Oil Reservoir

Engineering

Oil Reservoir Engineering (1)

 Contents
Oil reservoir (definitions)
Physical Properties of reservoir rocks
(1) Porosity
 Geological factors affecting porosity
 Experimental porosity measurements
 Preparation of samples for measuring porosity
 Glass pycnometer
 Rusel volumeter
 Ruska porosimeter
(2) Fluid saturation
 fluid saturation measurements
 Distillation method( A S T M )
 Centrifugal method
 Factors affecting fluid saturation
 The uses of core determined fluid saturation
(3) Permeability
 Limitations of Darcy's law applications
 Dimensions of permeability
 Reservoir flow system applications
 Conversion units of Darcy's law
 Permeability of combined layers
 Linear beds in serried
 Linear beds in parallel
 Radial beds in series permeability of channels
and fractures
 Laboratory measurements of permeability
 Perm-plug method
 Hole-core measurements
 Factors affecting permeability measurements

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  Effective and relative permeability
 Characteristics of two-phase relative permeability
curves
 Three phase relative permeability
 Factors affecting relative permeability
 Relative permeability ratio
 Measurements of relative permeability data
 Uses of effective and relative permeability data
(4) Capillary forces
 Surface and capillary pressures
 Adhesion tension
 Rise of fluids in capillaries
 Calculations of capillary pressure
 Capillary pressure in unconsolidated sands
 Capillary pressure curves
 Drainage and imbibition capillary pressure curves
 Laboratory determination of capillary pressure
curve
 Jamin effect
 Calculation of wettability
 Relationship between gravity and capillary forces
 Converting laboratory capillary pressure data
 Extending the range of laboratory Pc - Sw data
 Calculation of effective and absolute
permeability from capillary pressure data
 Calculation of relative permeability from
capillary pressure data

(5) Petrophysics
 Properties of clean rocks

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  Relation between porosity, permeability,
tortuosity and mean capillary radius
 Specific surface
 Kozeny equation
 Flow of electric current through clean rocks
 Formation resistivity factor
 Lithologic factor affecting formation factor
 Resistivity of rocks partially saturated with water
 Saturation exponents
 Tortuosity determination
 Effective tortuosity
 Hydraulic formation factor and index
 The effective hydraulic index
 Relative permeability to the wetting-phase
 Imbibition direction
 Drainage direction
 Relative permeability to the non wetting-phase
Imbibition phase
Drainage direction

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 Oil Reservoir Engineering
Oil Reservoirs (Definitions)

Oil is produced from wells drilled into underground porous

rock formations. The ensemble of wells draining a common oil
accumulation or source or surface area defined by the well
distribution termed an "Oil Field" or "Oil Pool". The part of the
rock that is oil productive is termed an "Oil Reservoir" by
variety of the subsurface location of the reservoir rock; its
entrained fluids are subject to elevated temperature and
pressure – the reservoir temperature and reservoir pressure.

Reservoir rocks are mostly sedimentary in origin. They are

either mechanical or chemical deposition of solid–materials or
simply the remains of animals or plant life.

Physical properties of reservoir rocks

Considered on hand–specimen scale reservoir rocks have

defined ranges of physical properties which are of paramount
interest to the reservoir engineer. The three engineering
characteristics of the reservoir rock are porosity, oil, gas and
water saturation and permeability, Specific, effective and
relative.

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 Porosity (Φ %)
Porosity of a material is defined as that fraction of the bulk
volume of this material that isn't occupied by the solid
framework of the material.

In oil reservoirs, the porosity represents the percentage of

the total space that is available for occupancy by either liquids
or gases.

One may distinguish two types of porosity, namely:

absolute and effective.

Absolute porosity
The percentage of total void space with respect to the bulk
volume regardless of the interconnection of the pore voids. A
rock may have considerable absolute porosity and yet have no
conductivity to fluid for lack of pore interconnection.

Effective porosity
The percentage of interconnected void space with respect
to the bulk volume. It is an indication of conductivity to fluid but
not necessarily a measure of it.

Porosity in sediments both treated and descried by natural

geological processes. Geological conditions are responsible for
both primary and secondary porosity.

Primary porosity

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 Primary porosity results from voids which are left between
mineral fragments and grains after their accumulation as
sediments.

Secondary porosity
Secondary porosity results from geological agents such as
leaching, fracturing, and fissuring which occur after lithification
of sediments.

Effective porosity is a function of a great many lithological

factors. Some of the most important of this are heterogeneity
of grin size, packing, clay content, cementation, weathering
and leaching, clay types and clay hydration status.

Geological factors affecting porosity

1– Degree of sorting
Well–sorted, moderately rounded sand grains settle in
water giving a packing of 30 to 40% porosity. In poorly sorted
sediments, the smaller grains fit into the space between the
larger ones, and porosity is considerable decreased.

2 – Compaction
It's a geological factor which reduces porosity due to
overburden pressure of the overlying sediments. Sandstones,
whoever, exhibit very little compressibility 3x10–6 whereas
shales may be reduced to a small fraction of there original
sedimentation volume.

3 – Cementation
It's the agent which has the greatest effect on the original
porosity and which affects the size, shape and continuity of
pore channels.

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 4 – Clay content
Clay may often act as cementing material. Clay is deposits
of the same time as sand grains and generally it adheres to
them so that after deposition considerable porosity still exists
and the over–all porosity of sandstone may not be lowered
greatly by a small amount of clay.

5 – Granulation and crushing of sand grains

Their effect on porosity at great depth under overburden
pressure is of interest. With increasing overburden pressure,
quartz grains in sandstone show a progressive change from
random packing to closer packing. Some crushing and plastic
deformation of the sand grain occurs.

6 – Mode of packing
One may get qualitative picture of the geometrical
structure of sands by consideration of packing of spheres of
uniform size. This, too, is of infinite variety. However, it will
suffice to note here two basic and extremely types, namely: the
cubic and rhombohedra packing. Unit cells of such packing are
shown in fig (1).

Figure 1

denoted the radius of sphere, thus for cubic packing:

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 For rhombohedra system:

In general we can write:

Of particular interest is the fact that the radii cancel and

the porosity of packing of uniform spheres is a function of
packing only.

7– Rock compressibility:
Assume that:

Pore volume compressibility

Bulk volume compressibility

Solid volume compressibility

Experimental porosity measurements

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 Experimental porosity – determination procedures may be
divided in to two classes, namely, those designed to measure
effective porosity and those which measure absolute porosity.

Preparation of samples for measuring it is

porosities:

They are selected to be preferably10 to 20 cm3 in bulk

volume and are obtained from the center of the core .their
surfaces are cleaned to remove traces of drilling mud. The
samples are extracted in a soxhlit using oil solvents such as
benzene, toluene alight hydrocarbon fraction. During the
extraction, the sample should be kept in a paper thimble,
covered with plug of cotton in order to avoid erosion of loosely
cemented grains.

After extraction, the samples are dried in an over a 100 to

105 co and cooled in a desiccators. This operation removes the
solvent and moisture from the samples.

Effective – porosity measurements:

For approximate work, some methods of obtaining effective

porosity (grain volume methods) may be used. In these
methods: the bulk volume is determined either by the
displacement of a liquid which does not penetrate the sample
or by saturating the sample and volumetrically displacing a
suitable liquid with the saturated sample. The grain volume
may be measured by the volumetric displacement of a gas or a
liquid, while the pore volume may be measured by determining
the amount of liquid necessary to saturate the sample.

An alternate method of obtaining the grain volume is to

divide the dry weight of the sample by the average grain
density of 2.65 (the average density of most reservoir rock
minerals).

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 Example:
A coated sample has the following data:
Weight of dry sample in air (Wa) = 20 gms.
Weight of coated sample (with paraffin of density
0.9 gm/cc) = 20.9 gms.
Weight of coated sample immersed in water = 10
gms.
Calculate the bulk volume of the sample.
Solution:
Wt. of paraffin = 20.9 – 20 = 0.9 gm.
Volume of paraffin = 0.9/0.9 = 1 cm3.
Volume of water displaced = (20.9 – 10)/ew = 10.9
cm3.
So: B.V. = volume of water displaced – volume of
paraffin
= 10.9 – 1 = 9.9 cm3.
Example:
If the sample of Ex.1 has been saturated (100%) by
water and; its weight in air become 21.5 gms. When it
has been immersed in water, it weights 11.6 gms;
calculate B.V.
Solution:
Wt. of displaced water = 21.5 – 11.6 = 9.9 gms.
B.V. = volume of water displaced = 9.9 / 1 = 9.9
cm3.

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Laboratory measurements for porosity
measurements:

Glass pycnometer:
A glass pycnometer with a cap which rests on a ground
taper joint and with a sample hole through the cap is filled with
mercury, the cap is pressed into its seat and the excess
mercury which overflows through a hole in the cap is collected
and removed. The pycnometer is opened and the sample is
placed in the surface of the mercury and submerged by a set of
pointed rods which project from the lower side of the cap, fig
(2).

Figure 2

The cap is again pressed into its seat, which causes a

certain amount of mercury equivalent to the bulk volume of the
sample to overflow. The rods which submerge the sample
should be adjusted so that the sample does not touch the sides
of the pycnometer; this avoids trapping air bubbles.

Either the volume of mercury which overflows or the loss of

weight of the mercury in the pycnometer may be measured
and the core bulk volume calculated.

Example:

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 For a core weights in air 20 gms; given:
Weight of pycnometer filled with Hg = 350 gms.
Wt. of pycnometer filled with Hg and sample =
235.9 gms. Of the mercury density is 13.546 gms/cc.
Calculate B.V.
Solution:
Weight of pycnometer + weight of Hg + weight of
sample = 350+20 = 370 gms.
Weight of Hg displaced = 370 – 235.9 = 134.1 gms.
So: B.V. of sample = 134.1 / 13.546 = 9.9 cm3.

Russel volumeter

As the determination of the bulk volume by glass

pycnometer can not be applied to loosely cemented samples
which have a tendency to disintegrate when immersed in
mercury, and a serious source of error of the trapping of air
bubbles at the surface of the sample, Russle volumeter
provides for direct reading of bulk volume. A saturated sample
is placed in a sample bottle after a zero reading is established
with fluid in the volumeter. The resulting increase in volume is
the bulk volume. Only saturated or coated samples may be

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used in the device. This device has the advantage of
applicability to loosely cemented sample with irregular
surfaces. Since the liquid used is transparent, trapped air
bubbles may be seen and steps taken to remove them.

