1(a) Outline briefly the essential features of a good piezometer installation.

(b) In an irrigation project, a steady application rate of 2.5mm/h per square meter is used.
The equilibrium water table is approximately 17.5m above the top of a 2m thick aquitard.
The piezometric surface of the underlying confined aquifer is 2m below the water table.
A monitoring piezometer is installed in the unconfined aquifer just above the aquitard. If
the hydraulic conductivity of the water aquifer is 0.8m/d, estimate the hydraulic
conductivity of the aquitard. How accurate is the piezometer in monitoring the level of
the water table? Can any improvement be made in its positioning in this respect?

SOLUTIONS
1(a). A piezometer is an open-ended pipe placed in a borehole that has been drilled to the desired
depth in the ground. It has some essential features as mentioned below;
 A seal consisting of cement grout, bentonite slurry, or other similar slowly permeable
material placed between the standpipe and the hole to isolate the zone.
 A watertight standpipe or tube of the smallest possible diameter, consistent with the
method of reading, attached to the tip and extending to the surface.
 A tip consisting of a well screen, porous tubes other similar feature, and in fine grained
materials, a surrounding zone of filter sand.

1(b)

Given; steady application rate = 2.5 mm/hr/m2.

Velocity, V = 2.5mm/h.
= 2.5 x 10-3 x 24.
= 0.06 m/day
But from the Darcy’s law; V=ki
Where i= ΔH/L
KAB=0.8m/d
If we take C as our datum,
Piezometer head at A = HA = 17.5 + 2.0 = 19.5m
For Piezometer head at B = HB;
V = (k ΔH)/L………………….eqn (i)
ΔH = HA – HB = 19.5 – HB
LAB = 17.5m
From V, k, ΔH and L above and eqn(i);
 0 . 8 ( 19. 5−H B )
0 . 06=
17 . 5
HB = 18.1875m
For the hydraulic conductivity of the aquitard;
At B, HB = 18.1875m
At C, HC = 17.5m
From V = ki,
V = (k ΔH)/L, K = (VL)/ ΔH
ΔH = HB – HC, L = 2.0m
( 0 . 06 x 2 .0 )
k=
Hence, (18. 1875−17. 5 )
kaq = 0.175m/d

3(a) Define specific yield, specific retention and storativity.

(b) Describe how groundwater occurs in different rock formations

(c) How can soils be used as drainage filters? Explain giving examples.

3(a). Specific Yield of soil or rock Sy is the ratio of the volume of water that after saturation can
be drained by gravity to its own volume.
Wy
S y=
V
Where: Wy is the volume of water drained. Values of Sy can be expressed as percentages.

Specific retention of rock or soil, Sr is the ratio of volume of water it will retain after
saturation against the force of gravity to its own volume.

Wr
Sr=
V
Where: Wr is Volume occupied by retained water and V is bulk volume of soil or rock.

Storativity (Storage coefficient) is the volume of water that an aquifer releases from or takes
into storage per unit surface area of aquifer per unit change in the component of head normal
to that surface.
The storage coefficient for an unconfined aquifer corresponds to its specific yield (Todd, 1980).
3(b) Rain that falls on the ground surface infiltrates the rock and therefore it is inevitable that
the mode of occurrence of ground water depends largely on the type of formation (geology)
of the area. For the major rock formations, ground water occurs as follows;
Igneous rock
 They are very compact, dense and hence relatively impermeable thus they are generally poor
aquifers in solid form. Where such rocks occur, near the surface under weathered conditions,
they have been developed by small wells for domestic water supply.
Intrusive: Such as granite, gabbro, and dolerite.
Fresh rock- almost no water exists. The little water there exists in fissures.
Weathered rock – water in weathered zones and in fissures opened up by weathering. Usually
only moderate supplies are obtained. The fissures are mainly joints produced by cooling stressed
or tectonic forces.
Extrusive: All lavas.
Fresh rock – little water except in porous zones which may exist near the surface of each lava
flow and caused by escape of gas. At times the pores do not interconnect so contain no water.

