PERMEABILITY OF SOILS

Department of Civil Engineering

Delhi Technological University
 Permeability of Soils
• The permeability is a soil property
• In soils, the interconnected pores provide passage for water. A large
number of such flow paths act together, and the average rate of flow is
termed the coefficient of permeability, or just permeability. 
• It is a measure of the ease that the soil provides to the flow of water
through its pores.
• A soil is highly pervious when water can flow through it easily. (Gravels)
• In an impervious soil, the permeability is very low and water cannot
easily flow through it. (Clays)
• Rocks are impermeable.
• The study of flow of water through permeable soil media is important in
soil mechanics.
 Permeability of Soils
At point A, the pore water pressure (u) can be measured from the height of water in a standpipe located at
that point.

The height of the water column is the pressure head (hw).

hw = u/γw

To identify any difference in pore water pressure at different

points, it is necessary to eliminate the effect of the points of
measurement. With this in view, a datum is required from
which locations are measured.

The elevation head (hz) of any point is its height above the datum line. The height of water level in the
standpipe above the datum is the piezometric head (h).
h = hz + hw 
Total head consists of three components: elevation head, pressure head, and velocity head. As seepage
velocity in soils is normally low, velocity head is ignored, and total head becomes equal to the piezometric
head.
Due to the low seepage velocity and small size of pores, the flow of water in the pores is steady and laminar
in most cases. Water flow takes place between two points in soil due to the difference in total heads.
 Darcy’s Law
Darcy's law states that there is a linear relationship between flow velocity (v) and
hydraulic gradient (i) for any given saturated soil under steady laminar flow conditions
If the rate of flow is q (volume/time) through cross-sectional area (A) of the soil mass,

Darcy's Law can be expressed as

v = q/A = k.i
where k = permeability of the soil
i = Δh/L
Δh = difference in total heads
L = length of the soil mass
The flow velocity (v) is also called the Darcian velocity or the superficial velocity. It is
different from the actual velocity inside the soil pores, which is known as the seepage
velocity, vS. At the particulate level, the water follows a tortuous path through the
pores. Seepage velocity is always greater than the superficial velocity, and it is
expressed as:

where AV = Area of voids on a cross section normal to the direction of flow

n = porosity of the soil
 Seepage Velocity
The discharge velocity is based on the gross cross sectional area of the soil.
However, the actual velocity of water (that is the seepage velocity) through
the void spaces is greater than v.

A relationship between the discharge velocity and the seepage velocity:

If the quantity of water flowing through the soil in unit time is q, then
q = A v = Av vs
where
vs= seepage velocity
Av= area of void in the cross section of the specimen
 Seepage Velocity
An estimate of actual velocity, νs referred to as the seepage velocity can be
made by considering the following equation:

A v = Av vs

v=

v = nvs
 Validity of Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s type of flow is stable in character as long as the four basic
conditions are always satisfied:
• The steady state is laminar flow with no changes in hydraulic
gradient
• Hundred percent saturation and no air bubbles in the soil voids
• Flow fulfilling continuity conditions
• No volume changes occur during or as a result of flow.
• The total cross sectional area of soil mass is considered.
Variation of Flow Velocity with Hydraulic
Gradient
 Hydraulic Conductivity
Permeability is also known as hydraulic conductivity.
Hydraulic conductivity, marked as K, or K-values, is one of the principal and
most important soil hydrology (hydraulic) characteristic (parameter) and it is
an important factor in water transport in the soil and is used in all equations
for groundwater (subsurface water) flow.
• The value of hydraulic conductivity varies widely for different soils.
• The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower and increases
rapidly with the degree of saturation.
• The coefficient of permeability also varies with temperature, upon which
the viscosity of the water depends.
• The coefficient of permeability can also be represented by the equation

