must always be kept w i t h i n t h e s a f e l i m i t s of 100 w a t t s . The filament of t h i s tube may be r e a c t i v a t e d , l i k e t h e X-L f i l a m e n t s of tubes p r e v i o u s l y mentioned, by o p e r a t i n g a t t h e normal f i l a m e n t voltage f o r t e n minutes or longer w i t h t h e p l a t e voltage supply disconnected. The a c t i v i t y of t h e filament may be a c c e l e r a t e d by increasing t h e filament voltage t o 12 v o l t s , but no more. I n cases where an overload has l i b e r a t e d a l a r g e amount of gas t h i s r e a c t i v a t i o n process w i l l not be s u c c e s s f u l .
A f u s e of t h e proper s i z e t o blow a t 10 amperes should be i n s e r t e d d i r e c t l y i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e p l a t e supply l e a d i n order t o p r o t e c t t h e g r i d , wiring

e t c , , from overheating when improper adjustments of t h e c i r c u i t have been made. As we have cautioned b e f o r e a f u s e should never be placed i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of any tube, because i f it should a c c i d e n t l y open or blow it would remove the g r i d b i a s from t h e t u b e w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t would immediately r u n up t o a dangerous value.

Lesson 60

- sheet

21

Figure 15 Figure 16

Lesson 60

- sheet 22

The following suggestions and important " d o n l t s " a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l t u b e s i n t h e power c l a s s and should be heeded by anyone working w i t h t r a n s m i t t i n g equipment : Never permit a p l a t e t o h e a t above a cherry r e d c o l o r under any circumstances. Never use excessive f i l a m e n t or p l a t e voltage. Operate t h e tube a t r e l a t i v e l y low p l a t e voltages whenever c i r c u i t experiments o r r e g u l a r adjustments a r e made i n order t o p r o t e c t t h e tube and other p a r t s i n case t h e adjustments a r e i n c o r r e c t . Handle a tube w i t h extreme c a r e whenever removing o r p l a c i n g one i n i t s socket. Do not permit a spray or drops of water t o f a l l on t h e g l a s s envelope. I n s t i t u t e r e g u l a r cleaning schedules, and a t i n t e r v a l s of about a month remove t h e tube and c l e a n the prongs, metal p a r t s of t h e s o c k e t s , s p r i n g s , e t c . Do not allow t h e s e c o n t a c t p o i n t s t o become corroded f o r t h e y would t h e n have t h e e f f e c t of considerably i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e of the c i r c u i t a t t h i s point. This tube i s adaptable 20 Kilowatt Water-cooled Tran%mitting Tube W-207. t o e i t h e r broadcast or t e l e g r a p h transmittine: c i r c u i t s . A l t h o w h the 20 kw. t u b e i s one of the l a r g e s t of i h e f a m i l y of oacuum t u b e s , y e t functions e x a c t l y s i m i l a r t o i t s smaller b r o t h e r s i n t h e lower power c l a s s e s . The tube i s w e l l s u i t e d f o r use a s an o s c i l l a t o r , power- amplifier, o r modulator. The enormous power which t h i s water- cooled tube i s capable of d e l i v e r i n g can be appreciated by n o t i n g t h e magnitude of i t s various operating voltages. For i n s t a n c e , t h e p l a t e i s energized w i t h 15,000 v o l t s and the c u r r a n t drawn i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t when t h e tube i s o s c i l l a t i n g i s 2 amperes, or 2000 m i l l i amperes. The radio- frequency c u r r e n t , or o s c i l l a t i o n s generated by t h i s tube, A c i r c u l a t e s through t h e g r i d c i r c u i t and reaches values up t o 30 amperes. g r i d d-c. c u r r e n t of about 100 milliamperes can be s a f e l y c a r r i e d by t h e g r i d . The filament e.m.f. i s 22 v o l t s which g i v e s a f i l a m e n t c u r r e n t of n e a r l y 52 amperes. A filament s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e i s necessary i n order t o r a i s e t h e f i l a m e n t temperature g r a d u a l l y , and when t h e normal o p e r a t i n g p o i n t i s reached t h e p l a t e voltage i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y a p p l i e d .

iz

while t h e r a t e d output of t h i s tube i s 20 bar. the maximum s a f e p l a t e d i s s i p a t i o n i s 10 kw. It w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t l o s t power i s g e n e r a l l y d i s s i p a t e d i n heat. The long copper c y l i n d e r shown a t the bottom i n t h e photograph of t h e tube i n Figure 1 5 i s t h e anode or p l a t e . By i n s e r t i n g t h e anode i n a water- cooled jacket t h e heat produced a t t h e p l a t e i s quickly e x t r a c t e d . The complete water- jacket assembly i s shown i n Figure 16. A good i d e a of how a tube i s mounted i n a water- jacket can be had from t h e i n t e r i o r views of t h e new operating room of t h e National Broadcasting Company shown i n F i g u r e s 18 and 19. A f l a n g e screwed t o t h e threaded p o r t i o n of t h e p l a t e h o l d s t h e p l a t e i n t h e jacket and s p e c i a l p r e c a u t i o n s a r e t a k e n t o i n s u r e a water t i g h t j o i n t by t h e use of a s u i t a b l e gasket of rubber o r other m a t e r i a l between t h e f l a n g e and jacket. The tube i s supported only by t h e water jacket. Lesson 60

- sheet

23

There i s s u f f i c i e n t space between t h e i n s i d e of t h e jacket and t h e copper c y l i n d e r or p l a t e t o permit a column of water t o c i r c u l a t e f r e e l y around t h e p l a t e f o r t h e e x t r a c t i o n of h e a t generated a t t h i s p o i n t . About two or t h r e e g a l l o n s of water per minute i n c o n s t a n t l y pumped p a s t t h e surface of t h e copper anode and through t h e system from c o o l i n g c o i l s , The water c i r c u l a t i o n i s maintained by e l e c t r i c a l l y d r i v e n c e n t r i f u g a l pumps. The temperature of t h e water i s u s u a l l y measured a f t e r i t has passed t h e hot anode* T h i s i s known a s t h e o u t l e t temperature, 70 degrees Centigrade g e n e r a l l y being s e t a s t h e l i m i t . It i s obvious t h e n t h a t t h e thermometer i s l o c a t e d a t t h e p o i n t of h i g h e s t water temperature. The cooling water i s never permitted t o b o i l nor a r e a i r pockets allowed t o form around t h e anode which might- cause overheating of t h e water. T h i s c o n d i t i o n would be evidenced by a singing or buzzing noise from t h e jacket while t h e power i s on, t h i s noise i n d i c a t i n g t h e p e s e n c e of steam bubbles a t t h e s u r f a c e of the anode. Only water surrounds the metal anode and a s can be seen i n t h e photograph the o t h e r elements are supported by t h e g l a s s c y l i n d e r with the conductors brought out a t s a f e d i s t a n c e s from each other. A simple c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l s k e t c h of the water-cooled vacuum tube i s shown i n Figure 17. There it can be seen t h a t t h e p l a t e i t s e l f i s a hollow c y l i n d e r with filament and g r i d mounted i n s i d e . An a i r - t i g h t s e a l i s made between the copper edge of t h e c y l i n d e r and t h e g l a s s s h e l l . The tube i s v e r y t h i n and d e l i c a t e where t h i s union between g l a s s and metal i s made.

It may be i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h e dimensions of t h i s tube i n order t h a t w may compare it with t h e small e

r e c e i v i n g tubes which we s o f r e q u e n t l y handle. Howe v e r , when we consider t h e immense amount of d-c. power x h i c h i s converted i n t o radio- frequency power by t h i s WhlER OUTLET t u b e , i t s dimensions do n o t seem unduly large. The m a x i m u m o v e r a l l l e n g t h of t h e tube i s 19 5/8 " and t h e Figure 17 diameter of t h e g l a s s bulb & n. while the weight of t h e tube alone i s 2 pounds, 12 ounces. These d i m e k i b n s seem r e l a t i v e l y small and are made p o s s i b l e because of t h e s p e c i a l means of keeping t h e temperature w i t h i n s a f e l i m i t s by both water and a i r cooling. The a i r cooling i s t h e n a t u r a l heat r a d i a t i o n which takes place a t t h e outside g l a s s w a l l s and water- jacket while the water cooling i s due t c d i r e c t conduction from t h e hot c y l i n d r i c a l p l a t e t o t h e water. It w i l l be remembered t h a t it i s the e l e c t r o n i c bombardmenb which causes t h e p l a t e o r anode t o become t h e h o t t e s t element i n the t u b e o u t s i d e of t h e filament which i s a normal condition f o r the latter.
A i n t e r l o c k or c i r c u i t breaker between t h e water c i r c u l a t i n g system and t h e n e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s i s s e t t o open i f t h e w a t e r supply f a i l s f o r any reason or i f t h e tube develops t r o u b l e . The filament and p l a t e voltages a r e i n s t a n t l y disconnected by t h e openlng of t h e i n t e r l o c k .

11

1I

Lesson 60

- sheet 24

F i g u r e 19

Lesson 60

sheet 25

Because of the h i g h p l a t e p o t e n t i a l of s e v e r a l thousand v o l t s , ' t h e p l a t e must accordingly be i n s u l a t e d from t h e water t a n k and metal p i p i n g which i s normally grounded. The use of a f a i r l y long l e n g t h o f ' r u b b e r hose conn e c t i n g t h e water- jacket t o t h e water source and a l s o , by u s i n g pure water i n t h e c i r c u l a t o r y system, t h e i n s u l a t i o n and r e s i s t a n c e i s b u i l t up t o t h e order of s e v e r a l hundreds of thousands of ohms. T h i s r e s i s t a n c e i s between t h e high p o t e n t i a l anode, which i s i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e water, and t h e cooling s y s t e n and, i n t u r n , t h e ground. ( t h e s c a l e being s i m i l a r t o t h a t c o l l e c t i n g on the b o i l e r t u b e s ) , may be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e use of water c o n t a i n i n g a high percentage of mineral m a t t e r , e s p e c i a l l y s u l p h a t e s and carbonates. The chemical content of t h e cooling water should be determined by a n a l y s i s . The water must be pure and have a f a i r l y h i g h s p e c i f i c r e s i s t a n c e . A l e n g t h of about 1 5 f e e t of &" rubber hose i s a l l t h a t I s r e q u i r e d with high r e s i s t a n c e water (4000 ohms per centimeter cube ) i n order t o b u i l d up t h e necessary h i g h r e s i s t a n c e between t h e jacket and t h e i n l e t and o u t l e t pipes. Observe i n t h e photographs of N.B.C.'s s t a t i o n how t h e l e n g t h of hose i s wound around a c y l i n d r i c a l form, a c o i l being l o c a t e d under each tube i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r .
A tendency f o r a heavy s c a l e o r d e p o s i t t o form on t h e out s i d e of t h e anode,

It can be r e a d i l y understood t h a t . t h e need of pure water i s a very important f e a t u r e i n t h e o p e r a t i o n of l a r g e broadcasting s t a t i o n s or any s t a t i o n employing water- cooling f o r vacuum tubes. The water used i n a c e r t a i n r a d i o s t a t i o n had a s p e c i f i c r e s i s t a n c e of o n l y one- tenth t h a t of t h e water r e commended f o r such purposes. The t a b l e below shows t h e chemical content held i n s o l u t i o n i n t h i s w a t e r , and we give t h i s l i s t f o r t h o s e of our s t u d e n t s who may be i n t e r e s t e d i n work of t h i s kind.
PER 100,000
G R A I N S PER GALLON

'

Silica I r o n oxide alumina Calcium carbonate Magnesium carbonate Potassium carbonate Sodium s u l p h a t e Sodium chloride Total Solids S p e c i f i c Resistance 359 ohms r

1.08

I f t h e composition of cooling water i s such t h a t s c a l e cannot be avoided t h e n it i s obvious t h a t t h e t u b e s must be removed and cleaned a t f r e a u e n t i n t e r v a l s , t h e frequency of cleaning depending, of course, upon t h e g a t e a t which t h e deposit i s formed. The danger of a c c i d e n t a l breakage i s always e n t a i l e d i n t h e removal of t h e s e t u b e s because t h e y a r e a p t t o s t i c k i n t h e water- jacket. A g e n t l e t w i s t i n g back and f o r t h and a t the same time r a i s i n g t h e tube c a r e f u l l y w i l l u s u a l l y loosen it s u f f i c i e n t l y t o permit i t s removal. I n order t h a t t h e g l a s s envelope w i l l not be subjected t o an e l e c t r o s t a t i c s t r a i n t h e e x t e r n a l w i r i n g from t h e t r a n s m i t t e r c i r c u i t s and t h e leads a t t a c h e d t o t h e e l e c t r o d e s a r e kept a t reasonably s a f e d i s t a n c e s from t h e g l a s s . Lesson 60

- sheet

26

You w i l l r e c a l l t h a t g l a s s i s a d i e l e c t r i c m a t e r i a l . Hence, e l e c t r o s t a t i c s t r a i n s s e t up by the r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t a r e l i k e l y t o puncture the comparatively t h i n walls of the g l a s s . Again observe t h e photograph of t h e 20 liw. tube and note how the two filament l e a d s a r e brought out a t t h e t o p whereas t h e g r i d conductor comes through the c e n t e r of the g l a s s bulb. I f the f i l z n e n t l e a d s swing and s t r i k e t h e g l a s s a t any time t r o u b l e would a r i s e from corona, r e s u l t i n g i n almost c e r t a i n puncture of the g l a s s .

A t r a n s m i t t e r e m p l o y i x tubes of t h i s power may have the o s c i l l a t i n g frequency! a l l o c a t e d by the Radio Commission e t Washington, maintained within t h e pre scribed l i m i t s of 500 cycles by the use of a q u a r t z c r y s t a l . A c i r c u i t concistirrg of a quartz c r y s t a l , an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t , and a l o w power a m p l i f i e r tube, may be s e t up t o supply t h e i n i t i a l o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t of t h e d e s i r e d frequency, This frequency a f t e r being stepped-up through s e v e r a l s t a g e s of interniediate a m p l i f i c a t i o n f i n a l l y provides a s a t i s f a c t o r y amount of radiofrequency voltage f o r e x c i t a t i o n of the g r i d of t h e 20 kw. tube.
Immensely l a r g e condensers and inductances a r e r e q u i r e d i n t h e r a d i o c i r c u i t s because of t h e h i g h p o t e n t i a l s p r e s e n t , but a c t u a l l y t h e s e bulky u n i t s have no g r e a t e r e l e c t r i c a l dimensions than t h e smaller p a r t s used i n low power circuits. The photograph i n Figure 18 shows 32 high power water- cooled tubes i n a row. w This equipment i s p a r t of t h e National Broadcasting Company's 50 k . t r a n s m i t t e r a t Bellmore, Long I s l a n d , N.P. This apparatus has r e p l a c e d t h e 5 kw. \P@,AP t r a n s m i t t e r which was l o c a t e d f o r so many y e a r s on Walker S t r e e t i n Nw Pork City. e
A g e n e r a l view of t h e radio- frequency power a m p l i f i e r and h i g h power tuning system of t h e s t a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 19. The r e l a t i v e s i z e of t h e

t u ~ i n g n i t s can be e a s i l y appreciated when comparing them w i t h one of the u s t a t i o n ' s engineers standing alongside. The power modulator tubes a r e shown i n the r e a r l e f t of t h e room i n Figure 18. The tubes a r e placed i n or out of operation, a s the c a s e may be, by r e l a y s ; each r e l a y being l o c a t e d immediately above t h e c o i l of rubber hose. From t h e e n g i n e e r ' s master c o n t r o l desk i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g room one may have a c l e a r view o f the 32 high-powered t u b e s , a l l of which a r e equipped with t h e s e r e l a y s . MEASURING VACUUM TUBE CHARACTERISTICS There a r e s e v e r a l c o n s t a n t s by which vacuum tubes of s i m i l a r type may be e compared when o p e r a t i n g under e x a c t l y s i m i l a r conditions. W w i l l e x p l a i n i n the f o l l o w i n g paragraphs how t o c a l c u l a t e the a m p l i f i c a t i o n constant, p l a t e impedance and t h e mutual conductance. Although t h e s e constants do not enable us t o determine e x a c t l y how a p a r t i c u l a r t u b e w i l l perform i n a c i r c u i t under c e r t a i n operating c o n d i t i o n s , y e t t h e y do provide a very convenient means f o r u s t o determine t h e r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y t o be expected from t u b e s of s i m i l a r type. ATR AMPLIFICATION F C O OR CONSTAET.

M (A ) i s t h e symbol f o r t h i s constant. u
Lesson 60

- sheet

27

Amplification constant may be defined a s t h e measure of the e f f e c t of t h e g r i d voltage on t h e p l a t e voltage, or s t a t e d more f u l l y , i t i s t h e r a t i o of t h e change i n p l a t e voltage t o a corresponding change i n g r i d voltage which produces the same e f f e c t i n t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t . T h i s r e l a t i o n may be expressed a s a formula i n t h e following manner: AMPLIFICATION CONSTANT

C X ~ IN GRID

CHANGE I N PLATE VOLTAGE

With the a i d of t h e curves i n Figure 5 w w i l l work out a n example t h a t w i l l e

enable anyone t o c a l c u l t a t e the a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t or of any tube whose chara c t e r i s t i c curve i s a v a i l a b l e . The t h r e e curves show the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the same tube, a UX-210 t u b e , when worked a t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p l a t e p o t e n t i a l s . The f i r s t curve i s t h e 135 v o l t curve, t h e second 90 v o l t s , and t h e t h i r d 45 volts. I n our example l e t us consider only t h e 135 and 90 v o l t curves i n order t o f i n d t h e r a t i o of change i n p l a t e voltage t o a corresponding change i n g r i d voltage which would give a change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t e x a c t l y s i m i l a r f o r each g r i d and p l a t e v a r i a t i o n . Reference t o the curves t e l l s us t h a t when working t h e tube with t h e g r i d a t zero p o t e n t i a l the flow of p l a t e c u r r e n t i s 12 m.a. (milliamperes) w i t h t h e p l a t e a t 135 v o l t s . It i s r e a d i l y seen t h a t by r e ducing the p l a t e voltage from 135 t o 90, a d i f f e r e n c e of 45 v o l t s , we obt a i n e d a r e d u c t i o n i n p l a t e c u r r e n t of 5 m.a. Let u s now l o c a t e a point on t h e 135 v o l t curve which t e l l s us t h e value of p l a t e current f o r a g r i d b l a s of negative 5 v o l t s . To do t h i s we follow t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e upward from t h e -5 l o c a t i o n on t h e bottom h o r i z o n t a l l i n e , ( t h e l i n e upon which t h e g r i d voltages are marked) u n t i l the v e r t i c a l l i n e c r o s s e s the curve. Beginning a t t h e point of i n t e r s e c t i o n w follow the e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e t o the l e f t u n t i l i t meets t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e upon which t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t values a r e marked. The p l a t e c u r r e n t value i s seen t o be 7 m.a. However, t h i s same 135 v o l t s , as previously shown w i t h t h e g r i d a t Hence, it should be c l e a r zero p o t e n t i a l , g i v e s a p l a t e current of 12 m.a. t h a t with t h e tube o p e r a t i n g under t h e s e two d i f f e r e n t g r i d v o l t a g e s , zero Observe now, t h a t w e and -5, the p l a t e c u r r e n t dropped from 12 t o 7 m.a. have t h e same value of change of p l a t e c u r r e n t , o r 5 m,a. f o r two d i f f e r e n t p l a t e voltages, 135 and 90, corresponding t o t h e two d i f f e r e n t g r i d v o l t a g e s . zero and -5. B r i e f l y , i t could be s t a t e d t h a t it r e q u i r e d only 5 v o l t s change of g r i d t o make t h e sane p l a t e current change t h a t was obtained by a d i f f e r e n c e of 45 v o l t s on t h e p l a t e . Any s e t of values might be taken from t h e curve f o r our example, providing t h e s e values a r e somewhere along t h e l i n e a r o r s t r a i g h t p o r t i o n of t h e curve. It w i l l be remembered from t h e l e s s o n on "Vacuum Tubes" t h a t a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s obtained by working a t u b e a t some l o c a t i o n where t h e slope of t h e curve i s a straight line. The numerical v a l u e s i n t h e preceding paragraphs may now be s u b s t i t u e d i n t h e formula and t h e n solving w g e t : e

Lesson 60

- sheet

28

AMPLIFICATION FACTOR=

135-90 -5x 3r 9 = 45

Then 9 i s the a m p l i f i c a t i o n constant of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r 210 type tube. P l a t e Impedance. T h i s constant i s t h e measure of t h e change i n p l a t e voltage t o the r e s u l t a n t c h a 3 e i n p l a t e c u r r e n t under c o n d i t i o n s of a c o n s t a n t g r i d p o t e n t i a l . The term c o n s t a n t " means t h a t g r i d voltage remains uncha%ed or f i x e d during$the procedure of p l o t t i n g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve. Note t h a t g r i d voltage w i l l not be varied t h i s time, a s f o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e case of preceding explanation. I n t h i s example w can use t h e same p l a t e voltages e and p l a t e c u r r e n t values a s i n the foregoing examples, when the p l a t e voltage was lowered from 135 t o 90 and it was shown t h a t t h e p l a t e current decreased from 12 t o 7 m.a. After f i r s t changing milliamperes t o amperes, a l l of the necessary values can be s u b s t i t u t e d i n t h e p l a t e impedance formula a s follows:
PLATE IMPEDANCE =

135-90
e012-0. 001

=-= 45 0.005

9000 o2.uns.

Note:

12 m.a. = 01012 amperes. 7 m.a. = 0.007 amperes.

Then 9000 ohms i s t h e p l a t e impedance f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r tube. Mutual Conductance. The mutual conductance value of a tube i s a good i n d i c a t i o n or t h e e f f i c i e n c y of a tube used a s a n a m p l i f i e r , because t h i s value represents t h e e f f e c t of t h e applied g r i d voltage upon t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t . Nw t h e n , a c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p e x l s t s i n a l l tubes between t h e o p l a t e current and g r i d v o l t a g e which t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve shows i n p i c t o r i a l form. This r e l a t i o n s h i p i s when t h e q u o t i e n t of t h e change i n p l a t e current divided by the change i n g r i d voltage produces a c e r t a i n change i n question i n p l a t e c u r r e n t , providing the p l a t e voltage i s maintained cons t a n t . O r , i t can be s a i d t h a t mutual conductance i s t h e r a t i o of t h e amplif i c a t i o n f a c t o r (mu) t o p l a t e impedanoe. This statement may be w r i t t e n a s follows:

W s h a l l again use t h e curvesof t h e UX-210 tube t o o b t a i n our working values. e Observe t h a t w i t h the p l a t e a t 90 v o l t s the p l a t e c u r r e n t i s 7 m.a. and w i t h Thus, a 45 v o l t r e d u c t i o n t h e p l a t e a t 45 v o l t s t h e c u r r e n t i s only 2 m.a. on t h e p l a t e causes a 5 m.a. r e d u c t i o n i n c u r r e n t . It can a l s o be seen from t h e curve t h a t i t r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e g r i d be changed 5 v o l t s , ( t h a t i s , from a zero value t o -5 v o l t s ) i n order t o e f f e c t a s i m i l a r change of 5 m.a. i n p l a t e current. O course, the p l a t e voltage must i n t h i s case remain conf s t a n t or unchanged when t h e g r i d voltage i s s h i f t e d from zero t o -5. To work out t h i s example we must m u l t i p l y the 5 m.a. change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t by 1000, or 5 x 1000, and t h e n d i v i d e t h i s r e s u l t (5000) by t h e r e q u i r e d e grid. voltage change of 5 v o l t s ; w t h e n have 5000 =1000.

Lesson 60

- sheet

29

.:<..,-.,~ . ,

,. ?

,....*,.,
~

;,<-,, ,: :

"--.." ......, . , . : . .

UX-or W-210 Rated output (Watts ) 7.5 15

W203-A
50 100

W211

UV204-A

W851 1000 750

UX852

Screen Grid UX-860 W-861

W 207

50 100

250 200

Max. P l a t e Dissipat i o n , (Watts) or Safe PotveP Dissipation. Filament Volts. Filament Amps. Screen Grid Volts. P l a t e Voltage
r : , t s
O-;--ror-t

7.5 1.25

10 3.25

10 3.25

1 1

1 1

1 1

22 52

350

1000
,

- - 2000 200 24 2OQO.875 20 850

* L > -

3.85

15.5

10 750 3000 350

15000 2 amp.

1000 125 12

OS~ZX-

60
7.5

125

Amplification Cons t a n t . (Approx.)

25

P l a t e Impedance. 3500 5000 1900 4700 ( Approx. ohms ) a t zero g r i d and r a t e d p l a t e v o l t a g e . (See n o t e * ) Mutual C onductance 2150 ( ~ i c r o m h o s ) t zero a g r i d and r a t e d p l a t e voltage. P l a t e Current. (m,a. ) 70 a t zero g r i d and r a t e d p l a t e voltage. (See note. ) Over- all length. 5it'

5000

6300

5100 23500

(See Note .) 120 320 275 1550

7 7/8" 7 /7 @ '

l n 17s9 e

Note: n f o r comparison only and do not n e c e s s a r i l y apply -l l These f i g u r eofs a r e g i v eoperation. to a conditions normal SHORT-iVAVE DATA F R TRANSMITTING VACUUM TUBES O (Safe values f o r wavelengths above 10 meters.) Tube Safe p l a t e voltage D.G. or R S A.C M (See note below). 350 1000 1000 2000 2000 2000 2000 3000

Safe Plate Watts 10 75 75 200 600 100 100 400

-W W

ux

UV
W UX UX W

210 203-A 211 204-A 851 852 860 861

Safe High Frequency Amperes Through Grid & P l a t e Leads. 5. 7.5 7.5 10. 10, 10. 10.

Grid t o Plate Capacity.

(mas,
8.0 22.5 18.5 19.0 57.0 3.3 .05 .05

Note: R S i s t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r Root Mean Square. R S i n d i c a t e s the a c t u a l readM M i n g obtained by e i t h e r an A.C. a m e t e r or voltmeter connected i n a c i r c u i t . Lesson 60
, .,,

. . . . ...". i ..-

sheet 30

1
. d

Then 1000 micromhos i s t h e mutual conductance for t h i s tube when operating .. a t t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r "B" and "C" voltages, t h a t i s t o say, a t 90 v o l t s pla%e and %era g r i d . e u n i t " m i c r o m h o s ~ x p r e s s e st h e conductance value which i s t h e opljosite r e s i s t a n c e . Resistance i s measured by t h e u n i t "ohm", and n o t i c e t h a t i s s p e l l e d backwards or "mho * t o express conductance. Furthermore, "micro" indicates a m i l l i o n t h p a r t of t h e u n i t "mho". i n e i t h e r p l a t e voltage o r g r i d voltage w i l l cause t h e mutual and consequently mutual conductance can e c o x d i t ions, i . , w i t h t h e tube ;. working

'

ny f a c t o r s a s p o s s i b l e which govern t h e amount of current l a t e c i r c u i t of a vacuum tube.

s meant by " s a f e p l a t e d i s s i p a t i o n " ?

Hw i s a power tube r a t e d ? ( b ) 1Nrite the formula f o r e f f i c i e n c y o ts. ( c ) Suppose t h e output of a t u b e i s 69 w a t t s and t h e 15 watts. Find t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h i s tube i n percent.
&

f L

4.

What m a t e r i a l i s g e n e r a l l y used f o r filament wire i n power tubes. Why?

,I.

( a ) s t a t e a s many r e a s o n s a s you cah t h a t makes t h e r e a c t i v a t i o n of a 5. ( b ) I n general, what method of procedure would you conform tube necessary. t o i n order t o r e a c t i v a t e a tube?
6 ,
( b ) S t a t e s e v e r a l ways how t h i s may be accomplished.

F
L

( a ) Why should t h e amount of g r i d current i n a power tube be c o n t r o l l e d ?

o ( a ) H w a r e u l t r a - h i g h frequencies suppressed i n coupled c i r c u i t s coning of two or more power tubes? ( b ) O what p r a c t i c a l importance i s t h e f -element tube? ( c ) What i s t h e f o u r t h element and i n a g e n e r a l way what i t s e f f e c t w i t h i n the t u b e ?
8.
J

( a ) How may s e v e r a l power tubes of s i m i l a r type be connected i n order t o supply a l a r g e output power t o an antenna system? ( b ) Draw a simple s k e t c h showing t h r e e t u b e s connected i n t h e manner suggested by your answer t o question 8 ( a ) immediately above.
d

i
i

9. ( a ) Should a f u s e be placed i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e g r i d of a power tube and why? ( b ) What p r a c t i c a l i n d i c a t i o n have you t h a t a tube has reached i t s l i m i t of p l a t e temperature and what l i m i t should never be exceeded? ( c ) What a c t u a l l y causes a p l a t e t o become h o t and show c o l o r ?

0. ( a ) What f e a t u r e s make it p o s s i b l e t o b u i l d and o p e r a t e a tube of c h r e l a t i v e l y small dimensions but having t h e enormous power r a t i n g of owatts? ( b ) H w i s t h e high voltage p l a t e of a water-cooled tube maino a t a s a f e operating p o t e n t i a l w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e water supply tank h e r p a r t s which a r e normally grounded? Lesson 60 sheet 31

.-~ .. . . ..

.:*

c..,

INC.
firrnerly.

MARCON/ I N S J/TU TE

S u n d e d .1909

Technical Lesson 61
COMMERCIAL T B TRANSMITTERS UE

'

&

f
J!Z

TTD~ E.T. 3628 Tube T r a n s m i t t e r . Vacuum tube t r a n s m i t t e r s a r e r a p i d l y r e placing spark and a r c s e t s because of two reasons:
1.

2.
(1. ':{

They a r e capable of covering much g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s w i t h l e s s power, They gmit a s h a r p e r ( l e s s i n t e r f e r i n g ) wave t h a n e i t h e r t h e spark o r arc.

The E.T. 3628 i s one of t h e s t a n d a r d t r a n s m i t t e r s now i n use on many s h i p s and i n a few c o a s t a l s t a t i o n s . A v a s t amount of r a d i o t r a n s m i t t i n g apparatus has been i n s t a l l e d on s h i p s s i n c e the b i r t h of r a d i o communication and while t h e advancement i n r a d i o has progressed, t h e r e was a l i m i t a t i o n s e t , n a t u r a l l y , -I! , i n t h e d i s c a r d of o l d e r t y p e s t o accomodate t h e more e f f i c i e n t newer types. ii i $ Towards t h e r e l i e f of such a n expensive change t h e Radio Corporation of America desigfied t h e E.T. 3628 tube s e t which u t i l i z e s much of t h e apparatus used i n t h e old standard P-8 spark t r a n s m i t t e r t h a t w e have j u s t r e c e n t l y studied. The E.T. 3628 i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e "Converted P-8". I n t h i s l e s s o n we. &!: show the changes made and i f t h e student w i l l s t u d y t h i s assignment w i t h t h e 41: l e s s o n on spark t r a n s m i t t e r s t M i n s t r u c t i o n w i l l be c l e a r . 1:

i<

;j 2;

e,f /#

k.11 connections t o t h e motor-generator and automatic s t a r t e r a r e t h e same a s f o r t h e P-8 spark set. The method of Keying, (by 'breaking t h e primary c i r c u i t of t h e power t r a n s f o r m e r ) i s e x a c t l y t h e same a s used with t h e P-8 i n s t a l l a t i o n . Power r e g u l a t i o n by means of generator ' f i e l d and motor f i e l d r h e o s t a t s i s t h e same. The connections t o t h e wattmeter and antenna ammeter a r e a l s o the same a s used w i t h t h e P-8 spark s e t . I n s t r u c t i o n s and diagrams given i n t h e l e s s o n on s p a r k t r a n s m i t t e r s should be followed so f a r a s any of t h e above mentioned c i r c u i t s a r e concerned.

'

The conversion of t h e P-8 spark t r a n s m i t t e r i s made by removing t h e following p a r t s : The quenched gap panel, a i r d u c t , primary condenser r a c k , coupling s h a f t and s c a l e , r o t a r y gap d i s c and m u f f l e r , change-over switch and a d j u s t i n g handle, and a l l upper contact s t u d s on t h e wave-changer panel. Also t h e primary r e actance i s permanently c u t out and t h e primary inductance (pancake c o i l ) i s removed and r e p l a c e d w i t h t h e drum wound h e l i x type c a l l e d t h e "tank inductance", a s shown i n t h e photograph, Figure 1 . 1 The tube c r a d l e holding t h e two W-204-A's i s t h e n i n s t a l l e d and protected b a panel s c r e e n a s shown i n Figure 2. The f i l a m e n t by-pass condensers a r e mounted on t h e r e a r of t h e p a n e l i n a p o s i t i o n d i r e c t l y i n back of t h e f i l a n t voltmeter a s shown i n Figure 3. A l a r g e board holding t h e choke c o i l d condenser assembly i s put i n t h e place formerly occupied by t h e spark c nser rack. O t h i s board a r e t h e g r i d l e a k r e s i s t o r of 4,000 ohms, g r i d n

Five -Wave 'osition Switch

-.ank lnductanc Primary of Oscillation Transformer

Secondary of Oscillation Transformer

- Grid R.F. Choke

Figure 1 Lesson 6 1

- sheet 2

Wattmeter Antenna Ammeter

Figure 2
Lesson 6 1

sheet 3

Figure 3 choke and t h e l a r g e p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n condenser on e i t h e r s i d e of which a r e mounted the two smaller p l a t e blocking condensers. The two p l a t e r.f. chokes a r e secured t o t h e bottom of t h e board toward the r e a r . The primary wave-changer panel i s d r i l l e d f o r two a d d i t i o n a l contact s t u d s and f i v e f l e x i b l e l e a d s a r e connected, t h u s providing f o r a five-wave p o s i t i o n h o l d e r . The c i r c u i t i s t h e conventional C o l p i t t ' s o s c i l l a t o r type u s i n g f l e x i b l e inductance l e a d s making f i v e wavelengths a v a i l a b l e a s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e schematic diagram of Figure 4. The open o s c i i l a t o r y c i r c u i t of t h e E.T. 3628 i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e sane a s t h e P-8 except t h a t t h e secondary inductance has o n l y one v a r i a b l e t a p whlch, a f t e r c a l i b r a t i o n , remains i n a f i x e d p o s i t i o n f o r a l l wavelengths. The s p a r k t r a n s f orner i s r e p l a c e d w i t h a mid-tapped transformer. A filament v o l t nieter i s mounted on t h e panel whereas t h e f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t which c o n t r o l s t h e output of t h e a-c. r o t a r y converter i s u s u a l l y placed on o r near t h e operator t s t a b l e . The mid-point of t h e f filament transformer and mid-point of the p l a t e transformer a r e joined w i t h a heavy No. 12 gauge lead-covered wire which i s connected t o t h e ground. Lesson 61

- sheet 4

Theory of Operation. S e l f - r e c t i f y i n g Tube Transmitter. The s e l f - r e c t i f y i n g ' c i r c u i t s may be d,ivided i n t o the following two c l a s s e s :
1.
2.

The t r a n s m i t t i n g key i s depressed and t h e power a d j u s t e d t o a-kw. Tunin &watching t h e t u b e s f o r h e a t i n g and sparking. If any one of t h e tube p l a t e s h e a t up badly, s h u t down t h e motor- generator and check over a l l conn e c t i o n s , a s c e r t a i n i n g i f t h e y a r e made t o proper p o i n t s and i f they a r e c l e a n and b r i g h t . This a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o the wave-change switch arms. If t r o u b l e s t i l l p e r s i s t s , check through e a c h u n i t of t h e t r a n s m i t t e ~ . When clean, place t h e wave-changer switch on t h e f i r s t p o s i t i o n and measure the wavelength w i t h a wavemeter coupled t o the t a n k inductance. Vary t h e c l i p on t h i s c o i l u n t i l t h e d e s i r e d wave i s found. Then r e s o n a t e t h e open c i r c u i t i n t h e u s u a l manner, u s i n g about two t u r n s i n t h e secondary inductance. The resonance point i n d i c a t e d by maximum antenna c u r r e n t i s much s h a r p e r than i s the case with a spark s e t and may be passed over unnoticed i f t h e t u n i n g i s not done slowly and c a r e f u l l y . The Number of Turns i n t h e Secondary Inductance. Care must be taken not t o include too many t u r n s . r e s u l t i n a i n t o o close couwlinn. i n order t o avoid t h e u n d e r s i r a b l e e f f e c t of " s p l i ~ "tuning. When t h i s b n d i t i o n o b t a i n s r a d i a t i o n may be low and t h e wavelength w i l l "swing" s h a r p l y from one value t o another without warning o r v i s u a l i n d i c a t i o n t o the t r a n s m i t t i n g operator a s t h e r a d i a t i o n i s t h e same i n b o t h frequencies. The r e c e i v i n g operator, however, g e t s only t h e d o t s and dashes t r a n s m i t t e d on t h e wavelength t o which he i s tuned and does not hear the others. There a r e two i n d i c a t i o n s of s p l i t tuning t o be watched f o r by t h e observer a s outlirled below. If t h e r a d i a t i o n i n c r e a s e s evenly a s t h e A T 1 ( a e r i a l t u n i n g i n d u c t a n c e ) i s brought slowly up t o t h e resonance point by t u r n i n g t h e handle and r a d i a t i o n decreases evenly a s t h e A T 1 i s moved p a s t t h i s p o i n t , t h e n t h e s e t i s r a d i a t i n g on one wave. I f , however, r a d i a t i o n f a l l s off suddenly and s h a r p l y a s t h e c r i t i c a l p o i n t i s passed, it i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t two waves are being e ~ i t t e d anb. t h a t t h e coupling i s too c l o s e . A change i n coupling i s obtained by a l t e r i n g the number of t u r n s used on t h e secondary inductance by going over the ribbon wire inch by inch w i t h t h e c l i p very c a r e f u l l y , u n t i l a s u i t a b l e point i s found. Coupling i s not changed b y varying t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e two inductances a s i n t h e case of t h e spark t r a n s m i t t e r . Another method of d e t e c t i n g s p l i t tuning i s t o n o t e the p o i n t on t h e A T 1 s c a l e a t which resonznce i s reached. Move t h e AT1 s l i d e r along the wire perhaps two or t h r e e t u r n s past t h i s p o i n t . Then b r i n g i t back t o resonance. If the second resonance point d i f f e r s frorm t h e f i r s t , reduce coupling u n t i l t h e y agree. Antenna c u r r e n t of 10 t o 12 amperes may be expected w i t h average conditions on l $ m . power input. The power input must not be allowed t o exceed l&w. The s a f e t y gaps on t h e transformer secondary t e r m i n a l s should have 3/16'' clearance. Make a l l c a l i b r a t i o n adjustments on low power, t o & kw.

Those employing one tube and u t i l i z i n g o n l y one-half of t h e a- c. cycle. Those using b o t h halves of t h e a-c. cycle by employing two t u b e s arranged symmetrically s o t h a t each tube operates a l t e r n a t e l y during t h e p o s i t i v e a l t e r n a t i o n s of t h e a- c. cycle. The l a t t e r type i s u t i l i z e d i n t h e E.T. 3628 described i n subsequent paragraphs.

Lesson 61

sheet 5

Lesson 61

- sheet 6

Suggestions. The t h r e e choke c o i l s have s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and are i n t e r changeable. I f t r o u b l e develops i n e i t h e r p l a t e choke c o i l remove t h e choke i n t h e g r i d leak c i r c u i t and i n s t a l l it i n place of t h e d e f e c t i v e p l a t e choke. The g r i d leak choke t e r m i n a l s may be jumped a s t h i s choke may be dispensed w i t h f o r emergency operation. Emergency choke c o i l s may be made up of two 400 t u r n honeycomb c o i l s i n s e r i e s , or t h e i r equivalent.
If t h e antenna has n o t a l r e a d y been r e i n s u l a t e d w i t h standard p o r c e l a i n i n s u l a t o r s , t h i s should be done as t h e old hard rubber s t r a p s and rods a r e n o t s a t One p o r c e l a i n i n s u l a t o r should be used i n each halyard and i s f a c t o r y f o r CW. rod i n s u l a t o r s i n t h e spreader guys. If a two-wire antenna i s used, one porc e l a i n i n s u l a t o r should be placed i n each end of each wire, which w i l l make it unnecessary t o use any i n s u l a t i o n i n the b r i d l e s or guys.

G over a l l connections p e r i o d i c a l l y . It is of the utmost importance t h a t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e antenna and ground system be reduced t o a minimum. ~f t h e antenna wire i s not i n good condition it should be renewed and a l l connections made thoroughly t i g h t . Instances of swinging s i g n a l s from E.T. 3628 t r a n s m i t t e r s huve been t r a c e d t o f a u l t y antenna c o n s t r u c t i o n , unnoticed on spark t r a n s m i t t e r s but showing up very badly w i t h CW t r a n s m i t t e r s . The antenna should be secured a s r i g i d l y a s p o s s i b l e t o e l i m i n a t e c a p a c i t y changes and consequent swinging of s i g n a l s . If the r e g u l a r e l e c t r o s e deck i n s u l a t o r i s not i n f i r s t c l a s s c o n d i t i o n , it should be r e p l a c e d w i t h a p o r c e l a i n type deck i n s u l a t o r . The ground connection should be g i v e n s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n . It i s suggested t h a t a t l e a s t t h r e e ground l e a d s be r u n t o d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s i n t h e h u l l or bulk-head, making sure t h a t t h e r e i s a d i r e c t metal connection between the bulk-head t o which t h e ground l e a d i s a t t a c h e d and t h e h u l l of the ship. F u l l advantage should be t a k e n of a l l conduit pipe, h e a t i n g system p i p i n g , and s o on, u t i l i z i n g t h e s e t o supplement o t h e r ground points.

In any emergency due t o f a i l u r e of the motor- generator s e t or component p a r t s t h e Converted P- 8 t r a n s m i t t e r can'be operated from t h e 120 v o l t storage b a t t e r y bank by placing the six- pole double throw switch, l o c a t e d i n t h e charging panel, i n t h e "discharge" p o s i t i o n which i s t o t h e o p e r a t o r ' s r i g h t when f a c i n g t h e charging panel.
Communication could be c a r r i e d on w i t h this t r a n s m i t t e r i n the event of e i t h e r one or both o s c i l l a t o r t u b e s becoming damaged and s p a r e s unobtainable. A damaged tube could be removed from the r a c k and t h e s e t operated with t h e remaining tube f u n c t i o n i n g a s a half-wave o s c i l l a t o r . I n case both tubes were found t o be destroyed t h e c i r c u i t could be e a s i l y a l t e r e d t o t a k e the form of a t y p i c a l antenna s p a r k d i s c h a r g e , where t h e antenna system i s e x c i t e d through d i r e c t connection t o t h e outside t e r m i n a l s O f the p l a t e transformer secondary; t h e whole being connected across a small open gap. I n order t o accomplish t h i s changeover, t h e vacuum tube c i r c u i t i s completely removed from t h e p l a t e t r a n s f o r m r by disb'onnecting a l l t h r e e l e a d s , t h e two a t t a c h e d t o t h e outside ends and t h e one coming from t h e mid-tap. The s a f e t y gap remains connected a c r o s s t h e secondary t o serve i n t h e c a p a c i t y of a p l a i n antenna spark d i s c h a r g e r . The antenna i s a t t a c h e d t o one end of the t r a n s former and t h e ground t o t h e opposite end. The mid-tap i s l e f t f r e e . Each time t h e t r a n s f o r m r v o l t a g e b u i l d s up s u f f i c i e n t l y high t o overcome t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e gap a spark discharge t a k e s p l a c e causing radio- frequency Lesson 6 1

sheet 7

1
I

o s c i l l a t i o n s t o t r a v e r s e t h e open r a d i a t i v e system. However, the d i s t a n c e between t h e e l e c t r o d e s of t h e s a f e t y gap must be a d j u s t e d so t h a t a spark d i s charge w i l l occur a t t h e "peak" voltage of the transformer secondary output. Placing the E.T. 3628 I n t o Operation. Before s t a r t i n g t h e 2-kw. motor-generat o r be sure t h a t t h e motor and generator f i e l d r h e o s t a t c o n t r o l s on the panel a r e a t lowest p o i n t s and a l s o a d j u s t t h e filament r h e o s t a t r e s i s t a n c e f o r minimum voltage. To s t a r t t h e s e t close the main l i n e d-c. switch on the panel and d i r e c t c u r r e n t w i l l then flow t o the motor f i e l d windings. Next p r e s s the automatic s t a r t e r b u t t on or throw t h e antenna change-over switch t o t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g p o s i t i o n . The d i r e c t current l i n e i s now closed through t h e s t a r t i n g solenoid, marked on the photograph i n Figure 2, causing t h e plunger bar of t h e automatic s t a r t e r t o r a i s e . The plunger bar moves up slowly, s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g e a c h one of the motor amature s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e s i n succession a s it touches t h e f i n g e r contacts. T h i s operation i s necessary i n order t o prevent a n e x c e s s i v e c u r r e n t flow through t h e armature when s t a r t ing. The s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e s compensate f o r t h e lack of s u f f i c i e n t counter e.m.f. u n t i l the armature a t t a i n s f u l l speed. The d i r e c t current l i n e t o t h e motor armature c o i l i s c l o s e d , however, only when t h e b a r touches t h e f i r s t f i n g e r and a t t h i s moment t h e armature w i l l begin r o t a t i o n . From t h i s point on, t h e armature continues i n c r e a s i n g i n speed u n t i l t h e b a r reaches i t s uppermost p o s i t i o n , a f t e r which t h e speed remains constant. The motor speed may be changed by moving t h e s l i d e r of the f i e l d r h e o s t a t up or down, a s t h e case may be. When t h e b a r makes contact with t h e l a s t f i n g e r on t h e r i g h t , c u r r e n t f l o w s t o the g e n e r a t o r f i e l d through t h e low power r e s i s t o r (shunted by a SPDT switch and t h e f i e l d r h e o s t a t ). These l a t t e r devices r e g u l a t e t h e a-c. output of t h e g e n e r a t o r . The r o t a r y converter used f o r filament e x c i t a t i o n i s s e t i n t o o p e r a t i o n when t h e antenna change-over switch ( "send- receive" s w i t c h ) i s laced i n t r a n s m i t t i n g p o s i t i o n . Adjust t h e f i l a ~ e n t h e o s t a t r u n t i l t h e filament voltmeter reads 10 v o l t s . Now close t h e a-c. main l i n e switch and place t h e wave-changer switch on t h e d e s i r e d wave. This should be followed by depressing the t r a n s m i t t i n g key and a t the same time t u r n the a e r i a l inductance handle which c o n t r o l s the s l i d i n g c o n t a c t , u n t i l a maximurn d e f l e c t i o n i s recorded on t h e r a d i a t i o n m e t e r s c a l e . This method f o r f i n e t u n i n g permits t h e b e s t conditions of resonance, between t h e closed and open o s c i l l a t i o n c i r c u i t s , t o be obtained. It i s advisable t o r e p e a t t h i s a d j u s t ment when operating on any of the f i v e wavelengths. Do not chaznge t h e wavel e n g t h s whi1.e t h e key i s depressed. When the maximum antenna current i s obt a i n e d and with t h e wave-changer on the d e s i r e d wave, the key may be operated f o r t h e transmission of messages. The s e t i s stopped by pressing the push b u t t o n " s t a r t - s t o p " switch.
AS previously mentioned t h e power i s r e g u l a t e d by the generator f i e l d r h e o s t a t

and i n no case should t h e wattmeter be permitted t o read higher than lgkw. The s i n g l e pole switch shunted a c r o s s t h e low power r e s i s t o r should be open when communication i s e s t a b l i s h e d with nearby c o a s t a l s t a t i o n s i n order t o minimize i n t e r f e r e n c e . The main l i n e d-c. switch should be open when the s e t i s not i n operation because t h e motor f i e l d s a r e permanently connected across t h e l i n e when t h i s switch i s closed. With t h e d-c. s w i t c h closed, c u r r e n t f e e d s t o these c o i l s continuously r e g a r d l e s s of whether t h e motor g e n e r a t o r s e t i s running or i d l e . Lesson 61

- sheet

FUNCTION OF PARTS.

The antenna radio- frequency ammeter i n d i c a t e s maximum d e f l e c t i o n when c i r c u i t resonance i s e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h t h e tank o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t .

The loading inductances permit t h e antenna t o be resonated w i t h t h e closed c i r c u i t a t the f i v e wavelengths a v a i l a b l e . The a e r i a l tuning inductance i s a continuously v a r i a b l e inductance having a s l i d i n g c l i p which can be moved by r o t a t i n g the topmost handle on the f r o n t of t h e panel. The inductance can be increased or decreased i n c h by i n c h permitting a c r i t i c a l resonant adjustment t o be obtained on a11 waves. The primary inductance, c a l l e d "tank inductance" or " p l a t e c o i l " , i s used f o r obtaining the c o r r e c t amount of inductance f o r a c e r t a i n capacitance i n t h e e x c i t a t i o n condensers t o promote t h e generation of continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s . Also, the tank inductance, being mutually r e l a t e d t o t h e secondary inductance, f u n c t i o n s t o t r a n s f e r p a r t of i t s energy by electromagnetic in d u c t i o n t o the open antenna c i r c u i t , t h u s s e t t i n g t h e l a t t e r i n t o e x c i t a t i o n .
A p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n condenser of .002 mfd. c a p a c i t y i s connected i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e g r i d e x c i t a t i o n condenser and t a n k inductance forming t h e closed o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t . The p l a t e condenser couples t h e output c i r c u i t or p l a t e t o the input or g r i d .

The g r i d e x c i t a t i o n condenser of .014 mfd. c a p a c i t y s u p p l i e s t h e g r i d s of t h e o s c i l l a t o r t u b e s with a radio- frequency a l t e r n a t i n g voltage obtained from t h e radio o s c i l l a t i o n s flowing i n t h e t a n k c i r c u i t . This i s known a s t h e "feed-back voltage". It i s seen from t h e diagram t h a t the voltage drop impressed between g r i d and filament of t h e tubes i s obtained through the two l e a d s connected across only a p o r t i o n of the t o t a l primary capacitance, i . e . , t h e p o r t i o n represented by t h e grirl e x c i t a t i o n condensep, This i s a conv e n t i o n a l C o l p i t t f s o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t . The t o t a l c a p a c i t y of t h e tank c i r c u i t i s represented by both t h e g r i d and p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n condensers i n s e r i e s . Tuning t h i s c i r c u i t t o any r e q u i r e d frequency i s accomplished by varying the f l e x i b l e leads on t h e primary inductance f o r any of t h e wavelength p o s i t i o n s as designated. The p l a t e blocking condensers, of .001 mfd. capacity each, prevent the p l a t e d-c. voltage supplied by t h e p l a t e transformer from being applied d i r e c t l y t o t h e g r i d s of the tubes. These condensers a r e intended not only t o i s o l a t e t h e d- c. c i r c u i t from t h e o s c i l l a t i n g a-c. c i r c u i t , but t h e y must o f f e r a low reactance t o t h e high- frequency component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t and thereby serve as a by-pass path f o r t h i s o s c i l l a t i n g energy from t h e p l a t e s t o t h e tank c i r c u i t . The p l a t e supply system or power transformer secondary would be s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d i f t h e s e condensers break down. The p l a t e c u r r e n t flows through the p l a t e r.f. chokes and t h e transformer secondary. The p l a t e radio- frequency choke c o i l s keep t h e high- frequency current from backing i n t o t h e power transformer c i r c u i t which would r e s u l t i n severe l o s s e s of energy. I n t h i s way t h e maximum flow of r a d i o energy i s maintained Lesson 61

sheet 9

i n the tank c i r c u i t .
It w i l l be noticed t h a t t h e radio- frequency chokes a r e not s i n g l e - l a y e r wound c o i l s but have a s p e c i a l f orm of winding. This c o n s t r u c t i o n was found necess a r y i n order t o prevent t r o u b l e due t o burned-out chokes. The burning curc e n t s were f r e q u e n c i e s of some even multiple of t h e fundamental or operating frequency of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . Because of the s p e c i a l winding, the chokes possess a g r e a t e r amount of inductance and l e s s d i s t r i b u t e d capacitance t h a n t h e ordinary s i n g l e - l a y e r would c o i l . To damage t h e s e s p e c i a l type chokes would r e q u i r e frequencies o t h e r than those t h a t might p o s s i b l e be generated i n the c i r c u i t s i n which they a r e contained.
A filament heating transformer s t e p s down the a- c. voltage t o about 13 v o l t s , no load. The fi.lament r h e o s t a t permits t h e adjustment of t h e f i l a m e n t voltage.
A filament a-c. r o t a r y c o n v e r t e r r e c e i v e s d-c. power from t h e 110 v o l t d-c.

l i n e and d e l i v e r s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t a t 60 c y c l e s t o t h e primary of t h e filament t r a n s f o r m r .

The g r i d leak r e s i s t a n c e of 4000 ohms, connected i n common t o t h e g r i d s of b o t h o s c i l l a t o r s , maintains t h e c o r r e c t negative b i a s f o r s t a b l e operation. choke p r e v e n t s l o s s e s through t h e g r i d l e a k c i r c u i t , i.e., highfrequencies which flow from t h e g r i d e x c i t a t i o n condenser. The l a r g e s t amount of t h i s energy f e d back from the p l a t e c i r c u i t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r buildi n g up a maximum a l t e r n a t i n g voltage on t h e g r i d s t o promote t h e generation of continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s . Also the g r i d choke w i l l prevent u l t r a highfrequency or p a r a s i t i c o s c i Z l a t i o n s from being generated. The frequency of such o s c i l l a t i o n s , i f allowed t o occur, i s governed by t h e p l a t e t o g r i d c a p a c i t y of t h e two t u b e s i n s e r i e s and t h e inductance of t h e connecting leads. The filament by-pass condensers allow t h e radio- frequencies t o flow between t h e filament and t a n k c i r c u i t without opposition. Without t h e s e condensers t h e only o t h e r path provided would be through t h e windings of t h e f i l a m e n t h e a t i n g secondary. These windings n a t u r a l l y would o f f e r a h i g h inductive reactance due t o t h e i r t u r n s and t h e presence of t h e i r o n core. The p l a t e power transformer i s of t h e closed core type, and r e c e i v e s a low voltage 500 cycle c u r r e n t from i t s secondary, t h e opposite ends of which a r e connected t o t h e p l a t e s of t h e o s c i l l a t o r tubes. Each tube a l t e r n a t e l y r e c e i v e s a p o s i t i v e and a negative voltage during successive cycles. Only t h e tube r e c e i v i n g a p o s i t i v e voltage a t any p a r t i c u l a r time i s a c t i v e i n p e r m i t t i n g t h e flow of p l a t e c u r r e n t . The p l a t e v o l t a g e c o n t i n u a l l y changes i n s t r e n g t h a t the low frequency (500 c y c l e s ) causing t h e generated continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s t o v a r y t h e i r amplitude i n l i k e manner. T h i s i s c a l l e d A e x p l a n a t i o n and curves showing t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c n "tone or modulated" C.W. s i g n a l a r e given i n the l e s s o n on "Vacuum Tubes wave form of a modulated C .W. used i n ~ r a n s m i t t i n g " . The primary c i r c u i t of t h e p l a t e power transformer includes the t r a n s m i t t i n g key, wattmeter, and a-c. generator. The hand t r a n s m i t t i n g key c l o s e s t h e g e n e r a t o r a-c. c i r c u i t and energizes the p l a t e transformer which i n t u r n s u p p l i e s t h e p l a t e p o t e n t i a l s necessary t o s e t the vacuum tube c i r c u i t i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n . Lesson 61
!

A g r i d r.f.

- s h e e t 10

The c i r c u i t s of t h e motor- generator, automatic s t a r t e r , and type 1'1" antenna switch a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e described i n t h e l e s s o n on spark t r a n s m i t t e r s .
A f i v e p o s i t i o n wave-changer switch changes t h e wavelength of t h e closed

o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t o r tank c i r c u i t simultaneously w i t h t h e open r a d i a t i v e c i r c u i t ; both contact arms a r e connected mechanically a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e d o t t e d l i n e i n the schematic diagram, Figure 4. Tuning. S p l i t -tuning I n d i c a t i o n s . Whenever c a l i b r a t i o n of t h e Converted P-8 i s performed t h e power should be a d j u s t e d t o about kw. and t h e tubes c o n s t a n t l y observed during t h e process f o r heating and sparking. A rough tuning adjustment i s f i r s t t a k e n by p l a c i n g t h e wavechanger switch on t h e lowest wavelength p o s i t i o n and, w i t h a wavemeter held n e a r t h e tank i n ductance, measure the wavelength. (Note: The theory of operation of a wavemeter i s given a t t h e end of t h i s l e s s o n ) . The wavemeter condenser should be moved very slowly i n order not t o pass t h e exact point of r e s o nance. The tank inductance i s provided with o n l y one c l i p which should be v a r i e d u n t i l t h e d e s i r e d wavelength i s obtained. T h i s procedure i s t o be followed by r e s o n a t i n g the antenna c i r c u i t t o t h e primary or tank c i r c u i t . The adjustment i s t o be considered s a t i s f a c t o r y when a maximum reading i s obtained Qn t h e antenna ammeter. When tuning t h e antenna c i r c u i t c a r e must be t a k e n not t o include t o o many t u r n s on the secondary c o i l . It w i l l be found t h a t about two t u r n s g i v e s a s u f f i c i e n t amount of inductance f o r the proper t r a n s f e r of power, and yet w i l l not r e s u l t i n t o o c l o s e coupling between t h e primary and s e c o n d a r i c i r c u i t s , a condition t h a t u s u a l l y produces It i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t a t r a n s m i t t e r be an effect called " s p l i t tuning c l e a r e d of such an u n d e s i r a b l e condition, providing it e x i s t s , because the frequency of t h e e m i t t e d s i g n a l w i l l "swing" s h a r p l y from one frequency t o another. The o p e r a t o r a t t h e d i s t a n t r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n could only i n t e r c e p t t h e s i g n a l s upon t h e frequency t o which h i s r e c e i v e r c i r c u i t i s tuned and t h e o t h e r frequency, when t h e s i g n a l swings, could not be heard.

I n order t o d e t e c t t h e presence of s p l i t tuning t h e following two t e s t s should be employed. F i r s t , t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s i n c o r r e c t adjustment ( i . e . , only one frequency or wave i s W g r a d i a t e d ) when t h e antenna ammeter r e a d i n g i n c r e a s e s s t e a d i l y while t h e open c i r c u i t i s brought t o resonance by t u r n i n g t h e handle on t h e f r o n t of t h e panel marked " a e r i a l tuning i n ductance", and if a f t e r t h e resonance point i s passed t h e ammeter reading i s a g a i n seen t o decrease s t e a d i l y . O t h e o t h e r hand, it may be accepted n t h a t two frequencies or waves a r e being r a d i a t e d ( i . e . s p l i t t u n i n g ) i f t h e ammeter reading drops suddenly a f t e r t h e c r i t i c a l point or h i g h e s t It may be assumed t h a t the s p l i t tuning e f f e c t i s due r e a d i n g i s passed. t h e coupling. t o t i g h t coupling and t h i s t r o u b l e may be c o r r e c t e d by chan i T h i s i s accomplished by a l t e r i n g t h e amount of secondary i n uc ance used by very c a r e f u l l y going over t h e ribbon wire inch by inch w i t h t h e c l i p u n t i l a s u i t a b l e point i s found and not by v a ~ y i n gt h e d i s t a n c e between t h e two c o i l s , t h e y being i n f i x e d mechanical r e l a t i o n t o e a c h other. The person performirig the c a l i b r a t i o n must n o t touch any wiring or c l i p s when t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g c i r c u i t i s a c t i v e . Second, another t e s t f o r determining s p l i t tuning i s t o mark t h e resonant p o i n t on t h e a e r i a l inductance s c a l e while t h e handle i s t u r n e d i n one d i r e c t i o n , and a f t e r passing t h e resonant point by two o r t h r e e t u r n s of t h e handle, r e v e r s e t h e d i r e c t i o n and r e t u r n t o

8T

Lesson 6 1

sheet 1 1

resonance and again mark t h e s c a l e . If t h e two marks <o not coincide t h e coupling should be reduced u n t i l they do. A f t e r t h e c a l i b r a t i o n i s completed on low power, t h e power can t h e n be i n creased t o normal and a n antenna current of about LO amperes i s u s u a l l y obtainable. I n order t o provide adequate p r o t e c t i o n t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r apparatus t h e clearance between the s a f e t y gaps on t h e p l a t e transformer secondary a r e t o be s e t a t 1/16th inch. Prac a --t i cbel should Sufvestions. The connections i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and 'power u n i t s gone over o c c a s s i o n a l l y and a t such times t h e antenna and ground system should a l s o be inspected. While o r d i n a r y f a u l t s i n an antenna system used w i t h a spark t r a n s m i t t e r do not lower t h e e f f i c i e n c y t o any appreciable e x t e n t t h e y do become troublesome with a C.W. t r a n s m i t t e r . I n order t o maintain the r e s i s t a n c e of t h e antenna a t a minimum t h e ground l e a d should make a clean metal connection w i t h the h u l l of t h e s h i p . Two o r t h r e e ground l e a d s are g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e d and t h e s e may be e a s i l y t r a c e d t o t h e i r a c t u a l l o c a t i o n s whether t h e y be made on t h e h u l l , bulk-head, conduit pipe or h e a t i n g system piping.

The old hard rubber s t r a p s and rods which i n s u l a t e t h e antenna a r e g e n e r a l l y .. operation i s t o be employed. r e p l a c e d w i t h p o r c e l a i n i n s u l a t o r s whenever CW The p o r c e l a i n i n s u l a t o r s i n s e r t e d i n each end of the one or two wires forming t h e h o r i z o n t a l e l e v a t e d p o r t i o n of t h e antenna, those i n each halyard, and t h e p o r c e l a i n deck i n s u l a t o r ( i f one i s used i n place of t h e regular e l e c t r o s e deck i n s u l a t o r ) should a l l be c a r e f u l l y examined f o r cracks or chips i n t h e i r s u r f a c e s which would allow t h e i n s u l a t o r s t o absorb moisture. I n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r proper a l l of t h e t h r e e r.f. chokes have s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and a r e interchangeable. If t r o u b l e develops i n e i t h e r p l a t e choke c o i l remove t h e choke i n t h e g r i d l e a k c i r c u i t and i n s t a l l it i n place of t h e d e f e c t i v e p l a t e choke. T h e g r i d l e a k choke t e r m i n a l s may be jumped a s t h i s choke can be dispensed w i t h f o r emergency operation. Emergency ohoke c o i l s may be made of two 400 t u r n honeycomb c o i l s i n s e r i e s , or t h e i r equivalent. Maintenance. The f i l a m e n t r o t a r y converter should be kept oiled and commut a t o r s clean. A l l p a r t s of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r must be p r o t e c t e d from water and s p r a y and kept c l e a n and d r y a t a l l times. The b a k e l i t e panel and rods and t h e t r e a t e d maple boards used i n the s e t should, i n p a r t i c u l a r , be wiped off w i t h a d r y c l o t h e v e r y day. Should t h e t r a n s m i t t e r a c c i d e n t a l l y g e t wet, i t should not be s t a r t e d u n t i l it has been wiped off and t h e i n s u l a t i o n and choke c o i l s have become thoroughly dry. The bearings of t h e 2 kw. motor- generator should be kept o i l e d and t h e commutators c l e a n and f r e e of sparking. Should i t become n e c e s s a r y t o change t u b e s , t h i s should be done c a r e f u l l y t o prevent breakage. Tubes t a k e n from t h e s e t should be immediately placed i n t h e c o n t a i n e r s from which spare t u b e s were removed. Troubles and Remedies. The c i r c u i t used i s v e r y s t a b l e and can be r e l i e d upon t o operate s a t i s f a c t o r i l y under a l l conditions where the apparatus i s n o t d e f e c t i v e , except two c o n d i t i o n s , a s follows: Lesson 6 1

- sheet

12

i1
I

1 .

2.

The o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l not s t a r t when t h e key i s closed i f t h e r e i s a poor connection i n t h e tank c i r c u i t or an i n t e r m i t t e n t breaking down of t h e t a n k c i r c u i t i n s u l a t i o n e i t h e r t o ground or i n the condensers. When t h e antenna coupling i s t o o t i g h t the maximum antenna current cannot be obtained a s the t a n k c i r c u i t w i l l s h i f t frequency when approaching resonance of the antenna c i r c u i t .

When t h e antenna i s small, or t h e r e s i s t a n c e very low, it w i l l be found t h a t t h e maximun output may not load t h e tubes t o t h e i r f u l l r a t i n g and, under t h e s e circumstances, no attempt should be made t o i n c r e a s e t h e loading by over- voltage or change i n c i r c u i t s o t h e r t h a n c a r e f u l tuning and use of proper value of coupling. The coupling i s v a r i e d by means of changing t h e number of t u r n s i n t h e secondary inductance i n s t e a d of by varying the d i s t a n c e between the primary and secondary c o i l . S i g n a l s from these t r a n s m i t t e r s may swing s l i g h t l y i n rough weather due t o t h e r o l l i n g of t h e s h i p , changing t h e antenna c a p a c i t y , The antenna should be p u l l e d t a u t t o minimize t h i s a s much a s possible. However, should exc e s s i v e swinging be complained o f , it w i l l probably be because the secondary c i r c u i t i s t o o c l o s e l v c o u ~ l e d o t h e arimary. The c o u ~ l i n ashould be loosened t by decreasing t h e numger o? t u r n s used- i n th; secondarf of che o s c i l l a t i o n transformer. Usually not more t h a n two o r t h r e e t u r n s a r e required on t h i s c o i l f o r proper coupling. Any change i n t h e number of t u r n s used i n t h e secondary c o i l must be compensated f o r by a corresponding change i n t h e a e r i a l inductance t o bring t h e s e t back i n t o resonance. Burned Out Filament Converter, Filament Transformer, o r Filament Rheostat. Disconnect a l l of t h e s e u n i t s and connect filament t e r m i n a l s d i r e c t l y t o a f i v e - c e l l lead- acid s t o r a g e b a t t e r y which w i l l supply approximately %he r i g h t filament voltage. Leads f o r m e r l y connected t o t h e mid-tap of t h e filament transformer should be connected t o t h e negative s i d e of t h e storage b a t t e r y . The r e g u l a r filament r h e o s t a t cannot be used w i t h a s t o r a g e b a t t e r y a s it w i l l n o t c a r r y t h e heavy c u r r e n t flowing d i r e c t l y i n the f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t . However, t h e voltage of a f i v e - c e l l storage b a t t e r y should be s o close t o normal t h a t no r e g u l a t i o n w i l l be required. Burned Out Grid Leak. The r e s i s t a n c e of t h e g r i d l e a k used on t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r i s 4000 ohms. Should t h e g r i d l e a k become burned out w i t h no spare a v a i l a b l e , a s u i t a b l e r e s i s t a n c e could be made u p from m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e on board s h i p by using a p i e c e of rubber hose about a f o o t long, f i l l e d w i t h s a l t water and plugged a t b o t h ends with wires extending through t h e plugs a t b o t h ends and making c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s a l t w a t e r i n t h e hose. A l i t t l e experimenting w i t h t h e l e n g t h of hose t o be used should r e s u l t i n obtaining t h e proper value of r e s i s t a n c e f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y operation. Any s u i t a b l e r e s i s t a n c e having a value between 2,000 and 10,000 ohms may be used. Another method which may be u t i l i z e d i n case a s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l may n o t be sharpening both ends t o found on board i s t h a t of t h e o r d i n a r y l e a d p e n c i l g e t the necessary c o n t a c t w i t h t h e lead. It can be shortened i f necessary Lesson 61

- sheet

13

t o approach t h e required r e s i s t a n c a .

This i s , of course, an emergency measure.

\Filament Converter F a i l s t o S t a r t . I n some cases the f i l a m e n t converter may not s t a r t immediately when t h e c i r c u i t i s closed i f maximum r e s i s t a n c e i s c u t i n w i t h t h e filament r h e o s t a t . I n such cases t h e armature of t h e converter should be turned over immediately by hand. Trouble i n One Side of C i r c u i t Which Cannot be Reparied a t Sea Due t o Lack of Material. Spare tubes, a spare p l a t e choke, spare g r i d l e a k and spare t r a n s former secondary s e c t i o n s should be aboard a t a l l times. If t h e s e soares are .a v a i l a b l e and the s e t i s p r o p e r l y cared f o r it should be p o s s i b l e t o A k e e p it always operating a t maximum e f f i c i e n c y . It should be borne i n mind, however, t h a t , i f necessary, t h i s s e t may be operated a t reduced power w i t h only one good t u b e , one good p l a t e choke and one good p l a t e transformer. Should t h e r e be a v a i l a b l e only one good tube, one good p l a t e choke, one good p l a t e blocking condenser, or only one-half of t h e secondary of t h e p l a t e transformer, the d e f e c t i v e p a r t should be removed from t h e c i r c u i t and t h e lead t o the p l a t e t r a n s f o r m r on t h a t s i d e disconnected. The s e t may t h e n be operated a t reduced power on one tube w i t h about half t h e normal r a d i a t i o n . If only one tube i s used, care should be e x e r c i s e d t o reduce the f i l a m e n t voltage t o normal. I n t h e event of i r r e p a r a b l e damage, making i t impossible t o use even one s i d e of t h e c i r c u i t , a " p l a i n a e r i a l " s p a r k t r a n s m i t t e r f o r emergency use only may be made by removing a l l connections from t h e t h r e e secondary terminals of t h e p l a t e transformer and connecting t h e antenna t o one o u t s i d e secondary t e r m i n a l of t h i s transformer and t h e ground t o t h e o t h e r outside secondary terminal. The s a f e t y gaps on t h e secondary t e r m i n a l s w i l l t h e n s e r v e a s a spark gap, a s p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d i n t h i s lesson. Necessary changes may be quickly made by disconnecting t h e f l e x i b l e l e a d from t h e secondary of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n t r a n s former, lengthening t h i s lead a s much as necessary and connecting it t o one s i d e of t h e power transformer. The o t h e r s i d e of t h e power transformer should then be connected t o t h e piece of copper tubing leading from t h e secondary of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n transformer t o t h e thermo u n i t of t h e r a d i a t i o n ammeter. This w i l l tune the c i r c u i t and permit of reading t h e r a d i a t i o n on t h e r a d i a t i o n ammeter. It i s very improbable t h a t it w i l l e v e r be necessary t o r e s o r t t o t h e use of t h e p l a i n a e r i a l c i r c u i t and such c i r c u i t should never be used u n l e s s t h e v e s s e l i s i n d i s t r e s s and t h e t r a n s m i t t e r damaged so t h a t i t cannot be made t o f u n c t i o n normally.

NOTE: Porcelain, micalex, or g l a s s antenna and deck i n s u l a t o r s should be used w i t h t h i s t y p e of t r a n s m i t t e r . If other forms of i n s u l a t i o n a r e used t h e r e i s l i k e l y t o be an excessive drop i n r a d i a t i o n during wet weather.

The W-204A tubes used i n t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r a r e provided w i t h an X-L or t h o r i a t e d filament the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of which a r e lorn power consumption and h i g h e l e c t r o n emission a t low operating temperature. This low temperature very considerably increases t h e l i f e of the tubes.

The UV-2048 tube h a s a noninal power r a t i n g of 250 w a t t s output. The c u r r e n t r e q u i r e d f o r filarnent h e a t i n g i s 3.85 amperes per tube. The filament voltage n u s t never exceed 1 v o l t s . S a t i s f a c t o r y operation should be p o s s i b l e a t a l l 1 times w i t h the filament voltage a d j u s t e d t o between 9 and 10 v o l t s . Lesson 61

sheet 14

I n case of severe overload r e s u l t i n g i n overheating of the t u b e , t h e e l e c t r o n emission may decrease and o s c i l l a t i o n s may not s t a r t when t h e key i s closed. Unless t h e overload has l i b e r a t e d a l a r g e amount o f gas, t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e f i l a m e n t may be r e s t o r e d by operating a t r a t e d filament voltage f o r 10 minutes or longer w i t h t h e p l a t e voltage o f f .

I n t h e case of a l l tubes equipped with t h o r i a t e d f i l a m e n t s , t h e end of t h e u s e f u l Life of t h e t u b e i s u s u a l l y reached before t h e filament burns out. A tube may have l o s t i t s emission and be u s e l e s s even though t h e filament l i g h t s and i t i s not otherwise d e f e c t i v e . If a tube cannot be r e a c t i v a t e d by t h e method described above wit;hin a reasonable l e n g t h of time, it should be replaced by one of t h e spare tubes.
Wavemeter* The wavemeter i s one of t h e most important measuring instruments i n the r a d i o f i e l d , and i s used t o c a l i b r a t e a t r a n s m i t t e r or r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t t o a d e f i n i t e frequency o r wavelength, i t s p r i n c i p l e of operation depending upon the phenomenom of resonance. Some wavemeters a r e designed t o t r a s m i t a radio- frequency energy which can be d e t e c t e d i n a r e c e i v e r , and t h e r e c e i v e r may be c a l i b r a t e d from t h e known frequency of t h e wavemeter, Transm i t t e r s r a d i a t e t h e i r own energy, and a wavemeter h e l d i n c l o s e inductive r e l a t i o n t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r o s c i l l a t i o n transformer w i l l have t h e energy impressed upon i t s c i r c u i t .
A s u i t a b l e meter w i l l i n d i c a t e , by a maximum current d e f l e c t i o n of i t s needle, when t h e wavemeter c i r c u i t i s a d j u s t e d t o resonance. This i s done, u s u a l l y , by varying t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e a i r condenser. The condenser s c a l e i s marked If i n d i v i s i o n s , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y i n wavelength, frequency, o r i n degrees. t h e condenser s c a l e d i v i s i o n s a r e marked i n degrees, a graph or c h a r t w i l l accompany t h e meter. The curves on t h e graph a r e s o drawn t h a t f o r any degree of s e t t i n g of t h e condenser t h e corresponding frequency, or wavelength i n meters, may be read.

The waoemter c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y of v a r i a b l e condenser w i t h i t s d i a l Calib r a t e d , and an inductance, c a l l e d an " exploring c o i l " , p r e v i o u s l y c a l i b r a t e d from a know standard of inductance. The meter which i n d i c a t e s t h e maximum c u r r e n t i n t h i s o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t , comprising inductance and c a p a c i t y , must be so arranged t h a t t h e meter movement w i l l not i n any way impede t h e r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t s t h a t flow. Theref ore, t h e r e are two s t a n d a r d t ~ j p e si n u s e , as follows: The f i r s t type i s t h e hot- wire meter c o n s i s t i n g of a s t r a i g h t wire along which t h e c u r r e n t s flow. Since t h e h e a t d i s s i p a t i o n i n c r e a s e s and decreases with and increase or decrease of c u r r e n t the wire w i l l expand and c o n t r a c t , and a small spool or bobbin i s t u r n e d by any change i n l e n g t h of t h e hot wire. The spool i s c o w c t e d t o t h e needle and a movement i s imparted t o the l a t t e r , causing i t t o d e f l e c t a c r o s s t h e s c a l e . l J s u a l l y t h e d i v i s i o n s on t h e s c a l e do not i n d i c a t e t h e a c t u a l c u r r e n t flow, but a r e a r b i t r a r y d i v i s i o n s f o r comparative reading. The d i v i s i o n s a r e not uniform i n length, but become g r a d u a l l y g r e a t e r a s t h e c u r r e n t i n t e n s i t y i n c r e a s e s . This follows t'ne c u r r e n t square law of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s . The second type i n common use i s t h e thermo couple. The o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t ~esson 1 6

- sheet

15

*
i s brought t o a junction which i s composed of two d i s s i m i l a r m t a l s , f o r example, bismuth and antimony, and c u r r e n t which flows a c r o s s t h i s junction w i l l produce an e.m.f. much t h e same a s though t h e junction were heated by a flame. A galvanometer connected t o the junction w i l l i n d i c a t e t h e value of t h e current. This m t e r i s constructed s i m i l a r t o a d-c. m e t e r , in. t h a t i t s electromagnetic winding a c t s upon a permanent magnet G O give movement t o the needle. The radio- frequency c u r r e n t s only pass across t h e junction and not through t h e meter windings. The meter s c a l e i s g e n e r a l l y c a l i b r a t e d i n d i v i s i o n s from 0 t o 100, each of e q u a l l e n g t h because t h e d e f l e c t i o n depends upon t h e magnitude of t h e e .m.f. producted a t t h e junction. The value of the d i r e c t c u r r e n t i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e e.m.f.

Most wavemeters are supplied w i t h s e v e r a l inductances or exploring c o i l s , only one of which can be used a t a time, t o cover a d e f i n i t e band of f r e quencies. The d i f f e r e n t c o i l s a r e designed s o t h a t t h e frequencies they cover overlap a t t h e upper and lower l i m i t s i n order t o provide a continuous f requencg range.
NOTE: Radio operators a r e not r e q u i r e d t o employ wavemeters i n commercial r a d i o s e r v i c e . Whenever necessary to' c a l i b r a t e ( a d j u s t or r e s o n a t e ) a t r a n s m i t t e r t h e work i s attended t o by government r a d i o i n s p e c t o r s and the i n s p e c t o r s of the r a d i o o p e r a t i n g company. The s u b j e c t of wavemeters w i l l be taken up i n d e t a i l i n t h e l e s s o n on "Short-wave Transmitters " .

MAIN DIAGRAM LFlGEND

D.C. supply, s h i p ' s g e n e r a t o r . Fuses P o l a r i t y r e v e r s i n g switch. Main c i r c u i t contact o f underload c i r c u i t breaker. Main c i r c u i t c o n t a c t of underload c i r c u i t breaker. C i r c u i t brdaker overload electro- magnet. Charging r e s i s t o r s . Charging r e s i s t o r s . Bank of 30 lead- acid storage c e l l s Bank of 30 lead- acid s t o r a g e cells. Ampere -hour meter. Trickle- charge lamp. Trickle- charge lamp. Low-voltage r e l e a s e c o i l . Low-voltage r e l e a s e c o i l . Limiting r e s i s t o r . Low-voltage r e l e a s e c o i l . Voltmeter. Volt age m u l t i p l i e r . V o l t m t e r switch. Volt-mter plug r e c e p t a c l e . Voltmeter plug r e c e p t a c l e . Voltmeter plug. Six-pole charge- discharge switch.

- FIGURE 4
Fuses T r a n s m i t t e r p a n e l D.C. supply switch. Filament r o t a r y converter. (D.G. e n d ) . Filament r o t a r y converter v o l t a g e regulator rheostat. A.C. end of filament r o t a r y converter. Filament l i g h t i n g transformer Filament by-pass condenser {.5 mPd. ) Filament by-pass condenser (.5 mfd.) Filament voltmeter. Automatic s t a r t e r solenoid c o i l . Solenoid c o i l p r o t e c t i v e r e s i s t o r . Short- circuiting contacts f o r protective resistor. Solenoid c o n t a c t of overload r e l a y , Movable contact of overload r e l a y . S t a r t i n g b u t t o n switch. S t a r t i n g r e s i s t o r s and c o n t a c t fingers. Contact bar. F l e x i b l e connect ion. Motor armature, P r o t e c t i v e condenser (1 mfd.). F r o t e c t i v e condenser (1 mfd. ).

Lesson 6 1

- sheet

16

Overload r e l a y c o i l . Holding c o i l . Holding c o i l contact. Holding c o i l l i m i t i n g r e s i s t o r . Dynamic brake r e s i s t a n c e . Dynamic brake contact. Generator f i e l d c o n t a c t . Generator f i e l d switch. Generator f i e l d r h e o s t a t . LOW power r e s i s t o r and switch. Generator f i e l d . P r o t e c t i v e condenser (1 mfd. ). P r o t e c t i v e condenser (1 mfd.). Motor f i e l d . Motor f i e l d r h e o s t a t . p r o t e c t i v e condenser (1 mfd.). P r o t e c t i v e condenser (1 mfd. ). A.C. generator armature. A.C. output switch. Wattmeter. Hand key. Primary of p l a t e transformer. Secondary of p l a t e transformer. P l a t e choke c o i l . P l a t e choke c o i l . U.V. 204-A r a d i o t r o n . u.V. 204-A r a d i o t r o n . P l a t e blocking condenser (.001 mfd.). p l a t e blocking condenser ( - 0 0 1 mfd.). P l a t e coupling condenser 107. (.002 mfd.). 108. Grid coupling condenser ( .014 mfd. ) 109. Grid choke c o i l . 110. 110a. Grid b i a s r e s i s t o r , 4000 ohms. Wave changing swit ch ('tank" circuit). 1 1 1 . Primary or "tank" c i r c u i t i n ductance o f a e r i a l t r a n s f ormer 112. Secondary inductance of a e r i a l 118. t r a n s f orner. 113a. Ground 114. 115. A e r i a l ammeter and thermo-couple A e r i a l load c o i l . 116. Wave changing switch (secondary 117. c i r c u i t 1. A e r i a l load c o i l . 118. A e r i a l tuning inductance. 119. 120. A e r i a l tuning inductance switch. A e r i a l change-over switch. 121. A e r i a l connection. 122.

Receiver connection. T r a n s m i t t e r connection Motor s t a r t e r contacts. Generat or f i e l d c o n t a c t s . Key c o n t a c t s . Lightning switch Aerial. A e r i a l ground. Primary winding of r e c e i v i n g transformer. Primary inductance switch. Long wave attachment l i n k . Primary s e r i e s condenser (.0008-.0045 mfd.) Ground connection Grounding condenser. Buzzer t e s t e r . Buzzer push b u t t o n switch. Buzzer b a t t e r y . Buzzer pick-up c o i l . Coupling of secondary inductance. Shield. Secondary inductance. Secondary inductance switch. Long wave attachment l i n k . Coupling c o i l of secondary inductance. Tickler coil. Coupling c o i l of t i c k l e r inductance. Long wave attachment l i n k . O s c i l l a t i o n t e s t button switch. Detector tube U.X. 201-A. Filament r h e o s t a t . Grid l e a k and condenser. P l a t e t o filament by-pass condenser. Secondary tuning condenser (.00006-.00032 mfd.). 1A 1 b a t t e r y ( f i l a m e n t ) . 1 1 "B" b a t t e r y ( p l a t e ) II C II b a t t e r y ( g r i d ) . Detector jack. F i r s t s t a g e coupling transformer. F i r s t s t a g e amplifiei. tube U.X. 201-A. Filament r h e o s t a t . F i r s t stage a m p l i f i e r jack. Second stage coupling transformer. Second stage a m p l i f i e r tube UX . . 201-A. Filament r h e a s t a t . Second stage a m p l i f i e r jack.

Lesson 6 1

- sheet

17

OPERAT I O N O F APPARATUS

The E.T. 3628 Transmitter. The t r a n s m i t t e r may be operated from t h e generator o r , i n a n emergency, f r o n t h e s t o r a g e b a t t e r y , by throwing six- pole switch ( 2 4 ) t o the l e f t or r i g h t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . When using s h i p ' s generator the storage b a t t e r y panel c i r c u i t breaker should be disconnecting t h e s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s .

shiprs
the

the open,

When the D.C. supply switch ( 2 5 ) on t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s closed c u r r e n t w i l l flow through t h e motor f i e l d ( 5 8 ) . When a e r i a l switch ( 8 6 ) o r t h e s t a r t i n g b u t t o n ( 3 8 ) i s closed c u r r e n t w i l l flow through t h e s t a r t i n g solenoid (33), through the p r o t e c t i v e r e s i s t o r (341, through the lower contact of overload r e l a y ( 3 6 ) , through contact bar (371, and back t o t h e negative l i n e . This w i l l cause the contact bar ( 4 0 ) t o move upward. A s soon a s t h e b a r touches the f i r s t c o n t a c t f i n g e r c u r r e n t w i l l flow through the s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e ( 3 9 ) , through t h e f l e x i b l e connection (411, through t h e motor armature (42 ), through t h e overload c o i l ( 4 5 ) , and t o t h e negative s i d e of t h e l i n e . The motor w i l l now s t a r t and, a s t h e c o n t a c t bar continues t o r i s e , the motor speed w i l l i n c r e a s e u n t i l the bar reaches t h e t o p c o n t a c t a t which time t h e motor w i l l be running a t maximum speed. A t t h i s point t h e p r o t e c t i v e r e s i s t a n c e ( 3 4 ) i s automatically cut i n t h e c i r c u i t by the cont a c t ( 3 5 ) which i s operated mechanically. The bar now touches the g e n e r a t o r f i e l d contact (51) and c u r r e n t flows through the g e n e r a t o r f i e l d ( 5 5 ) . The output of the generator i s c o n t r o l l e d by the r h e o s t a t ( 5 3 ) . Low power i s obtained by opening switch ( 5 4 ) which c u t s i n t h e s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e . As a s a f e t y measure s w i t c h ( 5 2 ) i s used t o open t h e generator f i e l d while t h e motor generator i s running and the t r a n s m i t t e r i s not being operated. The input t o t h e primary ( 6 6 ) of t h e power transformer i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e hand key ( 6 5 ) and measured by t h e wattmeter (64). The secondary ( 6 7 ) of t h e power transformer i s c e n t e r tapped (mid- tapped) and i s connected t o t h e p l a t e s of the two U.V. 204-8 tubes. P l a t e choke c o i l s (68 and 6 9 ) prevent R.F. c u r r e n t s from flowing i n t h e transformer. The condensers (72 and 73) prevent t h e low frequency supply c u r r e n t from flowing i n t h e R.F. c i r c u i t s . Condensers (74 and 75) couple t h e p l a t e and grid. c i r c u i t s r e s p e c t i v e l y , and w i t h t h e tank inductance ( 7 9 ) , c o n s t i t u t e t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t . C o i l ( 7 6 ) i s a g r i d choke f o r preventing the f l o w of p a r a s i t i c c u r r e n t s , i.e., u l t r a h i g h frequencies. switch ( 7 8 ) changes t h e w ~ v e l e n g t hof t h e tank c i r c u i t . It i s mechanically connected t o t h e secondary s w i t c h ( 8 3 ) thereby p e r m i t t i n g t h e inductance of both c i r c u i t s t o be changed a t the same time. The inductance of t h e secondary c o i l ( 8 0 ) remains f i x e d a f t e r t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s tuned and i t should not be changed. The therno-coupled ammeter ( 6 1 ) measures t h e a e r i a l c u r r e n t . C o i l s (62 and 8 4 ) a r e a e r i a l load c o i l s . C o i l ( 8 5 ) i s t h e a e r i a l t u n i n g inductance. The a e r i a l change-over s w i t c h ( 8 6 ) t r a n s f e r s t h e a e r i a l from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g t o the r e c e i v i n g p o s i t i o n and vice- versa. The l i g h t n i n g switch (87) should be grounded when t h e operator i s not on duty. The f i l a m e n t s of t h e U.V. 204-A r a d i o t r o n s (70 and 7 1 ) r e c e i v e t h e i r c u r r e n t supply from the step-down f i l a m e n t transformer ( 2 9 ) . The condensers (30 and 31) by-pass R.F. c u r r e n t around the transformer. The meter (32) measures Lesson 61

- s h e e t 16

t h e filament voltage. The filament transformer i s supplied from a small 100 watt r o t a r y converter, t h e output of which i s c o n t r o l l e d b y -t h e r h e o s t a t ( 2 7 ) .

The generator ( 6 2 ) output i s increased by means of the f i e l d rheogtat (53) u n t i l t h e s a f e t y spark g a p s on the tank c i r c u i t condensers begin t o spark over. The voltage i s t h e n decreased t o a point j u s t s h o r t of where sparking occurs; the wattmeter ( 6 4 ) should read about 1.5 k.w., t h e foregoing a d j u s t ment i s f o r maximum outputs; lower outputs may be obtained by a d j u s t i n g the generator f i e l d rheostat (53).
The key ( 6 5 ) should not be pressed while changing wavelengths i n order t o avoid a r c i n g a t the switch c o n t a c t s .
T O s t o p t h e t r a n s m i t t e r the a e r i a l change-over switch ( 8 6 ) i s thrown t o the r e c e i v i n g p o s i t i o n . T h i s not only s h i f t s the a e r i a l from t h e t r a n s m i t t e r t o t h e r e c e i v e r but opens t h e key, generator f i e l d and s t a r t e r c i r c u i t s a s w e l l , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of accident due t o l i v e c i r c u i t s .

The I.P. 501 Receiver. When t h e a e r i a l switch ( 8 6 ) i s thrown i n t h e r e c e i v i n g p o s i t i o n r e c e i v e d s i g n a l energy w i l l flow from contact ( B ) t o t h e primary in ductance switch ( 9 0 1 , thence through inductance ( 8 9 ) through the antenna s e r i e s condenser (921, and t o ground ( 9 3 ) . The v a r i a b l e c o i l (981, a p a r t of t h e secondary inductance, i s employed t o provide coupling between the" Condenser ( 9 4 ) i s used t o ground t h e f i l a primary and secondary c i r c u i t s . ment s i d e of t h e secondary. When the primary and secondary are i n resonance c u r r e n t w i l l flow through t h e main secondary c o i l (1001, t h e inductance of which i s a d j u s t a b l e by means of switch (101). The purpose of condenser (111) i s t o tune t h e secondary. C o i l (103) i s a p a r t of the secondary and i s used t 8 couple the t i c k l e r c o i l ( 1 0 5 ) . C o i l (104) i s t h e main t i c k l e r c o i l . The grounded s h i e l d (99 ) prevents undesirable i n d u c t i o n between the primary and secondary c i r c u i t s . When t h e o s c i l l a t i o n t e s t b u t t o n ( 1 0 7 ) i s closed t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i s s h o r t c i r c u i t e d ; t h i s enables t h e operator t o a s c e r t a i n if the c i r c u i t i s i n a s t a t e of o s c i l l a t i o n . A c l i c k i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e circuit is oscillating. The remainder of t h e r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s c h i e f l y of a standary t w o s t a g e audio a m p l i f i e r with jacks (114-118-122) i n each s t a g e , and i n d i v i d u a l filament r h e o s t a t s (109-11'7-121). E i t h e r the d e t e c t o r , f i r s t s t a g e , or two s t a g e s , may be used f o r r e c e p t i o n of s i g n a l s . A c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r may be employed by connecting i t t o binding p o s t s on t h e panel provided f o r t h a t purpose, ( n o t shown i n t h e diagram). To a i d i n a d j u s t i n g t h e c r y s t a l d e t e c t o r , and t o t e s t t h e s e t i n g e n e r a l , t h e buzzer c i r c u i t (95-96-97) has been provided. It i s i n d u c t i v e l y coupled t o t h e a e r i a l by t h e pick-up c o i l (97A). I n o p e r a t i w t h e I . P . 501 r e c e i v e r t h e filament r h e o s t a t s should be turned. on, and t h e small "send-receive" switch on t h e r e c e i v e r panel placed i n t h e "receive" p o s i t i o n . The coupling shonld be t i g h t e n e d , maximum primary condenser c a p a c i t y used, and minimum secondary condenser c a p a c i t y and minimum t i c k l e r couplinq employed. These adjustments place t h e r e c e i v e r i n t h e " l i s t e n i n " or ' s t a n d by" p o s i t i o n . Lesson 61

- sheet

19

When t u n i n g f o r spark s i g n a l s or I . .W. the primary a n d secondary inductance C switches a r e turned u n t i l t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l i s heard, and b o t h inductance and capacity are a d j u s t e d f o r maximum s i g n a l s t r e n g t h . The coupling between t h e primary and secondary s h o u l d be 1oose.ned a s much a s p o s s i b l e . When tuning f o r C.ll,. s i g n a l s t h e t i c k l e r knob should be tuned u n t i l t h e c i r c u i t i s o s c i l l a t i n g . The l i n k s 91, 102 and 106 are provided s o t h a t e x t r a inductances mey be used f o r long waves ( a l o n g wave attachment i s u s u a l l y provided f o r use with t h i s receiver). Storage B a t t e r y Chargizg Panel. To charge t h e b a t t e r i e s s w i t c h ( 3 ) i s closed and the six- pole switch ( 2 4 ) i s thrown t o t h e l e f t . The c i r c u i t breaker i s now closed with t h e l e f t hand and, a t t h e same time, t h e i r o n plunger ( 1 7 ) i s pushed up with the r i g h t hand t o r e l e a s e t h e t r i p . Current w i l l flow from t h e p o s i t i v e side of the l i n e through c o n t a c t s (4 and 5 ) , through t h e underload c o i l ( 6 ) , simultaneously through t h e two b a t t e r y banks ( 9 and l o ) , through the ampere-hour meter ( l l ) , and back t o t h e negative s i d e of t h e l i n e . If t h e supply voltage becones t o o low when charging, t h e c i r c u i t breaker w i l l t r i p thereby preventing t h e b a t t e r i e s from discharging. Current w i l l a l s o flow through t h e c o n t a c t s (14 and 15) on t h e r e a r of t h e p a n e l , through t h e l i m i t i n g r e s i s t o r ( 1 6 ) , through the overload c o i l ( 1 7 ) and back t o t h e negat ive l i n e .
~f the supply voltage becomes t o o high when charging, the c i r c u i t breaker w i l l t r i p because t h e c u r r e n t flowing through c o i l ( 1 7 ) w i l l be s t r o n g enough t o p u l l t h e i r o n l e v e r downward,

When t h e b a t t e r i e s become f u l l y charged t h e b l a c k needle on t h e ampere-hour meter (11) w i l l r e a c h t h e v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n thereby s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g c o i l ( l y ) , r e l e a s i n g the i r o n plunger, c a u s i n g it t o t r i p t h e c i r c u i t breaker. A small amount of current w i l l t h e n f l o w through t h e t r i c k l e charge lamps (12 and 13) keeping t h e b a t t e r y on a very s l o w ( t r i c k l e ) charge, otherwise t h e b a t t e r i e s w i l l slowly discharge. To d i s c h a r g e the b a t t e r y t h e s i x - p o l e s w i t c h ( 2 4 ) i s thrown t o t h e r i g h t . This c o n n e c t s both banks ( 9 and 1 0 ) i n s e r i e s g i v i n g 120 v o l t s .
EXAMINATION

- LESSON

61

What could be done i n a n emergency i f t h e E.T. 3628 t r a n s m i t t e r became temporiarily inoperative? What causes swinging s i g n a l s ? Why a r e p l a t e radio- frequency choke c o i l s used? What are the advantages of vacum tube t r a n s m i t t e r s a s compared t o other types? What i s meant by t h e term " s p l i t tuning"? Where are t h e "ground" connections u s u a l l y made on ship- board? r n t h i s l e s s o n t h e r e i s a statement that r e a d s , h he loading inductances permit t h e antenna t o be r e s o n a t e d w i t h the closed c i r c u i t a t t h e f i v e wavelengths a v a i l a b l e " . What i s meant by t h i s s t a t e m e n t ? ( a ) O what i s t h e c l o s e d o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t composed? ( b ) What i s f o a "tank inductance"? ( c ) H w i s t h e f i l a m e n t voltage obtained. f o r t h e u.V. 204A t u b e s ? If the s h i p ' s e n e r a t o r should f a i l from what source of supply would t h e t r a n s m i t t e r m or- generat o r receive it I s i n p u t ? o ( a ) W y i s a g r i d r.f. choke c o i l used? ( b ) Why i s a g r i d l e a k used? h sheet 20 Lesson 6 1

V A C W M TUBE TRANSMITTERS

I
/
I

;
' '
I

Before considering t h e d i f f e r e n t types of commercial t u b e t r a n s m i t t e r s it i s a d v i s a b l e t o mention a few of t h e requirements i n r e g a r d t o the g e n e r a t i o n of r a d i o power f o r t h e purpose of s e t t i n g an antenna system i n t o e x c i t a t i o n . T h i s i s , of course, e s s e n t i a l i n order t h a t an a l t e r n a t i n g e l e c t r i c f i e l d be produced in t h e space surrounding t h e antenna. It i s t h i s generated r a d l o power t h a t makes p o s s i b l e t h e transmission of voice, music o r t e l e g r a p h i c messages through space.

The transmission O f voice o r music, more f a m i l i a r l y known a s "Broadcasting", .ail1 be d e a l t w i t h i n a subsequent lesson. I n t h i s l e s s o n w w i l l confine e ..our s u b j e c t t o commercial t e l e g r a p h t r a n s m i t t e r s . It i s known t h a t r a d i o power t a k e s t h e form of a very high- frequency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t which . t r a v e r s e s t h e antenna system. T h i s c u r r e n t , having a frequency i n t h e order of hundreds of thousands t o m i l l i o n s of cycles p e r second, i s introduced i n t o $he c o i l s ( i n d u c t a n c e s ) and o t h e r elements which comprise t h e antenna i n t h e m6mer which we . w i l l e x p l a i n f u r t h e r on i n our lesson. These inductances, .::&;and loading inductances i f u s e d , ) a r e i n s e r t e d i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t between . .,, :$&be e r i a l end t h e ground. Sometimes a counterpoise i s used i n a d d i t i o n t o a ".a ' & g u l a r e a r t h ground. However, f o r shipboard i n s t a l l a t i o n a counterpoise i s @&cessary, f o r a good ground connection c a n most g e n e r a l l y be found.
,*,.

b@
i

@&h ,mst flow t h r o u g h t h e w i r e s and apparatus comprising t h e e n t i r e antenna

o r more vacuum t u b e s a r e r e q u i r e d t o produce t h i s high-frequency c u r r e n t

%& , ?: .:

.:$q@%gnpent t o b u i l d up t h e power of the o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t 1s output i n order +&&%:,~ high- frequency c u r r e n t of s u f f i c i e n t magnitude w i l l s e t up a very s t r o n g .,,. .,, around t h e a e r i a l . Vacuum tubes used f o r t h i s purpose of s t e p e o s c i l l a t o r ~ soutput a r e c a l l e d "power-amplif i e r s n . Hence, by i t a b l e o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t , and coupling it t o a power a m p l i f i e r , n can be arranged t o f e e d i t s output d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e antenna, ne u s u a l l y through a coupling transformer i n t h e commercial type Hence, we a r e . aware t h a t t h e high- frequency c u r r e n t i n t h e antenna t t t e r i s n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h communication w i t h a d i s t a n t r e c e i v It i s obvious t h a t without t h l s c u r r e n t i n t h e antenna system . electromagnetic waves could n o t take place. An o p e r a t o r on duty ooks a t t h e r a d i a t i o n ammeter i n order t o be c e r t a i n t h a t h i s oing out i n the a i r .

