CHAPTER TWO

Pavement Failures, Maintenance

and Rehabilitation

1
General Causes of Pavement Failures
• Defects in quality of materials
• Defects in construction method
• Inadequate surface or subsurface drainage
• Increase in wheel loads and repetition of loads
due to increase in traffic
• Settlement of foundation of embankment
• Environmental factors like heavy rain, water
table frost, snow

2
 Pavement Failure
• Pavement failure/ distress/ defect is a
condition of the pavement structure that
reduces serviceability or leads to a reduction in
serviceability.
• Defects of a road can be classified into two:
i. Structural Defect
ii. Surface Defect

3
 i. Structural Defect
• Is the type of defect that affects the structural part
and makes the pavement incapable of sustaining
the load imposed up on its surface.
• Some of the Structural defect of a pavement
structure are:
Alligator Cracks
Block Cracks
Corrugation
Depression
Rutting
Patching, etc. 4
1. Alligator Cracking

5
 Causes of Alligator Cracks
• Alligator Cracks are caused by fatigue failure under
repeated traffic loads
• It is also caused by excessive deflection of the
surface over unstable subgrade/ lower courses of the
structure.
• Provision of inadequate pavement drainage, which
contributes to this distress by allowing the pavement
layers to become saturated and lose strength.
• Provision of inadequate pavement thickness due to poor
quality control during construction.

6
Pavement Structure Failed due to Fatigue Cracking

7
Fatigue Cracking due to Frost Action

8
Fatigue Cracking from Edge Failure

9
 2. Block Cracking
• When a HMA layer cracks both longitudinally and
transversely in approximately square shapes, and
size varying from 0.30 x 0.30m to 3.0 x 3.0m.
• Block cracking is more often seen in large paved
areas, such as parking lots or airfield pavements,
than on roads and streets.
• It can be very serious, especially if the cracks
begin to exhibit raveling and other advanced stages
of deterioration.
• Because the cracks can be closely spaced, the
underlying layers can be exposed to significant
quantities of infiltrating surface water.
10
 Block Cracking Cont’d
The cracks should be sealed to prevent or
minimize intrusion of water.

11
 Causes of Block Cracks
• This defect is caused mainly by shrinkage stress (due
to the temperature rise & drop in the surface) in the
HMA layer that exceeds the tensile strength of the
asphalt mixture.
• Block cracking can also be caused by oxidative
hardening of the asphalt if :
 Mixed too long in the pugmill of HMA batch
facility,
 Mixed too hot, or
 Stored too long in silos.
All these mechanisms make the asphalt cement
especially susceptible to tensile strains. 12
 3. Corrugation
• Consists of a series of closely spaced ridges
and valleys occurring at fairly regular intervals,
usually less than 3m apart along the pavement.
• Corrugation is a form of plastic surface
movement characterized by ripples across the
bituminous pavement surface.

13
 Causes of Corrugation
• This type of failure is usually caused by traffic
action particularly braking and accelerating on a
soft surface.
• The cause of corrugations is usually lack of stability
in the bituminous mix.
• This lack of stability can be caused by:
The mix being rich,
The aggregate having excessive
amounts of fines,
Rounded or smooth textured particles,
Poor bond between material layers, or
The use of soft binder 14
High Severity Corrugation Failure

15
 4. Depressions
• It is a localized pavement defects highlighting
weakness in the underlying pavement structure.
• Shallow depressions are often not noticeable
until after rain, when ponding is seen.
• A succession of depressions can create serious
unevenness in the riding quality.
• Depressions are low areas of limited size which
may or may not be accompanied by cracking.

16
Causes of Depressions

17
Depression in Left Lane and Shoulder

18
The depression can be readily observed, severely affects pavement
riding quality, and causes definite hydroplaning potential.

19
 5. Rutting Failure
• Rut is a surface depression which occur in
the pavements wheel path.
• Pavement uplift may occur along the sides
of a rut.
• Ruts are usually most noticeable after
rainfall. When the wheel tracks are filled
with water.

20
 Causes of Rutting Failure
• Rutting stems from a permanent deformation
in any of the pavement layers or the sub-grade.
• Overstress in the HMA layer, underlying
layers or sub grade.