Where ni= viscosity of water at temperature t and 20°C

 Permeability of Different Soils
• Permeability (k) is an engineering property
of soils and is a function of the soil type. 
Soil K (cm/sec)
• Its value depends on the average size of
the pores and is related to the distribution Gravel 100
of particle sizes, particle shape and soil Coarse sand 100 to 10-1
structure. Medium sand 10-1 to 10-2
• The ratio of permeability of typical
Fine Sand 10-2 to 10-3
sands/gravels to those of typical clays is of
the order of 106. Silty sand 10-3 to 10-4
• A small proportion of fine material in a Silt 1 x 10-5
coarse-grained soil can lead to a significant
Clay 10-7 to 10-9
reduction in permeability.
• For different soil types as per grain size, the
orders of magnitude for permeability are
shown in table.
 Empirical relation of k
Several empirical equation for estimating k have been proposed in the past.
Some of these are:
• For uniform sand
k (cm / sec) = cD210
where:
c = a constant that varies from 1 to 1.5
D10 = the effective size, in mm
• For dense or compacted sand
k (cm / sec) = 0.35 D215
• For medium to fine sand
K= 1.4e2k0.85
Where
k= hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio e
k0.85= the corresponding value at a void ratio of 0.85
 Importance of Permeability
The following applications illustrate the importance of
permeability in geotechnical design:
• Permeability influences the rate of settlement of a saturated
soil under load.
• The design of earth dams is very much based upon the
permeability of the soils used.
• The stability of slopes and retaining structures can be greatly
affected by the permeability of the soils involved.
• Filters made of soils are designed based upon their
permeability.
• Estimating the quantity of underground seepage.
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil
The following factors affect the permeability of soils:
• Particle size
The permeability varies approximately as the square of grain size. It depends on the
effective diameter of the grain size (D10)
• Void ratio of soil
Increase in the void ratio increases the area available for flow hence the permeability
increases for critical conditions.
• Properties of pore fluid
Pore fluids are fluids that occupy pore spaces in a soil or rock. Permeability is directly
proportional to the unit weight of pore fluid and inversely proportional to viscosity of
pore fluid.
• Shape of particles
Permeability is inversely proportional to specific surface e.g. as angular soil have more
specific surface area compared to the round soil therefore, the soil with angular particle
is less permeable than soil of rounded particles.
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil
• Structure of soil mass
For same void ratio the permeability is more for flocculent structure as
compared to the dispended structure.

• Degree of saturation
The permeability of partially saturated
soil is less than that of fully saturated
soil.
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil
• Absorbed water
Absorbed Water means a thin microscopic film of water surrounding individual soil grains.
This water is not free to move and hence reduces the effective pore space and thus decreases
coefficient of permeability.
• Entrapped air and organic impurities in water
The organic impurities and entrapped air obstruct the
flow and coefficient of permeability is reduced due to their
presence.
• Temperature:
As the viscosity of the pore fluid decrease with the temperature , permeability increases with
temperature , as unit weight of pore fluid does not change much with change in temperature.
• Stratification in Soil:
Stratified soils are those soils which are formed by layer upon layer of the earth or dust
deposited on each other. If the flow is parallel to the layers of stratification , the
permeability is max. while the flow in Perpendicular direction occur with min.
permeability.
 Determination of Coefficient of
Permeability
1. Lab Tests
– Constant Head Test
– Falling Head Test
– Capillarity Permeability Test
2. Field Tests
A. Pump Out Test
– Confined Aquifer
– Unconfined Aquifer
B. Pump in Test
_ Open End Test
_ Packer’ Test

