AREMA MRE 2013 Volume 2 PDF

2013
Manual for Railway Engineering 1
Volume 2
3
Structures
Chapter 7 Timber Structures
Chapter 8 Concrete Structures and Foundations
Chapter 9 Seismic Design for Railway Structures
Chapter 10 Structures, Maintenance and Construction
Chapter 15 Steel Structures
General Subject Index

Copyright © 2013
by the
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY ASSOCIATION
All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in an information or data retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or
by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, scanning, recording, or otherwise—without the prior written
permission of the publisher. Photocopying or electronic reproduction and/or distribution of this publication is a violation of
USA and International Copyright laws and is expressly prohibited.
Correspondence regarding copyright permission should be directed to the Director of Administration, AREMA, 10003
Derekwood Lane, Suite 210, Lanham, MD 20706 USA.
ISSN 1542-8036 - Print Version
ISSN 1543-2254 - CD-ROM Version

7
CHAPTER 7
TIMBER STRUCTURES1
FOREWORD
The material in this chapter is written with regard to typical North American Railroad Timber Trestles and other timber
structures mentioned herein with
• Spans up to 16 feet,
• Standard Gage Track,
• Normal North American passenger and freight equipment, and 1

• Speeds of freight trains up to 80 mph and passenger trains up to 90 mph.
Special provisions for longer spans and/or higher train speeds should be added by the company as necessary.
This chapter is presented as a consensus document by a committee that comprises railroad engineers, engineers in private
practice, engineers involved in research and teaching, and other industry professionals having substantial and broad-based 3
experience designing, evaluating, and investigating timber structures used by railroads. The recommendations contained
herein are based upon past successful usage and are periodically updated to ensure future successful usage. Therefore, as an
ongoing concern, the recommendations printed herein are updated in response to changes in the operating environment,
changes in the designations and availability of material and material systems, advances in design and maintenance practices,
and advances in the state of knowledge overall. These recommendations have been developed and are intended for routine use
and might not provide sufficient criteria for infrequently encountered conditions. Professional judgement must be exercised
when applying the recommendations of this chapter as part of an overall solution to any particular problem.
In general, this chapter is revised and printed anew on a calendar-year basis. The latest printed revision of the chapter should
be used, regardless of the age of an existing structure. For purposes of determining historical recommendations under which
an existing structure may have been built and maintained, it can prove useful to examine previous printed editions of the
chapter. However, when historical recommendations differ from the recommendations contained in the latest printed revision
of the chapter, the recommendations of the latest printed revision of the chapter should be used.
Buildings should be designed and constructed in accordance with the requirements of the authority having jurisdiction at the
site of construction (Refer to Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities).
1
The material in this and other chapters in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering is published as recommended practice to railroads and others
concerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties (except signals and communications), and allied services and facilities.
For the purpose of this Manual, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE is defined as a material, device, design, plan, specification, principle or practice
recommended to the railways for use as required, either exactly as presented or with such modifications as may be necessary or desirable to meet the needs
of individual railways, but in either event, with a view to promoting efficiency and economy in the location, construction, operation or maintenance of
railways. It is not intended to imply that other practices may not be equally acceptable.
© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 7-i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part/Section Description Page
1 Material Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge
Ties and Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-1
1.1 Structural Grades of Softwood Lumber and Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3
1.2 Grading Rules for Hardwood Structural Timbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3
1.3 Specifications for Engineered Wood Products (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3
1.4 Ordering Structural Lumber, Timber and Engineered Wood Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-6
1.5 Specifications for Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-7
1.6 Specifications of Fasteners for Timber Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-14
1.7 Specifications for Timber Bridge Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-16
1.8 Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood (1963) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-20
2 Design of Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles for Railway Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-1
2.1 Design of Public Works Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3
2.2 General Features of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3
2.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-6
2.4 Designing for Engineered Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-10
2.5 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-20
2.6 Details of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-38
3 Rating Existing Wood Bridges and Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-1

3.1 Rules for Rating Existing Wood Bridges and Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-2
4 Construction and Maintenance of Timber Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-1

4.1 Handling of Material (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-2
4.2 Storage of Material (1995) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-2
4.3 Workmanship for Construction and Maintenance of Pile and Framed Trestles R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-3
4.4 Framing of Timber (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-3
4.5 Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-5
4.6 Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-13
4.7 Support, Repair, Preserve, or Replace Damaged Portions of the Structure (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-13
4.8 Methods of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-17
4.9 Use of Guard Rails and Guard Timbers (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-21
5 Inspection of Timber Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-1

5.1 General (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-1
5.2 Details of Inspection (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-2
6 Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-1
6.1 Materials Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-2
6.2 Design Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-5
6.3 Rating Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-12
6.4 Construction and Maintenance Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-12
6.5 Inspection Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-12
Chapter 7 Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-G-1
© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
7-ii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-R-1
Appendix 1 - Contemporary Designs and Design Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-1
Appendix 2 - Designs and Design Aids for Rehabilitation of Existing Timber Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-1
Appendix 3 - Legacy Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-1
Appendix 4 - Temporary Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A4-1
INTRODUCTION
The Chapters of the AREMA Manual are divided into numbered Parts, each comprised of related documents (specifications,
recommended practices, plans, etc.). Individual Parts are divided into Sections by centered headings set in capital letters and
identified by a Section number. These Sections are subdivided into Articles designated by numbered side headings.
Page Numbers – In the page numbering of the Manual (7-2-1, for example) the first numeral designates the Chapter
number, the second denotes the Part number in the Chapter, and the third numeral designates the page number in the Part. 1
Thus, 7-2-1 means Chapter 7, Part 2, page 1.
In the Glossary and References, the Part number is replaced by either a “G” for Glossary or “R” for References.
Document Dates – The bold type date (Document Date) at the beginning of each document (Part) applies to the document
as a whole and designates the year in which revisions were last made somewhere in the document, unless an attached footnote
indicates that the document was adopted, reapproved, or rewritten in that year.
3
Article Dates – Each Article shows the date (in parenthesis) of the last time that Article was modified.
Revision Marks – All current year revisions (changes and additions) which have been incorporated into the document are
identified by a vertical line along the outside margin of the page, directly beside the modified information.
4
Proceedings Footnote – The Proceedings footnote on the first page of each document gives references to all Association
action with respect to the document.
Annual Updates – New manuals, as well as revision sets, will be printed and issued yearly.
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 7-iii

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.
7-iv AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

7
Part 1
Material Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engi-
neered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Tim-
ber Bridge Ties and Recommendations for Fire-
Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood
— 2013 —
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article Description Page
1.1 Structural Grades of Softwood Lumber and Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3

1.1.1 Grading Rules (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3 3
1.1.2 Preservative Treatments (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3
1.2 Grading Rules for Hardwood Structural Timbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3

1.2.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3
1.3 Specifications for Engineered Wood Products (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3

1.3.1 Structural Glued Laminated Timber - Glulam (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3
1.4 Ordering Structural Lumber, Timber and Engineered Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-6
1.4.1 Inquiry or Purchase Order (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-6
1.5 Specifications for Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-7

1.5.1 General Provisions (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-7
1.5.2 Classification of Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-7
1.5.3 General Requirement for All Piles (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-11
1.5.4 Special Requirements for First-Class Piles (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-12
1.5.5 Special Requirements for Second-Class Piles (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-13
1.5.6 Inquiries and Purchase Orders (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-13
1.6 Specifications of Fasteners for Timber Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-14

1.6.1 Material (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-14
1.6.2 Types of Fasteners (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-14
1.6.3 Use of Protective Coatings for Steel Fasteners on Timber Bridges (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-16
© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 7-1-1

Timber Structures

1.7 Specifications for Timber Bridge Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-16

1.7.1 Material (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-16
1.7.2 Physical Requirements (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-16
1.7.3 Design (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-17
1.7.4 Inspection (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-17
1.7.5 Delivery (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-18
1.7.6 Shipment (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-18
1.7.7 Dapping or Sizing Bridge Ties (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-18
1.7.8 Bridge Tie Installation (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-18
1.7.9 Preservative Treatment of Bridge Ties (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-20
1.7.10 Spike or Bolt Holes (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-20
1.7.11 Tie Plugs (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-20
1.7.12 Tie Branding (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-20
1.7.13 End Splitting Control Devices (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-20
1.8 Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood (1963) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-20
1.8.1 Scope (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-20
1.8.2 General Product Requirements (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-21
1.8.3 Application Requirements and Instructions (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-22
1.8.4 Testing (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-23
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Description Page
7-1-1 Measurement of Short Crook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-13
LIST OF TABLES
Table Description Page
7-1-1 Typical Net Finished Glulam Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-4

7-1-2a Friction Piles – Specified Butt Circumference with Minimum Tip Circumferences for Coast Douglas Fir Piles and
Other Species, Except Southern Yellow Pine (See Note 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-9
7-1-2b Friction Piles – Specified Butt Circumference with Minimum Tip Circumferences for Southern Yellow Pine (See
Notes 1, 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-10
7-1-3a End-Bearing Piles – Specified Tip Circumferences with Minimum Butt Circumferences for Piles of Coast Douglas
Fir and Other Species Except Southern Yellow Pine (See Note 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-10
7-1-3b End-Bearing Piles – Specified Tip Circumferences with Minimum Butt Circumferences for Piles for Southern Yellow
Pine Piles (See Notes 1, 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-11
7-1-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Material Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Etc.
SECTION 1.1 STRUCTURAL GRADES OF SOFTWOOD LUMBER AND TIMBER1
1.1.1 GRADING RULES (2010)
It is recommended that structural lumber and timber be purchased in accordance with the grading rules of the industry’s
agency publishing rules for the species. For allowable stresses for stress graded lumber and timber generally used refer to
Article 2.5.6.
1.1.2 PRESERVATIVE TREATMENTS (2010)
Pressure preservative treatments are listed in American Wood Preservers Association (AWPA) Standards.2
Retention and penetration levels are specified in AWPA Standards (C2, C4, C14 or C24 as applicable) in units of pounds of
retained perservative per cubic foot of wood and depth of penetration in inches. Creosote retentions in the range of 8 to 12 pcf
are common in railroad applications.
It is strongly recommended that all fabrication, trimming and boring of glulam members be performed prior to the pressure
treating process. If field fabrication is needed, surface damage, cuts and holes must be field treated to protect any exposed
wood. Field treatments in accordance with AWPA Standard M4 should be specified.
SECTION 1.2 GRADING RULES FOR HARDWOOD STRUCTURAL TIMBERS3 1
1.2.1 GENERAL (2009)
Hardwood structural timbers shall comply with the requirements of Northeastern Lumber Manufacturers Association, Inc.
(NELMA), Chapter 6, Timber, Beams and Stringers, Posts and Timbers for the species and grades listed in Part 2 of this
Manual. 3
SECTION 1.3 SPECIFICATIONS FOR ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS4 (2006)

4
1.3.1 STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER - GLULAM (2006)5
1.3.1.1 General and Appearance
a. General
For allowable stresses for Glued Laminated Timber generally used refer to Article 2.4.1.2.
b. Appearance Classifications6
1
See Part 6 Commentary.
2
See Reference 8.
3
References, Vol. 65, 1964, pp. 393, 756; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106.
4
References, Vol. 55, 1954, pp. 568, 1005; Vol. 56, 1955, pp. 641, 1071; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 512, 848; Vol. 69, 1968, p. 362; Vol. 84, 1983, p. 81; Vol. 89,
1988, p. 106.
5
6
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 7-1-3

Timber Structures
For railway bridge stringer, pile cap, deck panel, and rail tie applications, the Industrial or Framing appearance
classifications should be considered.
Industrial Appearance: Voids appearing on the edges of laminations need not be filled. Loose knot holes appearing
on the wide face of the laminations exposed to view shall be filled. Members are required to be surfaced on two sides
only and the appearance requirements apply to these sides.
Framing Appearance: The Framing appearance classification permits "hit or miss" surfacing to provide specialized
finish widths of 3-1/2, 5-1/2 and 7-1/4 inches. This appearance classification may be suitable for pile caps or bridge
deck panel applications.
1.3.1.2 Layup Combinations1
For glulam members stressed primarily in bending, such as for railroad bridge stringers, layups of graded Douglas fir (DF) and
Southern pine (SP) lumber are used throughout the member depth based on the "Stress Groups" shown in Table 7-2-7, selected
specifically for the most commonly used applications. Stress Group options for bending members shown in this table are
defined by bending-stress/Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) categories selected specifically as "Balanced Combinations" for
railroad applications.
1.3.1.3 Balanced2
These members are manufactured with symmetrical grade zones above and below mid-depth. Balanced beams are used in
applications such as continuous stringer applications, where the top and bottom of the member is stressed in tension. Balanced
beams are recommended for railroad use since preservatives may make it difficult to distinguish the tension side.
1.3.1.4 Hardwoods
Hardwoods may be specified by special order in accordance with the Standard Specification For Structural Glued Laminated
Timber Of Hardwood Species, AITC 119.
1.3.1.5 Adhesives
Adhesives must be in conformance with specifications included in ANSI A190.1 for wet-use. Wet-use adhesives may be
specified for all moisture conditions and are required when the in-service moisture content is 16 percent or higher for repeated
or prolonged periods, or when the wood is treated with preservatives before or after gluing.
1.3.1.6 Finished Sizes3
Table 7-1-1. Typical Net Finished Glulam Sizes
Nominal Width 3” 4” 6” 8” 10” 12”

Western Species 2-1/2” 3-1/8” 5-1/8” 6-3/4” 8-3/4” 10-3/4”
Southern Pine 2-1/2” 3” 5” 6-3/4” 8-3/4” 10-1/2”
Depths can be provided in multiples of nominal 1-1/2 inch for Western species or 1-3/8 inch for Southern Pine laminations, or
for special depths to be compatible with existing solid sawn installations.
1
2
3 See Part 6 Commentary.

1.3.1.7 Preservative Treatments1
Pressure preservative treatments listed in American Wood Preservers Association (AWPA) Standard C28 for glulam include
creosote, pentachlorophenol and waterborne inorganic arsenicals. Waterborne treatments such as ammoniacal copper arsenate
(ACA) and chromated copper arsenate (CCA) are not recommended for western species but may be used to treat glulam
manufactured with Southern Pine. Waterborne treatments are typically applied to lumber prior to the laminating process.
Waterborne treatments applied to glulam after the laminating process can cause dimensional changes such as warping, and
twisting, in addition to excessive checking as the result of the necessary re-drying process. Fire-retardant coatings may be
used for glulam railroad structures in accordance with Part 6 Commentary.
Species listed in AWPA Standard C28 for preservative treatment include Pacific Coast Douglas fir, Western hemlock, hem-fir
and southern pine. Other species may also be available by specification in agreements with the glulam manufacturer.
Retention and penetration levels are specified in AWPA Standard C28 in units of pounds of retained preservative per cubic
foot of wood and depth of penetration in inches. Creosote retentions in the range of 8 to 12 pcf are common in railroad
applications.
It is strongly recommended that all fabrication, trimming and boring of glulam members be performed prior to the pressure
treating process. If field fabrication is needed, surface damage, cuts and holes must be field treated to protect any exposed
wood. Field treatments in accordance with AWPA Standard M4 should be specified.
1.3.1.8 Fire-retardant coatings
Fire-retardant coatings may be used for glulam railroad structures in accordance with Article 1.8.
1
1.3.1.9 Certification, Wrapping and Shipping2
When specified by the engineer or customer, Certificates of Conformance shall be supplied by the glulam manufacturer to
indicate conformance with industry standard ANSI A190.1.
1.3.1.10 Storage and Handling3 3

Loading & Unloading: Glulam stringers are commonly loaded and unloaded with forklifts. Greater stability can be
achieved when the sides of the beams rest on the forks. Moving long beams on their sides, however, can cause them to
flex excessively increasing the risk of damage. If a crane with cable slings or chokers is used to load, unload, or install
glulam members, adequate blocking shall be provided between the cable (or strap), and the members. Wooden cleats
or blocking should be used to protect long edge corners. Use of spreader bars can reduce the likelihood of damage
when lifting beams in excess of 30 feet in length. 4
Storage: To minimize possible degradation that can result from excessive seasoning checks or splits (checks that
develop into openings across the member width), glulam members should be stored off of the ground on blocks in a
level, well-drained location and covered. If members are to be stacked, spacer blocks should be placed between
members to allow for ventilation and to protect against water entrapment on surface areas.
1
2

Timber Structures
SECTION 1.4 ORDERING STRUCTURAL LUMBER, TIMBER AND ENGINEERED WOOD

PRODUCTS1
See Commentary Article 6.1.4 for an Example.
1.4.1 INQUIRY OR PURCHASE ORDER (2010)

An inquiry or purchase order for structural lumber or timber should clearly stipulate:
a. Quantity in board feet or number of pieces.
b. Thickness, width and length.
c. Whether rough or surfaced, and extent of surfacing.
d. Stress-grade. Use the complete designation as given in the rules. Paragraph or page numbers may be used as additional
identification.
e. Species of wood.
f. The name and date of the grading rule book and the name of the organization issuing it. It is preferable to use the most
recent rule book but the designation “current grading rules” should not be used because confusion may result due to
changes in grade names and/or paragraph or page numbers.
g. Any exceptions to or modifications of the grading rules such as:
(1) Lumber or timber to be free of wane.
(2) Seasoning if desired, stating the method and acceptable moisture content. (Note that mills do not ordinarily season
beam and stringer or post and timber sizes.)
(3) Special heartwood requirements.
(4) Special shear grades.
(5) Special provisions to make joist and plank or beam and stringer grades suitable for continuous spans.
(6) Special provisions to make joist and plank or beam and stringer grades suitable as columns or tension members.
(7) Special inspection provisions.
(8) Provisions for treatment.
1

SECTION 1.5 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIMBER PILES1
1.5.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS (2007)

1.5.1.1 Scope
This specification covers the physical characteristics timber piles to be used either untreated or treated by approved
preservative process.
1.5.1.2 Species of Wood
Piles may be of any species which will satisfactorily withstand driving and support the superimposed loads.
1.5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES (2013)
1.5.2.1 Classes
Piles are classified in this specification under two general classes according to quality, First-Class Piles and Second-Class
Piles. First-Class Piles are divided into two size groups as follows:
1.5.2.2 First-Class Piles
a. Butt Circumference – The butt circumference is specified and minimum tip circumferences are in accordance with
Table 7-1-2a and Table 7-1-2b. (friction piles) .
1
b. Tip Circumference –The tip circumference is specified and minimum butt circumferences are in accordance with
Table 7-1-3a and Table 7-1-3b. (end-bearing piles).
1.5.2.3 Second-Class Piles
Piles which do not meet the requirements of First-Class Piles but which are suitable for use in cofferdams, falsework, 3
temporary work and light foundations or other light construction. Second-Class Piles may also be specified by butt
circumference or tip circumference.
1.5.2.4 Sizes
a. The ratio of “out of round” maximum to minimum diameter at the butt or the tip of any pile shall not exceed 1.2.
b. All circumference measurements must be taken under the bark. 4
1
References, Vol. 10, 1909, part 1, pp. 541, 603; Vol. 29, 1928, pp. 506, 1301; Vol. 34, 1933, pp. 66, 760; Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 668, 1036; Vol. 40, 1939, pp.
376, 789; Vol. 406, 1945, pp. 185, 802; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 945, 1329; Vol. 61, 1960, pp. 587, 1095; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106.

Timber Structures
c. The circumference at the butt may not exceed the circumference at 3 feet from the butt by more than 8 inches.
d. The butt diameter of a first-class pile should match the supporting timber cap width. Pile butt diameters that are less
than the cap width must be of sufficient size as to prevent the pile or cap from failing in bearing or the pile punching
through the cap. Pile butt diameters larger than the cap width should be trimmed to match the cap width.

Table 7-1-2a. Friction Piles – Specified Butt Circumference with Minimum Tip Circumferences for Coast
Douglas Fir Piles and Other Species, Except Southern Yellow Pine (See Note 1)
Required
Minimum
Circumference, 22 25 28 31 35 38 41 44 47 50 57
(inches),
3 feet from Butt
Length (feet) Minimum Tip Circumference (inches)

20 16.0 16.0 16.0 18.0 22.0 25.0 28.0
30 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 19.0 22.0 25.0 28.0
40 16.0 17.0 20.0 23.0 26.0 29.0
50 16.0 17.0 19.0 22.0 25.0 28.0
60 16.0 16.0 18.6 21.6 24.6 31.6
70 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.2 19.2 26.2
80 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 21.8
90 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 19.5
100 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 18.0
110 16.0 16.0
120 16.0
1
Note 1: Where the taper applied to the butt circumferences calculates to a circumference at the tip of less than 16
inches, the individual values have been increased to 16 inches to ensure a minimum of 5 inches tip diameter
for purposes of driving.

Timber Structures
Table 7-1-2b. Friction Piles – Specified Butt Circumference with Minimum Tip Circumferences for Southern
Yellow Pine (See Notes 1, 2)
Required
Minimum
Circumference, 22 25 28 31 35 38 41 44 47 50 57
(inches),
3 feet from Butt
Length (feet) Minimum Tip Circumference (inches)

20 16 16 18 21 25 28 31 34 37 40 47
30 16 16 16 19 23 26 29 32 35 38 45
40 17 21 24 27 30 33 36 43
50 19 22 25 28 31 34 41
60 20 23 26 29 32 39
70 18 21 24 27 30 37
80 19 22 25 28 35
Note 1: Where the taper applied to the butt circumferences calculates to a circumference at the tip of less than 16
inches, the individual values have been increased to 16 inches to ensure a minimum of 5 inches tip diameter
for purposes of driving.
Note 2: Southern Yellow Pine piles are generally available in lengths shorter than 70 feet or girth of less than 50 inches
at 3 feet from butt. A dark horizontal line in each column designates pile sizes (above the line) which are
generally available. The purchaser should inquire as to availability of sizes below the lines.
Table 7-1-3a. End-Bearing Piles – Specified Tip Circumferences with Minimum Butt Circumferences for
Piles of Coast Douglas Fir and Other Species Except Southern Yellow Pine (See Note 1)
Required
Minimum Tip
16 19 22 25 28 31 35 38
Circumference,
(inches)
Length (feet) Minimum Circumferences 3 feet from Butt (inches)

20 21.0 24.0 27.0 30.0 33.0 36.0 40.0 43.0
30 23.5 26.5 29.5 32.5 35.5 38.5 42.5 45.5
40 26.0 29.0 32.0 35.0 38.0 41.0 45.0 48.0
50 28.5 31.5 34.5 37.5 40.5 43.5 47.5 50.5
60 31.0 34.0 37.0 40.0 43.0 46.0 50.0 53.0
70 33.5 36.5 39.5 42.5 45.5 48.5 52.5 55.5
80 36.0 39.0 42.0 45.0 48.0 51.0 55.0 58.0
90 38.5 41.5 44.5 47.5 50.5 53.5 57.5 60.5
100 41.0 44.0 47.0 50.0 53.0 56.0 60.0
110 43.5 46.5 49.5 52.5 55.5 58.5
120 46.0 49.0 52.0 55.0 58.0
Note 1: Piles purchased as “8-inch and natural taper” have a required minimum tip
circumference of 25 inches and are available in lengths of 20 to 45 feet.

Table 7-1-3b. End-Bearing Piles – Specified Tip Circumferences with Minimum Butt Circumferences for
Piles for Southern Yellow Pine Piles (See Notes 1, 2)
Required
Minimum Tip
16 19 22 25 28 31 35 38
Circumference,
(inches)
Length (feet) Minimum Circumferences 3 feet from Butt (inches)

20 19 22 25 28 31 34 38 41
30 21 24 27 30 33 36 40 43
40 26 29 32 35 38 42 45
50 31 34 37 40 44 47
60 33 36 39 42 46 49
70 35 38 41 44 48 51
80 37 40 43 46 50 53
90 39 42 45 48 52 55
Note 1: Piles purchased as “8-inch and natural taper” have a required minimum tip
circumference of 25 inches and are available in lengths of 20 to 45 feet.
Note 2: Southern Yellow Pine piles are generally available in lengths shorter than 70 feet or
girth of less than 50 inches at 3 feet from the butt. A dark horizontal line in each 1
column designates pile sizes (above the line) which are generally available.
1.5.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENT FOR ALL PILES (2007)
1.5.3.1 General Quality

3
Except hereinafter provided, all piles shall be of sound wood, free from defects which may impair their strength or durability
as piles such as decay, red heart, marine borer attack, or insect attack. Cedar and cypress piles may have a pipe or stump rot
hole not more than 1-1/2 inches in diameter. Cypress piles may have peck aggregating not more than the limitation for holes.
Piles having sound turpentine scars not damaged by insects shall be permitted. Piles shall be cut above the ground swell and
have continuous and reasonably uniform taper from butt to tip.
1.5.3.2 Knots1 4
a. Sound knots shall be no larger than one sixth the circumference of the pile located where the knot occurs. Cluster
knots shall be considered as a single knot, and the entire cluster cannot be greater in size than permitted for a single
knot. The sum of knot diameters in any 1 foot length of pile shall not exceed one third of the circumference at the point
where they occur. Knots shall be measured at a right angle to the length of the pile.
b. Piles may have unsound knots not exceeding half the permitted size of a sound knot, provided that the unsoundness
extends to not more than a 1-1/2 inch depth, and that the adjacent areas of the trunk are not affected.
1.5.3.3 Heartwood
Piles specified to have high heartwood content, for use without preservative treatment, shall exhibit a heartwood diameter at
the butt not less than eight-tenths the diameter of the pile.
1

Timber Structures
1.5.3.4 Sapwood
Piles for use with preservative treatment shall have sufficient sap wood to meet minimum penetration requirements.
1.5.3.5 Close Grain
If close grain is specified for softwood piles, the pile shall show on the butt end not less than 6 annual rings per inch, measured
radially over the outer 3 inches of the cross section. Douglas-fir and pine averaging from 5 to 6 annual rings per inch shall be
accepted as the equivalent of close grain if having one-third or more summerwood.
1.5.3.6 Cutting and Trimming
Butts and tips of piles shall be sawed square with the axis of the piles and shall not be out of square by more than 1/10 inch per
inch of diameter. All knots and limbs shall be trimmed or smoothly cut flush with the surface of the pile.
1.5.3.7 Peeling
a. Piles are classified according to the extent of bark removal as clean-peeled, rough-peeled or unpeeled.
b. Clean peeled piles require the removal of all outer bark. In addition, at least 80 percent of the inner bark, well
distributed over the surface of the pile shall be removed. Piles for preservative treatment shall have no strip of inner
bark larger than 1 by 6 inches.
c. Rough-peeled piles require the complete removal of all outer bark.
d. Unpeeled piles require no bark removal.
e. The sapwood of piles shall not be unnecessarily scarred or injured in the process of peeling.
f. Piles for preservative treatment shall be clean-peeled.
1.5.3.8 Lengths
Piles shall be furnished cut to any of the following lengths as specified: 16 feet to 40 feet, incl., in multiples of 2 feet; over 40
feet in multiples of 5 feet. Individual piles may exceed the length specified as much as plus 1 foot in piles 40 feet and shorter,
and plus 2 feet in piles over 40 feet.
1.5.3.9 Twist of Grain
Spiral grain shall not exceed 180 degrees of twist when measured over any 20 foot section of the pile.
1.5.4 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRST-CLASS PILES (2007)
a. A straight line from the center of the butt to the center of the tip of First-Class piles shall lie entirely within the body of
the pile. First-Class piles shall be free from short crooks that deviate more than 2-1/2 inches from straightness in any 5
foot length (see Figure 7-1-1).
b. Holes less than 1/2 inch in average diameter shall be permitted in First-Class piles provided that the sum of average
diameters of all holes in any square foot of pile surface does not exceed 1-1/2 inch, and the depth of any hole does not
extend to more than 1-1/2 inch and provided that holes are not caused by decay or marine borer attack. Internal holes
or damage to the cross-section (bearing) surfaces caused by decay, marine borers, or insects are not permitted.
c. Splits in First-Class Piles shall not be longer than the butt diameter. The length of any shake or combination of shakes,
measured along the curve of the annual ring, shall not exceed one-third the circumference of the butt of the pile.

1
Figure 7-1-1. Measurement of Short Crook
1.5.5 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SECOND-CLASS PILES (2007)
a. A straight line from the center of the butt to the center of the tip of Second-Class piles may lie partly outside the body
of the pile, but the maximum distance between the line and the pile shall not exceed 1/2 percent of the length of the pile 3
or 3 inches, whichever is the smaller. Second-Class piles shall be free from short crooks that deviate more than 2-1/2
inches from straightness in any 5 foot length. (See Figure 7-1-1).
b. Holes less than 1/2 inch in average diameter shall be permitted in Second-Class piles provided that the sum of the
average diameters of all holes in any square foot of pile surface does not exceed 3 inches and the depth of any hole
does not extend to more than 1-1/2 inch and provided that the holes are not caused by decay, or marine borer attack.
Internal holes or damage to the cross-section (bearing) surfaces caused by decay, marine borers, or insects are not 4
permitted.
c. Splits in Second-Class piles shall not be longer than 1-1/2 times the butt diameter. This length of any shake or
combination of shakes, measured along the curve of the annual ring, shall not exceed one half the circumference of the
butt of the pile.
1.5.6 INQUIRIES AND PURCHASE ORDERS (2007)
Each inquiry or purchase order for piles purchased under this specification should clearly state:
a. The number of pieces of each length.
b. The species of wood.
c. Whether the piles shall conform to the requirements for First Class or Second Class piles.

Timber Structures
d. Whether the piles shall be specified by butt circumference or tip circumference.
e. Whether the piles shall be clean-peeled, rough peeled, or unpeeled.
f. If close grain is wanted (in softwood piles).
g. If heartwood content is wanted.
h. Whether piles shall be treated or untreated, and if treated, the type of preservative and minimum penetration.
i. Any exceptions to this specification such as the entire removal of all inner bark for clean-peeled piles.
j. Instruction for inspection, marking, acceptance and shipment.
SECTION 1.6 SPECIFICATIONS OF FASTENERS FOR TIMBER TRESTLES1
1.6.1 MATERIAL (2008)
a. Malleable Iron. Malleable iron castings shall conform to current ASTM Specifications, designation A47, Grade 35018,
with minimum yield point of 35,000 psi.
b. Cast Iron. Cast iron shall conform to current ASTM Specifications, designation A48, Class No. 30.
c. Rolled Steel. Rolled steel plates, bars and shapes shall conform to current ASTM Specifications, designation A36.
d. Cast Steel. Cast steel shall conform to current ASTM Specifications, designation A27, Grade 65-35, full annealed with
minimum yield point of 33,000 psi.
1.6.2 TYPES OF FASTENERS (2009)
a. Nails, Spikes and Drift Bolts. Nails, spikes and drift bolts shall be made of rolled steel, square or round, as called for on
the plans. Where special heads are not specified, the manufacturer’s standard heads will be acceptable. Nails used for
fastening timbers shall be of a type having grooved, barbed or otherwise deformed shanks for greater holding power.
b. Through Bolts. Through bolts shall be made of rolled steel with U.S. standard square or hexagon heads and nuts unless
otherwise specified on the plans.
c. Washers.
(1) Ogee washers shall be made of cast iron and conform with ASTM A48.
1
References, Vol. 7, 1906, pp. 692, 719; Vol. 11, 1910, part 1, pp. 178, 228; Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 667, 1036; Vol. 48, 1947, pp. 386, 938; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 942,
1329; Vol. 61, 1960, pp. 587, 1095; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106.

A B T
Bottom
Bolt Size Top Outside
Outside Thickness
Diameter
Diameter
1/2 1-3/8 2-3/8 1/2
5/8 1-5/8 2-3/4 5/8
3/4 1-7/8 3 3/4
7/8 2 3-1/2 7/8
1 2-1/2 4 1
1-1/8 2-1/2 4-1/4 1-1/8
1-1/4 2-1/2 4-1/2 1-1/4
1-1/2 3 5-1/2 1-1/2
(2) Malleable cast iron round washers shall be made of malleable or cast iron. Finish may be black or hot dip
galvanized.
A T 1
Bolt
Outside
Size Thickness
Diameter
3/8 2-1/2 1/4
1/2 2-1/2 1/4
5/8 2-3/4 5/16
3/4 3 7/16
7/8 3-1/2 7/16 3
1 4 1/2
1-1/8 4-1/2 1/2
1-1/4 5-1/2 9/16
1-1/2 6 3/4
(3) Round plate washers shall be made of rolled steel. Finish may be black or hot dip galvanized. 4
B A C
Bolt Outside Inside
Size Diameter Diameter Thickness
3/8 2 7/16 3/16
1/2 2-1/4 9/16 3/16
5/8 2-1/2 11/16 1/4
3/4 3 13/16 1/4
7/8 3-1/2 15/16 5/16
1 4 1-1/16 3/8
1-1/4 5 1-3/8 3/8
1-1/2 5 1-5/8 3/8

Timber Structures
d. Lag Screws. Lag screws, including steel drive dowels and spikes with spirally grooved shanks shall be made of rolled
steel. Heads for lag screws shall be U.S. standard unless otherwise specified.
e. Special Castings. Special castings, including such parts as gib plates, angle blocks, etc., shall be made of cast or
malleable iron. They shall be true to pattern, free from wind, without injurious defects and of the size and shape
specified on the plans.
f. Cap - Stringer Fasteners. These include such types of fastenings as shown on Appendix 3 - Legacy Designs; Figure 7-
A3-64. They shall be made of rolled steel of the size and shape specified on the plans.
g. Metal Joint Connectors.
(1) Spiked grids, cast shear plates and claw plates shall be made of malleable iron.
(2) Split rings, toothed rings, bull dog types, pressed shear plates and clamping plates shall be made of rolled steel.
(3) They shall be of the size and design specified on plan.
h. Brace Plates and Washer Plates. Brace plates and washer plates or similar items shall be made of rolled steel to the
size and details specified on the plan.
1.6.3 USE OF PROTECTIVE COATINGS FOR STEEL FASTENERS ON TIMBER BRIDGES

(2008)
a. Plain iron or steel fastenings will ordinarily outlast untreated timber. Creosote oil, whether straight or in coal-tar or oil
mixtures, will retard corrosion of embedded metal fastenings.
b. Galvanizing or other protective coating on iron or steel fastenings is not warranted if the fastenings are to be entirely
embedded in untreated or creosote treated timber or if metal is to be exposed only to ordinary weathering.
c. When metal fastenings are not to be completely embedded and are to be exposed to salt water or an unusually corrosive
atmosphere, consideration should be given to the use of galvanizing or to some other protective coatings on the
exposed metal. As the limits within which protectively coated metal is economical are not well established, local
experience should be investigated.
SECTION 1.7 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIMBER BRIDGE TIES
1.7.1 MATERIAL (2009)
1.7.1.1 Kinds of Wood
Before manufacturing ties, the railway or end user shall determine which species of wood are acceptable.
1.7.2 PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS (2009)
1.7.2.1 General Quality
The general quality of bridge ties shall conform to the appropriate grading rules. All ties shall be sawn from live, sound,
straight timber free of defects that may impair strength or durability; such as decay, splits, shake, excessive slope of grain, or
numerous holes or knots, bark, wane, etc.

1.7.3 DESIGN (2009)
Also see Article 1.7.4.
1.7.3.1 Support Conditions
Depending on the intended service conditions, bridge ties may be classified as structural or bearing ties. Structural ties are
normally used for open deck bridges having steel girder spans. Under these conditions the strength of the ties is governed by
flexure or horizontal shear. Bearing ties are normally used for open decks of timber trestle spans or on open decks of steel
beam spans having multiple beams where the strength of ties is governed by bearing on the top of the stringer flange.
1.7.3.2 Dimensions
a. The minimum cross-section for structural and bearing type bridge ties shall be based on the applicable clauses of
Chapter 7, Part 2.
b. The minimum width of bridge ties shall be eight (8) inches nominal.
c. When ties are dapped, the minimum depth of the tie shall be the net depth as calculated in Article 1.7.3.2a.
d. The minimum length of bridge ties shall be ten feet (nominal) or center-to-center of outer supports plus three times the
depth of tie, whichever is greater.
1.7.4 INSPECTION (2009) 1

1.7.4.1 Place
Before accepting ties for installation, the bridge ties shall be inspected at locations specified by the railway.
1.7.4.2 Manner
3
Prior to treatment, inspectors shall make a close examination of the top, bottom, sides and ends of each bridge tie with regard
to its manufacture and compliance with respect to the grading rules. Each bridge tie shall be judged independently, without
regard to decisions on other ties in the same lot.
1.7.4.3 Handling
Bridge ties are to be handled with care to prevent damage. Damaged ties will not be accepted. 4
1.7.4.4 Quality
Bridge ties shall be treated No. 1 Grade in the following species:
• Douglas Fir - Costal Species, Beams and Stringers, WCLIB, WWPA or NLGA.
• Oak, Timbers - Beams and Stringers, NELMA.
• Southern Yellow Pine, Timbers, SPIB.
1.7.4.5 Dimensions
The following finished dimensional tolerances of sawn or machined bridge ties are to be followed unless otherwise specified
by the railway.

Timber Structures
Depth: Sized or dapped areas: ± 1/16”
1.7.5 DELIVERY (2010)
1.7.5.1 Location
Bridge ties delivered for acceptance shall be stacked at suitable and convenient locations meeting individual railway safety
requirements and as approved by the railway. Bridge ties delivered on the premises of a railway for inspection shall be stacked
on blocking placed on firm ground.
1.7.5.2 Risk, Rejection
All bridge ties remain the property of the supplier until accepted. All rejected ties shall be removed from railway premises by
the supplier at his expense within a time frame specified by the railway; for example within thirty (30) days after the date of
rejection.
1.7.6 SHIPMENT (2009)
Bridge ties shall be separated into bundles therein according to bridge locations for which they are intended, and also
according to the location on the bridge spans, unless otherwise stipulated in the contract, on the railway order form or on the
accompanying plans for the ties.
1.7.7 DAPPING OR SIZING BRIDGE TIES (2009)
Dapping or sizing of ties is to be performed in a framing mill properly equipped to perform such work. Dapping or sizing is to
be performed before treatment.
a. When dapped bridge ties are used, the width of dap shall be the width of flange plus 1/2 inch and the minimum depth
of dap shall be 3/8 inch or such that the undapped portion will not bear on gusset plates, bracing, etc.
b. When sized ties are required, the railway may specify surfacing on 1 or more sides or edges.
c. On curved tracks, superelevation may be provided by tapered ties, which may be dapped or sized. An approved tie plan
must be provided to the framing mill and the ties should be uniquely and individually numbered to identify ties having
different dapped dimensions. The method of numbering shall comply with the requirements of the railway.
1.7.8 BRIDGE TIE INSTALLATION (2010)
1.7.8.1 Bridge Tie Spacing and Spacers
a. The maximum recommended nominal clear distance between ties shall be:
• six (6) inches for structural ties,
• six (6) inches for bearing ties on steel beams or girders and
• eight (8) inches on timber stringers.
b. Bridge tie spacers may be a minimum 4" x 8" wood, or 3" x 5/8” steel bar having predrilled holes for fasteners, or of
other design as specified by the railway.

c. A tie spacer shall be fastened to each bridge tie with 5/8” diameter drive spikes, lag screws or lag bolts and shall be
long enough to engage a minimum of one half the depth of tie. To avoid splitting, it is recommended to pre-bore holes
in the ties.
1.7.8.2 Rail Fastening
The type of rail fasteners to be used will be determined by the railway.
a. For spikes refer to Chapter 5, Part 2.
b. For spiking refer to Chapter 5, Part 4.
c. For other fastening systems refer to manufacturer’s specifications.
1.7.8.3 Tie Plates
a. For tie plates refer to Chapter 5, Part 1.
b. Suitably sized double shouldered tie plates shall be used taking into consideration species of wood, axle loads,
predominant train speeds, track curvature, etc.
c. The minimum recommended size of tie plates is:
Main line bridge decks: 7¾” x 15"

1
For other bridge decks: 7" x 12"
d. The railway may use tie plates of special design providing the requirements of Article 1.7.8.3c are met.
1.7.8.4 Bridge Tie Pads

3
a. Tie pads may be used to minimize plate cutting and to reduce impact and vibration effects on the bridge structures.
b. Tie pads may be made of a plain or reinforced elastomeric material, impregnated fibrous material or any other suitable
product, provided they are strong enough for the loading, are water repellent and stay firm in shape during service.
c. The size of tie pad shall conform to the tie plate used and shall be of suitable thickness.
4
d. Many special design tie plates do not permit the use of tie pads. The suitability of specific tie plates for use with bridge
tie pads shall be verified with the tie plate manufacturer.
e. Refer to Chapter 30, Section 2.5 for material requirements and testing.
1.7.8.5 Bridge Tie Fastening
a. For fastening bridge ties to timber stringers, one of the following anchoring systems may be used:
(1) Bolts or drive spikes.
(2) Machine bolts with adequate washers and nuts.
(3) A combination of (1) and (2).
b. For fastening bridge ties to steel beams and girders, one of the following anchoring systems may be used:

Timber Structures
(1) Machine bolts with a plate or spring washer and standard or lock type nut.
(2) Hook bolts with a plate or spring washer and standard or lock type nut.
(3) Machine bolts with a clip and plate or spring washer and standard or lock type nut.
(4) Other systems may be used if approved by the railway.
(5) Ties installed on the rivet or bolt heads of built-up girders should have the fasteners re-tightened after traffic has
set the new deck down on the girder flange.
c. The size and the spacing of the anchoring system should be such as to provide adequate stability for the open deck
considering the loads and forces as described in Chapter 7 and Chapter 15.
d. Refer to Chapter 7, Part 1 and Chapter 15, Section 8.3 of the latest revision of this Manual for additional guidelines.
1.7.9 PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF BRIDGE TIES (2009)
Refer to Chapter 30, Section 3.6 and Section 3.7.
1.7.10 SPIKE OR BOLT HOLES (2009)
Refer to Chapter 30, Part 3.
1.7.11 TIE PLUGS (2009)
Refer to Chapter 30, Article 3.1.5.
1.7.12 TIE BRANDING (2009)
Refer to Chapter 30, Article 3.1.4.5.
1.7.13 END SPLITTING CONTROL DEVICES (2009)
Refer to Chapter 30, Articles 3.1.6 and 3.1.7.
SECTION 1.8 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FIRE-RETARDANT COATING

FOR CREOSOTED WOOD1 (1963) R(2008)
1.8.1 SCOPE (1988)
These recommendations are intended primarily for use with coatings of the film-forming classification, such as paints and
mastics. Any material other than film-forming type shall conform to these recommendations except where film-forming
qualities are required for fulfillment of the recommendations and apply to:
a. Performing requirements of fire-retardant coating compositions for use with wood treated with creosote or mixture of
creosote with coal tar or petroleum, and
1

b. Methods for the acceptance testing of such fire-retardant coatings.
1.8.2 GENERAL PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS (1988)
1.8.2.1 Uniformity
a. All component raw materials of the product shall be thoroughly mixed and dispersed during its manufacture, unless the
product is a multi-component system which sets or polymerizes rapidly and requires mixing immediately prior to
application.
b. The formulation and quality of the product shall be maintained constant by the manufacturer and shall not be varied
without notice.
1.8.2.2 Stability in Storage
The product shall maintain stability at temperatures above 32 degrees F, shall not require unusual storage conditions, and shall
conform to the requirements of the following:
a. In a freshly opened container the product shall reveal no curdling, livering, lumping, decomposition, gelling or any
other objectionable characteristic within 12 months after delivery.
b. Separated, settled, caked or thickened materials shall be easily and adequately dispersible with a paddle without change
in the quality or properties of the product.
1
1.8.2.3 Applied Coating
A dry film of the product shall exhibit the following properties:
a. Adhesion: The product shall be cohesive and shall adhere to the primary surface or to any secondary supporting
surface.
3
b. Durability: The product shall resist water, brine, creosote, mixtures of creosote with petroleum or coal tar, sunlight,
freezing and thawing, and general temperature extremes.
c. Foot Traffic: The product shall resist damage when applied on traffic areas.
d. Fire Retardancy: The product shall withstand heat or flames originated by miscellaneous heat sources, including
ignited fusees, hot brake shoe splinters, sparks, hot coals or cinders, drops of molten metal, and burning debris. 4
1.8.2.4 Flammability of Wet Films
a. The evaporation of solvents or other materials from a wet film of the product shall cease to constitute a flammable
hazard within 4 hours after application.
b. A film of the product, applied so as to achieve the minimum total dry thickness recommended by the manufacturer,
shall cease to support combustion within 48 hours after application of the final coat.
1.8.2.5 Drying Time
A film of the product, applied at the maximum wet thickness recommended by the manufacturer, within 36 hours after
application and without forced drying, shall be hard enough to allow firm pressure of the thumb against the coated object
without rupture of the film or adherence of coating to the thumb.

Timber Structures
1.8.3 APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS AND INSTRUCTIONS (1988)
1.8.3.1 Handling Instructions
All precautions for storage and handling prior to and during application of the product shall be stated clearly in an
accompanying instruction leaflet prominently displayed on each container, together with complete information and
instructions for recommended equipment and materials for surface preparation, thinning, and application.
1.8.3.2 Product Information
All information and physical measurements not specified elsewhere in these recommendations, which might assist in the
proper handling or testing of the product, shall accompany the instructions and shall include the following:
a. Specific gravity, and weight in pounds per gallon, or weight to the nearest 0.1 g of 1 pint of the coating.
b. Recommended maximum wet thickness and calculated coverage of a single-coat application of the coating, unthinned
and thinned with recommended proportions of thinner.
c. Measured resultant dry thickness of the recommended maximum wet thickness of a single-coat application.
d. Recommended minimum dry thickness required for fire-retardancy effectiveness.
e. Drying time required between applications, thinned and unthinned.
f. Duration of solvent fire hazard during the drying lime of a single-coat application, thinned and unthinned.
g. Drying or curing time required to attain maximum fire retardancy.
h. Recommended spray equipment (gun type, orifice size, spray pattern, pressure, etc.).
i. Solvents and materials which may be used to clean application equipment.
j. Corrosiveness of product to container and spray equipment.
k. Toxicity to humans and animals of the product in the wet and dried conditions.
1.8.3.3 Working Properties
a. The product shall be applicable by brushing, spraying and, if it is a mastic, by trowelling, or it shall be adaptable for
spraying, without loss of quality, by addition of a thinner recommended by the manufacturer.
b. A wet film of the product, when applied at the thickness recommended by the manufacturer, shall not show sagging,
running, pinholing or other objectionable features.
1.8.3.4 Surface Preparation
Timber surface preparation or treatment shall not be extensive and shall not require unusual equipment, materials or
operations.

1.8.4 TESTING (2011)
1.8.4.1 Specimen Preparation
a. Wood Selection. The wood shall be selected from well-seasoned nominal 2 inches by 6 inches boards of Grade B & Btr
edge-grained southern yellow pine containing no more than 10 percent heartwood, at least 14 feet in length, dressed on
four sides and free from knots, stains, pitch pockets and bark. The maximum width of the annual growth rings shall be
no greater than 1/16 inch. Edge-grained shall mean that at both ends of a board, where the wood has been cut cross
sectionally, at least half of the acute angles between lines drawn tangential to the annual rings and lines drawn
perpendicular to the broad surfaces of the board shall be no greater than 45 degrees.
b. Sectioning. The first 6 inches of the ends of each board shall be discarded, and the remainder shall be cut laterally into
18 inch sections. Each section shall be identified by the board number and by its own number from one end of the
board. Each section shall be tested for moisture content at 6 inch intervals along its longitudinal axis with an electrical
moisture meter employing metal probes which are no shorter than 1/4 inch. The moisture content of a section shall be
greater than 8 percent and less than 15 percent. The sections shall be protected from checking or loss of moisture,
preferably by storage in a cold, humidified atmosphere. A section which has checked shall not be used as a test
specimen.
c. Preservative Treatment. The dimensions of an 18 inch section shall be measured to the nearest 0.01 inch and the
volume calculated to the nearest 0.001 cubic foot. Each section shall be weighed to the nearest gram before
preservative treatment. The creosote solutions and treating methods employed for impregnation of the sections shall be
prescribed by the purchaser. After preservative treatment, each section shall be allowed to drain freely for 24 hour,
wiped clean, and weighed to the nearest gram. The preservative retention shall be calculated in pounds per cubic foot 1
to the nearest 0.01 lb per cubic foot, using the previously obtained dimensions and volume calculations, and the
resultant figure shall be called “initial retention.” The treated sections shall be stored for a minimum of 30 days or a
maximum of 60 days, at approximately 75 degrees F and 50 percent relative humidity, prior to a coating application or
any form of testing. Immediately prior to preparation of a section for use in testing procedures, the section shall be
weighed to the nearest gram, the net preservative retention shall be calculated: the resultant figure shall be called “test
retention.” The test retention of any specimen shall be no less than 10 lb per cubic feet. All treated or untreated
specimens used in a test shall be subjected to identical pre-test storage conditions. 3
1.8.4.2 Fire Tests
1.8.4.2.1 Testing in Fire-Test Cabinet
a. Apparatus. The fire-test cabinet shall be a rectangular insulated chamber measuring 31 inches high, 10 inches wide and
12 inches deep. In order to suspend the specimen in the fire-test cabinet, a supporting rod shall be affixed horizontally 4
1 inch from the tops of opposite walls of the cabinet. For draft control, the 2-inch bottom section of the cabinet shall
consist of louvers which can be raised 90 degrees. Two pairs of ungalvanized iron pipe with 3/8 inch internal diameter,
each pair vertically parallel and separated by 3 inches between their longitudinal axes, shall be fastened to opposite
sides of the cabinet. Orifices of 1/32 inch diameter shall be located in a straight line at 1-inch intervals, for 20 inches
along each pipe, beginning at 1/2 inch from the cap (Figure 7-A3-1). The cabinet shall be equipped with a removable
door fitted with viewing ports covered with mica sheet (Figure 7-A3-2). A pilot-flame orifice shall be installed at the
bottom of one pipe at each side of the cabinet (Figure 7-A3-3 and Figure 7-A3-4).
b. Fuel. Bottled liquid-petroleum gas, with a minimum propane content of 95 percent, shall be supplied to the burner
pipes at the rate of 0.4 cubic foot per minute or approximately 60,000 Btu per hour during the course of a specimen
ignition. The flames shall extend approximately 4 inches horizontally from the orifices and shall be a definite yellow
color.
c. Specimen Section and Position. The test specimen shall be selected by the procedures specified under Article 1.8.4.1a
coated with a film of uniform thickness, allowed to dry or cure completely, and shall be suspended vertically in the

Timber Structures
fire-test cabinet at the initiation of the test. The broad faces of the specimen shall parallel the two pairs of burner pipes
at a distance of 3 inches from the orifices, with the top end of the specimen on a level with the top orifices.
d. Test Procedure. A specimen shall be positioned in the fire-test cabinet with the door closed and the pilot flames lit. The
ignition of the specimen shall be effective by quickly opening the fuel valve to the required setting and allowing the
flames of the ignited gas to be directed against the specimen for 5 minutes. The duration of self-sustained flaming after
ignition shall be recorded and designated as “free-burning time.” The period after which flaming has stopped and
glowing occurs shall be recorded and designated as “glow time.” The free-burning interval shall be terminated for one
of the following reasons:
(1) A maximum free-burning time of 30 minutes shall have passed.
(2) During the 30-minute free-burning period it is judged that the flames are merely flickering or flashing and
constitute practical self-extinguishment, or that small flames are being sustained only at the ends of the specimen.
If at the end of the 30-minute free-burning period, flaming continues at a rate requiring the use of an accessory
extinguishing agent, the flames shall be extinguished with a fire-extinguishing gas.
The test may be conducted in a well insulated laboratory fume hood or on a table placed under an insulated canopy.
Both the fume hood and the canopy shall be equipped with efficient, safe, smoke-exhaust fans. The exhaust fans shall
be operating prior to ignition of the specimen.
e. Observations. The specimen shall be attentively observed during the ignition and the free-burning periods, and
specimen appearance, coating condition and flame activity shall be recorded. Relative flame activity during the free-
burning period and at its termination shall be described with the following terminology:
(1) Vigorous – Entire specimen flaming with little or no apparent diminishment of combustion rate.
(2) Very Strong – Approximately 75 percent of specimen flaming, with apparent combustion rate slowly decreasing.
(3) Strong – Approximately 50 percent of specimen flaming, with apparent combustion rate decreasing.
(4) Mild – Approximately 25 percent of specimen flaming, with apparent combustion rate decreasing rapidly.
(5) Scattered – Areas of flaming where creosote wicking may be occurring or a heat trap may be located.
(6) Torching – Flames occurring with jet-like activity at points of coating rupture or specimen checking.
(7) Flickering – Small, virtually extinguished, flames at a few discrete points.
(8) Flashing – Spontaneous extinguishment and reignition of an area.
After the free-burning period, the specimen shall be allowed to remain in the fire-test cabinet, with the door removed,
until glowing has ceased. The time required for the cessation of glowing shall be recorded as “glow time.”
The burned specimen shall be weighed to the nearest gram, with the coating removed and wood char intact, not less
than 24 nor more than 36 hours after the free-burning period. The specimen shall be cleaned of char immediately,
without damage to the wood, and weighed again. The differences between the two weighings shall be recorded as the
weight of the char, and shall be calculated in pounds per cubic foot of volume of the unburned specimen. The
difference of weight of the specimen before burning and after being burned and cleaned shall be recorded as its total
weight loss, and shall be calculated in pounds per cubic foot by volume of the unburned specimen.

The thickness of the burned, cleaned specimen shall be measured to the nearest 1/64 inch on its longitudinal axis at a
point 6 inches from the end which was topmost in the fire-test cabinet. The difference between the thickness of the
specimen before and after cleaning shall be divided by two and recorded as char depth.
Other observations which shall be recorded are:
(1) Coating thickness and weight, wet.
(2) All defects found in a coated or uncoated specimen before a fire test.
(3) Blistering, fissuring, rupturing, intumescence, sloughing or other effects exhibited by a coating during a test and
the elapsed time before their occurrence.
(4) Relative extent of preservative bleeding during a fire test.
(5) Relative amount of smoke production during a fire test.
f. Acceptance Criteria. The specimen shall be totally self-extinguished within the 30-minute free-burning period or shall
exhibit only flickering flames.
(1) The total weight loss of the specimen, with char removed, shall not exceed 30 percent, or 15 lb per cubic foot by
volume of the unburned specimen.
(2) The char depth shall not exceed 1/8 inch. The char shall be evenly distributed with no occurrence of cupped areas.
1
(3) The quality of char shall not exceed 2.5 lb per cubic foot by volume of the unburned specimen.
(4) Glowing shall cease within 1 hour after termination of the free-burning period.
(5) The coating shall remain intact upon the specimen throughout the ignition, free-burning and glow periods, and
shall exhibit no sloughing, spalling or peeling.
3
(6) The performance of a minimum of three specimens, prepared in an identical manner, shall conform to the
stipulations of the acceptance criteria.
1.8.4.2.2 Fusee Test
a. Construction. The fusee test apparatus shall consist of two specimens selected by the procedures specified under
Article 1.8.4.1a and a section of gypsum or other fireproof insulating board measuring 18 inches by 16 inches by 1 4
inch. The two wood specimens shall be coated uniformly with the same thickness used for specimens tested in the fire-
test cabinet, and allowed to dry or cure completely. The coated specimens shall be joined together lengthwise in the
shape of an “L”, forming one side and the bottom of a flat-bottomed trough. The trough shall be completed in a “U”
shape by joining the insulation board to the bottom specimen. The specimens need not be nailed or fastened together.
The bottom specimen may be laid flat, with the other coated specimen and the insulation board standing on their edges
and placed flush against the edges of the bottom specimen.
b. Procedure. The trough shall be situated in a laboratory fume hood, with the exhaust fan operating. A 10-minute fusee
shall be ignited and laid snugly in the corner formed by the junction of the two coated specimens. When the fusee has
been consumed the duration and intensity of residual flame activity shall be recorded.
c. Acceptance Criteria.
(1) Flames shall be totally or virtually self-extinguished within 10 minutes after the fusee has stopped burning.

Timber Structures
(2) The coating shall not flake, peel, crumble, slough or exhibit any other effects which result in the exposure of the
wood substrate.
(3) Glowing shall have ceased within 30 minutes after flaming has stopped.
1.8.4.2.3 Accelerated Weathering Test
a. Apparatus and Specimens. When a coating shall have conformed to the standards of the first tests during initial testing,
it shall be used to prepare five additional specimens which shall be approximately identical to those which had been
tested. After thorough drying or curing, the specimens shall be exposed to artificial sunlight and simulated rainfall in a
weathering device described in ASTM Specifications, designation E42.
b. Procedure. Each specimen shall be positioned vertically in the weathering device, with one of its broad surfaces facing
the light source. The same surface shall face the light throughout the test. The test shall be terminated after an
accumulated light-exposure time of 1,000 hours or when, at any prior time, the coating is judged to have failed. The
decision of apparent coating failure shall be subjective and shall be based on the appearance of excessive blistering or
softening, or exposure of wood by sloughing, peeling, flaking, cracking or other effects. The test shall be conducted in
accordance with the following program:
(1) The specimen shall be exposed to artificial sunlight at all times during the operation of the weathering device,
except for such time as shall be required for the restriking of the carbon arc.
(2) The specimens shall be mounted, with a face-to-face diameter of 30 inches, on a circular rack which rotates at the
rate of 1 rpm. A water spray in the weathering device shall operate for 18 minutes at intervals of 102 minutes, so
that during each 2 hours of light radiation the specimens shall be exposed to water for 18 minutes. In this manner
each specimen shall receive approximately 2.5–3.0 minutes direct water spray during each 2-hour radiation period.
(3) Exposure in the artificial weathering device shall be undertaken daily, for a total of 90 hours within 5 days. At the
end of each 90 hours of exposure, the specimens shall be allowed to cool at room temperature for a minimum of 2
hours and then placed for 65 hours in a cold chamber adjusted to maintain a temperature of –20 degrees F. At the
end of the cold period, the specimens shall be observed during all handling and transfer operations involving a
specimen so as not to modify its condition.
c. Acceptance Criteria. At the termination of the weathering program, if failure has not occurred, the specimens shall be
subjected to the fire tests and shall be rated by the acceptance criteria of those tests.
1.8.4.2.4 Brine Resistance Tests
a. Apparatus. An assembly shall be arranged consisting of a stop-cock-controlled funnel and a small container equipped
with an overflow outlet. The container shall measure 4 inches on all sides, with an overflow tube of a minimum 1/8
inch diameter leading out from a point 1 inch below the top edge, and shall be composed of waterproof and chemical-
resistant materials, such as glass, rubber or plastics. The funnel shall be large enough to contain a minimum of 500 ml
of liquid and shall be placed vertically over the container.
b. Specimen Selection and Preparation. An 18 inch preservative-treated specimen shall be selected by the procedures
outlined under Article 1.8.4.1a discarding 4-1/2 inches of each end of the specimen. The remainder of the specimen
shall be sawn laterally at 2 inch intervals, yielding four sections, each of which shall be weighed to the nearest 0.1 g. A
uniform continuous coating film of the same thickness used for the fire-test specimens shall be applied to all surfaces
of the section, beginning at a point 1 inch from one end. The thickness and weight of the wet coating application shall
be recorded, and the coating shall be allowed to dry or cure completely.
c. Test Procedure. The container shall be filled to the overflow outlet with a 10 percent sodium chloride brine solution.
The funnel also shall be filled with the brine solution. The test shall be conducted at room temperature, 75 to 80
degrees F, and the brine shall be maintained at that temperature throughout the test. The coated end of a specimen shall

be immersed at approximately a 45 degree angle in the container, with the wider side facing upward, and with the
uncoated area of the opposite side resting on the edge of the container. No more than 4 nor less than 3-1/2 inches of a
coated side shall be below the surface of the solution. The tip of the funnel shall be positioned 1 inch above the center
of the line between the coated and uncoated areas of the specimen. At the start of the test, the stop cock shall be opened
sufficiently to allow drops of brine to fall at the rate of approximately 10 drops per minute, striking the specimen at the
midpoint of the line between the coated and uncoated areas. Dripping and immersion shall be continuous for 300
hours. The effluent from the specimen container shall be collected in any suitable container and discarded. At the end
of 300 hours, the brine solution in the specimen container shall be examined for discoloration and for materials which
have separated from the coating. The specimen shall be observed for blistering, fissuring, crumbling or other effects.
d. Acceptance Criteria. The specimen shall be examined immediately at the end of a test and at a time one week after the
test. Fissures in the coating shall be no wider than hairline cracks. Blisters shall be no larger than 1/8 inch in diameter.
Gentle teasing of the coating with knife point shall not result in easy dislodgement of coating particles. The dry
thickness of the coating at any location on the specimen shall not have decreased by more than 1/4 of the original dry
thickness. Discoloration of the brine solution and the presence of coating particles in the container shall indicate
possible leaching or solvation of the fire-retardant constituents of the coating.
1.8.4.2.5 Foot Traffic Test
A specimen shall be selected and prepared in the same manner as the specimens used for the fire tests, with the same thickness
of coating applied. The coating shall be allowed to dry or cure completely.
a. Procedure. The specimen shall be heated for 1 hour at 140 degrees F in an electric oven. The specimen shall then be
removed from the oven and immediately laid flat on one of its broad surfaces on a protected area of the floor, The
uppermost surface shall be stepped upon with one foot by a person weighing no less than 150 lbs. His entire weight
1
shall be concentrated on the specimen for 1 minute, at the end of which time he shall execute a 45 degree twisting
movement of the ball of his foot upon the coating and then step off the specimen.
b. Acceptance Criteria.
(1) The coating shall not exhibit tearing and shall not be lifted from the wood substrate by adhesion to the shoe used to 3
exert pressure. Should these or other objectionable effects occur, the test shall be repeated, using mineral aggregate
or similar material spread over the specimen surface while the coating is still wet.
(2) When a surfacing material is used in conjunction with a coating, it shall not be sufficiently dislodged to require
resurfacing the specimen.

Timber Structures

7
Part 2
Design of Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles for
Railway Loading1
— 2013 —
FOREWORD
This specification covers the design of wood structures subject to railway loading, and it assumes each structural member to
carry its own load, competent design and fabrication, reliable stress grading of timber material, and adequate maintenance of
structures. 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 Design of Public Works Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3 3

2.1.1 General (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3
2.2 General Features of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3

2.2.1 Materials (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3
2.2.2 Clearances (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-4
2.2.3 Stringers (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-5
2.2.4 Ties (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-5
2.2.5 Bents (1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-6
2.2.6 Piles and Post Footings (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-6
2.2.7 Current and Historical Designs and Design Aids (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-6
2.2.8 Temporary Structures (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-6
2.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-6

2.3.1 Loads and Forces (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-6
2.3.2 Dead Load (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-7
2.3.3 Live Load (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-7
2.3.4 Centrifugal Force (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-7
2.3.5 Other Lateral Forces (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-9
2.3.6 Longitudinal Force (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-9
1
References, Vol. 44, 1943, pp. 362, 670, 691; Vol. 51, 1950, pp. 433, 866; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 428, 847; Vol. 58, 1957, pp. 676, 1169; Vol. 70, 1969, p. 219;
Vol. 76, 1973, p. 232; Vol. 84, 1983, p. 88; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106; Vol. 91, 1990, pp 57, 62.

Timber Structures
2.3.7 Combined Stresses (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-10

2.3.8 Impact (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-10
2.3.9 Deflection (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-10
2.4 Designing for Engineered Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-10

2.4.1 Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-10
2.4.2 Design Equations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-17
2.5 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-20

2.5.1 Working Unit Stresses (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-20
2.5.2 Form Factor (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-20
2.5.3 Deflection, Permanent Set (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-20
2.5.4 Compression Parallel to Grain or Centrally Loaded Columns (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-20
2.5.5 Bearing (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-21
2.5.6 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-21
2.5.7 Bearing at Angle to Grain (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-29
2.5.8 Combined Axial and Bending Loads (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-29
2.5.9 Horizontal Shear (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-30
2.5.10 Notches (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-30
2.5.11 Shearing Stress (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-31
2.5.12 Bearing on Bolts (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-31
2.5.13 Connectors (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-38
2.5.14 Round Sections (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-38
2.6 Details of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-38

2.6.1 General (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-38
2.6.2 Net Section (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-38
2.6.3 Bolted Connections (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-38
2.6.4 Notched Beams (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-38
2.6.5 Design for Rehabilitations of Portions of Existing Timber Trestles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-39
LIST OF FIGURES
7-2-1 Tangent Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-4

7-2-2 Cooper E 80 Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-7

Design of Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles for Railway Loading
LIST OF TABLES
7-2-1 Lateral Clearance for Curved Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-5

7-2-2 Centrifugal Force for Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-8
7-2-3 Applicability of Adjustment Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-12
7-2-4 Effective Column Length for Various End Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-14
7-2-5 Specific Gravity of Lumber for Design of Connectors in Timber Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-16
7-2-6 Applicable Adjustment Factors to Fasteners for Trestle Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-17
7-2-7 Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber - Railroad Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-18
7-2-8 Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber -- Railroad Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-19
7-2-9 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber – Railroad Loading (Visual Grading)1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-22
7-2-10 Unit Compression (Column) Stresses for Standard Stress Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-28
7-2-11 Basic Unit Stresses for Bearing on Bolts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-31
7-2-12 Percentage of Basic Stress for Various L/d Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-32
7-2-13 Bearing Value for Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-33
SECTION 2.1 DESIGN OF PUBLIC WORKS PROJECTS
2.1.1 GENERAL (1990) 1

a. The design, plans, special provisions and specifications for railroad bridges to be built as a public works project and
paid for with public funds administered by a public agency shall be prepared by the engineering staff of the railroad
involved or by a consulting engineer whose selection has been mutually approved by the railroad and the public
agency. The intention of this requirement is that if a consultant is selected, it shall be one who is familiar with the
design of railroad bridges, and particularly with the special requirements and operating conditions of the railroad
concerned so that the time involvement of the railroad’s engineering staff will be minimized.
3
b. If a consulting engineer is engaged, the contract for his services may be administered by the public agency or by the
railroad if it so desires. In either case, the technical aspects of the work of the consulting engineer shall be under the
direction of the railroad and the final plans and specifications must meet with the approval of the railroad.
c. Specifications and Recommended Practice for Overhead and Other Wood Highway Bridges (2009)
4
It is recommended that the current edition of Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges adopted by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation officials be used as a guide for overhead and other wood highway
bridges. Clearances, foundations, construction practices and details should be with approval and in accordance with
individual railroad practice.
SECTION 2.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2.2.1 MATERIALS (1988)
a. Wood piles shall conform to AREMA specifications see, Part 1, Material Specifications for Lumber, Timber,
Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and Recommendations for Fire-Retardant
Coating for Creosoted Wood.