Sedimentary Rocks
Sandstone and conglomerate are cemented forms of sand and gravel. As such their porosity and
yield have been reduced by cement. The actual open volume of the pore space depends upon the
grain size and distribution, grain shape and percentage of cementing material. The best sandstone
aquifers yield waters through their pores and fissures. Frequently large to medium volumes of
water are obtained. Conglomerates have limited distribution and are unimportant as aquifers.
Sand and gravel: water contained in pore spaces. In gravels the pores may be so large that no
filtering of the water can take place so the water may contain bacteria. Very large yields are
possible.
Clays: Although clays contain numerous pores they are still too small and may be regarded as
relatively impermeable. The porosity is high but the effective porosity is almost zero. Clayed
soils can provide small domestic water supplies from shallow, large diameter wells.
Shales: Water may sometimes exist within the laminations and flow parallel to them
The permeability parallel to the laminations may thus be moderate whilst the permeability at
right angle may be zero.
Limestone: limestone rock is impermeable so all water is contained in fissures, which because of
the solubility of the rock in slightly acid water are frequently very large. Caves containing large
streams of rivers are not uncommon. Because of the very large size of the fissures there is no
filtering of the bacteria and any pollution spreads very rapidly throughout the extent of aquifer.
Limestone rock varies widely in density, porosity and permeability, depending on the degree of
consolidation and development of permeable zones after deposition. Those most important as
aquifers contain sizeable proportions of the original rock that have been dissolved and removed.
Openings in limestone range from microscopic original pores to large solution caverns forming
subterranean channels to carry entire flow of stream. Streams disappear underground in
limestone terrain. Large springs are found in limestone areas. By dissolving rock, water tends to
increase the pore space and permeability with time.

Metamorphic Rock:
Gneiss: This has very similar hydrological properties to intrusive igneous rocks.
Schist: These have similar water bearing properties to gneiss except that permeability parallel to
the planes of schistocity is sometimes moderate.
Quartzite: These only contain water in fissures and since the rock is very resistant to weathering
fissures are frequently tight
Superficial deposits:
Laterite: Can be very porous and so produce large volumes of water. For example Sand, gravel
and clays.

Geological structures
Faults: These, if filled with clay material, can act as surface dams producing quite marked
changes of water level on either side. In other cases they are open; they act as subsurface paths
for water and can produce mixing of water from different aquifers which are normally separated
by impervious layers.
Folds: The act of folding often produces associated jointing in rocks so increasing their water
holding capacity.

3(c) When groundwater emerges from a soil through an opening or passes from soil into a
drainage trench, the groundwater is likely to carry with it some of the fines from soil by a
process called internal friction or piping. If it is allowed to continue over a period of time, it may
lead to instability in the soil because the loss of the fines produces zones or pipes of increased
permeability and flow rate extending in upstream direction. The hydraulic gradient increases as it
approaches the permeable zones and hence the tendency to erosion is aggravated.
Examples of how soil can be used as drainage filters is given below;
 Slope protection. Drainage layer in final cover system to reduce the hydraulic head on the
underlying barrier layer and to enhance slope stability by reducing seepage forces in the
cover system.

 Gas collection layer in final cover systems to channel gas to vents for controlled removal
of potentially dangerous gases
 Leachate collection layer in linear systems to remove leachate for treatment and to
remove precipitation from disposal unit in areas where waste has not yet been placed
  Drainage trenches to collect horizontally flowing fluids e.g. ground water and gas.

 Drainage layers to drain liquids from backfill behind retaining walls or to relieve excess
water pressure in critical areas such as the toe of slopes.
 Road pavement

13(a) What are the main assumptions in the use of the Theis solution technique for
pumping test analysis and in particular for unconfined aquifers.

(b) Explain the relationship between the Jacob method and the Theis equation.
Under what conditions is the Jacob solution technique recommended?

(c) Outline the steps in the i) Theis method. (ii) Jacob method, in determining the
constants of an aquifer.

(d) During a test of an unconfined aquifer the following data were collected from an
Observation well located 20m away from the pumping well. If the well was being
Pumped at a steady rate of 112m3/h, determine the specific yield and transitivity
aquifer. Use both the Theis method and Jacob method.
 Drawdown (m) .025 .050 0.110 0.170 0.220
Time from start of
Pumping (min) 4.5 7.5 16 24 36

Drawdown (m) 0.30 0.37 0.45 0.53 0.64

Time from start of
Pumping 64 97 162 258 494

13(a)
 Vertical flow components are negligible.
 The well fully penetrates the aquifer and flow to the well is taken as horizontal only
 The aquifers are of uniform and constant thickness
 The drawdown changes continuously with time.
 Flow in unconfined conditions is due to gravity drainage, mainly due to aquifer
compression or water expansion.
 Aquifers have infinite area extent.