&h&t a s we have j u s t mentioned. These tubes a r e known a s " o s c i l l a t o r s " . ~,,*. @&'$t:ional t u b e s and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d c i r c u i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y used i n modern ; :
: ,

c i r c u i t i s the frequency- determining p a r t of the t r a n s m i t t e r . Commercial t u b e t r a n s m i t t e r s used f o r telegraphy a r e provided with a s u i t a b l e switching arrangement and adjustments t o enable the operator t o quickly s e l e c t any one of s e v e r a l wavelengths. By means of t h e switches and tapped arrange ment t h e constants of t h e tuned c i r c u i t s can be quickly a l t e r e d by throwing a switch, and a simple adjustment or two t o place t h e c i r c u i t s i n resonance a t any of the wavelengths provided. By "constants" we mean t h a t t h e inductance and capacity, or both, of t h e tuned c i r c u i t s a r e changed, and wavelengths which a r e known from previous c a l i b r a t i o n may be s e l e c t e d . The process of varying t h e number o f t u r n s used on a c o i l or changing the c a p a c i t y of a condenser f o r t h e purpose of obtaining a d e f i n i t e frequency from t h e master e o s c i l l a t o r i s c a l l e d "tuning." The adjustments w r e f e r r e d t o a r e f o r t h e purpose of providing f i n e tuning f o r t h e s e t when working on a p a r t i c u l a r wavelength. This i s done a s a r u l e w i t h e a c h change of wavelength when working o t h e r ships.
C O N T I N U O U S WAVES

on c.w.-

UUU~U~~UUUUUUUU~UUU~~U~u~u
yI N T E R R U P T E D C.W O R I.C.W.

.______--=-

set us now consider t h e d i f f e r e n t methods by which an o s c i l l a t o r tube and i t s a s s o c i a t e d " c i r c u i t s corisisting of inductance and capacitance ( t h a t i s , c o i l s and condensers) may be arranged i n order t o provide t h e r e q u i s i t e UaUl Ut e rU n a t i n g c u r r e n t f o r antenna e x c i t a t i o n . u ~U The t h r e e well-known o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t s a r e t h e C o l p i t t s , t h e Hartley, and t h e Neissner. Regardless of what type o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t i s employed i n a t r a n s m i t t e r t h e u l t i m a t e r e s u l t w i l l be t h e same, t h a t i s , a r a d i o frequency c u r r e n t of a d e f i n i t e frequency w i l l c i r c u l a t e through t h e o s c i l l a t o r system. I e w may c a l l t h i s high- frequency c u r r e n t an " o s c i l l a t i n g c u r ~ e n t "or simply " o s c i l l a t i o n s " ,

, I ;

'
'

1
6
1

The upper curve i n Figure 1 shows the uniformi t y w i t h which t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e produced. :u.[~jl~ 'qllpi" Observe t h a t each c y c l e occurs i n t h e same time c a l l e d "time period " and the peaks or k I . ~ . ~ . oRToNE MODUL4TED E.W. amplitude h e i g h t s of a l l the o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e equal. It i s because of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Figure 1 t h a t t h i s energy i s known a s a continuous a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of comtant amplitude. Vihen s u c h energy i s u t i l i z e d t o d e l i v e r power t o an antenna system i t causes a continuous wave (abbreviated C.IrJ. ) t o be propagated or r a d i a t e d away from t h e antenna through space. The middle wave i s known a s an i n t e r r u p t e d continuous wave ( o r I.C.W.). It i s t o be noted t h a t t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e g e n e r a t e d and t h e n discontinued f o r s h o r t i n t e r v a l s , which e f f e c t i s produced by t h e use of a chopper. Each group of o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l cause one c l i c k i n t h e diaphragms i n t h e headset of t h e operator a t the d i s t a n t r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n . So, i f one thousand groups of such o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e s e n t out every second while t h e d o t s and dashes of t h e code a r e formed, then one thousand d e f l e c t i o n s of t h e diaphragms w i l l r e s u l t and a note having a musica' p i t c h w i l l be heard. The lowest curve shows how a C.W. output of an o s c i l l a ' can be modulated, which means t h a t the amplitudes of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s are f

"v.Jp'

'\UJt],v

Lesson 6 2

shec

t o undergo a c o n t i n u a l v a r i a t i o n by super-imposing an audio- frequency c u r r e n t upon t h e continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s . W w i l l e x p l a i n i n one of the t r a n s m i t t e r s e how an a u d i o - o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t i s coupled i n t o t h e o s c i l l a t o r and power amplif i e r c i r c u i t t o provide t h i s p e r i o d i c r i s e and f a l l i n t h e amplitudes a s shown by t h e lowest curve. If t h e s e periods, which we may c a l l t h e "modulation f r e quency", occur i n t h e audio range from about 600 t o 1000 per second t h e r e ceived s i g n a l w i l l have a musical tone and somewhat t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a n . 1C .W. s i g n a l . And so i n commercial operating we f r e q u e n t l y c a l l a modulated . C.W. s i g n a l I.C.W. whereas i t could a l s o be c a l l e a t o n e modulated C.W. W a r e now i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e t h r e e conventional t g p e o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t s which e 'we have made mention of.

Figure 2 Meissner O s c i l l a t o r . The fundamental Meissner o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t i s shown i n Figure 2. T h i s c i r c u i t embodies inductances of s u i t a b l e s i z e f o r the purpose of feeding back power from t h e p l a t e t o g r i d , and condensers t o c o n t r o l t h e frequency a t which t h e continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s are generated. Note t h a t p l a t e c o i l L1 and g r i d c o i l L2 a r e magnetically coupled t o L a s shown, whereas no coupling e x i s t s between L 1 and L2. The o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t i s n o t p a r t of the tube c i r c u i t . The Meissner c i r c u i t provides a very f l e x i b l e arrangement because maximum r a d i o power may be t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e tube c i r c u i t t o the load c i r c u i t , t h a t i s , t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t . The l a t t e r c i r c u i t may a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t t h e antenna system a s w have shown i n the diagram e and here t h e c a p a c i t y i s t h e antenna d i s t r i b u t e d capacitance i n a d d i t i o n t o any condenser which may be included f o r the purposes of tuning. The feed- back adjustment may be accomplished by simply varying t h e coupling between t h e various inductances and does not r e q u i r e adjustments of the tube circuit proper a s would be t h e case i n e i t h e r the H a r t l e y or C o l p i t t s o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t s . Adjustable coupling i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e arrow.

Lesson 62

- sheet

The a c t i o n of the c i r c u i t follows: T h e p l a t e c u r r e n t r i s i n g and f a l l i n g i n value through c o i l L 1 a t a high frequency s e t s up an a l t e r n a t i n g magnetic f i e l d surrounding it s e l f . The r a p i d l y changing f l u x t h r e a d s through t h e upper t u r n s of L inducing t h e r e i n a n a l t e r n a t i n g e.m.f. Consequently a n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of s i m i l a r frequency t o t h a t of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n s w i l l flow through t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t . The v a r i a t i o n s i n f l u x around t h e lower t u r n s of L induces an a l t e r n a t i n g e.m.f. across c o i l L2. The g r i d r e c e i v e s t h i s induced voltage and i n t u r n causes t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t t o increase and decrease i n s t r e n g t h t h u s producing p u l s a t i o n s of c u r r e n t a g a i n through L1. The feed-back i s from L 1 t o L and from L t o L2. The c l r c u i t L C i s l i k e a l i n k c i r c u i t , i t s frequency being regulated by changes i n t h e variable condenser C, The r i s e and f a l l values of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t , t h a t i s , t h e a l t e r n a t i n g component, passes through the by-pass condenser.

Hartley O s c i l l a t o r . The E a r t l e y o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t shown i n Figure 3 c o n s i s t s of a s i n g l e inductance L connected between grid and p l a t e of t h e tube, while a t a p taken f ron a point near t h e middle p o r t i o n of the c o i l i s attached t o t h e filament. The o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of a l l of t h e t u r n s i n L and v a r i a b l e condenser C. The c i r c u i t i s known as a d i r e c t o r conductivelv c o u ~ l e d c i r c u i t because g r i d c o i l L 1 and p l a t e c o i l L2 are e l e c t r i c a l l y connecEed a i F, t h e winding being continuous from G t o P. A l t e r n a t i n g voltage changes impressed upon the g r i d w i l l be magnified o r amplified i n t h e t u b e ' s output or p l a t e c i r c u i t , and providing t h i s amplific a t i o n i s s u f f i c i e n t t o overcome a l l t h e e f f e c t of damping, the tube and the c i r c u i t dl1 become a g e n e r a t o r of radio- frequercy o s c i l l a t i o n s . The damping i s t h e d i s s i p a t i o n of energy i n t h e c i r c u i t due t o r e s i s t a n c e , etc. The a l t e r n a t i n g voltage r e f e r r e d t o i s produced by t h e a l t e r n a t i n g component (i.e., t h e r i s e and f a l l v a l u e s ) of t h e p l a t e curi%nt as it flows through p l a t e c o i l L2. The long arrow marked P i n d i c a t e s the d i r e c t i o n of c u r r e n t f l o w through t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t and t h e s h o r t arrows marked G t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e g r i d c u r r e n t . W a r e only i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t flow through e L 1 and L2, and the e f f e c t of t h e self - inductance of L2 upon L 1 i n producing an a l t e r n a t i n g voltage a c r o s s L1.

Lesson 62

- sheet

F i r s t , l e t us bear i n mind t h a t the t o t a l c u r r e n t flowing i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t of a tube when o s c i l l a t i n g i s a p u l s a t i n g d i r e c t c u r r e n t , which c o n s i s t s of an a l t e r n a t i n g component and a d i r e c t component. The a l t e r n a t i n g conponent , i s represented by the r i s e a & f a l l or a l t e r n a t i o n s of t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t a s R have h e r e t o f o r e s t a t e d , and it flows through the p l a t e by-pass condenser. e However, the d-c component flows throught t h e r-f. choke c o i l and thence t o t h e d-c. generator c i r c u i t . It i s the a-c. p a r t or component of the p l a t e c u r r e n t t h a t i s u t i l i z e d i n s e t t i n g up a changing magnetic f i e l d i n L2 causing an a l t e r n a t i n g voltage t o be induced a c r o s s t h e c o i l ' s winding, or between P and F. Since c o i l L 1 i s connected t o L2 a t F t h e a l t e r n a t i n g voltage w i l l cause an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t o flow through o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t L C.Notice t h a t inductance L i s r e a l l y an auto- transformer because t h i s winding forms both the p l a t e and g r i d t u r n s .

PLATE LEAD

Figure 4 The o s c i l l a t i n g c ~ r r e n t i r c u l a t i n g through L C causes an a l t e r n a t i n g voltage c t o be s e t up across c o i l L1, or between p o i n t s G and F. Since the g r i d i s connected t o one s i d e of L, as shown i n t h e diagram, the g r i d must receive Thus t h e charged g r i d e x e r c i s e s i t s u s u a l influence i n t h i s induced e.m.f. c o n t r o l l i n g t h e e l e c t r o n stream reaching t h e p l a t e , or t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t , which i s t h e same t h i n g . W may t h e n sum up t h i s a c t i o n i n a few words by e saying t h a t the p l a t e c o i l s u p p l i e s t h e r e q u i s i t e a l t e r n a t i n g e.m.f. t o r e i n f o r c e the o s c i l l a t i o n s , and t h e coupling between L 1 and L2 f u r n i s h e s t h e a l t e r n a t i n g voltage t o t h e g r i d . Note p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t i n t h e Hartley c i r c u i t t h e g r i d e x c i t a t i o n v o l t a g e i s obtaineZ from across a p o r t i o n of t h e inductance, This r e l a t i o n o f t h e p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s w i t h regard t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e r e s p e c t i v e c u r r e n t s i s a very important f a c t o r i n tthe tubes operation and we make mention of it here because i t i s well known t h s t i n a l l oscil! a t o r a c t i o n s the p l a t e c i r c u i t must f u r n i s h enesgy t o the g r i d i n such a way t h a t t h e c u r r e n t flowing t o t h e g r i d must e x c i t e the g r i d t o a higher p o t e n t i z l t o cause t h e necessary change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t i n order t o make t h e a c t i o n a r e t r o a c t i v e one. This simply means t h a t any change i n conditions of the tube

Lesson 62

sheet 5

c i r c u i t s which might cause a v a r i a t i o n e i t h e r i n p l a t e c u r r e n t or g r i d c u r r e n t , r e g a r d l e s s of how small, w i l l increase i n amplitude due t o t h e feed-back, and progressive a m p l i f i c a t i o n of the o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l r e s u l t . C o l p i t t s O s c i l l a t o r . The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e C o l p i t t s c i r c u i t and other types previously explained i s mainly i n t h e method u t i l i z e d f o r obtaining the r e q u i s i t e g r i d a l t e r n a t i n g voltage. Observe i n t h e diagram i n Figure 4 how condenser C 1 i s connected between g r i d and filament and how the filament lead F i s attached t o t h e c e n t e r of t h e t o t a l c a p a c i t y of the o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t . This c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of c a p a c i t i e s c1 C2 and inductance L. Thus i n t h i s type of o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t it i s necessary t o employ two condensers connected i n s e r i e s and t h e s e i n t u r n must be connected a c r o s s the t o t a l inductance, or L, w i t h t h e filament l e a d joined t o the c e n t e r of t h e condensers. The diagram c l e a r l y shows how t h i s i s done. The a l t e r n a t i n g component of the p l a t e c u r r e n t , a s it passes through L s e t s . An a l t e r n a t i n g voltage up an o s c i l l a t i a @ ; current i n c i r c u i t C 1 , C2 and L ( o r voltage drop) i s thus obtained from across t h e t e r m i n a l s of condenser c1 and t h i s voltage i s a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y between g r i d and filament. H w t h i s o voltage i s obtained and a l s o how i t i s applied between t h e s e e l e c t r o d e s should be q u i t e obvious f o r it i s seen t h a t C 1 i s connected t o g r i d and filament. Thus, we l e a r n t h a t the feed- back voltage i s obtained from t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c charge i n C 1 when an o s c i l l a t o r y c u r r e n t circulateF? through t h e c i r c u i t . For t h i s reason the C o l p i t t s t y p e i s r e f e r r e d t o a s " capacity feed-back" and, s i n c e condenser C 1 i s used t o e x c i t e t h e g r i d , this condenser i s g e n e r a l l y known a s t b t ' g r i d input condenser" or t h e " grid e x c i t a t i o n condenser

The p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e , then, between t h e Hartley, or i n d u c t i v e l y coupled type, and t h e C o l p i t t s , or c a p a c i t i v e coupled t y p e , may be s t a t e d b r i e f l y a s follows: The r e q u i s i t e g r i d e x c i t a t i o n voltage o r feed-back e .m.f. i n the Hartley c i r c u i t i s obtained from the voltage changes ( c a l l e d drop i n v o l t a g e ) a c r o s s an inductance, t h e inductance being the g r i d c o i l between g r i d and filament. I n t h e C o l p i t t s o s c i l l a t o r t h e g r i d e x c i t a t i o n voltage i s derived f r o m t h e voltage d r o p or e .m.f. generated across p a r t of t h e capacity i n t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t , t h e c a p a c i t y being t h e g r i d input condenser connected between g r i d and filament.

Bear i n mind, however, t h a t i n e i t h e r system t h e e s s e n t i a l changes i n g r i d voltage ape properly obtained and applied f o r maintaining the tube and i t s a s s o c i a t e d c i r c u i t s i n a s t a t e capable of producing continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s .
E ,T. 3626-B 750 Watt Transmitter f o r CW and ICW Telearaph Service. This t r a n s m i t t e r u t i l i z e s e i g h t vacuum tubes of t h e UV-211, f i f t y watt type, one functioni n g a s t h e master o s c i l l a t o r , one a s an audio o s c i l l a t o r t o provide f o r I C W transmission, and t h e o t h e r s i x a s r a d i o power-amplifiers. When used on the average s h i p antenna t h e t r a n s m i t t e r covers a continuous range from 600 t o 2500 meters, or 500 t o 120 k i l o c y c l e s . CW and I C W t e l e g r a p h y a r e obtained by t u r n i n g the s i g n a l switch on the p a n e l t o t h e proper p o s i t i o n . The f r o n t panel view i s shown i n Figure 5 w i t h a l l c o n t r o l s and meters i d e n t i f i e d . A s i d e view of the t r a n s m i t t e r i s shown i n Figure 6. The schematic c i r c u i t diagram showing t h e fundamental arrangement i n t h e E.T. 3626-B t r a n s m i t t e r i s shown i n Figure 7. The diagram shows only one s e t of Master o s c i l l a t o r ( e x c i t e r )

Lesson 62

sheet 6

Figure 5

Figure 6

AUDIO OSCIIILTOR

MASTER O S C I L L h l O R

POWER

AMPLIFIERS

Figure 7

Lesson 62

- sheet 7

c i r c u i t elements and antenna tuning elements, whereas two s e t s are a c t u a l l y provided, one f o r the 600 1250 meter range and t h e o t h e r f o r the 1250 2500 meter range. E i t h e r the long or short-wave range may be s e l e c t e d by t h e seven-pole double-throw s w i t c h marked " t r a n s f e r switch" onbthe photographs. The tubes a r e connected t o t h e long-wave c i r c u i t s when t h i s switch i s thrown up, and t o t h e short-wave c i r c u i t s when it i s thrown t o t h e down p o s i t i o n .

The two p o i n t e r s w i t h long handles, shown just below t h e hinged screen door about mid-way of t h e panel i n Figure 5, c o n t r o l t h e master o s c i l l a t o r ( e x c i t e r ) c i r c u i t s by means of which t h e d e s i r e d t r a n s m i t t i n g frequency i s obtained. Loading of the antenna c i r c u i t i s accomplished w i t h a tapped inductor equipped w i t h a r o t o r c o i l t o permit f i n e tuning adjustment by the variometer method. The knobs c o n t r o l l i n g t h e antenna tuning a r e l o c a t e d on the upper p a r t of the f r o n t panel. The short-wave e x c i t e r c i r c u i t i s placed on t h e l e f t and t h e long-wave on t h e r i g h t . By a g a i n making reference t o t h e schematic diagram it i s seen t h a t t h e e x c i t e r o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t o r frequency-determining c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of the inductor l a b e l l e d 3 and the condense1.s 4. The inductor i s a l s o provided with a r o t o r c o i l which permits the variometer p r i n c i p l e t o be employed f o r changing t h e frequency. The p l a t e and g r i d of t h e o s c i l l a t o r tube a r e connected t o t h e tuned c i r c u i t by leads P and G through by-pass cond e n s e r s 2 and 7 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The filament i s attached t o t h e o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t through lead F. A s p r e v i o u s l y st.ated, %n h e a c t u a l t r a n s m i i t e r two of t t h e s e i n d u c t o r s are supplied w i t h t h e t r a n s f e r switch t o place e i t h e r i n the c i r c u i t , depending on t h e frequency d e s i r e d . Two c o n t r o l knobs on t h e panel, each marked "range switch", permit both t h e short-wave and long-wave ranges t o be divided i n t o two p a r t s , namely: 600 t o 900 meters and 900 t o 1250 meters f o r the short-wave and 1250 t o 1800 and 1800 t o 2500 meters f o r t h e long-wave. The following gives t h e approximate r e l a t i o n between antenna current and wavelength f o r the E.T. 3626-B when used with the average s h i p l s antenna. Wave l e n g t h 600-900 900-1250 1250-1800 1800-2500 Antenna Current 10.1 10.0 9.8 9.4 Transfer Switch Down Down U P U P E x c i t e r Range 600-900 900-1250 1250-1800 1800-2500 S W S W L W L W Antenna Inductance 600-900 900-1250 1250-1800 1800-2500
Sf V

SW
L W

LW

A key r e l a y operated by power from a 110 V. d-c. supply, through a r e s i s t a n c e

and hand key, c o n t r o l s t h e g r i d c i r c u i t s of both the master o s c i l l a t o r and a m p l i f i e r tubes. While t h e key i s up a negative b i a s of 250 v o l t s i s applied t o a l l g r i d s , t h u s stopping o s c i l l a t i o n and i n s u r i n g continued. blocking of t h e p l a t e current. The keying r e l a y i s a l s o provided w i t h a d d i t i o n a l c o n t a c t s g i v i n g break- in operation. ffhile t h e key i s up the r e c e i v i n g s e t i s connected t o t h e antenna and t h e r e l a y i s a d j u s t e d t o have the break - in c o n t a c t s closed before t h e keying c o n t a c t s c l o s e , and a l s o t o have the break- in c o n t a c t s open a f t e r t h e keying c o n t a c t s open. The motor armature of t h e motor- generator s e t i s provided w i t h s l i p r i n g s from which 77 v o l t s , 60 cycle power i s obtained f o r filament heating. A step-down Lesson 62

- sheet 8

transformer g i v e s the r e q u i r e d f i l a m e n t input voltage with r e g u l a t i a n through a r h e o s t a t . The d-c. generator f o r p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n i s a t$o-pole shunt wound s e p a r a t e l y e x c i t e d machine d e l i v e r i n g a p o t e n t i a l of 1000 t o 1200 v o l t s d-c. Placina t h e E.T. 3626-B i n t o Operation: 1. Before s t a r t i n g t h e motor-generat o r s e t t u r n t h e f i l a m e n t and generator f i e l d r h e o s t a t s t o minimum voltage p o s i t i o n s and close t h e main l i n e switch i f i t has been opened.
2. T o s t a r t t h e motor generator s e t p r e s s t h e " s t a r t " button located on the t h e o p e r a t o r ' s c o n t r o l u n i t and a d j u s t the filament voltage t o 10 v o l t s b y . means of t h e r h e o s t a t which i s a l s o mounted i n t h i s u n i t .
3.

The p l a t e voltmeter should be observed while making adjustment of t h e generator f i e l d r h e o s t a t u n t i l a reading of 1000 v o l t s i s obtained. The p l a t e c u r r e n t ammeter should read about 1.2 t o 1.4 amperes.

4. The t r a n s f e r switch should be thrown up i f transmission i s d e s i r e d on t h e long-wave range between 1250 and 2500 meters, or down f o r the short-wave range between 600 t o 1250 meters.
5. The e x c i t e r tuning and range switch on t h e lower p a r t of t h e panel i s next placed i n the wavelength p o s i t i o n d e s i r e d , t h e short-wave range being on t h e l e f t and t h e long-wave range on t h e r i g h t .
6. The above wavelength adjustments a r e followed by placing e i t h e r one of t h e antenna tuning switches i n t h e i r proper p o s i t i o n according t o t h e range d e s i r e d , t h e short-wave range s w i t c h i s on t h e l e f t and t h e long-wave switch on t h e right. The operator must be c a r e f u l t o place t h e e x c i t e r range switch i n c o r r e c t pos i t i o n corresponding t o t he e x c i t e r range switch f o r a given wavelength.

7. The " t e s t n b u t t o n on t h e panel may be depressed i n order t o a s c e r t a i n i f maximum antenna c u r r e n t w i l l be obtained f o r a c e r t a i n wavelength which w i l l be indicated by t h e antenna ammeter d e f l e c t i o n . To o b t a i n t h e b e s t adjustment, t u r n t h e antenna tuning c o n t r o l u n t i l t h e antenna ammeter i n d i c a t e s a maximum c u r r e n t . This tuning adjustment i s attached t o t h e variometer r o t o r c o i l and consequently it may be manipulated f o r any p a r t i c u l a r wavelength; it resonates t h e r a d i a t i n g c i r c u i t w i t h t h e closed c i r c u i t .
8.

When s a t i s f a c t o r y r a d i a t i o n i n d i c a t i o n i s secured a f t e r tuning t h e s e t a s o u t l i n e d above, t h e sending key may be operated f o r t h e transmission of messages.

9. Before sending a message be s u r e t h e "CW IcV?" switch i s i n proper p o s i t i o n which, of curse, i s governed by t h e t y p e of r e c e i v e r employed a t t h e s t a t i o n w i t h which communication i s t o be e s t a b l i s h e d . When t h e sending key i s closed, and t h e "CW IcW" switch i s thrown t o the I C W p o s i t i o n , t h e audio o s c i l l a t o r w i l l generate one of t h r e e tone frequencies o r r a t i n g i n conjunction with t h e master o s c i l l a t o r and r a d i o a m p l i f i e r s . The tone frequency switch" located i n t h e r i g h t hand s i d e of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r frame should not be touched while t h e motor- generator s e t i s running a s t h e d-c. voltage i s on t h e c i r c u i t s .

10. When communication i s completed t h e s e t i s shut down by pressing the "stop" button on the o p e r a t o r 1s c o n t r o l pane 1 . Lesson 62

- sheet 9

Theory of Operation. Referring t o t h e schematic diagram i n Figure 7, only one c o i l system c a l l e d t h e " e x c i t e r " c i r c u i t , involving the generation of o s c i l l a t i o n s , i s shown s i n c e t h e c i r c u i t i s fundamentally a l i k e f o r t h e two wavelength bands. Only one antenna variometer ( 1 6 ) i s shown f o r the same reason although two such c o i l s a r e i n the a c t u a l s e t . Looking a t t?ze s e t from the f r o n t , t h e l e f t hand t u b e l l i s used a s the master o s c i l l a t o r , coupled t o a s p l i t inductance or "Hartley type c i r c u i t t o produce oscillations. I n t h e diagram t h i s tube i s t h e second one from the r i g h t w i t h i t s o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t ( e x c i t e r c i r c u i t ) c o n s i s t i n g of v a r i a b l e inductance (3) and two f i x e d condensers ( 4 ) . The capacitance of these condensers i s .004 mfd. and DO2 mfd. r e s p e c t i v e l y and f u n c t i o n i n conjunction w i t h t h e long and short-wave e x c i t e r . The feed-back voltage b u i l t up across inductance ( 3 ) between the t a p s marked G and 5' i s used t o e x c i t e the o s c i l l a t o r g r i d through t h e coupling condenser (7). This condenser blocks t h e d-c. g r i d current from the o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t . The l o s s of high-frequency energy i n t h e g r i d l e a k and keying c i r c u i t i s prevented by t h e choke ( 8 ) . The c o r r e c t negative g r i d b i a s f o r t h e o s c i l l a t o r i s obtained by the use of t h e 5000 ohm g r i d l e a k r e s i s t o r ( 6 ) which a c t s t o hold back a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r o n s on t h e g r i d when o s c i l l a t i n g . The p o s i t i v e d-c. voltage i s f e d t o t h e o s c i l l a t o r p l a t e through a choke (1)which prevents t h e radio- frequency from backing up i n t h e power supply c i r c u i t . The p l a t e blocking condenser ( 2 ) has a capacitance of .004 mfd, it being i n s e r t e d i n t h e p l a t e l e a d P connecting t o t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t t o f u r n i s h a low reactance p a t h f o r t h e high-frequency a-c. component of t h e f l u c t u a t i n g p l a t e c u r r e n t . The d-c. component i s blocked by t h i s condenser and flows through choke (1) and t o t h e generator. The inductance ( 3 ) i s varied by means of t h e r o t a t i n g c o i l marked on t h e diagram w i t h a long arrow, while. t h e a c t u a l c o n t r o l knob on t h e t r a n s m i t t e r panel i s l a b e l l e d e i t h e r "short-wave" or "long-wave e x c i t e r tuning". The n e u t r a l i z i n g condenser ( 5 ) has a capacitance of .00014 mfd., it being designed t o prevent any r e a c t i o n e f f e c t s due t o coupling between t h e a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t and the master a c o n d i t i o n always present because of t h e s e l f - capacity ( g r i d oscillator t o p l a t e c a p a c i t y ) of t h e a m p l i f i e r s . Choke ( 9 ) i n t h e o s c i l l a t o r g r i d i s used t o prevent t h e production of ultra- high- frequencies g e n e r a l l y known a s "parasitic" oscillations.

The s i x a m p l i f i e r g r i d s a r e coupled t o t h e master o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t through condenser (12 and r e c e i v e t h e i r e x c i t a t i o n from t h e a d j u s t a b l e lead G on t h e A .004 mfd. condenser ( 1 2 ) serves t o by-pass t h e high-freinductance ( 3 quency o s c i l l a t i o n s while a t t h e same time i t blocks t h e d-c. b i a s voltage of t h e a m p l i f i e r s obtained through t h e use of t h e g r i d l e a k r e s i s t o r (15). This 100 ohm r e s i s t o r operatea t o hold an adequate number of e l e c t r o n s on t h e a m p l i f i e r g r i d s t h u s f u r n i s h i n g the c o r r e c t negative b i a s when t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s produced i n t h e master o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t a r e being increased i n power by t h e amplifiers. This c o n d i t i o n obtains when t h e tr.ansmitting key i s down.

1.

The a m p l i f i e r p l a t e s r e c e i v e t h e i r e x c i t a t i o n fiom t h e 1000 v o l t generator through t h e p l a t e c o i l of t h e antenna coupling transformer ( 1 0 ) . The choke ( 1 4 ) b u i l d s up a high reactance t o radio- frequencies and blocks the flow of t h i s energy through t h e g r i d leak and keylng c i r c u i t s t h u s preventing highfrequency l o s s e s . Lesson 62

- sheet 10

Inductive coupling between t h e closed and open c i r c u i t s i s provided by antenna transformer ( 1 0 ) . Two such transformers are included i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , t h e long-wave on t h e l e f t s i d e and the short-wave on t h e r i g h t side. The radiofrequency component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t of the six a m p l i f i e r t u b e s passes through the primary of ( 1 0 ) causing a rapid change i n magnetism which a c t s on t i s induced t h e seo~ondaryu r n s and, a s a consequence, an a l t e r n a t i n g e .m.f. i n t h e l a t t e r c o i l which s e t s t h e antenna system i n t o e x c i t a t i o n . The l a r g e output power of t h e a m p l i f i e r tubes i s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e antenna i n t h i s manner. The 6.0 mfd. condenser ( 2 0 ) f u r n i s h e s a low r e a c t a n c e path around t h e g e n e r a t o r f o r the radio- frequency component. For a given p l a t e voltage the amount of power t r a n s f e r r e d t o the antenna i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e r a t i o of t u r n s i n t r a n s former (10). For example, a l a r g e r number of t u r n s . used i n the secondary, o r antenna c o i l , than i n t h e primary w i l l increase power. The proper r e l a t i o n of t u r n s i s made a t the time t h e s e t i s c a l i b r a t e d and does n o t r e q u i r e a d j u s t mefits by t h e operator. Loading t h e antenna i s accomplished with a tapped inductance (16) provided w i t h a r o t o r c o i l f o r f i n e tuning t h e antenna by the variometer method. It has been previously s t a t e d t h a t two such devices a r e included i n the t r a n s m i t t e r and c o n t r o l l e d by knobs on t h e f r o n t of the pane 1. Small choke c o i l s (11) a r e connected i n the g r i d s of t h e power a m p l i f i e r t u b e s and a r e placed a s close t o the tube sockets a s p r a c t i c a b l e . The f u n c t i o n of t h e s e chokes i s s i m i l a r t o choke ( 9 ) i n the master o s c i l l a t o r g r i d c i r c u i t . The transmission of t e l e g r a p h s i g n a l s i s by t h e keying r e l a y ( 1 7 ) c o n t r o l l e d by t h e hand key, the l a t t e r being energized from t h e 110 v o l t d-c. supply. The a u x i l i a r y c o n t a c t s on r e l a y ( 1 7 ) a r e shown i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t a t ( 1 7 ~ ) Break-in operation i s provided by t h e closing of t h e a u x i l i a r y c o n t a c t s p r e ceding the c l o s i n g of t h e g r i d o i r c u i t contacts. The diagram shows t h e conn e c t i o n of t h e g r i d r e t u r n from a l l tubes t o t h e negative 1000 v o l t s a t point marked "x" and the filament c i r c u i t t o the tapped p o i n t on r e s i s t o r ( 1 8 ) . This r e s i s t o r i s a t t a c h e d t o p o s i t i v e and negative of t h e d-c. generator and serves as a potentiometer. The a m p l i f i e r g r i d r e t u r n i s through switch cont a c t (21A) when CW transmission i s employed. It should be p a r t i c u l a r l y observed t h a t t h e negative 1000 v o l t s i s not grounded, but a s previously mentioned t h e ground i s formed a t the tapped point on potentiometer ( 1 8 ) . According t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s explained by Ohm's Law w know t h a t a drop i n v o l t e age of a d e f i n i t e amount w i l l r e s u l t i n the windings of t h i s r e s i s t a n c e when current flows through. The amount of the voltage, i n t h i s instance c a l l e d " bias voltage", depends upon t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e current and the r e s i s t a n c e of t h e u n i t ( 1 8 ) measured i n ohms. Hence, when the sending key i s up r a d i o energy cannot be r a d i a t e d because the l a r g e negative b i a s obtained from ( 1 8 ) i s a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d s and o s c i l l a t i o n stops. Subsequently a c u r r e n t of low value passing through potentiometer ( 1 8 ) from the d-c. g e n e r a t o r p l a c e s a holding b i a s on t h e g r i d s . The t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e potentiometer i s 20,000 ohms. It c o n s i s t s , however, of two s e p a r a t e r e s i s t o r s joined i n s e r i e s . When t h e key i s depressed, as f o r sending, a s h o r t c i r c u i t i s placed across p a r t of t h e potentiometer r e s i s t a n c e from which t h e b i a s i s obtained. This s h o r t , of course, removes t h e b i a s , since no voltage drop can then be obtained. The 1.0 mfd. condenser i s an a r c absorption u n i t connected i n shunt w i t h the contact points of key r e l a y ( 1 7 ) . Large p o t e n t i a l surges, due t o keying t h e c i r c u i t , are absorbed and d i s s i p a t e d by the 6.0 mfd. condenser (20).

Lesson 62

sheet 1 1

legraphy i s accomplislled by modulating t h e output of t h e power amplis with a n audio- frequency c u r r e n t obtained from t h e audio o s c i l l a t o r c i r t c o n s i s t i n g of tinree c a p a c i t o r s l a b e l l e d ( 2 3 ) and t h e secondary winding t h e i r o n core transformer (22 1. The tube f u n c t i o n i n n i n conjunction with s c i r c u i t i s known a s t h e audio o s c i l l a t o r t u b e , t h e - f i r s t t;be on t h e - l e f t t h e schematic diagram. The production of an o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t i n t h e io- frequency range i s p o s s i b l e through t h e feed-back of power from t h e p l a t e o r primary winding of ( 2 2 ) t o t h e g r i d or secondary which a c t i o n takes place due the chanqing magnetic f l u x permeating the i r o n core which always accompanies any v a r i a t i o n i n the s t r e n g t h of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t . The p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s are made resonant t o a low frequency c u r r e n t by employing l a r g e condensers of high capacitance and b u i l d i n g up t h e i n d u c t i v e reactance of t h e c i r c u i t through t h e use of windings composed of a l a r g e number of t u r n s t o g e t h e r w i t h an i r o n magnetic c i r c u i t . The g r i d of t h e audio o s c i l l a t o r conn e c t s t o one s i d e of t h e secondary winding of ( 2 2 ) and r e c e i v e s i t s e x c i t a t i o n from the a l t e r n a t i n g voltage of low frequency induced i n t h i s winding from t h e f l u c t u a t i n g p l a t e c u r r e n t i n t h e primary. The opposite end o f t h e secondary i s joined t o t h e negative 1000 end of t h e potentiometer ( 1 8 ) a t point "X". I n order t o c a r r y on I C W t e l e g r a p h y w i t h t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r t h e "CW I C W " switch t h u s c l o s i n g switch ( 2 1 ) i n on the panel i s thrown t o p o s i t i o n marked " I c W " , t h e schematic diagram. The c l o s i n g of t h i s s w i t c h s u p p l i e s power t o the audio o s c i l l a t o r tube p l a t e from t h e d-c. generator, while a t t h e same time switch (21A) opens and removes t h e s h o r t c i r c u i t around r e s i s t o r (13) and t h e seconda r y winding of transformer (22 ). l'he audio o s c i l l a t o r g r i d r e t u r n i s cornp l e t e d a t point "x" which provides t h i s tube with a b l o c k i r q b i a s f o r keying s i m i l a r t o t h e conditions e x i s t i n g i n t h e g r i d s of t h e o t h e r tubes i n the t r a n s m i t t e r when t h e sending key i s up. A i n s p e c t i o n of t h e diagram shows n t h a t when switch (21A) i s open t h e g r i d leak c u r r e n t of t h e s i x power-amplif i e r t u b e s must flow through r e s i s t o r (13) and the secondary of transformer ( 2 2 ) . Because of t h i s i n t e r r e l a t i o n between the r a d i o and audio c i r c u i t s the low frequency a-c. voltage induced a c r o s s t h e secondary by t h e f l u c t u a t i n g p l a t e c u r r e n t i n t h e primary i s e f f e c t i v e l y a p p l i e d on the g r i d s of a l l t h e r a d i o power- amplifiers because t h e s e t u b e s are arranged i n p a r a l l e l , i.e., a l l of t h e g r i d s a r e connected t o one common junction which l e a d s t o condenser 12, and a l s o t o g r i d leak c i r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g of choke ( 1 4 ) and leak r e s i s t o r ( 1 5 ) . When the sending key i s depressed t h e output of t h e audio o s c i l l a t o r i s 3x1pressed upon t h e g r i d s of t h e a m p l i f i e r s , while t h e s e tubes a r e a t the same time continuing t o step- up t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s r e c e i v e d It follows t h a t f o r any change i n g r i d p o t e n t i a l from t h e master o s c i l l a t o r . a t an audio r a t e t h e amplitude h e i g h t s of t h e continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l be f o r c e d t o vary i n exact accordance w i t h t h e wave form of t h e a u d i o energy. It i s then s a i d t h a t the CW energy i s modulated w i t h t h e frequency of t h e audio o s c i l l a t i n g c i r c u i t . The CW energy i s known as t h e " c a r r i e r n frequency and it w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t t h i s frequency was generated i n the c i r c u i t s of the master o s c i l l a t o r and amplified through t h e power tubes. Hence, an ICVJ s i g n a l o r b e t t e r , a modulated wave s i g n a l , i s t r a n s m i t t e d which produces a s i g n a l i n t h e distan; r e c e i v i n g s e t having a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p a r k tone. The term "tone modulation may a l s o be applied t o t h i s v a r i e t y of t e l e g r a p h i c transmission.

The audio o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t can be a d j u s t e d t o t h r e e d i f f e r e n t tone f r e Lesson 62

- sheet 12

c i e s by varying i t s capacitance. Three condensers marked ( 2 3 ) and a ch making s u i t a b l e conllections i s provided f o r t h i s purpose. By proper e c t i o n of condensers, two of which are r a t e d a t .5 mf'd. each, the t h i r d a t mfd., the tube g r i d b i a s can be made t o vary a t a 500, 700, or 1000 cycle r a t e , a pp roximately; When operating ICW, overloading of t h e audio o s c i l l a t o r with d-c. c u r r e n t from t h e power-amplifier g r i d s i s prevented by r e s i s t o r (13) which a l s o a c t s a s a g r i d leak r e s i s t a n c e f o r t h e a m p l i f i e r s i n a d d i t i o n t o r e s i s t o r ( 1 5 ) . The g r i d r e t u r n of a l l t u b e s terminates a t a tapped point on t h e filament balancing r e s i s t o r shown i n the diagram. The i n s e r t i o n of t h i s small amount of r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t r e q u i r e s t h e uee of t h e .5 mfd. by-pass condenser ( 2 4 ) i n order t o provide a p a t h of low reactance t o t h e radio- frequency energy. While t h e a u d i o o s c i l l a t o r f u n c t i o n s normally d u r i n g I C W transmission, a negative b i a s of c o r r e c t value i s maintained upon i t s g r i d by t h e 5.0 mfd. g r i d condenser and 3000 ohm l e a k r e s i s t o r marked ( 2 5 ) on t h e diagram. During CW operation t h e audio o s c i l l a t o r ceases t o f u n c t i o n because switches ( 2 1 ) and (21A) a r e open, and a t t h i s time t h e g r i d leak c i r c u i t f o r the power amplif i e r tubes i s through g r i d l e a k r e s i s t o r ( 1 5 ) , r.f. choke ( 1 4 ) and switch (21A) which i s t h e n closed and thence t o t h e negative 1000 v o l t s i d e of potentiometer r e s i s t o r ( 1 8 ) i n d i c a t e d on the diagram a t point "X". The instruments on the t r a n s m i t t e r panel are l a b e l l e d on t h e schematic d i a gram as follows: A 1 i s the antenna current ammeter (0- 15 amps.) which i s necessary t o a s c e r t a i n when resonance i s e s t a b l i s h e d between t h e closed and open c i r c u i t s on any of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g waves while a d j u s t i n g t h e antenna variometer c o n t r o l s ; A 2 i s t h e p l a t e current ammeter (0-5 amps.) which r e c o r d s t h e amourt of d i r e c t c u r r e n t flowing from the d-c. g e n e r a t o r t o t h e p l a t e s of a l l e i g h t tubes; V 1 i s t h e p l a t e voltmeter equipped w i t h a 0-1500 v o l t s c a l e and used i n conjunction with t h e m u l t i p l i e r r e s i s t a n c e t o i n d i c a t e t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e p o t e n t i a l applied t o t h e p l a t e s , and V 2 i s t h e f i l a m e n t voltmeter w i t h a p p l i e d t o the f i l a a range of 0-15 v o l t s used t o i n d i c a t e the input e.m.f. ment terminals which provides t h e c o r r e c t f i l a m e n t temperature. The radiofrequency chokes 1, 8 and 14 a r e 400 t u r n d u o l a t e r a l wound c o i l s . Troubles and Emeraencv Measures. It w i l l be found t h a t a majority of the suggestions contained i n t h e following paragraphs a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o various types of vacuum tube t r a n s m i t t e r s . Defective Tubeq. Should any of t h e t u b e s become i n o p e r a t i v e and no spares a r e a v a i l a b l e , t h e t r a n s m i t t e r may s t i l l be operated w i t h t h r e e or f o u r amplif i e r tubes i n place of t h e u s u a l six. The p l a t e v o l t a g e should be reduced t o prevent overheating of t h e p l a t e s of the tubes. Care must be taken t h a t t h e tube p l a t e s do no exceed a d u l l red. The master o s c i l l a t o r tube, ( t h e f r o n t l e f t hand t u b e ) , must always be used. I C W transmission cannot be accomplished without the l e f t hand r e a r tube which i s t h e audio o s c i l l a t o r , because t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r i s n o t equipped w i t h a chopper. P l a t e Radio Freauency Choke C o i l Burned Out. Should the master o s c i l l a t o r p l a t e choke, marked (1) i n Figure 7 , burn out remove t h e d e f e c t i v e p l a t e choke and r e p l a c e it w i t h g r i d choke ( 8 ) being c a r e f u l t o put i n a temporary wire Lesson 62

sheet 1 3

jumper t o close t h e g r i d c i r c u i t . T h i s provides @ immediate remedy but it w i l l be observed t h a t t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e master o s c i l l a t o r w i l l be impaired. A 400 t u r n honeycomb or d u o l a t e r a l c o i l may be used f o r t h e p l a t e choke i f one i s a v a i l a b l e . Shorted P l a t e or Grid Blocking Condenser. T h i s d i f f i c u l t y may be remedied by ,removing t h e d e f e c t i v e condenser and s u b s t i t u t i n g one of t h e l a r g e condensers i n t h e other wavelength band. The s u b s t i t u t e condenser can be e a s i l y mounted i n a temporary p o s i t i o n by lengthening t h e connecting leads. Filament Voltmeter Inoperative. The filament r h e o s t a t should be a d j u s t e d u n t i l t h e tubes begin t o h e a t o r the antenna c u r r e n t drops quickly. When t h i s e f f e c t i s observed the r h e o s t a t should be a d j u s t e d slowly i n the opposite d i r e c t i o n u n t i l the temperature of t h e t u b e s becomes normal and t h e antenna i s not r i s i n g rapidly. N I n d i c a t i o n on the Antenm Ammeter. The anteraa c i r c u i t may not be i n resono ance or t h e t r o u b l e may be due t o loose connections. Examine t h e antenna varlometer and coupling transformer i n the wavelength range t h a t i s inoperative. A l s o , look f o r open s w i t c h blades i n the t r a n s f e r switch. If t h i s t r o u b l e i s thought t o be due t o a burned out ammeter place a wire jumper between t h e meter terminals and note t h e r e s u l t s . If t h i s i s found t o be the s e a t of t h e t r o u b l e without an ammeter reading t h e only a l t e r n a t i v e i s t o a d j u s t the c i r c u i t s i n accordance w i t h t h e t u n i n g record and observe t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t ammeter f o r f i n a l resonance. Burned Out P l a t e Ammeter or Voltmeter. If t h e voltmeter i s burned out no temporary r e p a i r i s p o s s i b l e , t h e r e f o r e it i s suggested t h a t the generator f i e l d r h e o s t a t be a d j u s t e d t o i t s u s u a l p o s i t i o n and t h e tubes watched c l o s e l y t o prevent overheating of t h e p l a t e s . I n t h e case of a burned out p l a t e ammeter a 150 watt lamp can be connected t o t h e meter t e r m i n a l s , and f o r normal operat i o n t h e lamp should n o t exceed f u l l b r i l l i a n c y .
\

Burned Out Filament Transformer: Filament Rheostat i n the a-c. Suply D i s continued From t h e Two S l i p B i ~ on the Motor Armature. The filament c i r s c u i t should be disconnected from t h e f i l a m e n t transformer secondary and t h e n connected t o t h e t e r m i n a l s of a storage b a t t e r y a s follows: Connect f i v e c e l l s i n s e r i e s and t h e n a t t a c h t h e filament terminals across t h e f i v e c e l l s . The connecting leads should be capable of c a r r y i n g 30 amperes. The c e l l s should be of t h e lead- acid type. A r h e o s t a t c o n t r o l w i l l not be r e q u i r e d because t h e voltage of t h e f i v e c e l l s i s p r a c t i c a l l y c o r r e c t , l.e., 10 v o l t s . Burned Out Grid Leak. Should t h e g r i d leak of t h e power a m p l i f i e r burn out it may be r e p l a c e d by an equal value of r e s i s t a n c e approximately 4000 t o 10,000 ohms. A s a t i s f a c t o r y s u b s t i t u t e may be made up w i t h a rubber hose about 10 inches long, f i l l e d with water and plugged a t each end w i t h a conn e c t i n g wire passing through each plug and protruding a s h o r t d i s t a n c e i n t h e water t o form s u i t a b l e e l e c t r o d e s . Motor Generator, I f t h e machine f a i l s t o s t a r t when t h e " s t a r t " b u t t o n i s pressed, look f o r an open main switch on t h e s t a r t e r p a n e l or a d e f e c t i v e Lesson 62

- sheet 14

main fuse. The operator should a s c e r t a i n i f t h e r e i s l i n e voltage a t t h e main switch and i f it i s of t h e c o r r e c t value. A t e s t f o r l i n e voltage may be e a s i l y made by depressing t h e t e l e g r a p h key which should cause the r e l a y key t o work, providing t h e s h i p ' s power i s on.
If t h e contactor i n t h e automatic s t a r t e r c l o s e s when t h e n s t a r t n button i s pressed but t h e motor g e n e r a t o r armature f a i l s t o r o t a t e t h e t r o u b l e might be due t o a burned out s t a r t i n g r e s i s t a n c e on t h e back of t h e s t a r t i n g panel, or look f o r loose connections.

A f r o z e n bearing w i l l prevent any movement of t h e armature. To a s c e r t a i n t h i s condition f i r s t open the main switch and, with t h e power o f f , t u r n the

armature over by hand and a t t h e same time i n s p e c t t h e o i l wells and r i n g s t o see t h a t t h e y have p l e n t y of o i l .

Tube Filaments do not Light. If t h e motor g e n e r a t o r s t a r t s up s a t i s f a c t o r i l y but t h e f i l a m e n t s f a i l t o l i g h t look f o r blown f u s e s on t h e t e r m i n a l board which might happen provided a tube filament has been p r e v i o u s l y s h o r t c i r c u i t e d , Also look f o r d e f e c t i v e brush o r i n s u f f i c i e n t brush t e n s i o n on the motor s l i p r i n g s , or loose connections. Tubes Overheating. It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t a low voltage b i a s caused by a def e c t i v e potentiometer r e s i s t a n c e w i l l not block t h e t u b e s s u f f i c i e n t l y . O r , t h e b i a s voltage may be p a r t i a l l y s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d by an a m p l i f i e r tube which has become s o f t , t h i s condition being g e n e r a l l y evidenced by t h e %roublesome tube showing a blue haze and h e a t i n g more than t h e o t h e r tubes.
If, on t h e other hand, t h e tubes only overload while the key i s down t h e master o s c i l l a t o r tube may be d e f e c t i v e , that i s , o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e not being generated i n t h e o s c i l l a t o r ( s tuned c i r c u i t . I n order t o l o c a l i z e t h e p o s s i b l e reason f o r t h i s t r o u b l e remove t h e six a m p l i f i e r t u b e s from t h e i r sockets but keep t h e master o s c i l l a t o r and audio o s c i l l a t o r t u b e s i n place. When t h e key i s now depressed t h e o s o i l l a t o r tube w i l l heat e x c e s s i v e l y i f the tube or c i r c u i t i s d e f e c t i v e , However, i f t h e amplifier p l a t e s exceed a d u l l r e d glow w i t h t h e key down and the antenna i n resonance it may be assumed t h a t an i n c o r r e c t number of p l a t e t u r n s i s used or t h e antenna coupling transformer i s defective.

Audio O s c i l l a t o r C i r c u i t F a i l s t o Operate. For the l o c a t i o n of t h i s t r o u b l e ICW* switch, audio transformer ( 2 2 ) and look a t a l l connections on t h e "CW condensers and switch (23) i n d i c a t e d on the diagram i n Figure 7. The audio o s c i l l a t o r tube may be d e f e c t i v e and t h e remedy i n this event i s obvious. One of the t h r e e condensers ( 2 3 ) may have broken down. Should t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t r i s e e x c e s s i v e l y when t h e key i s pressed while t h e audio o s c i l l a t o r seems t o f u n c t i o n p r o p e r l y t h e t r o u b l e may be due t o e i t h e r a shorted a m p l i f i e r g r i d leak or audio o s c i l l a t o r g r i d l w k , both of which have a r a t i n g of 3000 ohms, Observe t h e Followinff Precautions. Never clean commutators w i t h the motor generator s e t running a s t h e high voltage i s dangerous. Do n o t change tubes, make adjustments, o r come i n t o contact w i t h t h e wiring while t h e s e t i s i n operation. Lesson 62
-,

sheet 1 5

Figure 9

Figure 10

Lesson 6 2

sheet 16

E.T. 3626 Telegraph Transmitter 750 Watts. The f r o n t view of t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r 3s shown i n r'i@;ure 8 ana a s l u e view i n q g u r e 9. The motor generator and o p e r a t o r ' s Control p a n e l a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 10. ~ r a n s m i s s i o non two wavelength bands a r e provided through t h e use of a t r a n s f e r switch and two independent s e t s of tuning elements. These bands a r e 600 t o 1250 meters and 1250 t o 2500 meters. I n t e r r u p t e d continuous wave t r a n s m i s s i o n i s obtained by a chopper system which causes t h e r a d i a t e d s i g n a l t o have the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c tone of a 500 cycle spark t r a n s m i t t e r . Six t u b e s connected i n p a r a l l e l a r e used a s power- amplifiers which f e e d t h e i r output i n t o t h e antenna system through a coupling transformer. One tube i s employed a s t h e master o s c i l l a t o r or e x c i t e r . Facing t h e panel t h e master o s c i l l a t o r i s t h e l e f t hand f r o n t tube; it u t i l i z e s t h e s p l i t inductance o r "Hartley" method of feed-back t o produce o s c i l l a t i o n s . Another tube located d i r e c t l y i n back of the master o s c i l l a t o r , i.e., i n t h e l e f t hand r e a r corner of t h e tube rack, i s used a s a r e c t i f i e r . This tube charges a 1.0 mfd. condenser t o a p o t e n t i a l of approximately 250 v o l t s . Power f o r t h i s c i r c u i t i s obtained from t h e 77 v o l t , 30-cycle f i l a m e n t supply and passes through a small transformer which s t e p s up t h e voltage t o 250 v o l t s and t h e tube r e c t i f i e s t h i s voltage f o r i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e keying c i r c u i t . While t h e sending key i s up a negative p o t e n t i a l of 250 v o l t s i s a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t s of t h e master o s c i l l a t o r and t h e power a m p l i f i e r s t o s t o p o s c i l l a t i o n and i n s u r e continued blocking of the p l a t e c u r r e n t . The g r i d b i a s voltage i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e manipulation of the hand key which i n t u r n a c t u a t e s a r e l a y with two p a i r s of c o n t a c t s . The r e l a y c o n t a c t s a r e arranged i n such a manner t o f i r s t open t h e g r i d c i r c u i t , stopping o s c i l l a t i o n , and immediately a f t e r permitting the negat i v e 250 v o l t b i a s t o be a p p l i e d while t h e key i s up a s previously mentioned. A second r e l a y d e v i c e provides break- in operat i o n by connecting the r e c e i v i n g s e t t o t h e antenna when t h e key i s up. The motor armature of t h e motor- generator i s provided w i t h two s l i p r i n g s from which t h e a-c. power i s obtained f o r f i l a m e n t heating. The f i l a m e n t transformer r e c e i v e s the 47 v o l t s , 30 cycles, s i n g l e phase power through a r h e o s t a t and s t e p s down t h i s voltage t o t h e value r e q u i r e d by the f i l a m e n t s , i.e., 10 v o l t s . ?he power f o r p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n i s d e l i v e r e d by a two-pole compound wound g e n e r a t o r g i v i n g a d-c. p o t e n t i a l of 1000 t o 1200 v o l t s . The fundamental o s c i l l a t o r , power a m p l i f i e r , and tuning c i r c u i t s i n t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r t o those i n t h e E ., 3626-B equipment. T The t h e o r y of operation and o t h e r information r e l a t i n g t o t h e main c r r c u i t s may be f u l l y understood by making reference t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n s on t r a n s m i t t e r E.T. 3626-B given i n previous paragraphs. The p r i n c i p a l change t h a t has been made i s i n t h e method employed f o r obtaining the 250 v o l t g r i d negative b i a s . I n t h e E.T. 3626-B it i s obtained from t h e voltage d i v i d e r or potentiometer connected a c r o s s t h e p o s i t i v e and negative 1000 v o l t s of t h e generator, whereas i n t h e E.T. 3626 t h i s p o t e n t i a l b i a s i s furnished by one tube whichfunctions a s a r e c t i f i e r a s explained i n t h e foregoing paragraph. Since t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r does not c o n t a i n an a u d i o o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t it r e q u i r e s the use of a chopper system i n order t o provide I C W transmission. The motor driven chopper commutator i n t e r r u p t s t h e tube g r i d c i r c u i t s a t a 500 Lesson 62
A t o t a l of e i g h t UV-211 f i f t y watt tubes are u t i l i z e d i n t h i s equipment.

- sheet 17

c y c l e r a t e , approximately, ;to g i v e tone modulation o r modulated CW s i g n a l s . However, i n commercial s e r v i c e s i g n a l s of t h i s type a r e c a l l e d ICW. The chopp6r i s placed i n o p e r a t i o n by the "CW ICW" switch on t h e f r o n t of t h e panel. It should be noted t h a t t h e antenna c u r r e n t w i l l be somewhat l e s s t h a n when s t r a i g h t CW i s used.

E.T. 3626-A 750 Watt Transmitter. This t r a n s m i t t e r uses a t o t a l of e i g h t tubes of t h e W- 211 type. S i x o f t h e s e tubes a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l and operate a s power a m p l i f i e r s while t h e remaining two, a l s o connected i n p a r a l l e l , a r e t h e master o s c i l l a t o r s . The f r o n t and r e a r tubes a t t h e extreme l e f t o f t h e tube rack a r e t h e o s c i l l a t o r s . A audio o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t i s not included n hence a motor d r i v e n chopper i s used t o give I C W transmission. Keying i s uni-wave and t h e negative 250 v o l t keying b i a s i s supplied from a potentiometer. The c i r c u i t arrangement of t h e o s c i l l a t o r , power- amplifier and antenna c i r c u i t s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n models E .T. 3626 and E .T. 3626-B.

200 Watt Model E.T. 3627-A Transmitter, Figure 1 shows a f r o n t view of t h i s 1 continuous wave and i n t e r r u p t e d continous wave vacuum tube t r a n s m i t t e r . A r e a r view i s shown i n Figure 12. The fundamental c i r c u i t of t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r i s shown i n Figure 13. An a d j u s t a b l e p o s i t i o n i n g device f o r t h e master-oscill a t o r variometer permits any f i v e frequencies w i t h i n t h e 300 t o 312 k i l o c y c l e band t o be s e l e c t e d and kept i n a permanent adjustment. This provides a convenient arrangement, f o r i n changing from a c a l l i n g t o a working frequency t h e o p e r a t o r i s not r e q u i r e d t o make c a r e f u l adjustments t o l o c a t e an exact p o s i t i o n on t h e s c a l e w i t h t h e m a s t e r - o s c i l l a t o r p o i n t e ~ . Theory of O ~ e r a t i o n . The t h e o r y of operation o f t h e 200 watt E.T. 3627-A t r a n s m i t t e r may be understood by r e f e r r i n g t o t h e schematic diagram i n Figure 3 The frequency of t h e W-211 m a s t e r - o s c i l l a t o r tube i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e variometer L4 which o p e r a t e s i n a capacity- coupled ( C o l p i t t ' s o s c i l l a t o r ) c i r c u i t . The g r i d a l t e r n a t i n g e.m.f. necessary f o r the promotion of cont i n u o u s o s c i l l a $ i o n s i s obtained from t h e voltage drop a c r o s s condenser C7. The v a l u e s of capacitance of t h e t h r e e condensers C 1 , C6 and C7, and t h e i n ductance of variometer L4, a r e c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d because they r e p r e s e n t t h e c i r c u i t c o n s t a n t s and t h e r e f o r e determine t h e frequency range of t h e tranqm i t t e r . Condenser C 5 i s t h e u s u a l plate- blocking condenser and serves t o keep t h e d-c. p l a t e v o l t a g e off t h e g r i d and o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t of the m a s t e r - o s c i l l a t o r tube. This condenser of .003 mfd. capacitance provides a low reactance p a t h f o r t h e radio- frequency component of t h e t o t a l p l a t e curr e n t allowing it t o flow i n t o t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t f o r the r e q u i s i t e f e e d back of p l a t e energy i n t o t h e g r i d . Radio-frequency choke L3 keeps t h e p l a t e high-frequency component from backing i n t o t h e 1000 v o l t generator c i r c u i t . The g r i d s of t h e two W- 211 power-amplifier tubes a r e d i r e c t l y connected and t h e s e g r i d s a r e e x c i t e d by r'adio energy through condenser C9 and r e s i s t a n c e R4, at t h e frequency of t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t . Grid leak r e s i s t o r R 1 maint a i n s t h e c o r r e c t negative b i a s on t h e a m p l i f i e r s , and radio- frequency choke L2 prevents l o s s e s of the high- frequencies through the g r i d l e a k c i r c u i t . The g r i d leak on t h e master o s c i l l a t o r tube i s r e s i s t o r R 3 . The high-frequency energy i n t h e power a n p l i f i e r p l a t e c i r c u i t f e e d s i n t o t h e primary ( p r i . ) o r p l a t e c o i l of t h e antenna transformer. This c o i l i s a l s o c a l l e d the "tank The antenna i s s e t i n t o e x c i t a t i o n through t h e t r a n s f e r of t h i s inductance n . Lesson 62

- sheet

18

R. F. Choke

~ilament

Antenna curren1

Plate Current

Fllsment Heating Tranrformer '

Antenna Coupling Transformer

Plate Voltmeter Multiplier Resistance

Master Oscillator Variomeler

Antenna / variometer

Figure 12
COLPITT'S OSCILLATOP

Figure 13 Lesson 62

- sheet

19

high-frequency from t h e Output of t h e r a d i o a m p l i f i e r t u b e s through t h e antenna transformer. The primary of t h i s transformer c a r r i e s t h e I C W and CW switch. It w i l l be noticed t h a t i n t h e case of i n t e r r u p t e d continuous waves t h e amount of inductance used w i l l never be a s g r e a t a s f o r s t r a i g h t CW. This f e a t u r e allows t h e r a d i a t e d wave of t h e I C W v a r i e t y t o possess sharp c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The frequency of t h e m a s t e r - o s c i l l a t o r i s repeated i n t h e output of the powera m p l i f i e r s , and the antenna c i r c u i t i s a d j u s t e d f o r resonance t o t h i s frequency by the four t a p s and variometer on t h e antenna loading i n d u c t o r L1. Keg Relay. A r a p i d change-over from send t o r e c e i v e i s provided by t h e mgmtica l y operated break- in r e l a y which i s shown mounted on t h e f r o n t of t h e panel i n 2 Figure 11. This r e l a y i s designated a s K i n the schematic diagram. Modern r a d i o t r a f f i c conditions r e q u i r e t h i s f e a t u r e t o be provided i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r keying speeds up t o 40 words a minute a r e p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e r e l a y , it being equivalent t o a double- pole, single- throw r e l a y . The low s i d e of t h e antenna contains one p a i r of c o n t a c t s connected i n s e r i e s and d u r i n g the t r a n s m i t t i n g periods they serve t o s h o r t c i r c u i t t h e input t o t h e r a d i o Peceiver. I n order t o prevent sparking a t t h e antenna contact and a l s o t o reduce t h e d i s t u r b a n c e from c l i c k s i n t h e r a d i o r e c e i v e r , t h e second p a i r of c o n t a c t s key t h e t r a n s m i t t e r proper and a r e a d j u s t e d t o c l o s e s l i g h t l y a f t e r and open s l i g h t l y b e f o r e t h e antenna c i r c u i t c o n t a c t s . K e y i n C i r c u i t * ~ h e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e fundamental keying c i r c u i t w i l l be . understood by r e f e r e n c e t o the schematic diagram where it i s seen t h a t t h e negative lead from t h e 1000 v o l t generator connects t o one of t h e key c o n t a c t s on t h e break- in r e l a y . The negative p l a t e c i r c u i t i s completed through t h e upper r i g h t c o n t a c t t o t h e mid-tap on t h e f i l a m e n t h e a t i n g transformer T2. The g r i d r e t u r n l e a d s of both the power amplifiem and master o s c i l l a t o r a r e r e t u r n e d t o t h i s negative s i d e of t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t t h r o u g h g r i d leak r e s i s t o r s R 1 and R3, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Both t h e negative p l a t e c i r c u i t and t h e g r i d c i r c u i t a r e broken by t h e keying a c t i o n w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t a h i g h negative p o t e n t i a l i s impressed upon t h e g r i d s of t h e t u b e s whenever t h e c o n t a c t s open. The r e l a y c o n t a c t s w i l l interrupts l a r g e c u r r e n t w i t h minimum sparking. Legend and Function of Com~onentP a r t s of E.T.
A-1

3627-A Transmitter. Figure 13.

Antenna ammeter (0-10 amperes) i s used t o i n d i c a t e resonance between t h e tank inductance, or p l a t e c o i l P r i and antenna system.

A2 Plate ammeter (0-2 amperes) i n d i c a t e s d i r e c t c u r r e n t drawn from the p l a t e generator by t h e t h r e e t u b e s .

C-1

Master o s c i l l a t o r p l a t e condenser, .003 mfd. i s used f o r p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n of t h i s tube.

C-2 F i l t e r condenser, 1 mfd, a c t s t o smooth out any r i p p l e s in t h e d-c. from t h e 1000-volt generator due t o commutation. 5 C - 3 Filament by-pass condensers, . mfd. each, f u r n i s h a low reactance p a t h Without these f o r t h e radio- frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s from g r i d t o f i l a m e n t condensers t h e f i l a m e n t h e a t i n g c o i l s on t h e i r o n core transformer T2 would f orn the only p a t h which would obviously impede t h e flow. Lesson 62

sheet 20

C-4 Key condenser, .015 mfd. functions t o absorb and d i s s i p a t e t r a n s i e n t s of p o t e n t i a l surges s e t up while keying. This c o n d i t i o n . i s manifested by arcing. C-5 Master o s c i l l a t o r p l a t e blocking condenser, .003 mfd., permits t h e highfrequency o s c i l l a t i n g component of the p l a t e c u r r e n t t o flow through r e a d i l y , but prevents the d-C. component of the p l a t e supply from being impressed on t h e o s c i l l a t o r g r i d o r passing t o t h e a-c. tuned c i r c u i t . C-6 Master o s c i l l a t o r p l a t e condenser, .002 mfd., and forms a p a r t of the o s c i l l a t o r y circuit.. functions similarly t o C 1

C-7 Naster o s c i l l a t o r g r i d condenser, .002 mfd., i s t h e g r i d input or e x c i t a t i o n condenser and from across i t s p l a t e s i s obtained t h e r e q u i s i t e voltage drop t o be applied between g r i d and filament f o r maintaining t h e master o s c i l l a t o r and a s s o c i a t e d c i r c u i t s i n a s t a t e of generating continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s .
C- 8

Chopper condenser, .003 mfd., used i n conjunction w i t h r e s i s t o r R9 'helps t o smooth out any uneveness i n t h e chopper note i n o r d e r t o produce a c l e a r and & s t i n c t tone i n t h e telephone r e c e i v e r s

C-9 Power a m p l i f i e r g r i d condenser, .003 mfd., p e r m i t s t h e high- frequencies generated i n the master o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t t o pass through and e x c i t e t h e g r i d s of t h e two radio- frequency power tubes. F-1 F-2 P l a t e fuse rate'd a t 2 amperes (not shown) Receiver antenna f u s e , .5 ampere (not shown).

K - 1 Hand key used f o r i n t e r r u p t i n g t h e stream of r a d i o o s c i l l a t i o n s generated i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i n t o d o t s and dashes f o r the di.spatch of r a d i o t e l e g r a p h i c messages.

K-2 Break-in r e l a y (Key r e l a y ) permits a r a p i d changeover from send t o r e ceive, it being m a g n e t i c a l l y operated by t h e hand key. L-1 Antenna variometer and f o u r t a p inductance used f o r loading t h e antenna i n order t o e s t a b l i s h resonance w i t h t h e tank c i r c u i t .

L 4 Power a m p l i f i e r g r i d l e a k radio- frequency choke. To prevent l o s s e s i n t h e g r i d l e a k c i r c u i t of t h e h i g h frequencies flowing from t h e master o s c i l l a t o r through a m p l i f i e r f e e d r e s i s t a n c e R 4 and condenser C9. These r a d i o frequencies a r e intended t o b u i l d up a h i g h value of e x c i t a t i o n voltage on t h e a m p l i f i e r grids.
L- 3 Master o s c i l l a t o r p l a t e choke i s i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e p o s i t i v e lead of t h e 1000 v o l t generator and f u n c t i o n s t o prevent l o s s e s by blocking out t h e r a d i o o s c i l l a t i o n s from t h i s c i r c u i t . These o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l flow r e a d i l y through the low r e n c t a n c s p a t h of C5.
L-4

Master o s c i l l a t o r variometer permits any f i v e f r e q u e n c i e s within t h e 312 t o 500 k f l o c y c l e range t o be s e l e c t e d .

Lesson 62

- sheet

21
,

R - 1 Power amplifier g r i d r e s i s t a n c e , 500 ohms, f u r n i s h e s c o r r e c t g r i d b i a s f o r s t a b l e operation of t h e two W-211 tubes.

R- 3

Master o s c i l l a t o r g r i d r e s i s t a n c e , 7500 O h m s , maintains g r i d a t c o r r e c t b i a s o r negative p o t e n t i a l .

R-4 Power a m p l i f i e r feed r e s i s t a n c e , 150 ohms, used t o maintain t h e radiofrequency voltage supplied t o t h e power a m p l i f i e r g r i d s from the master o s c i l l a t o r a t a normal value.
R- 5

e.m.f.

Filament r h e o s t a t , 20 ohms, permits a close c o n t r o l of filament t e r m i n a l of a l l tubes f o r working the f i l a m e n t s a t t h e i r r a t e d temperatwe*

R - 6 Master o s c i l l a t o r p a r a s i t i c r e s i s t o r , 1 5 ohms, (not shown) i s used t o suppress t h e generation of U l t r a high- frequencies caused 'by t h e p l a t e t o g r i d c a p a c i t y of vacuum tubes and coupling leads which give such a c i r c u i t a d e f i n i t e o s c i l l a t i o n period. R - 7 Plate f i e l d r h e o s t a t , 250 ohms, allows a f i n e . c o n t r o l of the p o s i t i v e voltage a p p l i e d t o the p l a t e s of a l l tubes. R - 8 Power amplifier p a r a s i t i c r e s i s t o r , 1 5 ohms, ( n o t shown) funct-ions s i m i l a r l y t o R6.

R-9 Chopper r e s i s t o r , 50 ohms, works i n conjunction with C 8 t o smooth out any energy. uneveness i n I.C.W. R-10 Key r e l a y r e s i s t o r , 400 ohms, ( n o t shown).

S-1 Antenna inductance switch permits convenient change of wavelength from c a l l i n g wave t o communicating (working) wave.
T - 1 Antenna transformer c o n s i s t s of t a n k inductance ( p l a t e c o i l ) P r i and antenna c o i l S, and i s used t o provide magnetic coupling between t h e closed and open o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t s f o r the t r a n s f e r of r a d i o power. The tapped tank inductance connects t o CW and ICW switch allowing t h e proper s e l e c t i o n of inductance f o r e i t h e r form of transmission.

T- 2 Filament transformer, .l25 K.V.A., i s a mid-tapped step-down i r o n core transformer which r e c e i v e s power from a 40 cycle supply from c o l l e c t o r r i n g s attached t o t h e windings of t h e motor, and d e l i v e r s an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of 1 0 v o l t s , when regulated, f o r h e a t i n g t h e f i l a m e n t s r e s u l t i n g i n an adequate e l e c t r o n emission.
V-1

Filament voltmeter, 0-15 v o l t s a-c. should read 10 v o l t s a f t e r completing t h e voltage adjustment by means of t h e f ilanajnt r h e o s t a t R5.

V - 2 P l a t e voltmeter, 0-1500 v o l t s d-c. i n d i c a t e s the p o s i t i v e p l a t e p o t e n t i a l applied t o each of t h e t h r e e p l a t e s .

Y-1 Chopper motor i s r a t e d a t 1/50th horse power and i s d r i v e n from 110 V. d-c. supply. When ICW transmission i s d e s i r e d t h e s i g n a l switch should be placed i n I C W p o s i t i o n closing one p a i r of c o n t a c t s which s t a r t s t h e chopper motor and

Lesson 62

- sheet

22

opening a second p a i r which removes t h e short c i r c u i t maintained around t h e chopper during CW transmission. A b r u s h r e s t i n g on t h e chopper wheel a l t e r n a t e l y makes contact with a copper and f i b r e segments thus causing t h e g r i d c i r c u i t s of t h e master o s c i l l a t o r and power a m p l i f i e r s t o be broken a t the r a t e of approximately 1000 times a second t o r a d i a t e a wave having t h e general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the note produced by a 500-cycle spark t r a n s m i t t e r . Vacuum Tubes. Facing the t r a n s m i t t e r panel, tfae tube at t h e L e f t i s t h e master o s c i l l a t o r and the remaining two t u b e s t o t h e r i g h t are the power a m p l i f i e r s , both being connected i n p a r a l l e l . I n the schematic diagram, Figure 13, t h i s order i s reversed, where it may be seen t h a t the master o s c i l l a t o r i s drawn a t t h e r i g h t and the two power a m p l i f i e r toward %he l e f t . The e v a l u a t i o n s given i n t h e following t a b l e w i l l enable t h e operator t o asc e r t a i n t h e p r a c t i c a l r e l a t i o n between t h e operating wavelengths and t h e curr e n t s i n the v a r i o u s c i r c u i t s . The p o s i t i o n s of the ankenna variometer p o i n t e r on t h e s c a l e , i n d i c a t e d i n degrees, and the antenna inductance switch, are a l s o given.

. . 3627-A was used w i t h a n antenna having a capacitance of 0.0008 When t h e E T mfd. and r e s i s t a n c e of f o u r ohms t h e following resultswere observed, both f o r CW and I C W transmission.
Wavelength Antenna c u r r e n t . Amperes Plate current. i n Amperes Reading on P o s i t i o n of Antenna Inductance Switch. 55 degrees 55 degrees 41 degrees 4 1 degrees 102 degrees 102 degrees Scales P o s i t i o n of Antenna Variometer Switch. 1 1 2 2 2
2

CW 600 ICW 600 CW 800

ICW 800
CW 960 I C W 960

0.59 0.39 0.6 0.39 0.61 0.41

A d i f f e r e n t s e t of r e s u l t s was obtained With t h e t r a n s m i t t e r working i n t o a n

antenna posses sing t h e following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 0.0004 mfd. and r e s i s t a n c e of f o u r ohms. 600 ICW 600 CW 800 I C W 800 CW 960 ICW 960

, namely,

a capacitance of
2
! 2

CW

0.5 0.33 0.5 0.32 0.55 0.32

45 degrees 45 degrees 70 degrees 70 degrees 79 degrees 79 degrees

3 3

4 4

E.T. 3627 200 Watt Transmitter. his t r a n s m i t t e r i s o f t h e master o s c i l lator-power-anplif i e r type. There a r e t h r e e 50 watt type vacuum tubes used as follows: one UV-211 a s t h e master o s c i l l a t o r and two UV-211 connected i n p a r a l l e l as power a m p l i f i e r s . The photographs i n Figures 14 ,and 1 5 show t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e component p a r t s . The power a m p l i f i e r s step- up t h e voltage of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s generated i n t h e c i r c u i t s of the master o s c $ l l a t o r and feed

Lesson 62

- sheet 2 3

ICW-CW
Si8"dl

SMt*

\
Antenna
VarlDmefer

Figure i 4

Figure 15 t h i s increased power i n t o the antenna system through t h e coupling transformer. or The p r i n a r ~ p l a t e c o i l of t h i s transformer i s c a l l e d t h e "tank inductance". The g r i d s of t h e power a m p l i f i e r s r e c e i v e t h e i r e x c i t a t i o n from the master osc i l l a t o r through t h e coupling or by-pass condenser. A r e s i s t o r prevents overloading of t h e a m p l i f i e r g r i d s w i t h r a d i o frequency voltage, Continuous o s c i l method of feed-back which u t i l i z e s t h e l a t i o n s a r e produced by t h e " ~ o l p i t t f s " v o l t a g e a c r o s s the p l a t e s of the g r i d e x c i t a t i o n c m d e n s e r f o r g r i d e x c i t a t i o n . The p r i n c i p a l c i r c u i t s of the E.T. 3627 a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same a s t h o s e i n t h e E.T. 3 6 2 7 4 t r a n s m i t t e r j u s t described. The E.T. 3627-A i s d i f f e r e n t from t h e E.T. 3627 because of t h e s l i g h t modification made necessary t o provide t h e E.T. 3627-A t r a n s m i t t e r w i t h break- in operat ion t h r o u g h a magnetically operated r e l a y c o n t r o l l e d by t k e o p e r a t o r ' s sending key. Placing the .E*T* 3627 i n Operation. T t i s advisable before s t a r t i n g t h e motor The " s t a r t " generator s e t t o turn a l l r h e o s t a t knobs t o t h e extreme r i g h t . push button c o n t r o l s t h e automatic motor s t a r t e r and when t h i s b u t t o n i s p r e s s ed t h e motor- generator w i l l come t o speed i n a few seconds. The filament rheos t a t should be a d j u s t e d u n t i l a filament voltage of 1 0 v o l t s i s obtained. The f i l a m e n t s are a l l connected i n p a r a l l e l and a t t a c h e d t o a step-down transformer having an input frequency of 40 c y c l e s supplied by two s l i p r i n g s provided on t h e motor winding. The p l a t e voltage i s then a d j u s t e d by means of t h e p l a t e r h e o s t a t u n t i l a normal working voltage of 1000 v o l t s i s observed on t h e i n d i c a t ICW" should be placed i n the proper p o s i t i o r i n g meter. The s w i t c h marked "CW

Lesson 62

- sheet

24

determined by t h e t y p e of transmission d e s i r e d . Lf t h i s s w i t c h i s thrown t o t h e IC'N p o s i t i o n t h e motor d r i v e n chopper w i l l be s e t i n t o r o t a t i o n and t h e chopper commutator w i l l f u n c t i o n t o i n t e r r u p t t h e continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s . Communication with a d i s t a n t s t a t i o n may now be c a r r i e d on by c l o s i n g t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g key. Before t h e key i s operated the master o s c i l l a t o r variometer should be s e t a t t h e d e s i r e d wavelength by means O f t h e handle provided f o r t h a t purpose. While t h e key i s pressed the antenna may be resonated by t u r n ing the handle marked "antenna variometer" which moves t h e Potor c o i l l o c a t e d w i t h i n the loading i n d u c t o r . The antenna wavelength i s changed by means of the four- point switch which i s operated by t h e 1-ong handle on t h e t r a n s m i t t e r p a n e l marked "antenna inductance switch". The induc t a m e range of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s c o ~ t i n u o u sbecause t h e range of t h e antenna Variometer i s s u f f i c i e n t t o overlap t h e taps on t h e loading inductance. When t h e t r a n s a c t i o n of t e l e graphic business i s completed the transmStter i s placed Out of operation by simply pressing the " stop" button. I n order t o insure t h e r a d i a t i o n of a c l e a r I C W n o t e t h e chopper commutator should be smoothed o f f during p e r i o d i c i n s p e c t i o n of the t r a n s m i t t e r u n i t s . A very f i n e grade of sandpaper should be used f o r t h i s purpose, taking c a r e t o prevent unequal wear between t h e i n s u l a t i o n and t h e copper segments. It f s advisable a t the same time t o inspect t h e s p r i n g s i l v e r brushes f o r t h e i r proper t e n s i o n a g a i n s t t h e periphery of t h e commutator wheel and make a d j u s t ment i f necessary. The current i n t h e antenna system a s read on t h e antenna ammeter and t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t f o r various wavelengths from 570 t o 1000 meters i s g i v e n i n t h e following t a b u l a t i o n i n order t o inform t h e operator regarding t h e average performance of t h e E.T. 3627. The values l i s t e d below were obtained with t h e t r a n s m i t t e r used on an antenna having a n a t u r a l period Of 315 meters and when r a d i a t i n g a CW s i g n a l . The r e a d i n g on t h e s c a l e s f o r each of t h e tuning c o n t r o l adjustments i s a l s o given. The tubes were s u p p l i e d w i t h normal working v o l t ages of 1000 v o l t s p l a t e p o t e n t i a l and 1 0 v o l t s f i l a m e n t . Wave l e n g t h Antenna Current Plate Current R e a d b g on Scales Master O s c i l l a t o r Variometer 0 20 40 60 80 Antenna Var iometer 74 107 149 41 57 72 92 114 130 137 P o s i t i o n of Antenna Inductance Switch 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3638 Telegraph Transmitter. A f r o n t and r e a r view of t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r are shown i n Figure 16 and 17, r e s p e c t i v e l y , and t h e schematic n diagram i n Figure 18. A i n s p e c t i o n of t h e diagram shows t h a t the g e n e r a l arrangement of t h e master o s c i l l a t o r (M.o.) and power a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t s a r e Lesson 62

2-KW. Model E.T.

s h e e t 26

somewhat s i m i l a r t o those employed i n t h e E.T. 3627-A t r a n s m i t t e r . The E.T. 3638 equipment, however, u t i l i z e s f o u r vacuum t u b e s connected i n p a r a l l e l a s . intermediate power a m p l i f i e r s ( 1 P .A. ) and an "antenna loading inductance" i r i order t o increase t h e frequency range of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . A s h i p ' s antenna w i t h a low capacitance r e q u i r e s t h e use of an e x t e r n a l loading i n d u c t ance i n order t o permit transmission on t h e higher wavelengths. A photograph of the e x t e r n a l loading inductance i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 19. When t h i s t r a n s i n i t t e r i s used on an antenna w i t h the proper c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i t w i l l cover a continuous wavelength band of 600 t o 2400 meters, o r a frequency range of 1 2 5 t o 500 k i l o c y c l e s . The t r a n s m i t t e r employs seven vacuum t u b e s , one 50-watt U V-211 a s a master o s c i l l a t o r , four s i m i l a r t u b e s arranged i n p a r a l l e l a s intermedfate a m p l i f i e r s , and the remaining two tubes, t y p e W-851, a s main power a m p l i f i e r s . The two W-85i tubes are shown i n t h e f r o n t panel view p r o t e c t e d by t h e screen door. These main a m p l i f i e r s a r e r a t e d a t 1-kw., r e q u i r e a p l a t e p o t e n t i a l of 2000 v o l t s d-c. obtained by a d j u s t i n g t h e p l a t e r h e o s t a t , and t h e f i l a m e n t s each draw 15.5 amperes a-c. when s u p p l i e d w i t h the s p e c i f i e d t e r m i n a l voltage of 1 v o l t s . The f i v e 50-watt tubes can be seen i n the r e a r view of Figure 1 7 . 1 They r e q u i r e a normal working p l a t e p o t e n t i a l O f 1000 v o l t s d-c. and a f i l a ment input e.m.f. of 10 v o l t s . The f i l a m e n t s are heated from 80 cycle power provided by s l i p r i n g s on t h e motor winding through a step-down filament t r a n s former. The filament v o l t a g e i s r e g u l a t e d by r h e o s t a t R I O I Since the 50-watt t u b e s r e q u i r e l e s s filament voltage than the main power t u b e s t h e output of t h e filament transf,ormer i s connected t o the lower power t u b e s through t h e r e s i s t o r R7 which serves t o d r o p t h e voltage on t h e l a t t e r tubes t o t h e r e q u i r e d value. Theory of Operation. The E.T. 3638 i s placed i n o p e r a t i o n on t h e d e s i r e d w a v e l e n ~ t h the s e l e c t i o n of t h e Drouer p o s i t i o n s f o r t h e master o s c i l l a t o r bv . .and theupowe> a m p l i f i e r band change-switches. The master o s c i l l a t o r v a r i o meter marked L8 on the diagram i s t h e n placed a t t h e d e s i r e d wavelength a s i n d i c a t e d on t h e s c a l e provided f o r t h a t purpose. I n o r d e r t o resonate t h e antenna w i t h t h e closed o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t f o r maximum c u r r e n t a s read on t h e antenna a m e t e r t h e r o t o r c o i l of antenna variometer L2 i s turned by manip u l a t i n g the knob on t h e panel. A f t e r the most s a t i s f a c t o r y adjustment has been found the p o s i t i o n can t h e n be i n d i c a t e d on t h e s c a l e c a l i b r a t e d i n degrees. It i s necessary, of course, t o supply power t o t h e antenna system whenever t h e t q n i n g adjustment s suggested above a r e performed and t h i s may be conveniently done by depressing-the " t e s t button" . This b u t t o n f u n c t i o n s s i m i l a r l y t o t h e o p e r a t o r 1 s sending key and works the magnetic r e l a y . The keyirlg r e l a y which provides break- in operation i s shown i n Figure 16. It permits t h e r e c e i v e r t o be connected t o the antenna and t h e t r a n s m i t t e r disconnected whenever t h e sending key i s up. The motor- generator s e t i s c o n t r o l l e d i n t h e u s u a l manner by a " s t a r t - s t o p " push b u t t o n l o c a t e d on the o p e r a t o r ' s t a b l e . The c i r c u i t employed i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s of t h e "master o s c i l l a t o r , i n t e r mediate-power-amplifer, main-power-amplifier" type. The variometer L8 and condensers C8, C9 c o n s t i t u t e t h e frequency- determining c i r c u i t . The r e q u i s i t e v o l t a g e f o r g r i d e x c i t a t i o n of t h e o s c i l l a t o r i s obtained from t h e voltage a c r o s s t h e p l a t e of condenser C9. Condenser C6 i s t h e p l a t e by-pass condenser and serves as a low reactance c i r c u i t f o r t h e flow of t h e high frequency component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t . Lesson 62

- sheet

26

Figure 18
Lesson 62

- sheet

27

Figure 19 When t h e s i g n a l s w i t c h on t h e panel i s placed i n t h e I C W p o s i t i o n the motord r i v e n chopper commutator M I f u n c t i o n s t o break t h e g r i d l e & c i r c u i t of t h e master o s c i l l a t o r and o s c i l l a t i o n s t o p s . The group frequency of t h e t r a n s m i t t e d s i g n a l on ICW o p e r a t i o n i s approxmiately 800 cycles. The path of t h e o s c i l l a t o r g r i d c u r r e n t i s through t h e r a d i o frequency choke L10 and g r i d leak r e s i s t o r R 6 . The e x c i t a t i o n of t h e intermediate power amplif i e r g r i d s from t h e output high-frequency of t h e master o s c i l l a t o r i s through t h e by-pass condenser C 7 . The c i r c u i t i s arranged. so t h a t whenever t h e chopper i n t e r r u p t s t h e o s c i l l a t o r g r i d , e x c i t a t i o n of the a m p l i f i e r s cease and t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t of t h e s e t u b e s w i l l drop t o zero. The complete discontinuance of the p l a t e c u r r e n t i n t h e a m p l i f i e r s minimizes t h e key c l i c k s and t h i s a c t i o n i s c o n t r o l l ed a u t o m a t i c a l l y because a cut- off b i a s i s supplied t o the g r i d s of the s i x a m p l i f i e r s from a 1 2 5 v o l t d-c. bias* generator. This g e n e r a t o r operates i n conjunction w i t h the motor- generator u n i t and a l s o s u p p l i e s t h e d i r e c t c u r r e n t f o r t h e e x c i t a t i o n of t h e p l a t e generator f i e l d . I n order t o minimize t h e r a d i a t i o n of v e r y high- frequency harmonics t h e capa c i t a n c e f u r n i s h e d by condenser C 1 3 , (shown shunted across t h e p l a t e c o i l of t h e antenna coupling transformer T3), i s used t o by-pass harmonic energy, The l a r g e r a d i o power t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e two W-852 tubes t o t h e antenna through t h e coupling transformer T 3 b u i l d s up the p o t e n t i a l on the antenna Lesson 62

- sheet

28

s i d e of t h e loading inductance t o values a s high a s 32,000 v o l t s , and an antenna c u r r e n t of about 25 amperes may be expected.
EXAMINATION

- LESSON 62

Draw a schematic diagram of a Meissner o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t . Draw a simple diagram of a C o l p i t t s o s c i l l a t o r . Draw a simple diagram of a Hartley type o s c i l l a t o r , S t a t e t h e e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e H a r t l e y and C o l p i t t s o s c i l lator circuits. ( a ) Explain the purpose of the "seven-pole double-throw n switch on the ( b ) Why do o s c i l l a t i o n s s t o p when panel of the E.T. 3626-B t r a n s m i t t e r . t h e sending key i s i n t h e "up" p o s i t i o n ? ( c ) What i s t h e "audio o s c i l l a t o r " c i r c u i t used f o r and when i s it broughft i n t o p r a c t i c a l operation? Give 10 s t e p s f o r p l a c i n g t h e E.?. 3626-0 i n and out of operation.

( a ) Suppose you a r e operating t h e ,3626-B and coald not o b t a i n r a d i a t i o n and you found t h e g r i d leak t o be d e f e c t i v e w h a t would you proceed t o do? ( b ) How could t h e s e t be operated i n an emerKency i f t h e filament transformer burned o u t ? ( c ) What do you t h i n k t h e u s u a l i n d i c a t i o n s would be i f t h e proper g r i d b i a s was not maintained on the t u b e s ? ( d ) H w a r e u l t r a high- frequencies suppressed i n t h e c i r c u i t s ? What o t h e r o name i s sometimes given t o t h e s e unwanted o s c i l l a t i o n s ? ( a ) H w many t u b e s a r e used i n the E.T. 3627-A s e t and what i s the name o and purpose of e a c h one? ( b ) What type o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t i s used i n t h i s s e t ? ( c ) What instrument i s embodied i n t h e design i n order t h a t t h e o s c i l l a t o r frequency can be quickly and a c c u r a t e l y changed when des i r e d ? (a) Why i s a "break- in n r e l a y employed and, b r i e f l y , how does it f u n c t i o n ? ( a ) Why do some of the commercial vacuum tube s e t s u t i l i z e a chopper? (b) If a chopper i s not provided what s p e c i a l type of c i r c u i t would you expect t o f i n d incorporated i n t h e design of the s e t ? ( c ) What i s the purpose of a power a m p l i f i e r tube? R w many a r e used i n the E.T. o 3626-B and how a r e they connected?

( a ) I n t h e E.T. 3638 t r a n s m i t t e r how i s the complete stopping of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t a s s u r e d when t h e sending key i s up and s i g n a l s are not being s e n t out. ( b ) Name t h e d i f f e r e n t types of tubes used i n t h i s s e t ( 0 ) I n what way does t h i s s e t d i f f e r m a t e r i a l l y and give t h e i r f u n c t i o n s . from e i t h e r t h e E.T. 3626-B and E.T. 3627-A?

Lesson 62
. , . ...,. ~

- sheet

29

,,,..,

,,

. . , , ,~.. ..

'

.. , ~,-,.,.,.,,.,

*.;:iL;?,Yw~:.A,

a c e r t a i n amount of p e r i o d i c diminishing or f a d i n g of the s i g n a l energy i s experienced, which among other p s c u l a r i t i e s e x h i b i t e d by a r a d i o wave, i s l a r g e l y accounted f o r by the t h e o r i e s of propagation advanced by the l a t e E n g l i s h s c i e n t i s t , Oliver Heaviside. H suggested t h a t a s t r a t a of r a r i f i e d e a i r e x i s t s about one hundred m i l e s above t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , which r e g i o n i s e l e c t r i c a l l y conductive because of i t s ionized condition. The height of t h e c e i l i n g of t h i s upper s t r a t a r a p i d l y changes a s t h e s u n l s r a y s a c t t o v a r y the d e n s i t y of t h e ionized condition. A low c e i l i n g or ionized atmosphere tends t o absorb t h e energy i n a r a d i o wave and i t may disappear en t i r e l y a f t e r t r a v e l l i n g a hundred miles, or even l e s s , from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna. The r a d i o wave i s thought t o be composed of two components, one being a ground wave which t r a v e l s along the curvature of the e a r t h , and t h e second a sky wave, which i s projected toward t h e upper ionized s t r a t a or "Heaviside ~ a y e r " . The sky wave i s t h e n r e f l e c t e d from t h e under s u r f a c e of t h e ionized l a y e r , the c e i l i n g a s i t i s c a l l e d , a t an angle toward t h e e a r t h , t h i s r e f l e c t i o n being compared t o l i g h t Prom a mirror. J u s t how t h i s e f f e c t upon r a d i o transmissions i s thought t o be brought about may be v i s u a l i z e d a s shorn by our sketches i n F i g u r e s 1 and 2. There it can be seen how t h e wave of a c e r t a i n r a d i o s i g n a l c ould be absorbed p r a c t i c a l l y a s h o r t d i s t a n c e from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna, y e t t h e r e f l e c t e d sky wave might r e a c h t h e e a r t h a t c e r t a i n l o c a t i o n s many hundreds of miles d i s t a n t , t h u s accounting f o r long d i s t a n c e reception.

Figure 2 The r e f l e c t i o n of sky waves r e s u l t s i n what i s termed "The skipped d i s t a n c e e e f f e c t " , and a s w have j u s t s a i d a s i g n a l ma7 be inaudidle a few hundred miles from t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and very s t r o n g s e v e r a l thousands of miles away. This phenomenon v a r i e s according t o t h e wavelengths used, the time of day, It becomes more n o t i c e a b l e a t t h e h i g h e r and the l o c a t i o n of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . frequencies, or lower waves, and i s a l s o dependent somewhat upon t h e seasons and t h e power supplied t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r .

Lesson 63

sheet 2

' I n p r a c t i c e it has been found t h a t frequencies i n the order of 12,000 t o 16,000

kc. have given c o n s i s t e n t communication during a l l periods of t h e day and n i g h t . of course, b e t t e r r e s u l t s a r e experienced on c e r t a i n frequency bands than o t h e r s during c e r t a i n periods of the twenty-four hours and t h i s r e q u i r e s changing t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g frequency according t o t h e time of t r a n s m i s s ion. The t h e o r i e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e p r o j e c t i o n of an electromagnetic wave through space a r e i n t e n s e l y i n t e r e s t i n g , but cannot be d e a l t w i t h a t l e n g t h i n our l e s s o n , because w are more concerned j u s t now i n t h e fundamentals of s h o r t e wave t r a n s m i t t i n g apparatus.

ANTENNA

COUNTERPOISE

Figure 3

The types of c i r c u i t s employed i n short wave t r a n s m i t t e r s , i n g e n e r a l , a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e f a m i l i a r tms of o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t s described i n your l e s s o n on "Vacuum Tube ~ r a n s m i t t e r s " . The p r i n c i p l e s governing t h e operation of an o s c i l l a t o r , as f o r i n s t a n c e t h e Hartley O r C o l p i t t s method f o r producing continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s ( C .W. ), have a l r e a d y been explained. Two popular types of coupled B a r t l e y o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t s used i n s h o r t wave t r a n s m i t t e r s are shown i n Figures 3 and 4. .The diagram, Figure 3, i l l u s t r a t e s t h e "shunt feedt1 t y p e . Here t h e p l a t e c u r r e k t .does not flow through t h e tuned c i r c u i t inductance L2, while coupling f o r feedback from the p l a t e c i r c u i t i s through condenser C3. It i s t o be understood t h a t only the a-c. component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t passes through C 3 . The diagram, -,Figure 4, i s a "'sesies feedtt type. Not i c e here t h a t t h e t o t a l p l a t e c u r r e n t flows t h r o u g h t h e inductance L2. The v a r i o u s elements embodied i n t h e two c i r c u i t s can be e a s i l y i d i n t i f i 6 d by t h e following legend:
L1 L2 A
C1

C2

Antenna Inductance O s c i l l a t o r y C i r c u i t (Closed C i r c u i t ) Inductance Thermo-Couple Type Radiation Ammeter Antenna S e r i e s Condenser Variable Tuning Condenser i n Shunt t o L2 Lesson 63

sheet 3

C3

P l a t e Blocking Condenser
G r i d Condenser

C4 C5
C6 MA T

Filament By-pass Condenser Filament By-pass condenser D.C. Milliammeter Step-down Filament Transformer

The shunt f e e d Hartley c i r c u i t i n Figure 3 depends f o r i t s operation upon the voltage drop obtained from t h e inductances between t h e g r i d c l i p and filament c l i p when c u r r e n t flows. This voltage used t o e x c i t e t h e g r i d i s responsible f o r t h e p e r s i s t e n t g e n e r a t ion of continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s . A l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t provides a very convenient means f o r supplying the f i l a m e n t , obtained from t h e use of a step-down transformer. A r h e o s t a t (not shown) i s u s u a l l y i n s e r t e d i n t h e primary o r input s i d e o f t h e transformer i n 0 r d f r t o r e g u l a t e the terminal e.m.f. of t h e filament. This should be a d j u s t e d t o w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s according t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the tube used. Many i n s t a l l a t i o n s use d i r e c t c u r r e n t f o r filament supply obtained from a storage b a t t e r y . Suppose t h a t b a t t e r y supply i s used i n s t e a d of the a-c. i n the shunt feed c i r c u i t shown i n Figure 3, then it would be necessary t o s l i g h t l y modify t h e filament connection, a s follows: The l e a d marked F1 would be run t o t h e p o s i t i v e post of t h e b a t t e r y , l e a d F2 t o t h e negative p o s t , and t h e center t a p lead t o F l y i.e., t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e filament supply.