C. Indirect Methods
_ Consolidation Test
_ Empirical Relations
 Constant Head Test
The permeability test is a measure of the rate of the flow of water through
soil.
• In this test, water is forced by a known constant pressure through a soil
specimen of known dimensions and the rate of flow is determined.
• This test is used primarily to determine the suitability of sands and
gravels for drainage purposes, and is made only on remolded samples.
• The constant head test is used primarily for coarse-grained soils since
adequate measurable discharge is needed for the accurate
determination of permeability by this method.
• This test is based on the assumption of laminar flow where k is
independent of i (low values of i)
• This test applies a constant head of water to each end of a soil in a
“permeameter”
 Constant Head Test
• The soil sample is contained in a Perspex cylinder.
• At the side of the cylinder, a no. of manometer connection points are
provided to enable pairs of pressure head readings to be taken.
• Water is allowed to flow through the sample from a reservoir designed to
keep the water level constant by overflow.
• The quantity of water flowing out of the soil or discharge Q during given
time t is collected in a vessel and weighed.
• The presence of entrapped air in the soil can affect the results seriously.
• To eliminate the possibility, firstly de-aired water is supplied to the reservoir
and then vacuum is applied to the soil sample before commencing the test.
• Flow is allowed to continue still a steady flow is established, as evidenced by
constant levels in manometer tubes.
• Then the discharge is measured.
• Several such tests at varying rates of flow can be performed and the average
value of k determined.
Constant Head Permeameter
 Constant Head Test
The total volume of water collected may be expressed
as:
Q= A v t = A (k x i) t, i =h/L
or
k=
where:
Q= volume of water collected
A= area of cross section of the soil specimen
t= duration of water collection, and
i=
 Falling Head Test
• Relatively for less permeable soils such as fine sand and silts.
• A cylinder containing the soil sample is placed on a base (perforated disc)
fitted with a fine gauze.
• A graduated standpipe of known diameter is connected to the soil
sample.
• Water flows through the sample from a standpipe attached to the top of
the cylinder.
• The head of water (h) changes with time as flow occurs through the soil.
At different times the head of water is recorded.
• A typical arrangement of the falling-head permeability test is shown in
figure in the next slide.
• Water from a standpipe flows through the soil , the initial head difference
h1 at time t=0 is recorded and water is allowed to flow through the soil
specimen such that the final head difference at time t = t2 is h2.
Falling Head Permeameter
 Falling Head Test
For the falling-head test, the velocity of fall in the
standpipe is:
v= -
The flow into the sample is: qin= - a
a= area of standpipe
From Darcy’s law the flow out is
qout= k

qout= qin or k - a
 Falling Head Test
Separating variables and integrating over the limits:
k

We obtain

t = time
L = Length of the fine soil
A = cross section area of soil
a= cross section area of tube
K = Coefficient of permeability
 Capillarity- Permeability Test
• The coefficient of permeability of soil in unsaturated condition
can be determined from the capillarity-permeability test.
• The apparatus consists of a transparent tube made of Lucite or
glass, about 35 cm long and 4 cm diameter.
• The sample of the dry soil in powdered form is placed in the
tube and screens are fixed at both ends.
• One end of the transparent tube is connected to high level
water reservoirs and the other end is open to atmosphere
through an air-vent pipe.
• The air-vent pipe is connected to the screen at that end with a
spring.
• The valve D connecting the higher reservoir is initially closed.
Capillarity- Permeability Test
 Capillarity- Permeability Test
• When the valve C connecting to the lower reservoir is
opened, capillarity action in soil occurs and it draws water
into it.
• The wetted surface starts advancing towards the open end.
• Let us consider the stage when the wetted surface has
advanced by a distance of x.
• Let the negative capillarity head be hc, as shown by an
imaginary manometer in figure.
(The manometer is imaginary and in actual tests, no
manometer is used. It is shown in figure just to indicate the
negative head).
 Capillarity- Permeability Test
The total head causing flow is increased because of the
negative head (hc) and is given by
h= h1 + hc
• Assuming a uniform hydraulic gradient over the entire
length x, the velocity is given by Darcy’s law,

• The wetted surface moves (on a macroscopic scale)

with a seepage velocity (vs).
vs= v/n
 Capillarity- Permeability Test
The seepage velocity is given by

For partially saturated soils, the above equation is modified

taking actual saturated porosity as S x n.

where
ku= coefficient of permeability in unsaturated condition
S= degree of saturation, expressed as a ratio.
 Capillarity- Permeability Test
Substituting vs= dx/dt, we have
 Capillarity- Permeability Test
• This equation can be used to determine the coefficient
of permeability (ku) if all other variables are given.
• As the capillarity head (hc) is also known, there are two
unknowns (ku and hc) on the right-hand side of the
equation.
• Therefore, one more equation is required.
• The second equation can be derived if the head is
changed from h1 to h2 when the water surface has
advanced to about half the length of the transparent
tube by closing the valve C and opening the valve D.
 Capillarity- Permeability Test
• Let x2 and x3 by the distances measured from
the left end at the time t2 and t3.

