Evaporation

1. EVAPORATION

Evaporation from free water surfaces and soil are of great importance in hydro-
meteorological studies.

Evaporation from water surfaces (Lake evaporation)

     The factors affecting evaporation are air and water temperature, relative humidity, wind
velocity, surface area (exposed), barometric pressure and salinity of the water, the last two
having a minor effect. The rate of evaporation is a function of the differences in
vapour pressure at the water surface and in the atmosphere, and the Dalton’s law of
evaporation is given by

where 

E = daily evaporation
ew = saturated vapour pressure at the temperature of water

ea = vapour pressure of the air (about 2 m above)

K = a constant.

i.e., the Dalton’s law states that the evaporation is proportional to the difference in
vapour pressures ew and ea. A more general form of the Eq. (3.2) is given by

where K′, a, b = constants and V = wind velocity.

 Higher the temperature and wind velocity, greater is the evaporation, while greater
the humidity and dissolved salts, smaller is the evaporation. 

Methods of Estimating Lake Evaporation

Evaporation from water surfaces can be determined from the following methods:

(i) The storage equation

                              P + I ± Og = E + O ± S ...(3.4)

where 

P = Precipitation

I = surface inflow

Og = subsurface inflow or outflow

E = evaporation

O = surface outflow

S = change in surface water storage

(ii) Auxiliary pans like land pans, floating pans, colarado sunken pans, etc.

(iii) Evaporation formula like that of Dalton’s law

(iv) Humidity and wind velocity gradients

(v) The energy budget—this method involves too many hydrometeorological

factors (variables) with too much sophisticated instrumentation and hence it is a
specialist approach

(vi) The water budget—similar to (i)

(vii) Combination of aerodynamic and energy balance equations—Penman’s equation

(involves too many variables)

2. EVAPORATION PANS

(i) Floating pans (made of GI) of 90 cm square and 45 cm deep are mounted on a
raft floating in water. The volume of water lost due to evaporation in the pan is determined
by knowing the volume of water required to bring the level of water up to the original mark
daily and after making allowance for rainfall, if there has been any.

(ii) Land pan. Evaporation pans are installed in the vicinity of the reservoir or lake
to determine the lake evaporation. The IMD Land pan shown in Fig. 3.2 is 122 cm diameter
and 25.5 cm deep, made of unpainted GI; and set on wood grillage 10 cm above ground to
permit circulation of air under the pan. The pan has a stilling well, vernier point gauge, a
thermometer with clip and may be covered with a wire screen. The amount of water lost by
evaporation from the pan can be directly measured by the point gauge. Readings are taken
twice daily at 08.30 and 17.30 hours I.S.T. The air temperature is determined by reading a
dry bulb thermometer kept in the Stevenson’s screen erected in the same enclosure of the
pan. A totalising anemometer is normally mounted at the level of the instrument to provide
the wind speed information required. Allowance has to be made for rainfall, if there has
been any. Water is added to the pan from a graduated cylinder to bring the water level to
the original mark, i.e., 5 cm below the top of the pan. Experiments have shown that the
unscreened pan evaporation is 1.144 times that of the screened one.
(iii) Colarado sunken pan. This is 92 cm square and 42-92 cm deep and is sunk in the ground
such that only 5-15 cm depth projects above the ground surface and thus the water level is
maintained almost at the ground level. The evaporation is measured by a point gauge.

Pan coefficient

     Evaporation pan data cannot be applied to free water surfaces directly but must be
adjusted for the differences in physical and climatological factors. For example, a lake is
larger and deeper and may be exposed to different wind speed, as compared to a pan. The
small volume of water in the metallic pan is greatly affected by temperature fluctuations in
the air or by solar raditions in contrast with large bodies of water (in the reservoir) with little
temperature fluctuations. Thus the pan evaporation data have to be corrected to obtain the
actual evaporation from water surfaces of lakes and reservoirs, i.e., by multiplying by a
coefficient called pan coefficient and is defined as 

and the experimental values for pan coefficients range from 0.67 to 0.82 with an average of
0.7.
3. Piche Evaporimeter

     It is usually kept suspended in a Stevenson screen. It consists of a disc of filter paper
kept constantly saturated with water from a graduated glass tube Fig. 3.3. The loss of water
from the tube over a known period gives the average rate of evaporation. Though it is a
simple instrument, the readings obtained are often more erratic than those from standard
pans.

4. Measures to Reduce Lake Evaporation

The following are some of the recommended measures to reduce evaporation from water
surfaces :

(i) Storage reservoirs of more depth and less surface area, i.e., by choosing a cross section of
the reservoir like a deep gorge Fig. 3.4 ; while the surface water is exposed to
temperature gradients the deeper waters are cool; from this standpoint a large reservoir is
preferable to a number of small reservoirs (while it is the reverse from the point of flood
control).
(ii) By growing tall trees like Causerina on the windward side of the reservoirs to act as wind
breakers.

(iii) By spraying certain chemicals or fatty acids and formation of films. By spreading
a manomolecular layer of acetyl alcohol (hexadecanol) C16H33OH over the reservoir surface
(from boats)—a film is formed on the surface which is only 0.015 micron (approx.) in
thickness. It is a polar compound and it has great affinity for water on one side (hydrophylic)
and repels water on the other side (hydrophobic). The film will only allow precipitation from
the top into it but will not allow water molecules to escape from it. This method is readly
effective when the wind velocities are less. If the wind velocity is more, it will sweep the film
off the water surface and deposit it on the bank. However the film is pervious to O2 and
CO2. About 2.2 kg (22 N) of acetyl alcohol is required to cover an area of 1 ha of reservoir
surface. It is best suited for small and medium size reservoirs.

(iv) By allowing flow of water, temperature is reduced and evaporation is reduced; i.e., by
designing the outlet works so that the warmer surface water can be released. 

(v) By removing the water loving weeds and plants like Phreatophytes from the periphery of
the reservoir.

(vi) By straightening the stream-channels the exposed area of the water surface (along the
length) is reduced and hence evaporation is reduced.

(vii) By providing mechanical coverings like thin polythene sheets to small agricultural ponds
and lakes.
(viii) By developing undergound reservoirs, since the evaporation from a ground water table
is very much less than the evaporation from a water surface.

(ix) If the reservoir is surrounded by huge trees and forest, the evaporation loss will be less
due to cooller environment.

5. SOIL EVAPORATION

     The evaporation from a wet soil surface immediately after rain or escape of water
molecules with more resistance when the water table lies within a metre from the ground is
called soil evaporation. This, expressed as a percentage of evaporation from free water
surface is called evaporation opportunity.

 Soil evaporation will continue at a high rate for some time after the cessation of
rainfall, then decreases as the ground surface starts drying, until a constant rate is reached
which is dependent on the depth of the water table and nature of the soil in addition to
meteorological conditions.

     Measurement of soil evaporation can be done with tanks (lysimeters) filled with
earth and with the surface almost flush with the ground Fig. 3.5. To measure the
evaporation from a soil whose surface is within the capillary fringe, tanks equipped to
maintain the water table at any desired elevation may be used. The soil evaporation is
determined by weighing the tanks at stated intervals and knowing the amount of water that
was added in the interim.