Figure 4

One method f o r keying s h o r t wave t r a n s m i t t e r s of the above type i s t o i n s e r t t h e sending key i n the c e n t e r - t a p l e a d t o t h e transformer secondary as indicatec i n t h e diagram. By p l a c i n g a 1.0 m f d . condenser a c r o s s t h e key c o n t a c t s , a r c i n f a t t h e p o i n t s w i l l be p r a c t i c a l l y absorbed, or i f a condenser alone proves i n s u f f i c i e n t , a resistor of approximately 10,000 ohms should be put i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e condenser. Other methods of keying commonly used are e i t h e r t o break t h e g r i d c i r c u i t , or t o a f f e c t a change i n t h e operating g r i d b i a s from a low value t o a high value.
Lesson 6 3

- sheet

;
!
I

!
I

For s h o r t waves a l l of t h e apparatus should be designed e x p r e s s l y f o r t h e purpose t o which i t i s put. Also, s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n should be given t o t h e mounting of t h e co - related p a r t s w i t h t h e i r c i r c u i t connections. The photographs ' i n Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8 show d i f f e r e n t views of t h e sane t r a n s m i t t e r designed f o r s h o r t waves. The mechanical r e l a t i o n of the p a r t s and s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s i? design are c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d i n t h e photographs which are r e p r o duced by the courtesy of &ST. I n most types of s e t s , t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g i n ductances are constructed of e i t h e r copper tubing or f l a t copper ribbon wire wound edgewise or f l a t w i s e supported i n c e r t a i n cases by c r y s t a l g l a s s spacers or some m a t e r i a l possessing the highest i n s u l a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s , or w might e say a m a t e r i a l having a h i g h d i e l e c t r i c s t r e n g t h . 20 40 The s h o r t wave spectrum i s separated i n t o channels, known a s t h e 5 80 and 150 meter wave bands. The number of t u r n s used and t h e s i z e of t h e inductance correspond t o t h e c a p a c i t y which i s shunted across them f o r t h e purpose of wavelength ad justment

Condensers. I n general, s h o r t wave c i r c u i t s a r e supplied with two v a r i a b l e condensers, one being u s u a l l y shunted across t h e secondary inductance f o r obtaining the proper frequency, and the o t h e r shunted between t h e p l a t e and t h e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t t o c o n t r o l the feed-back voltage. The t r a n s m i t t i n g condensers are ruggedly constructed a s can be seen i n t h e photographs. Since r e c e p t i o n of s h o r t wave s i g n a l s i s very c r i t i c a l the condensers used i n the t r a n s m i t t e r a r e c a r e f u l l y designed so t h a t they w i l l be unaffected by atmospheric conditions which might tend t o a l t e r t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o a very s l i g h t degree, but s u f f i c i e n t p o s s i b l y t o v a r y the c i r c u i t c o n s t a n t s and t h e frequency. So when once a t r a n s m i t t e r has been tuned t o t h e assigned frequency it should not be permitted t o "swing o f f " t h i s frequency, i f cons i s t e n t communication i s t o be maintained. These condensers have widely spaced p l a t e s which give them a very high break down p o t e n t i a l . Remember t h a t high v o l t a g e s are a p p l i e d t o such condensers i n many c a s e s and t h a t a i r i s the d i e l e c t r i c medium. Break down p o t e n t i a l ( o r break down v o l t a g e ) v a r i e s f o r d i f f e r e n t condensers and run a s high a s e 10,000 v o l t s i n some types and may s t i l l reach higher values. Thus, w l e a r n t h a t t r a n s m i t t i n g condensers a r e r a t e d both according t o t h e i r c a p a c i t y and break down p o t e n t i a l . To o b t a i n t h e d e s i r e d e l e c t r i c a l and mechanical f e a t u r e s t h e p l a t e s are a c c u r a t e l y spaced and made of heavy b r a s s or aluminum. Also t o reduce l o s s e s due t o b r u s h d i s c h a r g e a l l s h a r p edges and c o r n e r s a r e smoothed o r rounded o f f . By c a r e f u l design of frame c o n s t r u c t i o n , s t a t o r p l a t e and r o t o r p l a t e assembly, creepage l o s s e s are kept t o a minimum. Short Wave Antennas. Antennas used f o r s h o r t wave t r a n s m i s s i o n should be located e n t i r e l y out-of - doors, i f surrounding conditions permit, or i f t h e l e a d - i n wire e n t e r s t h e b u i l d i n g , t h e wire should be located i n an unobstructed a r e a , f r e e from t r e e s , m e t a l l i c s t r u c t u r e s , or other energy- absorbing bodies. A counterpose i s o f t e n required, although not always, and i t s c o r r e c t l e n g t h and height from the ground must be found by experiment. I n general, t h e antenna and counterpoise should be of the same l e n g t h , t h i s l e n g t h r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e t o t a l amount of wire used from one extreme and t o t h e o t h e r , i c c l u d ing t h e lead- in. To e x p l a i n t h i s point c l e a r l y we have drawn a simple s k e t c h

Lesson 63

sheet 5

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 8

Lesson 63

- sheet

of an antenna of t h i s type i n Figure 9. I f , f o r example an antenna i s designed f o r transmission on a c e r t a i n wavelength i n t h e 50 meter band, then t h e t o t a l length of e i t h e r t h e antenna or counterpoise t a k e n s e p a r a t e l y would be approximately 40 f t . each, the i n d i v i d u a l l e n g t h s being i n d i c a t e d on t h e diagram by A and C. Moreover, the t h i r d harmonic of an antenna may be u t i l i z e d f o r transmission. Then, f o r transmission on t h e same wavelength i n t h e 50 meter band, but u t i l i z i n g a harmonic of t h e antenna, the antenna dimensions would r e q u i r e a l t e r i n g t o give it a h i g h e r fundamental wavelength. The fundamental of t h e antenna required would have t o be approximately 3 x 50, or 150 meters. I n t h e case of t h e longer fundamental, o r 150 meters, t h e i n d i v i d u a l lengths of wire forming t h e antenna and counterpoise should be approximately 115 f e e t . Thus, w can r e a l i z e t h a t t h e r e i s a very c r i t i c a l p e l a t i o n between the e l e n g t h of wire used and t h e fundamental wavelength of any antenna system.

Antenna Inductance Radimon Amm

.._
---

--

Figure 9

Figure 10 The tuning of the t r a n s m i t t i n g inductance i s accomplished i n the same manner a s f o r a long wave c i r c u i t . I n tuning, t h e procedure i s t o f i r s t c a l i b r a t e t h e closed or primary c i r c u i t t o the designated frequency, t h i s adjustment t o be followed by t u n i n g t h e antenna c i r c u i t . This i s done by moving a f l e x i b l e c l i p along t h e antenna inductgnce u n t i l maximum reading i s i n d i c a t e + on t h e r a d i a t i o n ammeter. Adjustment of t h e antenna or open c i r c u i t may a l s o be made by means of a v a r i a b l e condenser i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s w i t h the antenna, providing, of course, t h a t a condenser i s incorporated i n t h i s c i r c u i t . A c l o s e and c r i t i c a l adjustment of the antenna t o any d e s i r e d frequency i s p o s s i b l e with t h e s e r i e s condenser. It w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t a s e r i e s condenser lowers the wavelength of an antenna below t h a t of i t s fundamental or e n a t u r a l wavelength. I n b r i e f , what w do i n work of t h i s kind i s t o tune t h e closed c i r c u i t i n resonance with the antenna by s e l e c t i n g the b e s t combinations of inductance and c a p a c i t y . I f it; becomes necessary, t h e v a r i a b l e condenser Lesson 63

- sheet

can be e i t h e r s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d o r otherwise eliminated from t h e antenna c i r c u i t . N w t h e degree of coupling between the open and closed c i r c u i t s i s a very o important matter. The be s t coupling d i s t a n c e between t h e primary and seconda r y inductances e x i s t s when t h e coupling i s not t o o c l o s e t o cause a broad s i g n a l t o be r a d i a t e d and make the c i r c u i t unstable i n operation. One of the simplest and most e f f i c i e n t antennas used w i t h s h o r t wave apparatus i s known as t h e "Hertz" type. A g e n e r a l i d e a of a s h o r t wave v e r t i c a l Hertz antenna may be had from t h e sketch i n Figure 10. You can see how the antenna inductance a s well a s t h e other c i r c u i t elements, such a s the r a d i a t i o n ammeter, t h e antenna and counterpoise conductors marked A and C , a r e mounted on t h e wooden mast by stand- off i n s u l a t o r s . The inductance mounted on t h e mast i s connected e l e c t r i c a l l y t o t h e incluctance i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i t s e l f (which i s housed i n the b u i l d i n g ) by the long s i n g l e wire F which i s c a l l e d a fse'der wire. An u l t r a - h i g h frequency choke i s o f t e n i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e f e e d e r l i n e f o r t h e purpose of suppressing harmonic r a d i a t i o n . This f e e d - l i n e method of coupling an antenna t o the t r a n s m i t t e r i t s e l f i s genera l l y adopted i n l a r g e t r a n s m i t t e r s because it permits t h e antenna t o be s i t u ated some distance away i n a f r e e , open, unobstructed p l a c e . With t h i s system the high-frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s produced i n the o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t a r e c a r r i e d through t h e feeder l i n e t o s e t t h e antenna i n t o e x c i t a t i o n . Since t h e r e i s no mutual inductance between the c l o s e d and open c i r c u i t s with t h e f e e d e r l i n e method of coupling, t h e antenna c i r c u i t c a n be c a l i b r a t e d t o i t s own frequency by V a r i a t i o n of t h e antenna inductance u n t i l t h e maximum reading i s observed on t h e r a d i a t i o n ammeter. Also, a t t h e same time, t h e rad.io-frequency c l i p connecting t h e f e e d e r l i n e t o t h e c l o s e d c i r c u i t i n ductance must be varied f o r a maximum output. d i r e c t ground connection i s made t o t h e lower s e c t i o n of counterpoise wire C, but, a s shown i n t h e drawing, the lowest point marked D i s l o c a t e d s e v e r a l f e e t above t h e ground, t h i s arrangement giving t h e e f f e c t of loading t h e c i r c u i t w i t h a d d i t i o n a l c a p a c i t y when necessary. The a c t u a l manner i n which a s h o r t wave antenna i s connected t o a counterpoise must be determined by e x p e r i mentation.
NO

Conventional T y ~ e Short Wave C i r c u i t . The m a s t e r - o s c i l l a t o r power- amplifier 1 c i r c u i t i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 1 w i l l be used t o d e s c r i b e a conventional type short wave t r a n s m i t t e r . The t h e o r y of operation i s a s follows: The frequency of t h e generated o s c i l l a t i o n s i s governed by t h e amounts of i n ductance used i n L3 and L4 and t h e amount of c a p a c i t y used i n condenser C 3. The o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t i s coupled t o the g r i d O t h e power a m p l i f i e r through f coupling condenser C , t h e a c t u a l connection being made w i t h c l i p G 1 a t t a c h e d t o some l o c a t i o n on t h e t u r n s of t h e o s c i l l a t o r inductance L3. By s l i d i n g c l i p G 2 along the g r i d c o i l L4 t h e feed-back of energy from t h e p l a t e necess a r y f o r promoting the g e n e r a t i o n of o s c i l l a t i o n s can be e a s i l y r e g u l a t e d . Observe'that milliammeter MA i s connected i n t h e c i r c u i t s o t h a t only t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t of t h e o s c i l l a t o r tube w i l l be i n d i c a t e d , The a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t i s tuned by a d j u s t i n g inductance L2 and. v a r i a b l e condenser C2. The c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n s f o r a l l tuning adjustments f o r the p a r t i c u l a r t u b e s being used i n the t r a n s m i t t e r a r e determined by observing t h e r a d i a t i o n ammeter A f o r maximm i n d i c a t i o n s . u Lesson 63 sheet 8

:Vhen t h e fundamental wavelength of t h e antenna i s t h e same a s the designated operating wavelength t h e n i t w i l l be found necessary only t o tune the antenna w i t h inductance L1. However, f o r a wavelength lower t h a n t h e fundamental i% w i l l be necessarg t 0 i n s e r t a v a r i a b l e condenser C 1 i n s e r i e s a s we have suggested once before. This i s done so t h a t a decrease i n inductance L 1 wil.1 not be r e q u i r e d below a p o i n t where e f f i c i e n t coupling between the open and closed c i r c u i t s would be normally obtained. The feed-back from t h e p l a t e c o i l L3 t o g r i d c o i l L4 i s brought about by t h e changing magnetic f i e l d s e t up about L 3 which a c t s upon the turns of L4. This method of t r a n s f e r r i n g r a d i o energy from one c i r c u i t t o another i s known a s inductive coupling or magnetic coupling. A small radio- frequency choke c o i l , X , i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e g r i d of t h e power-amplifier t o suppress u l t r a - h i g h f r e quencies. These p a r a s i t i c c u r r e n t s are multiples of t h e fundamental or n o p e r a t i n g frequency and a r e u s u a l l y s e t up whenever a o s c i l l a t o r tube c i r c u i t i s coupled t o a power- amplifier system. T h i s choke a l s o prevents an) l o s s of high- frequency v o l t a g e and consequently t h e r a d i o volt ages generated i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r a r e f u l l y applied t o the g r i d of t h e power-amplifier tube through t h e condenser C. The combination g r i d condenser C4 and g r i d leak R 2 r e g u l a t e s the v o l t a g e of t h e o s c i l l a t o r g r i d . Condenser C a c t s a s a blocking condenser t o i s o l a t e t h e d-c. p l a t e voltage from t h e g r i d s of t h e tubes. A c e r t a i n value of grid l e a k R 1 i s s e l e c t e d s o t h a t t h e c o r r e c t operating p o t e n t i a l of t h e power- amplifier g r i d w i l l be maintained a t a l l timeg. B r i e f l y , the f u n c t i o n of t h e o s c i l l a t o r tube working i n t o a c i r c u i t contain-

Rectifier System

RL

Hem Antenna

System
KEY

Figure 1 1 ing inductance and capacity i s t o generate r a d i o o s c i l l a t i o n s of constant amplitude a t t h e frequency a l l o c a t e d t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r by t h e Radio Commission. These o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e output of t h e o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t t o t h e g r i d of t h e power-amplifier through condenser C. The s t r e n g t h of t h e s i g n a l i s boosted up because of t h e amplifying p r o p e r t i e s of the power tube. C o i l s L and L2 c o n s t i t u t e t h e antenna coupling transformer. A c i r c u i t arrangement of t h i s kind permits a much g r e a t e r power t o be deLesson 68

- sheet

e r e d t o t h e antenna than could be otherwise obtained by coupling t h e o s c i l o r tube d i r e c t l y t o t h e antenna. Furthermore, t h i s system g i v e s &able r a t i o n and good frequency c o n t r o l of t h e antenna output. I n s p e c t i o n of the diagram shows t h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t s which must be tuned t o t h e same frequency. They a r e (1) t h e o s c i l l a t o r tuned c i r c u i t L3, L4, C3, ( 2 ) t h e closed tuned c i r c u i t L2, C2, and ( 3 ) t h e antenna c i r c u i t L1, C 1 . Because the l o s s e s occuring i n a s h o r t wave t r a n s m i t t e r a r e h i g h , t h e a d j u s t ment of a l l of t h e s e c i r c u i t s i s very c r i t i c a l . The m a s t e r - o s c i l l a t o r powera m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t w i l l generate the s t e a d i e s t s i g n a l , w i t h the exception of one produced by a c r y s t a l - c o n t r o l l e d t r a n s m i t t e r . A c i r c u i t of t h i s type i s t o be p r e f e r r e d where c o n s i s t e n t communication i s a requirement because antenna swinging has p r a c t i c a l l y no e f f e c t on t h e frequency of t h e emitted s i g n a l . One of s e v e r a l methods may be employed f o r keying t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , such a s breaking t h e g r i d c i r c u i t or changing t h e g r i d working v o l t a g e through an a d d i t i o n a l b i a s cut i n by t h e key c i r c u i t . In t h e diagram, it i s seen t h a t t h e g r i d r e t u r n c i r c u i t s of both tubes are broken and t h e key i n s e r t e d i n series. When keying i s accomplished by changing t h e g r i d b i a s i n g voltage from an opera t i n g voltage t o a h i g h blocking voltage, it i s p o s s i b l e t o key a t high speeds. Power t o operate t h e t u b e s i n the c i r c u i t j u s t described i s obtained from an e l e c t r o l y t i c r e c t i f i e r of t h e full-wave type. The r e c t i f i e r s u p p l i e s t h e r e q u i s i t e d-c. p l a t e voltage from a 60-cycle, 110 v o l t a-c. soarce and opera t e s a s follows: The i n d i v i d u a l j a r s a r e assembled by immersing a s t r i p of l e a d L and one of aluminum A , of equal s i z e , i n one p i n t of a s a t u r a t e d solut i o n of borax and water. For e a c h 75 v o l t s output, one j a r should be provided, and f o r each ampere supplied t o t h e c i r c u i t , t h e approximate a r e a of the aluminum should be 8 square inches. Current w i l l flow through t h e j a r i n only one d i r e c t i o n a f t e r t h e c e l l s o r j a r s have been "formed".

It mag be advisable t o l i s t t h e precautions necessary when "forming" a j a r . Jhe output of t h e r e c t i f y i n g j a r s i s s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d , and a - c . - i s passed through it f o r one t o two hours. During t h e e a r l i e r s t a g e s of t h i s process, t h e r e i s a d i r e c t s h o r t - c i r c u i t placed on t h e transformer which r e q u i r e s t h a t one or two lamps of s u i t a b l e s i z e be placed i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e primary c i r c u i t t o a c t a s a load. If t h e transformer shows a tendency t o overheat, lower-watt lamps should be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e ones i n use. The o p e r a t i o n i s considered complete when a d u l l white d e p o s i t appears on the aluminum p l a t e s and a t t h i s t p e r i o d t h e p r o t e c t i v e lamps a r e removed f ~ o m h e primary c i r c u i t . After making t h e usual c i r c u i t connections t h e r e c t i f i e r w i l l f u n c t i o n t o d e l i v e r a d i r e c t c u r r e n t of t h e proper voltage t o t h e tube c i r c u i t s .
The full- wave r e c t i f i e r shown here i s connected t o a f i l t e r system c o n s i s t i n g of a 30-henry choke c o i l and two l a r g e f i l t e r condensers marked on t h e d i a gram CF, CF, each having a c a p a c i t y of 4.0 mfd.

W cannot over emphasize t h e importance of a good f i l t e r system because cone s i d e r a b l e i n t e r f e r e n c e may be caused by a C.W. t r a n s m i t t e r i f i t s 60-cycle, or motor- generator commutator frequency, i s permitted t o modulate t h e output.
Lesson 63

sheet 10

condary winding S1 d e l i v e r s t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t o be r e c t i f i e d

e c i r c u i t s . The f i l a n e n t s a r e heated w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t furnished the filament winding Si? of the power transformer. The g r i d r e t u r n lead common with both t u b e s i s connected t o t h e c e n t e r t a p of t h i s whnding w i t h t r a n s m i t t i n g key i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s . The power f u r n i s h e d t o t h e primary Prom t h e main a- c. supply i s regulated through t h e l i n e r h e o s t a t R 1 , t h i s c i r c u i t being closed and opened t h r o u g h t h e main l i n e switch SW.
Hertz Antenna. The v a r i o u s short wave t r a n s m i t t i n g antennas i n common use employ what i s known a s t h e "Eertz Antenna". It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o know t h a t t h e Hertz antenna does n o t use any ground connection, and t h a t it was t h e e a r l i e s t type e v e r constructed f o r t h e express purpose of r a d i o wave propag a t i o n . In l a t e r y e a r s Marconi conceived t h e i d e a of a c t u a l l y connecting t h e antenna t o t h e e a r t h .
A Hertz antenna may be s e t up e i t h e r i n v e r t i c a l form, h o r i z o n t a l , or bent

h the j a r s and, due t o t h e i r one-way c o n d u c t i v i t y of c u r r e n t flow, a current i$ obtained from t h e i r output which i n t u r n i s supplied t o t h e

so t h a t p o r t i o n s of i t occupy both p o s i t i o n s . Experiments have proven t h a t i n t h i s type of antenna t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of c u r r e n t and v o l t a g e a r e nonuniform, t h i s being due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s always a high r a d i o - f r e quency voltage a t the upper or antenna end, as w e l l a s a t t h e lower of counterpoise end. A t t h e e l e c t r i c a l c e n t e r of the antenna, t h e c u r r e n t i s h i g h e s t when operating a t the fundamental of t h e r a d i a t i n g system. If you were t o t e s t along the antenna c i r c u i t from p o i n t t o point toward e i t h e r end, beginning a t t h e middle, l e s s c u r r e n t and more voltage would be evidenced a s t h e e extreme f a r ends were approached. A t e s t such a s w suggest here f o r d e t e r mining the d i s t r i b u t i o n of voltage can be performed e a s i l y by t h e use of a neon tube. This device c o n s i s t s of a g l a s s tube c o n t a i n i n g a s m a l l q u a n t i t y of the r a r e gas "neon". The p r i n c i p l e upon which t h i s t e s t i n g device f u n c t i o n s i s t h a t when the gas i s a c t e d upon by high-frequency waves i n space, ( t h e r a d i a t i o n s coming from any a c t i v e antenna or e l e c t r i c a l conductor a c t i n g i n l i k e manner), the gas i s ionized. This breaking up of the g a s atoms produces a b e a u t i f u l p u r p l i s h luminesence, c a l l e d a glow. The tube i s o f t e n called a glow tube. It i s used i n a p r a c t i c a l way i n automotive e l e c t r i c a l work f o r checking up on imperfect o p e r a t i n g high t e n s i o n c i r c u i t s connecting t o t h e spark plugs. If t h e neon tube i s held close t o t h e h i g h t e n s i o n l e a d s , and t h e c i r c u i t f u n c t i o n s normally, e l e c t r i c waves w i l l r a d i a t e from t h e wire and cause t h e tube t o glow. I n t e s t i n g a n a c t i v e E e r t z antenna, by moving t h e t u b e along t h e conductors, p o i n t s w i l l be found where t h e t u b e glows b r i g h t e s t ; t h e s e l o c a t i o n s a r e t h e A f e w t r i a l s w i l l soon t e l l p o i n t s where t h e h i g h e s t v o l t a g e s a r e generated. you how f a r the t u b e mst be held away from any l i v e high- voltage wire conducting a- c, t o o b t a i n a s a t i s f a c t o r y i n d i c a t i o n .

It i s t o be understood that t e s t s of t h i s kind can be made by u t i l i z i n g meters i n s t e a d of t h e glow tube. Our reason f o r d i s c u s s i n g t h i s voltage and c u r r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n i s based upon t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e two methods f o r e n e r g i z i n g an antenna of t h i s type. These methods are known r e s p e c t i v e l y a s t h e "voltage feed system" and t h e "current feed system".
Lesson 63

sheet 1 1

The voltage feed s y s t e n employs but one wire, c a r r y i n g a low c u r r e n t but a comparatively high v o l t a g e A s i n g l e feeder wire connects the t r a n s m i t t e r c i r c u i t t o the antenna a s shown i n Figure 12. When making adjustments t o t h i s c i r c u i t t h e feed wire should be connected t o a p o i n t on t h e antenna where a c u r r e n t node e x i s t s , a s f o r instance a t point marked X. The current feed system, on t h e other hand, employs two wires a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e elementary diagram i n Figure 13. A l a r g e c u r r e n t a t low voltage flows t o t h e antenna from t h e output of t h e t r a n s f ormer which i n t u r n r e c e i v e s i t s e x c i t a t i o n from t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . This system i s used i n many i n s t a l l a t i o n s It i s used e s p e c i a l l y i n h i g h power broadcasting f o r e x c i t i n g the antenna. s t a t i o n s of 50 Kw. or more. I n high power work t h e two wires a r e s t m n g on wooden poles leadrng t o a l a r g e transformer i n s t a l l e d i n a weather proof shed, and from t h i s p o i n t t h e connecting l e a d s are r u n t o t h e antenna proper. This s p e c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n permits t h e antenna system t o be l o c a t e d i n an unobstructed area a t some remote d i s t a n c e from t h e t r a n 9 m i t t e r .

Figure 1 2

Figure 13

The t r a n s f e r of r a d i o power from t h e closed t o t h e open c i r c u i t i s through t h e t r a n s f orrner r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e paragraph preceding. This provides inductive coupling, which i s the method most f a m i l i a r t o us, i n t h e ordinary coupling of high-frequency c i r c u i t s . In Figure 13 n o t i c e t h a t t h e t r a n s f orrner se'conda r y i s connected d i r e c t l y t o t h e c e n t e r of t h e antenna. An antenna which r a d i a t e s s e v e r a l harmonics along w i t h t h e fundamental frequency w i l l have s e v e r a l nodal p o i n t s ( z e r o c u r r e n t p o i n t s ) d i s t r i b u t e d a l o n g i t s length. The i n d i c a t i o n a t t h e nodal p o i n t of t h e fundamental or f i r s t harmonic i s pronounce a s would be evidenced by t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e neon t u b e when used i n a t e s t . However, it would be n o t i c e d the nodal p o i n t s of t h e second and h i g h harmoni,cs a r e located a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s along the antenna and furthermore t h e nodal point o f each harmonic would become l e s s pronounced a s t h e i r frequency i n creased t o higher orders, t h i s phenomenon being v i s u a l i z e d by t h e r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t i e s of t h e glow of t h e neon tube. That i s t o s a y , the power or energy harmonic i s l e s s t h a n t h a t of t h e t h i r d , and the energy possessed by t h e f o ~ r r t h i n the t h i r d i s l e s s t h a n t h a t of t h e second, and s o on. This r u l e cannot always be followed f o r t h e r e are i s o l a t e d i n s t a n c e s where t h e g r e a t e s t power i s n o t t o be found i n the fundamental, ~ r l s oc a l l e d t h e f i r s t harmonic. Lesson 63

sheet 1 2

To make c l e a r e x a c t l y what w mean by a nodal p o i n t we have drawn t h e curve e i n Figure 14. I n t h i s curve the l i n e X I s the z e r o a x i s on which an a l t e r Y n a t i n g c u r r e n t s i n e wave i s r e p r e s e n t e d . The s i n e wave shows t h a t t h e p o i n t s of zero c u r r e n t ( o r voltage ) marked A , C, E and G are c a l l e d nodes, Whereas, t h e p o i n t s of maximum amplitudes marked 5, D and F are t h e anti- nodes or loops. Condensers C 1 and C 2 are som t i m s i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s w i t h e a c h wire of a t w o wire f e e d l i n e i n t h e manner shown i n Figure 13. This i s done i n order t h a t both w i r e s may h&ve equal f i e l d s t r e n g t h t o equalize the e f f e c t of t h e magn e t i c f i e l d an6 reduce any r a d i a t i o n t r o u b l e s . Also, a r a d i a t i o n ammeter may be supplied i n e i t h e r s i d e of t h e antenna ( o r one i n each s i d e as shown i n the drawing) and t h e meters w i l l read a l i k e if placed i n t h e exact e l e c t r i c a l c e n t e r of t h e r a d i a t i n g system, A person without experience i n short wave transmission i s a p t t o be unsuccessful i n the attempt t o s a t i s f a c t o r i l y a d j u s t a voltage feed ( o r s i n g l e w i r e ) Hertz antenna. The p e c u l i a r p r o p e r t i e s e x h i b i t e d by s h o r t waves and t h e i r p e r s i s t e n c e i n covering long d i s t a n c e s on low power has encouraged e n g i n e e r s t o conduct exh a u s t i v e t e s t s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n ; t h e y expect soon t o be able t o u t i l i z e t h e very s h o r t waves, as low a s 5 meters o r l e s s , which involve the h i g h e s t frequencies. Commercial s h o r t wave s e t s operate s u c c e s s f u l l y down t o about 16 meters. Let u s compare a 5 meter and a 4 meter wave. A 5 meter wave r e p r e s e n t s a frequency of approximately 60,000,000 cycles. Expressed i n sub- multiples of t h e u n i t "cycle" t h i s waveJength i s 60,0001dlocycles, or 60 megacycles. Now, a 4 meter wave has a frequency of approximately 75,000,000 c y c l e s o r 75,000 k i l o c y c l e s , o r 75 megacycles, vtorking out a simple p ~ o b l e mi n s u b t r a c t i o n w i l l t e l l you t h a t while t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e of only one meter i n wave l e n g t h between t h e two waves yet t h e frequency d i f f e r e n c e between them i s It i s e a s y t o f i g u r e out how a g r e a t number of s t a t i o n s 15,000,000 cycles. could operate w i t h i n t h i s one meter band, or i t s e q u i v a l e n t 15,000,000 c y c l e s , if t h e use of t h e very s h o r t waves could be made a p r a c t f c a b i l i t y , Short Wave Transmitting Tube, The UX- 852 s h o r t wave tube i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d f o r use a s an o s c i l l a t o r or oower a m p l i f i e r i n c i r c u i t s designed f o r s h m t wave transmission, e s p e c i a l l y - a t waveiengths under 100 meters- because of t h e tubes low i n t e r n a l capacity, Laboratory t e s t s show t h a t t h e g r i d t o p l a t e c a p s c i t y i s p r a c t i c a l l y n e g l i g i b l e . it being computed a t 0.14 micromicrof a r a d s . The tube has a power r a t i n g o f 75 w a t t s . A h i g h e l e c t r o n 'erdission i s p o s s i b l e because of the X f i l a m e n t used. L It w i l l o s c i l l a t e w i t h s t a b f l i t y on 2 0 meters and under c e r t a i n conditions a t 7/8 of a meter. With a s l i g h t r e d u c t i o n i n output or r a t e d p l a t e voltage t h e tube may be operated a s a c r y s t a l c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r . The l i m i t a t i o n s of the c r y s t a l make power r e d u c t i o n necessary. Damaging base f l a s h e s a r e prevented by t h e double end or T-shaped c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e g l a s s envelope. The photograph, Figure 14, Lesson 60, c l e a r l y shows t h a t each p a i r of e l e c t r o d e s a r e provided w i t h two p a r a l l e l l e a d s f o r high c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g capacity. It i s imperative t h a t p a i r s of l e a d s be used always when making connections between the tube and t h e t r a n s m i t t e r c i r c u i t s . A l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t should be supplied t o the f i l a m e n t when possible. The Lesson 63

- sheet 13

p l a t e and g r i d r e t u r n l e a d s should be connected t o t h e e l e c t r i c a l center ( c e n t e r t a p ) of t h e f i l a m e n t h e a t i n g winding on t h e paver transformer. Inasmuch as i t i s q u i t e i m p r a c t i c a l t o measure t h e output of t h e tube a t s h o r t wavelengths, i t s cor'ect o p e r a t i o n may be judged w i t h s u f f i c i e n t accurac;; by observing the p l a t e , During c a l i b r a t i o n t h e p l a t e temperature should not be permitted t o r i s e above a value'which w i l l cause i t t o heat t o nore th-an a cherry redness. A p l a t e which i s heated t o t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c color i s t a k e n t o be e q u i v a l e n t t o d i s s i p a t i n g approximately 100 w a t t s , c aused by t h e e l e c t r o n bombardment of t h e anode ( p l a t e ), Inductive o r Magnetic cou-. The Government r e g u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e the use of i n d u c t i v e l y coupled antenna c i r c u i t s f o r the t r a n s m i s s i o n of r a d i o waves. One of the advantages of magnetic coupling i s t h a t it permits t h e use of loose coupling which sharpens or peaks t h e wave, t h u s d e c r e a s i n g i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h A s h a r p wave reduces l o s s e s because i t concenneighboring r e c e i v i n g s e t s . t r a t e s more of the energy on t h e designated wavelength. One advantage of t h i s type of coupling i s t h e e l f m i n a t i o n of a s e r i e s condenser, except i n extreme cases when working on a wavelength bel6w t h a t of t h e fundamental of t h e antenna. Other advantages a r e : Harmonics of t h e o s c i l l a t o r can be supn r e s s e d more . e f f i c i e n t l y , and t h e so- called " ~ e y thump'' can be reduced c o l s i d e r a b l y . Also, a change from one wavelength t o a n o t h e r may be made more conveniently without t h e n e c e s s i t y of l o c a t i n g t'w nodal p o i n t e i t h e r a t t h e f i l a m e n t connection or t h e grounded p o i n t . It may bear r e p e a t i n g t h a t t h e nodal p o i n t i s the c e n t e r of a r a d i a t i v e o s c i l l a t i n g system, such a s an entenna, where t h e c u r r e n t i s m a x i m u m and t h e radio- frequency voltage i s zero. C r y s t a l Controlled T r a n s m i t t e r . W mentioned i n t h e e a r l y p a r t of our l e s s o n e t h a t many s h o r t wave t r a n s m i t t e r s owerated e i t h e r f o r broadcastine: or cornmercial t e l e g r a p h i c comnunication, br5 both, o b t a i n t h e i r s t a t i o n s u f r e q u e n c g by the use of a small q u a r t z c r y s t a l . It i s now f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t a q u a r t z c r y s t a l w i l l maintain s t a b i l i z e d frequency f o r a t r a n s m i t t e r w i t h i n v e r y c l o s e l i m i t s . The Radio Comqission a t Washington has drawn up r e g u l a t i o n s which r e q u i r e t h a t a s t a t i o n s h a l l not waver from i t s a s s i g n e d frequency by more t h a n 500 c y c l e s . To hold a c i r c u i t which i s o s c i l l a t i n g a t a frequency of about, l e t us say, 3,000,000 c y c l e s , t o within a band not extending more t h a n 500 cycles e i t h e r s i d e of t h i s value i s a m a t t e r whfch demands g r e a t engineering s k i l l . It i s obvious t h a t i n a case of t h i s kind t h e percentage of e f f i c i e n c y r e q u i r e d i s u n u s u a l l y h i g h , Antenna swinging has p r a c t i c a l l y no e f f e c t upon t h e s t e a d i n e s s of a s i g n a l i n a c r y s t a l c o n t r o l l e d t r a n s m i t t e r , t h i s being an e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e when c o n s i s t e n t communication must be c a r r i e d on. A elementary diagram of a n c r y s t a l c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r i s given i n Figure 15, The purpose of t h i s c i r c u i t merely i s t o provide t h e d e s i g n a t e d frequency of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and t h e output of an a m p l i f i e r which i n t u r n f e e d s i t s power t o t h e antenna. C e r t a i n c l a s s e s of high-power s t a t i o n s employ a 7.5 w a t t tube i n the c r y s t a l This t u b e ' s output i s c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t a s shown i n Figure 16. made t o f e e d i n t o a f i r s t - s t a g e a m p l i f i e r c o n s i s t i n g of a 50 w a t t tube, The l a t t e r tube i n t u r n d e l i v e r s i t s output energy t o e i t h e r a 250 watt or 1 k i l o w a t t tube, and again, following t h i s s t a g e w may p o s s i b l y f i n d a f i n a l amplie Lesson 63

- sheet

14

f i e r c i r c u i t containing one or more 20 k i l o w a t t tubes, Thus a l a r g e r a d i o power a t a constant frequency i s d e l i v e r e d t o the antenna i n t h i s manner. The whole process i s simply one of b u i l d i n g up the power of a p a r t i c u l a r f r e quency through successive s t a g e s of a m p l i f i c a t i o n l e a d i n g t o t h e antenna.

Figure 1 5 N w examine t h e c i r c u i t i n Figure 1 5 which shows a t y p i c a l c r y s t a l c o n t r o l l e d o o s c % l l a t o r . It i s seen t h a t t h e c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of t h e c r y s t a l i t s e l f , a radio- frequency choke c o i l , a source of g r i d b i a s i n g v o l t a g t h e g r i d or i n p u t c i r c u i t of a 7.5 watt tube and t h e u s u a l "A", "B" and 'Cn b a t t e r i e s . Operation of t h e C i r c u i t . The c i r c u i t i n Figure 16 i s purely schematic and i s only intended t o s e t f o r t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s of coupling a maste.r c o n t r o l o s c i l l a t o r t o a s e r i e s of stages of power a m p l i f i c a t i o n . Any one of s e v e r a l methods of coupling mag be advantageously used between t h e various tubes, a s f o r example, transformer coupling ( t h i s being the method employed i n the c i r c u i t i l l u s t r a t e d ) , impedance, or r e s i s t a n c e coupling.

-- -- -I i

Intermediate Power Amplifier

'

-&A+
350Y

O.C.

Figure 16

Notice t h a t t h e inductance i n s e r t e d i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t o f the o s ~ i l l a t o r tube i s shunted by a v a r i a b l e condenser which permits t h e c i r c u i t t o be quickly tuned t o any d e s i r e d frequency w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . When t h e s e t i s i n operation t h e s e l e c t e d frequency i s t r a n s f e r r e d from inductance .Ll t o L2 by electromagnetic induction. The a l t e r n a t i n g e.rn.f. s e t Lesson 63

sheet 1 5

up i n t h e c i r c u i t of L i s a p p l i e d t o tt.,e grid of t h e f i r s t stage a m p l i f i e r ! : and the influence of t h i s charged g r i d upon t h e e l e c t r o n stream i n the tube causes the same frequency t o be repeated i n varying p l a t e c u r r e n t passing through L3. Again t h e s e l e c t e d freauency i s communicated t o a second stage of a m p l i f i c a t i o n , t h i s time through t h e a c t i o n occuring between L 3 t o ~ 4 . The induced voltages i n L4, when impressed upon t h e second amplifier g r i d , causes t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i n t h i s t u b e ' s output t o vary a t the designated frequency through L5. N w if a f u r t h e r increase i n power i s not d e s i r e d o t h e n L 5 may be l o o s e l y coupled ( i n d u c t i v e l y ) t o t h e antenna through L6. Regember t h a t the g a i n i n r a d i o pomer f o r any i n d i v i d u a l s t a g e of a m p l i f i c a t i o n Oepends upon t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the p a r t i c u l a r tube used and t h e power supplied. The p l a t e and filament voltages supplied t o the various tubes i s determined by t h e i r s i z e and r a t i n g . Charts g i v i n g complete s p e c i f i c a t i o n s Let u s mention of vacuum t u b e s w i l l be found i n one of your previous l e s s o n s once more t h a t a 7.5 watt tube worked a s an o s c i l l a t o r i s normally supplied with a p l a t e p o t e n t i a l of about 3 5 0 v o l t s , a 50-watt tube working as an a m p l i f i e r w i t h 1000 v o l t s , and a 250-watt tube w i t h 2000 v o l t s .

It should now be e a s y t o understand how a c r y s t a l o s c i l l a t o r a s s o c i a t e d with a vacuum tube can feed i t s output t o a more powerful tube which, i n t u r n , i s coupled t o t h e antenna, or e l s e t h e c r y s t a l o s c i l l a t o r and f i r s t a m p l i f i e r may be coupled d i r e c t l y t o t h e antenna without any Intermediate s t a g e or s t a g e s of amplif i c a t i o n .
L3

power a l s o may be derived from a generator or from b a t t e r i e s . In l o w power s e t s a bank of heavy-duty "R" b a t t e r i e s w i l l g i v e very e f f i c i e n t service over long periods, A s t o r a g e "A'' b a t t e r y may be used f o r supplying t h e filament t e r m i n a l e .m.f

R e c t i f i e r s of t h e thermionic type, (hot filament type ) a r e o f t e n used f o r t h e power supply u n i t . A small f i l t e r c o n s i s t i n g of chokes and condensers 1 s t h e n i n s t a l l e d t o smooth out t h e r i p p l e s i n t h e r e c t i f i e d pulsations. A device of t h i s kind can be designed. t o d e l i v e r s u f f i c i e n t d i r e c t c u r r e n t p l a t e power a s w e l l as a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t f i l a m e n t power from a s p e c i a l winding on t h e transformer f o r use with low power tubes of t h e UX-210 v a r i e t y . T h i s combination makes a very convenient source of e.m.f. f o r it i s necessary only t o plug t h e cord a t t a c h e d t o the power transformer i n t o t h e o u t l e t of t h e 110 v o l t a- c, supply l i n e . Q u a r t z C r y s t a l Controlled O s c i l l a t o r . One of t h e g r e a t e s t s c i e n t i f i c develovments of r e c e n t y e a r s founded on t h e o s c i l l a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of a quartz c r y s t a l , has found a p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e frequency c o n t r o l of r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r s . A c r y s t a l can be u t i l i z e d t o c o n t r o l any r . f . system with reasonable output power, Although numerous c i r c u i t arrangements have been devised by which a c r y s t a l ' s output frequency may be made t o u l t i m a t e l y s e t up o s c i l l a t i o n s of s i m i l a r frequency i n the antenna, yet a f t e r studying t h e s e e c i r c u i t s c a r e f u l l y w w i l l f i n d them q u i t e a l i k e fundamentally. E i t h e r the crystal - master o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t i s coupled t o a main power a m p l i f i e r , w i t h t h e l a t t e r c i r c u i t working i n t o t h e antenna, o r the t r a n s m i t t e r may employ s e v e r a l intermediate s t a g e s of a m p l i f i c a t i o n between t h e c r y s t a l - o s c i l l a t o r and the main power a m p l i f i e r . I n every i n s t a n c e , though, the function of t h e Lesson 63

- sheet 1 6

amplifying stages i s merely t o b u i l d up the r a d i o power p r o g r e s s i v e l y a t t h e frequency d i c t a t e d by t h e c r y s t a l ' s n a t u r a l o s c i l l a t i o n period. Then an e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t i s f orrned by a conductor connecting tw'o metal p l a t e s between which a c r y s t a l i s placed, and t h e p l a t e s a r e t h e n subjected t o a l t e r n a t i n g m c h a n i c a l impulses, the c r y s t a l g e n e r a t e s corresponding a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s . This e f f e c t by which a mechanical s t r e s s imposed upon n a t u r a l minerals of t h i s kind i s capable of s e t t i n g up a flow of e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t was f i r s t discovered by P, and J.. Curie, famed f o r t h e i r r e s e a r c h work with Radium. Moreover, i t was found t h a t t h e opposite e f f e c t could a l s o be produced by t h e c r y s t a l ; t h a t i s , when an e l e c t r i c a l pressure (e.m.f.) of an a l t e r n a t i n g n a t u r e i s impressed between t h e p l a t e s , i t w i l l cause a s i m i l a r mechanical v i b r a t i o n i n t h e c r y s t a l . It i s ~ v i d e n t h e n t h a t a quartz c r y s t a l can be used f o r converting mechanical v i b r a t i o n s i n t o e l e c t r i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n s and vice versa. W a r e forcer? t o r e a l i z e t h a t e n a t u r e i s indeed a wonderful master over t h e m a t e r i a l s and f o r c e s on our u n i v e r s e when w s t o p and t h i n k t h a t i n r e c e n t experiments s c i e n t i s t s have e been ablve t o convert e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t i n t o sound waves s o l e l y w i t h the a i d of c e r t a i n kin% of c r y s t a l s . This phenomenon i s apparent even though t h e p l a t e s or metal conducting s h e e t s do not q u i t e touch t h e r e s p e c t i v e f a c e s of t h e c r y s t a l . This p e c u l i a r property which a c r y s t a l e x h i b i t s has been given the name D i f f e r e n t kinds of c r y s t a l s have p i e z o e l e c t r i c p r o p e r t i e s , but they a r e not a l l s u i t e d mechanically f o r p r a c t i c a l u s e s and, furthermore, t h e y do not a l l have t h e same pronounced e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a s does t h e q u a r t z c r y s t a l . Each p i e z o e l e c t r i c c r y s t a l has a n a t u r a l mechanical vib r a t i o n p e c u l i a r t o i t s e l f and the e f f e c t s a r e s t r o n g e s t when an e l e c t r i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n i s a d j u s t e d c l o s e l y t o the n a t u r a l mechanical period of the crystal. Recent l a b o r a t o r y experiments tend t o bear out the f a c t t h a t when a c r y s t a l i s e l e c t r i c a l l y charged it undergoes a succession of mechanical v i b r a t i o n s , or a s some would say a "tremulous motion". I t s shape i s d i s t o r t e d i n t h i s a c t i o n and a s q u i c k l y a s p o s s i b l e t h e c r y s t a l seeks t o resume i t s o r i g i n a l p h y s i c a l shape, as when undisturbed, o r i n a s t a t e of r e s t . It i s while endeavoring t o g e t back t o normalcy, t h a t i s , t o a normal condition of r e s t , t h a t we say the c r y s t a l i s l t o s c i l l a t i n g " . The mechanical v i b r a t i o n occurs a t a tremendously f a s t r a t e , i n the order of t h e radio- frequencies. The o s c i l l a t i o n s s e t up i n t h e e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t w i l l r e a c h maximum amplitudes when t h e frequency of t h e tuned c i r c u i t , c o n s i s t i n g of inductance and c a p a c i t y , i s s e t c l o s e t o t h e n a t u r a l frequency of t h e c r y s t a l . ~ h u s ,it i s p o s s i b l e t o connect an e l e c t r o n t u b e o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t t o a q u a r t z c r y s t a l and c o n t r o l t h e frequency of the c u r r e n t c i r c u l a t i n g through the system. One method of connecting a p i e z o e l e c t r i c o s c i l l a t o r ( q u a r t z c r y s t a l ) t o an o s c i l l a t i n g tube c i r c u i t i s shown i n t h e diagram i n Figure 15. It i s t o be understood t h a t t h e c r y s t a l can be i n s e r t e d eithei. between the g r i d and p l a t e o r between t h e grid. and filament. If the c r y s t a l i s i n s e r t e d between-the g r i d and p l a t e , t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e f i l a m e n t t o g r i d e l e c t r o d e s w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o provide t h e r e q u i s i t e feed- back path f o r o s c i l l a t i o n s . However, when the c r y s t a l i s placed between t h e filament and g r i d , t h e Lesson 63.

- sheet

17

c a p a c i t y of t h e g r i d t o p l a t e e l e c t r o d e s provides t h e p a t h through which energy i s fed back from the p l a t e c i r c u i t t o the g r i d c i r c u i t . You know from your previous s t u a i e s about o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t s t h a t t h e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n of volta6e t o the g r i d from t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t maintains t h e tube and i t s assoc i a t e ? c i r c l ~ i t si n E s t a t e capable o f generating continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s . The following i s a b r i e f account of the reasons g e n e r a l l y advanced i n s c i e n t i f i c c i r c l e s f o r the a c t i o n o f the c r y s t a l when working i n conjunction w i t h the vacuum tube 0 : c i l l a t o r . Refer t o t h e diagram i n Figure 15. The c i r c u i t i s placed i n operation by adjustment of t h e f i l a m e n t voltage u n t i l a normal condition i s reached, or w could otherwise say, u n t i l normal p l a t e c u r r e n t e r h i l e t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t b u i l d s up during the i n i t i a l s t a r t i n g of the flows. circuZt i t passes through inductance L, since L i s connected i n s e r i e s . It i s obvious t h a t the p l a t e c u r r e n t undergoes a r i s e through L . Undoubtedly t h e r e a l s o occurs a momentary r u s h of energy toward t h e c r y s t a l , and although conduction current cannot pass through the c r y s t a l because of i t s high insul a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s t h i s r u s h or surge, n e v e r t h e l e s s , p l a c e s an e l e c t r i c charge upon the surfaces of t h e c r y s t a l . The e l e c t r i c charge i n t u r n causes the c r y s t a l t o v i b r a t e mechanically. A v i b r a t i o n or o s c i l l a t i o n once s t a r t e d w i l l continue because t h e p l a t e inductance L i s connected by a v a r i a b l e condenser and t h e c i r c u i t i s otherwise arranged t o become r e g e n e r a t i v e by t h e * f a m i l i a r method which u t i l i z e s t h e s e l f - c a p a c i t y of t h e t u b e elements f o r t h e purposes of feed-back a s j u s t mentioned. There must be, of course, the proper r e l a t i o n between t h e c r y s t a l ' s own n a t u r a l frequency of v i b r a t i o n and t h e frequency or r a t e a t which t h e f i r s t surge o f energy changes i n value in order t o e x c i t e the c r y s t a l and cause i t , t o move t o i t s g r e a t e s t l i m i t s . The production of a h i g h - f r e q u e n q c u m e n t by t h i s sytem i s thought t o be due t o t h e following combined e f f e c t s : (1) t o t h e o r d i n a r y change of c u r r e n t when ( 2 ) because of t h e tremulous or mechanica9 t h e c i r c u i t i s placed i n operation: v i b r a t i n g a c t i o n of t h e c r y s t a l ; and ( 3 ) by reason of t h e feed- back between t h e tube elements, s u s t a i n e d o c c i l l a t i o n s are generated, I n order t o s t a r t a q u a r t z c r y s t a l o s c i l l a t i n g i t may be n e c e s s a r y t o v a r y the capacity of condenser C very slowly. The n e c e s s i t y f o r t h i s preliminary adjustment may be accounted f o r by the use of an i n c o r r e c t value of inductance, or perhaps t h e c r y s t a l i t s e l f l a c k s t h e necessary freedom t o move.
A radio- frequency choke c o i l i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e g r i d r e t u r n l e a d t o e l i m i n a t e

~ ~ o ew u s summarize t h e a c t i o n occuring i n t h e c i r c u i t i n Figure 15, l t

t h a t p a r t of the radio- frequency voltage l o s s t h a t i s due t o t h e d i r e c t flow of c u r r e n t through t h e g r i d c i r c u i t . The g r i d i s b i a s e d w i t h a 'sC'q b a t t e r y t o keep t h e swing of t h e c r y s t a l c o n t r o l l i n g v o l t a g e over on t h e negative s i d e of t h e grid- voltage - plat e c u r r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , A maximum output w i l l be obtained from t h e c i r c u i t when a minimum of g r i d c u r r e n t flows, When a n e g l i g i b l e g r i d c u r r e n t flows, i t means t h a t t h e g r i d i s n o t blocked by a heavy negative charge t h a t would a c t t o reduce t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t t o zero, which i s an undesirable c o n d i t i o n , A small amount of p l a t e c u r r e n t i s necess a r y before a c r y s t a l c i r c u i t w i l l s t a r t o s c i l l a t i n g . About C r y s t a l s and C r y s t a l Holders. It i s n e c e s s a r y t o s u b j e c t a c r y s t a l t o a change of some kind i n order t o s t a r t it O s c i l l a t i n g . T h i s may be done i n Lesson 63

sheet 18

The s e v e r a l n a t u r a l mechanical v i b r a t i o n s which a r e always p r e s e n t a r e thought t o be due t o a disarrangement of t h e molecules of t h e c r y s t a l . Any o r d i n a r y vacuum tube o s c i l l a t o r a l s o g e n e r a t e s a s e r i e s of harmonics which a r e due p r i n c i p a l l y t o d i s t o r t i o n produced by t h e tube c i r c u i t . It f r e q k e n t l y happens t h a t a c r y s t a l w i l l not o s c i l l a t e even when t h e f a c e s appear t o be p a r a l l e l , 9 l i t t l e g r i n d i n g i n a mixture of No. 301 powdered emergg and kerosene will. o f t e n b r i n g back o s c i l l a t i o n s , T h i s i s done by pushing t h e c r y s t a l i n a c i r c u l a r t o and f r o n o t i o n on a f l a t s u r f a c e holding t h e g r i n d i n g compound. This p r o c e s s , known as. " lapping" , should be f i n i s h e d off by g r i n d i n g i n a mixture of KO. 100 carborundm and o i l , a f t e r which t h e c r y s t a l should be cleaned w i t h carbon t e t r a c h l o r i d e (pyrene l i q u i d or Carbona). F i n g e r p r i n t s , d i r t , o r g r e a s e w i l l cause t h e c r y s t n l t o become i n o p e r a t i v e . I n t h i s case i t must be washed i n t h e g r e a s e s o l v e n t . The g r i n d i n g of a c r y s t a l r e q u i r e s g r e a t s k i l l and should not be undertaken by one unacquainted w i t h t h e work,
A l l of t h e s e i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t s i n d i c a t e t h e extreme s e n s i t i v i t y and p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e quartz c r y s t a l . C r y s t a l s a r e r a p i d l y becoming s t a n d a r d equipment i n both s h o r t and long wave vacuum tube t r a n s m i t t e r s . As can be seen by t h e schematic d lagrams t h e c i r c u i t s i n themselves a r e simple, and experience proves t h a t t h e i r o p e r a t i o n i s s t a b l e under t h e severe c o n d i t i o n s met i n r a d i o communication.

Amplifying Harmonics of a C r y s t a l f o r Short Wave Work. When t h e p l a t e tuned c i r c u i t of a c r y s t a l o s c i l l a t o r tube i s tuned s l i g h t r y o f f resonance w i t h t h e n a t u r a l period of t h e c r y s t a l , t h e c i r c u i t g e n e r a t e s s e v e r a l s t r o n g harmonics which a r e m u l t i p l e s of t h e fundamental. When it i s d e s i r e d t o p i c k off a p a r t i c u l a r harmonic f o r e x c i t i n g t h e g r i d of t h e power- amplifier t u b e , it i s n e c e s s a r y only t o a d j u s t t h e g r i d - t u n e d c i r c u i t of t h e a m p l i f i e r L2 C 2 , Figure 16, t o t h e same frequency as t h e harmonic.
A c r y s t a l which i s not t o o t h i n i s d e s i r a b l e f o r average o p e r a t i n g conditions because i t i s l e s s l i k e l y t o break down and c r a c k t h a n v e r y t h i n ones, The b e s t arrangement i s t o employ a t h i c k e r c r y s t a l which has n e c e s s a r i l y a h i g h e r n a t u r a l p e r i o d , For i n s t a n c e , the master c o n t r o l c i r c u i t i n Fieure 16 I n t ? i s case t h e second harmonic i s 80 meters, may employ a 160-meter c r y s t a l . and t h e t h i r d harmonic 40 meters. VIhen i t i s d e s i r e d t o send on t h e 80-meter O n wavelength, t h e power a m p l i f i e r g r i d c i r c u i t L2 C 2 i s tuned t o 80 meters. t h e o t h e r hand, i f i t i s d e s i r e d t o send on 4 0 meters, t h e L2 C2 c i r c u i t should then be tuned t o t h i s harmonic. From t h i s arrangement i t i s seen t h a t I n t h e case of t h e t h e power- amplifier becomes a frequency changing device, second haslmonic, twice t h e i n p u t frequency i s obtained from t h e output of t h e master o s c i l l a t o r ,

Let u s assume t h a t t h e grid- tuned c i r c u i t L2 C2 i s a d j u s t e d t o r e c e i v e a maximum i n p u t from t h e second harmonic, 80 meters, produced by c i r c u i t L1 C 1 . The output of t h e f i r s t power- amplifier tube i s t h e n r e s o n a t e d t o 80 meters; i n t u r n , t h e input c i r c u i t L 4 C4 i s tuned t o resonance t o 8 0 meters, and l a s t l y , t h e antenna system i s c a l i b r a t e d t o operate on 80 meters. The c r y s t a l - c o n t ~ o l l e d c i r c u i t i s very f l e x i b l e and i t i s p o s s i b l e t o operate w i t h a c r y s t a l having a 160-meter n a t u r a l period on any of i t s harmonics a s w have j u s t e x p l a i n e d , The i n d i v i d u a l c i r c u i t s may be s h i e l d e d t o prevent e Lesson 63

s h e e t 20

t h e magnetic f i e l d of t h e c o i l s from spreading out and inducing r a d i o - f r e quency c u r r e n t i n the component p a r t s of the c i r c u i t . When s h i e l d i n g i s employed, i t i s important t h a t t h e c o i l s be made s m a l l i n order t o preverk l o s s e s due t o absorption b y t h e s h i e l d i n g .
A s u m a t ion of t h e foregoing f a c t s r e l a t i n g t o c r y s t a l - c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r s

i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c r y s t a l d i c t a t e s t h e frequency .of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s and t h e vacuur tube simply f u r n i s h e s the power t o d r i v e t h e c r y s t a l , C r y s t a l s can be ground t o give a s h i @ a s 10,000,000 cycles (10 megacycles), or a s low a s approximately 25,000 per second, b u t i t i s much simpler t o employ a c r y s t a l having a frequency of about 2,000,000 c y c l e s ( 2 megacycles) and operate t h e a m p l i f i e r c i r c u l t s a t one of t h e various i n d i v i d u a l harmonics.

It may be worthy t o mention t h a t t h e fundamental. frequency of t h e c r y s t a l i s c a l l e d "harmonic No. l", Rarnonic No. 2 i s e x a c t l y t w i c e t h e frequency of t h e fundamental, Harmonic No, 3 i s e x a c t l y t h r e e t i m e s t h e frequency of t h e fundamental, and s o on. I n t h e case c i t e d above, t h e a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t may be operated on the f i f t h harmonic, 10,000,000 c y c l e s ( 3 0 m e t e r s ) , t h e fundanental of t h e c r y s t a l o s c i l l a t o r being 2,000,000 c y c l e s (150 m e t e r s ) . Should it be d e s i r e d t o t r a n s m i t on 30 meters or 10,000,000 c y c l e s , a c r y s t a l having a fundamental of 2,000,000 c y c l e s (150 m e t e r s ) can be employed.

~t i s p o s s i b l e , under o r d i n a r y c o n d i t i o n s , t o f i n d a dozen or more harmonic f r e q u e n c i e s having s u f f i c i e n t power f o r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n . It must be remembered, however, t h a t t h e fundamental i s u s u a l l y t h e more powerful a s we have suggested once b e f o r e and, i n progressive order, t h e o t h e r harmonics become l e s s powerful.
N e u t r a l i z i n a , When a c r y s t a l o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t i s operated a t t h e fundamental of the c r y s t a l , i t i s t h e n necessary t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e power,-amplifier tube. This means t h a t t h e g r i d t o p l a t e c a p a c i t y w i t h i n t h e t u b e must be s o balanced out, g i v i n g zhe e f f e c t t h a t i t does not e x i s t a t a l l . T h i s small c a p a c i t y , i f p r e s e n t , encourages t h e s e t t i n g up of unwanted o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e c i r c u i t s r e s u l t i n g i n e r r a t i c o p e r a t i o n , These o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e I n t e r - e l e c t r o d e capaci.ty can be canb e t t e r known a s 'self -oscf l l a t i o n s " . c e l l e d or balanced out by connecting t h e g r i d of t h e a m p l i f i e r , t h ~ o u g h a v a r i a b l e condenser, t o some portfion of t h e p l a t e inductance. The c o r r e c t n e u t r a l i z i n g voltage i s obtained from t h e p o t e n t i a l drop a c r o s s t h e i n ductance when c u r r e n t flows. To a c t u a l l y e l i m i n a t e t h e t u b e r s c a p a c i t y e f f e c t the n e u t r a l i z i n g voltage must be e q u a l t o and opposite t o t h e v o l t a g e r e s u l t i n g fromthe feed- back between t h e g r i d and p l a t e e l e c t r o d e s . When one of t h e c r y s t a l t s harmonics i s u t i l i z e d f o r the s t a t i o n c s assigned f r e quency then such a conventional n e u t r a l i z i n g c i r c u i t i s n o t q u i t e s o necess a r y , and i n many c a s e s not a t a l l ,

Lesson 63

sheet 2 1

--

EXAMINATION
1.
2.

LESSON 63

'

( a ) what are a ground wave and a sky wave? ( b ) What i s skip - distance? ( c ) T e l l b r i e f l y how t h e above phenomena a r e accounted f o r ? Draw a schematic diagram of a shunt-feed H a r t l e y type s h o r t wave t r a n s m i t t e r . Now mark each c i r c u i t element with a d i s t i n g u i s h i n g l e t t e r and i n a neat column l i s t t h e s e marks w i t h t h e corresponding names of t h e p a r t s i n the diagram. Draw a simple t r a n s m i t t e r diagram of a s e r i e s - f e e d H a r t l e y o s c i l l a t o r .
How may e i t h e r one of the c i r c u i t s you have drawn i n answer t o Questions 2 and 3 be keyed i n order t o c a r r y on t e l e g r a p h i c communication?

3.

4,

5,

( a ) What two methods a r e employed f o r the frequency c o n t r o l of a t r a n s m i t t e r s ~output i n modern vacuum tube equipment? ( b ) Vhat i s t h e l i m i t s e t down t o which a t r a n s m i t t e r can swing off i t s assigned frequency? ( a ) What does t h e term " p i e z o e l e c t r i c " r e f e r t o ? ( b ) Give s e v e r a l precautions that a r e necessal-y i n t h e use of a c r y s t a l , i n regard t o i t s mounting, c a r e and operation i n t h e c i r c u i t , ( c ) I s it possible t o use a frequency other t h a n the fundamental frequency of a c r y s t a l - o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t ? ( d ) S t a t e reason f o r your answer t o q u e s t i o n ( 6 c ) . Draw a schematic diagram o f a c r y s t a l - c o n t r o l l e d o s c f l l a t o r . ( a ) In what way i s a Hertz antenna d i f f e r e n t from t h e NIarconi type antenna? (b) Name two coupling methods used f o r c a r r y i n g r a d i o power from a t r a n s m i t t e r t o an antenna system which may be l o c a t e d i n an unobstructed a r e a some remote d i s t a n c e from t h e t r a n s m f t t e r i t s e l f . ( c ) Draw two simple schematic diagrams showing the g e n e r a l arrangement of the two types o f couplfng named i n answer t o q u e s t i o n (8b). above. Name four advantages o f f e r e d by the use of i n d u c t i v e coupling between t h e output of a t r a n s m i t t e r and an antenna, Draw a simple diagram of a c r y s t a l - c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r coupled t o one stage of a m p l i f i c a t f o n w i t h t h e l a t t e r d e l i v e r i n g i t s power t o t h e antenna,

6,

7.

8,

9.

10,

~esso'n 63
i

- sheet

22

. ., . -. . ... . - *.-

g_L_

& -

~~

--.-.

Technical Lesson 64

,,

, .. ,

~"

.~

JSX~JINC.
firmeayly.

M A R CON/ /NST/TU i E

s u n d e d /go9

SHORT WAVE ( H I G H FREQUENCY) RECEIVERS.

%

The d i s t a n c e s whiah h i g h frequencies ( s h o r t waves ) c a r r y when using r e l a t i v e l y low power are almost unbelievable. Even during the d a y l i g h t hours when t r a n s mission on long waves i s not o r d i n a r i l y good, and d e s p i t e p r e v a i l i n g weather c o n d i t i o n s , w know t h a t t h e h i g h frequencies w i l l provide r e l i a b l e longe d i s t a n c e communication s e r v i c e . A v e r y notable and valuable c h a r a c t e r i s t i c < experienced i n s h o r t wave r e c e p t i o n i s t h e almost complete freedom from i n t e r ference s e t up by s t a t i c . The same i s not t r u e when working on the higher wavelengths. The long- distance value of these s h o r t waves, t h e r e l a t i v e l y low c o s t of t r a n s m i t t i n g equipment and maintenance, and t h e use of very slmple r e c e i v e r s a l l c o n t r i b u t e toward a new i n t e r e s t i n r a d i o transmission and r e c e p t i o n t h a t i s a t l e a s t e q u a l t o and perhaps g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t which most of us experienced during t h e pioneer days of broadcasting. I n order t h a t w e may have a well b u i l t s t r u c t u r e upon which t o base our f u t u r e work i n t h i s f i e l d it i s necessary t h a t we not only study about t h e equipment and c i r c u i t s e themselves but w must a l s o inform ourselves about t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of s h o r t wave propagation and t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s . There i s a gener ous amount of i n formation t o be had on t h i s s u b j e c t supplied from d i f f e r e n t sources, a s f o r i n s t a n c e the d a t a f u r n i s h e d by t h e U.S. Army, t h e U.S. Navy, t h e Naval Res e a r c h Laboratory, the American Radio Relay League, t h e l a r g e commercial r a d i o companies and t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of thousands of miners of amateur short wave stations. I n g e n e r a l the tuned c i r c u i t s of s h o r t wave r e c e i v i n g s e t s a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e tuned c i r c u i t s of s h o r t wave t r a n s m i t t e r s . Tuning i s accomplished i n e i t h e r c l a s s of apparatus by a l t e r i n g the values of inductance and capacitance u n t i l t h e d e s i r e d c i r c u i t c o n s t a n t s a r e found a t which r a d i o o s c i l l a t i o n s of a p a r t i c u l a r frequency w i l l c i r c u l a t e with maximum e f f e c t i v e n e s s through t h e c i r c u i t s . Remember, a l l of our o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t s have a d e f i n i t e amount of inductance and c a p a c i t y , hence, t h e y tune t o a c e r t a i n frequency. Some s h o r t wave t r a n s m i t t e r s , depending of course upon t h e s e r v i c e they r e n d e r , use only one wavelength. Consequently a f t e r a c i r c u i t has once been c a l i b r a t e d and checked by a wavemeter measurement, then u s u a l l y t h e t r a n s m i t t e r r e q u i r e s no f u r t h e r adjustment u n l e s s it wavers off i t s assigned frequency f o r any cause. I f more t h a n one wavelength i s assigned t o t h e t r a n s m t t t e r , a s would be t h e case i n commercial work, t h e n s u i t a b l e c l i p s and switching arrangements a r e provided t o permit an i n s t a n t change from one wave t o another. O t h e other hand, a r e c e i v i n g s e t must always permit q u i c k and e a s y tuning n over a wide band of frequencies. To meet the l a t t e r requirements a s h o r t waire r e c e i v e r must be s u p p l i e d w i t h s e v e r a l plug- in o r interchangeable i n d u c t ances of various s i z e s , e a c h c o i l being designed t o encompass a l i m i t e d f r e quency range. Also, t h e r e must be s u f f i c i e n t overlapping of frequencies a t t h e extreme upper and lower l i m i t s of d i f f e r e n t inducrtances t o provide a

'

progressive change i n frequency without a break o r i n t e r r u p t i o n within t h e scope of the r e c e i v e r . Two v a r i a b l e condensers a r e u s u a l l y embodied i n t h e design O f p r e s e n t day s h o r t wave r e c e i v e r s ; t h e purpose o f one condenser i s t o a l t e r the capacitance of t h e tuned c i r c u i t and the o t h e r t o r e g u l a t e t h e amount of regeneration, i.e., t o control t h e amount of feed-back voltage supplied t o the g r i d i n p u t c i r c u i t from the p l a t e c i r c u i t . It i s t o be e s p e c i a l l y noted t h a t the wavelength range w can cover e w i t h a c e r t a i n c o i l depends mainly upon t h e maximum c a p a c i t y of the tuning condenser shunted a c r o s s it. W f i n d t h a t coil- condenser combinations of the plug- in type a r e coming i n t o e more g e n e r a l use; they c o n s i s t of a separate tuning condenser employed w i t h e a c h inductance i n t h e s e t . T h i s f e a t u r e makes it p o s s i b l e , when tuning, t o u t i l i z e t h e e n t i r e d i a l s c a l e f o r t h e frequency band covered by each inductance used. The p r a c t i c a b i l i t y of using plug- in tuning condensers a s well as plugi n inductances f o r r e c e i v e r s which a t times must work i n odd widths of the v a r i o u s frequency bands i s q u i t e obvious. This c l a s s of s e r v i c e demands t h a t s t a t i o n s operating, l e t u s say, s e v e r a l hundred c y c l e s from e a c h other mst be separated i n order t o i n d i v i d u a l l y copy t h e i r s i g n a l s . So, i f w use a e e coil- condenser combination w can make each band spread across the f u l l range of the d i a l . Any one who i s f a m i l i a r w i t h tuning, i n g e n e r a l , knows. t h a t when a wavelength band i s cramped w i t h i n a s h o r t r a d i u s on the d i a l , using only a l i m i t e d number of t h e a v a i l a b l e d i v i s i o n s , it simply l e s s e n s s e l e c t i v i t y even I n o t h e r words, t h e value of t h i s when a p r e c i s e v e r n i e r c o n t r o l i s used. method r e s t s i n t h e f a c t t h a t it gives f u l l s c a l e coverage f o r any band according t o the inductance used, a s we have j u s t s t a t e d . It i s not t o be understood t h a t a plug- in condenser i s always necessary i n a c i r c u i t arrangement t o give s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s ; a l s o the use of t h e l a s t 10 d i v i s i o n s , or s o , on t h e upper and lower l i m i t s of t h e condenser d i a l s c a l e i s unnecessary. Other requirements of s h o r t wave r e c e i v e r s i n a d d i t i o n t o s e l e c t i v e n e s s a r e t h e avoidance of hand- capacity e f f e c t s , smooth r e g e n e r a t i o n c o n t r o l without appreciable v a r i a t i o n of t h e tuning, and freedom from so- called "dead spots" where t h e c i r c u i t s t o p s o s c i l l a t i n g and the s i g n a l i s l o s t . The t r e n d of s h o r t wave r e c e i v e r d e s i g n i s toward t h e development of e f f i c i e n t r . f . amplif i e r s t h a t w i l l operate w i t h s t a b i l i t y , meaning t h a t t h e a m p l i f i e r s w i l l not break i n t o s e l f - o s c i l l a t i o n t h u s causing e r r a t i c r e s u l t s . The screen g r i d tube, type 222 ( f o u r element t u b e ) i s e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d f o r use a s an r.f. amplifier because of i t s i n h e r e n t q u a l i t y of c a n c e l l i n g t h e e f f e c t of i n t e r - e l e c t r o d e ( g r i d t o p l a t e ) c a p a c i t y . It must be s a i d , however, t h a t r . f . a m p l i f i c a t i o n i n a s h o r t wave r e c e i v e r does not always give a p e r c e p t i b l e improvement i n t h e d i s t a n c e covered. Moreover, a n a d d i t i o n a l tuning c o n t r o l might be required f o r t h e r.f. a m p l i f i e r c i r e u i t . An operator might f i n d e x t r a d i a l s very inconvenient e s p e c i a l l y when attempting t o hold a d i s t a n t t r a n s m i t t e r whose frequency i s wavering ( o r wobbling a s we more commonly r e f e r t o such a cond i t i o n ) . It f r e q u e n t l y happens i n p r a c t i c e t h a t an operator i s required t o tune w i t h one hand and copy a message w i t h t h e other. O a l l but very d i s t a n t n s t a t i o n s , the r e c e i v e r should be tuned by simply t u r n i n g one tuning control. O very weak s t a t i o n s i t might be found necessary t o a d j u s t t h e coupling ben tween t h e antenna and g r i d c o i l s t o o b t a i n maximum s i g n a l s t r e n g t h . For these Lesson 64
A r e g e n e r a t i v e c i r c u i t i s e s s e n t i a l i n s h o r t wave work.

- sheet

reasons considerable a t t e n t i o n i s always given t o t h e r e c e i v e r design t o make i t simple i n operation. A one or two s t a g e audio- frequency a m p l i f i e r may be used with a r e c e i v e r of any type t o b u i l d up weak s i g n a l s . The. transformers i n such an audio system should provide uniform a m p l i f i c a t i o n of a l l frequencies i n the audible range but t h e y must a c t t o suppress h i g h frequencies or l o s s e s would be sure t o occur. In r e f e r r i n g t o the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a transformer i n r e a d i l y passing a c e r t a i n band of frequencies above o r below t h e band w would e simply s a y , "the transformer provides a sharp cut- off a t b o t h ends." And now l e t u s proceed t o a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n on t h e use of t h e condenser prev i o u s l y mentioned f o r r e g u l a t i n g regenerat ion. By the c o r r e c t adjustment of t h i s condenser, known a s a " t h r o t t l e condenser", t h e r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t may a t one time be placed i n a r e g e n e r a t i v e condition f o r t h e r e c e p t i o n and amplific a t i o n of a modulated s i g n a l , a s f o r i n s t a n c e ACCW, (Refer t o f i g u r e 9, Lesson 60 which shows an ACCW curve ), or r a d i o telephone transmission (broadc a s t ) . Then by g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g r e g e n e r a t i o n through careflrl manipul a t ion of t h e t h r o t t l e condenser t h e r adio-frequency feed- back voltage may be. made s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g t o cause t h e c i r c u i t t o s l i d e i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n and t h e s e t would t h e n be capable of r e c e i v i n g continuous r . f . o s c i l l a t i o n s (C.W.). The p o i n t a t which o s c i l l a t i o n s begin i s evidenced by a n o t i c e a b l e c l i c k i n t h e phones or a simple t e s t f o r O s c i l l a t i o n i s t o t o u c h the condenser s t a t o r - p l a t e w i t h t h e f l n g e r ; forming t h e c o n t a c t should produce a c l i c k . You w i l l r e c a l l from your e a r l y l e s s o n s on "Regeneration" t h a t when r e c e i v e r i s g e n e r a t i n g r.f. o s c i l l a t i o n s within i t s own c i r c u i t s and a t t h e same time it r e c e i v e s a C.W. s i g n a l it w i l l s e t up an audible beat c u r r e n t capable of a c t u a t i n g t h e telephone diaphragms. T h i s production of a beat cuErent i s t h e r e s u i t of our r e c e i v e r & c i i l a t i o n s coGbining w i t h the incoming s i g n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s , providing of course t h a t t h e i r frequency d i f f e r e n c e i s i n the audible ranges. Although two beat c u r r e n t s , one higher i n frequency t h a n t h e other, a r e a c t u a l l y produced by t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n of high-frequency e o s c i l l a t i o n s , yet by i n t e l l i g e n t use of t h e c o n t r o l s w can tune our c i r c u i t e t o respond t o e i t h e r audio-frequency. N a t u r a l l y w would tune t o t h a t beat frequency which provided t h e b e s t readable note. I n any c i r c u i t which i s designed t o generate t h e l o c a l radio- frequency and produce b e a t s i n t h i s manner we have the heterodyne method of continuous wave reception.
/

Explaining b r i e f l y a major requirement of a s h o r t wave r e c e i v e r w could say e t h e n t h a t f o r phone or modulated CW work t h e s e t should j u s t be outside t h e o s c i l l a t i n g condition where maximum a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s obtained, and f o r CW work t h e s e t should be j u s t i n s i d e t h e o s c i l l a t i n g point where s t a ' b i l i t y of o p e r a t i o n i s assured. The schematic diagrams i n Figurm 1, 2 and 3 show i n a g e n e r a l way t h r e e methods f o r c o n t r o l l i n g r e g e n e r a t i o n i n the d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t . W can e a s i l y e recognize t h e c i r c u i t i n Figure 1 a s t h e f a m i l i a r t h r e e - c i r c u i t tuner w i t h t h e t i c k l e r c o i l c o n t r o l l i n g regeneration. A system of t h i s type i s quite i m p r a c t i c a l i n s h o r t wave work because of the marked changes e f f e c t e d i n the tuned g r i d c i r c u i t whenever t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i s adjusted. The c i r c u i t s i n F i g u r e s 2 and 3 both make use of a f i x e d t i c k l e r w i t h r e g e n e r a t i o n governed by a v a r i a b l e condenser of small capacity. This i s t h e t h r o t t l e condenser, marked CT, shown connected between t h e p l a t e of t h e d e t e c t o r and the tuned o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t . The c i r c u i t irl Figure 2 i s known a s t h e shunt ( p a r a l l e l ) p l a t e feed Lesson 64

- sheet

VLRIA~LL TICKLER .'RE6EUERITION CONTROL TU,NING CONDENSER

R.F. CHOKE

Figure 1

Figure 2

type and i s perhaps the one most widely used f o r the r e c e p t i o n of high f r e quencies. I n Figure 3 w have t h e s e r i e s p l a t e feed type. There i s a c i r e c u i t i n popular use which i s q u i t e s i m i l a r i n g e n e r a l arrangement t o the one shown i n Figure 1. The e s s e n t i a l difference i s t h a t the t i c k l e r c o i l i s f i x e d (not variable a s shown i n t h i s diagram) and a v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e i s i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s with t h e d e t e c t o r p l a t e lead. Other means f o r c o n t r o l l i n g regener a t i o n a r e embodied i n the design o f s h o r t wave s e t s , a s f o r example by varying t h e heating c u r r e n t supplied t o t h e f i l a n e n t . The d e s i r e d changes i n the filament terminal voltage a r e made by a d j u s t i n g t h e f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t . Or s t i l l another method i s one which incorporates both a v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e i n the p l a t e lead and the t h r o t t l e condenser connected i n t h e c i r c u i t i n the u s u a l manner. This arrangement provides a combined r e s i s t a n c e and c a p a c i t y c o n t r o l of regeneration.
TYNlNG CONDENSER R.F. :HOKE

I A s h o r t wave case of s e t s tune s h a r p l y worked, then

6 A6
Figure 3

b+~45v

r e c e i v e r must tune more sharply than would be necessary i n t h e used e x c l u s i v e l y f o r broadcast r e c e p t i o n . ~f a c i r c u i t does not i t i s only n a t u r a l t o expect t h a t when a c e r t a i n s t a t i o n i s being a t the same t i m e o t h e r s t a t i o n s w i l l be heard, t h u s causing a Lesson 64

- sheet

more or l e s s s t r o n g background of i n t e r f e r e n c e . Under some conditions a r e c e i v e r may be de-tuned s l i g h t l y when i n t e r f e r e n c e i s experienced and although t h i s procedure W i l l r e s u l t i n a small s a c r i f i c e i n s i g n a l volume on t h e d e s i r e d s t a t i o n yet the r e d u c t i o n i n i n t e r f e r e n c e may i n many c a s e s allow a message t o be e a s i l y copied by t h e operator.
It i s seen t h a t i n s h o r t wave work w a r e i n t e r e s t e d both i n t h e design and e

operation of a s e t i n order t o obtain maxinum.transfer of r a d i o s i g n a l ene r g y from t h e antenna system a t frequency and t o place the s e t i n t o a s t a t e of o s c i l l a t i o n or r e g e n e r a t i v e a m p l i f i c a t i o n , 'at w i l l , a s determined by t h e c h a r a c t e r of the s i g n a l s received. The question i s o f t e n asked "Where i s t h e l i n e of d i v i s i o n between tne s h o r t waves and t h e long waves?" To s e t a d e f i n i t e l i n e of demarkation, i n s o f a r a s we know, has not been attempted, i t being g e n e r a l l y understood t h a t t h e s h o r t waves a r e t h o s e i n the order of 200 meters and below, reaching down t o s t i l l another range commonly known a s t h e " u l t r a - s h o r t t t waves, t h e s e l a t t e r being a r b i t r a r i l y c l a s s i f i e d a s waves of 5 meters and l e s s . Long waves, then, may be considered a s those extending from about 200 meters t o approximately 24,000 meters. The very long waves a r e i n use a t the p r e s e n t time i n trans- oceanic commercial work. The u l t r a - s h o r t waves have been u t i l i z e d t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t o n l y within r e c e n t months. It i s not t o be understood t h a t t h e i r u s e has reached a s t a g e of p e r f e c t e d development. Extensive r e s e a r c h and experimentation are now being conducted by t h e engineers of t h e government and commercial o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o make t h e u l t r a - s h o r t waves u s e f u l f o r r a d i o service. It seems almost beyond a doubt t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e s e waves w i l l soon solve t h e problem of c o n s i s t e n t long d i s t a n c e communic a t i o n , day or n i g h t , and r e g a r d l e s s of seasons or weather conditions. I n order t o give you an i d e a of t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y high f r e q u e n c i e s involved i n t h e lowest wavelengths l e t us add t h a t s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t o r s believe t h e u l t r a - s h o r t wave spectrum t o be c l o s e t o and merging i n t o t h e h e a t wavelengths. T h i s suggestion of t h e c l o s e proximity of r a d i o waves and heat waves might have some influence upon observed phenomenon i n r e g a r d t o t h e concentration of r a d i o energy, a s f o r example, i n "beam transmission". Here r a d i o s i g n a l s a r e d i r e c t e d i n a narrow path, only a few degrees wide, toward a c e r t a i n r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n thousands of miles d i s t a n t . A simple means f or comparing d i f f e r e n t forms of energy when concentrated i s found i n the h e a t beam thrown out from the polished copper r e f l e c t o r of a type of e l e c t r i c house h e a t e r w i t h which most of us a r e f a m i l i a r . Present observations i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of u t i l i z i n g t h e e n t i r e short wave band ( o r high- frequency spectrum, which means t h e same t h i n g ) a r e l i m i t l e s s . Accordingly, a s new transmissions a r e e f f e c t e d t h e r e w i l l be a steady development i n short wave r e c e i v i n g equipment t o keep a b r e a s t of t h e demands. I n present day r a d i o parlance it i s customary t o speak of s h o r t wavelengths i n t h e i r equivalent of k i l o c y c l e s , or we simply s a y Kc. (Kc being the abbrev i a t i o n f o r k i l o c y c l e s ) . The use of the u n i t , the meter ( o r wavelength i n m e t e r s ) i s not now g e n e r a l l y preferred. Often w f i n d i t more convenient t o e u s e a sub- multiple of t h e k i l o c y c l e , the megacycle. One megacycle e q u a l s 1,000,000 cycles. Simple c a l c u l a t i o n s can be made t o t r a n s l a t e wavelength t o frequency and vice v e r s a by applying t h e w e l l known wavelength formula. Lesson 64

sheet 5

It i s a very easy m a t t e r t o change frequency when expressed i n .cycles t o e i t h e r k i l o c y c l e s o r megacyc,les. I n f a c t i t can be done withqut r e s o r t i n g t o t h e use of p e n c i l and paper. For example:

30,000,000 cycles 10,000,000 c y c l e s

30,000 Kilocycles 10,000 Kilocycles

30 megacycles. 10 megacycles.

The following paragraphs w i l l be devoted t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t i v e ness of short waves. It i's e v i d e n t i n p r a c t i c e t h a t t h e short waves do reach out and cover tremendous d i s t a n c e s , but t h e i r g r e a t p r a c , t i c a l advantage is t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g c o n s i s t e n t communica'tion d p i n g t h e dayl i g h t when communication would o r d i n a r i l y be d i f f i c u l t when working on the long waves.
A glance a t the following t a b u l a t i o n w i l l convince anyone of t h e remarkable

p e r s i s t e n c e of t h e high- frequencies i n g e t t i n g s i g n a l s through t o t h e i r des t i n a t i o n during t h e d a y l i g h t hours. W g e n e r a l l y speak of t h e communication e range a s e i t h e r "day miles" or " night miles" a s t h e c a s e may be. This performance data, presented before the I n s t i t u t e of Radio Engineers by Captain S.C. Hooper, U. S. N., g i v e s the average r e s u l t s over a period of many months of i n v e s t i g a t i o n under a l l s o r t s of c l i m a t i c conditions. Frequency Band Kilocycles Cornmunicat ion Range Average Distance Day-Miles Night-Mile s

Although t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e high frequencies a r e n o t f u l l y understood y e t t h e r e has been s u f f i c i e n t handling of t r a f f i c i n t h i s f i e l d t o enable s t a t i o n engineers t o draw up working schedules which i n d i c a t e just what frequencies are most l i k e l y t o r e a c h a d i s t a n t r e c e i v e r a t c e r t a i n hours. The c o r n m i c a t i o n range on s h o r t waves changes r a p i d l y and i t i s not an uncommon occurance t o get. s i g n a l s through a t a c e r t a i n hour a t a p a r t i c u l a r Lesson 64

sheet 6

frequency and have them f a d e out e n t i r e l y t h e folloviing hour. Such a worki n g schedule i s simply a n a c c u r a t e r e c o r d of transmission phenomenon giving t h e most e f f e c t i v e frequency t o be s e l e c t e d f o r s t a t e d hours. For instance, l e t us suppose t h a t a sending s t a t i o n i s working a d i s t a n t r e c e i v e r on N w i f messages a r e s t i l l o about 16,000 kc. a t 2 A.M. w i t h a s t r o n g signal. on f i l e which must be transmitted t h e following hour, then both stations will automatically s h i f t t o some other frequency, perhaps 7,300 kc. conforming t o t h e schedule. Short waves become r e f l e c t e d , r e f r a c t e d and polarized i n transmission r e s u l t i n g i n what i s commonly known a s t h e s k i p d i s t a n c e e f f e c t . The p e c u l i a r behavior of t h e high- frequencies i s accounted f o r by the Heavisdie Layer theory, o r i t i s more i n c l u s i v e t o s a y Heaviside-Kennelly theory, named a f t e r the i n v e s t i g a t o r s who developed the t h e o r y of i o n i z a t i o n of the upper a t mosphere by t h e a c t i o n of the sun's rays. T h i s theory has already been explained i n our lesson on " ~ h o r t Wave ~ r a n s m i t t e r s " .

Figure 4 The drawing i n Figure 4 i l - l u s t r a t e s t h e "skipped d i s t a n c e " f e a t u r e s . T h i s i s a simple means of showing the various p o s s i b l e paths of t h e s h o r t waves a s t h e y depart from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna, reach t h e ionized l a y e r , and a r e r e f l e c t e d t o t h e e a r t h a t varying d i s t a n c e s . Frequencies above 6,000 kc. have a s i l e n t zone due t o t h e "skipping" of the wave, a t d i s t a n c e s varying up t o hundreds of miles i n t h e daytime and even thousands of miles a t night, depending on the frequency from the t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n . Because of the unc e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ~which t h e high frequenciesare prone t o d i s p l a y t h e valuesgiven i n the t a b l e are s u b j e c t t o d e v i a t i o n . The seasons, summer and w i n t e r , d a y and n i g h t , and d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e height of t h e Heaviside l a y e r a l l have t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l e f f e c t s on transmission d i s t a n c e . The curves i n Figure 5 i l l u s t r a t e t h i s . These curves a r e an approximation of t h e e f f e c t i v e mid-day sky wave f o r a l l seasons, a night sky wave f o r a l l seasons, a s k i p d i s t a n c e curve f o r summer mid-day and w i n t e r midnight, and an a l l season ground wave f o r n i g h t and day. Curve 1 shows t h e approximate d i s t a n c e versus f r e Lesson 64

- sheet

quencg f o r an a l l sea-son mid-day sky wave. Captain Hooper explained the use of t h e curves a s follows. For example : Given a d i s t a n c e 2200 miles f i n d t h e frequency t o produce a good readable s i g n a l a t t h e r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n . Verti c a l l y up from 2200 miles t o curve 1 and h o r i z o n t a l l y t o t h e l e f t , read 11,400 Kc. Given a c e r t a i n frequency t h e d i s t a n c e w i l l be found by the r e v e r s e process. The frequency and the d i s t a n c e a r e approximately a c c u r a t e when i n an east- west d i r e c t i o n , but t h e frequency and d i s t a n c e f o r n o r t h and south t r a n s mission nay vary g r e a t l y from t h e s e f i g u r e s . The approximate d i s t a n c e v e r s u s frequency f o r the n i g h t sky wave a t a l l seasons i s i l l u s t r a t e d by Curve 2. The curve l s r e a d i n t h e same manner as explained above. To produce a good readable s i g n a l a t a r e c e i v i n g s t a t i o n 2200 miles away when b o t h t h e r e c e i v i n g and t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n s a r e i n darkness, It i s found t h a t approximately 6000 kc. w i l l s u f f i c e . Also It i s probable t h a t any frequency between Curve 1 and Curve 2 a t 2200 miles w i l l s u f f i c e and the choice of frequency depends upon t h e experiment and t h e time of day. Greater d i s t a n c e s are covered by t h e lower frequencies a t n i g h t a s shown by t h i s curve. The frequency and d i s t a n c e f o r n o r t h and south transmission may vary somewhat from t h e above.

NO LONGER USEFUL hT MlONlGHT MID-WINTER.

DISTLINCE

- N A U T I C ~ LMILES Figure 5.

An approximation of s k i p d i s t a n c e versus frequency f o r mzdnight mid-winter i s The s k i p d i s t a n c e i s measured h o r i z o n t a l l y t o t h e r i g h t given i n Curve 3. from Curve 5. The s k i p d i s t a n c e a t any p a r t i c u l a r time of day or year w y v a r y between t h e h o r i z o n t a l on Curves 3 and 4. Skip d i s t a n c e versus frequency f o r mid-aay mid-summer i s shown i n Curve 4. The s k i p d i s t a n c e i s measured h o r i z o n t a l l y t o the r i g h t from Curve 5, Curves 3 and 4 are r e a d i n t h e same manner a s described aboveo The l a s t curve, No. 5, i s an approximation of d i s t a n c e versus frequency of t h e ground a t a l l seasons f o r n i g h t or day. The curve i s t o a l l i n t e n t s and purposes a ground Lesson 64

sheet 8

o compass work. Night e f f e c t may be expected. This urve as shown i s good f o r approximate day and night transmission. A i n n c r e a s e of power may be r e q u i r e d of t h e lower frequencies f o r t h e required distance

Short Wave Receiver. A photograph of a s h o r t wave r e c e i v e r appears i n Figure 6. W reproduce t h i s photograph through t h e c o u r t e s y of '$ e t' @. The inductances a r e f i t t e d w i t h plugs which provide e l e c t r i c a l contact and a l s o serve a s a means f o r mounting them i n the sockets. A s h o r t wave r e c e i v e r i s supplied w i t h s e v e r a l s e t s of inductances of d i f f e r e n t s i z e s and by i n t e r changing c o i l s t h e r e c e i v e r can be made t o cover a very wide frequency band. Although the frequency range of e a c h s e t of c o i l s i s l a r g e y e t t h e wavelength band i s small, a s may be a s c e r t a i n e d by r e f e r e n c e t o a frequency-wavelength conversion c h a r t . The c o i l s and other c i r c u i t elements r e q u i r e s p e c i a l c a r e i n t h e i r design and assembly i n order t h a t t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l behave i n a c o n s i s t e n t manner throughout the t u n i n g range. The radio- frequency l o s s e s i n a r e c e i v e r of

Figure 6 Lesson 64

sheet 9

t h i s type a r e much g r e a t e r t h a n when dealing with r e c e i v e r s operating on t h e higher wavelengths. A s h o r t wave s e t should be capable of o s c i l l a t i n g over i t s e n t i r e tuning range, t h a t i s t o say, t h e r e should be no n o n - o s c i l l a t i n g p o i n t s throughout the frequency spectrum covered by t h e r e c e i v e r . The d-c. power supplied t o a vacuum tube employed a s a r e g e n e r a t i v e d e t e c t o r i n a short-wave r e c e i v e r w i l l be converted i n t o a n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t of h i & frequency (c.w.) i n a manner e x a c t l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t of any o s c i l l a t o r tube when the proper feed-back of p l a t e energy i n t o g r i d c i r c u i t i s provided. There are s e v e r a l methods by which t h e amount of feed- back voltage introduced i n t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t can be c o n t r o l l e d , a s p r e v i o u s l y mentioned, t h r e e of which a r e shown i n Figures 1, 2 and 3. T h i s c o n t r o l of t h e p l a t e output i s e s s e n t i a l i n order t o allow the r e c e i v e r t o be e a s i l y and g r a d u a l l y changed from an o s c i l l a t i n g t o a n o n - o s c i l l a t i n g condition. The l a t t e r adjustment of t h e c i r c u i t permits t h e operator t o o b t a i n a l l of t h e advantages of regenerat i o n f o r the purpose of amplifying s h o r t wave broadcast s i g n a l s . O t h e n o t h e r hand, the c i r c u i t should be maintained i n an o s c i l l a t i n g condition when continuous wave s i g n a l s a r e t o be received.

Figure 7 I n t h e c i r c u i t i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 7 t h e coupling i s p u r e l y electromagnetic ( i n d u c t i v e ) between t h e antenna and secondary c o i l s . These c o i l s a r e shown a t t h e l e f t i n t h e photograph, Figure 6. There a r e c e r t a i n t y p e s of r e c e i v e r s which employ a small coupling condenser. The magnetic coupling allows a maximum t r a n s f e r of energy without aff,ecting t h e wavelength c a l i b r a t i o n . By changing t h e coupling, g r e a t e r s e l e c t i v i t y i s p o s s i b l e and i n t e r f e r e n c e from o u t s i d e induct i o n noises i s minimized. Harmonic t u n i n g i s a l s o possible when u s i n g magnetic coupling by connecting a v a r i a b l e condenser i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e antenna and coupling c o i l s . There a r e s e v e r a l advantages t o be gained by harmonic tuning a s follgws: One advantage i s t h a t a long antenna may be e r e c t e d which increases t h e inductance of the c i x c u i t and t h i s i n c r e a s e i n t h e antenna's e l e c t r i c a l l e n g t h n a t u r a l l y ~ e r G 3 . t a higher pick-up of s i g n a l s t r e n g t h . Also, ~ t h e tuning- in of t h i s energy c a n be acoomplished a t one of t h e antenna harmonics. The e f f e c t of harmonic tuning i s most n o t i c e a b l e on wavelengths i n which t h e fundamental or n a t u r a l p e r i o d of t h e antenna i s some m u l t i p l e of t h e wavelength of t h e s i g n a l received. Suppose t h a t t h e n a t u r a l period of an Lesson 64

- sheet 10

antenna, when connected t o one of t h e plug- in antenna coupling c o i l s , should be 300 meters, then, i n t h i s case t h e second harmonic would be 150 meters, the t h i r d harmonic 100 meters, the f o u r t h 75 meters, and so on. Accordirglyit i s p o s s i b l e t o a d j u s t an antenna, by using a c e r t a i n c o i l , so t h a t one of i t s harmonics f a l l s approximately on the wavelength of the s t a t i o n whose s i g n a l s a r e d e s i r e d . If w a d j u s t t h e coupling of t h e antenna e c o i l and secondary c o i l t o o close when tuning a short wave r e c e i v e r it would most l i k e l y cause o s c i l l a t i o n s t o cease a t t h e d i f f e r e n t harmonics. If t h i s should happen the c i r c u i t can again be s e t i n t o o s c i l l a t i o n by i n c r e a s i n g the r e g e n e r a t i o n which i n t h i s circumstance would be done by s l i g h t l y dec r e a s i n g the coupling. It w i l l be found t h a t s t r o n g e r s i g n a l s a r e obtained a t t h e s e resonant points t h a n on o t h e r wavelengths i n t h e tuning range. A good plan t o follow when tuning a s e t i s not t o plug t h e antenna c o i l i n i t s socket u n t i l a f t e r other adjustments have been made a s we have o u t l i n e d i n subsequent paragraphs. There i s p r a c t i c a l l y one i t a n d a r d t y p e of r e c e i v e r used i n s h o r t wave r e c e p t i o n . It employs a f i x e d t i c k l e r system, and a v a r i a b l e condenser (thr.ottle condenser ) t o c o n t r o l the amount of regeneration. A diagram of a popukar t y p e short-wave r e c e i v e r i s shown i n Figure 7. Placing a Short Wave Receiver i n Operation and General Description. The t u n i n g and r e n e n e r a t i o n c o n t r o l s should be 0-r~erated accordinn t o the s u m e s t i o n s given the following paragraphs. ~ h e s e simple r u l e s - a r e a p p l i c ~ ~ l e , i n genera$, t o any type of s h o r t wave r e c e i v e r using a f i x e d tickler'. Remember t h a t e f f i c i e n t tuning comes only with p r a c t i c e . The b e s t adjustments f o r r e c e i v i n g e i t h e r t e l e g r a p h i c s i g n a l s ( c o d e ) or phone messages i s a matter of experiment. A d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g of a f i x e d t i c k l e r and a t h r o t t l e condenser f o r r e g e n e r a t i o n c o n t r o l i s used i n our explanation. The schematic w i r i n g diagram i s given i n Figure 7. Smooth r e g e n e r a t i o n c o n t r o l i s e f f e c t e d by changes i n t h e throttle condenserfs c a p a c i t y while tuning i s but s l i g h t l y e f f e c t e d by t h i s method. I n b r i e f the f u n c t i o n of t h i s condenser i s t o l i m i t t h e amount of radio- frequency c u r r e n t i n t h e feed- back c i r c u i t , which i s the same t h i n g a s saying t h a t it l i m i t s t h e amount of regeneration.

in

Although t h e c i r c u i t shown i n t h e diagram employs only one s t a g e of a.f. a m p l i f i c a t i o n an a d d i t i o n a l s t a g e may be added i f d e s i r e d ; the connections t h e n would follow t h e u s u a l convention f o r such c i r c u i t s . The s i g n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s pass from the antenna sgstem t o t h e input c i r c u i t o f t h e f i r s t tube by means of t h e mutual inductance (magnetic coupling) between antenna c o i l Lp and g r i d c o i l Ls. The g r i d c o i l and condenser C3 comprise t h e tuned c i r c u i t and t h e r . f . v o l t a g e s e t up across condenser C3 i s applied between g r i d and filament. The maximum c a p a c i t y of C 3 i s ,00025 mfd. Regeneration i s made p o s s i b l e through t h e fixed coupling between p l a t e c o i l T and g r i d c o i l Ls but t h e a c t u a l amount of t h i s regeneration i s governed by t h e It i s t h e f u n c t i o n of t h i s condenser adjustment of the t h r o t t l e condenser C 1 . t o l i m i t the amount of radio- frequency c u r r e n t i n t h e feed-back c i r c u i t . Changing t h i s condenser's c a p a c i t y causes it t o o f f e r more or l e s s opposition t o t h e h i g h rrequencies. The condenser's opposition i s t e c h n i c a l l y known a s e i t s r e a c t a n c e ( c a p a c i t y r e a c t a n c e ) . So when w s a y t h a t a condenser o f f e r s more or l e s s opposition t o c u r r e n t s of d i f f e r e n t frequencies m could express e Lesson 64

sheet 1 1

However, it should be borne i n mind t h a t t h i s condenser adjustment i s not c r i t i c a l and, when once s e t , the c i r c u i t should o s c i l l a t e over t h e tuning range without d i f f i c u l t y . The tube should go i n and out of o s c i l l a t i o n slowly, not a b r u p t l y when changing from an o s c i l l a t i n g t o a n o n - o s c i l l a t i n g conditions. !?rhen a short-wave r e c e i v e r i s f i r s t placed i n operation both the wavelength and .regeneration d i a l s should be s e t a t z e r o , followed by r o t a t i n g the r e g e n e r a t i o n d i a l approximately one- third the d i s t a n c e a c r o s s the d i a l s c a l e u d t i l an i n d i c a t i o n of o s c i l l a t i o n i s heard i n the telephone. A simple t e s t which w i l l i n d i c a t e t o you whether or not a r e c e i v e r i s o s c i l l a t i n g i s t o touch the g r i d s i d e of the secondary c o i l ; i f a c l i c k i s heard i n t h e telephones e a c h time contact i s made between your f i n g e r and condenser p l a t e t h e r e c e i v e r i s o s c i l l a t i n g . After reaching the c r i t i c a l point a t which o s c i l l a t i o n s t a r t s , the r e g e n e r a t i o n d i a l should be moved a few p o i n t s h i g h e r f o r s t a b l e operation. N w a f t e r the o above tuning adjustments have been made, plug i n t h e antenna coupling c o i l with t h e antenna connected t o t h e r e c e i v e r . W i t h t h e antenna c o i l separated from the secondary c o i l by about 2 inches as shown i n Figure 6, you may f i n d t h a t t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s have stopped. I n t h i s case the r e g e n e r a t i o n d i a l should be a g a i n r o t a t e d a few degress beyond t h i s s e t t i n g . I f t h i s i s not s u f f i c i e n t t o s t a r t the o s c i l l a t i o n s , a decrease of coupling between t h e antenna c o i l and secondary c o i l may be necessary. With the r e c e i v e r o s c i l l a t i n g , i t w i l l be found that; when moving the waveaength d i a l from-zero t o maximum, t h e r e ceiver s t o p s o s c i l l a t i n g a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the secondary c i r c u i t i s i n resonance w i t h e i t h e r the fundamental frequency of the antenna c i r c u i t or one of i t s harmonics. It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t the wavelengths most f r e q u e n t l y used by t h e operator may f a l l on one of t h e n o n - o s c i l l a t i n g p o i n t s , and i f t h i s occurs i t w i l l be necessary t o a l t e r the s i z e of t h e antenna, e i t h e r lengthening or shortening it t o permit o s c i l l a t i o n t o be maintained again. Reducing the coupling may a l s o s h i f t the n o h - o s c i l l a t i n g dead p o i n t s , but t h i s i n t u r n w i l l decrease t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h . Also, by i n c r e a s i n g r e generation t o a higher point t h i s undesirable c o n d i t i o n may be overcome. I n b r i e f , t h e r e are two ways of s h i f t i n g t h e deak spot t o make t h e d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t o s c i l l a t e over t h e e n t i r e range of t h e d i a l , ' e i t h e r by i n s e r t i n g a c o i l or a condenser i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e antenna, with a switch provided t o cut these elements i n or out a s d e s i r e d . Dead s p o t s are o f t e n due t o t h e use of i n e f f i c i e n t choke c o i l s i n t h e d e t e c t o r p l a t e lead. A choke c o i l w i t h a v e r y low impedance a t c e r t a i n frequencies i n t h e s h o r t wave band w i l l a c t a s a s h o r t c i r c u i t f o r t h e t u b e r s high frequency output and thus prevent t h e s e t o s c i l l a t i n g . The obvious remedy i n a case of t h i s kind i s t h e use of a good choke.

t h i s i n terms o f reactance.

