AG 314: Hydrogeology

Unit-2 : Occurrence of Groundwater

 Origin and Age of Groundwater
The origin of groundwater is primarily due to one of the following:
• Groundwater derived from rainfall and infiltration within the normal
hydrological cycle.
– This kind of water is called meteoric water. The name implies
recent contact with the atmosphere.
• Groundwater encountered at great depths in sedimentary rocks as a
result of water having been trapped in marine sediments at the time
of their deposition.
– This type of groundwater is referred to as connate waters.
– These waters are normally saline.
• Fossil water; if fresh may be originated from the fact of climate
change phenomenon, i.e.,
– some areas used to have wet weather and the aquifers of that
area were recharged and then the weather of that area becomes
dry.
– Most common in arid regions
 Properties Affecting Groundwater
The following properties of rocks affects the
occurrence and movement of groundwater:
– Porosity
– Specific Yield
– Specific Retention
– Coefficient of permeability
– Transmissivity
– Specific Storage
– Storage Coefficient
 Porosity
Porosity (n) is the percentage of rock or soil that is void of material.
– The larger the pore space or the greater their
number, the higher the porosity and the larger the
water-holding capacity.
– It is defined mathematically by the equation:

Where,
n is the porosity (percentage), Vv is the volume of void space in
a unit volume of earth materials (L3, cm3 or m3), and V is the
unit volume of earth material, including both voids and solids
(L3, cm3 or m3)
 Porosity in sedimentary rocks
• In sediments or
sedimentary rocks the
porosity depends on
factors such as:
– grain size,
– the shape of the
grains,
– the degree of
sorting and
– the degree of
cementation.
Porosity in Igneous and metamorphic rocks

In Igneous and metamorphic rocks, the porosity

depends upon factors such as:
– extent, spacing and pattern of cracks and fractures.
– Fissures
 Key issues on Porosity
• Well-rounded coarse-grained sediments usually have higher
porosity than fine- grained sediments, because the grains don’t fit
together well
• In igneous and metamorphic rocks porosity is usually low because
the minerals tend to be intergrown, leaving little free space.
– Higher fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks, however,
could have high secondary porosity.
• Poorly sorted sediments (sediments contains a mixture of grain
sizes) usually have lower porosity because the fine-grained
fragments tend to fill the open spaces
• Porosity can range from zero to more than 60%.
– Recently deposited sediments have higher porosity.
– Dense crystalline rock or highly compacted soft rocks such as
shale have lower porosity.
Relation Between Texture and Porosity:
A. Well –Sorted Sand Having High Porosity; B. Poorly- Sorted Sand Having Low
Porosity; C. Fractured Crystalline Rocks (Granite); D. Soluble Rock-Forming
Material (Limestone).
 Specific Yield (Sy)
• Specific yield (Sy) is the ratio of the volume of water that drains
from a saturated rock due to gravity (or by pumping from wells)
to the total volume of the saturated aquifer.
• It is defined mathematically by the equation:

Where;

Vw is the volume of water in a unit volume of earth materials, V

is the unit volume of earth material, including both voids and
solids,
 Specific Retention (Sr)
• Specific retention (Sr) is the ratio of the volume
of water that cannot be drained out to the total
volume of the saturated aquifer.
• Since the specific yield represents the volume of
water that a rock will yield by gravity drainage,
– hence the specific retention is the remainder.
– The sum of the two equals porosity.
 Important Issues with Specific Retention
• The specific yield and specific retention depend upon:
– the shape
– size of particle,
– distribution of pores (voids), and
– compaction of the formation.
• The specific retention increases with decreasing grain size.
• It should be noted that it is not necessary that soil with high porosity
will have high specific yield because:
– that soil may have low permeability and the water may not easily
drain out.
– For example, clay has a high porosity but low specific yield and its
permeability is low.
 Coefficient of Permeability (Hydraulic
conductivity) (K)
• Permeability is the ease with which water can flow in a soil mass or a rock.
• The coefficient of permeability (K) is defined as the discharge (m3/s) per unit
area (m2) of soil mass under unit hydraulic gradient.
– Because the discharge per unit area equals to the velocity, the
coefficient of permeability has the dimension of the velocity [L/T].
– It is usually expressed as cm/s, m/s, m/day, etc.
• The coefficient of permeability is also called hydraulic conductivity.
Hydraulic Conductivity can be determined and expressed as follows:

