Name: Annie Mae S.

Centino Class number:

Section:CE 3A Schedule: _ Date: 01/30/22

Lesson title: BASIC SUBSURFACE FLOW PART 2

Lesson Objectives: References:
At the end of the module, you should be able to David Chin, Water Resources
1) Calculate for the value of hydraulic conductivity using Engineering, 3rd Ed., Pearson , 2013
constant head test and falling head test
2) Calculate for the equivalent horizontal and vertical hydraulic
conductivity

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
Introduction

COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY

 The coefficient of permeability (K) is the velocity in meters or centimeters per second of water through soils.
Fine-grained soils such as clays might have values of around 10 -8meters/sec or lower, or a sand and gravel
formation could be 10-4meters/sec or higher.
 Soil permeability can be estimated using empirical methods like soil survey mapping, soil texture, or particle size
distribution. However, a variety of different laboratory and field test methods make it just as easy to measure
these properties directly. The soil type and purpose of the test, accuracy required, and specimen type influence the
selected test method.
 Soil Permeability tests take place under either constant head or falling head conditions:
o Constant Head Test
o Falling Head Test

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 Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: _ Date:
B.MAIN LESSON

Activity 1:

CONSTANT HEAD TEST

 Constant Head Test refers to an apparatus where the

same relative elevation of the top of the water
column (head pressure) remains over the sample
throughout the test. It is a valid test for soils with a
high rate of flow like sands and gravels, but also
some clay soils.

 Where
o V = volume of water collected
o L = length of the soil specimen
o A = area of cross section of the soil
specimen
o h = constant head causing the flow
o t = duration of water collection

FALLING HEAD TEST

 Falling Head Test allows the head to decrease as water infiltrates the
sample, diminishing the pressure over the course of the test. Falling head
methods are generally limited to fine-grained soils.

 Where
o a = area of cross section of the stand pipe
o L = Length of the soil specimen
o A = area of cross section of the soil specimen
o t = time elapsed from initial head (h1) to final head (h2)
o h1 = initial head
o h2 = final head

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Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: _ Date:

EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

 Water can flow through soils both horizontally and vertically. Which means hydraulic conductivity can also be
horizontal or vertical which is denoted by kh and kv respectively.

 The equivalent hydraulic conductivity of a stratified soil in the horizontal direction is equal to

h(eq) o n n 1 1 2 2 n n

h(eq) 1 1 2 2 n n
o
 The equivalent hydraulic conductivity of a stratified soil in the vertical direction is equal to

o n 1 2 n
v(eq) n 1 2 n

o
v(eq)
12 n
12 n
 Where
o Ho = total height of the specimen
o kn = hydraulic conductivity at specific soil layer
o zn = height of specific soil layer

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 Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: _ Date:

EXAMPLE :

 Find the hydraulic conductivity for the soil if the results of a constant head permeability test for a fine sand and
sample having a diameter of 150 mm and a length of 150 mm are as follows:
o Constant head difference = 40 cm.
o Time of collection of water = 83 sec.
o Weight of water collected = 392 g.
o Find the hydraulic conductivity for the soil.

Solution:
Step 1: Since the data are already specified, and it is already stated that it is a constant head permeability test, proceed
with the substitution of the given data to the formula. Make sure that all the units of the given data are the same. In this
case, all values are in centimeter.

EXAMPLE 2:

 The perimeter in a falling head permeability test set up involves a cylindrical soil sample 50 mm in diameter and a
height 200 mm. The hydraulic head in the 10 mm diameter standpipe through which test water passed dropped
from 900 to 600 mm in one minute of observation. In that duration, the water collected in the graduated flask was
recorded at 1.5 liters. Evaluate the coefficient of permeability of the soil sample in cm/sec.

Solution:
Step 1: Since the data are already specified, and it is already stated that it is a falling head permeability test, proceed with
the substitution of the given data to the formula. Make sure that all the units of the given data are the same. In this case, all
values are in millimeter.

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 Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: _ Date:

EXAMPLE 3:

 From the figure shown:

o What is the equivalent coefficient of
permeability in the horizontal direction?
o Determine the equivalent coefficient of
permeability if the direction of flow is vertical.