It may be necessary t o a l t e r t h e d e t e p t o r p l a t e voltage, when interchanging plug- in inductances, f o r some r e q u i r e more voltage t h a n others.
The short wave r e c e i v e r i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 7 shows t h e p l a t e c o i l T magneti c a l l y coupled t o t h e secondary c o i l L s , both c o i l s being i n a f i x e d mechanical r e l a t i o n , thus providing the r e q u i s i t e feed-back energy from t h e output t o the i n p u t , a s previously s t a t e d . The coupling between antenna c o i l Lp and seconda r y c o i l Ls i s inductive and v a r i a b l e . The g r i d - l e a k r e s i s t a n c e should be comparatively high, otherwise squealing and howling may occur, and t h e c i r c u i t i n general be made u n s t a b l e i n operation. The c o r r e c t value i s found ezperimentally. W might suggest t h a t t h e values of l e a k r e s i s t a n c e s , i n general, e Lesson 64

sheet 12

used f o r t h i s work range from 2 t o 10 megohms. Sometimes a leak r e s i s t a n c e value of about 2 t o 5 megohms w i l l be found b e s t while i n other i n s t a n c e s h i g h values would be r e q u i r e d . The o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of the main tuning condenser C3 shunted a c r o s s the sec.ondary c o i l Ls. A v a r i a b l e condenser C2 of low capacitance i s connected i n shunt w i t h C3 t o provide a v e r n i e r c o n t r o l f o r f i n e tuning. Although each plug- in c o i l covers a l a r g e frequency range, t h e small v a r i a b l e a i r condenser C2 permits a close frequency v a r i a t i o n which i s c a l l e d a b e a t frequency control. The r e g e n e r a t i o n or t h r o t t l e condenser C 1 connecte,l between the filament and t h e t i c k l e r c o i l i s adjusted whenever an increase or It f u n c t i o n s a s follows: The regeneradecrease i n r e g e n e r a t i o n i s desired. t i o n c o n t r o l o r t h r o t t l e condenser C 1 should be held a t a point where o s c i l l a t i o n s are j u s t maintained when r e c e i v i n g CW or ICW. It w i l l be found t h a t the maxirmun response i n t h e telephones w i l l be r e c e i v e d f o r a weak s i g n a l a t t h i s p o i n t , because, a s s e t f o r t h i n one of o u r e a r l y l e s s o n s on the s u b j e c t of r e g e n e r a t i o n , f e e b l e c u r r e n t s a r e amplified i n i n t e n s i t y a g r e a t many more times than a s t r o n g s i g n a l f o r t h e same adjustment of r e g e n e r a t i o n . O the other hand, when i t i s d e s i r e d t o r e c e i v e broadcasting, it i s necesn s a r y t o place t h e r e c e i v e r i n a n o n - o s c i l l a t i n g c o n d i t i o n , a s previously s t a t e d . This can be clone by a d j u s t i n g t h e t h r o t t l e condenser j u s t below t h e p o i n t where o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e maintained, o r a t a p o i n t where t h e c i r c u i t i s rendered incapable of producing o s c i l l a t i o n s , f o r t h i s provides a maximum regeneration. I n other words, the capacitance of C1 i s varied u n t i l i t s r e actance or opposition t o t h e radio- frequency component of t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o prevent o s c i l l a t i o n s and y e t allows only a l i m i t e d amount of energy t o pass through; j u s t enough i n order t o give maximum r e g e n e r a t i v e a m p l i f i c a t i o n . Adjustment of the filament c u r r e n t by t h e f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t provides another method f o r obtaining maximum r e g e n e r a t i o n . This r e c e i v e r f u n c t i o n s as' a s t r a i g h t r e g e n e r a t i v e c i r c u i t w i t h feed- back provided by t h e p l a t e c o i l , when i t i s n o t o s c i l l a t i n g . One stage of audio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n may be added t o the short-wave r e c e i v e r as suggested i n t h e diagram making it a two tube r e c e i v e r , c o n s i s t i n g of a regenerative d e t e c t o r and audio amplifier. T h i s c i r c u i t f u n c t i o n s s i m i l a r l y t o any audio- frequency a m p l i f i e r i n b u i l d i n g up a s i g n a l of s a t i s f a c t o r y n volume. The a c t i o n of t h e audio a m p l i f i e r , b r i e f l y , i s a s follows: A a l t e r n a t i n g e.m.f. i s induced i n the secondary of t h e audio- frequency t r a n s former AF due t o t h e changing magnetism s e t up about primary c o i l P. The g r i d In turn the of the audio a m p l i f i e r tube i s charged with t h i s s i g n a l voltage. s i g n a l i s repeated i n the p l a t e c i r c u i t by v a r i a t i o n s i n p l a t e c u r r e n t ; such v a r i a t i o n s must f a i t h f u l l y r e c o r d the audio wave form and the frequency of t h e input energy t o t h e g r i d . This i s the a c t i o n of a l l a m p l i f i e r s . The changing magnetism i n the phone windings caused by t h e f l u c t u a t i n g p l a t e c u r r e n t i n t h e a m p l i f i e r s output a c t s upon t h e diaphragms of the t e l e p h o n e , r e c e i v e r s causing them t o v i b r a t e . To prevent t h e a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t from breaking i n t o s e l f - o s c i l l a t i o n i t i s suggested t h a t approximately 67.5 v o l t s or l e s s of "B" b a t t e r y voltage be used on t h e p l a t e s , and t h e f i l a m e n t voltage c a r e f u l l y adjusted.
A radio- frequency choke c o i l i s shown i n s e r t e d i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e d e t e c t o r

Lesson 64

sheet 13

p l a t e c i r c u i t t o prevent l o s s e s of radio- frequency through t h e leads connecting t o the power supply. I n some s h o r t wave r e c e i v e r s , t h e r.f. choke c o i l i s replaced by a high r e s i s t a n c e of approximately 25,000 ohms. A radio- frequency choke c o i l can be e a s i l y constructed by c l o s e l y winding 110 t u r n s of No. 40 DCC wire i n a s i n g l e l a y e r on a tubing of i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l 2 inches long. Winding data f o r s i x s e t s of plug- in inductances a r e t a b u l a t e d herewith i n order t o suggest t h e approximate s i z e of wire and number of t u r n s necessary f o r the coverage of given wavelength bands. The coSresponping frequency range i s a l s o given. Only an approximation can be given because the tuning range i s governed by the c a p a c i t y of the tuning condenser used. a s w have e s t a t e d before. The range of wavelengths which c e r t a i n c o i l s w i l l cover depends mainly upon the maximurn c a p a c i t y of t h e tunfng condenser shunted a c r o s s t h e c o i l . To give you some i d e a of t h e wide variance i n t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e capacity and c o i l versus wavelength band w have s e t f o r t h i n t h e paragraph following e below a few cases f o r comparison. The inductances a r e made up i n d i f f e r e n t forms according t o t h e preferences of a designer. W have t h e solenoid type, sometimes r e f e r r e d t o a s the s i n g l e e l a y e r wound, the basket weave t y p e , e t c . A l l c o i l s a r e designed w i t h the view of lowering t h e i r d i s t r i b u t e d capacity t o prevent h i g h frequency l o s s e s . Basket weave or Lorenze c o i l s have a low d i s t r i b u t e d c a p a c i t y but t h e r e i s a s l i g h t l y smaller magnetic f i e l d b u i l t up around t h e s e c o i l s on account of t h e space winding, than i s t h e case i n l a y e r wound c o i l s .

It should be remembered t h a t t h e range of wavelengths which c e r t a i n c o i l s w i l l cover depends upon the maximum c a p a c i t y of the tuning condenser which i s shunted across it.
Other refinements may be included, such a s a movable t i c k l e r coil. s. The r o t a r y condenser p l a t e s p r i n c i p a l l y f o r i n i t i a l ad justrLlent n e c t t o the filament s i d e of the c i r c u i t i n order t o cut down the e f f e c t , and grounding of t h e filament c i r c u i t may be necessary i n t o be used s h o ~ l dconbody c a p a c i t y some cases.

The plug- in inductances g e n e r a l l y used with s h o r t wave r e c e i v e r s are of t h e f l a t l a y e r solenoid type, wound on notched r i b forms, or narrow b a r s of h i g h grade i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l . The basket weave (Lorenze) type i s another form of winding i n wide use, i t s p a r t i c u l a r form gives it mechanical strength, and because it i s s e l f - supporting it r e q u i r e s only the use of an i n s u l a t e d bar t o hold the terminal pins f o r making e l e c t r i c a l connection t o t h e jack plugs. Some i d e a of t h i s dependence of frequency range upon the s i z e of a c o i l and the capacitance a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it can be obtained i f we c i t e but a few examples a s follows: The values given a r e only w i t h t h e understanding t h a t they w i l l d i f f e r when v a r i o u s types of c o i l s a r e used i n t h e r e c e i v e r , a s f o r example, the solenoid or s i n g l e l a y e r wo.und c o i l , basket weave and other popular types

Lesson 64

sheet 14

WIRE DATA F R PLUG-IN INDUCTANCE C O ' I L S O

C o i l : Frequency Band: Corresponding :No. of Turns:No. of Turns:No. of Turns: : Kilocycles :Wavelength Band: on t h e : onthe : onthe : Meters : Tickler : Primary : Secondary :

A enameled No. 28 wire i s used f o r t h e t i c k l e r and primary windings, and No. n 20 wire f o r t h e secondary of a l l c o i l s . The t u r n s are space-wound t o lower t h e i r d i s t r i b u t e d capacitance and a r e wound on a form 3 inches i n diameter. The r e c e i v i n g c i r c u i t j u s t described i s known a s a r e g e n e r a t i v e d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t w i t h one s t a g e of audio a m p l i f i c a t i o n , and i s p r a c t i c a l l y standard f o r short-wave work. A vacuum t u b e c i r c u i t used s o l e l a s a combined d e t e c t o r , o s c i l l a t o r and a m p l i f i e r i s known g e n e r a l l y a s an {autodyne" c i r c u i t .
'LIFIER 2 PLUG-IN ,'INDUCTANCE REGENERATIVE ,DETECTOR UX-201-A

VOLUME CONTROCI

AUDIO hVPLIFIER UX-101-A

AUDIO AMPLIFIER ux-2Ol.A

GROUND T FRAME OR O METAL PANEL.NO GROUND REIIUIRED IN SOM E cesrs.

4.5".

-C

& & & & & A &

+A

6 VOLTS

-A-B+C +45V.

+67kv. +9DV.
SCREEN

+B 135V.

GRID

Figure 8
A schematic diagram and c i r c u i t c o n s t a n t s of a f o u r tube s e t employing t h e s c r e e n g r i d tube i n t h e r.f. s t a g e i s given i n Figure 8. You w i l l immediately recognize t h a t the r e g e n e r a t i v e d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t i s arranged s i m i l a r t o t h e

Lesson 64

- sheet 15

c i r c u i t shown.in Figure 2. The a d d i t i o n of a radio- frequency s t a g e and two audio s t a g e s does ,not m a t e r i a l l y a l t e r t h e p r i n c i p l e s involved i n t h e use of the regenerative detector. i n conjunction w i t h a t e l e v i s o r f o r the r e c e p t i o n and r e p r o d u c t i o n of moving o b j e c t s and scenes. It r e q u i r e s a broad band of f r e q u e n c i e s t o accomplish t e l e v i s i o n and f o r t h i s c l a s s of s e r v i c e s p e c i a l channels must be a l l o c a t e d by the Radio Commission. The modulating f r e q u e n c i e s used i n t h i s work may include i n some i n s t a n c e s a band between 80 t o 500 kc. i n width. In gene,ral t h e number of " d o t s " t o each p i c t u r e and t h e number of complete p i c t u r e s t r a n s m i t t e d each second determine t h e p e r f e c t i o n of d e f i n i t i o n of the image reproduce ? by t h e r e c e i v i n g s e t .
c

A s h o r t wave s e t may be coupled t o a s p e c i a l audio amplifying system t o work

Antenna. A outdoor a n t e m a of most any shape or dimensions w i l l pick up n 40 80 meter s u f f i c i e n t energy t o g i v e good readable s i g n a l s i n t h e 20 A v e r t i c a l antenna i s not considered a s e f f i c i e n t and o t h e r s h o r t wave bands. a s one having both h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n s . Whenever l o c a l condit i o n s perriit it i s a good p l a n t o e l e v a t e t h e a e r i a l wire a s h i g h a s p o s s i b l e i t ? a f r e e unobstructed space, and c l e a r of a l l energy obsorbing bodies. The l e n g t h of t h e wire i s not c r i t i c a l and i n most i n s t a l l a t i o n s you would f i n d t h a t a wire from about 20 t o 60 f e e t would prove s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h i s purpose. long antenna f o r s h o r t wave work i s not necessary. I n s u l a t o r s having a h i g h d i e l e c t r i c s t r e n g t h , such a s g l a s s i n s u l a t o r s , reduce high- frequency l o s s e s and should be used a t a l l p o i n t s of support.

).

Legend and C i r c u i t Constants f o r Receiver shown i n Figure 8.

A

Antenna C o i l . The incoming s i g n a l c u r r e n t s e t s up a voltage drop a c r o s s "A" which i s applied between g r i d and f i l a m e n t of t h e r . f . a m p l i f i e r . This c o i l i s of t h e plug- in type. Tuning Inductance T i c k l e r Inductance

L1
L2

Plug- in t y p e .

Plug- in type.

~3 R.F. Choke. A choke s u i t a b l e f o r s h o r t wave work should range i n inductance value from approximately 85 t o 250 m i l l i h e n r i e s .
C 1

Short Wave Variable Tuning Condenser Plug- in t y p e o p t i o n a l . Generally c a l l e d a midget condenser. If not of t h e plugLin type (i.e., t h e condenser i s permanently wired i n ) t h e n u s u a l l y i t s maximum c a p a c i t y should be about .00015 mfd. Grid condenser

C2

.000100 t o .000150 mfd.

C3
C4

Fixed By-pass condenser 2000 mmfd (.002 mfd.) Fixed By-pass condenser ,003 mfd. (3000 mmfd.) Fixed By-pass condenser Lesson 64

C5

- s h e e t 16

AE RO

AERO CHOKE $ 6 0

SHORT WAVE ADAPTER F O R BATTERY OPERATED RECEIVER

4 PRONG TUBE BASE----

SHORT WAVE ADAPTER FOR A. C. OPERATED RECEIVER

Lesson 64

- sheet

17

RRRR
RG

Filament b a l l a s t r e s i s t o r s of .25 ampere type used t o automatically r e g u l a t e t h e f i l a m e n t voltage. (This value depends upon t h e type t u b e ) Regenerat ion Control. Volume Control. Variable r e s i s t a n c e 50,000 ohms.

RV

Variable r e s i s t a n c e 200,000 ohms.

RD GL T1

Biasing R e s i s t o r of from 10 t o 1 5 ohms. Furnishes a small b i a s t o the c o n t r o l g r i d of t h e Pour- electrode tube UX-22.2. Grid Leak Resistance. From 2 t o 10 megohms.

e: T2

High grade audio transformers.

EXAMINATION

- LESSON 64

What i s thought t o be the cause of t h e s k i p d i s t a n c e phenomenon e x p e r i enced i n high frequency transmission and r e c e p t i o n ? H w many a d j u s t a b l e condensers a r e used i n t h e average t y p e of short o wave r e c e i v e r ? B r i e f l y , what purpose does each one f u l f i l l i n t h e s e t ?

Of what advantage i s a coil- condenser combination of t h e plug- in type?

Draw schematic diagrams showing two methods comonly used f o r t h e cont r o l of regeneration. What wavelengths would you include i n the s h o r t wave and long wave bands? What does t h e t a b l e o f values given on s h e e t 6 i n d i c a t e t o you?

Given a d i s t a n c e 3500 miles f i n d t h e frequency t o produce a good readable s i g n a l a t t h e d i s t a n t receiving s t a t i o n ? I s your answer a b s o l u t e l y c o r r e c t f o r a l l conditions? ( a ) Is t h e r e any advantages t o bs gained by harmonic tuning? Give ( b ) Why i s magnetic coupling between t h e antenna c o i l and reasons. t h e g r i d c o i l u s u a l l y employed i n short wave s e t s ? S t a t e as many p o i n t s a s you can t h i n k of i n t h e p l a c i n g of a s e t i n operation and t u n i n g . Answer t h i s a s though you were giving i n s t r u c t i o n s i n t h e o p e r a t i o n of an average t y p e s h o r t wave c i r c u i t . h ( a ) W y F s a smooth c o n t r o l of r e g e n e r a t i o n e s s e n t i a l i n c i r c u i t s of t h i s type? ( b ) Draw a schematic diagram of a f o u r tube r e c e i v e r employing the screen g r i d type tube f o r t h e r.f. a m p l i f i e r .

Lesson 64

- sheet 18

Technical Lesson 65
TELEVISION

- PART I

For y e a r s t h e world has produced men endowed with keen p e n e t r a t i n g minds whose ambition it was t o o r i g i n a t e d e v i c e s t h a t would be of a s s i s t a n c e t o f a c u l t i e s a l r e a d y possessed by man. To s u c c e s s f u l l y work along t h e s e l i n e s and conduct i n t e l l i g e n t r e s e a r c h they have i n many Instances drawn upon t h e p a t t e r n s l a i d out by nature. The a c t i o n of t h e telephone invented by Alexander Graham B e l l , f o r i n s t a n c e , i m i t a t e s t h e a c t i o n of t h e human e a r drum and because of t h e development of this inventio~l the human e a r i s , f i g u r a t i v e l y speaking, capable of h e a r i n g sounds which o r i g i n a t e a t t h e ends of t h e world. Before a v i a t i o n progressed t o i t s p r e s e n t s t a t e of development, hours upon hours were spent by e n g i n e e r s i n observing t h e f l i g h t of b i r d s , obviously a study of nature.
SCLEROTIC COAT CHOROlD COAT

I
2' I'

Figure ' 1 and g r e a t e r e x t e n s i o n of s i g h t beyond t h a t possessed by t h e human eye ys been a goal of s c i e n t i s t s . T h i s was given an impetus by Galilee loped a t e l e s c o p e w i t h which he discovered t h e s a t e l l i t e s of J u p i t whose time modern physics may be s a i d t o have begun.

I does not r e q u i r e any g r e a t s t r e t c h of t h e lmgination, t h e r e f o r e , t o r e a l i z e t t h a t ' s c i e n t i s t s f o r y e a r s have d i r e c t e d t h e i r s t u d i e s along a l i n e of thought . whereby e x i s t i n g models, b o t h a r t i f i c a l and n a t u r a l , have been drawn upon t o f u r n i s h information l e a d i n g t o c e r t a i n d e s i r e d r e s u l t s .
So, i n t h e study of t e l e v i s i o n , we s h a l l f i n d that. i t s progress has been slow. Cen%enta Copyrighted 1930.
~

..

i.! .

.:P.vi&&..%n .U..%.A.

-.,

..

.;, ...... .: ,.

:+ ...: L; ,.

. :.:-. . ...,......

.... .

W s h a l l a l s o l e a r n t h a t c o n t r i b u t i o n s have come from many sources, which a t e t h e i r time were perhaps remote from t h e goal b u t , n e v e r t h e l e s s , progressing toward a c e n t r a l point o u t of which t h e necessary information was obtained t o c o n s t r u c t apparatus t h a t would allow t h e eye t o s e e a n image beyond t h e b a r r i e r s of l i g h t waves. A t t h e very s t a r t , t h e r e f o r e , we w i l l begin our study by f i r s t becoming acquainted with t h e marvelous system of t e l e v i s i o n provided t h e human eye. by n a t u r e

Here, without question, i s a p a r t of n a t u r e t s hanalwork which a t the o f f s e t i s a marvelous development. W a r e able t o account f o r c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s of e t h e human eye, but t r u e t o n a t u r e s method of doing t h i n g s she allows t h e puny mind of man t o g o j u s t s o f a r ; t h e r e t h e c u r t a i n i s drawn and we are l e f t t o conjectures. Figure 1 i s a cross s e c t i o n of t h e eye which shows t h e p a r t s of immediate i n t e r e s t t o u s ; The Cornea, Aqueous Humor, Iris, Lens, Vitreous I-Iumor, R e t i n a , S c l e r o t i c c o a t , Choroid coat and t h e Optic nerve. The cornea i s a bulging t r a n s p a r e n t t i s s u e which forms a round window a t t h e f r o n t of t h e eye b a l l admitting l i g h t t o t h e lens. The amount of l i g h t t h u s admitted i s c o n t r o l l e d by the i r i s , i n t h e c e n t e r of which i s an opening c a l l e d t h e " pupil" . The i r i s i s composed of muscle f i b e r s capable of expanding and c o n t r a c t i n g t h u s changing the s i z e of t h e pupil. I f t h e eye i s d i r e c t e d t o ward a source of s t r o n g l i g h t t h e s e muscles a c t i n a r e f l e x manner t o cause t h e i r i s t o c o n t r a c t end i n t h i s way closing t h e p u p i l aperture. When i n a dim l i g h t t h e p u p i l i s opened by t h e s e muscles so a s t o adsnit a l l the l i g h t p o s s i b l e . Immediately back of t h e p u p i l i s the l e n s , t h e shape of which i s changed by the a c t i o n of a s e t of muscles i n order t h a t i t may bring t o a focus upon the r e t i n a t h e l i g h t r a y s p r o c e e d k g from an o b j e c t t o which t h e eye may be d i r e c t e d , and thus form an image upon t h e r e t i n a or screen, a s it may be c a l l e d . The r e t i n a , a d e l i c a t e membrance, i s composed of an enormous n ~ b e of minute c e l l s each connected t o the b r a i n by nerve filaments over r which t h e b r a i n r e c e i v e s t h e impulse. J u s t how t h i s impulse of t h e i n v e r t e d image thrown upon t h e c e l l s of t h e r e t i n a i s generated i s not known but from some s c i e n t i f i c sources t h e a c t i o n i s conceded t o be caused by the presence of a l i g h t s e n s i t i v e f l u i d i n t h e c e l l s of t h e r e t i n a . This f l u i d , present i n t h e m i l l i o n s of minute c e l l s , i s a f f e c t e d by the l i g h t r a y s impinged upon it and an extremely f i n e mosaic image of the o b j e c t i s b u i l t up i n varying degrees of l i g h t and d e l i c a t e shadings. The aqueous humor i s a w a t t e r y f l u i d while t h e v i t r e o u s humor i s a f l u i d of j e l l y l i k e consistency. The two humors a c t t o keep t h e e y e b a l l distended and a l s o a c t with the l e n s t o form a r e a l i n v e r t e d image upon t h e r e t i n a . he choroicl coat immediately back of the r e t i n a i s i n t e n s e l y black and absorbes a l l t h e l i g h t r a y s r e f l e c t e d i n t e r n a l l y . The s c l e r o t i c coat ( a n opaque l i n i n g ) covers t h e choroid coat i n back of t h e eye b a l l and forms t h e cornea i n f r o n t of t h e eye b a l l . When t h e eye l i d i s opened and o b j e c t s before us a r e suf f i c i e n t l y illuminated, o r t h e o b j e c t i s a s e l f luminous body, v i s i o n i s the result,

A l l t h e senses with which man i s endowed are important b u t the two which stand e out i n our s t u d i e s a r e t h e sense of "hearing n and t h e sense of " s i g h t " . I f w

Lesson 65

sheet 2

were allowed t o r e t a i n only one of the two w would no doubt choose s i g h t bee cause, w i t h s i g h t , m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s t a k e on a concrete form. Impressions conveyed t o the mind by t h e eyes make l a s t i n g r e c o r d s , and perhaps t o a g r e a t e r degree on our conscious mind than w r i t i n g o r t h e sounds of a language. To be able t o see immediately allows us t o mentally g r a s p t h a t which i s being unfolded before u s t o a much g r e a t e r degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n than t h e spoken o r w r i t t e n word i s capable of i n a s s h o r t a time. For ages man has t o i l e d and s t u d i e d i n an e f f o r t t o improve the means given him by nature t o b e t t e r s e e o b j e c t s , and most e s p e c i a l l y o b j e c t s beyond normal range of v i s i o n ( t h e unseen). It i s unnecessary t o say t h a t attempts t o change the human eye t o produce g r e a t e r v i s i o n i s a dangerous undertaking and would be sure t o f a i l , t h e r e f o r e , t h e only t h i n g t h a t could be done was t o copy n a t u r e and produce an a r t i f i c i a l device t h a t would extend the range of vf sion. The study of how t h i s was accomplished i s i n t e r e s t i n g f o r it b r i n g s t o us f i r s t hand t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of science which have been a p p l i e d t o t e l e v i s i o n , and a l s o t h e various d i v i s i o n s of s c i e n t i f i c thought c a l l e d upon t o solve the problen,, such a s l i g h t , o p t i c s , chemistry, mechanics and e l e c t r i c i t y . Close a t t e n t i o n w i l l be r e q u i r e d i n t h i s study t o enable the student t o recognize the c l o s i n g of the l i n k s i n t h e chain of d i s c o v e r i e s ,.some of which were? perhaps, remote from t h e s u b j e c t of t e l e v i s i o n a t the time, but e v e n t u a l l y doing t h e i r share i n t h e development.
It seems f a i r l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t magnifying g l a s s e s were unknown t o the a n c i e n t s . Pliny, a Roman, i n h i s h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g s t e l l s u s of t h e use of c r y s t a l globes f i l l e d w i t h water which were employed a s c a u t e r i z i n g agents by b r i n g i n g the r a y s of the sun t o a f o c u s on t h e wound t o be c a u t e r i z e d . In o t h e r Roman h i s t o r y w l e a r n t h a t l e t t e r s seen through a g l a s s f i l l e d w i t h water ape peared enlarged but i n d i s t i n c t . N attempt, however. was made t o e x p l a i n t h i s o phenomenon a t t h e time.

Perhaps the e a r l i s t known record r e l a t i n g t o t h e invention of l e n s e s user! a s s p e c t a c l e s i s t h a t appearing i n a manuscript from Florence, dated 1299. The year 1285 a l s o i s considered by some w r i t e r s t o be t h e d a t e when spectacle l e n s e s were f i r s t known and it was l a t e r discovered t h a t a F l o r e n t i n e , Salvino Armati, was the inventor. Something of the s c i e n c e of o p t i c s , t h e r e f o r e , must have been known a t t h i s e a r l y d a t e which t e l l s us t h a t t h e s e men had, t o a c e r t a i n degree, knowledge of l i g h t . Our f i r s t knowledge of l e n s e s came from t h e s e a n c i e n t s and s i n c e t h e use of l e n s e s and l i g h t a r e both important i n t e l e v i s i o n we, t o o , must know something of t h e behavior of l i g h t r a y s when passed through mediums of o p t i c a l d e n s i t y . i What i n Light - - A Study d n fOvtics.n we f i n d st hthet meaning of "tthoe i lword i " laitgeh tor' ? t o I become searching f o r a e i n i t i o a i t means, lum n
t

luminoust'. If an o b j e c t i s i l l u m i n a t e d a disturbance i n the e t h e r i s c r e a t e d which a f f e c t s , t o a marked degree, one of the organs of our body; namely, t h e eye. From t h i s w can s a y t h a t l i g h t i s the e x t e r n a l cause of t h e s e n s a t i o n e of s i g h t . T h i s would l e a d us t o b e l i e v e t h a t l i g h t i s necessary t o enable e u s t o see. This i s a c o r r e c t b e l i e f a s w s h a l l soon l e a r n . e There a r e luminous and non-luminous bodies. Under the f i r s t heading w have t h e sun, e l e c t r i c lamps, a r c lamps, candles, the heated f i l a m e n t s of your e vacuum tubes, and so on. Under non-luminous bodies w have t h e moon, wood Lesson 65

sheet 3

and i r o n a s common examples. A luminous body, t h e n , i s one which throws out l i g h t , while a non-luminous body becomes v i s i b l e only a f t e r it has received l i g h t from a luminous body and r e f l e c t s t h i s l i g h t t o t h e eye. When you go t o your room a t n i g h t and snap on t h e e l e c t r i c switch c o n t r o l l i n g t h e c u r r e n t supply t o an e l e c t r i c lamp the o b j e c t s i n t h e room r e c e i v e l i g h t , p a r t of which i s absorbed and p a r t r e f l e c t e d . From t h i s we o b t a i n our d e f i n i t i o n o f the term " i l l u m i n a t i o n " because the f i l a m e n t of the e l e c t r i c lamp, nermally a non-luminous body, has been transformed t o a c o n d i t i o n of incandescence by an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t and changed i n t o a luminous body which e m i t s l i g h t , and i n t u r n i l l u m i n a t e s the o b j e c t s about t h e room. The l i g h t t h u s c r e a t e d follows c e r t a i n laws, f o r example, a substance such a s a i r or c l e a r g l a s s w i l l allow l i g h t t o p a s s through i t , and we s a y t h a t such substances a r e t r a n s p a r e n t . Ground g l a s s , t h i n s h e e t s of paper and o i l e d paper are substances which do not provide a p e r f e c t passage f o r l i g h t waves. They a r e termed t r a n s l u c e n t substances. Under t h e opaque c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w f i n d many substances e such a s i r o n , wood, s h e e t s of cardboard, and s o on, which w i l l not allow l i g h t an important phase t o pass. This brings u s t o t h e s t u d y of how l i g h t t r a v e l s of t h e work because it has a g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t e l e v i s i o n .

Physical o p t i c s embraces a study which a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n , by hypothesis, t h e p h y s i c a l , n a t u r e of l i g h t while geometrical o p t i c s d e a l s with t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of l i g h t based upon fundamental f a c t s which have been e s t a b l i s h e d by e x p e r i ment and observation. It i s w i t h the l a t t e r t h a t w s h a l l i n t e r e s t ourselves. e Light t r a v e l s i n s t r a i g h t l i n e s through any medium t h a t i s t r a n s p a r e n t and of uniform densi'ty. This f a c t i s evident because of common phenomena which i s f a m i l i a r t o everyone. Sunlight streaming through a crack or knot hole i n a b a r n , or any b u i l d i n g t h a t i s otherwise dark, i l l u m i n a t e s t h e p a r t i c l e s of d u s t f l o a t i n g i n the a i r and forms s t r a i g h t l i n e s of l i g h t . Another example i s t o place a large opaque substance, such a s a cardboard, between your eyes and some i l l u m i n a t e d o b j e c t , t h u s preventing you from seeing t h e object. With nothing more t h a n an ordinary wax candle and a piece of cardboard a simple device can be constructed t o again show t h a t l i g h t t r a v e l s i n s t r a i g h t l i n e s . Figure 2 shows the arrangement. It i s seen t h a t an image of t h e candle flame appears upon t h e screen. This image i s formed by t h e r a y s of l i g h t coming from t h e candle flame i t s e l f and since a l l the l i g h t t h a t forms up the image e n t e r s through the p i n hole i n t h e cardboard a l l t h e r a y s t h a t are n o t p a r r a l l e l must c r o s s i n passing through t h e h o l e . From t h i s w f i n d t h a t t h e l i g h t r a y s proe ceeding from t h e t o p of t h e candle flame f orms i t s image a t t h e bottom of t h e s'creen; t h e r a y s from t h e bottom of t h e flame s t r i k e s the t o p of the s c r e e n ; t h e r a y s from t h e r i g h t of the flame appears a t t h e l e f t , and t h e rays from t h e l e f t of t h e flame t a k e s i t s p o s i t i o n on t h e r i g h t of the s c r e e n , thus e f f e c t i n g a complete r e v e r s a l of the image.
If t h e arrangement of Figure 2 i s made i n t o t h e form of a c l o s e d box, a s shown i n Figure 3, we have what i s c a l l e d a " pin hole camera" with which e x c e l l e n t

p i c t u r e s may be t a k e n i f s e n s i t i z e d photographic paper i s used a s a screen and t h e exposure i s s u f f i c i e n t l y long. This was known a s e a r l y a s 1550 by t h e s c h o l a r s of Louvain, a s e a t of l e a r n i n g i n Belgium, and was employed t o study t h e e c l i p s e s of the sun. Here w have found our f i r s t a r t i f i c a l eye t h a t w i l l e c r e a t e images. Later on w w i l l l e a r n how t h i s method can be improved upon by e enploying a l e n s i n place of t h e p i n h o l e . Lesson 65

sheet 4

d i r e c t i o n . There i s a law t h a t determines the d i r e c t i o n t h e r e f l e c t e d r a y w i l l t a k e a s follows: h he angle of r e f l e c t i o n i s e q u a l t o t h e angle of incidence e and t h e two angles t h u s made w i l l be i n t h e same plane". Thus w l e a r n t h a t l i g h t s t r i k i n g the m i r r o r a t "M" w i l l be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n "M B". "A M" i s c a l l e d the i n c i d e n t r a y , "M Bn t h e r e f l e c t e d r a y and I'M N" t h e normal,

CRUD B O ~ R D WITH PIN HOLE

Figure 3

Figure 2 which i s a p r p e n d i c u l a r drawn t o the s u r f a c e of t h e mirror. Angle " A M N" i s c a l l e d the angle of i n c i d e n c e , and angle "B M N" t h e angle of r e f l e c t i o n . H w many times have you i n Your boyhood days applied t h i s p r i n c i p l e i n t h e o school room, catching a sun beam on a small pocket m i r r o r and then, by a change i n the p o s i t i o n of t h e m i r r o r , cause t h e r e f l e c t e d l i g h t t o dance a c r o s s t h e blackboard and perhaps i n t o the eyes of a s t u d e n t ? N w i f we replace t h e m i r r o r by a non- polished s u r f a c e , such a s a sheet of. o o white paper, a s suggested i n Figure 5 another c o n d i t i o n becomes apparent. N longer do w o b t a i n r e g u l a r r e f l e c t i o n because t h e rough s u r f a c e of t h e paper e a c t s a s hundreds of small m i r r o r s , t h e placement of which have no o r d e r l y arrangement. The l i g h t , t h e r e f ore, i s r e f l e c t e d i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . Reflect i o n of t h i s nature i s c a l l e d i r r e g u l a r o r d i f f u s e d r e f l e c t i o n and enables us t o s e e o t h e r p l a n e t s and s t a r s a s they become i l l u m i n a t e d by the sun, t h e d i f fused r e f l e c t i o n from them t r a v e l i n g t o the e a r t h . D a y l i g h t , a s w c a l l i t , i s the sunglight r e p e a t e d l y reduced i n s t r e n g t h by e an uncountable number of r e f l e c t i o n s from many s u r f a c e s , such a s dust p a r t i INCIDENT RAYS,

Figure 4

REFLECTED R ~ Y S

'Figure 5 Lesson 65
'

sheet 5

c l e s , t h e ground, shrubs, t r e e s , houses, b u i l d i n g s , and s o on. Later on you w i l : be able t o understand how d i f f u s e d l i g h t i s u t i l i z e d i n a t e l e v i s d o n t r a n s m i t t e r ,
O t h a t w a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h some of t h e terms used i n t h e s t u d y of l i g h t we lm e can proceed t o the study of m i r r o r s which w i l l b r i n g out f a c t s concerning t h e r e f l e c t i o n of l i g h t r a y s .

A o r d i n a r y f l a t mirror, b e t t e r termed a Plane m i r r o r , i s a p l a t e of g l a s s n having a smooth surface which, a f t e r being cleaned, i s coated on one s i d e w i t h a s o l u t i o n of s i l v e r n i t r a t e , anmonium hydroxide, and some reducing agent such a s formaldehyde. T h i s f i l m of s i l v e r adheres t o the s u r f a c e of t h e g l a s s and, a f t e r drying, it i s varnished t o prevent t h e a i r from reaching t h e m e t a l l i c c o a t i n g of s i l v e r . The c o a t i n g of s i l v e r f u r n i s h e s a good r e f l e c t i n g surface f o r l i g h t rays.
L e t us assume t h a t "A B ~ Figure 6, i s a plane m i r r o r f a s t e n e d t o the w a l l . , Point "c" i s a source of l i g h t producing a ray of l i g h t "C M" normal t o t h e The ray "C M" m i r r o r . "C D" i s any o t h e r r a y s t r i k i n g the mirror a t "D" i s r e f l e c t e d back upon i t s e l f but t h e r a y "C Dlt w i l l A be r e f l e c t e d a10 t h e l i n e "D Elt i n such a way t h a t t h e angles "C D F and "E D F" a r e equal. E

Y i

N w o back of t h e mirror and prolong t h e l i n e "E Dl1 o and C M" by d o t t e d l i n e s u n t i l they meet a t p o i n t ' "GIt. Ve now have two t r i a n g l e s "C M D" and "G M Dlt i which a r e s i m i l a r and which make l i n e "M G" equal t o I n t h e same way a t h i r d r a y "C Hn s t r i k i n g tlM C~ the m i r r o r a t "H' w i l l be r e f l e c t e d i n a l i n e , t h e prolongation of which, i f extended back of t h e mirror, B w i l l cut t h e l i n e "C M" a t "Gn. From t h i s w a r e a b l e e Figure 6 t o understand a p e c u l i a r f a c t concerning a r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e such a s a plane m i r r o r . If you stand anywhere i n f r o n t of t h i s mirror l i g h t r a y s w i l l s t r i k e t h e eye and appear a s though t h e y were o r i g i n a t i n g a t "G" i n s t e a d of a t "c" and you w i l l have produced f o r yours e l f an o p t i c a l i l l u s i o n , f o r a n image of the l i g h t source "c" w i l l appear t o you a s being s i t u a t e d a t p o i n t "Qn.
c

It was previously s t a t e d t h a t an o b j e c t t o be seen must f i r s t be i l l u m i n a t e d , which i s t r u e ; a l s o t h a t l i g h t t r a v e l s i n s t r a i g h t l i n e s and, furthermore, if an o b j e c t i s t o be seen t h e r e must be no o b s t r u c t i o n between the eye and t h e i l l u m i n a t e d o b j e c t t h a t w i l l a c t a s a b a r r i e r t o t h e l i g h t rays. By u s i n g a m i r r o r , however, w can s e e around c o r n e r s or view e v e n t s t a k i n g place behind e us, b u t t h i s does not a l t e r t h e law t h a t l i g h t t r a v e l s i n s t r a i g h t l i n e s because, between t h e object "c" and t h e m i r r o r , t h e r e must be no o b s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e l i g h t r a y , n e i t h e r can t h e r e be a b a r r i e r between t h e mirror and t h e eye. When you look i n t o a mirror the o b j e c t s you see appear t o be l o c a t e d a t some d i s t a n c e behind t h e m i r r o r , a s though you were looking tkirough an opening i n the wall, when a c t u a l l y they a r e not. The eye s e e s only an image of the o b j e c t s because t h e l i g h t from the o b j e c t s a r e r e f l e c t e d l i g h t rays s t r i k i n g t h e eye from t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e mirror, and since t h e eye sends an impulse t o t h e b r a i n o n l y of t h e d i r e c t i o n from which l i g h t e n t e r s i t , t h e object appears t o be i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n . If t h e frame of a mirror could not be seen and t h e r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s were not d e t e c t e d t h e eye would not be a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h the d i f f e r e n c e between t h e r e a l o b j e c t and i t s image i n t h e mirror. Lesson 65 sheet 6

A mirror of s p h e r i c a l o r p a r a b o l i c shape i s on work, a small p o r t i o n of t h e s u h e r i c a l surface .. .of the m i r r o r being capable of r e f l e c t i n g l i g h t ; A mirror of this type, shorn in Figure 7 , i s c a l l e d a concave mirror because i t r e f l e c t s l i g h t toward what would be t h e c e n t e r of t h e m i r r o r if it were completely c y l i n d r i c a l as suggested by t h e l i g h t d o t t e d c i r c u l a r l i n e s . T O e x p l a i n t h e terms n e c e s s a r y t o understand t h e r e f l e c t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of s p h e r i c a l m i r r o r s l e t "A B n be a s e c t i o n of t h i s c i r c u l a r m i r r o r made by a plane drawn normal t o t h e s u r f ace. Point "On of t h i s surface w i l l be t h e c e n t e r of t h e mirror and t h e point shown a t "M" w i l l be t h e " vertex" . A s t r a i g h t l i n e drawn between "0" and I'Mn i s given ' t h e name " P r i n c i p a l ~ x i s " . Any o t h e r l i n e , such a s P A n , drawn through "on i s c a l l e d a secondary a x i s , and an a x i s , r e g a r d l e s s of whether it i s p r i n c i p a l or secondary i s always normal t o t h e surface O f t h e m i r r o r . The angle formed by t h e l i n e s "B 0 A n i s c a l l e d t h e a p e r t u r e of t h e mirror.

N w l e t u s study Figures 8 and 9 i n order t o i l l u s t r a t e a few more explanatory o terms, t h e f i r s t one of which w i l l be " ~ o c u s ' ~ .A focus i s a point from which l i g h t r a y s may diverge o r a point toward which t h e y may converge. I n Figure 1 0 assume t h a t l i g h t r a y s from t h e sun, f o r example, a r e moving toward a concave n mirror i n a path p a r a l l e l t o t h e p r i n c i p a l a x i s of the m i r r o r . O s t r i k i n g t h e r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e of t h e m i r r o r t h e y w i l l be r e f l e c t e d v e r y n e a r l y t o point F midway between t h e v e r t e x "M I' and the c e n t e r of the m i r r o r "0" The point "F" i s c a l l e d t h e " p r i n c i p a l f o c u s " of t h e m i r r o r , and t h e d i s t a n c e from t h i s point t o t h e mirror i s c a l l e d t h e " f o c a l l e n g t h " of t h e mirror. Concentration of l i g h t r a y s i n t h i s manner from t h e sun can be s o i n t e n s e t h a t a sheet of paper placed a t t h e p r i n c i p a l focus w i l l promptly have a hole burned through i t . I n some systems of t e l e v i s i o n m i r r o r s of t h i s kind a r e employed t o concentrate r e f l e c t e d l i g h t from an o b j e c t and d i r e c t i t i n t o a p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l .

SOURCE OF :LIGHT

DIVERGING RAYS;
SOURCE
LIGHT

LIGHT RAYS SPREADING AWAY FROM A POINT ARE CALLED DIVERGING RhYS

L I G H T RAYS COMING TO A POINT,"

RUE CALLED CONVERGING RAYS

Figure 7

Figure 8

Figure 9

Figure 10

Figure 1 shows, fundamentally, t h e p r i n c i p a l p a r t s of a system u t i l i z e d f o r 1 scanning a s u b j e c t . To scan ( i n t h e language of t e l e v i s i o n ) means t o search out every minute f e a t u r e of an o b j e c t and f l o o d it w i t h an i n t e n s e l i g h t . The obj e c t t h u s i l l u m i n a t e d r e f l e c t s t h e l i g h t by i r r e g u l a r o r d i f f u s e r e f l e c t i o n . If l i g h t s e n s i t i v e c e l l s a r e placed i n t h e p a t h of t h i s r e f l e c t e d l i g h t t h e y w i l l f u n c t i o n i n such a manner a s t o cause a c u r r e n t t o flow through a c i r c u i t . Bef o r e going i n t o f u r t h e r d e t a i l , however, we must pause long enough t o become acquainted with what i s known a s t h e o p t i c a l system of t h i s group, namely t h e l e n s e s , and t o f i n d out what e f f e c t t h e y have upon t h e passage of l i g h t rays. To e x p l a i n t h i s phenomenon c e r t a i n terms h i t h e r t o not introduced must be ex" ~ e f r a c t i o n "i s a term used t o describe the bending, i.e., the change plained. i n d i r e c t i o n taken by a l i g h t r a y i n passing through mediums of d i f f e r e n t opt i c a l density. I n the s t u d y of o p t i c s , a i r , w a t e r , g l a s s , l i q u i d o r s o l i d bodies t h a t are s u f Lesson 65 sheet 7

'

f l c i e n t l y t r a n s p a r e n t t o allow l i g h t t o pass, may be termed o p t i c a l mediums.

By d e n s i t y i s meant the compactness of the substance which makes up t h e medium; t h u s , a i r i s l e s s dense t h a n water and water i s l e s s dense than g l a s s .
In Figure 12 l e t t h e l i g h t P a r a l l e l l i n e s r e p r e s e n t a body of water, the surf a c e of which i s denoted by "A B". Assume p o i n t "c" t o r e p r e s e n t t h e source of l i g h t and "C D" a r a of l i g h t . If t h e r a y proceeding from "C" i s perpend i c u l a r t o t h e s u r f a c e TA B ", upon s t r i k i n g "A B" a t "0" i t w i l l continue on through t h e water from "0" t o "D" i n t h e same s t r a i g h t l i n e without any change i n i t s d i r e c t i o n having t a k e n place. . "C O w i s c a l l e d t h e NORMAL because i t i s perpendicular t o the s u r f a c e "A . ' B

Assume now t h a t w move t h e source e

Of

t h e r a y from C t o any other p o s i t i o n , f o r

Figure 12 Figure 1 3 example, t o point E Figure 13& so t h a t i n s t r i k i n g t h e s u r f a c e "A B" i t forms The r a y "E 0", upon a r r i v i n g a t "o", t h e point an angle w i t h t h e normal "C 0 where t h e two mediums oin, w i l l not continue through t h e d e n s e r medium i n the same s t r a i g h t l i n e t o l F n but w i l l be r e f r a c t e d ( b e n t ) a s shorn by the l i n e "OF.

The p a t h of t h e r a y w i l l n o t be "E 0 Hn; t h e p a r t "E 0" i s c a l l e d the incident r a y and "0 En t h e r e f r a c t e d ray. The a n g l e "E 0 C" i s c a l l e d t h e angle of incidence, while angle "H 0 D" i s c a l l e d t h e angle of r e f r a c t i o n . When l i g h t passes f r a n a r a r e medium t o a dense medium t h e angle of r e f r a c t i o n i s smalkr than t h e angle of incidence. Conversly i f t h e r a y "H 0" passing through water meets t h e surface of a i r a t point "0" it w i l l not continue i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e t o "J" but w l l l be r e f r a c t e d ( b e n t ) away from t h e normal "C Dn and t a k e t h e p a t h "0 E". Suppose g l a s s was employed i n p l a c e of t h e water i n Figures 1 2 and 13, t h e n t h e r e f r a c t e d r a y "H 0" would be c l o s e r t o "Dn, and i f t h e r a y passed out of the g l a s s i n t o air i t would be r e f r a c t e d f u r t h e r away from t h e normal than i f i t had passed out of t h e water. Up t o t h i s p o i n t l i g h t has been spoken of a s l i g h t r a y s . To e x p l a i n why t h e s e r a y s a r e bent when p a s s i n g from a r a r e r t o a denser o p t i c a l medium it w i l l be necessary t o d i g r e s s and g i v e a more complete e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e t h e o r y con'~esson 5 6

- sheet

t h e propation of l i g h t upon t h e fundamental p r o p e r t y of wave motion. r i c a l wave i s considered t o remain s p h e r i c a l throughout i t s path of p his form of wave motion i s conveniently shown a s a ngnber of equiant concentric c i r c l e s spreading out from a p o i n t of l i g h t i n ever widenc i r c l e s as shown i n Figure 14.

The s i n g l e ray idea i s d e r i v e d from the t h e o r y t h a t while t h e wave f r o n t has a c e r t a i n curvature e a c h l i t t l e p a r t i c l e of i t s s u r f a c e i s being continuously p r o j e c t e d i n s t r a i g h t l i n e s along a radius of the sphere. The l i g h t wave then r e a l l y e x i s t s and what w term "rays" a r e simply s t r a i g h t l i n e s which show e t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which the wave i s t r a v e l i n g . The rays a r e always perpendic u l a r t o t h e f r o n t of t h e advancing wave and, i n t h e instance of s m e r i c a l . waves, it i s along a r a d i u s drawn from the point "L" as p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d . I f w consider "L" t o be a mere point t h e rays diverging therefrom would be e termed a " p e n c i l of rays" ; on t h e other hand i f t h e point "L" i s , f o r example, t h e sun, or any other d i s t a n t luminous o b j e c t f a r removed from the point of observation, t h e waves are f o r a l l i n t e n t and purpose without any appreciable curvature when t h e y a r r i v e a t the point where they a r e t o be a subject of study. I n other words t h e y a r e considered t o be p a r a l l e l l i n e s of l i g h t . With t h i s i n mind l e t u s consider Figure 1 5 i n which i s again shown a body of water. Approaching t h i s i s a number of p a r a l l e l l i n e s c a l l e d a beam of l i g h t .

Figure 14 Since the water i s of g r e a t e r o p t i c a l d e n s i t y t h a n t h e a i r , t h e beam w i l l have i t s v e l o c i t y decreased upon e n t e r i n g the denser medium, conversely i f the l i g h t beam passes from a dense medium t o a r a r e r medium i t s v e l o c i t y w i l l i n c r e a s e . Therefore w w i l l assume t h a t the lightbeam "E F G H" i s moving i n t h e d i r e c t i o n e a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e arrows, and a s t h e l i g h t r a y "D E" passes t h e surface "0 P" i t s v e l o c i t y w i l l be l e s s because it has e n t e r e d a denser medium. Assuming the denser mdium t o be uniform, r a y s "C F", "B G" and "A H" w i l l a l l go throufjh t h e same change i n v e l o c i t a as they pass t h e surface "0 P". :When r a y "A H passes t h e s u r f a c e t h e r a y D E" w i l l have t r a v e l e d through the water only from "E" t o "L" t h e r e f o r e the new wave f r o n t w i l l now be "L M N K" and s i n c e t h e d i r e c t i o n of l i g h t i s always perpendicular t o t h e wave f r o n t t h e d i r e c t i o n now taken by t h e beam w i l l be 'that snown by the arrows i n t h e water. W a r e now ready t o s t u d y l e n s e s and t h e behavior of l i g h t when passed through e them. Lens i s t h e name given t o a s o l i d of g l a s s , a t r a n s p a r e n t medium which, due t o the curvature of i t s s u r f a c e s , i s capable of d i v e r g i n g or converging Lesson 65

- sheet 9

r a y s of l i g h t t h a t pass through i t . So f a r w have only t r a c e d the l i g h t from e one medium i n t o another; now w s h a l l follow i t from i t s source, t o t h e medium, e through and beyond i t

For our f i r s t example a sheet of p l a t e g l a s s w i l l be used through which w sha&l e consider a ray of l i g h t t o be passing. T h e r a y from source "A", Figure 16, on e n t e r i n g a sheet of p l a t e g l a s s a t "B", t h e f a c e s of which a r e p a r a l l e l , w i l l be r e f r a c t e d toward t h e normal. After passing t w o u g h the g l a s s , and upon emerging i n t o t h e a i r a g a i n a t "Cn, it w i l l be r e f r a c t e d away from t h e normal by t h e same angular amount. The d i r e c t i o n of the emerging r a y "C Dm w i l l be This p a r a l l e l w i t h the i n c i d e n t r a y "A B" a s shown by t h e d o t t e d l i n e "F C". e x p l a i n s the reason why an object viewed through a s h e e t of p l a t e g l a s s appears somewhat displaced as t o p o s i t i o n but otherwise unchanged i n form. Light passing through an ordinary window pane i s r e f r a c t e d i n a s i m i l a r manner but due t o t h e t h i n n e s s of t h e substance the change i n p o s i t i o n of the o b j e c t viewed i s t o o minute t o be noticed. Nw r e f e r t o Figure 17, a t r i a n g u l a r g l a s s o prism, and again t a k i n g "A" a s a source of l i g h t , t h e i n c i d e n t r a y "A B", on

SOURCE OF
LlGnr
. .

A--------r

Figure 16

Figure 18

e n t e r i n g the prism a t "B", w i l l be bent toward t h e normal and becomes t h e inc i d e n t r a y on t h e surface a t "C". O emerging i n t o a i r it i s r e f r a c t e d away n from t h e normal i n t h e d i r e c t i o n "C Dl1. From t h i s w f i n d t h a t a r a y of l i g h t e i n passing through a prism a s shown i s always r e f r a c t e d toward t h e base of t h e prism. Further, i f t h e l i n e of v i s i o n coincides w i t h t h e l i n e "C D" t h e candle w i l l not be seen a t "A" but w i l l apear t o the observer t o be a t "F". Therefore, an object viewed through a t r i a n g u l a r prism always appears d e f l e c t e d toward the t o p of t h e prism. Figure 18 r e p r e s e n t s a r i g h t - a n g l e d prism which may be classed a s a t o t a l r e f l e c t i n g prism. The r a y from source "A" e n t e r i n g the prism perpendicu1s.r t o t h e s i d e I'D E" w i l l p a s s t h r o u g h t h e p r i s m without a change of d i r e c t i o n u n t i l i t s t r i k e s t h e f a c e "E F" a t an angle of 45O when it w i l l be t o t a l l y r e f l e c t e d A prism of t h i s shape, and pass out of the prism normal t o t h e surface 'ID F". having polished s u r f a c e s , makes t h e best known r e f l e c t o r . Another type of l e n s w are i n t e r e s t e d i n because of i t s use i n t e l e v i s i o n i s e c a l l e d the "double convex l e n s " shown i n perspective Figure 19. As a boy, how many times have you used t h i s type of g l a s s t o burn holes i n leaves, paper, and s o on, by focusing the s u n f s r a y s ? shown by the curved l i n e s w i t h g l a s s , Figure 20, it i s seen t h a t a double convex l e n s i s nothing more than a curved form of two prisms so placed. This can Lesson 65 s h e e t 10

If we place two prisms w i t h t h e i r bases i n c o n t a c t and then f i l l t h e p o r t i o n

be brought out more c l e a r l y , perhaps, by a study O f Figure 21 and n o t i n g t h e change i n t h e l i g h t r a y s a s t h e y pass through what can be c a l l e d an assembly of prisms w i t h curved f a c e s i n c o n t a c t . Keeping i n mind what you learned concerning the behavior of l i g h t a s i t passed through t h e s i n g l e prism a s shown i n Figure 17 w can see i n Figure 2 1 t h a t p a r a l l d l i g h t rays o r i g i n a t i n g , f o r ex', e ample, from the sun "s" w i l l , when t h e y s t r i k e t h e upper h a l f of the l e n s , be bent downward, while t h e lower h a l f of t h e lens a c t i n g as an equal number of i n v e r t e d prisms w i l l r e f r a c t t h e l i g h t upward. The l i g h t emerging from b o t h t h e upper and lower s i d e s of the normal converg a t t h e p r i n c i p a l Focus "'F". Since w now understand the e v o l u t i o n of a double convex type l e n s w can study e e e Figures 22, 23, and 2 4 , from which w s h a l l l e a r n t h e p r i n c i p a l a c t i o n of l e n s e on l i g h t rays incident on t h e i r s u r f a c e s .

Figure 20 Figure

i:

Figure 2 1

Point "F", Figure 22; i s c a l l e d t h e p r i n c i p a l focus of t h e l e n s and Is measured by t h e r a d i u s of t h e curvature of t h e l e n s . Now, suppose we place a source of e l i g h t "L", which h e r e i n a f t e r w s h a l l c a l l a r a d i a n t , a t t h e p r i n c i p a l focus " F f . Light rays from t h i s p o i n t and i n c i d e n t on t h e surface of the l e n s w i l l be r e f r a c t e d and upon emerging they w i l l t a k e p a r a l l e l paths a s shown. This you w i l l note, i s j u s t t h e r e v e r s e of what happened i n Figure 21. Figure 23 shows t h a t i f a r a d i a n t "L" i s placed t o t h e l e f t of t h e p r i n c i p a l focus of a converging l e n s , the r a s upon emerging from t h e l e n s w i l l be bent downwfird and w i l l meet a t a p o i n t 'L1" beyond t h e principal focus "F1" on t h e If t h e r a d i a n t i s p l a c e d a t " L l " t h e rays w i l l conopposite s i d e of t h e lens. verge a t point L. T h i s p a i r of p o i n t s a t which t h e r a y s converge on b o t h s i d e s

Figure 22

Figure 23 Figure 24 Lesson 65

sheet 1 1

of the l e n s i s c a l l e d t h e "conjugate f o c i n and a r e so r e l a t e d t h a t " L l n i s an s image of "L", or i f " ~ 1i" t h e r a d i a n t t h e n "Ln i s t h e image of "~1". The p i n hole camera previously mentioned w i l l reproduce tk image of an object r e g a r d l e s s of i t s d i s t a n c e from t h e aperture and with g r e a t c l e a r n e s s of outl i n e , but i f we attempt t o i n c r e a s e the opening the image becomes i n d i s t i n c t . Now, t h i s opening may be e n l a r g e d t o o b t a i n a g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n b r i g h t n e s s , i.e., allow more l i g h t t o s t r i k e t h e screen, i f we place i n t h e a p e r t u r e a double convex l e n s , s u c h a s w have been d i s c u s s i n g . D i s t i n c t n e s s of o u t l i n e e w i l l not be sacrif%d if the s c r e e n and the o b j e c t are a t t h e conjugate f o c i of t h e l e n s . That i s why, when you t a k e a p i c t u r e , you move t h e l e n s back and f o r t h u n t i l the l i g h t rays s t r i k i n g t h e l e n s from t h e o b j e c t are focused c l e a r l y upon the screen. I n t h e camera the s c r e e n i s the s e n s i t i z e d f i l m or p l a t e , a s t h e case may be. W see, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e l e n s e s w have been studying a r e n o t only u s e f u l e e f o r r e f r a c t i n g l i g h t but a r e a l s o capable of producing images. I f t h e r a d i a n t "L" i n Figure 24 i s placed between t h e p r i n c i p a l focus "F" and t h e l e n s w w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e emerging r a y s w i l l d i v e r g e , spread o u t , and e never meet i n a focus on t h a t s i d e of t h e lens. However, i f these divergent r a g s a r e t r a c e d backward a s shown by the d o t t e d l i n e s t h e y w i l l meet a t 'IF". Our concern with l e n s e s , t h e r e f o r e , i s t o know t h a t w i t h them we a r e able t o c o l l e c t rays of l i g h t and d i r e c t them according t o our requirements. Because of l e n s e s the simple microscope i s of g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e t o v i s i o n i n t h a t it e n a b l e s u s t o see images of an object which t h e eye accepts a s t h e o b j e c t itself. The o r d i n a r y magnifying l e n s i s a simple form of microscope which, when held t h e proper d i s t a n c e from t h e eye and t h e o b j e c t , i.e., a t a d i s t a n c e from t h e l e n s e q u a l t o i t s f o c a l l e n g t h , t h e d e t a i l s of t h e o b j e c t , r e g a r d l e s s of i t s form, appear enlarged because t h e d e t a i l s of the image have a l a r g e angular s e p a r a t i o n and a r e t h e r e f o r e more e a s i l y seen. The l e n s of a t e l e s c o p e forms an image of some remote o b j e c t producing t h e e f f e c t of moving c l o s e r t o t h e object. For example, when you look through a spy g l a s s , t h e r e s u l t s , s o f a r a s s i g h t i s concerned, i s that of a c t u a l l y approaching t h e o b j e c t i t s e l f . The c l e a r n e s s of d e t a i l , however, w i l l depend upon t h e amount of l i g h t a v a i l a b l e . This r e c a l l s t o mind t h e preliminary p a r t of t h e l e s s o n wherein we found t h a t an object t o be seen must be s u f f i c i e n t l y i l l u m i n a t e d , or a luminous body i t s e l f , before s i g h t i s even possible and t h i s holds j u s t a s t r u e when viewing an object through a t e l e s c o p e a s i t does w i t h t h e naked eye. Furthermore t h e d i s t a n c e must n o t be s o g r e a t t h a t t h e a r r i v i n g l i g h t waves are too weak because of smoke and fog through which they might be passing. There must be no o b s t r u c t i o n s such a s t a l l b u i l d i n g s or other b a r r i e r s i n t h e p a t h of t h e l i g h t wave. A f r e e c l e a r p a t h must e x i s t a t a l l times. Under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , then, we a r e a b l e t o extend the range of v i s i o n by means of a n arrangement of l e n s e s , but l i m i t a t i o n s soon make themselves e v i d e n t f o r w f i n d t h a t t h e w a l l of a building or the s i d e of a mountain i s j u s t e e a s e f f e c t i v e i n o b s t r u c t i n g our view a s it was before w used the telescope. Lesson 65

- sheet 12

To i l l u s t r a t e a point we a r e , perhaps, p r i v i l e g e d t o r e s o r t t o the r i d i c u l o u s . ~f so, l e t us assume t h a t our eyes a r e s o constructed t h a t we can r u n them out of our head and t u r n them around t h e corner of a b u i l d i n g ; w would t h e n i n e e f f e c t have an e x t e n d i b l e o p t i c nerve, but a s was p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d t o make any such change i s a p h y s i o l o g i c a l I m p o s s i b i l i t y . To a t t a i n t h e r e s u l t of t e l e v i s i o n , however, such a n e f f e c t must be p o d u c e d and from a physical s t a n d point i t can be accomplished by t h e use of an e l e c t r i c a l eye.

T obtain an e l e c t r i c eye was one of t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered by s c i e n t i s t s : i n t h e i r e f f o r t t o place t e l e v i s i o n on a s u c c e s s f u l experimental b a s i s . Chemi s t r y , however, came t o t h e a s s i s t a n c e of t h e e a r l y i n v e s t i g a t o r s along t h i s l i n e of endeavor i n t h e development of a non-metallic element c a l l e d " ~ e l e n i u m " . T h i s element was discovered i n 1817 i n t h e d e p o s i t s of s u l p h u r i c acid chambers. In i t s n a t i v e s t a t e selenium has an extremely h i g h r e s i s t a n c e (many times t h a t of copper), but on being prepared by a h e a t i n g process and brought t o a tempera t u r e of 120 Centigrade ( o r 248O Fahrenheit) which i s maintained f o r s e v e r a l hours and t h e n allowed t o g r a d u a l l y cool, it forms i n t o a c r y s t a l l i n e s t a t e changing i n c o l o r from a blue t o a d u l l s l a t e .

The prepared selenium, it was found, possessed t h e p r o p e r t y of varying i n e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e d i m c t l y i n proportion t o t h e i n t e n s i t y of l i g h t waves t o which it was exposed, t h e r e s i s t a n c e decreasing as t h e l i g h t increased and i n c r e a s i n g a s t h e l i g h t decreased. I n t h i s element, theref o r e , the s c i e n t i s t s placed high hopes, f o r i n it were t h e e s s e n t i a l s f o r a device which would operSELENIUM-,

,WIRE ELECTRODES

Figure 25

Figure 26

a t e i n such a manner t h a t varying i n t e n s i t i e s of l i g h t could be made t o cause a corresponding flow of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t .

1

Selenium c e l l s were made by placing a f i l m of t h e prepared selenium over two german s i l v e r or platinum wires of No. 20 t o No. 30 gauge wound on a small 2 by 1 inch mica form. The windings were spaced about one t h i r t y second of a n i n c h a p a r t as shown i n Figure 25 and t h e n placed i n a box provided w i t h a windou t o admit l i g h t , somewhat a s suggested i n Figure 26. The selenium c e l l found may u s e s , perhaps the most important, c o m e r c i a l l y , was i n marine buoys and i s o l a t e d lighthouses along t h e coast where it was employed t o c o n t r o l switching mechanism t o t u r n on t h e l i g h t when darkness s e t i n and t o t u r n it o f f a t d a y l i g h t , the l i g h t of t h e sun f u r n i s h i n g t h e r e q u i s i t e energy. For t e l e v i s i o n work, however, science was again disappointed because of t h e Lesson 65

- s h e e t 13

p r o p e r t y of i n e r t i a i n h e r e n t i n t h e element. The change i n i t s conductance lagged so f a r behind t h e instantaneous values of l i g h t t o which it was exposed t h a t a considerable time exposure was r e q u i r e d before a p r o p o r t i o n a l c u r r e n t would flow f o r a given i n t e n s i t y of l i g h t . Selenium, t h e r e f o r e , had t o be abandoned a s an e l e c t r i c eye f o r t e l e v i s i o n . found a device t h a t would f ollovr w i t h t r u e f i d e l i t y t h e r a p i d v a r i a t i o n s of l i g h t and shade necessary t o form an image and produce an instantenous c u r r e n t i n proportion t o the v a r i o u s d e l i c a t e shading t h a t forms et p i c t u r e . The photoe l e c t r i c c e l l i s a vacuum tube depending f o r i t s a c t i o n upon an e l e c t r o n e m i t t i n g cathode and a c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d anode. The c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l of the type mentioned r e q u i r e s expensive and complicated apparatus. The g l a s s envelope i s blown t o t h e r e q u i r e d shape and evacuated by very e f f i c i e n t mercury pumps which work through l i q u i d a i r t r a p s . A s t h e evacuation proceeds t h e c e l l s a r e passed through an oven and baked i n a heat of 400 Centigrade ( o r 752O F a h r e n h e i t ) which a s s i s t s i n d r i v i n g out r e s i d u a l gases an3 water vapor absorbed by t h s g l a s s envelope and elements. The potassium i s t h e n prepared by an exacting d i s t i l l i n g process t o separate
INTERIOR CObTeO

A new development e v e n t u a l l y appeared, the p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l , and a t l a s t was

SENSITIVE

Figure 27

Figure 28

any i m p u r i t i e s t h a t might be present o r introduced i n t o t h e pumping systen and condensed on t h e w a l l s of t h e g l a s s envelope o r bulb. It i s necessary, then, t o apply a flame t o one s i d e of t h e bulb t o c l e a r sway a p o r t i o n of t h e condensed potassium hydride t h u s providing a small c i r c u l a r opening of c l e a r g l a s s . T h i s i s c a l l e d t h e window and it i s through t h i s openin$ t h a t l i g h t i s allowed t o e n t e r and energize t h e potassium hydride. F i n a l l y , argon gas i s introduced i n t o t h e bulb i n q u a n t i t i e s t h a t w i l l g i v e the b e s t i o n i z a t i o n r e s u l t s a f t e r which the bulb i s s e a l e d o f f . Figure 27 shows t h e g e n e r a l d e s i g n o f the c e l l Which i s now ready f o r operation. Figure 28 shows t h e c e l l connected i n a simple c i r c u i t and when l i g h t i s allowed t o e n t e r t h e window a d e f l e c t i o n of t h e galvanometer w i l l be n o t i c e d , t h u s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a c u r r e n t i s passing through the c e l l . What t a k e s place i s explained a s follows: Light waves, p a s s i n g through t h e c i r c u l a r opening or window of t h e g l a s s envelope, s t r i k e t h e postassium hydride c o a t i n g on t h e i n s i d e of the bulb. The potassium, having t h e property of emitt i n g e l e c t r o n s when exposed t o l i g h t waves and e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e predominating i n blue v i o l e t l i g h t , e m i t s clouds of e l e c t r o n s which are a t t r a c t e d a t once t o t h e p o s i t i v e e l e c t r o d e . T h i s e l e c t r o d e i s a loop o r r e c t a n g l e of wire made of Lesson 65 sheet 14

some p h o t o e l e c t r i c a l l y i n a c t i v e m a t e r i a l such as n i c k e l or platinum. The e l e c t r o n s a r e considered t o c o n s t i t u t e an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t which flows through t h e c e l l , and t h e c i r c u i t connected t o t h e c e l l i n which t h e source of electromotive f o r c e maintains t h e anode a t p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l . By comparing t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l with an ordinary r e c e i v i n g tube such a s a 201-A type the p r i n c i p a l upon which it operates may be more r e a d i l y understood. It w i l l be remembered t h a t e l e c t r o n s are thrown off t h e heated filament of t h e vacuum tube and immediately drawn t o t h e p l a t e because of the p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l a p p l i e d t o t h e p l a t e . When considering the p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l t h e potassium hydride coating a c t s a s does t h e filament i n the o r d i n a r y tube b u t , unlike t h e r e c e i v i n g tube, it i s cold, ( t h a t i s , not h e a t e d ) , and i s capable of throwing off e l e c t r o n s when exposed t o t h e impact of l i g h t waves. The anode or c e n t r a l e l e c t r o d e performs the same work a s t h e p l a t e i n an o r d i n a r y t u b e and since i t i s h e l d a t a p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l by "B" b a t t e r i e s or some other source of electrc. v o t i v e force it a t t r a c t s t h e e l e c t r o n s t o it thereby producing a current flow. The d i r e c t i o n of e l e c t r o n motion i n t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l i s from t h e p o t a s s i vn hydride coating, t h e o u t s i a e e l e c t r o d e o r cathode, t o t h e anode or c e n t r a l e l e c t r o d e , while i n the r e c e i v i n g tube the d i r e c t i o n of e l e c t r o n motion i s f r m t h e c e n t r a l e l e c t r o d e ( f i l a m e n t ) , toward and t o the o u t s i d e e l e c t r o d e o r p l a t e . :ther metals being experimented w i t l . m d capable of throwing off e l e c t r o n s when energized by l i g h t waves a r e ~ e s i ~ m , sodium and rubidium. Let u s sum up t h e work w have been over. F i r s t w found t h a t n a t u r e produced e e t h e f i r s t t e l e v i s o r , the e y e , which generates an impulse r e s v l t i n g i n vision. ?Text w discovered l i g h t t o be a b s o l u t e l y necessary before v i s i o n was possible. e H i s t o r y t e l l s us t h a t f o r y e a r s s c i e n t i s t s have been c o n s t a n t l y working t o improve apparatus t h a t would a s s i s t vision. F i r s t came t h e p i n hole camera, t h e n g l a s s worked i n t o t h e proper shape was found t o cause l i g h t r a y s t o converge forming an image of o b j e c t s appearing b e f o r e i t , and thus was born the microscope and telescope. The e l e c t r i c a l e r a a r r i v e d and work was begun on apparatus t h a t would enable one t o t a l k w i t h f r i e n d s miles away by wire telephony. Then came the wirel e s s telephone, and r a d i o broadcasting of voice and music, r e s u l t i n g i n t h e r e c e p t i o n of sounds from London as d i s t i n c t as l i s t e n i n g t o your own voice, and a t l a s t t h e ambition t o couple a l l of t h i s w i t h an e l e c t r i c eye ( T e l e v i s i o n ) which would enable one t o see w i t h whom he was speaking. Before attempting t o grasp a l l of the i d e a s of a t e l e v i s i o n system suppose w e draw analogies and make comparisions along l i n e s we a r e more or l e s s familar. Speech, music and o t h e r audible sounds produce sound waves which, i n s t r i k i n g your e a r drum, causes it t o v i b r a t e . The inner e a r r e c e i v e s these v i b r a t i o n s and generates an impulse which i s c a r r i e d t o the b r a i n and t h e b r a i n i n t e r p r e t s t h i s impulse. e Because speech and music can be heard f o r a comparatively s h o r t d i s t a n c e w make use of t h e telephone t r a n s m i t t e r , or you may c a l l it an e l e c t r i c a l e a r . You speak i n t o t h i s device, and immediately a r i s e and f a l l of e l e c t r i c curr e n t s take place corresponding t o the sound waves t h a t were c r e a t e d when you spoke. The telephone r e c e i v e r , or e l e c t r i c a l mouthpiece, converts the varying e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t s back i n t o sound waves forming i n t e l l i g i b l e words. Figure 29 conveys t h i s i d e a i n p i c t u r e form. sheet 15 Lesson 65

Figure 30 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e same i d e a w i t h t h e exception t h a t t h e message i s conveyed by r a d i o i n s t e a d of by wires. In t e l e v i s i o n our purpose i s t o t r a n s m i t an image instead of sound, t h e r e f ore, we s h a l l have t o change our t e r m i n a l apparatus from an e l e c t r i c a l e a r and mouth t o an e l e c t r i c a l e y e , and some device which w i l l d u p l i c a t e i n l i g h t what t h e e l e c t r i c a l eye observes. E s s e n t i a l l y the apparatus, Figure 31, which sees c o n s i s t s of a source of i n t e n s e l i g h t such a s i s produced by a n a r c lamp. This l i g h t i s passed through a l e n s which converges the l i g h t r a y s t o a small a r e a . A r a p i d l y revolving scanning d i s c ,

Figure 29
SOUND WAVES,

MIC~OPHONE

Figure 30 d r i v e n by a small motor, i s placed i n the path of the converging l i g h t rays i n which a number of small h o l e s have been d r i l l e d according t o a s p i r a l l y l a i d out p a t t e r n . A small frame placed between the d i s c and t h e converging l i g h t rays prevents l i g h t from passing through more than one of these openings a t a time

As t h e small i n t e n s e p e n c i l of l i g h t passes through t h e openings i n t h e d i s c

t h e f e a t u r e s of various o b j e c t s a r e r a p i d l y explored. The l i g h t r a y s , upon s t r i k i n g t h e s u b j e c t , a r e r e f l e c t e d and some of them f i n d t h e i r way i n t o a p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l , t h e e l e c t r i c a l eye. A small e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t r e s u l t s w i t h i n the c e l l which, by s u i t a b l e leads, i s c a r r i e d i n t o a n a m p l i f i e r where it i s amplified and passed on t o a t r a n s m i t t e r . The t r a n s m i t t e r energizes the a n t enna and from t h i s point it i s put on t h e a i r . The s i g n a l t h u s broadcast i s picked up by a r e c e i v i n g antenna which i s connected t o a r e c e i v e r , amplified a t radio- frequency, d e t e c t e d , a m p l i f i e d a t audio-frequency, and t h e n passed on t o operate a l i g h t o r i g i n a t i n g device c a l l e d a "neon tube". This tube produces a s o f t p i n k i s h glow, t h e i n t e n s i t y of which depends upon t h e c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l a t the t r a n s m i t t e r .

To see a n image you look i n t o a small frame having t h e same dimensions a s the one mentioned i n connection w i t h t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . Between t h i s frame and the
neon lamp a scanning d i s c e x a c t l y t h e same as t h e t r a n s m i t t e r d i s c i s revolved, and when it a t t a i n s the same speed a s the t r a n s m i t t i n g d i s c t h e image appears i n t h e frame. This of course i s simply a r a p i d comparision and it remains t o t a k e up t h e important p o i n t s i n a t e l e v i s o r system i n order t h a t w may l e a r n e how t h e image i s t r a n s m i t t e d and received. Lesson 65

- sheet 16

our next lesson t e l l s u s of the developments made w i t h t e l e v i s i o n apparatus.

TRhNSMITTING ANTENNA-,,

RECEl\jlNG elNTENNh

,RECEIVING SET

ELECTRIC EYE TELEPHOTO LAMP

NEON LelMP-

Figure 3 1 EXAMINATION

- USSON 65

What i s the f u n c t i o n of tbe l e n s of the human eye? Give i n your own words a d e f i n i t i o n of Light. Through what substance w i l l l i g h t t r a v e l ?
W a hapmns when l i g h t s t r i k e s a polished s u r f a c e ? ht s u r f ace?

A rough

S t a t e why t h e d i r e c t i o n of a l i g h t r a y i s changed when passing from a r a r e t o a denser o p t i c a l medium? I n what respect i s a double convex l e n s s i m i l a r t o an assembly of prisms? Explain diverging r a y s . Converging r a y s .

What device was f i r s t used t o extend t h e range of v i s i o n ? Was selenium s u c c e s s f u l i n t e l e v i s i o n work? What do you know about t h e t e l e p h o t o c e l l ?

Technical Lesson 66
.@

TEIEVISION

- PART

I1

The E l e c t r o n i n Television. When you f i r s t read about matter you learned t h a t it was made UD of atoms p a r t i c l e s so small t h a t t h e most vowerful microscore ~ i o m s ,themselves, are always t h e same, but m a t t e r would not make v i s i b l e . d i f f e r s depending upon t h e number of t h e atoms and t h e p a r t i c u l a r arrangement t h e y assume.

c o n s i s t e d of two p a r t s , t h e f i r s t of which t h e y c a l l e d a roton on", and t h e N w e a c h atom of matter t e n d s t o remain i n a normal s t a t e , o o t h e r an '$lectron". t h a t i s , an unchanged s t a t e , and when t h i s i s t h e case t h e atom manifests no b l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . This means t h a t when an atom c o n t a i n s an e q u a l number of protons and e l e c t r o n s t h e atom i s e l e c t r i c a l l y n e u t r a l . If, however, f o r any reason the atom g i v e s up one of i t s e l e c t r o n s i t then becomes a p o s i t i v e charge and, conversely, i f an e l e c t r o n a t t a c h e s i t s e l f t o a normal atom it t h e n a c t s a s a negative charge. !,bout t h e nucleus t h e r e i s thought t o be a number of e l e c t r o n s which revolve i n r e g u l a r o r b i t s . One e l e c t r o n may move i n a p e r f e c t l y c i r c u l a r path c l o s e t o t h e nucleus, another a l i t t l e further away may not be confined t o a s i n g l e plane, while o t h e r s may t a k e an e l i p t i c a l p a t h i n t h e i r sweeping motion about t h e nucleus, sometimes passing q u i t e close t o t h e nucleus, while f u r t h e r on i n i t s f l i g h t it may f o l l o w a r o u t e which c a r r i e s it i n a wide swing f a r beyond t h e p o s i t i v e center. When an e l e c t r o n follows such a path, ( t h a t i s , when a t i t s f a r t h e r e s t point from t h e n u c l e u s ) it becomes an e a s y victim t o som o t h e r p o s i t i v e l y charged f o r c e , which may be i n c l o s e proximity, and it then can be e a s i l y influenced t o leave i t s parent atom. Thus, i n t h e a l k a l i metals such a s caesium and o t h e r s mentioned i n the preceding l e s s o n , we have an e x c e l l e n t m a t e r i a l t o be used a s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e photoe l e c t r i c c e l l . F l r s t , because a t l e a s t one of t h e e l e c t r o n s i n e a c h atom moves s o f a r away from t h e nucleus t h a t they a r e e a s i l y s e p e r a t e d and, second, because t h i s p a r t i c u l a r form of m a t t e r i s a l i g h t s e n s i t i v e m a t e r i a l which on being exposed t o l i g h t r q s w i l l cause e l e c t r o n s t o be s e p a r a t e d from t h e atoms. When we expose t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l t o l i g h t , the f r e e d e l e c t r o n s a r e s e n t w h i r l i n g off i n t o t h e vacuous space w i t h i n the g l a s s envelope of t h e o e l l and normally i f nothing were done t o prevent it t h e y would a l l e v e n t u a l l y r e t u r n t o t h e l i g h t s e n s i t i v e element. It i s our purpose, however, t o u s e t h e s e l i b e r a t e d e l e c t r o n s , s o i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e c e l l a p i e c e of i n a c t i v e m t a l which may be c i r c u l a r o r r e c t a n g u l a r i n shape i s placed and connected by means of a wire t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of a b a t t e r y ; t h e negative t e r m i n a l of t h e b a t t e r y i s t h e n connected t o t h e l i g h t s e n s i t i v e m a t e r i a l by a second wire. When a l l these connections a r e complete, t h e e l e c t r o n s which up t o t h i s time have been roaming a i m l e s s l y about a r e suddenly brought i n t o concerted a c t i o n Contents Copyrighted 1930 Pr&$ted i n U.S..A.

A g r e a t d e a l of r e s e a r c h was c a r r i e d on by s c i e n t i s t s who found t h a t t h e atom

and rush t o the metal r i n g e l e c t r o d e made p o s i t i v e by the batter.^, p a s s through t h e connecting wire i n t o the b a t t e r y , through the b a t t e r y , out of the negative terminal and r e t u r n t o the l i g h t s e n s i t i v e element by means of t h e second cdnn e c t i n g wire. Now, an e l e c t r o n i n motion c o n s t i t u t e s an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t , t h e r e f o r e , t h e l i g h t s t r i k i n g t h e cathode of t h e c e l l produces e l e c t r i c i t y by f r e e i n g t h e e l e c t r o n s and l i g h t energy i s converted i n t o e l e c t r i c a l energy by t h e motion of the electthrough the c i r c u i t provided by t h e b a t t e r y , measuring instruments, and connecting wires. The i n s t a n t l i g h t i s c u t o f f , t h a t i s , prevented from reaching the p h o t o e l e c t r i c l i g h t s e n s i t i v e element, t h e c u r r e n t through t h e c e l l ceases. O the o t h e r hand, by i n c r e a s i n g the i n t e n s i t y of l i g h t t h e e l e c t r o n emission n i s increased and a g r e a t e r c u r r e n t flow w i l l be i n d i c a t e d by t h e c u r r e n t i n d i c a t i n g instrument connected i n t h e c i r c u i t . By r e p e a t e d experiments i t was found t h a t the c u r r e n t passing through t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l was d i r e c t l y prop o r t i o n a l t o the amount of l i g h t s t r i k i n g t h e c e l l . If t h e l i g h t v a r i e s i n i n t e n s i t y t h e c u r r e n t i n s t a n t l y conforms t o t h e change i n l i g h t , s o when t h e l i g h t i n c r e a s e s t h e c u r r e n t r i s e s i n proportion and, conversely, when the l i g h t . i s decreased the flow of c u r r e n t decreases i n p r o p o r t i o n t o the decrease i n light. Having a device of t h i s kind t h e science of t e l e v i s i o n moved another s t e p t o ward success. The e a r l y work i n the f i e l d of t e l e v i s i o n was conducted upon the p r i n c i p a l of c o n s t r u c t i n g an i m i t a t i o n of the human eye. This manufactured eye employed a g r e a t many selenium c e l l s and attempted t o L a i l d up a mosaic p a t t e r n of t h e o b j e c t o r scene t o be t e l e v i s e d . The e f f a r t f a i l e d ; f i r s t , because of t h e inherent time l a g i n selenium and, second, because of t h e p r o h i b i t i v e c o s t of t h e g r e a t number of selenium c e l l s required. Others continued t o experiment along s i m i l a r l i n e s but f i n a l l y it was decided t o work out t h e problem by employing only one c e l l . T h i s was q u i t e a r a d i c a l viewpoint t o take of the subject a t the time but it i s because of t h i s t h a t t h e t e l e v i s o r of today operates. The p r i n c i p a l upon which any system of t e l e v i s i o n must o p e r a t e , i n order t h a t an image of a n o b j e c t or scene can be viewed a t a p r o p e r l y designed r e c e i v e r , i s t h a t t h e object must be exposed t o l i g h t rays. The d i f f u s e d r e f l e c t i o n from each point of t h e o b j e c t t h u s exposed i s t h e n picked up by a p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l , t r a n s l a t e d i n t o an e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t which v a r i e s according t o the change i n b r i g h t n e s s of the o b j e c t thus exposed, and t h e n passes over what ever channel i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e communication of t h i s c u r r e n t . The method used t o c a r r y out t h i s i d e a i s embodied i n what i s f a m i l i a r l y known a s t h e 'scanning process" , a system of r a p i d l y r e v o l v i n g p a r t s . How w e l l t h i s system operates w i l l depend upon the d e t a i l r e q u i r e d , the s e n s i t i v e n e s s of t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l and the e f f i c i e n c y of t h a t p a r t of t h e system employed t o amplify t h e minute c u r r e n t s generated by t h e l i g h t s e n s i t i v e c e l l . Since t e l e v i s i o n i s s t i l l i n a purely experimental s t a g e no attempt w i l l be made t o record hard and f a s t r u l e s , f o r tomorrow may b r i n g f o r t h a complete r e v o l u t i o n i n the systems now undergoing research. Theref ore the s u b j e c t of our study w i l l be t h e scanning system which i s the fundamental p r i n c i p l e upon Lesson. 66

- sheet

which t e l e v i s i o n o p e r a t e s . The e a r l y attempts i n t h i s f i e l d were made by f l o o d i n g t h e o b j e c t t o be t e l e v i s e d by a powerful source of l i g h t , ranging i n t o t h e thousands of candlepower. Because of t h e compar8tively s h o r t d i s t a n c e between t h i s i n t e n s e i l l u m i n a t i o n and t h e o b j e c t no human being could be s u c c e s s f u l l y t e l e v i s e d without extreme discomfort due t o the enormous h e a t generated by a light s o powerful, hence inanimate s u b j e c t s were used. Figure 1 shows i n det a i l t h e p r i n c i p a l j u s t mentioned; t h e o b j e c t a t t h e r i g h t i s placed under t h e powerful l i g h t . Lens 1 i s p l a c e d between t h e o b j e c t and t h e r o t a t i n g scanning d i s c i n such a p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e r e f l e o t e d l i g h t r a y s from t h e object pass o through t h e l e n s and produce an image of t h e o b j e c t on t h e r o t a t i n g d i s c . H w t h i s image i s produced was mentioned under " l e n s e s " i n t h e preceding lesson. To supplement t h a t p a r t of t h e Lesson you may perform a simple experiment i n your own room by p l a c i n g an o r d i n a r y magnifying g l a s s between some i l l u m i n a t e d o b j e c t and a screen. The s c r e e n may be the opposite w a l l of the room. When t h e proper f o c a l l e n g t h i s fourn3. an e x a c t image w i l l appear m t h e screen. Figure 2 i l l u s t r a t e s how t h i s experiment may be c a r r i e d out.

PHOTOELECTRIC CELL.,

SCANNING DISC DRIVING MOTOR

SCLNNING DISC

Figure 1

Figure 2 Lesson 66

- sheet

Figure 3

~ e uts r e t u r n t o Figure 1. About t h e d i s c i n t h e form of a s p i r a l i s d r i l l e d a number of s m a l l holes, and as t h e d i s c r o t a t e s the small openings t r a c e para l l e l l i n e s across the image, one after the other i n rapid succession. On
t h e opposite side of the d i s c i s a frame t h e o ' p n i n g of which i s the same s i z e opening being i n a s t h e formed image. T h i s frame prevents. more t h a n a s-le A s e a c h opening moves i n t o the image, l i g h t passes t h e image a t any one time through and i s converged t o a p o i n t by means of l e n s No. 2 i n t o the photoe l e c t r i c c e l l where it causes a current t o pass through the c e l l . The amount of c u r r e n t t h a t passes w i l l be d i r e c t l y p r o g o r t i o n a l t o t h e b r i g h t n e s s of e a c h point i n t h e image as it i s t r a c e d out i n p a r a l l e l l i n e s . sheet 4 Lesson 66

Before going f u r t h e r it w i l l be necessary t o go i n t o d e t a i l concerning t h e scanning d i s c s o t h a t t h e t r a c i n g out of p a r a l l e l l i n e s of an image w i l l be c l e a r l y understood. Figure 3 has been drawn f o r t h e purpose of studying t h i s phase of t h e work; i t i s f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n purposes only and not a model t o be used i n a c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n work, f o r t h e reason t h e s i z e of t h e d i s c , t h e number of openings, and t h e form i n which the a p e r t u r e s are arranged, assume d i f f e r e n t s i z e s and a r r a q e m e n t s depending upon t h e i d e a of each i n d i v i d u a l experimenter. with t h i s c l e a r l y i n mind use Figure 3 a s a guide and redraw or t r a c e out tb f i g u r e on a sheet of paper, c u t t i n g out each opening a c c u r a t e l y and taking care t o follow a l l l i n e s . Completing t h i s , paste t h e t r a c e d copy on a piece of card board of s u f f i c i e n t weight t o i n s u r e a g a i n s t c u r l i n g . Next l a y the f i n i s h e d d i s c on a white s h e e t of paper 8& inches long bx 7% i n c b s wide and place a Draw a short l i n e X" on t h e paper t o coincide w i t h p i n through t h e center "0" l i n e No. 1 on t h e disc. This i s shown i n Figure 4. With a sharp pointed p e n c i l 1 . Slowly i n s c r i b e a small f i g u r e " " on t h e white paper i n s i d e t h e opening No. P r o t a t e the d i s c clockwise a s shown by t h e arrow u n t i l opening No. 2 coincides w i t h "x", and w i t h i n t h e boundary of t h i s opening i n s c r i b e a small f i g u r e "2" on t h e paper. Repeat t h i s f o r a l l the openings, 16 i n a l l .

Figure 5

e t h e n l e t it represent the image. Further w can l e t t h i s s e r i e s of f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t a s e r i e s of p a r a l l e l l i n e s . Now, by again r o t a t i n g the d i s c clockwise, and a t t h e same time peering through t h e openings a s t h e y come opposite point "x", t h e small f i g u r e ''1" w i l l be seen; t h i s , we w i l l l e t r e p r e s e n t l i n e one t r a c e d across t h e image, t h e n f i g u r e 2 w i l l r e p r e s e n t l i n e 2 and so on u n t i l t h e image has been completely explored from top t o bottom by a s e r i e s of p a r a l l e l lines.

If t h i s i s c a r e f u l l y completed you w i l l have drawn a row of f i g u r e s on t h e paper e e a s shown i n Figure 5. If w enclose t h i s row of f i g u r e s by f o u r l i n e s w may

Because of the extreme inconvenience due t o excessive h e a t sad l i g h t , t e l e v i s i o n c a r r i e d out by t h e formation of an image on t h e d i s c was verg soon discarded. T h i s c a l l e d f o r some o t h e r method of i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e o b j e c t , t h e r e f o r e , i n s t e a d of scanning t h e image of t h e o b j e c t , t h e o b j e c t i t s e l f i s scanned by a r a p i d l y moving p e n c i l of l i g h t . Lesson 66

- sheet 5

This does not change anything w e system which has been completely r i n g t o Figure 6. T h i s time the the d i s c , t h e n through t h e l e n s , as a small spot of l i g h t .

have previously covered except t h e o p t i c a l reversed a s you w i l l p r e s e n t l y see by r e f e r l i g h t f i r s t passes through t h e opening i n f i n a l l y s t r i l d n g t h e s u b j e c t t o be t e l e v i s e d

W ma again use Figure 3 t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s new method by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n e m y shown i n Figure 7. Secure a s m a l l block of wood a & on it e r e c t two wooden s t a n d a r d s , No. 1 and No. 2, t h e upper ends of which a r e rounded out a s shown by t h e i n s e r t 7a. No. 1 accomodates a small wooden s h a f t "s" a t point H and No. 2 i s s u f f i c i e n t l y long t o hold a card board tube having a diameter l a r g e enough t o allow a f l a s h l i g h t t o be slipped i n one end. Provide bearings a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n the Figure. Make sure t h a t the d i s c D r e v o l v e s t r u e and the tube "T" i s as close t o the d i s c a s p o s s i b l e without touching, thereby allowing a minimum amount of l Q h t t o escape. When t h i s arrangement i s complete snap t h e Plash l i g h t on and t u r n t h e d i s c so t h a t opening No. 1 i s i n l i n e w i t h the l i g h t from t h e f l a s h . A spot of l i g h t w i l l appearmUhscreen and a s t h e d i s c i s slowly r o t a t e d a s l e n d e r p e n c i l of l i g h t w i l l move across t h e s c r e e n from l e f t t o r i g h t . A s opening No. 2 comes up the l i g h t shining through w i l l t r a c e a path lower down on t h e screen. No. 3 w i l l be lower t h a n No. 2 and so on u n t i l No. 16 i s reached which w i l l be t h e lowest p a t h t r a v e r s e d by the spot of l i g h t . These two extreme p o s i t i o n s of the l i g h t , No. 2 and No. 16, r e p r e s e n t the height of t h e o b j e c t . You may now draw a f i g u r e on t h e s c r e e n w i t h i n t h e s e l i m i t s if you Wish.

CARD B O A R D OBJECT IS SCANNED BY n SMALL SPOT OF LIGHT ,,*'TUBE "1"

--WOOD

SHLFT'S"

Figure 7 e

Figure 7 Figure 6 s p i n the d i s c by t w i r l i n g t h e s h a f t between t h e f o r e f i n g e r and thumb a t t h e same time watching t h e screen. You w i l l f i n d t h a t a s opening No. 1 passes bef o r e t h e l i g h t a spot of l i g h t w i l l sweep across the o b j e c t i n w h a t w c a l l e d e p a t h No. 1 a s shown i n Figure 8. Opening No. 2 w i l l next pass between the l i g h t and screen, sweep a c r o s s and i l l u m i n a t e the o b j e c t along p a t h No. 2 , then path t h r e e , and so on, e x p l o r i n g t h e e n t i r e o b j e c t i n one r e v o l u t i o n of the d i s c from t o p t o bottom by p a r a l l e l l i n e s of l i g h t . The r a t e of speed a t which you w i l l be able t o r o t a t e t h e d i s c i n t h i s experiment w i l l g i v e you t h e impression of a number of s p i r a l l i n e s , e a c h chasing t h e o t h e r about a c e n t r a l p o i n t . The
NOW

Lesson 66

- sheet

speed of the d i s c , however, i n a c t u a l t e l e v i s i o n equipment must make a t l e a s t 16 r e v o l u t i o n s each second because of a p h y s i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e human eye, without which e i t h e r t h e so- called moving p i c t u r e s , o r t e l e v i s i o n , could not be accomplished. This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s c a l l e d "Persistance of Vision'
NO l e t us leave our o b j e c t i l l u m i n a t e d a s explained i n connection w i t h Figure 8 f o r the time being and i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s " Persistance of Vision".

When l i g h t s t r i k e s t h e r e t i n a of t h e eye, the impression caused by t h e l i g h t w i l l remain, t h a t i s , i t w i l l P e r s i s t f o r an appreciable time a f t e r t h e source e of l i g h t M s been c u t o f f . Because of t h i s p e c u l i a r i t y w continue t o s e e b r i g h t l y i l l u m i n a t e d o b j e c t s f o r a s h o r t time a f t e r t h e o b j e c t ceases t o r e f l e c t l i g h t t o the eye. The t h r e e following experiments may be conducted t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s phenomenon. F l r s t , s w i f t l y swing a l i g h t e d l a n t e r n or f i r e brand i n a c i r c l e . The imffge recorded by the r e t i n a i n any one p o s i t i o n of t h e swinging l i g h t w i l l p e r s i s t u n t i l i t i s again renewed on t h e r e t i n a by t h e l i g h t a r r i v i n g a t t h e o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n . The r e s u l t i s t h a t we see a continuous c i r c l e of l i g h t . Second, make up a d i s c Of any convenient s i z e a s shown i n If t h i s d i s c i s r o t a t e d r a p i d l y t h e b l a c k and white s e c t i o n s w i l l Figure 9. no longer appear separated. The e n t i r e d i s c w i l l appear g r e y i n c o l o r because of t h e superimposing or merging of t h e black and white s e c t i o n s . Third, re; draw Figures 10 and 1 on two separate pieces of white paper, each 24 inches 1 long and 14 inches wide, and mount t h e f i n i s h e d drawing of Figure 10 on a piece of s t i f f card board of t h e same dimensions. Now, without allowing edge Ifxn t o leave t h e t a b l e r a i s e s i d e "XX" and t u r n t h e card over by g i v i n g it a r o t a r y motion away from you; edge "XX" w i l l now be t h e t o p and "x" t h e bottom. 1 Completing t h i s , mount Figure 1 on t h e cardboard s o t h a t s i d e "XX" i s a t t h e t o p of t h e card.

