Introduction to

Formation Evaluation
 Petrophysics
• Formation evaluation has strong relation
with rock petrophysical properties.
• One of the existing methods to
determine petrophysical properties is
well logging.
• Petrophysics: porosity, permeability, resistivity
and etc.
• Well logging not only record the physical
properties of the rock but also record the
chemical properties including the fluid inside the
rock.
 Formation Evaluation
Gas bearing Evaluate

Hydrocarbon
bearing

Oil bearing Evaluate

Reservoir

Water 1. Locate reservoirs

bearing 2. Detect hydrocarbons
Rock 3. Distinguish oil and gas
4. Evaluate: Shc, f, h, k

Non-reservoir (cap rock, source rock …)

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 Hydrocarbon volume

HCVOL = A * h * (N/G) *  * (1 - Sw) Sand

Reservoir
Oil
rock volume Porosity
Net over Water
Hydrocarbon gross: The fraction of Water
volume reservoar rock of saturation
total rock volume

Reservoir Matrix
A = area
Clay / Shale
h
Sand h * (N/G)

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 Porosity
• The ratio between the pore and bulk
volume (%) of rock.
• Represents the capability of that rock to
store fluid.
• Depends on many lithology factors such as
heterogeneity, cementing, leaching, clay
type (swelling or non swelling) and so on.
volume of pores
porosity(%),φ = Bulk volume x100%
 Primary Porosity
• Nature space between grains or crystals that form on rocks
during the consolidation, compaction and cementation of the
loose sediment.
• This space can be reduce because of the overburden process
from the above layer or geological process (stress/strain)
• Cementation process also can reduce the space volume
especially found in sandstone.
• Primary porosity reduced exponentially with depth:
φ = porosity at depth D; D=depth;
φ = φ0 e −cD
c= empiric constant; Ø0 = approximate porosity (40%)

• Maximum porosity for sedimentary rock is about 40% and the

minimum is 0%.
• Rock which form by grains with equal diameter size, will have
porosity from 25% to 48%.
 Cubic arrangement of spheres, Rhombohedral arrange 48%ment
porosity spheres, 25% poro of sity

Source: Western
Atlas
 Grain

Pore space

Porosity depends on the variation of the grain

size
 Secondary Porosity
• Space inside the rock that form after the rock has
being formed. It can form because of the
dissolution process, and fracturing.
• Dissolution of grain by acid on the limestone can
cause porosity increase.
• Leaching which is started from the weakest part
of the rock such as bedding planes, joints,
fracture which later on continue until the whole
rock porosity increases.
Secondary Porosity
Absolute and Effective Porosity
• Absolute porosity: total percentage of empty
space to rock bulk volume
• Effective porosity: percentage of
interconnected pore to the rock bulk volume.
This represent the capability of rock to
transmit fluid through the connected pores

Western
Atlas
 Porosity Depends on:
• Grain size: grain with big size will have porosity
bigger compare to the small size (range 0.35-0.4).
• Grain shape: the uniform shape of grain will have
porosity bigger compare to the an- uniform grain shape.
• Cement material: rock with matrix that cemented by
silicate or calcareous will have small porosity.
• Grain sorting: well sorted sandstones normally have
good porosity. Finer grains fill pore space in poorly
sorted sandstones.
• Grain packing: Cubic (40-48%) vs. rhombohedral (26%).
 Lithology General

Lithology of a formation can be:

Simple
Sandstone Limestone Dolomite

Shale

Dirty

Sand
Complex Silt (+mica)
Shale

Silt (+mica)
Shale

Odd minerals can also be presented, such as micas in

sandstones or anhydrites in carbonates which
complicate the problem further.
 Lithology Determination
The lithology can be obtained in several ways:

From
 the cuttings (depth problems).

From
 local knowledge (good during development).

From
 the known depositional environment (good in general basis).

From
 a log Quicklook (good starting point).
From
 individual log readings (difficult if there are no areas of zero
porosity).

From
 crossplots (the best method). Combines properties from both

measurements, thus eliminating ambiguities.

 Other lithology porosity methods
The Geochemical logging tool measures GR yields which are transformed
into element weight percentages using an oxide closure model.

Si - main element in sandstones, also present in clays.

Ca - main element in limestones, also present in dolomite and in some
feldspars.
Fe - present in clays and some heavy minerals.
Al - present in all clays.

Using knowledge of the mineral composition a mineralogy is obtained.