Timber Structures
b. Structural lumber shall be stress-grade and shall conform to AREMA specifications see, Part 1, Material Specifications
for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and Recommendations
for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood.
c. Where portions of the structure consists of structural steel, reinforced concrete or masonry, the current AREMA
specifications relating to structures of these materials shall apply, with the allowance for impact provided for in those
specifications.
2.2.2 CLEARANCES (1988)
a. The clearances on straight track shall be not less than those shown in Figure 7-2-1. On curved track, the lateral
clearance each side of track centerline shall be increased 1-1/2 inches per degree of curvature. When the fixed
obstruction is on tangent track, but the track is curved within 80 feet of the obstruction, the lateral clearance each side
of track centerline shall be increased as shown in Table 7-2-1.
b. Where legal requirements specify greater clearances, such requirements shall govern.
c. The superelevation of the outer rail shall be specified by the Engineer. The distance from the top of rail to the top of tie
shall be assumed as 8 inches, unless otherwise specified by the Engineer.
C
LOF TRACK
3’-0 6’-0 6’-0 3’-0
[914] [1829] [1829] [914]
[914]
3’-0
9’-0 9’-0
[4877]
16’-0
[2743] [2743]
23’-0
[7010]
18’-0
[5486]
PLANE ACROSS
[1219]
4’-0
TOP OF RAIL
BRACKETED DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS.
Figure 7-2-1. Tangent Track
d. Where there are plans for electrification, the minimum vertical clearance shall be increased to that specified in Chapter
28, Clearances.

Table 7-2-1. Lateral Clearance for Curved Track
Distance from Obstruction to Increase per Degree of

Curved Track in Feet Curvature in Inches
0-21 1-1/2
21-40 1-1/8
41-60 3/4
61-80 3/8
e. The clearances shown are for new construction. Clearances for reconstruction work or for alterations are dependent on
existing physical conditions and, where reasonably possible, should be improved to meet the requirements for new
construction.
2.2.3 STRINGERS (2009)1

a. The span length, for the purpose of computing bending stresses in the stringers, shall be assumed as the clear distance
face to face of bearings plus 6 inches; except that, if continuity is figured on, the intermediate support shall be taken at
the center of the support.
b. Stringers shall be selected to provide:
(1) Depth, preferably, not less than one-twelfth of the span.
(2) Width, not less than one-third of the depth. 1

c. Stringers shall comprise a group placed to effect, as nearly as practicable, equal distribution of track loads. On open
deck timber bridges, each stringer chord shall be centered as nearly as practicable beneath the rail it supports.
2.2.4 TIES (2010)

a. Cross ties shall be of adequate size to distribute the track load to all stress-carrying stringers. 3
b. Each tie shall be designed to carry not less than one-third of the maximum axle load, as well as to provide sufficient
stiffness to properly distribute loads to the stringers. Ties shall be secured against bunching, and the maximum clear
space between them, on open deck timber bridges, shall be 8 inches.
c. On open deck timber bridges, timber bearing ties shall be selected to provide:
4
(1) Depth, nominal, not less than the following, rounded to the nearest half-inch:
The larger of:
8”
or
( b – N ) 3 – 6t (which can be approximated as 0.2887 (b - N) - t)

-------------------------------------
6
Where:
1

Timber Structures
b = total nominal width of a single stringer chord centered beneath a single rail, in inches.
N = width of rail base, in inches.
t = minimum thickness, in inches, of rail seat: i.e. the portion of the tie plate in direct contact with the rail base
(2) Width, not less than 8 inches.
(3) Length, not less than 10 feet.
2.2.5 BENTS (1998)

a. Bents shall consist of a sufficient number of piles or posts, so that no member in any bent will be overstressed under
any condition of loading. For the purpose of computing stresses in the bents their spacing shall be considered as the
distance center to center of caps thereon. An approximate analysis to determine the division of load among the several
piles of a bent is given in Appendix 3 - Legacy Designs. See Table 7-A3-1 thru Table 7-A3-4. The application of this
analysis to bents of various typical dimensions is given in Appendix 3 - Legacy Designs. See Figure 7-A3-5 through
Figure 7-A3-41.
2.2.6 PILES AND POST FOOTINGS (1988)

Piles shall be driven to the required bearing capacity in accordance with AREMA specifications see, Part 4, Construction and
Maintenance of Timber Structures and Part 5, Inspection of Timber Structures. Posts shall be provided with adequate
foundation to support the loads superimposed upon them.
2.2.7 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DESIGNS AND DESIGN AIDS (2013)
See Appendix 1 - Contemporary Designs and Design Aids, Appendix 2 - Designs and Design Aids for Rehabilitation of
Existing Timber Trestles, and Appendix 3 - Legacy Designs.
2.2.8 TEMPORARY STRUCTURES (2010)
See Appendix 2 - Designs and Design Aids for Rehabilitation of Existing Timber Trestles.
SECTION 2.3 LOADS, FORCES AND STRESSES
2.3.1 LOADS AND FORCES (1988)
The following loads and forces should be considered:
(1) Dead load.
(2) Live load.
(3) Centrifugal force.
(4) Lateral force due to wind load and nosing of locomotives.
(5) Longitudinal force.

(6) Impact.
2.3.2 DEAD LOAD (1988)
The dead load shall consist of the estimated weight of the structural member, plus that of the tracks, ballast and other portions
of the structure supported thereby. The weight of material shall be assumed to be as follows:
Track, rails, inside guard rails, and fastenings . . . . . . . . . . 200 lb per linear foot of track
Ballast, including track ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 lb per cubic foot
Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 lb per foot board measure
Protective coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Actual weight
2.3.3 LIVE LOAD (2013)
a. The recommended live load is Cooper E-80 loading with axle loads and axle spacing as shown in Figure 7-2-2. The
Engineer shall specify the live load to be used, and such load shall be proportional to the recommended load, with the
same axle spacing.
Figure 7-2-2. Cooper E 80 Load

4
b. On bridges with ballasted deck the live load shall be assumed as distributed laterally over a width equal to the length of
track ties, plus twice the depth of ballast below the base of tie, unless deck planks are designed to effect greater
distribution of the load.
c. For members receiving load from more than one track all tracks contributing load shall be assumed fully loaded.
d. The design live load used for rehabilitation of portions of existing timber trestles shall be at a minimum equal to the
design capacity of the existing trestle assumed to be in good condition, but not less than the capacity needed to safely
carry all expected traffic.
2.3.4 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE (1988)
a. On curves, the centrifugal force in percentage of the live load is:

Timber Structures
0.00117 S2 D
where:
S = Speed in miles per hour

D = Degree of curve
(Because of the limited duration of the loads, centrifugal force need not be considered in the design of stringers.)
b. It shall be assumed to act 6 feet above the rail. Table 7-2-2 gives the permissible speeds and the corresponding
centrifugal force percentages for curves with the amounts of superelevation shown. It is based on a maximum speed of
100 mph and a maximum superelevation of 7 inches, resulting in a maximum centrifugal force of 17.5 percent.
Table 7-2-2. Centrifugal Force for Curves
D E S C D E S C
0°-10′ 100 1.95 2°-30′ 7 77 17.5
0°-20′ 100 3.90 3°-0′ 7 71 17.5
0°-30′ 0.33 100 5.85 3°-30′ 7 65 17.5
0°-40′ 1.44 100 7.80 4°-0′ 7 61 17.5
0°-50′ 2.56 100 9.75 5°-0′ 7 55 17.5
1°-0′ 3.67 100 11.7 6°-0′ 7 50 17.5
1°-15′ 5.33 100 14.6 8°-0′ 7 43 17.5
1°-30′ 7 100 17.5 10°-0′ 7 39 17.5
1°-45′ 7 93 17.5 15°-0′ 7 32 17.5
2°-0′ 7 87 17.5 20°-0′ 7 27 17.5
2°-15′ 7 82 17.5
D = Degree of curve. C = .00117 S2 D = 1.755 (E+3)
E = Superelevation in inches. 2
2 S D C – 5.265
S = Permissible speed in miles per hour. E = --- ------------ – 3 = -----------------------
3 1000 1.755
1500
C = Centrifugal force in percentage of live load. S2 = ------------ ( E + 3 )
D
c. If the conditions at the site restrict the speed to less than that shown in the table, the centrifugal force percentage shall
be taken for the greatest speed expected.
d. The effect of centrifugal force may be reduced by the compensating effect of the actual amount of superelevation
provided.

2.3.5 OTHER LATERAL FORCES (2009)
2.3.5.1 Wind on the Structure
The lateral force due to wind shall be assumed as 30 lb per square foot acting in any horizontal direction as a moving load:
a. on 1-1/2 times the vertical projection of the floor system for trestles.
b. for truss spans, on the vertical projection of the span, plus any portion of the leeward trusses not shielded by the floor
system.
c. on the vertical projection of all bracing, posts, and piles of trestles and towers.
2.3.5.2 Wind on the Train
The wind force on the train shall be taken as 300 lb per linear foot on the track applied 8 feet above the top of rail. This force
shall be considered as a moving load acting in any horizontal direction.
2.3.5.3 Nosing of the Locomotive
a. The lateral force due to the nosing of the locomotive shall be a moving concentrated load of 20,000 lb applied at the top
of the rail in either horizontal direction at any point of the span. The resulting vertical forces shall be disregarded.
b. Because of the limited duration of the loads, the lateral forces from wind and nosing of the locomotive need not be 1
considered in the design of stringers.
c. In computing the stability of towers and trestle bents, the structure shall be considered as loaded on the leeward track
with a live load of 1200 lb per linear foot and subjected to a wind force of 300 lb per linear foot applied 8 feet above the
top of rail.
2.3.6 LONGITUDINAL FORCE1 (2013) 3

a. The effect of starting and stopping of trains shall be considered as a longitudinal force, acting 6 feet above top of rail,
and taken as the larger of:
• Force due to braking, equal to 15 percent of the live load.
• Force due to traction, equal to 25 percent of weight on the driving wheels. 4
b. Design of bridges shall ensure the adequate transfer of longitudinal forces from the structure to ground.
c. For bridges where by reason of continuity or frictional resistance of rails and floor system, much (or all) of the
longitudinal force will be carried directly to the abutments or embankment, longitudinal force need not be considered
in the design of piles, posts or bracing of bents (such bracing is to be designed to give the necessary L/d stability to the
posts).
d. The longitudinal forces shall be considered as being carried by the stringers and deck of the bridge to the abutments or
embankment or other locations providing specifically designed restraint to transfer the longitudinal force from the
bridge to the ground. Intervals of such restraint shall not exceed 550 feet for material meeting the requirements of
Number 1 Douglas Fir or Number 1 Southern Yellow Pine or better. For other timber materials use 400-foot intervals
1

Timber Structures
of restraint to ground unless an evaluation shows that a larger interval may be used. The design shall ensure the
adequacy of timber stringers and foundation materials to carry this load.
2.3.7 COMBINED STRESSES (2013)
For stresses produced by longitudinal force, wind or other lateral forces, or by a combination of these forces with dead and live
loads and centrifugal force, the allowable working stresses may be increased 50 percent, provided the resulting sections are not
less than those required for dead and live loads and centrifugal force.
2.3.8 IMPACT (2013)
The dynamic increment of load due to the effects of speed, roll and track irregularities is not well established for timber
structures. Its total effect is estimated to be less than the increased strength of timber for the short cumulative duration of
loading to which railroad bridges are subjected in service, and is taken into consideration in the derivation of allowable
working stresses for design.
2.3.9 DEFLECTION (2013)1
Vertical deflection for design purposes should not exceed L/500, where L is the span length. Note in cases where there is
excessive dead load or other long term sustained loads a permanent set (see Article 2.5.3) needs to be considered.
SECTION 2.4 DESIGNING FOR ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS
2.4.1 DESIGN VALUES FOR GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER (GLULAM) (2006)2
Design values for glulam are derived based on ASTM D3737, Standard Practice for Establishing Allowable Properties for
Structural Glued Laminated Timber, using data from ASTM D2555, Standard Test Methods for Establishing Clear Wood
Strength Values, and full-scale bending and shear tests.
2.4.1.1 Allowable Stresses3
Selected Douglas fir and Southern pine layup combinations intended specifically for railroad stringer applications -- members
to be stressed primarily in bending -- as balanced combinations, are provided in Table 7-2-7 (see Part 6 Commentary,
Article 6.2.4.1.2). Properties for the selected Stress Groups are listed in Table 7-2-7 based on the loading direction as well as
the specific gravity for connection design. Stresses are listed based on Bending about the X-X Axis, Bending about the Y-Y
Axis, for Axially Loaded, and for Fasteners.
1
2

Bending About X-X Axis – The design values to be used when loads are applied perpendicular to the wide faces of
laminations, causing bending about the X-X axis, are designated in Table 7-2-7 by the subscript X. For example the "Fbx"
column in Table 7-2-7, lists allowable bending stresses when members are stressed primarily in bending with loads applied
perpendicular to the wide faces of the laminations.
For balanced layups, the allowable bending stress values with "Tension Zone Stressed in Tension (positive bending), Fbx+" and
“Compression Zone Stressed in Tension (negative bending), Fbx-” are the same.
Bending About Y-Y Axis – The design values to used when loads are applied parallel to the wide faces of laminations, 1
causing bending about the Y-Y axis, are designated in Table 7-2-7 by the subscript Y. Glulam members stressed in the Y-Y
orientation, such as for ballast deck panels, shall be designed using values with the Y subscript.
Axial Loading – Glulam members to be designed as columns or truss members shall be designed using values Ft for tension
loading, and Fc for compression loading, under the Axially Loaded heading. For lateral or eccentric loads on columns, either
Fbx or Fby values may be applicable, depending on the loading direction.
3
Layup combinations made up from all one grade of laminations are listed in Table 7-2-8.
Fasteners -- For specialized applications including trestle designs, the specific gravity values shall be used in conjunction with
the information in Sections 2.4.1.5 and 2.5.12.
2.4.1.2 Tabular Design Values1

4
[See Tables 7-2-7 & 7-2-8]
2.4.1.3 Adjustment Factors2
Design values tabulated in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 shall be adjusted based on the adjustment factors defined below. Table 7-2-
3 indicates the applicability of the various factors to specific design properties.
Railroad Application Adjustment Factors
1
2

Timber Structures
Table 7-2-3. Applicability of Adjustment Factors
Note: Railroad Use and Wet-Use adjustments are included in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8.
Design Properties Temperature CT Beam Volume CV Column Chemical

Stability CL Stability (fire-
CP retardants)
------------- CR
Fb’ = Fb x 1.0 1.0 CV none none
Ft’ = Ft x 1.0 none none none none
Fv’ = Fv x 1.0 none none none none
Fc⊥’ = F⊥ x 1.0 none none none none
Fc’ = Fc x 1.0 none none CP none
E’ = E x 1.0 none none none none
CRR: Railroad Use Factor
Tabular design values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8, except for Fv, E and Fc perp, include a 0.9 RR Use Factor. The shear
values shown include adjustments that are not cumulative with the RR Use Factor.
Note: The appropriate Railroad Use adjustment factor has been applied to the values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 with
the exceptions noted in this section and in footnotes to the tables.
CM: Wet Service Factor
Wet-use adjustment factors are applicable when glulam members are subject to in-service equilibrium moisture content of 16
percent or higher.
Note: The appropriate Wet-Use adjustment factors have been applied to the values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8.
CT: Temperature Factor
Design values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 need not be adjusted in railroad use for temperature effects unless glulam
members are subject to sustained exposure to temperatures greater than 100oF (without cycling intermittently to lower values).
Engineers must use judgment when considering the applicability of temperature adjustment factors (See Commentary).
Cv: Volume Factor
Allowable bending stresses of glulam are affected by geometry and size. Generally, larger sizes have a correspondingly lower
allowable bending stress than smaller members. To account for this behavior, a volume factor, Cv, shall be applied. Cv shall
not exceed 1.0 and is computed as follows:
where:

b = width of bending member in inches. For multiple piece width layups, b = width of widest piece in the layup. For
practical purposes, b ≤ 10.75 in.
d = depth of bending member in inches
l = length of bending member between points of zero moment in feet
p = 1/20 for Southern pine and 1/10 for other species
Cp: Column Stability Factor
Tabulated compressive stresses parallel to grain (Fc) shall be multiplied by the column stability factor, Cp.
CP
where:
Fc* = tabulated compression design value multiplied by all applicable adjustment factors except CP
FcE = KcE E’/( le/d)2
KcE = 0.418 for glulam

1
E’ = tabulated E value multiplied by all applicable adjustment factors
le = effective column length in inches, which shall be determined in accordance with principles of engineering
mechanics or using the unsupported column length multiplied by an appropriate buckling length coefficient as shown
in Table 7-2-4 3
c = 0.90 for glulam

Timber Structures
Table 7-2-4. Effective Column Length for Various End Conditions
When a compression member is supported throughout the length to prevent lateral displacement in all directions, Cp = 1.0. In
addition, the slenderness ratio, le/d, shall be based on the larger ratio in both directions, and shall not exceed 50 except that
during construction le/d shall not exceed 75.
CL: Beam Stability Factor
The beam stability factor is not applicable when the compression edge of a bending member is supported throughout its length
to prevent lateral displacement, and the end points of bearing have been laterally supported to prevent rotation. CL = 1.0 under
these conditions. This condition is typical for stringer applications. The beam stability factor shall not apply simultaneously
with the volume factor. Beam stability considerations for other conditions are beyond the scope of this document. The
National Design Specification (NDS) includes information on special cases.
CR: Chemical Treatment Factor
Glulam industry standards do not specify reductions in "dry" design values for glulam preservative treated in accordance with
AWPA Standard C28. Use of adjustments to account for wet-use in service conditions (moisture content of 16 percent or
higher) are considered adequate to include possible effect from the treating process, including incising. Fire-retardant coatings
that may be specified in accordance with Section 1.8 require no additional adjustment in design properties. Adjustment for the
tabulated design values, including connection design values, may be necessary with some fire-retardant treatments. Values for
these adjustments may be obtained from the company providing the treatment and redrying services.
2.4.1.4 Other Design Considerations
Notches and Holes
Field modifications of glulam members such as notching, tapering or drilling not shown on the design or shop drawings shall
be avoided and never done without a thorough understanding of their effects on the structural integrity of the members

involved. This understanding shall include knowledge of how affected members are expected to perform in the design
application.
Notches: Notching of bending members shall be avoided whenever possible, especially on the tension faces, for both simple
span and continuous span applications. Notching of bending members on the tension face results in stress concentrations that
can induce tension perpendicular-to-grain stresses that can propagate into splits. Normal adjustments used to account for
notching in building structures are not applicable to railway bridge applications.
Horizontal Holes: Holes drilled through width of bending members should be limited to locations away from shear and
moment critical zones as determined by the design engineer. Field-drilled horizontal holes shall not be used as attachment
points for brackets or other load bearing hardware unless specifically designated in the design. Any horizontal holes required
for support of significant weight, such as water mains, must be located above the neutral axis of the member in zones stressed
to less than 50 percent of the design flexural stresses.
Vertical Holes: Vertical holes drilled through the depth of a glulam beam cause a reduction in the capacity at that location
directly proportional to the ratio of 1-1/2 times the diameter of the hole to the width of the beam. For example, a 2-inch
vertical hole drilled in a 8-3/4 inch wide beam may be assumed to reduce the allowable capacity of the beam by approximately
(2 x 1.5)/8.75 = 34%. For this reason when it is necessary to drill vertical holes in glulam bending members, the holes should
be positioned in areas of the member stressed to less than 50 percent of design stress in bending.
Holes for Support of Suspended Equipment: Heavy equipment or piping suspended from glulam beams shall be attached
such that loads are applied to the top to the member to avoid introducing tension perpendicular-to-grain stresses.
Storage & Handling: Glulam members should be stored on evenly spaced blocks to minimize ground contact and to prevent
warping or permanent-set in bending (Y-Y axis). Physical damage such as gouges and splits should be reviewed for possible
1
structural significance by the Engineer of Record prior to installation. Also see Article 1.3.1.10.
2.4.1.5 Connections and Fasteners
Glulam Simple or Continuous Span Bridges and Bridge Decks Panels:

3
Timber railway bridge components are generally designed to take high rail loads in full bearing as loads are transferred
through bridge ties to stringers, pile caps and pile ends. Where connections are used to maintain alignment and resist lateral
loads, stresses developed at the connections can be amplified by dimension changes inherent in structural components subject
to in-service cyclic wetting and drying conditions. Structural performance and serviceability of any glulam or solid sawn
timber structure is dependent on proper design of connections. Larger sizes and longer spans made possible with glulam
components make the proper detailing of connections critical. Careful consideration of moisture related expansion and
contraction characteristics of wood is essential in detailing glulam connections to prevent introducing tension perpendicular- 4
to-grain stresses.
Wood expands and contracts as a result of changes in its internal moisture content. While expansion in the direction parallel to
the grain in a wood member may be slight, dimensional changes in the direction perpendicular to the grain can be significant
and must be accounted for in connection design detailing. A 24 inch deep beam can decrease in depth through shrinkage by
approximately 1/4 inch as it changes from 12 to 8 percent in equilibrium moisture content. Connections should be detailed to
allow for such changes by over sizing or slotting bolt holes in steel connectors.
In addition to moisture-induced tension perpendicular-to-grain stresses, similar failures can result from a number of factors
associated with poor connection detailing. Improper beam notching, application of eccentric (out of plane) loads, and loading
beams in tension perpendicular to the wide face of the laminations can induce internal moments and tension perpendicular-to-
grain stresses.
The following seven basic principles will provide guidance for efficient, durable and structurally sound connections:
a. Transfer loads in compression/bearing whenever possible.

Timber Structures
b. Allow for dimensional changes in the glulam due to potential in-service moisture cycling.
c. Avoid the use of details that induce tension-perpendicular-to-grain stresses.
d. Avoid moisture entrapment in connections.
e. Do not place glulam in direct contact with masonry or concrete (use steel plates at the interface).
f. Avoid eccentricity in joint details.
g. Minimize exposure of end grain.
Table 7-2-5 contains a partial list of specific gravity that may be used for connector design in accordance with the National
Design Specification (NDS) published by the American Forest and Paper Association. Also tabulated in Table 7-2-5 are
species groups for split ring and shear plate connectors.
Table 7-2-5. Specific Gravity of Lumber for Design of Connectors in Timber Structures
Species Specific Gravity Species Group for Split Ring and

Shear Plate Connectors
Alaska Cedar 0.42 C
Douglas fir 0.50 B
Douglas fir (North) 0.49 B
Engleman Spruce-Lodgepole Pine 0.38 D
Hem fir 0.43 C
Hem fir (North) 0.46 C
Mixed Oak 0.68 A
Mixed Maple 0.55 B
Redwood (open grain) 0.37 D
Redwood (close grain) 0.44 C
Southern Pine 0.55 B
Spruce-Pine-Fir 0.42 C
Spruce-Pine-Fir (South) 0.36 D
Western Hemlock 0.47 C
Western Woods 0.36 D
Glulam Trestles:
Details on connector and fastener design needed for glulam or timber trestle design require specialized application of
connection design principles. This information is covered in detail in the National Design Specification (NDS), for Wood
Construction available through the American Wood Council (www.awc.org). Details on design values for the use of bolts,
screws, nails, spikes, shear plates and split rings are provided in the NDS.
Consider the following items when determining design values for mechanically fastened joints in glulam or timber trestles:
a. Lumber species, specific gravity, dowel bearing strength
b. Critical section or net section

c. Angle of load with respect to the grain
d. On center spacing and pitch spacing of fastening groups
e. Edge and end distances
f. Conditions of loading
g. Eccentricity, and
h. Adjustment factors applied to tabular design values.
Adjustment factors applicable to fasteners for trestle design may include:
Table 7-2-6. Applicable Adjustment Factors to Fasteners for Trestle Design
CD - Duration of load CS - Spacing

CM - Moisture content Cd - Depth of embedment
CT - Temperature Cg - Group action
Ce - Edge distance Cst - Steel sideplate
Cn - End distance
1
The tabulated design properties for connection designs in wood are tied directly to specific gravity. Species groups and
specific gravity values to be used in conjunction with the Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 are given in Table 7-2-5.
2.4.2 DESIGN EQUATIONS (2006)1
Equations from Articles 2.5.7, 2.5.8, and 2.5.9 are applicable to the design of glued laminated timbers. Use appropriate design
stresses from Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8.
3
1

7-2-18
Timber Structures
1
Table 7-2-7. Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber - Railroad Applications
Wet-Use Allowable Design Values

Bending About X-X Axis Bending About Y-Y Axis
Loaded Perpendicular to Wide Faces of Loaded Parallel to Wide Faces of Axially Loaded Fasteners
Laminations Laminations
Extreme Compression Shear Modulus Extreme Compression Shear Modulus of Tension Compression Modulus Specific Gravity for
Fiber in Perpendicular Parallel to of Fiber in Perpendicular Parallel to Elasticity Parallel to Parallel to of Dowel-Type
Bending to Grain Grain Elasticity Bending to Grain Grain Grain Grain Elasticity Fastener Design
(Horizontal) (Horizontal)
Fbx Fc^x Fvx(5) Ex F by Fc^y Fvy(1)(5) Ey Ft Fc E axial

Stress Groups(4) 6
SG
(psi) (psi) (psi) (10 psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (106 psi) (psi) (psi) (106 psi)
16F-1.5E DF 1150 295 165 1.2 1050 295 145 1.2 650 950 1.3 0.5
16F-1.4E SP 1150 345 200 1.2 1050 345 180 1.2 675 875 1.2 0.55
20F-1.6E DF 1450 295 165 1.3 1050 295 145 1.2 700 1000 1.3 0.5
20F-1.6E SP 1450 345 200 1.2 1050 345 180 1.2 700 875 1.2 0.55
24F-1.8E DF 1750 345 200 1.5 1050 295 180 1.3 800 1100 1.4 0.5
24F-1.8E SP 1750 390 200 1.5 1250 345 180 1.3 825 1100 1.4 0.55
26F-2.0E DF (2) 1850 345 165 1.7 1250 295 145 1.5 1075 1200 1.6 0.5
26F-1.9E SP (2) 1850 390 200 1.5 1350 345 180 1.3 825 1050 1.4 0.55
30F-2.1E SP (2) (3) 2150 425 200 1.7 1250 345 180 1.4 900 1150 1.4 0.55
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Recommended 0.72 0.529 0.63 0.833 0.72 0.53 0.63 0.833 0.72 0.72 0.833
Footnotes to Table 7-2-11:

(1) Design values are for timbers with laminations made from a single piece of lumber across the width or multiple pieces that have been edge bonded. For timbers manufactured from multiple piece
laminations (across width) that are not edge bonded, value shall be multiplied by 0.4 for members with 5, 7, or 9 laminations or by 0.5 for all other members.
(2) 26F and 30F beams are not produced by all manufacturers, therefore, availability may be limited. Contact supplier or manufacturer for details.
(3) 30F combinations are restricted to a maximum 6 in. nominal width.
(4) Other species combinations are available from the manufacturer. Lower strength properties may be applicable for other species mixes.
(5) The RR Use Factor is not cumulative with other shear adjustment factors applied to the listed shear values.
Design values in this table represent design values for groups of similar glued laminated timber combinations. Higher design values for some properties may
be obtained by specifying a particular combination listed in AITC 117-2001 Design or APA Y117. Design values are for members with 4 or more laminations.
For 2 and 3 lamination members, see Table 7-2-12 Some stress classes are not available in all species. Contact structural glued laminated timber manufacturer
for availability.
1
Table 7-2-8. Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber -- Railroad Applications 1
Part 6 Commentary.
1 See
Timber Structures
SECTION 2.5 ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES FOR STRESS-GRADED LUMBER
2.5.1 WORKING UNIT STRESSES (1988)1
a. Working unit stresses to be used for design shall be those shown in Table 7-2-9 for the appropriate condition of use and
species.
b. In locations of more extreme exposure than “occasionally wet but quickly dried,” and where serious depreciation is
more apt to occur, a further reduction in the working stresses for extreme fiber and compression should be made.
c. Where timber is treated by creosoting or other process rendering it decay resistant, the working stresses for
continuously dry may be used except in compression perpendicular to the grain and for joists and planks continuously
submerged.
2.5.2 FORM FACTOR (1988)
The size and shape of a beam affects the modulus of rupture. This effect is called the form factor. A factor of 0.90 has been
assumed in arriving at allowable stresses, so that for rectangular beams of ordinary size no form factor need be figured. The
form factor for beams of all sizes and for round and box or I-section are given in the Wood Handbook.
2.5.3 DEFLECTION, PERMANENT SET (1988)
The modulus of elasticity given in Table 7-2-9 gives the deflection which will occur immediately on application of load. Under
long continued load there will be an additional sag or permanent set which will be approximately equal to the elastic
deflection.
2.5.4 COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN OR CENTRALLY LOADED COLUMNS (2009)
a. Stress values in Table 7-2-9 are to be used for posts and struts where the unsupported length is not greater than 11 times
the least dimension, and for end bearing of compression members.
L
b. For columns where --- is more than 11, the allowed working stresses are:
d
P 1 L 4
---- = c 1 – --- ⎛ -------⎞ for L/d less than K
A 3 ⎝ Kd⎠
P 0.274E
---- = ----------------- for L/d greater than K
A L⎞ 2
⎛ --- -
⎝ D⎠
E π E
K = 0.641 --- or K = --- ------
c 2 6c
where:
P = total load in pounds

A = area in square inches
1

c = working unit stress in compression parallel to the grain for short columns
L = unsupported length in inches
d = least dimension in inches (also see Article 2.5.14)
E = modulus of elasticity (Table 7-2-10)
P
Table 7-2-10, gives values of allowed ----
A
L
Columns should be limited to --- = 50
d
2.5.5 BEARING (1988)
a. The working stresses for compression perpendicular to grain apply to bearings 6 inches or more in length located
anywhere in the length of a timber and to bearings of any length at the ends of beams or other members. For bearings
shorter than 6 inches located 3 inches or more from the end of a timber the stresses may be increased in accordance
with the following factors:
Length of bearing, inches 1/2 1 1-1/2 2 3 4 6

Factor of increase 1.75 1.38 1.25 1.19 1.13 1.10 1.00
b. For stress under a washer or other round bearing area, the same factor may be taken as for a bearing whose length
equals the diameter of the washer. 1
2.5.6 ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES FOR STRESS-GRADED LUMBER (2012)
2.5.6.1 Working Stresses (2012)1
Recommended working unit stresses for most commercial stress-grades of lumber have been determined in accordance with 3
the principles set forth in the ASTM D245 for several conditions of use.
1

Timber Structures
Table 7-2-9. Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber – Railroad Loading (Visual Grading)1
(See Notes)
Railroad values wet conditions (over 19% MC)

Grading
Size
Grade Fb Ft Fc⊥ Fc E Agency
Classification Fv psi
ksi Rules
psi psi psi psi
Eastern Spruce
Select Str. Beams and 945 565 115 235 615 1400
No. 1 Stringers 810 385 115 235 510 1400
Select Str. 880 610 120 235 635 1400
Posts and Timbers
No. 1 720 495 120 135 555 1400
Select Str. 995 520 120 200 865 1170
No. 1 670 360 120 200 755 1080 NELMA
2” to 4” thick
No. 2 by 2” and wider 595 315 120 200 720 990
No. 3 (use dimension 345 180 120 200 520 900
Construction lumber adjustment 670 360 120 200 865 900
factors)
Standard 385 205 120 200 720 810
Stud 460 250 120 200 565** 900
Hem-Fir
No. 1 Stringers 945 475 125 245 615 1300
Select Str. 1080 720 125 245 800 1300
Posts and Timbers
No. 1 880 585 125 245 695 1300
Select Str. 1070 835 130 245 1080 1440
No. 1 & better 840 655 130 245 970 1350 WCLIB
No. 1 2” to 4” thick 750 565 130 245 970 1350 WWPA
No. 2 by 2” and wider 650 475 130 245 935 1170
(use dimension
No. 3 lumber adjustment 385 270 130 245 655** 1080
Construction factors) 750 540 130 245 1115 1170
Standard 420 295 130 245 935 1080
Stud 520 360 130 245 720** 1080
1 See
Part 6 Commentary.

(Continued)

Grading
Size
ksi Rules
psi psi psi psi
Douglas Fir (See Note 4)

Dense Select Structural 1710 990 150* 440 1065 1700
Select Struct. Beams and 1440 855 150* 380 900 1600
Dense No. 1 Stringers 1395 700 150* 440 900 1700
No. 1 1215 610 150* 380 760 1600
Select Struct. 1350 900 150* 565 1035 1600
Posts and Timbers
Dense No. 1 1260 855 150* 655 1080 1700
No. 1 1080 745 150* 565 900 1600 WCLIB
WWPA
Select Struct. 1150 900 155 380 1225 1710 NLGA
No. 1 & better 920 720 155 380 1115 1620
No. 1 2” to 4” thick 765 610 155 380 1080 1530
No. 2 by 2” and wider 690 520 155 380 970 1440
(use dimension
No. 3 lumber adjustment 405 295 155 380 700** 1260
Construction factors) 765 585 155 380 1190 1350
Standard 440 340 155 380 1010 1260 1
Stud 535 405 155 380 610 1260
1 See
Part 6 Commentary.

Timber Structures
(Continued)

Grading
Size
ksi Rules
psi psi psi psi
Southern Pine
Select Struct. 1350 900 150* 340 855 1500
No. 1 Dense 1395 945 150* 395 880 1600
5” x 5” and larger
No. 1 1215 810 150* 340 745 1500
No. 2 Dense 880 585 150* 395 565 1300
No. 2 765 495 150* 340 475 1200
Dense Select Structural 2335 1485 135 400 1620 1710
Select Struct. 2180 1440 135 340 1510 1620
No. 1 Dense 1530 990 135 400 1440 1620
2” to 4” thick and
No. 1 1415 945 135 340 1330 1530
2” to 4” wide
No. 2 Dense 1300 790 135 400 1330 1530
No. 2 1150 745 135 340 1190 1440
Nol 3 & stud 765 430 135 340 700 1260
Select Struct. 1950 1260 135 340 1440 1620
No. 1 Dense 1340 855 135 400 1370 1620
No. 1 1260 810 135 340 1260 1530
5” to 6” wide
No. 2 Dense 1110 700 135 400 1260 1530
No. 2 955 655 135 340 1150 1440
Nol 3 & stud 675 385 135 340 665 1260
Dense Select Structural 1875 1215 135 400 1475 1710 SPIB
Select Struct. 1760 1170 135 340 1370 1620
No. 1 Dense 1260 790 135 400 1295 1620
No. 1 1150 745 135 340 1190 1530
8” wide
No. 2 Dense 1070 610 135 400 1225 1530
No. 2 920 585 135 340 1115 1440
Nol 3 & stud 630 360 135 340 630 1260
Select Struct. 1570 990 135 340 1330 1620
No. 1 Dense 1110 700 135 400 1260 1620
No. 1 995 655 135 340 1150 1530
10” wide
No. 2 Dense 920 565 135 400 1190 1530
No. 2 945 520 135 340 1080 1440
Nol 3 & stud 540 295 135 340 610 1260
Select Struct. 1455 945 135 340 1295 1620
No. 1 Dense 1035 655 135 400 1225 1620
No. 1 955 610 135 340 1150 1530
12” wide
No. 2 Dense 1035 520 135 400 1150 1530
No. 2 880 495 135 340 1045 1440
Nol 3 & stud 520 295 135 340 745** 1260
1 See
Part 6 Commentary.

(Continued)

Grading
Size
ksi Rules
psi psi psi psi
Mixed Maple
No. 1 Stringers 710 485 145 375 530 1100
Select Str. 890 590 145 375 615 1100
Posts and Timbers
No. 1 710 485 145 375 530 1100
Select Str. 765 540 170 540 630 1170
No. 1 555 385 170 540 630** 1080 NELMA
No. 2 2” to 4” thick by 2” 535 385 170 540 495** 990
and wider (use
No. 3 305 225 170 540 295** 900
dimension lumber
Construction adjustment factors) 610 430 170 540 655** 990
Standard 345 250 170 540 520** 900
Stud 420 295 170 540 315** 900
Red Oak
No. 1 Stringers 1035 495 140 495 575 1200
Select Str.
Posts and Timbers
1125 765 140 495 715 1200
1
No. 1 900 610 140 495 635 1200
Select Str. 880 610 150 495 720 1260
No. 1 630 450 150 495 745** 1170 NELMA
No. 2 2” to 4” thick by 2” 610 430 150 495 565** 1080
and wider (use
No. 3 365 250 150 495 340** 990
dimension lumber
Construction adjustment factors) 710 495 150 495 610** 1080
3
Standard 400 270 150 495 585** 990
Stud 480 340 150 495 360** 990
1 See
Part 6 Commentary.

Timber Structures
Table 7-2-9. Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber – Railroad
Loading (Visual Grading)11 (Continued)
* : 150 psi value was derived from AAR beam fatigue tests
Note 1: Abbreviations used in this table are as follows:

NELMA – Northeastern Lumber Manufacturers Association, Inc.
NLGA - National Lumber Grades Authority
SPIB – Southern Pine Inspection Bureau
WCLIB – West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau
WWPA – Western Wood Products Association
Fb – Unit Stress in Extreme Fiber in Bending
Ft – Unit Stress in Tension Parallel to the Grain
Fv – Unit Stress in Horizontal Shear
Fc⊥ – Unit Stress in Compression Perpendicular to the Grain
Fc – Unit Stress in Compression Parallel to the Grain
E – Modulus of Elasticity
Str. – Structural
MC – Moisture Content
Note 2: Conditions of use where the moisture content will not exceed 19%, the tabulated values above may be multiplied by
the following factors:
Dry use Factor: Cm

for 5” and Thicker Lumber for Nominal 2” to 4” Thick Lumber
Fb Ft Fv Fc⊥ Fc E Fb Ft Fv Fc⊥ Fc E
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.49 1.10 1.00 1.18 1.00 1.03 1.49 1.25 1.11
do not adjust values with ** next to them
Note 3: For Beams & Stringers, Posts & Timbers, and Southern Pine sections 5” and wider, when the depth of the member
exceeds 12” the tabulated bending design stresses, Fb, shall be multiplied by the following size factor: Cr = (12/d)1/9
Note 4: Douglas-Fir South, Inland Douglas Fir and Douglas Fir-Larch are not deemed appropriate for outdoor Railway use.
Note 5: Southern Yellow Pine Grades Dense Structural 86, 72 and 65 are no longer recommended (see commentary).
1 See
Part 6 Commentary.

Table 7-2-9. Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber – Railroad Loading
(Visual Grading)11 (Continued)
Note 6: For all species except Southern Pine, the tabulated bending, tension, and compression parallel to grain design values
for dimension lumber 2” to 4” thick shall be multiplied by the following size factors:
Size Factors: Cf
Fb Ft Fc
Thickness
Grade Width 2” & 3” 4”
2”, 3” & 4” 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.15
5” 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.1
Select Structural
No. 1 & Btr. 6” 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1
No. 1, No. 2 8” 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.05
No. 3 10” 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.0
12” 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0
14” and up 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.90
2”, 3” & 4” 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.05
Stud 5” & 6” 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
8” and up Use No. 3 Grade design values and Cf
Construction, Standard 2”, 3” & 4” 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
1
Note 7: The design values for dimension lumber 2” to 4” thick are based on edge-wise use. When such lumber is used flat-
wise, the design values for extreme fiber in bending for all species may be multiplied by the following factors:
Width Thickness
2” & 3” 4 inch
2” & 3” 1.0 ~
4” 1.1 1.0
3
5” 1.1 1.05
6” 1.15 1.05
8” 1.15 1.05
10” & up 1.2 1.1
Note 8: The design values for beams and stringers are based on edge-wise use. When such lumber is used flat-wise, the 4
design values for extreme fiber bending and modulus of elasticity for all species except Southern Pine shall be
multiplied by the following factors:
Grade Fb E
Select 0.86 1.00
Structural
No. 1 0.74 0.90
Note 9: Grading restrictions for beams and stringers shall apply over the entire length of each piece. This will make each
piece suitable for use in simple spans as well as over 2 or more continuous spans or under concentrated loads without
the necessity of making special shear or other special stress requirements.
Note 10: For normal conditions other than railroad loading, allowable unit stresses may be multiplied by 1.11 for Fb , Ft , Fv ,
Fc⊥, and Fc. E shall remain unchanged.
1 See
Part 6 Commentary.

Table 7-2-10. Unit Compression (Column) Stresses for Standard Stress Grades
7-2-28
Timber Structures
Short Stress at Ratio of Length to Least Dimension (L/d)
Modulus of
Column K
Elasticity 11 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Stress
1,300,000 20.3 1300 1247 1203 1132 1032 892 570 396 291 223 176 142
1300
1,600,000 22.5 1300 1265 1235 1190 1123 1030 701 487 358 274 216 175
1,200,000 20.3 1200 1151 1110 1045 953 823 526 365 268 206 162 132
1,300,000 21.1 1200 1158 1122 1068 989 827 570 396 291 223 176 142
1200
1,500,000 22.7 1200 1169 1142 1102 1042 959 658 457 336 257 203 164
1,600,000 23.4 1200 1172 1148 1112 1060 986 701 487 358 274 216 175
1,200,000 21.2 1100 1063 1031 981 910 810 526 365 268 206 162 132
1,300,000 22.1 1100 1068 1041 999 938 854 570 396 291 223 176 142
1100
1,500,000 23.7 1100 1076 1055 1024 978 914 658 457 336 257 203 164
1,600,000 24.4 1100 1078 1060 1032 991 935 701 487 358 274 216 175
1,200,000 22.2 1000 972 947 910 856 780 526 365 268 206 162 132
1,300,000 23.1 1000 976 955 923 877 813 570 396 291 223 176 142
1000
1,500,000 24.8 1000 982 966 942 908 859 658 457 336 257 203 164
1,600,000 25.6 1000 984 970 948 918 876 697 487 358 274 216 175
1,000,000 21.4 900 870 845 806 750 674 438 304 224 171 135 110
900 1,200,000 23.4 900 879 861 834 795 740 526 365 268 206 162 132
1,600,000 27.0 900 888 878 863 841 810 680 487 358 274 216 175
800 1,000,000 22.7 800 779 762 734 694 639 438 304 224 171 135 110
2.5.7 BEARING AT ANGLE TO GRAIN (1988)
a. Allowed bearing stresses on surfaces at an angle to the direction of the grain, may be taken from the following formula:
PQ
N = --------------------------------------------
P sin 2 θ + Q cos 2 θ
where:
N = Unit compressive stress in a direction at inclination with the direction of the grain
P = Unit stress in compression parallel to the grain – Table 7-2-7
Q = Unit stress in compression perpendicular to the grain – Table 7-2-9
θ = Angle between the grain and the normal to the inclined surface
b. The chart shown in Appendix 1 - Contemporary Designs and Design Aids, Figure 7-A1-24 gives a graphical solution.
2.5.8 COMBINED AXIAL AND BENDING LOADS (1988)
a. The general formulas for safe eccentric or combined bending and end loadings of square or rectangular wood columns
are:
P 6e M zP P 1
---- ⎛ ------⎞ + ----- + ------ ----
⎝ ⎠ A- = 1
A d S A- + ---
---------------------------------------- for columns with L
--- of 11 or less, and
f C d
P- ⎛ 15e P
--- ---------⎞ + M ----- + zP ------ ----
⎝ ⎠ A- = 1
A 2d S A- + ---
------------------------------------------- for columns with L
--- of 20 or more 3
P c d
f – ----
A
where:
P
---- = average compressive stress induced by axial load.
A 4
M
----- = flexural stress induced by side loads.
S
z = ratio of flexural to average compressive stress when both result from the same loading, so that the ratio
remains constant while the load varies.
e = eccentricity of axial load.
d = width of column, measured in the direction of side loads and eccentricity. This is the depth to use in
computing the flexural stress.
f = allowable working unit stress for extreme fiber in bending.
c = allowable unit stress for the member if used as a centrally loaded column.

Timber Structures
L
b. Stresses for columns with --- between 11 and 20 are determined by straight-line interpolation between the formula for a
d
L
--- of 11 and the formula for a L
--- of 20.
d d
c. Where side loads are such that maximum deflection and flexural stress do not occur at mid-length of the column, it is
M
generally satisfactory to consider ----- as the maximum flexural stress due to the load or loads, regardless of its position
S
in the length of the column.
d. A more detailed discussion may be found in U.S. Forest Products Laboratory Report No. R 1782, Formulas for
Columns with Side Loads and Eccentricity.
2.5.9 HORIZONTAL SHEAR (2006)
a. The following procedure shall be used for horizontal shear at the neutral plane:
3V-
S = --------
2bh
where:
S = Maximum unit shear stress in pounds per square inch

V = Maxiumum shear in pounds
b = Breadth of beam in inches
h = Height of beam in inches
b. The results obtained must not exceed the allowable unit shear stress.
c. In calculating the maximum shear, V, use the following rules:
(1) V shall be calculated at a distance away from the face of support equal to the height of the beam.
(2) Neglect all loads within the height of the beam from the face of the support.
(3) Moving loads shall be placed such that they will produce the maximum value for V.
(4) When a beam spans continuously over one or more supports, continuity shall be considered when calculating V.
(5) Take into account any relief to the beam under consideration resulting from the loading being distributed to
adjacent parallel beams by flooring or other members of the construction.
2.5.10 NOTCHES (1988)
Notches with square corners should be avoided where possible because there will be a strong tendency for a check or split to
result. If a square-cornered notch is used near the end of a piece, the effective depth in computing shear should be taken as
2
c
-----
d

where:
c = the net depth at the notch

d = total depth of the piece
2.5.11 SHEARING STRESS (1988)
The allowable shearing stress for joint details shall be taken at 50 percent greater than the values for horizontal shear in
Table 7-2-9.
2.5.12 BEARING ON BOLTS (1988)
a. Working unit stresses for timber bearing on bolts may be taken as the product of the following factors:
• Basic unit stress for bearing, Table 7-2-11.
• Factor based on L/d ratio of bolt, Table 7-2-12.
• For bearing perpendicular to the grain only, a factor as follows:
Diameter of bolt, inches 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 1-3/4 2 2-1/2 3
Diameter factor 1.95 1.68 1.52 1.41 1.33 1.27 1.19 1.14 1.10 1.07 1.03 1
1
b. Bolts acting at an angle with the grain shall be allowed bearing values by the formula in Article 2.5.7, where P and Q
are allowed bearing values computed for the L/d ratio of the bolt. Table 7-2-13 shows bearing values for bolts for the
most common condition of exposure occasionally wet but quickly dried. For locations continuously dry, use 4/3 the
values in the table, and for locations damp or wet most of the time, use 8/9 the values in the table.
Table 7-2-11. Basic Unit Stresses for Bearing on Bolts

3
Basic Unit Stress
Group Species of Wood Parallel with Perpendicular
Grain to Grain
Softwoods (Conifers)
4
1 Hemlock, Eastern 800 150
Cedar, Port Orford and Western Red; Douglas Fir,
2 1000 200
Inland
Cypress, Southern; Douglas Fir, Coast; Pine, Southern;
3 1300 275
Redwood
Hardwoods (Broad Leaved)
1 Chestnut 925 175
2 Elm, soft; Gum, Black and Red; Tupelo 1200 250
Ash, white; Beech; Birch; Elm, Rock; Maple, hard;
3 1500 400
Oak, red, white
Note: Above values are for continuously dry location.
For occasionally wet but quickly dried, use 3/4 of values in table.
For damp or wet most of the time, use 2/3 of values in table.

Timber Structures
Table 7-2-12. Percentage of Basic Stress for Various L/d Values
Parallel with Grain Perpendicular to Grain

Length Common Bolts High Strength Bolts Common Bolts
----------------------------
Diameter
Conifers
L Hard- High
--- Conifers Group 3
d Group Group Group Group Group Group Group woods Strength
Group Hard-
Ratio 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 Group Bolts All
2 woods
3 Groups
Group 2
1 to 2 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
3 100 100 99.0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
4 99.5 97.4 92.5 100 100 99.0 100 100 100 100 100
5 95.4 88.3 80.0 100 99.8 96.0 100 100 100 100 100
6 85.6 75.8 67.2 100 95.4 89.5 100 100 100 96.3 100
7 73.4 65.0 57.6 95.8 88.8 81.0 100 100 97.3 86.9 100
8 64.2 56.9 50.4 39.3 81.2 73.0 100 96.1 88.1 75.0 100
9 57.1 50.6 44.8 82.5 74.2 66.4 94.6 86.3 76.7 64.6 97.7
10 51.4 45 5 40.3 75.8 68.0 60.2 85.0 76.2 67.2 55.4 90.0
11 46.7 41.4 36.6 69.7 61.9 54.8 76.1 67.6 59.3 48.4 81.5
12 42.8 37.9 33.6 64.0 56.7 50.2 68.6 61.0 52.0 42.5 73.6
13 39.5 35.0 31.0 59.1 52.4 46.3 62.2 55.3 45.9 37.5 66.9
Note: The above values are for joints with metal plates. (View a) Where wood splice plates
are used, each one-half of thickness of main timber, (View b) use 80 percent of tabular
value for bearing parallel with grain; no reduction for bearing perpendicular to grain.
Common bolts: yield point about 45,000 pounds per square inch.
High strength bolts: yield point about 125,000 pounds per square inch.
L = length of bolt in main timber in inches.
d = diameter of bolt in inches.

Table 7-2-13. Bearing Value for Bolts

Allowable Load per Bolt for Timber Bearing on Common Bolts with Wood Side Plates
(For timber occasionally wet but quickly dried.)
Softwoods (Conifers) Hardwoods (Broad Leaved)

Length of Bolt in Main Member L, inches
Projected Area of Bolt, square inches

Group 3
Group 2 Group 3
Ash, White;
Cedar, Port Cypress, Group 2
Diameter of Bolt, inches
Beech,
Group 1 Orford and Southern; Elm, Soft;
Group 1 Birch, Elm,
Hemlock, Western Douglas Fir, Gum, Black
Chestnut Rock;
Eastern Red; Coast; Pine, and Red;
Maple,
Douglas Fir, Southern; Tupelo
L/D
Hard; Oak,
Inland Redwood
Red, White
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
1/2 3.3 0.813 150 390 200 480 280 620 180 450 260 580 410 710
5/8 2.6 1.016 170 490 230 610 320 790 200 560 290 730 460 910
1-5/8 3/4 2.2 1.219 190 590 260 730 350 950 230 680 320 880 520 1090
1
7/8 1.9 1.422 210 680 280 850 390 1110 250 790 350 1020 570 1280
1 1.6 1.625 230 780 310 970 430 1270 270 900 390 1170 620 1460
1/2 4.0 1.000 190 480 250 580 350 720 220 550 310 700 500 830
5/8 3.2 1.250 210 600 280 750 390 950 250 690 360 900 570 1100
2 3/4 2.7 1.500 240 720 320 900 440 1160 280 830 400 1080 630 1340
3
7/8 2.3 1.750 260 840 350 1050 480 1360 310 970 440 1260 700 1570
1 2.0 2.000 290 960 380 1200 520 1560 330 1110 480 1440 760 1800
1/2 5.3 1.313 250 580 330 670 450 780 290 670 410 800 650 900
5/8 4.2 1.641 280 780 370 940 510 1150 330 900 470 1130 750 1320
2-5/8 3/4 3.5 1.969 310 940 420 1170 570 1470 360 1090 520 1400 830 1700 4
7/8 3.0 2.297 340 1100 460 1380 630 1770 400 1270 570 1650 920 2050
1 2.6 2.625 380 1260 500 1570 690 2040 440 1460 630 1890 1000 2350
1/2 6.0 1.500 280 610 380 680 520 790 330 710 470 820 730 910
5/8 4.8 1.875 320 870 430 1010 590 1210 370 1000 530 1220 860 1390
3 3/4 4.0 2.250 360 1070 480 1310 650 1620 420 1240 590 1580 950 1870
7/8 3.4 2.625 390 1260 520 1560 720 1970 460 1450 650 1870 1050 2280
1 3.0 3.000 430 1440 570 1800 790 2320 500 1660 710 2160 1140 2670
See Table 7-2-13 footnotes on Page 7-2-78

Timber Structures
Table 7-2-13. Bearing Value for Bolts (Continued)


Projected Area of Bolt, square inches Group 3

Group 2 Group 3
Ash, White;
Beech,
Group 1 Birch, Elm,
Chestnut Rock;
Maple,
L/D
Hard; Oak,
Inland Redwood
Red, White
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
1/2 7.3 1.813 340 610 450 680 590 790 400 710 540 820 760 910
5/8 5.8 2.266 390 950 520 1060 710 1230 450 1100 650 1280 1000 1420
3-5/8 3/4 4.8 2.719 430 1260 580 1470 790 1750 500 1450 720 1760 1150 2020
7/8 4.1 3.172 470 1510 630 1840 870 2260 550 1740 790 2200 1270 2610
1 3.6 3.625 520 1730 690 2140 950 2690 600 2010 860 2570 1380 3100
1/2 8.0 2.000 380 610 480 680 610 790 440 710 550 820 760 910
5/8 6.4 2.500 430 960 570 1070 780 1260 500 1120 700 1290 1060 1420
4 3/4 5.3 3.000 480 1330 630 1520 870 1770 560 1540 790 1830 1250 2060
7/8 4.6 3.500 520 1630 700 1930 960 2320 610 1890 870 2320 1400 2680
1 4.0 4.000 570 1910 760 2340 1050 2890 670 2210 950 2810 1520 3330
1/2 9.0 2.250 400 610 490 680 600 790 470 710 540 820 730 910
5/8 7.2 2.813 480 960 640 1070 840 1230 560 1120 770 1290 1080 1420
3/4 6.0 3.375 540 1390 710 1530 980 1770 620 1600 890 1840 1370 2060
4-1/2
7/8 5.1 3.938 590 1780 790 2060 1080 2440 690 2060 980 2470 1570 2790
1 4.5 4.500 640 2100 860 2510 1180 3040 750 2430 1070 3010 1710 3490
1-1/8 4.0 5.063 700 2420 930 2960 1280 3650 820 2800 1170 3550 1860 4220
1/2 10.0 2.500 400 610 480 680 580 790 470 710 530 820 700 910
5/8 8.0 3.125 530 960 670 1070 860 1230 620 1120 780 1290 1070 1420
3/4 6.7 3.750 590 1390 790 1540 1070 1770 690 1600 970 1840 1420 2060
5
7/8 5.7 4.375 650 1860 870 2090 1200 2400 760 2150 1090 2510 1700 2790
1 5.0 5.000 710 2290 950 2650 1310 3120 830 2650 1190 3180 1910 3600
1-1/8 4.4 5.625 780 2640 1040 3160 1430 3840 910 3060 1300 3800 2080 4430




Group 3
Group 2 Group 3
Ash, White;
Beech,
Group 1 Birch, Elm,
Chestnut Rock;
Maple,
L/D
Hard; Oak,
Inland Redwood
Red, White
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
5/8 8.8 3.438 560 960 690 1070 850 1230 650 1120 770 1290 1050 1420
3/4 7.3 4.125 650 1390 860 1540 1130 1770 760 1600 1030 1840 1450 2060
5-1/2 7/8 6.3 4.813 720 1880 960 2090 1310 2400 840 2190 1190 2510 1800 2790
1
1 5.5 5.500 790 2390 1050 2710 1440 3150 920 2760 1310 3250 2060 3640
1-1/8 4.9 6.188 860 2850 1140 3310 1570 3920 1000 3290 1430 3980 2280 4520
5/8 9.6 3.750 570 960 690 1070 830 1230 660 1120 760 1290 1010 1420
3/4 8.0 4.500 710 1390 910 1540 1150 1770 830 1600 1050 1840 1430 2060
6 7/8 6.9 5.250 790 1880 1050 2090 1410 2400 920 2190 1280 2510 1840 2790
3
1 6.0 6.000 860 2470 1140 2730 1570 3150 1000 2860 1430 3270 2200 3640
1-1/8 5.3 6.750 930 3000 1250 3420 1710 3980 1090 3460 1560 4110 2460 4630
5/8 10.4 4.063 570 960 670 1070 820 1230 660 1120 740 1290 970 1420
3/4 8.7 4.875 740 1390 920 1540 1140 1770 860 1600 1030 1840 1400 2060
6-1/2 7/8 7.4 5.688 850 1880 1120 2090 1460 2400 990 2190 1330 2510 1860 2790 4
1 6.5 6.500 930 2470 1240 2730 1680 3150 1080 2860 1530 3270 2270 3640
1-1/8 5.8 7.313 1010 3070 1350 3440 1860 3980 1180 3550 1690 4120 2620 4630
5/8 11.2 4.375 560 960 660 1070 790 1230 650 1120 720 1290 940 1420
3/4 9.3 5.250 760 1390 920 1540 1130 1770 890 1600 1020 1840 1370 2060
7 7/8 8.0 6.125 920 1880 1170 2090 1480 2400 1070 2190 1350 2510 1830 2790
1 7.0 7.000 1000 2470 1330 2730 1780 3150 1170 2860 1620 3270 2320 3640
1-1/8 6.2 7.875 1090 3120 1450 3460 1990 3980 1270 3630 1810 4180 2740 4630

Timber Structures


Projected Area of Bolt, square inches Group 3

Group 2 Group 3
Ash, White;
Beech,
Group 1 Birch, Elm,
Chestnut Rock;
Maple,
L/D
Hard; Oak,
Inland Redwood
Red, White
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
5/8 12.0 4.688 550 960 650 1070 760 1230 640 1120 690 1290 910 1420
3/4 10.0 5.625 760 1390 910 1540 1100 1770 880 1600 1000 1840 1320 2060
7-1/2 7/8 8.6 6.563 950 1880 1180 2090 1460 2400 1110 2190 1330 2510 1800 2790
1 7.5 7.500 1070 2470 1400 2730 1820 3150 1250 2860 1660 3270 2310 3640
1-1/8 6.7 8.438 1170 3120 1560 3460 2100 3980 1360 3630 1910 4180 2790 4630
5/8 12.8 5.000 540 960 640 1070 740 1230 630 1120 670 1290 880 1420
3/4 10.7 6.000 750 1390 890 1540 1080 1770 870 1600 980 1840 1280 2060
7/8 9.1 7.000 980 1880 1190 2090 1450 2400 1140 2190 1320 2510 1780 2790
8
1 8.0 8.000 1140 2470 1460 2730 1850 3150 1330 2860 1680 3270 2290 3640
1-1/8 7.1 9.000 1250 3120 1650 3460 2200 3980 1450 3630 2000 4180 2850 4630
1-1/4 6.4 10.000 1340 3850 1780 4270 2430 4920 1560 4480 2210 5130 3300 5700
3/4 12.7 7.125 720 1390 860 1540 990 1770 850 1600 900 1840 1180 2060
7/8 10.9 8.313 960 1880 1140 2090 1370 2400 1120 2190 1250 2510 1630 2790
9-1/2 1 9.5 9.500 1220 2470 1470 2730 1790 3150 1420 2860 1630 3270 2170 3640
1-1/8 8.4 10.688 1450 3120 1820 3460 2270 3980 1690 3630 2060 4180 2790 4630
1-1/4 7.6 11.875 1590 3850 2070 4270 2670 4920 1850 4480 2430 5130 3380 5700
7/8 11.4 8.750 960 1880 1130 2090 1350 2400 1120 2190 1230 2510 1610 2790
1 10.0 10.000 1210 2470 1450 2730 1760 3150 1410 2860 1600 3270 2110 3640
10
1-1/8 8.9 11.250 1480 3120 1810 3460 2220 3980 1720 3630 2020 4180 2720 4630
1-1/4 8.0 12.500 1670 3850 2140 4270 2700 4920 1950 4480 2460 5130 3350 5700
1 11 5 11.500 1190 2470 1410 2730 1680 3150 1390 2860 1520 3270 1990 3640
11-1/2 1-1/8 10.2 12.938 1490 3120 1780 3460 2150 3980 1740 3630 1960 4180 2580 4630
1-1/4 9.2 14.375 1780 3850 2160 4270 2640 4920 2080 4480 2400 5130 3220 5700




Group 3
Group 2 Group 3
Ash, White;
Beech,
Group 1 Birch, Elm,
Chestnut Rock;
Maple,
L/D
Hard; Oak,
Inland Redwood
Red, White
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
1 12.0 12.000 1180 2470 1390 2730 1630 3150 1370 2860 1490 3270 1940 3650
12 1-1/8 10.7 13.500 1470 3120 1750 3460 2110 3980 1710 3630 1920 4180 2520 4630
1-1/4 9.6 15.000 1780 3850 2150 4270 2610 4920 2080 4480 2380 5130 3160 5700
1
References, Vol. 51, 1950, p. 433; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 428, 847.
Table 7-2-13 tabulated values are for joints when two wood side plates are used, each side plate one-half the thickness of the
main member:
a. If either side plate is thicker than one-half the thickness of the main member, no increase in the tabulated value is
permissible.
b. When one or both side plates are thinner than one-half the thickness of the main member, use tabulated value indicated for
3
a main member twice as thick as the thinnest side plate.
c. When a joint consists of two members only (bolt in single shear) of equal thickness, use one-half the tabulated value for a
main member twice the thickness of one of the members.
d. When a joint consists of two members only of unequal thickness, use one-half the tabulated value for a main member
twice as thick as the thinnest member.
4

Timber Structures
2.5.13 CONNECTORS (1988)
Where metal connectors are used, working values may be taken as those recommended in the National Design Specification.
2.5.14 ROUND SECTIONS (1988)
a. The strength, stiffness, and horizontal shearing value in bending of round timbers of any species may be assumed to be
identical with that of square timbers of the same grade and cross-sectional area. Tapered timbers should be assumed as
of uniform diameter, the point of measurement being one-third the span from the small end, but the diameter should not
be assumed to be more than 1-1/2 times the small end diameter.
b. The strength of round columns may be considered the same as that of square columns of the same cross-sectional area.
In long tapered columns the strength may be assumed as identical with that of a square column of the same length, and
of cross-sectional area equal to that of the round timber measured at a point one-third its length from the small end. The
stress at the small end must not exceed the allowable stress for short columns.
SECTION 2.6 DETAILS OF DESIGN
2.6.1 GENERAL (1988)
All members shall be framed, anchored, tied and braced to develop the strength and rigidity necessary for the purposes
intended.
2.6.2 NET SECTION (1988)
All stress computations shall be based on actual size of timbers. Where members are dapped or otherwise framed to materially
reduce the effective size, the net section of the piece shall be used.
2.6.3 BOLTED CONNECTIONS (1988)
a. The center to center distance along the grain between bolts acting parallel with the grain shall be not less than four
times the bolt diameter.
b. The tension area remaining at the critical section should be at least 80 percent of the total area in bearing under all bolts
for coniferous woods; 100 percent for hardwoods.
c. In a tension joint, the distance from the end of the timber to the center of nearest bolt shall be not less than seven times
the bolt diameter for coniferous woods; five times for hardwoods. For compression stress, this end distance need be
only four times the bolt diameter.
d. For loads acting perpendicular to the grain, the distance between the edge toward which the bolt pressure is acting, and
the center of the bolt nearest this edge, should be not less than four times the bolt diameter.
2.6.4 NOTCHED BEAMS (1988)
The allowable end reaction for beams with square-cornered notches at the ends shall be computed by the following formula:

2
V = 2--- -----------
bc q-
3 d
where:
b = Width
c = Depth above the notch
d = Total depth of beam
q = Working unit stress in horizontal shear
V = Allowable end reaction
2.6.5 DESIGN FOR REHABILITATIONS OF PORTIONS OF EXISTING TIMBER TRESTLES

(2013)
2.6.5.1 Upgrading and Rehabilitating Timber Structures
Replacement in kind must be adequate for current and anticipated traffic. (See Article 2.3.3.d)
a. Existing timber members may be replaced with timber of increased section or strength. Additional timber members
may be placed to increase capacity. 1
b. Timber Open Decks may be replaced by timber ballast decks, in accordance with Part 2, Design of Wood Railway
Bridges and Trestles for Railway Loading.
c. Timber bridges may be upgraded or rehabilitated by replacing caps, stringers or decking with concrete or steel in
accordance with Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations or Chapter 15, Steel Structures respectively of this 3
Manual while leaving existing timber piling in place for structure support.