Figure 9

xx j Figure 10

Next c o n s t r u c t a support of any m a t e r i a l handy s o t h a t when a p i n i s s t u c k I n t h e ends of t h e f i n i s h e d c a r d and mounted on t h e supports a s shown i n Figure 12 t h e c a r d w i l l be capable of r o t a t i n g f r e e l y . With t h i s completed and the house s i d e of t h e c a r d f a c i n g you slowly t u r n i t u n t i l edge "XX" i s facing you as shown i n Figure 13 i n which p o s i t i o n n e i t h e r view i s v i s i b l e . Continue t o t u r n t h e card i n the same d i r e c t i o n and t h e view of Figure 1 4 i s now seen. The purpose i n r o t a t i n g t h e c a r d v e r y slowly i s t o show t h a t a t t h i s speed each view you have of the card i s d i s t i n c t l y s e p a r a t e and d i f f e r e n t . Now, w i t h the card i n t h e p o s i t i o n a s shown i n Figure 12, cause it t o r o t a t e r a p i d l y ; you w i l l now s e e t h e house enveloped i n flames. Before t h e image of t h e house fades from t h e Lesson 66

- sheet

xf
Figure 1 1 Figure 1 2 r e t i n a of your eye t h e flames have been superimposed upon i t and a s a r e s u l t t h e house appears t o be burning. T h i s i s why the d i s c on a t e l e v i s i o n t r a n s m i t t e r i s r o t a t e d a t a speed so r a p i d t h a t t h e l a s t p a r t of t h e o b j e c t i s explored by a sweeping spot of l i g h t before t h e image of t h e f i r s t p a r t fades from t h e r e t i n a .
A more apparent reason f o r t h i s phenomenon w i l l be made c l e a r l a t e r on when w e e d e a l w i t h t h e r e c e i v i n g scanner. W now have t h e o b j e c t being t r a c e d by r a p i d l y moving s p o t s of l i g h t , s o l e t u s see what becomes of t h i s l i g h t . By r e f e r r i n g e t o Figure 6 w s h a l l f i n d t h a t some of t h e l i g h t , upon s t r i k i n g t h e o b j e c t , i s Some of t h i s r e f l e c t e d light passes i n t o obsorbed, and p a r t w i l l be r e f l e c t e d . t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l s conveniently placed before t h e o b j e c t being t e l e v i s e d and g e n e r a t e s an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t within t h e c e l l s . The amount of l i g h t r e f l e c t e d i n t o the p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l s w i l l depend upon t h e s u b j e c t being scanned. For example, suppose a man i s s e a t e d before the scanning d i s c . A s t h e spot of l i g h t passes across h i s h a i r , which we w i l l assume i s dark, considerable of the l i g h t w i l l be absorbed and l i t t l e r e f l e c t e d . A s t h e l i g h t passes a c r o s s t h e f a c e more l i g h t w i l l be r e f l e c t e d , t h e r e f o r e , since t h e output current of t h e photoe l e c t r i c c e l l s a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e l i g h t they r e c e i v e , t h i s current w i l l a c c u r a t e l y follow t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e various i n d i v i d u a l a r e a s of the man's f e a t u r e s a s he i s explored o r scanned by t h e spot of l i g h t .

Figure 13 Figure 14 Lesson 66

- sheet 8

I n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of sound t h e microphone t r a n s l a t e s r y i n g e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s . A t t h e o t h e r end t h e r e c e i v e r e c t r i c c u r r e n t s and converts t h e m back i n t o sound. I n e t h e transmission of images w d e a l p r i m a r i l y w i t h l i g h t waves which a r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o varying c u r r e n t s c l o s e l y following t h e l i g h t and dark elemental a r e a s of t h e s u b j e c t being scanned. The r e c e i v e r of t h i s system picks up t h i s s i g n a l and converts the varying c u r r e n t s i n t o l i g h t . From what we have s t u d i e d we know t h a t t h i s r e c e i v e r must give f o r t h l i g h t , and f u r t h e r t h e i n t e n s i t y , t h a t i s , b r i g h t n e s s o f t h i s l i g h t , mst be d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e c u r r e n t r e c e i v e d , f o r t o have a n image reproduced t h e l i g h t r e c r e a t e d a t t h e r e c e i v e r mst follow f a i t h f u l l y a l l t h e d e l i c a t e v a r i a t i o n s a s picked up by t h e photoe l e c t r i c c e l l s a t t h e transmitter. The device we employ i n t h e r e c e i v e r t o convert t h e varying c u r r e n t s must opera t e without a time l a g , t h a t i s , it must be instantaneous w i t h t h e passing of c u r r e n t , t h e r e f o r e , a s p e c i a l type of applicance c a l l e d a "neon" t u b e w i l l have % r e , t h e n , i s something new t o us new i n the sense t o which t o be employed. it i s t o be used, but o l d a s t h e p r i n c i p a l upon which it operates. I n t h e Elimination" mention was made of a phenomenon c a l l e d l e s s o n on " ~ n t e r f e r e n c e t h e Aurora Borealis. Explanations were offered t h e r e r e l a t i v e t o t h e product i o n of l i g h t caused by t h i s phenomenon. The major c o n d i t i o n under which t h i s o glow r e s u l t e d was based upon a condition of r a r e f i e d atmosphere. N w t h e neon tube glows under i d e n t i c a l l y t h e same conditions b u t w a r e going one more s t e p e and c a l l upon n a t u r e t o g i w u s an analogy which w i l l b e t t e r s u i t our purpose; namely, l i g h t n i n g .

Lightning t a k e s place because n a t u r e , posing a s a r i n g master i n a c i r c u s , snaps h e r whip and &em& a readjustment of the e l e c t r o n s which she c o n t r o l s . If t h e r e i s anything c o m r a r y t o the wishes of n a t u r e i t i s a n unbalanced cond i t i o n of h e r molecular f o r c e s . So, when t h e sky, d u r i n g a hot summerts day, becomes overcast w i t h t h i c k clouds and a thunder s t o r m i s impending t h i s i s what t a k e s place: A t e r r i f i c a g i t a t i o n i s going on i n t h e e l e c t r o n i c world of t h e atmosphere; e l e c t r o n s a s e rushing here and t h e r e endeavoring t o f i n d an atom with which t o a s s o c i a t e themselves and once more s e t t l e down. There a r e , however, f o r c e s a t work which keeps t h e m on t h e move. The clouds and e a r t h a r e a t such a time b u i l d i n g up charges of opposite s i g n and i n t h e i n t e r v e n i n g space b i l l i o n s upon b i l l i o n s of a i r molecules a r e making up t h e atmosphere. Between t h e space s e p a r a t i n g t h e s e molecules are t o be found a few happy c a r e f r e e e l e c t r o n s skipping a i m l e s s l y about t o be captured perhaps by a molecule which nee66 an e l e c t r o n t o balance t h i n g s up. Others may be compelled, due t o cont r a r y f o r c e s , t o j o i n up w i t h a normal or uncharged molecule which immediately becomes n e g a t i v e l y charged because of t h e preponderence of negative charges it i s forced t o carry. The n e g a t i v e l y charged ions a r e now a t t r a c t e d t o any p o s i t i v e l y charged body t h a t might be p r e s e n t . Off r u s h t h e n e g a t i v e l y charged Lesson 66

sheet 9

i o n s and e l e c t r o n s toward e i t h e r t h e cloud o r e a r t h , depending upon which happens t o be p o s i t i v e l y charged a t t h e i n s t a n t . Some of the n e u t r a l molecules, i n t h e i r wanderings, g e t i n the p a t h of these rushing negative charges and a wreck r e s u l t s . The n e u t r a l molecule has a n e l e c t r o n knocked from i t , l e a v i n g i t a p o s i t i v e ion. The f r e e d e l e c t r o n j o i n s t h e speeding negative stream and t h e p o s i t i v e ion rushes off i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n . There i s trouble now: more C o l l i s i o n s r e s u l t and more molecules a r e smashed; the rushing negative stream becomes g r e a t e r i n one d i r e c t i o n , while the p o s i t i v e i o n i c stream sweeps past i n the opposite d i r e c t i o n augumented a t every molec u l a r smash-up. The atmosphere soon breakes down, a tremendous f l a s h occurs and g r e a t f o r c e s of e l e c t r i c a l energy pass i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s between t h e e a r t h and clouds. This i s l i g h t n i n g n a t u r e simply causing a readjustment of , e l e c t r o n s . With the r u s h of c u r r e n t a t t h e break down of t h e atmospheric p r e s s u r e t h e f l a s h becomes v i s j b l e instantaneously. It i s j u s t t h i s s o r t of f l a s h t h a t w must produce i n a neon tube before t e l e v i s i o n i s p o s s i b l e . e

Since t h e voltage which i s r e q u i r e d t o break down atmospheric p r e s s u r e t o produce a f l a s h i s enormous, it can be r e a d b l y a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t a voltage of t h i s magnitude could not be employed i n a small vacuum t u b e . Suppose, t h e n , w e r a r i f y the atmosphere i n which w wish t h e f l a s h t o t a k e place. I n t h i s case e w may use comparitively low v o l t a g e s because e l e c t r o n s may, a t a low voltage, e a t t a i n tremendous smashing v e l o c i t i e s i n an atmosphere t h a t i s r a r e f i ' e d t o the proper e x t e n t , W a r r i v e t b n a t t h e door of t h e neon tube i n w h i c h m i n i a t u r e l i g h t n i n g e f l a s h e s are caused t o occur by r e p e a t e d c o l l i s i o n between charged p a r t i c l e s . . The tube i t s e l f i s a g l a s s envelope from which t h e a i r h a s been exhausted. Two f l a t p l a t e s form t h e e l e c t r o d e s , one of which we c a n compare w i t h a cloud bank and the o t h e r with t h e e a r t h . A r a r i f i e d atmosphere of g a s i s introduced i n t o t h e envelope' c a l l e d "neon", a chemical i n e r t gas which was found t o be t h e f i r s t gas coming o f f when l i q u i d argon was allowed t o evaporate. In t h e t e l e v i s i o n r e c e i v e r t h i s t u b e i s so connected t h a t s u f f i c i e n t voltage i s continua l l y applied t o t h e e l e c t r o d e s t o cause c o l l i s i o n s among the p a r t i c l e s t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t a constant steady glow i s produced. I f , however, an a d d i t i o n a l v o l t a g e i s applied t h e i n t e n s i t y of the glow v a r i e s w i t h the increased voltage. ~t i s i n t h i s connection t h a t i t has i t s importance i n t e l e v i s i o n , t h a t i s , once i t i s connected t o a l o c a l source of p o t e n t i a l srnfficent t o cause t h e minia t u r e l i g h t n i n g f l a s h e s t o s t e a d i l y occur between t h e f l a t e l e c t r o d e s so t h a t a constant glow i s produced, any a d d i t i o n s t o t h i s l o c a l l y applied source of v o l t age w i l l increase t h e i n t e n s i t y of the glow. Therefore t h e neon tube w i l l f o l low e x a c t l y t h o s e a d d i t i o n s t h a t a r e senC t o i t s e l e c t r o d e s by t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l of the t r a n s m i t t e r . The Receiver. Any good s h o r t wave r e c e i v e r may be used t o i n t e r c e p t t h e s i g n a l s of t e l e v i s i o n providing it i s capable of being tuned t o the frequency a t which t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s operating. However, t h e r e a r e improvements which t h e experimenter may incorporate i n t h i s r e c e i v e r whicki w i l l m a t e r i a l l y a s s i s t him i n o b t a i n i n g a more marked success; namely, one stage of s c r e e n g r i d radio- frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n and a change from transformer t o r e s i s t a n c e coupled audio-frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n . Lesson 66

- s h e e t 10

The radio- frequency stage improves t h e s e n s i t i v i t y and o v e r - a l l working e f f i c i e n c y of the r e c e i v e r , while t h e r e s i s t a n c e coupled audio- frequency m p l i f i e r allows a wider band of f r e q u e m i e s t o p a s s , t h u s i n s u r i n g g r e a t e r d e t a i l . Figure 15 i s a schematic diagram presented by "Radio Engineering" i n whfch a s p e c i a l amplifier i s b u i l t up about a "National" s c r e e n g r i d short wave receiving u n i t . The s i g n a l i s i n t e r c e p t e d by t h e antenna and p a s s e s t o an untuned impedance coupled s t a g e of radio- frequency, thus e n e r g i z i n g t h e g r i d of the r.f. screen g r i d UX-222 amplifier. L 1 i n d u c t i v e l y e n e r g i z e s the secondary c o i l of t h e t u n e r L2 which i s tuned by t h e condenser C5. The s i g n a l i s d e t e c t e d by the UX 112-A and r e g e n e r a t i o n i s accomplished by c o f l L3. A r e s i s t a n c e coupled a m p l i f i e r i s coupled t o t h e r e c e i v e r which i s of higher frequency range than found i n the ordinary broadcast r e c e i v e r . This a m p l i f i e r i s used t o provide better detail.

RECEIVER SECTION

AUDIO AMPLIFIER SECTION

NE,ON LAMP SECTION

SCPNNING SECTION

Figure 1 5 The output of t h e UX-1'71-A l e a d s i n t o an output c i r c u i t and t h e n t o t h e neon tube which i s maintained a t a constant glow by t h e 180 v o l t b a t t e r y connected a c r o s s t h e glow tube. The e n t i r e c i r c u i t must be constructed i n such a manner t h a t absolute r i d i g i t y of c o i l s and o t h e r p a r t s i s i n s u r e d , care a l s o being t a k e n t o guard a g a i n s t v i b r a t i o n of t h e u n i t a s a whole. The scanning d i s c motor and i t s a s s o c i a t e d C i r c u i t a r e mounted e n t i r e l y separ a t e so t h a t v i b r a t i o n i s n o t t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e r e c e i v e r . The values of t h e r e c e i v e r p a r t s a r e a s follows: The impedance used i n t h e antenna c i r c u i t i s a No. 10 National impedance. R1 i s a 1 5 ohm filament r e s i s t a n c e ; C 1 and C2 a r e 0.5 mfd. bypass condensers; L1, L2 and L 3 a r e s h o r t wave plug- in c o i l s covering t h e frequency pange from 15 t o 100 meters; C5 i s a 0.000125 mfd. v a r i a b l e condenser; C4 i s a 0.00024 mf'd. g r i d condenser; C 3 i s a small 0.001 f i x e d condenser and R2 i s a 6 megohm g r i d leak. The c o i l RF'C 1 i s a 90 m i l l i h e n r y r a d i o frequency choke c o i l ; C5 i s a 1.0 mfd. bypass condenser, while t h e v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e connected a c r o s s t h i s condenser has a value of 0 t o 500,000 ohms. R 3 Lesson 66

sheet 1 1

i s a 3 ohm r e s i s t a n c e f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e filament of t h e d e t e c t o r t u b e and ~ 5 , C8 and C 9 are 0.5 mfd. coupling condensers. R5 i s a 50,000 ohm r e s i s t a n c e and R6 a g r i d r e s i s t a n c e of 500,000 ohms. R7 i s a p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e of 300,000 i d r e s i s t a n c e of 500,000 ohms and R9 i s a p l a t e pesistance of ohms; R8 i s a 25,000 ohms. %n t h e 1 7 1 4 tube i s used the grid r e s i s t a n c e of t h e a m p l i f i e r of t h i s stage i s omitted and i n i t s place i s connected a radio- frequency c o i l , RE 2 , having a value of 500 m i l l i h e n r y s and, i n s e r i e s with t h i s c o i l , i s an audio-f requency g r i d impedance L . 4

I n the output c i r c u i t a r e g u l a r output f i l t e r i s provided with a 180 v o l t a b a t t e r y c o ~ e c t e d c r o s s the neon tube i n s e r i e s w i t h a v a r i a b l e 0 t o 10,000 ohm r e s i s t a n c e R10.

In the scanning d i s c motor c i r c u i t w have a v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e , R12, of 0 e t o 100 ohms having a 75 watt r a t i n g . It i s employed t o cont,rol the speed of t h e motor. R 1 1 i s a f i x e d r e s i s t a n c e of 5 t o 1 0 ohms of 40 watt r a t i n g t o a s s i s t i n b e t t e r c o n t r o l of t h e motor speed. It may be cut out by t h e short c i r c u i t i n g switch when desired. The b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l s and voltage f o r each p a r t a r e c l e a r l y shown i n t h e Figure.
The Scanning 3 i s c . I n a d d i t i o n t o the r e c e i v e r and a m p l i f i e r t h e r e c e i v i n g scanning d i s c and motor must be considered. A l l t h e o t h e r p a r t s of t h e system may f u n c t i o n p e r f e c t l y but i f this l a s t u n i t is incapable of doing i t s work e f f i c i e n t l y m?have made ID h s b y i n t h e c r e a t i o n of an image. The scanning d i s c of t h e r e c e i v e r i s operated by a s u i t a b l e motor t h e speed of which must be so r e g u l a t e d t h a t t h e d i s c of t h e r e c e i v e r , which i s an e x a c t d u p l i c a t e of the one employed a t the t r a n s m i t t e r , w i l l revolve a t i d e n t i c a l l y t h e same speed.

Figure 17 When opening No. 1 of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g scanning d i s c i s exploring t h e top of t h e o b j e c t , opening No. 1 of the r e c e i v i n g scanner must be moving a c r o s s the t o p of t h e neon t u b e p l a t e . For example, suppose a minature of t h e burning house which you used i n one of t h e experiments was being scanned a t t h e t r a n s m i t t e r ; by a d j u s t i n g t h e speed of t h e r e c e i v e r d i s c t o e x a c t synchronization, t h e image seen when looking through t h e r e c e i v i n g scanner a s shown i n Figure 16 would be t h a t of Figure 1 7 , b u i l t up upon t h e glowing p l a t e of the neon t u b e by various degrees of brfghtness. The r e c e i v e r t h e n merely reconverts, i n t o l i g h t , t h e image as seen by t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l a t t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . L e s s m 66

- sheet

12

Figure 18
Lesson 66

sheet I

Figure 1 9 The ambitious experimenter may spend some p r o f i t a b l e hours w i t h t e l e v i s i o n but he must n o t be l e d t o believe t h a t he i s going t o be able t o gaze upon e x c e l l e n t reproductions a s would be, f o r example, t h e case when viewing a motion p i c t u r e production. T e l e v i s i o n has not advanced t o t h a t stage. Cons i d e r a b l e work, however, i s being c a r r i e d on t o overcome many of t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s , e x p e c i a l l y i n t h e development of more s e n s i t i v e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l s and t h e a b i l i t y t o t r a n s m i t over long d i s t a n c e s i n s t e a d of s h o r t l a b a r a t o r y c i r c u i t s . Also, r e s e a r c h work i n a n attempt t o o b t a i n a more b r i l l i a n t source of l i g h t f o r t h e p r o j e c t o r and a more p o s i t i v e means of synchronizing, and many other problems. Lesson 66 - sheet 1 4

One of t h e p e c u l i a r problems i s t h e phemonenon of "Mirage" which a t times makes i t s e l f known by t h e r e p ~ a l u c t i o nof s e v e r a l images a t the receive^ i n s t e a d of one, r e s u l t i n g i n a hopeless d i s t o r t i o n of t h e whole p i c t u r e . This condition f o r t u n a t e l y does not r e g u l a r l y appear, but it i s one of t h e t r o u b l e s f a c i n g t h e engineers. Figure 18 shows t h e e x t e n t t o which s k i l l e d engineers are going t o i n an endea'vor t o l e a r n more about Television. The "Kings Messenger", a play w r i t t e n 30 years ago, i s being t e l e v i s e d a t WGY. Three p o r t a b l e e l e c t r i c eyes a r e used, one f o r each c h a r a c t e r ' s f a c e and the t h i r d f o r t h e props and t h e hands of the a c t o r s , Only t h e hands and f a c e s of the a c t o r s can be shown which i s another l i m i t a t i o n t o b overcome. Figure 1 9 shows experimental t e l e v i s i o n p r o j e c t i o n apparatus. ?n thls p i c t u r e a view oP a scanning d i s c i s shown. The p r i n c i p a l elements of a system of t e l e v i s i o n , t h e r e f o r e , i s made up of f i r s t a source of strong l i g h t , t h e n an exploring d i s c , a p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l and a m p l i f i e r a t t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g end. A t the r e c e i v e r we have t h e r e c e i v e r and a m p l i f i e r , the neon t u b e , and a synchronized d u p l i c a t e exploring d i s c . When the p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l i s exposed t o l i g h t t h e neon tubes v a r i e s i n i t s i n t e n s i t y and any i n c r e a s e i n l i g h t i n t e n s i t y a t t h e t r a n s m i t t e r causes a prop o r t i o n a l increase i n b r i l l i a n c y of the neon tube. W i t h such a system p r o p e r l y f u n c t i o n i n g , the i n s t a n t t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l i s exposed t o a change i n l i g h t i n t e n s i t y a corresponding change i n voltage i s impressed upon the neon tube r e s u l t i n g i n a v a r i a t i o n i n the glow. The Jenkins Television Receiver The i n t e n s i t y of i l l u m i n a t i o n v a r i e s w i t h the i n t e n s i t y of t h e sources of l i g h t and a s t h e d i s t a n c e i s i n c r e a s e d between t h e source of l i g h t and t h e o b j e c t s on which t h e l i g h t r a y s f a l l . I n f a c t t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e l a w of physics which c l e a r l y s t a t e s ; be hat t h e i n t e n s i t y of i l l u m i n a t i o n upon a s u r f a c e v a r i e s i n v e r s e l y a s t h e square of t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e source". T h i s simply means t h a t i f a s u r f a c e "x" placed "Y" d i s t a n c e from a source of l i g h t which r e c e i v e s a l l t h e l i g h t emenating from t h a t source i t dl1 spread over an a r e a f o u r t i m e s the a r e a of "x" a t a d i s t a n c e " 2 ~ " from t h e source. A t a d i s t a n c e "3Y" t h e l i g h t w i l l spread over an a r e a nine times t h e a r e a of n ~ n ,hence t h e i n t e n s i t y at. d i s t a n c e "2Yn w i l l be only one f o u r t h t h a t r e s u l t i n g a t t h e d i s t a n c e "Y" and only one n i n t h a s g r e a t a t d i s t a n c e *3YW. There i s t h e n a l o s s of i n t e n s i t y a s the s u r f a c e t o be illuminated i s moved away from t h e source of l i g h t . This i s known a s t h e " l o s s of l i g h t n due t o t h e i n w r s e square law. To c o r r e c t a l o s s of t h i s n a t u r e i s one of the f e a t u r e s of t h e Jenkins system of t e l e v i s i o n r e c e p t i o n . The scanning d i s c f i r s t explained was used by Nipkow a s e a r l y a s 1884 and i s s t i l l employed by experimenters. As a f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s of t h i s d i s c l e t u s use t h e same number of openings a s was o r i g i n a l l y used by Nipkow; namely 48. The o b j e c t w i l l then be scanned i n a s e r i e s of 48 p a r a l l e l l i n e s and the transmission of the p i c t u r e would take place a s i f it were r a p i d l y being assembled, t h a t i s , made up of 2,304 small elementary a r e a s . Because of the s p i r a l form taken by t h e openings, or apert u r e s , each one of the h o l e s w i l l be on i t s own p a r t i c u l a r r a d i u s and since t h e r e a r e 48 openings t h e r e w i l l be as maw d i f f e r e n t r a d i i w i t h each succeeding opening. Therefore, i t s a s s o c i a t e d r a d i u s becomes s h o r t e r , i.e., n e a r e r t o t h e a x i s about which it r o t a t e s by approximately t h e diameter of t h e apertures. sheet 15 Lesson 66

With t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n and t h o s e which have preceded i t i s c l e a r t h a t when the d i s c i s placed i n r o t a t i o n t h e locus, t h a t i s , t h e a r e a of e a c h of the openi n g s , w i l l produce a l i n e a r e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e a r e a of t h e p i c t w e . Because e a c h one of t h e small openings l i m i t s t h e amount of l i g h t t h a t can p a s s t h r o u g h and f l o o d t h e o b j e c t w i t h a spot of l i g h t , a powerful source i s r e q u i r e d i n order t o o b t a i n a s u f f i c i e n t i l l u m i n a t i o n of t h e object.

Figure 20

The n e c e s s i t y of such a powerful l i g h t source was overcome by placing a l e n s over each opening of t h e d i s c . The necessary elementary a r e a was then obtained by f o c u s i n g t h e l i g h t t o a s m a l l point on t h e o b j e c t t o be scanned. With t h i s arrangement only a small source of l i g h t was necessary, such a s might be obt a i n e d from an automobile head l i g h t . T h i s type of d i s c was employed by Jenkins w i t h a f a i r degree of success but i n any scanning d i s c t h e r e are physical l i m i t a t i o n s which a r e drawbacks t o i t s development. For example, the minimum s e p a r a t i o n of the openings determine t h e width of t h e p i c t u r e and since t h e 1 p i c t u r e i s n e a r l y square t h e s e p a r a t i o n of t h e openings w f 1 a l s o determine t h e o f f s e t a t t h e end of t h e s p i r a l . For a two i n c h p i c t u r e a t h i r t y s i x i n c h scanning d i s c would be r e q u i r e d , and i f ' a f o u r i n c h p i c t u r e i s t o be produced a s i x f o o t scanning d i s c i s necessary. It i s r e a l i z e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t appar a t u s of t h i s kind i s n o t t h e most p r a c t i c a l f o r home entertainment.

Figure 2 1

Lesson 66

- s h e e t 16

With such l i m i t a t i o n s as t h e s e , Jenkins has developed t e l e v i s i o n along somewhat I n order t o d i f f e r e n t l i n e s by employing what i s termed t h e "drum method". o b t a i n a b e t t e r mental p i c t u r e of t h i s drum, a view of which appear i n Figure 20, consider a c y l i n d e r approximately seven inches i n diameter, t h r e e inches long, and having a t h i c k n e s s of one s j x t e e n t h of an inch. The hub of t h e c y l i n d e r i s hollow f o r the e n t i r e l e n g t h of the drum and has an i n s i d e d i a meter of one and one-half inches w i t h an extension extending outside t h e drum and made t o f i t a one-half i n c h s h a f t of a small motor. I n t h e periphery of t h e drum 48 small openings a r e d r i l l e d , each having a n elementary area of about one twenty- fourth of a n i n c h and arranged i n f o u r h e l i c a l t u r n s spaced two inche a p a r t around the circumference of t h e drum, each t u r n being separated by oneh a l f inch.

Figure 22 I n t h e center of t h e hub a s p e c i a l neon lamp i s placed having f o u r small p l a t e s ; t h i s p a r t i c u l a r tube i s c a l l e d a "four t a r g e t cathode glow neon tube" and i s held i n place by a clamp mounted on t h e motor base. One end of t h i s lamp c l a m p i n pl-ace may be seen i n Figure 21. Between t h e lamp and t h e periphery of t h e drum a number of small q u a r t z r o d s a r e mounted, each ending under i t s p a r t i c u l a r minute opening i n t h e drum surface.

It i s i n t h i s f e a t u r e t h a t t h e J e n k i n s t e l e v i s i o n r e c e i v e r d i f f e r s from t h e d i s c type m d i t i s i n connection w i t h these q u a r t z r o d s t h a t the inverse square law was previously mentioned.
A quartz rod w i l l conduct l i g h t from one end t o t h e o t h e r without any l o s s

i n i n t e n s i t y . The p l a t e s , i.e., t a r g e t s , of t h e neon glow tube a r e placed f i n t h e hollow hub under e a c h of t h e rows O q u a r t z rods. The p l a t e s ( t a r g e t s ) Lesson 66

- sheet 17

a r e t h e n l i g h t e d i n succession through a f o u r segment c o m u t a t o r by current from t h e p l a t e of t h e l a s t audio- frequency tube of t h e receiver. Since t h e movement of the inner ends of t h e quartz rods i s s h o r t t h e neon glow t a r g e t s a r e r e q u i r e d t o be only one eighthby t h r e e - s i x t e e n t h of an inch i n s i z e o r , a t the most, no l a r g e r t h a n t h r e e - s i x t e e n t h by one- quarter of an inch. Theref o r e only a small amount of c u r r e n t i s required t o cause them t o glow, l i g h t modulation being accomplished a s e a s i l y a s i n a l a r g e r p l a t e . As t h e small t a r g e t s glow, l i g h t passes up the q u a r t z rods a s these rods, i n t u r n , pass over t h e t apget and the l i g h t a r r i v e s a t t h e s p i r a l l y formed opening about the periphery of t h e drum without any l o s s i n i n t e n s i t y .

? h i s apparatus i s i n s t a l l e d i n a c a b i n e t a s shown i n Figure 22. The openings of t h e drum, a s they pass by the s m a l l square hole shown i n t h e top of t h e c a b i n e t , d i r e c t s l i g h t a g a i n s t t h e mirror inclined a t an angle. The mirror r e f l e c t s t h e l i g h t t o t h e l e n s where it i s magnified r e s u l t i n g i n a p i c t u r e about s i x inches square.

Figure 23 shows the Jenkins t e l e v i s i o n r e c e i v e r t o g e t h e r w i t h a modern r a d i o r e c e i v e r . Only two connectiomare necessary t o s e t t h i s device i n operation; one cunmction goes t o t h e house l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t t o supply c u r r e n t t o t h e motor; t h e o t h e r connection f i t t e d w i t h a phone-jack, i s connected t o the output of t h e r a d i o r e c e i v e r a m p l i f i e r . Provision i s made f o r a d j u s t i n g t h e speed control of t h e motor a s one watches t h e p i c t u r e . When t h e s i g n a l has been picked up bg the XceiveT and i s i n approximate synchronism with the t r a n s m i t t e r , a l i t t l e c l o s e r adjustment makes t h e p i c t u r e s t a t i o n a r y providing, of course, a p i c t u r e has a c t u a l l y been seen. When no p i c t u r e i s seen a t a l l the adjustment i s e n t i r e l y out and the a d j u s t ment screw must be turned u n t i l a p i c t u r e appears i n frame.

Lesson 66

- sheet 18

You can see r e a d i l y t h a t t h i s i s an attempt t o solve t h e problem from a d i f f e r e n t angle w i t h measurable success. Others improvements a r e s u r e t o follow but when and w i t h what degree of success, no one can r e a l l y t e l l .
A s s t a t e d i n t h e f i r s t p a r t of t h i s l e s s o n , t e l e v i s i o n i s s t i l l a baby; it must grow, and t o grow r e q u i r e s t i m e .

EXAMINATION
1.
2.

- LXCSSON 66

I s the photo e l e c t r i- - c e l l an important p a r t of t e l e v i s i o n c equipment ? Why?

O f what importance i s l i g h t i n connection w i t h t e l e v i s i o n ?

3.

What i s t h e purpose of the scanning d i s c ? What i s meant by t h e term " p e r s i s t a n c e of Vision n ? Where i s t h e neon tube used?

4.
5.

6.

Is it permissible f o r t h e scanning d i s c of the t r a n s m i t t e r t o revolve a t a d i f f e r e n t speed than t h e scanning d i s c of t h e r e c e i v e r ?

Upon what p r i n c i p a l does a system of t e l e v i s i o n operate? Explain t h e methods used t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e o b j e c t t o be t e l e v i s e d , What i s t h e i n v e r s e square law a s applied t o l i g h t ? Hw does the Jenkins system of t e l e v i s i o n overcome t h e l o s s of o light?

7.
8. 9.

10.

Lesson 66

sheet 19

Id
1
i

Technical Lesson 67
' PHOTORADIOGRAMS

- BEAM TRANSMISSION

Photoradiograms and t e l e v i s i o n have many t h i n g s i n common. L i g h t , l e n s e s , p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l s , ~ p l i f i e r sand r a d i o s i g n a l s a l l p l a y an important p a r t i n both. The t h e o r y we s t u d i e d i n P a r t I of T e l e v i s i o n w i l l m a t e r i a l l y a s s i s t u s i n t h i s lesson. motography, whichXhas n o t been covered, has i t s use i n photoradiogram work, but only t h a t p a r t s u f f i c i e n t t o g i v e u s a n i d e a of what t h e t e r m s " p o s i t i v e " and "negative?', a s applies t o f i l m s and p r i n t s , w i l l be taken up. The t a k i n g and f i n i s h i n g of a phot o p a p h r e q u i r e s f i v e o p e r a t ions ; namely, t h e preparat i o n of t h e p l a t e , exposure of t h e p l a t e t o l i g h t r a y s , developing of t h e p l a t e , t h e fixing of t h e p l a t e end, f i n a l l y , t h e p r i n t i n g of t h e p i c t u r e .

I n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of a photographic p l a t e a s o l u t i o n of s i l v e r bromide i s c i p i t a t e d , t h a t i s , caused t o s e p a r a t e and t h e n herd i n a watery suspension i g e l a t i n e . The g e l a t i n e mixture i s maintained a t a warm temperature and a i t o age, t h u s rendering i t more s e n s i t i v e t o l i g h t rays. This mixture, be 1 c a l l e d emulsion, i s t h e n applied t o g l a s s p l a t e s or i s spread over s t r i p s ' transparent celluloid. If w speak of photographic p l a t e s w r e f e r t o t h e e / p l a t e , if a f i l m i s mentioned we r e f e r t o the emulsion covered c e l l u l o i d P l a t e s a r e not u s u a l l y employed by t h e amateur photographer; e i t h e r f i l m o r f i l m r o l l s a r e used.
I

When t h i s prepared f i l m i s exposed t o l l g h t by the opening of a s h u t t e r a i n g l i g h t t o e n t e r the camera through a l e n s , t h e r a y s of l i g h t f a l l upon prepared g e l a t i n e s u r f a c e and a chemical change t a k e s p l a c e , which t o t h e produces no v i s i b l e e f f e c t . But t h e s i l v e r bromide under proper treatmen now be mare e a s i l y reduced t o m e t a l l i c s i l v e r and t h i s reduction w i l l be i p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i n t e n s i t y of the l i g h t t h a t f a l l s upon t h e s u r f a c e C i n g t h e s i l v e r bromide. To b r i n g t h i s r e d u c t i o n about a reducing age i s an a l k a l i n e s o l u t i o n o f p y r o g a l l i c a c i d o r hydro-quinone, i s a p p l i e d a possesses such s l i g h t a c t i v i t y t h s t i t s e f f e c t on p o r t i o n s of t h e b r o n o t exposed t o i l l u m i n a t i o n 1s p r a c t i c a l l y zero. This r e d u c t i o n work r a p i d and d e p o s i t s more m e t a l l i c s i l v e r where t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n i s of e s t intensity.

principal c i r u i the ! A ll el cbroadcasting systemsAr e q u i r e threewhichi t comprisec c hti eelements forand sounds e t r i c a l transmission of the sounds f l y speech music. k These elements are: (1) microphone c i r c u f o r the conversion of the
. .

CrrLcal impulses. The microphone i t s e l f i s a l s o known as the "tr&&-' (2'') t r a n s m i t t e r eir w i t f o r the purpose of liqenerating high-frequen-. A act as a c a r r i e r f o r the e l e c t r i c a l impulses thr,ough the space be.-. transmitter antenna 'and t h e . receiver antenna. ( 3 ) A receiver cibfunct5ons t o convert the e l e c t r i c a l energy back i n t o samd.

Y'
.-Fino Tune

'Variometer

Figure 1 lems dealing with a zeceiving c i r c u i t ,under the l a s t division, No. Be. specially considered i n our pre,sent lesson only insofar as t h e $%et .bearing upon the operat ion of the "monitoring" loudspeaker i c a s t s t a t i o n . W w i l l discuss "monitoring" and i t s importance t o e radio broadc,ast i n subsequent pages.

r e p r e s e n t s an audio a m p l i f i e r system c o n s i s t i n g of one or more s t a g e s of amp l i f i c a t i o n used t o r a i s e t h e microphone current t o the c o r r e c t l e v e l necess a r y t o c o n t r o l the output of the r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r . Notice t h a t the f i r s t block i n our diagram i n d i c a t e s t h a t one audio s t a g e is a c t u a l l y mounted i n t h e c o n t a i n e r holding t h e microphone. The a m p l i f i e r system i n t h e second block t o t h e r i g h t a l s o i n c r e a s e s t h e s t r e n g t h of the audio c u r r e n t s from the microphone c i r c u i t t o a s u i t a b l e value f o r i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e modulator o s c i l l a t o r systems, marked on t h e drawing r e s p e c t i v e l y as modulation ( o u t p u t ) and o s c i l l a t o r ( i n p u t ). The t h i r d block t o t h e r i g h t marked R.F. Channel r e p r e s e n t s the c i r c u i t s where the high- frequency i s generated which i s put i n t o t h e antenna.

Condenser Microphone

I1:iee
Amo.

L a

Audio Speech Freq. Channel C m a d e Amp. Circuit

It
Radiation Ammeter

Pick- up Coil '--Circuit for OYIII~ISOPO

Figure 2 When t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s i n o p e r a t i o n t h e high- frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s produced i n t h e r.f. channel are modulated according t o t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e sound waves which s t r i k e t h e microphone diaphram. A g r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a voice modulated wave i s shown i n t h e upper l e f t of Figure 3. F u r t h e r on i n our l e s s o n w w i l l e x p l a i n how e i t h e r a remote o r l o c a l microphone may be cone nected i n t o the t r a n s m i t t e r by t h e simple o p e r a t i o n of a switch. The microphone i n t h e diagram i s t h e l o c a l microphone. The c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which apply i n g e n e r a l t o broadcasting apparatus w i l l now be e outlined. W suggest a t t h i s time t h a t our s t u d e n t s review vacuum tube o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t s given i n previous l e s s o n s where it i s shown how an o s c i l l a t o r may be connected t o a power a m p l i f i e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e high-frequency energy before it passes i n t o the antenna c i r c u i t , and a l s o how t r a n s former coupling is most g e n e r a l l y used between t h e output of e i t h e r an o s c i l l a t o r or power a m p l i f i e r system and t h e antenna.
A l l vacuum tube t r a n s m i t t e r s may be divided i n t o two g e n e r a l c l a s s e s ; "low

Lesson 68

- sheet 2

power" and "high power". While t h e r e i s no d e f i n i t e d i v i s i o n between t h e two c l a s s e s yet i t 'seems proper t o place a l l t r a n s m i t t e r s having outputs g r e a t e r t h 5 k i l o w a t t s ( k w . ) I n t h e high power c l a s s because t h e y employ water-cooled tubes and o b t a i n t h e i r d i r e c t current p l a t e supply from high voltage r e c t i f i e r s . The t r a n s m i t t e r s r a t e d below 5 kw. u t i l i z e the ordinary type of a i r cooled power tube and a r e g e m r a l l y s u p p l i e d wlth e i t h e r a s i n g l e o r double commutator type d-c. generator. B a t t e r i e s are sometimes used t o f u r n i s h power. Although t h e various elements t h a t go t o make up a complete broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r are t r e a t e d i n t h i s lesson, y e t t h e t h e o r i e s involved and t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of e a c h piece of equipment cannot always be given i n complete form but i n most cases you w i l l f i n d an e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p l e s involved. Radio broadcasting equipment of t o d a y i s no longer a simple combined o s c i l l a t o r

'%rrier.