Thickness of Soil Layer Hydraulic Conductivity

z1 = 5 m k1 = 2.5 x (10^-3) cm/s
z2 = 6 m k2 = 3 x (10^-4) cm/s
z3 = 6.5 m k3 = 1.6 x (10^-2) cm/s
z4 = 7 m k4 = 2.2 x (10^-3) cm/s

Solution:
Step 1: Since the data are already specified, proceed with the substitution of the given data to the formula to obtain the
equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity.

h(eq) 1 1 2 2 n n
o
–3
h(eq)
–4 –2 –3

–𝟑
𝒉(𝒆𝒒)
Note: Now try to calculate the hydraulic conductivity without converting the thickness from meter to centimeter. Will it
still yield the same answer?
v(eq)

–3 –2 –3
–4 –𝟒

𝒗(𝒆𝒒)

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 Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: _ Date:
Activity 2:

Question 1:

 Two observation wells have been constructed in the formation shown. The flow rate is 0.01 cu. m/hr per unit
width of the formation.
o Compute the hydraulic gradient
o Compute the equivalent hydraulic conductivity
o Compute the value of k2.
 Note: Since the soil is layered differently compared to the given figure above. Check FAQ’s.

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 Solution:
Hydraulic gradient
i=h<k ; h=head ; l=flow length

(5−2.5)
i=
1300
i=1.93x10-3

Hydraulic Conductivity
Given:
Flowrate Q=k;a
Equivalent hydraulic conductivity
Q=kiA
(k)0.01=(1.93x10-3) (20)
0.01
k= −3
1.93 x 10 (20)
k=0.26 m/hr
meter 24 hours
k= 0.26 x =6.24 meter /day
hour 1 day

Solving for k2
k=H1k1+H2k2 +H3k3
6.24=1300(200)(15)+600(k2)+400(10)
k2=4.045 meter/day

Question 2

 The permeameter in a permeability test setup involves a soil sample 200 mm diameter and a length of 30 mm. The
height of water is kept constant at 400 mm. In a duration of 4 min, water was collected in the graduated flask
having a volume of 420 cu. cm. Determine the following.
o Flow Rate
o Hydraulic gradient
o Hydraulic conductivity
Given:
d=200 m
h=30 mm
L=400 mm
v=420 cu.cm
T=4 min = 260 seconds

A. Flow Rate

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 v
a=
t
420 x 103
a=
240 seconds
a= 1750 mm3 / sec

B. Hydraulic Gradient
h
i=
t
30 mm
i=
400 seconds
i=0.075 mm/sec

C. Hydraulic Conductivity
a
k=
iA
1750
k=
(0.075) A
2
πd
A=
4
2
π (200)
A=
4
A=31415.93 mm

1750
k=
(0.075)(31415.93 mm)
k=0.7427 mm/ sec

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 Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: _ Date:
Activity 3:
Question: If not stated, how will you differentiate falling head test from constant head test?

 Constant Head Test refers to an apparatus where the same relative elevation of the top of the water column
(head pressure) remains over the sample throughout the test. It is a valid test for soils with a high rate of
flow like sands and gravels, but also some clay soils.
 Falling Head Test allows the head to decrease as water infiltrates the sample, diminishing the pressure
over the course of the test. Falling head methods are generally limited to fine-grained soils.

Additional Knowledge:
1) The given formula was derived from a stratified soil layered one on top of the other. This would mean that the
flow of water would be from top to bottom. Whereas in the given practice problem, the flow of water would be
from left to right. In order to avoid confusion, horizontal equivalent hydraulic conductivity means that the flow is
parallel to the layers of the stratified soil, whereas for vertical equivalent hydraulic conductivity, the flow is
perpendicular to its layers.