Timber Structures

7
Part 3
Rating Existing Wood Bridges and Trestles
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 Rules for Rating Existing Wood Bridges and Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-2
3.1.1 Classification (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-2
3.1.2 General (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-2
3.1.3 Carrying Capacity (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-2
3.1.4 Inspection (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-2 1
3.1.5 Computation of Stresses (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-3
3.1.6 Loads and Forces (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-3
3.1.7 Dead Load (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-3
3.1.8 Live Load (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-3
3.1.9 Impact (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-3
3.1.10 Centrifugal Force (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-4 3
3.1.11 Other Lateral Forces (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-4
3.1.12 Longitudinal Force (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-4
3.1.13 Combined Stresses (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-4
3.1.14 Unit Stresses (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-4
3.1.15 Chord Deflection (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-5
3.1.16 Composite Trusses (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-5
3.1.17 Action to be Taken (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-5
LIST OF TABLES
7-3-1 Unit Stresses for Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-4

Timber Structures
SECTION 3.1 RULES FOR RATING EXISTING WOOD BRIDGES AND TRESTLES1
3.1.1 CLASSIFICATION (1988)
Wood railway bridges and trestles shall be classified according to their rated carrying capacity as determined by the rules
specified herein. The work of classifying bridges shall be as described in Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Part 7, Existing Bridges.
3.1.2 GENERAL (1988)
Except as otherwise provided in these rules, the recommendations in this part shall govern.
3.1.3 CARRYING CAPACITY (2013)2
a. The carrying capacity of a bridge shall be determined by the computation of stresses based on authentic records of the
design, details, species and grade of wood, materials, workmanship, and physical condition, including data obtained by
inspection. If deemed advisable, field determination of stresses shall be made and the results given due consideration in
the final assignment of the carrying capacity. For a specific service the location and behavior under load shall be taken
into account.
b. Carrying capacity as determined under this section assumes the structure is stable in accordance with generally
accepted engineering principles.
3.1.4 INSPECTION (2010)3
An inspection of the bridge shall be made to determine:
a. Whether the actual sections and details conform to the drawings. Where actual sections and details do not conform to
the drawings the differences shall be noted in detail; of special importance are the number and spacing of piles, size of
cap, height of bents, length of panels, size and number of stringers, positioning of stringer joints on caps, whether
stringers are continuous over bents, size and spacing of ties, and size and location of sway and longitudinal bracing on
bents, if any.
b. Any additions to the dead load not shown on the plan, such as heavier deck or rail, walks, pipelines, conduits, signal
devices, and wire supports.
c. The position of the track with respect to the center line of the bridge.
d. Any loss of wood due to decay and wear. This determination should be made by increment borings.
e. The physical condition, noting such conditions as loose bolts and excessive checks or splits.
f. The condition of all points of bearing.
g. The condition of bents, especially at the ground line and cap connection.
h. An inspection of the bridge shall be made to determine evidence of excessive deflection (c.f. Article 3.1.15), lateral
movement, or longitudinal movement that may necessitate immediate closure of the structure to traffic. Stability of the
structure as a whole as well as its parts must be assured under live load.
1
2

3.1.5 COMPUTATION OF STRESSES (1988)
The computation of stresses shall be made for the details as well as for the main members, giving particular attention to:
a. The increased load carried by a stringer, cap, floor member, or truss due to eccentricity of the load. This applies to
bridges on tangent where the tracks are off center as well as to bridges on curves.
b. Spacing of bents.
c. Continuity occurring in stringers. Where the support under a rail consists of three or more stringers assembled as a
chord, or otherwise acting in unison, and extending over two spans with staggered joints, a partially continuous beam
action may be assumed to exist, and the computations may be made for stringers based on the average stress as
determined from single beam analysis and that for a fully continuous condition.
3.1.6 LOADS AND FORCES (1988)
Stresses shall be computed for the following loads and forces:
a. Dead Load.
b. Live Load.
c. Impact.
1
d. Centrifugal force.
e. Other lateral forces.
f. Longitudinal force.
3.1.7 DEAD LOAD (1988) 3
The dead load shall be the weight of the bridge including the deck and track, together with any other fixed loads.
3.1.8 LIVE LOAD (1988)
a. The live load shall be one of the Cooper E series, other standard loading, or a load consisting of a specific locomotive 4
or other equipment, depending on the purpose for which the rating is desired.
b. If the live load is to be a specific locomotive and cars (or other equipment), complete data shall be obtained, including
the spacing of axles and the static load on each axle. This data shall be used to convert the specific locomotive and cars
(or other equipment) to equivalent standard loading for the various span lengths of the bridges being rated.
3.1.9 IMPACT (1988)
The dynamic increment of load due to the effects of speed, roll and track irregularities is not well established for timber
structures. Its total effect is estimated to be less than the increased strength of timber for the short cumulative duration of
loading to which railroad bridges are subjected in service, and is taken into consideration in the derivation of allowable
working stresses for design.

Timber Structures
3.1.10 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE (1988)
Centrifugal force shall be determined as specified in Article 2.3.4.
3.1.11 OTHER LATERAL FORCES (1988)
Other lateral forces shall be determined as specified in Article 2.3.5, except that the wind force shall be taken as not exceeding
two-thirds of the forces shown and the nosing load shall be taken as 1/16 the weight of one locomotive without tender, both
applied as stated. Due to their limited duration, wind forces may be ignored in the rating of pile or frame trestles where the
bridge is geographically located in an area not normally exposed to winds of exceptional magnitude.
3.1.12 LONGITUDINAL FORCE (1988)
Longitudinal force shall be determined as specified in Article 2.3.6.
3.1.13 COMBINED STRESSES (1988)
For stresses produced by longitudinal or other lateral forces, or by a combination of these forces with dead and live loads and
centrifugal force, the allowable rating stresses may be twice the working unit stress shown in Table 7-2-9, provided the stress
resulting from dead and live loads and centrifugal force only does not exceed the rating unit stress established in
Article 3.1.14.
3.1.14 UNIT STRESSES (2010)
a. Loading beyond Design Load without careful regular inspection is not recommended. Frequent loading beyond the
Design Load shortens the useful life considerably. Recommendations in this Article assume the structural connections
are tight and structure geometry is correct.
b. The permissible unit stresses for rating resulting from dead and live loads and centrifugal force for structures inspected
in accordance with Article 3.1.4 are shown in Table 7-3-1, to be used without allowance for impact due to live load.
Table 7-3-1. Unit Stresses for Rating
Equipment or Regularly Assigned

Description Locomotives Not Equipment or
Regularly Assigned Locomotives
f= unit stress in extreme fiber in bending, in pounds per square inch 1.3 kFh 1.1 kFh
All other unit stresses 1.3 k 1.1 k
E= modulus of elasticity, in thousands of pounds per square inch. As shown in Table 7-2-9
where:
k= Unit Stress for Structural Lumber Subject to Railway Loading, Section 2.5, Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress-
Graded Lumber.
Fh = depth factor.
2
H + 143
= 0.81 ----------------------
2
H + 88
where: H is the depth of the beam. For H of 16 inches or less, Fh = 1 may be used.

c. For structures inspected with a full tactile inspection by qualified timber inspectors, the permissible stress for regularly
assigned equipment or locomotives may be increased from 1.1 to 1.2 kFh for bending and 1.2k for all other stresses.
This does not apply to caps or similar non-load sharing members, and does not apply to members with end splits.
d. If the actual section modulus or cross-section area is less than 75% of that for which the Rating was calculated, a new
Rating using the revised properties must be made.
e. For unit stress in compression parallel to grain for columns with L/d ratio greater than 11, see Article 2.3.2.
f. Where the grade of timber actually in use in any structure is not definitely known, k shall be assumed as 1.0 times the
minimum grade shown in Table 7-2-9 for the species used, for timbers usually used in stress grades.
g. If a structure fails to qualify under the foregoing permissible stresses for equipment or locomotives not regularly
assigned, then speed may be restricted to not to exceed 10 mph and the members recomputed with the k coefficient
increased 15 percent.
3.1.15 CHORD DEFLECTION (2009)
Measured net chord deflection (inches) under live load should not exceed L/250, where L is the span length in inches.
3.1.16 COMPOSITE TRUSSES (1988)
For trusses composed of both wood and steel or iron members, the metal portions shall be rated using stresses as specified in
the Rules for Rating Existing Steel Bridges, Chapter 15, Steel Structures; Part 7, Existing Bridges. 1
3.1.17 ACTION TO BE TAKEN (1988)
If the stresses exceed those permissible under these rules, the loading shall be restricted so that the permissible stresses will not
be exceeded until the indicated remedial work has been done. The remedial work in general will consist of replacing defective
parts, adding posts or piles to bents where required, or placing additional stringers. When the permissible stresses are closely 3
approached, or when the physical condition of the main members or the details are not good, the bridge shall be kept under
frequent inspection as long as it is continued in service.

Timber Structures

7
Part 4
Construction and Maintenance of
Timber Structures
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 Handling of Material (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-2 1

4.2 Storage of Material (1995) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-2
4.3 Workmanship for Construction and Maintenance of Pile and Framed Trestles R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-3
4.4 Framing of Timber (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-3

3
4.5 Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-5
4.5.1 Pile Posting, or Replacing Defective Portions of Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-5
4.5.2 Driving Timber Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-6
4.6 Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-13
4.7 Support, Repair, Preserve, or Replace Damaged Portions of the Structure (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-13
4.7.1 Control Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-17
4.7.2 Field Application of Preservative Chemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-17
4.8 Methods of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-17

4.8.1 Foreword (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-17
4.8.2 Metal Protection (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-17
4.8.3 Coatings (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-18
4.8.4 Impregnation (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-18
4.8.5 Fire Alarm Systems (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-18
4.8.6 Housekeeping (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-18
4.8.7 Fire Barriers (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-18

Timber Structures
4.9 Use of Guard Rails and Guard Timbers (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-21

4.9.1 Field Side Guard or Spacer Timbers (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-21
4.9.2 Metal Gage Side Guard Rails (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-21
4.9.3 Combined Use of Guard Timbers and Guard Rails (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-21
LIST OF FIGURES
7-4-1 Schematic Diagram of Pile Posting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-6

7-4-2 Sample Pile Record Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-12
7-4-3 Splicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-13
7-4-4 Scabbing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-13
7-4-5 Pile Restoration Using Cast in Place Reinforced Concrete Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-14
7-4-6 Filling Voids with Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-15
7-4-7 Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-16
7-4-8 Stitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-16
7-4-9 Earth Fill Break in a Long Trestle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-19
7-4-10 Reinforced Concrete Piers and Reinforced Concrete Bents as Fire Stops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-20
SECTION 4.1 HANDLING OF MATERIAL (2012)
a. All material should be handled to avoid structural damage or unnecessary disfiguring.
b. Timber shall be preferably handled with web slings. Sharp-pointed bars, peavies, hooks, tongs or similar tools shall not
be used, except as approved by the Engineer.
c. Piling or timber that has been treated with preservatives should be handled with extreme care in unloading and
assembling to avoid damage to the timber which would expose untreated wood.
d. Specialty material, such as engineered wood products, might require special handling procedures due to its unique
properties.
SECTION 4.2 STORAGE OF MATERIAL (1995) R(2012)
a. Materials should be stored at the site in a neat manner at proper clearance to operated tracks.
b. Care should be exercised to prevent fires in material held in storage. The ground underneath and in the vicinity of
piling and timber should be scalped and cleared of all weeds, rubbish and combustible material.
c. Treated timber should be close-stacked off the ground in a manner that will prevent long timbers or preframed material
from sagging or becoming crooked.

Construction and Maintenance of Timber Structures
d. Untreated timber should be open-stacked at least 1 foot above the ground and above possible high water; it should be
piled in a manner to shed water and to prevent warping. When required, it shall be protected from the weather by
suitable covering.
e. Piling should be stacked in a manner to prevent excessive bending.
f. Hardware received at the job site should be protected from corrosion by storing under cover or by a protective coating.
SECTION 4.3 WORKMANSHIP FOR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF PILE

AND FRAMED TRESTLES1 R(2012)
This section covers workmanship for the construction and maintenance of pile and framed trestles that carry railway traffic.
a. Work performed under this recommended practice should be built complete, in a workmanlike manner, and in strict
accordance with the plans and the intent of this recommended practice.
b. It is presumed that the design of structures to which this recommended practice attaches is in accordance with
prevailing practice, and, more specifically, in general accordance with, Part 2, Design of Wood Railway Bridges and
Trestles for Railway Loading.
c. Nothing contained herein shall be construed as superseding details or notations shown on design drawings. Where this 1
recommended practice conflicts with the drawings, the drawings will govern.
d. Workmanship should be of the best quality in each class of work. Competent bridge carpenters shall be employed and
all framing shall be true and exact. No blocking or shimming will be permitted, except as approved by the Engineer.
e. On completion of the work, all surplus material or material salvaged from an existing structure should be removed
from the premises as directed. Material not salvageable and other refuse should be properly disposed of. Premises shall 3
be left in a clean, neat and orderly condition.
SECTION 4.4 FRAMING OF TIMBER (2013) 4

a. All cutting, framing, and boring of timbers to be treated, shall be done before treatment unless otherwise shown on the
plans or specifically permitted by the Chief Engineer.
b. All cuts, bored holes, or other damage made in treated lumber shall be carefully trimmed and then field treated by the
application of two saturating coats of creosote, copper naphthenate or other approved wood treatment products as
outlined in the American Wood Preservative’s Association (AWPA) Standard M4. All holes bored in treated material
shall be field treated, in such a manner that the entire surface of the hole receives thorough penetration. All
countersunk recesses for bolts which would form pockets to retain water shall be treated as for cuts and then filled with
a suitable mastic after the bolt is placed.
c. Sills shall have a true and even bearing on foundation piles, timber grillages, mats or pedestals. All earth shall be
removed from around sills so that there will be free air circulation around them.
1
References, Vol. 8, 1907, pp. 397, 442; Vol. 35, 1934, pp. 998, 1176; Vol. 36, 1935, pp. 781, 1009; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 942, 1329; Vol. 61, 1960, pp. 587,
1095; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106.

Timber Structures
d. Posts in framed bents shall be sawed to proper length (vertical or batter) and shall have an even bearing on caps and
sills.
e. Caps shall be sized to a uniform depth and placed to a uniform and even bearing on piles or posts.
f. Sash and sway bracing, tower bracing and girts shall bear firmly against the piles or timber to which secured. When
necessary, filler shall be placed to avoid bending the bracing more than 1 inch out of line when the bracing bolts or
other fastenings are drawn up tight. Built-up fillers will not be permitted and each filler shall be a single piece of
creosoted lumber of like kind to that in the brace with a width of not less than 6 inches and a length of not less than 12
inches.
g. Stringers shall be sized to provide a uniform depth and even bearing at supports. They shall be assembled in the
structure according to plans.
h. Ties shall be sized and spaced in accordance with the plans.
i. Guard timbers shall be framed in accordance with the plans and laid to line and uniform top surface.
j. Deck plank and ballast retainers on ballasted deck trestles shall be placed in accordance with the plans. Drainage shall
be provided for in the manner specified.
k. Bulkheads at the ends of trestles shall be of sufficient height and width to retain properly the shoulders of
embankments and to provide a berm sufficient to prevent loss of embankment from beneath the bulkhead. When
necessary, special anchorage, such as bulkhead piles or dead-men buried in the embankment, shall be provided to
support the bulkhead.
l. Refuse platforms, water barrels platforms, footwalks, motor car set-off or other special platforms shall be in
accordance with the plans.
m. All fastenings, including machine bolts, dowels, drift pins, drift bolts, lag screws, threaded rods, timber connectors and
other type fastenings shall be placed in accordance with the plans, drawn up securely, and on completion of the
structure shall be retightened. Unless otherwise shown on the plans, holes for dowels, drift pins or drift bolts shall be
bored 1/16 inch smaller than the nominal diameter of the dowel, drift pin or drift bolt used; holes shall not be bored
deeper than the length of the dowel, drift pin or drift bolt. Holes for machine bolts and threaded rods other than
dowels, drift pins or drift bolts shall be bored the same size as the nominal diameter of the machine bolt or threaded rod
used. Holes for lag screws shall be bored with a bit 1/16 inch smaller than the body of the screw at the base of the
thread. All other fasteners shall be installed in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
n. Screw-type fastenings shall be screwed into place for the entire length of the fastening. Driving with a maul or other
tool will not be permitted.
o. Timber connectors shall be of the types specified on the plans. Split-ring and shear-plate connectors shall be installed
in pre-cut grooves of the dimensions shown on the plans or as recommended by the manufacturer. Toothed-ring and
spike-grid connectors, and clamping plates, shall be forced into the contact surfaces of the timbers joined by means of
proper pressure tools; all connectors of these types at any joint shall be embedded simultaneously and uniformly.

SECTION 4.5 SUBSTRUCTURE
4.5.1 PILE POSTING, OR REPLACING DEFECTIVE PORTIONS OF PILES (2013)
Pile Posting, or replacing defective portions of piles should be performed as follows:
a. Posting of the outside piles should not be permitted on bridges on curves where bents exceed 12 feet in height or on
tangents where bents are over 23 feet in height.
b. Posting of 1 pile in a 4 pile bent, 2 piles in a 5 pile bent or 3 piles in a six or seven pile bent should be permitted.
c. No more than two posted piles should be adjacent to each other.
d. Bents should be framed or replaced in their entirety with suitable longitudinal and lateral bracing if more than the
allowable number of piles or more than two consecutive piles need posting.
e. Posting may be accomplished per Figure 7-4-1.
f. Where piles are decayed at the top, they may be cut off and double capped; a single pile may be corbeled.
g. Cut offs on piles for posts or frames shall be done beyond the area of deterioration at a location of sound timber.
h. All field fresh cuts and bored holes shall be treated with wood preservative as specified in Article 4.4, Paragraph b.
1

Timber Structures
Figure 7-4-1. Schematic Diagram of Pile Posting
4.5.2 DRIVING TIMBER PILES1 (2013)
4.5.2.1 Scope (1990) R(2013)
This specification covers the driving of wood piles in trestles, foundations, and for protection work.2
4.5.2.2 Tests (1990) R(2013)
In the absence of other reliable information to determine pile lengths, a thorough exploration shall be made at the site by
borings, driving test piles, or by pile loading tests, prior to the selection of the length of piles for the work, and to determine
characteristics incident to pile resistance and penetration.
4.5.2.3 Materials (1990) R(2013)
The kinds of wood, physical requirements, dimensions, and manufacture are specified in Part 1, Material Specifications for
Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and Recommendations for Fire-
Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood, under the subject title Specifications for Timber Piles.
1
References, Vol. 12, 1911, part 1, pp. 279, 307; Vol. 16, 1915, pp. 894, 1181; Vol. 41, 1940, pp. 326, 864; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 943, 1329; Vol. 62, 1961, pp.
513, 848; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106; Vol. 91, 1990, p. 57.
2 For the driving of concrete piles and steel piles, and for information on loading tests, see Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations.

4.5.2.4 Handling of Material (2013)
a. Treated piles shall be handled in accordance with requirements of Section 4.1, Handling of Material (2012).
b. The surface of treated piles below cut-off elevation shall not be disturbed by boring holes or driving nails or spikes into
them to support temporary material or staging. Staging may be supported in slings carried over the tops of piles or
attached to pile clamps of an approved design.
4.5.2.5 Selection and Preparation of Piles (1990) R(2013)
4.5.2.5.1 Size R(2013)
a. The piles in each bent of a pile trestle shall be selected for uniformity of size to facilitate placing of the brace timbers.
b. It is presumed that piles will be furnished in approximately the lengths required to secure the desired penetration and
bearing. In the event piles are found to be much in excess of the required lengths, they shall be shortened at the small
end before driving, as may be directed by the engineer, in order to preserve the desired diameter of pile at the cut-off.
4.5.2.5.2 Pointing R(2013)
Under ordinary conditions points of piles shall be cut perpendicular to the axis of the pile; where necessary or desirable, points
may be trimmed to form a truncated pyramid 4 inches to 6 inches square at the end and with length of trimming not to exceed
twice the tip diameter of the pile.
4.5.2.5.3 Pile Shoes R(2013)

1
a. Where the driving of a test pile or former experience at the site indicates that difficult driving will be encountered,
metal shoes of an approved design may be attached to the tips of the piles.
b. Each pile point shall be carefully trimmed to fit the shoe and obtain full and uniform bearing, and to avoid
displacement of the shoe or damage to the pile or shoe. 3
4.5.2.5.4 Collars R(2013)
Where the heads of piles tend to split when being driven, the heads shall be tightly wrapped with No. 12 gage annealed iron
wire to form a band not less than 2 inches in width, held in place with staples, or shall be protected with strap-iron bands
applied with a banding tool, or other effective means shall be used to prevent splitting.
4
4.5.2.5.5 Driving Cap R(2013)
The heads of piles shall be protected while being driven with a driving cap (bonnet) of approved design. The cap shall be
shaped to fit over the head of the pile to provide lateral support, and to uniformly distribute the hammer blow. Pile heads shall
be trimmed to fit snugly into the cap.
4.5.2.6 Types of Hammers (2013)
a. Pile driving shall not be started on any project until approval is secured from the engineer as to the type and weight of
the hammer to be used.
b. Piles shall be driven with the heaviest hammer that, in the judgement of the engineer, can be used to secure maximum
penetration without appreciable damage to the pile.1
1
For a discussion of the proper relationship of weight of ram to weight of pile, and net effective energy of blow, in selecting pile driving hammers, reference
is made to Vol. 37, 1936, AREMA Proceedings.

Timber Structures
c. Where a drop hammer is used, the striking ram shall weigh not less than 3000 lbs. The fall shall be so regulated as to
avoid damage to the pile.
d. Special care shall be used in choice of hammer where the shock to surrounding material may cause damage to an
adjacent structure.
4.5.2.7 Driving (2013)
4.5.2.7.1 Leads R(2013)
Pile driver leads shall be constructed in such a manner as to afford freedom of movement of the hammer, and they shall be held
in position to ensure support for the pile during driving. All piles shall be driven with leads and hammer in line with the neutral
axis of the driven pile.
4.5.2.7.2 Followers R(2013)
The use of followers shall be avoided if practicable and shall be used only with the written permission of the engineer.
4.5.2.7.3 Line R(2013)
Piles shall be driven as accurately as possible in the correct location, true to line both laterally and longitudinally, and to the
vertical or batter lines as indicated on the plans. On sloping ground or under difficult conditions of driving, the pile shall be
started in a hole or guiding template or other necessary means provided to insure driving in the proper location. In case a pile
works out of line in driving, it shall be properly aligned before it is cut off or braced, and the distance that it may be pulled
shall be determined by the engineer.
4.5.2.7.4 Jetting R(2013)
Jetting shall not be done unless specifically permitted by the engineer. When waterjets are used, the number of jets and the
volume and pressure of water shall be sufficient to freely erode the material adjacent to the pile. The plant shall have sufficient
capacity to deliver at least 100 psi pressure at two 3/4 inch nozzles. Before the desired penetration is reached, the jets shall be
removed and the pile finally set under normal driving by at least 50 blows from a gravity or single-acting hammer or 200
blows from a double acting hammer.
4.5.2.7.5 Drilling (2013)
a. When it has been satisfactorily demonstrated to the engineer that piling cannot be driven in the regular manner or by
jetting, holes may be predrilled to facilitate the driving.
b. Where drilling is permitted, the holes drilled shall have a diameter not more than 1 inch larger than the tip diameter of
the pile and the drilling will continue only through the strata of hard material obstructing the driving. Where the hard
material extends below the desired penetration, the drilling shall be stopped above that penetration level and the pile
finally set under normal driving in accordance to the bearing required. At least 50 blows from a gravity or single-acting
hammer or 200 blows from a double-acting hammer shall be used if possible to do so without damaging the pile.
4.5.2.7.6 Penetration R(2013)
It is expected that piles shall be driven, jetted or drilled and driven to the full penetration shown on the plans or as otherwise
required. This shall not be construed to mean that driving may stop when such penetration as shown on the plans has been
secured, but on the contrary, driving shall continue in every case until the total penetration obtained is satisfactory to the
engineer, regardless of the fact that sufficient bearing capacity as determined by formula may be obtained at a lesser depth.

4.5.2.7.7 Bearing Capaciy R(2013)
a. Where possible, test piles shall be driven and loading tests made before construction is started, as referred to under
Article 4.5.2.2. In the absence of such data, the following “Engineering News” formulas may be used to estimate the
approximate safe bearing capacity of piles in most soils:
For drop hammers:
P = FWh
------------
S+1
For double-acting steam hammers:
Fh ( W + ap )
P = -----------------------------
S + 0.1
For single-acting hammers:
FWh -
P = ----------------
S + 0.1
where:
1
P = safe load in pounds
W = weight of hammer or ram in pounds
h = fall of hammer or stroke of piston in feet
S = average penetration in inches per blow, for the last 5 blows of a drop hammer or 20 blows of a single or
double-acting hammer
a = effective area of piston in square inches 3
p = mean effective steam pressure in pounds per square inch
F = 2 for piles driven to practical refusal in any material
b. These formulas are applicable only when the hammer has a free fall, the head of the pile is not broomed or crushed, the
penetration is reasonably uniform, and there is no appreciable bounce of the hammer. The character of the soil
penetrated; conditions of driving; spacing, size and length of piles; and experience under similar conditions; shall be
4
given due consideration in determining the value of piles by formula.
c. The formulas should not be applied to friction piles driving into such soils as silt, muck, peat, or plastic clays, nor to
piles which act as end-bearing piles.
d. For jetted piles the same formulas will apply and the test shall be made when driving is resumed after removal of the
jets. For piles driven in drilled holes, the tests shall be made after the tip of the pile has passed the bottom of the hole.
4.5.2.7.8 Delay (2013)
When driving is interrupted before final penetration is reached, record for bearing capacity shall not be taken until at least 12
inches penetration or refusal has been obtained after driving has been resumed.

Timber Structures
4.5.2.7.9 Overdriving R(2013)
When the point of refusal is reached, care shall be taken to avoid damaging the pile by overdriving. This condition is indicated
when the hammer begins to bounce or when the energy of the blow is dissipated in the bending or kicking of the pile.
4.5.2.7.10 Replacing (2013)
Any pile driven too far out of line, driven below cut-off elevation, or so damaged in driving or straightening as to impair its
structural value as a pile under the conditions of use, shall be pulled and replaced by a new pile.
4.5.2.8 Framing (2013)
4.5.2.8.1 Cut-Off R(2013)
The tops of piles shall be pulled into line if necessary, fixed in position, cut off to a true plane as shown on the plans, and at the
elevation established by the engineer. Piles shall show a solid head at the plane of the cut off.
4.5.2.8.2 Treatment
After cut offs have been made, the tops of piles shall be treated in accordance with requirements of Section 4.4, Paragraph b.
4.5.2.8.3 Pile Covering
The treated pile cut-off should be covered with a coat of pitch, asphalt or similar material which should then be applied along
with a protective sheet material, such as metal, roofing felt or saturated fabric fitted over the pile cut-off.
4.5.2.8.4 Placing Caps
Caps shall be placed while the piles are held in correct position. Where drift pins or drift bolts are used for making the
connection, the caps and tops of piles shall be bored 1/16 inch smaller than the nominal diameter of the drift pin or drift bolt
and to a depth of 2 inches less than its driven length. Where the connection is made with straps and bolts, see Section 4.4,
Paragraph b for boring and treatment of holes.
4.5.2.8.5 Bracing
Piling shall not be trimmed or cut to facilitate the framing of sway or longitudinal bracing. Where necessary, filler blocks shall
be used between the pile and brace to establish the bracing in a true plane. Filler blocks shall be sized in accordance with
Section 4.4, Paragraph f.
4.5.2.8.6 Holes for Bolts and Other Fasteners
a. Holes for bolts and fasteners shall be bored in accordance with Section 4.4, Paragraph m.
b. All field drilled holes shall be treated with preservative in accordance with requirements specified in Section 4.4,
Paragraph b. Bolts shall be cleaned of rust and scale, and dipped in approved sealing compound before placing. All
unused holes shall be plugged at each end with tight fitting treated wooden plugs.
4.5.2.8.7 General Field Treatment
Where it is necessary to disturb the surface of treated piles or timber, or where the surface has been damaged in handling, such
surfaces shall be treated in accordance with requirements of Section 4.4, Paragraph b.

4.5.2.9 Foundation Piles (1990)
a. For the design of pile foundations, exploration at the site, and test pile loading, see Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and
Foundations; Part 4, Pile Foundations.
b. The general specifications above shall apply to the driving of wood foundation piles.
c. Pile driving shall not be started until foundation excavation has been carried to plan depth.
d. After all of the piles are driven, tests shall be made to determine if any of the piles have raised due to driving of
adjacent piles. Any piles that have raised shall be driven down again.
e. After driving is completed, the piles shall be cut off as shown on the plans and at the elevation established by the
engineer. All loose and displaced materials down to the level of original excavation shall be removed from the
foundation pit, leaving a clean solid surface on the piles, and bottom and walls of the pit.
4.5.2.10 Protection Work (1990)
a. The general specifications above shall apply to the driving of wood piles for protection work.
b. It is essential that protection work be constructed as securely as possible, accurately located as shown on the plans, and
the piles driven to a fixed penetration or to refusal as may be determined by the engineer.
4.5.2.11 Pile Record (1988)1

1
a. An accurate record shall be kept of all piles, as each is driven, to show the location in the structure, size of pile,
penetration, resistance to driving and other essential data. See suggested form for reporting this information,
Figure 7-4-2. Size can be 8-1/2″ × 11″ or 8″ × 10-1/2″.
b. The size and arrangement of pile driving record forms may be varied to adapt them to the convenience of user, method
of filing, and use to be made of the data. The form found in Figure 7-4-2 embodies the minimum of information for a 3
satisfactory record. Among additional items which may be desirable are:
• reference to piles other than wood;
• steam hammer blows per minute;
• data on batter; 4
• reference to jetting;
• computed bearing value; and
• other arrangement of data on length between butt, cut-off, ground and point of pile.
1
References, Vol. 12, 1911, part 1, pp. 278, 307; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 426, 846; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 514, 848; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106.

Timber Structures
North and South Railroad
Pile Record of Bridge:
Location:
Weight and Kind of Hammer: Date:

Avg. Last Blows
Size of Pile
Bent No. of (Note 3)
Kind of Base-rail Total Kind of
Date No. Pile Cutoff Drop Remarks
Wood to Ground Penetration Soil
(Note 1) (Note 2) Tip Butt Length of Penetration
End End
Hammer
Note 1: Bents numbered in direction in which mile posts increase.

Note 2: Piles numbered from left to right.
Note 3: Five blows for drop hammers and 20 blows for single or double-acting hammers.
Figure 7-4-2. Sample Pile Record Form

SECTION 4.6 SUPERSTRUCTURE
Under Development
SECTION 4.7 SUPPORT, REPAIR, PRESERVE, OR REPLACE DAMAGED PORTIONS OF

THE STRUCTURE (2010)
a. Splicing provides additional material to support small structurally deficient areas. Sufficient connections must be
provided for adequate load transfer. A structural analysis should be performed to verify stress distribution and
adequacy. See Figure 7-4-3.
Figure 7-4-3. Splicing
3
b. Scabbing provides additional material to support large structurally deficient areas. Sufficient connections must be
provided for adequate load transfer and support. Scabbing may also be used to increase capacity of a member and may
be composed of timber or steel. A structural analyses should be performed to verify stress distribution and adequacy.
See Figure 7-4-4.
Figure 7-4-4. Scabbing

Timber Structures
c. Deteriorated pile may be restored by using a cast in place reinforced concrete jacket. The jacket must extend above and
below the defective area to adequately support the loads. See Figure 7-4-5.
Figure 7-4-5. Pile Restoration Using Cast in Place Reinforced Concrete Jacket
d. Voids in pile may be filled with an epoxy or other suitable grout. See Figure 7-4-6.

3
Figure 7-4-6. Filling Voids with Grout
e. Splits or checks may be arrested by clamping, using steel assemblies to compress the member, or stitching, using
through bolts to hold the member together. Configuration, number and size of fasteners should be determined on a case
by case basis. Stitch bolt spacing should be determined by Part 2, Design of Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles for
Railway Loading; Section 2.6, Details of Design, Article 2.6.3. Holes for stitch bolts should be sized in accordance 4
with Article 4.4.m. Stitch bolts should only be tightened to the point where they begin to take tension. Splits or checks
should not be closed as this may extend the defect to the other side of the clamp or stitched area. See Figure 7-4-7 and
Figure 7-4-8.
f. When individual caps, sills, braces or struts have become weakened beyond their ability to perform their intended
function, replacing these members with similar sized members may be performed.
g. Shimming of stringers to provide proper surface and cross level should be performed using a single hard wood shim
under each chord or stringer. Shimming with stacked or multiple shims is to be avoided.
h. All bolts should be retightened during normal servicing of the structure.

Timber Structures
Figure 7-4-7. Clamping
Figure 7-4-8. Stitching

4.7.1 CONTROL MOISTURE
The hazard of decay is reduced by controlling the amount of moisture present in timber bridges. Once visible wetting or high
moisture contact areas are located, the following action is recommended:
a. Remove dirt and debris.
b. Provide adequate drainage from deck.
c. Ensure adequate support surface for tie plates.
d. Provide water proofing systems for ballast decks.
e. Ensure hardware is tight, sealing holes preventing moisture entrance.
f. Plug any unused holes with treated wood plugs.
4.7.2 FIELD APPLICATION OF PRESERVATIVE CHEMICALS
Timber decay can be arrested by field application of preservative chemicals which should be applied in accordance with
manufacturer’s specifications. It is recommended they be used by qualified personnel with experience in treating structural
timber.
a. Liquids are brushed, squirted or sprayed on the surface and may be injected into timber. 1
b. Semi-solids, greases or pastes are spread on the affected area. They are mostly used in ground line applications or
treating fresh cuts.
c. Fumigants are normally injected into the wood. They originally are liquid and volatilize, creating a gas which
permeates wood cells inhibiting decay.
3
d. Plugs or pastes containing salts, which, when combined with moisture release an active ingredient which permeates
wood cells inhibiting decay.
SECTION 4.8 METHODS OF FIREPROOFING WOOD BRIDGES AND TRESTLES1
4.8.1 FOREWORD (1988)
The following methods are used in providing fire protection for open-deck bridges and trestles:
4.8.2 METAL PROTECTION (1988)
This method consists of covering the deck partially or completely with sheets of No. 24 gage galvanized iron fastened with
12d heavy galvanized barbed car nails with flat heads and diamond points.
1
References, Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 291, 868; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 962, 1331; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 514, 848; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 453, 684; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106.

Timber Structures
4.8.3 COATINGS (1988)
Coatings of bituminous and non-bituminous materials with clean gravel embedded in them are showing promise of being fire
resistant when applied on horizontal surfaces. Vertical surfaces require special treatment.
4.8.4 IMPREGNATION (1988)
This method includes the use of various salt solutions applied at treating plants. The treated wood, in addition to being made
fire resistant, is also given protection against decay and termite attack.
4.8.5 FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS (1988)
a. Under this method fusible-link detector systems are so connected with the signal and communication systems that in
case of fire the block signals will show warning indications, and the nearest telegraph operator will receive notification
so that maintenance of way forces may be assembled to combat the fire.
b. Special fire-fighting apparatus and watchmen are employed in unusual cases where conditions warrant.
4.8.6 HOUSEKEEPING (1988)
NOTE: The following practices, applicable to both open- and ballasted-deck bridges and trestles, are being
employed where conditions warrant.
a. Decks are kept clear of all combustible material, and decayed spots in exposed ties or timbers kept trimmed.
b. Brush and weeds are kept down for a distance of at least 25 feet from the bridge, both underneath and on the
embankment at the ends of the bridge or trestle. Also, all sod is removed from under timber bridges and for a distance
of 3 feet outside the timbers. This is accomplished by scalping or by the use of a soil sterilant.
c. Water barrels with buckets are installed on timber bridges, 1 barrel each for structures up to 50 feet long and 1
additional barrel for each additional 150 feet or fraction thereof. For creosoted structures, sand boxes with water-tight
covers for keeping the sand dry are used, dry sand being more effective than water in extinguishing small fires on
creosoted structures.
4.8.7 FIRE BARRIERS (2012)
NOTE: Applicable to both open and ballasted-deck bridge and trestles.
Under this method long bridges and trestles are protected by introducing fire barriers at intervals of about 400 feet. This
reduces the hazard by preventing loss of the entire structure in case of fire. Such barriers may be grouped by types of
construction, as follows:
a. Earth fill (see Figure 7-4-9).
b. Reinforced concrete piers or concrete pile bents with steel or concrete spans (see Figure 7-4-10).
c. Facing bents with fire-resisting materials (see Figure 7-A3-42).
d. Application of mastic materials to open-deck structures (see Figure 7-A3-43).

50 FEET
4 PANELS OR NOT
LESS THAN 45’
SUBGRADE BASE OF RAIL
FILL
NATURAL GROUND
ELEVATION
Figure 7-4-9. Earth Fill Break in a Long Trestle

Timber Structures
Figure 7-4-10. Reinforced Concrete Piers and Reinforced Concrete Bents as Fire Stops

SECTION 4.9 USE OF GUARD RAILS AND GUARD TIMBERS1 (2004)
4.9.1 FIELD SIDE GUARD OR SPACER TIMBERS (1988)
On all open-floor railway bridges, the ties should be held securely in their proper spacing; guard or spacer timbers fastened to
every tie near its end are effective. If such continuous timbers are not placed, blocks or other suitable fastenings should be used
for spacer timber attachment; on track where speed or other circumstances so indicate it may be advisable also to embed
clamping plates or timber connectors between the timbers and ties. Such metal fastenings are more effective than dapping of
the spacer timbers, because of the tendency of the wood to split off between daps.
4.9.2 METAL GAGE SIDE GUARD RAILS (2004)
a. Consideration should be given to the use of metal inner guard rails taking into account the alignment, train speed, deck
type, density and type of traffic, as well as height and length of bridge.
b. It is recommended that the inner guard rails, when used, be steel track rails not higher than the running rails. If 5 inches
or more in height they should not be more than 2 inches lower than the running rails. If less than 5 inches in height they
should not be more than 1 inch lower than the running rails. Normally, they will consist of two rails, spaced about 10
inches inside the running rails (measured between near sides of head) spiked to every tie and spliced with joint bars,
fully bolted. The inner guard rails may be tie plated when deemed advisable. They must not contact tie plates of tracks
carrying electric signal circuits. Where they protect against a hazard on one side only, a single line of rails may be used,
adjacent to the running rail further from the hazard.
c. It is further recommended that where inner guard rails are used, they extend at least 50 feet beyond the end of the 1
bridge or other structure. This distance may be increased where train speed, curves or other factors warrant the
increase, and may be decreased on the leaving end where traffic is in one direction. The ends should run to the center of
the track and be beveled, bent down or otherwise protected against direct impact. A filler block or plate should be
provided at the meeting of the converging rails.
4.9.3 COMBINED USE OF GUARD TIMBERS AND GUARD RAILS (1988) 3

Where both guard timbers and inner guard rails are used they should be so spaced that a derailed truck will strike the inner
guard rail and not the timber.
1
848; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 454, 684; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106.

Timber Structures

7
Part 5
Inspection of Timber Structures
— 2010 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 General (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-1
5.2 Details of Inspection (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-2

5.2.1 Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-2
5.2.2 Waterway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-2 1
5.2.3 Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-3
5.2.4 Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-3
5.2.5 Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-3
5.2.6 Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-4
5.2.7 Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-4
3
FOREWORD
It is the purpose of these instructions to describe the manner of inspecting a timber bridge; no attempt is made to set up the
organization nor to fix the responsibility or the functioning of the various members of the organization.
SECTION 5.1 GENERAL (1988)
The method of inspecting timber, regardless of its location in the structure, follows:
a. Make a careful surface inspection of each timber for cross grain, tension or horizontal shear failures that may have
developed from uneven bearing, original defects, overstress or other causes. Note whether timber and piling are treated
or untreated.
b. Test each timber and pile for soundness, especially at points of contact with other timbers, ground, or at low water line,
and where end grain bears on a sill or cap.
(1) For treated timber, test shall be made by sounding with the knob end of an inspection bar or light-weight hammer,
using care to avoid injuring or disfiguring the fiber. If hollow or dead sound results, determine nature and extent of
© 2013 , American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 7-5-1

Timber Structures
the defect by boring, preferably with an increment borer. Bore holes, where possible, so water can drain, and
carefully plug with treated wood.
(2) For untreated timber, test may be made by sounding with the knob end of an inspection bar or light-weight
hammer, also by probing with pointed end of inspection bar, using care to avoid any unnecessary injury or
disfiguring of the wood. Note the feel and sound when struck by the bar, the appearance of the fiber, and of all
decayed or otherwise unsound wood, which should be trimmed away to sound timber.
c. Make a careful surface inspection of the timber and adjacent ground surface for evidence of termites, carpenter ants,
marine borers or other destructive insects.
d. Make inspection on new work, where timber is treated, of all field cuts for exposed untreated wood.
e. Make an outline of repairs based on information from Part 4 and Part 5. The inspector should determine the cause of
the deterioriation of the structural component and suggest maintenance or repair measures that would correct existing
deficiences and prevent their reoccurance.
SECTION 5.2 DETAILS OF INSPECTION (2002)
The bridge inspector’s notes for each bridge shall be written while at the structure after a careful examination has been made
covering the following points:
5.2.1 IDENTIFICATION
a. Division or subdivision. Name of inspector and members of inspection party. Date of inspection.
b. Bridge Number. Name of nearest station and mile-post location. Age and type of structure. Total length, height and
number of panels.
c. Number of bents, towers, spans or panels in each bridge in the direction in which the mile post numbers increase,
starting with the dump bent as No. 1. Number the piles in each bent or tower and the stringers in each panel from left to
right, when facing in the direction in which the mile post numbers increase.
5.2.2 WATERWAY
a. Observe if the opening appears adequate for drainage area and if free of obstructions, such as drift, vegetation,
displaced revetment stone, or old pile stubs. Note whether the channel is stable, filling, deepening or subject to scour,
and if public improvements have altered the general condition in any way. Measure and record the distance from base
of rail to ground line at each bent. Measure and record high water mark if obtainable. If heavy or accumulated drift is
troublesome during high water, ascertain the type, such as logs, trees, ice, etc., and observe whether of such intensity as
to force the bridge out of line and/or break piling.
b. Note if protection work is required or whether cleaning and straightening of the channel are necessary. Note whether
bent alignment obstructs or deflects normal flow and if revetment or deflection dikes are needed.
c. Note evidence that would indicate the presence of any buried cable, conduit, tile or pipe lines crossing under the
bridge, giving the panel location, together with size and use.

Inspection of Timber Structures
5.2.3 TRACK
a. State whether track is level or on a grade, and if alignment is tangent or curved. If on a curve, note how superelevation
is provided, whether by cutoff in the bents, taper in the caps or in the ballast section. Note location of track with
reference to the chords for uniformity of loading.
b. Observe condition of embankment at the bridge ends for fullness of crown, steepness of slopes and depth of bulkheads.
Note whether track ties are fully ballasted and well bedded.
c. Record the weight and condition of the track rails and inside guard rails; also the condition of the rail joints and
fastenings. Note the size and condition of the tie plates.
d. Where track is out of line or surface, the location, amount and probable cause should be determined.
5.2.4 SUPERSTRUCTURE
a. Ascertain size, spacing and uniformity of bearing of the ties. Note condition as to soundness, mechanical wear, spike
killing and other defects.
b. Determine the size, condition, and security of anchorage of the guard timber.
c. Inspect all walks, railings, and refuge bays, noting the condition as to soundness and security of fastening devices.
d. Note all members to determine if any are broken or have moved out of proper position and whether all fastening 1
devices are functioning properly. On ballasted-deck trestles, note whether ballast is clean and in full section.
e. Examine all stringers for soundness and surface defects. Note size and kind, and the number used in each panel. Note if
bearing is sound and uniform, if all stringers are properly chorded and securely anchored, and if all shims and blocking
are properly installed. Note whether packers or separators are used and the condition of all chord bolts.
f. Note and report presence of any wires, cables, pipe lines or other attachments which are foreign to the bridge structure. 3
5.2.5 SUBSTRUCTURE
a. Make careful examination of all piles and posts for soundness, noting particularly the condition at points of contact
with the caps, girts, bracing, sills, and at the ground or water line.
4
b. Examine all bents and towers for plumbness, settlement, sliding and churning, and give an accurate description of the
nature and extent of any irregularities. Note particularly whether caps and sills have full and uniform bearing on the
supports.
c. Record number and kind of piles or posts in the bents or towers. Note uniformity of spacing and the location of any
stubbed or spliced members, especially if the bridge is on a curve or the bent is more than 15 feet in height.
d. Ascertain whether all bents and towers are properly sway, sash and tower braced, and if girts and struts are applied as
needed.
e. Examine all fastening devices for physical condition and tightness.
f. Observe action of bridge under movement of trains, where practicable, in order to evaluate better the riding condition
and soundness of the structure.

Timber Structures
5.2.6 FIRE PROTECTION
a. Note whether surface of the ground around and beneath the structure is kept clean of grass, weeds, drift or other
combustible material.
b. Where rust-resisting sheet metal is used as a fire protection covering for deck members, note condition of metal and
fastenings.
c. Note if any other method of fire protection has been used, such as fire retardant salts, external or surface protective
coatings, or fire walls. Record such apparent observations as are pertinent to the physical condition and effectiveness of
such protective applications.
d. Where water barrels are provided, note the number, condition, if filled, and if buckets for bailing are on hand. If sand is
used, note whether bins are full and in condition to keep the sand dry.
e. Note if timber, particularly top surfaces of ties and stringers in open deck bridges, is free from frayed fiber, punk wood,
or numerous checks.
5.2.7 EARTHQUAKES
In the occurrence of a seismic event refer to Chapter 9 of this manual.

7
Part 6
Commentary
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 Materials Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-2

6.1.1 Structural Grades of Lumber and Timber and Method of Their Derivation (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-2
6.1.3 Specifications for Engineered Wood Products (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-2
6.1.4 Examples for Inquiry or Purchase Order (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-5
1
6.2 Design Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-5
6.2.2 General Features of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-5
6.2.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-5
6.2.4 Designing for Engineered Wood Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-6
6.2.5 Notes on the Use of Stress-Graded Lumber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-7
3
6.3 Rating Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-12
6.3.1 Rules for Rating Existing Wood Bridges and T restles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-12
6.4 Construction and Maintenance Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-12
6.5 Inspection Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-12
LIST OF FIGURES
7-6-1 Chart Showing Relation of Design Stress to Duration of Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-10
LIST OF TABLES
7-6-1 Derivation of listed values, using combination 16F-1.5E DF as an example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6-11

Timber Structures
SECTION 6.1 MATERIALS COMMENTARY
6.1.1 STRUCTURAL GRADES OF LUMBER AND TIMBER AND METHOD OF THEIR

DERIVATION (2010)
a. Lumber, including structural lumber, is the product of the saw and planing mill not further manufactured than by
sawing, resawing, passing lengthwise through a standard planing machine, cross cutting to length and working. After
the lumber is produced, it is necessary to inspect each piece individually to determine its grade. Lumber which is so
graded that working stresses can be assigned is called stress-graded or structural lumber.
b. Traditional design values for wood are based on testing of small clear samples; results summarized in ASTM D2555,
and are developed in accordance with ASTM D245 with reductions applied to account for various wood defects. For a
detailed explanation of the intial concepts see AREA Proceedings Vol. 30, 1929, pages 1206 to 1224. Starting in the
1980s, the coordinated Canadian and U.S. in-grade testing program started to develop properties based on full-sized
structural tests of members (Madsen) using proof loading concepts. At present there is a large database for dimension
lumber sizes in Douglas Fir-Larch, Hem-Fir and Spruce-Pine-Fir. As in-grade testing is expanded to timber sizes and
other species, the values from this program will replace the results of tests done on small clear samples adjusted for
defects.
LUMBER INDUSTRY ABBREVIATIONS (2007)
a. The same as American Softwood Lumber Abbreviations, as approved by the American Lumber Standards Committee.
b. These standard lumber abbreviations are commonly used for softwood lumber, although all of them are not necessarily
applicable to all species. When used in the preparation or writing of contracts and other documents arising in
transactions of purchase and sale of American Softwood Standard Lumber, these abbreviations shall be construed as
provided therein.
NOMENCLATURE OF COMMERCIAL DOMESTIC HARDWOODS AND SOFTWOODS

(2007)
The standard commercial names for lumber cut from species or species groups of domestic hardwoods or softwoods are the
same as those used in the current standard grading rules for the species
6.1.3 SPECIFICATIONS FOR ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS (2006)
6.1.3.1 Structural Glued Laminated Timber - Glulam
Glued laminated timbers (glulam) are manufactured by end jointing individual pieces of stress-graded lumber together with
rigid structural adhesives to create long lamination lengths. The laminations are then face bonded to create the desired
member depth in accordance with layup specifications. The manufacturing standard for the glulam industry is America
National Standard - ANSI A190.1.
Chapter 7 Sections 1.3.1 and 2.4 are to be used in conjunction with railroad design practices and design methodology provided
in other sections of the chapter, and in conjunction with basic structural engineering equations. Glulam material properties to
be used for design are available primarily from industry technical trade associations. The values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-
8 are traceable to association sources and the glulam section of the National Design Specification (NDS).
The glulam content in Chapter 7 has been heavily edited from building design and construction reference documents (such as
the NDS), to serve the needs of railroad bridge designers. Content in Sections 1.3.1 and 2.4 has been arranged to simplify use

Commentary
of the material for design engineers that may not be familiar with glulam properties and recommended practices as they apply
to the use of glulam in railroad bridge applications. The primary need for editing glulam design reference tables and design
literature excerpts was to reduce the information by removing adjustment factors and design considerations commonly used in
building construction, but not applicable to railroad bridge design. Decisions on options for this simplification process were
guided primarily by committee members knowledgeable in railroad timber bridge design practices, input from glulam industry
members on Committee 7, and through contact with the glulam industry technical trade associations.
A number of modifications to basic glulam industry practice were included in this section to tailor the material for railroad
bridge structure applications. For this reason, direct comparisons with common glulam industry standards and specifications
will show differences.
6.1.3.1.1 Appearance Classifications
b. Industry recommendations for finished appearance of glued laminated timber typically identify four classifications:
Premium, Architectural, Industrial and Framing. Framing and Industrial appearance classifications are shown.
Premium and Architectural appearance classifications are not applicable to railroad bridge applications.
It should be noted that appearance classifications are cosmetic in nature and do not affect the structural properties of
glulam members.
The glulam manufacturer should be contacted for details on Framing appearance classification.
6.1.3.1.2 Layup Combinations
Layup combinations listed in the reference design property tables (Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8) have been limited to bending
1
"Stress Groups" that are most likely to be used for railroad bridge applications. Both Balanced and Unbalanced combinations
are available in the respective stress groups. Only Balanced combinations are listed in Table 7-2-7 for the two major species
(Douglas fir and Southern pine) used for railroad structures in North America.
A comprehensive list of all available layup combinations (for a variety of lumber species) is available from agencies, such as
APA - The Engineered Wood Association (http://www.apawood.org) or American Institute of Timber Construction (AITC, 3
http://www.aitc-glulam.org) certifyng glulam manufacturers.
Glulam members may also be supplied with all laminations of a single grade, from the desired species. Combinations for this
option are intended primarily for axial loading, such as columns. Combinations listed in Table 7-2-8 are for all one grade of
given species. All one-grade combinations are identified by number designations that identify specific lumber grade
categories within species groups.
4
Grade Requirements
Layup grade requirements may be achieved with the use of both visual and mechanically graded lumber sources in a variety of
species. Glulam manufacturers have the option to use alternate sources of lumber as long as species criteria are maintained in
layup grade requirements. Douglas fir and Southern pine species are generally available in the United States, with Spruces
more common in Canada.
Manufacturing specifications for layup combinations are generally not needed by the designer. Glulam industry
manufacturing specifications are referenced in ANSI A190.1. Customized layup options are possible to meet specialized
design requirements within the scope of industry standards for glulam manufacture.
Bending Members
Bending members are typically specified on the basis of the maximum allowable bending stress and modulus of elasticity of
the member. For example, a 24F-1.8E designation indicates a member with an allowable bending stress of 2400 psi and a
MOE of 1,800,000 psi. This “stress class” may be produced in a variety of different species, each with the same properties

Timber Structures
listed for the 24F-1.8E stress class. Table 7-2-7 is a simlified version of a stress class table listing only DF and SP balanced
combinations.
Glulam layup combinations are specified to provide the highest lumber grades int he zones of the member depth where
bending stresses are highest. Layup stress group combinations for members stresses primarily in bending are listed in Table 7-
2-7. Layup combinations may be provided based on selective grade zones through the member depth however only properties
for balanced combinations are shown in Table 7-2-7.
6.1.3.1.3 Balanced Beams
Balanced beams must be used in applications such as continuous stringer applications, where the top and bottom of the
member is stressed in tension.
6.1.3.1.6 Finished Sizes
Finished sizes are provided for typical bridge stringers, deck panels and pile caps only. Other sizes are available.
Glulam can be manufactured in widths greater than 12-inch nominal widths through the use of laminations made up of
multiple-pieces of lumber. Specifications for special order members of this type should be negotiated directly with the glulam
manufacturer.
Multiple-piece laminations may be used to develop glulam members in widths greater than nominal lumber widths. Where
multiple-piece laminations are used, the allowable gap between laminations shall be limited to a maximum of 1/16 inch if a
gap-filling structural adhesive is specified. Otherwise, multiple-piece laminations to be used for pile cap applications shall be
edge-glued.
Typical Net Finished Glulam Deck Panels:
Depths (Thickness): 2-1/2 to 12-1/4-in. (hit & miss surfaces)

Widths: 45 to 52 in.
Lengths: 24 to 24 ft.
Other sizes may be supplied for specific applications as required.
Typical Net Finished Glulam Pile Caps:
Depth: 14 in., 16 in. or deeper as required

Width: 12 in. (hit & miss), 11-3/4 in. finished
Multiple-piece lams for 14 in., 16 in. or wider
Length: Stock lengths up to 60 ft.
6.1.3.1.7 Preservative Treatments
In general, pressure preservative treatment processes commonly used for glulam do not affect the strength properties of glued
laminated timbers. Information on the possible effects of specific treatment is available through the AWPA or the treatment
provider.
Waterborne Treatments
Waterborne treatments are typically applied to lumber prior to the laminating process. Waterborne treatments applied to
glulam after the laminating process can cause dimensional changes such as warping, and twisting, in addition to excessive
checking as the result of the necessary re-drying process.

Commentary
6.1.3.1.9 Certification, Wrapping and Shipping
Glulam members may be supplied in virtually any length, limited only by treating facilities, shipping routes and jobsite
handling capabilities. Glulam members to be pressure-treated with preservatives after manufacture may be supplied without
cover depending on conditions, or load wrapped as needed. If wrapping is to be specified for environmental protection or for
other reasons, members may be supplied either load wrapped, bundle wrapped or individually wrapped.
6.1.3.1.10 Storage and Handling
Seasoning checks in glulam members may be excessive if members are stored flat and placed unprotected in an environment
where changes in the relative moisture content of members is forced to change rapidly.
6.1.4 EXAMPLES FOR INQUIRY OR PURCHASE ORDER (2010)
Example 1: 30,000 fbm 2 x 8 x 12 feet, S4S, Select Structural joist and plank, Bald Cypress, Grading for structural Cypress,
Southern Pine Inspection Bureau (SPIB).
Example 2: 120 pieces 3 x 12 x 20 feet, S4S, selected structural joists and planks, Douglas-fir, coast region, in accordance
with Paragraph 123(a) Standard No. 17, Grading Rules for West Coast Lumber issued by West Coast Lumber Inspection
Bureau, except to have 90% heartwood.
Example 3: 48 pieces 2 x 12 x 12 feet, rough, dense select structural, Southern Yellow Pine, in accordance with Paragraph
401.1 of Southern Pine Inspection Bureau’s Grading Rules, except to be free of wane.
1
SECTION 6.2 DESIGN COMMENTARY
6.2.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN

3
6.2.2.3 Stringers (2009)
An approximate analysis to determine the division of rail load to several stringers is given in the chart, Figure 7-A1-1, in
Appendix 1 - Contemporary Designs and Design Aids.
6.2.3 LOADS, FORCES AND STRESSES 4

6.2.3.6 Longitudinal Force (2013)
d. Since longitudinal bracing in timber trestles is essentially there to provide L/d stability and geometrical constraint, the
longitudinal forces are transferred through the stringer and deck system with some help from the rails in proportion to
their axial stiffness. Where stringers are discontinuous, the load is likely transferred through the dowels to the cap and
back to the next set of stringers. This load path needs to be adequate to do this.
Traditionally this has been accomplished by the use of earth fill or similar fire barriers at 400-foot intervals but with the
addition of Articles 2.3.6.b, c and d it is necessary to include this limitation, as some of these fire details would not
transmit any appreciable force.
6.2.3.9 Deflection (2013)
The cases listed in the tables in Appendix 1 meet this criteria provided permanent set is not an issue.

Timber Structures
6.2.4 DESIGNING FOR ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS
6.2.4.1 Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) (2006)
Methods used to establish glulam design properties take into account basic lumber properties. Lumber properties published by
the grading agencies for Douglas fir and Southern pine are derived from standard practices provided in ASTM D245 in
conjunction with clear wood properties published in ASTM D2555. Basic lumber grade characteristics are adapted to a glulam
beam design modeling method described in ASTM D3737 to establish glulam beam properties for the various layup
"combinations" listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8. Railroad bridge design applications require the use of basic structural
engineering principles and design equations in conjunction with published glulam allowable stresses.
6.2.4.1.1 Allowable Stresses
The National Design Specification (NDS) provides an "equation format" that may be used with the specialized equations and
loading requirements specified in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering for design of bridge structures. Design
methodology for connections is also included in the NDS. The allowable stresses included in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 may be
used directly for glulam bridge design. Appropriate stress adjustment factors for typical railroad bridge applications described
in the NDS and glulam industry design publications have been applied to these table values to simplify use of the values in
basic engineering equations.
Glulam beams are "engineered" to optimize grade characteristics of the lumber used to make the product. The highest
lamination grades are used in the outer zones of the beam depth. The X-X, Y-Y and Axial orientations are defined here to
explain the use of these terms as they are used in glulam product design.
Fasteners: The design methodology provided in Section 2.4 is applicable to glulam products. In addition, the information
provided in the NDS for fasteners in solid sawn members is applicable for glulam design. Fastener capacities for withdrawal,
single shear, double shear, and fastener group patterns in glulam members are controlled by wood species and the specific
gravity within species groups. Specific gravity values to be used with the stress groups listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 are
provided.
6.2.4.1.2 Tabular Design Values
See Appendix 1 - Contemporary Designs and Design Aids.
6.2.4.1.3 Adjustment Factors
Adjustment factors for wet-use, cyclic loading and the RR Use as defined in this section have been applied to the appropriate
values in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8. Other factors that may be considered have been included in Table 7-2-3. In cases where
factors are not applicable, "none" is entered in the table. If adjustment for a given condition may be considered, but has been
judged to be not necessary for glulam applications, a value of 1.0 is noted in the table. For example the Beam Stability factor
CL is 1.0 when the compression side of a bending member is supported throughout its length, and the ends at points of bearing
have lateral support to prevent rotation.
Temperature effects (CT) are reversible for normal day/night cycles even in climates where daytime temperatures may be
extreme. The US Forest Service Handbook No. 72 indicates that potential temporary strength reductions due to temperatures
above 120oF will be offset by low member moisture content common to arid climates. The depth of heat penetration in given
members must also be recognized when considering the possible effect of temporary (daily) exposure to high temperatures on
beam properties. The Railroad Use Factor as defined for use in Chapter 7 is a duration of load adjustment not applicable to the
glulam shear stress values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 since a compensating adjustment to account for cyclic loading has
already been applied by glulam industry standard recommendations. A factor of 0.72 has been applied to the listed values to
account for possible cyclic loading effects. The base value for glulam shear (prior to adjustment) is derived from full-scale
beam test results using static loading. Base shear values used in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8, prior to application of the wet use
factor, are 265 psi for Douglas fir and 300 psi for southern pine. This base value is higher than values originally derived from
small sample blocks shear tests and ASTM D245 adjustment factors.

Commentary
Design shear stresses may also require adjustment to account for seasoning checks when they are expected to exceed 15% of
the member width in high shear zones --center half of the depth, in the end fourths of the member length, and mid depth over
intermediate supports. Technical Notes on the evaluation of checking in glued laminated timbers are available from industry
trade associations.
The KcE factor to be used in the column stability equation (shown as 0.418 for glulam), is related to stiffness COV (Coefficient
of Variation), and varies between products. The COV for glulam Modulus of Elasticity is assumed to be 10% for members
with 6 or more laminations.
6.2.4.2 Design Equations (2006)
In addition to basic structural design principles, the use of specialized design procedures and assumptions to account for
loading conditions unique to railroad bridge structures, as presented in Section 2.5, may be applied for glulam design in
conjunction with stresses listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8.
Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8: To simplify use of these tables, basic adjustment factors that are to be applied generally for railroad
bridge applications have been applied to the respective values listed in the tables. An explanation of the methodology used to
derive the table values is provided below.
6.2.5 NOTES ON THE USE OF STRESS-GRADED LUMBER
6.2.5.1 Working Unit Stresses (1988)
Introduction 1
To make the most effective and efficient use of any material the designer should be familiar with the characteristics of that
material. In the following, the important characteristics which affect the strength of lumber are discussed briefly. Other
characteristics, such as durability, resistance to splitting, resistance to wear, hardness, holding power of nails, finishing
characteristics, etc., are not discussed, although they may be important and must not be overlooked.
Basic Stress 3
The term “basic stress” is used to denote the allowable working stress for lumber which is unchecked, straight grained, and
clear, and which will be subject to maximum load for a long time and will be saturated all of the time. The basic stress is not a
working stress for any commercial grade. It must be modified for the grade of the lumber and for actual loading and moisture
conditions to obtain working unit stresses. For basic stresses and for the quantitative effect of lumber characteristics on
strength, see the Wood Handbook. The stresses given in Table 7-2-9 take into account the characteristics permitted in the
grading rules. 4
Knots and Holes
The distortion of the grain around a knot causes stresses across the grain which limit the allowable stress in tension and
compression parallel to grain for fully intergrown knots the same as for loose knots and knot holes. The effect of knots and
knot holes on compression perpendicular to the grain and on shear stress may ordinarily be disregarded. Holes from other
causes, such as bored holes, have approximately the same effect as knots. If there are many holes or large holes or grooves
made in the lumber during fabrication and erection, their effect on stress should not be disregarded.
Slope of Grain
Lumber is much stronger in both tension and compression along the grain than in any other direction, and since in a straight
beam or post there will be a component of stress across the grain whenever the grain is not parallel to the axis of the beam or
post, it is necessary to limit slope of grain. Ordinarily, grading rules limit the slope of grain throughout the length of posts, but
only in the middle half of beams and joists, on the assumption that the slope of grain near the ends will not be much greater

Timber Structures
than the slope in the central part. If a beam or joist is to be used for continuous spans or a tension member, the slope of grain
should be further limited (see Note 8, Table 7-2-9). Since the allowable slope of grain for posts is somewhat greater than for
beams and joists, it is not considered necessary to limit specifically the slope of grain near the ends of beams or joists which
are to be used as posts.
Pitch and Gum Pockets, Seams and Streaks
The effect of pitch or gum on the strength of wood may be disregarded, although it is sometimes associated with pockets or
seams where the absence of wood may affect the strength.
Wane
Wane is permitted in most structural grades. Its effect on the strength of the piece in bending or compression parallel to grain is
not great. Wane at a point of bearing perpendicular to grain has a proportional effect on bearing stress and, in addition, may
cause eccentricity of load or support. Where bearing stresses are high or eccentricity is objectionable, the structure can be
designed so that the wane will be removed in framing or the lumber can be ordered “to be free of wane.”
Density
Density has a large effect on the strength of lumber. For a few species a visual inspection method has been developed which
will separate the lumber into two density classifications, but there is considerable overlap of actual densities in the two
classifications. If a more accurate method of density segregation, economically applicable to commercial production, could be
devised, a large increase in allowable stress could be made for most lumber.
Warp, Cup, Bow
Warp, cup and bow may cause eccentricity of loading and torsional stresses and difficulties in framing. For ordinary
construction the stresses produced can be disregarded if the member is straight enough for easy framing.
Checks, Splits, Shakes
Some grading rules limit checks, splits and shakes throughout the length of structural lumber because of their effect on hazard
of decay, appearance, etc., and these considerations are the primary ones in post grades. In beams and joists the checks, splits
and shakes within the middle half of the height of the piece within a distance from each end equal to three times the height of
the piece are limited because of their effect on shear stresses. Outside of these limits checks, splits or shakes large enough to
cause a shear failure are unlikely.
Mismanufacture
Mismanufacture affects framing primarily. If the strength of the pieces is based on the smallest size permitted, mismanufacture
may be disregarded.
Moisture Content
a. The strength of lumber in tension, compression and shear is a function of the moisture content at the time and is
practically independent of its previous condition. However, changes in moisture content produce checks, and enlarge
checks and splits already present. The amount of checking will increase with an increase in the size of the piece and
will vary with the method of seasoning and exposure to weather. In Table 7-2-9, assume the lumber has not become
more severely checked, because of improper seasoning or severe exposure to weather, than contemplated by the
grading rules.
b. Under most conditions lumber which has been installed when green or saturated will dry out in service, and prolonged
exposure to moisture will be required to raise the moisture content very much. Lumber of joist and plank sizes and
larger which is not submerged or framed to retain moisture will not acquire much moisture content in exposure to usual

Commentary
weather most places in the United States. Some contact surfaces, such as the bearing between stringers and caps of
railway trestles, are conducive to the retention of moisture, and at such surfaces it is recommended that the stresses be
limited to those applicable to green or saturated lumber.
c. Good timber preservatives do not affect the strength-moisture content relations.
Decay
Decay weakens wood. The decrease in strength may be very marked when the decay is barely perceptible, and since decay
may spread rapidly, infected structural members should be inspected frequently until replaced. It is common practice to reduce
the allowable stresses for untreated lumber subject to decay hazard to offset loss of strength due to undetected decay. Such
reductions should not be relied on to compensate for loss of strength due to known decay. Good preservatives can protect
wood against decay for many years, and if applied by modern treating processes, properly conducted, the damage to the wood
by the treating process may be disregarded.
Duration of Load
The allowable load varies with the length of time the load is applied. Figure 7-6-1 shows graphically the approximate relation
of allowable stress to time. If the load is removed before failure is reached, there will be some recovery, but so little is known
about the amount of recovery that it should be disregarded, and the duration of load should be figured as the sum of all the
lengths of time that the load is applied. If lumber is subjected to several different loads with different durations, each
combination should be investigated, and if each alone is safe the lumber may be considered safe.
Temperature, Heat
1
The stresses recommended in Table 7-2-9, and the provisions in these notes on the use of stress-graded lumber assume the
lumber is to be used under ordinary conditions of temperature. If abnormal temperatures are anticipated, the designer should
refer to the U.S. Forest Laboratory Report No. R 471, Effect of Heat on the Properties and Serviceability of Wood.
6.2.5.6 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber (2012)

3
6.2.5.6.1 Working Stresses
Table 7-6-1, Note 4: Inland Douglas Fir and Douglas Fir-Larch are deemed to be refractory and hence very difficult to treat.
Douglas Fir South is not produced in sufficient quantities and is somewhat weaker; its suitability for Timber Railroad Bridges
is questionable.
The grades Dense Structural 86, 72 & 65 for Southern Yellow Pine are no longer included in Table 7-2-9 because the Southern 4
Pine Inspection Bureau (SPIB) has indicated that none of their members currently supply timbers meeting these grades as
published in the SPIB Special Product Rules. The last printing of the Special Product Rules was October 15, 1991.
The current Design tables in this Chapter for Sawn wood are in part based on tests on full-scale Douglas Fir and Southern
Yellow Pine timber stringers conducted at Texas A & M University (References 1, 13).