Frequency

Determined by inductance

Orciliatar

~~~0~~~

of Microphone

Figure 3

and modulator coupled d i r e c t l y i n t o a n antenna system t o s e t it i n t o e x c i t a t i o n , but it embraces many vacuum tubes and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d c i r c u i t s . Rowe v e r , once the p r i n c i p l e s of r a d i o broadcasting a r e mastered t h e understandi n g of t h e o p e r a t i o n of a multi- tube t r a n s m i t t e r w i l l be j u s t a s easy as one u t i l i z i n g only a few tubes. Any person who w i l l analyse the broadcasting c i r c u i t s g i v e n i t h i s lesson w i l l n r e a d i l y see t h a t t h e y a r e i n most c a s e s d i v i d e d i n t o what w may c a l l channels. e For i n s t a n c e , s e v e r a l audio axnplif ying tubes a r e connected between the microphone and t h e modulator. These t u b e s a l l f u n c t i o n a l i k e t o step- up the audioc u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n s from t h e microphone c i r c u i t t o a s u i t a b l e s i z e f o r i n t r o ducing them i n t o t h e g r i d input c i r c u i t of the modulator. This s e r i e s of amplif i e r tubes t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e microphone c i r c u i t may be c a l l e d t h e audio channel. The vacuum t u b e s i n t h i s channel may be c a l l e d e i t h e r audio or speech a m p l i f i e r s . Another channel i s t h e one i n which t h e s t a t % o n t s assigned frequency i s produced. I n order t o g e n e r a t e t h i s high- frequency c u r r e n t one vacuum tube of low power i s operated a s a n o s c i l l a t o r and it i s c a l i b r a t e d t o work on the requiredfrequency. T h i s t u b e i s t h e master o s c i l l a t o r a I n c e r t a i n transmitLesson 68

- sheet 3

t e r s t h e assigne-d frequency i s generated i n r.f. c i r c u i t s z s s o c i a t e d w i t h a vacuum tube and a quartz c r y s t a l .

The modulator- oscillator tubes f o r m another group. Large power t u b e s a r e gene r a l l y employed a s modulators which r e q u i r e s t h a t the o s c i l l a t o r t u b e s be of somewhat s i m i l a r p r o p o r t i o n s t o operate e f f i c i e n t l y i n conjunction w i t h them. he combined oscillator- modulator tube c i r c u i t s a r e n e c e s s a r y t o d e l i v e r a modu l a t e d high-f recjuency a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t t o e i t h e r a power a m p l i f i e r system o r d i r e c t l y t o t h e t h e antenna through a coupling transformer.

power amplifiers. These t u b e s are known a s intermediate a m p l i f i e r s . They a r e connected i n "cascade w arrangement, meaning t h a t t h e output of one t u b e feeds i n t o t h e input of t h e n e x t t u b e following, and s o on. By employing s e v e r a l i n termediate s t a g e s t h e c u r r e n t s a r e stepped up t o power proportions. Thus a l a r g e s i g n a l voltage may be obtained f o r i n t r o d u c i n g t h i s energy i n t o t h e power o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t s f o r transmission. Furthermore, t h e r e a r e some t y p e s of broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r s that employ one or more very l a r g e power tubes known a s main power a m p l i f i e r s between the oscillator- modulator group and t h e antenna. Even though t u b e s of different s i z e and power a r e used i n t h e radio- frequency channels yet t h e y a l l f u n c t i o n fundamentally a s a m p l i f i e r s . These channels may be summarized a s follows:
1 . 2.
3.

A group of a m p l i f i e r tubes i s often employed between t h e master o s c i l l a t o r and

Master O s c i l l a t o r . Intermediate power a m p l i f i e r s . Main power a m p l i f i e r s .

I n c e r t a i n c i r c u i t s we o f t e n f i n d two o r more tubes connected i n p a r a l l e l t o i n c r e a s e the output of t h e p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u i t of which t h e s e tubes a r e a p a r t . Several radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r s a r e always used w i t h a q u a r t z crystal-cont r o l i n order t o s t e p up t h e small amount of power i n t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s generated i n t h e c r y s t a l ' s c i r c u i t t o a s u f f i c i e n t value f o r operating t h e g r i d s of t h e power o s c i l l a t o r tubes. These s e r i e s of a m p l i f i e r s t a g e s which conn e c t t h e quartz c r y s t a l c i r c u i t t o t h e power o s c i l l a t o r a r e c a l l e d intermediate r a d i o a m p l i f i e r s , and t h e y operate s i m i l a r l y t o t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e a m p l i f i e r s g l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o which a r e used w i f h t h e master o s c i l l a t o r t y p e c i r c u i t . The output of t h e c r y s t a l c o n t r o l l e d tube may be coupled t o e i t h e r a 7.5 w a t t type t u b e , a UX-210 or CX- 310 f o r example, o r i n s o m t r a n s m i t t e r s t o a 50 watt tube o p e r a t i n g on v e r y low powey and t h i s i n t u r n may be followed by a radio- frequency c i r c u i t u s i n g a tube of s i m i l a r s i z e , o r 50 w a t t s , i n order t o If a 50 watt tube i s t o o small t o proamplify t h e output of t h e f i r s t tube. vide s u f f i c i e n t g r i d e x c i t a t i o n f o r e n e r g i z i n g t h e main power a m p l i f i e r t u b e s then s e v e r a l s t a g e s of i n t e r m e d i a t e a m p l i f i c a t i o n may be added t o the c i r c u i t , I n any event, i f it i s d e s i r e d t o r a i s e t h e output of any t u b e c i r c u i t it may be accomplised by u s i n g one o r more tubes of s i m i l a r power o r of i n c r e a s i n g e power. I n other words suppose w wish t o send a modulated high-frequency curr e n t of high voltage i n t o t h e antenna system. It i s abvious t h a t t h i s can be accomplished by simply u t i l i z i n g one o r more v e r y high-power tubes f u n c t i o n i n g a s a m p l i f i e r s between t h e output of t h e oscillator- modulator group forming t h e Lesson 68 sheet 4

\
1

third channel given in t h e summarized l i s t preceding.

Power t u b e s are connected i n some cases i n pushpull arrangement, r e q u i r i n g t h a t t h e g r i d s of b o t h t u b e s be a t t a c h e d t o opposite ends of a transformer winding w i t h both p l a t e s a l s o connected t o opposite ends of another transformer winding. The schematic d i a g r a m of l a r g e s e t s o f t e n appear somewhat complicated, nevert h e l e s s these diagrams should be simple t o understand i f we t h i n k of t h e chann e l s a s outlined i n t h e preceding paragraphs. Let us now t r e a t on t h e elementary c i r c u i t s of a broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r . The four e s s e n t i a l elements r e q u i r e d t o accomplish sound transmiss ion a r e given i n t h e following and reTerence should again be made t o t h e fundamental diagram i n Figure 1 where t h e c F r c u i t f o r a t h r e e tube t r a n s m i t t e r i s i l l u s t r a t e d . The c i r c u i t elements are divided i n t o s e c t i o n s a s follows:
(1) An " o s c i l l a t o r " tube of h i g h power ( o r perhaps one of lower power with

i t s radio- frequency c u r r e n t s amplified through one or more s t a g e s of power a m p l i f i c a t i o n ) i s employed t o supply t h e high- frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s .
( 2 ) A "modulator" tube o r t u b e s of s u i t a b l e power a r e coupled t o the o s c i l -

l a t o r i n such a manner t h a t t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t s are energized from t h e sane d-c. source, with t h e p l a t e supply c a r r i e d through a v e r y l a r g e reactance c o i l . The purpose of t h e modulator i s t o r e g u l a t e , by i t s p l a t e c u r r e n t changes, t h e amount of a i r e c t c u r r e n t flowing t o the o s c i l l a t o r p l a t e . Variations i n t h e p l a t e supply of t h e o s c i l l a t o r means t h a t t h e amplitudes of t h e r.f. curr e n t generated by t h e o s c i l l a t o r w i l l v a r y according t o t h e audio- frequency changes i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of the modulator. above i s an i r o n core p l a t e r e a c t o r having an i n f i n i t e amount of inductance f o r f i e q u e n c i e s w i t h i n t h e audio range. The r e a c t o r i s known a s t h e "modulation p l a t e r e a c t o r " .
( 3 ) The " reactance c o i l " r e f e r r e d t o i n No.2

( 4 ) A "microphone" and i t s a s s o c i a t e d c i r c u i t s are n e c e s s a r y t o convert t h e sound waves impinged upon t h e microphone diaphragm i n t o a c u r r e n t which v a r i e s e x a c t l y a s the o r i g i n a l sounds. The output of t h e microphone i s connected t o t h e modulator g r i d input c i r c u i t through one or more s t a g e s of audio amplificat i o n . It i s i n t h i s manner t h a t the modulator g r i d , o r g r i d s i f more t h a n one modulator t u b e i s used, a r e e x c i t e d by voltages r e c e i v e d from t h e microphone c i r c u i t .

The microphone c u r r e n t s o f t e n r i s e t o excessive values which i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e reproduct ion. To avoid t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y a monitoring r h e o s t a t ( v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e ) i s provided f o r t h e c o n t r o l of volume. The monitoring c i r c u i t i s equipped with a volume i n d i c a t o r and a loudspeaker i s u s u a l l y mounted on t h e o p e r a t o r ' s t a b l e . The photograph i n Figure 4 shows s e v e r a l operators on d u t y In before t h e speech input c o n t r o l panel of a l a r g e broadcasting s t a t i o n . e Figure 5 w have shown how t h e volume c o n t r o l i s connected i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of an a m p l i f i e r t u b e and a l s o how e i t h e r a remote o r l o c a l microphone may be switched i n t o the t r a n s m i t t e r . I n one type of t r a n s m i t t e r an o s c i l l o s c o p e , using an incandescent lamp a s a Lesson 68

sheet 5

Lesson 68

sheet 6

a v i b r a t o r , i s employed f o r checking t h e percentage of modut o r i n g pick-up inductance i s coupled t o t h e antenna system and t of energy induced i n t h i s c o i l feeds i n t o t h e oscilloscope. rrangenent g i v e s a t r u e i n d i c a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the modulat e d s i g n a l t h a t i s being s e n t out b y a t r a n s m i t t e r . The c i r c u i t s f o r t h i s monit o r i n g apparatus and i t s r e l a t i o n t o other portions of the t r a n s m i t t e r a r e shown i n the diagram of t h e 1 kw. Type ET. 3633 broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r i n Figure 6. The d e s i r a b i l i t y of a high percentage of modulation or a l a r g e audio-frequency change i n the c a r r i e r wave amplitudes i s t o r a i s e t h e speech or music r e ceived a s f a r above any background of s t a t i c and o t h e r i n t e r f e r e n c e a s p o s s i b l e .
To 3rd Stage

Double Button

+B

To Remote Mluoohone

Figure 5 The c i r c u i t s may now be d i v i d e d i n t o s e c t i o n s a s shown i n Figure 6 according It w i l l be seen t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l f e a t u r e s of t o t h e i r p r i n c i p a l functions. t h e broadcast c i r c u i t s r e s o l v e themsahres i n t o t h e following items:
1 . 2. 3. 4.
A q u a r t z c r y s t a l or master osci1.lator c i r c u i t . The microphone. C o n t r o l l i n g t h e volume of a broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r . Combined o s c i l l a t o r and modulator.

(1)E i t h e r a quartz c r y s t a l - c o n t r o l l e d c i r c u i t o r t h e master o s c i l l a t o r tube c i r c u i t i s required i n a l l broadcasting equipment. These d e v i c e s supply t h e i n i t i a l o s c i l l a t o r y c u r r e n t of t h e proper frequency. Through t h e r a d i o chann e l of a m p l i f i e r s , r e f e r r e d t o i n previous paragraphs, t h e output of e i t h e r a c r y s t a l - c o n t r o l o s c i l l a t o r o r master o s c i l l a t o r i s r a i s e d t o t h e d e s i r e d l e v e l t o e x c i t e the power tubes. By t h e use of e i t h e r method t h e frequency of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r i s maintained p r a c t i c a l l y constant.
A v e r y h i g h degree of constancy of t h e high- frequency c a r r i e r wave i s maintained e s p e c i a l l y by t h e c r y s t a l - c o n t r o l method. One or more c r y s t a l s may be mounted i n a h e a t shielded compastment w i t h the temperature maintained by thermostatic c o n t r o l s a t a constant value, u s u a l l y 1 5 degrees Centigrade. Several c r y s t a l s a r e o f t e n provided, in.which c a s e a s w i t c h on the panel w i l l allow any one of t h e c r y s t a l s t o be e a s i l y s e l e c t e d .

I n c e r t a i n t r a n s m i t t e r s a UX-210 tube i s arranged t o e i t h e r amplify t h e output of a preceding a m p l i f i e r stage i n t h e case of c r y s t r l - c o n t r o l , or t h i s tube may f u n c t i o n a s a s e l f - e x c i t e d master o s c i l l a t o r when c r y s t a l - c o n t r o l i s not Lesson 68

- sheet

over from c r y s t a l t o master o s c i l l a t o r o p e r a t i s n or vice mplished by means of a double- pole, double-throw switch.
A c r y s t a l i s cut from a s o l i d piece of quartz. A s l i c e o r p l a t e of t h e prop e r thickness i s cut and then ground t o t h e s p e c i f i e d t h i c k n e s s t o give i t a

d e f i n i t e period of o s c i l l a t i o n . The q u a r t z p l a t e must be c u t i n a c e r t a i n way t o make i t s e l e c t r i c a l axes a t r i g h t angles t o the o p t i c a l a x i s . After g r i n d i n g and p o l i s h i n g t h e f l a t s u r f a c e s , by a process known a s t h e lapping method, absolute p a r a l l e l i s m between them i s obtained, which i n s u r e s t h e accuracy and s t a b i l i t y of t h e c r y s t a l s o s c i l l a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The t h i n piece of quartz i s mounted between two metal p l a t e s and i s t h e n connected by one of s e v e r a l methods t o e i t h e r a 201-A type tube or a 7.5 watt tube i n an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t formed of inductance and c a p a c i t y . The vacuum tube f u r n i s h e s t h e d r i v i n g power.

Orillator Power-~rnplifier

Figure 6 The diagram i n Figure 7 s h w s i n g e n e r a l how t h e c r y s t a l may be mounted between two p l a t e s . Due t o the mechanical v i b r a t i o n s of the c r y s t a l when o s c i l l a t i n g , t h e upper p l a t e must r e s t only l i g h t l y upon t h e c r y s t a l surface. Power i s supplied t o the vacuum t u b e from an "A" and "B" b a t t e r y with c o r r e c t "c" b i a s applied t o t h e grid. I f w r o t a t e t h e v a r i a b l e condenser i n t h e o s c i l l a t o r y e c i r c u i t connected t o t h e p l a t e , or make other changes i n c i r c u i t conditions, a p o i n t w i l l be found where t h e c r y s t a l begins v i b r a t i n g , t h u s s e t t i l i g up r a d i o continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s a t i t s n a t u r a l mechanical v i b r a t i o n period. Observe how t h e c r y s t a l i s connected between g r i d and f i l a m e n t , and a l s o how the h i g h frequency c u r r e n t s passing through p l a t e c o i l P w i l l induce o s c i l l a t i o n s i n S, the l a t t e r c o i l being p a r t of t h e tuned g r i d c i r c u i t of the following a m p l i f i e r tube.

Figure 7 Lesscm 68

- sheet 8

t h i s energy would work back through t h e c i r c u i t s and cause the c r y s t a l t o crack.

Figure 8 When t h e c r y s t a l i 8 i n a n O s c i l l a t i n g c o n d i t i o n it i s thought t h a t some p o r t i o n s of t h e f l a t s u r f a c e a r e i n s o r t of a n upward movemnt, while o t h e r portions a t t h e moment a r e moving i n .a downward d i r e c t i o n , t h u s c r e a t i n g on t h e surface numerous i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y small peaks and depressions. Because of t h i s p h y s i c a l motion t h e c r y s t a l must be h e l d l o o s e l y between t h e two conducting p l a t e s . There a r e o t h e r p o s s i b l e c i r c u i t arrangements f o r t h e c r y s t a l than the one shown i n Figure 7. Another i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n the schematic diagram Figure 8 which a l s o shows the second t u b e c i r c u i t from the l e f t , employing a UX-841 t u b e , being opera t e d a t one of t h e harmonics generated i n the c r y s t a l c o n t r o l c i r c u i t . The t r a n s f e r of r.f. energy from one c i r c u i t t o t h e o t h e r i s through t h e coupling between
I I

150 Wall Cmtal Controlled Ampltfier

I:

1 K.W. Ampllfltl-+
TO UV.207

.... -. -

T w U V . 2 1 1 Tuber

-cl

-1wov.

-py+

-C

Ii
Figure 9
I

-C-llv.+

+2mv.

Ir

Lesson 68

- sheet 9

hown i n Figure 9.

of a t r a n s m i t t e r i s adjusted w i t h a quartz c r y s t a l t h e t r a n s m i t t e r
be p i e z o e l e c t r i c c o n t r o l l e d .

general classes:
1. Carbon button type. 2. Condenser type. 3. Magnetic type.

Carbon microphones a r e known a s s i n g l e and doublebutt on microphones The magnetic type i s o f t e n used when i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l of c e r t a i n instruments i s d e s i r e d , a s f o r example i n t h e case of the piano. The sounding board v i b r a t i o n s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o a r o t a t a b l e c o i l which i s mounted i n a s t r o n g magnetic f i e l d . The changing f l u x induces p o t e n t i a l s i n t h e c o i l which are impressed between g r i d and f i l a m e n t of t h e f i r s t a m p l i f i e r tube. The condenser microphone o p e r a t e s by minute v a r i a t i o n s i n c a p a c i t y w i t h a p o t e n t i a l I t s output f e e d s i n t o a complete of s e v e r a l hundred v o l t s between p l a t e s . s t a g e of a m p l i f i c a t i o n , employing a small r e c e i v i n g tube, t h i s tube being g e n e r a l l y mounted w i t h i t s output coupling transformer i n t h e same c o n t a i n e r w i t h t h e microphone. The diaphragm i s one of t h e p l a t e s and i t s movements cause changes i n t h e condenser 1 s capacity. Carbon Type Microphone. The method whereby sound v i b r a t i o n s w i l l be r e g i s t e r e d and have t h e e f f e c t of producing c u r r e n t s t h a t follow i n sympathy w i t h t h e In b r i e f , t h e sound waves a r e a p p l i e d same changes, i s c a l l e d "modulation". by means of a diaphragm and s m a l l carbon granules a r e made t o move i n a way t h a t a v a r y i w p r e s s u r e a l t e r s t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e . Carbon microphones must be shaken occasionally t o prevent packing of t h e g r a n u l e s which i f allowed t o occur would n o t permit normal changes i n t h e i r resis!ance by the a c t i o n of t h e .diaphragm. Figure 10 shows how a single- button microphone i s connected t o a b a t t e r y and t o t h e primary of an i r o n core transformer. The microphone shown i n Figure 1 1 contains a small cup of carbon granules C , which a r e f r e e t o move and through which c u r r e n t w i l l p a s s from t h e b a t t e r y . An i n n e r compression d i s c M i s enclosed i n t h e cup r e s t i n g a g a i n s t and making contact w i t h t h e g r a n u l e s and a l s o e x e r t i n g a mechanical p r e s s u r e a g a i n s t them. The purpose of t h e d i s c M i s t o vary the e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e granules by s l i g h t changes i n mechanical p r e s s u r e when sound waves a r e impinged upon t h e surface of t h e o u t e r t h i n m e t a l . How t h e v i b r a t i o n s of t h e t h i n diaphragm D a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o diaphragm D t h e compression d i s c M can be r e a d i l y understood from the drawing. The carbon g r a n u l e s a r e e i t h e r f i r m l y or c l o s e l y packed o r loosened by t h e everchanging compression of t h e disc when sound waves a r e d i r e c t e d toward the mouth-piece. Lesson 68

- sheet

10

D i r e c t c u r r e n t f l o w s through t h e g r a n u l e s from t h e b a t t e r y by means of t h e t ~ o wires connected t o d i s c s M and W and thence through t h e transformer. When a sound wave s t r i k e s diaphragm D t h e movement of d i s c M changes i t s pressure on t h e g r a n u l e s , e i t h e r packing them close together o r allowlng them more freedom. his df sturbance of their normal arrangement or p o s i t i o n s pemnits a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r current flow because of the change i n r e s i s t a n c e . we know t h a t when t h e g r a n u l e s r e s t a g a i n s t one another q u i t e c l o s e l y they o f f e r l e s s r e s i s t a n c e t o c u r r e n t passing through them and conversely when more loose l y packed t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e i s i n c r e a s e d and l e s s c u r r e n t w i l l pass through them. The process i s one of allowing more or l e s s Current flow through t h e carbon cup by varying the normal p r e s s u r e of t h e d i s c a g a i n s t t h e g r a n u l e s . Consequently t h e c u r r e n t passing through t h e primary of t h e transformer w i l l a l s o change, since t h i s winding and the microphone a r e connec&ed i n s e r i e s . The f l u pern e a t i n g the i r o n core w i l l v a r y i n magnitude according t o t h e c u r r e n t changes and induce a n a l t e r n a t i n g electromotive force i n t h e secondary of t h e t r a n s f ormer

smgle Bullon

Microphone

!Muoohone

Transformer

,,

Grid Battery

Figure 10 Figure 11
It i s seen t h a t t h e secondary i s connected between g r i d and filament of t h e f i r s t s t a g e a m p l i f i e r a s shown i n Figure 10. It i s i n t h i s way t h a t the g r i d of t h e tube i s supplied w i t h a varying e.rn.f., r e s u l t i n g i n a flow of d i r e c t c u r r e n t i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t wQich v a r i e s according t o the c u r r e n t i n t h e microphone c i r c u i t . One or more s t a g e s of audio a m p l i f i c a t i o n a r e r e q u i r e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e s i g n a l v o l t a g e s t o values s u i t a b l e f o r introducing d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e modulator a s the diagram i n Figure 2 suggests. The carbon cup i s most g e n e r a l l y c a l l e d the "buttont'. A s i n g l e button and two b u t t o n microphone a r e shown connected t o an a u d i o transformer and amplif i e r t u b e r e s p e c t i v e l y i n Figures 5 and 10. . Two carbon b u t t o n s a r e employed i n Figure 5 each one being placed on e i t h e r s i d e of a t i g h t l y s t r e t c h e d t h i n m e t a l l i c diaphragm having a t h i c k n e s s of about ,002 inch. With t h i s arrangement t h e pressure on one b u t t o n i s increased while t h a t on t h e other i s r e l e a s e d when sounds s t r i k e t h e diaphragm. It i s w l l known t h a t any sound t a k e n s e p a r a t e l y i s composed of a fundamental and s e v e r a l harmonics and t h a t d i f f e r e n t musical instruments when playing t h e same n o t e s a r e e a s i l y d i s t i n guished from each other. This i s due p a r t l y t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n the f r e quencies of t h e i r harmonics.

The double- button' microphone i s very e f f i c i e n t because t h e varying c u r r e n t s Lesson 68

- sheet 11

flowing through b o t h buttons and a l s o through t h e transformer produces a much l a r g e r f l u x v a r i a t i o n i n the i r o n core t h a n t h a t produced when a s i n g l e button type i s used. T h i s r e s u l t s i n a h i g h induced v o l t a g e i n t h e transformer seconda r y which i n c r e a s e s t h e output of the a m p l i f i e r tube.
Madulalion

Flow of

L m.a.y W

( 3 ) Controlli t h e Volume of a Broadcast Transmitter. The diagram i n Figure 5 shows how a v a r a b l e r e s i s t a n c e , used t o c o n t r o l the volume of the broadcast energy, i s connected t o an a m p l i f i e r . T h i s c o n t r o l i n a broadcast s t a t i o n i s placed i n t h e hands of an o p e r a t o r c a l l e d a "monitor". H i s assignment i s t o prevent excessive sound v i b r a t i o n s impinged on t h e surf ace of t h e diaphragm from causing abnormal c u r r e n t changes i n t h e transformer, which not only would d i s t o r t t h e reproduction but would give t h e e f f e c t of an uneven change i n tone volume, and sometimes a b l a s t i n g e f f e c t . The monitor follows t h e c u r r e n t v a r i a t i o n s o r t h e depth of t h e modulation by t h e d e f l e c t i o n s of a needle a c r o s s t h e s c a l e of a very s e n s i t i v e m t e r connected i n the output of t h e amplifier c i r c u i t . Let us a g a i n r e f e r t o t h e photograph i n Figure 4 where t h e c o n t r o l s and volume i n d i c a t i n g meters a r e c l e a r l y shown. One of the advantages of volume r e g u l a t i o n i s t o permit the broadcast reproduction t o be r a i s e d above i n t e r f e r i n g noises.

Figure 12

~eis i ? stem E3 - osci1;ator rof sVoice Transmission.c oThe (fundamental a cpiloane ofe tahcet omodulator i s t e t s upon t h e choke i l t h e modulator t r r ) which and connected i n t h e common p l a t e supply l e a d of both t u b e s as shown i n Figure 12. W have redrawn t h e o s c i l l a t o r and modulator c i r c u i t s with t h e p l a t e r e a c t o r e and microphone a s i n view A of Figure 13. T h i s arrangement w i l l s i m p l i f y t h e explanat ion.

(4)

A Simple Explanation of t h e P r i n c i p l e s Involved i n t h e Coqstant Current

L e t u s see what such a choke c o i l o r r e a c t o r w i l l d o when i n s e r t e d i n a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c i r c u i t . The r e a c t o r , due t o I t s heavy i r o n core and many t u r n s of wire,
Lesson 68

sheet 12

b u i l d s up a l a r g e magnetic f i e l d . I f f o r any reason t h e s t e a d y c u r r e n t passing through it attempts e i t h e r t o increase o r decrease i n s t r e n g t h the l i n e s of f o r c e s e t up by t h e c o i l w i l l prevent such changes. T h i s , of course, means t h a t such a c o i l w i l l have an i n f i n i t e amount of inductance f o r audio- frequency curr e n t changes. The r e s u l t w i l l be t h a t t h e c u r r e n t through the choke w i l l r e main unchanged f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes. W may t h e n s a y t h a t the supply t o e t h e modulator and o s c i l l a t o r p l a t e c i r c u i t s w i l l be a constant c u r r e n t , since t h e y a r e connected i n a p a r a l l e l arrangement a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e diagram. Now, t h e s t e a d y c u r r e n t through t h e r e a c t o r must flow t o t h e p l a t e s of both tubes because t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t s are i n a p a r a l l e l arrangement a s j u s t s t a t e d . W know from our previous work on divided c i r c u i t s t h a t whenever a d i r e c t cure r e n t of constant value flows i n a p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g of two branches o r members, the c u r r e n t w i l l d i v i d e i t s e l f e q u a l l y between them, providing of course t h a t both branches have an eqhal amount of r e s i s t a n c e . That i s t o say, each branch normally-draws t h e same amount of c u r r e n t . Let u s assume t h a t we have a c i r c u i t w i t h both branches of s i m i l a r r e s i s t a n c e values, t h a t both branches pass the same amount of c u r r e n t and a l s o t h a t t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t d i v i d e d between them i s always a f i x e d q u a n t i t y . To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s c l e a r l y , we have shown i n views B and C , Figure 13, t h e o s c i l l a t o r tube a s a f i x e d r e s i s t a n c e and t h e modulator t u b e replaced by a v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e . The following a r b i t r a r y c u r r e n t values a r e ' g i v e n i n order t o explain t h e a c t i o n . Let u s assume t h a t t h e constant d-c. supply through the choke i s 100 milliamperes and d i v i d i n g t h i s amount of current e q u a l l y between t h e two branches (which a c t u a l l y a r e the p l a t e c i r c u i t s of t h e two t u b e s ) it i s r e a d i l y evident t h a t o only 50 m.ar w i l l be drawn by e i t h e r branch a s i n d i c a t e d on the c i r c u i t . N w suppose t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e of one of t h e branches, marked R i n view B, i s a l t e r e d and l e t u s s a y it i s increased t o the e x t e n t t h a t t h e c u r r e n t i n t h a t , branch i s lowered from 50 m.a. t o 30 m.a. It should be e a s y t o understand t h a t t h e o t h e r branch or o s c i l l a t o r tube c i r c u i t w i l l be f o r c e d t o take an increase of 20 m.a. because t h e supply through t h e choke does not change. Consequently t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e second branch, t h e o s c i l l a t o r tube, w i l l i n c r e a s e froin 50 m.a. t o 70 m.a. Bear i n mind t h a t t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t between the two branches T h i s simple i l l u s t r a t i o n e x p l a i n s how t h e c u r r e n t v a r i s t i l l remains 100 m.a. a t i o n s through t h e two p a t h s a r e i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l . That i s , i f r e s i s t a n c e R i s decreased as shown i n view C and t h i s branch draws l e t us say 80 m.8. t h e balance or 20 m.a. v i l l pass through t h e o s c i l l a t o r .

It w i l l be noticed. t h a t w t r e a t t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e o s c i l l a t o r as one r e e s i s t a n c e path and t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of t h e modulator a s t h e other r e s i s t a n c e path, t h e l a t t e r being i n d i c a t e d by R. Thus, f o r any change i n p l a t e c u r r e n t flowing through t h e modulator p l a t e c i r c u i t , o r R , t h e o s c i l l a t o r p l a t e c u r r e n t w i l l a l s o vary, but i n t h e i n v e r s e r a t i o . I f the modulator p l a t e current should v a r y i n s t r e n g t h g r a d u a l l y and continuously a t a c e r t a i n frequency, a s f o r example e by impressing a f l u c t u a t i n g voltage upon i t s g r i d , w would o b t a i n t h e snme i n verse r a t i o of c u r r e n t f l o w i n both tubes. W know t h a t any voltages applied e t o t h e g r i d of t h e modulator have the power t o e x e r c i s e t h i s c o n t r o l over i t s p l a t e current. Let us now consider only t h e modulator c i r c u i t and how i t s g r i d r e c e i v e s a f l u c t u a t i n g voltage t o a f f e c t c u r r e n t changes i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t . The t o p view (a) i n Figure 1 3 shows c l e a r l y how the microphone c i r c u i t i s connected t o t h e modulator input.
Lesson 68

sheet 13

Lessoc 68

sheet 1 4

With the microphone i n u s e the f l u c t u a t i n g c u r r e n t s i n t h e microphone c i r c u i t

a r e communicated through t h e f l u x i n t h e i r o n core transformer t o provide the voltage changes upon t h e modulator g r i d a s we have s t a t e d , I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e you w i l l u s u a l l y f i n d s e v e r a l s t a g e s of audi o-frequency a m p l i f i c a t i o n between t h e microphone output and t h e modulator g r i d input c i r c u i t . The method j u s t o u t l i n e d i s known a s t h e c o n s t a n t c u r r e n t CP Heising system of modulation. Transf'ormrs and p l a t e r e a c t o r s O f WEAFls 50 Kw. s t a t i o n a r e shown i n Figure 14. D e s c r i p t i o n of t h e 1 E . Model ET. 3633 Broadcasting Transmitter. The r a d i o N c i r c u i t s of t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r a r e s i m i l a r i n many r e s p e c t s t o equipments which u t i l i z e a m a s t e r - o s c i l l a t o r t o provide the d e s i r e d c a r r i e r frequency alsa i n t e r -

Figure 15

Figure 16

Figure 1 7

mediate amplifiers and main power a m p l i f i e r s t o b u i l d up t h e s t r e n g t h of t h i s energy. The f r o n t view of the ET. 3633 i s l l l u s t r s t e d i n Figure 15. The 1 kw. t r a n s m i t t e r covers a continuous frequency range from 660 t o 1200 k i l o c y c l e s o r 300 t o 450 meters. The tuned c i r c u i t s , however, can be modified f o r transmisThe schematic diagram i s shown i n s i o n on any of t h e broadcast frequencies. Figure 6 t o which r e f e r e n c e was made i n a previous paragraph. The diagram shows t h a t t h e 1 kw. broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r employs a t o t a l of f o u r t e e n vacuum tubes. One of t h e UX-201-A tubes i s contained w i t h i n t h e housi n g of t h e condenser microphone, a view of which i s shown i n Figure 16. A l l of t h e other tubes a r e mounted w i t h i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r proper. Observe t h a t a l l of t h e t u b e s t o the l e f t of t h e antenna c i r c u i t a r e o p e r a t i n g i n the audiofrequency channel while t h e t u b e s t o t h e r i g h t of t h e antenna are i n the radiofrequency channel. The l o c a t i o n of t h e s e two component u n i t s a r e shown i n the f r o n t view photograph, t h e radio- frequency panel being on t h e r i g h t s i d e and t h e audio or modulator panel on t h e l e f t s i d e .

The v a r i o u s t y p e s of v a c w t u b e s u t i l i z e d i n t h i s t r a n s m i t t e r and t h e order i n

which t h e y f w c t i o n i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e channels are explained i n t h e following Lesson 68

- sheet 1 5

paragraphs. The microphone output i s c a r r i e d through f i v e successive s t a g e s of audio amplification. The f i r s t t u b e , type UX-201-8, i n t h e a u d i o channel and i t s a s s o c i a t e d audio transformer i s mounted w i t h t h e microphone a s j u s t s t a t e d . It w i l l be observed t h a t t h e secondary of t h i s transformer 1 s followed by t h r e e s t a g e s of r e s i s t a n c e coupled a m p l i f i c a t i o n using one UX-201-A i n the f i r s t s t a g e , a UX-210 i n the second s t a g e and a W-211 i n the t h i r d s t a g e . The speech f r e quency output of t h e t h i r d r e s i s t a n c e s t a g e works i n t o a f o u r t h s t a g e of t h e impedance type which u s e s a W-211 w i t h an i r o n core r e a c t o r i n s e r t e d i n i t f s p l a t e c i r c u i t . The r e a c t o r i s L1. S u f f i c i e n t audio- frequency energy i s now a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e s e a m p l i f i e r s t o e x c i t e f o u r l a r g e UV-851 tubes connected i n p a r a l l e l . These f o u r tubes a r e t h e modulators. The output of the modulators i n t u r n a r e coupled t o t h e main power a m p l i f i e r , a UV-851 tube l o c a t e d i n t h e radio- frequency channel. The volume of the broadcast energy i s c o n t r o l l e d by means of potentiometers i n s e r t e d i n t h e input s i d e s of both t h e t h i r d and f i f t h a m p l i f i c a t i o n stages. The audio channel i s arranged f o r o u t s i d e pick-up s e r v i c e through s u i t a b l e connections made t o transformer T3. m f i n d t h a t the radio- frequency channel c o n s i s t s of t h e master o s c i l l a t o r , type l e uV-211, and i t s frequency- determining c i r c u i t . The frequency i s a d j u s t e d by means of t h e v a r i a b l e condenser C 3 4 which provldes v e r n i e r c o n t r o l and a l s o by t h e tapped inductance L8 which i s used f o r t h e p r e l i m i n a r y o r rough adjustments. his c i r c u i t i s known a s t h e m a s t e r - o s c i l l a t o r t a n k c i r c u i t . The output of t h e master o s c i l l a t o r i s followed by an intermediate s t a g e t o f u r n i s h g r i d e x c i t a t i o r f o r the f i n a l radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r t u b e marked P .A. (main power a m p l i f i e r ) on the diagram. R e f e r r i n g a g a i n t o t h e f r o n t view i l l u s t r a t i o n , t h i s t u b e , of the type UV-851, i s the l a r g e one seen i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e r i g h t panel.
he c i r c u i t i s arranged s o t h a t t h e audio output of t h e f o u r modulator t u b e s i s superimposed upon the r a d i o o s c i l l a t i o n s . Thus, t h e amplitude h e i g h t s of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s ( o r c a r r i e r frequency a s t h e y are c a l l e d ) i n t h e power a m p l i f i e r undergo a v a r i a t i o n o r modulation s i m i l a r i n farm t o the sound waves impressed upon t h e microphone. The p a r t i c u l a r d e v i c e t h a t f u n c t i o n s t o produce t h i s r e s u l t , ie, .. t h e superimposing of t h e audio-frequency upon t h e c a r r i e r wave, i s t h e p l a t e modulation r e a c t o r i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 17. It has a high inductance value being r a t e d a t 30 h e n r i e s w i t h a c u r r e n t c a p a c i t y of 3 amperes. T h i s method provides p o s i t i v e modulation, known a s t h e constant c u r r e n t system i n vented by Heising; the system having a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d i n previous paragraphs.

'The f i n a l a m p l i f i e r t u b e p l a t e c i r c u i t i s tuned by means of t h e variometer L12. T h i s device i s o f t e n c a l l e d .the power a m p l i f i e r t a n k variometer. In c e r t a i n t y p e s of t r a n s m i t t e r s t h e output o r tank c i r c u i t of t h e l a s t a m p l i f i e r i s of t h e untuned antenna transformer type. In t h e E.T. 3633 t r a n s m i t t e r , however, t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t i s tuned by t h e variometer method, the c i r c u i t being induct i v e l y provided f o r t h a t purpose. The antenna i s a l s o tuned by t h e variometer method by adjustments made w i t h variometer L13. The background of hum and o t h e r n o i s e s i n the r e c e i v e d broadcast program i s reduced t o a m i n i m by h e a t i n g t h e f i l a m e n t s of a l l t h e l a r g e tubes w i t h d i r e c t c u r r e n t obtained f ran a d-c. generator r a t e d a t 12 t o 14 v o l t s and 100 amperes. A storage b a t t e r y i s used t o e n e r g i z e t h e f i l a m e n t s of the a u d i o a m p l i f i e r s , whereas d r y b a t t e r i e s supply voltages b o t h f o r g r i d b i a s i n g and pos5tive p l a t e e x c i t a t i o n . The storage b a t t e r y system c o n s i s t s of two s t o r a g e Lesson 68

- sheet 16

b a t t e r i e s , a tungar r e c t i f i e r and a changeover switch t h u s p e r m i t t i n g one b a t t e r y t o be placed on charge while t h e other one i s connected t o the t r a n s m i t t e r . The d-c. motor-generator s e t i s equipped w i t h two commutators i n order t o suppl; t h e necessary high p l a t e voltage t o the UV-211 and UV-851 vacuum tubes. Means f o r checking t h e percentage and q u a l i t y of modulation i s provided by an oscilloscope, which i s i n most d e t a i l s s i m i l a r t o a r e g u l a r oscillograph. T h i s device c o n s i s t s of a n incandescent lamp a s a l i g h t source snd a v i b r a t o r opera t i n g i n c a j u n c t i o n w i t h a W-211 tube connected i n t h e c i r c u i t a s a r e c t i f i e r . The UV-211 r e c e i v e s t h e r a d i a t e d broadcast energy from the small pick-up c o i l L18. C o i l L18 i s i n d u c t i v e l y coupled t o the antenna c i r c u i t a s may be observed i n t h e schematic diagram. The output of t h e UV-211 i n t u r n s u p p l i e s t h e audiofrequency c u r r e n t t o operate the oscilloscope and the speech or music being broadcasted may be viewed a s an audio wave* A small amount of t h e output energy of t h e oscilloscope i s c a r r i e d t o the monitoring louflspeaker i n order t o r e produce i n t h e form of sound waves t h e same audio wave which appears i n t h e viewing mirror of t h e oscilloscope.
A Brief Descr i p t i o n o f a Complete Broadcast Transmitter A d R e ceiver (with r e n f e r e n c e s made t o t h e drawing i n Figure 18. ) Let us suppose a t t h e beginning t h a t e i t h e r speech o r musical sound waves are d i r e c t e d toward t h e microphone. W know t h a t sound v i b r a t i o n s impinged upon t h e diaphragm of t h e microphone e cause t h e r e s i s t a n c e of a small cup of carbon g r a n u l e s t o v a r y i n exact accordance w i t h t h e sound waves. O r , i f a condenser microphone i s employed, a s shown i n the diagram, very s l i g h t changes i n t h e c a p a c i t y of the condenser w i l l provide e f f e c t s i n t h e c i r c u i t which u l t i m a t e l y a r e s i m i l a r t o those when t h e carbon b u t t o n type i s used. Thus, t h e c u r r e n t flowing through t h e primary of t h e microphone transformer w i l l f l u c t u a t e and induce a n e.m.f. i n t h e secondary, t h e l a t t e r being connected t o an a m p l i f i e r tube.

--

The audio s i g n a l passes through s e v e r a l vacuum t u b e s i n consecutive order a s suggested i n t h e diagram, marked "Audio ~ m p l i f i e r s " . The weak energy i n t h e microphone c i r c u i t w i l l t h e n be increased i n power u n t i l h i g h values a r e obtained from t h e l a s t tube. The l a r q e power a m p l i f i e r t u b e i n t h e l a s t stage i s t h e on t h e diagram. Let us a g a i n r e p e a t t h a t an modulator tube, marked "Mod. audio c u r r e n t of l a r g e power now flows i n the c i r c u i t s and it i s varying exa c t l y i n accordance w i t h the sound waves s t r i k i n g t h e diaphragm. The curves show how t h e small c u r r e n t s i n the microphone a r e p r o g r e s s i v e l y enlarged u n t i l t h e y emerge from t h e modulator. T b l i n e marked X and t h e arrows i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e output of t h e modulatm i s c a r r i e d t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r c i r c u i t s shown t o t h e r i g h t of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g antenna. The i r r e g u l a r shaped curves drawn from microphone t o modulator show by t h e i r contour t h e c h a r a c t e r of the sound wave introduced i n t o t h e microphone. It i s t o be understood t h a t t h e r e are two main requirements f o r broadcasting; namely: The voice frequency energy o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e microphone c i r c u i t must be c a r r i e d t o t h e modulator t u b e and t h i s t u b e r s output must a c t upon t h e cont i n u o u s high-frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s generated by t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . T h i s p a r t of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r , f o r t h e purposes of wave propagation, i s marked on t h e d i a gram " ~ p p a r a t u sf o r Generating High-Frequency C a r r i e r Current': The "M.o.". g e n e r a t e s ths d e s i r e d r.f. and t h i s i s a m p l i f i e d through the intermediate power Lesson 68

- sheet

17

amplifiers.

The curves show t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e r.f.

oscillations.

The a c t i o n upon which it i s p o s s i b l e t o cbmbine t h e s e two e n e r g i e s i s c a l l e d "modulat ion," t h a t i s , modulating t h e radio- frequency c u r r e n t by superimposing t h e audio-frequency c u r r e n t upon it. The combined modulator and power a m p l i f i e r t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e modulation p l a t e r e a c t o r ( t h e i r o n core choke c o i l ) provides an arrangement f o r modulating the continuous o s c i l l a t i o n s .

Condenser Microphone

Apparalvs for Supplying Aydia Speech Current for Modulation First

Audio Amplifier!
I

TO D.C. Generator

<
To Antenna

Mod~lator.r' Plate Reactor

: ; , ' :

- --

----1_.J

Pow Amp, Z

Intermediate WwwArnp.

M.O.

\Modulated C. W. Received in Original T o m but~ttenvated

Figure 18 Notice how t h e amplitudes of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s have been modulated according t o t h e voice c u r r e n t s from t h e modulator a s shown i n the square marked "power ~mp." The modulated r.f. o s c i l l a t i o n s flowing through the antenna c i r c u i t cause a powerful modulated continuous wave t o be p r o j e c t e d from the t r a n s m i t t i n g ant enna through space. The continuous radio- frequency c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g the voice A idea of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an audio curn frequency i s a complex wave. r e n t i s t o be had from t h e oscillograms i n Figure 19. This i s t h e audio curr e n t t h a t i s superimposed upon t h e r . f , o s c i l l a t i o n s .

The r e c e i v i n g antenna w i l l p i c k up t h i s r a d i o wave which causes a modulated r . f . c u r r e n t t o flow i n t h e r e c e i v i n g antenna c i r c u i t , a s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e small curve t o t h e l e f t of t h e block a s marked i n Figure 18. Observe t h a t t h e i n coming energy s t i l l maintains t h e same frequency ( t h e " c a r r i e r " frequency), and wave form or contour a s it had when emanatirg from t h e t r a n s m i t t e r antenna, but due t o t h e g r e a t d i s t a n c e t h e wave has t r a v e l l e d the energy i n t h e r e c e i v e r i s markedly lowered i n s t r e n g t h a s compared t o the t r a n s m i t t e d s i g n a l . The curves i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e s i g n a l c u r r e n t a s i t flows through t h e r e c e i v e r convey t h e idea t h a t t h e s i g n a l ener&y i n c r e a s e s i t s s t r e n g t h a s i t progresses through t h e d i f f e r e n t t u b e s , The f i r s t , second, and t h i r d t u b e s a r e r a d i o a m p l i f i e r s , and t h e t h i r d r a d i o a m p l i f i e r d e l i v e r e s i t s output t o t h e d e t e c t o r g r i d . Lesson 68

- sheet 18

The radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r s t a g e s are tuned by means of v a r i a b l e condensers which g e n e r a l l y a r e connected i n tandem, or i n gang c o n s t r u c t i o n , i n order t h a t the number of tuning c o n t r o l s may be minimized. The r e c e i v e r c i r c u i t s a r e adjusted by t h e t u n i n g d i a l t o possess t h e s a m frequency a s t h a t of t h e c a r r i e r frequency of the t r a n s m i t t e d wave, thus placing t h e r e c e i v e r and the t r a n s m i t t e r c i r c u i t s i n resonance. When t h i s condition i s obtained maximum c u r r e n t s from the broadcast s i g n a l s w i l l flow i n t h e output of t h e r e c e i v e r . The diaphragm of t h e loudspeaker could n o t move w i t h t h e r a p i d i t y of t h e r a d i o o s o i l l a t i o n s and h e r e i n l i e s the n e c e s s i t y of t h e d e t e c t o r . Observe t h a t the output of the d e t e c t o r possesses only t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e audio waves. Here t h e modulation component h a s been separated from the r.f. component a s t h e curves show.
The audio s i g n a l s now flow from t h e d e t e c t o r and a r e c a r r i e d through one stage
Complex Waves Produced by Speech

This Wave Corres~onds to a Time Interval of about i/lsof aseeond

"A" a s in Tar

Simpler Waves Produced bv Musical Instruments

Figure 1 9 of audio ampliPication and next through a second s t a g e , the l a t t e r u s u a l l y employing a power tube. The loudspeaker i s connected i n t h e output c i r c u i t af t h e power t u b e of the r e ceiver. The speaker w i l l reproduce o r t r a n s l a t e t h e f l u c t u a t i n g c u r r e n t c a r r y ing t h e voice changes i n t o sound waves. I t s purpose i s opposite t o t h a t of t h e microphone, f o r t h e l a t t e r t r a n s l a t e s sound waves i n t o e l e c t r i c a l impulses.
A comparision can be e a s i l y made bet?teen t h e shape or form of t h e current wave

Lesson 68

sheet 19

a t t h e extreme r i g h t i n t h e output of t h e r e c e i v e r and t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e audio channel of t h e t r a n s m i t t e r . It w i l l be seen t h a t both waves a r e a l i k e i n form. EXAMINATION

- LESSON 68

Draw a schematic diagram of a simple broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r employing t h r e e t u b e s , and l a b e l t h e names of the various p a r t s . What i s t h e modulator p l a t e r e a c t o r and why i s it necessary? Explain b r i e f l y the g e n e r a l t h e o r y governing t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e Heising system of modulation u s i n g the v a r i a b l e r e s i s t a n c e method f o r t h e explanation. Name a s many of t h e various channels i n a broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r a s you can r e c a l l from t h e s t u d y of t h i s lesson. ( a ) Why i s e i t h e r a c r y s t a l - c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r or m a s t e r - o s c i l l a t o r required? ( b ) Draw an elementary c i r c u i t showing a quartz c r y s t a l connected t o a vacuum tube c i r c u i t .
( b ) Which i s ( a ) Explain how t h e carbon t y p e micrpphone functions. t h e more e f f i c i e n t , t h e s i n g l e b u t t o n or double b u t t o n type and why?

( a ) Draw a microphone of t h e double- button t y p e connected t o an a m p l i f i e r tube. Also show the proper connection of a d e v i c e f o r c o n t r o l l i n g the volume and a s u i t a b l e switch f o r u s i n g e i t h e r a l o c a l o r remote micro( b ) Why i s volume c o n t r o l necessary and what g e n e r a l name d o w e phone. g i v e t o t h i s procedure? Describe as c o n c i s e l y as p o s d b l e t h e g e n e r a l o p e r a t i o n of t h e 1 kw. E .T. 3633 Broadcast Transmitter. Give a short d e s c r i p t i o n of one method used f o r checking t h e percentage of modulation. Draw a block diagram of a broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r and r e c e i v e r s i m i l a r t o t h e one given i n t h i s l e s s o n and mark t h e v a r i o u s blocksaccording t o t h e i r f'unctions. Also draw curves below t h e diagram t o show the various c u r r e n t s which pass through t h e apparatus. T h i s q u e s t i o n should be answered completely from memory, i f p o s s i b l e , without c o n s u l t i n g t h e diagram.

Lesson 68
me.& ..
-. .
, , ,

- sheet
..
.

20
.

, , ., _ +. _-

, . < ~ ,_ * _: .,,,,. M l

*;._ ,,L

. ,. .,,A

..

.....*, . " .

i..

.. ,;.,

..*

. .

..~z

RADIO DIRECTION FINDER OR M I 0 COMPASS

A. radio direction finder is an instrument which should be considered as an aid to navigation since it furnishes a means for determining the position of a vessel at distances greatly beyond the range of visibility. For instance, with a radio direction finder installed in the chart room or pilot house of a ship the instrument may be used to take accurate radio bearings on the radio .. beacon stations operated by the U S Bureau of Lighthouses or on radio shore stations or ships equipped with radio transmitters. Bearings taken with a radio direction finder during thick or foggy weather have the sane degree of accuracy as sight bearings in clear weather, and may be used in navigating and locating the vessel in all respects the same as sight bearings. By taking cross bearings on two or more radio statiqns the position of a ship may be accurately determined. Or, the radio sigkal may be used as a leading mark, as, for example, to enable a vessel to make a lightship anchored in the approach to a harbor or to pass outside of a liFhtship anchored to guard against dangers off the coast.

At the very beginning of our lesson, in order to avoid any confusion, let us point out that the terms "radio direction finfiern and "radio compassw are synonymous and,therefore,either term might be applied to any instrument used for the specific purpose just outlined. However, it is generally agreed that the term "radio direction finderw more truly defines the function of the instrument and this term is more often used. There are also other names, such as "radio position finder" and "radio pelorus" which might be used inasmuch as any instrument designed for taking a ship's bearings should be regarded as a pelorus. This term is explained a little further on in the lesson. Radio beacon stations are located on selected important lighthouses and light vessels along the coast equipled with apparatus for sending radio signals of simple and easily recognized characteris.ticsduring the continuation of fog or thick weather, by means of which the navigator of any vessel provided with a radio direction finder may take definite bearings to guide or locate his ship, although no object is visible. Bearings may also be taken on any suitable radio communication stations which are operating as well as bearings of other ships which are using their wireless transmitters, as already suggested. in addition to the value of the direction finder during fog it may be used in clear weather for taking bearings beyond the limits of visibility whenever thig is desirable since bearings may be taken with a radio direction finder at any distance up to several hundred miles.

A direction finder consists essentially of a rotatable loop aerial, a compensator, and a sensitive receiving set. The loop is arrangsd for outside mounting above the chart room or pilot house, connected by a shaft passing through the deck to an indicating device, which allows bearings to be taken directly * from a compass card or gyro-repeater. Interposed between the loop and the indicator is a mechanical compensator which automatically provides the necessary

... Printed in U S A Contents copyrighted 1931.

c o r r e c t i o n t o o f f s e t e r r o r s introduced on account of metal o b j e c t s aboard t h e s h i p . The w i r e s lead-ing down through the s h a f t from t h e loop a e r i a l a r e connected t o a r e c e i v i n g s e t which may be mounted i n the base o r p e d e s t a l i n c e r t a i n types while i n o t h e r types t h e r e c e i v e r i s contained i n a s e p a r a t e cabin e t which may be mounted on t h e bulkhead o r l o c a t e d i n any convenient p l a c e c l o s e t o the i n d i c a t o r , I n Figure 1 you can s e e how one type of loop s t r u c t u r e is mounted above t h e deck. The loop i t s e l f c o n s i s t s p r i m a r i l y of a number of t u r n s of wire enclosed i n tubes joined t o g e t h e r t o form a square. This c o n t a i n e r , which is watert i g h t , is mounted on one corner with i t s plane v e r t i c a l . For small v e s s e l s , and yachts i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e loop i s mounted immediately above deck, b u t f o r l a r g e r s h i p s , o r where t h e Loop i s surrounded by r a i l s , a p e d e s t a l mounting f o r the loop is provided by means of which i t may be r a i s e d about two and oneh a l f f e e t above deck, a s shown i n the view i n Figure 1. The s h a f t from t h e

Figure 1 loop passes through t h e deck down i n t o the room below. The loop r o t a t e s on b a l l bearings, swinging quickly and e a s i l y from one p o s i t i o n t o another when Lesson 69

sheet 2

t h e hand wheel is t u r n e d . The hand wheel is l o c a t e d i n t h e room below t h e l o o p , t h e wheel being mounted v e r t i c a l l y and connected t o t h e loop s h a f t through a This method of mounting t h e wheel f r i c t i o n d r i v e w i t h a two t o one r e d u c t i o n . h a s marked a d v a n t a g e s , one b e i n g t h e e a s e Of h a n d l i n g t h e loop i n a g a l e , due t o r e d u c t i o n i n t h e d r i v e between t h e c o n t r o l wheel and t h e loop s h a f t , and a n o t h e r being t h a t t h e r o l l i n g and p i t c h i n g of a v e s s e l does n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e manipulation of t h e loop w h i l e t a k i n g a b e a r i n g . The photograph i n F i g u r e 2 shows how t h e loop s h a f t e x t e n d s through t h e deck of a s h i p w i t h t h e wheel l o c a t e d immediately below. I n F i g u r e 3 we show a p e d e s t a l type d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r which t o g e t h e r w i t h a loop assembly forms a complete instrument. The a u t o m a t i c compensator which i s

Figure 2

Figure 3

l o c a t e d i n t h e housing immediately below t h e wheel h a s been designed s o t h a t i t may be q u i c k l y and a c c u r a t e l y a d j u s t e d t o c o r r e c t v a r i a t i o n s . A f t e r t h e i x s t r u m e n t has been c a l i b r a t e d and t h e compensator a d j u s t e d , a c c u r a t e r e a d i n g s may be taken d i r e c t l y from t h e i n d i c a t o r .
A. close- up view of t h e i n d i c a t o r and c o n t r o l s of a s i n g l e d i a l superheterodyne r e c e i v e r i s shown i n F i g u r e 4. The i n d i c a t o r of t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r c o n s i s t s

Lesson 69

sheet 3

Figure 4 of a p o i n t e r and engraved s c a l e o r dumb compass c a r d , mounted s o t h a t readi n g s may be taken i n degrees from t h e s h i p ' s head, o r t h e card may be a d j u s t ed t o t h e s h i p ' s course st the time a bearing is taken s o t h a t bearings may b e observed r e l a t i v e t o t h e meridian. T h i s card is i l l u m i n a t e d Prom below by 6 small l i g h t concealed i n t h e base, thus p e r m i t t i n g b e a r i n g s t o be e a s i l y r e a d a t n i g h t i n a darkened wheel house. Bearings a r e read by means of p a r a l l e x l i n e s engraved on a p i e c e of p l a t e g l a s s which r e v o l v e s above t h e compass card a s the loop is turned. A reading g l a s s p l a c e d on a s u i t a b l e mounting may be used t o e n l a r g e t h e s c a l e on t h e compass c a r d which allows t h e markings on the s c a l e t o be seen without any d i f f i c u l t y . O s h i p s equipped with n a gyro-compass the dumb compass card may be r e p l a c e d by a l i k e gyro- repeater. The r e c e i v e r , i n Figure 4 , i s equipped with a s i n g l e d i a l f o r tuning so t h a t t h e wavelength d e s i r e d may be quickly obtained. A l l r e c e i v e r c o n t r o l s a r e a r ranged on a small s l a n t i n g p a n e l a t t h e top of t h e p e d e s t a l c a s t i n g , and a r e w i t h i n easy reach while o p e r a t i n g t h e instrument. There a r e nine UX-201-A tubes used i n the r e c e i v e r , one tube being used as an o s c i l l a t o r f o r r e c e i v i n g CW s i g n a l s . The r e c e i v e r has a wavelength range of 550 t o 1,050 meters and, through t h e u s e of t h e superheterodyne p r i n c i p l e i s remarkably s e n s i t i v e throughout t h e Lesson 69

sheet 4

As alrezidy mentioned u n i - c o n t r o l t u n i n g is used i n one type s e l e c t i o n of s t a t i o n s extremely s i m p l e , i t b e i n g n e c e s s a r y t o o n t r o l t o t h e d e s i r e d wavelength a s shown on t h e c a l i b r a t e d

e s h i p ' s w i r e l e s s t e l e g r a p h antenna m u s t be open when b e a r i n g s are n w i t h t h e r a d i o d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r , a p o s i t i v e i n t e r l o c k i s provided between t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r and t h e antenna opening s w i t c h i n t h e w i r e l e s s room; a l s o a s i g n a l l i g h t t o n o t i f y t h e w i r e l e s s o p e r e t o r when t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r i s being used. This i n t e r l o c k r e n d e r s t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r inoperat i v e u n l e s s t h e antenna s w i t c h i n t h e r a d i o room i s open,
A d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r is b u i l t of rugged d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n t o w i t h s t a n d hard s e r v i c e a t s e a with v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n s o it is customary t o u s e a l i g h t b u t s t r o n g metal f o r a l l c a s t i n g s and tubing. The m a t e r i a l used i s a a non- corrosive, non-magnetic ~ l u m i n u m l l o y .

I n g e n e r a 1 , t h e o p e r a t i o n of t a k i n g b e a r i n g s c o n s i s t s of l i s t e n i n g t o a r a d i o s i g n a l w i t h headphones and r o t a t i n g t h e loop by means of t h e hand wheel u n t i l t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s i g n a l from t h e s t a t i o n on which a b e a r i n g i s b e i n g taken f a l l s t o zero. The p o s i t i o n a t which t h i s occurs i s s o w e l l d e f i n e d t h a t usua l l y a movement of t h e loop one degree o r l e s s w i l l b r i n g i n a s t r o n g s i g n a l on e i t h e r s i d e . The b e a r i n g may t h e n be r e a d d i r e c t l y from t h e i n d i c a t o r . T h i s g i v e s t h e l i n e of d i r e c t i o n o r b i l a t e r a l b e a r i n g . I f t h e s i d e fromwhich a s i g n a l i s coming i s n o t d e f i n i t e l y known, p r o v i s i o n i s made f o r q u l c k l y and d e f i n i t e l y o b t a i n i n g a u n i l a t e r a l b e a r i n g o r "sense1' of d i r e c t i o n . I n ascertaini n y t h e s e n s e of d i r e c t i o n a small s i n g l e wire antenna is used and the loop i s swung through 180 d e g r e e s t o determine which s i d e g i v e s t h e l o u d e r s i g n a l . Most a l l d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r s have two jacks i n s t a l l e d on t h e p a n e l of t h e r e c e i v e r f o r plugging i n two p a i r s of headphones s o t h a t b e a r i n g s may be observed s i m u l t a n e o u s l y by two p e r s o n s and, a l s o , t h i s makes a v e r y handy arrangement when i n s t r u c t i o n i s t o b e g i v e n i n t h e u s e of t h e i n s t r u m e n t . The s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e r e c e i v e r and s t r e n g t h of s i g n a l s may be a d j u s t e d a s d e s i r e d , t h i s b e i n g done i n some c a s e s by v a r y i n g t h e f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e . When you c l o s e t h e r e c e i v e r cover i n c e r t a i n t y p e s i t a u t o m a t i c a l l y t u r n s o f f t h e t u b e f i l a m e n t s and p u t s t h e b a t t e r y on t r i c k l e charge.
A RADIO DIRECTION FINDER KAS MANY USES.

I n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of r a d i o d i r e c t i o n f i n d i n g t o marine n a v i g a t i o n , one 0.r two methods may b e used, each one b e i n g t h e r e v e r s e of t h e o t h e r . These methods. a r e namely:

(1) The d i r e c t i o n f i n d i n g a p p a r a t u s may be i n s t a l l e d a t f i x e d s t a t i o n s on s h o r e , c a l l e d r a d i o compass s t a t i o n s , from which b e a r i n g s a r e r e q u e s t e d .

( 2 ) The o t h e r method i s t o i n s t a l l t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r on t h e s h i p , and t h e o b s e r v e r t a k e s bearings.'on r a d i o beacon s t a t i o n s . The i n s t r u m e n t t h e n may b e used t o g r e a t advantage i n a n m b e r of ways, two o f which a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 5.

The most g e n e r a l u s e of a r a d i o d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r is t o a s c e r t a i n t h e t r u e b e a ri n g , o r l i n e of d i r e c t i o n , of a r a d i o beacon o r r a d i o s t a t i o n of known l a t i t u d e and l o n g i t u d e . A t t h e time t h e b e a r i n g i s t a k e n t h e s h i p w i l l be somewhere on t h e l i n e of d i r e c t i o n , and i f t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e v e s s e l a s determined by dead reckoning o r o b s e r v a t i o n s i s c o r r e c t , o r n e a r l y s o , i t should f a l l on, o r close t o , the line. Lesson 69

sheet 5

e s r i n g , o r l i n e o f d i r e c t i o n , a b o u t which we w i l l e x p l a i n a l i t t l e b e u t i l i z e d a s a d a n g e r b e a r i n g , o r more p r o p e r l y , a s a f e t y b e a r l t e a n e x p l a n a t i o n : I f two s h i p s a r e a g p r o a c h i ~ l ee a c h o t h e r d u r i n g t h i c k w e a t h e r , o r i f one s h i p is o v e r t a k i n g a n o t h e r , 8 r a d i o b e a r i n g can b e t a k e n and t h e a n g l e from t h e s h i p ' s head n o t e d c a r e f u l l y . If t h e n , o t h e r b e a r i n g s a r e t a k e n a t i n t e r v a l s of t e n o r f i f t e e n m i n u t e s t h e a n g l e from t h e s h i p ' s head w i l l be e i t h e r i n c r e a s i n g o r d e c r e a s i n g . The i n t e r v a l s w i l l , o f c o u r s e , depend on speed and e s t i m a t e d d i s t a n c e . I f t b e a n g l e i s found t o be d e c r e a s i n g i t s h o u l d b e t a k e n a s a d a n g e r s i g n a l and t h e s h i p ' s c o u r s e a l t e r e d one o r two d e g r e e s , o r u n t i l t h e a n g l e is found t o b e i n c r e a s i n g , and t h e s h i p s w i l l p a s s w i t h s a f e t y . The d i s t a n c e between t h e v e s s e l s c a n b e r o u g h l y e s t i mated w i t h e x p e r i e n c e i n n o t i n g t h e a n g l e between t h e v e s s e l s and how q u i c k l y t h e a n g l e changes. I f t h e d i s t a n c e i s , say f i f t y m i l e s o r more, t h e a n g l e m i l l n o t show much change f o r some t i m e , whereas i f i t changes q u i c k l y i t c a n b e assumed t h a t t h e o t h e r v e s s e l i s q u i t e c l o s e . The r a d i o o p e r a t o r c a n b e of much a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e K a s t e r i n c a s e s of t h i s n a t u r e , a s he can a d v i s e o f s n y s h i p s i n t h e v i c i n i t y , and by l i s t e n i n g i n on t h e s p a r e t e l e p h o n e s o f t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r he can i d e n t i f y t h e s h i p s on which b e a r i n g s a r e d e s i r e d . He c a n a l s o judge a p p r o x i m a t e l y b y t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s i g n a l s whether o r n o t t h e o t h e r s h i p i s w i t h i n a s h o r t d i s t a n c e .

Figure 5
The c h a r t i n F i g u r e 5 i l l u s t r a t e s two u s e s of r a d i o beacon s i g n a l s . One shows t h e l o c a t i o n of t h r e e r a d i o beacon s t a t i o n s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f New York w i t h

Lesson 69

sheet 6

ince each one has its own characteristic group of dots or dashes and als between them. The signals assigned by our Government for these stas are , and , and--------- respectively, as you can see by the three circles drawn to show the characters.

-- -- --

--- --- ---

The line of direction can be used to good advantage when running for a lightship equipped with a radio beacon, for if a bearing shows that the course being followed will carry the vessel either side of the lightship, it is only necsssary to alter the course until the lightship is foulld to bear directly over the bow, and, if this new course is followed the lightship will be picked up dead-ahead.

If a single bearing taken to oheck the ship's position does not give satisfactory results, due to possible error in noting reading of the direction finder, or figuring dead reckoning or observations, a good reliable "fix" can be obtained by taking bearings on two or three radio beacons. If unable to pick up more than one radio beacon a radio telegraph station can be used. The ship7: radio operator will again be of assistance in such instances to identify the station being used. These are called "cross bearingsw. We give the name "fixw to that particular location where the bearings cross, which is the position of the ship. When the morning time sight is taken and a single line of position laid down, another line to cross it can be obtained by taking a radio bearing. The radio bearing should be taken simultaneously with the time sight. If there is any appreciable difference of time between them due allowance should be made for the speed and course of the vessel. This will obviate the necessity of waiting until the sun changes its bearing sufficiently to obtain another position line which will moss the first at a good angle. This method can, of course, be used at any time of day or night when it is possible to obtain the altitude of a celestial body. Other similar uses of the radio direction finder can be devised by the Easter, for instance, in approaching a harbor where it is possible to obtain a bearing of a distant mountain peak, or lighthouse, another bearing to cross the first can be obtained by radio. Yhenever a radio bearing is about to be taken, the wheelsman should be told to stand-by and call out when the ship is right on the course, for if the ship has yawed off two or three degrees the bearing will be in error by a similar amount. On ships equipped with direction Pinders having a live gyro-repeater the observer can himself determine when the ship is on the course. If any doubt exists in the mind of the observer as to the accuracy of the observed bearing, or if the ship is yawing badly due to heavy weather, several readings should be taken and the mean reading used as the correct one. EXPLANATIONS ABOUT TRUE AND IWLBTIVE BEARINGS. On vessels fitted with radio direction finders eauiu~edwith a movable 6umb compass card, bearings can be taken either from tge meridian or relative to the ship7s head. On bearings taken to determine the ship's position, it is suggested that they be taken from the meridian, and if the dumb compass is adjusted to the true course (not corIi>ass course, unless gyro-compass is u e . of the vessel, the observed radio s0) bearing is the true bearing. On bearings taken of lightships or other vessels Lesson 69

sheet 7

s having l i v e gyro- repeaters i n s t a l l e d i n t h e r h d i o d-irection f i n d e r erved bearings e r e , of course, t r u e b e a r i n g s , and t o o b t a i n a r e l a t i v e from the s h i p ' s head i t i s only necessary t o take the d i f f e r e n c e i n dee e s betwaen the reading of the g y r o - r e p e a ' t e ~and t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r p o i n t e r .

r a d i o beacons under c o n d i t i o n s of good v i s i b i l i t y . Radio b e e r i n g s should check with pelorus o r azimuth compass bearings. The d i s t a n c e from the beacon used f o r checking should be a t l e a s t two miles. Visual b e a r i n g s i n doubt due t o r o l l i n g of t h e v e s s e l should b e r e j e c t e d . Such check b e a r i n g s w i l l serve t o a s s u r e t h e Master of t h e accuracy of the instrument. Nhenever any l a r g e metal o b j e c t s a r e added t o o r removed from the s h i p ' s deck s t r u c t u r e t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r c a l i b r a t i o n should be checked,as suggested b e f o r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y through t h e a r c i n which t h e o b j e c t i s l o c a t e d , and i f any unreasonable e r r o r s a r e det e c t e d s t e p s can be taken t o have same corrected. A s r a d i o bearings a r e t r u e g r e a t c i x l e bearings, i t is necessary t h a t due allowance be made f o r c h a r t d i s t o r t i o n before they can be p l o t t e d by t h e navigator. Although the s u b j e c t of n a v i g a t i o n is q u i t e o u t s i d e of our study about r a d i o d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r s y e t we w i l l g i v e the meaning of t h e terms p e l o r u s and a z i muth s o t h a t you may have a b e t t e r understanding of t h i s work. A pelorus is an instrument s i m i l a r t o a mariner's compass, but without magnetic needles, and having two s i g h t vanes by which bearings a r e taken, e s p e c i a l l y such a s cannot be taken by t h e compass. I n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e term azimuth, i t i s an a r c of the horizon measured clockwise between t h e s o u t h p o i n t of the horizon and the v e r t i c a l c i r c l e p a s s i n g through t h e c e n t e r of any o b j e c t , a s , f o r example, the azimuth of a s t a r . The photograph i n Figure 6 below shows one type of compass which i s used w i t h a Pioneer type d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r t o take bearings on y a c h t s and smaller boats.

It i s again suggested t h a t occasional check bearings be taken when passing

Figure 6 Lesson 69

sheet 8

The photographs below i n F i g u r e s 7 , 8, and 9 show, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e i n t e r i o r of a r a d i o room w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r a t tho l e f t and the s h i p ' s tube t r a n s m i t t e r a t t h e r i g h t , and the f r o n t p a n e l view and t h e i n t e r i o r of the direction finder receiver.

Figure 7

Figure 8

Before a radio direction calibrated and adjusted oard ship and the compensation- ill always be correct because the error is always the same for any given positlon of the loop.

A radio direction finder is so constructed that once the necessary adjustments are made these errors are automatically compensated for and correct readings may be taken directly from the indicator. This calibration and adjustment is usually carried out on the first voyage after the instrument is installed. It must be done by some one familiar with such work and requires the close coaperation of the Yhaster of the ship. The procedure is to take simultaneous sight bearings with a pelorus and radio bearings with the direction finder on some station while swinging the ship and the difference between the sight bearings and the radio bearings will be the error of the direction finder. It is necessary to take the sight bearings with great care as the accuracy of the instrument after calibration mill depend on the accuracy of the sight bearings taken during calibration. As a general rule the maximum error will exist on bearings taken on stations off the bows and quarters while the error on bearings right ahead, or astern, or on the beam, are usually negligible.
A check on calibration should be made from time to time by taking simultaneous sight and radio bearings when approaching and passing Lightships equipped with radio fog signals, or by asking any passing vessel to transmit signals, but in any case, stations used for calibrating the direction finder must be within range of visibility at a distance of not less than one mile.

Inasmuch as a direction finder is calibrated when the ship is in condition for sea, that is, with booms stowed then all bearings should be taken with the ship in the same condition, as it must be borne in mind that changes in the position of large metal objects, particularly if close to the loop, may cause a change in the calibration. When calibrating a direction finder for the first time, or when recalibrating it, or when checking up on its accuracy, certain stations are better suited for this purpose than others as we will now explain. In choosing a station' on which to take abearing,the following limitations should always be considered: (a) A bearing should be avoided which involves a signal that has traveled any appreciable distance along the shore line because in such cases, the line of separation between the water and land acts as a partial reflection, bending the waves and possibly resulting in an erroneous bearing; (b) A bearing taken on a station separated from the ship by intervening land should be considered as only approximately correct; (c) A bearing taken on a station more than 150 miles distant should also be considered as only approximately correct; (d) On bearings taken shortly before or after sunrise or sunset errors due to so-called "night effectn may be observed and such errors are manifested by rapid swinging of the minimum so that the signal station seems to be changing its position while a bearing is being taken. It should be easy to understand that bearings observed under such conditions cannot be relied upon but it should be understood, however, that errors due to "night effect* are usually negligible at distances of less than 100 miles. -4ls0,the student should know that there are four classes of stations which are available for taking bearings as follows: (1) In the first class are special Radio Fog Signal Stations which are located at different points along the coast

line of the United States. These special radio fog signals should be used wherever available in preference to any other station, since the stations have been erected by the United States Government and various other Governments specifically for navigation aid in connection with radio direction finders. The transmitters at the stations emit a characteristic signal which may be readily distinguished by anyone without any knowledge of the telegraph code. Moreover, the transmitters are so located on lightships and at lighthouses that their signals in most cases pass entirely over water which is desirable as we already explained and during fog or thick weather they are kept in continuous operation. The positions of these special radio fog signal stations may be depended upon as accurate since their geographical position does not change; (2) In the second class are radio transmitters associated with the U.S. Naval Radio Compass Stations, a list of these transmitters and their locations being given further on in your lesson; (3) In the third class are included other Commercial and Government Radio Shore stations; (4) In the fourth class you would include all Ships under way. Refer to Figure 10.

It will be necessary to call on the radio operator to identify the desired

station by its radio call letters to obtain bearings on stations in classes 2, 3 and 4 . However, when taking bearings on shore stations in class 3, it should be borne in mind that the published positions of such stations are, A practical point to keep in mind is that in mzny cases, only approximate. such stations are likely to be separated from the ship by intervening land, which may cause swinging of the apparent direction of the station from the true reading. In general, bearings should not be taken on stations in class 3, unless the station used is known to be located directly on the shore. The wavelength range of direction finders generally cover a band sufficiently aide that bearings may also be observed on radio telephone broadcasting stations, but bearings on such stations should not be relied upon unless it is

Lesson 69

- sheet 11

known t h a t the b r o a d c a s t i n g s t a t i o n is l o c a t e d d i r e c t l y on t h e beach w i t h no land o r t a l l b u i l d i n g s i n t e r v e n i n g between i t and t h e s h i p . There a r e , a s you know, many broadcasting s t a t i o n s l o c a t e d a t inland p o i n t s o r i n c i t i e s among t a l l b u i l d i n g s b u t t h e i r s i g n a l s o r programs should n o t be used f o r t h e purpose of taking b e a r i n g s s i n c e they a r e l i k e l y t o be v e r y i n a c c u r a t e f o r r e a sons w have a l r e a d y mentioned. e Radio d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r s i n g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n according t o s i m i l a r p r i n c i p l e s and t h e r e f o r e t h e i r pract i c a l o p e r a t i o n i s somewhat a l i k e . W w i l l give you a steo-bv-steo nrocedure e f o r operating one type, which u s e s a s i n g l e c o n t r o l d i a l , c a l i e d s z a i i o n s e l e c t o r whlch m k e s a l l t u n i n g adjustments simultaneously. This type i s known a s 3R-1445-3, i l l u s t r a t i o n s of which a r e shown i n F i g u r e s 3 and 4. A p a r t i a l schematic diagram of t h i s d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r is shown toward t h e end of our l e s s o n .
-

HOW TO OPERATT A D I R E ~ T I O N FINDER TO OBTAIN BEARINGS.

1.

The f i r s t t h i n g t o do i s t o plug t h e headphones i n e i t h e r jack. Two jacks a r e supplied so t h a t a n o t h e r person may l i s t e n i n on t h e s i g n a l s a t the same time a s the o p e r a t o r o r person taking the bearing.

2. The next t h i n g t o do is t o p r e s s the "ON" button. This informs the Radio Operator t o open h i s antenna which is necessary because t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r i s c a l i b r a t e d with t h e s h i p ' s r a d i o t e l e g r a p h antenna open and, t h e r e f o r e , bear ings taken with t h e antenna i n any o t h e r c o n d i t i o n a r e l i k e l y t o b e u n r e l i a b l e . Vhen the antenna s w i t c h i n t h e r a d i o room i s opened i t a u t o m a t i c a l l y o p e r a t e s a r e l a y , i n the b a t t e r y compartment of t h e r e c e i v e r , t o c l o s e t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t . This i n t e r l o c k a u t o m a t i c a l l y p r e v e n t s t h e t a k i n g of bearings w i t h t h e s h i p ' s antenna closed.

3 . To place t h e r e c e i v e r i n normal o p e r a t i o n the f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t should be turned t o a p o s i t i o n where the voltmeter r e a d s 5 v o l t s .

4. Next t u r n t h e t u n i n g d i a l o r s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r t o t h e approximate wavelength s e t t i n g of t h e s t a t i o n whose s i g n a l s you intend t o u s e t o o b t a i n the bearing.

5. The s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r should be moved slowly back and f o r t h over the posi t i o n f o r l o u d e s t s i g n a l about t h r e e t i m e s t o determine t h e s e t t i n g t h a t g i v e s t h e most i n t e n s e s i g n a l . I t is b e s t t o do t h i s when t h e loop i s turned s o O t h a t the s i g n a l is n o t uncolllfortably loud. T o b t a i n good b e a r i n g s i t i s of utmost importance t o a c c u r a t e l y tune the r- f c i r c u i t s .
6 . The next s t e p i n t a k i n g a b e a r i n g i s t o s e t t h e BALANCE p o i n t e r a t zero, o r t o t h a t p o i n t which is found by p r a c t i c e t o b e t h e p o i n t of zero balance.

7. K w r o t a t e t h e loop slowly u n t i l a d i p i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h i s noted and o l e a v e the loop i n t h i s p o s i t i o n and s e t t h e balance a t t h e p o s i t i o n g i v i n g minimum s i g n a l . Then r e a d j u s t t h e loop s l i g h t l y t o g e t zero s i g n a l s t r e n g t h and read the bearing of t h e r a d i o s i g n a l s t a t i o n from t h e end of t h e i n d i c z t o r t h a t c a r r i e s t h e r e a d i n g g l a s s . You w i l l f i n d t h a t f o r b e s t r e s u l t s , both t h e When taking bearBALANCE and t h e L O must be slowly and c a r e f u l l y a d j u s t e d . OP i n g s on s t a t i o n s w i t h i n 5 m i l e s it may be found d e s i r a b l e t o reduce t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h which can be done by reducing t h e f i l a m e n t voltage. .If the adjustment of the BALANCE i s p r o p e r l y made b e a r i n g s on beacons w i t h i n a r a d i u s of 100 miles can be obtained which a r e d e f i n i t e as t o sharpness, t o one degree, and i n some c a s e s , t o 1/4 of a degree, o r about a s a c c u r a t e as i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a d j u s t the loop.

Lesson 69

sheet 12

8.

If the general d i r e c t i o n , t h a t i s , the sense of d i r e c t i o n of the r a d i o s i g n a l s t a t i o n is unknown, you would proceed a s follows: ( a ) F i r s t a d j u s t t h e loop and balance i n accordance with Paragraph 7 and read t h e s c a l e . ( b ) Follow t h i s by r o t a t i n g the loop 90 from t h e p o i n t of zero s i g n a l s t r e n g t h , b r i n g i n g t h e "RED" p o i n t e r t o the bearing posit i o n , which w i l l then be t h e p o i n t of maximum s i g n a l s t r e n g t h . N w o t u r n the balance p o i n t e r t o "SENSX" p o s i t i o n and i f t h e s i g n a l increzses s l i g h t l y ; t h e bearing j u s t observed i s c o r r e c t . O the n o t h e r hand, i f t h e r e is a decided decreese t h e bearing which was observed is the r e c i p r o c a l of the c o r r e c t bearing. The loop should then be r o t a t e d 180 and a new t e a r i n g taken. The sense of d i r e c t i o n should a g a i n be checked a s above and, i f the s i g n a l i n c r e a s e s , the l a s t bearing taken w i l l be c o r r e c t .

9 . A 1 1 bearings a r e r e a d from the engraved s c a l e a t t a c h e d t o t h e loop s h a f t . This s c a l e i s divided i n t o two p a r t s . The upper p a r t s which a r e under the cover a r e the conipensating s c a l e and mechanism, and t h e r e d d o t and l i n e a r e t h e lubb e r l i n e f o r t h e lower s c a l e . This upper s c a l e i s f i x e d t o t h e loop s h a f t , and the lubber l i n e mark i s a t 45O. The lower s c a l e i s movable and a d j u s t a b l e t o the lubber l i n e . I t is s u g g e s b d t h a t a l l b e a r i n g s be f i r s t observed w i t h the zero of the a d j u s t a b l e s c a l e s e t on t h e lubber l i n e . This w i l l g i v e t h e bearing r e l a t i v e t o t h e s h i p ' s head. The loop should always b e locked i n t h e p o s i t i o n a t which t h e b e a r i n g was read t o avoid e r r o r s . To o b t a i n a bearing r e l a t i v e t o the meridian, it i s necessary t o know t h e course of the s h i p ' s head a t the i n s t a n t t h e r a d i o bearing was taken. To avoid p o s s i b l e e r r o r s which might be caused by the s h i p being s l i g h t l y o f f i t s course, i t is advisa b l e t o have some one read t h e magnetic compass o r gyro- repeater simultaneousl y with t h e observation of t h e r a d i o bearing. A f t e r a s c e r t a i n i n g what was t h e t r u e ( n o t magnetic) course of t h e s h i p ' s head a t t h e i n s t a n t bearing w a s obs e r v e d , a d j u s t the engraved s c a l e r e l a t i v e t o t h e lubber l i n e u n t i l i t a g r e e s with the t r u e course. When t h i s procedure is c a r e f u l l y followed by the navig a t o r o r master of t h e v e s s e l o r the one t a k i n g t h e beam, the p o i n t e r w i l l then i n d i c a t e the t r u e b e a r i n g of the r a d i o s i g n a l s t a t i o n .

10. Another p o i n t t o mention i n regard t o o p e r a t i n g procedure i s t h a t t h e switch l o c a t e d i n the c e n t e r of the r h e o s t a t knob should be " pulled out" whenever continuous wave s i g n a l s a r e t o be tuned i n . IMPORTANT TESTS AND MAINTENANCE O DIRECTION FINDER EQUIPMENT. F I n certain types of r a d i o d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r s t h e b a t t e r i e s a r e housed i n t h e bottom of t h e p e d e s t a l mounting while i n o t h e r types the b a t t e r i e s a r e kept i n a separ a t e b a t t e r y box. To m a i n t a i n t h e equipment i n first c l a s s condition r e q u i r e s t h a t c e r t a i n p a r t s be given a weekly i n s p e c t i o n a s w w i l l o u t l i n e f o r you. e The tubes and c o n d i t i o n of t h e f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e supply should be examined by t u r n i n g on t h e f i l a m e n t s t o determine if t h e v o l t a g e can be brought up t o norm a l . To do t h i s r e q u i r e s o p e r a t i o n of the antenna switch i n t h e r a d i o room which i n t u r n o p e r a t e s t h e r e l a y i n the b a t t e r y compartment of t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r r e c e i v e r and i s t h e r e f o r e a check on the r e l a y . A r e c e i v e r of t h e type using 199 tubes w i l l r e q u i r e a normal voltage of 3 v o l t s , and o t h e r r e c e i v e r s employing 201-8 tubes would r e q u i r e a normal f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e of 5 v o l t s .
A c l o s e check should be k e p t on a l l b a t t e r i e s used i n t h e equipment t o prevent any p o s s i b l e f a i l u r e of o p e r a t i o n on account of a run-down b a t t e r y . The v o l t a g e of t h e "B" b a t t e r y should be measured and i t should n o t be l e s s than 60 v o l t s .
Tnasnn

69

sham+ 1 1

The "BW b a t t e r y v o l t a g e may be read on the upper s c a l e of t h e voltmeter on t h e c o n t r o l panel by d e p r e s s i n g t h e push-button mounted below t h e meter. If t h e "BIT b a t t e r y reads l e s s than 60 v o l t s i t should be replaced. The 4.5 v o l t "Cn b a t t e r y should always be renewed whenever "B" b a t t e r i e s a r e renewed. which causes h e a t i n g c u r r e n t t o flow through the f i l a m e n t s o f ' t h e various tubes. This b a t t e r y i s s o a r ranged t h a t when t h e "ON-OFF" switch on the c o n t r o l p a n e l is i n the "OFFw pos i t i o n t h i s b a t t e r y i s on t r i c k l e charge. Therefore, t h e b a t t e r y is being c o n s t a n t l y charged a t a slow r a t e while not i n use. The r a t e of charge is normally adjusted t o provide f o r average use of one hour p e r day. The charging r e s i s t a n c e is tapped so t h a t t h r e e charging r a t e s a r e provided,depending u p o n t l l e n g t h of time t h e compass r e c e i v i n g s e t i s i n o p e r a t i o n , each r a t e being a r ranged t o recharge t h e b a t t e r y f o r one, two, and t h r e e hours of d a i l y operat i o n . I n an emergency t h r e e d r y c e l l s connected i n s e r i e s may be used a s an "An b a t t e r y i n the r e c e i v e r u s i n g t h e 3 v o l t type t u b e s , i f t h e s t o r a g e "An b a t t e r y should become i n o p e r a t i v e . A r e c e i v e r u s i n g 5 v o l t type tubes w i l l r e q u i r e two banks of d r y c e l l s connected i n p a r a l l e l , each bank t o comprise f o u r dry c e l l s connected i n s e r i e s , t o operate the r e c e i v e r i n an emergency. Then you would check up on t h e condition of the "A" s t o r a g e b a t t e r y . A s u f f i c i e n t amount of d i s t i l l e d water should be added t o t h e "Aw b a t t e r y every t h r e e months t o b r i n g t h e l e v e l of the s o l u t i o n w i t h i n one inch of t h e top of the container. The s t o r a g e "A* b a t t e r y is one of t h e low s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y t y p e , about 1150 a t f u l l charge. The s o l u t i o n of e l e c t r o l y t e i n the b a t t e r y i s covered by a l a y e r of o i l t o prevent evaporation, and no attempt should be made t o t e s t t h e s t a t e of charge with a hydrometer, a s it would only draw o f f o i l . The condition of t h e b a t t e r y must be determined by t h e voltmeter on t h e c o n t r o l panel. A main double- pole s e r v i c e switch i s provided i n the top of t h e b a t t e r y compartment, i n t h e p e d e s t a l base. The switch should always be open while the ship i s i n p o r t , o r a t any o t h e r time when c u r r e n t i s not a v a i l a b l e f o r charging purposes. This switch disconnects t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r r e c e i v e r from t h e s h i p ' s 110 v o l t d-c power mains and opens t h e b a t t e r y charging c i r c u i t , I t i s a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h i s switch be opened i f t h e s h i p ' s l i g h t i n g c i r c u i t s a r e cbnnected t o shore l i n e s , which may be e i t h e r a-c o r of i n c o r r e c t p o l a r i t y d-c f o r charging t h e b a t t e r y . Before connecting t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r c i r c u i t s t o t h e v o l t a g e source which you intend t o use f o r supplying the b a t t e r 3 charging equipment, it should always be t e s t e d f o r p o l a r i t y , and the n e g a t i v e l i n e should be connected t o t h e negative e l e c t r o d e of t h e b a t t e r y , t h a t i s , n e g a t i v e t o negative. Besides the check up on b a t t e r i e s and tubes you should a l s o make frequent t e s t s on t h e r e c e i v e r i t s e l f . To do t h i s you f i r s t s e t t h e r e c e i v e r i n operation and then a d j u s t t h e f i l a m e n t v o l t a g e by means of t h e f i l a m e n t r h e o s t a t c o n t r o l . The p o i n t e r a t t a c h e d t o S t a t i o n S e l e c t o r I , which t u n e s t h e loop t o t h e d e s i r e d wavelength, is s e t a t t h e i n d i c a t e d wavelength on t h e s c a l e , then S e l e c t o r 11, which c o n t r o l s t h e o s c i l l a t o r frequency should be slowly moved back and f o r t h near t h e same wavelength band. After t h e s i g n a l i s heard both s e l e c t o r s a r e a g a i n adjusted f o r maximum s i g n a l . The r o t a t i o n of t h e loop a l s o w i l l v a r y t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h . If i n t e r f e r e n c e is experienced, i t can be avoided sometimes by s e t t i n g the p o i n t e r of S e l e c t o r I1 from 10 t o 30 d i v i s i o n s on the d i a l from t h e f i r s t s e t t i n g .
Of course, when tuning a superheterodyne r e c e i v e r which employs only a s i n g l e d i a l then you would s e t t h e p o i n t e r of t h i s d i a l a t the p o s i t i o n where t h e loude s t s i g n a l s were heard. The t e s t f o r o s c i l l a t i o n with t h e superheterodyne r e c e i v e r is t o r o t a t e t h e p o i n t e r of S e l e c t o r I1 a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e Scale t o cover
;8

A s t o r a g e b a t t e r y i s used t o supply the e.m.f.

Lesson 69

sheet 14

the f u l l wavelength range and a t t h e same time repeatedly,touch the s t a t o r p l a t e s of the o s c i l l a t o r condenser, which is connected t o t h e s h a f t of S e l e c t o r I1 p o i n t e r . A c l i c k should be heard i n the headphones each time your f i n g e r touches the condenser p l a t e s . I n t h e event t h a t the o s c i l l a t o r tube c i r c u i t s do n o t o s c i l l a t e , i t w i l l be necessary t o interchange s e v e r a l tubes i n the various s o c k e t s u n t i l the b e s t arrangement i s found. There a r e c e r t a i n t r o u b l e s which a r e common t o any type of equipment and once we know what they a r e they o f f e r no d i f f i c u l t y i n the way of c a r i n g f o r the equipment, I;Je w i l l give a few p o s s i b l e t r o u b l e s and t h e i r remedies.
If t h e f i l a m e n t voltmeter does not read when t h e antenna switch i s opened you should examine i t s r e l a y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r t o s e e t h a t t h e filament c i r c a i t c l o s e s . Inasmuch a s t h i s r e l a y is operated by t h e 6 v o l t "Av b a t t e r y i n t h e r a d i o room, we would be most s u r e t h a t i f i t does n o t c l o s e , the b a t t e r i e s i n t h e r a d i o room a r e weak o r p o s s i b l y the a u x i l i a r y c o n t a c t on the antenna switch w i l l be d i r t y . O r , on the o t h e r hand, i f the r e l a y c l o s e s , but the f i l ament voltmeter does n o t r e a d , then i t could a l s o be taken t h a t the r e l a y cont a c t s a r e d i r t y , o r the f i l a m e n t b a t t e r y i n the d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r i s run down.
A FEW PRACTICAL CONSIDZFUTIONS ABOUT DIRECTION FINDER EQUIPABNT.

If t h e f i l a m e n t voltmeter r e a d s normal, but the r e c e i v e r sounds dead, the f o l lowing i n s p e c t i o n s would be i n order.
F i r s t see t h a t the "B" b a t t e r y v o l t a g e i s up t o i t s proper v a l u e . If any d i f f i c u l t y i s experienced w i t h t h e r e c e i v e r , such a s low volume o r no s i g n a l at. a l l t h e t r o u b l e might be i n one o r more of t h e tubes. To determine whether OT n o t t h e tubes a r e a t f a u l t t r y s u b s t i t u t i n g a tube, known t o be good, i n t u r n f o r each of the tubes i n t h e r e c e i v e r . Note t h a t t h e s e tubes use a t h o r i a t e d filament which o f t e n does n c t burn out a t t h e end o i i t s u s e f u l l i f e but has merely l o s t the c a p a c i t y t o supaly e l e c t r o n i c emission and t h e r e f o r e the f a c t t h a t t h e filament l i g h t s does not mean t h a t t h e tube i s good.

Another p a r t of your r e g u l a r examination of t h e equipment i s t o s e e t h a t a l l connections t o a l l b a t t e r i e s a r e i n p l a c e and t i g h t . A c o n t i n u i t y t e s t of any w i r i n g you s u s p e c t might cause t r o u b l e w i l l quickly t e l l you if t h e r e a r e any open o r high r e s i s t a n c e connections. Since brushes and c o l l e c t o r r i n g s a r e used t o p a s s t h e s i g n a l energy from t h e loop t o the r e c e i v e r you should look a t t h e s e p a r t s t o s e e t h a t the c o l l e c t o r r i n g s a r e clean and t h e brushes making good contact. It is an easy matter t o remove the cover from over t h e c o l l e c t o r r i n g s so t h a t t h e r i n g s may be cleaned w i t h f i n e sandpaper. There i s a p r o t e c t i v e lamp i n the "B" b a t t e r y c i r c u i t which p r o t e c t s t h e tubes from damage should t h e f i l a m e n t and p l a t e c i r c u i t s become a c c i d e n t a l l y crossed. I t a c t s a s a fuse and if burned o u t t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t w i l l be opened and t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l become i n o p e r a t i v e . The p r o t e c t i v e lamp i s an o r d i n a r y Eveready f l a s h l i g h t bulb #1193 r a t e d a t 3 . 6 v o l t s . A bulb of t h i s type may be purchased i n most any e l e c t r i c a l s t o r e o r drug s t o r e . P e r s i s t e n t burning out of t h e prot e c t i v e lamp i n d i c a t e s a s h o r t c i r c u i t which must be c l e a r e d . Bear i n mind t h a t the t r o u b l e may be e i t h e r i n the wiring o r i n a tube which may have developed a s h o r t between i t s e l e c t r o d e s .

If a r e c e i v e r i s noisy, look f o r loose connections, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t b a t t e r y connections and a t t h e c o l l e c t o r r i n g s . Also remember t h a t n o i s e may be caused by a d e f e c t i v e "B" o r *C" b a t t e r y .

Lesson 69

- sheet

15

THE PRINCIPAL PARTS O A RADIO DIRECTION FINDER. Let u s f i r s t d i s c u s s i n a F g e n e r a l way how t h e loop o p e r a t e s . The s i g n a l from t h e r a d i o s t a t i o n on which a b e a r i n g is t o be t a k e n i s picked up on t h e w i r e s which comprise t h e l o o p , i t b e i n g l o c a t e d above deck. When t h e p l a n e of t h e loop i s in t h e d i r e c t i o n from which t h e s i g n a l i s coming, t h e s i g n a l is heard w i t h maximum s t r e n g t h . Conv e r s e l y , t h e , s i g n a l r e c e i v e d i s z e r o , t h a t i s , it is n o t h e a r d a t a l l when t h e p l a n e of t h e loop i s a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e s i g n a l . A s t h e loop i s t u r n e d through 180 degrees t h e manner i n which t h e s i g n a l changes int e n s i t y i s shown i n F i g u r e 11.Thus i t is s e e n t h a t a change of 30 d e g r e e s from P o s i t i o n 1 t o P o s i t i o n 2 o n l y changes t h e s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y from 100 p e r c e n t t o 8 5 p e r c e n t , whereas t h e same movement of 30 d e g r e e s from P o s i t i o n 3 t o P o s i t i o n 4 changes t h e s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y from 50 p e r c e n t t o z e r o . Consequentl y , t o o b t a i n a c c u r a t e b e a r i n g s t h e i n d i c a t o r is s e t t o t a k e r e a d i n g s on t h e minimum s i g n a l

Next t h e r e is t h e p a r t we c a l l t h e i n d i c a t o r which c o n s i s t s of t h e c h a r t and i t s ~ ~ ~ 0 C i a p a rd s on which b e a r i n g s a r e r e a d . B e a r i n g s a r e r e a d by means te t of p a r a l l e x l i n e s engraved on R p i e c e of p l a t e g l a s s , which r e v o l v e s above a s c a l e a s t h e loop i s t u r n e d . The s c a l e c o n s i s t s of a s t a n d a r d p e l o r u s c a r d a d j u s t e d so t h a t r e a d i n g s a r e r e f e r r e d t o t h e s h i p ' s head. One s i d e of t h e i n d i c a t o r is equipped w i t h a r e a d i n g g l a s s and is a l s o marked w i t h a n arrow head. This s i d e should always be used f o r r e a d i n g t h e b e a r i n g s a s i t i s t h e s i d e used when t h e i n s t r ~ m e n tis c a l i b r a t e d . The s h o r t p o i n t e r s marked "red" and "whitetf a r e used o n l y when t h e r e l a t i v e d i r e c t i o n from which t h e s i g n a l i s coming i s n o t known. I n one type t h e b e a r i n g s a r e r e a d by means of a movable s c s l e engraved i n d e g r e e s which r e v o l v e s p a s t a p o i n t e r a s t h e loop i s t u r n e d . On s h i p s equipped w i t h a S p e r r y compass, t h e p e l o r u s c a r d may be r e p l a c e d by a g y r o - r e p e n t e r . I n such c a s e s , r e a d i n g s w i t h t h e r a d i o d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r a r e r e f e r r e d t o t h e t r u e meridian. The t h i r d important element composing a d i r e c ' t i o n f i n d e r i s t h e r a d i o r e c e i v e r i t s e l f . The r e c e i v e r w i t h i t s a u d i o a m p l i f i e r must f u n c t i o n t o g i v e a r e l a t i v e l y loud s i g n a l i n o r d e r t h a t the minimum may be w e l l d e f i n e d , and t o e l i m i n a t e o t h e r s i g n a l s o r d i s t u r b a n c e s of whatever s o r t which o t h e r w i s e would s e r i o u s l y i c t e r f e r e w i t h o b t a i n i n g an a c c u r a t e reading. The superheterodyne r e c e i v e r r a n k s h i g h e s t i n accomplishing t h i s end and, a t t h e same time, i t has a s i m p l i c i t y of c o n t r o l s . I n one t y p e of superheterodyne r e c e i v e r t h e s e l e c t i o n of s t a t i o n s r e q u i r e s t h e o p e r a t i o n of o n l y one t u n i n g c o n t r o l knob which moves a p o i n t e r a c r o s s a s c a l e which i s marked t o show t h e approximate p o s i t i o n of t h e t u n i n g f o r g i v e n wavelengths. I n .mother t y p e of superheterodyne r e c e i v e r two d i a l s a r e u s e d , one d i a l c o n t r o l s t h e o s . c i l l a t o r frequency and t h e o t h e r t h e frequency of t h e r - f loop c i r c u i t .

1 Figure 1

TEE LOOP'S L~CP-TION DECK IS CAREFULLY SELECTED. The location selected for ON the direction finder must be such that the loop assembly can be mounted directly over the receiver and provide the greatest convenience in taking observations with a minimum exposure to disturbing effects, as mentioned before, which might be produced by the ship's rigging and the equipment. Some practical pointers on the care that is exercised in properly locating the loop are given in the following parsgraphs.

The center of the loop should be at least 6 ft. from large metal objects such as masts, funnel-s,stays, and so on. You should understand that current may be induced in a direction finder by wires forming closed circuits such as stays, whistle cords, and so on, which have a natural wavelength or fundamental period considerably less than the working wavelength of the loop. Remember that a signal sent out by a transmitting antenna is an electromagnetic wave in space and when this wave cuts across any wire or conducting material it induces a current in the wire or material. This induced current is undoubtedly very feeble but nevertheless it may have a disturbing effect on any nearby sensitive radio equipment such as the loop wires Of a direction finder. This induced current is 90 deg. out of phase in the compass loop with the current induced in the loop due to the signal, and therefore this additional current has the effect of decreasing the sensitivity of the instrument. The effect apparent to the person operating the direction finder is the broadening of the mini m a , that is, it seems the weakest point covers a wide range of loop adjustment and is not sharply defined.

Inasmuch as the masts, and other parts of a vessel are located in various directions from the compass loop, they sometimes have the effect of shifting the apparent arrival of the signal. Therefore, as has been explained in preceding paragraphs, the process of calibration involves compensating for this apparent shift in signal direction and adjusting the automatic compensator to obtain a sharp minima at all angles, Objects causing the error should be permanently grounded, and, if possible, f l long wires should be broken up with inil sulators so that they may not have a natural period near the direction finder wavelengths. This applies only to whistle cords, signal halyards, and similar wires, and does not affect the standing rigging unless the loop of the direction finder is enclosed within a loop formed by the rigging. When two stays are fastened to a mast, they should be connected together with a mire near the apex, and another wire should be connected between the lower end of each stay and the ground, or hull of the ship, This arrangement of making a continuous electrical conductor Of the s t a y s terminating at the ground is called "bondingw. Electrical disturbances caused by the ship's equipment, such as the induction produced by sparking in the generators, motors and control apparatus, must be minimized. The direction finder is made entirely of non-magnetic material and has no effect on the ship's compass, provided it is not located closer than thrze feet.

Lesson 69

sheet17

PRIRTCIPLES O DIRECTIONAL RADIO RECEPTION WITH L O ANTENNA. It is customF O P a r y i n d i r e c ion f i n d e r c i r c u i t s t o use the loop winding a s p a r t o f , o r a l l of the induc ance of an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t and make u s e of the high-frequencv ' s i g n a l energy t h a t i s induced i n the wires comprising t h e loop. 1n-l?igur; 1 2 t h e r e i s shown a simple d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t coupled t o an o s c i l l a t o r y c i r c u i t comprising t h e loop A-B-C-D shunted by the v a r i a b l e tuning condenser C2. Let u s assume t h a t the loop i s constructed s i m i l a r l y t o t h e loop i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 13, c a l l e d t h e box type.

g'

Before going i n t o a d e t a i l e d explanation of t h e r a d i o compass c i r c u i t s , l e t u s f i r s t consider t h e simple a c t i o n of the loop antenna when i t i s swung Let A and B around a s i t would be when a c t u a l l y used i n t a k i n g a bearing. r e p r e s e n t two s i d e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , O a s i n g l e loop d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r , with f t h e arrow i n d i c a t i n g t h e l i n e of d i r e c t i o n of t h e f l u x i n a passing e l e c t r o magnetic- wave a s i n Figure 1 3

Gnd ~ e a h cansenier and

1 i % ~ aRadio Compass

Receiving Set

CZ

-T

--

Figure 1 2

Figure 13

Suppose the loop l i e s i n the same plane a s t h e incoming s i g n a l wave, t h a t i s , toward the d i s t a n t r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r , the maxi~numinduction t a k e s By studying the diagram, i t can be seen t h a t the e l e c t r i c f i e l d of place. t h e s i g n a l i n passing through space induces an 0 . m . f . i n the wires i n s i d e A i n advance of t h e e.m.f. induced i n t h e wires i n s i d e B. Suppose the two s i d e s a r e spaced a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e a p a r t , a s the drawing shows, t h e e.m.f. induced i n s i d e B w i l l b e e f f e c t i v e an i n s t a n t l a t e r than t h e e.m.f. i n s i d e A. Theref o r e , c u r r e n t w i l l flow around loop A-B as a r e s u l t of t h e two induced e.m.f.'s. I n the lower drawing of Figure 1 3 you see a p l a n view of the loop i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s . P o s i t i o n 1 i n d i c a t e s the p o s i t i o n of t h e loop i n a plane a t r i g h t angles t o the wave f r o n t of the incoming s i g n a l , o r , a s i t i s more commonly expressed, the loop l i e s p a r a l l e l with and p o i n t s toward the d i r e c t i o n of the wave t r a v e l . The v a r i a b l e condenser C 2 a c r o s s t h e loop terminals is used t o tune t h e loop c i r c u i t t o resonance w i t h t h e s i g n a l s from a chosen

Lesson 69

sheet10

s t a t i o n with the c i r c u i t shown i n Figure 12. The s i g n a l v o l t a g e when impressed i n t h e d e t e c t o r g r i d causes a p u l s a t i n g c u r r e n t t o pass through t h e headphone windings and t h i s a c t i o n i n turn s e t s t h e diaphrams i n t o v i b r a t i o n , thus permitting t h e s i g n a l t o be heard.
0

Suppose t h i s time loop A-B i s turned on i t s a x i s s o a s t o make t h e plane of i t s winding form an a n g l e , which i s l e s s than a r i g h t angle with the l i n e of d i r e c t i o n of the wave, a s i n the p o s i t i o n 2. I t can be seen t h a t t h e r e w i l l be a small d i f f e r e n c e i n time between the a r r i v a l of t h e wave a t The time d i f f e r e n c e becomes smaller and the c u r r e n t s induced i n t come correspondingly l e s s a s t h e plane of the loop approaches t h a where i t i s a t r i g h t angles t o the t r a v e l of t h e wave, a s i n p o s i the l a s t p o s i t i o n , o r p o s i t i o n 3, a l l wires of t h e loop w i l l be r wave a t the same i n s t a n t . Hence, both s i d e s of t h e loop, A and B, upon equally and a t t h e same i n s t a n t by the electromagnetic forces. v o l t a g e s i n A and B, t h e r e f o r e , , w i l l be equal but opposed i n d i r e c t i these e.m.f.'s w i l l n e u t r a l i z e with t h e r e s u l t t h a t no s i g n a l curren induced i n the loop under t h e s e conditions. This property of a loop antenna of r e c e i v i n g a l a r g e ergy along some directions than o t h e r s i s c a l l e d i t s and the loop i s then known a s a d i r e c t i o n a l antenna. You would f i n d i f you swung a loop about i t s a x i s and r o t a t e d i t one complete r e v o l u t i o n o r 360 degrees t h a t two maxima and two minima p o i n t s would be observed, t h a t i s , t h e s i g n a l would come i n loud twice and disappear twice. Siric a maximum s i g n a l w i l l b e heard whether s i d e A o r s i d e B p o i n t s d i r e c t l y toward the d i s t a n t sending s t a t i o n , t h e loop cannot be u t i l i z e d t o i n d i c a t e the e x a c t d i r e c t i o n from which t h e waves a r e coming. Owing t o t h i s f a c t a loop antenna i s known a s a b i l a t e r a l antenna, f o r a g r e a t e r percentage of the r a d i o s i g n a l waves is received i n angular regions 180 degrees a p a r t than i n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n : W mean by t h i s t h a t t h e b i l a t e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a s i n g l e loop merely givt e the l i n e of d i r e c t i o n , b u t n o t the e x a c t s i d e from which t h e waves a r e advancing. This i s Known a s t h e 180 degrees ambiguity, o r u n c e r t a i n t y . When r o t a t i n g a loop i t w i l l be noticed t h a t f o r a given v a r i a t i o n of the angll formed between t h e loop and the s i g n a l ' s l i n e of d i r e c t i o n , t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t v a r i e s by a g r e a t e r amount when the angle i s c l o s e t o 90 degrees thal, when i t i s around zero. You can understand t h i s r e a d i l y by a g a i n r e f e r r i n g t o Figure : Because of t h i s f a c t t h e compass w i l l be more s e n s i t i v e i f adjusted t o a zero s i g n a l instead of a maximum s i g n a l . On the o t h e r hand,the s e n s i t i v i t y of the human e a r is u s u a l l y keener i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g between t h e presence of a v e r y weak s i g n a l or t h a t p o i n t where the s i g n a l drops o u t and becomes inaudible t h e i n d e t e c t i n g changes i n t h e volume of a s i g n a l e s p e c i a l l y when i t i s s t r o n g and loud. That i s t o s a y , i t i s not an easy m a t t e r i n any case t o a p p r e c i a t e any d i f f e r e n c e i n the volume of a given sound when i t i n c r e a s e s and decreeses only a s l i g h t amount i n t h e r e g i o n of maximum loudness. For the above reasons i t i s the general p r a c t i c e t o t u r n t h e loop where no s i g n a l o r minimum s i g n a l i s heard, t h u s providing a more ing of the bearing. Under t h e s e conditions t h e p l a n e of the loop p a r a l l e l t o the d i r e c t i o n of t h e wave t r a v e l , b u t a t r i g h t angles n o s i t i o n 3 i n Figure 19.

i n a positio accurate r e a w i l l not be a s shorn by

I t i s t o be remembered t h a t on comparatively nearby s i g n a l s only a very small received c u r r e n t may be necessary t o operate t h e d e t e c t o r , b u t i f the induced Lesson 69

- sheet19

energy in the loop is less than that necessary to cause the detector tube to function then naturally no signals would be heard in the headphones regardless of the position of the loop.

HOW TO OBTAIN 3 LIINIKUM SIGNAL. In the following paragraphs we will say a few words about the thedrg of the propagation of radio energy and its direct connection with loop reception. co radio wave in its propagation is always illustrated by a sine curve which tells us that the electric waves alternate through space and these electromagnetic forces are continually passing through an infinite number of instantaneous values. The energy rises from zero to maximum and diminishes again to zero in one direction, then, reversing,it under goes a similar rise and fall in the opposite direction for each complete oscillation, as shown by the curve of wave motion in Figure 1 . One cycle or one 4

Figure 14 periodic disturbance of a radio wave is known as its wavelength and is the distance between two points in similar phase in two successive cycles: For example, the distance M to N is the wavelength, then supposing the wavelength of M to N is 600 meters, then this cycle is performed in 1/500,00Oth part of a second. If the loop in Figure 1 is placed in position A1-Bl so that its turns of wire 4 do not lie in a plane with the direction of the wave travel, indicated by the long arrows, a minimum amount of induction will take place for the following reason: The behavior of a magnetic field of force, as explained in your lesson dealing with electromagnetic induction, is such that when a magnetic field of varying magnitude threads through or c u 3 a conductor, an alternating e.m.f. is induced in that conductor, and the intensity of this induced voltage is determined for one thing, upon the angle at which the magnetic lines of force cut the conductor. Then, if the compass coil is turned to occupy position A3-B3 with its plane parallel to the direction of the wave travel, indicated by the long arrows, it will be threaded by the maximum number of lines of force, as -- oreviously stated in this lesson the magnetic field will strike side A3 a moment in advance of side B3, that is, the crest of the wave reaches one vertical side of the coil when the crest has either reached or already passed the other vertical side of the coil, so that the voltages induced in either side are unequal. Therefore, an alternating current will flow through the coil and a loud signal nil1 be heard in the headphones with the loop in position A3-B3. On the other hand, wben the plane of the coil is turned at right angles to the incoming wave, as in position A1-B1, the magnetic lines of force do not thread through the coil, but strike all portions of the coil at the same instant and Lesson 69

sheet20

i n d u c e a n e,m.f. i n b o t h s i d e s , A 1 and B1, which n e u t r a l i z e e a c h o t h e r , rss u l t i n g i n no induced v o l t a g e and c o n s e q u e n t l y no c u r r e n t .

I f t h e l o o p were s m u g from p o s i t i o n A3-B3 i n a c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e d i r e c t i o n , t h e s i g n a l w i l l g r e a t l y decrease i n i n t e n s i t y a s t h e loop approaches p o s i t i o n A2-BZ and w i l l e n t i r e l y d r o p o u t i n p o s i t i o n A1-B1. A s w e c o n t i n u e t o r o t a t e t h e l o o p , sounds w i l l a g a i n reapDear when t h e l o o p comes t o p o s i t i o n -44-B4, i n c r e a s i n g i n 1 0 ~ 6 l l e S SU n t i l maximum s i g n a l is heard a t p o s i t i o n B3-A3. The l o o p , t h u s f a r h a s b e e n t u r n e d o n l y o n e- h a l f r e v o l u t i o n , o r 180 d e g r e e s , and two maxiram p o i n t s have been l o c e t e d . If the r o t a t i o n o f t h e l o o p i s c o n t i n ued f o r t h e n e x t h a l f r e v o l u t i o n , o r t h e second 180 d e g r e e s , t h e same e f f e c t s w i l l be o b s e r v e d , namely, t h e s i g n a l w i l l b e g i n t o d i s a p p e a r i n p o s i t i o n s B 2 4 2 and B4-A4, and t h e s i g n a l piill be reduced t o z e r o o r minimum s i g n a l when t h e l o o p r e a c h e s t h e p o s i t i o n B1-Al.Tius, two maximum and two minimum p o i n t s a r e o b t z i n e d when t h e l o o p is t ~ r n e d one r e v o l u t i o n o r 360 d e g r e e s . For a l i p r a c t i c a l purposes i t i s seen t h a t the z e r o p o s i t i o n can be considered anywhere between t h e l i m i t s A4-A2 o r B2-B4 as i n d i c a t e d b y t h e dashed arrows. S i n c e i t i s g e n e r a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a s i g n a l which a c t u a l l y becomes i n a u d i b l e , o r a s w s a y z e r o s i g n a l , t h e n i n p r a c t i c e you would t a k e t h e mean o r e s v e r a g e v e l u e of t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h a t t h e v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s i n d i c a t e d by t h e a r r o w s j u s t mentioned; i n o t h e r words we t r y t o l o c a t e a posit-ion f o r t h e l o o p c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l z e r o p o s i t i o n a t 81-B1. T h i s may b e accomp l i s h e d w i t h s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y by swinging t h e l o o p t o e i t h e r s i d e of z e r o p o s i t i o n u n t i l t h e s i g n a l i s b a r e l y a u d i b l e , and t h e n t a k i n g t h e mean r e a d i n g of t h e s e two p o s i t i o n s . It i s obvious t h a t t o i n d u c e a minimum c u r r e n t i n t h e l o o p g i v i n g a v e r y weak s i g n a l i n t h e headphones, t h e r e g i o n i n d i c a t e d b y t h e dashed arrows must b e q u i t e l i m i t e d , By s u i t a b l y c o n n e c t i n g a s e n s i t i v e r e c e i v i n g s e t t o t h e l o o p t h e induced c u r r e n t i n t h e l o o p need b e b u t a v e r y s m a l l v a l u e s i n c e t h i s would t e n d t o f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e a p p a r a t u s . By t h e n i n c r e a s i n g t h e s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y t h r o u g h one o r more s t a g e s o f r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y a m p l i f i c a t i o n b e f o ~ e d e t e c t i o n , and one o r more s t a g e s o r a u d i o a m p l i f i c a t i o n a f t e r d e t e c t i o n , g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e d i r e c t i o n f j n d e r w i l l b e o b t a i n e d , t h a t is, t h e minimum and maximum p o i n t s w i l l b e more c l e a r l y d e f i n e d . When t h e i n d i c a t o r o f a s i n g l e c o i l d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r , l i k e t h e one j u s t d e s c r i b e d , i s mounted o v e r a compass c a r d , t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e l o o p w i l l g i v e o n l y a b i l a t e r a l r e a d i n g , w i t h an u n c e r t a i n t y of 180 degrees as t o t h e exact d i r e c t i o n of t h e s e n d i n g s t a t i o n ,
