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measurement of evaporation
and size of stomata (openings in the leaves), and For reservoirs or lakes, and for plots or small
whether these are open or closed. Stomatal resist- catchments, estimates may be made by water
ance to moisture transfer shows a diurnal response budget, energy budget, aerodynamic and comple-
but is also considerably dependent upon the avail- mentarity approaches. The latter techniques are
ability of soil moisture to the rooting system. discussed in section 10.5.
The availability of soil moisture for the roots and It should also be emphasized that different evap-
for the evaporation from bare soil depends on the orimeters or lysimeters represent physically
capillary supply, namely, on the texture and compo- different measurements. The adjustment factors
sition of the soil. Evaporation from lakes and required for them to represent lake or actual or
reservoirs is influenced by the heat storage of the potential evaporation and evapotranspiration are
water body. necessarily different. Such instruments and their
exposure should, therefore, always be described
Methods for estimating evaporation and very carefully and precisely, in order to under-
evapotranspiration are generally indirect; either stand the measuring conditions as fully as
by point measurements by an instrument or possible.
gauge, or by calculation using other measured
meteorological variables (WMO, 1997). More details on all methods are found in WMO
(1994).
10.1.4 Measurement methods
Readings from Piche evaporimeters with carefully The adoption of the Russian 20 m2 tank as the inter-
standardized shaded exposures have been used national reference evaporimeter has been
with some success to derive the aerodynamic term, recommended.
a multiplication of a wind function and the
saturation vapour pressure deficit, required for
10.3.1 United States Class A pan
evaporation estimation by, for example, Penman’s
combination method after local correlations The United States Class A pan is of cylindrical
between them were obtained. design, 25.4 cm deep and 120.7 cm in diameter.
The bottom of the pan is supported 3 to 5 cm
While it may be possible to relate the loss above the ground level on an open-frame wooden
from atmometers to that from a natural surface platform, which enables air to circulate under the
empirically, a different relation may be expected pan, keeps the bottom of the pan above the level
for each type of surface and for differing climates. of water on the ground during rainy weather, and
Atmometers are likely to remain useful in enables the base of the pan to be inspected with-
small-scale surveys. Their great advantages are out difficulty. The pan itself is constructed of
their small size, low cost and small water require- 0.8 mm thick galvanized iron, copper or monel
ments. Dense networks of atmometers can be metal, and is normally left unpainted. The pan is
installed over a small area for micrometeorological filled to 5 cm below the rim (which is known as
studies. The use of atmometers is not recommended the reference level).
for water resource surveys if other data are
available. The water level is measured by means of either a
hookgauge or a fixed-point gauge. The hookgauge
consists of a movable scale and vernier fitted with
10.2.3 Sources of error in atmometers
a hook, the point of which touches the water
One of the major problems in the operation of surface when the gauge is correctly set. A stilling
atmometers is keeping the evaporating surfaces well, about 10 cm across and about 30 cm deep,
clean. Dirty surfaces will affect significantly the with a small hole at the bottom, breaks any ripples
rate of evaporation, in a way comparable to the that may be present in the tank, and serves as a
wet bulb in psychrometry. support for the hookgauge during an observation.
The pan is refilled whenever the water level, as
Furthermore, the effect of differences in their indicated by the gauge, drops by more than
exposure on evaporation measurements is often 2.5 cm from the reference level.
remarkable. This applies particularly to the expo-
sure to air movement around the evaporating
10.3.2 Russian GGI-3000 pan
surface when the instrument is shaded.
The Russian GGI-3000 pan is of cylindrical design,
with a surface area of 3 000 cm2 and a depth of
60 cm. The bottom of the pan is cone-shaped. The
10.3 Evaporation pans and tanks pan is set in the soil with its rim 7.5 cm above the
ground. In the centre of the tank is a metal index
Evaporation pans or tanks have been made in a tube upon which a volumetric burette is set when
variety of shapes and sizes and there are different evaporation observations are made. The burette has
modes of exposing them. Among the various types a valve, which is opened to allow its water level to
of pans in use, the United States Class A pan, the equalize that in the pan. The valve is then closed
Russian GGI-3000 pan and the Russian 20 m2 tank and the volume of water in the burette is accurately
are described in the following subsections. These measured. The height of the water level above the
instruments are now widely used as standard metal index tube is determined from the volume of
network evaporimeters and their performance has water in, and the dimensions of, the burette. A
been studied under different climatic conditions needle attached to the metal index tube indicates
over fairly wide ranges of latitude and elevation. the height to which the water level in the pan
The pan data from these instruments possess stable, should be adjusted. The water level should be main-
albeit complicated and climate-zone-dependent, tained so that it does not fall more than 5 mm or
relationships with the meteorological elements rise more than 10 mm above the needle point. A
determining evaporation, when standard construc- GGI-3000 raingauge with a collector that has an
tion and exposure instructions have been carefully area of 3 000 cm2 is usually installed next to the
followed. GGI-3000 pan.