Timber Structures
Figure 7-6-1. Chart Showing Relation of Design Stress to Duration of Load

Commentary
Table 7-6-1. Derivation of listed values, using combination 16F-1.5E DF as an example

Timber Structures
SECTION 6.3 RATING COMMENTARY
6.3.1 RULES FOR RATING EXISTING WOOD BRIDGES AND TRESTLES
6.3.1.3 Carrying Capacity (2013)
a. There are many factors affecting the strength of lumber for which no satisfactory, commercially applicable methods of
evaluating the effects have been found. These factors produce a variability among pieces which otherwise seem to be
alike. Since the allowable stresses of Table 7-2-9 are based on the strength of the weakest pieces that may occur in the
grade and assume that each piece must carry its load, it follows that if a load is carried by several members, not
independent of each other, the designer could reasonably allow somewhat higher stresses. Conversely, if the failure of
a single member would cause unusually great damage, the allowable stress on that member should be reduced. An
overload of 50 percent will cause failure in only rare cases, but if the load is doubled, failures will be frequent.
b. To be considered stable the structure must be able to safely transfer all loads from point of application to the ground or
suitable substructure in a manner that ensures the integrity and geometry of the structure.
6.3.1.4 Inspection (2013)
h. With regards to stability of bents:
• Bents should not be out-of-plumb by more than 1 inch in 4 feet, in the direction of the track without evaluation.
• Out of plumb bents should be straightened as much as possible without damaging the bent, and/or additional bracing
or struts added, and bolts tightened. If this repair does not hold for any appreciable time (6 to 12 months), then the
bent should be considered for additional strengthening or re-construction.
• If the problem is known to be purely a ground condition, then ground stabilization measures should be considered.
SECTION 6.4 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE COMMENTARY
SECTION 6.5 INSPECTION COMMENTARY

7
Chapter 7 Glossary1
1. LUMBER INDUSTRY ABBREVIATIONS2
a. The same as American Softwood Lumber Standard as developed by the National Bureau of Standards.
b. These standard lumber abbreviations are commonly used for softwood lumber although all of them are not necessarily
applicable to all species when used in the construction of contracts and other documents arising in transactions of
purchase and sale of American Softwood Standard Lumber, these abbreviations shall be construed as provided therein.
c. There are additional abbreviations applicable to a particular region or species which may be included in approved
grading rules.
d. Abbreviations are commonly used in the forms indicated, but variations, such as the use of periods and other forms of
punctuation, are optional.
2. NOMENCLATURE OF COMMERCIAL DOMESTIC HARDWOODS AND SOFTWOODS3 1

The standard commercial names for lumber cut from species or species groups of domestic hardwoods and softwoods are the
same as those listed in the current standard grading rules for the species.
3. TERMS
The following terms are used in Chapter 7, Timber Structures, and are placed here in alphabetical order for your convenience.
3
Air Dried
Seasoned by exposure to the atmosphere, in the open or under cover, without artificial heat.
All-heart
Of heartwood throughout; that is, free of sapwood.
American Standard Lumber

See American Softwood Lumber Standards.
Annual Ring
Growth layer put on in a single growth year.
Bark Pocket
Patch of bark partially or wholly enclosed in the wood; classified as are pitch pockets.
1
References, Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 253, 868; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 960, 1330; Vol. 61, 1960, pp. 587, 1095; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106.
2
3 References, Vol. 22, 1921, pp. 494, 1062; Vol. 27, 1926, pp. 833, 1406; Vol. 28, 1927, pp. 323, 1425; Vol. 30, 1929, pp. 1147, 1456; Vol. 34, 1933, pp. 66,
760; Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 671, 1037; Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 253, 868; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 960, 1330; Vol. 61, 1960, pp. 587, 1095; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106.
© 2013 , American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 7-G-1

Timber Structures
Board
See American Softwood Lumber Standards.
Bow
See Warp.
Boxed Pith
When the pith is between the four faces on an end of a piece.
Bright (sapwood)
Unstained.
Characteristics
Distinguishing features which by their extent and number determine the quality of a piece of lumber.
Check
Lengthwise grain separation, usually occurring through the growth rings as a result of seasoning.
• Surface Check.
• Small Surface Check. Perceptible opening not over 4 inches long and 1/32 inch wide.
• Medium Surface Check. Not over 1/32 inch wide and over 4 inches, but not over 10 inches long.
• Large Surface Check. Over 1/32 inch wide or over 10 inches long.
• End Check. Occurs on an end of a piece.
• Through Check. Extends from one surface through the piece to the opposite surface or to an adjoining surface.
Chipped Grain
Area where the surface is chipped or broken out in very short particles below the line of cut. Not classed as torn grain and,
as usually found, is not considered unless in excess of 25 percent of the surface involved.
Clear
Free, or practically free, of all blemishes, characteristics or defects.
Compression Wood
Abnormal wood that forms on the underside of leaning and coniferous tress. It is characterized aside from its distinguishing
color by being hard and brittle and by its relatively lifeless appearance.
Corner
The intersection of two adjacent faces.
Crook
See Warp.
© 2013,
2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
7-G-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Glossary
Cross Break
Separation of the wood across the width, such as may be due to tension resulting from unequal shrinkage or mechanical
stress.
Cup
See Warp.
Cutting
Resulting pieces after crosscutting and/or ripping.
Decay
Disintegration of wood substance due to action of wood-destroying fungi. Also known as dote and rot.
• Advanced or Typical Decay. Older stage of decay in which disintegration is readily recognized because the wood has
become punky, soft, and spongy, stringy, shaky, pitted, or crumbly. Decided discoloration or bleaching of the rotted wood
is often apparent.
• Incipient Decay. Early stage of decay in which disintegration has not proceeded far enough to soften or otherwise
change the hardness of the wood perceptibly. Usually accompanied by a slight discoloration or bleaching of the wood.
• Pocket Rot. Typical decay which appears in the form of a hole, pocket, or area of soft rot, usually surrounded by
apparently sound wood.
1
• Water Soak or Stain. Water-soaked area in heartwood, usually interpreted as the incipient stage of certain wood rots.
De-grades
Pieces which on reinspection prove of lower quality than the grade in which they were shipped.
Discoloration 3
See Stain.
Double End Trimmed

Trimmed reasonably square by saw on both ends.
Dry
4
Seasoned, not green (for the purpose of this standard, dry lumber is defined as lumber which has been seasoned to a
maximum moisture content of 19 percent or less).
Edge
The narrow face of rectangular shaped lumber.
Edge Grain (Vertical Grain)

Annual rings (so-called grain) which form an angle of 45 degrees or more with the surface of the piece.
Firm Red Heart

A stage of incipient decay characterized by a reddish color in the heartwood, which does not unfit the wood for the majority
of yard purposes, not to be confused with the natural red heart of some species.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering
Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
and Maintenance-of-Way Association
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 7-G-3

Timber Structures
Flat Grain (Splash Grain)

Annual rings (so-called grain) which form an angle of less than 45 degrees with the surface of the piece.
Free of Heart Centers (FOHC)

Free of heart centers (f.o.h.c.). when the pitch is not enclosed within the four sides of the piece.
Green
Not fully seasoned (for the purpose of this standard, green lumber is defined as lumber having a moisture content in excess
of 19 percent).
Gum Pocket
Openings between growth rings which usually contains or has contained resin or bark or both.
Gum Seam
Check or shake filled with gum.
Gum Spot
Accumulation of gumlike substance occurring as a small patch. May occur in conjunction with a bird-peck or other injury
to the growing wood.
Gum Streak
Well-defined accumulation of gum in more or less regular streak. Classified as are pitch streaks.
Heart Face
Face side free of sapwood.
Heart Shake
See Shake-pitch Shake.
Heartwood
Inner core of the tree trunk comprising the annual rings containing nonliving elements; usually darker in color than
sapwood.
Hit and Miss

Series of surfaced areas with skips not over 1/16 inch deep between them.
Hit or Miss
To skip or surface a piece for a part or the whole of its length, provided it is nowhere more tha 1/16 inch scant.
© 2013,

Glossary
Holes
Holes may extend partially or entirely through a piece and be from any cause. To determine the size of a hole, average the
maximum and minimum diameters, unless otherwise specified.
• Pin Hole. Not over 1/16 inch in diameter.
• Medium Hole. Ove 1/16 inch but not over 1/4 inch in diameter.
• Large Hole. Over 1/4 inch in diameter.
Honeycomb
Honeycomb is indicated by large pits in the wood.
Kiln Dried
Seasoned in a chamber by means of artificial heat.
Knot
Branch or limb, embedded in the tree and cut through in the process of lumber manufacture; classified according to size,
quality, and occurrence. To determine the size of a knot, average the maximum length and maximum width, unless
otherwise specified.
Knot Quality 1
• Decayed Knot. Softer than the surrounding wood, and containing advanced decay.
• Encased Knot. Its rings of annual growth are not intergrown with those of the surrounding wood.
• Hollow Knot. Apparently sound, except that it contains a hole over 1/4 inch in diameter.
3
• Intergrown Knot. Its rings of annual growth are completely intergrown with those of the surrounding wood.
• Loose Knot. Not held tightly in place by growth or position, and cannot be relied upon to remain in place.
• Fixed Knot. Will hold its place in a dry piece under ordinary conditions; can be moved under pressure, though not
easily pushed out.
4
• Pith Knot. Sound knot except that it contains pith hole not over 1/4 inch in diameter.
• Sound Knot. Solid across its face, as hard as the surrounding wood, shows no indication of decay and may vary in color
from the natural color of the wood to reddish brown or black.
• Star-checked Knot. Having radial checks.
• Tight Knot. So fixed by growth or position as to retain its place.
• Firm Knot. Solid across its face, but containing incipient decay.
• Water-tight Knot. Its rings of annual growth are completely intergrown with those of the surrounding wood on one
surface of the piece, and it is sound on that surface.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Timber Structures
Knot Occurrence
• Branch Knots. Two or more divergent knots sawed lengthwise and tapering toward the pith at a common point.
• Corner Knot. Located at the intersection of adjacent faces.
• Knot Cluster. Two or more knots grouped together, the fibers of the wood being deflected around the entire unit. A
group of single knots is not a knot cluster.
• Single Knot. Occurs by itself, the fibers of the wood being deflected around it.
• Spike Knot. A knot sawed in a lengthwise direction.
Loosened Grain
Small portion of the wood loosened but not displaced.
Machine Burn
Darkening or charring due to overheating by machine knives.
Machine Gouge
Groove due to the machine cutting below the desired line cut.
Mismanufacture
Includes all defects or blemished produced in manufacturing. See Chipped Grain, Hit and Miss, Hit or Miss, Loosened
Grain, Machine Burn, Machine Gouge, Mismatched Lumber, Raised Grain, Skip, Torn Grain, and Variation in Sawing.
Mismatched Lumber
Worked lumber that does not fit tightly at all points of contact between adjoining pieces, or in which the surfaces of
adjoining pieces are not in the same plane.
• Slight Mismatch. Surface variation not over 1/64 inch.
• Medium Mismatch. Surface variation over 1/64 inch, but not over 1/32 inch.
• Heavy Mismatch. Surface variation over 1/32 inch.
Mixed Grain
Any combination of edge grain and flat grain.
Moisture Content
Weight of the water in wood expressed in percentage of the weight of oven-dry wood.
Peck
Channeled or pitted areas or pockets as sometimes found in cedar and cypress.
Pecky
Characterized by Peck.
© 2013,

Glossary
Pitch
Accumulation of resin in the wood cells in a more or less irregular patch.
• Light Pitch. Lightly evident presence of pitch.
• Medium Pitch. Trace of pitch slightly more evident than light pitch.
• Heavy Pitch. Very evident presence of pitch showing by its color and consistency.
• Massed Pitch. Clearly defined accumulation of solid pitch in a body by itself.
Pitch Pocket
Well-defined opening between growth rings which usually contain or has contained resin or bark or both. Bark also may be
present in the pocket.
• Very Small Pitch Pocket. Not over 1/8 inch in width and not over 2 inches in length.
• Small Pitch Pocket. Not over 1/8 inch in width and not over 4 inches in length; or not over 1/4 inch in width and not
over 2 inches in length.
• Medium Pitch Pocket. Not over 1/8 inch in width and not over 8 inches in length; or not over 3/8 inch, in width and
not over 4 inches in length.
• Large Pitch Pocket. Width or length exceeds the maximum permissible for a medium pitch pocket. 1
• Closed Pitch Pocket. Does not show an opening on both sides of the piece.
• Open (through) Pitch Pocket. Is cut across on both sides of the piece.
Pitch Seam 3
Shake or check filled with pitch.
Pitch Streak
Well-defined accumulation of pitch in a more or less regular streak.
• Small Pitch Streak. Not over one-twelfth the width by one-sixth the length of the surface on which it occurs. 4
• Medium Pitch Streak. Over one-twelfth, but not over one-sixth the width by over one-sixth but not over one-third the
length of the surface on which it occurs.
• Large Pitch Streak. Over one-sixth the width by one-third the length of the surface on which it occurs.
Pith
Small soft core in the structural center of a log.
• Boxed Pith. When the pith is within the four faces on an end of a piece.
Pith Fleck
Narrow streak resembling pith on the surface of a piece, usually brownish, up to several inches in length, resulting from
burrowing of larvae in the growing tissue of the tree.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Timber Structures
Quarter Sawed
See, Edge Grain.
Radial
Coincident with a radius from the axis (pith) of the tree to the circumference.
Raised Grain
Roughened condition of the surface of dressed lumber in which the hard summerwood is raised above the softer
springwood, but not torn loose from it.
Sapwood
Outer layers of growth in a tree, exclusive of bark, which contain living elements; usually lighter in color than heartwood.
• Bright Sapwood. Unstained.
Saw Butted
Trimmed by a saw on both ends.
Seasoning
Evaporation or extraction of moisture from green or partially dried wood.
Shake
A lengthwise separation between or through the growth rings and may be further classified as ring shake or pith shake.
• Fine Shake. A barely perceptible opening.
• Slight Shake. More than a perceptible opening, but not over 1/32 inch wide.
• Medium Shake. Over 1/32, but not over 1/8 inch wide.
• Open Shake. Over 1/8 inch wide.
• Cup Shake. Does not completely encircle the pith.
• Round Shake. Completely encircles the pith.
• Shell Shake. When both ends of a shake which has been cut across occur on the face or edge of a piece.
• Through Shake. Extending from one surface through the piece to the opposite surface or to an adjoining surface.
• Pith Shake (Heart Check). Extends across the rings of annual growth in one or more directions from the pith toward,
but not to the surface of a piece. Distinguished from season check by having its greatest width nearest the pith, whereas
the greatest width of a season check is ordinarily at the surface of a piece, and when a piece has boxed pith the greatest
width of a season check is farthest from the pith.
Side Cut
When the pith is not enclosed within the four sides of the piece.
© 2013,

Glossary
Skip
Area on a piece that failed to surface, classified as follows:
• Slight Skip. Area not over six times the width of the piece that the planer knife failed to surface smoothly.
• Shallow Skip (Small). Area not over six times the width of the piece that the planer knife failed to touch by not over
1/32 inch.
• Deep (Heavy) Skip. Area not over twelve times the width of the piece that the planer knife failed to touch by not over
1/16 inch.
Smoke Dried
Seasoned in the open, exposed to the heat and smoke of a fire maintained beneath and within stacks of lumber.
Softwood
One of the group of trees which have needle-like or scale-like leaves. The term has no reference to the softness of the wood.
Sound
Free of decay.
Spiral Grain
Fibers which extend spirally about, instead of vertically along, the hole of a tree. 1
Split
Lengthwise separation of the wood extending from one surface through the piece to the opposite surface or to an adjoining
surface.
• Short Split. Length does not exceed either the width of a piece or one-sixth its length.
3
• Medium Split. Length exceeds the width of a piece, but does not exceed one-sixth its length.
• Long Split. Length exceeds one-sixth the length of a piece.
Springwood
More or less open and porous tissue marking the inner part of each annual ring, formed early in the period of growth. 4
Stain
Discoloration on or in lumber, of any color other than its natural color of the piece on which it appears; classified as
follows:
• Light Stain. Slight difference in color which will not materially impair the appearance of the piece if given a natural
finish.
• Medium Stain. Pronounced difference in color which, although it does not obscure the grain of the wood, is
customarily objectionable in a natural but not a painted finish.
• Heavy Stain. Difference in color so pronounced as practically to obscure the grain of the wood.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Timber Structures
Summerwood
Denser fibrous outer portion of each annual ring, usually without conspicuous pores, formed late in the growing period, not
necessarily in summer.
Torn Grain
Part of the wood torn out in dressing; classified as follows;
• Slight Torn Grain. Not over 1/32 inch in depth.
• Medium Torn Grain. Over 1/32 inch, but not over 1/16 inch deep.
• Heavy Torn Grain. Over 1/16 inch, but not over 1/8 inch deep.
• Deep Torn Grain. Over 1/8 inch deep.
Unsound
Decayed.
Variation in Sawing
A deviation from the line of cut. Slight variation is not over 1/16 inch in 1 inch lumber, 1/8 inch in 2 inches, 3/16 inch in 3
to 7 inches, and 1/4 inch in 8 inches and larger.
Wane
This is bark or the lack of wood from any cause, on the corner of a piece.
• Slight Wane. Not over 1/4 inch wide on the surface on which it appears, for one-sixth the length and one-fourth the
thickness of the piece.
• Medium Wane. Over 1/4 inch, but not over 1/2 inch wide on the surface on which it appears, for one-sixth the length
and one-fourth the thickness of the piece.
• Large Wane. Over 1/2 inch wide on the surface on which it appears, or over one-sixth the length and one-fourth the
thickness of the piece, or both.
Warp
Any variation from a true or plane surface; includes bow, crook, cup, or any combination thereof.
• Bow. Deviation flatwise from a straight line from end to end of a piece; measured at the point of greatest distance from
the straight line.
• Crook. Deviation edgewise from a straight line from end to end of a piece; measured at the point of greatest distance
from the straight line, and classified as slight, small, medium, and large. Based on a piece 4 inches wide and 16 feet long,
the distance from each degree of crook shall be: slight crook, 1 inch; small crook, 1-1/2 inches; medium crook, 3 inches;
and large crook, over 3 inches. For wider pieces it shall be 1/8 inch less for each additional 2 inches of width. Shorter or
longer pieces may have the same curvature.
• Cup. Curve in a piece across the grain or width of a piece; measured at the point of greatest deviation from a straight line
from edge to edge and classified as slight, medium, and deep. Based on a piece 12 inches wide, the distance for each
degree of cup shall be; slight cup, 1/4 inch, medium cup, 3/8 inch, and deep cup, 1/2 inch Narrower or wider pieces may
have the same curvature.
© 2013,

7
References
The following list of references used in Chapter 7, Timber Structures is placed here in alphabetical order for your convenience.
1. A. S. Uppal, G. T. Fry, B. C. Bartell, and P. J. Sculley, “Fatigue Testing of Douglas Fir, Glued-Laminated, Timber Railroad
Bridge Stringers,” Association of American Railroads/Transportation Technology Center, Inc.: Pueblo, CO, Research
Publication R-960, 42 pages, November 2002.
2. American Institute of Timber Construction. Standard Specifications for Hardwood Glued Laminated Timber. AITC 119-
76.
3. American Institute of Timber Construction. Standard Specifications for Structural Glued Laminated Timber of Douglas
Fir, Western Larch, Southern Pine, and California Redwood, AITC 117-76.
4. American Institute of Timber Construction. Standard Specifications for Structural Glued Laminated Timber Using
Visually Graded Lumber of Douglas-Fir, Southern Pine, Hem-Fir, and Lodgepole Pine. AITC 120-76.
1
5. American Institute of Timber Construction. Timber Construction Standards AITC 100-72.
6. American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard Method for Establishing Stresses for Structural Glued Laminated
Timber (Glulam) Manufactured From Visually Graded Lumber. ASTM D3737-78.
7. American Wood-Preservers Association. Standards C20 and C28.

3
8. AWPA. 2007. Book of Standards. Birmingham, AL: American Wood Preservers Association.
9. Current National Design Specification for Stress-Grade Lumber and Its Fastenings, National Forest Products Association.
10. Fry, G., “Rail-Stringer Interaction.” Presentation to AREMA Committee No. 7, 12 August 2008.
11. Madsen, Borg, “Structural Behaviour of Timber” Timber Engineering Ltd., 1992.
12. Timber Construction Manual, by American Institute of Timber Construction, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1973.
13. Uppal, A. Shakoor, G. T. Fry, M. R. Maingot, and P. J. Sculley, “Fatigue Strength of Southern Pine Railroad Bridge
Stringers,” 2001, Association of American Railroads, Transportation Technology Center, Report No. R-945, 45 pages,
March 2001.
14. U.S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 1069, Fabrication and Design of Glued Laminated Wood Structural
Members, by A.D. Freas and M.L. Selbo, Forest Products Laboratory. Available from American Institute of Timber
Construction.
15. U.S. Department of Commerce, Voluntary Product Standard PS 56-73, Structural Glued Laminated Timber (available
from Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office).
© 2013 , American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 7-R-1

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering
7-R-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

30
Appendix 1 - Contemporary Designs and Design Aids
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-2
A1.2 Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-3
A1.3 Pile Design Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-4
A1.4 Hankinson Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-31

1
A1.5 Comparison of Unit Stresses in Timbers in Open and Ballasted-Deck Trestles (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-31
A1.5.1 For Open-Deck Trestles, E-80 Loading (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-31
A1.5.2 For Ballasted-Deck Trestles, E-80 Loading (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-37
A1.6 Timber Trestle Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-46

3
LIST OF FIGURES
7-A1-1 Distribution of Load to Stringers of Timber Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-3

7-A1-2 Distribution of Load to Piles of Timber Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-4
7-A1-3 Bulkheads and Miscellaneous Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-6
7-A1-4 6 Pile Bent 12” x 14” Timber Cap a=29” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-9
© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 7-A1-1

Timber Structures
LIST OF FIGURES (CONT)
7-A1-16 7 Pile Bent 14” x 14” Timber Cap a=39” L=10’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-23
7-A1-24 Graphical Solution of Hankinson Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-31
7-A1-25 Cap to Pile Fastening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-46
LIST OF TABLES
7-A1-1 6-Pile Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-7

7-A1-2 7-Pile Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-21
7-A1-3 Comparison of Unit Stresses in Open Deck Trestles, Cooper E 80 Loading, No Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-32
7-A1-4 Comparison of Unit Stresses in Open Deck Trestles, E - 80 Cooper Loadings, No Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-36
7-A1-5 Comparison of Unit Stresses in Ballasted Deck Trestles, Cooper E 80 Loading, No Impact . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-38
7-A1-6 Comparison of Unit Stresses in Ballasted Deck Trestles, E - 80 Cooper Loadings, No Impact . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-44
A1.1 INTRODUCTION
This Appendix contains information useful in the design of Recommended Contemporary Structures.
7-A1-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

A1.2 STRINGERS
Figure 7-A1-1. Distribution of Load to Stringers of Timber Trestles
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 7-A1-3

Timber Structures
A1.3 PILE DESIGN AIDS
Figure 7-A1-2. Distribution of Load to Piles of Timber Trestles

Figure 7-A1-2. Distribution of Load to Piles of Timber Trestles (Continued)

Timber Structures
34 DIA. x 1’-8 DRIFT

BOLTS; NUMBER AND C
L TRACK & TRESTLE
SPACING TO BE
DESIGNED BASED ON 4 INCH BULKHEAD PLANKS
HEIGHT AND WIDTH
OF EMBANKMENT BASE OF RAIL
14x14x14’-0 34 DIA. x 1’-10

DRIFT BOLTS
NUMBER AND SIZE OF

TIMBER STRINGERS
AS REQUIRED (TYP)
WING
PILE WING
PILE
BULKHEAD, 6 PILE END BENT & OPEN TIMBER DECK 34 DIA. x 1’-10
DRIFT BOLT (TYP)
C
L TRACK & TRESTLE 34 DIA. x 1’-8 DRIFT
8 INCH MIN. 4x14 BOLTS; NUMBER AND
4x14
BASE OF RAIL 4x8x16’-0 SPACING TO BE
DESIGNED BASED ON
HEIGHT AND WIDTH OF
4 INCH BULKHEAD EMBANKMENT (TYP)
PLANKS
34 DIA. DRIFT BOLTS

14x14x16’-0
AS REQUIRED
34 DIA. x 1’-10
DRIFT BOLTS
WING
PILE WING
PILE
NUMBER AND SIZE OF

TIMBER STRINGERS
AS REQUIRED (TYP)
BULKHEAD, 6 PILE END BENT & BALLAST TIMBER DECK
C
L BENT
TOP OF
LOW RAIL NOTES
SUPERELEVATION 1. LENGTH OF BULKHEAD PLANKS
SHOULD CONFORM TO THE
EMBANKMENT CROSS SECTION.
DISTANCE 2. WING PILES MAY BE OMITTED

WORKING POINTS
AS REQUIRED WHEN HEAVIER PLANKS THAN
FOR CL PILES ON
HORIZONTAL LINE SHOWN ARE USED.
3. FOR BALLASTED DECK TRESTLES

HAVING 2 INCHES OR LESS
SUPERELEVATION, BENTS MAY
BE CUT LEVEL AND SUPER-
ELEVATION TAKEN UP IN
BALLAST.
PROVISION FOR SUPERELEVATION
Figure 7-A1-3. Bulkheads and Miscellaneous Details

Table 7-A1-1. 6-Pile Bents

b= 100, 110, 120, 130, 132, 140, 144 & 150 inches
Eff. Pile
Pile Cap a C1 C2 Figure No.
Length
12” x 14” Timber 10’ 29 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-4
31 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-5
39 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-6
60 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-7
30’ 29 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-4
31 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-5
39 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-6
60 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-7
14” x 14” Timber 10’ 29 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-8
31 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-9
39 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-10
60 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-11
30’ 29 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-8
31 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-9
39 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-10
60 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-11
16” x 16” Timber 10’ 29 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-12 1
31 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-13
39 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-14
60 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-15
30’ 29 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-12
31 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-13
39 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-14 3
60 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A1-15

Timber Structures
6 Pile Bent Example (pg 7-A3-27) - Revised
Example: The 6 pile-bent of a trestle has a 14" x 14" timber cap

and carries a ballast deck. The pile spacing
is 30" and the effective length of piles (i.e. the exposed
length plus one-half of the penetration) is 30 feet. The
spans consist of ten 8" x 16" stringers. Using graphs or
tables, find out the distribution of the wheel load
(assumed as one) on the piles of the bent.
Given: a = 60", c1 = 15", c2 = 45", b = 150" and L = 30 feet.
Inner pile (Xa) = 0.503
Outer pile (X) = 0.119
Intermediate pile (Xb) = 1-(0.503+0.119) = 0.378
Answer: Pile #123456
Load distribution = 0.119, 0.378, 0.503, 0.503, 0.378, 0.119
6 PILE BENT
R R
C1 C1
C2 C2
X Xb Xa Xa Xb X
b
CHART LEGEND
EFFECTIVE PILE LENGTH OF 10’
EFFECTIVE PILE LENGTH OF 30’---------

6PileBent
12"x14"TimberCap L=10'
a=29" L =30'
0.600
INNER PILE (Xa) c1=15,c2=45
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
RAIL LOAD TAKEN BY ONE PILE
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
c1=12,c2=36
PROPORTION OF R
1
0.200
0.100 c1=15,c2=39
3
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150
Spacing"b"ofOuterPiles(in.)
INTERMEDIATE PILE (Xb)CARRIES THE REMAINDER OF THE UNIT LOAD FROM EACH RAIL. 4
Figure 7-A1-4. 6 Pile Bent 12” x 14” Timber Cap a=29”

Timber Structures
6PileBent
a=31" L =30'
0.600
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
c1=12,c2=36
PROPORTION OF R
0.200
0.100 c1=15,c2=39
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150
INTERMEDIATE PILE (Xb)CARRIES THE REMAINDER OF THE UNIT LOAD FROM EACH RAIL.

6PileBent
a=39" L =30'
0.600
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
c1=12,c2=36 1
PROPORTION OF R
0.200
3
0.100 c1=15,c2=39
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150 4

Timber Structures
6PileBent
a=60" L =30'
0.600
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
PROPORTION OF R
0.200
0.100 c1=15,c2=39
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150

6PileBent
a=29" L =30'
0.600
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
c1=12 c2=36
c1=12,c2=36 1
PROPORTION OF R
0.200
0.100 c1=15,c2=39 3
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150
Spacing"b"ofOuterPiles(in.) 4

Timber Structures
6PileBent
a=31" L =30'
0.600
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
c1=12 c2=36
c1=12,c2=36
PROPORTION OF R
0.200
0.100
c1=15,c2=39
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150

6PileBent
a=39" L =30'
0.600
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
1
c1=12 c2=36
c1=12,c2=36
PROPORTION OF R
0.200
3
0.100
c1=15,c2=39
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150 4

Timber Structures
6PileBent
a=60" L =30'
0.600
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
LOAD TAKEN BY ONE PILE
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
PROPORTION OF RAIL
R
0.200
c1=15,c2=39
0.100
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150

6PileBent
a=29" L =30'
0.600
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
c1=12,c2=36 1
PROPORTION OF R
0.200
c1=15,c2=39 3
0.100
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150
4

Timber Structures
6PileBent
a=31" L =30'
0.600
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
c1=12,c2=36
PROPORTION OF R
0.200
0.100
c1=15,c2=39
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150

6PileBent
a=39" L =30'
0.600
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
1
PROPORTION OF R
0.200
c1=15,c2=39
3
0.100
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150 4

Timber Structures
6PileBent
a=60" L =30'
0.600
0.500
c1=15,c2=39
LOAD TAKEN BY ONE PILE
0.400
c1=12,c2=36
c1=12,c2=36
0.300
PROPORTION OF RAIL
R
0.200
c1=15,c2=39
0.100
c1=15,c2=45
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
100 110 120 130 140 150


b= 120, 130, 132, 140, 144, 150, 156, 160 & 168 inches
Eff. Pile
Length
14” x 14” Timber 10’ 39 24, 27, 27, 48, 51, 57, Figure 7-A1-16
30, 30 54, 60
60 24, 27, 27, 48, 51, 57, Figure 7-A1-18
30, 30 54, 60
30’ 39 24, 27, 27, 48, 51, 57, Figure 7-A1-17
30, 30 54, 60
60 24, 27, 27, 48, 51, 57, Figure 7-A1-19
30, 30 54, 60
16” x 16” Timber 10’ 39 24, 27, 27, 48, 51, 57, Figure 7-A1-20
30, 30 54, 60
60 24, 27, 27, 48, 51, 57, Figure 7-A1-22
30, 30 54, 60
30’ 39 24, 27, 27, 48, 51, 57, Figure 7-A1-21
30, 30 54, 60
60 24, 27, 27, 48, 51, 57, Figure 7-A1-23
30, 30 54, 60
CHARTLEGEND
C2=24",C3=48"
C2=27",C3=51" 3
C2=27",C3=57"
C2=30",C3=54"
C2=30",C3=60"
7 Pile Bent Example (pg 7-A3-36) - New 4

Example: The 7 pile-bent of a trestle has a 14" x 14" timber cap
and carries a ballast deck. The intermediate pile spacing
is 24" and the effective length of piles (i.e. the exposed
length plus one-half of the penetration) is 30 feet. The
spans consist of ten 8" x 16" stringers. Using graphs or
tables, find out the distribution of the wheel load
(assumed as one) on the piles of the bent.
Given: a = 60", c2 = 24", c3 = 48”, b = 150" and L = 30 feet.
Intermediate pile (Xb) = 0.392
Intermediate pile (Xc) = 0.297
Outer pile (X) = 0.102
Center pile (Xa) = 2x(1-(0.392+0.297+0.102) = 0.418
Answer: Pile #1234567
Load distribution = 0.102, 0.297, 0.392, 0.418, 0.392, 0.297, 0.102

Timber Structures

7PileBent
14"x14"TimberCap
a=39"L=10'
0.600
INTERMEDIATE PILE (Xb)
0.500
PROPORTION OF RAIL LOAD TAKEN BY ONE PILE
0.400
INTERMEDIATE PILE (Xc)

0.300
0.200
0.100 3
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
120 130 140 150 160 170
CENTER PILE (Xa)CARRIES THE REMAINDER OF THE UNIT LOAD FROM EACH RAIL.
Figure 7-A1-16. 7 Pile Bent 14” x 14” Timber Cap a=39” L=10’

Timber Structures
7PileBent
14"x14"TimberCap
a=39"L=30'
0.600
0.500
0.400

0.300
0.200
0.100 OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
120 130 140 150 160 170

7PileBent
14"x14"TimberCap
a=60"L=10'
0.600

0.500
0.400

0.300
1
0.200
OUTER PILE (X)

0.100
3
0.000
120 130 140 150 160 170
4

Timber Structures
7PileBent
14"x14"TimberCap
a=60"L=30'
0.600

0.500
0.400

0.300
0.200
OUTER PILE (X)

0.100
0.000
120 130 140 150 160 170

7PileBent
16"x16"TimberCap
a=39"L=10'
0.600
0.500
0.400

0.300
1
0.200
0.100 3
OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
120 130 140 150 160 170

Timber Structures
7PileBent
16"x16"TimberCap
a=39"L=30'
0.600
0.500
0.400

0.300
0.200
0.100 OUTER PILE (X)
0.000
120 130 140 150 160 170

7PileBent
16"x16"TimberCap
a=60"L=10'
0.600

0.500
0.400

0.300
1
0.200
OUTER PILE (X)

0.100
3
0.000
120 130 140 150 160 170
4

Timber Structures
7PileBent
16"x16"TimberCap
a=60"L=30'
0.600

0.500
0.400

0.300
0.200
OUTER PILE (X)

0.100
0.000
120 130 140 150 160 170

A1.4 HANKINSON FORMULA
Figure 7-A1-24. Graphical Solution of Hankinson Formula 3
A1.5 COMPARISON OF UNIT STRESSES IN TIMBERS IN OPEN AND BALLASTED-DECK

TRESTLES (2009) 4
A1.5.1 FOR OPEN-DECK TRESTLES, E-80 LOADING (2010)
For Open-Deck Trestles, E-80 Loading refer to Table 7-A1-3.

Timber Structures
Table 7-A1-3. Comparison of Unit Stresses in Open Deck Trestles, Cooper E 80 Loading, No Impact
12’, 13’ and 14’ Spans

All loads in pounds per track. All moments in foot-pounds per track.
Panel length C to C of bents 12’ 13’ 13’ 14’ 14’
Number and size of stringers 8-10” x 16” 8-9” x 18” 8-10” x 18” 8-10” x 18” 6-10” x 20”
Dead load per foot of track
Above stringers 500 500 500 500 500
Stringers-nominal size 535 540 600 600 500
Total dead load 1035 1040 1100 1100 1000
Reaction on bent in pounds
Dead load 12420 13520 14300 15400 14000
Live load 186740 197030 197030 208690 208690
Total 199160 210550 211330 224090 222690
Kind of bent Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame
Number of piles or posts 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Size of piles or posts 14D 12x14 14D 12x14 14D 12x14 14D 12x14 14D 12x14
Total area of piles or posts-sq. in. 924 1008 924 1008 924 1008 924 1008 924 1008
Unit bearing stress on piles and posts-psi 216 198 228 209 229 210 243 222 241 221
Average load in tons per pile or post 16.6 17.5 17.6 18.7 18.6
Bearing-Stringers on caps for continuous butt type deck.
Area sq.in.-14” cap 1120 1008 1120 1120 840
Bearing stress-psi- 14” cap 178 209 189 200 265
Area sq.in.-16” cap 1280 1152 1280 1280 960
Bending in stringers
Dead load moment-foot pounds per track 16608 19764 20904 24432 22211
Live load moment-foot pounds per track 280000 327000 327000 387000 387000
Total load moment-foot pounds per track 297000 347000 348000 412000 410000
Section modulus-nominal size 3413 3888 4320 4320 4000
Bending stress-psi-nominal size 1044 1071 967 1144 1230
Section modulus-dressed size 3225 3676 4096 4096 3803
Bending stress-psi-dressed size 1105 1133 1020 1207 1294
Longitudinal shear-Standard formula- First driver at height of the beam from the support.
Depth nominal 16 18 18 18 20
c to c 12 13 13 14 14
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 11.33 12.33 12.33 13.33 13.33
L’ ignore within d of face 8.17 8.83 8.83 9.83 9.50
a 10 10.83 10.83 11.83 11.67
b 5 5.83 5.83 6.83 6.67
c, if > d 1.83 1.67
W 10.5 1040 1100 1100 1000
Dead load = WL/2 4226 4593 4858 5408 4750
Live Load 102353 104865 104865 109000 107000
Total load 106579 109458 108723 114408 111750
Cross section-sq. in.-nominal size 1280 1296 1440 1440 1200

12’, 13’ and 14’ Spans (Continued)

Unit shear- psi- = 3R/2bh 125 127 114 119 140
Cross section-sq. in.-dressed size 1240 1260 1400 1400 1170
Assumptions:
L= Distance C to C bents for bearing on caps in feet h= Height of stringer in feet
= Distance face to face of caps plus 0.5 foot for stringer bending and shear. (Assume b= Breadth of stringers in feet
14″ Cap) P= Weight on one driving axle = 80000 pounds
W = Total Dead Load per linear foot of track: a= Distance from load P to support, in feet
Rail and fastenings = 200 pounds per linear foot Dressed size = Nominal size less 1/2″ in depth
Ties 8″ × 8″ × 10′ @ 12″ ctrs = 267 pounds per linear foot
R= Total Reaction

Timber Structures
15’ and 16’ Spans

Panel length C to C of bents 15’ 15’ 16’ 16’
Number and size of stringers 8-10” x 18” 8-10” x 20” 8-10” x 20” 8-12” x 20”
Above stringers 500 500 500 500
Stringers-nominal size 600 667 667 800
Total dead load 1100 1167 1167 1300
Dead load 16500 17505 18672 20800
Live load 218740 218740 227430 227430
Total 235240 236245 246102 248230
Kind of bent Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame
Number of piles or posts 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Size of piles or posts 14D 12x14 14D 12x14 14D 12x14 14D 12x14
Total area of piles or posts-sq. in. 924 1008 924 1008 924 1008 924 1008
Unit bearing stress on piles and posts-psi 255 233 256 234 266 244 269 246
Average load in tons per pile or post 19.6 19.7 20.5 20.7
Area sq.in.-14”cap 1120 1120 1120 1344
Bearing stress-psi- 14” cap 210 211 220 185
Area sq.in.-16” cap 1280 1280 1280 1536
Dead load moment-foot pounds per track 28235 29955 34282 38189
Live load moment-foot pounds per track 447000 447000 506000 506000
Total load moment-foot pounds per track 476000 477000 541000 545000
Section modulus-nominal size 4320 5333 5333 6400
Bending stress-psi-nominal size 1322 1073 1217 1022
Section modulus-dressed size 4096 5071 5071 6111
Bending stress-psi-dressed size 1395 1129 1280 1070
Depth nominal 18 20 20 20
c to c 15 15 16 16
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 14.33 14.33 15.33 15.33
L’ ignore within d of face 10.83 10.50 11.50 11.50
a 13.08 13.08 14.00 14.00
b 8.08 8.08 9.00 9.00
c, if > d 3.08 3.08 4.00 4.00

15’ and 16’ Spans (Continued)

Panel length C to C of bents 15’ 15’ 16’ 16’
W 1100 1167 1167 1300
Dead load = WL/2 5958 6127 6710 7475
Live Load 126977 124313 131739 131739
Total load 132935 130313 138449 139214
Cross section-sq. in.-nominal size 1440 1600 1600 1920
Unit shear- psi- = 3R/2bh 138 122 130 109
Cross section-sq. in.-dressed size 1400 1560 1560 1872
Assumptions:
14″ Cap) P= Weight on one driving axle = 80000 pounds
R= Total Reaction 1

7-A1-36
Timber Structures
Table 7-A1-4. Comparison of Unit Stresses in Open Deck Trestles, E - 80 Cooper Loadings, No Impact
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Table 7-A1-4. Comparison of Unit Stresses in Open Deck Trestles, E - 80 Cooper Loadings, No Impact (Continued)
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A1.5.2 FOR BALLASTED-DECK TRESTLES, E-80 LOADING (2010)
For Ballasted-Deck Trestles, E-80 Loading refer to Table 7-A1-5.

7-A1-37
Timber Structures
Table 7-A1-5. Comparison of Unit Stresses in Ballasted Deck Trestles, Cooper E 80 Loading, No Impact
11.5’, 12’, and 12.5’ Spans

All loads in pounds per track. All moments in foot-pounds per track
Panel length C to C of bents 11.5’ 12’ 12’ 12.5’
Total dead load 2840 2850 2910 2950
Dead load 32660 34200 34920 36875
Live load 180690 186740 186740 191890
Total 213350 220940 221660 228765
Size of piles or posts 14D 12x14 14D 12x14 14D 12x14 14D 12x14
Unit bearing stress on piles and posts-psi 231 212 239 219 240 220 248 227
Area sq.in.-14” cap 896 756 1008 1120
Area sq.in.-16” cap 1024 864 1152 1280
Bending stress-psi-nominal size 1314 1346 1281 1276
Bending stress-psi-dressed size 1400 1424 1365 1360
c to c 11.5 12 12 12.5
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 10.83 11.33 11.33 11.83
a 9.5 9.83 10.00 10.50
b 4.5 4.83 5.00 5.50
c, if > d
W 2840 2850 2910 2950

11.5’, 12’, and 12.5’ Spans (Continued)

Panel length C to C of bents 11.5’ 12’ 12’ 12.5’
Dead load = WL/2 10887 11163 11883 12783
Live Load 99692 100000 102353 104789
Total load 110579 111163 114235 117572
Assumptions:
= Distance face to face of caps plus 0.5 foot for stringer b= Breadth of stringers in feet
bending and shear. (Assume 14″ cap) P= Weight on one driving axle = 80000 pounds
Ballast = 120 pounds per cubic foot In calculating bearing, bending, and shear stresses outer
R= Total Reaction stringers are considered as carrying no load.
1

Timber Structures

Above stringers 2310 2310 2310 2310 2310
Total dead load 2980 2990 3030 3060 2980
Dead load 38740 38870 39390 42840 41720
Live load 197030 197030 197030 208690 208690
Total 235770 235900 236420 251530 250410
Area sq.in.-14” cap 1120 1008 1260 1120 840
Area sq.in.-16” cap 1280 1152 1440 1280 960
c to c 13 13 13 14 14
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 12.33 12.33 12.33 13.33 13.33
a 11.00 10.83 11.00 11.83 11.67
b 6.00 5.83 6.00 6.83 6.67


c, if > d 1.83 1.67
W 2890 2990 3030 3060 2980
Dead load = WL/2 13246 13206 13888 15045 14155
Live Load 107027 104865 107027 109000 107000
Total load 120273 118071 120915 124045 121155
Assumptions:
14″ cap) P= Weight on one driving axle = 80000 pounds
W = Total Dead Load per linear foot of track:
Rail and fastenings = 200 pounds per linear foot
a= Distance from load P to support, in feet
Dressed size = Nominal size less 1/2″ in depth
1

Timber Structures

Above stringers 2310 2310 2310 2310 2310
Total dead load 3120 3060 3210 3140 3310
Dead load 46800 45900 48150 50240 52960
Live load 218740 218740 218740 227430 227430
Total 265540 264640 266890 277670 280390
Area sq.in.-14” cap 1260 1120 1400 1120 1344
Area sq.in.-16” cap 1440 1280 1600 1280 1536
c to c 15 15 15 16 16
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 14.33 14.33 14.33 15.33 15.33
a 13.08 13.08 13.08 14.00 14.00
b 8.08 8.08 8.08 9.00 9.00


c, if > d 3.08 3.08 3.08 4.00 4.00
W 3120 3060 3210 3140 3310
Dead load = WL/2 16900 16575 17388 18055 19033
Live Load 126977 126977 126977 131739 131739
Total load 143877 143552 144364 149794 150772
Assumptions:
14″ cap) P= Weight on one driving axle = 80000 pounds
W = Total Dead Load per linear foot of track:
Rail and fastenings = 200 pounds per linear foot
a= Distance from load P to support, in feet
Dressed size = Nominal size less 1/2″ in depth
1

Timber Structures
Table 7-A1-6. Comparison of Unit Stresses in Ballasted Deck Trestles, E - 80 Cooper Loadings, No Impact
Glued Laminated Sections
Assume 24F-1.8E DF or SP
Cooper Design Load 80 80 80
Panel Length C to C of Bents 12’6” 14’0 15’0
Number and Size of Stringers 8-6.75” x 18” 10-6.75” x 18” 10-6.75” x 18”
Dead Load Per Foot of Track
Above stringers 2310 2310 2310
Stringers-nominal size 405 506 506
Total dead load 2715 2816 2816
Reaction on Bent - pounds
Dead load 33938 39428 42244
Live load 197030 208571 218667
Total 230968 247999 260910
Kind of bent Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame
Number of piles or posts 6 6 6 6 6 6
Size of piles or posts 14” D 12 x 14 14” D 12 x 14 14” D 12 x 14
Total area of piles or posts-sq. in. 924 1008 924 1008 924 1008
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts -

lb. per sq. in. 250 229 268 246 282 259
NOTE: caps not sized
Average load in tons per pile or post 19 19 21 21 22 22
Area sq. in.- 14” cap 756 945 945
Bearing stress -
lb. per sq. in. - 14” cap 306 262 276
Average - sq. in.- 16” cap 864 864 1080
Bearing stress -
lb. per sq. in. - 16” cap 267 287 242
Dead load moment -

foot pounds per track 47522 62583 72323
Live load moment -

Total load moment -

Section modulus-nominal size 2916 3645 3645
Bending stress-lb per sq. in. 1471 1523 1753

Table 7-A1-6. Comparison of Unit Stresses in Ballasted Deck Trestles, E - 80 Cooper Loadings, No Impact
Cooper Design Load 80 80 80
Panel Length C to C of Bents 12’6” 14’0 15’0
Number and Size of Stringers 8-6.75” x 18” 10-6.75” x 18” 10-6.75” x 18”
Longitudinal shear-Standard formula -

First driver at height of the beam from the support
Depth nominal 18 18 18
C to C 12.5 14 15
L = (C to C) + 0.5 - 14/12 11.83 13.33 14.33
L’ - ignore within d of face 8.33 9.83 10.83
a 10.08 11.58 12.58
b 5.08 6.58 7.58
c, if > d 1.58 2.58
d - in feet 1.50 1.50 1.50
W 2715 2816 2816
Dead load = WL’/2 11313 13847 15255
Live Load 102535 118500 126977
Total load 113848 132347 142231

1
Cross section - sq. in. 972 1215 1215
Unit shear- lb per sq. in.- = 3R/2bh 176 163 176
Assumptions:
= Distance face to face of caps plus 0.5 foot for stringer bending and b= Breadth of stringers in feet
shear. (Assume 14″ cap) P= Weight on one driving axle = 80000 pounds
W = Total Dead Load per linear foot of track: a= Distance from load P to support, in feet 3
Ballast = 120 pounds per cubic foot In calculating bearing, bending, and shear stresses
R= Total Reaction outer stringers are considered as carrying no
load.

Timber Structures
A1.6 TIMBER TRESTLE DETAILS
Figure 7-A1-25. Cap to Pile Fastening

30
Appendix 2 - Designs and Design Aids for
Rehabilitation of Existing Timber Trestles
— 2013 —
This Appendix contains information for the rehabilitation of existing trestles to design criteria that is less than required for new
designs. The information in this appendix is periodically reviewed.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A2.1 General Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-2

1
A2.2 Criteria for Use of Increased Allowable Stresses (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-2
A2.3 Increases to Allowable Stresses to Temporary Structures (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-2
A2.4 Load for the Design of Temporary Structures (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-2 3
LIST OF FIGURES
7-A2-1 Floor Plan for Open-Deck Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-3

7-A2-2 Floor Plan for Ballasted-Deck Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-4
7-A2-3 Bent Details for Open-Deck Pile Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-5
7-A2-4 Bent Details for Ballasted-Deck Pile Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-6
7-A2-5 Longitudinal Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-7
7-A2-6 Details of Footings for Framed Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-8
7-A2-7 Multiple-Story Trestle Bents (6 Post Bent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-9
7-A2-8 Multiple-Story Trestle Bents (5 Post Bent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-10

Timber Structures
LIST OF TABLES
7-A2-5 Comparison of Unit Stresses in Open Deck Trestles, Various Cooper Loadings, No Impact. . . . . . . . . . . 7-A2-35
A2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS (2003)
In general, temporary timber structures, temporary blocking, falsework and similar constructions supporting railroad loading
should be designed in accordance with the requirements of Section 2.1 through Section 2.4. Under certain conditions it may
be permissible to increase the allowable design stresses because of the limited duration of use and the controlled conditions.
The use of allowable stresses greater than those indicated in Section 2.2 will only be allowed when the design engineer has
carefully reviewed the specific application to verify its appropriateness and has received approval from the Chief Engineer of
the operating railroad.
A2.2 CRITERIA FOR USE OF INCREASED ALLOWABLE STRESSES (2003)
Before using increased allowable stresses in the design of temporary structures, the designer shall ensure the following
requirements are met.
a. The design engineer has reviewed the specific application verifying that the use of increased allowable design stresses
is appropriate, has clearly defined the duration of the temporary structure’s service life, and has obtained authorization
from the Chief Engineer of the operating railroad.
b. New material should be properly seasoned.
c. No increase in allowable stresses shall be permitted when reused or second-hand material is used unless authorized by
the railroad’s Chief Engineer.
d. If green lumber is used in temporary construction, considerations should be made for this in the allowable stresses used
and also provisions should be made to ensure that connections will be continuously checked and tightened as required.
e. If untreated material is used, the designer shall ensure that the conditions of use and the duration of use are such that
decay will not become a factor.
f. The structure shall be inspected at intervals as determined by the Chief Engineer of the operating railroad.
A2.3 INCREASES TO ALLOWABLE STRESSES TO TEMPORARY STRUCTURES (2003)
If the conditions of Paragraph 2.4.1 are satisfied, the allowable stresses listed in Table 7-2-7 may be multiplied by a factor of
1.1. The modulus of elasticity, E, shall remain unchanged.
A2.4 LOAD FOR THE DESIGN OF TEMPORARY STRUCTURES (2003)
The live load used for the design of temporary structures shall be Cooper E-80, unless otherwise directed by the Chief
Engineer of the operating railroad. Refer to Chapter 8 Concrete Structures and Foundations or Chapter 15 Steel Structures for
the axle load and axle spacing configuration for Cooper E-80 loading.

Appendix 2 - Temporary Structrures
10’-0 TIES
4x8 SPACER TIMBER
NOTE:
FOR ALTERNATE CAP- CLASS OF LOADING

3’-0 FOR PILE TOP STRINGER FASTENING, AND SPECIES OF
PROTECTION SEE SEE FIGURE 7-4-16 LUMBER USED
FIGURE 7-4-16 WILL GOVERN
SIZE OF TIES.
END SPAN INTERMEDIATE SPAN
ELEVATION
34 DIA. PACKING BOLTS
34 DIA. DRIFT BOLTS 34 DIA. x 10 WASHER
PENETRATION 8 IN. HEAD DRIVE SPIKE,
INTO CAP SINGLE GRIP
C
L RAIL
C
L RAIL
34 DIA. WASHER HEAD DRIVE 34 DIA.

SPIKE, SINGLE GRIP, 5 IN. BOLTS
C
L STRINGERS
3
PENETRATION INTO AT ENDS
C
L BENT C
L BENT C
L BENT
STRINGERS
PLAN (4 PLY CHORD)
34 DIA. PACKING BOLTS
4
C
L RAIL SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
CONTINUOUS LAP-TYPE
DECK - 4 PLY CHORD
C
L STRINGERS
C
L BENT C
L BENT C
L BENT
C
L RAIL
PLAN (3 PLY CHORD)

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
CONTINUOUS LAP-TYPE
DECK - 3 PLY CHORD
Figure 7-A2-1. Floor Plan for Open-Deck Trestles

Timber Structures
8x14 BALLAST RETAINER
NOTE:
3’-0 34 DIA. BOLTS
BALLAST RETAINER
BOLTS TO PASS
FOR PILE TOP
THROUGH CENTER
PROTECTION SEE
OF FLOOR PLANK,
FIG. 7-4-16
AND PLACED
HEADS UP
END SPAN INTERMEDIATE SPAN
ELEVATION
4 IN. FLOOR PLANKS

18 BETWEEN PLANKS
38 x 8 SPIKES
34 DIA. DRIFT BOLTS 34 DIA. BOLTS
PLAN - CONTINUOUS BUTT TYPE DECK
C
L STRINGERS C
L STRINGERS
C
L BENT C
L BENT C
L BENT C
L BENT C
L BENT C
L BENT
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

CONTINUOUS LAP-TYPE DECK NON-CONTINUOUS LAP-TYPE DECK
Figure 7-A2-2. Floor Plan for Ballasted-Deck Trestles

BASE OF RAIL BASE OF RAIL
34 DIA. x 1’-10
2’-0 1’-9 1’-3 1’-3 1’-9 2’-0 DRIFT BOLTS 2’-0 2’-6
14x14x14’-0
1 DIA.
BOLTS
4x8 4x8
4x8
4x8
DETAIL ’A’ DETAIL ’A’
2-4x8
2-4x8
4x8 4x8
1
6 PILE BENT 5 PILE BENT
FLAT GRID 34
14x14
DIA. BOLT
4
NOTES
34 INCH DIA. BOLTS AND SPIKE GRIDS MAY

BE USED INSTEAD OF 1 INCH DIA. BOLTS
WITHOUT SPIKE GRIDS. USE DOUBLE COIL
SPRING WITH SPIKE GRIDS. SEE DETAIL "A"
SINGLE
ON FIGURE 7-4-19.
CURVE
GRID 4x8
FOR HEIGHT OVER 30 FEET ADD ONE MORE
SASH BRACE 23’-6 BELOW BOTTOM OF CAP
AND CORRESPONDING LINES.
34 DIA. BOLT
WHEN "h" IS LESS THAN 8 FEET ARRANGE

BRACING AS SHOWN BY DOTTED LINES.
FOR BASE OF RAIL TO GROUND LINE LESS
THAN 8 FEET, OMIT SWAY BRACING.
SPIKE GRIDS IN BRACE JOINTS
Figure 7-A2-3. Bent Details for Open-Deck Pile Trestles

Timber Structures
BASE OF RAIL 1’-3

34 DIA. x 1’-10
2’-3 2’-3 2’-3 2’-3 DRIFT BOLTS
14x14x14’-0
1 DIA. BOLTS
4x8
4x8
4x8
DETAIL ’A’
4x8
2-4x8
4x8
4x8
NOTES
FOR DETAILS OF SPIKE GRIDS IN
BRACE JOINTS, SEE FIGURE 7-4-17.
FOR DETAIL ’A’, SEE FIGURE 7-4-19.

6 PILE BENT
FOR BASE OF RAIL TO GROUND LINE

LESS THAN 6 FEET, OMIT SWAY BRACING.
BASE OF RAIL
34 DIA. x 1’-10
DRIFT BOLTS
14x14x14’-0
1 DIA. BOLTS
4x8
4x8
4x8
4x8
DETAIL ’A’
2-4x8
4x8
4x8
7 PILE BENT
Figure 7-A2-4. Bent Details for Ballasted-Deck Pile Trestles

Figure 7-A2-5. Longitudinal Bracing

Timber Structures
Figure 7-A2-6. Details of Footings for Framed Bents

Figure 7-A2-7. Multiple-Story Trestle Bents (6 Post Bent)

Timber Structures
Figure 7-A2-8. Multiple-Story Trestle Bents (5 Post Bent)

12 ′ and 13 ′ Spans
Panel Length C to C of Bents 12′ 13′ 13′ 13′
Number and Size of Stringers 8-7″ × 16″ 8-8″ × 16″ 8-9″ × 16″ 6-10″ × 16″
Total dead load 865 920 970 890
Dead load 10380 11960 12610 11570
Live load 139980 147660 147660 147660
Total 150360 159620 160270 159230
Size of piles or posts 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts-lb 195 179 207 190 208 191 207 190
per sq. in.
Average load in tons per pile or post 15.0 150 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 15.9 15.9
Bearing-Stringers on caps for continuous butt type deck
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 784 896 1008 840 1
Bearing stress-lb per sq. in.-14″ cap 192 178 159 190
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 896 1024 1152 960
Bending stress-lb per sq. in.-nominal size 1124 1198 1068 1275
Bending stress-lb per sq. in.-dressed size 1196 1276 1138 1358
Assumptions:
L= Distance C to C bents for bearing on caps in feet h= Height of stringer in feet 4
= Distance face to face of caps plus 0.5 ft for stringer b= Breadth of stringers in feet
R= Total Reaction

Timber Structures
12 ′ and 13 ′ Spans (Continued)
Longitudinal shear-Standard formula-First driver at height of the beam from the support.
c to c 12 13 13 13
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 11.33 12.33 12.33 12.33
L’ ignore with d of face 8.17 9.17 9.17 9.17
a 10 11 11 11
b 5 6 6 6
c, if > d
W 865 920 970 890
WL
Dead load = --------- 3532 4217 4446 4079
2
Live load 76765 80270 80270 80270
Total load 80297 84487 84716 84349
Unit shear-lb per sq. in. = 3--- -----

R-
134 124 110 132
2 bh

R- 139 128 114 136
2 bh

14 ′ Spans
Panel Length C to C of Bents 14′ 14′ 14′ 14′ 14′
Number and Size of Stringers 8-8″ × 16″ 8-9″ × 16″ 8-10″ × 16″ 6-9″ × 18″ 6-10″ × 18″
Total dead load 920 970 1025 895 940
Dead load 12880 13580 14350 12540 13160
Live load 156360 156360 156360 156360 156360
Total 169240 169940 170710 168900 169520
Size of piles or posts 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts-lb per 220 201 221 202 222 203 220 201 220 202
sq. in.
Average load in tons per pile or post 16.9 16.9 17.0 17.0 17.1 17.1 16.9 16.9 17.0 17.0
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 896 1008 1120 756 840 1
Bearing stress-lb per sq. in.-14″ cap 189 169 152 224 202
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 1024 1152 1280 864 960
Live load moment-foot pounds per track 300000 300000 300000 300000 300000 3
Bending stress-lb per sq. in.-nominal size 1409 1256 1135 1317 1190
Bending stress-lb per sq. in.-dressed size 1500 1340 1209 1392 1257
Assumptions:
R= Total Reaction

Timber Structures
14 ′ Spans (Continued)
c to c 14 14 14 14 14
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 13.33 13.33 13.33 13.33 13.33
a 12 12 12 11.83 11.83
b 7 7 7 6.83 6.83
c, if > d 2 2 2 1.83 1.83
W 920 970 1025 895 940
WL
Dead load = --------- 4677 4931 5210 4400 4622
2
Live load 91125 91125 91125 88875 88875
Total load 95802 96056 96335 93275 93497

R-
140 125 113 144 130
2 bh
3 R
Unit shear-lb per sq. in. = --- ------ 145 129 117 149 134
2 bh

15 ′ and 16 ′ Spans
Total dead load 1025 1030 1030 1090 990
Dead load 15375 15450 16480 17440 15840
Live load 163920 163920 170580 170580 170580
Total 179295 179370 187060 188020 186420
Size of piles or posts 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts-lb per 233 214 233 214 202 185 204 187 202 185
sq. in.
Average load in tons per pile or post 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 15.6 15.6 15.7 15.7 15.6 15.6
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 1120 1008 1008 1120 840 1
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 1280 1152 1152 1280 960
Live load moment-foot pounds per track 345000 345000 390000 390000 390000 3
Bending stress-lb per sq. in.-dressed size 1390 1212 1372 1240 1323
Assumptions:
R= Total Reaction

Timber Structures
15 ′ and 16 ′ Spans (Continued)
c to c 15 15 16 16 16
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 14.33 14.33 15.33 15.33 15.33
a 13 12.83 13.83 13.83 13.67
b 8 7.83 8.83 8.83 8.67
c, if > d 3 2.83 3.83 3.83 3.67
W 1025 1030 1030 1090 990
WL
Dead load = --------- 5723 5579 6094 6449 5693
2
Live load 97326 95233 100761 100761 98804
Total load 403048 100812 106855 107210 104497

R-
121 117 12498 11288 131
2 bh
3 R
Unit shear-lb per sq. in. = --- ------ 125 120 127 115 134
2 bh

12 ′ and 12 ′6″ Spans
Panel Length C to C of Bents 12′ 12′ 12′6″
Number and Size of Stringers 8-8″ × 16″ 6-9″ × 18″ 8-8″ × 16″
Dead load 11100 10900 11600
Live load 168000 168000 173000
Total 179100 178900 184600
Size of piles or posts 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts-lb per 233 213 232 213 200 183
sq. in.
Average load in tons per pile or post 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 15.4 15.4
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 896 756 896
Bearing stress-lb per sq. in.-14″ cap 200 237 206
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 1024 864 1024
1
Dead load moment-foot pounds per track 14900 14500 16200
Live load moment-foot pounds per track 255000 255000 279000
Total load moment-foot pounds per track 269900 269500 295200
3
Bending stress-lb per sq. in.-nominal size 1190 1110 1300
Section modulus-dressed size 2560 2756 2560
Bending stress-lb per sq. in.-dressed size 1270 1170 1380
c to c 12 12 12.5
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 11.33 11.33 11.83 4
L’ ignore within d of face 8.17 7.83 8.67
a 10 9.83 10.5
b 5 4.83 5.5
c, if > d
W 927 905 927
Dead load = WL
--------- 3785 3545 4017
2
Live load 92118 90000 94310
Total load 95903 93545 98327
Assumptions:
bending and shear. (Assume 14″ Cap) P= Weight on one driving axle = 72000 pounds
R= Total Reaction

Timber Structures
12 ′ and 12 ′6″ Spans (Continued)
Cross section-sq. in.-nominal size 1024 1024 1152
3 R
Unit shear-lb per sq. in. = --- ------ 140 137 128
2 bh
Cross section-sq. in.-dressed size 992 992 1116
3 R
2 bh

13 ′ Spans
Panel Length C to C of Bents 13′ 13′
Number and Size of Stringers 8-10″ × 16″ 6-10″ × 18″

Above stringers 500 500
Stringers-nominal size 533 450
Total dead load 1033 950
Dead load 13400 12400
Live load 177000 177000
Total 194400 189400
Kind of bent Pile Frame Pile Frame
Number of piles or posts 6 6 6 6
Size of piles or posts 14″D 12×14 14″D 12×14
Total area of piles or posts-sq. in. 924 1008 924 1008
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts-lb per sq. in. 206 189 205 188
Bearing-Stringers on caps for continuous
butt type deck
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 1120 840
Bearing stress-lb per sq. in.-14″ cap 170 225
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 1280 960
1
Bearing stress-lb per sq. in.-16″ cap 149 197
Dead load moment-foot pounds per track 19600 18100
Live load moment-foot pounds per track 30600 306000
Total load moment-foot pounds per track 325600 324100
Section modulus-nominal size 3413 3240
3
Bending stress-lb per sq. in.-nominal size 1150 1200
Section modulus-dressed size 3200 3060
Bending stress-lb per sq. in.-dressed size 1220 1270
Longitudinal shear-Standard formula-First driver at height of the beam from the support
Depth nominal 16 18
c to c 13 13
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 12.33 12.33 4
L’ ignore within d of face 9.17 8.83
a 11 10.83
b 6 5.83
c, if > d
W 1033 950
Dead load = WL
--------- 4735 4196
2
Live load 96324 94378
Total load 101059 98574
Assumptions:
L= Distance C to C bents for bearing on caps in feet h =Height of stringer in feet
= Distance face to face of caps plus 0.5 foot for stringer b =Breadth of stringers in feet
bending and shear. (Assume 14″ Cap) P =Weight on one driving axle = 72000
W = Total Dead Load per linear foot of track: pounds
Rail and fastenings = 200 pounds per linear foot a = Distance from load P to support, in feet
Ties 8″ × 8″ × 10′ @ 12″ ctrs = 267 pounds per linear foot Dressed size = Nominal size less 1/2″ in
R= Total Reaction depth

Timber Structures
Panel Length C to C of Bents 13′ 13′
Number and Size of Stringers 8-10″ × 16″ 6-10″ × 18″

Cross section-sq. in.-nominal size 1280 1080
3 R
Unit shear-lb per sq. in. = --- ------ 118 137
2 bh
Cross section-sq. in.-dressed size 1240 1050
3 R
Unit shear-lb per sq. in. = --- ------ 122 141
2 bh

14 ′ Spans
Total dead load 1033 1040 950 1000
Dead load 14500 14600 13300 14000
Live load 188000 188000 188000 188000
Total 202500 202600 201300 202000
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts-lb per 219 200 219 201 216 199 219 200
sq. in.
Average load in tons per pile or post 16.9 16.9 16.9 16.9 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 1120 1008 840 840
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 1280 1152 960 960
1
3
c to c 14 14 14 14
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 13.33 13.33 13.33 13.33 4
a 12 11.83 11.83 11.67
b 7 6.83 6.83 6.67
c, if > d 2
W 1033 1040 950 1000
Dead load = WL
--------- 5251 5113 4671 4750
2
Live load 109350 98100 98100 96300
Total load 114601 103213 102771 101050
Assumptions:
bending and shear. (Assume 14″ Cap) P= Weight on one driving axle = 72000 pounds
R= Total Reaction

Timber Structures
3 R
Unit shear-lb per sq. in. = --- ------ 134 119 143 126
2 bh
3 R
2 bh

12 ′ and 12 ′6″ Spans
Dead load 33600 33400 35600
Live load 140000 140000 144000
Total 173600 173400 179600
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts-lb per sq. in. 188 172 188 172 194 178
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 980 784 896
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 1120 896 1024
4
c to c 12 12 12.5
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 11.33 11.33 11.83
a 10.17 10.00 10.50
b 5.17 5.00 5.50
c, if > d
W 2800 2780 2845
Dead load = WL
--------- 11900 11352 12328
2
Live load 78529 76765 78592
Total load 90429 88116 90920

Timber Structures
3 R
2 bh
3 R 120 122 110

Unit shear-lb per sq. in. = --- ------
2 bh
Assumptions:
= Distance face to face of caps plus 0.5 foot for stringer bending and b= Breadth of stringers in feet
shear. (Assume 14″ cap) P= Weight on one driving axle = 60000 pounds

13 ′ Spans
Total dead load 2870 2845 2910 2850
Dead load 37400 37000 37800 37100
Live load 147800 147800 147800 147800
Total 185200 184800 185600 184900
sq. in.
butt type deck
1
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 980 896 980 756
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 1120 1024 1120 865
3
Assumptions: 4

Timber Structures
c to c 13 13 13 13
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 12.33 12.33 12.33 12.33
a 11.00 11.00 11.00 10.83
b 6.00 6.00 6.00 5.83
c, if > d
W 2870 2845 2910 2850
WL
Dead load = --------- 13154 13040 13338 12588
2
Live load 80270 80270 80270 78649
Total load 93424 93310 93608 91236

R-
104 109 98 106
2 bh
3 R
2 bh

15 ′ Spans
Total dead load 3000 3050 2990 2990
Dead load 45000 48700 44900 44900
Live load 164200 164200 164200 164200
Total 209200 209900 209100 209100
sq. in.
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 1252 1260 1008 980 1
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 1408 1440 1152 1120
3
Assumptions:
= Distance face to face of caps plus 0.5 fooot for stringer b= Breadth of stringers in feet

Timber Structures
c to c 15 15 15 15
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 14.33 14.33 14.33 14.33
a 13.08 13.08 13.08 13.08
b 8.08 8.08 8.08 8.08
c, if > d 3.08 3.08 3.08 3.08
W 3000 3050 2990 2990
WL
Dead load = --------- 16750 17029 16196 16196
2
Live load 97326 97326 95233 95233
Total load 114076 114355 111428 111428

R-
103 97 103 103
2 bh
3 R
2 bh

12 ′ and 12 ′6″ Spans
Dead load 34600 34500 36900
Live load 168000 168000 173000
Total 202000 202500 209900
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts-lb per 219 201 219 201 227 208
sq. in.
butt type deck
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 1176 980 1120
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 1344 1120 1280
Total load moment-foot pounds per track 298200 298100 330600
3
Assumptions:
bending and shear. (Assume 14″ cap) P= Weight on one driving axle = 4
W = Total Dead Load per linear foot of track: 60000 pounds
Rail and fastenings = 200 pounds per linear foot a= Distance from load P to support,
Ballast = 120 pounds per cubic foot in feet
R= Total Reaction Dressed size = Nominal size less 1/2 in
depth
In calculating bearing, bending, and
shear stresses outer stringers are
considered as carrying no load.