• The value of the unknowns ku and hc can be

analytically obtained from above equations.
• A plot is obtained between x2 and t.
 Capillarity- Permeability Test

• The values of ku and hc are determined from

above equation after substituting values of m1
and m2 obtained from the plot.
 Capillarity- Permeability Test
The porosity n of the soil sample is determined
from its dry density.
 Capillarity- Permeability Test
• The degree of saturation (S) is obtained from
the water content of the soil determined after
the test.
S= wG/e

• For accurate results, the capillarity head (hc)

should be maintained constant along the
vertical wetting surface. It is done by slowly
revolving the tube about its axis.
 Field tests for Permeability
• Laboratory tests must be performed, as far as possible, on undisturbed soil samples.
• But in the type of soils for which permeability is important (sand, silty sand, etc.)
undisturbed sampling poses the greatest problems.
• The permeability values obtained from lab tests may often be quite different from
true values.
• Degree of saturation being less than 100% is one important reason. This happens
when there is entrapped air in the sample. But by far the most important
discrepancy is the impossibility of simulating the in-situ soil structure in the test
sample.
• Permeability of natural soil deposits is greatly influenced by microstructure factors
such as heterogeneity, stratification, etc. and such effects can hardly be reproduced
in the laboratory.
• Field tests are generally more reliable than laboratory tests for determining soil
permeability , the main reason being that field tests are performed on the
undisturbed soil exactly as it occurs in situ at the test location.
 Pumping Out Test- Confined Aquifer
• A confined flow condition occurs when the
aquifer is confined both above and below by
impervious strata.
• The drawdown surface is, for all values of r,
above the upper surface of the aquifer.
• Consider the flow after steady state is
obtained.
Pumping Method
 Pumping Method- Confined Aquifer
q= k i A = k 2 π r H

Integrating gives q ln k H (h2-h1)

Solving for k yields k=
 Pumping Out Test- Unconfined Aquifer
• The aquifer is underlain by an impermeable stratum and the test
well extends to the bottom of the permeable stratum and is
perforated over the section which is below the water table.
• In original state, it is assumed that the ground water is at rest.
• The pumping generated a radial flow of water towards the filter well
and as a result, the water table assumes curved surface called the
drawdown water table.
• The hydraulic gradient is also assumed to be constant at any given
radius.
• Under steady-state conditions, the rate of radial flow through any
cylindrical surface at radius r is constant and equal to the amount of
water pumped out of the well in unit time.
• Consider the flow through an elementary cylinder of soil having radius
r, thickness dr and height h.
Pumping Method
 Pumping Method- Unconfined Aquifer

To determine k

q ln k (h22-h21)
k=
 Pumping-In Tests
• Conducted to determine the coefficient of permeability
of an individual stratum through which a hole is drilled.
• However, pumping-out tests give more reliable values
than that given by pumping-in tests.
• The pumping-in tests give the value of the coefficient of
permeability of stratum just close the hole, whereas the
pumping-out tests give the value for a large-area around
the hole.
• There are basically two types of pumping-in tests:
– Open-end tests
– Packer tests
 Pumping-In Tests
• In an open-end tests, the water flows out of the test hole through its
bottom end, whereas in packer tests, the water flows out through
the sides of the section of a hole enclosed between packers.
• The value of the coefficient of permeability is obtained from the
quantity of water accepted by the hole.
• The water pumped-in should be clean, as the impurities, such as silt,
clay or any other foreign matter, may cause plugging of the flow
passages.
• If the water is turbid, it should be clarified in a settling tank or by
using a filter.
• The temperature of the water pumped-in should be slightly higher
than the temperature of the ground water to prelude the formation
of air bubbles in stratum.
 Open-end Tests
• A pipe casing is inserted into the borehole to the
desired depth and it is cleaned out.
• The hole is kept filled with water during cleaning if it
extends below the water table.
• This is necessary to avoid squeezing of the soil into the
bottom of the pipe casing when the driving tool is
withdrawn.
• After the hole has been cleaned out, water is added to
the hole through a metring system.
• The constant rate of flow (q) is determined at which
the steady conditions are established.
Open-end Tests
 Open-end Tests
The coefficient of permeability is determined by
the following equation (USBR, 1961).
k=