I.10–4 Part I. Measurement of meteorological VARIABLES
10.3.3 Russian 20 m2 tank (a) Sunken, where the main body of the tank is
below ground level, the evaporating surface
This tank has a surface of 20 m2 and a diameter of being at or near the level of the surrounding
about 5 m; it is cylindrical with a flat bottom and is surface;
2 m deep. It is made of 4 to 5 mm thick welded iron (b) Above ground, where the whole of the pan
sheets and is installed in the soil with its rim 7.5 cm and the evaporation surface are at some small
above the ground. The inner and exposed outer height above the ground;
surfaces of the tank are painted white. The tank is (c) Mounted on moored floating platforms on
provided with a replenishing vessel and a stilling well lakes or other water bodies.
with an index pipe upon which the volumetric burette
is set when the water level in the tank is measured. Evaporation stations should be located at sites
Inside the stilling well, near the index pipe, a small that are fairly level and free from obstructions
rod terminating in a needle point indicates the height such as trees, buildings, shrubs or instrument
to which the water level is to be adjusted. The water shelters. Such single obstructions, when small,
level should always be maintained so that it does not should not be closer than 5 times their height
fall more than 5 mm below or rise more than 10 mm above the pan; for clustered obstructions, this
above the needle point. A graduated glass tube becomes 10 times. Plots should be sufficiently
attached laterally to the replenishing tank indicates large to ensure that readings are not influenced
the amount of water added to the tank and provides a by spray drift or by upwind edge effects from a
rough check of the burette measurement. cropped or otherwise different area. Such effects
may extend to more than 100 m. The plot should
be fenced off to protect the instruments and to
10.3.4 Measurements taken by
prevent animals from interfering with the water
evaporation pans and tanks
level; however, the fence should be constructed
The rate of evaporation from a pan or tank in such a way that it does not affect the wind
evaporimeter is measured by the change in level of structure over the pan.
its free water surface. This may be done by such
devices as described above for Class A pans and The ground cover at the evaporation station
GGI-3000 pans. should be maintained as similar as possible to the
natural cover common to the area. Grass, weeds,
Several types of automatic evaporation pans are in and the like should be cut frequently to keep
use. The water level in such a pan is kept constant them below the level of the pan rim with regard
by releasing water into the pan from a storage tank to sunken pans (7.5 cm). Preferably this same
or by removing water from the pan when precipita- grass height of below 7.5 cm applies also to Class
tion occurs. The amount of water added to, or A pans. Under no circumstance should the instru-
removed from, the pan is recorded. In some tanks ment be placed on a concrete slab or asphalt, or
or pans, the level of the water is also recorded on a layer of crushed rock. This type of evaporim-
continuously by means of a float in the stilling well. eter should not be shaded from the sun.
The float operates a recorder.
10.3.6 Sources of error in evaporation
Measurements of pan evaporation are the basis of
pans and tanks
several techniques for estimating evaporation and
evapotranspiration from natural surfaces whose water The mode of pan exposure leads both to various
loss is of interest. Measurements taken by evaporation advantages and to sources of measurement errors.
pans are advantageous because they are, in any case,
the result of the impact of the total meteorological Pans installed above the ground are inexpensive
variables, and because pan data are available immedi- and easy to install and maintain. They stay cleaner
ately and for any period required. Pans are, therefore, than sunken tanks as dirt does not, to any large
frequently used to obtain information about evapora- extent, splash or blow into the water from the
tion on a routine basis within a network. surroundings. Any leakage that develops after
installation is relatively easy to detect and rectify.
However, the amount of water evaporated is greater
10.3.5 Exposure of evaporation pans
than that from sunken pans, mainly because of the
and tanks
additional radiant energy intercepted by the sides.