Ruska porosimeter
A schematic diagram is given in Fig (4)

Figure 3

A micrometer piston is used to pressure the sample cup, so

that the mercury reaches a given reference on the manometer.
Let the reading be Rb in the absence of a core sample in the
cup. When the core floats on the mercury within the cup, the
displacement of the micrometer piston gives a reading Rc to
reach the same reference mark. The porosity of the sample is
then calculated by:

a number of other devices has been designed for

measuring pore volume, grain volume, and porosity including
the cope porosimeter, the mercury pump porosimeter,
Washburn–Bunting porosimeter, Stevens porosimeter, … etc.

In the determination of absolute porosity, it is required that

all unconnected as well as interconnected pores are accounted
for. The procedure required that the sample be crushed. The
method is as follows:

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 Break of the well core, clean the surface of the sample to
remove the drilling mud, measure the bulk volume by any one
of the procedure described above, crush the sample to its
grains, wash the grains with suitable solvent to remove oil mud
and water, and determine the volume of the grains. It is of
course necessary to dry the rock grains before their volume is
determined. The volume of the dry grains may be determined
in a pycnometer containing a suitable liquid as kerosene.

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 Fluid saturation
Cores or underground rock samples, which brought to the
surface, are universally found to have entrained in their pores
varying amounts of liquid. In a typical oil field, water called
interstitial or connate–water and frequently free gas pressured
in addition to the oil.

The water saturation Sw is defined by the equation:

Similarly;

If oil and water are the only fluids present, the volume filled
by water plus the volume filled by oil must equal the total pore
volume; thus:

Sw + So = 1

In many pools, in addition to oil and connate water, free

gas is also present. The free gas saturation is defined by:

And then:

Sw + So + Sg = 1

Three factors should be remembered concerning fluid

saturation:

The saturation will vary from place to place; the water

saturation tending to be higher at the lower part due to gravity.

Water tending to be higher in the less porous section.

The saturation will vary with cumulative with drawal.

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 Figure 4

Fluid saturation measurements

Methods for the determination of reservoir fluid saturation
in place consist in analyzing reservoir core simples for water
and oil, the saturation in gas being obtained by difference since
the sum of the three fluids is equal to unity.

Distillation method (ASTM):

 Take a sample ranging in volume from 50 to 60 cc
from the central part of the larger core.

 Place the core in an extraction thimble and weighed.

 Put the thimble in the flask containing a liquid solvent

such as toluene or a gasoline fraction boiling at about
150 ˚C.

 A reflux condenser is fitted to the flask to return the

condensate to a calibrated glass trap. Fig (6)

 The liquid hydrocarbon is boiled and the water present

in the sample vaporized, carried into the flask
condenser, and caught in the trap. When the volume
in the trap remains constant under continued
extraction, the volume of the water collected is read
and the sample containing the sample is then
transferred to a soxhlet for the final extraction.

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 Figure 5

 The thimble and the sample are then dried and

weighted.

 The total fluid saturation is obtained by weight

difference and includes both oil and water.

 By weight difference again, the weight of oil is

obtained, and, by use of an appropriate oil density, its
volume is calculated.

 The saturations on a percentage of pore–volume base

are readily calculated for both water and oil

Centrifugal method
A solvent is injected into the centrifuge just of center.

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 Figure 6

Owing to centrifugal force, it is thrown to the outer radii,

being forced to pass through the core sample. The solvent
removes the water and oil from the core. The outlet fluid is
trapped and the quantity of water in the core is measured.

This method provides a very rapid method because of the

high forces which can be applied; at the same time that the
water content is determined, the core is cleaned in preparation
for the other measurements.

Factors affecting fluid saturation

Mud filtration
In the case of rotary drilling, the differential pressure across
the well face causes mud and mud filtrate to invade to
formation immediately adjacent to the well surface, this
flushing the formation with mud and this filtrate displacing
some of the oil and perhaps some of the original interstitial
water. The displacement process changes the original fluid
contents to fluid saturation.

Pressure gradient
Pressure gradient between the surface and the formation
permits the expansion of the entrapped water, oil and gas.
Thus the contents of the core at the surface have been
changed from those which existed in the formation.

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Uses of core determined fluid saturations

The saturation values obtained directly from rock samples

are used to:

 Determine the original oil–gas contact, original oil

water contact and weather sand is productive of oil or
gas.

 Establish a correlation of the water content of cores

and permeability from which it can be determined
whether a formation will be productive of
hydrocarbon.

In summary, it is seen that although fluid–saturation

determinations made on core samples at the surface may not
give a direct indication of the saturation within the reservoir,
they are of value and do yield very useful and necessary
information.

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 Permeability
Permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a
measure of the capacity of the medium to transmit fluids. The
measurement of permeability is a measure of the fluid
conductivity of the particular material.

By analogy with electrical conductors, the permeability

represents the reciprocal of the resistance which the porous
medium offers to fluid flow.

If the reservoir rock system is considered to be a bundle of

circular tubes such that the flow could be represented by a
summation of the flow from all the tubes as described by
poiseuille's equation:

Where:

: Flow rate, cm3/sec.

: Radius of tubes, cm.

: Pressure lose over length, dyne/cm2.

: Fluid viscosity, cp.

: Length over which is measured, cm.

: Number of tubes.

Figure 7

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 As there are numerous tubes and radii involved in each
segment of porous rock, it is an impossible task to use
poiseuille's flow equation for porous medium.

In 1856, as a result of experimental studies on the flow of

water through unconsolidated sand filter bed, Darcy formulated
a law which bears his name; this law describes, with some
limitation, the movement of fluid in porous medium.

Darcy's equation states that the velocity of homogeneous

fluid in a porous medium is proportional to the pressure
gradient and inversely proportional to the fluid viscosity;

Or

is the apparent velocity in cm/sec. and A is the apparent

or total across–section area of the rock, cm2.

In other words, A includes the area of the rock material as

well as the area of the pore channels. The pressure gradient
is in atmosphere per cm, taken in the same direction as and .

The proportionality constant (K) is permeability of the rock

expressed in Darcy units.

The negative sign indicates that if the flow is taken as

positive in the positive direction, then the pressure decrease in
that direction, so that the slope is negative.

Limitation of Darcy's law applications

1. Darcy's law applies only in the region of laminar flow,

for in turbulent flow, which occurs at higher velocities,
the pressure gradient increase at a greater rate than
does the flow rate.

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 2. It does not apply to flow within individual pore
channels, but to portions of a rock whose dimensions
are reasonably large compared with the size of the
pore channels.

3. Because actual velocity is in general not measurable,

apparent velocity from the basis of Darcy's law. Actual
velocity can be related to apparent velocity as
following:

q = Aapp. . Vapp. = Aact. . Vact.

Figure 8

This means that the actual velocity of a fluid will be the

apparent velocity divided by the porosity where the fluid
completely saturates the rock

4. The fluid flow region is steady–state ,isothermal

5. Fluids used are non compressible fluids.

6. Use non reactive fluids.

the unit of permeability is the darcy .where

1 dareg = 1000 md = 1.0133 x 106 dyne/ cm2.atm.

Dimension of permeability

The dimension of permeability can be established by

substituting units of the other terms in Darcy's law as:

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Reservoir flow system applications:

Several simple flow systems are frequently

encountered in the measurement and application of
permeability.

Figure 9

Linear flow

Figure 10

It is assumed that flow occurs through a constant cross–

sectional area that the ends of the system are parallel planes
and that the pressure at either end of the system is constant
over the end surface.

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 If the block is 100% saturated with an incompressible fluid
and steady–state flow of constant rate g;

Darcy's low for a " " segment of this system:

Integrating between the limits "0" and "L" and p 1 and p2

If a compressible fluid is flowing, the quantity of q varies

with the pressure. The usually assumed valuation is that

p.q=pmqm = constant

where :

And Qm is the flow rate at pm the integral is therefore;

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 Thus it is evident for the linear system that gas flow and
liquid flow can be calculated by the same equation provided the
rate is measured of the mean pressure of the system

Radial flow

A redial flow system, analogous to flow in to a well bore

from a cylindrical drainage system. When dray's law in
differential from is applied to a (dr) cylinder of the system, the
resultant integrated equation of flow is

Figure 12

in case of compressible flow:

qmpm = q.p= constant

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3–Spherical flow

Figure 11

such a system might be closely approached where is

producing formation was of a thickness approximately half the
distance between wells and where the formation was
penetrated for only a short distance comparable to the total
pay thickness.

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For compressible fluids, the same equation can be
used as:

Conversion units of dray's

1-linear flow

Where;

and

2-Radial flow

Where;

and

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 

Where;

and

Where;

and

Permeability of combination layers

The foregoing flow equations were all derived on the basis
of one continuous value of permeability between the inflow and
outflow face. It is seldom that rocks are so uniform – most
porous rocks will have space variations of permeability.

If the rock system is comprised of different layer of fixed

permeability, the average permeability of the flow system can
be determined by one of the several averaging procedures:

Linear beds in series

Consider the case of the average permeability Kav, can be
computed as follows:

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 Figure 12

Solving for pressure and substituting for ;

As the permeability is a property of the rock and note of

the fluids flowing through permeability must be equally
applicable to gases.

For example , the average permeability of 10 md , 50 md

and 1000 md beds , which are 6 ft , 18 ft and 40 ft respectively
in length but of equal cross– section when placed in series is:

1-Linear beds in parallel

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 Figure 13

Consider fig (15).

The total flow rate is the sum of the individual flow rates,

qt =q1+q2+q3

if all beds are of the same width , their areas are

proportional to their thicknesses.

for example the average permeability of three beds of 10

md , 50 md and 1000 md and 6ft , 18 ft and 36 ft respectively
in thickness but of equal with , when placed in parallel is

2– Radial beds in parallel

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 Constants:

variable, q and h

Many producing formations are

composed of strata which many vary
widely in permeability and thickness,

Figure 14

If these are producing fluid to a

common well bore under the same
draw– down and from the same
drainage radius, then;

This is the same as for the parallel flow in linear beds with
the same bed width.

Example:
Calculate the average permeability of the depth permeability data given below:

Depth, ft K, md

5012 – 13 500
5013 – 16 460
5016 – 17 5

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 5017 – 19 235
5019 – 23 360
5023 – 24 210
5024 – 29 3

Solution:

3-Radial beds in series

Figure 15

Constants :

Variables :

Consider Fig (17)

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 Example:
What is the average permeability of four beds in
series having equal formation thickness under the
following conditions?