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Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: _ Date:

Lesson title: BASIC SUBSURFACE FLOW PART 3

Lesson Objectives: References:
At the end of the module, you should be able to David Chin, Water Resources
1) Relate radial ground water flow in confined aquifer in Engineering, 3rd Ed., Pearson , 2013
calculating the hydraulic conductivity
2) Relate radial ground water flow in unconfined aquifer in
calculating the hydraulic conductivity

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
Introduction
AQUIFERS

 A confined aquifer is an aquifer below the land surface that is saturated with water. Layers of impermeable
material are both above and below the aquifer, causing it to be under pressure so that when the aquifer is
penetrated by a well, the water will rise above the top of the aquifer.
 A water-table–or unconfined–aquifer is an aquifer whose upper water surface (water table) is at atmospheric
pressure, and thus is able to rise and fall. Water-table aquifers are usually closer to the Earth’s surface than
confined aquifers are, and as such are impacted by drought conditions sooner than confined aquifers.

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 Name:
Section: Schedule: _

B.MAIN LESSON

Activity 1:

CONFINED AQUIFERS

 In confined aquifers, also known as

artesian or pressure wells, the pressure is
above atmospheric pressure since there is
an impervious layer of soil overlying the
aquifer.

 Where
o q = the rate of discharge
o r1 =the farther radial distance from
the center of the test well
o r2 =the nearer radial distance from
the center of the test well
o H = height of the confined aquifer
o h1,h2 = height of water, with
respect to the impermeable layer
above, at a distance of r 1 and r2
respectively

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 Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: _ Date:

UNCONFINED AQUIFERS

 In confined aquifers, also known as gravity wells,

the pressure at the surface is atmospheric.

 Where
o q = the rate of discharge
o r1 =the farther radial distance from the
center of the test well
o r2 =the nearer radial distance from the
center of the test well
o H = height of the confined aquifer
o h1,h2 = height of water, with respect to the
bottom impermeable layer, at a distance of
r1 and r2 respectively

ROBLEM 1

 A well is fully penetrated into a 16m thick layer of sand which is underlain by a rock layer. Water is pumped out
of the well at a constant rate of 450 000 liters per hour. The water level in two observation wells situated at 15m
and 30m from the test well are found to be at 3.7m and 2.6m respectively below the ground level.
o Determine the rate of flow in m^3/day
o Determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil.
Solution:
Step 1: Convert the given rate of flow.
450000𝐿 1𝑚3 24ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝑞= 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒎𝟑/𝒅𝒂𝒚
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 1000𝐿 1𝑑𝑎𝑦
Step 2: Since the given aquifer is an unconfined aquifer, the height should be based from the impermeable layer below.
Therefore, the given heights should be subtracted from the thickness of the sand layer above.

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 Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: _ Date:
𝑟1 30
𝑞𝑙𝑛 ( ) 10800 ln ( )
𝑘= 𝑟2 15
𝜋(ℎ2 − ℎ2) = 𝜋[(16 − 2.6)2 − (16 − 3.7)2]
1 2
𝑘 = 84.30 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦

PROBLEM 2

 A confined aquifer has a uniform thickness of 15 m and is overlain by an impermeable layer. The static water
table in a well is located 35 meters from the base of the aquifer. After water was pumped at a rate of 13 L/sec,
water levels in the wells stabilized with the following drawdowns, 3.7 m in the observation well 10 m from the
test well and 2.4 m in the observation well at a distance 30 m. Calculate the permeability of the aquifer.

Solution:
Step 1: Convert the given rate of flow.

𝑞 = 13𝐿 1𝑚3 3600 𝑠 24ℎ𝑟

� 𝑥 𝑥 = 1123.2 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦
� 1000𝐿 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑠𝑒𝑐
Step 2: Since the given aquifer is an confined aquifer, the height should be based from the impermeable layer above.
𝑟1 30
1123.2 ln ( )
𝑞𝑙𝑛 ( ) 10
𝑘= 𝑟2 =
2𝜋𝐻(ℎ1 − ℎ2) 2𝜋(15)(3.7 − 2.4)
𝒌 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚

Activity 2:

Question 1:
  A 300 mm diameter test well penetrates a 27 m thick sand layer below the static water table. After 24 hours of
pumping at 50 liters per second, the water level in an observation well at a distance of 100 m from the test well is
lowered 0.5 m. At another test well located 50 m from the test well, the water level dropped by 1.0 m.
o Estimate the rate of flow in cubic meters per day.
o Evaluate the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in meters per day.