where
r= inside radius of the casing
H= difference of levels between the inlet to the
casing and the water table. (fig a)
q= discharge
 Pump in Test-Open-end Test
• If required, the discharge can be increased by pumping-in water
under a pressure p . In this case, the value of total head becomes
equal to H + p/γw
• The clean water, having temperature slightly more than the
ground water, is added through metering system to maintain
gravity flow.
• H is equal to the difference of the inlet level and the bottom end
of the pipe.
• If required, the rate of flow (q) can be increased by pumping-in
water under a pressure p, with a total head of h = H + p/γw.
• The permeability K is given by
K = q/5.5 r h
 Pump in Test-Packer Tests
• Performed in an uncased portion of the pipe
casing.
• More commonly used for testing of rocks.
• Occasionally used for testing of soils if the
bore hole can stay without any casing.
– Single packer tests
– Double packer tests
 Pump in Test-Single Packer Tests
• Used if the hole cannot stand without a casing.
• Water is pumped into the hole. It comes out of the
sides of uncased portion of the hole below the
packer.
• If the casing is used for the full depth, it should
have perforations in the portion of the stratum
being tested.
• The lower end of the casing is plugged.
• When the steady flow conditions are attained, the
constant rate of flow (q) is determined.
Single Packer Tests
 Single Packer Tests
The value of the coefficient of permeability is found by the
following equation (USBR, 1961)
k = log10 (L/r); if L ≥ 10 r

k = sinh-1 (L/2r) ; if 10 r ≥ L ≥ r

where
r= inside radius of hole,
L = length of portion of the hole tested,
H= difference of water levels at the entry and the ground
water table for the hole tested below the water table.
 Single Packer Tests
• For the holes tested above the water table, H is
equal to the difference of levels of water at the
entry and the middle of the test section. (fig b)
• If the water is applied under pressure (p), the
value of H becomes (H + p/γw.) as in the case of
open-end tests.
• After the test is complete, the packer is removed.
• If required, the hole is made deeper and again a
packer is placed and the test repeated for that
portion.
 Pump in Test-Double Packer Tests
• Can be used if the hole can stand without a casing.
• The hole is drilled, to the final depth, filled with water, surged and bailed out.
• Two packers are fitted to a small diameter pipe as shown in next slide fig.
• The bottom of the pipe fitted with packers is plugged.
• Fig a (next slide) shows the conditions when the test section is below the
ground water table.
• The value of the coefficient of permeability is determined using same
equation as in single packer test, depending upon the value of L and r as
specified.
• Conducted first in the lowest portion near the bottom of the hole and later
repeated for the upper layers.
• Give better results when conducted below the water table.
• For reliable results, the thickness of the stratum should be at least five times
the length (L) of the hole tested.
Double Packer Tests
 Permeability in Stratified Soil
In general, natural soil deposits are stratified.
In a stratified soil deposit where the hydraulic conductivity
for flow in a given direction changes from layer to layer, an
equivalent hydraulic conductivity can be computed to
simplify calculations.
 Permeability in Stratified Soil
Flow in the horizontal direction (parallel to layer)
When the flow is horizontal, it is taking place through all the layers at the
same time and therefore, the hydraulic gradient is the same in each layer.
But, the velocity of flow are different in different layers.
 Permeability in Stratified Soil
Flow in the horizontal direction (parallel to layer)
The total flow through the cross section in unit time can
be written as:

where
v = average discharge velocity
v1 , v2, v3, …vn = discharge velocities of flow in layers
 Permeability in Stratified Soil
Flow in the horizontal direction (parallel to layer)
For horizontal flow, the head h over the same flow path length L
will be the same for each layer.
So

An equivalent coefficient of permeability in horizontal direction

is:
 Permeability in Stratified Soil
Flow in the vertical horizontal direction (perpendicular
to layers)
In this case, the flow is taking place in one layer after another and continuity
of flow requires the velocity of flow in each of the layers to be the same. The
hydraulic gradients changes from layer to layer.