Timber Structures
c to c 12 12 12.5
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 11.33 11.33 11.83
a 10.17 10.00 10.5
b 5.17 5.00 5.5
c, if > d
W 2880 2870 2950
WL
Dead load = --------- 12240 11719 12783
2
Live load 94235 92118 94310
Total load 106475 103837 107093

R-
116 116 105
2 bh
3 R
2 bh

13 ′ Spans
Total dead load 2960 2950 2980 2985
Dead load 38500 38400 38800 38800
Live load 177200 177200 177200 177200
Total 215700 215600 216000 216000
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts-lb per sq. in. 200 214 200 214 201 214 201 214
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 1176 1120 1120 1008
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 1344 1280 1280 1152 1
Bending stress-lb. per sq. in.-dressed size 1300 1360 1360 1190
c to c 13 13 13 13
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 12.33 12.33 12.33 12.33
4
a 11.00 11.00 11.00 10.83
b 6.00 6.00 6.00 5.83
c, if > d
W 2960 2950 2980 2985
Dead load = WL
--------- 13567 13521 13658 13184
2
Live load 96324 96324 96324 94378
Total load 109891 109845 109983 107562
Assumptions:

Timber Structures
3 R
2 bh
3 R
2 bh

15 ′ Spans
Total dead load 3050 3110 3120 3060
Dead load 46000 46600 46800 46000
Live load 197000 197000 197000 197000
Total 243000 243600 243800 243000
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts-lb per sq. in. 226 241 226 242 226 242 226 241
Area sq. in.-14″ cap 1344 1400 1260 1120
Area sq. in.-16″ cap 1536 1600 1440 1280 1
c to c 15 15 15 15
L = (c to c) + 0.5 - 14/12 14.33 14.33 14.33 14.33
L’ ignore within d of face 11.17 11.17 10.83 10.83 4
a 13.00 13.00 12.83 12.83
b 8.00 8.00 7.83 7.83
c, if > d 3.00 3.00 2.83 2.83
W 3050 3110 3120 3060
Dead load = WL
--------- 17029 17364 16900 16575
2
Live load 116791 116791 114279 114279
Total load 133820 134155 131179 130854
Assumptions:

Timber Structures
3 R
2 bh
3 R
2 bh

Table 7-A2-5. Comparison of Unit Stresses in Open Deck Trestles, Various Cooper Loadings, No Impact
Cooper Design Load 55.6 69.8 69.0 76.8 72.8 78.8 76.9 72.0
Panel Length C to C of Bents 12′ 12′ 13' 11'-6" 12' 12' 6" 13' 15'
Number and size of Stringers 6- 8″ × 16″ 6- 10″ × 16″ 6- 9″ × 18″ 8- 8″ × 16″ 6- 9″ × 18″ 6- 10″ × 18″ 6- 10″ × 18″ 6- 10″ × 20″
Dead Load per foot of track
Above Stringers 490 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Stringers -nominal size 320 400 405 427 405 450 450 500
Total Dead Load 810 900 905 927 905 950 950 1000
Reaction on bent, pounds
Dead Load 9720 10800 11765 10657 10860 11875 12350 15000
Live Load 129733 162864 169846 173635 169866 189120 191599 196800
Total 139453 173664 181611 184291 180726 200995 203949 211800

Kind of Bent Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame Pile Frame
Number of piles or posts 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Size of piles or posts 14" D 12 x 14 14" D 12 x 14 14" D 12 x 14 14" D 12 x 14 14" D 12 x 14 14" D 12 x 14 14" D 12 x 14 14" D 12 x 14
Total Area of piles of posts, sq.-in. 770 840 770 840 924 1008 924 1008 924 1008 924 1008 924 1008 924 1008
Unit bearing stress on piles or posts, lb. per sq.
181 166 226 207 197 180 199 183 196 179 218 199 221 202 229 210
in.
Average load in Tons per pile or post 14 14 17 17 15 15 15 15 15.1 15.1 16.7 16.7 17.0 17.0 17.6 17.6
Bearing-Stringers on caps for continuous Butt type Deck
Area sq. in. - 14" cap 672 840 756 896 756 840 840 840
Bearing Stress - lb. Per sq. in. - 14" cap 208 207 240 206 239 239 243 252
Average sq. in. 16" cap 768 960 864 1024 864 960 960 960
Bearing stress - lb. Per sq. in. - 16" cap 182 181 210 180 209 209 212 221
Bending in Stringers
Dead Load Moment - ft. pounds per track 13005 14450 17207 13594 14530 16628 18063 25680
Live Load Moments - ft. pounds per track 194600 244300 293250 246154 254800 305350 326825 414000
Total Load Moment - ft. pounds per track 207605 258750 310457 259748 269330 321978 344888 439680
Section Modulus-nominal size 2048 2560 2916 2731 2916 3240 3240 4000
Bending stress-lb per sq. in. -nominal size 1216 1213 1278 1141 1108 1193 1277 1319
Section modulus- dressed size 1922 2403 2756 2563 2756 3063 3063 3803
Bending stress-lb per sq. in. - dressed size 1296 1292 1352 1216 1173 1262 1351 1388

depth nominal 16 16 18 16 18 18 18 20
c to c 12 12 13 11.5 12 12.5 13 15
L = (c to c) +0.5-14/12 11.33 11.33 12.33 10.83 11.33 11.83 12.33 14.33
L' ignore within d of face 8.17 8.17 8.83 7.67 7.83 8.33 8.83 10.50
a 9.75 9.75 10.58 9.25 9.58 10.08 10.58 12.42
b 4.75 4.75 5.58 4.25 4.58 5.08 5.58 7.42
7-A2-35
7-A2-36
Timber Structures
Table 7-A2-5. Comparison of Unit Stresses in Open Deck Trestles, Various Cooper Loadings, No Impact
All loads in pounds per track. All moments in foot-pounds per track. (Continued)
c, if > d 2.42
W 810 900 905 927 905 950 950 1000
Dead load = WL'/2 3308 3675 3997 3552 3545 3958 4196 5250
Live load 71135 89303 90446 95705 91000 100997 100801 111767
Total load 74443 92978 94443 99257 94545 104956 104997 117017
Cross section - sq. in.-nominal size 768 960 972 1024 972 1080 1080 1200
Unit shear-lb per sq. in. = 3R/2bh 145 145 146 145 146 146 146 146
Cross section - sq. in.-dressed size 744 930 945 992 945 1050 1050 1170
Unit shear-lb per sq. in. = 3R/2bh 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150
Assumptions:
L = Distance C to C bents for bearing on caps in feet h = Height of stringer in feet

= Distance face to face of caps plus 0.5 foot for stringer b = Breadth of stringers in feet
bending and shear. (Assume 14″ cap) P = Weight on one driving axle = 72000 pounds
W = Total Dead Load per linear foot of track: a = Distance from load P to support, in feet
Ballast = 120 pounds per cubic foot In calculating bearing, bending, and shear stresses,
R = Total Reaction outer stringers are considered as carrying no load.
30
Appendix 3 - Legacy Designs
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-3

A3.1.1 Fire Tests (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-3
A3.2 Pile Design Aids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-7
A3.3 Legacy Timber Trestle Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-32
A3.4 Legacy Stress Laminated Deck Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-36 1

A3.4.1 Recommended Practice for Simple Stress Laminated Deck Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-36
A3.4.2 Stress Laminated Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-36
A3.5 Legacy Culvert Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-55

A3.5.1 Recommended Practice for Design of Wood Culverts (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-55
3
A3.6 Typical Plans for Timber Railway Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-59
A3.6.1 Plans (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-59
A3.6.2 General Notes (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-59
LIST OF FIGURES
7-A3-1 Fire Test Cabinet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-3

7-A3-2 Fire Test Cabinet Door . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-4
7-A3-3 Fire Test Cabinet Burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-5
7-A3-4 Fire Test Cabinet with Door and Burner in Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-6
7-A3-5 4-Pile Bent 12” x 14” Timber Cap a=23” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-8
7-A3-11 4-Pile Bent 15” x 15” Concrete Cap a=23”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-11

Timber Structures
LIST OF FIGURES (CONT)
7-A3-12 4-Pile Bent 15” x 15” Concrete Cap a=29”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-11

7-A3-14 5-Pile Bent 12” x 14” Timber Cap a=29” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-14
7-A3-27 5-Pile Bent 15” x 15” Concrete Cap a=31” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-20
7-A3-42 Wood Bents Faced with Fire Resisting Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-32
7-A3-43 Application of Mastic Material in Open-Deck Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-33
7-A3-44 Stringer to Cap Fastening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-34
7-A3-45 Typical Design Example for a Simple Stress Laminated Lumber Deck Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-52
7-A3-46 Recommended Practice for Design of Wood Culverts, E 72 Loading, for Heights up to 15 Foot Base of Rail to Flow Line area
......................................................................................... 7-A3-57
7-A3-47 Walk and Handrail - Open-Deck Trestles (to be used where required). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-61
7-A3-48 Water Barrel and Refuge Platform - Open-Deck Trestles (to be used where required) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-62
7-A3-49 Track Car Platforms - Open-Deck Trestles (to be used where required). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-63
7-A3-50 Walk and Handrail - Ballasted-Deck Trestles (to be used where required). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-64
7-A3-51 Water Barrel and Refuge Platform - Ballasted-Deck Trestles (to be used where required) . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-65
7-A3-52 Track Car Platform - Ballasted-Deck Trestles (to be used where required) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-66
7-A3-53 Recommended Practice for Creosoted Timber Pile Piers for Long Spans, E60 Loading-Pier for 150-foot and 80-foot
Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-67
7-A3-54 Recommended Practice for Creosoted Timber Pile Piers for Long Spans, E60 Loading-Pier for 150-foot Span and
Trestle Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-69

LIST OF TABLES
7-A3-1 4-Pile Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-7

7-A3-2 5-Pile Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-13
7-A3-3 6-Pile Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-22
7-A3-4 7-Pile Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-27
7-A3-5 Spacing of Prestressing Bar, SP (Inches) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-36
7-A3-6 Bulkhead Channel Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-37
7-A3-7 Bearing Plates Sizes For Channel Bulkhead Anchorage Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-38
7-A3-8 Bearing Plates Sizes For Bearing Plate Anchorage Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-38
7-A3-9 Stress Laminated Panel Design Stresses, LL Deflection and Minimum Transverse Stressing Required for Various Span
Lengths & Panel Thicknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-42
7-A3-13 Tabulation of Deck Loads for Stress Laminated Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-50
7-A3-14 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber - Railroad Loading (Visual Grading) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-51
7-A3-15 Tables for Simple Stress Laminated Lumber Deck Panel Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-54
7-A3-16 Typical Size Boxes and Unit Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-58 1
7-A3-17 Recommended Practice Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-60
A3.1 INTRODUCTION
This Appendix contains information useful for Rating purposes of existing structures of many existing legacy designs. The
material in this Appendix is not updated. Care needs to be exercised as the material and associated allowable stress levels for
which these designs were originally written may no longer be applicable.
3
A3.1.1 FIRE TESTS (2011)
11 18 12
PIN HINGES 5916 5916 CAPPED ROD 6 6 4

1
34 ANGLE IRON
20 GAUGE
UNGALVANIZED
SHEET STEEL
58 DIA. NOTCHED
2’-3
2’-2
2’-7
HANGER ROD FOR

SUSPENDING TEST
SPECIMENS
2 2
4
12 ASBESTOS
LOUVER HANDLES
MILLBOARD
OPENING FOR
GAS INLET TUBE
FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW
Figure 7-A3-1. Fire Test Cabinet

Timber Structures
12 ASBESTOS
11 316
1 MILLBOARD
1 ANGLE IRON
1x18 BAR STOCK

TOP VIEW
11 716
231 32 512 231 32
PIN HINGES
4
DOOR HANDLE
312
VIEW PORT
COVERED W/
5
MICA SHEET
2’-3
312
11
DOOR HANDLE
PRESSURE
CLASPS
FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW
Figure 7-A3-2. Fire Test Cabinet Door

132 DIA. ORIFICES

A ON INSIDE OF ALL
4 BURNER PIPES
12
19 SPACES @ 1 = 1’-7
58 O.D. PIPE
1’-9
2’-1 58
1
1 12
3
458
A
GAS INLET
4
FRONT VIEW 818 SECTION A-A
3
TOP VIEW
Figure 7-A3-3. Fire Test Cabinet Burner

Timber Structures
METAL STRAPS TO
SUPPORT TOPS OF
BURNER PIPES
CABINET
BURNER
DOOR
TOP VIEW
Figure 7-A3-4. Fire Test Cabinet with Door and Burner in Place

A3.2 PILE DESIGN AIDS
b=80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 132, 140 & 144 inches
Pile Cap Eff. Pile Length a C1 Figure No.
12” x 14” Timber 10’ 23 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-5
29 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-6
31 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-7
30’ 23 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-5
29 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-6
31 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-7
14” x 14” Timber 10’ 23 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-8
29 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-9
31 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-10
30’ 23 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-8
29 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-9
1
31 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-10
15” x 15” Concrete 10’ 23 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-11
29 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-12
31 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-13
30’ 23 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-11
29 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-12
3
31 12, 18, 24 Figure 7-A3-13

Timber Structures
Figure 7-A3-5. 4-Pile Bent 12” x 14” Timber Cap a=23” Figure 7-A3-6. 4-Pile Bent 12” x 14” Timber Cap a=29”

3
Figure 7-A3-7. 4-Pile Bent 12” x 14” Timber Cap Figure 7-A3-8. 4-Pile Bent 14” x 14” Timber Cap a=23”
a=31”

Timber Structures
7Figure 7-A3-9. 4-Pile Bent 14” x 14” Timber Cap a=29” Figure 7-A3-10. 4-Pile Bent 14” x 14” Timber Cap a=31”
Part 2

3
Figure 7-A3-11. 4-Pile Bent 15” x 15” Concrete Cap Figure 7-A3-12. 4-Pile Bent 15” x 15” Concrete Cap
a=23” a=29”

Timber Structures
Figure 7-A3-13. 4-Pile Bent 15” x 15” Concrete Cap a=31”

b= 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 132, 140, 144 & 150 inches
Eff. Pile
Pile Cap a C2 Figure No.
Length
12” x 14” Timber 10’ 29 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-14
31 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-15
39 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-16
60 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-17
30’ 29 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-14
31 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-15
39 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-16
60 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-17
14” x 14” Timber 10’ 29 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-18
31 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-19
39 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-20 1
60 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-21
30’ 29 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-18
31 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-19
39 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-20
60 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-21 3
16” x 16” Timber 10’ 29 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-22
31 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-23
39 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-24
60 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-25
30’ 29 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-22
4
31 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-23
39 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-24
60 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-25
15” x 15” Concrete 10’ 29 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-26
31 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-27
39 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-28
60 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-29
30’ 29 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-26
31 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-27
39 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-28
60 24, 30, 36, 42 Figure 7-A3-29

Timber Structures
7 Figure 7-A3-14. 5-Pile Bent 12” x 14” Timber Cap Figure 7-A3-15. 5-Pile Bent 12” x 14” Timber Cap
Part 2
a=29” a=31”

3
Figure 7-A3-16. 5-Pile Bent 12” x 14” Timber Cap a=39” Figure 7-A3-17. 5-Pile Bent 12” x 14” Timber Cap a=60”

Timber Structures
Figure 7-A3-18. 5-Pile Bent 14” x 14” Timber Cap Figure 7-A3-19. 5-Pile Bent 14” x 14” Timber Cap
a=29” a=31”
Example: The 5 pile-bent of a trestle which carries a chord of bunched stringers under
each rail, has a 14" x 14" timber cap. The spacing of the piles is 36" and the
effective length of piles (i.e. the exposed length plus one-half of the
penetration) is 30 feet. Each chord possesses four 8" x 16" stringers. Using
graphs or tables, find out the distribution of the wheel load (assumed as one or
axle assumed as two) on the piles.
Given: a = 31", c2 = 36", b = 144" and L = 30 feet
Intermediate pile (2)=0.562
Outside pile (3)=0.133
Centre pile (1)=2x (1-(0.562+0.133)) = 0.610
Answer:Pile #12345
Load0.1330.5620.6100.5620.133
Note: The middle pile takes the maximum load,
then the intermediate piles and the load carried
by the outside piles is the smallest.

3
Figure 7-A3-20. 5-Pile Bent 14” x 14” Timber Cap Figure 7-A3-21. 5-Pile Bent 14” x 14” Timber Cap
a=39” a=60”
Example: Data same as in the previous Example in Figure 7-A3-19, except that the
4
5 PILE BENT
chords now consist of five 8" x 16" stringers. Find out the distribution of
wheel load on piles of the bent.
R R
Given: a = 39" and the rest of the data is same as in the Example in Figure 7-A3-19. a
Intermediate pile (2)=0.550

Outside pile (3)=0.143
Centre pile (1)=2x(1-0.550+0.143)) = 0.614
Answer:Pile #12345 C2 C2
Load0.1430.5500.6140.5500.143
X Xb Xa Xb X
Note: Increase in the value of "a" has resulted in decrease b
of load on the intermediate piles and a corresponding
increase of load on the outside and the centre pile.
CHART LEGEND

Timber Structures
Figure 7-A3-22. 5-Pile Bent 16” x 16” Timber Cap Figure 7-A3-23. 5-Pile Bent 16” x 16” Timber Cap a=31”
a=29”
5 PILE BENT
R R
. a
C2 C2
X Xb Xa Xb X
CHART LEGEND

3
7 Figure 7-A3-24. 5-Pile Bent 16” x 16” Timber Cap Figure 7-A3-25. 5-Pile Bent 16” x 16” Timber Cap
Part 2
a=39” a=60”
5 PILE BENT
R R
. a 4
C2 C2
X Xb Xa Xb X
CHART LEGEND

Timber Structures
Figure 7-A3-26. 5-Pile Bent 15” x 15” Concrete Cap a=29” Figure 7-A3-27. 5-Pile Bent 15” x 15” Concrete Cap a=31”
5 PILE BENT
R R
. a
C2 C2
X Xb Xa Xb X
CHART LEGEND

3
7 Figure 7-A3-28. 5-Pile Bent
Part 2 x 15” Concrete Cap a=39” Figure 7-A3-29. 5-Pile Bent 15” x 15” Concrete Cap a=60”
15”
5 PILE BENT
R R
. a 4
C2 C2
X Xb Xa Xb X
CHART LEGEND

Timber Structures

b= 100, 110, 120, 130, 132, 140, 144 & 150 inches
Eff. Pile
Length
15” x 15” Concrete 10’ 29 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-30
31 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-31
39 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-32
60 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-33
30’ 29 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-30
31 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-31
39 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-32
60 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-33
15” x 18” Concrete 10’ 29 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-34
31 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-35
39 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-36
60 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-37
30’ 29 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-34
31 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-35
39 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-36
60 12, 15, 15 36, 39, 45 Figure 7-A3-37

3
6 PILE BENT
R R
a 4
C1 C1
C2 C2
X Xb Xa Xa Xb X
b
CHART LEGEND

Timber Structures
Figure 7-A3-32. 6-Pile Bent 15” x 15” Concrete Cap a=39” Figure 7-A3-33. 6-Pile Bent 15” x 15” Concrete Cap
a=60”
Example: Same as the Example in Figure 7-A3-37, except that the timber
cap is now substituted with a 15" x 15" concrete cap.
Given: Other data remains the same as for the Example in Figure 7- 6 PILE BENT
A3-37. R R
Intermediate pile (2) =0.363

Outside pile (3)=0.159 a
Middle pile (1)= 1-(0.363+0.159) = 0.478

Note: The 15" x 15" concrete cap being stiffer than the 14" x 14"
C1 C1
timber cap of the Example No. 6 provides a better distribution
of wheel load on piles. C2 C2
X Xb Xa Xa Xb X
b
CHART LEGEND

3
6 PILE BENT
R R
a 4
C1 C1
C2 C2
X Xb Xa Xa Xb X
b
CHART LEGEND

Timber Structures
6 PILE BENT
R R
C1 C1
C2 C2
X Xb Xa Xa Xb X
b
CHART LEGEND

b= 120, 130, 132, 140, 144, 150, 156, 160 & 168 inches
Eff. Pile
Length
15” x 15” Concrete 10’ 39 24, 27, 27, 30, 48, 51, 57, 54, Figure 7-A3-38
30 60
60 24, 27, 27, 30, 48, 51, 57, 54, Figure 7-A3-39
30 60
30’ 39 24, 27, 27, 30, 48, 51, 57, 54, Figure 7-A3-38
30 60
60 24, 27, 27, 30, 48, 51, 57, 54, Figure 7-A3-39
30 60
15” x 18” Concrete 10’ 39 24, 27, 27, 30, 48, 51, 57, 54, Figure 7-A3-40
30 60
60 24, 27, 27, 30, 48, 51, 57, 54, Figure 7-A3-41
30 60
30’ 39 24, 27, 27, 30, 48, 51, 57, 54, Figure 7-A3-40
30 60
1
60 24, 27, 27, 30, 48, 51, 57, 54, Figure 7-A3-41
30 60

Timber Structures
7 PILE BENT
R R
C1=0
a
C2 C2
C3 C3
X Xc Xb Xa Xb Xc X
b
CHART LEGEND
C2=24", C3=48"
C2=27", C3=51" ---------
C2=27", C3=57"
C2=30", C3=54"
C2=30", C3=60"

3
Part 2
7 PILE BENT
R R
a
C1=0
4
C2 C2
C3 C3
X Xc Xb Xa Xb Xc X
b
CHART LEGEND
C2=24", C3=48"
C2=27", C3=51" ---------
C2=27", C3=57"
C2=30", C3=54"
C2=30", C3=60"

Timber Structures

7 PILE BENT
R R
C1=0
a
C2 C2
C3 C3
X Xc Xb Xa Xb Xc X
b
CHART LEGEND
C2=24", C3=48"
C2=27", C3=51" ---------
C2=27", C3=57"
C2=30", C3=54"
C2=30", C3=60"

3
7 PILE BENT
R R
a
C1=0
4
C2 C2
C3 C3
X Xc Xb Xa Xb Xc X
b
CHART LEGEND
C2=24", C3=48"
C2=27", C3=51" ---------
C2=27", C3=57"
C2=30", C3=54"
C2=30", C3=60"

Timber Structures
A3.3 LEGACY TIMBER TRESTLE DESIGNS
HALF SECTION A-A A
HALF SECTION ELEVATION
Figure 7-A3-42. Wood Bents Faced with Fire Resisting Material

BITUMINOUS PRIMING COAT
BITUMINOUS CONCRETE OR MASTIC
L3x212x38x10’-3 LONG
C8x212, 18.75#x10’-3 LONG

3
PLATE
12x12
FILLERS 3x5x10’ D2S 3x414 TIE D2S-7 34 1
Figure 7-A3-43. Application of Mastic Material in Open-Deck Structures 3

Timber Structures
1’-3 1’-1 1’-1 1’-3

C
L TRACK
34 DIA. BOLTS, TYP.
2
BAR 2x516 x2’-10 12
11
HOLE 13 16 DIA.
TOP OF CAP
BAR 2x516 x1’-11
HOLE 11 16 DIA.
HOLES 13 16 DIA.
11 LAG SCREWS 58 DIA. x 8

2
FOR END BENTS FOR INTERMEDIATE BENTS
1’-3 1’-1 1’-1 1’-3

C
L TRACK
1 DIA.
1-ROD 34 AT 3’-7
TOP OF CAP
TOP OF CAP
FACE OF CAP
1 DIA. 1’-8 1 DIA.
FOR END CAPS & STRINGERS FOR INTERMEDIATE CAPS & STRINGERS
STRINGER FASTENING STRAPS

Sheet 1 of 2
Figure 7-A3-44. Stringer to Cap Fastening

C
L TRACK
34 DIA. BOLTS, TYP.
3x38
CUT WASHER
L4x4x12
4x12 SPLICE PL
WHERE OUTSIDE
STRINGERS ARE CUT
34 DIA. BOLTS, TYP.
STRINGER CHORD
C
L TRACK 1
34 DIA.
3
BOLTS, TYP.
34 DIA. BOLT & WASHER;

HEAD DRIVE SPIKE IF
L6x4x12x2’-0"
PILE INTERFERES
4
STRINGER CHORD
CAP-STRINGER FASTENING ANGLES
Sheet 2 of 2
Figure 7-A3-44. Stringer to Cap Fastening (Continued)

Timber Structures
A3.4 LEGACY STRESS LAMINATED DECK DESIGNS
A3.4.1 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR SIMPLE STRESS LAMINATED DECK PANELS
A3.4.1.1 Material (2000)
A3.4.1.1.1 Wood Laminates
a. Shall be Douglas Fir, Southern Pine or Red Oak No. 2 or better as per AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering,
Chapter 7 Timber Structures.
b. Shall be 5” thick or less, rough sawn to full size and surfaced on one side (S1S) to ensure uniform thickness throughout
its length.
c. Laminate width shall equal the deck thickness, T in accordance with Table 7-A1-4 having selected the design Cooper’s
E loading and the span length based on the allowable stresses for the material to be used.
d. Shall be predrilled for prestressing bars and trimmed prior to treatment.
e. Hole spacing (SP) shall be in accordance with the ranges shown on Table 7-A3-5 having selected a deck thickness (T).
Bar spacing should also consider conflicts with other structural components such as walkway support brackets.
Table 7-A3-5. Spacing of Prestressing Bar, SP (Inches)
1” DIA BAR 1-1/4” DIA BAR

THICKNESS OF (As=0.85 SQ.IN.) (As=1.25 SQ.IN.)
PANEL, T
MAX. MIN. MAX. MIN.
12” 74 44 -- --
14” 64 38 94 56
16” 56 33 82 49
Max. based on Ni=100psi
SP = (As x 0.70 x Fpu)/(Ni x T) (1)
Min. based on max. wood/steel ratio of 0.0016
SP = As/(T x 0.0016) (2)
f. Predrilled hole diameter shall be twice the diameter of the prestressing bar to be used, but shall not exceed 20% of the
width of the laminates.
g. Trimming shall be done in a way which would ensure maximum full face contact between laminate members.
h. Shall be treated with 100% creosote in a clean treatment process as per AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering,
Chapter 30, Ties.

i. Additional material shall be procured to allow for rejection of unsuitable pieces (up to 5% of total).
j. All field holes and cuts in treated wood must be treated with preservative.
A3.4.1.1.2 Prestressing Bars
a. Shall be galvanized grade 150 ksi dywidag bars or approved equal in accordance with the latest issue ASTM A-722.
b. Shall be sized in accordance with Table 7-A3-5 having selected the deck thickness, T and bar spacing, SP then checked
for tensile strength. However, the steel-wood area ratio must not exceed 0.0016 (as per the Ontario Highway Bridge
Design Code).
c. The required tensile load, P is determined by dividing the cross-sectional area of the bar, As into the required
prestressing force Fps (i.e. P = Fps/As). Fps is the product of the initial lamination stress, Ni (from Table 7-A1-4) in
psi and the bar spacing, SP and deck thickness, T both in inches
(i.e. Fps – Ni x SP x T).
d. The required tensile load, P must not exceed 89,250 lbs and 131,250 lbs for 1” dia. And 1 ¼” dia. Bars respectively. If
the required tensile load, P is greater than that permitted, a larger bar size or closer bar spacing must be used.
e. If bar ends are cut, they shall be coated with two coats of zinc rich paint or an approved equal.
f. Do not weld on or near prestressing bars or use them as ground connections.
g. Use nylon or rope slings for handling and transport of prestressing bars.
1
h. Do not use prestressing bars to lift or move the deck panel.
i. Bars damaged during shipment shall be rejected and replaced with new bars.
A3.4.1.1.3 Anchorage System 3

a. Structural steel shall conform to the current ASTM A36 specifications.
b. Decks up to 16” in depth shall have a bulkhead channel or bearing plate anchorage configuration. Decks over 16” in
depth shall have only a bearing plate anchorage configuration.
c. Channel sizes are to be in accordance with Table 7-A3-6. 4

Table 7-A3-6. Bulkhead Channel Sizes
THICKNESS OF RECOMMENDED DEPTH OF Tw, WEB

PANEL, T (IMPERIAL) CHANNEL, Dc THICKNESS
11” C10 X 25 10” 0.53”
12” – 14” C12 X 30 12” 0.51”
15” – 16“ C15 X 40 15” 0.52”
d. Anchor plate sizes for bulkhead channel anchorage configurations shall be in accordance with
Table 7-A3-7.

Timber Structures
Table 7-A3-7. Bearing Plates Sizes For Channel Bulkhead Anchorage Configuration
THICKNESS OF WIDTH LENGTH THICKNESS

PANEL, T Wp Lp Tp
12” 9” 9” – 18” Lp/12
14” 9” 9” – 18” Lp/12
16” 12” 12” – 24” Lp/12
Select a plate length, then check that effective bearing area is sufficient to prevent crushing of the laminates
(i.e. fc+ < F′c+ where F′c+ = 375 psi and + indicates perpendicular to the grain of the material). For
Douglas Fir fc+ can be determined as follows:
fc+ = (Ni x SP x T)/Dc(Lp+2Tw)(3)
Where Ni, SP, T, Dc and Tw are all known from prior design steps.
e. Bearing plates sizes for bearing plate anchorage configurations shall be in accordance with Table 7-A3-8.
Table 7-A3-8. Bearing Plates Sizes For Bearing Plate Anchorage Configuration
THICKNESS OF WIDTH LENGTH THICKNESS

PANEL, T Wp Lp Tp
12” 10” 10” – 20” SEE BELOW
14” 12” 12” – 24” “ “
16” 14” 14” – 28” “ “
Select a plate length, then check that plate bearing area is sufficient to prevent crushing of the laminates (i.e.
fc+ < F′c+ where F′c+ = 375 psi and + indicates perpendicular to the grain of the material). For Douglas Fir
fc+ can be determined as follows
fc+ = (Ni x SP x T)/(Lp x Wp)(4)
Where Ni, SP and T are all known from prior design steps.
Actual plate thickness, Tp is based on the use of a 6” x 6” x 1” anchorage plate and can be determined as
follows:
Tp = square root of [(3 x (Tn x SP x T) x k x k)/Fb](5)
Where Ni, SP and T are all known from prior design steps, Fb – 24,200 psi for 44W steel and k is the greater
of (Wp-6)/2 or (Lp-6)/2

f. Channel bulkhead anchorage, bearing plates, high strength steel nuts and other fasteners to be hot dip galvanized to
latest issue of ASTM 123 after fabrication.
A3.4.1.1.4 Waterproofing
a. Waterproofing shall cover the entire top surface of each panel
b. Consideration shall be given to facilitate drainage to the curb sides.
c. The membrane shall be placed only after the second prestressing has occurred.
d. Coat all anchorage nuts to protect against corrosion.
e. Each panel shall be supplied with drain holes through its curb on each side at span one-third points.
A3.4.1.2 Fabrication (2000)
A3.4.1.2.1 Panel Assembly
a. Panels may be assembled in a shop or on site in a staging area. In place assembly on active lines will not be permitted
as a panel cannot be placed into service until after the second prestressing.
1
b. A temporary support shall be constructed from timber and blocking to provide a level plane on which the panel may be
assembled.
c. Laminates shall be oriented with their crown up, bottoms even at the bearing ends and the predrilled holes aligned.
Alternate laminates shall be flipped and turned end for end to allow for the inaccuracy of milling. An 18” steel dowel, 3
with a diameter larger than the selected prestressing bar diameter, can be used to align the holes. Laminates may be
nailed together temporarily to hold their position prior to prestressing.
d. Prestressing bars shall be fed through the holes as assembly of laminates progresses thus ensuring passage of the bars
through the laminates.
e. Once all laminates and bars are in place, bulkhead channels (when used), bearing anchor plates and nuts are applied at 4
the ends of each bar.
f. Stressing of the panel shall be from one side only. Bars are adjusted to project 5” on the anchored side and 12” or more
on the stressing side to permit connection of the hydraulic jack(s).
g. Tighten all anchorage nuts with a pipe wrench prior to prestressing.
h. Do not stress bars until all bars within a span have been installed complete with the selected anchorage system and
tightened with hand tools.
i. Stressing operations must be supervised by a qualified individual.
A3.4.1.2.2 Stressing Equipment
a. 60 ton hydraulic hollow core jacks (single or multiple jacks) may be used for prestressing.

Timber Structures
b. Appropriate pull coupler suited to the selected prestressing bar size (one per jack).
c. Prefabricated jack chair (one per jack) to allow tightening of the anchorage nut with an open end wrench.
d. Jack chairs and wrench are not required if the jack is equipped with a built-in ratchet.
e. Hydraulic pump with reservoir sufficient to supply all jacks that will be used simultaneously.
f. Hoses and manifolds to connect all jacks to the hydraulic pumps.
A3.4.1.2.3 Prestressing Procedures
a. Stressing Sequence
(1) First stressing can be executed on completion of assembly. Stress the deck panel fully to 100% Ni, the initial
design in psi for the panel as per Table 7-A1-4. After the first stressing, bar projections may be cut back using a
cutoff saw to the minimum required to re-attach a jack but no shorter than 5”.
(2) Second stressing to be conducted one week after the initial stressing. Again stress fully to 100% Ni. After second
stressing and upon acceptance of the bars by the Engineer, apply corrosion protection material, grease caps and
galvanize lock nuts. Water proofing membrane and curb timbers may now be applied.
(3) Final stressing to be conducted 4 to 6 weeks after the second stressing (5 to 7 weeks after assembly). Again stress
fully to 100% Ni. Do not stress while panel is under live load conditions.
(4) Stress levels shall be periodically checked as part of an ongoing maintenance program. Bars shall be re-stressed
when stress levels approach N, the minimum stress in pounds required for the panel to perform adequately per
Table 7-A1-4.
b. Prestressing force required (Fps) is the stress that is applied to each of the bars in order to stress the laminates fully to
100% Ni
Fps = Ni x SP x T(6)
Where SP is the selected spacing of bars, T is the selected deck thickness and Ni is the initial stress required between
laminations as per Table 7-A1-4.
c. Stressing Methods
(1) Single Jack Method
• Attach the jack to the left most bar and stress the bar to the appropriate level using the pump.
• Tighten the nut using an open end wrench through the opening of the jack chair or by using the built-in ratchet if
so equipped.
• Release pressure, remove jack and attach it to the next bar to the right. Repeat this procedure until all bars are
stressed.
• Starting again at the left most bar repeat the entire procedure three additional times to achieve a uniform stress
throughout the panel.
(2) Multiple Jack Method 1 (number of jacks = number of bars in one panel)

• Connect all jacks to one pump.
• Attach one jack assembly to each bar and stress all bars to the appropriate level at the same time using the pump.
• Tighten each nut using an open end wrench through the opening of the jack chair or by using the built-in ratchet
if so equipped.
• Release pressure, remove jacks, stressing is complete.
(3) Multiple Jack Method 2 (number of jacks < number of bars in one panel)
• Connect all jacks to one pump.
• Attach one jack assembly to a bar starting from the left most bar in the panel and stress these bars to the
appropriate level at the same time by using the pump.
• Tighten each nut using an open end wrench through the opening of the jack chair or by using the built-in ratchet
if so equipped.
• Release pressure, remove all but the right most jack and move them to the bars on the right side of the jack
remaining in place. Repeat the procedure until the entire span is stressed.
A3.4.1.2.4 Stressing Record
a. Record date of each stressing.

1
b. Record elongation of bars resulting from stressing.
A3.4.1.2.5 Stressing Safety
a. Pull couplers for stressing jack must be evenly and fully engaged to the bar projection prior to the application of stress. 3
b. When stressing above grade, a safety rope must be used to secure jack and pull rod to the structure.
c. A warning sign must be posted in the area affected by stressing.
d. Never stand behind a jack while stressing or while removing the jack from a stressed bar. Do not stand on hoses while
stressing. 4
e. Pump must be connected to a proper power source with approved connection. Prior to stressing bars cycle jacks(s)
several times to check for leaks and to eliminate air from the system.
A3.4.1.2.6 Handling Panels
a. Handle the panels with extreme care to avoid damage to laminates and other components. Do not use steel chains or
cables if possible.
A3.4.2 STRESS LAMINATED DECKS
A3.4.2.1 Stress Laminated Panel Design Stresses, LL Deflection and Minimum Transverse Stressing
Required for Various Span Lengths and Panel Thicknesses
Ensure that the allowable stresses for the material you have selected are not exceeded by any of the design stresses tabulated
for the particular span and panel thickness chosen.

7-A3-42
Timber Structures
Table 7-A3-9. Stress Laminated Panel Design Stresses, LL Deflection and Minimum Transverse Stressing Required for Various Span
Lengths & Panel Thicknesses
Species: Douglas Fir Allowable Fb 1150 x Cls 1.5 Fb’ 1725 Dead Load (includes: track, ballast, curb,
Grade: No. 1 Fv 80 x Cv 1.33 Fv’ 106 protective cover, stressing system)
Stresses (psi) 4128 lb/ft
Wet Condition Fc+ 375 Variable Dead Load due to various panels’
(> 19% M.C.) E 1750000 thicknesses (per inch of panel thickness)
70 lb/ft
Lengths & Panel Thicknesses (Continued)
Species: Douglas Fir - Larch Allowable Fb 1150 x Cls 1.5 Fb’ 1725 Dead Load (includes: track, ballast, curb,
Grade: No. 1 Fv 80 x Cv 1.33 Fv’ 106 protective cover, stressing system)
70 lb/ft

7-A3-43
7-A3-44
Timber Structures
Species: Southern Pine Allowable Fb 1075 x Cls 1.5 Fb’ 1613 Dead Load (includes: track, ballast, curb,
Grade: No. 1 Fv 75 x Cv 1 Fv’ 75 protective cover, stressing system)
70 lb/ft
Species: Southern Pine Allowable Fb 1075 x Cls 1.5 Fb’ 1613 Dead Load (includes: track, ballast, curb,
Grade: No. 1 Fv 75 x Cv 1 Fv’ 75 protective cover, stressing system)
70 lb/ft

7-A3-45
7-A3-46
Timber Structures
Species: Red Oak Allowable Fb 1000 x Cls 1.5 Fb’ 1500 Dead Load (includes: track, ballast, curb,
Grade: No. 1 Fv 75 x Cv 1.33 Fv’ 99.8 protective cover, stressing system)
70 lb/ft
Species: Red Oak Allowable Fb 1000 x Cls 1.5 Fb’ 1500 Dead Load (includes: track, ballast, curb,
Grade: No. 1 Fv 75 x Cv 1.33 Fv’ 99.8 protective cover, stressing system)
70 lb/ft

7-A3-47
7-A3-48
Timber Structures
Ensure that the allowable stresses for the material you have selected are Dead Load (includes: track, ballast, curb, protective cover, stressing
not exceeded by any of the design stresses tabulated for the particular system):
span and panel thickness chosen. 4128 lb/ft
NOTE: i, ii, and iii are the governing case for max. longitudinal shear Variable Dead Load due to various panels’ thicknesses (per inch of
(AREMA); i = 1st driver @ qtr. point; ii = shear formula with 1st driver panel thickness):
@ 3x height of beam; iii = revised shear formula with 1st driver @ 3x 70 lb/ft
height of beam. See Table 7-A1- for details.
Ensure that the allowable stresses for the material you have selected are Dead Load (includes: track, ballast, curb, protective cover, stressing
not exceeded by any of the design stresses tabulated for the particular system):
span and panel thickness chosen. 4128 lb/ft
NOTE: i, ii, and iii are the governing case for max. longitudinal shear Variable Dead Load due to various panels’ thicknesses (per inch of
(AREMA); i = 1st driver @ qtr. point; ii = shear formula with 1st driver panel thickness):
@ 3x height of beam; iii = revised shear formula with 1st driver @ 3x 70 lb/ft
height of beam. See Table 7-A1- for details.

7-A3-49
Timber Structures
A3.4.2.2 Calculation of Deck Loads for Stress Laminated Decks
Table 7-A3-13. Tabulation of Deck Loads for Stress Laminated Decks
ASSUMPTIONS:
width of timber portion of laminated deck = 14 ft.

width of curb timber = 9 in.
maximum ballast depth below track ties = 24 in.
additional depth of ballast between track ties = 5 in.
weight per volume of treated timber = 60 lb/cu.ft.
weight per volume of ballast = 120 lb/cu.ft.
weight per volume of waterproofing = 0.2 lb/sq.ft.
prestressing rods 2’ spacing, 1” dia. rod with nut & cap each end = 20 lb/ft.
bearing/anchorage = C15X40 each side with 20 lb anchor plates = 100 lb/ft.
walkway 0 lb/ft or 110 lb/ft = 0 lb/ft.
track tie length = 8.5 ft.
ITEMS (excluding laminate members):

Track c/w rails, inside guard rails and fastenings 200 lb/ft
Ballast including track ties 3625 lb/ft
Curb timbers on both sides 180 lb/ft
Protective cover (Geotextile) 3 lb/ft
Walkway 0 lb/ft
Prestressing rods 20 lb/ft
Bearing/Anchorage 100 lb/ft
TOTAL 4128 lb/ft
DECK LAMINAE:
Per inch thickness of deck 70 lb/ft
(i.e. 14” thick deck panel, 14 x 70 = 980 lb/ft)
A3.4.2.3 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber - Railroad Loading (Visual Grading)

Table 7-A3-14. Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber - Railroad Loading (Visual Grading)
Cls - load sharing factor applied to Fb, 1.3 for select structural and 1.5 for No. 1 or No. 2
Cv - Shear stress factor applied to Fv, provided length for split on wide face is limited to 1 x wide face
(not applicable for Southern Pine as per AREMA Manual)

7-A3-51
Timber Structures
A3.4.2.4 Typical Design Example for a Simple Stress Laminated Lumber Deck Panel
Figure 7-A3-45. Typical Design Example for a Simple Stress Laminated Lumber Deck Panel

Figure 7-A3-45. Typical Design Example for a Simple Stress Laminated Lumber Deck Panel
(Continued)
A3.4.2.5 Tables for Simple Stress Laminated Lumber Deck Panel Design

Timber Structures
Table 7-A3-15. Tables for Simple Stress Laminated Lumber Deck Panel Design
The following table has been developed The following tables are based on an HS 20-44 vehicle with
for Cooper’s E 80 loading and is used as a maximum wheel load of 16,000 lbs. vt & mt must be multiplied
base for all other E loadings. Multiply the by the design axle load in kips (or E-rating) and divided by 32
table value by the design E-rating and kips (2 x 16,000 lbs wheel load) to obtain the appropriate Mt &
divide by 80. Vt.

A3.5 LEGACY CULVERT DESIGNS
A3.5.1 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR DESIGN OF WOOD CULVERTS1 (1962)
(Reapproved with revisions 1962)
A3.5.1.1 Wood Culverts (1988)
For the recommended practice for design of wood culverts refer to Figure 7-A3-46 and Table 7-A3-16 (See Appendix 3 -
Legacy Designs).
A3.5.1.2 General Notes (1988)
a. Timber culverts should be constructed of pressure-treated timber conforming to AREMA specifications for structural
timber.
b. Timbers with appreciable warp, particularly wall timbers should not be used.
c. Timbers should be cut to length and bored before treatment.
d. Surfaces of treated timber unavoidably cut or damaged in construction should be field treated with two coats of hot
creosote oil and one coat of hot sealing compound or equal. Holes unavoidably bored in the field in treated timber
should be thoroughly saturated with hot creosote oil and the fastener immediately placed.
1
e. Protective coatings or galvanizing of metal fastenings should conform to recommendations for “use of protective
coatings for iron and steel fastenings for wood bridges,” miscellaneous part, this chapter. Spikes or fasteners should be
dipped in a preservative before driving.
f. Lock nut or spring washer should be used on all bolts, and nuts tightened securely.
g. Backfilling of culverts should be built up uniformly on both sides, and embankment constructed in layers, well 3
compacted in accordance with best practice.
A3.5.1.3 Design Data (Tangent Track) (1988)
a. Live Load. Cooper E72 Loading, Axle loads distributed uniformly over a distance of 5′-0″ parallel to track, and
uniformly over a distance equal to length of tie plus depth of fill under ties perpendicular to track.
4
b. Dead Load. Assumed weight of materials follows:
Track rails and fastenings: 200 lb per linear foot of track

Earth fill and ballast: 120 lb per cubic foot
Timber: 60 lb per cubic foot
c. Lateral Earth Pressure. Active earth pressure equal to:
0.286w (h + h′)
1

Timber Structures
where:
w = 120 lb per cubic foot

h = depth below base of rail
h′ = live load surcharge
d. Timber Sections. Full nominal dimensions without reduction for bolt holes.
e. Unit Working Stresses. For allowable unit working stresses for timber see specifications for design this Chapter.

C
L TRACK
BASE OF RAIL STANDARD ROADBED SECTION
ADD TRACK CENTERS TO LENGTH OF

BOX IF FOR MORE THAN ONE TRACK
SLOPE 1 12:1 MINIMUM SLOPE 1 12:1 MINIMUM

ASSUMED LIVE LOAD
15’-0 1’-712
6x6 CURB DISTRIBUTION 6x6 CURB
MAXIMUM MINIMUM
NOTE: BOX TO BE PLACED ON SOME GRADE SPIKES OR FASTENERS TO BE DRIVEN

SIDE ELEVATION OF SINGLE AND DOUBLE BOX
AS ADJACENT GROUND OR RAVINE, BUT NOT THROUGH ONE PIECE AND ABOUT 34
ON MORE THAN A TWO PERCENT GRADE INTO THE PIECE BELOW AT ABOUT
SPACING OF HOLDBACKS
2’-0 CENTERS.
LENGTH AND DEPTH OF APRON WALL

AS REQUIRED BY FIELD CONDITIONS
FASTEN TIMBER TOGETHER
SPIKES OR FASTENERS
WITH 34 SPIKES OR FASTENERS
PLAN OF DOUBLE BOX PLAN OF SINGLE BOX
TOP
1
TOP
SIDE
34 DIA. BOLTS
SIDE
4x38 PLATE
WASHERS &
LOCK NUTS
BOTTOM BOTTOM
B W B W B B W B
WIDE FACE OF HOLD BACK WIDE FACE OF HOLD BACK
3
TYPICAL SECTION THRU DOUBLE BOX TYPICAL SECTION THRU SINGLE BOX
Figure 7-A3-46. Recommended Practice for Design of Wood Culverts, E 72 Loading,

for Heights up to 15 Foot Base of Rail to Flow Line area

Table 7-A3-16. Typical Size Boxes and Unit Stresses
7-A3-58
Timber Structures
Size of Boxes and Requirements Maximum Stress in Timber in lb per square inch
Top and Max Tension in

Side Walls Center Wall Holdbacks Bolts lb per Bolt
Holdbacks Bottom
Width Height Top and Sides Bearing Bearing Bending
Bending
W H Bottom B
in in in in Max
Ft-In. Ft-In. Inches Inches Size in Spac- Number Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Inches ing of Bolts Depth Depth Depth Depth Depth Depth Depth Depth Depth Depth
Feet
2¢ -0² 1¢ -0² 3 3 NONE 730 990 60 83 135 183
2¢ -0² 1¢ -6² 3 4 4´ 4 5 2 785 1040 48 64 105 139 1033 1450 1800 2540
2¢ -0² 2¢ -0² 3 4 4´ 6 6 2 785 1020 48 63 105 136 905 1270 2860 4000
2¢ -6² 2¢ -6² 3 4 4´ 6 5 2 1156 1480 57 73 127 163 1128 1565 2930 4130
3¢ -0² 2¢ -0² 4 4 4´ 6 6 2 901 1170 66 86 151 195 975 1370 2860 4020
3¢ -0² 3¢ -0² 4 6 6´ 6 5 3 1000 1240 48 61 105 132 1153 1520 2390 3270
3¢ -6² 3¢ -6² 6 6 6´ 8 6 3 582 702 55 66 121 145 1078 1440 3360 4550
4¢ -0² 3¢ -0² 6 6 6´ 6 5 3 736 910 61 75 136 169 1217 1650 2390 3240
4¢ -0² 4¢ -0² 6 6 6´ 8 5 3 736 880 61 72 136 163 1140 1525 3200 4300
4¢ -0² 6¢ -0² 6 6 8 ´ 10 5 4 736 816 61 67 136 154 1165 1470 3670 4650
4¢ -6² 4¢ -6² 6 8 8´ 8 6 4 970 1135 53 62 118 138 1273 1680 3260 4320
5¢ -0² 5¢ -0² 6 8 8´ 8 5 4 1170 1345 58 66 129 148 1291 1675 3040 3950
6¢ -0² 6¢ -0² 8 8 8 ´ 10 5 4 912 1010 67 74 152 168 1230 1545 3700 4650
A3.6 TYPICAL PLANS FOR TIMBER RAILWAY BRIDGES1
A3.6.1 PLANS (1988)
For aligning of plans for open-deck pile and framed trestles, multiple-story trestles, and ballasted deck pile and framed trestles
refer to Table 7-A3-17.
A3.6.2 GENERAL NOTES (1988)
a. For various combinations of loading, panel lengths, number and size of stringers, number of piles and permissible
working stresses, see Part 2 Design of Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles for Railway Loading.
b. All lumber and piles should be pressure treated in accordance with AREMA Chapter 30, Ties. All lumber should be
framed and bored before treatment wherever possible.
c. Holes should be bored the same diameter as the bolt and 1/8 inch less than the nominal diameter of drive spikes.
d. Lumber cut after treatment should be painted with three coats of hot creosote oil.
e. Holes bored after treating should be treated with hot creosote oil applied with a pressure bolt hole treater.
f. Each bolt should have a square head, suitable type lock nut and 2 “OG” washers, with a double-coil spring when
shown on the plans.
1
g. Trestles on curves should be built to follow the curve. Bents should be placed on radial lines and spaced to maintain
standard panel lengths under the outside stringer.
h. Crushed-rock ballast should be hard, durable stone and should conform to size No. 4 of the National Bureau of
Standards.
i. For use of protective coating for hardware see Part 1 Material Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood
3
Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted
Wood, Section 1.6 Specifications of Fasteners for Timber Trestles.
j. For use of inner guard rails see Section 4.9, Use of Guard Rails and Guard Timbers (2004).
1
References, Vol. 23, 1922, pp. 709, 1148; Vol. 24, 1923, pp. 773, 1196; Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 667, 704, 1036, 1038; Vol. 38, 1937, pp. 183, 624; Vol. 45, 1944,
pp. 203, 596; Vol. 49, 1948, pp. 272, 672; Vol. 60, 1959, pp. 556, 1081; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 455, 684; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106.

Timber Structures
Table 7-A3-17. Recommended Practice Plans
Figure No. Plan Name Page No.

7-A3-47 Walk and Handrail - Open-Deck Trestles (to be used where required) 7-A3-61
7-A3-48 Water Barrel and Refuge Platform - Open-Deck Trestles (to be used where 7-A3-62
required)
7-A3-49 Track Car Platforms - Open-Deck Trestles (to be used where required) 7-A3-63
7-A3-50 Walk and Handrail - Ballasted-Deck Trestles (to be used where required) 7-A3-64
7-A3-51 Water Barrel and Refuge Platform - Ballasted-Deck Trestles (to be used where 7-A3-65
required)
7-A3-52 Track Car Platform - Ballasted-Deck Trestles (to be used where required) 7-A3-66
7-A3-53 Recommended Practice for Creosoted Timber Pile Piers for Long Spans, E60 7-A3-67
Loading-Pier for 150-foot and 80-foot Spans
7-A3-54 Recommended Practice for Creosoted Timber Pile Piers for Long Spans, E60 7-A3-69
Loading-Pier for 150-foot Span and Trestle Approach

C
L TRACK
2x6
AREA CLEARANCE DIAGRAM
2 IN PLANKING
2x6
2x6 BRACE
DAP TIE
FOR BRACE 12 4x4 POST
8x8x16’-0 TIES
EVERY 4th TIE TO
BE A LONG TIE
ELEVATION
DETAILS OF WALK WITH WOOD HANDRAIL
1
NOTE:
FOR NOTES ON WALK AND HANDRAIL,
SEE FIGURE 7-4-24. OTHER COMBINATIONS
OF STRINGERS AND PILES, THAN SHOWN,
MAY BE USED. SEE GENERAL NOTES
(ARTICLE 4.11.2).
3
C
L TRACK
PLAN
C
LTRACK C
LTRACK
38 DIA GALV. WIRE

ROPE THRU HOOKS
WIRE ROPE THRU 4
HOOK BOLTS
8x8x16’-0 TIES
BOLTS
2 IN PLANKING EVERY 4th TIE TO
2 IN PLANKING
BE A LONG TIE
1-L4x4x12 POST
12 4x4 POST STEEL PLATE

5x9x516 WELD
2x6 BRACE TO POST
DAP TIE
FOR BRACE
CABLE HANDRAIL STEEL POST HANDRAIL
Figure 7-A3-47. Walk and Handrail - Open-Deck Trestles (to be used where required)

Timber Structures
C 4x4
LTRACK C
LTRACK
POST
AREA CLEARANCE DIAGRAM AREA CLEARANCE DIAGRAM
4x4 2x6 BRACE
POST
2 IN PLANKING 2 IN PLANKING
3’-0"
2x6
BRACES
ELEVATION ELEVATION
C
L TRACK C
L TRACK
2 IN PLANKING
DAP TIE
8x8x16’-0 TIE
FOR POST
8x8x17’-6 TIES. C.-C.

VARIES WITH TIE
SPACING
2 IN PLANKING
2x6 HANDRAIL
8x8x14’-6 TIES
2x6
HANDRAIL
4’-2 4’-10
PLAN
REFUGE PLATFORM
NOTES:
1. WALKS ARE SHOWN ON ONE SIDE OF BRIDGE ONLY.
PROVIDE WALKS ON BOTH SIDES WHERE NEEDED.
PLAN 2. GREATER CLEARANCE THAN SHOWN IS TO BE PROVIDED

WHERE STATE OR OTHER LAWS REQUIRE. INCREASE
BARREL PLATFORM
CLEARANCE AS REQUIRED FOR CURVED TRACK.
3. ALL FRAMING NOT BOLTED SHOULD BE ADEQUATELY

SPIKED.
4. AS ALTERNATE PLAN TO USING LONG TIES, OUTRIGGERS

PLACED BETWEEN TIES MAY BE USED FOR SUPPORT
OF WALKS AND PLATFORMS.
5. LOCATION OF WATER BARREL PLATFORM SHOULD BE

AS SPECIFIED BY CHIEF ENGINEER.
6. OTHER COMBINATIONS OF STRINGERS AND PILES THAN

SHOWN MAY BE USED. SEE GENERAL NOTES.
Figure 7-A3-48. Water Barrel and Refuge Platform - Open-Deck Trestles (to be used where required)

15’-0 11’-4
8’-6 6’-6 8 3’-0 4’-0 3’-0 8
2x6 2x6
4x4
2 IN PLANKING
2 IN PLANKING 3x6 RUNNER
HOOK BOLT
SEE DETAIL 8x8x20’-0 TIES
12 X 1’-0 BOAT SPIKE PLATFORM STRINGER
ELEVATION SIDE VIEW

SCHEME A (USING LONG TIES)
NOTE:
WHERE LENGTH OF MOTOR CARS IN USE REQUIRES LONGER PLATFORM,
ADDITIONAL SUPPORT FOR LONG TIES OR A PLATFORM SEPARATE FROM
TRESTLE SHOULD BE PROVIDED. OTHER COMBINATIONS OF STRINGERS
AND PILES THAN SHOWN MAY BE USED. SEE GENERAL NOTES.
112 112 34 x 3 TO FIT 1 DIA. - 1’-0 LONG
1
STRINGER THREAD 4
58 DIA. HOLE
HOOK BOLT
3
15’-0 11’-4
8’-6 6’-6 5’-8 5’-8

2x6
4x4
2 IN PLANKING 2x6
3x6 RUNNER
2 IN PLANKING
4
2x6 JOIST
10x10 4x8
2x6
10x10x18’-0
TO FIT STRINGER DEPTH 3’-11 3’-11
34 DIA. DRIFT BOLTS
4-L4x3x38x1’-3
2x10x2’-0 2x10
ELEVATION SIDE VIEW
BRACE
SCHEME B (USING HANGERS)
(ALL BOLTS 34 DIA.)
Figure 7-A3-49. Track Car Platforms - Open-Deck Trestles (to be used where required)

Timber Structures

C
L TRACK
12
2x6 HANDRAIL
3x12 PLANKS
SIDEWALK BLOCK
6x12x2’-712
4x12 DECKING
4x4x5’-0 POST
34 DIA. BOLTS
ELEVATION
DETAILS OF WALK WITH WOOD HANDRAIL
2x6 HANDRAILS
4x4x5’-0 POST
12 DIA. BOLTS
NOTE:
OTHER COMBINATIONS OF
STRINGERS AND PILES THAN
SHOWN, MAY BE USED. SEE
GENERAL NOTES.
C
L TRACK
CLEARANCE DIAGRAM PLAN CLEARANCE DIAGRAM

C
L TRACK
4x4x5’-0 POST 1-L4x4x12 POST
38 DIA. GALV. WIRE ROPE WIRE ROPE THRU HOOK BOLTS
THRU HOOK BOLTS
C
L TRACK
3x12 PLANKS 3x12 PLANKS
SIDEWALK BLOCK
SIDEWALK BLOCK
6x12x2’-712
6x12x2’-712
4x12 DECKING
4x12 DECKING
34 DIA. BOLTS 34 DIA. BOLTS
ELEVATION ELEVATION
CABLE HANDRAIL STEEL POST HANDRAIL
Figure 7-A3-50. Walk and Handrail - Ballasted-Deck Trestles (to be used where required)

AREA CLEARANCE DIAGRAM AREA CLEARANCE DIAGRAM

3’-4"
C
L TRACK C
L TRACK
4x4 POST 4x4 POST
2x6 BRACES
4x12 DECKING 4x12 DECKING
ELEVATION ELEVATION
C
L TRACK C
L TRACK
1
2x6 HANDRAIL
2x6 HANDRAIL
DAP PLANK
FOR POST
PLAN PLAN
BARREL PLATFORM REFUGE PLATFORM
NOTES:
1. WALKS ARE SHOWN ON ONE SIDE OF BRIDGE ONLY. PROVIDE WALKS ON BOTH SIDES WHERE NEEDED.
2. GREATER CLEARANCE THAN SHOWN IS TO BE PROVIDED WHERE STATE OR OTHER LAWS REQUIRE.
INCREASE CLEARANCE AS REQUIRED FOR CURVED TRACK.
3. ALL FRAMING NOT BOLTED SHOULD BE ADEQUATELY SPIKED.
4. OTHER COMBINATIONS OF STRINGERS AND PILES THAN SHOWN, MAY BE USED. SEE GENERAL NOTES.
Figure 7-A3-51. Water Barrel and Refuge Platform - Ballasted-Deck Trestles (to be used where required)

Timber Structures
C
L BENT C
L BENT
AREA CLEARANCE DIAGRAM 14’-0
34 DIA. x 11 BOLTS
C
L TRACK
16’-4 12 12’-0 12
8’-0 MIN 8’-4 6’-0 6’-0

4x4
34 DIA. x 1’-3 BOLTS
4x4
2x6 2x10 FLOOR PLANKS

6x10
4x4
3x6
6x10
6x10
34 DIA. x 1’-1
2- 34 DIA.
BOLTS
x 1’-7 BOLTS 4’-9
34 DIA. x 2’-0
2-2x6 SCABS
DRIFT BOLTS
2- 34 DIA. BOLTS
6x10
12
14’-0
12
C
L BENT C
L BENT
4x10
SIDE VIEW
2-2x10 SCABS
ELEVATION
SCHEME A
34 DIA. x 11 BOLTS
C
L TRACK
16’-4 12 12’-0 12
8’-0 MIN 8’-4 6’-0 6’-0

4x4
34 DIA. x 1’-3 BOLTS 34 DIA. x 11 BOLTS
4x4
2x6 2x10 FLOOR PLANKS

6x10
34 DIA.
x 1’-9 4x4
BOLT
3x6 14x14
34 DIA. x 1’-10
DRIFT BOLTS
TO MATCH STRINGERS 4’-9
34 DIA. BOLT
3x10
12 14’-0 12
16’-0
ELEVATION SIDE VIEW

SCHEME B
NOTES:
1. DETAILS SHOWN ARE FOR 14’-0 TRESTLE SPANS. FOR OTHER SPAN LENGTHS,
VARY DETAILS ACCORDINGLY.
2. FOR NOTES ON WALK AND HANDRAIL, SEE FIGURE 7-4-27. OTHER COMBINATIONS
OF STRINGERS AND PILES THAN SHOWN MAY BE USED. SEE GENERAL NOTES
(ARTICLE 4.11.2).
Figure 7-A3-52. Track Car Platform - Ballasted-Deck Trestles (to be used where required)

HALF TOP VIEW HALF PILE PLAN
CENTERED BETWEEN TWO CENTER

PILES UNDER EACH TRACK BASE OF RAIL
C
L OF TRUSS C
L OF PIER C
L OF TRUSS
TOPS OF 4 PILES 1’-6 1’-6

UNDER EACH 2’-6 3’-0 VARIES VARIES 3’-0 2’-6
TRACK @
34 DIA.
3’-0 SPACING
DRIFT
BOLT
14x14
1
3x10
or
DIA.
3
34
4x8
BOLT
AND
SPIKE
GRID
4
3x10
or
4x8
USE ONLY WHERE

ELEVATION GROUND IS VERY SOFT
Figure 7-A3-53. Recommended Practice for Creosoted Timber Pile Piers for Long Spans, E60 Loading-
Pier for 150-foot and 80-foot Spans
Sheet 1 of 2

Timber Structures
NOTES: OPEN FLOOR AND TANGENT TRACK ASSUMED IN THIS DESIGN.
FOR PERMISSIBLE UNIT WORKING STRESSES SEE SPECIFICATIONS FOR

DESIGN, PART 2, THIS CHAPTER.
"SPLIT" CAPS CONSISTING OF TWO TIMBER BEAMS BOLTED TOGETHER

MAY BE USED AS AN ALTERNATE TO SINGLE MEMBER CAPS SHOWN.
PILE BATTER, PILE SPACING, AND OTHER DETAILS MAY BE VARIED TO

SUIT CONDITIONS OF PIER HEIGHT, SOIL CHARACTERISTICS, WATERWAY
REQUIREMENTS, ETC.
TIMBER CRIB PIER PROTECTION OR SHEATING TO BE PROVIDED TO MEET

CONDITIONS OF DRIFT, ICE, ETC. AS NECESSARY.
MAXIMUM VERTICAL PILE LOAD THIS DESIGN-APPROX. 16 TONS. (D.L.+L.L.)
BASE OF RAIL
150’-0 TRUSS SPAN 80’-0 THRU GIRDER SPAN
SPANS ASSUMED IN THIS DESIGN
2’-4 2’-4 2’-4 2’-4 2’-4 2’-4 2’-4 2’-4
12x14
TOPS OF 14x14
PILES @
2’-4 SPACING
ALTERNATE CAP DESIGN

TRANSVERSE CAPS
ALL BRACING MEMBERS

3x10 OR 4x8
USE ONLY
WHERE
GROUND IS
VERY SOFT
END VIEW
Pier for 150-foot and 80-foot Spans
Sheet 2 of 2

HALF PILE PLAN

HALF TOP VIEW
CENTERED BETWEEN TWO CENTER

PILES UNDER EACH TRACK
BASE OF RAIL
C
L OF TRUSS C
L OF PIER C
L OF TRUSS
1’-6 1’-6
34 DIA. 2’-6 3’-0 VARIES VARIES 3’-0 2’-6
DRIFT
BOLT 14x14
14x14
3x10
or
4x8
34 DIA.
3
BOLT
AND
SPIKE
GRID
3x10 4
or
4x8
USE ONLY
HALF ELEVATION HALF ELEVATION WHERE GROUND
LONGITUDINAL CAPS TRANSVERSE CAPS IS VERY SOFT
Pier for 150-foot Span and Trestle Approach
Sheet 1 of 2

Timber Structures
NOTES:
OPEN FLOOR AND TANGENT TRACK ASSUMED IN THIS DESIGN.
FOR PERMISSIBLE UNIT WORKING STRESSES SEE SPECIFICATIONS FOR DESIGN, PART 2, THIS CHAPTER.
"SPLIT" CAPS CONSISTING OF TWO TIMBER BEAMS BOLTED TOGETHER MAY BE USED AS AN
ALTERNATE TO SINGLE MEMBER CAPS SHOWN.
PILE BATTER, PILE SPACING, AND OTHER DETAILS MAY BE VARIED TO SUIT CONDITIONS OF
PIER HEIGHT, SOIL CHARACTERISTICS, WATERWAY REQUIREMENTS, ETC.
TIMBER CRIB PIER PROTECTION OR SHEATING TO BE PROVIDED TO MEET CONDITIONS OF

DRIFT, ICE, ETC. AS NECESSARY.
MAXIMUM VERTICAL PILE LOAD THIS DESIGN-APPROX. 16 TONS. (D.L.+L.L.)
TOPS OF ALL PILES ON 3’-0 CENTERS EXCEPT NON-VERTICAL OUTSIDE PILES ON 2’-4 CENTERS
WITH ADJACENT PILE.
150’-0 TRUSS SPAN 16’-0 APPR. SPAN
SPANS ASSUMED IN THIS DESIGN

1’-6
3’-0 2’-4 3’-0 3’-0 3’-0
12x14
ALTERNATE CAP
VERTICAL PILES SHOWN
ALL BRACING MEMBERS

3x10 OR 4x8
USE ONLY
WHERE GROUND
IS VERY SOFT
HALF END VIEW HALF END VIEW

VERTICAL PILES BATTERED PILES
Pier for 150-foot Span and Trestle Approach
Sheet 2 of 2

30
Appendix 4 - Temporary Structures
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A4.1 General Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A4-1
A4.2 Criteria for Use of Increased Allowable Stresses (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A4-1
A4.3 Increases to Allowable Stresses to Temporary Structures (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A4-2
A4.4 Load for the Design of Temporary Structures (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A4-2 1

A4.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS (2003)
In general, temporary timber structures, temporary blocking, falsework and similar constructions supporting railroad loading
should be designed in accordance with the requirements of Section 2.1 through Section 2.4. Under certain conditions it may
be permissible to increase the allowable design stresses because of the limited duration of use and the controlled conditions.
The use of allowable stresses greater than those indicated in Section 2.2 will only be allowed when the design engineer has
3
carefully reviewed the specific application to verify its appropriateness and has received approval from the Chief Engineer of
the operating railroad.
A4.2 CRITERIA FOR USE OF INCREASED ALLOWABLE STRESSES (2003)
Before using increased allowable stresses in the design of temporary structures, the designer shall ensure the following
requirements are met.
a. The design engineer has reviewed the specific application verifying that the use of increased allowable design stresses
is appropriate, has clearly defined the duration of the temporary structure’s service life, and has obtained authorization
from the Chief Engineer of the operating railroad.
b. New material should be properly seasoned.
c. No increase in allowable stresses shall be permitted when reused or second-hand material is used unless authorized by
the railroad’s Chief Engineer.
d. If green lumber is used in temporary construction, considerations should be made for this in the allowable stresses used
and also provisions should be made to ensure that connections will be continuously checked and tightened as required.