Given:
d=300 mm
300
radius=
2
r0= 150 m
r1=100 m
r2= 50 m
h= 27 m
h1= H-0.5 = 27m-0.5m= 26.5 m
h2= H-1= 27 m- 1m= 26 m

A. Estimate the rate of flow in cubic meters per day

Rate of Flow= (50x10-3 m3/s)

3600 m3
Rate of Flow= (50x10-3 m3/s)( )
hour
3
3600 m ( 24 hours )
Rate of Flow= (50x10-3 m3/s)( )
hour 1 day
Rate of Flow= 4320 m3 / day

B. Evaluate the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in meters per day

2 2
kπ (h1−h 2)
q= r1
2.3 log 10 ( )
r2
2 2
k (π )(26.5 −26 )
4320= 100
2.3 log 10( )
50
k=36.26 m/ day
 Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: _ Date:
Question 2

 A well with a diameter of 0.6 m is constructed in a confined aquifer. The sand aquifer has a uniform thickness of
15 m, overlain by an impermeable layer with a depth of 35 m. A pumping test was conducted to determine the
coefficient of permeability of the aquifer. The initial piezometric surface was 15 m. below the ground surface
datum of the test well and observation wells. After water was pumped at a rated of 13 liters/sec for several days,
water levels in the wells stabilized with the following drawdowns, 6.4 m in the test well, 3.7 m in the observation
well 10 m from the test well, and 2.4 m in the second observation well at a distance of 30 m. From these data:
o Find the depth of the water in the test well
o Calculate the permeability of the aquifer.

Given:
Diameter of well = 0.6m
Thickness of sand aquifer = 15m
Aquifer is overlain by impermeable layer of depth = 35m
Initial piezometric surface = 35m
Pumping rate of water = 13litre/second
 
after stabilization of water level,
drawdown in test well was observed = 6.4m
and drawdown in observation well which is 10m apart = 3.7m
and drawdown in observation well which is 30m apart = 2.4m

A.Depth of water in the test well

THICKNESS OF AQUIFER BEFOR PUMPING
Ho= depth of surface layer- depth of piezometer surface
Ho= 35-15
Ho=20m
DEPTH OF WATER IN THE TEST WELL
Hw= Ho – drawdown of observation well
Hw= 20-64
Hw=13.6 m

B.Permeability of aquifer
Drawdown in well 1
H1= Ho – drawdown of observation well
H1=20-3.70
H1=16.3 m
Drawdown in well 2
H2= Ho- drawdown of observation well
H2=20-2.40
H2=17.6 m
Q r1
k= log
2 π (h 1−h2 ) r2
13 30
k= log
2 π (15)(17.6−16.3) 10
k=0.106
k=0.12mm/s

Activity 2:
 Question: What does impermeable mean? Give types of soil which are impermeable.

Impermeable/impervious surfaces are solid surfaces that don't allow water to penetrate, forcing it to run off.

Impermeable soils and rocks such as clay or shale do not allow water to infiltrate, this forces water to
run off reducing river lag times and increasing flood risk.
Examples are asphalt, concrete,traditional stone or brick.
Name:
Section: Schedule: _

Name: Class number:

Section: Schedule: _ Date:

Lesson title: RAIN – RUNOFF RELATION

Lesson Objectives: References:
At the end of the module, you should be able to David Chin, Water Resources
1) Define runoff and its classifications. Engineering, 3rd Ed., Pearson , 2013
2) Define what hydrograph is.
3) Determine the applications of a hydrograph.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
Introduction

RUNOFF

 Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a catchment area through a surface channel. It thus
represents the output from the catchment in a given unit of time. Consider a catchment area receiving
precipitation. For a given precipitation the evapotranspiration, initial loss, infiltration, and detention storage
requirements will have to be first satisfied before the commencement of runoff. When these are satisfied, the
excess precipitation moves over the land surfaces to reach smaller channels.
This portion of runoff is called
overland flow and involves building
up of a storage over the surface and
draining off of the same. Flows
from several small channels join
bigger channels and flows from
these in turn combine to form a
larger stream, and so on, until the
flow reaches the catchment outlet.
The flow in this mode, where it
travels all the time over the surface
as overland flow and through the
channels as open-channel flow and
reaches the catchment outlet is
called surface runoff.