21
 Rutting Due to Mix Instability
• Significant rutting can lead to major structural failure
of the pavement.

22
 6. Patching
• Patch is an area of pavement that has been
replaced with new material to repair the
existing pavement. 
• Patch is considered as a defect no matter
how well it performs.
• The possible cause is the previous
localized pavement deterioration that has
been removed and patched.

23
24
 ii. Surfacing Defects
• Is a type of defect that affect the pavement surface and
which may or may not be progressively changed into
structural defect.
• The pavement do not carry out its intended function
without causing discomfort to the users.
• Some of surfacing defects are due to
 Polished aggregate
 Bleeding/ Sweating/ Fatting-up
 Weathering/ Raveling/ Fretting
 Stripping
 De-lamination
 Shoving 25
 1. Polished Aggregate
• Surface aggregate particles that have smooth, rounded
surfaces with fine micro texture, either in their original
condition or after repeated abrasive wear by traffic.
• When the aggregate in the surface becomes smooth, and
its adhesion with vehicle tires is considerably reduced,
particularly when the road surface is wet.
• Wet skid accidents.

26
 Causes of Polished Aggregate
 Low quality aggregate and
 Repeated traffic applications.

No degrees of severity are defined. However, the degree of polishing should be

27
clearly evident in the sample unit in that the aggregate surface should be smooth to the
touch.
 2. Bleeding/ Sweating/ Fatting-up
• Is the formation of a film of bitumen on the
pavement surface, creating a shiny glass-like
reflecting surface which becomes sticky in hot
weather.
• It occurs when binder fills the voids of the mix
during hot weather and under traffic and exudes
on to the pavement surface.
• wet weather skidding is an ever-present hazard.

28
 Causes of Bleeding
• Excessive bitumen
• Low air voids content in a macadam mix
• By over-application of surface dressing binder.

Bleeding in wheel path HMA bleeding from over-asphalting 29

 3. Weathering/ Raveling/ Fretting
• Is a process in which the more volatile parts of the
asphalt are lost which results in the hardening or aging
of the asphalt binder in a pavement.

• It is the progressive disintegration of a HMA layer from

the surface as a result of the dislodgement of aggregate.

• This dislodgement of aggregate is caused by the loss of

bond between the aggregate particle and the asphalt
coating.

30
 Causes of Raveling
• A coating of fine dust on the aggregate thick enough
that the asphalt film sticks to the dust rather than to the
aggregate.
• Low in-place density in the asphalt surface course.
High density is required to provide sufficient
cohesion in the asphalt mixture.
inadequate compaction.
.

31
Weathering/ Raveling/ Fretting Cont’d

32
Weathering/ Raveling/ Fretting:

33
 4. Stripping
• Is the loss of bond between the aggregates and asphalt
cement which typically begins at the bottom of the
HMA layer and progresses upward.
• When stripping starts at the surface and progresses
downward it results in raveling.
Causes of Stripping
Inadequate provision of pavement drainage which
results in intrusion of water in HMA layer.
Inadequate drying of aggregate.
Weak and friable aggregate.
Excess dust coating on aggregate.
Inadequate compaction.

34
 Stripping Failure Cont’d

Core hole showing stripping at the bottom Stripping at bottom of hole

35
Fatigue Failure from Stripping

36
 5. De-lamination
• Is the separation of one layer of pavement surface
from another.

• The failure process is progressive with increasing

embitterment of the bituminous binder.

37
De-lamination Cont’d

38
 6. Shoving
• Is a localized plastic movement in the
bituminous surface.
• Areas subjected to frequent vehicular
braking action can exhibit shoving.
• Bus stops are often the first locations to
exhibit premature distortion in the form
of shoving.

39
 Causes of Shoving
• The cause of shoving is usually lack of stability in the
bituminous mix.
• Lack of stability can be caused by:
– The mix being too rich,
– The aggregate having excessive amounts of fines
– Rounded or smooth textured particles
– Poor bond between material layers, or
– The use of a soft binder.

40
Shoving

41
 Road Maintenance
Introduction
•The performance of a pavement is affected by the type,
time of application, and quality of maintenance it receives.
•The proper identification of pavement defects and the
determination of their causes is crucial to the selection of
proper maintenance treatments and repair strategies.
•Delays in maintenance increases the quantity of defects
and its severity so that it increases the cost of repair.
•In addition, a recognition that different pavements
deteriorate at different rates is important in selecting the
proper time for maintenance.