Three types of exposures are mainly used for pans Adverse side-wall effects can be largely eliminated
and tanks as follows: by using an insulated pan, but this adds to the cost,
CHAPTER 10. MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION I.10–5
would violate standard construction instructions remove water when the level reaches an upper-limit
and would change the “stable” relations mentioned mark, and to add water when it reaches a lower-
in section 10.3. limit mark.
plant cover of the lysimeter should correspond to (i) Thermal isolation from the subsoil;
the soil and vegetation of the surrounding area, and (ii) Thermal effects of the air rising or descend-
disturbances caused by the existence of the instru- ing between the container and the retain-
ment should be minimized. The most important ing walls;
requirements for the exposure of lysimeters are (iii) Alteration of the thermal properties of the
given below. soil through alteration of its texture and
its moisture conditions;
In order to maintain the same hydromechanical (d) Insufficient equivalence of the water budget
properties of the soil, it is recommended that the to that of the surrounding area caused by:
lysimeter be placed into the container as an (i) Disturbance of soil structure;
undisturbed block (monolith). In the case of light, (ii) Restricted drainage;
rather homogenous soils and a large container, it is (iii) Vertical seepage at walls;
sufficient to fill the container layer by layer in the (iv) Prevention of surface runoff and lateral
same sequence and with the same density as in the movement of soil water.
natural profile.
Some suitable arrangements exist to minimize
In order to simulate the natural drainage process in lysimeter measurement errors, for example, regu-
the container, restricted drainage at the bottom lation of the temperature below the container,
must be prevented. Depending on the soil texture, reduction of vertical seepage at the walls by flange
it may be necessary to maintain the suction at the rings, and so forth. In addition to the careful
bottom artificially by means of a vacuum supply. design of the lysimeter equipment, sufficient
representativeness of the plant community and
Apart from microlysimeters for soil evaporation, a the soil type of the area under study is of great
lysimeter should be sufficiently large and deep, and importance. Moreover, the siting of the lysimeter
its rim as low as practicable, to make it possible to plot must be fully representative of the natural
have a representative, free-growing vegetation field conditions.
cover, without restriction to plant development.
10.4.4 Lysimeters maintenance
In general, the siting of lysimeters is subject to
fetch requirements, such as that of evaporation Several arrangements are necessary to maintain the
pans, namely, the plot should be located beyond representativeness of the plant cover inside the
the zone of influence of buildings, even single lysimeter. All agricultural and other operations
trees, meteorological instruments, and so on. In (sowing, fertilizing, mowing, and the like) in the
order to minimize the effects of advection, lysim- container and surrounding area should be carried
eter plots should be located at a sufficient distance out in the same way and at the same time. In order
from the upwind edge of the surrounding area, to avoid errors due to rainfall catch, the plants near
that is, not less than 100 to 150 m. The preven- and inside the container should be kept vertical,
tion of advection effects is of special importance and broken leaves and stems should not extend
for measurements taken at irrigated land over the surface of the lysimeter.
surfaces.
The maintenance of the technical devices is pecu-
liar to each type of instrument and cannot be
10.4.3 Sources of error in lysimeter
described here.
measurements
Lysimeter measurements are subject to several It is advisable to test the evapotranspirometer for
sources of error caused by the disturbance of the leaks at least once a year by covering its surface to
natural conditions by the instrument itself. Some prevent evapotranspiration and by observing
of the major effects are as follows: whether, over a period of days, the volume of drain-
(a) Restricted growth of the rooting system; age equals the amount of water added to its
(b) Change of eddy diffusion by discontinuity surface.
between the canopy inside the lysimeter
and in the surrounding area. Any disconti- 10.5 Estimation of evaporation from
nuity may be caused by the annulus formed natural surfaces
by the containing and retaining walls and
by discrepancies in the canopy itself; Consideration of the factors which affect evapo-
(c) Insufficient thermal equivalence of the lysim- ration, as outlined in section 10.1.3, indicates
eter to the surrounding area caused by: that the rate of evaporation from a natural surface
I.10–8 Part I. Measurement of meteorological VARIABLES
Suitable methods for the estimation of lake or Air temperature (24 h average):
reservoir evaporation are the water budget, energy
budget and aerodynamic approaches, the combi- T °C
nation method of aerodynamic and energy-balance
equations, and the use of a complementarity rela- Daily reference vegetation evaporation:
tionship between actual and potential evaporation.
Furthermore, pan evaporation techniques exist 1 000 ⋅ 0.65 ⋅ δ (T )
Er = ⋅Q mm
which use pan evaporation for the establishment {δ (T ) + γ (T )} ⋅ ρ ⋅ λ (T )
of a lake-to-pan relation. Such relations are
specific to each pan type and mode of exposure. Note: The constant 1 000 is for conversion from metres to
They also depend on the climatic conditions (see millimetres; the constant 0.65 is a typical empirical
WMO, 1985; 1994 (Chapter 37)). constant.
