Block cracks

Block cracks (ladder cracks) are interconnected cracks forming a series of blocks
approximately rectangular in shape commonly distributed over the full pavement. Cell
sizes are usually greater than 200mm and exceed 3000mm. Joints in pavement layers may
reflect through the surface layer and appear as rectangular blocks particularly joints in
concrete pavements over laid with asphalt.
(a) Their attributes include,
(i) predominant width or crack (mm)
(ii) predominant cell width (mm)
(iii) area affected (m2)
(b) Possible causes include
(i) joints in underlying concrete layer
(ii) shrinkage and fatigue of underlying cemented materials
(iii) shrinkage cracks in asphalt surfacing owing to daily temperature cycles.
(iv) fatigue cracking in embrittled asphalt wearing course.

Crocodile cracking
Crocodile cracks (alligator, chicken wire, fish net, polygonal cracks, crazing) are
interconnected or interfaced cracks forming a series of small polygons resembling a
crocodile hide. They are usually associated with wheel paths, and may have a noticeable
longitudinal grain cell sizes, are generally less than (50mm across, but may extend up to
300mm).
(a) Their attributes include
(i) predominant width of crack
(ii) predominant cell width (mm)
(iii) area affected (m2)
(b) Possible causes are
(i) inadequate pavement thickness
low modulus base
(iii) brittle base or wearing course (e.g. cemented aged).
Shoving
Shoving is depicted by bulging of the road surface generally parallel to the directing traffic
and/or horizontal displacement of surfacing materials, mainly in the direction of traffic
where braking or acceleration movement occur. Transverse shoving may arise with turning
movements.
(a) The attributes of shoving include
(i) Maximum depth of bulge under 1.2m straight edge from point
(ii) Area affected (m2).
(b) Possible causes of shoving are
(i) Inadequate strength in surfacing or base
(ii) poor bond between pavement layers
 (iii) lack of containment of pavement edge
(iv) Inadequate pavement thickness
Transverse crack
Transverse crack is an unconnected crack running transversely across the pavement.
(a) its attributes include:
(i) Predominant crack width
(ii) Spacing and length of crack
(iii) Area affected (m2).
(b) Possible causes are:
(i) Reflection of a shrinkage crack or joint in an underlying base (commonly
Portland cement concrete or cemented materials)
(ii) Construction joint or shrinkage crack (due to low temperature or bitumen
hardening) in asphalt surfacing.
(iii) Structural failure of Portland cement concrete base.
Longitudinal crack
Longitudinal crack is a crack running longitudinal along the pavement. It can happen singly
or as series of almost parallel cracks. Some limited branching may occur.
Its attributes include:
(i) Width of dominant cracking
(ii) Length of dominant crack
(iii) Spacing of crack
(iv) Area affected
(b) Possible causes of longitudinal crack
(i) Occurring singly
- reflection of a shrinkage crack or joint in an underlying base
(commonly Portland cement concrete base or asphalt base).
- poorly constructed paving lane joint in asphalt surfacing.
- daily temperature cycles or asphalt hardening
- displacement of joint of pavement widening
(ii) Occurring as a series of almost parallel cracks
- volume change of expansive clay sub grade
- cyclical weakening of pavement edge
- differential settlement between cut and fill
Pot holes
A pothole is a steep sided or bowl shaped cavity extending into layers below the wearing
course.
(a) Its attributes include
(i) depth of pothole
(ii) area of pot hole
(iii) number
(b) Possible causes are
(i) loss of surface course
(ii) moisture entry to base course through a cracked pavement surface
(iii) load-associated disintegration of base
(iv) pickup of bitumen wearing surface caused by binder adhesion to tyres.
Delineation
Delineation (peeling, surface lifting, seal break) is loss of a discrete and large (0.01m2) area
of the wearing course layer. Usually there is a clear delineation of the wearing course and
the layer below:
(a) Its attributes are
(i) thickness of layer(s) removed
(ii) area (typical) of individual detects
(b) Possible causes include
(i) inadequate clearing or inadequate tack coat before placement of upper
layers
(ii) seepage of water through asphalt (especially in cracks) to break bond
between surface and lower layers
(iii) weak, loose layer immediately underlying seal
(iv) adhesion of surface binder to vehicle tyres