42
 Road Maintenance Cont’d
• Factors which affect pavement deterioration rates are:
 Traffic loads,
 Weather Condition,
 Pavement Materials,
 Pavement Thickness,
 Construction Quality and
 Effectiveness of Previous Maintenance
• The primary reason for maintenance are:
To correct deficiencies produced by distress
To protect the investment and
To provide a smooth and safe road for the user.
43
 Types of Road Maintenance
• Generally, maintenance activities are divided into two
categories:
A. Preventive Maintenance
B. Corrective Maintenance
• Preventive Maintenance – is that group activities
performed to protect the pavement and decrease the rate
of deterioration of the pavement quality.
• Corrective Maintenance – is that group activities
performed to correct a specific pavement failure/ area of
distress.

44
 A. Preventive Maintenance
There are two types of preventive pavement
maintenance:
1. Surface Sealing
2. Crack Sealing
1. Surface Sealing:
•Are those maintenance activities consisting of
applications of asphalt alone which are applied
continuously to the whole surface of a traffic lane.
•These surface seals are most often applied to:
Rejuvenate/ Retard the oxidation/ of asphalt
at the surface.
Restore skid resistance of the surface.
45
 Surface Sealing Cont’d
• Seal fine cracks which have appeared at the
surface.
• Prevent the intrusion of water into the
pavement structure through cracks which
penetrate through the HMA layer.
• Retard the raveling of aggregates from a
weathered, disintegrating surface.
• The most common types of seals applied to HMA
surface are:
Fog seals
Rejuvenators
Chip seals/ surface treatments
Slurry seals
46
 Fog Seals
• Involves a light application of a slow setting
emulsion to an oxidized pavement surface
• The primary objective is to restore/ rejuvenate the
asphalt cement at the surface of the roadway.
• A fog seal consists of a single application of a slow
setting emulsion which has been diluted by an equal
amount of water.
• This diluted liquid is sprayed on the surface at a rate
of 0.1 to 0.2 gallons per square yard (0.3 to 0.6
litres/m2).
• Higher quantity being used for coarse textured, dry
surfaces.

47
 Fog Seals Cont’d
• The primary advantage of fog seal is its low cost and
ability to postpone the need for surface treatment.
• Care must be taken when applying fog seals to ensure
that excess asphalt is not applied which results in loss
of skid resistance.
• Some sand should be kept to avoid such situation
(applications of excess asphalt).
• This treatment is suitable for low volume roads which
can be closed to traffic during applications of the
treatment (4 to 6 hours needed for the emulsion to
break and set up sufficiently to provide adequate
friction between the road surface and tire).

48
 Rejuvenators
• Many products are available in the market which
rejuvenate the oxidized asphalt at the surface.
• They are made from tar products to make the surface
resistant to fuel spillage.
• Rejuvenators are usually applied with asphalt
distributors.
• Rejuvenators must be able to penetrate the HMA
surface to the desired depth (at least ¼ inch)(6.4mm)
within a reasonable time.

49
 Rejuvenators Cont’d
• If the HMA Surface is not sufficiently porous or
the viscosity of the rejuvenator is high or too
much rejuvenator is applied, the rejuvenator tends
to form a thin layer at the surface resulting in
slippery and hazardous condition.
• Therefore, rejuvenators are mostly used on low
volume, low speed roads or parking lots.

50
 Chip Seals/ Surface Treatments
• This type of surface treatment consists of
single or multiple applications of asphalt and
aggregate over a weathered surface.
• The thickness of surface treatment is limited to
1 inch.
• A thin HMA overlay is considered as a surface
treatment.

51
 Chip Seals/ Surface Treatments Cont’d
• Chip Seal – is a single surface treatment
which involves spraying asphalt material
followed immediately by a thin aggregate
cover which is rolled as soon as possible.
• Sand Seal – is a type of single surface
treatments which use sand as a cover
aggregate.
• Sand seals are low cost treatments and are
appropriate for use on low volume rural roads
or residential streets.