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 Name:
Section: Schedule: _
B.MAIN LESSON

Activity 1:

RUNOFF

 The components of runoff is known variously as interflow, through flow, storm seepage, subsurface storm flow,
or quick return flow. The amount of interflow depends on the geological conditions of the catchment. A fairly
pervious soil overlying a hard impermeable surface is conducive to large interflows. Depending upon the time
delay between the infiltration and the outflow, the interflow is sometimes classified into prompt interflow, the
interflow with the least time lag, and delayed interflow.
 Another route for the infiltered water is to undergo deep percolation and reach the groundwater storage in the soil.
The groundwater follows a complicated and long path of travel and ultimately reaches the surface. This part of
runoff is called groundwater runoff or groundwater flow. Groundwater flow provides the dry-weather flow in
perennial streams.
 Based on the time delay between the precipitation and the runoff, the runoff is classified into two categories:
o Direct Runoff – is the part of the runoff which enters the stream immediately after the rainfall. It includes
surface runoff, prompt interflow, and rainfall on the surface of the stream.
o Base Flow – the delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as ground water flow. Many times,
delayed interflow is also included in this category.
 Runoff representing the response of a catchment to precipitation reflects the integrated effects of a wide range of
catchment, climate, and rainfall characteristics. True runoff is therefore stream flow in its natural condition. Such
a stream flow unaffected by works of man such as reservoirs and diversion structures on a stream is called natural
flow or virgin flow.

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Name: Class number:
Section: Schedule: _ Date:

HYDROGRAPH

 A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted against time chronologically is called a hydrograph. Depending upon
the unit of time involved, we have
o Annual hydrographs showing the variation of daily or weekly or 10 daily mean flows over a year.
o Monthly hydrographs showing the variation of daily mean flows over a month.
o Seasonal hydrographs depicting the variation of discharge in a particular season such as the monsoon
season or dry season.
o Flood hydrographs or hydrographs due to a storm representing stream flow due to a storm over a
catchment.
 Each of these types have particular applications. Annual and seasonal hydrographs are of use in
o Calculating the surface water potential of stream
o Reservoir studies
o Drought studies
 Flood hydrographs are essential in analyzing stream characteristics associated with floods.
 In annual runoff studies it is advantageous to consider a water year beginning from the time when the
precipitation exceeds the average evapotranspiration losses. In a water year, a complex cycle of climatic changes
is expected and hence the water budget will have the least amount of carryover.
 A study of the annual hydrographs of streams enables one to classify streams into three classes as
o Perennial stream – is one which always carries some flow. There is considerable amount of groundwater
flow throughout the year. Even during the dry seasons, the water table will be above the bed of the
stream.
o Intermittent stream – has limited contribution from the groundwater. During the wet season the water
table is above the stream bed and there is a contribution of the base flow to the stream flow. However,
during dry seasons the water table drops to a level lower than that of the stream bed and the stream dries
up.
o Ephemeral stream – is one which does not have any base-flow contribution. The annual hydrograph of
such river shows series of short-duration spikes marking flash flows in response to storms. The stream
becomes dry soon after the end of the storm flow. Typically, an ephemeral stream does not have any well-
defined channel. Most of the rivers in arid zones are of the ephemeral type.
 The interrelationship of these factors is extremely complex. However, at the risk of oversimplification, the
following points can be noted.
o The seasonal variation of rainfall is clearly reflected in the runoff.
o The shape of the stream hydrograph and hence the peak flow is essentially controlled by the storm and the
physical characteristics of the basin.
o The annual runoff volume of a stream is mainly controlled by the amount of rainfall and
evapotranspiration. The geology of the basin is significant to the extent of deep percolation losses. The
land use/cover play an important role in creating infiltration and evapotranspiration opportunities and
retarding of runoff.
 The total quantity of surface water that can be expected in a given period from a stream at the outlet of its
catchment is known as yield of the catchment in that period.