Where;
C is the shape factor which depends upon the shape, particle size and
packing of the porous media; dm is the mean particle size (d50) (L, m); ρ
is the mass density (kg/m3); g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2);
μ is the viscosity (kg/s.m)
 Permeability of Earth Materials
• Permeability is a property of the porous
medium that allows it to transmit fluids.
• It depends on size of openings, degree of
interconnection, and amount of open space.
Thus, permeability depends on grain size and
sorting.
• Coarse grained and well-sorted sediments
have higher permeabilities.
 Measuring Hydraulic Conductivity
• Usually we use permeameters in measuring
hydraulic conductivity in the laboratory.
• There are two types of permeameters
1. Constant head
2. Variable head
Constant Head Permeameter

V-volume of water discharging in

time t, L-length of sample, A-
area of sample, h-hydraulic
head, and K-hydraulic
conductivity
Variable Head Permeameter

Where,
K = Coefficient of permeability
a = Area of the burette
L = Length of soil column
A = Area of the soil column
h0 = Initial height of water
h1 = Final height of water = h0 - Δh
t = Time required to get head drop of
Δh
 Transmissivity (T)
• Transmissivity (T) is the discharge rate at which
water is transmitted through a unit width of an
aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. Thus,
– T = Kb (confined aquifer) or T = Kh (for unconfined
aquifer)
Where;
b is the saturated thickness of the aquifer, It is equal to
the average thickness of the saturated zone of an
unconfined aquifer, h.
• Transmissibility is usually expressed as m2/s
 Specific Storage (Ss)
• Specific Storage (Ss) is the amount of water per unit volume of a saturated
formation that is stored or released from storage due to compressibility of the
material and the pore water per unit change in hydraulic head.
– This is also called the elastic storage coefficient.
– The concept can be applied to both aquifers and confining units.
• The specific storage is given by the expression (Jacob 1940, 1950; cooper
1966):

Where;
ρw is the density of the water (Kg/m3), g is the acceleration of
gravity (m/s2), α is the compressibility of the aquifer (m2/N), n is
the porosity, β is the compressibility of water (m2/N)
 Storage Coefficient (S)
• Storage coefficient (S) is the volume of water released from storage, or
taken into storage, per unit of aquifer storage area per unit change in head.
– The storage coefficient is also called Storativity.
– The storage coefficient is a dimensionless as it is the ratio of the
volume of water released from original unit volume.
• The water-yielding capacity of an aquifer can be expressed in terms of its
storage coefficient.
• In unconfined aquifers, Storativity is the same as the specific yield of the
aquifer.
• In confined aquifer, Storativity is the result of compression of the aquifer
and expansion of the confined water
– when the head (pressure) is reduced during pumping.
 Estimation of Storage Coefficient (S)
• Storage coefficient normally varies directly with
aquifer thickness:

ρ is the mass density (kg/m3), g is the acceleration of gravity (m/s2), α is

the compressibility of the aquifer (m2/N), n is the porosity, β is the
compressibility of water (m2/N)
Where; b is the saturated aquifer thickness in meters to be
applied for estimating purposes.

• For an unconfined unit, the storativity is found by the formula:

 Groundwater Aquifers
• An aquifer is a geologic unit that can store and
transmit (allow to flow) a sufficient amount of
water to supply a well.
• The factors that determine if a geologic unit is an
aquifer include the following:
– The permeability must be high enough that flow can be maintained.
– The aquifer dimensions must be great enough (i.e., there must be a
significant saturated thickness) to supply water to a well
– The quality of the water must be good enough for the intended use.
Figure: Categories of Aquifers
 Confined Aquifer
• A confined aquifer is an aquifer bounded both at
the bottom and at the top by an impermeable
stratum (aquiclude).
– The impermeable stratum could be such as clays
• Some confined aquifers are called artesian
confined aquifers
– In such cases the water flows out by artesian pressure.
– No pumping is needed to get the water out
– Aquifers of this category have recharge areas but
restricted discharge or no free discharge at all, except
when the well/borehole is drilled.
Figure: Flowing Artesian Well
Figure: Artesian Wells
 Piezometric surface
• The water in a confined aquifer is always under
pressure;
– When a well is drilled in a confined aquifer, the water
level in it will rise above the top of aquifer.
– The ‘piezometric surface or potentiometric surface’ is
an imaginary surface coinciding with hydrostatatic
pressure level of the water in the aquifer to which the
water level would rise.
– It indicates the pressure of the water in the aquifer.
• Hence, a piezometric surface is the water table
equivalent of the confined aquifer
 Unconfined Aquifer
• An unconfined aquifer is an aquifer underlain by
an impermeable stratum, but the top of the
aquifer consists of soil layers that are permeable
enough to provide easy passage of water in
vertical manner into the ground.
– Such an aquifer has a free water table or phreatic surface.
– After drilling a well or borehole, the water level in the well can be observed
and it indicates the level of the water table in the aquifer
• Many alluvial fans and river plains have
unconfined aquifers in the upper part of the
sediment deposits.
Figure: Unconfined and Confined Aquifers
Example of Unconfined
Aquifer
 Semi-confined or leaky Aquifer
• A semi-confined aquifer is an aquifer underlain by an
impermeable stratum and bounded at the top by soil
layers of relatively low permeability
– This low permeability soli layer is called an aquitard.
An example could be sandy clay formation
• The flow of water in the top layer is mainly vertical
while the horizontal flow is negligible.
• These are a common feature in alluvial valleys, plains,
or former lake basins where a permeable stratum is
overlain or underlain by a semi-pervious aquitard or
semi-confining layer.
Fig. Semi-confined or leaky aquifer
 Perched Aquifers
• Perched aquifers occur where ground water is perched
(hanging) above unsaturated rock formations as a
result of a discontinuous impermeable layer.
• A perched aquifer is one where a small body of
groundwater is separated from the main aquifer by a
confining layer.
• Perched aquifers are fairly common in glacial
sediments.
• Perched aquifers may also occur in other sedimentary
formations where weathered layers, ancient soils or
caliche (a calcareous layer common in semi-arid areas)
have created impermeable zones.
Figure: Perched Aquifers
 Soil/Sediments classification
• Soils or Sediments are classified on the basis of
the size (diameter) of the individual grains.
• There are many classification systems in use.
– The engineering classification of sediments
• Necessary for geotechnical, hydrological, and
hydrogeological studies
– The geological classification.
• Geochemical, geotechnical, and hydrogeological studies
 The American Society of Testing Materials defines
sediments on the basis of the grain-size distribution
Indian Standard Soil Classification
System (ISSCS)
 Soil grain size distribution
• The grain-size distribution of a sediment is
plotted on semi-log paper.
– The cumulative percent finer by weight is plotted on
the arithmetic scale and the grain size is plotted on
the logarithmic scale.
• The grain size of the sand fraction is determined
by
– shaking the sand through a series of sieves with
decreasing mesh openings.
• The 200 mesh screen, with an opening of 0.075
mm, separates the sand fraction from the fines
 Sieve Analysis
• A sieve analysis or gradation test is performed on a sample of
aggregate in a laboratory.
– A typical sieve analysis involves a nested column of sieves with
wire mesh cloth (screen).
– A representative weighed sample is poured into the top sieve
which has the largest screen openings.
– Each lower sieve in the column has smaller openings than the one
above.
– At the base is a round pan, called the receiver.
• The column is typically placed in a mechanical or electrical shaker
which shakes the column for some fixed amount of time.
• After the shaking is complete the material on each sieve is weighed.
– The size of the average particle on each sieve is then analysed to
get a cut-off point or specific size range
Typical Sieve Analysis Apparatus
• Recommended sieve
groups suitable for
sieving various classes of
unconsolidated
sediments.
• (1) Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by
subtracting the weight of the empty sieve from the
mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this
mass as the weight retained on the data sheet.
• The sum of these retained masses should be
approximately equals the initial mass of the soil
sample. A loss of more than two percent is
unsatisfactory.
• (2) Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by
dividing the weight retained on each sieve by the
original sample mass.
• (3) Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by
starting with 100 percent and subtracting the percent
retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.
• For example: For the No.4 sieve: Total mass = 500 g Mass
retained on No. 4 sieve = 9.7 g
• Quantity passing = Total mass - Mass retained = 500 - 9.7 =
490.3 g
• The percent retained is calculated as; % retained = Mass
retained/Total mass = (9.7/500) X 100 = 1.9 %
• From this, the % passing = 100 - 1.9 = 98.1 %
• For the No. 10 sieve: Quantity passing = Mass arriving - Mass
retained = 490.3 - 39.5 = 450.8 g
• % Retained = (39.5/500) X 100 = 7.9 %
• % Passing = 100 - 1.9 - 7.9 = 90.2 % (Alternatively, use %
passing = % Arriving - % Retained For No. 10 sieve = 98.1 - 7.9
= 90.2 %
• (4) Make a semilogarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.
• (5) Compute Uc for the soil.
Grain-size distribution curve of a silty fine to medium sand
 Uniformity coefficient
• The uniformity coefficient of a sediment or soil is a measure of
how well or poorly sorted it is.
• The uniformity coefficient, Uc, is the ratio of the grain size that is
60% finer by weight, D60, to the grain size that is 10% finer by
weight, D10.