13(b) The Jacob’s method and Theis equation enables one to obtain an estimate of the formation
constants of an aquifer, especially the storativity and transmitivity, T.
Jacob’s method uses the approximation to the Thies well function W(u) given by;
2 2 4
U U U
W (u )=0 . 5772−InU +U − + + +. . .. .. . .. ..
2 . 2! 3 .3 ! 4 . 4 !
Jacob solution technique is recommended for small values of r and large values of t, where U is
relatively small.
If U < 0.01, the first two terms are sufficient to evaluate the equation.
Then W (u )=0 . 5772−InU
Q
⇒ S= [−0. 5772−lnU ]
4 πT
The Thies equation is given by;
2
Q r s
S=
2 πT
∫ e−υ du
∫e −υ
du and u=
4 tT
Where W(u) =
The equation isn’t directly integrable with respect to U. The Jacobs method maybe used to
evaluate it.

13(c) i) Theis method

 Plot a curve of the Thies well function, W (u) versus (u) on a log scale.
 Plot value of S versus r 2/t as observed during test on log papers. S = drawdown, r=
radius of borehole, t = time from start.
 Superimpose observed data versus type data, keep axis parallel.
T and S are obtained using the following equation.
Q
T= W (u)
4 πS

4 TU
S=
( r 2 /t )
Where; S = Drawdown
r = radial distance.

ii). Jacob’s method

 the approximation to Thies well function W(u) is applied here;

[ ]
2
Q 1 r S
S= In( )−0 .5772 U=
2 πT U ; 4 tT
 Prepare a semi log data plot of observed data; S versus log(t)
 Draw a straight line of the best fit and extend the line to intercept the t-axis at
S = 0, t = 0
 If S = 0, then
2. 3 oQ
4 πT
log 2
r S [
2 . 25T .t o
]
= 0 , ΔS=
2. 30 C
4 πT
. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. Jacob ' approximation

2 .30 Q 2. 25 Tt o 2. 25 Tt 0
Since ≠0 , 2 =1 ⇒ S= 2 ,
4 πT r S r

2.30Q
Therefore T =
4 πDS

13(d)

Draw down 0.025 0.050 0.110 0.170 0.22 0.30 0.37 0.45 0.53 0.64
(m) 0
Time from 4.5 7.5 16 24 36 64 97 162 258 494
start of
pumping
(min)

Time (Min.) S(m) r2/t (m2/min) U W(u)

4.5 0.025 88.89 1x10-3 6.33
7.5 0.05 53.33 2x10-3 5.64
16 0.11 25.00 4x10-3 4.95
21 0.17 16.67 8x10-3 4.26
36 0.22 11.11 4x10-2 2.68
64 0.30 6.25 8x10-2 2.03
97 0.37 4.12 1x10-1 1.82
162 0.45 2.47 2x10-1 1.22
258 0.53 1.55 4x10-1 0.70
494 0.64 0.81 8x10-1 0.31

Graph of Drawdown S against Time t

0.7

0.6
f(x) = 0.134148578297641 ln(x) − 0.229922338012972
R² = 0.980588217099639
0.5
Drawdown,S/m

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 10 100 1000
Time,t/min
 Graph of Drawdown S against r2t
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
Drawdown,S/m

0.3

0.2

0.1

r2 t(m2 /min)

7 Graph of W(U) against U

4
W(U)

0
U
For the Jacob’s method
From the graph, at S = 0, to = 5.553; from the graph slope Δs =0.1341m/min
= 0.1341*60m/hr
= 8.046m/hr
2 .30 Q
T=
4 πDΔS
60 x 112
T=
4 π∗8 . 046
2
T =66 . 46 m / hr
2. 25 Tt 0
⇒ S= 2 ,
r
2 . 25 x 66 . 46 x 5 . 553
S=
60∗20 2
S= 0. 035

For the Theis method

Given, r =20m, Q = 112m2/hr
From the graph of S Vs r2/t and U Vs W(u), Match points W(u) = 2.1, U = 0.188.
S = 0.28, r2/t = 18.6m2/min
QW (u ) 112 x 2 .1
⇒T = = =1. 114 m2 /min
4 πS 60 x 4 πx 0 . 28
4 TU 4 x 1 .114 x 0 .18
∴ S= 2 = =0 . 045
r /t 18 . 6