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 1. For a linear flow.
2. For a radial flow system if the radius of the penetrating well bore is 6 in, and the
radius of effective drainage is 2000 ft.

Bed 1 2 3 4

L, ft 250 250 500 1000

K, md 25 50 100 200

Solution:
Assume bed (1) adjacent to the well bore;
a) Linear flow:

b)Radial flow:

Example:
A well of 6 bore is drilled in to a pay of 500 md on a
spacing of 40 Ares (re = 750 ft). Assume that the mud
penetrated for a distance of one foot in to the pay and
that experiment indicates that the pay will be reduced
in permeability to a value of 10 % of its original. It is

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desired to know to what average permeability the well
system is reduced by the mud penetration.

Solution:
The reduced permeability =0.1x500=50md

Example:
A well of 40 acres spacing with a 6 ft bore produce
50 bb1/day of fluid from a pay of 50 md permeability
before acidizing and 90 bb1/day after acidizing. If the
acid had been injected to penetrated 15 ft into the
formation, from these data can you calculate the
permeability increase which would have had to occur in
the acidized section to produce the observed increase
in the production rate.

Solution:

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Permeability of channels and fractures

In some sands and carbonates the formation frequently

contains solution channels and fractures do not change the
effective permeability of the flow network. In order to
determine the contribution made by fracture or channel to the
total conductivity of the system, it is necessary to express their
conductivity in term of the darey.

Channels
Considering Poiseulle's equation for fluid conductivity in
capillary tubes,

The total area available for flow is;

So that the equation reduces to

From Darcy's law, it is also known that;

Equating Darcy's and Poiseuille's equations for fluid flow in

a tube,

Where and are in consistent units.

If is in cm, then in Darcy is given by:

If is in inches; then in Darcy is given by:

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 Example:
Consider a cube of reservoir rock one foot on the
side and having a matrix permeability of 10 md. If a
liquid of one cp. viscosity flows linearly through the
rock, under a pressure gradient one psi per ft, the
rate of flow will be:

Solution::

If a circular opening 0.01 ft diameter traverses

the same rock , then the total flow rate can be
considered to be the above value (Q1) value plus the
rate of flow through the circular opening (Q2)

Therefore the combined rate is 0.012491 or an

increase of about 11 %.
Fractures
For flow through slots or fine clearances and unit
width (w) , by analogy to channels relationships ,
K=w2/12
If the width is in cm and K in darcys, the
permeability of fractures is given by
K = 84.4 x 105 w2
If w is in inches and K in dareys,
K = 54.4 x 106 w2

Example:

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 A core of very low permeability (0.01 md). It
contains fracture of (0.005") wide and 1 ft in lateral
extent per square foot if the core. Assume that the
fracture is in the direction in which flow is desired.
Calculate the average permeability of the core:

Solution:

Laboratory measurements of permeability

The permeability of a porous medium can be determines

from samples extracted from the formation or by in place
testing. Two methods – will be presented here – are used to
evaluate the permeability of cores.

perm– plug method

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 Figure 16

The tested samples are usually cut with a diamond drill

from the well cores in a direction parallel to the bedding plane
of the formations.

Perm plugs are approximately 2 cm in diameter and 2 to 3

cm long.

Samples are dried after extraction process "as described

before". The residual oil or fluids are thus: remove and the core
sample becomes 100 % saturated with air. The perm plug is
then inserted saturated with air. The perm plug is then inserted
in a core holder of the permeability device.

Fig18 samples are mounted in such a way that the sides of

the samples are sealed, and a fluid pressure differential can be.
Applied across their full length, and the rate of flow of fluid "air"
through the plug is observed.

Obtaining data "for conditions of viscous flow" at several

flow rates and plotting results as shown in fig (19) from eq:

for viscous flow condition : the data should plot a straight

line passing through the origin. Turbulence is indicated by
curvature of the plotted points.

The slope of the straight line portion is equal to (k/μ) from

which the absolute permeability (k) can be computed.

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 In case of using liquids in stead of air. Data are taken only
at one flow rate .

To assure condition of viscous flow, it is the lowest possible

rate which can be accurately measured.

Figure 17

Whole – core measurement

Figure 18

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 The core must be prepared in the same manner as per–
plug method preparation. The core is then mounted in a special
holding device such as shown in fig: 20 the measurements are
the same as for perm–plugs but the calculation are slightly
different. Measurements of permeability on long cores
generally yield better indication of the permeability than do the
small cores especially for rocks which contain fractures as
limestone.

Factors affecting permeability

measurements

1-Klinkenberg effect "Gas slipping"

Klinkenberg has reported variations in permeability as
determined using gases as the flowing fluids from that obtained
when using no reactive liquids.

The permeability of a rock for any liquid will be the same

but for a gas will depend upon the individual gas and the mean
pressure of flow.

The measured permeability of a porous medium to gas is

greater than that to a liquid for the liquid has a zero velocity as
the wall past which it flows but that the gas has a finite velocity
at the wall. Fig (21)

Figure 19

This is said due to the gas slippage. The gas slippage is a

function of the mean pressure and the type of rock. The
phenomena of gas slippage occurs when the diameter of the
capillary openings approach the mean free path λ.

The mean free path of a gas is a function of the molecular

size and the kinetic energy.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (42)

 The Klinkenberge effect is a function of the gas for which
the permeability is determined.

The amount of slippage causes a change in permeability

that can be represented by the following equation:

Where;

: Gas permeability

: Liquid permeability

: Mean radius of capillary tubes.

: Constant nearly equal One.

The last equation can else be written in the following

formula:

Where;

: Mean flowing pressure of the gas at which was

observed,

: Constant for a given gas and rock,

Oil Reservoir Engineering (43)

 Figure 20

Fig (22) is apart of the equation at various mean pressures

using Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Carbon dioxide.

Note that for each gas a straight line is obtained for the
observed permeability as a function of the reciprocal of the
mean pressure of the test.

The data obtained with lowest molecular, (H2), weight gas

yield the straight line with greater slope, indicative of a greater
slippage effect.

All the lines when extrapolated to infinite mean pressure, (

), intercept the permeability axis at a common point.

According to Fig (22);

The slope of the straight line, m, is equal .

The constant depends on the mean free path λ of the gas

and the size of the openings in the porous medium.

To obtain accurate permeability measurements, requires

approximately 12 flow test under viscous flow conditions from
which the permeability to liquid can be graphically determined.

2-Clay content

Oil Reservoir Engineering (44)

 Many clays act as cementing minerals or are as part of the
rock matrix. These minerals or are as part of the rock matrix.
These minerals are usually very complex in molecular structure
and posses the ability to attract and hold +ve ions such as
hydrogen , sodium or calcium. These minerals also have the
property of hydration, i.e., holding water within their molecular
structure. This is normally called "clay swelling"

Reservoir waters generally contain ions such as sodium and

calcium or magnesium which can be transferred to the clay.
The greater the amount of ions in solution the move will be
absorbed by the clay and vice verse. If the reservoir water is
replaced by fresh water, the clay must given up some of its +ve
ions to the water until a new equilibrium is established. The
result of this ion exchange and the change of ion concentration
in the flowing liquid is an increase in clay volume and
consequently reducing the pore volume available for flow.

Figure 21

Fig (32) shows such a decrease in flow rate with fresh water
flow thus permeability determination with fresh water on a core
containing clays will be less than that in the natural state.

3-Reactive liquids
Reactive liquids after the internal geometry of the porous.
Medium, due to precipitation or corrosion.

4-Overburden pressure

Oil Reservoir Engineering (45)

 When the core is removed from the formation, the
confining forces are removed. The rock matrix is permitted to
expand in all direction partially changing the shapes of the
fluid– flow paths inside the core.

Compaction of the core due to overburden pressure may

cause as mush as 60 % reduction in the permeability of various
formations.

5-Grain size
It was found that the rate of fluid flow is proportion al to the
square of the grain diameter , hence the finer sand the smaller
the permeability.

6-Mode of packing:
The effect of packing as a factor which influence
permeability can be introduced as:

K = 10.2 d2 / c

Where d: diameter of spheres, cm

C: packing constant depending on porosity .

table:1 mode of packing Φ c

Hexagonal 26 52.5

30 52.5

40 20.3

cubic 45 23.7

Effective and relative permeability

It was note that Darcy's low for flow in porous media. was
predicated upon the condition that the porous media was
entirely saturated with the flowing fluid such a circumstance

Oil Reservoir Engineering (46)

does not often exist in nature , particular in petroleum
reservoir. Gas or oil is usually fauna coexistent with water and
frequently gas, oil and water may occupy together the pores of
reservoir.

Ability of aporous medium to conduct a fluid when the

saturation of that fluid in the material is less than 100 %of the
pore sbace is known as the "effective permeability of the
porous medium to that fluid. The effective permeability is
written by using a subscript to designate the fluid under
consideration. For example

Effective permeability to oil ,

Effective permeability to gas ,

And

Effective permeability to water ,

Of course , it would be expected that for a given system

(A , Δp , μ , L being constant) , the value of Qx would increase
as the pore space of the porous medium in question contained
more fluid (x). it has been found experimentally that at a given
value of fluid saturation , the value of the effective permeability
to that fluid is constant. Thus , a change in effective
permeability depends only upon a change in saturation.

Effective permeability will , of course , vary from zero to the

value of the permeability at 100 % saturation. No two porous
bodies will necessarily have the same variation of effective
permeability with saturation.

Relative permeability
Relative permeability is defined as the ratio of the effective
permeability to a given fluid at a definite saturation to the
permeability at 100 % saturation. The terminology most widely
used is simply (Kg/ K), (Ko /K) and (Kw /K), meaning the relative

Oil Reservoir Engineering (47)

permeability to gas, oil and water respectively. Since K is
constant for a given porous medium, the same fashion as dose
the effective permeability. The relative permeability to a fluid
will vary from a value of zero at some low saturation of that
fluid (critical saturation), to a value of 1 at 100 % saturation of
that fluid.

Characteristics of two – phase relative

permeability curves:

Figure 22

a) Rapid fall in
permeability to
wetting –
phase (Krw) as
the wetting
phase
saturation first
decreases from
100 %.

b) Its approach to
zero value at
saturation greater than zero %.

c) Relative permeability to the no wetting phase (krnw)

apparently dose not rice.