52
 Chip Seals/ Surface Treatments Cont’d
• Multiple Surface Treatment - is a surface
obtained by repeating the process of a single
surface treatment a second or even a third times.
• The maximum size of cover aggregate for each
successive applications is usually reduced by 50
percent.
• Cover aggregate should be clean; otherwise, it
doesn’t adhere to the asphalt material.
• Surface treatments add little load-carrying
strength to the pavement structure.
53
 Chip Seals/ Surface Treatments Cont’d
• When properly designed and constructed,
surface treatments are economical, easy to
place and reasonably durable.
• Not only they provide a water proofing cover
over the existing pavement structure, they
resist abrasion by traffic.
• The asphalt binder can be asphalt cement,
cutback asphalt or emulsified asphalt.

54
 Chip Seals/ Surface Treatments Cont’d
The Construction sequence for single surface treatment
1. Set up traffic control. A detour is preferred.
2. Clean the surface to remove dirt and other loose
materials.
3. Apply the asphalt binder to the surface at the
specified rate and temperature using a calibrated
asphalt distributor.
4. Spread the aggregate at the specified rate evenly over
the surface immediately after the asphalt binder is
applied.
5. Immediately roll the aggregate to push it through the
asphalt binder and to seat it firmly against the
underlying layer.
55
 Slurry Seals
• A slurry seal is a homogeneous mixture of
emulsified asphalt, water, well graded fine
aggregate and mineral filler which has a creamy,
fluid like appearance when mixed in proper
proportions.
• The layer thickness is approximately equal to the
maximum aggregate size.
• Based on the function served by the slurry seal,
there are generally three gradations used for the
slurry seals.
• Which are Type I, II &III

56
 Type I Slurry Seal
• Has the finest gradation with most of the aggregates
smaller than 2.36mm (sieve no 8).
• It is sometimes used as a preparation for HMA
overlay/ Chip Seal.
• It has been used on low traffic areas such as parking
lots and paved shoulders.
• The primary functions of the seal:
• Sealing the asphalt surface from moisture,
• Prevention of additional oxidation of the asphalt
surface,
• Prevention of loss of surface materials.

57
 Type II Slurry Seal
• Is slightly coarser than the Type I Slurry Seal
having a maximum aggregate size of 6.4mm.
• It is the most extensively used of the mix
types.
• It is used when moderate to severe raveling
has occurred due to oxidation of the asphalt
and to restore or improve skid resistance.
• When improved skid resistance is a criterion,
the aggregate should be angular and polish
resistant, the use of natural sands is prohibited.

58
 Type III Slurry Seal
• Is typically reserved for pavements which have
developed severe surface irregularities requiring
a thicker sealer with larger aggregate.
• It is recommended for use as the first course in a
multi course application and to restore skid
resistance.
• Because of its thickness, it fills slight depressions
on the paved surface to prevent water ponding on
the surface of the road.

59
 Slurry Seals Cont’d

• Slow setting emulsified asphalt (SS) of all types

are used in slurry seal applications.
• Quick setting emulsified asphalt (QS) is used
when the road must be opened quickly to traffic.
• Additives such as Limestone dust, Portland
cement and fly ash are sometimes added to the
slurry to produce particular characteristics in the
slurry.

60
 2. Crack Sealing
• Is a routine maintenance activity which involves
cleaning out the cracks and filling the clean cracks
with a sealant in order to prevent water and non-
compressible from entering the pavement structure.
• The most common type of cracks which needs sealing
are:
• Longitudinal cracks
• Traverse cracks
• Edge cracks and
• Block cracks

61
 Fatigue/ Alligator Cracks
• Are seldom routed and sealed individually
because the intensity of the crack pattern
usually warrants an area treatment rather than
individual crack treatment.
• The treatment involves removal and
replacement, overlay or seal coat for low
severity fatigue cracking.

62
Typical Sealing Procedures Involve the Following Steps
1. Place proper traffic control devices in the work
zone.
2. Route the cracks to remove debris and any
deteriorated crack sealing material.
3. Clean the cracks with compressed air or stiff
bristle broom.
4. Pour hot crack filling material into the crack
with 6mm depth below the surface.
5. After allowing the sealant to cool, broom off the
excess sand, remove traffic control devices, and
open to traffic.