Timber Structures
e. If untreated material is used, the designer shall ensure that the conditions of use and the duration of use are such that
decay will not become a factor.
f. The structure shall be inspected at intervals as determined by the Chief Engineer of the operating railroad.
A4.3 INCREASES TO ALLOWABLE STRESSES TO TEMPORARY STRUCTURES (2003)
If the conditions of Paragraph 2.4.1 are satisfied, the allowable stresses listed in Table 7-2-7 may be multiplied by a factor of
1.1. The modulus of elasticity, E, shall remain unchanged.
A4.4 LOAD FOR THE DESIGN OF TEMPORARY STRUCTURES (2003)
The live load used for the design of temporary structures shall be Cooper E-80, unless otherwise directed by the Chief
Engineer of the operating railroad. Refer to Chapter 8 Concrete Structures and Foundations or Chapter 15 Steel Structures for
the axle load and axle spacing configuration for Cooper E-80 loading.

8
CHAPTER 8
CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND
FOUNDATIONS1
FOREWORD
The material in this chapter is written with regard to typical North American Railroad Concrete Structures and Foundations
and other structures mentioned herein with
• Standard Gage Track, 1

• Normal North American passenger and freight equipment, and
Additional special provisions for speeds higher than those listed above may be added by the Engineer as necessary.
3
This chapter is presented as a consensus document by a committee composed of railroad industry professionals having
substantial and broad-based experience designing, evaluating, and investigating Concrete Structures and Foundations used by
railroads. The recommendations contained herein are based upon past successful usage, advances in the state of knowledge,
and current design and maintenance practices. These recommendations are intended for routine use and might not provide
sufficient criteria for infrequently encountered conditions. Professional judgement must be exercised when applying the
recommendations of this chapter as part of an overall solution to any particular issue.
This chapter is published annually, incorporating revisions made in the previous year. The latest published edition of the
chapter should be used, regardless of the age of an existing structure. For purposes of determining historical recommendations
under which an existing structure may have been built and maintained, it can prove useful to examine previous editions of the
chapter. However, when historical recommendations differ from the recommendations contained in the latest published
edition of the chapter, the recommendations of the latest published edition of the chapter should be used.
Part 8, Rigid Frame Concrete Bridges was deleted from the manual in 1975. Part 9, Reinforced Concrete Trestles was deleted
from the manual in 1971. Part 15 is reserved for future use. Part 18, Elastomeric Bridge Bearings was moved to Chapter 15 in
2001.
1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-1

1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.2 Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.3 Other Cementitious Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.4 Aggregates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11
1.5 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.7 Concrete Admixtures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.8 Storage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20
1.9 Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.10 Details of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.11 Concrete Jointing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.12 Proportioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31
1.13 Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-37
1.14 Depositing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39
1.15 Depositing Concrete Under Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.16 Concrete in Sea Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.17 Concrete in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.18 Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.19 Formed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.20 Unformed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.21 Decorative Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.22 Penetrating Water Repellent Treatment of Concrete Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.23 Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.24 High Strength Concrete (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.25 Specialty Concretes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.26 Self-Consolidating Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-60
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
2 Reinforced Concrete Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-1

2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.2 Notations, Definitions and Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-8
2.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20
2.4 Hooks and Bends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
2.5 Spacing of Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.6 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.7 Minimum Reinforcement of Flexural Members (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.8 Distribution of Reinforcement in Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.9 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.10 Shear Reinforcement – General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.11 Limits for Reinforcement of Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.12 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
2.13 Development Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
2.14 Development Length of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
2.15 Development Length of Deformed Bars in Compression (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.16 Development Length of Bundled Bars (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.17 Development of Standard Hooks in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-31
2.18 Combination Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
2.19 Development of Welded Wire Fabric in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32

2.20 Mechanical Anchorage (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33

2.21 Anchorage of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33
2.22 Splices of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
2.23 Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
2.24 Design Methods (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
2.25 General Requirements (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
2.26 Allowable Service Load Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
2.27 Flexure (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-44
2.28 Compression Members with or without Flexure (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-44
2.29 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-45
2.30 Strength Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-52
2.31 Design Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53
2.32 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53
2.33 Compression Members with or without Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-56
2.34 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-58
2.35 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-60
2.36 Permissible Bearing Stress (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.37 Serviceability Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.38 Fatigue Stress Limit for Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.39 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69 1
2.40 Control of Deflections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-70
3 Spread Footing Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-1

3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-2
3.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3
3.3 Depth of Base of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-6 3
3.4 Sizing of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.5 Footings with Eccentric Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.6 Footing Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7 Field Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.8 Combined Footings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
4 Pile Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-1 4

4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2
4.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4
4.3 Pile Length Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7
4.4 Pile Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10
4.5 Installation of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-15
4.6 Inspection of Pile Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
5 Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-1

5.1 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-2
5.3 Computation of Applied Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5
5.4 Stability Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.5 Design of Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.6 Designing Bridges to Resist Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9

5.7 Details of Design and Construction for Abutments and Retaining Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.8 Details of Design and Construction for Bridge Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
6 Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-1

6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2
6.2 Design of Crib Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2
6.3 Requirements for Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-3
6.4 Requirements for Metal Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-5
6.5 Requirements for Timber Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-6
7 Mechanically Stabilized Embankment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-1

7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2
7.2 Design of Mechanically Stabilized Embankments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2
7.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-3
10 Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-1

10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2
10.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-3
10.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4
10.4 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
11 Lining Railway Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-1

11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.3 Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.4 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
12 Cantilever Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-1

12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-3
14 Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-1

14.1 Scope (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.2 Determination of the Causes of Concrete Deterioration (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.3 Evaluation of the Effects of Deterioration and Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4
14.4 Principal Materials Used in the Repair of Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.5 Repair Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-7
14.6 Repair Methods for Prestressed Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-24
16 Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-1

16.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-2
16.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-4
16.3 Design Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.4 Design Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.5 Details of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13
16.6 Manufacture of Precast Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15

16.7 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
17 Prestressed Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-1

17.1 General Requirements and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-4
17.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-5
17.3 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-7
17.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-9
17.5 Details of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10
17.6 General Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.7 Expansion and Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.8 Span Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.9 Frames and Continuous Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-14
17.10 Effective Flange Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-14
17.11 Flange and Web Thickness-Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-15
17.12 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-16
17.13 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-16
17.14 General Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.15 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.16 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-18
17.17 Loss of Prestress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-20 1
17.18 Flexural Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-25
17.19 Ductility Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-27
17.20 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-28
17.21 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-29
17.22 Post-Tensioned Anchorage Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-34
17.23 Pretensioned Anchorage Zones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.24 Concrete Strength at Stress Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44 3
17.25 General Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.26 General Fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-47
17.27 Mortar and Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-51
17.28 Application of Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.29 Materials - Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.30 Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-53
Commentary (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-55 4
19 Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-1
19.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.2 Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.3 Loads and Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-5
19.5 Load Combinations and Rating Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-8
19.6 Excessive Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-10
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-10
20 Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-1

20.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-2
20.3 Computation of Lateral Forces Acting on Bulkheads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-5
20.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-v

20.5 Design of Anchored Bulkheads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-10

20.6 Cantilever Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-14
20.7 Notations (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-15
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-16
21 Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-1

21.1 General (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-1
21.2 Reporting of Defects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
21.3 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-19
22 Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-1

22.1 General (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.2 Scope (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.3 Classification of Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.4 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-3
22.5 Exploration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4
22.6 Determination of Groundwater Level (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6
22.7 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6
22.8 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-7
22.9 Inspection (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.10 Geophysical Explorations (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.11 In-Situ Testing of Soil (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.12 Backfilling Bore Holes (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-10
22.13 Cleaning Site (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-10
23 Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-1

23.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-2
23.2 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-3
23.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-4
23.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-20
Commentary (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-24
24 Drilled Shaft Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-1

24.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-2
24.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.4 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8
24.5 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.6 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
C - Commentary (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
25 Slurry Wall Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-1

25.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-2
25.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3
25.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-7
25.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
Commentary (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-13
8-vi AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

26 Recommendations for the Design of Segmental Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-1

26.1 General Requirements and Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.2 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.3 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.4 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.5 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
26.6 Prestress Losses (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-22
26.7 Flexural Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8 Shear and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.9 Fatigue Stress Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10 Design of Local and General Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation Saddles . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.11 Provisional Post-Tensioning Ducts and Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.12 Duct Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.13 Couplers (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.14 Connection of Secondary Beams (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.15 Concrete Cover and Reinforcement Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.16 Inspection Access (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17 Box Girder Cross Section Dimensions and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
1
27 Concrete Slab Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-1
27.1 Scope and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.2 Application and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.3 General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-6
27.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.5 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.6 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10 3
27.7 Direct Fixation Fastening System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.8 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-24
28 Temporary Structures for Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-1

28.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4 4
28.3 Computation of Lateral Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.5 Design of Shoring Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.6 Design of Falsework Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-14
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-20
29 Waterproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-1
29.1 General Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.2 Waterproofing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.3 Dampproofing (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4 Specific Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.5 Terms (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.6 Applicable ASTM Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.7 General Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.8 Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-vii

29.9 Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13

29.10 Membrane Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.11 Sealing Compounds for Joints and Edges of Membrane Protection (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.12 Anti-Bonding Paper (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.13 Inspection and Tests (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.14 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.15 Introduction to Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16 Materials for Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.17 Application of Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
C - Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
Chapter 8 Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-G-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-R-1
INTRODUCTION
number, the second denotes the Part number in the Chapter, and the third numeral designates the page number in the Part.
8-viii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

8
Part 1
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6

1.1.1 Purpose (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.1.2 Scope (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.1.3 Terms (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.1.4 Acceptability (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7 1
1.1.5 ASTM - International (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7
1.1.6 Selection of Materials (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7
1.1.7 Test of Materials (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7
1.1.8 Defective Materials (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.1.9 Equipment (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
3
1.2 Cement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.2.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.2.2 Specifications (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.2.3 Quality, Sampling and Testing (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-9
1.3 Other Cementitious Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10

1.3.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.2 Acceptability (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.3 Specifications (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.4 Materials Not Included in This Recommended Practice (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.5 Documentation (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11
1.4 Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11

1.4.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11
1.4.2 Fine Aggregates (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-12
1.4.3 Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-14
1
References, Vol. 3, 1902, p. 311; Vol. 4, 1903, pp. 336,397; Vol. 5, 1904, pp. 605,610; Vol. 6, 1905, pp. 704,726; Vol. 11, 1910, p. 956; Vol. 13, 1912, pp.
333, 1564; Vol. 24, 1923, pp. 478, 1324; Vol. 28, 1927, pp. 1056, 1436; Vol. 29, 1928, pp. 607, 1399; Vol. 30, 1929, pp. 783, 1461; Vol. 31, 1930, pp. 1148,
1737; Vol. 32, 1931, pp. 330, 796; Vol. 33, 1932, pp. 622, 732; Vol. 34, 1933, pp. 578, 868; Vol. 35, 1934, pp. 953, 1130; Vol. 36, 1935, pp. 843, 1018; Vol.
37, 1936, pp. 632, 1040; Vol. 39, 1938, pp. 136, 332; Vol. 45, pp. 227, 642; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 793, 1341; Vol. 56, 1955, pp. 436, 1084; Vol. 58, 1957, pp.
650, 1182; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 637, 1970, p. 230; Vol. 72, 1971, p. 136; Vol. 74, 1973, p. 138; Vol. 75, 1974, p. 465; Vol. 78, 1977, p. 108; Vol. 83, 1982, p.
285; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 62; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 78; Vol. 96, p. 55; Vol. 97, p. 57.

Concrete Structures and Foundations

1.4.4 Lightweight Coarse Aggregate for Structural Concrete (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-15
1.5 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16

1.5.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16

1.6.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6.2 Welding (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6.3 Specifications (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6.4 Bending and Straightening Reinforcing Bars (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.7 Concrete Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19

1.7.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.7.2 Types of Admixtures and Standard Specifications (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.8 Storage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20

1.8.1 Cementitious Materials and Concrete Admixtures (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20
1.8.2 Aggregates (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20
1.8.3 Reinforcement (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21

1.9.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9.2 Safety (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9.3 Design (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9.4 Construction (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-22
1.9.5 Moldings (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-22
1.9.6 Form Coating and Release (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-23
1.9.7 Temporary Openings (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-23
1.9.8 Removal (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-23
1.10 Details of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24

1.10.1 Surface Conditions of Reinforcement (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.2 Fabrication (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.3 Provisions for Seismic Loading (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.4 Placing of Reinforcement (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.5 Spacing of Reinforcement (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-26
1.10.6 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-26
1.10.7 Future Bonding (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-26
1.11 Concrete Jointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27

1.11.1 Scope (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.11.2 Types of Jointing (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.11.3 Expansion Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.11.4 Expansion Joints in Walls (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-28
1.11.5 Contraction Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-28
1.11.6 Construction Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-29
1.11.7 Watertight Construction Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-29
1.12 Proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31

1.12.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31

Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements
1.12.2 Measurement of Materials (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31

1.12.3 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31
1.12.4 Air Content of Air-Entrained Concrete (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-32
1.12.5 Strength of Concrete Mixtures (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-33
1.12.6 Workability (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-34
1.12.7 Slump (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-35
1.12.8 Compression Tests (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-35
1.12.9 Field Tests (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-35
1.12.10 Special Provisions When Using Cementitious Materials Other Than Portland Cement (2009) . . . . . 8-1-35
1.13 Mixing ................................................................................ 8-1-37

1.13.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-37
1.13.2 Site-Mixed Concrete (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-38
1.13.3 Ready-Mixed Concrete (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-38
1.13.4 Delivery (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-38
1.13.5 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39
1.14 Depositing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39

1.14.1 General (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39
1.14.2 Handling and Placing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39 1
1.14.3 Chuting (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-40
1.14.4 Pneumatic Placing (Shotcreting) (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-40
1.14.5 Pumping Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-40
1.14.6 Compacting (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-41
1.14.7 Temperature (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-41
1.14.8 Continuous Depositing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.9 Bonding (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42 3
1.14.10 Placing Cyclopean Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.11 Placing Rubble Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.12 Placing Concrete Containing Silica Fume (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.13 Placing Concrete Containing Fly Ash (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.14.14 Water Gain (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15 Depositing Concrete Under Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43 4

1.15.1 General (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.2 Capacity of Plant (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.3 Standard Specifications (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.4 Cement (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.5 Coarse Aggregates (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.6 Mixing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.7 Caissons, Cofferdams or Forms (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.8 Leveling and Cleaning the Bottom to Receive Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.9 Continuous Work (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.10 Methods of Depositing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.11 Soundings (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-45
1.15.12 Removing Laitance (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-45
1.15.13 Concrete Seals (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.16 Concrete in Sea Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46

1.16.1 Concrete (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46

1.16.2 Depositing in Sea Water (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.16.4 Minimum Cover (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.16.5 Protecting Concrete in Sea Water (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.17 Concrete in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47

1.17.1 Condition of Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.17.2 Concrete for Moderate Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.17.3 Concrete for Severe Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.17.4 Concrete for Very Severe Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.17.5 Concrete for Alkali Soils or Alkali Water (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.17.7 Minimum Cover (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.17.8 Placement of Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.18 Curing ............................................................................... 8-1-48

1.18.1 General (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.18.2 Hot Weather Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-49
1.18.3 Wet Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-49
1.18.4 Membrane Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-49
1.18.5 Steam Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-50
1.18.6 Curing Concrete Containing Silica Fume (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-50
1.18.7 Curing Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-50
1.18.8 Curing Concrete Containing Fly Ash (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-50
1.19 Formed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51

1.19.1 General (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.19.2 Rubbed Finish (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.20 Unformed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51

1.20.1 General (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.20.2 Sidewalk Finish (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.20.3 Finishing Concrete Containing Silica Fume (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.20.4 Finishing Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.20.5 Finishing Concrete Containing Fly Ash (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.21 Decorative Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.22 Penetrating Water Repellent Treatment of Concrete Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52

1.22.1 General (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.22.2 Surface Preparation (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.22.3 Environmental Requirements (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22.4 Application (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22.5 Materials (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22.6 Quality Assurance (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-54
1.22.7 Delivery, Storage and Handling (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-54
1.23 Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55

1.23.1 General (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55

1.23.2 Surface Preparation (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.23.3 Application (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.24 High Strength Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55

1.24.1 General (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.24.2 Materials (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-56
1.24.3 Concrete Mixture Proportions (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-56
1.25 Specialty Concretes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57

1.25.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.25.2 Sulfur Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.25.3 Heavyweight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.25.4 Polymer Concrete (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-58
1.26 Self-Consolidating Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-60

1.26.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-60
1.26.2 Mix Design and Testing (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-60
1.26.3 Forms and Reinforcement (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
1.26.4 Mixing Concrete (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61 1
1.26.5 Placement (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
1.26.6 Curing (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
LIST OF FIGURES
3
8-1-1 Full-Depth Expansion Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-28

8-1-2 Two Methods for Making Contraction Joints for Slabs-on-Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-30
8-1-3 Keyed Construction Joint with Waterstop Inserted Perpendicular to the Plane of the Joint. . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-30
4
LIST OF TABLES
8-1-1 Portland Cement ASTM C150. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-9

8-1-2 Blended Hydraulic Cements ASTM C595 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-9
8-1-3 Sampling and Testing Methods in Addition to those of ASTM C33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-12
8-1-4 Aggregate Soundness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-12
8-1-5 Fine Aggregate Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-13
8-1-6 Deleterious Substances in Fine Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-14
8-1-7 ASTM Specifications for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-17
8-1-8 ASTM Specifications for Coated Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-18
8-1-9 Maximum Permissible Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio (by Weight) for Different Types of Structures and
Degrees of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-32
8-1-10 Air-Entrained Concrete Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-33

LIST OF TABLES (CONT)
8-1-11 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio for Air Entrained Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-33

8-1-12 Concrete Exposed to Deicing Chemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-36
8-1-13 Concrete Temperature Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
8-1-14 Recommendations For Concrete In Sulfate Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
SECTION 1.1 GENERAL
1.1.1 PURPOSE (2004)

This recommended practice is for work carried out by the Company or by Contractors for the Company when so requested by
the Engineer.
1.1.2 SCOPE (2004)

This recommended practice describes the selection, sampling and testing of materials to be used, the composition of concrete,
and the mixing, transporting, placing, finishing and curing of concrete. This recommended practice shall govern whenever it is
in conflict with other cited references.
1.1.3 TERMS (2006)
Following is a list of terms associated with this Part. These terms are defined in the Glossary located at the end of this Chapter.
AASHTO Blast-Furnace Slag, Ground Granulated

Absorption Bleeding
ACI International Cement, Blended
Admixture Cement, Hydraulic
Admixture, Accelerating Cement, Slag
Admixture, Air-Entraining Cementitious
Admixture, Retarding Centering
Admixture, Water Reducing Company
Admixture, Water Reducing (High Range) Compound, Curing
Admixture, Water Reducing and Accelerating Concrete
Admixture, Water Reducing and Retarding Concrete, Cyclopean
Agent, Bonding Concrete, Polymer
Aggregate Concrete, Polymer Cement
Air, Entrained Concrete, Structural Lightweight
Approved or Approval Contractor
ASTM - International Engineer
Blast-Furnace Slag Falsework

FHWA Resistance, Chemical

Fly Ash Shore / Shoring
Form / Formwork Sieve
Honeycomb Sieve Analysis
Joint, Expansion Sieve Number
Laitance Silica Fume
Modulus, Fineness Slump
PCI Soundness
Plans Strength, Compressive
Plasticizer Superplasticizer
Pozzolan USDOT
Reinforcement Water Absorption
Reinforcement, Deformed Water-Cementitious Material Ratio
Reinforcement, Plain
1.1.4 ACCEPTABILITY (2004)
a. Concrete shall be proportioned, mixed, transported, placed and cured by the methods herein recommended.
b. All materials used in the work shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer who shall be the sole judge of their
quality, suitability, and acceptability as to type. The Engineer shall be notified in advance whenever any phase of the 1
work is to begin.
1.1.5 ASTM - INTERNATIONAL (2004)
Whenever reference is made to the ASTM - International (ASTM), the letter ‘M’ indicating a metric edition and the number
indicating the year of issue are omitted from the designation. The latest issue of the referenced designation is to be used in
each case. 3
1.1.6 SELECTION OF MATERIALS (2004)
The concrete materials shall be selected for strength, durability and chemical resistance, and ability to attain specified
properties as required, in accordance with this recommended practice and as approved by the Engineer. They shall be
combined in such a manner as to produce uniformity of color and texture in the surface of any structure or group of structures
in which they are to be used. No change shall be made in the brand, type, source or characteristics of cementitious materials, 4
the character and source of aggregate or water, or the class of concrete and method of transporting, placing, finishing or curing
without approval of the Engineer.
1.1.7 TEST OF MATERIALS (2004)
a. The Engineer shall have the right to order testing of any materials used in concrete construction to determine if they are
of the quality specified.
b. Tests of materials and concrete shall be made in accordance with appropriate standards of the ASTM - International as
specified.
c. Pre-construction tests shall be carried out on cementitious materials, other than portland cement, as indicated in this
recommended practice.

1.1.8 DEFECTIVE MATERIALS (2004)
All materials of any kind rejected by the Engineer shall be immediately removed from the site and any work affected by the
defective material shall be remedied by the Contractor at his own expense and to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
1.1.9 EQUIPMENT (2004)
The Contractor shall provide all equipment required for the work, including all staging, scaffolding, apparatus, tools, etc., as
necessary. All equipment must be approved by the Engineer who may require the removal of any piece of equipment. The
Contractor shall substitute satisfactory equipment to replace rejected equipment without delay. Upon request, the Contractor
shall furnish for approval a statement of methods and equipment proposed for use in all aspects of the work. Exercise of this
approval by the Engineer shall not relieve the Contractor of his sole responsibility for the safe, adequate and lawful
construction, maintenance and use of such methods and equipment.
SECTION 1.2 CEMENT
1.2.1 GENERAL (2004)
Cement shall be furnished by the Contractor or the Company as provided for in the contract. Cement used in the work shall be
the same as that required by the mix design.
1.2.2 SPECIFICATIONS (2004)1
a. Cement shall conform to one of the following Standard Specifications except as modified in this Chapter.
(1) ASTM C150 Standard Specification for Portland Cement as shown in Table 8-1-1
(2) ASTM C595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements as shown in Table 8-1-2
b. The use of slag cement Types ‘S’ and ‘S(A)’ as defined in ASTM C595 are not included in this recommended practice.
c. Refer also to Section 1.3 Other Cementitious Materials.
1
See C - Commentary

Table 8-1-1. Portland Cement ASTM C150
Type Description
Type I For use when the special properties specified for any other type are not required.
Type IA Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type I, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type II For general use, especially when moderate sulfate resistance, or moderate heat of hydration is
desired.
Type IIA Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type II, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type III For use when high early strength is desired.
Type IIIA Air-entraining cement for the same use as Type III, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type IV For use when a low heat of hydration is desired.
Type V For use when high sulfate resistance is desired.
Table 8-1-2. Blended Hydraulic Cements ASTM C595
Type Description
Portland Blast-Furnace Slag Cement

Type IS Portland blast-furnace slag cement for use in general concrete construction.
Type IS( ) Modified sulfate resistant (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
1
combination may be specified by adding the appropriate suffixes.
Portland-Pozzolan Cement
Type IP Portland-pozzolan cement for use in general concrete construction.
Type IP( ) Moderate sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
combination may be specified by adding the appropriate suffixes. 3
Type P Portland-pozzolan cement for use in concrete construction where high early strengths are not required.
Type P( ) Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or low heat of hydration (LH), or any
Pozzolan-Modified Portland Cement
Type I(PM) Pozzolan-modified portland cement for use in general concrete construction. 4
Type I(PM)( ) Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
Slag-Modified Portland Cement
Type I(SM) Cement for use in general concrete construction.
Type I(SM)( ) Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
1.2.3 QUALITY, SAMPLING AND TESTING (2004)
The quality of the cement and the methods of sampling and testing shall meet the requirements of the appropriate ASTM
Standard Specification or Method of Test.

SECTION 1.3 OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
1.3.1 GENERAL (2004)
When using cementitious materials other than portland cement, reference should also be made to the provisions of Section
1.12 Proportioning; Section 1.13 Mixing; Section 1.14 Depositing Concrete; Section 1.16 Concrete in Sea Water; Section 1.17
Concrete in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water; Section 1.18 Curing; and Section 1.20 Unformed Surface Finish.
1.3.2 ACCEPTABILITY (2004)
Cementitious materials other than portland cement will be permitted only if approved in writing by the Engineer of the
Railroad Company.
1.3.3 SPECIFICATIONS (2004)1
The specifications listed in Articles 1.3.3.1 and 1.3.3.2 apply to the use of other cementitious materials, either supplied in
blended form with portland cement or added separately at the time of mixing.
1.3.3.1 ASTM C595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements; and ASTM C618 Standard
Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland
Cement Concrete, and the following:
a. Silica Fume - ASTM C1240 Standard Specification for Silica Fume for Use in Hydraulic-Cement Concrete, Mortar,
and Grout, of the following types:
(1) As-produced silica fume -- in its original form of an extremely fine powder
(2) Slurried silica fume -- in a water base, containing 40 to 60% silica fume by mass
(3) Densified silica fume -- a compacted form of as-produced silica fume
b. Fly Ash - ASTM C618 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a
Mineral Admixture in Concrete, of the following Classes:
(1) Class F -- Normally produced from high energy coals such as bituminous and anthracite coals, but sometimes
produced with sub-bituminous and lignite coals
(2) Class C -- Normally produced from sub-bituminous and lignite coals
(3) Class N – Natural materials such as highly reactive volcanic ash, metakaolin (and other calcined clays),
diatomaceous earths, calcined shales, and other reactive materials
1.3.3.2 Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag - ASTM C989 Standard Specification for Ground Granulated
Iron Blast-Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars.
1.3.4 MATERIALS NOT INCLUDED IN THIS RECOMMENDED PRACTICE (2004)
The following materials are not included in this recommended practice:
a. Pelletized silica fume -- consisting of hard pellets, not presently being used as an additive for concrete.
1
See C - Commentary

b. Types of slag not produced in the iron making process.
c. Types ‘S’ and ‘S(A)’ blended hydraulic cements containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag, as defined in ASTM
C595.
d. Blended cements containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag blended with hydrated lime.
1.3.5 DOCUMENTATION (2004)
a. Each shipment of fly ash or silica fume or ground granulated blast-furnace slag used on a project shall have a
certificate of compliance which includes the following:
(1) Name of supplier
(2) Consignee and destination of the shipment
(3) Vehicle identification number
(4) A unique unrepeated order number or other identification number for each shipment
(5) Source
b. Each shipment of fly ash shall also include a certificate of compliance indicating the Class (either Class C or Class F),
with certified test numbers demonstrating that the material meets ASTM C618. 1
c. Each shipment of silica fume shall also include a certificate of compliance demonstrating that it meets the requirements
of ASTM C1240.
d. Each shipment of ground granulated blast-furnace slag shall also include a certificate of compliance indicating its
grade (either Grade 80, 100 or 120), with certified test numbers demonstrating that it meets the requirements of ASTM
C989. 3
SECTION 1.4 AGGREGATES

4
1.4.1 GENERAL (2004)
1.4.1.1 Specifications
Except as specified otherwise herein, all aggregates shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C33, Standard Specification
for Concrete Aggregates.
1.4.1.2 Sampling and Testing
a. Representative samples shall be selected and sent to the testing laboratory at frequent intervals as directed by the
Engineer. Aggregates may not be used until the samples have been tested by the laboratory and approved by the
Engineer.
b. Sampling and testing shall be in accordance with ASTM C33 and the Standard Specifications and Methods of Test of
ASTM - International found in Table 8-1-3.

Table 8-1-3. Sampling and Testing Methods in Addition to those of ASTM C33
ASTM
Type
Designation
Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate C70
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate C127
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate C128
Standard Sand C778
c. The required tests shall be made on test samples that comply with requirements of the designated test methods and are
representative of the grading that will be used in the concrete. The same test sample may be used for sieve analysis and
for determination of material finer than the No. 200 (75 μm) sieve. Separated sizes from the sieve analysis may be used
in preparation of samples for soundness or abrasion tests. For determination of all other tests and for evaluation of
potential alkali reactivity where required, independent test samples shall be used.
d. The fineness modulus of an aggregate is the sum of the percentages of a sample retained on each of a specified series of
sieves divided by 100, using the following standard sieve sizes: No. 100, No. 50, No. 30, No. 16, No. 8, No. 4, 3/8 inch,
3/4 inch, 1-1/2 inches (150 μm, 300 μm, 600 μm, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm, 4.75 mm, 9.5 mm, 19.0 mm, 37.5 mm) and
larger, increasing in the ratio of 2 to 1. Sieving shall be done in accordance with ASTM Method C136.
1.4.1.3 Soundness
a. Except as provided in Paragraph 1.4.1.3(b), aggregate subjected to five cycles of ASTM C88 Soundness of Aggregates
by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate shall show a loss weighed in accordance with the grading procedures,
not greater than the percentages found in Table 8-1-4.
Table 8-1-4. Aggregate Soundness
Aggregate Sodium Sulfate Magnesium Sulfate

Fine 10 15
Coarse 12 18
b. Aggregate failing to meet the requirements of Paragraph 1.4.1.3(a) may be accepted provided that concrete of
comparable properties, made with similar aggregate from the same source, has given satisfactory service when exposed
to weathering similar to that to be encountered.
1.4.2 FINE AGGREGATES (2004)
1.4.2.1 General1
Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand or, subject to the approval of the Engineer, manufactured sand with similar
characteristics. Lightweight fine aggregate shall not be used.
1.4.2.2 Grading
a. Sieve Analysis–Fine aggregate, except as provided in ASTM C33, shall be graded within the limits found in Table 8-1-
5.
1
See C - Commentary

Table 8-1-5. Fine Aggregate Grading
Total Passing
Sieve Size Percentage by
Weight
3/8 inch (9.5 mm) 100
No. 4 (4.75 mm) 95-100
No. 8 (2.36 mm) 80-100
No. 16 (1.18 mm) 50-85
No. 30 (600 μm) 25-60
No. 50 (300 μm) 10-30
No. 100 (150 μm) 2-10
No. 200 (75 μm) zero
b. The minimum percentages shown above for material passing the No. 50 (300 μm) and No. 100 (150 μm) sieves may be
reduced to 5 and 0, respectively, if the aggregate is to be used in air-entrained concrete containing more than 420 lb of
cement per cubic yard (250 kg per cubic meter), or in non-air-entrained concrete containing more than 520 lb of 1
cement per cubic yard (310 kg per cubic meter). Air-entrained concrete is here considered to be concrete containing
air-entraining cement or an air-entraining admixture and having an air content of more than 3%.
c. The fine aggregate shall have not more than 45% retained between any two consecutive sieves of those shown in
Table 8-1-5 and its fineness modulus shall be not less than 2.3 nor more than 3.1.
d. For walls and other locations where smooth surfaces are desired, the fine aggregate shall be graded within the limits 3
shown in Table 8-1-5, except that not less than 15% shall pass the No. 50 (300 μm) sieve and not less than 3% shall
pass the No. 100 (150 μm) sieve.
e. To provide the uniform grading of fine aggregate, a preliminary sample representative of the material to be furnished
shall be submitted at least 10 days prior to actual deliveries. Any shipment made during progress of the work which
varies by more than 0.2 from the fineness modulus of the preliminary sample shall be rejected or, at the option of the
Engineer, may be accepted provided that suitable adjustments are made in concrete proportions to compensate for the 4
difference in grading.
f. The percentages listed above do not apply when using pozzolans or ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Such
percentages shall be determined by tests as outlined in this recommended practice.
1.4.2.3 Mortar Strength
Fine aggregate shall be of such quality that when made into a mortar and subjected to the mortar strength test prescribed in
ASTM C87, the mortar shall develop a compressive strength not less than that developed by a mortar prepared in the same
manner with the same cementitious materials and graded standard sand having a fineness modulus of 2.40±0.10. The graded
sand shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C778.
1.4.2.4 Deleterious Substances
a. The amount of deleterious substances in fine aggregate shall not exceed the limits found in Table 8-1-6.

Table 8-1-6. Deleterious Substances in Fine Aggregate
Maximum Limit
Item
Percentage by Weight
Clay Lumps 1.0
Coal and Lignite 0.5 (Note 1)
Material finer than No. 200 sieve (75 μm):
Concrete subject to abrasion 3.0 (Note 2)
All other classes of concrete 5.0 (Note 2)
Note 1: Does not apply to manufactured sand produced from blast-furnace slag.
Note 2: For manufactured sand, if the material finer than the No. 200 (75 μm) sieve consists of the
dust of fracture, essentially free from clay or shale, these limits do not apply.
b. A fine aggregate failing the test for organic impurities may be used provided that, when tested for mortar-making
properties, the mortar develops a compressive strength at 7 and 28 days of not less than 95% of that developed in a
similar mortar made from another portion of the same sample which has been washed in a 3% solution of sodium
hydroxide followed by thorough rinsing in water. The treatment shall be sufficient so that the test of the washed
material made in accordance with ASTM C40 will have a color lighter than the standard color solution.
c. Fine aggregate for use in concrete that will be subject to wetting, extended exposure to humid atmosphere, or contact
with moist ground shall not contain any materials that are deleteriously reactive with the alkalies in the cement in an
amount sufficient to cause excessive expansion of mortar or concrete, except that if such materials are present in
injurious amounts, the fine aggregate may be used with a cement containing less than 0.6% alkalies as measured by
percentage of sodium oxide plus 0.658 times percentage of potassium oxide, or with the addition of a material that has
been shown to prevent harmful expansion due to the alkali-aggregate reaction.
1.4.3 NORMAL WEIGHT COARSE AGGREGATE (2004)
1.4.3.1 General
a. Coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed stone, gravel, crushed slag, or a combination thereof or, subject to the
approval of the Engineer, other inert materials with similar characteristics, having hard, strong durable pieces, free
from adherent coatings, and shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C33 except as required by this Part.
b. Crushed slag shall be rough cubical fragments of air-cooled blast-furnace slag, which when graded as it is to be used in
the concrete, shall have a compact weight of not less than 70 lb per cubic foot (1100 kg per cubic meter). It shall be
obtained only from sources approved by the Engineer.
1.4.3.2 Grading
a. Coarse aggregate shall be graded between the limits specified by ASTM C33.
b. The maximum size of aggregate shall be not larger than one-fifth of the narrowest dimension between forms of the
member for which concrete is used, nor larger than one-half of the minimum clear space between reinforcing bars,
except as provided for precast concrete in Section 2.5.

1.4.3.3 Deleterious Substances
a. The amount of deleterious substances in coarse aggregate shall not exceed the limits found in
ASTM C33.
1.4.3.4 Abrasion Loss
Coarse aggregate to be used in concrete when subjected to test for resistance to abrasion (ASTM C535 or ASTM C131) shall
show a loss of weight not more than the following:
a. For concrete subject to severe abrasion such as concrete in water, precast concrete piles, paving for sidewalks,
platforms or roadways, floor wearing surfaces, and concrete cross or bridge ties, the loss of weight shall not exceed
40%.
b. For concrete subject to medium abrasion such as concrete exposed to the weather, the loss of weight shall not exceed
50%.
c. For concrete not subject to abrasion, the loss in weight shall not exceed 60%.
1.4.3.5 Rubble Aggregate
Rubble aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, durable stone retained on a 6-inch (150 mm) square opening and with individual
pieces weighing not more than 100 lb (45 kg).
1.4.3.6 Cyclopean Aggregate

1
Cyclopean aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, durable stone with individual pieces weighing more than 100 lb (45 kg).
1.4.4 LIGHTWEIGHT COARSE AGGREGATE FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE (2004)
1.4.4.1 Scope 3
a. This recommended practice covers lightweight coarse aggregates intended for use in lightweight concrete in which
prime considerations are durability, compressive strength, and light weight. Structural lightweight concrete shall only
be used where shown on the plans or specified.
b. Aggregates for use in non-structural concrete such as fireproofing and fill, and for concrete construction where
capacity is based on load tests rather than conventional design procedures, are not included in this recommended 4
practice.
1.4.4.2 General Characteristics
The aggregates shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C330 Standard Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates for
Structural Concrete, except as otherwise specified herein.
1.4.4.3 Unit Weight (Mass Density)
a. The dry weight (mass density) of lightweight aggregates shall not exceed 55 lb per cubic foot (880 kg per cubic meter),
measured loose by accepted ASTM practice.
b. Uniformity of weight (density). The unit weight (mass density) of successive shipments of lightweight aggregate shall
not differ by more than 6% from that of the sample submitted for acceptance tests.

1.4.4.4 Concrete Making Properties
Concrete specimens containing lightweight coarse aggregate under test shall conform to ASTM C330 and shall meet the
following requirements. A magnesium sulfate soundness test shall be conducted for 10 cycles in accordance with ASTM C88.
Loss thus determined shall not exceed 15%. Loss of individual gradation size shall not exceed 20% of that size.
SECTION 1.5 WATER
1.5.1 GENERAL (2010)
1.5.1.1 Specifications
Mixing water shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C 1602, Standard Specification for Mixing Water Used in the
Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete.
SECTION 1.6 REINFORCEMENT
1.6.1 GENERAL1 (2013)

Reinforcement shall be deformed reinforcement, except that plain bars and plain wire shall be permitted for spirals or tendons,
or for dowels at expansion or contraction joints. Reinforcement consisting of structural steel, steel pipe, or steel tubing shall be
permitted for composite compression members.
1.6.2 WELDING (2013)

a. Welding of reinforcing bars shall conform to “Structural Welding Code–Reinforcing Steel” (AWS D1.4/D1.4M) of the
American Welding Society. Type and location of welded splices and other required welding of reinforcing bars shall be
indicated on the plans or in the project specifications. The ASTM specifications for reinforcing bars, except for ASTM
A706/A706M, shall be supplemented to require a report of the chemical composition necessary to conform to welding
procedures specified in AWS D1.4/D1.4M.
b. If welding of wire to wire, and of wire or welded wire reinforcement to reinforcing bars or structural steel is to be
required on a project, the Engineer shall specify procedures or performance criteria for the welding.
c. Welders of reinforcing bars shall maintain certification by the American Welding Society.
1.6.3 SPECIFICATIONS (2013)
1.6.3.1 Reinforcement
Bars, wire, welded wire reinforcement, prestressing tendons, structural steel, steel pipe and tubing shall conform to one of the
ASTM specifications listed in Table 8-1-7.
1
See C - Commentary

Table 8-1-7. ASTM Specifications for Reinforcement
Type Specifications
Bars, Wire and Welded Wire
Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars A615/A615M
Deformed and Plain Low-Alloy Steel Bars A706/A706M
Deformed Rail-Steel and Axle-Steel Bars A996/A996M
Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Bars A955/A955M
Headed Steel Bars A970/A970M
Deformed and Plain Low-Carbon, Chromium Steel Bars A1035/A1035M
Steel Wire, Plain (wire shall not be smaller than size W4 A1064/A1064M
(0.226 inch (5.74 mm) dia.))
Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain A1064/A1064M
Steel Wire, Deformed (wire shall not be smaller than size D4 (0.225 inch (5.72 A1064/A1064M
mm) dia.)) 1
Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Deformed (welded intersections shall not be A1064/A1064M
spaced farther apart than 16 inches (400 mm) in direction of primary flexural
reinforcement)
Stainless Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement, Deformed and Plain A1022/A1022M
Prestressing Tendons
3
Uncoated Seven-Wire Steel Strand A416/A416M
Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire A421/A421M
Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar A722/A722M
Structural Steel, Steel Pipe and Tubing
Structural-Steel A36/A36M, A242/A242M,
A529/A529M, A572/A572M,
4
A588/A588M or A709/A709M (Grade
36, 50 or 50W)
Steel Pipe A53/A53M (Grade B)
Steel Tubing A500/A500M, A501/A501M or
A618/A618M
1.6.3.2 Coated Reinforcement
a. Coated reinforcement, when specified or shown on the plans as a corrosion-protection system, shall conform to one of
the ASTM specifications listed in Table 8-1-8.

Table 8-1-8. ASTM Specifications for Coated Reinforcement
Type Specification
Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars A775/A775M
Epoxy-Coated Prefabricated Steel Reinforcing Bars A934/A934M
Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement A884/A884M
Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Prestressing Steel Strand A882/A882M
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Reinforcing Bars A767/A767M
Zinc and Epoxy Dual-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars A1055/A1055M
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement A1060/A1060M
b. Repair all damaged epoxy coating on reinforcing bars with patching material conforming to ASTM A775/A775M,
A934/A934M or A1055/A1055M. Repair shall be done in accordance with the material manufacturer’s
recommendations.
c. Repair all damaged epoxy coating on wire or welded wire reinforcement with patching material conforming to ASTM
A884/A844M. Repair shall be done in accordance with the material manufacturer’s recommendations.
d. Repair all damaged zinc coating on reinforcing bars in accordance with ASTM A780/A780M. The maximum amount
of damaged areas shall not exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar. If the damaged
areas exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar, the bar shall be replaced.
e. Equipment for handling epoxy-coated reinforcing bars shall have protected contact areas. Bundles of coated bars shall
be lifted at multiple pickup points to prevent bar-to-bar abrasion from sags in the bundles. Coated bars or bundles of
coated bars shall not be dropped or dragged. Coated bars shall be stored on protective cribbing. All damaged coating
shall be repaired. The maximum amount of damaged areas shall not exceed 2% of the surface area of each linear foot
(300 mm) of the bar. If the damaged areas exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar,
the bar shall be replaced.
f. After installation of mechanical splices on epoxy-coated, zinc-coated (galvanized), or zinc and epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars, all damaged coating shall be repaired. All parts of mechanical splices used on coated bars, including
steel splice sleeves, bolts, and nuts shall be coated with the same material used for repair of damaged coating on the
spliced material. Remove coating for 2 inches (50 mm) back from the mechanical splice to bright metal before repair.
g. After completion of welding for welded splices on epoxy-coated, zinc-coated (galvanized), zinc and epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars, all damaged coating shall be repaired. All welds, and steel splice members when used to splice bars,
shall be coated with the same material used for repair of damaged coating. Remove coating for 6 inches (150 mm)
back from the welded splice to bright metal before repair.
h. Repair all damaged zinc coating on welded wire reinforcement in accordance with ASTM A780/A780M.
i. Plants applying fusion-bonded epoxy coatings to reinforcing bars shall maintain certification by the Concrete
Reinforcing Steel Institute.

1.6.4 BENDING AND STRAIGHTENING REINFORCING BARS1 (2013)
a. Reinforceing bars shall be fabricated in accordance with Article 1.10.2 and Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.4.2. Field bending and/or straightening of bars that are partially embedded in concrete shall be done in
accordance with the Plans or as permitted by the Engineer.
b. When epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars, or zinc-coated (galvanized)
reinforcing bars are field bent and/or straightened, damaged coating shall be repaired in accordance with Articles
1.6.3.2b or 1.6.3.2d. Field bending and/or straightening of epoxy-coated reinforcing bars conforming to ASTM
A934/A934M shall be prohibited.
SECTION 1.7 CONCRETE ADMIXTURES
1.7.1 GENERAL (2013)
a. The selection of admixtures to be used in concrete, if any, shall be subject to the prior approval of the Engineer.
b. An admixture shall be shown capable of maintaining essentially the same composition and performance throughout the
work as the product used in establishing concrete proportions in accordance with Section 1.12 Proportioning.
c. Admixtures containing chloride ions shall not be used unless approved by the Engineer. 1
d. Special purpose admixtures may be used if approved in writing by the Engineer. However, before an admixture can be
approved for use, it must be shown that its use will not adversely affect the placement, strength and/or durability of the
concrete. Admixtures used in combination may be incompatible and their performance should be verified by prior
testing from a certified third party agency.
3
1.7.2 TYPES OF ADMIXTURES AND STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS (2013)
The specifications listed in Paragraphs 1.7.2(a) and 1.7.2(b) apply in the use of admixtures.
a. ASTM C260 Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete.
b. ASTM C494 Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete: 4

(1) Type A--Water-reducing admixtures
(2) Type B--Retarding admixtures
(3) Type C--Accelerating admixtures
(4) Type D--Water-reducing and retarding admixtures
(5) Type E--Water-reducing and accelerating admixtures
(6) Type F--Water-reducing, high range admixtures
(7) Type G--Water-reducing, high range, and retarding admixtures
1
See C - Commentary

(8) Type S--Specific performance admixtures
SECTION 1.8 STORAGE OF MATERIALS
1.8.1 CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS AND CONCRETE ADMIXTURES (2009)
a. Immediately upon delivery, all cement shall be stored in watertight ventilated structures to prevent absorption of water.
b. Sacked cement shall be stacked on pallets or similar platforms to permit circulation of air and access for inspection.
The cement sacks shall not be stacked against outside walls.
c. Cement sacks shall not be stacked more than 14 layers high for periods of up to 60 days, nor more than 7 layers high
for periods over 60 days. Older cement shall be used first.
d. Storage facilities for bulk cement shall include separate compartments for each type of cement used. The bins shall be
so constructed as to prevent dead storage in corners.
e. All cement shall be subject at any time to retest. If under retest it fails to meet any of the requirements of the
specifications, it will be rejected and shall be promptly removed from the site of the work by the Contractor.
f. Where the Company furnishes the cement and the failure of the cement to pass the retest is due to negligence on the
part of the Contractor to store it properly, the cost of such cement shall be charged to the Contractor.
g. The above provisions also apply to other cementitious materials and blended cementitious materials, except that fly ash
shall be stored in a separate structure or bin without common walls to avoid leakage of the fly ash into the other
cementitious materials.
h. Liquid admixtures shall be protected from freezing. If freezing occurs then the material shall not be used in concrete
unless the manufacturer approves a method of ensuring the effectiveness of the thawed material, such as agitation.
1.8.2 AGGREGATES (2009)
a. The storage of coarse aggregates shall be minimized, as to avoid the natural tendency of such stockpiles to segregate.
b. Fine and coarse aggregates shall be stored separately and in such a manner as to avoid the inclusion of foreign
materials in the concrete. Aggregates shall be unloaded and piled in such a manner as to maintain the uniform grading
of the sizes. Stockpiles of coarse aggregates shall be built in horizontal layers, not by end dumping, to avoid
segregation. Equipment such as dozers and loaders shall not be operated on the stockpile, so as to avoid contamination,
segregation and breakage.
c. A hard base shall be provided to prevent contamination from underlying material. Overlap of the different sizes shall
be prevented by suitable walls or ample spacing between stockpiles. Stockpiles shall not be contaminated by swinging
aggregate-filled buckets or clams over the various stockpiled aggregate sizes. Crushed slag shall be wetted down when
necessary to ensure a minimum 3% moisture content.
d. Special measures shall be taken to maintain a uniform moisture content in the aggregates as batched. Control and
testing procedures shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer.

1.8.3 REINFORCEMENT (2013)
a. Reinforcement shall be stored in such a manner as to avoid contact with the ground. If reinforcement remains in
storage at the site for more than a month, it shall be covered to protect it from the weather. If reinforcement
accumulates rust, dirt, mud, loose scale, paint, oil, or any foreign substance during storage, it shall be cleaned before
being used. Deterioration may be a basis for rejection. Coated reinforcement shall be handled in accordance with
Section 1.6.
b. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, epoxy-coated wire and welded wire reinforcement, and zinc and/or epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars shall be covered by opaque polyethylene sheeting or other suitable opaque protective material as
approved by the Engineer. For stacked bundles, the protective covering shall be draped around the perimeter of the
stack. The covering shall be secured in a manner that allows for air circulation around the coated reinforcement to
minimize condensation under the covering. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, epoxy-coated wire and welded wire
reinforcement, and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be handled and repaired in accordance with
Section 1.6.
SECTION 1.9 FORMS
1.9.1 GENERAL (2009)
Forms shall be constructed of wood, steel, or other suitable material, and be of a type, size, shape, quality and strength, which
will produce true, smooth lines and surfaces conforming to the lines and dimensions shown on the plans. Forms shall be
substantial and designed to resist the pressures to which they are subjected. Lumber in forms for exposed surfaces should be 1
dressed to a uniform thickness. Undressed lumber may be used in forms for unexposed surfaces. Forms shall be kept free of
rust, grease and other foreign matter which will discolor the concrete.
Forms may be omitted for foundation concrete if, in the opinion of the Engineer, the sides of the excavation are sufficiently
firm so that the concrete may be thoroughly vibrated without causing the adjacent earth to slough. The actual dimensions of
the excavation shall then be slightly greater than the plan dimensions of the foundation so as to ensure design requirements.
3
1.9.2 SAFETY (2009)
The Contractor shall follow all local, state and federal codes, ordinances and regulations pertaining to forming of concrete at
all stages of construction, in addition to the requirements of this Section and the railroad Company.
1.9.3 DESIGN (2009) 4

a. The Contractor shall be responsible for the design of all forms required to complete the work.
b. Structural design of forms shall be performed in conformance with ACI 347R, Guide to Formwork for Concrete, or
other generally accepted standards, subject to the approval of the Engineer.
c. Forms shall be designed by a licensed engineer.
d. Drawings and structural design calculations shall be provided to the Engineer for review and acceptance prior to
undertaking the work, unless excluded by the project Plans.
e. Documentation demonstrating the adequacy of forms supports to safely resist the design loads shall be provided for
review and acceptance prior to undertaking the work, unless excluded by the project Plans.
f. Shoring and falsework shall be in accordance with Part 28 except as provided herein.

g. Special provision for load transfer and movements shall be taken into account in the design of forms for prestressed
concrete.
h. Special provision for forms supporting concrete that is required to act compositely with other materials in the finished
work shall be made.
i. The review and acceptance of Contractor’s submittals shall not relieve the Contractor of responsibility for the safe and
functional design of the forms and their supports.
1.9.4 CONSTRUCTION (2009)
a. The supervisor responsible for construction of forms should be certified by the American Concrete Institute Inspector
Certification Program as a Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector. The Contractor may appoint a similarly
qualified and experienced individual with the approval of the Engineer.
b. Forms shall be constructed mortar-tight, and shall be made sufficiently rigid by the use of ties and bracing to prevent
displacement or sagging and to withstand the pressure and vibration without deflection and/or objectionable distortion
from the prescribed lines during and after placement of the concrete.
c. Joints in forms shall be horizontal or vertical, and suitable devices shall be used to hold adjacent edges together in
accurate alignment.
d. All forms shall be constructed and maintained so as to prevent warping and the opening of joints.
e. All forms shall be constructed so that they may be readily removed without damaging the concrete.
f. Bolts and/or rods shall be used for internal form ties. They shall be so arranged that, when the forms are removed, no
corrodible metal shall be within 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) of any surface.
g. When wire form ties are used, where permitted, spacer blocks shall be removed as the concrete is placed. Wire form
ties shall be cut back 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) from the face of the concrete upon removal of the forms.
h. All fittings for ties shall be of such a design that upon their removal the remaining cavities will be the smallest
practicable size. The cavities shall be filled with cement mortar and the surfaces left in a sound condition, even and
uniform in color with respect to the original surface.
i. All temporary fasteners in contact with concrete shall be countersunk.
j. Any material once used in forms shall be thoroughly cleaned and form release agent shall be applied before erection in
a new location. All rough surfaces shall be smoothed and repairs made to the satisfaction of the Engineer. Forms which
have been used repeatedly and are not acceptable to the Engineer for further use shall be removed from the site.
k. In the case of long spans where no intermediate supports are possible, deflection in the forms due to the weight of the
fresh concrete shall be compensated for by using camber strips, wedges or other devices so that the finished members
conform accurately to the desired line and grade.
l. Foundations for falsework shall be provided in accordance with Part 28.
1.9.5 MOLDINGS (2009)
Unless otherwise specified or directed by the Engineer, suitable moldings or bevels shall be placed in the angles of forms to
round or bevel the edges of the concrete, including abutting edges of expansion joints.

1.9.6 FORM COATING AND RELEASE (2009)
Prior to placing reinforcement, the inside surfaces of forms shall be coated with a non-staining form release agent. A thin film
shall be applied to all surfaces that will be in contact with the fresh concrete.
1.9.7 TEMPORARY OPENINGS (2009)
Temporary openings shall be provided at the base of the column and wall forms, and at other locations where necessary, to
facilitate cleaning and inspection immediately before depositing concrete. Forms for walls or other thin sections of
considerable height shall be provided with openings or other devices which will permit the concrete to be placed in a manner
to avoid accumulation of hardened concrete on the forms or reinforcement.
1.9.8 REMOVAL (2009)
a. Forms shall be removed in such a manner as to ensure the complete safety of the structure. Care shall be taken to
preserve formed surfaces and not to damage the corners or surfaces of the concrete. Hammering on or prying between
forms and concrete shall not be permitted.
b. Form and falsework shall not be removed until the following are achieved:
(1) The concrete has adequately cured and has acquired sufficient strength to support its weight and any anticipated
loads.
(2) The minimum time specified in the Plans has elapsed. 1

(3) The Contractor has submitted and the Engineer has accepted a procedure and schedule for removal of form and
falsework with calculations, if applicable, for loads transferred to the structure during the process.
c. The time of removal of forms will depend on the type of the concrete, the location of the form, and the temperature and
moisture conditions which affect the strength of the concrete.
3
d. The age-strength relationship of the concrete used in determining the time for form and falsework removal shall be
determined from tests conducted on representative samples of the same concrete as used in the structure and cured
under job conditions, in accordance with ASTM C 39.
e. If not otherwise specified on the Plans or by the Engineer, formwork and supports shall not be released until the
concrete has attained sufficient strength to support its weight and any anticipated loads upon it, but not less than 70% 4
of its specified compressive strength. In continuous structures, support shall not be released in any span until the first
and second adjoining spans on each side have reached the specified strength.
f. Bulkheads at construction joints shall not be removed for a period of 15 hours after casting adjacent concrete.
g. Forms for ornamental work, railings, parapets, and vertical surfaces which require a surface finishing operation shall
be removed not less than 12 hours, nor more than 48 hours after casting the concrete, depending upon weather
conditions.
h. Support for pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete members shall not be removed until sufficient prestress has been
applied to enable the member to support its weight and anticipated loads.

SECTION 1.10 DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
1.10.1 SURFACE CONDITIONS OF REINFORCEMENT (2013)
a. Reinforcement at the time concrete is placed shall be free from mud, oil, or other coatings that adversely affect bond
strength. Epoxy coating on bars, wire, and welded wire reinforcement conforming to standards referenced in Table 8-1-
8 is permitted.
b. Reinforcement, except prestressing tendons with rust, mill scale, or a combination of both, shall be considered as
satisfactory, provided the minimum dimensions, including height of deformations, and weight of a hand wire-brushed
test specimen are not less than the applicable ASTM designation requirements.
c. Prestressing tendons shall be clean and free of oil, excessive soaps, dirt, scale, pitting and excessive rust. A light
coating of rust without pitting shall be permitted.
1.10.2 FABRICATION (2003)
a. Reinforcement shall be prefabricated to the dimensions shown on the plans. Reinforcement shall be bent cold, and
shall not be bent or straightened in a manner that will damage the material. Bars with kinks or bends not shown on the
plans shall be rejected. Hot bending of reinforcement will be permitted only when approved by the Engineer.
b. Diameter of bends measured on the inside of the bar shall be as shown on the plans. When diameter of bend is not
shown, minimum bend diameter shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
c. Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, the tolerance in fabricated lengths of bars from that shown on the placing
drawings shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) for bar sizes #11 (36 mm) and under and 2 inches (51 mm) for bar sizes #14 and
#18 (43 mm and 57 mm); the tolerance in out-to-out dimensions of hooks shall be ±1/2 inch (13 mm); the tolerance in
out-to-out dimensions of stirrups and ties shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) and the maximum angular deviation on 90 degree
hooks or bends shall be 0.5 inches per foot (1 in 24).
1.10.3 PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC LOADING (2013)
For structures located in earthquake-risk areas as determined from Chapter 9, consideration shall be given to reinforcement
details that will provide adequate ductility and enable reinforcement to be strained beyond yield to allow the structure to
absorb the energy of an earthquake.
1.10.4 PLACING OF REINFORCEMENT (2013)
1.10.4.1 General
a. Reinforcement, prestressing tendons and ducts shall be accurately placed and adequately supported before concrete is
placed, and shall be secured against displacement within permitted tolerances. Tie wire shall be 16-1/2 gage (1.4 mm)
or heavier. Welding of crossing bars shall not be permitted for the assembly of reinforcement unless authorized by the
Engineer.
b. Reinforcing bars shall not be cut in the field except when authorized by the Engineer. Flame-cutting of epoxy-coated
reinforcing bars and zinc-coated and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall not be permitted.
c. When epoxy-coated, zinc and epoxy dual-coated, or zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars are cut in the field, the
ends of the bars shall be coated with the same material that is used for the repair of damaged coating and shall be
repaired in accordance with Articles 1.6.3.2b and 1.6.3.2d. The limit on the amount of repaired damaged coating does
not apply to cut ends that are coated with patching material.

d. The supervisor responsible for placing reinforcing bars, tendons, and ducts shall maintain certification by the American
Concrete Institute as a Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector.
1.10.4.2 Tolerances
Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, reinforcement, prestressing tendons, and prestressing ducts shall be placed in
flexural members, walls and compression members within the following tolerances:
a. Clear distance to formed or unformed concrete surfaces:
(1) When member size is 12 inches (300 mm) or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±3/8 inch (10 mm)
(2) When member size is over 12 inches (300 mm) but not over 2 feet (600 mm). . . ±1/2 inch (13 mm)
(3) When member size is over 2 feet (600 mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±1 inch (25 mm)
(4) Reduction in concrete cover shall not exceed one-third specified concrete cover.
(5) Reduction in concrete cover to formed soffits shall not exceed 1/4 inch (6 mm).
Tolerances shall not permit a reduction in concrete cover except as shown above, and shall not permit reduction
in concrete cover below values specified as minimums as defined in Article 1.10.6.
b. Tolerance on minimum distance between bars shall be minus 1/4 inch (6 mm).
c. Tolerance in uniform spacing of reinforcement from theoretical location shall be ±2 inches (50 mm).
d. Tolerance in uniform spacing of stirrups and ties from theoretical location shall be ±1 inch (25 mm). 1
e. Tolerance for longitudinal location of bends and ends of bars shall be ±2 inches (50 mm), except at discontinuous ends
of members where the tolerance shall be ±1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
f. Tolerance in length of bar laps shall be minus 1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
g. Tolerance in embedded length shall be minus 1 inch (25 mm) for #3 to #11 bars (10 mm to 36 mm) and minus 2 inches 3
(50 mm) for #14 and #18 bars (43 mm and 57 mm).
h. When it is necessary to move bars to avoid interference with other reinforcement, conduits, or embedded items by an
amount exceeding the specified placing tolerances, the resulting arrangement of bars shall be approved by the
Engineer.
i. Tolerance in the vertical and horizontal location of prestressing strand shall be ±1/4 inches (6 mm) except in precast
slabs. The tolerance for vertical location in precast slabs shall be ±1/4 inches (6 mm). The tolerance for horizontal
4
location of prestressing strand in precast slabs shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) in any 15 feet (4.6 m) of strand length.
j. Tolerance in the vertical and horizontal location of unbonded post-tensioning tendons and ducts in bonded post-
tensioning shall be ±1/4 inches (6 mm) except in slabs. The tolerance for vertical location in slabs shall be ±1/4 inches
(6 mm). The tolerance for horizontal location of post-tensioning tendons and ducts in bonded post-tensioning in slabs
shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) in any 15 feet (4.6 m) of strand length.
k. In precast concrete members the bearing plates shall be concentric with the tendons and tolerance for the
perpendicularity with tendons in concrete shall be ±1 degree.
1.10.4.3 Bar Supports and Side-Form Spacers
a. Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, reinforcement supported from the ground shall rest on precast concrete
blocks not less than 4 inches (100 mm) square, and having a compressive strength equal to or greater than the specified
compressive strength of the concrete being placed. Reinforcement supported by formwork shall rest on bar supports
and spacers made of concrete, metal, plastic, or other materials approved by the Engineer.

b. Where noted on the plans and at all formed surfaces that will be exposed to the weather in the finished structure, bar
supports and side-form spacers spaced no further than 4 feet (1200 mm) on center shall be provided. Bar supports and
spacers and all other accessories within 1/2 inch (13 mm) of the concrete surface shall be noncorrosive or protected
against corrosion.
c. Epoxy-coated and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars supported from formwork shall rest on coated wire bar
supports, or on bar supports made of dielectric material and other acceptable materials. Wire bar supports shall be
coated with dielectric material for a minimum distance of 2 inches (50 mm) from the point of contact with the epoxy-
coated or zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars. Reinforcing bars used as support bars shall be epoxy-coated. In
walls reinforced with epoxy-coated or zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars, spreader bars shall be epoxy-
coated where specified. Proprietary combination bar clips and spreaders used in walls with epoxy-coated or zinc and
epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be made of corrosion-resistant material or coated with dielectric material.
d. Zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars supported from formwork shall rest on galvanized wire bar supports coated
with dielectric material, or on bar supports made of dielectric material or other acceptable materials. All other
reinforcement and embedded steel items in contact with galvanized reinforcing bars, or within a minimum clear
distance of 2 inches (50 mm) from galvanized reinforcing bars unless otherwise required or permitted, shall be
galvanized.
e. Epoxy-coated and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be fastened (tied) with plastic-coated or epoxy-
coated tie wire; or other materials authorized by the Engineer.
f. Zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars shall be fastened (tied) with zinc-coated tie wire, or non-metallic-coated tie
wire, or other materials authorized by the Engineer.
1.10.4.4 Draped Welded Wire Reinforcement
When welded wire reinforcement with wire size not greater than W5 or D5 is used for slab reinforcement in slabs not
exceeding 10 feet (3000 mm) in span, the reinforcement may be curved from a point near the top of the slab over the support
to a point near the bottom of the slab at mid-span, provided such reinforcement is either continuous over, or securely anchored,
at the support.
1.10.5 SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT (2003)

Spacing of reinforcement shall be as shown on the plans. When spacing of reinforcement is not shown, spacing shall be in
accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design for reinforcing bars, and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete, Section 17.5
Details of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts.
1.10.6 CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT (2003)

Concrete cover for reinforcement shall be as shown on the plans. When concrete cover is not shown, minimum concrete cover
shall be provided in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Details of Reinforcement, Section 2.6 for bars and
wire, and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete, Article 17.5.2 for prestressing tendons and ducts.
1.10.7 FUTURE BONDING (2003)

Exposed reinforcement intended for bonding with future extensions shall be protected from corrosion in an approved manner.