Above zero until the wetting phase saturation has fallen to

approximately (1– Snwc) where Snwc is the critical non-wetting
saturation or equilibrium saturation.

1. Rapid rise of the permeability (Krnw) as the wetting

phase saturation decreases.

2. Virtual attainment of 100 %permeability to non-

wetting phase before all the wetting phase is
completely removed.

Interpretation

Oil Reservoir Engineering (48)

 1. The rapid decline in Krw indicates that the larger pores
or larger flow paths are occupied first by the non-
wetting fluid.

Figure 23

As the saturation of the non-wetting phase increases, the

average pore size saturated with wetting phase be comes
successively smaller. Fig (25)

2. Blocking off of central regions of pores by non-wetting

phase will leading to an increase in flow resistance or
rapid fall in krw. This behavior will continue with
decreasing (Sw) until (Swe), where a minute film which
would wet the surface of the grains. This film would
decrease the diameter of the larger tube, thus
reducing the flow capacity for the non-wetting phase,
and yet the film itself would contribute no flow
capacity. Fig (26)

Figure 24

Oil Reservoir Engineering (49)

 To the wetting phase (Krw = 0). Thus the total fluid
capacity of the tubes would be decreased.

3. This point represents the equilibrium saturation which

is the value at which the non-wetting phase becomes
mobile.

4. At any saturation value above this saturation wetting-

phase saturation falls into the pendular saturation
state, so that it losses its own mobility and this
confirmed by the rapid rise in Krnw.

5. The attainment of 100 % Krnw at saturation of non-

wetting – phase less than 100 % indicates that a
portion of the available pore space even though
interconnected contributes little to the fluid
conductive capacity of the porous medium.

Three– phase– relative permeability

There are many instances when not two fluids but three
fluids exist in rock simultaneously as oil, water and gas.

Figure 25

Fig (27) show the triangular diagram representing the

saturation conditions of rock the coordinates of any point with
the triangle represent the different saturations in all three
phases. For example;

Oil Reservoir Engineering (50)

 Point 1 2 3 4 5
So 20 20 40 60
40
Sw 20 40 40 20 60

Sg 60 40 20 20 0
The symmetry of water permeability with respect to any
axis of the triangle is due to water is considered as wetting –
phase with respect to each of oil and gas phases.

Figure 26

The symmetry of gas relative permeability is due to similar

behavior of gas as anon wetting phase with respect to oil and
water.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (51)

 Figure 27

The relative permeability to oil is not symmetrical with

respect to any axis of the triangle. This symmetry is distorted
toward the high percentage of gas saturation which indicates a
lowering of mobility of oil by the presence of gas.

Figure 28

Fig: 31 shown the regions in which single–phase, two–phase

and three phase fluids flow normally occur.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (52)

 Figure 29

The region of three – phase

flow is externally small it is
illustrated by the hatched area
two – phase flow region the
white area , which indicates that
in most cases two phase relative
permeability curves are quite
satisfactory the single – phase
regions are illustrated by the shaded area.

Factors effecting relative permeability

1-Rock wettability

Figure 30

The relative
permeability values
are affected by the
change in fluid
distribution brought
about by different
wetting characteristics.

Curve (1) indicates

that the system is
water wet system
while, curve (2)
indicates oil wet system.

2-Structure history (Drainage or imbibition)

Oil Reservoir Engineering (53)

 Figure 31

It is note that the imbibition processes causes the non-

wetting phase (oil), to lose its mobility at higher value of
structure than does the drainage process.

The drainage method causes the wetting Phase (water) to

lose it' mobility at higher value of (Sw) than does the imbibition
method.

3-Pore configuration and pore size

distribution

Figure 32

Curve 1 : Capillary tubes.

Curve 2 : Dolomite.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (54)

Curve 3 : Unconsolidated Sand.

Curve 4 : Consolidated sand.

Relative permeability ratio

Figure 33

The relative permeability ratio expresses the ability of a

reservoir to permit flow of one fluid as related to its ability to
permit flow of another fluid under the same circumstances.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (55)

 The two most useful permeability ratios are ( ). The

relative permeability to gas with respect to that to oil and (

), the relative permeability to water with respect to that to oil, it
is understand that both quantities in the ratio are determined
simultaneously on a given system. The relative permeability
ratio may vary in magnitude from zero to infinity.

Consider a system flowing gas and oil. At high oil

saturation, the flow of gas is zero, and hence, is zero.

Figure 34

As the gas saturation increases, increase but

decrease and therefore increase. When the oil saturation

becomes sufficiently low, approach zero and the value of

approach infinity. Fig (35) is a typical plot of versus

the oil structure. To give linearity, was plotted against oil

structure saturation or liquid saturation on a semi–log paper,

Oil Reservoir Engineering (56)

Fig (36). It has become common usage to express the central
straight line portion of the relationship in the analytical form:

Where;

and are constants characteristic only of a given

reservoir material and given set of fluids. Slope of the linear
plot is denoted .

The use of this analytical expression has been justified in

view of agreement between theoretical relationship which may
be deduced from it and actual observed data.

Measurement of relative permeability data

There are essentially for means by which relative

permeability data can be obtained:

(1) Laboratory method.

(2) Capillary pressure method.

(3) Field data.

(4) Petrochemical data.

1-Laboratory method:

Figure 35

A small core is
choose and
prepared for the
test. It is mounted
in a pressurized
rubber sleeve. The
two fluids are

Oil Reservoir Engineering (57)

introduced simultaneously at the inlet and through different
pipe systems, at a predetermined flow ratio and are flowed
through the core until the produced ratio is equal to the
injected ratio.

The saturation of the various fluids is determined in one of

different methods (as measuring the fluid resistively by means
of two electrodes).

Once the saturation has been measured, the relative

permeability of the two phase at this saturation conditions can
calculated by means of the injection ratio.

The injection ratio is varied and the process continually

repeated until a complete relative–permeability curve is
obtained.

2-Field determination
Due to Darcy's equation for gas and oil, the relative
permeability ratio can be defined by the following equation:

Figure 36

If the and are expressed at reservoir condition and if it

is assumed the pressure drops ( and ) are the same,

Or;

Oil Reservoir Engineering (58)

 The normal procedure is to use field average GORs which
are normally the most accurate values obtainable. The
saturation at which this particular value of relative permeability
ratio applies must be calculated from field production data as
follow:

Example:
Given the following data:

Pressu x10–6
re
3000 850 1.443 840 752 30.4 0.00
2900 920 1.432 875 725 32.1 41
2800 990 1.420 910 695 34.0 0.01
2700 1020 1.403 970 657 36.8 50
2600 1000 1.393 1010 632 38.4 0.02
2500 1180 1.382 1062 608 40.5 40
2400 1420 1.371 1122 580 42.4 0.03
2300 1510 1.364 1162 565 43.6 99
2200 1666 1.354 1230 540 45.5 0.05
2100 1920 1.340 1330 509 48.0 17
2000 2220 1.326 1453 476 50.8 0.06
1900 2480 1.313 1590 446 53.8 32
1800 2710 1.301 1758 416 57.4 0.07
1700 2800 1.298 1795 410 58.2 52
0.08

Oil Reservoir Engineering (59)

 47
0.09
65
0.10
83
0.12
02
0.13
18
0.14
20
0.14
53
psi SCF/ bbl/ bbl/ SCF/
STR STB SCF STB
Calculate constants and in the equation if =
28.5% and .

Solution:

For each pressure step calculate and using

equations;

And,

Example of calculations at P=2500 psi

Oil Reservoir Engineering (60)

 3000 0.710 0.00187
2900 0.696 0.00321
2800 0.684 0.00556
2700 0.664 0.00682
2600 0.652 0.00694
2500 0.638 0.01085
2400 0.625 0.01620
2300 0.615 0.01848
2200 0.609 0.0224
2100 0.589 0.0292
2000 0.575 0.0377
1900 0.563 0.0456
1800 0.550 0.0540
1700 0.540 0.0567

Oil Reservoir Engineering (61)

 Figure 37

Determination of constants and ;

At = 0.516 , = 0.1

At = 0.648 , = 0.01

And,

So,

Oil Reservoir Engineering (62)

Uses of effective and relative permeability
data

Relative permeability data are essential to all flow work in

the field of reservoir engineering. Just a few of its uses are
mentioned engineering. Just a few of its uses are mentioned
here.

Determination of free water level:

 From the relative permeability curves, it
should have become apparent that the point
of 100% water flow is not necessarily the
point of 100% water saturation. It is
recognized that there are two water levels.
 Free water level: zero capillary pressure
level.
 Initial WOC: the level below which fluid
production is 100% water, from relative
permeability data the engineer can
determine what the fluid saturation must be
at the point of zero oil permeability. When
the fluid saturation determined from well
test data and relative permeability curves
are used, the capillary pressure can be
determined and the height above the free
water level can be calculated.
Other uses of relative permeability data
1-Determination of residual fluid saturation.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (63)

 2-Fractional flow and frontal advance calculation
to determine the fluid distribution.
3-Making future prediction for all types of oil
reservoir where two phase flow is involved.
4-Emulation of drill–steam and production tests.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (64)

 Capillary forces
Surface and capillary pressure

Consider two immiscible fluids (water and oil, fluid

commonly found in petroleum reservoirs). A water molecule
which is within the body of the water will uniformly attached in
all directions, by an attractive force, by other molecules and
thus the resultant force on the molecule will be zero

Figure 38

A water molecule at the interface has force acting upon it

from the oil lying immediately above the interface and
water molecules lying below the interface. The resulting
forces are unbalanced and give rise to interfacial
tension.

Figure 39

This attractive force tends to attract the surface molecules

in to the liquid and minimize the surface area. A certain amount
of work is required to move a water molecule from within the
body in the liquid through the interface; this work is referred to
as the free surface energy of the liquid.

Surface tension

Oil Reservoir Engineering (65)

 The force in dynes acting in the surface perpendicular to a
line cm of length and for a distance of one com in order to
produce the new until area of the surface, or it is the force per
unit length required to create a unit new surface.

Surface tension is the force acting on the surface between

a liquid phase and a gaseous phase while the interfacial tensing
is created at the interface between two liquids.

Figure 40

One of the simplest example of the surface tension is the

tendency of free volume to take the minimum possible form as,
for example, a sphere in the case of a free drop liquid.

