Chapter 2: Genetic and Evolutionary Roots of Behavior Big Question What gene s are, how they shape development,

and how they eventually shape influence behavior. Second, we ll ask how genes got to be the way they are. Third and most important, we ll ask how we study the genetic or evolutionary roots of a behavior. GENETICS AND DNA y Living things are made of cells. What makes these cells so different is the protein each type contains. With just a few exceptions all cells in plants and animals contain a nucleus. Within each nucleus are the cell s chromosomes (complex structures that contain a single long molecule of DNA). The DNA is what governs the cell s structure and its chemical processes by providing a set of detailed instruction for making the structural proteins that give each cell its shape and for making the protein called enzyme that governs the cell s functioning. DNA looks like a twisted ladder (double helix) The section of a DNA molecule that describes the structure of a protein, together with its control sequence, is called a gene (a section of DNA molecule that contains instructions for how and when to assemble a protein. Genes are located on chromosomes.) In organisms that reproduce sexuality these chromosomes come in pairs. Humans have 23 pairs (46 chromosomes per cell). Virtually every cell in a person s body contains a copy of the same 46 chromosomes, collectively called the person s genome. Within each cell the genes are not all active all the time. Consequently cells end up being different from one another. Some genes expressed and others are not. Variables that can alter the biochemistry within a cell: o Environment (influenced by surrounding cells) (temperature, sheer stimulation) o Timing o Experience An organism s genes define only its genotype-the specific sequence of genes on each of its chromosomes. In contrast, the organism s traits and capacities define its phenotype-what the organism is actually like. Phenotype is the product of both the environmental context and the genotype. Organisms inherit the genotype from their parents. In humans, each sperm and each egg contain 23 chromosomes. In mid 1800s Gregor Mendel was cultivating pea plants and carefully observed the result of cross-fertilizing one variety of plants with another, and from his observations he worked out some basic laws of genetic inheritance. Genes come in pairs. Each gene occupies a specific position within its chromosome called the gene s locus and for each gene there is a partner gene located at the corresponding locus on the other half of the chromosomal pair. If the paired genes are identical we say that the individual is homozygous for the gene. If the two are different, the individual is heterozygous for the gene.

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In all cases, the variations of specific genes are referred to as alleles of that gene. A variant of the DNA sequence at a given locus is called an allele (Wikipedia). How do things unfold if a person is heterozygous- having one allele of a particular gene on one chromosome and a different allele of that gene on the other chromosome? 1) The simplest result is the relationship of dominance-the allele will exert its effects whether the other member if the gene pair is the same or not. 2) Other alleles are recessive-A recessive allele will affect the phenotype only if it matches the allele of its partner gene. 3) In some cases, the alleles are codominant; a relationship in which both genes in the pair affects the phenotype. 4) In other cases the alleles are in a relationship of incomplete dominance, so that a person with two different alleles will have a phenotype that s intermediate between the types favored by each allele on its own. Alleles of a gene (this is how you should think about it) The vast majority of majority of an organisms traits are influenced by many genes, through a pattern known as polygenic inheritance a pattern in which many genes all influence a single trait.

EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION Proximate cause: The influences within an organism s lifetime that led to its particular trait or behavior Ultimate cause: The reason why, over many years of evolution, a particular trait or behavior helped members of population to survive and reproduce. y y y Darwin s Discovery: All species had descended from an ancient common ancestor. He concluded this by watching finches and noticing the variance in the size and shapes of their beaks. The notion of evolution through natural selection was Darwin s second great idea. Natural selection: The mechanism that drives biological evolution. It refers to the greater likelihood of successful reproduction for organism whose attributes are advantageous in a given environment. It s important to avoid the naturalistic fallacy the idea that anything natural is good or the (related) idea that more recent traits are better than those that evolved earlier, so that natural selection improves or advances a species.

Darwin s deeply important conception boils down to three principles for natural selection to take place: 1. There must be variation among the individuals within the population. 2. Certain of the variants must survive and reproduce at higher rates than others. 3. The traits associated with this superior survival and reproduction must be passed from parents to offspring.

Mutations error in replication of DNA can happen randomly. Some mutations confer an advantage for survival and reproduction and contribute to the genetic diversity within a species. Natural selection would favor individuals that could shift their behavior in response to new circumstances and that could rapidly deploy new skills appropriated for an altered setting. The need for flexibility in an animal s behavior is amplified by the process of niche construction a process in which organism, through their behaviors, alter their environment and thus create their own circumstances. (e.g. building new shelters) Evolution favors flexibility and learning because environments inevitably vary. Style of communication might be species specific pertaining to just one species. The behavior of smiling is species general observable in all members of a species. Smiling is species general but not species specific because we can find similar emotional expressions in other animals. Poverty impedes intellectual growth Dizygotic twins (fraternal twins): Twins that develop from two different eggs that are simultaneously fertilized by two sperm. Like ordinary siblings, they share 50% of their genes. Monozygotic twins (identical twins): Twins that develop from a single fertilized egg that then splits in half. These twins are genetically identical. Monozygotic twins tend to resemble each other in intelligence, whether the twins are raised together or not; dizygotic twins show less resemblance, although they resemble each other more than do the randomly selected individuals. To what extent are genetic factors responsible for the differences between individuals, as opposed to the effect of environmental influences? Researchers compute a heritability ratio a static summarizing how much of the phenotypic variance in a population can be attributed to genetic differences among individuals.   

This ratio can take a value between zero and one where zero indicates that none of the phenotypic variability is attributed to the genome and one indicates that all the phenotypic variability is attributable to the genome.

The measurement is defined for a specific group in a specific environment. Heritability ratio may differ if a different group of people are considered (or the same group in a different environment). Heritability ratio is a description of a group. THE EVOLUTION OF INTELLIGENCE Environment of Evolutionary Adaptiveness (EEA): The environment that was in place when the trait was evolving This earlier environment is a key consideration because natural selection has no way to peer into the future. The process depends only on whether an organism s traits help it to survive and reproduce in its current environment. MATING SYSTEM Monogamy: a reproductive partnership between one male and one female. Polygamy: several members of one sex mating with one individual of the other (e.g. lions) Both sexes value physical appearance, men care more than woman do about their partner s attractiveness. Women typically care more than men do about their partner s social statues. Gene expression is influenced by our environment and experiences, and the impact of experience is dependent on the genetically shaped brains that let us understand and remember the experience.