This works best in sandstones.
From the mineralogy (expressed in Volumes, e.g. Vlim) the precise grain
density can be calculated.
Then, using the density log, the porosity can be computed.
 Permeability (K)
• The capability of rock to transmit fluid
(Darcy)
Q f = KA(P1−
µL
P2)
Qf : fluid flow velocity cm3/sec
µ : fluid viscosity
L : length of porous
media A : Area of porous
media
ΔP = P1-P2 : pressure differences,
atm K : permeability, Darcy
Western
Atlas
• General assumption “if the porosity big then
permeability also big” (but) not always correct.
• Absolute permeability: the capability of rock to
transmit one type of fluid (rock is saturated 100% by
that fluid).
• Effective permeability: the capability of rock to
transmit one fluid when there are two immiscible
fluids. Effective permeability smaller than absolute
permeability
• Relative permeability: the ratio between effective and
absolute permeability. If the water saturation big then
water relative permeability will big as well which caused
oil relative permeability small and reduce until zero at
Sw =Swc (Critical water saturation).
• Water and oil flow velocity is function of
viscosity and relative permeability:
Qo Kro µw
=
Qw Ko rw

• Fracture permeability can be considered as

function of width of the fracture.
K = (50,000,000)width 2

K= permeability (Darcy) and width in inch.

Relative Permeability
Permeability and porosity relation:
• Commonly, if porosity increase,
permeability also increase.
• The old and compact rock normally has
small porosity and permeability
• Dolomitization process increase porosity
and permeability
• Permeability influence by the size, shape
and
relation between
grains.
 Water Saturation (Sw)
• Percentage of rock pores that filled up by water formation.
• Generally, rock pores filled by water or oil and gas, or
combination of three.
• Reservoir generally has water saturation 20% or more, which
mean 20% of rock pores being filled by water, and 80% being
filled by other fluids.
• Reservoir considered economical if it has water saturation less
than 60%.
• Irreducible water saturation (Sw irr): water saturation which the
fluid being lock inside the rock by the capillary pressure.
water saturation (Sw) = formation water inside pores
total pores in rock
• Rock resistance to current (Ω
meter).

V = ir
L rA
R =
V= potential
I = current
R =resistivity (ohm)
r= resistance (Ω)
A = area (m2)
L= length (meter)
Resistivity
 Resistivity of fluid
• Salt water with resistivity = Rw (ohm-m)

Rw drop if salt
Current concentration and
temperature increase
Rw=measure
resistance
 Resistivity of wet rock (Ro)
• Non conductive grain mixed with salt
water with resistivity = Rw (ohm-m)

Rw = measured
resistance
Current Ro equivalent with Rw
Ro = F x Rw
F = formation
resistivity factor
• Conductivity (opposite of resistivity) (mho/m):
current conductivity on rock.

C =
1000 C = conductivity
R
R= resistivity
• Resistivity is a basic measurement of reservoir
fluid saturation. Therefore, resistivity is a
function of porosity, type of fluid, and type of
rock.
• Relation between water resistivity (Rw) with
wet rock resistivity (Ro):
Ro
F=
Rw
F = formation factor
Formation factor formulas (after Asquith)
1980)
a= Tortuosity
factor m=exponent
Ф = porosity

Carbonate
Consolidate
sandstone

Unconsolidated sandstone (Humble)

General sandstone (after Carothers,
1958) Silt sandstone (after Carothers,
1958)
Calcareous sandstone (after Carothers,
1958) Carbonate (after Carothers, 1958)
Pliocene Sandstone
Clean formation (After
(after Carothers
Sethi, 1979) and
Porter, 1970)

Miocene Sandstone (after Carothers and

• Others experiment also show the relation between
formation factor with porosity:
1
F=
φ
• Where m: cementationm exponent which varies depend on
the grain size, grain distribution and the tortuosity.
• Archie also relate the formation factor with water
saturation which resulted new formula (known as
Archie formula):
FR Rw
Sw =
Rt
n

• Where n: saturation exponent, depend on the formation

and fluid characteristic. From lab experiment n has range
between 1.8 to 2.5. Common use n=2
 or

Prepared by:
Jhonny S.T., M.Sc
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Faculty of Engineering, Technology and Built Environment,
UCSI University
Value of m (cementation exponent) for:

 Un-cemented < 1.4

 Very slightly cemented : 1.4-1.6
 S l i ghtly cemented : 1.6 – 1.8
 M oderately cemented : 1.8 – 2
 H i ghly cemented, carbonate > 2.0
Thank You