Capillary pressure force

The forces that are active at the interface between two

immiscible liquid faces

Adhesion tension, At:

Figure 41

Oil Reservoir Engineering (66)

 A positive adhesion tension indicates that the dense phase
(water in this case) wets the solid surface.

An adhesion tension of zero indicates that both phases

have an equal affinity for the surface.

Figure 42

Thus the adhesion tension determines the ability of the

wetting phase to adhere to the solid and to spread over the
surface of the solid.

Figure 43

If the contact angle , an outside energy will be required

to cause the dense fluid to spread over the surface.

Adhesion tension or the degree of spreading depends upon

the contact angle of the system that affected by the mineralogy
of surface (rock) and the kind of the two immiscible fluids.

Rise of fluids in capillaries

Oil Reservoir Engineering (67)

 Figure 44

The rise in height, Fig (46) is due to the attractive force (adhesion tension)
between the liquid and tube that tends to pull liquid upward. This total upward force is
balanced by the weight of the liquid column

Upward force Downward force

and ,
Equating this two balanced forces:

(1)
It is noticed from the shape of the interface between the
two phases in the tube that the pressure in the liquid phase
beneath the interface (A) is less than above the interface.
This difference in pressure existing across the interface is
referred to as capillary pressure of the system.

(2)

Oil Reservoir Engineering (68)

 Figure 45

Fig (47) shows the condition of two liquid phases compared

with case of liquid and gaseous phase.

Calculation of capillary pressure,

1-For liquid–air system

Oil Reservoir Engineering (69)

 Figure 46

At the point B' within the capillary the tube pressure is the
same as that. At the point B outside the capillary, which
pressure is atmospheric.

At the point A' just under the meniscus with in the capillary,
the pressure is equal to that at B' within the capillary minus the
head of water.

The pressure at A' is therefore;

(3)

Now, at the point A, just above the meniscus within the

capillary, the pressure is the same as that at B.

This statement can be made because the density can be

neglected.

The pressure across the meniscus (or the phase boundary)

is therefore;

(4)

Where;

and are the wetting phase pressure (water) and the

non wetting–face pressure (air), and is the water density.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (70)

 Substituting equation (3) in equation (4);

(5)

As mentioned before;

(6)

For two immiscible liquids (oil and water)

In this case the pressure at A is now equal to that at B
minus the head of oil, because the oil density isn't negligible
compared to water density.

(7)

Substituting equation (7) into equation (5);

(8)

It was noted in equation (1) that the quantity ( ) could be

expressed by the surface tension ( ) and the contact angle ( );
therefore, the capillary pressure can be expressed as:

(9)

It noticed from equation (9) that the capillary pressure is a

function of the adhesion tension ( ), and inverse
proportional to the radius of the capillary tube.

Thus, across a fluid boundary which is within a larger

vessel, the capillary pressure will be zero, or substantially so,
because becomes infinitely large.

Capillary pressure in unconsolidated sands

Oil Reservoir Engineering (71)

 Reservoir rocks are varying in complexity of pore structure,
and a simple or ideal porous structure is required as a starting
point to explain their capillary behavior. The ideal pore
configuration usually chosen is that made up of spherically
uniform particles of definite size, i.e., unconsolidated sand.

Figure 47

Consider to spherical grains in contact as shown in Fig (10)

with a wetting fluid at the point of contact. A contact angle of
zero will be assumed in order to have the condition of a
continuous film of the wetting phase a round the sand grain. In
this system, the capillary pressure is given by;

(10)

Where;

and are the radii of the curvature of the interface and

is the interfacial tension between the two fluids. The values of
and expresses the amount of fluid that is contained at the
contact, or the saturation of that fluid within the porous body if
the number of such contacts are considered. It is practically
impossible to measure the values of and so they are
generally referred to by the mean radius ( ); where;

Oil Reservoir Engineering (72)

 (11)

The mean radius is empirically determined from other

measurement on a porous medium.

Referring to equation (10), it is seen that if and both

decreased (i.e. the quantity of the wetting–face decreases); the
magnitude of the capillary pressure would in turn have to
increase in size. It is therefore possible to express the capillary
pressure as a function of rock saturation when two immiscible
fluids are used within the porous medium. In other words,
smaller water saturation gives a greater capillary pressure.

Equation (8) and Equation (10) together demand that: at a

given height within a reservoir, the amount of water that is held
by capillary pressures will increase as the permeability
decreases. Also the capillary pressure increase with height in
the reservoir.

Capillary pressure curves

The relationship between water saturation at any point in a

porous body and the capillary pressure at that point is known
as the capillary pressure. Since the capillary pressure must
vary with height above the free water level in a porous section,
the capillary pressure curve expresses also the relationship of
water saturation to height above the free water level. Fig (50)
shows a typical curve, any point in this curve represents an
equilibrium condition.

First, it is assumed that the reservoir rock was originally

filled with water.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (73)

 Figure 48

Second, this water was displayed by the oil which

accumulates in the reservoir. The capillary pressure can be
measured by finding out how much pressure must be applied
on oil (non wetting fluid) in order to reach certain saturation in
that fluid (wetting–phase fluid). If the largest capillary opening
be considered as circular of radius , the pressure needed for

forcing the oil will be .

It is the minimum pressure at which the non-wetting fluid

starts to enter the core because any capillary of small radius
will require a higher pressure application. This minimum
pressure is called the "displacement pressure" of the core.

As the driving pressure upon the non-wetting fluid is

increased, capillaries of smaller and smaller radii are
penetrated by the non– wetting fluid. Should the capillaries of
the specimen be highly uniform in size , no excess pressure
would be required to saturate them in non-wetting fluid and the
plot of pressure applied vs. fluid saturation would be very flat
nearly until the irreducible saturation (Swi) is reached. This is
illustrated incurve "1" fig (51).

Oil Reservoir Engineering (74)

 Figure 49

On the contrary, should the capillaries be of very

heterogeneous size, the capillary – pressure curve would be
very step such as curve (3) curve (2) is the capillary pressure
for capillary size distribution of medium heterogeneity.

It may be summarized that the capillary pressure of a

reservoir rock as a function of fluid saturation is a measure of
capillary size distribution, which in turn is a measure of rock
texture. Fine textured rocks made up of small cemented grains,
closely packed exhibit a higher capillary pressure at a given
saturation then coarse textured rocks made up of large grains,
poorly cemented and loosely packed.

There is no sharp line between oil and water level, Fig (51).
The depth internal within which the saturation (S w) changes
from 100% to the irreducible saturation (Swi) is known as the
"transition zone", thus, the water–oil contact con not be said to
exist at a definite depth, but rather within a range of depth.

In general, less permeable sands are expected to have a

greater transition zone, Fig (52).

Oil Reservoir Engineering (75)

 Figure 50

A distinction must be made between the displacement

pressures and "threshold pressure", the former refers to the
entrance pressure of the non-wetting fluid into the porous
medium fully saturated with the wetting fluid.

However, if the medium is partially saturated with non-

wetting fluid, the entrance
pressure is reduced to a point
below the displacement pressure.
If the saturation in the non-
wetting fluid is the equilibrium
saturation to this phase, the
threshold pressure is now zero.
Fig (53).

Figure 51

Drainage and
imbibition capillary
pressure curves

To obtain the drainage

curve, the core was saturated
with water and then let a non-
wetting fluid (oil or air), be

Oil Reservoir Engineering (76)

forced into the core. In this desaturation direction, the water is
displaced from the larger toward the smaller capillaries. Fig
(54)

Figure 52

By contrast, when the water saturation changes are toward

larger saturation values, "in the imbibition direction", which is
also the direction of displacement of oil or air by water. The oil
saturation is reduced until it reaches to the ultimate oil
saturation "residual oil saturation".

A higher value of water saturation for a given capillary

pressure value would be obtained if the porous system was
being desaturated (drainage), then was being resaturated
(imbibition) with wetting fluid.

We can summarize factors affecting capillary pressure

curve as:

 The pore size distribution.

 The saturation history "drainage or
imbibition direction".
 Rock homogeneity or heterogeneity.
 Rock permeability.
 The kind of fluid and solids that are
involved.
Thus in order to use capillary pressure data, these factors
must be taken into consideration before the actual application
of the data.

Laboratory determination of capillary

pressure curve

A typical apparatus which is used for the determination of

capillary pressure curve is shown in Fig (16). Many versions of
the apparatus are used but the basic principles are the same.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (77)

 The porous diaphragm is chosen so that it will permit water
to flow through it, but will not permit air to flow through it
under the pressure necessary. This means that the diaphragm
must have very small pores and must be water wet.

To determine the capillary pressure curve to quantities

must be measured:

1-Sw in the core at any time.

2-Pc at the same time

By definition, Pc is difference in pressure between the gas

(air) and water phases in the core. The water saturation (Sw)
can be determined either by wetting the core from time to time
or by measuring the volume of water that has been removed
from the core from time to time.

Procedure
 The porous diaphragm must first be completely
saturated with water.

 On the diaphragm is placed a thin layer of finely

powder, the purpose of which is to ensure good
contact between the diaphragm and the core. This
layer is completely saturated with water.

 The core itself is also completely saturated with water

and placed on the layer of powder.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (78)

  The apparatus is then closed so that an air pressure
can be applied. This pressure is set at some definite
and contact value (Pair).

 Because the diaphragm has been chosen with such a

fine pore structure that air can not penetrate it, there
will be no air flow except into the core. Air flow into the
core will displace water which itself can path through
the diaphragm. However air will displace water from
the core through the diaphragm for a while but
eventually all flow will stop and the system will be
static.

 When the system has reached this point of no flow, the

pressure in both the water and air phases within the
core is known.

A.Pair = the applied pressure.

B.Pw = Patm (the pressure below the
diaphragm) – the head, ΔP from the
bottom of the diaphragm to the center
of the core.

 At this point, the core can be removed from the holder

and the wide determined, weight of the core minus the
dry weight gives the weight of water present and
consequently the saturation.

 The core is replaced in the holder and the process is

repeated, a new air pressure higher than the first
beginning used to determine a new capillary pressure
and a new saturation.

 By making a succession of such determinations, the

entire capillary pressure curve is obtained and plotted.