SECTION 1.11 CONCRETE JOINTING
1.11.1 SCOPE (2009)
This recommended practice is applicable to the design of concrete slabs and walls in concrete structures such as bridges,
buildings and flat work, finger joints and other mechanical joint systems are not included in these recommended practices.
1.11.2 TYPES OF JOINTING (2009)
a. Expansion joints are filled separations between adjoining parts of the concrete structure which are provided to allow
for relative movement such as those caused by thermal changes.
b. Contraction joints are sawed, tooled, or constructed in a concrete surface to create a weakened plane to control the
location of cracking resulting from dimensional changes caused by shrinkage.
c. Construction joints occur where two successive placements of concrete meet, across which it is desired to maintain
bond between two concrete placements, and through which any reinforcement which may be present is not interrupted.
1.11.3 EXPANSION JOINTS (2009)
a. Expansion joints allow for differential movement of the concrete mass on either side of the joint. These may also be
referred to as isolation joints.
b. The Engineer may require that the joint be designed to resist movements in other directions, such as those resulting
1
from shear.
c. Expansion joints shall be installed as shown on the Plans or as specified by the Engineer. Waterstops may also be
required.
d. Jointing materials shall be in accordance with ASTM D994 or ASTM D1751. There shall be no connection across the 3
joint except as shown on the Plans or as required by the Engineer.

Figure 8-1-1. Full-Depth Expansion Joint
1.11.4 EXPANSION JOINTS IN WALLS (2009)
Expansion joints between the finished surface and the waterstop shall be filled with a material such as a 1/2 inch (13 mm)
thick strip of Preformed Expansion Joint meeting ASTM D994, ASTM D1751 or ASTM D1752.
1.11.5 CONTRACTION JOINTS (2009)
a. These recommended practices do not include full contraction joints, where all reinforcement is terminated at the joint
and where joint details may include waterstops, bond breakers, joint sealant or shear connectors.
b. Contraction joints allow for differential movement across the joint only in one direction, usually in the plane of the
finished surface. They are provided to allow for dimensional changes such as those caused by drying shrinkage of the
concrete.
c. Contraction joints in slabs-on-grade shall be located and detailed as shown on the plans. Unless otherwise shown or
noted, joints shall be placed at 15 to 25 foot (5 – 8 m) intervals in each direction.
d. Contraction joints for slabs-on-grade shall be made by one of the methods shown in Figure 8-1-2 or as shown on the
plans.
e. Sawing of contraction joints shall be done as soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to prevent aggregates being
dislocated by the saw and shall be completed within twelve hours after placement unless otherwise approved by the
Engineer. Sawing shall not be done when the concrete temperature is falling, unless approved by the Engineer.
f. Contraction joints may also be constructed by means or methods specifically designed to create a plane of weakness in
freshly placed concrete. This may include a reduction in the amount of reinforcement passing through the joint if
approved by the Engineer.
g. Contraction joints may also be made by other methods if approved by the Engineer. Sawed or tooled contraction joints
shall be cleaned and filled with polymeric sealant conforming to ASTM D1190 or ASTM D3405 or as specified by the
Engineer.

h. Prior to the application of a polymeric sealing material, a heat resistant backer rod shall be inserted to a minimum depth
of 1/2 inch (13 mm) below the slab surface. The remaining reservoir shall then be filled flush with the slab surface (see
Figure 8-1-2).
1.11.6 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS (2009)
a. Construction joints allow for no differential movement across the plane of the joint. They are provided only at
locations where casting is temporarily suspended or interrupted.
b. The procedures specified in Article 1.14.9 for bonding fresh concrete to hardened concrete shall be followed in the
formation of all construction joints.
c. Reinforcement shall continue through the joint. Additional reinforcement such as dowels and other features such as
keys and waterstops may also be included. Special measures such as attention to vibration shall be taken in the casting
of concrete to either side of the joint in the vicinity of keys.
d. Structures or portions of the structures shall be continuously cast except as specified herein. When necessary to provide
construction joints not indicated or specified by the Plans, such construction joints shall be located as approved by the
Engineer and formed so as not to impair the strength, appearance, or durability of the structure.
1.11.7 WATERTIGHT CONSTRUCTION JOINTS (2009)
a. Contraction joints shall not be used in watertight construction unless shown on the plans approved by the Engineer.
See Figure 8-1-1. 1
b. Where a construction joint is used in watertight construction, special care shall be taken in finishing the concrete to
which the succeeding concrete is to be bonded. The consistency of the concrete shall be carefully controlled and the
surface shall be protected from loss of moisture as described in Article 1.18.4.
c. Where construction joints are required to be watertight, a continuous keyway shall be constructed in the interface of the
first section of the concrete placed with an approved waterstop embedded in this first placement. One half of the 3
waterstop shall be embedded in the first placement and the remaining material shall be embedded in the adjacent
placement. See Figure 8-1-3 for details. The concrete shall be thoroughly vibrated to ensure uniform contact over the
entire surface of the waterstop and the key on either side of the construction joint. The waterstop shall be in accordance
with Corps of Engineers Specification CRD C 572 (PVC) or CRD C 513 (Rubber).
d. Keyed joints shall not be used in slabs less than 6 inches (150 mm) thick.
4

Figure 8-1-2. Two Methods for Making Contraction Joints for Slabs-on-Grade
Figure 8-1-3. Keyed Construction Joint with Waterstop Inserted Perpendicular to the Plane of the Joint

SECTION 1.12 PROPORTIONING
1.12.1 GENERAL (2009)
Mix proportions shall be proposed by the Contractor for the various parts of the work subject to the approval of the Engineer.
Revised mix proportions may be submitted by the Contractor for approval by the Engineer during the work to reflect concrete
test results. Proportions of materials for making concrete shall be selected to provide the strength, workability, durability and
other qualities specified on the Plans and required by the Engineer.
1.12.2 MEASUREMENT OF MATERIALS (2009)
a. In the measurement of cement, 94 lb, 1 bag, 1/4 barrel or 1#cubic foot all are assumed equivalent (1.5 Kg of cement
shall be assumed as one liter). Materials shall be measured by weighing, except as otherwise specified or where other
methods are specifically authorized by the Engineer. The apparatus provided for weighing the aggregates and cement
shall be suitably designed and constructed for this purpose. The aggregates and cement shall be weighed separately.
The accuracy of all weighing devices shall be such that successive quantities can be measured to within 1% of the
desired amount. Cement in standard packages (bags) need not be weighed, but bulk cement and fractional packages
shall be weighed. The mixing water shall be measured by volume or by weight. The water-measuring device shall be
accurate to within 1/2%. All measuring devices shall be subject to approval of the Engineer.
b. Where volumetric measurements are authorized by the Engineer, the weight proportions shall be converted to
equivalent volumetric proportions. In making this conversion, suitable allowance shall be made for variations in the
moisture condition of the aggregates, including the bulking effect in the fine aggregate.
1
1.12.3 WATER-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS RATIO (2009)
a. The proportioning of materials shall be based on the requirements for a plastic and workable mix suited to the
conditions of placement containing not more than the specified amount of water, including the free water contained in
the aggregates. The maximum specified amount of water shall not exceed the quantities shown in Table 8-1-9 for the
type of structure and the condition of exposure to which it will be subjected. Moisture in the aggregates shall be 3
measured by methods satisfactory to the Engineer.
b. Free water content of aggregates included in the quantities specified must be deducted from the amounts given in the
Table to determine the amount to be added at the mixer. Allowance may be made for absorption when aggregates are
not saturated.

Table 8-1-9. Maximum Permissible Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio (by Weight)

for Different Types of Structures and Degrees of Exposure
Exposure Conditions (Note 1)
Severe wider range in

temperature or Mild temperature rarely
frequent alternations of below freezing,
freezing and thawing or rainy, or arid
(air-entrained conc. only)
At the water line or At the water line or

Description within the range of within the range of
fluctuating water fluctuating water
level or spray level or spray
In Air In Sea In Air In Sea

Water or In Water or In
In
In Fresh Contact Contact
Fresh
Water With With
Water
Sulfates Sulfates
(Note 2) (Note 2)
Thin sections, such as railings, curbs, sills, ledges, 0.49 0.44 0.40 0.53 0.49 0.40
ornamental or architectural concrete, reinforced (Note 3) (Note 3)
piles, and pipe
Moderate sections, such as retaining walls, 0.53 0.49 0.44 (Note 4) 0.53 0.44
abutments, piers, girders, beams (Note 3) (Note 3)
Exterior portions of heavy (mass) sections 0.58 0.49 0.44 (Note 4) 0.53 0.44
(Note 3) (Note 3)
Concrete deposited by tremie underwater – 0.44 0.44 – 0.44 0.44
Concrete slabs laid on the ground 0.53 – – (Note 4) – –
Concrete protected from weather, interiors of (Note 4) – – (Note 4) – –
buildings, concrete below ground
Concrete which will later be protected by 0.53 – – (Note 4) – –
enclosure of backfill but which may be exposed to
freezing and thawing for several years before such
protection is offered
Note 1: Air-entrained concrete shall be used under all conditions involving severe exposure and may be used under mild
exposure conditions to improve workability of the mixture.
Note 2: Soil or ground water containing sulfate concentrations of more than 0.2%.
Note 3: When sulfate resisting cement is used, maximum water-cementitious material ratio may be increased by 0.05.
Note 4: Water-cementitious material ratio should be selected on basis of strength requirements.
Note 5: The water-cementitious materials ratio may require adjustment as outlined in Article 1.12.10.
1.12.4 AIR CONTENT OF AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE (2009)
a. The volume of entrained air in concrete shall be within the limits shown in Table 8-1-10.

Table 8-1-10. Air-Entrained Concrete Volume
Maximum Size Coarse Air Content %

Aggregate Inches (mm) by Volume
1-1/2, 2, or 2-1/2 (38, 50, 63) 5 ±1
3/4, 1 (19, 25) 6 ±1
3/8, 1/2 (10, 13) 7-1/2 ±1
b. The air content shall be determined by one of the following methods:
(1) The gravimetric method, ASTM C138.
(2) The volumetric method, ASTM C173.
(3) The pressure method, ASTM C231.
1.12.5 STRENGTH OF CONCRETE MIXTURES (2011)
a. The provisions of this Section are not applicable when using cementitious materials other than Portland cement.
b. When preliminary tests of the materials to be used are not available, the required water-cementitious materials ratio
shall be determined in accordance with Method 1 (Article 1.12.5.1). When strengths in excess of 4000 psi (28 MPa) are
required, or where lightweight aggregates or admixtures (other than those exclusively for the purpose of entraining air)
1
are to be used, the required water-cementitious materials ratio shall be determined in accordance with Method 2
(Article 1.12.5.2). Method 3 (Article 1.12.5.3) may be used if statistical data conforming to Article 1.12.5.3 are
available.
1.12.5.1 Method 1 – Without Preliminary Tests

3
a. Concrete proportions may be determined in accordance with this method if approved by the Engineer. Concrete
proportions shall then be based on the water-cementitious materials ratio limits found in Table 8-1-11. These limits are
only for concrete that is made with cements meeting Types I, IA, II, IIA, III, IIIA, or V of ASTM C150, or Types IS,
IS-(A), IS(MS), IS-(A)(MS), IP or IP-(A), of ASTM C595. Volume of entrained air shall be within limits of Article
1.12.4. Air Content of Air-Entrained Concrete (2009) ratio shall not be greater than that required by Article 1.12.3.
Table 8-1-11. Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio for Air Entrained Concrete 4

Specified 28 Day Compressive Strength Absolute Water-Cementitious Materials
of Concrete, f′ c psi (MPa) Ratio by Weight (Mass)(Note)
2,500 (17) 0.66
3,000 (21) 0.58
3,500 (24) 0.51
4,000 (28) 0.46
5,000 (34) 0.40
Note: Not applicable for concrete containing lightweight aggregates or admixtures other than for
entraining air.
b. The values in Table 8-1-11 are based on the use of cement and aggregates meeting the requirements of this Section and
the concrete being sufficiently protected from loss of moisture and from low temperatures to ensure that proper curing

will take place. When Type III Portland cement is used in lieu of Type I or Type II Portland cement, it may be assumed
that the specified compressive strength will be obtained at the age of 7 days.
c. The strength of cylinders made with Types I, IA, II or IIA Portland cement and tested at the age of 7 days shall not fall
below 65% of the assumed compressive strength at the age of 28 days. The strength of cylinders made with Types III or
IIIA Portland cement and tested at the age of 3 days shall not fall below 65% of the assumed minimum compressive
strength at the age of 28 days shown for Types I, IA, II and IIA Portland cement. The strength of cylinders tested at the
age of 28 days shall be at least 1200 psi (8.3 MPa) greater than the strength specified on the plans when using this
method.
1.12.5.2 Method 2 – With Preliminary Tests
The strength of concrete shall be determined by tests made with representative samples of the materials to be used in the work.
The results of the tests shall be submitted to the Engineer in advance of construction. These tests shall be made using the
consistencies suitable for the work. These samples shall be proportioned to produce a slump of within 3/4 inch (19 mm) of the
maximum permitted slump and with an entrained air content of within 0.5 percent of the maximum air content required. Tests
shall be conducted in accordance with ASTM C192 Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the
Laboratory and with ASTM C39 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. At least
three tests shall be conducted for each of three water-cementitious material ratios that will encompass the required concrete
strength. A curve representing the relation between the water content and the average 28 day compressive strength or earlier
strength at which the concrete is to receive its full working load shall be established for this range of values. The maximum
permissible water-cementitious material ratio for the concrete to be used shall be shown by the curve to produce a strength
15% greater than specified on the Plans or specifications. If any changes are to be made in the materials, new curves shall be
established by tests as described above.
1.12.5.3 Method 3 – On Basis of Field Experience
a. Where a concrete production facility has a record based upon at least 30 consecutive strength tests that represent
similar materials and conditions to those expected, required average compressive strength used as the basis for
selecting concrete proportions shall exceed required f’c at designated test ages by at least:
(1) 1.34 standard deviations, where the standard deviation is less than or equal to 500 psi (3.45 MPa).
(2) 2.33 standard deviations less 500 psi (3.45 MPa), where the standard deviation is greater than 500 psi (3.45 MPa).
b. Strength test data for determining standard deviation shall be considered to comply with the above if data represents
either a group of at least 30 consecutive tests or a statistical average for two groups totaling 30 or more tests.
c. Strength tests used to establish standard deviation shall represent concrete produced to meet a specified strength within
±1000 psi (±6.90 MPa) of that specified for the proposed work.
d. Changes in materials and proportions within the population of background tests used to establish standard deviation
shall not have been more closely restricted than for the proposed work.
1.12.6 WORKABILITY (2009)
The concrete shall be of such consistency and composition that it can be worked readily into the corners and angles of the
forms and around the reinforcement without segregation of materials or the collection of free water on the surface. Subject to
the limiting requirements of Article 1.12.3, the contractor shall, if the Engineer requires, submit a new mix design to adjust the
proportions of cement and aggregates so as to produce a mixture which will be easily placeable at all times, due consideration
being given to the methods of placing and compacting used on the work and subject to the approval of the Engineer.

1.12.7 SLUMP (2009)
The slump test may be used as a control measure to maintain the consistency suitable for the work. When mechanical vibrators
are used to compact the concrete, the consistency suitable to that method shall be used. The slump test shall be made in
accordance with the ASTM Method of Test C143 Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete.
1.12.8 COMPRESSION TESTS (2009)
Specimens for compression tests shall be made and stored in accordance with ASTM C31 Standard Practice for Making and
Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field. These specimens shall be tested in accordance with ASTM C39.
1.12.9 FIELD TESTS (2009)
a. During the progress of construction, the Engineer will have tests made to determine whether the concrete produced
compares to the quality specified by the Plans. The Contractor shall cooperate in the making of such tests and allow
free access to the work for selection of samples and storage of specimens and in affording protection to the specimens
against injury or loss through construction operations.
b. Four cylinders will generally be made for each class of concrete used in any one day’s operation. In special cases, this
normal number of control specimens may be exceeded when in the opinion of the Engineer such additional tests are
required. The Contractor, however, shall not be required to furnish for such additional tests more than 2 cubic feet (75
liters) of concrete for each 100 cubic yard (76 cubic meter) of concrete being placed (75 liters for each 100 cu. m).
c. Samples of concrete for test specimens shall be taken at the mixer, or in the case of ready-mix concrete, from the 1
transportation vehicle during discharge. When, in the opinion of the Engineer, it is desirable to take samples elsewhere,
they shall be taken as directed. Specimens shall be made and stored in accordance with Article 1.12.8.
d. The air content of freshly mixed air-entrained concrete shall be checked at least twice daily for each class of concrete,
or each time cylinders are cast. Changes in air content above or below the amount specified shall be corrected by
adjustment in the mix design or quantities of air-entraining material being used.
3
e. If the strengths shown by the test specimens fall below the values given in Article 1.12.5 or as specified by the Plans,
then the Engineer shall have the right to require changes in proportions to apply on the remainder of the work.
f. Technicians performing field tests of concrete materials shall maintain Level I certification by the American Concrete
Institute as a Concrete Field Testing Technician. The person in responsible charge of field test operations shall maintain
Level 3 certification by the National Ready Mix Concrete Association as a Concrete Technologist. 4
1.12.10 SPECIAL PROVISIONS WHEN USING CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS OTHER THAN
PORTLAND CEMENT (2009)
1.12.10.1 Maximum Cementitious Materials
Concrete exposed to deicing chemicals shall contain total weights (masses) of cementitious materials no greater than those
specified in Table 8-1-12.

Table 8-1-12. Concrete Exposed to Deicing Chemicals
Cementitious Material Maximum Percentage of Total Cementitious

Materials by Weight (mass)
Fly ash or other pozzolans conforming to 25
ASTM C618
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag 50
conforming to ASTM C989
Silica fume conforming to ASTM C1240 10
Total fly ash or other pozzolans, ground 50
granulated blast-furnace slag and silica fume
Total fly ash or other pozzolans, and silica 35
fume
Notes: Total cementitious material also includes ASTM C150, ASTM C595, ASTM C845
and ASTM C1157 cements (ASTM C845 is the Standard Specification for Expansive
Hydraulic Cement and is not included in this recommended practice).
The maximum percentages include:
a. Fly ash and other pozzolans and ground granulated blast-furnace slag included in
Types IP or I(PM) or IS or I(SM) blended cements, ASTM C595
b. Silica fume, ASTM C1240, present in blended cements
1.12.10.2 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete
1.12.10.2.1 General
The ability of the concrete mixture to exhibit special properties should be determined by tests for each source of silica fume.
1.12.10.2.2 High-Range Water Reducing Admixtures
High-range water reducing admixtures should be used in concrete containing silica fume in order to achieve the desired
workability.
1.12.10.2.3 Entrained Air
The amount of admixture required to entrain the desired amount of air should be determined by tests as part of the design of
the concrete mixture.
1.12.10.3 Requirements When Using Fly Ash in Concrete
1.12.10.3.1 General
Mix proportions, including the proportions of fly ash, shall be determined by tests.
1.12.10.3.2 Water-Reducing Admixtures and High Range Water-Reducing Admixtures
Water reducing admixtures and high-range water reducing admixtures may be used in concrete containing fly ash.

1.12.10.3.3 Testing to Verify Mix Design
The mixture shall be designed and proportioned to provide the properties for which the fly ash was used, and to avoid other
possible undesirable properties. Tests shall include slump/workability, requirements for air-entraining admixtures, the rate of
bleeding of fresh concrete, the time of setting, the rate of early strength gain and any need to use an accelerating admixture or
a water-reducing admixture, the heat of hydration (if required), reactivity with sulphates or expansion due to alkali-silica
reactions (if required), and the 28-day or later strength as required by the design parameters.
1.12.10.3.4 Water to Cementitious Materials Ratio
The water to cementitious material ratio will normally be reduced in concrete containing fly ash.
1.12.10.3.5 Air Entrainment
Concrete containing fly ash should be air entrained if it is to be subjected to freezing and thawing conditions. Concrete should
also attain the desired design strength before being subjected to chlorides.
1.12.10.4 Requirements When Using Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag in Concrete
1.12.10.4.1 General
Mix proportions, including the proportion of ground granulated blast-furnace slag, shall be determined by tests.
1.12.10.4.2 Water-Reducing Admixtures

1
Water-reducing admixtures may be used in concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag, in order to increase the
rate of strength gain.
1.12.10.4.3 Accelerators
An accelerating admixture may be used when using ground granulated blast-furnace slag in a concrete mix. 3
1.12.10.4.4 Proportioning of Aggregates
Concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag will normally be proportioned for a larger quantity of coarse
aggregate than normal Portland cement concrete.
1.12.10.4.5 Entrained Air 4

The amount of admixture required to entrain the desired amount of air should be determined by tests as part of the design of
the concrete mixture.
SECTION 1.13 MIXING
1.13.1 GENERAL (2009)
a. The concrete shall be mixed only in the quantity required for immediate use. Concrete that has developed an initial set
shall not be used.

b. The first batch of concrete materials placed in the mixer shall contain a sufficient excess of cement, sand, and water to
coat the inside of the drum without reducing the required mortar content of the mix. The mixer shall be thoroughly
cleaned if mixing is interrupted for a period that would permit initial set to take place.
c. Concrete may be mixed at the site of construction, at a central point, and/or in truck mixers.
d. The ingredients shall be thoroughly mixed to specification.
1.13.2 SITE-MIXED CONCRETE (2009)
a. Unless authorized by the Engineer, the concrete shall be mixed in a batch mixer of approved type and size which will
ensure a uniform distribution of the material throughout the mass. The equipment at the mixing plant shall be so
constructed that all materials (including the water) entering the drum can be accurately measured and weighed. The
batch shall be fully discharged from the mixer before recharging. The volume of the mixed material per batch shall not
exceed the manufacturer’s rated capacity of the mixer. Mixing of each batch shall continue for the periods noted below,
during which time the drum shall rotate at a peripheral speed as recommended by the manufacturer. The mixing time
shall be measured from the time when all of the solid materials are in the mixer drum, provided that all of the mixer
water has been introduced before one-fourth of the mixing time has elapsed. The mixer shall have a timing device with
a bell or other suitable warning device adjusted to give a clearly audible signal each time the lock is released. In case of
failure of the timing device, the contractor shall be permitted to operate while it is being repaired, provided an
approved timepiece equipped with minute and second readings is furnished. If the timing device is not placed in good
working order within 24 hours, further use of the mixer will be prohibited until repairs are made.
b. Minimum mixing time shall be as follows:
(1) For mixers of a capacity of 1 cubic yard (0.8 cubic meter) or less – 90 seconds unless a shorter time is shown to be
satisfactory in accordance with concrete uniformity test requirements of ASTM C94.
(2) For mixers of a capacity greater than 1 cu yd (0.8 cubic meter), the time of mixing shall be increased 25 seconds
for each cubic yard (0.8 cubic meter) of capacity or fraction thereof or as determined by the concrete uniformity
test requirements of ASTM C94.
c. The production of concrete shall meet the applicable requirements of ASTM C94.
1.13.3 READY-MIXED CONCRETE (2009)
Ready mixed concrete shall be mixed and delivered to the site by any of three methods of operation: central mixing, shrink
mixing or truck mixing. The production of ready-mixed concrete shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C94. The batch
plant providing ready-mixed concrete shall be certified by the National Ready Mix Concrete Association.
1.13.4 DELIVERY (2009)
a. The organization supplying concrete shall have sufficient plant capacity and transporting equipment to ensure
continuous delivery at the rate required. The rate of delivery of concrete during concrete operations shall be such as to
provide for the proper handling, placing, and finishing of the concrete. The methods of delivering and handling
concrete shall facilitate placing with minimum rehandling and without damage to the structure or concrete.
b. The Contractor shall submit records to the Engineer showing the time and date of each batch produced and the mix
proportions and the approximate location within the structure of each batch.

1.13.5 REQUIREMENTS WHEN USING SILICA FUME IN CONCRETE (2009)
1.13.5.1 Material Handling Procedures When Using Silica Fume
It is recommended that persons handling silica fume use protective equipment and procedures to minimize the generation and
accumulation of dust. Manufacturers’ material safety data sheets should be consulted for specific health and safety practices to
be followed.
1.13.5.2 Workability of Delivered Concrete
Tests for slump and entrained air content should be carried out at the site before placing concrete containing silica fume to
ensure that specification limits are met.
SECTION 1.14 DEPOSITING CONCRETE
1.14.1 GENERAL (2000)
Before beginning placement of concrete, hardened concrete and foreign materials shall be removed from the inner surfaces of
the mixing and conveying equipment. Before depositing any concrete all debris shall be removed from the space to be
occupied by the concrete, and mortar splashed upon the reinforcement and surfaces of forms shall be removed. Reinforcement
shall be checked for position and fastening and approval of the Engineer obtained. Where concrete is to be placed on a rock 1
foundation, all loose rock, clay, mud, etc., shall be removed from the surface of the rock. Any unusual conditions or excess
fissures shall be treated as directed by the Engineer. Water shall be removed from the space to be occupied by the concrete
before concrete is deposited, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer. Any flow of water into an excavation shall be diverted
through proper side drains to a sump, or be removed by other approved methods which will avoid washing the freshly
deposited concrete. If directed by the Engineer water ventpipes and drains shall be filled by grouting or otherwise after the
concrete has thoroughly hardened. All temporary runways for delivery of concrete must be supported free from all reinforcing
steel. The supervisor of the concrete placing crew shall maintain certification by the American Concrete Institute as a 3
Concrete Flatwork Finisher, or Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector.
1.14.2 HANDLING AND PLACING (1993)
a. Concrete shall be handled from the mixer, or in case of ready-mixed concrete, from the transporting vehicle, to the
place of final deposit as rapidly as practicable by methods which will prevent the separation or loss of the ingredients. 4
Special care shall be taken to fill each part of the forms by depositing concrete as near final position as possible, to
work the coarser aggregates back from the face and to force the concrete under and around the reinforcement without
displacing it. Concrete shall not have a free fall of more than 4 feet unless permitted by the Engineer. Depositing a large
quantity at any point and working it to final position, shall not be permitted.
b. Concrete shall be placed in horizontal layers and each layer shall be placed and compacted before the preceding layer
has taken initial set so as to prevent formation of a joint. It shall be so deposited as to maintain, until the completion of
the unit, a plastic surface approximately horizontal, except in arch rings. Temporary struts or braces within the form
shall be removed when concrete has reached an elevation rendering their further service unnecessary. These temporary
members shall be entirely removed from the forms and not buried in the concrete. After the concrete has taken its
initial set, care shall be exercised to avoid jarring the forms or placing any strain on the ends of the projecting
reinforcement. Under no circumstances shall concrete that has partially hardened be deposited in the work.
c. In placing concrete for an arch ring, the work shall be carried on symmetrically with respect to the center line, and the
working faces of the completed courses shall be on approximately radial planes. This requirement applies whether or
not the arch is placed in voussoir sections with allowance for key sections for final placement.

d. In order to allow for shrinkage or settlement, at least 2 hours shall elapse after placing concrete in walls, columns or
stems of deep T-beams before depositing concrete in girders, beams or slabs supported thereon, unless otherwise
specified or shown on the plans. If the columns are structural steel encased in concrete, the lapse of time to allow for
shrinkage or settlement need not be observed.
e. Concrete in girders, slabs and shallow T-beam construction shall be placed in one continuous operation for each span,
unless otherwise provided. Concrete shall be deposited uniformly for the full length of the span and brought up evenly
in horizontal layers.
f. No concrete shall be placed in the superstructure until the pier forms have been stripped sufficiently to determine the
character of the concrete in the piers, and the load of the superstructure shall not be allowed to come upon abutments,
piers and column bents until they have been in place at least 7 days, unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer.
1.14.3 CHUTING (1993)
When concrete is conveyed by chuting, the plant shall be of such size and design as to insure a practically continuous flow in
the chute. The chutes shall be of metal or metal lined. The angle of the chute with the horizontal and the shape of the chute
shall be such as to allow the concrete to slide without separation of the ingredients. The delivery end of the chute shall be as
close as possible to the point of deposit. When the operation is intermittent, the chute shall discharge into a hopper. The chute
shall be thoroughly flushed with water before and after each run: the water used for this purpose shall be discharged outside
the forms. Chutes must be properly baffled or hooded at the discharging end to prevent separation of the aggregates.
1.14.4 PNEUMATIC PLACING (SHOTCRETING) (1993)
Shotcrete construction shall be in accordance with ACI Standard “Guide to Shotcrete” (ACI 506) and ACI Standard
“Specification for Materials, Proportioning, and Application of Shotcrete” (ACI 506.2) of the ACI.
1.14.5 PUMPING CONCRETE (1993)
a. The pump and all appurtenances shall be so designed and arranged that the specified concrete can be transported and
placed in the forms without segregation. The pump shall be capable of developing a working pressure of at least 300
psi and the pipeline and fittings shall be designed to withstand twice the working pressure.
b. Where it is necessary to lay the pipe on a down grade, a reducer shall be placed at the discharge end of the pipe to
provide a choke and thus produce a continuous flow of concrete. When the type of pump is such that it discharges the
concrete in small batches, or “belching,” a baffle box shall be provided into which the concrete shall be discharged.
This box should preferably be of metal, about 2 feet square, with open sides so as to permit the concrete to flow into the
forms at right angles to line of discharge. The pipe shall be not less than 6 inches nor more than 8 inches outside
diameter, and the line shall be laid with as few bends as possible. When changes in direction are necessary they shall be
made with bends of 45 degrees or less, unless greater bends are specifically permitted. If greater bends are permitted in
special cases, they shall be long-radius bends. The maximum distance of delivery of concrete by pumping shall be
1000 feet horizontally and 100 feet vertically, unless otherwise specifically permitted by the Engineer. (A 90-degree
bend is figured as equivalent to 40 feet of horizontal piping. A 45-degree bend is equivalent to 20 feet. A 22.5-degree
bend is equivalent to 10 feet.) When pumping is completed, the concrete remaining in the pipeline if it is to be used,
shall be ejected in such a manner that there will be no contamination of the concrete or separation of the ingredients.
The pipeline and equipment must then be thoroughly cleaned. The pipeline can be cleaned by either water or air. If
water is used, a pump shall be provided with a capacity of at least 80 gpm and capable of developing a pressure of 400
psi. Cleaning of the pipe can also be accomplished by the use of a “go-devil” which is propelled through the line by
water or air pressure. (The “go-devil” is a dumbbell shaped piece with a rubber cup on each end. The cups are turned
toward the liquid, or air, and the seal is the same as in a simple plunger pump.) If water is used, it must be discharged
outside of the forms. On important work duplicate pumping equipment and additional pipe shall be provided to prevent
delay due to breakdown of equipment.

1.14.6 COMPACTING (1993)
a. Concrete shall be thoroughly compacted during and immediately after depositing by vibrating the concrete internally
by means of mechanical vibrating equipment, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer.
b. Internal mechanical vibrators shall be of a type approved by the Engineer. They shall be of sturdy construction,
adequately powered, capable of transmitting vibration to the concrete in frequencies of not less than 3500 impulses per
minute and shall produce a vibration of sufficient intensity to consolidate the concrete into place without a separation
of the ingredients.
c. The vibratory elements shall be inserted into the concrete at the point of deposit and in the areas of freshly placed
concrete. The time of vibration shall be of sufficient duration to accomplish thorough consolidation, complete
embedment of the reinforcement, the production of smooth surfaces free from honeycomb and air bubbles, and to work
the concrete into all angles and corners of the forms. However, over-vibration shall be avoided, and vibration shall
continue in a spot only until the concrete has become uniformly plastic and shall not continue to the extent that pools of
grout are formed. The length of time of vibration depends upon the frequency of the vibration (impulses per minute),
size of vibrators and the slump of the concrete. This length of time must be determined in the field.
d. The internal vibrators shall be applied at points uniformly spaced, not farther apart than the radius over which the
vibration is visibly effective, and shall be applied close enough to the forms effectively to vibrate the surface concrete.
The vibration shall not be dissipated in lateral motion but shall be concentrated in vertical settlement in consolidation
of the concrete.
e. The vibrator shall not be used to push or distribute the concrete laterally. The vibrating element shall be inserted in the 1
concrete mass a sufficient depth to vibrate the bottom of each layer effectively, in as nearly a vertical position as
practicable. It shall be withdrawn completely from the concrete before being advanced to the next point of application.
f. To secure even and dense surfaces, free from aggregate pockets or honeycomb, vibration shall be supplemented by
working or spading by hand in the corners and angles of forms and along form surfaces while the concrete is plastic
under the vibratory action.
3
g. A sufficient number of vibrators shall be employed so that, at the required rate of placement, thorough consolidation is
secured throughout the entire volume of each layer of concrete. Extra vibrators shall be on hand for emergency use and
for use when other vibrators are being serviced.
h. The use of surface vibrators to supplement internal vibration will be permitted when satisfactory surfaces cannot be
obtained by the internal vibrations alone and when the contractor has obtained the approval of the Engineer of the
equipment to be used. Surface vibrators shall be applied only long enough to embed the coarse aggregate and to bring 4
enough mortar to the surface for satisfactory finishing.
i. The use of approved form vibrators will be permitted by the Engineer only when it is impossible to use internal
vibrators. They shall be attached to or held on the forms in such a manner as to effectively transmit the vibration to the
concrete and so that the principal path of motion of the vibration is in a horizontal plane.
1.14.7 TEMPERATURE (1993)
a. Concrete when deposited shall have temperatures within the limits shown in Table 8-1-13.
b. The method of controlling the temperature of the concrete shall be approved by the Engineer.

Table 8-1-13. Concrete Temperature Limits
Temperature of Concrete
Temperature of Air
When Placed–Degrees F
Degrees - F Minimum Maximum

Below 30 70 90
Between 30 and 45 60 90
Above 45 50 90
1.14.8 CONTINUOUS DEPOSITING (1993)
Concrete shall be deposited continuously and as rapidly as practicable until the unit of operation approved by the Engineer is
completed. Construction joints in addition to those provided on the plans will not be allowed unless authorized by the
Engineer. If so authorized, they shall be made in accordance with Section 1.11, Concrete Jointing.
1.14.9 BONDING (1993)
Before new concrete is placed against hardened concrete, the surface of the hardened concrete shall be cleaned and all laitance
removed. Immediately before new concrete is placed, the existing surfaces shall be thoroughly wetted and all standing water
removed. Prior to placing fresh concrete, apply a bonding layer of mortar, usually 1/8 inch to 1/2 inch in thickness, which is
spread on the moist and prepared hardened concrete surface. In lieu of mortar, a suitable commercial bonding agent may be
used, when applied in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
1.14.10 PLACING CYCLOPEAN CONCRETE (1993)
Cyclopean aggregate shall be thoroughly embedded in the concrete. The individual stones shall not be closer than 12 inches to
any surface or adjacent stones. Stratified stone shall be laid on its natural bed. Cyclopean aggregate shall be carefully placed to
avoid injury to forms or adjoining masonry.
1.14.11 PLACING RUBBLE CONCRETE (1993)
Rubble aggregate shall be thoroughly embedded in the concrete. The individual stones shall not be closer than 4 inches to any
surface or adjacent stones. Rubble aggregate shall be carefully placed to avoid injury to forms or adjacent masonry.
1.14.12 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)1
1.14.12.1 Protection from Moisture Loss
Protection of concrete from early moisture loss is to begin at the first opportunity after placement and may require that such
measures precede the curing phase of the work. Evaporation retarders, fogging and protection from the wind during the
placement stage, or immediate curing, may be options included in the project specifications. Appropriate measures to protect
against early moisture loss in concrete containing silica fume should be included and stressed in the project specifications.
Subgrade moistening may be required to prevent excessive drying from the underside of the concrete.
1.14.12.2 Consolidation
Careful attention to effective vibration is required for concrete containing silica fume.
1
See C - Commentary

1.14.13 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)
1.14.13.1 Air Entrainment
Tests shall be performed at the site to verify that the required amount of entrained air is present at the time of depositing the
concrete.
1.14.14 WATER GAIN (1993)
Water gain is characterized by an accumulation of water at the surface. Whenever water gain appears in the concrete placed,
the succeeding batches must be placed sufficiently dry to correct the over-wet condition by the reduction of the water cement
ratio without changing the proportions of the other ingredients.
SECTION 1.15 DEPOSITING CONCRETE UNDER WATER
1.15.1 GENERAL (1993)
a. The methods specified in Section 1.14, Depositing Concrete shall be used except when the space to be filled with
concrete contains water which cannot be removed in some practical way. In such cases, and when authorized by the
Engineer, concrete shall be deposited under water in accordance with the following.
1
b. The methods, equipment and materials proposed to be used, shall be submitted first to the Engineer for approval before
the work is started. The methods used shall be such as will prevent the washing out of the cement from the concrete
mixture, minimize the segregation of materials and the formation of laitance, and prevent the flow of water through or
over the new concrete until it has fully hardened. Concrete shall not be placed in water having a temperature below 35
degrees F.
3
1.15.2 CAPACITY OF PLANT (1993)
Sufficient mixing, transporting and placing equipment shall be provided to insure that the depositing of all underwater
concrete for each predetermined section or unit of the work to be done, shall be continuous until completion.
1.15.3 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS (1993) 4

The materials, preparations and methods to be used in making concrete to be deposited under water shall all conform to the
requirements of these specifications except as modified or supplemented by the following Articles.
1.15.4 CEMENT (1993)
Not less than 610 lb of cement per cubic yard of concrete shall be used.
1.15.5 COARSE AGGREGATES (1993)
Aggregate for this work shall be of exceptionally good quality, strong and durable. The maximum size of aggregate preferably
shall be 2 inches and shall not exceed 3 inches. The coarse aggregate shall be well graded in such proportions that the weight
of the coarse aggregate shall be not less than 1.25 nor more than 2.0 times that of the fine aggregate.

1.15.6 MIXING (1993)
The cement and aggregates shall be mixed for a period of 2 minutes with sufficient water to produce a concrete having a slump
of not less than 6 inches nor more than 8 inches for concrete placed by tremies, and not less than 3 inches nor more than 6
inches for concrete placed by bottom dump buckets or for concrete placed in sacks.
1.15.7 CAISSONS, COFFERDAMS OR FORMS (1993)
Caissons, cofferdams or forms shall be sufficiently tight to prevent loss of mortar or flow of water through the space in which
the concrete is to be deposited. Pumping will not be permitted while concrete is being deposited, nor until a minimum of 24
hours thereafter or longer period if required by the Engineer.
1.15.8 LEVELING AND CLEANING THE BOTTOM TO RECEIVE CONCRETE (1993)
a. Before starting to deposit concrete under water, the condition of the bottom shall be examined and reported upon to the
Engineer by a competent diver, and shall be approved by the Engineer.
b. The surface of the bottom, whether of clay, rock, or other material, shall be leveled as directed by the Engineer, before
depositing concrete under water.
c. Where the bottom on which concrete is to be deposited under water is, or is likely to be, covered with silt, such material
shall be removed down to solid material before any concrete is placed. The method to be used to clean the bottom of
silt or similar material, shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer.
1.15.9 CONTINUOUS WORK (1993)
Concrete shall be deposited continuously until it is brought up to the required elevation. While depositing, the top surface shall
be kept as nearly level as possible, and the formation of laitance planes avoided.
1.15.10 METHODS OF DEPOSITING (1993)
a. Tremie. When concrete is to be deposited under water by means of a tremie, the top section of the tremie shall be a
hopper large enough to hold one entire batch of the mix or the entire contents of the transporting bucket, when one is
used. The tremie pipe shall be not less than 8 inches in diameter and shall be large enough to allow a free flow of
concrete and strong enough to withstand the external pressure of the water in which it is suspended, even if a partial
vacuum develops inside the pipe. Preferably, flanged steel pipe should be used, of adequate strength to sustain the
greatest length and weight required for the job. A separate lifting device shall be provided for each tremie pipe with its
hopper at the upper end. Unless the lower end of the pipe is equipped with an approved automatic check valve, the
upper end of the pipe shall be plugged with an approved material, before delivering the concrete to the tremie pipe
through the hopper, which plug will be forced to and out of the bottom end of the pipe by filling the pipe with concrete.
It will be necessary to slowly raise the tremie in order to cause a uniform flow of the concrete, but the tremie shall not
be emptied so that water enters above the concrete in the pipe. At all times after the start of placing the concrete and
until all concrete is placed, the lower end of the tremie pipe shall be below the top surface of the plastic concrete. This
will cause the concrete to build up from below instead of flowing out over the surface thus avoiding formation of
laitance layers. If the charge in the tremie is lost while depositing, the tremie shall be raised above the concrete surface,
and unless sealed by a check valve it shall be replugged at the top end, as at the beginning, before refilling for
depositing concrete.
NOTE: Experience has shown that tremie concrete can be placed as above specified, so that it will flow as much as
50 feet horizontally from the discharge end of the tremie with a slope of less than 3 feet in 50 feet.

b. Bottom Dump Bucket. Where concrete is to be deposited under water by means of a bottom dump bucket, the bucket
shall be of the type that cannot be dumped until after it has rested, with its load, on the surface upon which the concrete
is to be deposited. The bottom doors shall be so equipped as to be automatically unlatched by the release of tension on
the supporting line or cable of the bucket, and the bottom doors shall then open downward and outward as the bucket is
raised. The top of the bucket shall be fitted with double, overlapping canvas flaps, or other approved covers, to cover
the contained concrete and to protect it from wash when it enters the water and as the bucket descends to the bottom.
The bucket, preferably, should be so designed that the hinged bottom doors will operate inside of a steel skirt, which
skirt will surround the bucket while the bottom doors are shut and will extend below the bucket as the bottom doors
open and hence minimize turbulence and motion while the concrete is being deposited. The bucket shall be submerged
slowly until it is completely under water. The normal line speed after that shall not exceed 200 feet per minute. After
the bucket has reached the surface on which the concrete is to be deposited, it shall be raised slowly for the first 6 or 8
feet while the concrete is being deposited.
c. Placing Sacks of Concrete. Where a relatively small amount of concrete is to be placed that does not warrant the
equipment required for other tremie or open-bottom bucket methods, concrete may be placed under water in sacks or
bags. In such case the space shall be filled with sacks of concrete carefully placed by hand in header and stretcher
formation, so that the whole mass becomes interlocked. Sacks used for this purpose shall be made of jute or other
coarse material free from deleterious materials, and shall be filled about two-thirds full of concrete and the sack
openings securely tied.
d. Grouted Aggregate. Installed by placing course aggregate in the forms, then injecting cement grout through pipes
which extend to the bottom of the forms. The pipes are withdrawn as grouting proceeds. The grout forces the water
from the forms and fills interstices in the aggregate.
(1) Grout insert pipe system shall be designed and installed to deliver grout to the entire mass. Vent pipes shall be
1
required to relieve entrapped water or air. Sounding wells should be provided to determine the location of grout
surface during the grout injection.
(2) The coarse aggregate shall be placed in horizontal layers of such maximum thickness as will provide a dense fill
without segregation and shall be well compacted.
3
(3) The grout mixture shall be applied under such pressure and at such consistency as will insure complete filling of
voids, and group pipes shall be properly spaced to be consistent with this requirement.
(4) Mineral fillers and admixtures may be added to the grout mixture if approved by the Engineer.
(5) The grout mixture required for this class of work necessitates the use of special mixers and agitators to deliver
suitable grout in place. This equipment and all grout lines shall be maintained in good operating condition. After 4
every shift or work stoppage, they shall be cleaned of all grout.
1.15.11 SOUNDINGS (1993)

During the time that concrete is being deposited under water, soundings shall be continuously taken to the surface of the
deposited concrete and recorded. The surface of the deposited concrete shall be maintained relatively level over the area being
covered.
1.15.12 REMOVING LAITANCE (1993)

Upon completing a unit or section of underwater concrete, any laitance or silt collecting on the upper surface of the same shall
be removed and the concrete surface thoroughly cleaned, if additional concrete is to be deposited on that surface.

1.15.13 CONCRETE SEALS (1993)
Under favorable conditions it is possible to place underwater concrete of a limited thickness in the bottoms of caissons or
cofferdams and so completely seal the structures that after the concrete has set, all water can be pumped out. In such cases, if it
is economical to do so, the water shall be pumped out, the exposed surfaces cleaned and the balance of the concrete deposited
in air.
SECTION 1.16 CONCRETE IN SEA WATER
1.16.1 CONCRETE (2004)
a. Unless otherwise specifically provided, concrete for structures in, or exposed to, sea water shall be air-entrained in
accordance with Article 1.12.4, and shall be made with Type II or IIA portland cement having a maximum tricalcium
aluminate content of 8%. Concrete in sea water or exposed directly along the sea coast shall contain a minimum of 560
lb of portland cement per cubic yard. The concrete shall be mixed for a period of not less than 2 minutes and the water
content of the mixture shall be carefully controlled and regulated so as to produce concrete of maximum
impermeability. Porous or weak aggregates shall not be used.
b. When concrete mix designs include cementitious materials other than portland cement, the resistance to the harmful
effects of exposure to sea water shall be determined by tests, or by experience from using materials from the same
sources.
1.16.2 DEPOSITING IN SEA WATER (1993)
Between levels of extreme low water and extreme high water as determined by the Engineer, sea water shall not come in direct
contact with the concrete for a period of not less than 30 days. Sea water shall not be allowed to come in contact with other
concrete that will be in or exposed to sea water until it is hardened for at least 4 days. Concrete may be deposited in sea water
only when so approved by the Engineer. The original surface, as the forms are removed from the concrete, shall be left
undisturbed.
Concrete shall be placed in such a manner that no construction joints shall be formed between levels of extreme low water and
extreme high water as determined by the Engineer. Construction joints outside the level between extreme low water and
extreme high water shall be held to the minimum necessary, and all construction joints shall be made as described in Section
1.11, Concrete Jointing and Section 1.14, Depositing Concrete, Article 1.14.9.
1.16.4 MINIMUM COVER (1993)
Reinforcing steel or other corrodible metal shall have a cover of not less than 4 inches of concrete.
1.16.5 PROTECTING CONCRETE IN SEA WATER (1993)
Where severe climatic conditions or severe abrasions are anticipated, the face of the concrete from 2 feet below low water to 2
feet above high water, or from a plane below to a plane above wave action, shall be protected by stone of suitable quality,
dense vitrified shale brick as designated or as required by the Engineer, or in special cases the protection may be creosoted
timber.

SECTION 1.17 CONCRETE IN ALKALI SOILS OR ALKALI WATER
1.17.1 CONDITION OF EXPOSURE (1993)
In areas where concrete may be exposed to injurious concentrations of sulfates from soils and waters, concrete shall be made
with sulfate resisting cement. Table 8-1-14 gives limitations on tricalcium aluminate content in cement for various exposure
conditions, severity of conditions may be judged by the extent of deterioration which has occurred to concrete previously used
in the immediate vicinity or from the sulfate concentrations found in either the soil or the water.
Table 8-1-14. Recommendations For Concrete In Sulfate Exposures
Normal Weight Lightweight

Sulfate Concentration as SO4 Maximum Aggregate Aggregate
Tricalcium Concrete Concrete
Sulfate
Aluminate in Maximum Water-
Exposure Minimum
In Soil, Percent Cement, Percent Cementitious
In Solution, PPM (Note 1) Compression
by Weight Material Ratio,
Strength, f′ c, psi
by Weight
Moderate 0.10–0.20 150–1500 8 0.50 3750
Severe 0.20–2.00 1500–10,000 5 0.45 4000
Very Severe over 2.00 over 10,000 5 plus pozzolan 0.45 4000 1
(Note 2)
Note 1: Maximum tricalcium aluminate content of cement for concrete in seawater shall be 8%.
Note 2: Use a pozzolan which has been determined by tests to improve sulfate resistance when used in concrete containing a
cement with a maximum tricalcium aluminate content of 5% or less.
3
1.17.2 CONCRETE FOR MODERATE EXPOSURE (1993)
Concrete for moderate sulfate exposure shall be made from Type II or specified portland blast furnace slag cement Type IS
(MS), and portland pozzolan cement Type IP (MS) may be used to meet the 8% tricalcium aluminate limitation. Concrete shall
contain not less than 610 lb of cement per cu yd. The concrete shall be air-entrained in accordance with Section 1.12,
Proportioning, Article 1.12.4.
4
1.17.3 CONCRETE FOR SEVERE EXPOSURE (1993)
Concrete for severe sulfate exposure shall be made using Type V portland cement with a 5% maximum tricalcium aluminate
content. Concrete shall contain not less than 660 lb of cement per cu yd. The concrete shall be air-entrained in accordance with
Section 1.12, Proportioning, Article 1.12.4.
1.17.4 CONCRETE FOR VERY SEVERE EXPOSURE (1993)
Concrete for very severe exposure shall be made using Type V portland cement with a 5% maximum tricalcium aluminate
content plus pozzolan. The pozzolan used should have been determined by tests to improve the sulfate resistance of concrete
containing a cement with a maximum tricalcium aluminate content of 5% or less. The concrete shall contain not less than 660
lb of cement per cu yd. The concrete shall be air-entrained in accordance with Section 1.12, Proportioning, Article 1.12.4.
NOTE: Type III may also be specified to meet either the 5% or 8% tricalcium aluminate limitation. In certain
areas the tricalcium aluminate content of other types of cement may be less than 5% or 8%. Sulfate

resisting cement will not increase resistance to some chemically aggressive solutions, for example
ammonium nitrate. The special provisions of the project specifications shall cover all special cases.
1.17.5 CONCRETE FOR ALKALI SOILS OR ALKALI WATER (2004)
When concrete mix designs include cementitious materials other than portland cement, resistance to the harmful effects of
exposure to alkali soils or alkali water shall be determined by tests, or by experience from using materials from the same
sources.
Wherever possible, placing of concrete shall be continuous until completion of the section or until the concrete is at least 18
inches above ground or water level. If construction joints are required they shall be minimized, and all construction joints shall
be made as described in Section 1.11, Concrete Jointing and Section 1.14, Depositing Concrete, Article 1.14.9.
1.17.7 MINIMUM COVER (1993)
Reinforcing steel or other corrodible metal shall have a cover of not less than 4 inches of concrete.
1.17.8 PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE (1993)
Alkaline water or soils shall not be in contact with the concrete during placement and for a period of at least 72 hours
thereafter.
SECTION 1.18 CURING
1.18.1 GENERAL (2000)

a. In freezing weather, or when there is likelihood of freezing temperatures within the specified curing period, suitable
and sufficient means must be provided before concreting, for maintaining all concrete surfaces at a temperature of not
less than 50 degrees F (10 degrees C) for a period of not less than 7 days after the concrete is placed when Type I, IA,
II or IIA portland cement is used, and not less than 3 days when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used.
b. The temperature of concrete surfaces shall be determined by thermometers placed against the surface of the concrete.
Provision shall be made in form construction to permit the removal of small sections of forms to accommodate the
placing of thermometers against concrete surfaces at locations designated by the Engineer. After thermometers are
placed, the apertures in forms shall be covered in a way to simulate closely the protection afforded by the forms.
c. In determining the temperatures at angles and corners of a structure, thermometers shall be placed not more than 8
inches (200 mm) from the angles and corners. In determining temperatures of horizontal surfaces, thermometers shall
rest upon the surface under the protection covering normal to section involved.
d. Temperature readings shall be taken and recorded at intervals to be designated by the Engineer, over the entire curing
period specified, and the temperatures so recorded shall be interpreted as the temperature of the concrete surfaces when
the thermometers were placed.
e. When protection from cold is needed to insure meeting these specification requirements, all necessary materials for
covering or housing must be delivered at the site of the work before concreting is started and must be effectively
applied or installed, and such added heat must be furnished as may be necessary without depending in any way upon
the heat of hydration during the first 24 hours after concrete is placed when Type I, IA, II or IIA portland cement is

used, or the first 18 hours when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used. The methods of heating and protecting the
concrete shall be approved by the Engineer. Chemicals or other foreign materials shall not be mixed with the concrete
for the purpose of preventing freezing, unless approved by the Engineer.
f. When heat is supplied by steam or salamanders, covering or housing of the structure shall be so placed as to permit free
circulation of air above and around the concrete within the enclosure, but to the exclusion of air currents from without,
except that where salamanders are used, sufficient ventilation shall be provided to carry off gases. Special care shall be
exercised to maintain the specified temperature continuously and uniformly in all parts of the structure enclosures, and
to exclude cold drafts from angles and corners and from all projecting reinforcing steel. All exposed surfaces in the
heated enclosure shall be kept continuously wet during the heating period unless heat is supplied in the form of live
steam.
g. The supervisor responsible for curing procedures shall maintain certification by the American Concrete Institute as a
Concrete Flatwork Finisher or Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector.
1.18.2 HOT WEATHER CURING (1993)

a. The temperature of concrete at times of placement shall not exceed 90 degrees F (32 degrees C). When the temperature
of the concrete approaches 90 degrees F (32 degrees C), special efforts to prevent too rapid drying out must be made.
b. Continuous wet curing is preferred and shall commence as soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to resist
surface damage. Wet curing shall be carried out in accordance with the practice recommended under Article 1.18.3.
Curing water shall not be much cooler than the concrete to avoid temperature-change stresses resulting in cracking.
Exposed, unformed concrete surfaces shall be protected from wind and direct sun.
1
1.18.3 WET CURING (1993)
a. All concrete surfaces when not protected by forms, or membrane curing compounds, must be kept constantly wet for a
period of not less than 7 days after concrete is placed when Type I, IA, II or IIA portland cement is used, or not less
than 3 days when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used.
b. The wet curing period for all concrete which will be in contact with brine drip, sea water, salt spray, alkali or sulfate- 3
bearing soils or waters, or similar destructive agents, shall be increased to 50% more than the periods specified for
normal exposures. Salt water and corrosive waters and soils shall be kept from contact with the concrete during
placement and for the curing period.
c. When wood forms are left in place during the curing period they shall be kept sufficiently damp at all times to prevent
openings at the joints and drying of the concrete.
4
1.18.4 MEMBRANE CURING1 (1993)
a. In lieu of wet curing, a concrete curing compound in full conformance to ASTM C309 may be used, with the approval
of the Engineer.
b. Liquid Membrane-Forming Curing Compounds shall meet the requirements of ASTM C309:
(1) Type 1 (Clear).
(2) Type 1D (Clear with Fugitive Dye).
(3) Type 2 (White Pigmented).
(4) Class B (Solids Restricted to Resin Only).
1
See C - Commentary

c. The compounds shall be applied to all exposed concrete surfaces except those areas where concrete or other materials
are to be bonded, such as construction joints or areas to be dampproofed or waterproofed.
d. The compound shall be sprayed on finished surfaces as soon as the surface water has disappeared. Spraying equipment
shall be of the pressure-tank type with mist producing spray orifice. If forms are removed during the curing period,
concrete shall be sprayed lightly with water and the moistening continued until the surface will not readily absorb more
water. The curing compound shall then be sprayed on the concrete surface as soon as the moisture film has
disappeared.
1.18.5 STEAM CURING (1993)
Steam curing shall be done in an enclosure capable of containing the live steam in order to minimize moisture and heat losses.
The application of the steam shall be delayed from 2 to 4 hours after final placement of concrete to allow the initial set of the
concrete to take place. If retarders are used, the waiting period before application of the steam may be increased to 4 to 6
hours. The steam shall be at 100% relative humidity to prevent loss of moisture and to provide excess moisture for proper
hydration of the cement. Application of the steam shall not be directly on the concrete. During application of the steam, the
ambient air temperature shall increase at a rate not to exceed 40 degrees F (4.5 degrees C) per hour until a maximum
temperature of 140 degrees F to 160 degrees F (60 degrees C to 70 degrees C) is reached. This temperature shall be held for 12
to 18 hours or until the concrete has reached the required strength. In discontinuing the steam, the ambient air temperature
shall decrease at a rate not to exceed 40 degrees F (4.5 degrees C) per hour until a temperature has been reached about 20
degrees F (-7 degrees C) above the temperature of the air to which the concrete will be exposed. The concrete shall not be
exposed to temperatures below freezing for 6 days after casting.
1.18.6 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2003)1
1.18.6.1 Delays in Implementing Curing
Curing of freshly placed concrete as outlined in this Article should be implemented immediately upon having placed the
concrete or other measures should be taken to minimize the opportunity for shrinkage cracking to occur.
1.18.7 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST-FURNACE

SLAG (2004)2
1.18.7.1 General
Curing time may have to be extended due to slower strength gain during the initial curing period.
1.18.7.2 Delays in Implementing Curing
Curing of freshly placed concrete as outlined in this Article may require implementation sooner than normal if the mix exhibits
less bleed water than normal.
1.18.8 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)3
Curing procedures and times should be determined from the concrete mix design requirements.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary
3 See C - Commentary

SECTION 1.19 FORMED SURFACE FINISH
1.19.1 GENERAL (2005)
The following requirements, except as modified by the Plans or as approved by the Engineer, shall apply to the construction of
concrete surfaces exposed upon the completion of the structure:
a. Construct all face forms smooth and watertight. If constructed of wood, size the face boards to a uniform thickness and
dress all offsets or inequalities to a smooth surface. Fill and point flush all openings and cracks, as approved by the
Engineer, to prevent leakage and the formation of fins.
b. Cast concrete in one continuous operation between prescribed construction limits, true to line with sharp, unbroken
edges beveled or rounded as specified. Make joints not shown on the plans only if approved by the Engineer.
c. Mix, place and consolidate concrete so that the aggregate is uniformly distributed and a full surface of mortar, free
from air pockets and void spaces, is brought against the form.
d. Remove the forms carefully. Remove any fins or projections neatly as approved by the Engineer. If any small pits or
openings appear in the exposed surface of the concrete, or if the removal of bolts used for securing the forms leave
small holes, thoroughly saturate the surface with water and neatly fill all such holes, pits, etc., with an approved mortar.
Smooth with a wooden float to achieve an even finish. Mix the pointing mortar in small quantities, and use while still
plastic.
e. Perform all work in connection with the correction of damaged sections, voids or honeycomb as approved by the 1
Engineer.
f. Do not apply mortar or cement to the surface except to fill pits or voids, tie bolt holes, etc., as provided above, and not
by plastering.
1.19.2 RUBBED FINISH (2005)

3
a. Do not rub the surface unless called for on the plans or directed by the Engineer.
b. Fill all voids. Then thoroughly wet the surface and rub with a carborundum brick, or similar abrasive, to a smooth,
even finish of uniform appearance without applying any cement or other coating.
SECTION 1.20 UNFORMED SURFACE FINISH
1.20.1 GENERAL (2005)
a. After placing and consolidating concrete, strike off and finish with floats and trowels or finishing machines in a
manner approved by the Engineer. Finish edges with an edging tool satisfactory to the Engineer. Take care to avoid an
excess of water in the concrete and drain or otherwise promptly remove any water that accumulates on the surface. Do
not sprinkle dry cement, or a mixture of cement and sand, directly onto the surface.
b. Slope all horizontal surfaces of bridge seats to drain, except those directly under bearing plates.
c. Require the supervisor responsible for finishing unformed surfaces to have and maintain certification by the American
Concrete Institute as a Concrete Flatwork Finisher.

1.20.2 SIDEWALK FINISH (2005)
Float and trowel the top surface of all walks to a smooth finish with a steel trowel. After the water sheen has disappeared, final
finish the surface by brushing with a bristle brush. Draw the brush across the walk, at right angles to the edge of the walk.
Adjacent strokes should slightly overlap, to produce a uniform surface, moderately roughened by parallel brush marks. The
stiffness of the bristles and the time at which the surface is finished shall leave well defined brush marks. Keep the brush clean
at all times to avoid depositing mortar picked up during previous strokes.
1.20.3 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)1
For concrete containing silica fume, trial placements and finishing may be required prior to the start of the project.
1.20.4 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST-FURNACE

SLAG (2004)2
Finishing techniques may have to be adjusted to account for reduced amounts of bleed water.
1.20.5 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)
Finishing may have to be delayed unless the concrete mix was proportioned to avoid delayed setting.
SECTION 1.21 DECORATIVE FINISHES
Construct special or decorative finishes as called for on the Plans and as set forth in a special specification or special provision.
SECTION 1.22 PENETRATING WATER REPELLENT TREATMENT

OF CONCRETE SURFACES3
1.22.1 GENERAL (1993)
When called for on the plans, in the specifications or ordered by the Engineer the following requirements shall be applicable to
the treatment of exposed concrete surfaces upon completion of the structure or precast member. Water repellent treatment is
not intended to be used on surfaces subject to hydrostatic pressure.
1.22.2 SURFACE PREPARATION (2003)
a. Concrete surfaces shall be cleaned by light sand or shot blasting, followed by vacuum cleaning to remove all traces of
curing compounds, laitance, dirt, salt, oil, grease, fluids or other foreign material that would prevent penetration or
adhesion of the sealer.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

b. Concrete surface shall be clean and dry or as recommended by manufacturer. If concrete is subjected to rain or
moisture the surface should be allowed to air dry for a minimum of forty-eight (48) hours before treatment.
c. The cleaning process shall not alter the existing surface finish unless specified by the Engineer as an intentional part of
the design.
1.22.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS (2003)
a. Volatile Organic Compound regulations may vary by individual state. Therefore, it is mandatory that materials selected
for use be in total conformance to the applicable legislation of the state within which the work will be performed.
b. Ambient and surface temperatures at time of application shall be as specified by the manufacturer but not less than 40
degrees F (5 degrees C) or greater than 100 degrees F (38 degrees C).
c. No rain shall be predicted for a minimum of 12 hours after completion of water repellent treatment.
d. No precipitation shall occur within 24 hours preceding application.
e. No wind shall be predicted of velocity, per the manufacturer, greater than that which will cause an improper application
rate to drift, etc.
f. Adjoining surfaces of other materials shall be protected unless solvent carrier is certified as harmless to these materials
by water repellent manufacturer.
1
1.22.4 APPLICATION (2003)
a. The penetrating water repellent treatment solution shall be applied in strict accordance with manufacturer’s
instructions and not diluted or altered unless specified by the manufacturer. Equipment for the application of the
water-repellent treatment shall be clean of foreign materials and approved by the Engineer before use. The sealer shall
be applied by brushing, spraying or rolling, as recommended by the manufacturer.
3
b. Surface treatment of new concrete prior to 28 days curing is not permitted, unless approved by the manufacturer and
the Engineer.
c. The sealer manufacturer should be consulted on the recommended treatment of cracks.
d. Follow all safety precautions required by occupational jurisdiction.