The water non-limiting point or areal values of By relating the measured rate of actual evapotran-
evapotranspiration from vegetation-covered land spiration to estimates of the water non-limiting
surfaces may be obtained by determining such potential evapotranspiration and subsequently
potential (or reference crop) evapotranspiration relating this normalized value to the soil water
with the same methods as those indicated above content, soil water deficits, or the water potential
for lake applications, but adapted to vegetative in the root zone, it is possible to devise coeffi-
conditions. Some methods use additional growth cients with which the actual evapotranspiration
stage-dependent coefficients for each type of rate can be calculated for a given soil water
vegetation, such as crops, and/or an integrated status.
crop stomatal resistance value for the vegetation
as a whole. Point values of actual evapotranspiration from
land surfaces can be estimated more directly from
The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute observations of the changes in soil water content
employs the following procedure established by measured by sampling soil moisture on a regular
G.F. Makkink (Hooghart, 1971) for calculating basis. Evapotranspiration can be measured even
the daily (24 h) reference vegetation evaporation more accurately using a weighing lysimeter.
from the averaged daily air temperature and the Further methods make use of turbulence meas-
daily amount of global radiation as follows: urements (for example, eddy-correlation method)
and profile measurements (for example, in bound-
Saturation vapour pressure at air temperature T: ary-layer data methods and, at two heights, in
the Bowen-ratio energy-balance method). They
T
7.5⋅ hPa are much more expensive and require special
es (T ) = 6.107 ⋅ 10 237.3+ T
instruments and sensors for humidity, wind speed
and temperature. Such estimates, valid for the
Slope of the curve of saturation water vapour pres- type of soil and canopy under study, may be used
sure versus temperature at T: as reliable independent reference values in the
development of empirical relations for evapotran-
7.5 ⋅ 237.3
Δ (T ) = ⋅ ln (10) ⋅ es (T ) hPa/°C spiration modelling.
( 237.3 + T )2
CHAPTER 10. MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION I.10–9
The difficulty in determining basin evapotran- The measurement of evaporation from a snow
spiration arises from the discontinuities in surface is difficult and probably no more accurate
surface characteristics which cause variable than the computation of evaporation from water.
evapotranspiration rates within the area under
consideration. When considering short-term Evaporimeters made of polyethylene or colourless
values, it is necessary to estimate evapotranspi- plastic are used in many countries for the measure-
ration by using empirical relationships. Over a ment of evaporation from snow-pack surfaces;
long period (in order to minimize storage observations are made only when there is no
effects) the water-budget approach can be used snowfall.
to estimate basin evapotranspiration (see
WMO, 1971). One approach, suitable for esti- Estimates of evaporation from snow cover can be
mates from extended areas, refers to the made from observations of air humidity and wind
atmospheric water balance and derives areal speed at one or two levels above the snow surface
evapotranspiration from radiosonde data. and at the snow-pack surface, using the turbulent
WMO (1994, Chapter 38) describes the above- diffusion equation. The estimates are most reliable
mentioned methods, their advantages and their when evaporation values are computed for periods
application limits. of five days or more.
I.10–10 Part I. Measurement of meteorological VARIABLES
Hooghart, J.C. (ed.), 1971: Evaporation and Weather. World Meteorological Organization, 1985: Casebook
TNO Committee of Hydrological Research, on Operational Assessment of Areal Evaporation.
Technical Meeting 44, Proceedings and Operational Hydrology Report No. 22, WMO-
Information No. 39, TNO, The Hague. No. 635, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 1966: World Meteorological Organization, 1992:
Measurement and Estimation of Evaporation and International Meteorological Vocabulary. Second
Evapotranspiration. Technical Note No. 83, edition, WMO-No. 182, Geneva.
WMO-No. 201.TP.105, Geneva. World Meteorological Organization/United
World Meteorological Organization, 1971: Problems Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
of Evaporation Assessment in the Water Balance Organization, 1992: International Glossary of
(C.E. Hounam). WMO/IHD Report No. 13, Hydrology. WMO-No. 385, Geneva.
WMO-No. 285, Geneva. World Meteorological Organization, 1994: Guide
World Meteorological Organization, 1973: to Hydrological Practices. Fifth edition, WMO-
Atmospheric Vapour Flux Computations for No. 168, Geneva.
Hydrological Purposes (J.P. Peixoto). WMO/IHD World Meteorological Organization, 1997: Estimation
Report No. 20, WMO-No. 357, Geneva. of Areal Evapotranspiration. Technical Reports in
World Meteorological Organization, 1976: The Hydrology and Water Resources No. 56, WMO/
CIMO International Evaporimeter Comparisons. TD-No. 785, Geneva.
WMO-No. 449, Geneva. World Meteorological Organization, 2003: Manual
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Application of Atmospheric Vapour-Flux Analyses WMO-No. 544, Geneva.
(E.M. Rasmusson). Operational Hydrology Report
No. 11, WMO-No. 476, Geneva.