HN ILLUSTRATING CURRENT OR DOLTAGX INDUCED I N A LOOP W E ROTATED 360 DEGSEES. W know t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h of a n incoming s i g n a l i s dependent upon t h e r e l a e t i v e p o s i t i o n of a compass l o o p w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e s i g n a l wave The p u r p o s e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s i s t o show t h a t t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e i n d u c e d v o l t a g e o r c u r r e n t i n t h e l o o p c o i l , w h i l e it is t u r n e d one complete The c u r v e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e v o l t r e v o l u t i o n , may b e g r a p h i c a l l y i l l u s t r a t e d . a g e o r c u r r e n t changes i n t h e l o o p c o i l w i l l have t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e f i g u r e e i g h t ( a ) , b e c a u s e t h i s f i g u r e c o m p r i s e s two t a n g e n t c i r c l e s , a s shown i n F i g u r e 1 5 . T h i s is known as t h e f i g u r e - o f - e i & t diagram.

I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e upon which a r a d i o compass h a v i n g mil a t e r e l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s o p e r a t e d it w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y f o r you n o t o n l y t o have some knowledge a b o u t how t h e c u r r e n t c h a n g e s i n v a l u e a s a l o o p i s r o t a t e d

Lesson 69

s h e e t 21

about its axis,but you must also be able to put this down on paper and show the variations in graphical form as we must do with most all of our theoretical discussionsto understand them we must picture them clearly in our minds. After a little study of the figure-of-eight diagram you will find iteto be a simple means for conveying the action in picture form, just as simple, for instance, as the use of a sine curve for illustrating a cycle of alternating current. Let ug begin to plot the curve with the loop in the position to receive maximum slgnal, as shown in Figure 15, the direction of signal wave being designated by the arron. To compare the intensity of the signal for the different

Figure 15 loop positions, an arbitrary value of 15 units may be assumed for the maximum unit current strength, with the loop in line ;vith N-M, which is in the same plane as the incoming signal. The unit current strength mill progressively diminish to zero from 15 units when the loop is turned from position N-M until it Lies in a direction as indicated by G-F. The purpose of the two circles, drawn in dashed lines, will first require explanation. One circle indicates negative units of current and the other positive units of current. If the loop is turned 180 degrees, with the side of the loop marked N always pointing in the direction tomard the incoming wave, that is, so this side of the loop will be acted upon before the other side It, then the alternating current induced in the loop may be called a "positive" current. Now, when the loop is turned the second half revolution, the side N will be in the same position formerly occupied by M, and this time side X will . The alternating current now induced in the loop is be acted upon prior to N current. The terms identified by a relative term, being called a t'negativeft "positive" and "negativew are merely relative and have no other significance than to indicate that the alternating current flows back and forth through the loop windings in both instances, but the general movement is reversed. That is, we assume an alternation of current to be flowing upward in side N when N ~oints toward the arrow indicating the wave, the current would at that very instant be flowing downward in side N, if N were reversed to occupy the position of side X. This change in the general direction in which the alternating current flows through the coil should be simple to understand, because it depends solely uoon which side of the loop is cut first by the advancing .electromagnetic field. Later it will be shown that the whole principle upon which unilateral Lesson 69

sheet 2

b e a r i n g s aqe o b t a i n e d i s b a s e d upon t h i s r e v e r s a l o r change i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f l o w o f t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . T e c h n i c a l l y i t would b e s a i d t h a t t h e c u r r e n t i s changed i n p h a s e . To proceed m i t h t h e p l o t t i n g o f t h e s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y c u r v e , which is r e a l l y . what t h e s e c i r c l e s r e p r e s e n t , you s h o u l d b e g i n w i t h t h e l o o p i n z e r o p o s i t i o n , i n l i n e w i t h C--F, and r o t a t e t h e l o o p from 0 t o 180 d e g r e e s . A t t h e same t i m e , p l o t t h e p o s i t i v e c u r r e n t u n i t s on t h e r i g h t - h a n d o i r c l e w i t h t h e s i d e W always i n t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n toward t h e s i g n a l arrow. With t h e l o o p i n l i n e w i t h G- F p l a c e a d o t a t 0 where t h e two d o t t e d c i r c l e s a r e t a n g e n t ; t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t no s i g n a l i s b e i n g r e c e i v e d . I o move t h e l o o p 300 i n l i n e w i t h A2-A3 Vw and assume t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h t o - b e 5 u n i t s and p l a c e a d o t a t A i n d i c a t i n g 5 umts. I n t h e same manner p r o c e e d t o l o c a t e o t h e r p o s i t i o n s (positive) a s f o l l o w s : Move t h e l o o p t o 600 i n l i n e w i t h B2-B3 and t h e s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y w i l l i n c r e a s e t o , l e t u s s a y , + l O u n i t s a s r e p r e s e n t e d by B; t h e n move t h e l o o p t o 90' and i t w i l l l i n e up w i t h l i n e N-M, r e p r e s e n t i n g maximum s i g n a l s t r e n g t h a t t h i s p o i n t o r p o i n t C w i t h + 1 5 u n i t s ; move t h e l o o p t o 120 i n l i n e m i t h D2-D3 and t h e u n i t s t r e n g t h w i l l be 4-10 a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y p o i n t D , t h e same v a l u e a s we assumed i t t o b e a t 60; move t h e l o o p t o 1500 i n l i n e w i t h 22-E3, i n d i c a t i n g f 5 u n i t s a t p o i n t E; t h e l o o p i s now t u r n e d t h e l a s t 300 o r t o t h e leOO p o s i t i o n i n l i n e w i t h F- G and w i t h s i d e N o f t h e l o o p p o i n t i n g towwaffQF t h e s i g n a l w i l l d r o p o u t and become i n a u d - i b l e a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e p o i n t marked 0 where t h e c i r c l e s a r e t a n g e n t .

Our e x p l a n a t i o n a b o u t t h e r i g h t - h a n d dashed c i r c l e i n d i c a t i n g " p o s i t i v e " v a l u e s o f induced c u r r e n t i n t h e l o o p when r o t a t e d from 0 t o 1 8 0 d e g r e e s is complete and we w i l l now p l o t s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s of s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y f o r t h e second h a l f r e v o l u t i o n , o r from 180 t o 360 d e g r e e s . I t must b e b o r n e i n mind, however, t h a t t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t w i l l a t t h i s t i m e r e v e r s e i t s g e n e r a l movement t h r o u g h t h e c o i l and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e p o i n t s o f l o c a t i o n from 1 8 0 t o 360 d e g r e e s w i l l b e p l o t t e d on t h e l e f t - h a n d dashed c i r c l e and t h e s e u n i t s w i l l b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h l ' n e g a t i v e n v a l u e s . With t h e 'loop r e v e r s e d , t h a t i s , w i t h s i d e N i n t h e p o s i t i o n o c c u p i e d by M, and M i n t h e p o s i t i o n occupied b y N, t h e l o o p would b e moved i n s t e p s o f 30 d e g r e e s and t h e n e g a t i v e u n i t s f o r e a c h p o s i t i o n would b e a s i n d i c a t e d on t h e l e f t - h a n d c i r c l e . N o t i c e t h a t t h e u n i t s t r e n g t h o f t h e s i g n a l f o r a n y p o s i t i o n o f t h e l o o p i s t h e same f o r b o t h c i r c l e s e x c e p t t h a t t h e v a l u e s a r e e i t h e r " p o s i t i v e w o r " n e g a t i v e w a s t h e c a s e may b e . Another maximum p o s i t i o n i s o b t a i n e d a t N-M b e c a u s e t h e l o o p s t i l l l i e s i n t h e same p l a n e w i t h t h e incoming wave and, h e n c e , maximum s i g n a l s t r e n g t h is a g a i n r e c e i v e d as d e s i g n a t e d by - 1 5 u n i t s a t p o i n t C 1 .

I t s h o u l d now be c l e a r how t h e two minima, a t 0 and 180 d e g r e e s r e s p e c t i v e l y , and t h e two maxima,at 90 and 270 d e g r e e s , a r e o b t a i n e d and t h e n i l l u s t r a t e d Pn a f i g u r e - o f - e i g h t p a t t e r n o r diagram. Observe t h a t t h r o u g h o u t t h e f o r e g o i n g e x p l a n a t i o n t h e f r e q u e n c y , o r number o f c y c l e s o f a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t is n o t i n v o l v e d , f o r t h e f i g u r e - o f - e i g h t p a t t e r n merely shows t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e e f f e c t i v e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e s i g n a l which you h e a r i n t h e ~ e c e i v e r ' sheadphones when t h e l o o p i s r o t a t e d one complete r e v o l u t i o n .
The s i n g l e c o i l r a d i o compass o f t h e t y p e now under d i s c u s s i o a may b e r e a d w i t h reasonable accuracy providing the general l o c a t i o n of the d i s t a n t t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n i s known;

Lesson 69

s h e e t 23

BEARING OBTAINED WITH A SINGLE LOOP DIRECTION FINDER. I n t h e c a s e of a s h i p f i t t e d w i t h a s i n g l e l o o p r a d i o compass, t h e o p e r a t o r may f i n d t h e p o s i t i o n w i t h a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e of e r r o r by t a k i n g c r o s s b e a r i n g s . on two o r more r a d i o s t a t i o n s t r a n s m i t t i n g , a s shown i n t h e diagram o f F i g u r e 1 6 . Two methods a r e available.
(1) The f i r s t method i s where t h e v e s s e l is equipped w i t h a d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r . T r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n s A , B, C , and D, c a l l e d beacon s t a t i o n s , a r e s i t u a t e d a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s a s shown i n F i g u r e 1 6 and t h e s e a r e c h a r t e d and known t o be g e o g r a p h i c a l l y c o r r e c t . Each s t a t i o n is i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i g n a l i t t r a n s m i t s . The o b s e r v e r s h o u l d o b t a i n the a n g l e s 1, 2 , and 3 from t h e f o u r r e a d i n g s when m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e l o o p , and t h e n b y p l o t t i n g t h e l o c a t i o n s A , B , C , and D f r o m t h e g i v e n a n g l e s t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e s h i p is d e t e r mined. The l i n e s of d i r e c t i o n o f two o r more b e a r i n g s w i l l i n t e r s e c t a t a p o i n t , c a l l e d t h e f i x , which i n t h i s i n s t a n c e is t h e p o i n t of o b s e r v a t i o n , o r t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e v e s s e l , b e c a u s e t h e p l o t t i n g of t h e b e a r i n g h a s been c a r r i e d o u t on board s h i p . ( 2 ) The second method i s where t h e o p e r a t o r s e n d s o u t a c a l l u s i n g t h e s h i p ' s t r a n s m i t t e r . The s t a t i o n s A , B, C , and D a r e assumed t o b e equipped w i t h d l r e c t i o n f i n d e r s and i n t h i s c a s e t h e y would b e c a l l e d compass s t a t i o n s . The scme l e t t e r s and l o c a t i o n s a r e used i n b o t h methods t o s i m p l i f y t h e e x p l a n at i o n , b u t i t s h o u l d n o t b e assumed t h a t a compass s t a t i o n and a beacon s t a t i o n a r e s i t u a t e d a t t h e same l o c a t i o n .

The second method i s t h e r e v e r s e p r o c e s s of t h e f i r s t method. The o p e r a t o r s a t compass s t a t i o n s A , B, C , and D , b y m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e i r d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r s , can o b t a i n ' t h e a n g l e s which a r e made b y t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l b e a r i n g s , a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l i n e s p o i n t i n g toward t h e s h i p , w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e N o r t h and South l i n e . The a n g l e s w i t h t h e North and S o u t h l i n e a r e r e p o r t e d

i:
J,,

Figure 16 by e a c h s t a t i o n by t e l e p h o n e t o a C e n t r a l Compass S t a t i o n l o c a t e d a s CS, where The C e n t r a l t h e a n g l e s a r e p l o t t e d and t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e s h i p i s determined. Compass S t a t i o n ' m a y t h e n t e l e p h o n e o r t e l e g r a p h t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e s h i p t o a t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n a t t h e same o r some o t h e r l o c a t i o n . The l a t t e r s t a t i o n w i l l t h e n c a l l t h e s h i p which r e q u e s t e d t h e b e a r i n g and r e p o r t t h e s h i p ' s pos i t i o n t o t h e o p e r a t o r on b o a r d . When a v e s s e l equipped w i t h a s i n g l e l o o p compass is n e a r i n g p o r t , t h e e x a c t d i r e c t i o n of a n incoming s i g n a l u s u a l l y becomes known when communication is Lesson 69 - s h e e t 24

e s t a b l i s h e d between s h i p and s h o r e , o r v i c e v e r s a . When a v e s s e l i s f a r o u t a t s e a , however, a b e a r i n g may be d e s i r e d and t h e o p e r a t o r can determine t h e l i n e a l o n g which t h e r a d i o waves from a s e n d i n g s t a t i o n a r e a c t i n g , b u t may n o t know d e f i n i t e l y t h e d i r e c t i o n from which t h e y a r e coming. To e l i m i n a t e t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y , t h e modern compass is equipped w i t h b o t h a l o o p a n t e n n a and a v e r t i c a l w i r e antenna, which f u n c t i o n i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h each o t h e r a s we w i l l d e s c r i b e f u r t h e r i n o u r l e s s o n .
A d i r e c t i o n finder was -developed many y e a r s ago by B e l l i n i and T o s i which c o n s i s t e d o f two fixed loops viZh their planes a t r i g h t a n g l e s , t h e l o o p assembly b e i n g mounted above deck i n the usual manner. T h i s t y p e was a d i s t i n c t improvement o v e r t h e s i n g l e l o o p type b e m u s e by i t s u s e t h e o p e r a t o r of t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r could o b t a i n s h a r ~ e r minima and maxima p o s i t i o n :

BELLINI-TOSI GONIOMETER.

s k e t c h of a goniometer type r a d i o d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r u r e 1 7 . I n t h i s t y p e one l o o p l i e s i n a p l a n e m i t h t h e k e e l t h e o t h e r loop i s p e r p e n d i c ~ l t it~ i t , o r t h w a r t s h i p . o The l e a d i n g from t h e t e r m i n a l s of' the two l o o p s , A 1 and A Z , a r e upper deck s t r u c t u r e down t o t h e r a d i o room, o r p i l o t house

A si+le

is shown i n F i g of t h e s h i p , mhile conducting mirss c a r r i e d from the where t h e y a r e con-

Figure 17 n e c t e d r e s p e c t i v e l y i n s e r i e s w i t h two v a r i a b l e condensers C 1 and C 2 and a l s o m i t h two f i e l d c o i l s L1 and L2. The two f i e l d c o i l s , L1 and L2, a r e a l s o i n a f i x e d p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e i r p l a n e s a t r i g h t a n g l e s and e e c h c o i l comprises s e v e r a . t u r n s of w i r e . A s m a l l e r e x p l o r i n g c o i l L 3 mounted w i t h i n the f i e l d c o i l i n such a manner t h a t i t c a n be r o t a t e d by means of a h a n d l e and i t s a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n w i l l b e shown by a n i n d i c a t o r a t t a c h e d t o t h e compass card.

The a c t l o n of e a c h of t h e compass c o i l s i s e x a c t l y t h e same a s t h a t of a s i n g l e

corngass c o i l which we p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d . The f u n c t i o n s of t h e two f i e l d c o i

L1 and L Z , is t o r e p r o d u c e t h e energy i n t h e l o o p c o i l s , b u t t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e
and t h i s i s why i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e t 9 f 0 l o o p s b e mounted i n a f i x e d p o s i t i o n and a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o e a c h o t h e r . The two c o n d e n s e r s , C 1 and C2, have i d e t i c a l c a p a c i t a n c e v a l u e s and a r e tuned s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b y a h a n d l e t o t h e wavel e n g t h of t h e s i g n a l t o b e r e c e i v e d . The a c t i o n i s s u c h t h a t i f a wave advances i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of l o o p A l , t h e o s c i l l a t i n g c u r r e n t it i n d u c e s i n t h i s l o o p m i Lesson 69

- sheet

2!

be maximum, whereas, i n loop A t h e c u r r e n t w i l l be z e r o . For v a r i o u s a n g l e s 2 t h a t a s i g n a l wave would c u t a c r o s s e i t h e r loop i t would r e s u l t i n a curve s i m i l a r t o t h e i n t e n s i t y p a t t e r n shown by f i g u r e - o f - e i g h t diagram which you have s t u d i e d . Hence, t h e s i g n a l c u r r e n t f l o w i n g i n c o i l s L1 and L2 produces about them magnetic f i e l d s which a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l i n magnitude t o t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e s i g n a l c u r r e n t induced i n loops 81 and A 2 t o which L1 and L2 a r e connected. Therefore, t h e i n d i v i d u a l magnetic f i e l d s e n c i r c l i n g L1 and L2 combine t o produce a r e s u l t a n t f i e l d which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l i n magnitude t o t h e s i g n a l c u rr e n t s i n t h e two l o o p s . To c i t e one s e t O f c o n d i t i o n s , a x i s , then t h e c u r r e n t induced imum when t h e p l a n e of c o i l L 3 t h e s t r o n g e s t magnetic f i e l d . l i e p a r a l l e l t o f i e l d c o i l L1. suppose e x p l o r i n g c o i l L3 i s r o t a t e d about i t s i n t h i s c o i l by t h e r e s u l t a n t f i e l d w i l l be naxl i e s p a r a l l e l t o t h a t f i e l d c o i l which produces I n t h e case j u s t c i t e d , e m l o r i n g c o i l L3 would

Again, i f the aeves advance i n the g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n of loop A2, t h e induced Hence, c u r r e n t i n A 2 w i l l be maximum, b u t i n A 1 i t w i l l be minimum o r n i l . e m l o r i n g c o i l L 3 must now l i e p a r a l l e l t o f i e l d c o i l L2 t o r e c e i v e maximum i n h u c t i o n . I n o r d e r t o supply maximum c u r r e n t t o t h e d e t e c t o r c i r c u i t i t i s n s c e s s a r y t o have e x p l o r i n g c o i l L 3 a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e r e s u l t a n t magnetic f i e l d produced around t h e windings of L1 and L2. The corresponding p o s i t i o n of e ~ l o r i n g o i l L3 f o r maximum i n d u c t i o n of s i g n a l energy is i n d i c a t e d by c t h e p o i n t e r on t h e compass card and t h e minimum p o s i t i o n may b e found by t u r n i n g L 3 u n t i l no s i g n a l i s heard. By p r e v i o u s c a l i b r a t i o n of t h e compass t h e l i n e of d i r e c t i o n of t h e sending s t a t i o n may be determined. The c i r c u i t , i n F i g u r e 1 9 , i s s o a r r a n g e d t h a t t h e e x p l o r i n g c o i l i s r e a l l y a c t i n g as a m i n i a t u r e compass, depending f o r i t s o p e r a t i o n upon t h e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h of t h e two magnetic f i e l d s surrounding L1 and L2, which i n t u r n a r e dependent upon t h e i n d u c t i o n of e.m.f. from an advancing wave i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e l o o p s A 1 and A2. The e x p l o r i n g c o i l , b e i n g i n d u c t i v e l y coupled t o t h e f i e l d c o i l s , i s tuned by t h e v a r i a b l e condenser C3 t o o b t a i n resonance with t h e i n coming s i g n a l frequency. The radio- frequency c u r r e n t r e c e i v e d i n L3 produces a p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e a c r o s s t u n i n g condenser C 3 , which, when a p p l i e d as a n e.m.f. t o t h e g r i d of an e l e c t r o n t u b e d e t e c t o r , w i l l b e demodulated, t h a t i s , t h e o u t p u t of t h e d e t e c t o r w i l l s u p p l y a v a r y i n g c u r r e n t which i s s u i t a b l e f o r e c t u a t i n g the telephone receivers. L e t us suppose t h a t a n advancing wave is i n a d i r e c t i o n which induces c u r r e n t of e q u a l i n t e n s i t y i n b o t h c o i l s a t t h e same i n s t a n t , when two such f i x e d l o o p s a r e employed t o o b t a i n a b e a r i n g . Then t h e corresponding f l u x e s surrounding I t w i l l be t h e f i e l d c o i l s w i l l b e a t r i g h t a n g l e s and of e q u a l s t r e n g t h . understood t h a t c u r r e n t may o r may n o t b e induced i n a conductor when c u r r e n t flows i n a n o t h e r c i r c u i t . This a c t i o n depends upon t h e i n d u c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p , o r t h e c o u p l i n g between t h e two c i r c u i t s . S i n c e t h e c o u p l i n g between t h e f i e l d c o i l s and t h e e x p l o r i n g c o i l is p u r e l y e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c and v a r i a b l e , a p o s i t i o n may be found f o r L3 f o r which no s i g n a l c u r r e n t i s s e t up. When minimum s i g n a l i s r e c e i v e d i n a goniometer type d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r such as t h e one j u s t d e s c r i b e d c o i l L3 w i l l n o t p o i n t i n a d i r e c t i o n toward t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n , b u t 90 d e g r e e s away from it. This s y s t e m depends f o r i t s accuracy upon t h e p e r f e c t symmetry of t h e l o o p s and c o i l s , and when a b e a r i n g i s taken s e v e r a l r e a d i n g s a r e observed each time r o t a t i n g t h e c o i l L3 180 d e g r e e s .

Lesson 69

s h e e t 2f

UNIDIRECTIONAL CK4RATERISTICS - "SEnTSEf' XADIO DIRECTION FINDER. By means o f t h e s i n g l e c o i l a n t e n n a . o r by means of a d o u b l e c o i l a o n i o m e t e r . we a r e a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p l e n e p a r a l l e l t o which t h e s i g n a l w a t e s a r e a c t i n g , b u t t h e r e i s s t i l l t h e u n c e r t a i n t y of t h e e x a c t d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s t a t i o n t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e s i g n a l and t h i s must b e determined. To do t h i s i n a p r a c t i c a l way a s y s tem h a s been developed which u t i l i z e s a v e r t i c a l w i r e a n t e n n a , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e r e g u l a r l o o p method p r e v i o u s l y e x p l a i n e d . The w i r e a n t e n n a is s u spended above deck and c o n n e c t s to a f i e l d i n d u c t a n c e c o i l coupled t o t h e f i e l d c o i l s o f t h e u s u a l l o o p a n t e n n a s o t h a t a s i g n a l wave w i l l induce c u r r e n t i n The e f f e c t i s t h a t t h e s i g n a l i s e n t i r e l y n e u t r a l i z e d o n c e , both c i r c u i t s . t h a t is, t h e signal is e l i m i n a t e d o n l y once f o r one complete r e v o l u t i o n of t h e l o o p and you c e n h e a r i t a t a l l o t h e r p o s i t i o n s o f t h e loo?. The purpose of t h i s method, t h e n , i s t o o b t a i n one w e l l d e f i n e d z e r o p o s i t i o n t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t d e t e r m i n a t i o n may b e made of t h e e x a c t l i n e of d i r e c t i o n i n which a d i s t a n t r a d i o t r b n s m i t t e r l i e s . I n t h e p r a c t i c e 1 m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e r a d i o compass, t h e f o l l o w i n g tvvo major o p e r a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d o u t :
(1) The l i n e of d i r e c t i o n i n which t h e d i s t a n t s t a t i o n l i e s is f i r s t d e t e r mined. T h i s i s c a l l e d t h e b i l a t e r a l b e a r i n g . ( 2 ) On which s i d e o f t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e t h e d i s t a n t s t a t i o n i s l o c a t e d i s n e x t d e t e r m i n e d , t h u s g i v i n g a u n i l a t e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o r a b e a r i n g which s u v p l i e s t h e sense of d i r e c t i o n .

A s i m p l e c o i l a n t e n n a A- 9- C- D, used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e v e r t i c a l w i r e ant e n n a E-F, i s shown i n F i g u r e 1 8 . Upon r e f e r r i n g t o t h e diagram, i t can b e

s e e n t h a t t h e incoming s i g n a l wave, i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e a r r o w and wave m o t i o n , s t r i k e s t h e w i r e E-F f i r s t and i n d u c e s a n e.m.f. t h e r e i n , ahead of e i t h e r t h e v e r t i c a l w i r e E-A, o r t h e w i r e C-D, t h e l a t t e r b e i n g t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e of' t h e
B

Grid Leah and Conoenrer

Figure 18 l o o p . The induced e.m.f. i n E-F p r o d u c e s a c u r r e n t f l o w i n L1 when s w i t c h S i s c l o s e d and t h e magrletic f i e l d t h u s s e t up a c t s upon f i e l d c o i l L 2 , which Therefore, t h e t o t a l c a r r i e s t h e c u r r e n t produced by t h e e.m.f. i n t h e loop. c u r r e n t f l o w i n g t h r o u g h L2 w i l l depend upon t h e combined a c t i o n o f t h e c o i l a n t e n n a and t h e v e r t i c a l w i r e a n t e n n a . Lesson 69

s h e e t 27

T h i s e x p l a n a t i u n m i l l b e e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d i f you w i l l b u t c o n s i d e r t h a t when s w i t o h S i s open and no c u r r e n t is induced i n L1, t h e r e can b e no t r a n s f e r of e n e r g y from L1 t o L2, and whatever c u r r e n t f l o w s i n L 2 must t h e n b e t h e r e s u l t of t h e a c t i o n of t h e s i g n a l wave upon t h e c o i l a n t e n n a a l o n e . On t h e o t h e r hand, when s w i t c h S is c l o s e d and tQe signal wave is coming from a d l r e c r i o n o p p o s i t e t o t h a t I n d i c a t e d i n t h e diagram, the signal e n e r g y w 1 1 1 s t r i k e w i r e C-D i n advance o f E-F and B-A. B n C s , tbe e.m.f, induced i n C-D w i l l l e a d t h e e.m.f.'s induced i n E-F and B-A, grid the effective emf ... in t h e c i r c u l t will p r o d u c e a c u r r e n t f l o w i n g through Le Which is greater t;his t l s e than when :he l o o p s n t c n n a was acting alone. In f3%% instance switch S must b e c l o s e ? s o t h a t t h e r r o c n e t i c f i e l d s u r r o u n d i n g El ail1 induim an e.lp.f. i n L 2 , and t h e l n t u c e d e.n.P. z u s t a l s o b e i n s u c h a - d i r e c t i o n that it will ess i s t t h e e.m.f. air-udy lrduceci i n c o l l L 2 by t h e energy picked up by t h e l o o p . The c u r r e n t i n t h e v e r t i c a l w i r e a n t e n n a c o i l L1 w i l l t e n d e i t h e r t o d i m i n i s h o r t o b u i l d vp t h e c u r r e n t f l o w i n t h e loop c o i l L2. A r e d u c t i o n o r i n c r e a s e i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h w i l l f o l l o w , depending upon t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e wave and t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of c o i l s Ll and L2. J u s t why t h e s i g n a l w i l l e i t h e r i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e , a s e x p l a i n e d p r e v i o u s l y , is e a s i l y accounted f o r s i n c e t h e induced e.m.f, i n t h e l o o p w i l l change t h e p h a s e o f t h e c u r r e n t f l o w i n g t h r o u g h L1 r e l a t i v e t o t h e c u r r e n t i n L2. T h i s c o n d i t i o n may b e b r o u g h t a b o u t e i t h e r by a change i n t h e d i r e c t i o n f r o m which t h e s i g n a l qave is coming o r by r e v e r s i n g t h e l o o p s o t h a t t h e s i d e . p o i n t i n g toward t h e i n c o n i c ~ gwave w i l l have t h e induced 0 , m . f . l e a d t h e o t h e r induced e.m.f.'s which p r e v i o u s l y formed f h e r e v e r s e o r d e r b e f o r e t h e l o o p was t u r n e d , A v e r y p r a c t i c a l d e t a i l e d e x p l a n at i o n is g i v e n i n s u b s e c p e n t p a r a g r a p h s . I t is b a s e d on t h e r e l a t i v e u n i t s o f s i g n a l s t r e n g t h i n t h e ire a n t e n n a and l o o p s y s t e m w h i l e t h e loop i s t u r n e d one r e v o l u t i o n .
HOW TO OBTAIN EXACT DIRECTION OF DISTANT SENDING STATIONS. R e f e r e n c e i s made t o t h e diagram i n F i g u r e le i n g i v i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g a p e r a t i o n s f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e e x a c t d i r e c t i o n of a d i s t a n t s e n d i n g s t a t i o n :

(1) When s w i t c h S is opened, t h e coqpass 1oap A-B-C-D is t u r n e d t o a p o s i t i o n where t h e s i g n a l i s e a s i l y r e a d , and t h e l o o p s y s t e m is t h e n tuned t o r e s o n a n c e w i t h t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l wave by means of v a r i a b l e condenser C2.
( 2 ) The s w i t c h S is now c l o s e d and t h e c o u p l i n g between t h e f i e l d c o i l L1 connected t o t h e v e r t i c a l a n t e n n a , and c o i l L2 c o n n e c t e d t o t h e l o o p a n t e n n a i s a d j u s t e d u n t i l a s i g n a l of maximum s t r e n g t h is h e a r d . The arrow through L1 i r r d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c o u p l i n g i s v a r i a b l e . T h i s a d j u s t m e n t i s known a s t h e balancer.
( 3 ) The n e x t o p e r a t i o n is t h e opening of s w i t c h S. Turn t h e l o o p u n t i l t h e s i g n a l s d i s a p p e a r o r become a minin~uu. The loop,vihen i n t h i s p o s i t i o n , i s i n a p l a n e a t r i g h t a n g l e s , 9 0 d e g r e e s , t o t h e l i n e of d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l v a v e s .

( 4 ) While t h e s w i t c h S r e m a i n s open, -the l o o p is t u r n e d 90 d e g r e e s from t h e p o s i t i o n occupied i n ( 3 ) u n t i l a xcaximum s i g n a l i s o b t a i n e d . The p l a n e o f t h e l o o p is now p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l wave. The l i n e o f d i r e c t i o n o r v h a t is known a s t h e b i l a t e r a l b e a r i n g is o b t a i n e d from o p e r at i o n s ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) . ( 5 ) With t h e l o o p i n t h i s p o s i t i o n , f o r maximum s i g n a l e n e r g y , t h e s w i t c h S i s now c l o s e d . The s i g n a l s t r e n g t h w i l l e i t h e r i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e r e l a t i v e

Lesson 69

s h e e t 28

t o t h a t i n (41, d e p e n d i n g upon t h e e x a c t d i r e c t i o n f r o m which t h e wave i s a d v a n c i n g . If t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h d e c r e a s e s upon c l o s i n g S , t h e wave is corni n g from a c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, i f t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s , t h e wave is coming from t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . Whether t h e wave i s coming from one d i r e c t i o n o r t h e o t h e r may b e d e f i n i t e l y a s c e r t a i n e d by e q u i p p i n g t h e r o t a t i n g member of t h e l o o p w i t h two p o i n t e r s d i a m e t r i c a l l y opp o s i t e , marking one " r e d n and t h e o t h e r "white", and, by p r e v i o u s calibration of t h e i n s t r u m e n t , t h e s i g n a l s t h e n may b e known t o cone from a g i v e n d i r e c t i o n . The p o i n t e r s a r e suspended above t h e c o n p a s s c a r d and t h e w h i t e p o i n t e r may b e s e l e c t e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e known d i r e c t i o n of t h e s e n d i n g s t a t i o n when r e c e i v i n g a m i n i m s i g n a l . T h i s known direction is c a l l e d t h e " sense" of air e c t i o n and t h e b e a r i n g o b t a i n e d a " u n i l a t e r a l " o r " u n i d i r e c t i o n a l " b e a r i n g . The s w i t c h S i s c a l l e d t h e "LIRE-SZNSE" s w i t c h , b e c a u s e opening t h e s w i t c h gives t h e l l n e of d i r e c t i o n and c l o s i n g t h e s w i t c h g i v e s t h e s e n s e of d i r e c t i o n The p o i n t e r g i v e s o n l y t h e s e n s e of d i r e c t i o n O f a r a d i o s t a t i o n w i t h r e f e r ence t o t h e bow and s t e r n of t h e v e s s e l , and n o t t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n of t h a t s t a t i o n , u n l e s s t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r i s e q u i p p e d w i t h a l i v e gyrocompass r e p e a t e r . Without t h e g y r o - r e p e a t e r , t h e s t a t i o n whose d i r e c t i o n i s t o b e d e t e r m i n e d must b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e s e n s e r e a d i n g of t h e r a d i o compass, p l o t t e d w i t h t h e s h i p ' s s t a n d a r d compass. I n a few words, i t c a n be s a i d t h a t 3 r a d i o compass g i v e s t h e a n g l e which a n advancing s i g n a l wave from t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n makes w i t h t h e c e n t e r l i n e o r k e e l of t h e s h i p . ;roV s WILATEFUL BEARING IS OBTAIHED. The d i r e c t i c n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a rnnn A"-r a n t a n n u c.-..- s t i n n o f a c o i l of w i r e h a s been f u l l y e x p l a i n e d i n f o r e - onsi y g o i n g p a r a g r a p h s and s h o u l d know how t o i l l u s t r a t e , - b y means of a c u r v e d i a g r w , e v e r y change i n s i g n a l c u r r e n t i n t e n s i t y t h a t o c c u r s when t h e l o o p i s t u r n e d one r e v o l u t i o n , as shown i n F i g u r e 1 5 . W must combine t h i s e x p l a e n a t i o n w i t h a n e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e b e h a v i o r of a v e r t i c a l w i r e a n t e n n a when i t i s a c t e d upon b y a p a s s i n g s i g n a l wave.
-

ou

Suppose t h e s i n g l e w i s e E-F, i n Pig-ure 1 9 , i s suspended i n s p a c e i n a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n , and t h e m i r e i s c o n n e c t e d t o f i e l d c o i l L1 w i t h t h e c i r c u i t comp l e t e d t o ground t h r o u g h s w i t c h S. And a l s o suppose a s i g n a l wave i s a d v a n c i n g in t h e d i r e c t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e arrow, Now i f t h i s v e r t i c a l c o n d u c t o r E-F were f r e e t o b e r o t a t e d a b o u t i t s own a x i s t h e n i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e d i r e c t i o n in which i t was t u r n e d , t h e wave would induce i n t h i s w i r e a s i g n a l c u r r e n t of

Venical Antenna

+20

Figure 19

F i g u r e 20 Lesson 69

- s h e e t 29

uniform magnitude. To make this point clear note that if the wire was rotated and its motion was very fast the notion could be compared, by way of simple illustration, to that of a spinning top. Thus, we see that a vertical wire does not exhibit directional properties as does the loop antenna. For this reason the unit current intensity set up in wire E-F by a passing wave would be the same for all positions of 3-P if this were rotated one revolution, that is to say, a single wire vertical antenna has as Xts characteristic a unit signal strength unchanged either by reason of a change in its position when turned 360 degrees on its axis or by any change in the direction from which the signals are advancing. When these uniform values are plotted on a graph the curve will take the form of a circle, as shown in Figura 16, because all polnts on the circumference are equidistant from the center. Knowing that the vertical wire has nondirectional characteristics and the loop has bilateral characteristics, the two properties may be combined in an intermediate circult to obtain unilateral or unidirectional characteristics. The intermediate circuit we referred to comprises field coils L2 and L1 as 8 shown in Figure 1 . Two things to keep in mind during this explanation are that the alternating current flowing through L1 induces an alternating e.m.f. In L2 when switch S is closed and the effectiveness of L1 circuit upon L2 circult is observed by the strength of the signal in the telephone receivers sinc the L2 circuit, or the loop circuit is the one connected to the receiver. The fundamental idea of how the signal energies present in the loop and antenna at any moment either aid or oppose each other is illustrated in Figure 2 0 . Keep in mind that the current in the vertical wire does not vary in strength for a given signal, whereas, the loop current for the same signal changes with i i if ferent positions of the loop, For the sake of explanation SUpDOSe the current when at maximum intensity is 15 units, or the same value we assumed in our pre vious explanation concerning the action of a single loop as in Figure 15. By allowing the magnetic lines set up by the signal current induced in L1 to act on the signal current induced in LZ from the loop, a resultant current is obtained in L2 which is non-uniform in strength. This varying current is represented by the heart-shaped curve,called a cardioid,shown in Figure 20. This heart-shaped curve is really a composite of the two signal energies, one from the loop and the other from the vertical mire. It is seen that the different points which go to form this curve indicate either an increase of the total current with the loop in one position and a decrease of the total current when the loop is turned 180 degrees to the opposite position. The dotted circles 1 and 2 are exactly like those shown in Figure 15, whereas, the outer dotted circle is like the one shown in Figure 19. In Figure 20, circle #1 shows the current units when the loop is turned the first half revolution, these units being marked positive (+) units to distinquish them conveniently from the negative (-1 units shown by circle #2. The terms positive and negative are used merely to indicate the reversal in the order in which the alternations flow back and forth through the loop during the second half revolution. This reversal in the general direction, in which the high-frequency alternating current flows back and forth through the loop, depends upon which side of the loop is acted upon first by the advancing wave. It would be advisable at this point to again read over your text pertaining to figure-of-eight diagram. Lesson 69

- sheet 3

I n Figure 20, the r e s u l t a n t s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y curve is p l o t t e d by a l g e b r a i c a l l y adding the p o s i t i v e c u r r e n t u n i t s induced i n t h e v e r t i c a l wire t o t h e p o s i t i v e and negative u n i t s of c u r r e n t induced i n t h e loop coi1,which i s the same t h m g a s combining t h e c i r c l e , i n Figure 1 9 , with t h e f i g u r e - o f - e i g h t p a t t e r n i n Figure 20. L e t u s now go through a few s t e p s to Show how you would l o c a t e t h e d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s whlch r e p r e s e n t the s l g n a l i n t e n s i t y curve o r c a r d i o i d . With t h e loop i n t h e p o s i t i o n , a s shown i n t h e diagram, i n a p l a n e with the incoming s i g n a l t o r e c e i v e m a x i m induced c u r r e n t of + 1 5 u n i t s designated e by p o i n t D , and adding t h i s t o t h e + 1 5 u n i t s i n t h e wire antenna w o b t a i n a t o t a l c u r r e n t of f 30 u n i t s d e s i g n s t e d a t p o i n t B. If t h e loop i s now turned w i t h i t s p l a n e p a r a l l e l t o l i n e G- F, then + 5 u n i t s of s i g n a l s t r e n g t h w i l l be r e c e i v e d , shovin by p o i n t E , and t h i s added t o t h e 15 u n i t s always coming i n on the v e r t i c a l w i r e , w i l l e q u a l + 20 u n i t s , g i v i n g a second l o c a t i o n a t p o i n t F. Thus, F d e s i g n a t e s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the combined c u r r e n t s a t t h i s moment.

This time the loop i s turned t o l i n e up w i t h G-K. I n t h i s p o s i t i o n the loop l i e s i n a plane 90 degrees t o t h e wave t r a v e l and, hence, no c u r r e n t is induced i n t h e loop. The s i g n a l c u r r e n t i n t h e c i r c u i t s can now be only t h a t which i s c o n t r i b u t e d by t h e v e r t i c a l antenna, o r + 1 5 u n i t s which i s shown st p o i n t G on t h e o u t e r d o t t e d c i r c l e . Again, the loop is t u r n e d t o l i n e up with C-N. The l a t t e r change i n loop pos i t i o n causes t h a t s i d e of t h e loop which was a c t e d upon f i r s t by t h e incoming s i g n a l t o be a c t e d upon l a s t and, a s p r e v i o u s l y e x p l a i n e d , t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t w i l l flow back and f o r t h through t h e loop w i t h t h e a l t e r n a t i o n s o c c u r r i n g i n t h e r e v e r s e o r d e r t o what they were and, consequently, the a l t e r n a t i n g curr e n t i n t h e loop a t once b e g i n s t o oppose t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i n t h e v e r t i c a l wire. This opposing c u r r e n t , c a l l e d n e g a t i v e u n i t s , w i l l become i n c r e a s i n g l y s t r o n g e r a s t h e loop is f u r t h e r r o t a t e d t o b r i n g t h e p l a n e of the loop a g a i n i n l i n e with the arrow i n d i c a t i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of wave t r a v e l . With t h e loop i n l i n e w i t h G-N, 5 u n i t s w i l l be induced i n t h e loop shown 1 5 u n i t s i n the v e r t i c a l wire, a t p o i n t M, and t h i s a l g e b r a i c a l l y added t o shown a t p o i n t N , g i v e s a t o t a l of + 1 0 u n i t s d e s i g n a t e d a t p o i n t H. A f o u r t h l o c a t i o n f o r t h e combining e n e r g i e s h a s t h u s heen found. I t might be w e l l t o e x p l a i n here what w mean when w s a y a l g e b r a i c a l l y added. If f 1 5 u n i t s a r e e e added a l g e b r a i c a l l y t o - 5 u n i t s we g e t a s a r e s u l t + - 1 0 u n i t s and t h i s is b u t a n o t h e r way of s t a t i n g t h a t i f we have a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y of any t h i n g , r e p r e s e n t e d f o r i n s t a n c e by 1 5 u n i t s , and we take away a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y , s a y 5 u n i t s , t h e r e remains 1 0 u n i t s .

Proceeding w i t h our e x p l a n a t i o n suppose now t h e loop i s turned from p o s i t i o n C-N t o a p o s i t i o n i n l i n e w i t h C-A. I t i s s e e n t h a t t h e loop once more l i e s i n a p l a n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e waves and, hence, i t p i c k s up a s i g n a l of maximum Notice t h a t t h e s i d e of t h e loop which p r e v i o u s l y 15 u n i t s . strength, or p o i n t e d toward B now p o i n t s toward A , o r toward t h e sending s t t a t i o n . While t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t is e q u a l i n b o t h c i r c u i t s t h i s time, y e t t h e two c u r r e n t s , as t h e y flow through t h e w i r e s , a r e opposed i n d i r e c t i o n , t h h t i s , t h e two e n e r g i e s a r e 180 degrees out of phase. Consequen%ly,when t h e 1 5 u n i t s of c u r r e n t i n t h e loop i s added a l g e b r a i c a l l y t o the 1 5 u n i t s i n t v e r t i c a l wire we g e t z e r o u n i t s and t h u s t h e c u r r e n t s c a n c e l each o t h e r . There f o r e , no s i g n a l c u r r e n t w i l l flow i n t h e c i r c u i t a t a l l and i t is obvious t h a t no s i g n a l w i l l be heard i n t h e headphones. This is shown i n t h e diagram where

Lesson 69

sheet31

t h e - 15 u n i t s i n t h e l o o p a t p o i n t A , and t h e 1 5 units i n the v e r t i c a l wire a l s o shown a t p o i n t A combine and e q u a l 0 , a s d e s i g n a t e d a t p o i n t C. By c o n t i n u i n g t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e l o o p t h e r e m a i n i n g p o i n t s of l o c a t i o n a t J , K, and 3 w i l l l i k e w i s e b e found. By drawing a l i n e t h r o u g h a l l of t h e p o i n t s a l r e a d y mentioned, B, F, G, E, C, 3, K, and R w e o b t a i n the h e a r t shaped c u r v e a s Shown. T h i s c u r v e t e l l s u s t h a t a l o o p c o i l f u n c t i o n i n g i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h v e r t i c a l w i r e a n t e n n a p r o v i d e s u n i d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . That i s , we get, o n e broad maximum shown b y t h e c u r v e t h a t e x t e n d s f r o m F t o B and t o R where t h e s i g n a l comes i n q u i t e s t r o n g , a n d e v e n t o p o i n t s G and K t h e s i g n a l i s f a i r l y s t r o n g . But from t h e r e on we g e t a r a p i d r e d u c t i o n i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h i n d i c a t e d by t h e c u r v e f r o m H t o C and J t o C , w i t h one s h a r p l y d e f i n e d minimum i n t h e r e g i o n a t C , where t h e s i g n a l d r o p s o u t e n t i r e l y . I n t h e p r a c t i c a l r m n i p u l a t i o n of a d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r we might o b t a i n e i t h e r a n i l l - d e f i n e d o r a b i a s e d c u r v e , which means t h a t t h e c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g i n t h e t x o c i r c u i t s do n o t alwuys e x a c t l y n e u t r a l i z e t o p r o d u c e a c r i t i c a l l y d e f i n e d minimum b u t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s we might h e a r t h e s i g n a l a l t h o u g h v e r y weak. When t h e o p e r a t o r of a d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r a d j u s t s t h e l o o p and b a l a n c e t o t a k e a b e a r i n g he must e x e r c i s e t h e g r e a t e s t c a r e t o o b t a i n a n a c c u r a t e r e a d i n g and t h e r e a s o n why s h o u l d now b e r e a d i l y u n d e r s t o o d . PRINCIPLES O "S3'NSE-LINE" READING TAK3N ON A DIRECTIOX FINDER. F Refer t o e F i g u r e 18, W w i l l f o l l o w up Our t h e o r e t i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n j u s t g i v e n w i t h a b r i e f summary d e a l i n g w i t h t h e a c t i o n a t t h e minimum and maximum g o s i t i o n s of a l o o p w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a l t e r n a t i o n s of c u r r e n t f l o w i n g i n f i e l d c o i l s L2 and L1 i n F i g u r e 18. Thus, by combinirig t h e o r y w i t h p r a c t i c e s h o u l d g i v e you a good i d e a of t h e p r i n c i p l e s i n v o l v e d i n a modern d i rection finder.
(1) With s w i t c h S c l o s e d and t h e l o o p t u r n e d s o t h a t t h e wave s t r i k e s s i d e A-B i n advance of s i d e C- D, t h e induced e . n . f . i n A-B w i l l l e a d t h e induced e.m.f. i n C-D. Assuming t h a t a maximum s i g n a l i s now h e a r d , l e t us f i r s t cons i d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l o w of o n l y one a l t e r n a t i o n , t h a t i s , t h e d i r e c t i o n

of t h e c u r r e n t a s i t f l o w s t h r o u g h L1 and L2 d u r i n g o n e- h a l f c y c l e . Suppose, f o r t h i s a l t e r n a t i o n , t h a t t h e s i g n a l c u r r e n t f l o w s upward i n L2 and a l s o supp o s e t h e magnetic f i e l d s e t up around L1 by t h e s i g n a l c u r r e n t t h r e a d s t h r o u g h t h e windings of L2 i n s u c h a d i r e c t i o n t h a t t h e c u r r e n t i n d u c e d i n L2 b y t h i s a c t i o n f l o w s t h r o u g h L2 i n a n upward d i r e c t i o n . Now t h e e.m.f. induced i n s i d e 4-B by t h e wave w i l l a l s o c a u s e c u r r e n t t o f l o w t h r o u g h L2 i n a n upward d i r e c t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s u l t a n t c u r r e n t i n L2 f o r t h i s one a l t e r n a t i o n i s produced by two e . m . f . r s . One e.m.f. b e i n g due t o t h e s i g n a l i n t h e L2 c i r c u i t and t h e o t h e r e.m.f. t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o r m u t u a l i n d u c t i o n between L1 and L2. S i n c e , i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , t h e two e.m.f.'s a r e aiding the received s i g n a l w i l l be very loud. I t could be s a i d t h a t t h e s i g n a l c u r r e n t s i n t h e loop and i n t h e a n t e n n a a r e c o o p e r a t i n g b e c a u s e t h e y a r e i n p h a s e w i t h e a c h o t h e r .
( 2 ) Now t h i s time w i t h s w i t c h S s t i l l c l o s e d , b u t t h e l o o p t u r n e d one- half r e v o l u t i o n t h e wave w i l l s t r i k e s i d e C-D i n advance o f A-B. Hence, t h e i n duced e.m.f. i n C-D w i l l now l e a d t h e induced 8.m.f. i n A-B. Again c o n s i d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of c u r r e n t d u r i n g o n l y one a l t e r n a t i o n , W know t h a t t h e e.m.f. e induced i n v e r t i c a l a n t e n n a E-F c o u l d n o t change i n d i r e c t i o n f o r any g i v e n a l t e r n a t i o n , a s c o u l d t h e e.m.f. induced i n t h e l o o p s i n c e t h e l a t t e r i s f r e e t o b e t u r n e d 180 d e g r e e s from any p o s i t i o n i t may oocupy. F o r t h i s p a r t of t h e e x p l a n a t i o n l e t u s assume t h a t t h e c u r r e n t d u r i n g a c e r t a i n a l t e r n a t i o n

Lesson 69

- s h e e t 32

flows through L 1 i n an upward d i r e c t i o n . During t h i s p e r i o d , t h e c u r r e n t induced i n L 2 by the magnetic f i e l d surrounding L l ( t h a t is due t o mutual i n ductance between these c o i l s ) w i l l flow i n an upward d i r e c t i o n i n L 2 , the same a s i n explanation (1). But i n the case of the e.m.f. induced i n s i d e C-D i t w i l l be i n such a d i r e c t i o n t h a t the c u r r e n t i t produces w i l l flow through L2 i n a aownward d i r e c t i o n . I t can be seen t h a t t h e t o t a l s i g n a l c u r r e n t now flowing through L2 i s due t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two e.m.f.ls which a r e imp r e s s e d upon c o i l L2 by t h i s a c t i o n . I n o t h e r words, t h e trso e.m.f.'s now oppose each o t h e r , o r it might be s a i d t h a t t h e magnetic f i e l d changing around L 1 i s bucking the magnetic f i e l d around L2 produced by t h e loop c u r r e n t . If t h e two f i e l d s a r e equal i n s t r e n g t h and opposed i n d i r e c t i o n by 180 de&rees, t h a t i s , 180 degrees out of phase with each o t h e r , t h e e f f e c t i s t o reduce t h e e.m.f. i n c o i l L 2 t o zero. Accordingly, the e.m.f.'s m i l l Cancel o r n e u t r a l i z e and no s i g n a l w i l l be heard. This is t h e occurrence i n t h e f i e l d c o i l system f o r mininlum s i g n a l p o s i t i o n of the loop. Plhen turning a loop around you w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e chulge i n s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y is gradual from the time when the c u r r e n t s i n t h e antenna and loop c i r c u i t s r e s p e c t i v e l y a r e a i d i n g a s i n p o s i t i o n (1) t o when t h e c u r r e n t s a r e 180 degrees o u t of phase, o r opposed a s i n p o s i t i o n ( 2 j . It i s a p r o g r e s s i v e r e d u c t i o n i n s i g n a l s,trength from maximum t o minimum p o s i t i o n s . Remember t h a t t h i s gradual change i n the e f f e c t i v e s i g n a l heard i n the headphones i s c l e a r l y represented by the contour of t h e heart- shaped curve o r c a r d i o i d i n Figure 20 and i t is t h i s a c t i o n t h a t provides ttSENSZn d i r e c t i o n readings when a loop and v e r t i c a l wire antenna a r e both used.

CHARACTERISTIC SIGNALS SENT OUT BY RADIO BEACON STATIONS (Courtesy of U.S. Hydrographic Office.7 Beacon Ambrose Channel Sea G i r t Light S t a t i o n F i r e I s l a n d Light- vessel Diamond Shoals Light- vessel San Francisco Light- vessel Boston Light- vessel Nantucket Shoals L i g h t Cape Henry L i g h t - s t a t i o n Blunt s Reef Light- vessel Columbia River Light- vessel S w i f t s u r e Bank Light- vessel

One dash Three dashes Two dashes Two dashes Two dashes

Signal Characteristic 60 s e c s . on, 120 s e c s . o f f 60 s e c s . on, 120 secs. o f f 60 seos. on, 120 secs. o f ? 60 secs. on, 120 secs. off 60 secs. on, 120 secs. o f f 60 s e c s . on, 120 s e c s . o f f 60 s e c s . on, 120 s e c s . o f f 60 s e c s . on, 120 secs. o f f 60 s e c s . on, 120 s e c s . o f f 60 s e c s . ' o n , 120 s e c s . o f f 60 s e c s . on, 120 s e c s . o f f

One dash, one d o t Four dashes Two d o t s , one dash One dash Three dashes

TWO dashes

Figure 21 Lesson 69

s h e e t 33

TYPICAL DIRECTION FINDER CIRCUIT. I n Figure 22 i s a schematic diagram showing the g e n e r a l lay - out of the radio- frequency s e c t i o n of a t m i c a l d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r while above the diagram t h e r e i s a s k e t c h i n block diagram form which i l l u s t r a t e s t h e t r a i n of the c i r c u i t s from t h e loop and sense antenna t o the headphones, Note t h a t when t h e "SENSE-LINE" switch i s "up" a s i n t h e diagram, t h e s i g n a l c u r r e n t i n t h e v e r t i c a l wire antenna flows through the sense r e s i s t o r which causes the tuning t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y broadened s o a s t o e l i m i n a t e any p o s s i b i l i t y of a s i g n a l being passed by during t h e tuning operation. The c i r c u i t w show is a superheterodyne r e c e i v e r w i t h two r-f a m p l i f i e r s operae t i n g i n push- pull and a f i r s t d e t e c t o r coupled t o t h e o s c i l l a t o r c i r c u i t vrhile t h e remaining p o r t i o n s Consist of an intermediate- frequency o s c i l l a t o r , i n t e r mediate-freauency a m p l i f i e r s t a g e s , a 2nd o r audio d e t e c t o r and t h e audio amp l i f i e r which d e l i v e r s t h e s i g n a l t o t h e headphones. Note where the two tuning condensers a r e l o c a t e d , t h a t is, the one which tunes t h e loop t o the in coming s i g n a l frequency, and t h e o t h e r which tunes the o s c i l l a t o r t o a frequency e i t h e r a l i t t l e higher o r lower than t h e s i g n a l frequency t o provide the proper b e a t frequency. When CW s i g n a l s a r e picked-up t h e intermediate frequency o s c i l l a t o r i s placed I n o p e r a t i o n t o provide the r e q u i s i t e b e a t frequency. The loop condenser, t h e antenna tuning condenser, t h e r-f condenser, t h e o s c i l l a t o r condenser anil t h e variometer a r e a l l tuned simultaneously by means of a s i n g l e d i a l , while t h e b a l a n c e r is adjusted by a s e p a r a t e knob. The procedure f o r o- e r a t i n g a d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r of t h i s kind has a l r e a d y been explained. p
A
SENSE R N T E N N A

Figure 22

Lesson 69

- sheet 3

Figure 2 shows a typical marine 3 direction finder (RCA Model ER-1485-B) for deck mounting. Figure 24 illustrates the general arrangement of a Pioneer type direction finder for use on yachts and other small craft. EXAMINATION

- LESSON 69

Figure 24

(a) Name the essential component parts of a radio direction finder. ( b ) Explain what you know about the directional characteristics of a simple box type compass loop. If a single wire antenna is suitably connected with a regular compass loop circuit how does this effect the directional characteristics? Is a bearing taken on a weak or a loud signal or what should be the intensity of the signal at the moment the bearing is taken? Why? Why is a compensator necessary on a radio direction finder? What is meant by "bondingn and why should this be done? (a) In what general way is a Bellini-Tosi radio compa@s different from our latest type instruments? (b) In brief how does the Bellini-Tosi type function? What does a figure-of-eight pattern or diagram mean to you? Give some of the uses of a radio direction finder and explain about cross bearings and leading mark. Explain in a few words the meaning of (a) fix; (b) pelorus; (c) unilateral characteristic; (d) bilateral characteristic. Give a concise and complete description of how you would operate a standard type radio direction finder to obtain bearings. You should write the answer in your own words and without once referring back to your text on this subject. Lesson 6 9

sheet 35

-In many r e s p e c t e t h e a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t s used i n t h e r e c o r d i n g w e l l ' a$ i n t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f sound a r e s i m i l a r . 66 t h e amplif Used : i n ,liadio. Therefore, it can be s a i d 'that r a d i o r e s e a r c h and b ~ . & d i o ' a m p l i f i e r s and loudspeakers Xns had a n i m p o r t a n t b e a r i n :1;:&pid,,growthof t h e s o u n d motion p i c t u r e i n d u s t r y . A s long a s s &,Pptimi%sand r a d i o go hand i n hand, i n . t h i s r e s p e c t , it,,ls q u i s:av. t h a t a s t u d e n t who knows r a d i o c i r c u i t s i s i n a r bod ~ o s i t - &and. $be, fundamentals, of t h e . e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s us.gd -dint t .-:e:@wf.brifent. .',Henee. i t is b u t a s t e D f u r t h e r f o r o u r s t u d e n t s i - - - t = -e = d- i f f e r e n t typ& of l i g h t s o u r c s s , t h e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e d i s c type r e c o r d s , h , t h e method used t o p l a c e t h e sound t r a c k on f i l m s , and about t h e o t h e r gen-,
'

Each time your l i d s c l o s e you w i l l imagine you a r e s t i l l looking a t t h e c h a i r ; i n o t h e r words, i t doesn't seem t o you a s though the c h a i r had been c u t off from view. Of course, i f you wink slowly, and hold your eye l i d s closed too long you w i l l be conscious t h a t your v i s i o n has been i n t e r r u p t e d , and n a t u r a l l y the c h a i r w i l l disappear i n t e r m i t t e n t l y from view. Thus, you may c l o s e your eyes t o s h u t o u t s i g h t , b u t f o r a f r a c t i o n of a second a f t e r c l o s i n g them whatever you may have seen l a s t i s s t i l l impressed on your consciousness. This p r o p e r t y of t h e eye accounts f o r t h e b l u r t h a t appears whenever any o b j e c t i s passed r a p i d l y before your eyes, f o r instance a s when moving a s t i c k with a r a t h e r quick motion close t o your eyes. Following along t h i s same l i n e of thought i t is a m a t t e r of record t h a t many y e a r s ago it occurred t o a man who was observant and who could apply h i s i d e a s i n a p r a c t i c a l way t h a t i f a s e r i e s of p i c t u r e s , e x a c t l y a l i k e , were passed before t h e eyes a t such a r a t e t h a t each one succeeded t h e o t h e r b e f o r e t h e image of t h e l a s t one had died o u t , i t would appear a s though a l l of t h e p i c t u r e s were b u t a s i n g l e image, t h a t i s , they would blend together. He t r i e d i t and found t o h i s g r e a t s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a t t h i s i s e x a c t l y what happened, o r i n o t h e r words, a s i n g l e image r e s u l t e d from t h i s a c t i o n t h a t appeared a s b u t one p i c t u r e although i t was a c t u a l l y made up of many p i c t u r e s . He went f u r t h e r i n h i s experiment and msde a s e r i e s of p i c t u r e s of t h e same s u b j e c t but "in t h i s case he made each succeeding p i c t u r e s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from the one preceding i t so t h a t when t h e s e p i c t u r e s were passed b e f o r e t h e eye they gave t h e impression t h a t t h e s u b j e c t was a c t u a l l y moving, t h a t i s , t h e change from t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t i n t h e f i r s t p i c t u r e t o i t s p o s i t i o n i n t h e l a s t p i c t u r e gave t h i s e f f e c t . Although t h i s experiment r e s u l t e d i n producing a r a t h e r jerky motion and vas n o t a b i t n a t u r a l , y e t i t was thought t o be f a i r l y good a t t h a t time, inasmuch a s i t was only a novelty. You can r e a d i l y understand t h a t such a crude a r rangement has undergone a s t e a d y improvement t o provide t h e smooth motion of p i c t u r e s t h a t w see i n t h e movies today. Let us now g i v e a n i l l u s t r a t i o n e of how a s e r i e s of i n d i v i d u a l p i c t u r e s of a c e r t a i n o b j e c t can b e made t o app e a r a s continuous motion. For example, suppose you have one p i c t u r e w i t h a man's arm held near h i s w a i s t and a second p i c t u r e w i t h h i s a r m held a few inches higher, and a t h i r d p i c t u r e with h i s arm s t i l l a few inches higher and so on. Now, suppose t h i s s e r i e s of p i c t u r e s i s drawn on t h e blank pages of a book and a f t e r completing them you thumb the pages i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e p i c t u r e s p a s s r a p i d l y b e f o r e your eyes. When t h e pages a r e thumbed the e n t i r e s e r i e s of p i c t u r e s w i l l appear t o you a s though t h e man a c t u a l l y r a i s e d h i s arm. This i s t h e a c t i o n we r e f e r t o when we say, *we have seen moving p i c t u r e s w . A c t u a l l y w s e e nothing more t h a n a succession of s t i l l p i c t u r e s which r a p i d l y e p a s s before our eyes. I n t r y i n g t o e l i m i n a t e a l l j e r k i n e s s of t h e motion, e a r l y experimenters d i s covered t h a t if t h e number of s t i l l p i c t u r e s used t o convey a given a c t i o n were increased the whole a c t i o n would b e smoothed o u t and whatever w were e looking a t on the movie s c r e e n would be made more n a t u r a l and p l e a s i n g t o t h e eye. In a few words, t h e e n t i r e sequence of t h e a c t i o n i s divided up i n t o more Hence, we can say t h a t a l l motion p i c t u r e equipment i s operill p i c t u r e s . ed on the p r i n c i p l e t h a t p e r s i s t e n c e of v i s i o n lasts f o r a d e f i n i t e l e n g t h time and t h a t each new image o r p i c t u r e must b e p r e s e n t e d t o the eye b e f o r e s e n s a t i o n of the l a s t one has died o u t . This l e n g t h of time has been carel y f i g u r e d o u t by e n g i n e e r s of commercial motion p i c t u r e equipment and is They have determined t h a t a mated t o b e b u t a f r a c t i o n of a second.

Figure 2
Lesson 70
sheet 3

s a t i s f a c t o r y "moving p i c t u r e w can be obtained i f a f i l m i s run through t h e p r o j e c t o r of a machine a t a r a t e of approximately 90 f e e t p e r minute with about 1 6 s t i l l p i c t u r e s t o every f o o t O f the film. Thus, t h i s g i v e s us about s i x t e e n thousand s t i l l p i c t u r e s on an o r d i n a r y 1000 f o o t r e e l and, consequently, a l l present- day motion p i c t u r e s p r e s e n t approximately 24 s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n c t p i c t u r e s t o the eye every second. OPERBTION O A MOTION PICTURE CAMERA. The motion p i c t u r e camera is a F machine with o p t i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s i m i l a r t o those of an ordinarv s t i l l p i c t u r e camera such a s one you might own. The main d i f f e r e n c e betwgen them is t h e a b i l i t y of t h e motion p i c t u r e camera t o take a g r e a t many s e p a r a t e p i c t u r e s i n quick succession, each of which i s r e a l l y a n ordinary '.stilln picture I n Figure 2 you s e e a photograph of a commercial motion p i c t u r e camera. I n g e n e r a l i t can be s a i d t h a t ordinary p i c t u r e s , such a s those w a r e accustomed t o s e e i n movie f e a t u r e s , comedies, news r e e l s and so on, e a r e u s u a l l y taken a t t h e r a t e o f 24 t o the second and when reproduced the f i l m i s run through t h e camera a t t h e r a t e of 90 f t . p e r minute, a s a l r e a d y explained. I n t h e mechanical o p e r a t i o n of t a k i n g motion p i c t u r e s t h e f i l m i s fed i n t o the camera from a supply r e e l on top of t h e machine and during o p e r a t i o n i t is c o n t i n u a l l y being p u l l e d down by means of a claw arrangement so t h a t only one p i c t u r e , o r nframe" a s i t i s termed,is exposed a t any one time. Since t h e r e a r e I 6 s e p a r a t e p i c t u r e exposures o r frames on every f o o t of f i l m t h i s makes t h e h e i g h t of each i n d i v i d u a l p i c t u r e , o r t h e "up and down1' dimension,3/4 of an inch, while t h e width of each p i c t u r e o r frame is approximately 1 inch.

Then t h e camera man i s t a k i n g a p i c t u r e and you see him crank t h e machine the sequence of o p e r a t i o n of the motion p i c t u r e camera is as follows: A number of small t e e t h o r claws which f i t i n t o corresponding holes l o c a t e d bn each s i d e of the f i l m a r e worked by a wheel and dog arrangement which p u l l s down one frame of t h e f i l m i n f r o n t of t h e l e n s . While the f i l m i s being p u l l e d i n t o p l a c e t h e camera s h u t t e r is closed, b u t a s soon a s t h e f i l m s t o p s moving-or comes t o r e s t t h e s h u t t e r opens and the f i l m is exposed which permits the p i c t u r e t o b e taken and then the s h u t t e r c l o s e s again. After t h e s e a c t i o n s a r e completed and one p i c t u r e is taken t h e claws p u l l another frame of f i l m i n t o p l a c e b e f o r e t h e l e n s , and t h e s h u t t e r a g a i n opens, a p i c t u r e is taken, and t h e s h u t t e r c l o s e s . Thus, each time an unexposed p a r t of the f i l m i s brought b e f o r e t h e l e n s t h e same o p e r a t i o n is repeated and t h i s continues a t the r a t e of 24 exposures p e r second a s long a s t h e machine i s i n operation. The exposed f i l m r o l l s up on a wtake-up?qr e e l l o c a t e d on t h e top of t h e camera and a f t e r t h e r e e l i s compLetely exposed,or taken, i t i s s e n t t o the developing room. the machine f a s t e r which r e s u l t s i n taking the p i c t u r e s s e v e r a l times f a s t e r than the u s u a l r a t e of 24 p i c t u r e s p e r second. Such p i c t u r e s allow us t o watch o r study the motion of t h i n g s which occur too f a s t f o r our eyes t o s e e , such as the f l i g h t of a b u l l e t , f o r example. Then when such p i c t u r e s a r e p r o j e c t e d on t h e s c r e e n a t t h e normal r a t e of 24 p e r second the a c t u a l motion of t h e o b j e c t is "slowed downw t o a speed where t h e eye can more e a s i l y follow t h e a c t u a l movement of t h e subject,and a s i n t h e case of a b u l l e t i n f l i g h t we c l e a r l y s e e i t moving through space. There a r e o t h e r p i c t u r e s f r e q u e n t l y shown i n t h e movies where the o t h e r extreme i s encountered, t h a t i s , where o b j e c t s move too slowly t o be seen Lesson 70
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o know t h a t nslow motion n p i c t u r e s a r e taken by cranking

- sheet

i n t h e case of a flower blossoming o r the growth

TAKING PICTURES - "POSITIVEw AND TC3GATIVEw PRINTS. A motion p i c t u r e f i l m i s s i m i l a r t o the o r d i n a r y t m e f i l m used i n our s m a l l hand cameras insofar t h a t each type Consists of a - s e n s i t i z e d coating on a c e l l u l o i d film. Any f i l m , a f t e r i t i s exposed i n a csmera,becomes a "negativerr because the l i g h t and shadow e f f e c t s a r e r e v e r s e d Prom t h e i r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s . Hence, t o g e t a p i c t u r e which shows t h e proper r e l a t i o n of l i g h t and dark you must use the n e g a t i v e t o m k e a p o s i t i v e . This i s done by placing,an unexposed f i l m under t h e negative a n d , a f t e r t h e l i g h t i s allowed t o p a s s through,the f i l m is developed. p This i s e x a c t l y w h a t must be done i n making f f p o s i t i v e m r i n t s o r f i l m s from t h e "negative" and, of course, i n t h i s kind of work i t i s done on a b i g s c a l e . O a negative a l l white o b j e c t s appear a s b l a c k ones, and black o r dark o b j e c t s n appear t r a n s p a r e n t o r white. What we wish you t o understand i s t h a t a l l l i g h t and dark shades a r e r e v e r s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o each other. The drawing, i n Figure 3, of an enlarged motion p i c t u r e negative s u g g e s t s t h i s change. The man's face i n t h e p i c t u r e is black whereas it is white i n r e a l i t y and l i k e wise t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e o t h e r p a r t s is reversed.

Figure 3

Figure 4

If such a f i l m , a s i n Figure 3, with t'negativev p i c t u r e s on i t were run through a p r o j e c t o r and thrown on a s c r e e n a l l of t h e l i g h t and dark shades o r c o l o r tones would be r e v e r s e d and, t h e r e f o r e , we would have t h e p e c u l i a r r e s u l t where t h e f a c e of the man, although white, would appear black and s i m i l a r opposite e f f e c t s would be obtained. To o b t a i n the proper l i g h t and

Lesson 70

- sheet

shade r e l a t i o p r i n t s a s alr

To make a " p o s i t i v e n f i l m it i s necessary t o place t h e n e g a t i v e f i l m over an unexposed f i l m i n s u i t a b l e apparatus and allow a s t r o n g l i g h t t o p a s s through t h e negative and t o r e a c h t h e f i l m beneath which exposes the l a t t e r and a f t e r developing the f i l m we have a p o s i t i v e p r i n t . A l l " p o s i t i v e n p r i n t s o r f i l m s a r e made i n t h i s way. A f t e r they a r e c a r e f u l l y wound on r e e l s they a r e placed i n f i r e p r o o f metal c o n t a i n e r s ready f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t f i l m c e n t e r s throughout t h e country. From t h e following d e s c r i p t i o n of the a c t i o n of l i g h t on t h e emulsion w i t h which t h e f i l m i s coated you may f i g u r e out why a n e g a t i v e i s produced by t h e camera, t h a t i s , why white o b j e c t s a r e black and v i c e v e r s a on t h e o r i g i n a l f i l m , and why a f t e r p r i n t i n g from a negative we g e t a p o s i t i v e , o r a f i l m which g i v e s t h e l i g h t and shade i n t h e i r proper r e l a t i o n s . Remember t h a t an unexposed photographic f i l m is always t h e same; it is made by c o a t i n g oze s i d e of a t r a n s p a r e n t g e l a t i n e with a s o l u t i o n of s i l v e r s a l t s . When l i g h t s t r i k e s t h i s coating and i t i s a c t e d upon l a t e r by t h e chemicals of t h e developer l i q u i d , i t causes t h e s i l v e r s a l t s t o change i n t o m e t a l l i c s i l v e r . The p a r t of the f i l m t h a t i s n o t s t r u c k b y the l i g h t remains j u s t s i l v e r s a l t s . I n t h e process of development and f i x i n g i n t h e dark room t h e p a r t of the emulsion t h a t has been changed t o m e t a l l i c s i l v e r remains and t h e p a r t t h a t i s s t i l l s i l v e r s a l t s i s washed away l e a v i n g t h a t p a r t of t h e f i l m t r a n s p a r e n t . From t h e foregoing i t is easy t o f i g u r e o u t what happens i n t h e making of both a negative and a p o s i t i v e f i l m . I n review i t can be s a i d t h a t t h e " taking" of motion p i c t u r e s i s merely a process of taking 24 s t i l l p i c t u r e s every second while t h e camera is t r a i n e d on t h e s u b j e c t and, hence, each i n d i v i d u a l p i c t u r e r e c o r d s a d i f f e r e n t pos i t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t providing i t i s moving. Thus, when a scene o r a c t i o n i s taken on a 1000 f t . r e e l we have t h e a c t i o n broken up i n t o p a r t s , each taken a t i n t e r v a l s of 1/24th of a second so t h a t a 1000 f t . f i l m w i l l g i v e 16,000 s e p a r a t e p i c t u r e s of t h a t a c t i o n . I n t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e s e p i c t u r e s we must r e v e r s e t h e p r o c e s s and throw 16,000 p i c t u r e s onto t h e screen; each p i c t u r e w i l l follow t h e o t h e r a t t h e r a t e of 24 p e r second. This causes t h e p i c t u r e s t o blend i n t o continuous a c t i o n and we have t h e i l l u s i o n of motion a l l because of our p e r s i s t e n c e of v i s i o n . The apparatus t h a t has been aeveloped f o r p r o j e c t i n g t h e s e p i c t u r e s i s v e r y ingenious and i n t e r e s t i n g t o s t u d y about. The following is a simple d e s c r i p t i o n of a motion p i c t u r e p r o j e c t o r . I t i s an a p p a r a t u s t h a t c o n s i s t s of a source of l i g h t of h i g h i n t e n s i t y , a device f o r p l a c i n g 24 p i c t u r e s p e r second between the l i g h t and t h e s c r e e n , a method of c u t t i n g o f f t h e l i g h t while t h e f i l m i s moving i n t o p l a c e , and a l e n s system t o b r i n g t h e image t o a focus on Lesson 70

- sheet

t h e screen. Of course, t h e f i l m must be fed i n from a magazine on top and taken up by a magazine a f t e r i t has passed through t h e machine. Figure 5 i s a photograph of a r e c e n t type motion p i c t u r e p r o j e c t o r .

The a r c i s used as t h e source of the high i n t e n s i t y l i g h t required i n modern p r o j e c t o r s . I n g e n e r a l t h e r e a r e t h r e e c l a s s e s Of a r c lamps which you w i l l encounter i n your study of t h i s s u b j e c t . They a r e t b e h i g h - i n t e n s i t y lamp, t h e h i g h - i n t e n s i t y The h i g h - i n t e n s i t y r e f l e c t o r lamp, and t h e l o w - i n t e n s i t y r e f l e c t o r lamp. a r c lamp is recognized as t h e most powerful l i g h t source a v a i l a b l e f o r motion p i c t u r e p r o j e c t i o n and r e q u i r e s t h e use of s p e c i a l carbons f o r working e f f i c i e n t l y under t h e t e r r i f i c h e a t produced. The carbon forming t h e f 7 p o s i t i v e w e l e c t r o d e has a l a r g e c o r e composed O f m e t a l l i c s a l t mhich,when used with the proper "negative" carbon i n t h e c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n , b u r n s r a p i d l y and forms a deep c r a t e r which gives o u t a highly luminous gas. I n o r d e r t o vaporize t h e carbon and generate gas an extremely high temperature is r e q u i r e d and t h i s i s what g i v e s us t h e g r e a t l i g h t i n t e n s i t y from t h i s type of lamp. For t h i s reason a lamp of t h i s kind r e q u i r e s more frequent adjustments and renewal of c e r t a i n p a r t s than o t h e r types,but t o o f f s e t t h i s disadvantage s u p e r i o r s c r e e n r e s u l t s a r e claimed f o r i t . This type of a r c lamp is r a t e d a t from 70 t o 125 amperes and w i l l operate only from a 110 v o l t d-c power c i r c u i t . I n the case
SOURCE O LIGHT USED I N A MOTION PICTURE C A M E F A F

Lesson 70

- sheet 7

of t h e h i g h - i n t e n s i t y r e f l e c t o r type a r c lamp which a l s o o p e r a t e s from a 110 v o l t d-c power source and has a capacity of 80 amperes, i t is claimed t h a t more i l l u m i n a t i o n may be obtained Prom such a lamp w i t h a c u r r e n t of o n l y 65 amperes than from an ordinary a r c lamp when u s i n g up t o 160 amperes. The t h i r d type of lamp, O r t h e low- intensity r e f l e c t o r lamp, is b e s t s u i t e d f o r use i n t h e a t e r s where the "throw" o r d i s t a n c e between the p r o j e c t i o n machine and t h e screen i s r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t . This type has a c a p a c i t y of 30 amperes a t 110 v o l t s d-c. Figure 6 r e p r e s e n t s a lamphouse with t h e dotted l i n e s i n d i c a t i n g the course of the l i g h t r a y s t o the a p e r t u r e .
PARABOLIC REFLECTOR ARC L!GHT SOURCE PLANO-CONVEX LENS PICTURE APERTURE

L.'/
1 I

NEGAT I VE

ARBO ON

,' ,
LAM$ H O U S E

P O S I T ~ EC A R B O N

P I C T U R E ' H EAD

/,*\,-

FILM

Figure 6
I t i s necessary t o provide a s u i t a b l e r h e o s t a t with a lamp of any type t o c o n t r o l t h e c u r r e n t supply; t h e r h e o s t a t should be capable of s a f e l y c a r r y ing the maximum c u r r e n t taken by the lamp s e l e c t e d . If t h i s equipment is i n s t a l l e d i n a p l a c e where only a-c i s a v a i l a b l e it w i l l be necessary t o prov i d e s u i t a b l e converting equipment f o r changing t h e a-c t o d-c f o r t h e lamp supply. A motor-generator s e t having a 150 t o 300 ampere-hour capacity i s r e q u i r e d with two h i g h - i n t e n s i t y lamps while a s e t having a c a p a c i t y of Prom 30 t o 60 amperes i s r e q u i r e d f o r a h i g h - i n t e n s i t y r e f l e c t o r lamp. Generators designed and b u i l t e s p e c i a l l y f o r a r c supply a r e r a t e d a t t h e lower value and a r e a b l e t o c a r r y a 100% overload f o r a s h o r t period of time which permits t h e burning of both a r c s a t changeover. It should be noted t h a t t h e low- intensity type lamp may be operated w i t h a tungar r e c t i f i e r which has a c u r r e n t output of 30 amperes; eaoh lamp must be provided with a s e p a r a t e r e c t i f i e r and rheostat to control the current. I n r a r e instances a l t e r n a t i n g current a r c s may be encountered, b u t t h e i r use i s g e n e r a l l y discouraged because they a r e a p t t o cause considerable hum i n t e r f e r e n c e .

I n order that the i n d i v i d u a l v i c t u r e s o r frames mau be p u l l e d quickly i n t o p l a c e t o permit t h e l i g h t of th; a r c t o p a s s through- themand through t h e l e n s a device known a s t h e " i n t e r m i t t e n t movement* i s used. This device i s a c r o s s and cam a r rangement t h a t s e r v e s t o p u l l t h e f i l m i n quick movements i n f r o n t of t h e l i g h t source. The l e n g t h of p u l l i s e x a c t l y one frame and t h e a c t i o n i s s o r e g u l a t e d t h a t each frame i s p u l l e d i n t o p l a c e and remains t h e r e f o r a f r a c t i o n of a second while t h e l i g h t of t h e a r c passes through. The frame i s then p u l l e d out of p l a c e and t h e next p i c t u r e o r frame is p u l l e d i n t o p l a c e and t h e same a c t i o n i s repeated over and over again as long a s t h e machine i s running. This r e s u l t s i n the e n t i r e r e e l of f i l m p a s s i n g b e f o r e the l i g h t Lesson 70

HOW THE wJ%AKESv OR wPIC'l?URFSn ARE PULLED INTO PLACE.

- sheet

her words, each Individual picture n front of the light source for a certain length of time before it sked away and replaced by the following picture. If the light were allowed to pass through the film or through a picture while it is in motion, a blurry effect would be produced on the movie screen, as you no doubt have occasionally seen in the movies. This blur is known as the "travel ghostw and is seen as vertical lines racing from topto bottom on the screen. To prevent this blurry effect, all projectors are equipped with what is known as a "flicker shutter", which is an arrangement something like a fan blade that is placed either before or after the film and lens, depending upon the type of projector. This flicker shutter is directly connected to the mechanism which drives the projector and works in synchronism with the motion of the film through the machine. It is important that the flicker shutter work in synchronismwith the film travel because the film must be at rest between the time a frame is pulled into place and out of place and the blade therefore should not cut off the light source while each picture or frame is being thrown on the screen. It is obvious,then,that if the flicker shutter does not work in synchronism with the film movement for any reason, the movement of the film, that is, a "travel ghost", will be seen un the screen. Since the full brilliancy of the arc is concentrated on a small opening (approximately 3/4" x 1" in size) where the film passes before the light source, a large amount of heat is produced at this point and the film is subjected to this heat as it passes the opening or window. As long as the film continues to pass by this small opening at a rate which is sufficient to keep any part of it from being in the heat area too long it will not catch fire. However, if the film should be run through the machine at too slow a rate or stop altogether, then the intense heat would be applied to that part of the film in the frame. This would cause it to burst into flame almost immediately. To guard against such a possibility a fire shutter is provided that remains open as long as the film is moving past the framing window at a speed sufficient to keep it from catching fire, but if the speed is reduced below a certain point,or if the machine stops, the fire shutter will then close automatically. The fire shutter is operated by a centrifugal governor that opens out when the speed is up to a certain point, operating a lever that raises the small metal fire shutter. In addition to this automatic fire shutter there is a hand-operated shutter arrangement on the lamp house, called a t'douser", that cuts off the light from the arc to the projector head. The driving gears of the projector head are especially designed for quiet operation and are accurately machined to reduce back lash to a minimum. There is a gear driving the sprocket wheel that engages the sprocket holes in the film and which is arranged to pull the film from the top,or feed magazine and feed it to the intermittent sprocket wheel as already explained. From there the film goes to the lower or "hold backv sprocket wheel that feeds the film down to the take-up reel at a constant rate, thus taking up the film that has already passed through the machine. Short lengths of film of a specified number of sprocket holes are left between each sprocket wheel and these form short loops, this being necessary so that no strain may come on the film due to broken sprocket holes in the film,or from other causes. Then there Is another consideration. The ''intermittent" mechanism in its action of pulling the film down, Pour sprocket holes at a time, must a0t be pulling against anything that would offer resistance to the movement of the film. Hence, if the film were pulled directly from the full reel, it would tend to cause the sprocket holes in the film to be torn,or worn away t o o rapidly, thus reducing the life of the film. Therefore, the feed sprocket keeps a constant supply

d maintains a loop of f i l m t h a t the i n t e r m i t t e n t motion may drax upon. I t can be seen t h a t s i n c e the l i g h t of t h e a r c passing through the f i l m window is 3/4" x l", or. t h e same s i z e a s each p i c t u r e o r frame, then each i n d i v i d u a l p i c t u r e must be placed e x a c t l y i n f r o n t of the opening, o r e l s e the upper and lower p a r t s of two a d j o i n i n g p i c t u r e s w i l l b e seen on the screen a t t h e same time. This can be avoided by p r o p e r l y framing an i n d i v i d u a l p i c t u r e i n t h e opening when f i r s t s t a r t i n g a r e e l . However, i f a sprocket hole i n t h e f i l m i s t o r n t h e sprocket wheels w i l l m i s s and t h e p i c t u r e w i l l be one sprocket hole o u t of the frame, which w i l l cause t h r e e q u a r t e r s of one p i c t u r e and one q u a r t e r of t h e next t o be shown a t t h e same time. A l l p r o j e c t o r s a r e provided with a frame dev i c e s o t h a t t h e o p e r a t o r , by turning a framing handle, may move the p i c t u r e e i t h e r up o r down i n t h e frame while the machine is running. This j?rovides a means f o r framing t h e p i c t u r e p e r f e c t l y .

The g l a s s - f r o n t o i l w e l l which i s supplied with a p r o j e c t o r should be k e p t f i l l e d with o i l t o t h e i n d i c a t i n g l i n e and,also,any p a r t s which r e q u i r e o i l and a r e n o t fed from t h e o i l w e l l must be given f r e q u e n t a t t e n t i o n and esp e c i a l l y the i n t e r m i t t e n t motion mechanism must be c a r e f u l l y looked a f t e r . ~ l t h e p a r t s of the p r o j e c t o r should be kept scrupuously c l e a n and the o i l l i n g should be done c a r e f u l l y i n order t o keep o i l from g e t t i n g on t h e f i l m while i t i s running through the machine. O i l on the sound t r a c k may r e s u l t i n u n s a t i s f a c t o r y sound production because t h e o i l would tend t o vary t h e d e n s i t y of the t r a c k i n plaoes. Furthermore, o i l on the f i l m would cause it t o g a t h e r d i r t which would p i l e up i n t h e sound g a t e and perhaps throw t h e f i l m o u t of i t s proper p o s i t i o n f o r a c c u r a t e focus.

Figure 7

s seen a Powers p r o j e c t o r with the f i l m threaded i n t o p l a c e 71i t h t h e ~ i c t u r e a t e "Fn ooen. The u w e r feed sorocket marked *An ~ u l l s g the f i i m A f r o mthe upper r e e l and f e e d s - i t t o t h e - p i c t u r e hea8; " ~ " - i sh e i d l e r t r o l l e r which s e r v e s t o keep t h e sprocket h o l e s i n t h e f i l m pressed down over t h e sprocket t e e t h ; "C" i n d i c a t e s a s i n g l e p i c t u r e o r "frame n d i r e c t l y beLesson 70

s h e e t 10

"En i s the i n t e r m i t t e n t s t h e lower feed sprocket

TaE PHONOGRAPH
857 Leon S c o t t , a Frenchman, recorded sound f o r t h e f i r s t time w i t h a c e whioh he c a l l e d t h e "phone-audiograph". This d e v i c e c o n s i s t e d of a rm-driven drum covered w i t h smoked paper, a diaphram, a s t y l u s o r s o - c a l l e d e d l e and a system of l e v e r s designed t o g i v e a l a t e r a l movement t o t h e t y l u s and a l s o t h e n e c e s s a r y equipment f o r mounting t h e p a r t s . The mechanical o p e r a t i o n of t h i s r e c o r d e r was as follows: The v o i c e waves o r a i r waves which c a r r i e d t h e sound would s t r i k e t h e diaphragm and cause i t t o move i n accordance w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r sound v i b r a t i o n s and t h e diaphragm being connected t o t h e l e v e r s would i n t u r n cause t h e s t y l u s t o move l a t e r a l l y a c r o s s t h e smoked paper placed over t h e moving drum and, hence, t h e s t y l u s s c r a t c h e d an i r r e g u l a r shaped l i n e i n t h e t h i n l a y e r of carbon t h a t coated t h e paper. Thus, by t h e i r r e g u l a r l i n e s c r a t c h e d on the smoked paper one could s e e t h e wave form o r shape of t h e sound v i b r a t i o n s ; b u t t h i s e a r l y r e c o r d of sound waves could n o t be reproduced.

I n 1877 Edison invented t h e f i r s t sound r e c o r d i n g and reproducing equipment which he named t h e "phonograph n . I n some ways i t w a s s i m i l a r t o S c o t t ' s i n v e n t i o n except f o r two r a d i c a l changes. I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e Edison used heavy t i n f o i l i n p l a c e of t h e smoked paper and secondly he used a v e r t i c a l s t y l u s movement i n s t e a d o f ' a l a t e r a l one. These changes p e r m i t t e d t h e r e c o r d s produced by t h e wphonographwr e c o r d i n g machine t o be reproduced. It is intere s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t our modern phonograph r e c o r d s a r e n o t made of t i n f o i l b u t of a composition of lampblack and s h e l l a c .
Edison used t h e " h i l l and d a l e " method of r e c o r d i n g on h i s machine which means t h a t the sound impressions were made on a c y l i n d e r i n s t e a d of a d i s c . The c y l i n d e r type r e c o r d gave v e r y f i n e peaks and d e p r e s s i o n s around t h e grooves o r c i r c l e s which were followed by t h e s t y l u s ( n e e d l e ) of t h e reprod u c e r and t h i s improved t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n , making i t more n a t u r a l . The r e producer i n t h i s machine was c o n s t r u c t e d so t h a t t h e diaphragm was on a p l a n e w i t h t h e l o n g i t u d e of t h e c y l i n d e r which r e s u l t e d i n t h e diaphragm v i b r a i n g i n a manner corresponding t o t h e " h i l l s and d a l e s " i n t h e groove.
!

j
I

'
I

The method employed i n r e c o r d i n g on our present- day f l a t type d i s c s is known a s t h e " t r a n s v e r s e " c u t because t h e recording diaphragm i s on a p l a n e a t r i g h t a n g l e s , o r n e a r l y s o , w i t h t h e f l a t s u r f a c e on which t h e c u t t i n g s t y l u s r e s t s . I n F i g u r e 8 is shown t h e r e c o r d i n g mechanism and t h e metal t u r n t a b l e of a d i s c type r e c o r d e r . This f i g u r e shows a d i s c r e c o r d i n g machine used i n R.C.A. Photophone equipment.V&en i n use t h e l a r g e c i r c u l a r m e t a l p l a t e holds a wax A s t h e wax is r o t a t e d t h e blank which has a h i g h l y p o l i s h e d f l a t s u r f a c e . c u t t e r , w h i c h is shown d i r e c t l y above,cuts a groove i n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e wax i n t h e r e c o r d i n g process t h e according t o t h e sound r a v e s b e i n g recorded. u s u a l procedure i s t o u s e a d i s c which looks l i k e a wax d i s c ; i t c o n s i s t s of a m e t a l l i c soap t o which s m a l l anounts of v a r i o u s substances have been added This disc,which i s from 1 t o 2 inches t h i c k and from t o improve t h e t e x t u r e . 13 t o 1 7 inches i n d i a m e t e r , i s shaved t o a h i g h l y p o l i s h e d s u r f a c e on a l a t h e and when i t i s t o be used f o r r e c o r d i n g it i s p l a c e d i n the r e c o r d i n g machine which i s e s s e n t i a l l y a h i g h grade l a t h e . This machine r o t a t e s t h e wax d i s c a t a very uniform speed and i n a d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n t o the p i c t u r e f i l m w i t h Lesson 70

sheet 1 1

Lesson 70

- sheet

which t h e sounds a r e b e i n g synchronized. The r e c o r d e r , with i t s c u t t i n g t o o l , moves r a d i a l l y a c r o s s t h e s u r f a c e O f t h e d i s c from t h e i n s i d e t o t h e o u t s i d e of t h e d i s c . T i t h o r d i n a r y phonograph r e c o r d s t h e r e c o r d i n g i s done i n t h e r e v e r s e o r d e r , t h a t i s , from t h e o u t s i d e t o t h e i n s i d e of t h e d i s c . I f t h e r e is no sound b e i n g recorded t h e c u t t i n g s t y l u s c u t s a t r u e s p i r a l groove i n t h e wax and when sound i s b e i n g recorded t h e armature of t h e c u t t i n g p o i n t does n o t f o l l o w t h e t r u e s p i r a l b u t moves from s i d e t o s i d e i n accordance w i t h t h e number of sound v i b r a t i o n s being impressed upon t h e r e c o r d e r by t h e v a r y i n g c u r r e n t i n t h e microphone. Of c o u r s e , t h e number of v i b r a t i o n s p e r second c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e frequency of t h e v o i c e o r music s t r i k i n g t h e microphone diaphragm. When a r e c o r d i n g i s f i n i s h e d t h e wax r e c o r d c o n t a i n s w i t h i n i t s grooves t h e complete r e c o r d of t h e sound waves t h a t were impinged on t h e microphone diaphragm. Since a wax d i s c is t o o s o f t t o permit i t s b e i n g used f o r r e p r o d u c t i o n , ~hich might damage t h e f i n e groove impressions, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o make c o p i e s of t h e wax r e c o r d on m e t a l l i c d i e s . The m e t a l l i c d i e s a r e hard enough t o withstend t h e wear and t e a r t h a t comes d u r i n g t h e p r e s s i n g of t h e grooves i n t h e r e c o r d s of h a r d e r m a t e r i a l . To make a copy of a f i r s t r e c o r d i n g on wax, t h e wax r e c o r d is dusted with g r a p h i t e which f u r n i s h e s an e l e c t r i c a l l y conductive s u r f a c e on which m e t a l c o a t i n g i s e l e c t r o p l a t e d , t h e metal c o a t i n g b e i n g a p e r f e c t copy of t h e impressions recorded i n t h e wax. From t h i s e l e c t r o p l a t e , which is c a l l e d a " negative" , t h e r e is a n o t h e r e l e c t r o p l a t e made which i s a " p o s i t i v e " . The l a t t e r p r o v i d e s a s t i l l h a r d e r m e t a l l i c d i e from which a r e p r e s s e d t h e a c t u a l f i n i s h e d composition r e c o r d s t h a t a r e s u p p l i e d t o t h e t r a d e ; t h e p r e s s i n g . p r o c e s s i s done while t h e lampb l a c k and s h e l l a c colnposition is i n a h o t and s o f t e n e d s t a t e .

I t is f a i r l y easy t o s e e t h a t i f a f i n i s h e d composition r e c o r d i s revolved on a t u r n t a b l e and a n e e d l e , a t t a c h e d t o a diaphragm, i s allowed t o t r a c e i t s way through t h e grooves, t h e needle v i b r a t e s from s i d e t o s i d e i n accordance w i t h t h e v i b r a t i o n s o r i g i n a l l y c u t i n t h e max groove. W a l l know e t h a t a phonograph w i l l reproduce t h e sounds t h a t o r i g i n a l l y e n t e r e d i n t o t h e o making of t h e r e c o r d when a s u i t a b l e reproducing device i s used. N w we w i l l e x p l a i n about t h e e l e c t r i c a l a c t i o n s involved i n t h e reproducing of sound from our f i n i s h e d composition r e c o r d . I f i n s t e a d o f a t t a c h i n g a phonograph n e e d l e t o t h e u s u a l t y p e of diaphragm employed i n reproducing sound d i r e c t l y from a r e c o r d we a t t a c h t h e needle t o an armature t h a t w i l l , when i t v i b r a t e s , cause s m a l l c u r r e n t s t o be induced i n t h e armature c o i l , we then g e t i n t h e armature c i r c u i t , c a l l e d t h e "pick- up n c i r c u i t , a varyAng c u r r e n t whose f r e quency and wave form w i l l be a n e x a c t copy of t h e v o i c e o r sound waves t h a t e n t e r e d t h e microphone d u r i n g t h e o r i g i n a l r e c o r d i n g .
I n t h i s para$raph we w i l l go through a complete t r a i n of o p e r a t i o n s t h a t t a k e p l a c e from t h e time sound waves a r e d i r e c t e d toward a.microphone d i a phragm d u r i n g a r e c o r d i n g , u n t i l t h i s sound energy, o r a c o u s t i c e n e r g y , i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o impressions i n t h e grooves of a r e c o r d which is t o be used l a t e r f o r t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n i n sound p l c t u r e equipment. Let u s consider t h e c a s e of v o i c e r e c o r d i n g . Here t h e l u n g s f o r c e a i r p a s t t h e v o c a l cords which v i b r a t e a t c e r t a i n f r e q u e n c i e s a n d , t o t a k e a s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e , l e t u s assume t h a t t h e person doing t h e r e c o r d i n g s i n g s a n o t e which corresponds t o a frequency of 256 c y c l e s , o r middle "(3" of t h e m u s i c a l s c a l e . The vocal cords t r a n s m i t t h e i r v i b r a t i o n s t o t h e a i r and a i r waves c a r r y them t o t h e diaphragm of t h e microphone. When t h e diaphragm i s a c t e d upon by t h e waves i t a l s o v i b r a t e s a t t h e same frequency,or a t a r a t e of 256 times p e r second which i n t u r n s e t s up p u l s a t i o n s of c u r r e n t a l s o of t h e same frequency i n Lesson 70

- s h e e t 13

t h e e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t a t t a c h e d t o the microphone. This c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of the microphone, b a t t e r y and t h e coupling r e s i s t o r u n i t used t o convey the p u l s a t i n g c u r r e n t t o the g r i d of the f i r s t a m p l i f i e r tube, t h e p u l s a t i o n s being i n t h e form of an a l t e r n a t i n g v o l t a g e impressed on t h e g r i d . A f t e r s e v e r a l s t a g e s e of a m p i i f i c a t i o n it b u i l d s up i n s t r e n g t h o r i n t e n s i t y u n t i l f i n a l l y w g e t an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t from t h e output of the a m p l i f i e r sys tem t h a t i s s u i t a b l e f o r feeding i n t o t h e c o i l of a movable armature t o which a c u t t i n g s t y l u s i s attached. Hence, when t h i s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , which r e p r e s e n t s the n o t e " C W and v a r i e s a t a frequency of 256 c y c l e s , flows i n t h e c o i l the s t y l u s w i l l v i b r a t e a t the same frequency and the c u t t e r w i l l i n s c r i b e a wave form of t h a t frequency i n t h e groove t h a t i s being c u t i n the wax by the r e c o r d e r . This apparatus i n form is somewhat l i k e a r e g u l a r "pick-up" used i n connection w i t h reproducing sound but the operations a r e reversed i n order t o make t h e imp r e s s i o n s on the wax. The sound record is now i n wax form. After t h i s s t e ? m e t a l l i c r e c o r d s a r e made from t h e wax record and the r e g u l a r r e c o r d s furnished t o t h e t r a d e a r e made from t h e m e t a l l i c ones a s a l r e a d y exp l a i n e d . From t h i s p o i n t on w d e a l with reproduction. N w then,when t h e e o needle of a reproducer r u n s along the grooves formed i n a f i n i s h e d r e c o r d , it i s pushed from s i d e t o s i d e a c e r t a i n amount according t o the p a r t i c u l a r wave form cut i n t h e groove and, t h e r e f o r e , i f t h i s motion was occuring a t a f r e quency of 256 c y c l e s , a s i t would be i f n o t e "CW were recorded i n t h e groove, t h e motion would i n t u r n b e imparted t o t h e armature of t h e pick-up. This would cause a changing magnetic f l u x t o a c t upon t h e t u r n s i n the c o i l with the r e s u l t t h a t a small v a l u e of a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t would be generated i n t h e c o i l . A f t e r t h e f e e b l e generated c u r r e n t is amplified s e v e r a l m i l l i o n times i n passing through the a m p l i f i e r system, i t s l e v e l i s r a i s e d sufficiently t o a c t u a t e t h e voice c o i l of a loudspeaker t o which i s a t t a c h e d a parchment diaphragm. Due t o i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n and p o s i t i o n t h e voice c o i l , a s it v i b r a t e s back and f o r t h a t a frequency of 256 cycles, s e t s t h e diaphragm i n t o motion and moves t h e surrounding a i r . This produces a i r waves. These a i r waves a r e of t h e same frequency a s t h e o r i g i n a l sound a i r waves impressed on the microphone a t the f i r s t recording, and i f they r e g i s t e r note "C", a s w assumed f o r the e sake of explanation, t h e eardrum which is another form of diaphragm w i l l p i c k up these waves and w g e t t h e s e n s a t i o n of a musical note. e

I t should be c l e a r by now t h a t i f a scene on a motion p i c t u r e s t u d i o s t a g e were being photographed a t t h e same time t h a t the sound was being recorded on the record, and i f l a t e r ( i n t h e t h e a t e r ) t h e r e s u l t i n g p i c t u r e were projected on the screen a t t h e same time t h a t a record was being played through t h e loudspeakers i n s t a l l e d i n back of t h e s c r e e n , t h e combination of sound and p i c t u r e s would g i v e u s t h e i l l u s i o n of t a l k i n g p i c t u r e s , o r sound motion p i c t u r e s which mean t h e same thing. Figure 9 shows successive s t e p s i n conv e r t i n g the o r i g i n a l sound back t o the reproduced sound i n d i s c recording.
SOUND MECYANICAL MOTION ,AMPLIFIED 10,004000TlMES SOUND

ELECTRIC

ELECTRIC CURRENT

MECHANICAL MOTION

SOFT WAX POSITIVE

MASTER NEGATIVE

MOTHER POSITIVE

STAMPER NEGATIVE

HARD RECORD POSITIVE

Figure 9

Lesson 70

sheet

i t s e l f , t h e camera and t h e sound recorder a r e r u n a t a uniform and i d e n t i c a l speed by synchronous motors t h a t o b t a i n t h e i r power from t h e same source. The camera functions i d e n t i c a l l y a s explained f o r t h e "sound-on-disk w type b u t the amplified microphone Output Operates d i f f e r e n t l y , f o r i n s t e a d of bei n g f e d t o a d i s k c u t t i n g s t y l u s , the microphone o u t p u t i s used t o c o n t r o l a l i g h t source t h a t v a r i e s i n i t s i n t e n s i t y according t o the v a r i a t i o n s of t h e voice c u r r e n t s coming from t h e microphone. There a r e two s y s t e m of nsound-on-filmn recording i n wide use. One Is t h e R . C . A . Photophone and t h e o t h e r is t h e Novietone, sponsored by the sound-on-film recorder. Western E l e c t r i c Co. Figure 10 shows the R.C.A.

I n t h e making of t a l k i n g p i c t u r e s which have t h e sound t r a c k s on t h e f i l m

Lesson 70

- s h e e t 15

Figure 1 i s a photograph of a Western E l e c t r i c sound-on-film recorder. 1

Figure 1 1 The R.C.A. Photophone u s e s t h e so- called v a r i a b l e a r e a method, i n which a " p o s i t i v e " motion p i c t u r e f i l m i s run through t h e r e c o r d i n g mechanism a t a c o n s t a n t speed i n synchronism w i t h the f i l m p a s s i n g through t h e camera. The f i l m i s exposed t o a l i g h t source while passing chrough t h e recording mechanism which produces a s p o t of l i g h t approximately .OOll' i n width and varyi n g i n l e n g t h , t h e maximum being .070n f o r a standard sound t r a c k . Since t h e l z n g t h , o r amplitude of t r a v e l of the l i g h t beam is a t r i g h t angles t o e t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion of the f i l m , w have a band o r a r e a of f i l m exposed. The power f o r moving t h e f i l m p a s t t h e o p t i c a l system i s supplied by a synchronous motor from t h e same power source which s u p a l i e s t h e camera motor as j u s t mentioned. The s p o t of l i g h t which exposes t h e f i l m is produced by a l i g h t source g a l vanometer and o p t i c a l system. The galvanometer c o n s i s t s of a v i b r a t o r , made of two small s t r i p s of metal on which a small m i r r o r is mounted and, a l s o , a permanent magnet which s u p p l i e s a s t r o n g magnetic f i e l d d i r e c t l y through the two s t r i p s on the v i b r a t o r . When an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t from t h e r e c o r d e r a m p l i f i e r p a s s e s through these s t r i p s , they w i l l move and cause t h e mirror t o v i b r a t e i n sympathy with t h e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t changes. The m i r r o r r e f l e c t s the l i g h t from a s p e c i a l e l e c t r i c lamp i n t h e o p t i c a l system, composed of l e n s e s and a s m a l l a p e r t u r e o r s l i t . A s t h e mirror v i b r a t e s , a v i b r a t i n g s p o t of r e f l e c t e d l i g h t i s focused i n t o t h e o p t i c a l Lesson 70

sheet 1 6

The o p t i c a l system, covering more o r l e s s of the a p e r t u r e a s it v i b r a t e s . system focuses t h i s r e s u l t i n g s p o t on the film. The e s s e n t i a l p a r t s of the o p t i c a l system a r e shown i n Figure 1 3 .

Figure 12 Lesson 70

- sheet 1 7

Refer a g a i n t o Figure 1 2 showing a n R.C.A. Photophone sound-on-film r e c o r d e r . This photograph shows t h a t t h e f i l m p a s s e s from one magazine through t h e f i l m d r i v i n g mechanism (shown with t h e door open) i n t o t h e o t h e r magazine. L i g h t from a n e x c i t e r lamp(under t h e c o n i c a l hood) s t r i k e s t h e v i b r a t i n g m i r r o r of t h e o s c i l l o g r a p h ( a t t h e r i g h t ) and is r e f l e c t e d back t o t h e f i l m by t h e l e n s system ( i n t h e c e n t e r f r o n t of the photograph). The m i r r o r v i b r a t e s i n synchronism with t h e sound b e i n g recorded. The o p e r a t i o n i n d e t a i l of t h e system, i n F i g u r e 13, i s a s follows: L i g h t from t h e prefocused exposure lamp L i s focused by l e n s C 1 on m i r r o r M through t h e l i g h t s t o p S l a n d through t h e l e n s C 2 which i s i n t h e galvanometer case. I t is r e f l e c t e d from M through C2 t o t h e c y l i n d r i c a l l e n s CL which f o c u s e s t h e l i g h t through C 3 on t h e a p e r t u r e A . Lens C 2 s e r v e s t o f o c u s t h e edge of t h e l i g h t s t o p $2 on t h e a p e r t u r e A. Lens C3 s e r v e s a s a condenser t o f o c u s t h e l i g h t through s l i t A on t h e o b j e c t i v e 0. The microscope o b j e c t i v e 0 f o c u s e s t h e l i g h t coming through a p e r t u r e A upon t h e f i l m w i t h a r e d u c t i o n r a t i o of f o u r t o one. I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a s h a r p f o c u s on t h e f i l m , a viewi n g s c r e e n PS i s p l a c e d between a p e r t u r e A and t h e f i l m which allows t h e image on the f i l m t o be observed while t h e o b j e c t i v e i s moved back and f o r t h d u r i n g t h e f o c u s i n g adjustment. When a d j u s t e d p r o p e r l y , m i r r o r M is r o t a t e d so t h a t t h e l i g h t covers o n l y one- half of t h e sound t r a c k . This adjustment is checked by observing the s p o t o-S l i g h t on s c a l e 52; t h e edge of t h e l i g h t should be on t h e i n s i d e v e r t i c l e l i n e on t h e s c a l e . When r e c o r d i n g , t h e s p o t of l i g h t as i t moves back and f o r t h should n o t go beyond t h e o u t s i d e l i n e drawn on t h e s c a l e , b u t i f i t does you know t h a t t h e sound t r a c k w i l l be overshdt and a d i s t o r t e d r e c o r d w i l l be produced. The sound r e c o r d i n g ' a n d t h e p i c t u r e r e c o r d i n g a r e done on s e p a r a t e f i l m s a f t e r which t h e two a r e p r i n t e d t o g e t h e r s i d e by s i d e on t h e f i n i s h e d f i l m t h a t is s e n t t o t h e e x h i b i t o r s . This procedure has s e v e r a l good p o i n t s , a s i t allows two sound r e c o r d s t o be t a k e n a t once as a s a f e t y f a c t o r and,also, i t allows t h e p i c t u r e n e g a t i v e and t h e sound n e g a t i v e t o be developed s e p a r a t e l y , t h u s p e r m i t t i n g each one t o be produced t o t h e b e s t advantage. So t h a t t h e sound f i l m may be p e r f e c t l y matched t o t h e p i c t u r e f i l m i n t h e f i n a l p r i n t i n g , t h e r e a r e "marking lamps n placed on both t h e camera and t h e r e c o r d e r . When t h e marking b u t t o n i s p r e s s e d by e i t h e r t h e r e c o r d i n g o p e r a t o r o r t h e D i r e c t o r , t h e lamps on b o t h t h e camera and t h e r e c o r d e r w i l l l i g h t , .thus exp o s i n g a p o r t i o n o f t h e edge of b o t h f i l m s o u t s i d e t h e s p r o c k e t h o l e s . These marks must be matched d u r i n g t h e f i n a l p r i n t i n g s o t h a t t h e c o r r e c t synchronous r e l a t i o n e x i s t s between t h e p o s i t i o n s of sound and p i c t u r e . Figure 1 4 shows t h e sound t r a c k on a f i l m obtained from a n R.C.B. r e c c r d i n g . The Western E l e c t r i c system, known a s t h e " v a r i a b l e d e n s i t y n method, employs a l i g h t beam of c o n s t a n t i n t e n s i t y and v a r y i n g width t o produce a t r a c e of v a r y i n g i n t e n s i t y . The modulation of the l i g h t beam i s e f f e c t e d by an e l e c t r o mechanical l i g h t v a l v e which is a c t u a t e d by t h e speech c u r r e n t s a f t e r they come from t h e a m p l i f i e r and have been r a i s e d t o a s u i t a b l e l e v e l t o produce t h e r e q u i r e d volume. Examine t h e v a l v e , Figure 15.The l i g h t v a l v e c o n s i s t s of a loop of duralumin t a p e suspended i n a p l a n e a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o a magn e t i c f i e l d . When t h e assembly of t h e magnet and armature i s complete, the two s i d e s of t h e loop form a s l i t .002" by .256* w i t h i t s s i d e s i n a plane a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e l i n e s of f o r c e and approximately c e n t e r e d i n t h e air- gap. The ends of t h e loop a r e connected t o t h e o u t p u t t e r m i n a l s of t h e r e c o r d i n g a m p l i f i e r . If t h e magnet is energized and the a m p l i f i e r s u p p l i e s an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , t h e loop opens and c l o s e s i n accordance with t h e c u r r e n t a l t e r n a t i o n s . If t h i s a p p l i a n c e i s i n t e r p o s e d between a l i g h t source and a photog r a p h i c f i l m we have a camera s h u t t e r of a unique d e s i g n .

Lesson 70

s h e e t 18

...*..--.* !dm=M8"NC,>L
,,.*C"

S;

C.L.

OF FORCE

L PREFOCUSED EXPOSURE LAMP C1 SPHERICAL LENS S LIGHT 5TOP I C Z GALVANOMETER LENS V GALVANOMETER VIBRATOR M GALVANOMETER MIRROR 52 SCALE

C.L.CYLINDRICAL LENS C 3 SPHERICAL LENS A APERTURE V.S. VIEWING SCREEN

MICROSCOPE OBJECTIVE DIRECTIONS OF MOVEMENT FOR ALIGNMENT

VIEWING SCREEN SCANNED FROM ANY ANGLE

THlS IS WHAT YOUSEE ON THE SCREEN

THlS IS WHATYOU HEAR

SPROCKET HOLES, TO HOLD FILM IN PLACE IN PROJECTION MACHINE

Figure 15

Figure 14 Lesson 70

- sheet 19

The accompanying diagram, i n Figure 1 6 , shows the o p t i c a l system f o r s t u d i o recording. The o p e r a t i o n of t h i s system i s a s follovrs: Note t h a t a t the l e f t t h e r e i s a l i g h t source, t h i s being a ribbon filament p r o j e c t i o n lamp which is focused on t h e plane of the valve. The l i g h t passed by t h e valve i s then focused w i t h a two t o one reduction on a photographic f i l m a t t h e r i g h t . The undisturbed valve opening appears on the f i l m a s a l i n e . 0 0 l V x .0128", i t s l e n g t h being a t r i g h t angles t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of f i l m t r a v e l . I t functions so t h a t t h e w i d t h of t h i s l i n e v a r i e s with the sound c u r r e n t s supplied t o the valve and, hence, the f i l m r e c e i v e s exposure t o l i g h t of f i x e d i n t e n s i t y during the varying time r e q u i r e d f o r a given p o i n t t o t r a v e r s e the varying a p e r t u r e of the s l i t .

I
i
I

PLANE OF VALVE Rl88ONS (0.002"~0.256"SLlT)

I

PLANE O IMAGE F
O N FILM (0.OOI"X

- ----GNDENSING
LENS SYSTEM

OBJECTIVE LENS SYSTEM

Figure 1 6 Another method by which t h e v a r i a b l e d e n s i t y sound t r a c k is produced i s by t h e use of the neon glow lamp p r i n c i p l e . This method produces a sound t r a c k recording t h a t i s n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l with the l i g h t valve method j u s t described. It d i f f e r s i n t h a t i n s t e a d of a l i g h t source of f i x e d i n t e n s i t y passing through a s l i t of varying width, t h i s method uses a l i g h t source of varying i n t e n s i t y p a s s i n g through a s l i t of constant widah, t h e l i g h t source being a glow lamp. By means of a ' p o l a r i z i n g b a t t e r y of about 200 v o l t s , t h e glow lamp i s k e p t glowing a t a c e r t a i n i n t e n s i t y when voice c u r r e n t s from t h e microphone amp l i f i e r a r e not i ~ r e s s e d upon its c i r c u i t . When v o i c e c u r r e n t s a r e flowing they a r e superimposed upon t h e p o l a r i z i n g c i r c u i t and s i n c e they a r e a l t e r n a t i n g i n f o r m y t h a t i s , an a-c wave form,tney add and s u b t r a c t from the o r i g i n a l 200 v o l t s . Thus, the i n t e n s i t y of l i g h t from t h e glow lamp i s increased and decreased according t o t h e frequency of the voice c u r r e n t s and, a l s o , i n proportion t o t h e i r i n t e n s i t y . Figure 1 7 shows t h e appearance of a Western E l e c t r i c sound t r a c k recording made with a l i g h t valve and i t i s w e l l t o mention t h a t the appearance of the sound t r a c k would be the same when Z recorded by a glow lamp.

D.

Figure 1 7

I n t h e reproduction of sound-on-f i l m , the f i l m p a s s e s through the p r o j e c t i o n head which has the necessary mechanism f o r throwing t h e p i c t u r e on the screen. From here t h e f i l m p a s s e s down t o the sound head where the mechanism is located f o r t r a n s l a t i n g t h e sound record i n t o c u r r e n t s which vary both i n t h e i r i n t e n s i t y and frequency. These c u r r e n t s a r e b u i l t up i n amplitude t o f u r n i s h a high volume and a r e c a r r i e d through c a b l e s t o o p e r a t e t h e back s t a g e speakers used t o reproduce t h e o r i g i n a l sounds t h a t e n t e r e d t h e microphone, during t h e recording i n the s t u d i o . The sound i s l o c a t e d 14$" below t h e p i c t u r e w i t h

Lesson 70

- sheet

20

which i t i s a s s o c i a t e d and, t h e r e f o r e , t o a s s u r e synchronism t h e r e should be 14&" of f i l m taken up i n l o o p s o r s l a c k between the p i c t u r e g a t e and the sound g a t e . I f t h i s condition i s s a t i s f i e d , i t i s assured that.synchronism w i l l be i n h e r a n t i n the sound-on-film recordings, Figure 18 shows a W.E. sound head while Figure l g shows an R.C.A. Yhotophone head.

PROJECTOR

ILM PICK-UP

LENS TUBE

L A M P SOCKET

LOWER MAGAZINE

Figure 18 The sound head i s a device r o r converting or transforming t h e photographic sound record on f i l m t o a s e r i e s of e l e c t r i c a l impulses which can be amplifi e d suff i c i e n t l y t o operate t h e loudspeakers. This is accomplished by drawing the f i l m down through a g a t e and focusing a beam of l i g h t on t h e sound t r a c k . Since the sound t r a c k v a r i e s i n a r e a , o r d e n s i t y , the amount of l i g h t passing through the sound t r a c k v a r i e s accordingly and the varying beam i s d i r e c t e d i n t o a p h o t o - e l e c t r i c c e l l . A p h o t o - e l e c t r i c c e l l h,as the p e c u l i a r p r o p e r t y of p e r m i t t i n g an e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t t o p a s s between i t s e l e c t r o d e s only when l i g h t f a l l s upon it. Whenever t h e amount of l i g h t e n t e r ing the c e l l increases, t h e flow of c u r r e n t a l s o i n c r e a s e s , b u t on the o t h e r hand, when the l i g h t d e c r e a s e s t h e c u r r e n t a l s o decreases. Figure 1 9 shows a Photophone sound head f o r a Simplex type p r o j e c t o r . The beam of l i g h t from t h e e x c i t e r lamp on t h e l e f t is focused by the o p t i c a l system onto the sound t r a c k of the f i l m , which i s drawn down through t h e sound g a t e . The modulated beam i n p a s s i n g through t h e sound t r a c k e n t e r s the photo- cell which i s i n the photo- cell housing shown i n t h e s e c t i o n a t t h e r i g h t . To design a a e v i c e t h a t would take the varying bean of l i g h t passing through the sound t r a c k on the f i l m and convert i t i n t o an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t of varyi n g i n t e n s i t y o f f e r e d one of the many problems t h a t had t o be solved i n order t o make sound-on-film " t a l k i e s " a commercial success. The s o l u t i o n t o t h i s problem was found i n t h e development of l i g h t - s e n s i t i v e m a t e r i a l s which f i n a l l y took the form of our modern p h o t o - e l e c t r i c c e l l , one type of which i s shown i n Figure 20. I n sound work t h e p h o t o - e l e c t r i c c e l l i s sometimes abbreviated "PECfl. This c e l l possesses t h e property o f being a b l e t o vary i t s c i r c u i t r e s i s t a n c e i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e amount of l i g h t f a l l i n g on t h e l i g h t s e n s i t i v e s u r f a c e of t h e c e l l . The main p a r t s of the c e l l a r e named i n Figure 20, Lesson 70

sheet 2 1

Figure 19

Lesson 70

- sheet,22