Where;

D60 is the grain size in which 60 percent of sample is passed, D 10 is the

grain size in which 10 percent of sample is passed (effective diameter)

 A sample with an Uc less than 4 is well sorted; if the

Uc is more than 6 it is poorly sorted
 Geological Factors controlling
groundwater movement
• The nature and distribution of aquifers and
aquitards in a geological system are usually
controlled by characteristics of the geological
deposits and formations such as:
• lithology,
• stratigraphy, and
• structure
 Lithology of the geologic formations
• The lithology is the physical makeup of the
geological formation which includes the
factors such as
– mineral composition,
– grain size, and
– grain packing of the sediments or rocks that
make up the geological system.
 Stratigraphy of Geologic formations
• The stratigraphy describes the geometrical and
age relations between the various lenses, beds,
and formations in geological systems of
sedimentary origin.
• In unconsolidated deposits, the lithology and
stratigraphy constitute the most important
controls for groundwater occurrence and
movement.
 Important Structural features for
groundwater occurence and movement
• The structural features important in determining the
hydrogeological characteristics of geologic formations include:
– Weathering,
– Fractures,
– Karst structures
– Folds,
– Dykes and
– Faults
• These geometrical properties of the geologic systems are
produced by
– deformation after deposition or crystallization.
• Geometrical properties of geologic systems are crucial for
groundwater occurrence and flow especially in hard rock areas.
 Factors influencing weathering of geologic
formations
i. Rock type and structure
– Different rocks are composed of different minerals,
and each mineral has a different susceptibility to
weathering.
• For example, a sandstone consisting only of quartz will not
weather at all in comparison to limestone, composed
entirely of calcite, which will eventually dissolve
completely in a wet climate.
– Bedding planes, joints, and fractures, all provide
pathways for the entry of water.
• A rock with lots of these features will weather more rapidly
than a massive rock containing no bedding planes, joints,
or fractures
 Factors influencing weathering of geologic
formations
ii. slope
– On steep slopes weathering products may be
quickly washed away by rains hence
• reducing the weathering rate while on slow slopes the
weathering products accumulate.
– On slow slopes water may stay in contact with
rock for longer periods of time,
• thus result in higher weathering rates.
 Factors influencing weathering of geologic
formations
iii. Climate
– High amounts of water and higher temperatures
generally cause chemical reactions to run faster.
– Thus warm humid climates generally have more
highly weathered rock, and rates of weathering
are higher than in cold dry climates.
– Example: Limestone in a dry desert climate are
very resistant to weathering, but Limestone in a
tropical climate do get weathered very rapidly.
 Factors influencing weathering of geologic
formations
iv. Time
– Since a rate is how fast something occurs in a given
amount of time,
• time is a crucial factor in weathering.
– Rates of weathering can vary between rapid and
extremely slow.
– Thus, the time it takes for weathering to occur and
the volume of rock affected in a given time will
depend on:
• slope,
• climate, and
• type and structure of rock.
 Karst Structures
• Karst is a distinctive topography/structure in
which the landscape is largely shaped by the
dissolving action of water on carbonate bedrock
(usually limestone, dolomite, or marble).
– Karst structures can be natural or man made.
– In groundwater perspectives the karst structures are
helpful in transporting groundwater especially in
arid (desert) regions like in the arabic countries.
– Several wells are drilled and interconnected in the
underground hence to enable groundwater to be
transported from one place to the other.
Figure: Karst structure with groundwater potential
• Faults are planar features across which
the elevations of specific rock horizons
are displaced. Faults
– When enormous stresses build and
push large intact rock masses beyond
their yield limit, faulting of the