Example:

Oil Reservoir Engineering (79)

 A dry core weights 8.59 gms and then 100%
saturated with water it weights 9.74 gms. It
is placed in a closed container diaphragm.
A constant pressure is applied and when equilibrium is attended the core
reweighed for various applied pressures, the following data were obtained:

Pressure Weight
10 9.74
20 9.74
30 9.68
40 9.57
50 9.41
60 9.29
80 9.50
100 8.96
150 8.88
200 8.85
300 8.82
400 8.82
mmHg gms
a. Plot Pc versus Sw.
b. Find and .

Solution:

Oil Reservoir Engineering (80)

 Figure 53

And,

10 100
20 100
30 94.7
40 85.2
50 71.3
60 60.8
80 40.0
100 32.2
150 25.2

Oil Reservoir Engineering (81)

 200 22.6
300 20.0
400 20.0
From Fig
= 20 mmHg
= 20%

The Jamin effect

The idea of the capillary pressure is that a pressure existing

across an interface within a capillary system.

Figure 54

When more than one interface is present in a given

channel–condition may be such that the resistance to flow is
markedly increase, or may become great enough to prohibit
flow. This effect is named "Jamin effect".

Consider at first a straight pore cylindrical capillary. The

capillary pressure which is equavelent to the displacement is
given by:

This the pressure difference between point A and B, it is

also the pressure necessary to keep the interface from moving
to the right at point B within the capillary, Fig(57)

Figure 55

Oil Reservoir Engineering (82)

 Consider a discrete global of one fluid within another fluid
with which it is immiscible, Fig (20).

Figure 56

There are now two interface, the pressure drop across each
interface is the same but opposite in the direction to the other,
there is no net pressure necessary to prevent motion, the total
pressure drop between the point A and B is zero as seen by;

Now if either term of this equation were modified, the net

pressure drop between point A and B would not be zero.

This condition gives the Jamin condition, i.e. the resistance

to flow. The difference may not be zero due to a change in any
one of the three terms , or .

Variation in " ":

The difference in pressure between point A and B is:

A positive pressure is required at point A to retain the

bubble in position shown. If flow were to the right, a bubble of
oil in the water stream could block such a channel until the
pressure drop between point A and B was sufficiently great to
push the bubble through the smallest construction.

Variation in contact angle

Oil Reservoir Engineering (83)

 Consider Fig (61). The resultant pressure between point A
and B:

Figure 57

As

Figure 58

A pressure drop between A and B is necessary to initial flow

toward the right in the figure shown.

Variation of interfacial tension

Figure 59

If a bubble of gas is bounded on one side by oil and on the

other by water. The net effect between A and P is then:

If

Oil Reservoir Engineering (84)

 A positive pressure drop from A to B would be necessary to
initial flow to the right.

The overall Jamin effect is of course increased in direction

proportional to the total number of bubbles that exit in a given
channel.

Calculation of wettability

There are some means expressing the degree of

wettability:

1-contact angle
A contact angle of zero would indicate complete wetting by
the dense phase.

An angle of 90o indicated that either phase wets the solid.

An angle of 180 o complete wetting by the less dense

phase.

2-the sessile drop ratio

Figure 60

It is the ratio of the height of droplet in the surface to the

breads of the droplet.

Sessile drop ratio of one indicates complete non-wetting

the solid surface by the dense phase.

A ratio of zero indicates complete wetting the solid surface

by the dense fluid.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (85)

 3-the wettability number

Wettability number (W.N.) =

Where;

= the threshold pressure of core for oil to enter when

core initially saturated with water.

= threshold pressure of core for air to enter when core

initially saturated with oil.

A wettability number of one would indicate a complete

wetting by water.

A wettability number of zero would indicate complete

wetting by oil.

Relationship between gravity and capillary

forces

Gravity force: the force tends to expel water from the rock.

It is also the force that causes oil to force water out of the
rock pores and it is opposite by the capillary force.

The water saturation at any point in the reservoir is the

result of a balance between the capillary and gravity force.

As the vertical distance above the free water level (Pc = 0)

increases, the gravity forces in the reservoir increases and
water saturation tends to be lower.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (86)

 The gravity pressure in the reservoir is analogous to the
capillary pressure in the laboratory.

Gravity pressure gravity pressure

The reservoir point that can generally be determined from

electric logs is the depth of the free water level.

The laboratory capillary pressure test starts out with 100%

water saturation in the core and zero capillary.

However, the starting laboratory point corresponds to the

reservoir free water level not the original water oil contact
(OWC). This is directly used in laboratory to convert laboratory
data to field data, when need to calculate the depth of the free
water level in the reservoir.

Fig (63) shows the distinction between the free water level
and the original water oil contact.

Figure 61

Converting laboratory capillary pressure

data

To use laboratory data of capillary pressure it is necessary

to convert to the reservoir condition.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (87)

 If

Example:
Calculate the reservoir capillary pressure from
the following laboratory data:
, ,
, ,
and .

Solution:

To convert the capillary pressure saturation

data to height saturation it is only necessary to
rearrange the equation:

Where;
h : ft, , Pc : psi

Example:
Calculate the height of the saturation plane for
the last example.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (88)

 Solution:

The water saturation (Sw = 35%) exists at a

height of 58 ft above the free water level.

Example:
Calculate the water saturation profile (depth
versus Sw), for the following laboratory capillary pressure data, considering
that the initial WOC is located at depth of 3788 ft.

Sw Pc
100 0
100 1.9
85 2.02
72 2.34
58 2.74
52 3.25
45 3.60
39 4.57
35 5.44
32 7.20
30 10.00
30 10.00
% Psi
Also given;

Oil Reservoir Engineering (89)

 Solution:

(1)

(2)

As the initial OWC that is correspond to the

displacement pressure is at depth of 3788 ft,
thus the free water level is at a depth of:
6.328 x 1.9=12 ft below the depth of the
1.WOC.
The depth of the free water level = 12 + 3788
= 3800 ft.
In genera, the relation between the deoth of
the free water level at any height value is;
D = F.D.L – h
(3)
Using equation (1) and equation (2) and
equation (3), we can calculate the (D vs. Sw
profile) as follows:

100 (F.W.L.) 0 0 3800

Oil Reservoir Engineering (90)

 100 0.76 12 3788
(1.WOC) 0.81 12.8 3787
85 0.94 14.9 3785
72 1.10 17.4 3783
58 1.30 20.6 3779
52 1.44 22.8 3777
45 1.83 29 3771
39 2.18 34.5 3765
35 2.88 45.6 3754
32 4.00 63.6 3737
30 4.00 94.9 3705
30
% Psi ft ft
In the above example it was assumed that the reservoir
was homogeneous and that the capillary pressure test on a
single core simple was sufficient for estimating the entire water
saturation profile.

Most of reservoirs are stratified and several simples must

be selected for capillary pressure test, so the actual
stratification can be taken into account.

Example:
Calculate the water saturation profile at a well
drilled into a reservoir has he following
capillary pressure data for this cores of
different perm abilities;

Oil Reservoir Engineering (91)

 100 0.2 1.8 3.0
80 0.45 2.0 4.9
60 1.0 3.2 7.5
40 2.5 3.7 13
20 6
% Psi psi psi
Also given the following data;
Suitable –
Sub sea depth K
core
3743 93 Core : 2
3744 970 Core : 1
3745 12 Core : 3
3746 8 Core : 3
3747 1020 Core : 1
3748 108 Core : 2
ft md

Solution:
After deciding the suitable capillary–saturation
curve:
Calculate for each foot of depth as the
previous example.

Calculate .

Oil Reservoir Engineering (92)

 Or;

Read for each from curves – for each

core (1,2and 3)
Depth H Curve
3743 57 8.99 Core : 2 30
3744 56 8.83 Core : 1 20
3745 55 8.68 Core : 3 54
3746 54 8.52 Core : 3 55
3747 53 8.36 Core : 2 20
3748 52 8.20 Core : 2 13
ft psi %

Extending the range of laboratory – data

It is noticed that the permeability at a point n the reservoir

often has a great influence on the water saturation than does
its structural location. The permeability values in the above
example were chosen so that the three cores could be used to
evaluate for each foot of the sand.

In many cases, the permeability of portions of the

formation may not be closed to that of the core simples tested.
On this case additional – curves can be determined by
plotting the laboratory data as in the proceeding example.

Example:
For the above example, estimate a capillary
pressure curve for 40 md core.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (93)

 Solution:
Plot vs. K for the three cores on log–log paper
for each saturation level given straight lines.
For any K as 40 md, draw a horizontal line and
record vs. that gives the new curve, Fig
(64)

Figure 62

1.7 100
2.5 80
4 60
6.2 50
8.4 40
11.5 30

Calculation of effective and absolute

permeabilities from capillary pressure data:

Oil Reservoir Engineering (94)

 Purcell and Burdines method:
Purcell and Burdines have reported on computation of
permeability from capillary pressure data obtained by the
mercury– injection. Method, utilized the concept of pore– size
distribution as follow:

The minimum capillary pressure required for displacing of a

wetting fluid or injecting a non-wetting fluid into a capillary
tube of radius r is given by:

(1)

The flow rate through a single tube of radius (r) is given by

poiseuille equation:

Since the volume of the capillary is :

(2)

From equation (1) and equation (2);

(3)

For a porous medium of (n) capillary tubes of equal length L

and different radii.

(4)

Due Darcy's law;

(5)

Oil Reservoir Engineering (95)

 From equation (4) and equation (5);

(6)

As the volume of each capillary can expressed as a

function of ( ) of the total void volume of the system.

Also;

(7)

Purcell introduced a lithology factor ( ) and a conversion

factor, generalizing equation (7) as;

(8)

Where;

: Fractional total pore space occupied by liquid

injected or forced out of sample ( ).

: md.

: Fraction.

: psi.

: Dyne/cm.

: Contact angle.

Purcell assumed that the contact angle for mercury was (

= 140o) and that the interfacial tension of Hg = 480 dyne/cm.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (96)

 The integral is found by reading values of from ( – )

curve at various saturations, calculating value of and

plotting these values as a function of corresponding saturation.

An average value of the lithology factor can be taken as

for sedimentary rocks.

The value of the integral is the area under the curve

Calculation of relative permeability from

capillary data

Generalizing equation (8) and considering capillary

pressure data for displacement of the wetting phase,

(9)

Where;

: the effective permeability to the wetting phase at

any saturation value ( ).