63
 B. Corrective Maintenance
Corrective maintenance consists of:
i. Patches
ii. Chip Seals
i. Patches: is one of the most common methods for
repair of localized areas of intensive cracking, whether
the cracking is load associated or environmental or
construction related (transverse or longitudinal
cracking).

64
 Corrective Maintenance Cont’d
• If the cracking has deteriorated to the point that
disintegration of the pavement materials around the
cracks is occurring, the defective material must be
removed and replaced.
• Patching can either be:
• Partial depth repairs
• Full depth repairs
• Partial depth repairs involves removing the surface
layer and replacing it with HMA.
• Full depth repairs involves removal of the complete
pavement down to the sub grade or to an intermediate
sub base layer.
65
 Corrective Maintenance Cont’d
• Typical repairs in flexible pavements for cracked areas
involves full depth repairs.
• Partial depth repairs are reserved for cracks that results
due to poor bond to the underlying layer or for shoving
and corrugations.
• A patch consisting of HMA is considered to be a
permanent repair and should last for years.

66
 Corrective Maintenance Cont’d
The proper procedure for making a permanent patch in a HMA surface
involves the following steps:
1.Set up traffic control consistent with the class of highway.
2.Mark of the area to be removed using paint, or chalk.
3.Cut through the pavement around the perimeter of the polygon using a
saw.
4.Remove the loose material down to a solid base.
5.Apply tack coats to the sides and bottom of the hole when patching with
HMA.
6.Place 4 inch (100mm) layer of HMA and compact each layer.
7.Using a straightedge, check around the perimeter of the patched area to
ensure that the patch is approximately level with the surrounding
pavement.
8.Seal the edges of the patch using a sand or chip seal which involves a
light application of liquid asphalt blotted with sand or aggregate chips.
9.Sweep all loose materials from the road surface and remove to a suitable
site and remove traffic control devices and open to traffic.
67
 Maintenance and Rehabilitation
The selection of an appropriate maintenance treatment or
rehabilitation strategy is based on a number of
considerations.
• the cause of deterioration in the existing pavement
must be correctly identified and its importance
assessed
• attention should be given to the nature, extent and
severity of the deterioration to check what effect it will
have on the treatments that are being considered

68
Maintenance and Rehabilitation
• the strategy must be economically viable taking into
consideration both the costs of maintenance and the
vehicle operating costs over a number of years.
• It is important to check the ability of the existing
road pavement to carry the predicted traffic loading
using at the methods described below
• Analytical approach
• Structural approach
• Deflection approach

69
 Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Analytical approach
The traffic carrying capacity of an asphalt pavement is governed by
how effective the pavement layers are in preventing;
•fatigue cracking of the asphalt surfacing;
•shear failure of the granular materials, and
•wheel path rutting resulting from subgrade failure
•Theoretical models to predict the behavior of granular and lightly
cemented materials under the action of traffic are not well defined and
therefore specifications for such layers have always been set in such a
way that failures are unlikely.
•The horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer controls
one type of fatigue cracking and the vertical compressive strain at the
top of the subgrade controls rutting.
70
 Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Analytical approach
•Asphalt surfacing's are usually assigned moduli based on mix
constituents and binder properties at the design temperature
although direct laboratory measurements of modulus can also be
made on samples of material extracted from the road.
•Other moduli values can be either calculated from the back-
analysis of FWD deflection bowls or assigned values following
DCP testing and/or the laboratory testing of samples taken from
trial pits.

71
Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Analytical approach
• Stresses or strains at the critical points in the
pavement are then calculated under the application
of a standard load designed to replicate a 40kN
wheel load (80kN axle load).
• These strains are then used to calculate the ‘life’ of
the structure using relationships between
stress/strain and pavement life of the form:

72
 Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Analytical approach
Asphalt fatigue criteria
Log Nf = a + b Log εr
Where Nf = Fatigue life in esa
εr = Horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer
a and b = constants associated with material properties
Subgrade deformation criteria
Log Nd = a+ b Log εz
Where Nd = Deformation life in esa
εz = Vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade
a and b = constants associated with material properties

73
 Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Structural approach
•In this method the traffic carrying capacity of the road
is estimated by comparing the existing pavement
structure and its condition with established design
charts.
•The thickness of the various pavement layers should
first be established using the DCP and trial pits, and the
in situ strength of the pavement layers and the subgrade
determined by a combination of deflection and DCP
data.