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 Name: Class number:
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 The relationship between rainfall in a period and the corresponding runoff is quite complex and is influenced by a
host of factors relating to the catchment and climate. Further there is the problem of paucity of data which forces
one to adopt simple correlations for adequate estimation of runoff.

Activity 2:
Question: Draw a detailed water cycle entailing the lessons from modules 1 up until now and write an explanation or
procedure of how it works using at least 10 sentences.

Step 1: Evaporation
The water cycle begins with evaporation. It is a process where water at the surface turns into water vapors. Water absorbs heat
energy from the sun and turns into vapors. Water bodies like the oceans, the seas, the lakes and the river bodies are the main
source of evaporation. Through evaporation, water moves from hydrosphere to atmosphere. As water evaporates it reduces the
temperature of the bodies.
Step 2: Condensation
As water vaporizes into water vapor, it rises up in the atmosphere. At high altitudes the water vapors changes into very tiny
particles of ice /water droplets because of low temperature. This process is called
condensation. These particles come close together and form clouds and fogs in the sky.
Step 3: Sublimation
Apart from evaporation, sublimation also contributes to water vapors in the air. Sublimation is a process where ice directly
converts into water vapors without converting into liquid water. This phenomenon accelerates when the temperature is low or

2
pressure is high. The main sources of water from sublimation are the ice sheets of the North Pole and the South Pole and the ice
caps on the mountains. Sublimation is a rather slower process than evaporation.
Step 4: Precipitation
The clouds (condensed water vapors) then pour down as precipitation due to wind or temperature change. This occurs because the
water droplets combine to make bigger droplets. Also when the air cannot hold any more water, it precipitates. At high altitudes
the temperature is low and hence the droplets lose their heat energy. These water droplets fall down as rain. If the temperature is
very low (below 0 degrees), then the water droplets would fall as snow. In addition, water could also precipices in the form of
drizzle, sleet and hail. Hence water enters lithosphere.
Step 5: Transpiration
As water precipitates, some of it is absorbed by the soil. This water enters into the process of transpiration. Transpiration is a
process similar to evaporation where liquid water is turned into water vapor by the
plants. The roots of the plants absorb the water and push it toward leaves where it
is used for photosynthesis. The extra water is moved out of leaves through stomata (very tiny openings on leaves) as water vapor.
Thus water enters the biosphere and exits into gaseous phase.
Step 6: Runoff
As the water pours down (in whatever form), it leads to runoff. Runoff is the process where water runs over the surface of earth.
When the snow melts into water it also leads to runoff. As water runs over the ground it displaces the top soil with it and moves
the minerals along with the stream. This runoff combines to form channels, rivers and ends up into lakes, seas and oceans. Here
the water enters hydrosphere.
Step 7: Infiltration
Some of the water that precipitates does not runoff into the rivers and is absorbed by the plants or gets evaporated. It moves deep
into the soil. This is called infiltration. The water seeps down and increases the level of ground water table. It is called pure water
and is drinkable. The infiltration is measured as inches of water-soaked by the soil per hour.

Activity 3:
Question: Identify which of the following describes a perennial stream, intermittent stream, and ephemeral stream.
Perennial Stream
A stream that has flowing water year-round during a typical year. The water table is located above the streambed for most of
the year. Groundwater is the primary source of water for stream flow. Runoff from precipitation is a supplemental source of
water for stream flow.
Intermittent Stream
A stream that has flowing water during certain times of the year, when groundwater provides water for stream flow. During
dry periods, intermittent streams may not have flowing water. Runoff from precipitation is a supplemental source of water for

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stream flow.
Ephemeral Stream
A stream that has flowing water only during or for a short duration after precipitation events in a typical year. In many states,
this term refers to streambeds that are located above the water table yearround and streams where groundwater is not a source
of water for the stream.