Stripping
Stripping (scabbing, pop-outs) is the removal of the coarse aggregate of a sprayed seal
leaving the binder exposed to tyre contact – can happen as the loss of individual stones, or
as the complete loss of stone in a localized area.
(a) Its attributes include
 (i) area affected (m2).
(ii) percentage in stone throughout affected area
(b) Possible causes are
(i) low binder contents
(ii) poor binder to stone adhesion (dirty or hydrophilic aggregates, without
effective percolating with adhesion agent or wet stone e.t.c)
(iii) aging or absorption of binder
iv) stone deterioration
(v) incorrect blending of binder
(vi) inadequate rolling before opening the seal to traffic.
Flushing
Flushing (bleeding, fatty, stick black spot) is immersion, partially or completely, of the
aggregate into the bituminous binder causing low texture depth and inadequate tyre-to-
stone contact.
(a) Its attributes include
(i) area affected (distinctive)
(ii) percentage (by area) stone immersed (%)
(b) Possible causes are
(i) excessive application rate of binder with respect to stone size
(ii) excessive prime coat being incorporated into the seal
(iii) excess binders in underlying surface (patch or flushed area)
(iv) penetration of aggregate into base (low strength base)
(v) primer seal covered before volatiles in primer binder have evaporated.
Patch
Patch is an area of pavement surface where the original has been replaced. Expedient
patches are identified as irregularly sided, usually
small patches (a few square metres or less). Reconstruction patches are usually straight
sided.
(a) Its attributes include
(i) area of individual patch (m2)
(ii) number of patches in area under consideration
 (b) Possible causes are
(i) correction of surface deficiencies
(ii) correction of structural deficiencies within surface course, pavement in sub
grade
(iii) excavation for services.
Ravelling
Ravelling is a progressive disintegration of a pavement from the surface downward as a
result of the dislodgement of aggregate particles. It attributes include, loose debris on the
pavement, roughness, water collecting in the ravelled locations resulting in vehicle
hydroplaning and loss of skid resistance. The possible causes include
(a) loss of bond between aggregate particles and the asphalt binder as a result of:
(i) a dust coating on the aggregate particles that forces the asphalt binder to
bond with the dust rather than the aggregate.
(ii) aggregate segregation: if the fine particles are missing from the aggregate
matrix then the asphalt binder is only able to bind the remaining coarse
particles at their relatively few contact points
(iii) inadequate compaction during construction. High density is required to
develop sufficient cohesion within the pavement.
(b) Mechanical dislodging by certain types of traffic (Studded tires, snow plot blades
or tracked vehicles).
Bleeding
Bleeding is a film of asphalt binder on the pavement surface. It usually creates a sling,
glass-like reflecting surface that can become sticky. Its attribute is loss of skid resistance
when the pavement is wet.
Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills the aggregate voids during hot weather and
then expands into the pavement surface. This can be caused by one or a combination of
the following:
(a) excessive asphalt binder (either due to mix designer manufacturing)
(b) excessive application of asphalt binder during application
(c) low air void content (e.g. not enough room for the asphalt to expand into
during hot weather).
.8.13 Rutting
Rutting is surface depression in the wheel path. Pavement uplift
(shearing) may occur along the sides of the rut. Ruts are particularly evident
after a rain when they are filled with water. There are two basic types of rutting:
mix rutting and sub grade rutting. Mix rutting occurs when the sub grade does not rut yet
the pavement surface exhibits wheel path depression as a result of compaction/mix design
problems. Sub grade exhibits wheel path depressions due to loading. In this case, the
pavement settles into the sub grade causing surface depressions in the wheel path. Ruts
filled with water can cause vehicle hydroplaning can be hazardous because ruts tend to pull
a vehicle towards the rut depth as it is steered across the rut.
Permanent deformation in any of a pavement’s layers or sub grade usually caused by
consolidation or lateral movement of the materials due to traffic loading. Specific causes
of rutting can be:
(a) insufficient compaction of layers during construction
(b) sub grade rutting (e.g. as a result of inadequate pavement structure)
(c) improper mix design or manufacture (e.g. excessively light asphalt content, excessive
mineral filter, insufficient amount of angular aggregate particles).