The related permeability to the wetting phase is given by

the following relationship;

(10)

Where the lithology factor ( ) is assumed to be constant for

the porous medium.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (97)

 The effective permeability to the non-wetting phase ( )
can be calculated in a similar fashion as equation (9) by
assuming that the non-wetting phase is contained in tubes or
pores, free of the wetting phases;

(11)

The relative permeability to the non-wetting phase ( ) is

given by;

(12)

The following example illustrate how to use the above

relationship to calculate and from data

Example:
For mercury injection method given the following capillary pressure saturation
data;

SHg, 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
%
Patm 1. 2.8 3.1 3.5 4.2 5.5 12. 20 30
6 2
If , , and

Calculate;
and ( vs. ).

Solution:

Oil Reservoir Engineering (98)

 0 1.6 0.391 1
10 2.8 0.128 2.595 0.578
20 3.1 0.104 1.160 0.392
30 3.5 0.082 0.930 0.239
40 4.2 0.067 0.745 0.118
50 5.5 0.029 0.480 0.0405
60 12.2 0.007 0.180 0.0113
70 20 0.003 0.05 0.0032
80 30 0.001 0.020 0

Where;
: md.
: Fraction.
: Fraction.
: psi.
Or;

Where;
: md.
: Percent.
: Percent.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (99)

 : atm.
: Dyne/cm.

Figure 63

Oil Reservoir Engineering (100)

 Petrophysics
Petrophysics is the study of the relationship that exist
between and textural rock properties, in other words, it is the
structure interpretation of physical rock properties.

Although, the reservoir engineer is mostly interested in

porosity, permeability and fluid saturation of reservoir rocks,
there are certain physical properties such as the formation
resistively factor (F), the resistively index (I), and the hydraul
formation factor (Fh) which provide a link between reservoir
engineering and logging and from which derivation may be
made leading to the possible determination of relative
permeability from electric logs. This chapter shows how the
properties of clean rocks mostly common used in fluid–flow
mechanics and electric–log interpretation are interrelated.

Petrophysics of clean rocks

1) Permeability
Poiseuille (1846) derived an equation which relates the rate of
flow of an incompressible fluid of known viscosity through a
horizontal straight capillary of length (L) and radius (r) under
the influence of a pressure differential ( ) as follows;

(–1)
Where;
: cc/sec.
: cm.
: Poise.
: Dyne/cm2.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (101)

 Figure 64

If we considered a linear porous medium of physical

length (L) and cross sectional area (A) as made up of a
bundle of capillary of average radius (r') and of average
length (L'=Lt).
Where;
(t) is a tortuosity coefficient.
Poiseuille's law is written as;

(–2)

Figure 65

The tortuosity coefficient (t) is a dimensionless number

representing the departure of a porous system from
being made up by a bundle of straight pore capillaries. It
is also a measure of the tortuous path length which a
practical fluid must travel, expressed in terms of the
shortest distance between two points in that path, i.e.
t=L'/L
Comparing Poiseuille's law with Darcy's law expressed in
the same system of units;

(-3)
Where;
: Dyne/cm2.
: Number of capillary tubes.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (102)

 : Darcy.

2) Porosity
 Volume porosity ( ) of this bundle of capillary
tubes is expressed as the pore-space volume per
bulk volume. It is given by;

(-4)
 Surface porosity ( ) is the cross sectional area of
all pores that are intersected by a plane surface
and expressed as a fraction of the total cross-
sectional area (A) of the rock.
(-5)
To aid better in the understanding of fluid flow in
rocks, correlations among porosity, permeability, Surface
area, pore size and other variables have been made.

Relation between porosity permeability,

toruosity and mean capillary radius

Equation (-3) can be written as;

By combining this equation with equation (-4);

By solving for the mean pore radius (r');

(-6)

Specific surface

The specific surface of a porous material is the total area

exposed with in the pores pace per unit volume.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (103)

 Unit volume may be the solid volume in which case the
specific surface is represented by (Ss). The unit value
may also be pore space, in which case the specific
surface is represented by (Sp).
For a packing of capillary tube;

(-7)

(-9)

(-10)
For a packing of spheres

(-11)
And;

(-12)

Kozeny equation

Oil Reservoir Engineering (104)

 A useful expression can be derived by combining
equation (-6) with equation (-7);

And

(1) For capillary tubes or consolidated sands

Equating values of obtained from equation (-6) and
equation (-7);

darcy (-8)
Or;

darcy (-9)
the above derivations assume that the capillaries of
mean radius ( ) have no roughness, and have constant
cross section. It is assumed that the roughness factor is
included in the tortuosity coefficient. The coefficient ( )
in equation (-8) and equation (-9) is called the (Kozeny
constant) for consolidated rocks for capillary tubes.

(2) For unconsolidated sands

In the case of a packing of spheres, the mean hydraulic
radius of the capillaries is unknown. Therefore the following
simple derivation will be used.

Using Poiseuille's law, the internal velocity inside a circular

pipe is given by;

(-10)

Due to the internal roughness of the pipe, equation (-10)

becomes;

Oil Reservoir Engineering (105)

 (-11)

Where;

is the shape factor, which has an average value of 2.5

.

Applying Darcy's law for the case of a porous medium;

(-12)

The apparent velocity ( ) from the bases of Darcy's law

can be related to the actual velocity ( ) obtained by
Poiseuille's law as follow;

As;

(-13)

As the mean hydraulic radius of a porous medium can be

defined as the ratio of the pore volume per unit bulk volume,
divided by the wetted surface per unit bulk volume;

Oil Reservoir Engineering (106)

 Therefore, equation (-13) becomes;

(-14)

Or;

(-15)

The value (2.5 t) is called the Kozeny constant for

unconsolidated porous medium.

Equating Kozeny constant for consolidated and

unconsolidated sands;

(-16)

This value of tortuosity (t) agrees very closely with

experimental determinations for unconsolidated sands.

When the grains are non spherical, a shape factor ( ) must be

introduced which had been determined experimentally. The values of these coefficients are
given as:

Grain shape
Spherical 1.00
Well-rounded 1.02
Worn 1.07
Sharp (sub rounded) 1.17
Angular 1.27
Introducing the shape factor ( ) into Kozeny's equation we
obtained for unconsolidated granular material.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (107)

 darcy (-17)

darcy (-18)

Where and are respectively the specific surface based

on the pore volume and the soil volume, obtained by the

relation ( ), previously defined.

Flow of electric current through clean

reservoir rocks

The solid framework of the sedimentary reservoir rocks is

made up of minerals, for the most part, non conductive of
electricity. Sedimentary rocks are conductive of electricity only
if their interconnected pore space contain electrically
conductive fluids, namely formation water, connate water,
interstitial water, ground water and the like.

Consider the box like container, Fig (68) is completely filled

with salty water and resistivity Rw ohm-meters.

Figure 66

Oil Reservoir Engineering (108)

 Let the length of the box be L meters, and its cross
sectional area be A meters2.

The resistance of the base to the flow of current will be in

ohms;

(1)

When a voltage (E), in volts, is applied between the sides A,

a current I in amperes will flow, thus, Due to ohm's law;

(2)

This expression, equation (2) is analogous to Darcy's law

for the horizontal flow of the fluids have a unit viscosity.

(3)

Now consider that the box is completely filled with clean

sand and saturated to 100% with salt water of the same
resistivity as before, Fig (69). The resistance of the box will be
increased by a factor called the resistivity formation factor
"F" which is always larger than one.

Figure 67

A new and smaller current (I') will now flow such that;

(4)

As , then , where is the resistivity of a unit

volume of the box that is completely filled with the porous

Oil Reservoir Engineering (109)

medium and fully saturated with a conductive fluid of a
resistivity .

Comparing equation (2) and equation (4);

It is shown that the resistivity ( ) is proportional to the

resistivity of the brine ( ). The constant of proportionality is
called formation resistivity factor.

(5)

This relation is an important in log-interpretation because

of by knowing; and F, it is possible to calculate the resistivity
which it has when fully saturated with formation water. Such
a condition precludes any possibility of oil production.

The formation factor is a dimensionless quantity by which

the resistivity of the formation water is to be multiplied in order
to obtain the resistivity of the rock when 100% saturated in
formation water.

Lithologic factors effecting formation factor

 Rock porosity is the mean factor that

controls the passage of current, i.e. the
value of the formation factor.
 The salty waters that rock contains in its
pores.
 Rock cementation and grin size
distribution control the size of the
interconnected pore of their tortuosity.
Various formulas have been proposed to relate the
formation factor ( ) to the lithological factors of porosity ( )
and cementation factor ( ).

Oil Reservoir Engineering (110)

 Archie proposed the following formula;

(6)

The constant ( ) is determined empirically.

Satisfactory results are usually obtained with;

in sands, and

in compacted sands.

These two formulas differ little from (Humble formula):

(7)

The Humble formula and the Archie formula for several

vales of ( ) are represented graphically in Fig (3).

Resistivity of rocks partially saturated with

formation waters

When oil and gas, which are non conductors of electricity,

are present, with in a porous medium together with a certain
amount of salty formation water, the resistivity ( ) will be
larger than ( ). Since there is a less available volume for the
flow of electric current this available water volume is
represented by the water saturation in the pore space .

Resistivity of a partially saturated porous medium ( )

depends not only on the value of ( ) but also on its distribution
within the pore space.

The fluid distribution within the porous medium depends

on;

 The wetting properties of the rock.

 The direction in which it was established (drainage or

imbibition).

Oil Reservoir Engineering (111)

  Porosity type.

Fig (69) shows how the ratio varies as a function of

saturation.

Figure 68

Curve (1) and (2) are for sands, the slope of which is 2 for
the first and 1.8 for the second. These slopes are called
Saturation exponents (n).

Curve (3) is for oil-wet sand in which case the value of (n) is
available with saturation and the degree of wetting.

The general formula which relates connate water saturation

( ) and the true resistivity ( ) is Archie formula which may be
written in the following forms;

(8)

( ) is the saturation exponent, the value of which is most

generally assumed to be 2 for water wet reservoir rocks.

( ) can be measured in laboratory by measuring the

electric conductivity of the core at different partial fluids
saturations.

Tortuosity determination

Oil Reservoir Engineering (112)

 The simplest method by which tortuosity of rock capillaries
can be determined is made by computation from the value of
formation factor F and porosity .

For consolidated rocks where the porosity may be

represented by tortuous capillaries of actual length (Lt) and
ending in number (n) in a cross sectional area (A), a theoretical
expression for the formation factor (F), can be derived as
follow:

(9)

(10)

Using equation (10) and equation (-4);

From equation (9) and equation (11);

(12)

Formula (12) provides a ready laboratory means of

determining (t) since both ( ) and (F) are easily measured.