surface is likely to occur.
• A fault is a fracture along which
movement occurs.
– The plane that extends into the earth
and along which slippage occurs is
called the fault plane.
– The fault dip is the angle from
horizontal that the fault plane
makes.
– The direction that the fault takes is
called the strike
• Generally, two walls are distinguished,
– the footwall and
– hanging wall.
 Faults Types
• Two principal types of faults are distinguished
on the basis of the relative displacements of the
hanging wall and foot wall rocks:
i. Extensional faults (referred to in the older
literature as normal faults) are defined as those in
which the hanging wall rocks appear to have been
displaced downwards relative to the foot wall
rocks.
ii. Compressional faults (referred to as reverse faults
in the older literature) are those in which the
hanging wall rocks appear to have been displace
upwards relative to the foot wall rocks.
Figure: type of faults
 Strike and dip of faults
• Strike and dip usually refer to the
orientation or attitude of a geologic
feature.
– The strike line of a bed, fault, or
other planar feature is a line
representing the intersection of
that feature with a horizontal
plane.
– The dip gives the steepest angle of
descent of a tilted bed or feature
relative to a horizontal plane, and
is given by the number (0°-90°) as
well as a letter (N, S, E, W) with
rough direction in which the bed is Figure: Strike and dip of the beds; 1-
dipping. Strike, 2-Dip, 3-Apparent dip 4-Angle of
– Strike and dip are determined in dip
the field with a compass and
clinometer or a combination of the
two, such as a Brunton compass
named after D.W. Brunton, a
Colorado miner.
 Fractures
• A fracture is any local separation or discontinuity plane in a
geologic formation, such as a joint or a fault that divides the rock
into two or more pieces.
• Fractures are commonly caused by stress exceeding the rock
strength.
• Fractures can provide permeability for fluid movement, such as:
– Water or hydrocarbons
– Fractures are very potential for groundwater availability.
– Highly fractured rocks can make good aquifers or hydrocarbon
reservoirs, since they may possess both significant
permeability and fracture porosity.
• Fracturing in rocks can be formed either due to compression or
tension.
• The geometry and connectivity of a fracture network will control
fluid flow and transport.
Figure: Example of fractures in rocks
 Characteristics of Fractured Rock Aquifers
• The difficulty of predicting groundwater movement in fractured
rocks, as compared to granular aquifers, has long been
recognized hence the features that describe fractured rocks from
granular aquifers are:
– porosity is primarily secondary
– hydraulic conductivity distribution is very
heterogeneous
– flow paths: rapid flow in fractures, slower paths in
matrix blocks
– flow rates may be rapid and difficult to predict
– recharge ranges from focused (point) to dispersed
(diffuse)
– storage is primarily from matrix blocks
 Dykes
• Geologically, a dike or dyke is a type of sheet
intrusion referring to any geologic body that
cuts across a planar wall rock structures,
– such as bedding or foliation or
– sometimes it cuts across a massive rock
formations, like igneous/magmatic intrusions.
• Dykes are either intrusive or sedimentary by
origin
Figure: Dykes-1
Figure: Dykes-2
Figure: Dykes-3
 Folds
• The term fold is used in hydrogeology/geology when;
– One or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as sedimentary
strata, are bent or curved as a result of plastic (that is, permanent)
deformation.
• Folding can affect the hydrogeology of sedimentary rocks in
several ways.
– The most obvious is the creation of confined aquifers at the centers of
synclines.
– The nature of the fold will affect the availability of water.
• A tight, deeply plunging fold might carry the aquifer too deep
beneath the surface to be economically developed.
• Deeply circulating groundwater is also typically warmed by the
geothermal gradient and may be highly mineralized.
Figure: Folds
 Types of Folds
• There are many categories of folds depending
on the shape of the geologic formation but
most commonly there are two groups:
1. Anticline folds
2. Syncline folds
 Anticline folds