I n Figure 2 1 , the c e l l is shown i n a t y p i c a l c i r c u i t used i n sound motion p i c t u r e equipment. A t the extreme l e f t is shown the e x c i t e s lamp and a s t o r a g e b a t t e r y o r generator (not shown)which s u p p l i e s c u r r e n t t o the f i l a ment of the lamp. When i n operation i t produces a very b r i l l i a n t cons t e n t i n t e n s i t y l i g h t which,in p.assing through t h e o p t i c a l system,is focused t o a narrow beam through a s l i t which i s i n the o p t i c a l system b a r r e l and f i n a l l y emerges as a beam 1/1000" i n thickness and about l/lOow long. This beam impinges on the sound t r a c k of the f i l m which i s running downward a t the r a t e of 90 f e e t p e r minute. I s we learned from Figures14 and 17, the sound t r a c k s of both the R.C.A. and t h e Western E l e c t r i c recordi n g s c o n s i s t of a r e a s of varying o p a c i t y and transparency. A s these a r e a s p a s s r a p i d l y before the l i g h t beam a f l u c t u a t i n g beam of l i g h t i s passed through the sound t r a c k and i n t o the p h o t o - e l e c t r i c c e l l . This v a r i a b l e l i g h t beam f a l l i n g upon the l i g h t - s e n s i t i z e d cathode causes a c u r r e n t (which v a r i e s i n i n t e n s i t y according t o the v a r i a t i o n i n the amount of l i g h t s t r i k ing i t ) t o flow i n the primary of t h e transformer. A c u r r e n t which v a r i e s i n i n t e n s i t y through the primary of a transformer always produces an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t i n t h e secondary c u r r e n t , This a-c output i s impressed upon t h e g r i d of the first s t a g e of a multi- stage a m p l i f i e r and a f t e r i t passes through the e n t i r e a m p l i f i e r system the varying c u r r e n t is made t o operate t h e loudspeakers placed i n back of the t h e a t e r p i c t u r e screen.

Figure 20 Figure 21 I n t h e sound-on-disk metbod a s t a r t i n g p o l n t i s designated on the d i s k where the needle must be s t a r t e d , and a l s o a s t a r t i n g frame on the f i l m must be i n t h e p i c t u r e g a t e a t s t a r t i n g . A s the t u r n t a b l e and p r o j e c t o r a r e d i r e c t connected, i t follows t h a t t h e synchronism w i l l be maintained u n l e s s the needle jumps a groove, which may happen unless care i s exercised. The sound on f i l m method i s more f l e x i b l e than o t h e r methods, a s i t permits t h e p r o j e c t i o n i s t t o e a s i l y cut p o r t i o n s of the f i l m out of the r e e l without d i s t u r b i n g t h e synchronism, hence, when a r e j e c t e d p a r t i s c u t o u t Complete with i t s accompanyi n g sound, synchronism w i l l be automatically maintained. However, i n t h e sound-on-disk method, i f a p a r t o f t h e f i l m is c u t Out, a p i e c e of opaque f i l m of the same l e n g t h must be i n s e r t e d .

W have now covered t h e p r i n c i p l e s of o p e r a t i o n of the most widely used e sound motion p i c t u r e systems. I n your next l e s s o n , YOU w i l l l e a r n about the a c t u a l reproducing apparatus used i n conjunction with t h e s e systems,
.. -

.:

Lesson 70
,,

s h e e t 23
,

~ , .

',. ,,.

..,

. . .
".,..,,
~

..,,

!iwmujy.JF
INC.
firmer&
M A R C O N / /NSTITUTE

S.

s u n d e d /go9

Technical Lesson 71

I n t h i s lesson we d e a l with R.C.A. Photophone and Western E l e c t r i c Vitaphone and Movietone systems used i n modern motion p i c t u r e i n s t a l l a t i o n s . There a r e s i x d i f f e r e n t types of R:~.A. Photophone reproducing equipment f o r u s e w i t h sound motion p i c t u r e apparstus. These reproducing i n s t a l l a t i o n s a r e now known a s types PG-3, PG-4,. PG-5&PG-6, PG-10, and PG-13, b u t they were formerly designated by means of l e t m r s only, and were known r e s p e c t i v e l y a s ty-pes B (sPU), C , D , E, F, and G. 1% i s well t o mention a t t h i s time t h a t t h e o l d e r types PG-1 and PG-2, which were previously c a l l e d A and B (MG),res p e c t i v e l y , a r e no longer manu~acturkdbut a few of t h e s e o l d e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s a r e s t i l l t o be found jn a c t i v e service. P r a c t i c a l l y a l l of t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n s we,,have mentioned a r e operated from a w a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t power source. .. ,
-4
,

GENERAL F;'&&E&.oF TkE TYPE "A? AJPLIFIEB. The old type "A" equipment inn l d n d t> - ambTifiers which were i d e n t i c h l i n every was e x c e ~ t h a t one of 6 t ------ *& them w& p ~ o v i d & - w i t h loudspeaker s e c t i o n a l i z i n p a n e l f o r t h e purpose of a allowing,,0%eo p e r a t o r t o c u t o f f each p a i r of loudspeakers s e p a r a t e l y , o r t o c u t off.. the e n t i r e group, o r t o t r a n s f e r t h e e n t i r e group of speakers from This type was s u i t e d t o t h e a t e r s w i t h a s e a t one aniplifier t o t h e o t h e r . y of upwards of 2500. O u r s t u d e n t s should understand t h a t only e a m l i f i e r s i s ever used a t a time and t h e e x t r a one is kept i n . ..-. ,. r,eserve as-e spare i n t h e event of a breakdown. Both of the a m p l i f i e r s a r e 'hount:~di n s e p a r a t e r a c k s and a r e 1 o c a t e d : c l o s e t o each o t h e r . A f r o n t view . 'of the'.se a m p l i f i e r s and r a c k s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 1
-~

;.

A ' c l e a r i d e a of t h e component p a r t s of each a m p l i f i e r rack and t h e i r r e l a t i o n can t o ~ n e ~ a n o t h e r be had by beginning a t t h e top t o e x p l a i n each item and proceeding down f o r both a m p l i f i e r racks s i n c e they a r e a l i k e .
(1) The input c o n t r o l p a n e l f o r the type "A" equipment has d u p l i c a t e cont r o l s , one s e t of c o n t r o l s being l o c a t e d on t h e l e f t f o r one projebt o r and t h e second s e t on t h e r i g h t f o r t h e o t h e r p r o j e c t o r . O t h i s n panel you w i l l f i n d , f o r each p r o j e c t o r , a gang switch t o connect t h e a m p l i f i e r t o t h e e x c i t e r lamp and p h o t o c e l l of t h a t p a r t i c u l a r proj e c t o r and an e x c i t e r lamp r h e o s t a t t o r e g u l a t e the c u r r e n t supoly of the e x c i t e r lamp and, a l s o , a p i l o t t o i n d i c a t e which p r o j e c t o r is being used. There i s a l s o a jack mounted on t h i s p a n e l which perm i t s a s u i t a b l e ammeter t o be plugged i n t o the c i r c u i t t o measure s e x c i t e r lamp c u r r e n t .
(2)

panel The voltage w l i f i e r takes the s i g n a l from t h e i n p u t con tic and passes it through t h r e e s t a g e s of a m p l i f i c a t i o n . A s S the diagram of t h e v o l t a g e a m p l i f i e r is given i n Figure 2 . p h o t o c e l l c u r r e n t i n t h i s equipment i s s,tren&henea by passing i t through a step-down transformer i n the:.r;@Rgkd,%ead e f o r e t h e c u r r e n t b is conducted t o t h e v o l t a g e a m p l i f i e r , ' t h e n t h e f i r s t transformer" i n #+. ,.

Figure 1

Lesson 71

sheet 2

t h e voltage a m p l i f i e r t h a t the s i g n a l c u r r e n t passes through i s designed t o t h e value of the c u r r e n t down and t h e voltage up t o the o r i g i n a l v a l u e s e p h o t o c e l l c i r c u i t . This transformer i s necessary s o t h a t the s i g n a l n o t be unduly a f f e c t e d by s t r a y c u r r e n t s which may e n t e r t h i s system o r eakage across i t s own c i r c u i t on the way from t h e sound head through t h e es t o the voltage a m p l i f i e r . This step-up transformer d e l i v e r s the proer value of s i g n a l voltage t o be impressed on the g r i d of the f i r s t tube and the output of t h i s tube i s coupled t o the input of a second tube by means of another step-up transformer. Again, the output of t h e second tube feeds i n t o a n o t h e r transformer which is coupled t o the t h i r d o r l a s t s t a g e a m p l i f i e r tube. The vacuum tubes used i n t h e f i r s t and t h i r d s t a g e s a r e of t h e UX-210 type while the second s t a g e employs a UX-841 tube. Grid b i a s v o l t a g e f o r t h e s e tubes i s supplied by dry b a t t e r i e s and a p l a t e p o t e n t i a l of 500 v o l t s i s obt a i n e d from a terminal on a 1000 v o l t generator. A f i l t e r i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of each tube f u n c t i o n s t o eliminate any o b j e c t i o n a b l e hum from the loudspeakers which might otherwise be caused by s l i g h t r i p p l e s i n t h e d i r e c t curr e n t due t o commutation i n t h e generator. Means a r e provided f o r o b t a i n i n g v a r i o u s c u r r e n t and v o l t a g e readings through the use of jacks, plugs,and meters. A "gain" c o n t r o l , which c o n s i s t s of an a d j u s t a b l e r e s i s t a n c e and governs the amount o f s i g n a l voltage applied t o the g r i d of the t h i r d tube, is i n s e r t e d between the second and t h i r d s t a g e s . Through a phonograph pickup jack l o c a t e d on t h i s panel non-synchronous equipment may be connected i n t o the r e g u l a r amp l i f y i n g system.

LI.1

Figure 2

Figure 3 Lesson 7 1 - s h e e t 3

Let us continue our explanation of how a s i g n a l t r a v e l s through such a system. The amplified s i g n a l now e n t e r s t h e power a m p l i f i e r which has t e n UV-845 tubes. The power a m p l i f i e r c o n s i s t s of two s e p a r a t e panels, the upper one having a s c r e e n opening which allows v e n t i l a t i o n f o r t h e two rows of tubes mounted behind the lower panel. The general arrangement of the c i r c u i t s i s shown i n schematic form i n Figure 3. The lower p a n e l has mounted on i t two p l a t e c u r r e n t meters,a speaker c u r r e n t meter, two r h e o s t a t s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t , and a jack i n t o which may be plugged a monitor speaker f o r checking t h e sound output. The t e n DV-845 tubes a l l o p e r a t e i n a push- pull arrangement. The power c o n t r o l panel contains a switch which c o n t r o l s a f o u r - u n i t motor- generator s e t and a tumbler switch by means of which the t h r e e p r i n c i p a l vacuum tube c i r c u i t s , namely, t h e f i l a m e n t , g r i d , and p l a t e c i r c u i t s of the tubes may be connected and disconnected from the power supply. Also, t h e r e a r e meters which i n d i c a t e t h e v o l t a g e s applied t o these c i r c u i t s and s e v e r a l conveniently placed jacks which permit t h e same meters t o be i n s e r t e d i n various o t h e r c i r c u i t s whenever a s e r i e s of t e s t s a r e t o be run. The loudspeaker s e c t i o n a l i z i n g panel mentioned b e f o r e i s located immediately below t h e power c o n t r o l panel. A l l power f o r o p e r a t i n g t h i s equipment is supplied by a f o u r - u n i t motor g e n e r a t o r s e t a s j u s t s t a t e d This s e t is made up of a 4 h.p. motor and t h r e e d-c generain (4). t o r s w i t h output v o l t a g e s of 15, 250, and 1000 v o l t s r e s p e c t i v e l y . The 1 5 v o l t generator i s used t o supply h e a t i n g c u r r e n t t o t h e f i l a m e n t s of a l l tubes, and e n e r g i z e s t h e p i l o t l i g h t s and p h o t o c e l l e x c i t e r lamps; t h e 250 v o l t generator s u p p l i e s f i e l d c u r r e n t f o r a l l t h e g e n e r a t o r s and b i a s voltage f o r t h e power tubes and f i e l d c u r r e n t f o r the loudspeakers; and t h e 1000 v o l t generator s u p p l i e s d i r e c t c u r r e n t f o r t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t s f o r a l l t u b e s and p o l a r i z i n g v o l t a g e f o r t h e photoelect r i c c e l l s . Through t h e use of two commutators a d i r e c t c u r r e n t a t 500 v o l t s p o t e n t i a l i s a v a i l a b l e from t h i s generator. Storage b a t t e r i e s of t h e proper r a t i n g a r e " f l o a t e d a c r o s s v , t h a t i s , connected t o t h e output terminals of the 1 5 v o l t generator t o f i l t e r o u t the commutator r i p p l e from t h i s machine.
A v i s u a l s i g n a l system i n s t a l l e d i n s i g h t of t h e o p e r a t o r i n t h e proj e c t i o n room i s connected up t o a system of push b u t t o n s l o c a t e d a t some

convenient p l a c e i n t h e t h e a t e r s o t h a t an observer s t a t i o n e d a t t h a t p l a c e can send a code s i g n a l which may be i n t e r p r e t e d t o advise t h e proj e c t i o n i s t j u s t e x a c t l y t h e volume of sound c o n d i t i o n s i n t h a t p a r t of t h e t h e a t e r , and he w i l l then proceed t o make t h e necessary adjustments by means of the "gain" c o n t r o l t o provide a s a t i s f a c t o r y l e v e l of volume.
MAIN FEATURES ABOUT THE TPPE "BW AMPLIFIER. The type B (SPU) a m p l i f i e r t h a t r e ~ l a c e dthe o l d A and B (MG) a m ~ l i f i e r si s arranged on two racks. One r a c k c o h t a i n s two v o l t a g e a m p l i f i e r s , - b u t only one i s <sea d u r i n g normal o p e r a t i o n ,

t h e o t h e r being kept i n o p e r a t i n g condition f o r use i n t h e case of an emergency. The o t h e r rack holds f o u r power a m p l i f i e r s a l l of which a r e used during normal operation. A f r o n t view of t h e v o l t a g e a m p l i f i e r rack appears i n Figure 4 and a view of t h e power a m p l i f i e r rack i s shown i n Figure 5.

You should read the n o t a t i o n s marked on the a m p l i f i e r s i n F i g u r e s 4 and 5. The Lesson 7 1

sheet 4

Figure 4 Figure 5 voltage amplifier rack is divided into four sections, the upper two containing voltage amplifiers and the lower two the necessary batteries for the "BV, " C W , and photocell circuits. On the top panel on the rront of the rack there is provided a compensator control knob by means of which the tone quality of the sound output may be altered, this being accomplished by the use of a filter network which either attenuates,or accentuates,certain audio frequencies, For certain adjustments or settings of the control knob a better reproduction from the loudspeakers can be obtained for sounds originating from the voice than for sounds originating from musical instruments and vice-versa. The second panel from the top is equipped with a voltmeter, jacks, and cord for checking the battery voltages. The schematic diagram of the "B" type voltage amplifier panel used in the equipment is shown in Figure 6. By examining this voltage amplifier circuit you will recognize it as being a transformer-coupled pushpull circuit. On the third panel down there is the volume control for amplifier No. 1, and the pilot light which indicates that the amplifier is in use, and, also, the output fader. Note that each amplifier has its own volume control and output fader. The fourth panel carries a switch which permits the operator to select the particular mplifier that is to be put into service. The circuit arrangement of the "Bn power amplifier is shown in Figure 7 The . front of the power amplifier rack is divided into five panels and on the top one is located the switch which controls the power supply from the a-c mains. This rack is divided into four sections or compartments and in each compartment there is a complete amplifier, each one of which tsmplogs two 281 rectifier tubes and two 250 amplifier tubes operating in push-pull. A rectifier of the dry-disc type furnishes the direct current required to energize the field windings of the stage horns or loudspeakers. Each power amplifier is connected to a certain number of stage horns, from one to four, so that it is possible to operate as many as sixteen horns at one time with this equipment. With an arrangement of this kind if one of the power amplifiers goes out of service for any reason then all other horns connected to this amplifier's output would also be silenced and, therefore, in such a circumstance the operator would raise the volume on the remaining horns to give the same satisfactory sound level as previously obtained in the theater.

Lesson 7 1

sheet 5

Figure 6

Lesson 71

sheet 6

Figure

Lesson 71

sheet 7

L A Y O ~ T F TH?X TYPT " C W POTWEE:.O~PLIFIER. The t y y e PC-3, which was O f o r m e r l y d e s i g n a t e d a s t h e " C " t y p e , i s s i m i l a r i n many ways t o t h e PG-6 o r B (sPU) t y p e of equipment. Some o f t h e p o i n t s o f s i m i l a r i t y t o b e b r o u g h t out a r e t h a t i t h a s two v o l t a g e a m p l i f i e r s o f s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same t y p e a s t h o s e i n t h e PG-6,but i n s t e a d o f h a v i n g f o u r power a m p l i f i e r s t h e r e a r e o n l y two p r o v i d e d and t h e power a m p l i f i e r s a r e t h e same as t h o s e u s e d i n PG-6 equipment.
G, 1 -

The v o l t a g e a m p l i f i e r s and t h e power a m p l i f i e r s a r e a l l c o n t a i n e d i n one r a c k a s you w i l l s e e by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l a y o u t shown i n F i g u r e 8. T h i s r a c k h a s s i x s h e l v e s which a r e u s e d as f o l l o w s : S t a r t i n g from t h e t o p o f t h e r a c k t h e f i r s t and second s h e l v e s h o l d t h e v o l t a g e a m p l i f i e r s , t h e t h i r d h o l d s t h e p h o t o c e l l and "C" b a t t e r i e s , t h e f o u r t h h o l d s t h e "B" b a t t e r i e s f o r t h e v o l t a g e a m p l i f i e r and t h e two lower s h e l v e s h o l d t h e power a m p l i f i e r s .

Figure 8
ruus;ra s w n r ~ ~ s
VOLTAGE AUPLIFIER
CONTROL PANEL

Lesson 71

sheet 8

TUMBLER .SWITCIIES

P O W E R AMPLIFIER CONTROL PLKEL

Figure 10

Figure 11

POWER AMPLIFIER --ON WTH SHELF

RHEOSTAT

\.POWER WPLIFIER CONTROL PANEL

n
I

__L__I
Figure 12

Lesson 72

- sheet

The panel l a y o u t , however, d i f f e r s somewhat from t h a t of t h e PG-6. The compensator i s l o c a t e d on t h e top panel and t h e next p a n e l c a r r i e s a l l of the v o l t a g e a m p l i f i e r c o n t r o l s which we have p i c t u r e d i n an enlarged form i n Figure 9. The two p i l o t lamps mounted on t h i s panel a r e used t o i n d i c a t e which a m p l i f i e r is being used. There a r e f o u r switches provided, t h r e e of which a r e used r e s p e c t i v e l y t o c o n t r o l t h e b a t t e r y c i r c u i t s , t h e i n p u t system, the volume c o n t r o l , and t h e f o u r t h i s used t o t r a n s f e r t h e v o l t a g e amp l i f i e r c i r c u i t s t o t h e power a m p l i f i e r . The input c o n t r o l panel of t h e type "Cw power a m p l i f i e r i s s e p a r a t e from t h e o t h e r p a n e l s and i s u s u a l l y mounted on t h e w a l l of the booth o r p r o j e c t i o n room between t h e two project o r s . I t s l a y o u t and t h e d i f f e r e n t c o n t r o l s a r e shown i n Figure 10. A close-up view of t h e power c o n t r o l panel i s shown i n Figure 1 . 1

i
I

The PG-4 equipment i s somewhat s i m i l a r t o t h e PG-3 type except t h a t i t has b u t one voltage a m p l i f i e r and one power a m p l i f i e r . The input c o n t r o l p a n e l i s about t h e same a s t h e one used with t h e PG-3. Figure 1 2 shows t h e l a y o u t of the panels. The PG-10 i s d i f f e r e n t i n many .respects from t h e o t h e r u n i t s t h u s f a r described i n t h a t i t was formerly k n o k as- type F and i n s tead of u s i n g UX-210 tubes i n t h e v o l t a g e a m p l i f i e r i t employs s i x UX-112-A's i n a transformer- coupled push- pull c i r c u i t a s ind i c a t e d i n Figure 13. I n Figure 1 4 you w i l l s e e t h a t t h e top p a n e l is blank, the second p a n e l c o n t a i n s t h e compensator f o r t o n a l q u a l i t y and t h e t h i r d panel contains a volume c o n t r o l and, a l s o , two p i l o t l i g h t s and a tumbler switch. The only new p a r t i s t h e tumbler switch which i s used t o g i v e t h e c i r c u i t a non-synchronous source of s i g n a l such a s from a phonograph f o r e x i t marches, and s o on. The next p a n e l down i s t h e power c o n t r o l p a n e l which has i n a d d i t i o n a volume c o n t r o l f o r the monitor. This monitor i s a loudspeaker l o c a t e d i n t h e p r o j e c t i o n booth s o t h a t t h e o p e r a t o r s may hear a d u p l i c a t e of t h e sound being p r o j e c t e d i n t h e t h e a t e r . I n s t e a d of t h e u s u a l type of f a d e r which c u t s o u t t h e sound from one machine and c u t s i t i n from t h e o t h e r i n s t e p s , the F equipment f a d i n g i s accomplished by means of a r e l a y operated by a tumbler switch, one being provided on each p r o j e c t o r . When i t is d e s i r e d t o t r a n s f e r from f i l m t o d i s c reproduction o r v i c e v e r s a t h i s i s done by means of a switch on each p h o t o c e l l housing of t h e p r o j e c t o r s . The e x c i t e r lamp c u r r e n t i s c o n t r o l l e d by a r h e o s t a t from the same l o c a t i o n .
THE UNITS TWHICH COMPOSE THE PG-10 TYPE EQUIPFKWT.

PUT

C+

BY.

PUT

Figure 13

Figure 14 Lesson 7 1

sheet

10

TlTE PG-13 ( G )PHOTOPHOKB SOUND PICTURE EQUIPMENT. A r e c e n t development of RCA Photophone i s the type PG-13 (GI. A photograph of a m p l i f i e r "GI' i s shown

i n ~ i g u r e - 1 5 . I t c o n s i s t s of a voltage a&plifIer7and a rimer a m p l i f i e r mounted i n a small c a b i n e t , about two f e e t square and a f o o t i n depth, which is designed f o r mounting on t h e p r o j e c t i o n booth wall. I n t h e photograph you can see the a m p l i f i e r c a b i n e t w i t h i t s two c o n t r o l knobs,one being a volume c o n t r o l and the o t h e r a comoensator f o r tone q u a l i t y adjustment.
UY ii2A RADIOTRONS

CONTROL

VOLUME

UX 250 RADIOTROW

AMPLIFIER

UNIT-

FAOER-ReLA'i

FI:TER UNIT\

INDICATOR LAMPS

'K" BATTERIES

COMPENSATOR

Figure 15 Figure 1 6 is a schematic of the c i r c u i t s incorporated i n a complete i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h i s kind and a s can be observed from t h e diagram the a m p l i f i e r proper c o n s i s t s of t h r e e s t a g e s of transformer coupled audio- amplification u s i n g 1 1 2 - A tubes and a push- pull c i r c u i t operating with f o u r UX-250 tubes connected i n p a r a l l e l . The o p e r a t i n g p o t e n t i a l s f o r t h i s a m p l i f i e r o r e furnished by a t h r e e - u n i t motor- generator s e t , t h e only b a t t e r i e s i n t h e e n t i r e equipment being t h e "Cn b a t t e r i e s . I n t h i s cabinet t h e r e i s a f i l t e r u n i t which elimina t e s hum from t h e loudspeaker a n d , a l s o , a f a d i n g r e l a y s i m i l a r t o the one used i n t h e type F job which i s c o n t r o l l e d by switches mounted on each p r o j e c t o r .
A photograph of the "Gn motor-generator s e t i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 1 7 . It i s composed of t h e d r i v i n g motor, a 1 2 v o l t g e n e r a t o r and a 600 v o l t generat o r , both g e n e r a t o r s being e x c i t e d by t h e 600 v o l t machine. The 1 2 v o l t ma-

chine s u p p l i e s c u r r e n t f o r t h e f i l a m e n t s of a l l tubes, e x c i t e r lamps, p i l o t lamps, and f o r e n e r g i z i n g t h e f i e l d s of both t h e s t a g e speakers and monitoring loudspeaker. The 600 v o l t generator f u r n i s h e s d i r e c t c u r r e n t f o r t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t s of a l l tubes and p o l a r i z i n g v o l t a g e f o r t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l s . O the c o n t r o l board f o r t h e motor-generator s e t , a view of which i s shown i n n Figure 1 8 , a r e two v o l t m e t e r s which permit t h e o p e r a t o r t o a s c e r t a i n the outp u t of the g e n e r a t o r s , t h e necessary apparatus f o r a d j u s t i n g the output and a motor s t a r t i n g switch.

Lesson 7 1

- s h e e t 11

Figure 16 Lesson 7 1

sheet 1.2

Figure 17

r F i E L D RHEOSTAT CONTROL PUSH-IN TO REGULATE HIGH VOLThGE GENERATOR PULPOUT TO REGULATE LOW YOLTUGE GENERATOR

- LOW VOLTAGE D C METER

HIGH VOLTAGE

ac

MtnR

- M - G SETSWITCH

Figure 18 Lesson 71

sheet 13

RCA PHOTOPHONE. TYPE PG-5 (El. This is another r e c e n t RCA Photophone product i o n known as type PG-5 ( E ) , which i s a p o r t a b l e machine compactly arranged i n s i x trunks. A photograph of the "E" p r o j e c t o r s s e t up with a screen is
shown i n Figure 19. There a r e two p r o j e c t o r s supplied w i t h t h i s equipment, each one being housed i n a s e p a r a t e t r u m , an a m p l i f i e r i n a t h i r d trunk, a sound s c r e e n i n a f o u r t h , a loudspeaker i n a f i f t h , while t h e s i x t h trunk contains a c c e s s o r i e s including the rewind and patching equipment. A schemst i c of the complete c i r c u i t i s shown i n Figure 20. The a m p l i f i e r is operated from an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t source and the c i r c u i t employs a 224 screen- grid tube i n the f i r s t s t a g e , a 227 tube i n the second s t a g e , and a 250 tube i n t h e t h i r d s t a g e . A l l of t h e equipment is interconnected with heavy cables and t h e cable plugs a r e made so t h a t they can be i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e i r own sockets i n only one way and, hence, sockets and plugs cannot be i n c o r r e c t l y connected and the p o s s i b i l i t y of e r r o r s i s t h e r e f o r e eliminated. For t h e p o r t a b l e s e t a 1000 watt incandescent lamp i s used i n t h e p r o j e c t i o n machine instead of an a r c lamp which i s used i n r e g u l a r t h e a t e r p r o j e c t i o n equipment. The general c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r t h e RCA Photophone sound systems used i n mot i o n p i c t u r e equipment have been covered i n the foregoing paragraphs and now we w i l l devote t h e remainder of our l e s s o n t o a study of t h e d i f f e r e n t amplif i e r s used i n Western E l e c t r i c type equipment.

Figure 19

Lesson 71

s h e e t 14

WESTERN ELECTRIC AMPLIFIERS F R S U D SYSTEPIS. The Western E l e c t r i c (W.E.) O ON a m p l i f i e r s y o u w i l l l e a r n a b o u t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a n h s a r e t y p e s 41-A. 42-A, 43-A, 46-B, and 49-A-B. P r a c t i c a l l y a l l of t h e W.E. a p p a r a t u s i s d e s i g n a t e d by numbers followed by l e t t e r s . A , B , C,and so on, used a f t e r t h e ident i f y i n g model number of an a m p l i f i e r , i n d i c a t e minor changes i n the more rec e n t models. The v a r i o u s W.E. systems d i f f e r from one a n o t h e r only i n t h e m a t t e r of s i z e and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e type numbers t h a t a r e g i v e n t o each equipment depends upon t h e number and arrangement of t h e a m p l i f i e r s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e 41, 42, and 43 a m p l i f i e r s a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s " rack" a m p l i f i e r s because t h e y a r e mounted one above t h e o t h e r on a r e l a y r a c k . The 46 t s e , which i s a combination of t h e 4 1 and 4 2 , i s arranged i n one c a s e and i s known a s t h e ''wall type" inasmuch a s t h e component p a r t s a r e e n c l o s e d and assembled i n a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d u n i t s o t h a t i t may be c o n v e n i e n t l y mounted on t h e w a l l of t h e p r o j e c t i o n booth. The 49 type a m p l i f i e r i s a p h o t o e l e c t r i c a m p l i f i e r and i s mounted d i r e c t l y on t h e motion p i c t u r e reproducer. This a m p l i f i e r f u n c t i o n s t o b o o s t up t h e ~ e a k o l t a g e o u t p u t of t h e PEC ( p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l ) t o a v a l u e v s u i t a b l e f o r i n t r o d u c i n g t h e a u d i o f r e q u e n c i e s i n t o t h e r e g u l a r audio-amplif y i n g system and, t h e r e f o r e , i t w i l l be found i n u s e on a l l W.E. systems.
GEL-RAL CONSIDERATIONS O W E TYPES 41-A, 42-A, and 43-A. An e x t e r i o r view F .. T h i s a m p l i f i e r is a v o l t a g e o r of t h e 41-A a m ~ l i f i e ri s shown i n F i g u r e 21. p r e l i m i n a r y a m p l i f i e r and f o r t h a t r e a s o n it i s a l w a y followed by a t l e a s t one o t h e r a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t and, moreover, i t must always be used w i t h ano t h e r u n i t , f o r i n s t a n c e , a 42-A o r B a m p l i f i e r s i n c e t h e l a t t e r a m p l i f i e r s u p p l i e s p l a t e c u r r e n t f o r t h e 41-8.

T h i s a m p l i f i e r which i s r e s i s t a n c e coupled u s e s t h r e e 2 3 9 - A t u b e s whose f i l a ments a r e connected i n s e r i e s and whose t o t a l c u r r e n t d r a i n i s 270 m i l l i amperes; t h i s c u r r e n t may be r e a d on t h e meter marked " F i l Current". The t u b e f i l a m e n t s a r e e a c h s u p p l i e d w i t h a p o t e n t i a l of 1.1 v o l t s , t h e s u p p l y b e i n g o b t a i n e d from two 6 v o l t s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s , and g r i d b i a s i s s u p p l i e d by a v o l t a g e drop o b t s i n e d from a c r o s s t h e f i l a m e n t s . I n s h u n t w i t h t h e s e c ondary of t h e i n p u t t r a n s f o r m e r t h e r e is p l a c e d a p o t e n t i o m e t e r t h e purpose of which is t o c o n t r o l t h e g a i n of t h e a m p l i f i e r . S i n c e t h e g r i d of t h e f i r s t t u b e i s connected t o t h e a r m of t h i s p o t e n t i o m e t e r t h e n f o r any change i n t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e arm t h e s i g n a l v o l t a g e a p p l i e d t o t h e g r i d w i l l be a l t e r e d and t h i s , of c o u r s e , governs t h e g a i n of t h e a m p l i P i e r . An a d d i t i o n a l cont r o l of s i g n a l g a i n is provided by a "high-lowr key p l a c e d i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t of t h e second t u b e which p e r m i t s a 1000 ohm r e s i s t o r t o b e c u t i n o r o u t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s . The s t u d e n t s h o u l d understand t h a t t h i s s w i t c h i s always used i n t h e "high" p o s i t i o n i n t h e a t e r work. The p l a t e c u r r e n t f o r t h e t u b e s is o b t a i n e d from t h e 42-8 a m p l i f i e r a t a p o t e n t i a l of 390 v o l t s and by t h e u s e of' t h e t h r e e push b u t t o n s w i t c h e s t h e curr e n t normally c a r r i e d by each p l a t e c i r c u i t may b e measured independently on a p l a t e m i l l i m e t e r ; i n each p l a t e c i r c u i t t h e c u r r e n t is from 1.35 t o 1.55 m i l l i a m p e r e s . To one s i d e of t h i s meter i s t h e f i l a m e n t c o n t r o l r h e o s t a t a n d , a l s o , a key t o open and c l o s e t h e f i l a m e n t c i r c u i t . The 41-4. a m p l i f i e r is a p r e l i m i n a r y o r v o l t a g e a m p l i f i e r and i s designed t o work from a 200 ohm impedance w i t h an o u t p u t impedance i n t h e l a s t tube c i r c u i t of 15,000 t o 20,000 ohms so t h a t i t s volume l e v e l e q u a l s 5 db ( d e c i b e l s ) and t h e g a i n 4.16 db. To f u l l y p r o t e c t t h e r e s i s t a n c e s , j a c k s and o t h e r p a r t s , and t h e w i r i n g mounted on t h e rear of t h e pane1,a s t r o n g s h e e t m e t a l can o r cover is employed. I n F i g u r e 22 we have drawn a schematic of t h e c i r c u i t of t h e 41-A on which we have marked some of t h e more i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s . Lesson 7 1

sheet 16

TES

I TERMS SHOWN THUS LTC. ARE ON V T SOCKET ASSEMBLY 2 THIS IS THE GRIN CONTROL KEI. MARnEO'HIGH ANO'LOW'AND SITUATED NEAR THC LOWER EDGE OF THE PANEL, AT THE CENTER IT MUST BE SET A5 REQUIRED WHEN INSTALLING

a0 0

Figure 22 Lesson 71

sheet 17

COURTESY OF EIEcTRICAL RESEARCH PRODUCTS; INC.

Figure 23

Figure 24
'

The 42-A a m p l i f i e r u s e s f o u r 205-D t u b e s , two of which f u n c t i o n a s a m p l i f i e r s and two a s r e c t i f i e r s , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g l o c a t e d i n a u n i t which is b u i l t i n t o An e x t e r i o r view of t h e 42-A a m p l i f i e r i n F i g u r e 23 shows t h i s amplifier. t h e s e t u b e s , t h e two on t h e l e f t being t h e a m p l i f i e r t u b e s and t h e two on t h e r i g h t t h e r e c t i f i e r s . The a m p l i f i e r t u b e s a r e connected i n push- pull a r r a n g e ment and t h e r e c t i f i e r t u b e s a r e o p e r a t e d a s a full- wave r e c t i f i e r w i t h t h e i r two f i l a m e n t s i n 9 a r a l l e l and heated by a winding of t h e a- c t r a n s f o r m e r . This r e c t i f i e r s u p g l i e s c u r r e n t t o t h e p l a t e s of t h e 42-A and t h e 41-A a m p l i f i e r s . Thus, t h e two W l i f i e r s a r e always used t o g e t h e r . The f i l a m e n t s of t h e two 205-D t u b e s a r e h e a t e d by t h e f i l a m e n t winding of t h e 42-A a- c t r a n s f o r m e r and draw 1.6 amperes when s u p p l i e d w i t h t h e i r r a t e d 4.5 v o l t s p e r tube. L e t us mention t h a t t h e r e i s no g a i n c o n t r o l and t h e o u t p u t of t h e a m ~ l i f i e ri s 2.4 watts and t h e g r i d b i a s i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ' a v o l t a g e drop a c r o s s t h e p l a t e supp l y . The o u t p u t l e v e l of t h e 42-A i s 26 db and i t s g a i n 24.8 db. Since the i n p u t impedance of t h i s a m p l i f i e r i s 16,000 ohms and matches up w i t h t h e o u t p u t of t h e 41-A, t h e r e f o r e , n e i t h e r t r a n s f o r m e r nor any o t h e r t y p e of c o u p l i n g i s needed between them.

A l l a p p a r a t u s is p r o t e c t e d on t h e r e a r by a heavy s h e e t m e t a l box cover which when i t is removed a u t o m a t i c a l l y o p e r a t e s a s w i t c h which c u t s o f f a l l power by opening t h e a-c i n p u t c i r c u i t t o t h e a-c t r a n s f o r m e r . A t h r e e - p o s i t i o n s n a p s w i t c h , l a b e l e d "OFF-FILAMENT-PLATE" i s provided so t h a t t h e f i l a m e n t s may b e t u r n e d on f o r a s u f f i c i e n t time t o a l l o w them t o r e a c h f u l l h e a t b e f o r e t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t i s t u r n e d on. A meter is provided f o r r e a d i n g t h e a m p l i f i e r There a r e two s e t s of o u t p l a t e c u r r e n t which i s normally 60 m i l l i a m p e r e s . p u t t e r m i n a l s p r o v i d e d , one g i v i n g an o u t p u t of 500 ohms and t h e o t h e r a n o u t p u t of 250 ohms.
The 43-A a m p l i f i e r i s designed w i t h an o u t p u t of 500 ohms s o t h a t i t may b e used t o t i e i n w i t h t h e 42-A t y p e a m p l i f i e r which i s a l s o 500 ohms; t h e 43-A a m p l i f i e r s a r e worked i n p a r a l l e l arrangement and i n t h i s c a s e t h e r e s u l t i n g i n p u t of t h e two u n i t s o p e r a t i n g t o g e t h e r i s 250 ohms which is t h e r e a s o n f o r providine, o u t p u t t e r m i n a l s marked 250 ohms on t h e 42-A. I n F i g u r e 24 we have g i v e n a c i r c u i t diagram of t h e 42-6 a m p l i f i e r , which is known a s a power amp l i f i e r , a n d by examination of t h e c i r c u i t you w i l l n o t i c e t h a t t h e r e a r e no a d j u s t m e n t s o r c o n t r o l s on t h i s a m p l i f i e r . Now w come t o t h e 43-A a m p l i f i e r which i s t h e most powerful of a l l t h e ame p l i f i e r s used i n W.E. t h e a t e r equipment. An e x t e r i o r view of an a m p l i f i e r of t h i s type is s e e n i n F i g u r e 25. I t is e s s e n t i a l l y l i k e t h e 42-A amplif i e r except t h a t i t i s l a r g e r i n e v e r y way due t o i t s g r e a t e r power o r g r e a t e r g a i n . A much b e t t e r i d e a of t h e power possessed by s u c h an a m p l i f i e r can be had by e x p r e s s i n g i t s performance i n d e f i n i t e v a l u e s as f o l l o w s : Its o u t p u t i s 1 2 watts, g a i n 14.8 db, and l e v e l 33 db.

A t o t a l of f o u r t u b e s are e w l o y e d i n t h e 43-A, t h e same number as i n t h e 42-A, b u t i n t h e 43-A t h e s e t u b e s $ r e of t h e 211-E t y p e ; two o f t h e s e t u b e s , t h o s e on t h e l e f t , a r e a m p l i f i e r s connected i n p u s h - p u l l w h i l e t h e remaining two, those on t h e r i g h t , o p e r a t e i n a full- wave r e c t i f i e r c i r c u i t . The f i l a m e n t of each a m p l i f i e r draws t h r e e amperes a t a p o t e n t i a l of 1 0 v o l t s which i s s u p p l i e d by t h e f i l a m e n t winding of an a- c t r a n s f o r m e r . The t o t a l p l a t e c u r r e n t of 125 m i l l i a m p e r e s is r e a d on t h e p l a t e meter l o c a t e d on t h e f r o n t of t h e p a n e l , and t h e p l a t e v o l t a g e which i s 750 v o l t s i s f u r n i s h e d by t h e two 211-E t u b e s The g r i d b i a s f o r t h e j u s t r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e full- wave r e c t i f i e r c i r c u i t .
Lesson 7 1

- sheet 19

C O Y P W Y OF

RECCRItdI RESEARCH PRODUCCS. 8C.

Figure 25

GND.

Figure 26

Lesson 71

sheet 20

a m p l i f i e r s i s f u r n i s h e d by t h e v o l t a g e drop obtained a c r o s s a r e s i s t o r when t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t flows through t h i s r e s i s t o r . The a m p l i f i e r i s e n t i r e l y s e l f - c o n t a i n e d and needs no adjustments whatever and, consequently, t h e r e is no g a i n c o n t r o l . A l l of t h e p a r t s a r e p r o t e c t e d by & heavy m e t a l case on t h e r e a r which i s equipped w i t h a s p e c i a l l a t c h t h a t o p e r a t e s a door switch t o b r e a k t h e a-c supply t o t h e power transformer whenever t h e metal c a s e is opened. Also, a n o t h e r f e a t u r e which was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n o t h e r a p p a r a t u s and p r e v i o u s l y mentioned i s a t h r e e - p o s i t i o n s w i t c h which i s connected i n t h e c i r c u i t s i n such a way t h a t i t p e r m i t s t h e f i l a m e n t s t o be heated f o r 5 minutes b e f o r e t h e p l a t e c u r r e n t is turned on. Inasmuch as the o u t p u t impedance and i n p u t i m e d a n c e of t h e 43-A a r e both 500 ohms, then, when two such a m p l i f i e r s a r e used i n p a r a l l e l t h e i n p u t impedance becomes 250 ohms and, hence, t h e i n p u t i s s u i t a b l e f o r connection t o t h e 250 ohm o u t p u t of t h e 42-A. A c i r c u i t diagram of t h e 43-A a m p l i f i e r is given i n Figure 26. The a m p l i f i e r s described i n t h e f o r e g o i n g paragraphs a r e always connected i n such a manner t h a t t h e sound c u r r e n t s p a s s from one u n i t t o t h e o t h e r i n t h e f o l l o w i n g o r d e r : From 4 1 t o 42 and thence through 43. For convenience i n w i r i n g and o p e r a t i o n t h e 41, 42, and 4 3 a r e mounted one above t h e o t h e r on an i r o n r e l a y r a c k t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n p u t and output cont r o l apparatus. The v a r i o u s W.E. sound systems a r e coded by t h e number of a m p l i f i e r s used and i n Figure 27 we have shown t h e l a y o u t of t h e p r i n c i p a l systems and a l s o t h e i r code numbers.

2-5-41 SYSTEM

2-SX-41 SYSTEM

INPUT

TO HORNS

IN PARALLEL

1-5-41 SYSTEM

Figure 27

W E 46-B ( C , D. and E ) AMFLIFIER. There i s a l s o a 46-B ( C , D , and E ) amplif f e r which i s a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d combination of t h e 41-8 and t h e 42-8 and is --

i d e n t i c a l with t h e l a t t e r two combinations except f o r t h e f a c t t h a t it u s e s one l e s s 239-A tube, and i s designed t o be mounted on t h e booth w a l l r a t h e r than on a r a c k . An e x t e r n a l view of t h e 46-B a m p l i f i e r i s shown i n Figure 28 w i t h i t s c i r c u i t diagram i n F i g u r e 29. The p o t e n t i o m e t e r g a i n u n i t o f t h e 41-A i s r e p l a c e d i n t h e 46 type by a row of p o t e n t i o m e t e r t e r m i n a l s , any one of which may be used through s u i t a b l y arranged p i g t a i l connections. The 239-A tube f i l a m e n t s a r e s u p p l i e d w i t h h e a t i n g c u r r e n t from a s t o r a g e b a t t e r y . A comparison between t h i s a m p l i f i e r and o t h e r p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d can be made by n o t i n g t h a t t h e o u t p u t of t h e 46-B ( C , D l and E) i s 2.4 w a t t s , i t s g a i n 66 db, and i t s l e v e l 26db; v a l u e s which correspond almost e x a c t l y t o t h o s e a l ready given . f o r t h e 41-A and 42-A i n combination. The i n p u t of t h e 46 type a m p l i f i e r i s approximately 250 ohms and its o u t p u t which i s 8 ohms i s designed Lesson 7 1

sheet 2 1

Figure 29

Lesson 71

- sheet 22

t o work i n t o t h e v o i c e c o i l s of two dynamic speakers which a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l and have an impedance of 1 6 ohms each. This equipment is a l s o supp l i e d with a s p e c i a l l a t c h o r door switch which breaks t h e a-c c i r c u i t when t h e .door is opened. Another p o i n t i n r e g a r d t o t h e 41-A and 42-k a m p l i f i e r s i s t h a t t h e 46 type a m p l i f i e r which i s a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d combination of t h e s e types may be used a l o n e and i t then c o n s t i t u t e s a system by i t s e l f . This system then becomes known a s t h e 3-S-46, a l a y o u t of which i s given i n F i g u r e 30. The l e t t e r s B , C , and D t h a t a r e used to i d e n t i f y t h e s e types i n d i c a t e minor changes i n r h e o s t a t s and s o on, while t h e l e t t e r E i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e o u t p u t transformer which has a secondary impedance of 8 ohms has been r e p l a c e d by a transformer whose o u t p u t o r secondary impedance is 500 ohms. With t h i s change
INPUT
70 HORNS

' L

INPUT

TO HORNS

46-E

43-A 3-SX-46 SYSTEM

<

3-5-46 SYSTEM

F i g u r e 30

F i g u r e 31

i n t r a n s f o r m e r s t h e 46 o r 46-E a m p l i f i e r s may be used n i t h a type 43-A t o form a new system known a s 3-SX-46, a l a y o u t of which i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 31. The 3-SX-46 system i s e l e c t r i c a l l y t h e e q u i v a l e n t of t h e 2-SX-41 system. TIE 49-A W3STERN ELECTRIC BMPLIFIER. Let u s f i r s t e x p l a i n t h a t t h e modulated c u r r e n t s which rearoduce t h e sound f r e a u e n c i e s a f t e r t h e y p a s s through t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l i sound pickup and otGer a s s o c i a t e d c i r c u i t s a r e so-minute t h a t i f they were c a r r i e d f o r any g r e a t d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e connecting l e a d s t o t h e main a m p l i f i e r s , o t h e r c u r r e n t s due t o s t a t i c and s t r a y s would a l s o be picked up on t h e s e w i r e s and t h e l a t t e r c u r r e n t s m i g h t be s t r o n g enough t o 3 e f f e c t t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e a m p l i f i e r system. This i s because t h e energy l e v e l of t h e sound c u r r e n t s i s v e r y low i n comparison w i t h any d i s t u r b i n g energy which might be picked up from e l e c t r i c a l d e v i c e s n e a r t h e a m p l i f i e r , such as t h e motors,and s o on,which a r e always running when t h e sound g i c t u r e equipment is being operated. F u r t h e r , t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l c i r c u i t i s . e s s e n t i a l l y one of high ifnpedance and i t i s common knovrledge t h a t i n such a c i r c u i t i n t e r f e r e n c e i s r e a d i l y picked up and, hence, any extraneous c u r r e n t s o acquired might be s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g i n comparison with t h e low energy l e v e l of t h e sound c u r r e n t s themselves, a s we j u s t mentioned, t h a t u n d e s i r a b l e n o i s e s might be heard from t h e s t a g e horns o r loudspeakers. Therefore, t o p r e v e n t an u n d e s i r a b l e c o n d i t i o n of t h i s kind and t o r a i s e t h e energy of t h e sound c u r r e n t s t o t h e proper l e v e l and t h u s make them e f f e c t i v e a c r o s s a low impedance c i r c u i t , a vacuum tube a m p l i f i e r is connected w i t h i n 6 t o 8 inches of t h e t e r m i n a l s of t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l c i r c u i t . Moreover, t o prevent e x t r a n e o u s n o i s e s which might be caused by v i b r a t i o n of t h e vacuum t u b e s , t h e e n t i r e a m p l i f i e r i s mounted on a s l a b of s o f t rubber one- half 'inch t h i c k and t h e t u b e s and transformers a r e mounted on a s h e l f suspended by s p r i n g s . This a m p l i f i e r i s d e s i g n a t e d as t h e 49-8 and is mounted d i r e c t l y under t h e PEC housing on t h e motion p i c t u r e p r o j e c t o r o r u n i v e r s a l base and i s used with a l l modern W.E. sound systems r e g a r d l e s s of t h e s i z e o r Lesson 71

- sheet

23

make up of the amplifier and is designed to work into a volume control or fader whose input is 500 ohms and whose output is 200 or 250 ohms. From the fader the speech currents are fed either to a 41-A and subsequent amplifiers, or to a 46 type depending upon the system. The 49-A is a transformer-coupled amplifier and uses two 239-A tubes with their filaments connected in series. The filament current drawn by these tubes is 270 milliamperes which is maintained at this value by adjusting a rheostat so that an e.m.f. of 1 1 volts will be impressed on the filament . terminals. The filament voltage is supplied by a 12 volt storage battery which also furnishes the requisite working voltages for the other units of the sound system. There is no gain control and the only adjustment included in this amplifier is the filament rheostat. The 49 ty-pe amplifiers are designated with letters A, B, and C,and each signifies slight changes in rheostat values and other minor changes. We have redrawn the schematic diagrams of modern W.E. sound amplifiers to show the layout of the different systems as you can readily see in Figure 32.
TO

3.5-46 SYSTEM

3 - S X - 4 6 SYSTEM

TO

2 - 5 - 4 1 SYSTEM

2-SX-41 SYSTEM

( - 5 - 4 1 SYSTEM

Figure 32

EXAMINATION

- LESSON 71

What method is used by Photophone to strengthen PEC current .. before delivery to main amplifiers? By W E CO.? What are the current sources of the P.G. 131 m a t is the source of grid bias for the 438 amplifier? How many power amplifiers has the P G 21 .. What tubes are used 13 the P G 10 voltage amplifier? .. .. What type of circuit hasthe P G 1 power amplifier? In what amplifier is a screen grid tube employed? Name the most powerful W E . . Go. amplifier. Name two methods of accomplishing "fadingn. Draw a schematic diagram of a 3-SX-46 system. Lesson 71

sheet 24

INC.
firme+.
M A R C O N / lNSTlTU7-E

SUPPIEMEITPARY INSTRUCTION

SCREEN GRID - RADIOLA 44

Figure 1 i s a t y p i c a l c i r c u i t u t i l i z i n g the UX-222 s c r e e n g r i d tube. The addit i o n of t.he UX-222 t o t h e vacuum tube family i s the, r e s u l t of considerable experimentation. It was developed p r i m a r i l y t o f u n c t i o n a s a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r i n c i r c u i t s e s p e c i a l l y designed t o take advantage of t h e high voltage a m p l i f i c a t i o n and t h e low i n t e r n a l capacity between t h e p l a t e and c o n t r o l g r i d .

TO DETECTOR PLATE VOLTAGE WHICH VARIES DEPENDING UPON

'6"BKtTERY

with tubes of the t h r e e element type, n e i t h e r can it be used t o replace them i n a standard t h r e e element tube c i r c u i t . I n a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r using a t h r e e element tube and having tuned p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s t h e r e immediatsly a r i s e s the problem of s e l f - o s c i l l a t i o n , an undesired condition which i s due t o t h e feeding back of energy between t h e p l a t e and g r i d c i r c u i t s . Granting, however, t h a t the e x t e r n a l sources of t h i s feed- back a c t i o n have been e l i m i n a t e d t h e r e always remains the c a p a c i t y betweel? the g r i d and p l a t e of the tube i t s e l f . Two methods are commonly employed t o prevent s e l f - o s c i l l a t i o n i n a c i r c u i t usOne method, known a s t h e l o s s e r method, employs i n g t h e t h r e e element tube. a h i g h r e s i s t a n c e , c a l l e d a g r i d suppressor, connected i n s e r i e s with the g r i d Contents Copyrighted 1930 P r i n t e d i n U.S.A.

Figure 1

c i r c u i t of the t h r e e element tube. The p l a c i n g of t h i s h i g h r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e g r i d c i r c u i t introduces l o s s e s t h e r e i n of s u f f i c i e n t magnitude t o maintain the a m p l i f i c a t i o n below the p o i n t O f o s c i l l a t i o n

In t h e second method t h e p r i n c i p a l of n e u t r a l i z i n g i s involved. I n t h i s method a second o r balancing c i r c u i t i s provided and arranged i n such a manner t h a t an electromotive f o r c e obtained from t h i s second c i r c u i t w i l l be e q u a l i n magnitude developed i n t h e tube due t o t h e feed back. but opposite i n phase t o t h e e .m.f. A small v a r i a b l e condenser placed i n t h e balancing c i r c u i t allows t h e proper adjustment t o be made s o t h a t t h e feed-back energy of t h e balancing c i r c u i t w i l l j u s t equal t h e i n t e r n a l feed-back of t h e tube. However, when t h e 222 tube i s used t h e l o s s e r or balancing schemes become unnecessary because the s t a b i l i t y of t h e c i r c u i t i s a t t a i n e d by e l i m i n a t i n g the g r i d t o p l a t e capacity of t h e tube
PLILRHPTOR
bLTSI)Ll&%,ll

Figure 2

Figure 3

i n a p r a c t i c a l way. A simple i l l u s t r a t i o n w i l l s h m how t h e p l a t e - g r i d capac i t y i s p r a c t i c a l l y reduced t o zero. I n Figure 2 t h e c a p a c i t y I1C" i s shown connected i n a n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t c i r c u i t t o g e t h e r w i t h an a m e t e r t o i n d i c a t e t h e c u r r e n t i n the c i r c u i t . Figure 3 shows another c i r c u i t which d i f f e r s from Figure 2 because an a d d i t i o n a l p l a t e "X" has been i n s e r t e d between t h e p l a t e "a" and "b" of OUT o r i g i n a l capaThe i n t r o d u c t i o n of c i t y " C " , and makes connection w i t h t h e c i r c u i t a t "D". the p l a t e "x" g i v e s us, i n e f f e c t , two condensers i n s e r i e s and i t can be seen t h a t one of t h e c a p a c i t i e s i s now s h o r t e d out causing t h e c u r r e n t , previously i n d i c a t e d bg: t h e ammeter i n Figure 2, t o f a l l t o zero. T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e ca a c i t y between "x" and "b" has been e f f e c t u a l l y reduced by i n s e r t i n g p l a t e "XR i n t h e c i r c u i t a s j u s t explained. S t a t i n g t h i s i n o t h e r words, "b " has been screened from p l a t e "a" by p l a t e "X".
It i s upon t h i s p r i n c i p a l t h a t t h e capacity between t h e g r i d and p l a t e of the s c r e e n g r i d tube i s n u l l i f i e d . I n s t e a d of a s o l i d p l a t e , as "X", being used t h e s c r e e n i s made of a mesh l i k e wire i n two p a r t s , one being mounted outside of t h e p l a t e element and t h e o t h e r between t h e p l a t e and conkrol w i d . Both s c r e e n g r i d s a r e connected t o g e t h e r i n s i d e the tube and t h e n t o a p i n on t h e base of t h e tube by means of a wire lead.

The c o n t r o l g r i d i s mounted 1 ke the g r i d i n any t h r e e element r a d i o tube and t i s c o m c t e d t o a metal cap secured t o t h e t o p f u n c t i o n s e x a c t l y the same. of t h e g l a s s envelope as shown by t h e cut-away view of t h e tube i n Figure 4. The p l a t e and. f i l a m e n t elements a r e connected t o t h e p l a t e and filament pins i n t h e u s u a l manner by small w i r e s . The i n t r o d u c t i o n of the s c r e e n o r f o u r t h e l e c t r o d e causes t h e characteristics of t h e t h r e e e l e c t r o d e and f o u r e l e c t r o d e tubes t o d i f f e r . The p l a t e of the Sheet 2

222 i s operated a t a higher p o t e n t i a l t h a n t h e screen e l e c t r o d e due t o t h e s h i e l d i n g e f f e c t of t h i s screen. Because a p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l i s applied t o t h e screen it a t t r a c t s e l e c t r o n s from the filament e x a c t l y a s does t h e p l a t e of any three e l e c t r o d e tube. The a t t r a c t e d e l e c t r o n s move toward t h e screen a t comparatively high v e l o c i t i e s , but t h e m a j o r i t y of them pass d i r e c t l y through the openings i n t h e mesh-like screen and s t r i k e t h e p l a t e , because t h e p o t e n t i a l of the p l a t e i s higher t h a n the screen g r i d . Analyzing the above e x p l a n a t i o n it can be s t a t e d t h a t t h e screen a c t s a s t h e a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e f o r e l e c t r o n s emitted by the filament, while t h e p l a t e simply a c t s a s an accumlator of them a f t e r they have passed through t h e screen. The 222 o p r a t e s t o t h e b e s t advantage when it i s used a s a radio- frequency a m p l i f i e r since it. i s e x c e p t i o n a l l y e f f i c i e n t when handling frequencies of t h e order of 40,000 k i l o c y c l e s and higher. It operates a s a s t a b l e a m p l i f i e r w i t h out t h e n e c e s s i t y af employing balancing or n e u t r a l i z i n g c i r c u i t s only when a l l e x t e r n a l sources of feed-back are eliminated. The sources of f e e d back which must be guarded a g a i n s t a r e t h e feed-back due t o coupling between the p l a t e and g r i d leads, t h e i n d u c t i v e and c a p a c i t i v e coupling between t h e tuned g r i 3 and p l a t e c i r c u i t s and coupling due t o the impedance of t h e "B" supply. Proper s h i e l d i n g w i l l prevent feed-back due t o the f i r s t two sources mentioned above, while t h e cause r e l a t i v e t o t h e IIB n supply becomes a problem only when This d i f f i c u l t y can be e l i m i two or more radio- frequency s t a g e s a r e employed. nated by i n s e r t i n g f i l t e r s i n t h e p l a t e supply leads a t l o c a t i o n s where t h e l e a d s pass through t h e s h i e l d i n g cases which are employed t o completely enclose t h e tuned g r i d c i r c u i t s . It i s q u i t e necessary t o s h i e l d t h e t u b e and t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t i n s e p a r a t e s h i e l d e d compartments and a l s o t h e g r i d l e a d which extends through the compartment t o t h e g r i d terminal. Any i n s u l a t e d wire sheathed by m e t a l l i c b r a i d can be used f o r t h i s purpose. The 222 h a s a standard UX base with f o u r connections. A l e a d f r o m t h e inner o r c o n t r o l g r i d i s brought through the g l a s s envelope and connects t o a metal cap a t t h e t o p of t h e g l a s s envelope, making t h e f i f t h c o n m c t i o n . The tube should be mounted i n a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n and s h i e l d e d w i t h a metal jacket closel y f i t t i n g the g l a s s envelope. An a p e r t u r e with i n s u l a t e d circumference a t t h e t o p should provide a clearance not exceeding 1/16 of an i n c h between t h e metal cap on t h e tube and t h e metal of the s h i e l d i n g jacket. The jacket should ext e n d down t o t h e base of t h e tube with a wire connecting i t t o e i t h e r one of t h e f i l a m e n t terminals a t t h e t u b e socket. The lower l e f t hand s k e t c h i n Figure 1 shows t h e proper socket connections. The normal conditions f o r o p e r a t i n g t h e UX-222 i s shown i n t h e following: Filament "A" supply, 3.3 v o l t s , connection being made t o t h e l a r g e p i n s i n t h e tube base. Filament c u r r e n t 0.132 amps. P l a t e "B" supply 90 t o 135 v o l t s , connection made t o t h e p l a t e pins i n base. 1 Inner or c o n t r o l g r i d b i a s - t o -1.5 v o l t s supplied by tapped r e s i s t o r a s shown i n Figure 1. Connection t o g r i d i s made by a metal c l i p which f i t s over a metal cap on t o p of t h e g l a s s envelope. 45 v o l t s secured by tapping t h e source of '%'I Outer or screen g r i d b i a s supply. Connection i s made through t h e g r i d p i n i n t h e tube base. P l a t e c u r r e n t 1.5 milliamperes.

Sheet 3

P l a t e r e s i s t a n c e 500,000 t o 1,100,000 ohms. Amplification f a c t o r Mutual conductance 350 micromhos when used f o r r.f. 175 t o 300. Maximum e f f e c t i v e g r i d t o p l a t e c a p a c i t y 0.025 mmfd. The b i a s voltage on t h e c o n t r o l g r i d w i t h r e s p e c t t o the negative s i d e of t h e filament i s the voltage value given above and c a n be obtained by t h e use If the tube i s operated from a 6 v o l t b a t t e r y t h e of a 1.5 v o l t dry c e l l .
necessary c o n t r o l grid b i a s -1 t o - 1.5 v o l t s m a y be o b t a i n e d Y r o m a t a p p e d r e -

s i s t o r a s shown i n Figure 1, t h e connection being made t o the metal cap on t o p of t h e g l a s s envelope. The screen g r i d b i a s i s secured by tapping the "B" supply a t the +'45 v o l t t a p , t h i s connection b i n g made through t h e g r i d p i n on t h e base of t h e tube. P l a t e c u r r e n t 1.5 milliam e r e s , P l a t e r e s i s t a n c e 850,000 ohms. Nutual conductance 350 rnicromhos. g m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r 300. E f f e c t i v e g r i d t o p l a t e c a p a c i t y 0.025 mmfa. maximum. P l a t e voltage 135 v o l t s . Filament voltage 3.3 v o l t s . Neither t h e p l a t e or s c r e e n g r i d voltage i s c r i t i c a l . The c o n t r o l g r i d v o l t age may be obtained by u t i l i z i n g t h e voltage drop across the filament r e s i s t o r a s shown i n Figure
CONTROL GRID

FILAM&T

~ONNECTIONS

C+g

A-

A+

B t

C- POWER

Figure 4

Figure 5

Whenever n UX-222 i s used i n a c i r c u i t which a l s o employs f i v e v o l t tubes of t h e 201-A type t h e n a 1 5 ohm r e s i s t o r should be placed i n s e r i e s with t h e negative filament l e a d of each tube. Since t h e r e s i s t o r and t h e UX-222 f i l a ment are i n s e r i e s t h e y may t h e n be connected d i r e c t l y i n p a r a l l e l with the f i l a m e n t s of t h e 5 v o l t tubes, and t h u s a l l tubes can be operated from a common Figure 1 shows a r h e o s t a t c o n t r o l l i n g t h e f i l a m e n t s of a l l t h e " A" b a t t e r y . I n c a l c u l a t i n g the r h e o s t a t r e s i s t a n c e i t may be assumed t h a t tubes used. two UX-222ts, including t h e 1 5 ohm r e s i s t o r s , w i l l draw approximately as much c u r r e n t a s t h e filament of one UX-201LA type tube. When t h e UX-222 i s used i n a d r y c e l l operated r e c e i v e r no r e s i s t o r s a r e required i n the f i l a m e n t leads Sheet 4

r h e o s t a t which i s an i n % r e g a l p a r t of the s e t . The by connecting them d i r e c t l y a c r o s s t h e 3.0 t o 3.3 v o l t s he r e s i s t a n c e of a filament r h e o s t a t used i n a dry b a t t e r y e t h e c u r r e n t drawn by one UX-222 -filament t o be equal t o of two t u b e s of the 199 tjrpe.
Figure 5 shws the UX-222 i n use i n an audio- frequency r e s i s t a n c e amplifier. Here it i s possiblf t o r e a l i z e high a m p l i f i c a t i o n by t h e employmnt of high impedance loads. he low feed-back c a p a c i t y makes a m p l i f i c a t i o n p o s s i b l e a t h i g h e r frequencies t h a n when t h r e e e l e c t r o d e t u b e s , such a s t h e UX 201-8 type, a r e used.

When used i n audio- frequency c i r c u i t s t h e UX-222 operates a s a space charge g r i d tube. I t i s connected s o t h a t t h e i n n e r or c o n t r o l g r i d i s placed a t a p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l and t h e screen g r i d a t a negative b i a s , hence e l e c t r o n s w i l l be drawn away from t h e filament by t h e c o n t r o l g r i d and p r o j e c t e d i n t o t h e space between t h e two g r i d s . The m a j o r i t y of t h e s e e l e c t r o n s s t o p close t o t h e o u t e r g r i d and t h e n P a l l back t o t h e i n n e r g r i d . The e l e c t r o n s which r e t u r n t o t h e i n n e r g r i d a r e immediately replaced by other e l e c t r o n s and because of t h i s c o n t i n u a l replacement t h e r e i s a permanent e l e c t r o n i c f i e l d maintained close t o t h e o u t e r g r i d . This i n e f f e c t a c t s a s a cathode l o c a t e d very close t o the screen g r i d r e s u l t i n g i n a low p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e , and s i n c e t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r between t h e screen g r i d and p l a t e i s only s l i g h t l y a f f e c t e d by t h i s condition h i g h mutual conductance i s t h e r e s u l t and a t the same time h i g h a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s secured. The normal operating c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e tube when used a s a space charge g r i d tube a r e a s follows: The filament 'A" supply i s 3.3 v o l t s . P l a t e supply 135 t o 180 v o l t s . This voltage i s not be a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e p l a t e but t o a p l a t e coupling r e s i s t o r of from 100,000 t o 250,000 ohms. The voltage g e n e r a l l y supplied i s 180 v o l t s when t h e tube i s employed f o r t h i s p r t i c u l a r use. S e r i e s load r e s i s t a n c e Control g r i d voltage Space charge g r i d voltage Plate current Iflutual conductance Amplification f a c t o r 100,000 t o 250,000 0 t o 1.5 v o l t s 22.5 v o l t s . 0.3 milliamperes 400 micromhos

66 . O

@
.
V't

61 The following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e 201-A tube w i l l prove of i n t e r e s t when

222 which have j u s t been given. . compared t o t h o s e of the

Filament "A " supply Filament c u r r e n t Used a s a m p l i f i e r Grid b i a s

5.0 v o l t s . 0.25 amps. 45 t o 155 v o l t s . 1.5 t o 9.0 v o l t s , Sheet 5

mpllfier plate current .C. p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e Mutual conductance (micromhos ) Voltage amplif i c a t i o n f a c t o r

RCA RADIOLA 44

2.5 t o 3.0 milliamperes. 11,500 t o 10,000 ohms. 725 t o 800 8.0

Introduction. The RCA Radiola 44 i s a v a i l a b l e f o r 105-125 v o l t , 50-60 cycle a-c. operation and f o r 105-125 v o l t , 25-40 cycle a-c operation. The only d i f f e r e n c e between t h e 50-60 cycle models and t h e 25-40 c y c l e models i s t h e power t r a n s f orrner. T h i s r a d i o r e c e i v e r u t i l i z e s t h e new a-c. screen g r i d tube m-224, t h e new power amplif'ier tube UX-245, and the f u l l wave r e c t i f i e r tube UX-280. It i s a t a b l e model r e c e i v e r which may be used w i t h e i t h e r a magnetic o r dynamic type loudspeaker, and has s p e c i a l provision f o r e n e r g i z i n g t h e f i e l d Figure 6 shows of a dynamic speaker t h a t u s e s 40 milliamperes at 300 volts. $he p a r t s i n t h e r e c e i v e r assembly and Figure 7 those i n t h e Socket Power Unit. i g u r e 8 shows the c o n s t r u c t i o n of vacuum tube UY-224. The s e n s i t i v i t y and s e l e c t i v i t y of t h i s r e c e i v e r a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r good r e - c e p t i o n and the f i d e l i t y i s e x c e p t i o n a l l y good. The use of t h e p m e r a m p l i f i e r tube UX-245 gives a l a r g e r e s e r v e of power r a r e l y needed, but c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e q u a l i t y of reproduction a t any volume. The following p r i n c i p l e s a r e incorporated i n t h e d e s i g n of t h i s r e c e i v e r . Figure 9 shows t h e schematic c i r c u i t diagram. (1) Three tubes UY-224, one UX-245 and one uX-280 a r e used. Two tubes UY-224 a r e tuned r.f. emplif ier4s and one UY-224 i s t h e power d e t e c t o r . The UX-245 i s t h e power a m p l i f i e r and t h e UY-280 i s the f u l l wave r e c t i f i e r f o r conv e r t i n g the a-c. t o d-c. f o r use a s p l a t e and g r i d supply t o a l l o t h e r vacuum tubes, and f i e l d supply t o a dynamic reproducer u n i t . The c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of two tuned radio- frequency s t a g e s , a power d e t e c t o r and a power a m p l i f i e r . The d e t e c t o r has s u f f i c i e n t output t o d r i v e t h e power a m p l i f i e r without an intermediate audio stage. By using a high inductanoe antenna loading c o i l , v a r i a t i o n s i$ antenna constants have l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e tuning of t h e c i r c u i t s . h i s eliminates the n e c e s s i t y f o r a coupling tube o r d i f f e r e n t antenna l e n g t h connections. A Local-Distant Switch fs provided which d i s c o n n e c t s t h e antenna a t the "ocal" p o s i t i o n and connects a condenser i n i t s p l a c e from the antenna end of the loading c o i l t o ground. The use of t h i s switch g i v e s t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e operation from b o t h l o c a l and d i s t a n t s t a t i o n s . The use of s c r e e n g r i d tubes t o g e t h e r w i t h proper s h i e l d i n g e l i m i n a t e s the n e c e s s i t y of n e u t r a l i z i n g , o r o t h e r method of s t a b i l i z i n g . A h i g h voltage type d e t e c t o r gives improved q u a l i t y and s u f f i c i e n t output t o d i r e c t l y d r i v e the power a m p l i f i e r . N a u d i o t r a n s f o r m e r i s used i n o Radiola 44. *he d e t e c t o r i s coupled t o t h e power a m p l i f i e r by means of impedance coupling which e l i m i n a t e s any d i s t o r t i o n t h a t might occur i f a transformer were used. The volume c o n t r o l v a r i e s t h e voltage on t h e s c r e e n g r i d of the two r.f. amplifiers. T h i s provides a smooth means of c o n t r o l l i n g volume without d i s t o r t i o n and gives a p o s i t i v e cut- off even on loud l o c a l s t a t i o n s . Sheet 6

sequence of t h e tubes. The f i r s t and second tuned r a d i o the tuned d e t e c t o r using tubes UY-224, a r e i n t h e r e -

power amplifier UI-245 and the f u l l wave r e c t i f i e r

UX-

i n t h e Socket --'ewer U n i t , abbreviated S.P.U.

Since t h e a-c. s c r e e n scussion of the t h e o r y on n--which it and t h e surroundingA circuits operate w i l l give t h e s e r v i c e m ; an a understanding of t h e p r i n c i p l e s involved i n t h e d e s i g n of t h e s c r e e n g r i d r e ceiver. Vacuum tube UY-224 has f i v e elements .compared with t h e usual t h r e e i n b a t t e r y , o r a m p l i f i e r t u b e s , and f o u r i n t h e UY-227 i n d i r e c t l y heated cathode tgpe. These elements a r e namely: a h e a t e r , a cathode (both s i m i l a r t o t h a t used i n t h e UY-227) a p l a t e , a c o n t r o l g r i d and a s c r e e n g r i d placed on both t h e i n s i d e a d o u t s i d e of t h e p l a t e . Figure 8 shows t h e i n t e r n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e UY-224.

Is_T R . F. TRANSFORMER

2NP R.F. TRANSFORMER

3 P R..F. R

TRANSFORMER

C O N T R O L GRID CONNECTION

9.F. FILTER

SWITCH

GROUND CONNECTIONS

TENSION SPRING
Sheet 7

Figure 6

The o u t s t a n d i w f e a t u r e s of the screen g r i d tube a r e as follows:

(1) The screen g r i d e f f e c t i v e l y s h i e l d s the c o n t r o l g r i d from undesirable feed-back e f f e c t s caused by p l a t e voltage v a r i a t i o n s through inter- element capacity. ( 2 ) Placing the c o n t r o l g r i d close t o the cathode and s e l a t i v e l y f a r from t h e p l a t e increases t h e ' a m p l i f i c a t i o n constant of the tube enormously which, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n s e r t i o n of t h e screen g r i d , i n c r e a s e s the a-c. p l a t e r e s i ~ t a n c e . The p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e i s so high t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o design an a u t p u t c i r c u i t t o o b t a i n f u l l advantage of t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n of the tube. Iiowever, while a c t u a l a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s l e s s t h a n t h e amplif i c a t i o n constant of t h e tube it I s much g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t obtained w i t h other types of tubes. An example o f t h i s a m p l i f i c a t i o n i n p r a c t i c e i s
FILTER
A N D BY- PASS CONDENSERS AWD OUTPUT C O N D E N S E R hNb CHOKE POWER TRANSFORME9 CONTROL GRID-%L CONNECTION

-CATHOPE (INSIDE OF CONTROL GRID)

HEATER- NOT

SHOWN- IS INSIDE OF CATHODE

Figure 8

(3)

presented i n Kadiola 44 which w i t h two r.f s t a g e s , has a s e n s i t i v i t y approximately t h e sane a s r e c e i v e r s using o t h e r tubes of four r . f . s t a g e s . This h i g h p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e and h i g h impedance output c i r c u i t a l s o causes the g r i d c i r c a i t s t o have considerably l e s s r . f . r e s i s t a n c e which, t o g e t h e r with decreased coupling between t h e primary and secondary of the r . f , transformer, gives t h e r e c e i v e r good s e l e c t i v i t y . The advantages of high p l a t e r e s i s t a n c e are obtained i n t h i s tube without s a c r i f i c i n g t h e a d a t i o n a l advantages of h i g h mutual conductance. The p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l impressed on t h e screen. g r i d a c c e l e r a t e s t h e flow of p l a t e c u r r e n t and since it i s much c l o s e r t o t h e cathode than i s t h e p l a t e , i t produces a g r e a t e r a c c e l e r a t i o n than does the higher voltage impressed upon t h e p l a t e . The mechanical c o n s t r u c t i o n of the s c r e e n g r i d does not permit i t t o c o l l e c t many of t h e e l e c t r o n s composing the p l a t e c u r r e n t hence p r a c t i c a l l y t h e e n t i r e p l a t e current passes on through t h e s c r e e n g r i d t o the p l a t e . The p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l on the screen g r i d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e cathode i s Sheet 8

s voltage a f f e c t t h e mutual corxluctance of c e w i t h t h e above e x p l a n a t i o n t h e r e f o r e . a f f o r d i n g ens of c o n t r o l l i n g the volume without introducing d i s a r i a t i on i n screen g r i d v o l t a g e i s from zero v o l t s a t

The advantage of t h e e f f e c t noted i n (1)i s t h a t , provided a l l e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t s are s h i e l d e d , t h e r e i s no feed-back or r e g e n e r a t i o n , which might cause o s c i l l a t i o n i n any of t h e c i r c u i t s . This e l i m i n a t e s t h e need f o r n e u t r a l i z i n g condensers, g r i d r e s i s t o r s and other methods of preventing o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e r.f. c i r c u i t s . A s most of t h e s e methods reduce t h e e f f i c i e n c y of the c i r c u i t s , t h e i r absence m a n s a d i s t i n c t g a i n i n t h e performance of t h e receiver. INSTALLATION Antenna. The antenna used should not be l e s s than 30 f e e t i n l e n g t h or g r e a t e r t h a n 50 f e e t , including t h e lead- in connection t o the antenna lead of the r e ceiver. I n l o c a l i t i e s remote frcan powerful broadcasting s t a t i o n s t h i s l e n g t h may b e increased t o 75 o r 100 f e e t , but no g r e a t e r . F a i l u r e t o observe t h e s e requirements may r e s u l t i n accentuation of t h e seconlary modulation e f f e c t discussed l a t e r . The antenna should be e r e c t e d a s h i g h a s p o s s i b l e and be removed from e l l o b s t r u c t i o n s . The l e a d - i n should be a c o n t i n u a t i o n of the antenna i t s e l f , t h u s avoiding a l l s p l i c e s which may introduce a d d i t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e and i n time corrode s u f f i c i e n t l y t o s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t r e c e p t i o n . I f it i s a b s o l u t e l y necess a r y t o s p l i c e t h e l e a d - i n t o t h e antenna: t h e j o i n t must be soldered t o i n sure a good e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t . Clean off a l l excess f l u x and tape t h e conn e c t i o n t o p r o t e c t it from o x i d a t i o n e f f e c t s of t h e atmosphere. High grade g l a s s or p o r c e l a i n i n s u l a t o r supports a r e r e q u i r e d , and a t no point should the antenna o r l e a d - i n come i n contact w i t h any p a r t of the building. Bring the lead- in wire through a p o r c e l a i n tube insulator t o t h e i n s i d e of t h e house f o r connection t o t h e r e c e i v e r . The antenna should not c r o s s e i t h e r over o r under e l e c t r i c l i g h t , t r a c t i o n or power l i n e s , and should be a t r i g h t angles t o t h e s e l i n e s and o t h e r antennas. A outdoor antenna should be p r o t e c t e d by n means of an approved l i g h t n i n g a r r e s t e r i n accordance w i t h t h e requirements of t h e National F i r e Underwriter 1s Code. Antenna. Indoor Type. Where t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of an outdoor antenna i s not p r a c t i c a l , s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s may g e n e r a l l y be obtained by using an indoor a n t enna of 30 t o 50 f e e t of i n s u l a t e d wire s t r u n g around t h e p i c t u r e moulding o r placed under a rug. I n b u i l d i n g s where metal l a t h i n g i s employed s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s a r e not always p o s s i b l e w i t h t h i s type of antenna. Under such conditions v a r i o u s arrangements of t h e indoor antenna should be t r i e d t o secure s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s . A indoor antenna i s not a s e f f i c i e n t a s a p r o p e r l y i n s t a l l e d outdoor n ante m a . o Ground. A good ground i s q u i t e as important a s the antenna. N s p e c i f i c conditions vary i n different recommendations can be given i n t h i s m a t t e r a s l o c a t i o n s . Water and steam pipes u s u a l l y make good grounds. Gas p i p s usua l l y make poor grounds and as a r u l e , a r e t o be avoided. If n e i t h e r water nor steam pipes are a v a i l a 6 l e , a pipe or metal rod may be d r i v e n i n t o t h e ground t o Sheet 10

one g i v i n g t h e b e s t r e s u l t s .

peak. The e f f e c t of +he n o i s e may be divided. i n t o t h e following t h r e e g e n e r a l c l a s s e s: (1) Where t h e noise l e v e l i s zero w i t h no antenna o r ground, but i s e q u a l l y g r e a t on e i t h e r an indoor or outdoor antenna. ( 2 ) Where the n o i s e i s e q u a l l y g r e a t w i t h t h e antenna and ground e i t h e r connected or disconnected. ( 3 ) Where the n o i s e l e v e l i s g r e a t e r when the ouside antenna i s connected than when an i n s i d e antenna i s used; the i n s i d e antenna, however, not g i v i n g s u f f i c i e n t pick-up f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y r e c e p t i o n .
-

I n (1) where t h e n o i s e l e v e l i s zero w i t h no antenna or ground connected, but e q u a l l y g r e a t w i t h e i t h e r an indoor o r outdoor antenna, it i s a t once apparent t h a t t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e i s not being brought i n t o the r e c e i v e r over t h e power supply l i n e s . It has been found i n such c a s e s t h a t a n antenna f i v e f e e t long i n s i d e the room picked u p a s much noise a s when an e n t i r e o u t s i d e antenna l e a d - i n were used. T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t the n o i s e i s w i t h i n t h e b u i l d i n g and, i n case of t h e outside antenna, i s being picked up on t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e leadi n t h a t e n t e r s m d goes through t h e building. I n such cases t h e r e c e i v e r should be located c l o s e t o t h e p o i n t where t h e o u t s i d e l e a d - i n e n t e r s t h e building. If t h i s i s i m p r a c t i c a l t h e r e c e i v e r can be placed i n a n y l o c a t i o n a a l a copper b r a i d placed over t h e i n s i d e p o r t i o n of the leacl-in wire. This b r a i d i s not grounded. If the n o i s e l e v e l i s s t i l l appreciable a good r e c e i v e r ground with a s h o r t lead must be obtained. A long l e a d i s n o t d e s i r a b l e , a s it may p i c k up n o i s e .

~n ( 2 ) t h e n o i s e i s picked up w i t h no antenna or ground connected t o t h e r e c e i v e r . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h e n o i s e i s e n t e r i n g t h e r e c e i v e r through t h e power l i n e s . In t h i s case f i l t e r s must be placed i n the power su p l y a t the source of the noise o r a t t h e r e c e i v e r , dependling on conditions. f the trouble i s c l e a r e d up i n t h i s manner when t h e antenna and ground a r e disconnected, but a g a i n appears with t h e u s e of t h e antenna system, t h e remedies suggested i n (1) must a l s o be applied.

I n ( 3 ) t h e n o i s e i s g r e a t e r when t h e outside antenna i s connected than when an i n s i d e antenna i s used. The use of the i n s i d e antenna, however, does n o t give s u f f i c i e n t pick-up f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y r e c e p t i o n . I n t h i s case t h e pick-up i s probably occurring on t h e l e a d - i n w i r e between t h e r e c e i v e r and t h e antenna. Sheet 1 1
8

4 i

should be placed over t h e e n t i r e lead- in from the r e c e i v e r t o t h e o r t i o n of t h e antenna. Also changing the d i r e c t i o n of t h e antenna should ed and the l e a d - i n connected from t h e end of t h e antenna t h a t gives the r e s u l t s . The copper b r a i d should not be grounded. The conditions e x i s t i n g any l o c a l i t y must be analyzed and placed i n i t s c o r r e c t category. A t l e patience and experimenting w i l l u s u a l l y r e s u l t i n a s a t i s f a c t o r y lnatallation. acuum Tubes. The c o r r e c t l o c a t i o n of t h e tubes i s p l a i n l y irxlicated i n %igure 18. Remove the two Copper s h i e l d s by r e l e a s i n g t h e b clamp and place t h e t h r e e UY-224 tubes i n t h e s o c k e t s of t h e r e c e i v e r assembly. Replace t h e ' s h i e l d s and t i g h t e n clamp s u f f i c i e n t l y t o make good c o n t a c t between the s h i e l d and the m a i n c a s t i n g . Figure 10 shows t h e s h i e l d s i n t h e i r c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n i n t h e r e c e i v e r assembly. Care should be taken not t o place t h e UX-245 i n the UX280 socket a s filarnsnt damage w i l l r e s u l t when t h e c u r r e n t i s turned "on." The r e c e i v e r may now be placed i n operation by connecting a loudspeaker t o t h e output p i n jacks and plugging t h e a.f. input plug t o an o u t l e t of c o r r e c t r a t i n g and t u r n i n g 'Onw t h e o p e r a t i n g switch. If the f i e l d of t h e loudspeaker i s t o be energized t h e connections should be made t o t e r m i n a l s 7 and 10.
If, when a d j u s t i n g t h e s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r and volume c o n t r o l , no s t a t i o n s a r e heard examine t h e tubes. Pos.9ibly a tube has been damaged i n t r a n s i t . I n t e r changing w i t h o t h e r s of t h e same type known t o be i n good condition w i l l i s o l a t e t h e damaged one.

Ad,justment f o r Low Line Voltages. A lead i s provided on the s i d e of the S.P.U. f o r use when t h e r e c e i v e r i s connected t o t h e l i n e s , t h e voltage of which never exceeds 115 v o l t s . A good p l a n i s t o allow the l e a d t o remain a s connected i n manufacture u n l e s s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n i s experienced. Should adjustment b e n e c e s s a r y , however, proceed a. fbllows;
(1) Open t h e t o p of t h e receiver. Connected t o t h e o p e r a t i n g switch w i l l be found two soldered connections, one o f which has a transformer lead (black w i t h r e d t r a c e r ) connected t o the switch. Unsolder t h i s conn e c t f on a d t a p e up t h e l e a d s o t h a t i t w i l l n o t ground or short t o other parts. ( 3 ) A b l a c k and r e d l e a d w i l l be found t a p e d up and not used. Untape t h i s l e a d and c l e a n t h e end f o r soldering. ( 4 ) Solder t h i s l e a d j u s t untaped t o t h e switch connection from which t h e black w i t h red t r a c e r l e a d has been removed.
(2)

g
g

&

The 110- volt t ~ of t h e transformer i s now properly connected and t h e r e p ceiveer may be used on 105-115 v o l t l i n e s w i t h maximum e f f i c i e n c y . Figure 19 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e changes t o be made. Jerky Action of S t a t i o n S e l e c t o r . Should operation of the s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r be s t i f f o r jerky a l i t t l e o i l dropped on each condenser bearing w i l l e f f e c t i v e l y remedy t h i s condition. When experiencing t h i s t r o u b l e i t i s a l s o well t o check the cable t e n s i o n s p r i n g t o make sure t h a t s u i t a b l e tension i s being a p p l i e d t o t h e condenser d r i v e cable. Sheet 12

'
"1

Use of ~ o c a l - " i s t a n t Switch. A switch i s provided on the r e c e i v e r termed the ~ o c a l - 1 ) i s t a n tSwitch. This s w i t c h a t t h e l o c a l p o s i t i o n d i s c o n ~ l e c t sthe antenna and connects a .00023 mfd. condenser across the antenna p o i n t of connection t o ground. The purpose of t h i s switch i s t o prevent the s t r o n g c a r r i e r of a l o c a l s t a t i o n from overloading the t u b e s , t h e r e b y causing d i s t o r t i o n . Also under ce~tain conditions a very powerrul l o c a l s t a t i o n may impose i t s modulation f r e quency upon the c a r r i e r wave of a s t s t i o n t o which t h e r e c e i v e r i s tuned. Both of these conditions happen only when t h e switch i s improperly operated. Keep the switch as a g e n e r a l r u l e a t the l o c a l p o s i t i o n , u n l e s s s u f f i c i e n t pick-up i s not obtained t o receive t h e d e s i r e d s i g n a l , when t h e s w i t c h may be thronn t o the d i s t a n t position. I ---n s t a l l a t i o n of P i l o t Lamp. A p r o j e c t i o n type of d i a l l i g h t e d by a small conc e n t r a t e d filament lamp i s used. The lamp i s mounted s o t h a t i t s r a y s pass through t h e a i e r c e d s c a l e of t h e d i a l and then p r o j e c t t h e s c a l e d i v i s i o n s on

DIAL

S C RE E N

PE'RFORATED SCALE

APE'RTURE

PILOT LAM P

Figure 10

Figure 1 1

an amber window on t h e f r o n t of t h e cabinet. It i s thert=!fore important t o mount the lamp so t h a t i t s r a y s w i l l p a s s through t h e c o r r e c t openings t o f u l l y i l l u m i n a t e t h e s c a l e r e a d i n g s on t h e window. 1 shows t h e general a r 1 rangement of t h e p i l o t lamp and d i a l .

1
1

To i n s t a l l t h e p i l o t lamp proceed a s follows: Turn the s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r counter- clockwise t o i t s extreme p o s i t i o n so t h a t t h e p i l o t lamp mounting w i l l be a c c e s s i b l e . Open t h e l i d and remove t h e socket clamp from i t s bracket and screw t h e lamp f i r m l y i n t o t h e socket. Replace t h e socket clamp on i t s bracket.

1
I

N w t u r n the power "on, " a t t h e o p e r a t i n g switch. With t h e s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r o i n t h e extreme counter- clockwise p o s i t i o n a d j u s t t h e socket clamp on i t s b r a c k e t : u n t i l t h e zero mark on t h e s c a l e p r o j e c t e d on t h e d i a l screen i s about inch below the index p o i n t e r . To r e p l a c e a b u l b , open t h e l i d of t h e r e c e i v e r and p u l l t h e socket back from i t s p o s i t i o n and remove t h e o l d bulb. Place t h e new one i n the socket and screw Sheet 13

i n t i g h t l y . The socket i s then pushed down u n t i l the f r o n t window i s p r o p e r l y illuminated. There may be a s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n i n the c e n t e r i n g of t h e f i l a m e n t s of various lamps which mfght t e n d t o throw the l i g h t t o o much t o one s i d e of t h e window. I f t h i s happens p u l l t h e socket out and bend t h e metal arm t h a t h o l d s t h e socket t o one s i d e u n t i l the r a y s of t h e lamp p r o p e r l y i l l u m i n a t e t h e s c a l e window. NOW tune in a s t a t i o n , t h e d i a l s e t t i n g of which i s known. If t h e d i a l s e t t i n g f o r t h e s t a t i o n tuned i n i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t formerly obtained p u l l t h e lamp back o r push it forward u n t i l t h e d i a l r e a d s t h e same as t h a t previously obtained f o r t h a t s t a t i o n . S h i e l d s . Two l a r g e s h i e l d s a r e used t o cover t h e second r.f. and d e t e c t o r stages. Also two t u b e s h i e l d s are placed around t h e first and second r.f. tubes. The two tube s h i e l d s f i t snugly i n place i n t o t h e base casting. The two l a r g e s h i e l d s over t h e second r.f. and d e t e c t o r s t a g e s have clamps on each s i d e t h a t make contact w i t h t h e r o t o r s h a f t of t h e gang condenser. Also an e x t e r n a l clamp i s provided t o hold t h e s h i e l d s i n place. The proper placing of t h e s h i e l d s i s very important because u n l e s s t h e c i r c u i t s a r e s h i e l d e d a s intended o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l occur. Therefore, whenever r e p l a c i n g t u b e s , o r whenever the s h i e l d s are removed f o r any reason, see t h a t t h e y a r e properly r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r normal p o s i t i o n . Connections f o r S u ~ a l y i n g i e l d Current t o E x t e r n a l Dynamic L o u d s ~ e a k e r s . F Provision i s made f o r supplying the f i e l d c u r r e n t t o a dmamic l o u d s ~ e a k e rt h e -- I n o r d e r - t o make f i e l d of which has a r a t i n g of-300 v o l t s , 40 milliamperes. such a connection t o t h e r e c e i v e r proceed as follows:
(1) L i f t l i d of c a b i n e t and remove t h e cover of t h e S P U ...
(2)

terminal s t r i p . Close t h e l i n k between t e r m i n a l s 7 and 8, counting from t e r m i n a l n e a r e s t t h e f r o n t of the r e c e i v e r . ( 3 ) Connect the loudspeaker f i e l d l e a d s t o t e r m i n a l s 7 o r 8 (connected by l i n k ) and terminal No. 10. Be c a r e f u l not t o d i s t u r b the connection a l r e a d y connected t o terminal No. 10. p r o p e r l y connected and the t e r m i n a l s t r i p cover should be l i d closed. The o u t p t of t h e r e c e i v e r i s connected i n t h e loudspeaker by connecting the loudspeaker i n p u t leads t o t h e on t h e S.P.U.

The f i e l d i s now replaced and t h e u s u a l way t o t h e output p i n jacks

A_ntenna Svstem F a i l u r e s . A g r a t i n g n o i s e may be caused by a poor lead- in connection t o t h e antenna, or t h e antenna touching some m e t a l l i c s u r f a c e , such a s t h e edge of a t i n , , r o o f , d r a i n pipe, e t c . By throwing t h e " l o c a l - d i s t a n t " switch t o t h e " l o c a l p o s i t i o n and n o t i n g whether the n o i s e decreases o r n o t , i t can be determined whether t h e cause of t h e n o i s e i s w i t h i n or e x t e r n a l t o t h e receiver, Radiotron Sockets and Pins The sockets used a r e t h r e e s i n g l e UY sockets i n A socket t h e r e c e i v e r assembly and a two-gang UX socket used i n the S.P.U. contact may not be i n i t s o o r r e c t p o s i t i o n and t h e forced i n s e r t i o n of a tube w i l l bend or break i t . If c a r e i s e x e r c i s e d and the tube i n s e r t e d g e n t l y , l i t t l e trouble w i l l be experienced w i t h socket contacts. A bent one w i l l be noticed on i n s p e c t i o n and may be c o r r e c t e d by i n s e r t i n g a narrow instrument i n Sheet 14

t h e socket hole and pushing t h e contact i n t o i t s c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n . A badly b e n t or broken socket c o n t a c t must be replaced e i t h e r i n d i v i d u a l l y or by r e p l a c i n g t h e socket. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e tube c o n t a c t s t h e r e are provided small s p r i n g c l i p s t h a t connect t o t h e control g r i d connection a t the t o p of t h e tubes W-224. These must f i t snugly and make good connection. Whenever a tube i s replaced c a r e should be t a k e n t o make sure t h a t t h e s p r i n g c l i p i s replaced on the tube and t h a t it makes a good c l e a n t i g h t connection. D i r t y tube p i n s o r c o n t a c t s may cause n o i s y o r i n t e r m i t t e n t operation i n t h e r e c e i v e r . It i s t h e r e f o r e a d v i s a b l e t o p e r i o d i c a l l y c l e a n them with f i n e sandpaper t o i n s u r e good c o n t a c t . The use of emergy c l o t h or s t e e l wool i s not r e c m e n d e d . Before r e - i n s e r t i n g t h e tubes i n t h e i r s o c k e t s wipe t h e pins c a r e f u l l y t o make c e r t a i n t h a t a l l p a r t i c l e s of sand a r e removed.
If a tube w i l l not f i t i n t o a socket without considerable pressure, look f o r excessive solder on one o r more of the pins. Excessive s o l d e r on t h e pins may be removed w i t h a f i l e o r knife.

Improperly Operating Volume Control. The volume c o n t r o l i n the r e c e i v e r i s operated through a gear arrangement, h a l f of which i s t h e c o n t r o l knob. The s h a f t i s broken w i t h an i n s u l a t i n g s t r i p as t h e r o t a t i n g arm i s not a t ground potential. Should t h e volume c o n t r o l s l i p and not follow t h e c o n t r o l knob f i r s t make s u r e t h e knob i s t i g h t a g a i n s t t h e c a b i n e t and the s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r knob t i g h t a g a i n s t t h e volume c o n t r o l knob. Then examine the i n s u l a t i n g s t r i p and make sure it is s t i l l i n i t s correct position. Noises occurring when t h e volume c o n t r o l i s a d j u s t e d c a n g e n e r a l l y be remedied by t u r n i n g the c o n t r o l knob t o each extreme p o s i t i o n s e v e r a l times. I f t h i s does n o t c l e a r up t h e t r o u b l e a l i t t l e alcohol a p p l i e d with a smoking pipe cleaner t o the r e s i s t a n c e s t r i p w i l l d i s s o l v e any d i r t o r r o s i n . Excessive pressure applied a f t e r t h e c o n t r o l has been moved t o t h e s t o p p o s i t i o n may bend the moving arm and subsequent use may wear and Cut t h e wire. Users should t h e r e f o r e be cautioned not t o t r y t o t u r n t h e knob beyond t h e s t o p s a t each extreme. B r g k e n C o r d . The main t u n i n g condensers a r e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r knob, t h e motion of which i s t r a n s m i t t e d by means of a rugged f i s h l i n e t o t h e d m on t h e end of t h e t u n i n g condensers. Should t h i s cord become broken, and a new one n o t be a v a i l a b l e , a temporary r e p a i r may be made by t y i n g the two ends t o g e t h e r by means O f a square knot (see Figure 1 2 ) , 1 and t h e n r e p l a c i n g t h e cord i n i t s c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n a s shown i n Figure 13. The shortening caused by t h e knot can be campensated f o r by untying t h e knot a t t h e t e n s i o n spring end and u s i n g a p a r t of t h e spare length. The t y i n g of t h e knot a t the ends of t h e cord shoula be t h e l a s t operation, because t h e / c o r r e c t amount of t e n s i o n can t h e n be obtained a t the t e n s i o n spring. F i w e , 13 shows t h e arrangement of t h e d r i v e cord over t h e drums. This should be 1 followed when r e p l a c i n g t h e cord. i

i
i

!
1 i

Sheet 1 5

Line-UP Condensers. Three small a d j u s t a b l e ~ 0 n d d n s e r sa r e provided on t h e r e c e i v e r assembly f o r l i n i n g up the t h r e e tuning c i r c ..- t . .- Thnnn cnn.ui s - - -- - - d e n s e r s a r e i n p a r a l l e l - t o t h e m a g tuning conclensers and compensate f o r small .v a r i a t i o n s i n the tuning c i r c u i t s , which are made n o t i c e a b l e by the r e c e i v e r becoming i n s e n s i t i v e . Yhe following procedure may be used t o Eeadjust them:
--

Adjusting -

-A+

from t h e c a b i n e t and place t h e u n i t s i n operating condition. ( 2 ) Procure 8 modulated o s c i l l a t o r t h a t w i l l g i v e a s i g n a l a t 1500 kc. and 600 kc. o r , i f such an o s c i l l a t o r i s not a v a i l a b l e , tune t o a broadcast s i g n a l . The c i r c u i t diagram and e l e c t r i c a l c o n s t a n t s of a s u i t a b l e o s c i l l a t o r are shown i n Figure 14. I f t h e o s c i l l a t o r i s a v a i l a b l e , place i t i n operation a t 1500 kc. or tune i 1 1 a s i g a n l of approximately t h i s frequency. ( 3 ) After kming i n t h e s i g n a l a d j u s t t h e volume c o n t r o l s o t h e s i g n a l i s

(1) Remove t h e r e c e i v e r assembly and S.P.U.

+
Figure 13 14) .-.

Figure 14

f IOV. D.C. OR A.C. (IF D.C. CONNECT ~ou~nv ASSHOWN)

1-

(5)

of moderate s t r e n g t h . Place ~ o c a l d i s t a n t Switch a t " l o c a l " p o s i t i o n and a d j u s t the t h r e e condensers s u c c e s s i v e l y from t h e d e t e c t o r stage t o t h e antenna stage (See Figure 1 5 ) , f o r t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e loudest s i g n a l . This may be done w i t h 'any type of screwdriver, a s t h e a d j u s t i n g screws a r e a t ground potential. After a d j u s t i n g a t 1500 kc. t h e various adjustments should be checked a t 600 kc. bhould an i n c r e a s e ( t u r n i n g condenser t o t h e r i g h t ) or a decrease of c a p a c i t y be n e c e s s a r y at 600 kc. leave t h e line - up condensers Sheet 16

i n t h e p o s i t i o n p r e v i o u s l y found a t 1500 kc. The adjustment r e q u i r e d should t h e n be made by removing the secocd r.f. and d e t e c t o r stage s h i e l d s , and bending the end p l a t e s of t h e tuning condensers. Bending t h e end p l a t e toward t h e a d j a c e n t p l a t e increases the c a p a c i t y of t h e condenser and bending it i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n decreases i t s c a p a c i t y . A f t e r l i n i n g up a t 600 kc. by bending t h e condenser p l a t e s a re-check should ge made a t 1500 kc. Any re- adjustments found n e c e s s a r y should be made. l h e use of a 1500 kc. s i g n a l i s very important because i f t h e adjustment i s nade a t a lower frequency t h e m o u n t of c a p a c i t y used a t t h e line- up condensers nay be such t h a t t h e r e c e i v e r w i l l not tune a s h i g h a s 1500 kc.

Figure 1 5 The two c h a s s i s u n i t s should now be returned t o t h e c a b i n e t i n t h e r e v e r s e manner of t h a t used t o remove them. jTxcessive Hum. Should e x c e s s i v e hum develop during o p e r a t i o n it may be caused by one of the following conditions: E x t e r n a l pick up. Throw switch t o l o c a l p o s i t i o n and s e e i f hum d i s a p p e a r s , B.C. input plug r e v e r s e d . Try r e v e r s i n g i t s p o s i t i o n . gpen c e n t e r tapped r e s i s t a n c e u n i t i n S.P.U. ohorted by-pass and f i l t e r condensers. T h i s w i l l g e n e r a i l y be accompanied by i n o p e r a t i o n i n a d d i t i o n t o hum. Low emission UX-280. Defective dynamic speaker, i f used. Open r e s i s t a n c e u n i t . This w i l l g e n e r a l l y be accompanied by inoperation. Acoustic H o w l . Acoustic howl i s caused by the sound waves generated by the loudspeaker v i b r a t i n g t h e elements i n t h e tubes. This v i b r a t i o n i s amplified e l e c t r i c a l l y and reproduced i n t h e reproducer u n i t . Gondit i o n s being favorable t h e holvl may i n c r e a s e i n i n t e n s i t y and drown out t h e broadcast s i g n a l . This may be remedied by changing t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e loudspeaker o r i t s r e l a t i v e angle i n r e l a t i m t o the r e c e i v e r . Also interchanging t h e tubes i n t h e r e c e i v e r assembly will. help. o Volume and Weak S i g n a l s . w $f t h e following c o n d i t i o n s :

L w volume and weak s i g n a l s may be caused by any

Sheet 17

Defective tubes. Check and make any replacement necessary. Poor antenna system. (3) Defective r e c e i v e r assembly. Check by means of c o n t i n u i t y t e s t and make any replacement necessary. Also check adjustments of line- up condensers a s previously described. ( 4 ) Defective S.P.U. Check by means of Continuity T e s t , and make any r e ~ a i r s necessary. ( 5 ) Defective loudspeaker. Check t h e loudspeaker by s u b s t i t u t i n g one known t o be i n good condition.

D i s t o r t e d or Noisy R e ~ r o d u c t i o n . Poor q u a l i t y or noisy reproduction may be caused by:

(1) Defective tubes.
(2)

(3)

(4) (5)
4

Though t h e r e c e i v e r may b e i n o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n a d e f e c t i v e tube i n any stage w i l l cause d i s t o r t i o n . Excessive noise may be due t o a d e f e c t i v e UX-245. Defective coupli% choke, output choke, output condenser, coupling condenser, UX-245 g r i d r e s i s t o r o r t h e r e s i s t o r and condenser used t o tune t h e coupling choke. These p a r t s a r e a l l assoCiated w i t h the output tube and a defect i n any of them w i l l cause d i s t o r t i o n . Receiver O s c i l l a t i o n . Should t h e r e c e i v e r be o s c i l l a t i n g , a l l s i g n a l s w i l l be weak, d i s t o r t e d and accompanied by a w h i s t l e . Defective loudspeaker. Male t h e necessary r e p a i r s . Defect S.P.U. Check by means of c o n t i n u i t y t e s t . Audio howl may be caused by any of t h e following conditions:

~udio Howl.

1 ii.1
1

'1
I

Receiver o s d llatLon. Open by-pass condensers. A open i n any of t h e by-pass condehsenmay n cause howl. ( 3 ) Vibrating elements i n t h e r e c e i v e r tubes. A g r a d u a l l y developed howl may be due t o t h e loudspeaker causing t h e r e c e i v e r tube elements t o v i b r a t e .

p n c o n t r o l l e d O s c i l l a t i o n s . Should t h e r e c e i v e r o s c i l l a t e throughout or i n any p a r t of t h e t u n i n g range, it may be due t o : The c o r r e c t placing of t h e s h i e l d s both around the t u b e s and over t h e e n t i r e stage i s important t o g e v e n t o s c i l l a t i o n . S h i e l d over antenna l e a d t o l o c a l d i s t a n t s w i t c h n o t grounded o r properly (2) covering t h e leads. ( . 3.) Defective r.f. f i l t e r i n d e t e c t o r p l a t e c i r c u i t . There a r e two f i l t e r s .one of which i s shunted by two condensers i n t h e p l a t e c i r c u i t of the d e t e c t o r . Should t h e f i l t e r s become d e f e c t i v e o r t h e condensers open, o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l occur. Contact c l i p s between s h i e l d and condenser s h a f t broken or not making (4) good contact. Should any of the by-pass condensers i n t h e r e ( 5 ) Open by-pass condenser. c e i v e r assembly be open, o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l occur. ( 6 ) Defective UY-224. A d e f e c t i v e UY- 224 may cause o s c i l l a t i o n and should be replaced by a tube known t o be i n good o p e r a t i n g condition. Voltage Supalv System. The v o l t a g e supply system used i s a combination paralSheet 18
(1) Shields not properly i n place or not making c o n t a c t with t h e base.

lei arrangement, with Some c i r c u i t s a l s o Using s e r i e 8 r e s i s t o r s . F igure 16 i s an abridged schematic c i r c u i t t h a t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e method employed t o ob-

t a i n the c o r r e c t p o t e n t i a l s . EIECTRICAL TESTS. T e s t i m F i l t e r Condensers and O u t ~ u tCondenser and Choke. The f i l t e r condensers and output condenser and choke a r e all i n one metal container. Their i n t e r n a l

Figure 16

Figure 17

wiring d i a ~ r a m s shown i n Figure 17. The choke can b e s t be t e s t e d by c l i c k i ing Gom each end. T h e condensers a r e t e s t e d by charging them with a pp roximatel y 200 v o l t s d - ~ . and then n o t i n g t h e i r a b i l i t y t o hold t h e charge. A f t e r charging, s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g t h e condenser terminals w i t h a screwdriver should produce a f l a s h , t h e s i z e of t h e f l a s h depending on t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e condenser and t h e voltage used f o r charging. A condenser t h a t w i l l not hold i t s charge, or a choke t h a t c l i c k s open i s d e f e c t i v e and r e q u f r e s replacement of t h e e n t i r e unit. hecking Resistance Values. The values of the v a r i o u s r e s i s t a n e e u n i t s a r e t h o r n i n t h e schematic diagram, Figure 9. When t e s t i n g a r e c e i v e r f o r d e f e c t s T h i s may be done by a t h e various values of r e s i s t a n c e should be checked. r e s i s t a n c e bridge, or by the following method. For r e s i s t a n c e s of low v a l u e , 5000 ohms o r l e s s , use a voltmeter having a r e s i s t a n c e n o t g r e a t e r t h a n 100 ohms per v o l t . For h i g h v a l u e s o f . r e s i s t a n c e use a meter of 1000 ohms o r more per v o l t . The Weston Meters, Type 301 o r 280, each have a r e s i s t a n c e of 62 ohms p e r v o l t and a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r t h e low values. Use enough b a t t e r y ,to give a good d e f l e c t i o n on t h e m t e r , f o r example, a 45- volt "B" b a t t e r y f o r a 0-50 v o l t meter. Then take two r e a d i n g s , one of the b a t t e r y alone, and one of t h e b a t t e r y w i t h the unknown r e s i s t a n c e i n s e r i e s . Then apply t h e following formula. Reading obtained of b a t t e r y alone . Reading obtained w i t h resistance i n series

;>

Resistance of meter

Unkown Resistance Sheet 1 9

The following t e s t s w i l l show complete c o n t i n u i t y f o r Continuity T e s t s . Disconnect t h e antenna and t h e r e c e i v e r assembly and socket power u n i t . the ground leads; t h e ceb l e connections a t t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p of t h e S.P.U.; loudspeaker cord, and the A.C. supply cord a t i t s o u t l e t .
A p a i r of headphones w i t h a t l e a s t 43 v o l t s i n s e r i e s ; or a voltmeter w i t h

s u f f i c i e n t b a t t e r y t o g i v e a good d e f l e c t i o n when connected across t h e b a t t e r y terminals should be used i n making t h e s e t e s t s . The r e c e i v e r and S.P.U. s o c k e t s , numbers, lugs and S.P.U. t e r m i n a l s used i n these t e s t s a r e shown i n Figure 18. The S.P.U. wiring diagram i s show i n Fifpre 1 9 and t h e receiver wiring diagram i n Figure 20.

Figure 18 S.P.U. Continuity Tests

Remove tubes and disconnect l e a d s t o S .P.U. t e r m i n a l s and input a-c. plug. Remove leads t o volume c o n t r o l . Also open l i n k between terminals-'7 and 8. Terminals
: correct : Effect

1 to 2
3 to 4 4 t o areen Volume ~ o n < r olead 5 t o G4 6 t o Gnd - - - -G4 t o Gnd. 6 t o Gnd.
~

Closed Closed Closed

: I n c o r r e c t E f f e c t Caused by : 0 e n UY-224 filament winding, and c e n t e r tapped r e s i s t a n c e . Open 3600 ohm s e c t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e u n i t Open 1100 ohm s e c t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e u n i t Shorted . O l mfd, condenser. Shorted .006 mfd. condenser Open 1 meg. r e s i s t o r . Open 2000 ohm r e s i s t o r , o r 540 ohm s e c t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e u n i t Open 80 ohm s e c t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e u n i t Open 3350 ohm r e s i s t o r or 540 ohm s e c t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e u n i t Open 500.ohm s e c t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e u n i t Sheet 20

Open Open c l o s e d (weak) Closed

Red Volume Control lead Closed t o and. Green Vol~uneControl. l e a d Closed t o Gnd. 7 to 8 Closed

Terminals
9 t o one filament
10 t o Ground

: Correct

RPfect

1 :

I n c o r r e c t E f f e c t Caused by

contact of socket H 0 . 5

Closed Closed Open closed Closed Closed Closed

P4 t o one output p i n jack Other output p i n jack t o ground Across UX-245 filament contacts p4 t o terminal No. 7 P5 t o G 5

Open 15,000 ohm r e s i s t o r , 2800 ohm s e c t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e u n i t , f i l t e r r e a c t o r , 500 ohm s e c t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e u n i t . 0 en connection ~%orted output condenser Open 1460 ohm s e c t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e u n i t 0 n UX-245 f i l a m e n t winding and c e n t e r Eeapped r e s i s t o r Open output choke o r f i l t e r r e a c t o r . Open h i g h voltage winding of power transformer Open primary of power transformer

Across input A.C. plug Closed ( o p e r a t i n g switch "onff)

RECENER ASSEMBLY CONTINUITY mSTS Renove a l l s h i e l d s and t u b e s , and disconnect cable a t SPU ... See Figure 18 f o r r e f e r e n c e numbers and l e t t e r e . Circuit : Terminals Terminal S t r i p .

I
Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed Closed

i ?

I n c o r r e c t E f f e c t Caused by

c G 1 t o Gnd

SG1 t o arm of Volume Control CG2 t o Gnd. Grid SG2 t o arm of Volume Control C G 3 t o Gnd. 563 t o Lug Wo.4 Across Volume C o n t r o l (Red) V.C. connection ' t o d l and c 2
P 1 t o Lug No.3

open secondary of 1 s t r.f. transformer Open connect i o n Open secondary of 2d r.f. t r a n s f orrner Open connection Open secondary of 3d r.f. transformer Open connection Open volume c o n t r o l One n connect ion r Open primary of 1 s t r.f. transformer Openprimary of 2 d r . f . transformer Open f i l t e r c o i l s Open f i l t e r c o i l s o r coupling reactor

Plate

P2 t o Lug No.3
P 3 t o Lug No.5 P 3 t o Lug No.9

Sheet 2 1

C . ircuit :
-

Terminals

Correct affect Closed

I n c o r r e c t E f f e c t Caused bp J

pnscrew P i l o t Lame One h e a t e r c o n t a c t of s o c k e t s 1, 2 and 3 Nos. 1 o r 2 to ~ugs Heater Other h e a t e r c o n t a c t of sockets 1, 2 and 3 t o Lugs Nos. 1 or 2 Antenna t o Ground (switch a t " local position) Antenna t o Ground (Switch a t " d i s t a n t " position) Miscel- C 1 t o Gnd. laneous C 1 t o P I C2 t o Gnd C2 t o P2 C3 to chi. ~3 t o SG3 C3 t o P3

Open connection

Closed

Open c onnection

"

Open Closed Open Open Open Open Open Open Open Closed

Shorted " l o c a l d i s t a n c e " switch. Open antenna loading c o i l or primary of 1st r .f. transformer Shorted .I mfd. condenser Shorted .1 mfd. condenser Shorted .I mfd. condenser Shorted .I mfd. condenser Shorted .75 m f d . condenser Shorted .25 mdf condenser E i t h e r .00005 mfd. condenser i n r .f. f i l t e r s h o r t e d Open connection

C 3 t o Lug No.6

Voltage Readinas. Due t o t h e type of tube used t h e use of a t e s t s e t , such a s YJeston Model 537, Type 2, i s n o t a v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r y means of checking socket v o l t a g e s t o o b t a i n a rough c o n t i n u i t y check of t h e c i r c u i t s . The f o l l o w i w v o l t a g e s a r e t a k e n at t h e t e r m i n a l s t r i p of t h e S.P.U. with a l l the t u b e s and s h i e l d s i n p l a c e and t h e r e c e i v e r i n normal o p e r a t i n g conditions. V L A E READINGS OT G

Terminals

Volume C o n t r o l a t Maximum Minimum

1 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9

to
to to to to to to to to

2 10 10 10 10 8 10 10 10

2.5 8-c. 175 d-C. 75 d-C. 185 d-C. 1 0 d-C. 30 d-C. 330 d-C. 360 d-C. 185 d-C.
MAKING REPLACEMENTS

2.5 165 70 175 8 30 330 350 185

a-c. d-C. d-C. d-C. d-C. d-C. d-C. d-C. d-C.

The v a r i o u s assemblies and p a r t s a r e r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e and replacements can Sheet 22

ANTENNA AN0 GROUND LEADS

BY- PASS CONDENSERS

COUPLING REACTOR

CABLE T O S.P.U

LOCAL-DISTANT SWITCH

ANTENNA C O NDEN S E R

R.F. FILTER COIL(LOWER)

VOLUME CONTROL

Figure 21 be made e a s i l y . Figure 21 i l l u s t r a t e s the sub- chassis p a r t s on the r e c e i v e r assembly and Figure 22 t h e sub- chassis p a r t s i n t h e socket 2ower u n i t . The fol.lowing d e t a i l e d procedure o u t l i n e s t h e simplest methods t o be used when making replacements

li

R e m o v i n a c e i v e r Assembly From Cabinet. When making any replacements i n the r e c e i v e r assembly it i s first n e c e s s a r y t o remove i t from the cabinet. The following procedure should be used: t h e n remove t h e s w i t c h and s h i e l d from t h e escutcheon by removing the c o l l a r t h a t holds t h e switch. Remove t h e c a b l e connections t o t h e S.P.U. t e r m i n a l s t r i p . Also remove (2) the t w o S.P.U. connections t o t h e volume c o n t r o l . (3) Remove t h e two knobs from t h e s t a t i o n s e l e c t o r s h a f t . These a r e j u s t pulled "off. " Remove t h e t h r e e machine screws and washers t h a t hold t h e r e c e i v e r (4) assembly t o t h e bottom of the c a b i n e t . The c h a s s i s may now be i f f t e d c l e a r of t h e cabinet and placed i n a p o s i t i o n convenient f o r work.
CENTER TAPPED RESIS,TORS FILTER REACTOR CONNECTIONS

(1) Remove t h e escutcheon t h a t h o l d s t h e Loc&DF?tcu-ct Switch i n p l e c e and

SOCKET ASSEMBLY

COND~NSER
BANK CONNECTIONS

P O WER T R A N ~ F O R M E R CONNECTIONS

RE S I S T A N C E UNITS

Figure 22

Sheet 24

After the replacement has been made i t should be returned t o t h e cabinet i n the r e v e r s e mamer of t h a t used t o remove it. When r e placing the tuning c o n t r o l and volume c o n t r o l knobs make c e r t a i n t h a t t h e gear t e e t h on t h e volume c o n t r o l knob meshes with t h e g e a r on t h e volume c o n t r o l s h a f t ( 5 ) Just before t i g h t e n i n g t h e screws t h a t hold t h e r e c e i v e r assembly t o t h e cabinet place t h e r e c e i v e r i n operation and note whether or not t h e d i a l screen i s properly illuminated. Should the l i g h t be off t o one s i d e the c h a s s i s ma be s h i f t e d s l i g h t l y u n t i l t h e s c r e e n i s properly illuminated. screws a r e then tightened.

h e

R e m o v proceed a s follow:

T O remove the S. P. U. from t h e cabinet

escutcheon and then t w i s t i n g t h e switch mechanism u n t i l t h e c o l l a r and t h e switch w i l l came c l e a r of t h e escutcheon. ( 2 , Remove a l l connections t o the S. P. U. t e r m i n a l s t r i p and t h e two l e a d s ) . t o t h e volume c o n t r o l . Remove t h e four machine screws t h a t hold t h e S.P.U. t o t h e bottom of (3) t h e cabinet. The S.P.U. may now be l i f t e d c l e a r of t h e cabinet and n -n c e d J - a ~ o s i t i o n l- convenient f o r work. It i s replaced i n the c a b i n e t -n i n t h e reverse manner of t h a t used t o remove i t . SERVICE DATA CHART Before using the following Service Data Chart, when experiencing no s i g n a l s , weak s i g n a l s , poor q u a l i t y , n o i s y or i n t e r m i t t e n t r e c e p t i o n , howling and f a d i n g , f i r s t look f o r d e f e c t i v e tubes, o r a poor antenna system. If imperfect operation i s not due t o these causes t h e " S e ~ v i c eData Chart" should be consulted f o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d causes.

(1) Remove the o p e r a t i n g s w i t c h from i t s escutcheon p l a t e by removing the

Indications

Cause operating switch. volume c o n t r o l . R.F. transformer. coupling r e a c t o r . by-pass condenser.

Remedy Repair O r r e p l a c e switch. Replace volume c o n t r o l . Replace R.F. transformer. Replace coupling r e a c t o r . Replace by-pass condenser. Check S.P.U. and r e p l a c e any

N Signals o

Defective Defective Defective Defective Defective Defective

-

S.P.U.

Weak Signals

" E j c a ~D i s t a n t " switcn not on " d i s t a n t It p o s i t ion. Line-up cocdensers not a d j u s t e d properly. Defective main t u n i n g condensers. Defective p a r t s i n r e c e i v e r assembly. Defective p a r t s i n S.P.U. Low l i n e v o l t age

stant" position. Adjust line- up condenser properly. Check main tuning condensers and make adjustments necessary. Replace any d e f e c t i v e p a r t s i n r e c e i v e r assembly. Replaoe any d e f e c t i v e p a r t s i n S.P U Adjust transformer f o r low l i n e voltage Sheet 25

Indications

Cause

Remedy Replace any d e f e c t i v e p a r t s . Replace output condenser and choke. Operate "Local D i s t a n t " switch correctly. Correct cause of o s c i l l a t i o n . Correct and r e p a i r any d e f e c t . Check c i r c u i t and r e p a i r d e f e c t . Place s h i e l d c o r r e c t l y and secure good c o n t a c t . Place t u b e s h i e l d s c o r r e c t l y . Replace d e f e c t i v e R .. f i l t e r F Turn A.C. l i n e v o l t a g e "on". Turn operating switch "On".

Poor Q u a l i t y

Defective coupling r e a c t o r , condenser or r e s i s t o r i n coupling c i r c u i t . Defective output condenser o r choke. "Local D i s t a n t " switch not p r o p e r l y operated. Receiver o s c i l l a t i o n . D e f ~ c t i v eaudio system. ODen g r i d i n any stage. S h i e l d s not i n place o r making good c o n t a c t . Tube s h i e l d s not i n place. Defective R.F. f i l t e r . N A. o C l i n e v o l t age. Operating s w i t c h not Iron 11

~udio Howl Uncontrolled Oscillation

Vacuum tubes fail to light

Defective A.C. input cord. Repair o r r e p l a c e d e f e c t i v e cord. Defective power t r a n s f orm6r. Replace d e f e c t i v e power t r a n s former

Sheet 26
/

.S I N . S f f l ~ u ~ ~ G.A.
firmer& INC

RECEIVING SET DA R M I GA S PART . I Sheet Sheet A m 0 Seven 2 14 Grebe Synchrophase Aero Short Wave Adapter f o r Hammerlund Roberts Hi.g 15 A.C. Receivers 2 King Model FF 15 Aero Short Wave Adapter f o r King Model H 16 . B a t t e r y Operated Receivers 3 Ki% 62 TRF 16 Amrad A.C. 7 3 Rolster 6 K 17 Apex 36 A l l - e l e c t r i c 4 M a j e s t i c A.C 17 Atwater Kent 20 4 Mohawk All-American Lyric 5 AtwaterKent30 Models 60, 61. 62, 65. and 66 Atwater Kent 32 5 18 Atwater Kent 35 6 Mohawk All-American Lyric Atwater Kent 40 6 Models 80. 83. 84. 85. B a l k i t e - Model A 7 and 88 18 P f a n s t e i h l 34 and 50 A.C 19 Bosch 28 7 Philco E l e c t r i c Series 5 19 Bremer T u l l y 7.70 8 8 Browning Drake- 34. 36 & 38 RCA Radiola 16 PO C o l o n i a l 31 A.C. 9 RCA Radiola 1 7 20 C r o s l e y 608 9 RCA Radiola 18 A.C. 21 RCA Radiola 18 D.C. 21 Crosley 704.A 10 RCA Radiola 60 22 Daven Bass Note 10 RCA . Radiola 62 . 22 Day Fan A.G. Power S e t 1 1 Roberts A . C . 23 Day Fan 35 D.C 1 1 S i l v e r Marskiall %ode1 630 23 Fada-- Models 10. 11. 30 and Sparton Equasonne Model 89 25 31 (60 c y c l e s ) 12 25 Splitdorf Inherently Electric Fada-- Models 102. 112. 302 S t e i n i t e 261 26 and 312 (25 c y c l e s ) 12 Models 801. Stewart Warner F e d e r a l Ortho-sonic A.C. 12 801A. 811 and 811A Freed Eisemann NR 5 13 Series B 26 Freed Eisemann NR 80 13 Models 635 Stromberg Carlson Freshman Equaphase 24 and 636 27 Freshman Model G 24 Models 1 . 12 and 14 1 27 Zenith G i l f i l l a n GN 6 14

..........

......... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ........... . ....... .......... ... . . . ... . .. . .. .. . .........

. . .

. .

. . . . . .

. .

.... ... ...... ..... ...... ...... ..... ...

.

......

. . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..... . .. .. .. .. .. .... ........ ..........

... .. ... . ... . . . . . . . . . ... . ...... . ... . .......... .
. . .

. . . ......... .......... . ... ... ...... .. .. . . . . . . .. . .

. .

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Receiving Vacuum tubes

..

28

Atwater Kent Model 55 Brandes Model B 15 and 16 C r o s l e y R.F.L. 90 C r o s l e y Model 804 Fada lvlodels 50. 70. 71 & 72 Freed-Eisemann NR 55 A.C Freed-Eisemann NH 78 Grebe Synchrophase-Battery Grebe A.C. S i x M a j e s t i c Model 90

.. .. .. .. .. .. . ... ..... . . .. . . . . . .....

.... .

PART I1 .
RCA RCA RCA RCA

28 A.C. 28 Battery 25 20'. RCA . Radiola 44 . RCA Radiola 66 Stromberg -Carlson N o 641 Stromberg -Carlson N 846 o Z e n i t h 17

. .. .. .. 35 34 . .. ......... .. . 36 . 36 . . . . . . . . 38 . . . . . . . . . . .. 37 .. . . 39 38 . . . . .. . 39 .......
. Radiola . . Radiola . . Radiola .
. Radiola .

. .

Printed i U. S A n

..

Sheet 2

E CONTROL

A MRAD A.C. 7

sheet 3

VOLUME CONTROl

ATWATER T 32 K EN

Sheet 5

ATWATER E N T 40 K

Sheet 6

BOSCH 28

CROSLEY 608

Sheet 9

Sheet 10

DAY F A N 35 D.C.

Sheet 11

AND 31 (60 CYCLES) 302 AND 312 (25 CYCLES)

F REED E ISEMANN NR80

Sheet 15

Sheet 14

HAMMERLUNDROBERTS H I - Q

KIHoMODEL

FF

Sheet 15

'9'

,-GRID

SUPPRESSORS-.

LOUD SPEPKER

Sheet 16

Sheet 17

- 2.5

+845

1.5 v

-B

5Y

PFANSTEIHL

34

AND

50 A C.

,GRID

RESISTANCES- .

Sheet 20

RCA-RADIOLA

18 D.C.

Sheet 21

I'

1
Sheet 22

RCA-RADIOLA 62

5 VOLTS
A.C

2.5 V. A.C.

GND

VOLUME CONTROL

PILOT

Sheet 24

I"

STROMBERG CARLSON-MODELS 635

AND

636

POWER AMPLIFIERS

RECTIFIER!

MISCELLANEOUS

Crosley R.F.L.

90

Crosley Model 804

Sheet 30

Freed-Eisemann NR55 A.0.

Sheet 31

Preod-Eisemann NR 78

Grebe Synchrophase

Battery Operated

Sheet 32

Grebe A.C.

Six

Majestlc Model 90

Sheet 33

A.C. PACKAGE CHRNGES

RCA Radiola 28

- A.C.

Operated

Sheet 34

VOLTMElER

JACKS ' : ,FILb.MEN1 CONTROL 041TERY swim

-_

R C A Radiola 28

- Battery Operated

Sheet 35

,,2.LOOP

COND

;0SC

COND.

RCA Radiola 25

RCA Radiola 20

RCA Radiola 44

Sheet 37

RCA Radiola 66
TO LOUD SPEAKER

Stromberg-Garlaoa go, :. .641 . . . .. ;. , .. .

,

Stromberg-Garlson No. 846

% U S 6

... . ..

"I-177
POWERTUBE

n GROUND