Effective tortuosity

In a completely water saturated rock, the passage of

electric current is not expected to take place effectively

Oil Reservoir Engineering (113)

through the full volume of water. This analogous to fluid flow in
porous media at 100% saturation where all the fluid is not
moveable. The non movable water is the irreducible water
saturation, ( ). The irreducible water saturation, which
occupies capillaries through which there is neither pressure
differential nor potential drop, looks like non conductive mineral
framework.

Thus, tortuosity of irreducible water saturation can be

written as:

(13)

The concept of effective tortuosity ( ) takes in another

aspect when partial water saturation ( ) prevails, for in this
situation the non-wetting phase is non conductive of electricity.
An effective tortuosity can then be written as;

Where;

: Effective formation value

The ratio is written as:

When is the resistivity index at the partial water

saturation ( ), also the following relationship can be written;

(14)

According to this relation, equation (-6) must be changed

to;

Oil Reservoir Engineering (114)

 (15)

Similar adjustment should be made in Kozeny equation.

Hydraulic formation factor and index

Figure 69

By analogy with the formation resistivity factor, the

hydraulic formation factor ( ) may be written as;

(16)

Where;

is the radius of the tested core.

Considered the movable water volume;

(17)

But;

(15)

Oil Reservoir Engineering (115)

 (18)

Where;

C : is the total number of capillaries occupied by the

phase fluid.

At partial saturation in the wetting-phase fluid ( ), an

effective hydraulic formation factor ( ), may be
expressed as;

(19)

Where;

: is the number of capillaries occupied by the

wetting-phase.

: is their tortuosity.

Similarly for the non wetting-phase;

(20)

Where;

: is the number of capillaries occupied by the non

wetting-phase.

: is their tortuosity.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (116)

 The effective hydraulic index ( ) for the
wetting-phase is the ratio of ( ) to ( ) that are obtained by
equation (18) and equation (19).

(21)

By definition this ratio, by analogy, is also the relative

permeability to the wetting phase ( ).

(22)

Similarly, the relative permeability to the non-wetting

phase ( ) is obtained by dividing equation (20) by equation
(18);

(23)

The ratio is called the free wetting-phase saturation

( ), and when substituting in equation (23) and equation (23)

we have;

(24)

And

(25)

The formulas (24) and (25) are fully general and are valid
whether the saturation changes are by imbibition or by
drainage. They are not useful without elimination of the number
of capillaries involved ( , and ) and the tortuosity
coefficients ( , and ) from them in order to obtain practical
relative permeability formulas.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (117)

Relative permeability to the wetting-phase (
).

* Imbibition direction
When the wetting phase is increased from the irreducible
saturation ( ), all the capillary acquire simultaneously a
movable wetting-phase saturation. Hence, we have;

= = (26)

Substituting equation (26) in equation (24);

(27)

Another formula can be obtained by using equation (14)

and equation (24);

(28)

*Drainage direction
When The wetting-phase saturation is decreased because
of the injection of a non-wetting phase starting with too per
cent wetting-phase saturation, the largest capillaries are
originally occupied by non wetting fluid, then the next largest,
and so on

At any intermediate saturation, the distribution of fluids

may be visualized as being in two bundles of capillaries, one
occupied by non wetting and the other by wetting fluid. Hence
we have the relation.

= = (29)

It is no longer possible to eliminate ( and ) from

equation (24) and after substitution of ( ) from equation (14);

Oil Reservoir Engineering (118)

 (24)

(30)

From laboratory investigation, it has been shown that (

and ) show very little deviation from one
another and that such deviation may be considered to be due
to errors of measurements. Hence, in the drainage direction
and a single relative permeability formula (27) or (27) may
be used for the wetting-phase.

Relative permeability to the non wetting-

phase ( ).

(1) Imbibition direction

In the imbibition direction, the wetting-phase fluid occurs
simultaneously in all the capillaries because the small
capillaries are all ready saturated at the start of imbibition with
the wetting-phase, i.e. ( ).

Because of the large degree of interconnection between

the capillaries of all size, the wetting-phase saturation
increases simultaneously in all of them and the non wetting-
phase becomes constricted in all the pores simultaneously,
given rise to coaxial flow of both phases within a certain range
of saturation changes. The non wetting-phase saturation
distribution is considered to be a succession of inflations and
constriction connected along the capillaries axis.

As the wetting-phase saturation increases, the constriction

become very narrow and eventually break down, leaving an
insular non wetting bubble in each pore. When all the filaments
are broken in their continuity, permeability to the non wetting-
phase ceases, although a large residual saturation to the non
wetting-phase may be present. It will be represented by ( )
and is called the trapped non wetting-phase saturation.

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 According to the above physical concept of the non
wetting-phase saturation distribution in a porous medium
during imbibition;

= (31)

In addition, tortuosity of the non wetting filaments, which

have the same axis as that of the capillaries them selves, is
equal to the tortuosity at 100% saturation;

= (32)

Therefore;

(33)

The expression ( ) represents the free non wetting-

phase saturation. Considering the trapped non wetting-phase
saturation, ( ), the term ( ) may be expressed as;

(34)

Hence, the formula for ( ) should have the form;

(35)

(2) Drainage direction

In the drainage direction, the desaturation in the wetting-
Phase occurs gradually from large capillaries toward smaller
ones. At any one condition of liquid saturation. The non
wetting-phase is found in the largest capillaries and the wetting
phase in the smaller capillaries.

Let , and represent the specific surface of wetting,

non wetting and irreducible wetting-phase on a pore-volume

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basis. The volume of the pores having a surface , and
are the reciprocal of , and .

The total pore space volume not occupied by irreducible

water is the sum of the two preceding volumes;

(35)

But according to equation (-7);

and and (36)

From equation (35) and equation (36);

(37)

According to equation (15);

(38)

(38)

(38)

Combining relations (38);

(39)

And;

(39)

Substituting equation (39) into equation (37);

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 Using equation (27);

Substituting equation (14) in equation (40);

As the tortuosity of the bundle of largest capillary size

controls to a large extent the value of the tortuosity at full
saturation, it is reasonable to postulate that;

(41)

This because the capillary tubes act as conducting circuits

in parallel. When adding, in parallel, circuits of low conductance
(small capillaries) to highly conductive circuits (large
capillaries), the former change the over-all conductance
relatively little.

Hence, the formula for the relative permeability to the non

wetting phase in the drainage direction is;

(43)

It appears that there are three equations useful in

calculating the relative permeability characteristics from

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petrophysical consideration, namely equation (28) for the
wetting-phase valid regardless of the direction of saturation
changes, equation (34) for the non wetting-phase in the
imbibition direction and equation (43) for the non wetting
phase in the drainage direction.

More general formulas for relative permeability in clean

water-wet rock can be written after substitution of Archie's
relationship (8) using the value of the saturation exponent (n)
=2

(Drainage or imbibition) (44)

(45)

(46)

Example:
Given the following data:

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0.16 0.27 0.40 0.53 0.68 0.84
0 0.75
5 5 0 5 5 0
If = 20% and = 10%,
Calculate the wetting and non wetting-phase
relative permeabilities in each of drainage and
imbibition direction.

Solution:
1) For imbibition direction
According to equation (28) and equation (34);

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 ,

and

20 0.000 0.000 0.0000 0.000 0.0000

30 0.075 0.125 0.0203 0.354 0.0072
40 0.165 0.250 0.0670 0.500 0.0335
50 0.275 0.375 0.1440 0.612 0.0880
60 0.400 0.500 0.2520 0.707 0. 1780
70 0.535 0.625 0.3910 0.790 0. 3090
80 0.685 0.750 0.5670 0. 0.4910
90 0.840 0.875 0.7700 866 0.7200
0.935
And;

20 0.0000 1.0000 1.0000

30 0.1428 0.8572 0.7348
40 0.2857 0.7143 0.5102
50 0.4286 0.5714 0.3265
60 0.5714 0.4286 0.1837
70 0.7143 0.2857 0.0816
80 0.8571 0.1428 0.0204
90 1.0000 0.000 0.0000

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 2) Drainage direction

20 1.000 0.000 0.000 1.000

30 0.875 0.595 0.525 0.417
40 0.750 0.707 0.637 0.226
50 0.625 0.782 0.724 0.119
60 0.500 0.840 0.795 0.056
70 0.375 0.890 0.856 0.021
80 0.250 0.930 0.910 0.006
90 0.125 0.966 0.949 0.001

Example:
For the last example calculate and for
imbibition and drainage direction using the
following equations;

Solution:
(1) Imbibition direction

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 0.000
20 0.008 0.000 0.000 1.000
0.
30 0.027 0.009 0.143 0.735
354
40 0.064 0.032 0.285 0.510
0.500
50 0.125 0.076 0.428 0.326
0.612
60 0.216 0.153 0.571 0.184
0.707
70 0.343 0.271 0.714 0.082
0.791
80 0.512 0.443 0.857 0.020
0.866
90 0.729 0.682 1.000 0.000
0.935
100 1 1 1
 =100% only for drainage direction where
=1
 =90% for imbibition process represents
the final (Maximum) water saturation
value, water there is a trapped non
wetting-phase saturation .
(2) Drainage direction

20 0.000 0.447 1.000 1.000

30 0.595 0.548 0.454 0. 397
40 0.707 0.632 0.306 0.229
50 0.782 0.707 0.199 0.124
60 0.841 0.775 0.121 0.061
70 0.889 0.837 0.065 0.024

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 80 0.931 0.894 0.028 0.007
90 0.967 0.948 0.018 0.002
100 1.00 1.00 0 0

Fig (71) shows the above and the

obtained for the example.

Figure 70

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Referenes

1. Amyx J.D., Bass D.M., Whiting R.L.:

"Petroleum reservoir engineering – Physical
properties". McGraw Hill Book Company,
New York, 1960.

2. Pirson S.J.: "Oil Reservoir engineering".

McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1958.

3. Craft B.C., Hawkins M.F.: "Applied petroleum

reservoir engineering". Prentice–Hall Inc.
New Jersey, 1959.

4. Dake L.P.: "Fundamentals of reservoir

engineering". Elsevier Scientific publishing
company, New York, 1978.

Oil Reservoir Engineering (128)