For vertical flow, the flow rate, q through

area A of each layer is the same.
 Permeability in Stratified Soil
Flow in the vertical horizontal direction (perpendicular
to layers)
The total head loss is the sum of head losses in
all layers
h = h1 + h2 + h3 + ………. + hn
i H = i1H1 + i2H2 + i3H3 + …….. + inHn
v = v1 = v2 = v3 = ……… = vn
 Permeability in Stratified Soil
Flow in the vertical direction (perpendicular to layers)
An equivalent (average) coefficient of
permeability in vertical direction is
kv =

In stratified soils, average horizontal

permeability is greater than average vertical
permeability .
 Numerical Problems
Q1. The following data were recorded in a constant head
permeability test
Internal diameter of permeameter= 7.5 cm
Head Lost over a sample length of 18cm = 24.7cm
Quantity of water collected in 60s = 626 ml
Porosity of the soil sample was 44%
Calculate the coefficient of permeability of the soil.

Also calculate the discharge velocity and the seepage velocity

during the test. If the test was carried out at a temperature of
25°C, estimate the permeability for a porosity of 39% and at
20°C.
 Numerical Problems
Solution:
k=Q
A = π = 44.18 cm2
k = = 1.72 x 10-1 cm/s

Discharge Velocity:
v= k i = 1.72 x 10-1 x 24.7/18 = 2.36 x 10-1 cm/s
Seepage Velocity:
vs= =
For n1= 44% The formula n_e1 = (e1^2) / (1 + e1) is used to estimate the effective
porosity of a soil sample based on its porosity. The square of the porosity (e1^2) represents the total volume of interconnected
pores, and dividing it by (1 + e1) takes into account the non-interconnected pores. The resulting value (n_e1) represents the fraction
of total soil volume that is able to transmit fluids.

e1= 0.79; = 0.275

For n2= 39%
e2= 0.64; = 0.160

At 25°C, viscosity of water Ƞ1= 8.95 millipoises

At 20°C, viscosity of water Ƞ2= 10.09 millipoises
Considering that

Now considering that

 Numerical Problems
Q2. In a falling head permeability test on a sample
12.2cm high and 44.41 cm2 in cross sectional area, the
water level in a stand pipe of 6.25 mm internal
diameter dropped from a height of 75cm to 24.7 cm in
15 minutes. Determine the coefficient of permeability.
 Numerical Problems
Solution:
 Numerical Problems
Q3. A stratified soil deposit is shown in fig below along with the coefficient of
permeability of the individual strata. Determine the ratio of kH and kv.
Assuming an average hydraulic gradient of 0.3 in both horizontal and vertical
seepage, find i) discharge value and discharge velocities in each layer for
horizontal flow, and ii) hydraulic gradient and loss in head in each layer for
vertical flow.
Solution:
Solution:
 Numerical Problems
Q4. If in fig below, soil X has a permeability of 4 X 10-3 cm/s and the head lost
in soil Y is 9 times the head lost in soil X,
a. What is the permeability of flow per hour?
b. What is quantity of flow per hour ?
c. To what elevation would water rise in a piezometer inserted in soil Y at El
5 cm? What is the pressure head at this point?
 Numerical Problems
Solution:

Total head loss during flow= 10cm

 Numerical Problems
Solution:
 Numerical Problems
Q5. For a field pumping test, a well was sunk through a horizontal stratum of
sand 14.5 m thick and underlain by a clay stratum. Two observation wells
were sunk at horizontal distances of 16m and 34m respectively from the
pumping well. The initial position of the water table was 2.2m below ground
level. At a steady-state pumping rate of 925 litres/min, the drawdowns in the
observation wells were found to be 2.45m and 1.20 m respectively. Calculate
the coefficient of permeability of the sand.
 Numerical Problems
Solution:
For the case of unconfined flow of fig.