74
Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Structural approach
• The effective structural number of the pavement
can then be obtained by using techniques described
in the AASHTO Guide for design of Pavement
Structures.
• The required strengthening measures are then
established by comparing the effective structural
number of the pavement with the required
structural number of a pavement for the future
traffic.

75
 Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Deflection approach
•The traffic carrying capacity represents the total traffic
loading that the road will carry starting from the time of
construction.
•Therefore, the future traffic carrying capacity is the total
traffic loading minus the traffic loading that the pavement
has earned prior to the evaluation.
•The thickness of any necessary strengthening overlay can
be determined based on reducing the representative
deflection of the pavement to the design deflection
obtained from the calibrated deflection curve.

76
 Maintenance and Rehabilitation
• The relation between the thickness of a dense
bituminous overlay and the reduction in deflection,
under a 62.3kN axle load, has been shown to be:
 T = 0.036+0.818( Dr – Dd ) /0.0027Dr

where Dd = Design deflection (mm)

Dr = Representative deflection (mm)
T = Overlay thickness (mm)
 

77
 Maintenance and Rehabilitation

ERA Design Procedure: Asphalt Overlays of Flexible

Pavements
Two methods of overlay design are recommended, namely
•a deflection procedure (adapted from the Asphalt
Institute) and
•an effective thickness (or component analysis)
procedure (adapted from AASHTO).

78
Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Deflection Procedure
The deflection procedure a deflection survey conducted
with a Benkelman Beam.
The steps involved in the procedure are as follows:
• Determine a representative rebound deflection
(RRD)
RRD = (x + 2s) Fc
• Determine the design future traffic in terms of
cumulated equivalent standard axles (ESAs).
• Determine the required overlay thickness.
The individual deflection measurements recorded during
the deflection survey must be adjusted by a temperature
adjustment factor.
79
Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Example
•A two-lane highway has the following characteristics and
resulting overlay requirement (same data as for the
component analysis example):
1.Traffic
Average Daily Traffic = 4,000
Percent trucks (total all units) = 10%
Traffic growth rate = 4%
Axle factors = 0.4 ESALs/truck

80
Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Example
2. Existing pavement structure and condition
Asphalt concrete = 3 in. = 76.2 mm
Crushed stone base = 8 in. = 203.2 mm
Subgrade design strength value: CBR = 8 or M R » 12,000 psi
Overall, the pavement structure is in poor condition, with
the HMA exhibiting well defined crack patterns
Determine the thickness of the overlay for 20 years design
period.

81
Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Example
1. 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs
number of trucks in the design lane per day = (4,000)
(0.50)(0.10) = 200
ESALs/day = 200(0.4 ESAL/truck) = 80 ESALs/day
18K ESAL for design period = (80 ESALs/day) (365
days/yr. )(29.8) » 870,000 after adjustment for design
period and traffic growth rate. Note:

82
Maintenance and Rehabilitation

2. Deflection data

mean (x) = 0.061 in., standard deviation (s) =
0.004 in.

f: If the mean asphalt concrete temperature
during deflection = 15°C (60°F) then f = 1.10

c: If tests are made during the critical period,
then c = 1.0.

83
Maintenance and Rehabilitation

3.Representative rebound deflection


RRD = x + (2s)(f)(c)

RRD = [0.061 + 2(0.004)](1.10)(1.0)

RRD = 0.076 in. = 1.93 mm.
Required asphalt concrete overlay thickness = 96.5 mm (3.8 in)

84
Maintenance and Rehabilitation

85
Maintenance and Rehabilitation

86
Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Example-2
For an overlay maintenance project, to
determine the thickness of an overlay the
FWD test was performed. The structural
number resulted from the test is 3.24. If the
new structural number is 3.8, determine the
thickness of the overlay. Assume the
structural coefficient of the overlay as 0.43.

87
 Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Solution

T0 = (3.8- 3.24)/0.43
The thickness of overlay = 1.3 in = 330.2
mm

88
89