 These are linear, strata normally dip away

from axial center, oldest strata in center
 Syncline Folds

 These also are linear but the strata normally dip

toward axial center, youngest strata in center
 Classification of Hydrogeological
Environments
• There are five classes of hydrogeological
environments
– Alluvial systems
• Alluvial fans
• Deltas
• Floodplains/river valley deposits
– Glacial Deposits
– Clastic sedimetary rocks – sandstone/shale
– Chemical sedimentary rocks – carbonates/Evaporites
– Hard rocks
Alluvial systems

• Alluvial fans
– This occurs when a stream flows out of a
mountainous area into a flat plain, leaving behind a
big pile of sediment called an alluvial fan
• Deltas
– Deltas are like alluvial fans, but they form where a
stream enters a larger body of water, such as a lake,
inland sea, gulf, or ocean.
– As the stream enters the larger body of water, its
velocity suddenly decreases drastically, and it drops
almost all of its sediment.
 Alluvial systems
• Floodplains/River Valley Deposits
– The area around rivers can be very productive
aquifers, and have historically been extensively used
as a source of water for irrigation and drinking.
– These areas usually contain unconsolidated high-
permeability coarse grained channel deposits
interspersed with finer grained overbank deposits.
– They are also usually shallow and easy to drill, will
interchange with surface streams and have a fairly
constant source of recharge, and usually have fairly
good water quality.
 Glacial Deposits
• Glacial sediments are found worldwide in high
mountainous areas.
– The ICE cap of Kilimanjaro mountain
• Glacial deposits can be very permeable or very
tight.
• Glacial deposits are either unstratified or
stratified depending on the depositional
processes
– Stratified – with defined layers
– Unstratified – different sizes that are not well sorted
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks –
Sandstone/Shale
• Similar to unconsolidated sediments, the porosity
and permeability of sandstones is affected by
sorting and grain size.
• Cementation also plays a big role.
– Well-cemented sandstones can have very low
permeabilities, and have hydraulic properties that are
more like granite than sandstone
– As a general rule, older sedimentary rocks (e.g.
Silurian) are more cemented than younger (e.g.
Miocene).
 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks –
Carbonates and Evaporites
• Limestone, dolomites, and, to a lesser extent, evaporite like
gypsum and halite, are widespread over the surface of the Earth.
– Since calcite is fairly soluble, these rocks can get well-cemented fairly
easily, and limestone can have very little open pore space.
– But, Limestone are also subject to extensive karstification, or dissolution.
– Karstification usually starts in fractures, and tends to occur at the water
table where CO2 can outgas from the system
– Dissolution of calcium carbonate may cause hard water quality.
• Evaporite units very rarely form aquifers.
– They have low primary porosity, and are so ductile that fractures don’t stay
open for so long.
 Hard Rocks
• Granites, basalts, and metamorphic rocks are
usually not very good aquifers.
– These rocks tend to have very low primary porosities,
and in the ones that do have significant porosity (e.g.,
weathered basalts), the porosity is often not well
connected.
• However, in general, productivity of these
aquifers is almost always dependent on fractures
– These fractures can come from cooling stresses, from
exfoliation and release of overburden stress, and from
tectonic stresses.
END OF UNIT-2