4
e. A minimum of two (2) coats of water-repellent treatment is recommended to achieve uniform coverage. The second
and each additional coat shall be applied perpendicular to the previous coat. Care shall be taken when applying each
coat, such that running or puddling does not occur. Each coat shall be allowed to dry for a minimum of two (2) hours
before the next coat is applied. The final coat shall be allowed to dry according to the manufacturer’s instructions
before applying ballast and track.
1.22.5 MATERIALS (2003)
a. The penetrating water repellent material shall consist of an isobutyltrialkoxy silane, n-octyltrialkoxy silane or iso-
octytrialkoxy silane dissolved in a suitable solvent that will produce a hydrophobic surface covalently bonded to the
concrete. Only one (1) brand and specific type of penetrating sealer shall be used on each individual concrete element
(i.e., each pier, deck, abutment, etc.). The penetrating sealer must be a one part liquid, with no field blending required.

b. Qualities of the material to be furnished for the project shall be tested and results certified by an independent testing
laboratory with report provided to the owner. The following tests shall be performed on standardized laboratory
specimens:
(1) Water Penetration. ASTM C642–50 Day Soak less 1% Absorption (untreated specimen 4%, 0.2% absorption).
(2) Water Penetration. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244–21 Day Soak–Effective
Average Minimum 80% (Series II).
(3) Vapor Transmission. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244–Minimum 100%.
(4) Surface Appearance. No change in surface appearance or texture.
(5) Penetration. Oklahoma DOT OHD L-34 Visible Average 0.15 inches.
(6) Drying Time. Dry and ready for use 1 hour after application.
(7) Accelerated Weathering. ASTM G23–2000 hours are weatherometer–Maximum 3% loss of effectiveness.
(8) Water Penetration. Alberta DOT Type 1 Class B minimum.
(9) Salt Water Ponding. AASHTO T-259–Maximum 1.50 lb per cubic yard at 1/16 inch to 1/2 inch; 0.75 lb per cubic
yard at 1/2 inch to 1 inch.
(10) Traction – ASTM E303. No change when treated surface is compared to control surface. Measured in British
Pendulum Numbers.
1.22.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE (1993)
a. The manufacturer shall provide written certification of the quality of the product being offered and issue a warranty as
to its effectiveness when it is applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications.
b. Manufacturer shall have an established Quality Assurance Program with the Program available to the owner or buyer.
c. Pre-Test. An eight square feet (0.75 square meter) test panel on the job shall be treated and evaluated in accordance
with the primary water repellent manufacturer’s recommendations and written test procedures which would allow the
water repellent to cure for a minimum of 5 days. Two test cores (minimum 3 inches (75 mm) diameter and 3 inches (75
mm) deep) should be taken at locations determined by the Engineer. In the presence of the manufacturer, or one of its
representatives, the cores should be split by chisel. One core should be retained by the Engineer. The water repellent
material shall have penetrated the core at least 1/8 inch (3 mm) (avg) and shall appear as a band of non-wettable
concrete.
d. Test Data. All test data submitted by the water repellent manufacturer must be data generated by an independent testing
laboratory. Product tests must be totally controlled by the testing laboratory. Specimens cannot be pre-treated by the
manufacturer.
1.22.7 DELIVERY, STORAGE AND HANDLING (1995)
a. Materials shall be delivered to job site in manufacturer’s original undamaged containers with labels and seals intact.
b. Materials shall be stored in accordance with manufacturer’s requirements and in a dry area with a temperature range of
not less than 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) and not more than 120 degrees F (49 degrees C). Adequate ventilation shall be
provided, away from sources of ignition.

c. Manufacturer’s application instructions and Material Safety Data Sheet shall be consulted for additional safety
instructions.
SECTION 1.23 REPAIRS AND ANCHORAGE USING REACTIVE RESINS1
1.23.1 GENERAL (2003)
a. This recommended practice covers reactive resin polymer materials (i.e. epoxy) used for concrete repairs and
installation of anchor bolts and other miscellaneous items in concrete.
b. The material shall be a non-metallic, non-shrinking polymer resin supplied in prepackaged and/or pre-measured
containers. It shall contain no rust or corrosion promoting agents and shall be moisture insensitive.
c. Packaged stability of each component in original unopened containers stored in temperatures between 40 degrees F (5
degrees C) and 90 degrees F (32 degrees C) shall be a minimum of six months. The mixing instructions, setting time
and expiration date of the material shall appear on each container.
a. The surface of the concrete should be prepared per the manufacturer’s recommendations for the type of application
being conducted. 1
b. The concrete surface shall be clean and dry, with no traces of curing compounds, laitance, dirt, salt, oil, or grease.
a. The reactive resins should be chosen to provide the requirements (i.e. viscosity, strength, flexibility, adhesion etc.) of 3
the specific repair to be performed. The specific type, grade and class of material is to be selected by the Engineer in
accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturer.
SECTION 1.24 HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE2 4
1.24.1 GENERAL (1995)
a. The following specifications shall apply to structures with a minimum specified concrete compressive strength of
6,000 psi (41 MPa) and made with portland cement concrete. These provisions do not apply to “exotic” materials and
techniques such as polymer-impregnated concrete, polymer concrete, or concrete with artificial aggregates.
b. The compressive strength of production concrete shall be tested at 7 and 28 days and at other times as required by the
Engineer in accordance with ASTM C39.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

1.24.2 MATERIALS (1995)
Trial batches containing the materials to be used on the job shall be prepared at the proposed slump and tested to determine
compressive strength. Unless tests on additional trial batches are performed, materials shall be of the same type, brand and
source of supply throughout the duration of the project.
1.24.2.1 Cement
a. Cement mill test reports shall be submitted by cement suppliers for each shipment of cement. Silo test certificates shall
be submitted for the previous 6 to 12 months. Cement uniformity in accordance with ASTM C917 shall be reported.
Variations shall be limited to the following:
Tricalcium silicate (C3S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4%

Ignition Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5%
Fineness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 cm2/g (Blaine)
Sulfate (SO3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20% of optimum
b. Mortar cube tests shall be performed in accordance with ASTM C109.
1.24.2.2 Chemical Admixtures
Chemical admixtures shall conform to the following ASTM specifications:
Air-entraining admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C260

Retarders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Types B and D
Normal-setting water reducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Type A
High-range water reducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Types F and G
Accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Types C and E
1.24.2.3 Mineral Admixtures
Mineral admixtures consist of fly ash (Class C and F), silica fume and ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Fly ash shall
conform to ASTM C618 specifications. Methods for sampling and testing of fly ash shall conform to ASTM C311. Silica fume
shall conform to ASTM C1240. Slag shall conform to ASTM C989.
1.24.2.4 Aggregates
Fine and coarse aggregate shall meet the requirements of ASTM C33.
1.24.2.5 Water
Water for use in high-strength concrete shall conform to Section 1.5, Water. Acceptance requirements specified in Table 1 of
ASTM C94 shall be met.
1.24.3 CONCRETE MIXTURE PROPORTIONS (1995)
Trial batches shall be performed to generate sufficient data to obtain optimum mixture proportions.

SECTION 1.25 SPECIALTY CONCRETES
1.25.1 GENERAL
This manual article describes and provides requirements for specialty concretes that may be used in railroad construction.
Before any specialty concrete is used, additional investigation of specific and detailed specifications shall be made.
1.25.2 SULFUR CONCRETE1
1.25.2.1 General
Sulfur concrete is a thermoplastic material produced by mixing heated aggregate 350F to 400F (177C to 204C) with modified
sulfur cement and fine mineral filler (ambient temperature) to prepare a well-mixed concrete that is maintained within a
temperature range of 270F to 285F (132C to 141C) until placed. The ACI Manual of Concrete Practice contains detailed
information.
1.25.2.2 Design
a. Mixture design for sulfur concrete is different from portland cement concrete.
b. Aggregate for sulfur concrete shall conform with ASTM C33.
c. Reinforcement may be with reinforcing steel, epoxy-coated reinforcing steel or with fibers.
1
1.25.2.3 Handling
The requirements for mixing/transporting equipment are defined by the unique thermoplastic characteristic of sulfur concrete.
Sulfur concrete must be maintained in a molten state and continuously monitored to maintain the temperature range of 270F
(133C) to 285F (147C). The concrete mixture must be thoroughly mixed so the molten sulfur cement adequately coats the fine
and coarse aggregate and mineral filler.
3
1.25.2.4 Placing
Sulfur concrete can be placed in either wooden or metal forms.
1.25.3 HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

4
1.25.3.1 Design
Heavyweight concrete, unless otherwise stipulated, shall conform to the other requirements of Chapter 8, Part 1, shall be made
with Type II cement, and shall be proportioned as directed by the Engineer, with not more than 6 gal. (22.7 L) of water per 94
lb (42.8 kg) of cement. Where heavyweight concrete is required for counterweights, the coarse aggregate shall be trap rock,
iron ore, or other heavy material or the concrete may incorporate steel punchings or scrap metal. The mortar shall be composed
of 1 part of cement and 2 parts of fine aggregate. Fine metallic aggregate shall consist of commercial chilled-iron or steel shot
or ground iron, meeting SAE J 444a. All metallic aggregate shall have a specific gravity of 6.50 or greater and be clean and
free from foreign coatings of grease, oil, machine shop compounds, zinc chromate, loose scale, and dirt. The maximum weight
of heavy concrete shall be 315 lb per cu feet (5,050 kg per cu m).
1
See C - Commentary

1.25.3.2 Placing
a. Heavyweight concrete shall be placed in layers and consolidated with vibrators or tampers. Heavyweight concrete
usually will not “flow” in a form and must be placed uniformly throughout the area and compacted in place with a
minimum of vibration. Under no circumstances shall an attempt be made to move heavyweight concrete during
consolidation with vibration equipment. Layers shall be limited to a maximum 12 inch (300 mm) thickness.
Consolidation shall be by internal vibrators to achieve uniform and optimum density. In heavyweight concrete
vibrators have a smaller effective area, or radius of action; therefore greater care shall be exercised to insure that the
concrete is properly consolidated. Vibrators shall be inserted at closely spaced intervals and only to a depth sufficient
to cause complete intermixing of adjacent layers. Counterweights containing punchings or scrap metal or iron ore
aggregates shall be enclosed in steel boxes.
b. Heavyweight concrete not enclosed in steel boxes shall be adequately reinforced.
1.25.3.3 Determining Weight
For ascertaining the weight of the concrete, test blocks having a volume of not less than 0.1 cu m (4 cu feet) for ordinary
concrete, and 1 cu feet (0.03 cu m) for heavy concrete, and 1 cu feet (0.03 cu m) for the mortar for heavy concrete, shall be cast
at least 30 days before concreting is begun. Two test blocks of each kind shall be provided, and one weighed immediately after
casting and the other after it has cured for 28 days.
1.25.4 POLYMER CONCRETE (2013)
1.25.4.1 General1
This section covers polymer concrete that is to be used for repair of bridges and other structures. The section describes the
selection, sampling and testing of materials, material properties and construction requirements under specific conditions.
1.25.4.2 Selection of Materials2
The materials shall meet the project requirements and be approved by the Engineer.
1.25.4.3 Submittals
a. Submittals shall be reviewed and approved by the Engineer.
b. Contractor shall have a copy of all approved submittals at work site during construction.
c. Manufacturer(s) Submittals:
(1) Material descriptions, brochures and technical data sheets including general chemical composition and physical
properties, pertinent test data, and specific recommendations for surface preparation, testing, mixing, application,
fillers (e.g. aggregates, sands) and curing.
(2) Manufacturer’s Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for all materials to be used including instructions for storing
and handling.
d. Contractor’s Submittals:
(1) Details of proposed storage methods.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

(2) Form(s): drawings, prepared by a licensed engineer, including fabrication, assembly, and support of forms per
Section 1.9.
(3) Detailed installation procedures:
(a) Surface preparation including testing.
(b) Mixing, including detailed mixing and application instructions.
(c) Installation.
(d) Quality assurance.
(4) Concrete design mixture including procedures for ensuring quality of polymer concrete and repair materials.
1.25.4.4 Surface Preparation1
a. The substrate to which the polymer concrete is to be applied must be sound, clean, dry and properly prepared.
b. Sufficient surface preparation shall be demonstrated, when specified, by use of a tensile adhesion test in accordance
with ASTM D4541.
c. Defective areas and honeycombed areas shall not be patched until examined and approved by the Engineer. When
such approval is received by the Contractor, areas involved shall be repaired in accordance with the applicable
manufacturers written instructions.
1
1.25.4.5 Installation2
Installation shall be in accordance with the Manufacturer’s recommendations as approved by the Engineer.
1.25.4.6 Quality Assurance3 3

a. Applicator:
Personnel using the product must have previous experience using similar products.
b. Manufacturer(s):
4
(1) Submit a listing of representative projects installed in similar climates and for similar substrate conditions, in the
last 5 years.
(2) Manufacturer must employ trained technical representatives who will be available for consultation and project site
inspection.
c. Contractor:
Contractor shall confirm in writing that substrates have been inspected, are adequately prepared and represent a
suitable substrate for the application of the materials.
d. Testing and inspection services shall be approved by the Engineer.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

e. Pre-installation Conference: Engineer may conduct conference at Project site with Contractor and/or Manufacturer.
1.25.4.7 Delivery, Storage and Handling
a. Materials delivered to the project site shall be in sealed in, undamaged containers with labels intact and legible,
indicating the material name and lot number.
b. Comply with manufacturer’s written instructions for minimum and maximum temperature requirements and other
conditions for storage. Store materials in a dry location, at temperatures not exceeding 90ºF (32ºC) or as otherwise
permitted by the manufacturer.
1.25.4.8 Removal of Forms
Contractor shall be responsible for proper removal of forms in accordance with Article 1.9.8.
SECTION 1.26 SELF-CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE
1.26.1 GENERAL (2013)1
a. Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) is a highly fluid yet stable concrete mix that can spread readily into place and fill the
forms without mechanical consolidation or undergoing significant segregation. Concrete is not made self-
consolidating by the addition of extra water, which would increase segregation and have other undesired effects.
b. Self-consolidating concrete shall be designed, mixed, formed, and cured in accordance with the other provisions of
Part 1 except as stipulated herein.
1.26.2 MIX DESIGN AND TESTING (2013)2
1.26.2.1 Mix Design
The mix designer shall be experienced in the design and production of SCC. High-range water-reducing and viscosity-
modifying admixtures as well as fine limestone powder and mineral pozzolans are generally included in the design mix. The
size, smoothness and gradation of the aggregates shall be selected based on the requirements of the particular project. The
required slump flow to be achieved by the mix design is dependent upon the requirements for placement of the SCC. By
careful selection and design of the mix, the cured SCC can have properties comparable to that of conventional concrete.
1.26.2.2 Quality Control Testing
Slump flow, visual stability index, column segregation and J-Ring tests shall be performed on the as-designed mixture by the
supplier at the plant. Tests of the cured concrete shall also be performed to ensure that the design mix produces the required
properties. Test results shall be subject to review for approval by the Engineer. New tests will be required whenever there is a
change in the source of a component material or whenever there is a change in a production procedure.
1.26.2.3 Testing Methods
a. Among the tests specifically designed for ensuring the desired flow and stability characteristics of fresh SCC are the
following:
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

(1) ASTM C1610 Test Method for Static Segregation of Self-Consolidating Concrete Using Column Technique,
(2) ASTM C1611 Test Method for Slump Flow of Self-Consolidating Concrete, and
(3) ASTM C1621 Test Method for Passing Ability of Self-Consolidating Concrete by J-Ring.
b. Other tests can also be used in addition to or in place of the tests listed above. The Engineer will direct which tests
shall be employed and the frequency of testing. See Articles 1.12.8 and 1.12.9 of this Part for testing requirements for
the hardened concrete. The tests shall be performed by qualified personnel.
c. Quality control personnel must understand the engineering properties, placement techniques, element characteristics,
and raw materials considerations that were used to determine mixture proportions and fresh concrete properties.
1.26.3 FORMS AND REINFORCEMENT (2013)1
a. The structural design of forms shall take into account the fluid nature of self-consolidating concrete as well as the rate
of placement. Forms shall be designed to support lateral concrete pressures in accordance with the full fluid pressure
provisions of ACI 347R. If the design of the forms is in accordance with ACI 347R, but to a loading less than the full
fluid pressure, form pressure measuring devices shall be used to prevent rapid concrete placements from exceeding the
rated capacity of the forms.
b. Forms should be sufficiently watertight to prevent leakage of fluid from the SCC. Form release agents with a high
solids content should be used.
1
c. Reinforcement ties and other attachments shall be designed to account for the fluid nature of the concrete.
1.26.4 MIXING CONCRETE (2013)2
Mixing proportions and procedures shall be carefully controlled to achieve consistency in the stability and fluidity of SCC.
SCC may require additional mixing time (30 to 90 seconds) as compared to conventional concrete. Wash water, if used, shall
be completely discharged from the drum before a succeeding batch is produced. 3
1.26.5 PLACEMENT (2013)3
SCC should be placed continuously and in layers of such thickness that no fresh SCC is placed on concrete that has hardened
enough to cause a plane of weakness. A detailed placement plan shall be submitted to the Engineer and approved prior to
placing SCC. 4
1.26.6 CURING (2013)
Curing of SCC is essential and early protection of exposed surfaces is critical to preventing plastic shrinkage cracking.
Procedures for curing conventional concrete should be applied.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various Articles in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements. In the numbering of Articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the Section/Article being
explained.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

C - SECTION 1.2 CEMENT
C - 1.2.2 SPECIFICATIONS (2004)
The use of slag cement Types ‘S’ and ‘S(A)’ as defined in Standard Specification C 595 is not included in this recommended
practice as these cements are not intended to be used alone in producing structural concrete.
C - SECTION 1.3 OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
C - 1.3.3.1(a) Silica Fume
One of the primary benefits of including silica fume in a concrete mix design is to reduce the permeability of the hardened
concrete. Porosity will be significantly reduced if proper proportioning, pre-construction testing, and curing methods are used.
Long term durability, resistance to chemical attack including sulphate attack, and penetration of chloride ions can all be
favorably affected.
Other possible benefits include improved resistance to abrasion. Silica fume has been used to obtain both of these properties.
However, the replacement method may inhibit other special properties.
C - 1.3.3.1(b) Fly Ash
All fly ashes contain pozzolanic materials, but some fly ashes also exhibit cementitious properties of their own. Factors
affecting this are the glass content, its fineness and gradation, and silica or silica-plus-alumina content. There is therefore a
wide variation in pozzolanic and cementitious efficiency of different fly ashes, which cannot be predicted by selecting Class C,
Class F or Class N. Direct tests of strength development, and tests to determine the efficiency of fly ash to produce special
properties such as sulphate resistance, or resistance to alkali-silica reactions, are necessary.
Possible benefits of using fly ash in a concrete mix which is properly designed, deposited and cured include increased long-
term strength potential, improved workability and pumpability, reductions in the heat of hydration when using fly ash as a
replacement for some of the cement that would otherwise be used, a finer pore structure which reduces the ingress of chloride
ions, and improved resistance to sulphate attack and to alkali silica reactions. Possible difficulties in using fly ash include a
need to adjust the dosage of air entraining admixture, reduced bleeding of fresh concrete, reduced rate of strength gain which
could effect form and/or falsework removal parameters, and a need to delay finishing of unformed surfaces under some
circumstances.
C - 1.3.3.2 Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag
When used as provided in this recommended practice, replacement of part of the portland cement that would otherwise be
required in a concrete mix design with ground granulated blast-furnace slag may impart several benefits. These include a
much reduced permeability, with a consequent reduction of penetration of chloride ions and reductions in corrosion of
reinforcement; reduced heat of hydration at early ages; improved sulphate resistance; and reduced levels of alkali silica
reactivity. Reductions in alkali silica reactivity are due to reduced permeability, reductions in available alkali, chemical
effects, and other effects.
C - SECTION 1.4 AGGREGATES
C - 1.4.2.1 General
Use of lightweight fine aggregates is not allowed because of their poor performance in all lightweight concrete, and the many
difficulties and restrictions to their use.

C - SECTION 1.5 WATER
Non-potable water (not fit for human consumption) is being used as mixing water in hydraulic cement concrete to a much
larger extent than when the AREMA recommendation effective in 2009 was written. Use of a non-potable water source
requires limiting the solids content of the water. ASTM C1603, which is referenced by ASTM C1602, provides a test method
for measurement of the solids content of water by means of measuring the water’s density.
In addition to limiting the amount of solids in mixing water, maximum concentrations of other materials that impact the
quality of concrete must be limited. These include levels of chloride ions, sulfates, and alkalies. ACI 318-08, R 3.4.1 is the
requirement that water used to mix concrete must comply with ASTM C1602. As indicated in ACI 318-08, R 3.4.1, ASTM
C1602 permits the use of potable water without testing.
The chief concern over high chloride content is the possible effect of chloride ions on the corrosion of embedded reinforcing
steel, prestressing tendons, aluminum embedments or stay-in-place galvanized metal forms. Limitations placed on the
maximum concentration of chloride ions that are contributed by the ingredients including water, aggregates, cement, and
admixtures are given in ACI 318-08, Chapter 4, Table 4.3.1. ASTM C1602 limits the chloride ions in ppm (parts per million)
and only applies to that contributed by the mixing water.
Test results for non-potable water shall be furnished to the Engineer and approved prior to use.
C - SECTION 1.6 REINFORCEMENT
C - 1.6.1 GENERAL (2013)

1
“Report on Steel Reinforcement - Material Properties and U.S. Availability (ACI 439.4R-09)” provides further guidance for
steel reinforcement.
C - 1.6.4 BENDING AND STRAIGHTENING REINFORCING BARS (2013)
a. Field bending and straightening of partially embedded reinforcing bars is discouraged, but when this operation is 3
required it should be closely controlled. Construction conditions that make field bending or straightening necessary
also make it difficult to control the conditions under which it is done thus making field inspection even more critical.
b. Numerous technical papers published on this subject contain varying opinions on the best procedures to use. Current
known factors that affect field bending and straightening of partially embedded reinforcing bars in concrete include:
(1) Application of heat appears to be necessary to bend or straighten larger sized bars, but either overheating (above 4
1800 degrees F (980 degrees C)) or under heating between 450 degrees F (230 degrees C) and 650 degrees F (340
degrees C) can result in reduced strength or even cause failure of the bars.
(2) Repeated bending and straightening weakens the steel and could result in failure even under the best controlled
conditions.
(3) Tight bending diameters decreases the strength of the steel.
c. The reworking of reinforcing bars that are partially embedded in concrete involves some level of risk and is not
encouraged. Risks may be minimized by using reinforcing bars of a more ductile steel such as low-alloy steel bars
(ASTM A706/A706M) rather than carbon-steel bars (ASTM A615/A615M) in locations where field bending and/or
straightening will be required.
d. When field bending and straightening of partially embedded bars is permitted by the Engineer, the following example
procedural guideline should be used:

(1) Bars of size #3 (10 mm) through #7 (22 mm).
(a) Bend or straighten bars cold (bars should be above freezing temperature).
(b) Do not allow more than one cycle of bending and straightening.
(c) Diameter of bends should conform to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Table 8-2-6. Bends should not
exceed 90 degrees.
(d) Bending should be done with a uniform application of force.
(e) Straightening should be accomplished by using a steel pipe pushed tightly against the bend, with application
of force as follows:
1 Steel pipe should have an inside diameter 1/8 inch to 3/8 inch (3 mm to 9 mm) larger than the outside
diameter of the bar to be straightened.
2 Steel pipe should be long enough to provide sufficient leverage.
3 Straightening pipe should be reset against the bar at 45 degrees for #4 (13 mm) and smaller bars and at 30
degrees and 60 degrees for #5 to #7 (16 mm to 22 mm) bars.
4 Workers should have a firm base from which to apply straightening pressure.
(2) Bars of size #8 through #11 (25 mm through 36 mm).
(a) Bend or straighten bars after preheating to 1100 degrees F to 1500 degrees F (590 degrees to 810 degrees C)
as measured with temperature-indicating crayons.
(b) Concrete must be protected from exposure to excessive heat. If necessary protective insulation should be
used.
(c) Atmospherically cool bars. Do not expose to water or other cooling mediums.
(d) Do not allow more than one cycle of bending and straightening.
(e) Diameter of bends should conform to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Table 8-2-6.
(f) Bending should be done with a uniform application of force.
(g) Straightening should be accomplished by using a steel pipe pushed tightly against the bend, with application
of force as follows:
1 Steel pipe should have an inside diameter 1/8 inch to 3/8 inch (3 mm to 9 mm) larger than the outside
diameter of the bar to be straightened.
2 Steel pipe should be long enough to provide sufficient leverage.
3 Straightening pipe should be reset progressively against the bar around the bend.
4 Workers should have a firm base from which to apply straightening pressure.

C - SECTION 1.12 PROPORTIONING
C - 1.12.10 SPECIAL PROVISIONS WHEN USING CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS OTHER

THAN PORTLAND CEMENT (2009)
C - 1.12.10.2 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete
ACI 211.1 provides guidance for proportioning concrete containing silica fume.
C - 1.12.10.2.2 High-Range Water Reducing Admixtures
Concrete containing silica fume will have a greater water demand to maintain workability than concrete not containing silica
fume. However, this additional water is rarely provided since it would negate the potential benefits of using silica fume. High
range water reducers (superplasticizers) are commonly used instead. If a superplasticizer is not used, then the fresh concrete
would appear sticky and not consolidate properly. Concrete containing silica fume is more cohesive and less prone to
segregation than other fresh concretes. It is common to increase the slump by 2 inches (50mm) from what would otherwise be
provided.
The use of a high range water reducing admixture will also benefit the rate of strength gain. Initial strength gain will be slower
when using silica fume. Twenty-eight (28) to ninety (90) day strengths can be enhanced using silica fume, however, as long as
the water to cementitious material ratio is kept low by using a high range water reducing admixture.
C - 1.12.10.2.3 Entrained Air

1
Concrete containing silica fume will require more air entraining admixture than normal concrete to obtain the desired result.
The amount will depend upon the amount of silica fume and the type of air entraining admixture used.
C - 1.12.10.3 Requirements When Using Fly Ash in Concrete
ACI 211.1 provides guidance for proportioning concrete containing fly ash.
3
C - 1.12.10.3.3 Testing to Verify Mix Design
Reduced bleeding rates in fresh concrete may result in raising the possibility of plastic shrinkage cracking.
Initial setting time and the rate of early strength gain may be retarded by the use of fly ash. Setting time requirements can also
delay finishing. The rate of early strength gain can be satisfactory with a properly designed and tested mix, which usually
includes increases in the total cementitious material (fly ash plus portland cement) content. The proportion of fly ash to 4
cement may be varied from winter to summer.
Air entraining admixture requirements will be different for concrete containing fly ash to achieve the same amount of air that
would have resulted in concrete not containing fly ash.
The heat of hydration can be reduced if the fly ash is used to replace some of the portland cement instead of being added as
additional cementitious material.
The long term strength of the hardened concrete may be enhanced using fly ash.
Improved performance against sulphate attack and resistance to alkali aggregate reactivity will require the addition of
sufficient quantities of cementitious materials other than portland cement that may exceed the proportions of what would be
used otherwise.

C - 1.12.10.3.4 Water to Cementitious Materials Ratio
The improved workability and pumpability of concrete containing fly ash will permit reductions in the amount of water. This
is due to the spherical shape of the fly ash particles imparting improved workability; and to the reduced unit weight of fly ash
as compared with cement which can result in increased paste content when cement replacement with fly ash is by weight.
Reductions in the amount of water can also reduce the possibility of plastic shrinkage. The measurement of water as a
proportion of total cementitious material by weight provides a consistent approach which is also applicable when using
blended cements.
C - 1.12.10.4 Requirements When Using Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag in Concrete
ACI 211.1 provides guidance for proportioning concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag.
C - 1.12.10.4.1 General
The amount of ground granulated blast-furnace slag as a proportion of the total cementitious material normally varies between
25% and 70%, with approximately 40% to 50% being a common proportional amount. A maximum amount of 50% can also
be applicable, per Table 8-1-12.
Final concrete properties will also be determined by the portland cement used, the grade or reactivity of the ground granulated
blast-furnace slag, curing conditions, and the special properties for which the material was used, such as reduced early heat of
hydration.
C - 1.12.10.4.2 Water-Reducing Admixtures
Concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag will have a slower rate of strength gain than normal portland cement
concretes, especially at early ages, unless the water content is reduced.
C - 1.12.10.4.3 Accelerators
Significant retardation has been observed at low temperatures when using ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Accelerating
admixtures can be used to counter this effect. However, the source and reactivity of the ground granulated blast-furnace slag,
the ratio of ground granulated blast-furnace slag to normal portland cement, the characteristics of the cement, and the water to
cementitious material ratio will also influence set time. Therefore the need for pre-construction tests, as noted previously, is
also confirmed here.
C - 1.12.10.4.4 Proportioning of Aggregates
Portland cement concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag will have a higher volume of paste than normal
portland cement concrete when both mixes are proportioned by weight (mass). The proportional difference is due to ground
granulated blast-furnace slag being lighter than portland cement. The coarse to fine aggregate ratio can therefore be increased
or the water to cementitious material ratio can be reduced. Increases in the amount of coarse aggregate may be beneficial to
finishing, which may aid in reducing shrinkage and potential for scaling. The natural tendency of concrete containing ground
granulated blast-furnace slag is to be more workable and easier to place and consolidate. This will compensate for some
increases in the proportion of coarse aggregate.
C - SECTION 1.13 MIXING
C - 1.13.5 REQUIREMENTS WHEN USING SILICA FUME IN CONCRETE (2009)
C - 1.13.5.2 Workability of Delivered Concrete
Refer to Commentary for Article 1.12.10.2.2.

C - SECTION 1.14 DEPOSITING CONCRETE
C - 1.14.12 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)
C - 1.14.12.1 Protection from Moisture Loss
Fresh concrete containing silica fume displays significantly less bleeding than normal concrete. There is therefore the
potential that shrinkage cracking will occur if the evaporation rate exceeds the bleeding rate. Increased amounts of silica fume
will increase the potential for such shrinkage cracking. Other conditions including adverse temperatures, wind, or low
humidity could also increase the potential for shrinkage cracking. Evaporation retarders, fogging, and protection from the
wind during the placement stage are options which may be included in the project specifications to counter this. Measures to
protect against early moisture loss in concrete containing silica fume should included in the project specifications. Shrinkage
cracking can be eliminated through the use of proper procedures.
C - 1.14.12.2 Consolidation
The cohesive nature of concrete containing silica fume makes it susceptable to excessive entrapment of air, even with higher
slumps. Proper placing techniques are essential to achieving any special properties for which silica fume is specified.
C - SECTION 1.18 CURING
C - 1.18.4 MEMBRANE CURING (1993)

1
a. With the emergence of legislation designed to limit the amounts of Volatile Organic Compound (V.O.C.) emission, it is
incumbent upon specifying Engineers to be cognizant of these new laws.
b. Volatile Organic Compound regulations may vary by individual state. Therefore, it is mandatory that materials selected
for use be in total conformance to the applicable legislation of the state within which the work will be performed.
C - 1.18.6 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2003) 3

C - 1.18.6.1 Delays in Implementing Curing
Refer to the commentary concerning Article 1.14.12.1.
C - 1.18.7 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST- 4

FURNACE SLAG (2004)
C - 1.18.7.1 General
Strength gain may be slower at low temperatures during the initial curing period when the ground granulated blast-furnace slag
is used to replace part of the portland cement in a mix. The amount of retardation will depend upon the temperature, the
proportions and characteristics of each of the cementitious materials, the total content of cementitious material and other
factors. Little, if any, retardation occurs at temperatures above about 70° F (21° C), and the behavior of concretes containing
ground granulated blast-furnace slag under elevated curing temperatures has been reported to be good.
Refer also to the commentary concerning accelerators, in Article 1.12.10.4.3.
C - 1.18.7.2 Delays in Implementing Curing
Ground granulated blast-furnace slags that are finer than portland cements are likely to produce mixes with reduced bleed
water when the combined amount of cementitious material is not also reduced.

C - 1.18.8 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)
Time of setting and the rate of early strength gain will have been prescribed in arriving at the mix design and proportioning.
This will have determined the water to cementitious material ratio that, if high, may require special curing measures to avoid
plastic shrinkage cracking. Special curing requirements may also result if a minimum specified strength is to be attained
before subjecting the hardened concrete to freeze-thaw cycles or to chlorides.
C - SECTION 1.20 UNFORMED SURFACE FINISH
C - 1.20.3 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)
The tackiness and lack of bleed water of concrete containing 10% to 20% silica fume will make finishing of unformed surfaces
more difficult and may require trial placements in order to determine finishing methods. The use of evaporation retarders and
other methods to reduce evaporation will aid the finishing process.
C - 1.20.4 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST-

FURNACE SLAG (2004)
See the commentary for Article 1.18.7.2 regarding delays in implementing curing procedures.
C - SECTION 1.22 PENETRATING WATER REPELLENT TREATMENT OF CONCRETE

SURFACES
C - 1.22.1 GENERAL (1993)

a. Penetrating sealers are primarily intended for use in sealing the surface of concrete structures against intrusion of water
and chlorides, while having a minimum effect on the concrete’s ability to breathe (transfer water vapor). Of the 21
materials tested and addressed in National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244, only the silane
exhibited a measurable penetration effect.
NCHRP Report 244:
“This silane material produces a non-wettable concrete surface to a depth of 0.10 inch (2.5 mm). The other materials
tested in this project, including boiled linseed oil, generally do not produce a measurable penetration or a measurable
thickness of non-wettable concrete. Most of these other materials are coatings and should not be referred to in
specifications as ‘penetrating sealers’.”
b. With the emergence of new legislation designed to limit the amounts of Volatile Organic Compound (V.O.C.) emission,
it is incumbent upon specifying Engineers to be cognizant of these new laws.
C - 1.22.2 SURFACE PREPARATION (2003)

a. Good surface preparation, prior to applying the sealer, is essential to achieve the desired maximum penetration into the
concrete. When the sealers penetrate below the surface of the concrete, they chemically bond to the concrete and
prevent water and chlorides from entering the concrete. Contaminants must be totally removed and the surface
allowed to dry. Properly applied sealers shall provide protection from the ingress of water and chlorides for a period of
five (5) years.
b. Surface preparation may be accomplished by:
(1) High pressure water (hot or cold).

(2) Chemical cleaners.
(3) Sandblasting.
(4) Shotblasting.
c. When high pressure water is employed, all surfaces shall be free of standing water or moisture at the time of the
treatment which could restrict surface penetration. Care must be taken when using high-pressure water steam to avoid
excessive exposure of coarse aggregate.
C - 1.22.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS (2003)

There is some question of the effects of high temperature on water repellent treatments as one author states that high
temperatures actually speed up the condensation reaction of monomeric silanes into oligomeric siloxanes. Because of this,
application of treatment at temperatures over 100 degrees F should be carefully considered.
C - 1.22.4 APPLICATION (2003)

Consult the manufacturer’s material safety data sheet and application instructions for further safety information.
C - 1.22.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE (1993)

a. The owner of a concrete structure or buyer of a concrete sealer shall be satisfied that the manufacturer can furnish the
quality assurance claimed. This can be done by comparing test results of the product against test results obtained by
independent test studies, several of which are listed in the References found at the end of this Chapter. The buyer or 1
owner should also be satisfied that an agent or distributor who makes such claims or offers such a warranty has the full
authority to do so by the manufacturer.
b. The owner of a concrete structure or buyer of a concrete sealer should seek out an applicator (either owner’s own
employee or outside contractor) approved by the manufacturer in order to validate its warranty.
3
C - SECTION 1.23 REPAIRS AND ANCHORAGE USING REACTIVE RESINS
a. Reactive resins may be selected for inclusion with fine and/or coarse aggregate in polymer concrete or included with a
clean, dry, fine aggregate in a polymer mortar. Reactive resins can be used in chemical bonding systems as an adhesive
for concrete or as a binder for mortars or concrete.
b. Reactive resins may also be used neat (without the addition of aggregate) as a bonding agent, as a bonding coat for 4
adhesion, as well as anchoring between metallic inserts and concrete when the spacing between the metallic insert and
the interior wall of the bored hole in the concrete is 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) minimum. While the general rule for anchor bolt
embedment is ten (10) to fifteen (15) times the bolt diameter, the embedment shall be designed based upon loads to be
carried.
C - SECTION 1.24 HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
C - 1.24.1 GENERAL (1995)
a. With the advances in concrete technology during the last few decades, the commonly achievable limits of concrete
strength have steadily increased. The use of high-strength concrete in construction has also increased. Concrete
compressive strengths approaching 20,000 psi (138 MPa) have been used in cast-in-place concrete buildings. High-
strength concrete has also been used in bridge structures. Research has been conducted on the performance of high-
strength prestressed concrete in bridges.

b. Because of the continuing advances in technology, the definition of the minimum concrete compressive strength for
high-strength concrete is changing with time. Different geographic locations may also have varying limits for what
they consider as high-strength concrete. The ACI Committee 363 report on high-strength concrete (ACI 363R-92)
defines high-strength as having compressive strengths of 6,000 psi (41 MPa) or greater.
c. The ACI Committee 363 report on high-strength concrete provides detailed information on material and structural
aspects of high-strength concrete.
C - 1.24.2 MATERIALS (1995)
a. To achieve adequate consistency and quality of high-strength concrete, stringent control of constituent materials is
necessary. Variations in type, brand and source of supply of the components can have major influences on the
properties of high-strength concrete. Therefore, emphasis is placed on the preparation of trial batches and maintenance
of the same component materials throughout the project.
b. Testing and comparison of laboratory and production-sized trial batches are needed to establish the required strength of
laboratory trial batches. This is because the laboratory trial batches have often exhibited significantly higher strength
than production batches.
C - 1.24.2.1 Cement
The quality and consistency of cement used in high-strength concrete need verification through mill test reports, and mortar
cube tests. The most suitable types of cement for high-strength concrete are Type I or Type III with minimum 7-day cube
compressive strength of 4500 psi (31 MPa). In addition, cement should not show signs of false set.
C - 1.24.2.2 Chemical Admixtures
a. Chemical admixtures are commonly used in high-strength concrete to increase compressive strength through reduction
of water, control rate of hardening, accelerate strength gain, and improve workability and durability. Performance of all
materials in high-strength concrete as a whole should be considered when selecting the type, brand and dosage of any
admixtures.
b. Air-entraining admixtures (ASTM C260) are used to improve durability and freeze-thaw resistance. However, air voids
have the effect of reducing compressive strength and their use is therefore recommended only when durability is a
concern. Incorporation of entrained air may reduce strength at a rate of 5% to 7% for each percent of air in the mix.
c. Retarders (ASTM C494, Types B and D) are used to control early hydration and hardening of concrete. Factors such as
an increase in strength and temperature effects should be considered.
d. Normal-setting water reducers (ASTM C494, Type A) are used to increase strength without affecting the rate of
hardening. High-range water reducers (ASTM C494, Types F and G) are used to increase strength (decrease water
demand) especially high early strength (24 hours) or increase slump. Matching the admixture to the cement used (both
in type and dosage rate) is an important consideration.
e. High-range water reducers (ASTM C494, Types F and G) are often used in high-strength concrete mixtures and are
essential with the very high-strength concretes to ensure adequate workability with low water-cementitious ratios.
Further information is available in ACI SP-68.
f. Accelerators (ASTM C494, Types C and E) are not normally used in high strength concrete except when early form
removal is critical. Accelerators will normally be counterproductive in long-term strength development.

C - 1.24.2.3 Mineral Admixtures
a. Mineral admixtures such as fly ash, silica fume, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag have been widely used in
high-strength concrete. Variations in physical and chemical properties of mineral admixtures (even when within
tolerance of specifications) can have a major influence on properties of high-strength concrete.
b. Fly ash generally reduces early strength gain and improves late age strength of concrete. There are two (2) classes of
fly ash available (ASTM C618). Class F fly ash is generally available in eastern U.S. and Canada and has pozzolanic
properties, but little or no cementitious properties. Class C fly ash is generally available in western U.S. and Canada
and has pozzolanic and some autogenous cementitious properties. An ignition loss of 3% or less is desirable, although
ASTM C618 permits a higher value. ASTM C311 provides standard test methods for sampling and testing of fly ash or
natural pozzolans.
c. Silica fume consists of very fine spherical particles, approximately 100 times smaller than the average cement particle,
and is a highly effective pozzolanic material. It is used in concrete in applications where abrasion resistance and low
permeability are desired. Normally, silica fume content ranges from 5% to 15% of portland cement content. The
availability of high-range water reducers has facilitated the use of silica fume in high-strength concrete. However,
concrete with silica fume has an increased tendency to develop plastic shrinkage cracks. Therefore steps should be
taken to prevent rapid water evaporation.
d. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (ASTM C989) is used as a partial replacement for portland cement in various
proportions to enhance different properties of concrete. Research has shown promise for its use in high-strength
concrete.
C - 1.24.2.4 Aggregates
1
a. The optimum gradation of fine aggregates for high-strength concrete is mainly determined by its effect on water
requirement rather than physical packing. High-strength concrete has high contents of fine cementitious materials and
therefore the grading of fine aggregates is relatively unimportant compared to conventional concrete. Fine aggregates
with rounded particle shapes and smooth texture require less mixing water and are therefore preferred in high-strength
concrete. 3
b. The desirable maximum size of coarse aggregate should be 1/2 inch (13 mm) or 3/8 inch (10 mm). Mix designs with
maximum size aggregate of 3/4 inch (19 mm) and 1 inch (25 mm) have also been successfully used. Many studies have
shown that crushed stone produces higher strengths than rounded gravel because of improved mechanical bond in
angular particles. However, accentuated angularity can result in higher water requirement and reduced workability and
therefore should be avoided. The ideal aggregate should be clean, cubical, angular, 100% crushed aggregate with a
minimum of flat and elongated particles. It would also be beneficial if the aggregate has moderate absorption capability 4
to provide added curing water for high-strength concrete.
c. High-strength concrete requires high-strength aggregates. However, this trend holds only true until the limit of the
bonding potential of the cement-aggregate combination is reached.
C - 1.24.3 CONCRETE MIXTURE PROPORTIONS (1995)
a. High-strength concrete mix proportioning is a more critical process than the design of normal-strength concrete
mixtures. Generally, chemical admixtures and pozzolanic materials are added and the attainment of low water-
cementitious ratio is essential. Trial batches are often required to optimize constituent materials and mixture
proportions. Additional information can be found in ACI 211.1, ACI 211.4, and ACI Publication SP-46.
b. The relationship between water-cementitious ratio and compressive strength in high-strength concrete is similar to that
identified for normal-strength concrete. The use of high-range water reducers has provided lower water-cementitious

ratios and higher slumps. Water-cementitious ratios by weight for high-strength concrete typically have ranged from
approximately 0.27 to 0.50. The compressive strength of concrete at a given water-cementitious ratio varies widely
depending on the cement, aggregates and admixtures used. The quantity of liquid admixtures, particularly high-range
water reducers, has sometimes been included in the calculation of water-cementitious ratio. When silica fume as a
slurry is used, its water content must be included in the water-cementitious ratio.
c. Typical cement contents in high-strength concrete range from 660 lb/cy (390 kg/m3) to 940 lb/cy (560 kg/m3). For any
given set of materials in a concrete mixture, there may be an optimum cement content that produces maximum
concrete strength. The strength of concrete may decrease if cement is added in excess of the optimum level. The
strength for any given cement content will vary with the water demand of the mixture and the strength-producing
characteristics of that particular cement. Loss of workability (stickiness) will be increased as higher cement amounts
are used.
d. The maximum temperature desired in the concrete element may limit the quantity or type of cement. Addition of ice,
set retarders or pozzolans may be considered.
C - 1.24.3.1 Aggregate Proportions
Table 3.1 in the ACI 363R-92 suggests the amounts of coarse aggregate based on the fineness modulus of sand for the purpose
of initial proportioning. In general, the least sand consistent with necessary workability has given the best strengths for a given
paste. The use of smaller coarse aggregates (maximum 3/8 inch (10 mm) to 1/2 inch (13 mm)) are generally beneficial, and
crushed aggregates seem to bond best to the cementitious paste.
C - 1.24.3.2 Proportioning of Admixtures
a. In high-strength concrete, pozzolanic admixtures have been used to supplement the portland cement from 10% to 40%
by weight of the cement content. The use of fly ash has often reduced the water demand of the mixture. Silica fume, on
the other hand, dramatically increases the water demand of the mixture which has made the use of retarding and high-
range water-reducing admixture (superplasticizing) admixtures a requirement.
b. The amount of conventional water reducers and retarders in high-strength concrete varies depending on the particular
admixture and application. In general, the tendency has been to use maximum quantities of these admixtures.
Typically, water reductions of 5% to 8% may be increased to 10%. Corresponding increases in fine aggregate content
have been made to compensate for the loss of volume due to the reduction of water.
c. Most high-strength concretes contain both mineral admixtures and chemical admixtures. It is common for these
mixtures to contain combinations of chemical admixtures. High-range water reducers have performed better in high-
strength concretes when used in combination with conventional water reducers or retarders.
C - 1.24.3.3 Workability
a. High-strength concrete mixtures tend to lose slump more rapidly than lower-strength concrete. If slump is to be used as
a field control, testing should be done at a prescribed time after mixing. Concrete should be discharged before the
mixture becomes unworkable.
b. High-strength concrete, often placed with 1/2 inch (13 mm) maximum size aggregate and with a high cementitious
content, is inherently placeable provided attention is given to optimizing the ratio of fine to coarse aggregate. Local
material characteristics have a marked effect on proportions. Cement fineness and particle size distribution influence
the character of the mixture. Appropriate admixtures improve the placeability of the mixture.
c. Mixtures that were proportioned properly but appear to change in character and become more sticky should be
considered suspect and checked for proportions, possible false setting of cement, undesirable air-entrainment, or other
changes. A change in the character of a high-strength mixture could be a warning sign for quality control.

C - 1.24.3.4 Trial Batches
Frequently, the development of a high-strength concrete program has required a large number of trial batches. In addition to
laboratory trial batches, field-sized trial batches have been used to simulate typical production conditions. Once a desirable
mixture has been formulated in the laboratory, field testing with production-sized batches should be preformed.
C - SECTION 1.25 SPECIALTY CONCRETES
C - 1.25.2 SULFUR CONCRETE
c. Sulfur concrete is generally not resistant to alkalis or oxidizers. However sulfur concrete exhibits excellent
characteristics of:
(1) High strength [in excess of 62 MPa (9,000 psi)] and fatigue resistance;
(2) Excellent corrosion resistance against salts and most acids;
(3) Extremely rapid set and strength gains and achieves a minimum of 70% to 80% of ultimate compressive strength
within 24 hours;
(4) Placement year round, above and below freezing temperatures;

1
(5) Very low water permeability.
C - 1.25.2.2 Handling
Extreme care should be used when handling sulfur concrete to avoid burns.
C - 1.25.2.3 Placing 3
Wall construction should be given special consideration to preclude poor consolidation. Preheating the reinforcing steel and
forms using infrared or suitable heaters, plus using insulation on the outside of wall forms should be utilized to retain heat
during placement.
C - 1.25.4 POLYMER CONCRETE (2013) 4

a. Polymer concretes are composite materials that combine synthetic resins with blended aggregates and graded fillers to
produce low permeability concretes, mortars and grouts with high resistance to water, chlorides, and freeze-thaw
cycles.
b. The resins comprise of monomers, or monomers and polymers which polymerize when mixed with cure initiators or
catalysts. Graded fillers, sands and, where applicable, aggregates are then added into the polymerizing solution. The
resin binds the materials tightly together to form a hard impermeable composite.
c. The resins are formulated to provide a range of characteristics, including varying degrees of flexibility, rigidity and
strength.
d. The resins used in these products are from a wide range of generic chemical groups, most commonly epoxies, methyl
methacrylates, polyesters and polyurethanes.

e. Polymer concretes typically cure more rapidly than cement-based equivalents, while exhibiting greater flexural and
tensile strengths. The rate of curing depends on the polymer resin base.
f. As a result, polymer concretes can be used to provide effective solutions to construction conditions, particularly where
rapid cure and high strength gain may be required.
g. Common uses are keyway joint grouting, joint headers, bedding of bridge bearings, and structural repairs.
h. The repair areas and volume of polymer concrete placements are generally small.
i. Polymer concretes are also used as an alternative to cement-based material in locations exposed to high chloride and
water ingress.
j. The materials can generally be placed without specialized equipment and do not require a sensitive curing procedure.
C - 1.25.4.2 Selection of Materials
Care must be taken to ensure that the properties of the product proposed meet the specific site requirements:
a. Some products are susceptible to outgassing when installed in humidity levels above 85%, which may lead to
pinholing and/or foaming, causing a reduced impermeability to liquid water and reduced ultimate strength.
b. Some resins have strict allowable timeframes for overcoating their primers, without which their removal or other
treatment may be required.
c. Some products, such as some epoxy-based systems, exhibit a slower rate of curing or even no curing at lower
temperatures.
d. Elevated temperatures can make certain products unsuitable.
e. Filler aggregate - For applications greater than 1 inch of thickness, add aggregate in accordance with the
Manufacturer’s recommendations.
C - 1.25.4.4 Surface Preparation
a. A suitably level area on the prepared substrate should be identified and primed. Using the proposed polymer concrete
material as the adhesive, the primed area should be tensile tested per ASTM D4541. After sufficient curing of the
polymer concrete the adhesion should be tested, and the mode of failure must be in the concrete substrate. Failure at the
bond line indicates insufficient surface preparation, and further removal of additional weak or unsound material is
required.
b. The surface should be prepared by shotblasting or other mechanical means to remove all laitance, weak, damaged,
contaminated and friable material. Saw cut repair boundaries along straight edge and chip edge down a minimum of 1
inch (25 mm) to sound concrete by means of cold chisels or pneumatic chipping hammers. Where honeycombing
exists around reinforcing, chip concrete to provide a minimum space of ¾ inch (19 mm) around the reinforcing to
afford sufficient bond.
C - 1.25.4.5 Installation
Installation should be in accordance with the Manufacturer’s recommendations, however, but the minimum guidelines below
should be followed:
a. Surfaces to be treated should be primed as required.

b. Do not apply materials if rain is anticipated within three hours of application without approved protective measures in
place.
c. Ensure that the product’s maximum humidity limit and over-coating window are adhered to.
d. Mix and place polymer concrete used for structural concrete slabs and full depth overlays in accordance with
manufacturer's printed instructions.
e. Provide control joints as recommended by Manufacturer, or as indicated on drawings.
f. Repair placement cavities in accordance with repair procedures outlined below.
(1) Place patching mortar by trowelling toward edges of patch to force intimate contact with edge surfaces. For large
patches, fill edges first and then work toward center, always troweling toward edges of patch. At fully exposed
reinforcing bars, force patching mortar to fill space behind bars by compacting with trowel from sides of bars.
(2) For vertical patching, place material in lifts of not more than 2 inch (50 mm) nor less than 1/8 inch (3 mm). Do not
feather edge.
(3) For overhead patching, place material in lifts of not more than 1½ inch (38 mm) nor less than 1/8 inch (3 mm). Do
not feather edge.
(4) Where multiple lifts are used, score surface of lifts to provide a rough surface for application of subsequent lifts.
Allow each lift to reach final set before placing subsequent lifts.
1
g. Allow surfaces of lifts that are to remain exposed to become firm and then finish to a smooth surface with a trowel.
h. Floated finish: Provide where concrete flatwork is to receive waterproofing membranes or setting beds for finished
materials.
i. Contractor, at his own expense, shall level depressed spots and grind high spots in concrete surfaces which are in 3
excess of specified tolerances. Leveling materials proposed for providing proper surface shall be approved by
Engineer.
j. Some Manufacturers recommend using lifts no greater than 2 inch (50 mm) in thickness for polymer concrete, but
some specific products are designed for lifts greater than 2 inch (50 mm) thickness.
C - 1.25.4.6 Quality Assurance 4

a. Applicator
Documentation of experience shall be provided in a listing of representative projects completed by personnel using the
proposed materials in the last 5 years. Provide Owner contact information for each representative project.
d. Testing Services and Inspection Services:
(1) The Contractor should accept as indicative, the results of tests, including results involving mix designs and field
quality control of materials. If, as a result of these tests, it is determined that the specified material properties are
not being obtained, the Engineer may order such changes in proportions or materials, or both, as may be necessary
to secure the specified properties, at no additional expense to the Company.
(2) The use of testing and inspection services should not relieve the Contractor of his/her responsibility to furnish
materials and construction in compliance with the Contract.

(3) Failure to detect any defective work or material should not in any way prevent later rejection when such defect is
discovered, nor should it obligate the Engineer for final acceptance.
(4) Additional testing and inspection services requested by the Contractor because of changes in materials, sources, or
proportions, or occasioned by failure of tests and inspection to meet specification requirements, should be paid for
by the Contractor.
(5) The minimum number of test cylinders to be made for each type of polymer concrete and for each placement
should be as specified by the Engineer or as recommended by the Manufacturer.
C - SECTION 1.26 SELF-CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE
C - 1.26.1 GENERAL (2013)
a. SCC may be used to reduce labor during placement, to more completely fill around and between congested
reinforcement, and to reduce or eliminate honeycombing and bug holes. It may also be used in such structural
elements as drilled shafts, where the difficulty of inspecting the placement for air pockets is a concern.
b. SCC normally contains a greater percentage of fine materials making up the paste and of fine aggregates, and a lesser
percentage of coarse aggregates than conventional concrete.
C - 1.26.2 MIX DESIGN AND TESTING (2013)
C - 1.26.2.1 Mix Design
As with conventional concrete, the water-cement ratio, quality and gradation of aggregates, and the inclusion of mineral
admixtures such as fly ash and silica fume affect the strength, modulus of elasticity and creep and shrinkage properties of the
hardened concrete. For structural elements such as columns, cantilevers and prestressed concrete beams where those
properties are important, relevant tests should be performed unless information from other completed projects can confirm
that the mix design will produce the required properties despite the high fines content and reduced maximum aggregate size
typical of SCC.
C - 1.26.2.2 Quality Control Testing
a. The supplier should have a full range of test results for the mix that is proposed. The purpose of the plant testing is to
ensure that the concrete can flow into and completely fill forms under its own weight, that it will flow around and bond
to reinforcing steel under its own weight, and that it will have a high resistance to segregation.
(1) ASTM C1610 is used to evaluate the stability of a concrete mixture. A column is filled with concrete and given
time to segregate. The column is then separated into sections and each section is washed over a sieve and the
retained aggregate is weighed. The degree of segregation is measured by the difference in the results for the
various sections. This is a laboratory test and is normally not practical to be performed in the field.
(2) ASTM C1611 is used to evaluate the filling ability (deformability) of a concrete mixture and its stability. The test
is performed similar to a standard slump cone test. However, instead of measuring the slump vertically, the mean
spread of the resulting concrete is recorded as the slump flow with results ranging between 22 to 28 inches (560 to
710 mm) being typical, depending on project requirements. The standard slump cone is inverted for this test,
which is suitable for laboratory and field use.
(3) ASTM C1621 is used to evaluate the passing ability of a concrete mixture. The test consists of a ring of
reinforcing bars that fits around the base of a standard test cone. The slump flow is measured with and without the
J-Ring and the difference is noted. A difference of less than 1 inch (25 mm) indicates good passing ability,

whereas a difference of more than 2 inches (50 mm) indicates poor passing ability. This test can be used in the
laboratory and in the field.
C - 1.26.3 FORMS AND REINFORCEMENT (2013)
a. Rapid placement into the forms is desirable in order to achieve the economies that can result from the use of self-
consolidating concrete. Maintaining the flowability of a concrete pour even after it is placed in order to improve the
bond to subsequent pours also implies rapid placement. Rapid placement can reduce the thixotrophic properties of the
concrete mass to act as a semi-solid or gel and this has the potential to increase form pressures beyond those which
would normally be expected. Stronger form systems allow faster placement since the labor involved with normal
consolidation techniques is not required when using SCC.
b. Form release agents with a high-solids content will better resist abrasion from the movement of the concrete. Light
application of form release agents, or wiping off after application is also recommended to avoid staining of
architectural finishes.
C - 1.26.5 PLACEMENT (2013)
a. SCC is commonly placed by discharging the material into the forms at a single location, depending on the fluidity of
the SCC to fill the forms within a distance of about 33 feet (10 m). Considerations with respect to placement that
determine the required slump flow include the intricacy of the form, depth, length and size of form, surface finish, and
amount of reinforcement. A high rate of placement can be desirable to achieve flow momentum, which is also helpful
in filling the forms. Overfilling of forms should be avoided due to the difficulty of screeding the fluid material.
1
b. Specific placement techniques may be required for various types of structural elements, such as beams, double-tees,
slabs, modules and walls, columns and drilled shafts. Free falling placement should be avoided.
c. The field inspector should expect to see a sheen but no sign of free water on the top of the concrete as it is being placed.
The coarse aggregates should also remain prominent on top of the concrete as a sign that segregation is not taking
place. Concrete should not be allowed to set up before subsequent lifts are placed, and production rates and delivery
schedules should be arranged accordingly. The previous lift should be able to flow under the weight of the subsequent 3
lift. If the previous lift has begun to gel but has not hardened significantly, it may be rodded to restore its flowability.
d. Dropping concrete during placement will increase turbulence and could result in entrapped air and segregation. Any
anomaly on the surface of the forms, such as that resulting from splashed concrete is also likely to be visible on the face
of the completed work. A tremie tube may be used to avoid dropping the concrete. SCC should not splatter.
4


8
Part 2
Reinforced Concrete Design1
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5

2.1.1 Scope (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.1.2 Design Methods (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.1.3 Highway Bridges (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.1.4 Buildings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-6 1
2.1.5 Pier Protection (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-6
2.1.6 SuperStructure Protection (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-6
2.1.7 Skewed Concrete Bridges (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-7
2.2 Notations, Definitions and Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-8

2.2.1 Notations (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-8 3
2.2.2 D e f i n i t i o n s (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-11
2.2.3 Design Loads (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-11
2.2.4 Loading Combinations (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-19
2.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20

2.3.1 Concrete (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20
2.3.2 Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20
Details of Reinforcement
2.4 Hooks and Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21

2.4.1 Standard Hooks (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
2.4.2 Minimum Bend Diameter (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
2.5 Spacing of Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.6 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22

2.6.1 Minimum Concrete Cover (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.6.2 Concrete Cover for Bar Bundles (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
1
References, Vol. 31, 1930, pp. 1148, 1787; Vol. 48, 1947, p. 418; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 291, 757; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 794, 1341; Vol. 57, 1956, p. 996; Vol. 63,
1962, pp. 278, 688; Vol. 68, 1967, p. 313; Vol. 71, 1970, pp. 230, 242; Vol. 72, 1971, p. 136; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 205; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 91; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 53;
Vol. 91, 1990, p 63; Vol. 93, 1992, pp. 78, 92; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 98.

2.6.3 Concrete Cover for Corrosive and Marine Environments (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.6.4 Corrosion Protection (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.7 Minimum Reinforcement of Flexural Members (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.8 Distribution of Reinforcement in Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.9 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.10 Shear Reinforcement – General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24

2.10.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.10.2 Types of Shear Reinforcement (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.10.3 Spacing of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.11 Limits for Reinforcement of Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25

2.11.1 Longitudinal Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.11.2 Lateral Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.12 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
Development and Splices of Reinforcement
2.13 Development Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27

2.13.1 General (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
2.13.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-28
2.13.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-28
2.13.4 Special Members (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
2.14 Development Length of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
2.15 Development Length of Deformed Bars in Compression (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.16 Development Length of Bundled Bars (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.17 Development of Standard Hooks in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-31
2.18 Combination Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
2.19 Development of Welded Wire Fabric in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32

2.19.1 Deformed Wire Fabric (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
2.19.2 Smooth Wire Fabric (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33
2.20 Mechanical Anchorage (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33
2.21 Anchorage of Shear Reinforcement (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33

Reinforced Concrete Design
2.22 Splices of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35

2.22.1 Lap Splices (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
2.22.2 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
2.22.3 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
2.22.4 Splices of Deformed Bars in Compression (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-36
2.22.5 End Bearing Splices (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-36
2.22.6 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-36
2.22.7 Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
Analysis and Design – General Considerations
2.23 Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37

2.23.1 General (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
2.23.2 Expansion and Contraction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
2.23.3 Stiffness (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
2.23.4 Modulus of Elasticity (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.23.5 Thermal and Shrinkage Coefficients (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.23.6 Span Length (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.23.7 Computation of Deflections (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.23.8 Bearings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-39 1
2.23.9 Composite Concrete Flexural Members (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-39
2.23.10 T-Girder Construction (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-40
2.23.11 Box Girder Construction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-40
2.24 Design Methods (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
Service Load Design 3

2.25 General Requirements (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
2.26 Allowable Service Load Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42

2.26.1 Concrete (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
2.26.2 Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-43
4
2.27 Flexure (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-44
2.28 Compression Members with or without Flexure (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-44
2.29 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-45

2.29.1 Shear Stress (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-45
2.29.2 Permissible Shear Stress (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-45
2.29.3 Design of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-47
2.29.4 Shear-Friction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-47
2.29.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete Flexural Members (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-49
2.29.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-50
2.29.7 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-51

Load Factor Design
2.30 Strength Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-52

2.30.1 Required Strength (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-52
2.30.2 Design Strength (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-52
2.31 Design Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53

2.31.1 Strength Design (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53
2.32 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53

2.32.1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53
2.32.2 Rectangular Sections With Tension Reinforcement Only (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-54
2.32.3 I- and T-Sections With Tension Reinforcement Only (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-54
2.32.4 Rectangular Sections With Compression Reinforcement (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-55
2.32.5 Other Cross Sections (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-56
2.33 Compression Members with or without Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-56

2.33.1 General Requirements (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-56
2.33.2 Compression Member Strengths (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-57
2.33.3 Biaxial Loading (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-58
2.34 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-58

2.34.1 General Requirements (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-58
2.34.2 Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-58
2.35 Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-60

2.35.1 Shear Strength (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-60
2.35.2 Permissible Shear Stress (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-61
2.35.3 Design of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-62
2.35.4 Shear-Friction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-63
2.35.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-65
2.35.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-66
2.35.7 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-67
2.36 Permissible Bearing Stress (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.37 Serviceability Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68

2.37.1 Application (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.37.2 Service Load Stresses (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.38 Fatigue Stress Limit for Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.39 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69
2.40 Control of Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69

2.40.1 General (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69
2.40.2 Superstructure Depth Limitations (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-70
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-70

LIST OF FIGURES
8-2-1 Cooper E 80 (EM 360) Axle Load Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-13

8-2-2 Reinforcement Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
8-2-3 Standard Hook Bars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
8-2-4 #6, 7, or 8 Stirrups (fy > 40,000 psi) (#19, 22, or 25) (fy > 280 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-34
C-8-2-1 Pier Protection: Minimum Crash Wall Requirements (Not To Scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-72
C-8-2-2 Comparison of Impact Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-73
LIST OF TABLES
8-2-1 Coefficient for Nose Inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-17

8-2-2 Coefficient for Design Ice Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-18
8-2-3 Temperature Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-19
8-2-4 Group Loading Combinations – Service Load Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-19
8-2-5 Group Loading Combinations – Load Factor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20
8-2-6 Minimum Diameter of Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
8-2-7 Minimum Concrete Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
8-2-8 Development Length for Deformed Bars and Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
8-2-9 Tension Lap Splices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-36 1
8-2-10 Recommended Minimum Thickness For Constant Depth Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-41
SECTION 2.1 GENERAL 3

2.1.1 SCOPE (2005)
These recommended practices shall govern the design of reinforced concrete members of railway structures supporting or
protecting tracks and shall govern both SERVICE LOAD DESIGN and LOAD FACTOR DESIGN.
2.1.2 DESIGN METHODS (2005)

4
a. The design of reinforced concrete members shall be made either with reference to service loads and allowable service
load stresses as provided in the Service Load Design Section or, alternately, with reference to load factors and strength
as provided in the Load Factor Design section. The design method to be used, SERVICE LOAD DESIGN or LOAD
FACTOR DESIGN, shall be as directed by the Engineer.
2.1.3 HIGHWAY BRIDGES (2005)
Unless otherwise specified by highway authority, all highway bridges shall be designed in accordance with the latest
Specifications for Highway Bridges adopted by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

2.1.4 BUILDINGS (2005)
Unless otherwise specified by local governing ordinances or state codes, all concrete railway buildings shall be designed in
accordance with the latest “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318)” of the American Concrete
Institute, subject to design loads conforming to railway requirements.
2.1.5 PIER PROTECTION (2005)
2.1.5.1 Adjacent to Railroad Tracks1
a. To limit damage by the redirection and deflection of railroad equipment, piers supporting bridges over railways and
with a clear distance of 25 feet (7600 mm) or less from the centerline of a railroad track shall be of heavy construction
(defined below) or shall be protected by a reinforced concrete crash wall. Crash walls for piers from 12 to 25 feet (3600
to 7600 mm) clear from the centerline of track shall have a minimum height of 6 feet (1800 mm) above the top of rail.
Piers less than 12 feet (3600 mm) clear from the centerline of track shall have a minimum crash wall height of 12 feet
(3600 mm) above the top of rail.
b. The crash wall shall be at least 2′-6″ (760 mm) thick and at least 12 feet (3600 mm) long. When two or more columns
compose a pier, the crash wall shall connect the columns and extend at least 1 foot (300 mm) beyond the outermost
columns parallel to the track. The crash wall shall be anchored to the footings and columns, if applicable, with
adequate reinforcing steel and shall extend to at least 4 feet (1200 mm) below the lowest surrounding grade.
c. Piers shall be considered of heavy construction if they have a cross-sectional area equal to or greater than that required
for the crash wall and the larger of its dimensions is parallel to the track.
d. Consideration may be given to providing protection for bridge piers over 25 feet (7600 mm) from the centerline of
track as conditions warrant. In making this determination, account shall be taken of such factors as horizontal and
vertical alignment of the track, embankment height, and an assessment of the consequences of serious damage in the
case of a collision.
2.1.5.2 Over Navigable Streams
Piers located adjacent to channels of navigable waterways shall have a protection system in accordance with Part 23 Pier
Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams.
2.1.6 SUPERSTRUCTURE PROTECTION (2010)2
2.1.6.1 General Requirements
a. An evaluation of a railroad bridge over a roadway should be performed when the risk potential and consequence from
a vehicular collision with a railroad superstructure is deemed necessary by the Engineer. Factors to be considered in
the evaluation should include but not limited to railroad safety and operational requirements, vertical clearance over
roadway surface, roadway functional classification, roadway design speed, roadway sight distance, traffic data, and
other reasonable data for the specific location. Reasonable protection of the superstructure should be determined based
upon results from the evaluation and approval by the Engineer.
b. A re-evaluation of the grade separation requirements should be performed when changes in conditions at the location
or other factors warrant.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

2.1.7 SKEWED CONCRETE BRIDGES (2005)1
a. The skew angle, on most concrete bridges, is the smallest angle measured between a line perpendicular to the
centerline of bridge and the centerline of the abutments or piers. Skewed concrete bridges should be avoided when
possible. When skewed bridges are unavoidable, cast-in-place concrete bridges are preferable. The following table
illustrates the maximum recommended skew for different types of concrete bridges.
TYPE OF STRUCTURE SKEW IN DEGREES

Precast concrete slabs and box girders 15
Precast concrete I-girders and T-girders 30
Cast-in-place concrete slabs and girders 60
b. When interior diaphragms are used on concrete girder bridges, they should be placed perpendicular to the web of the
girder.
c. Abutments may be skewed, provided there is either a haunch in the backwall of the abutment, or an approach slab is
provided for each track. The end of the haunch in the backwall of the abutment and the end of the approach slab shall
be set perpendicular to the center of the track.
d. Concrete bridges with a curved superstructure should not be skewed. Piers and abutments for these bridges should be
placed radial to the centerline of the bridge.
e. The ends of concrete slabs and concrete box girders with flange widths 5’-0” (1525 mm) and wider may be skewed. 1
Skews on the ends of concrete I-girders, concrete T-girders and concrete box girders with flange widths less than 5’-0”
(1525 mm) should be avoided.
f. All concrete bridges that differ from these guidelines should be evaluated on a case by case basis.
1
See Commentary

SECTION 2.2 NOTATIONS, DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN LOADS
2.2.1 NOTATIONS (2005)
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block, inches (mm). See Article 2.31.1f
ab = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block for balanced strain conditions, inches (mm). See Article 2.33.2
av = shear span, distance between concentrated load and face of support, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the main tension reinforcing bars and having the same centroid as that
reinforcement, divided by the number of bars, square inches (mm2). When the main reinforcement consists of
several bar sizes the number of bars shall be computed as the total steel area divided by the area of the largest bar
used. See Section 2.39
Ab = area of an individual bar, square inches (mm2). See Section 2.14
Ac = area of the core of a spirally reinforced compression member measured to the outside diameter of the spiral, square
inches (mm2). See Article 2.11.2
Af = area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting moment, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
Ag = gross area of section, square inches (mm2).
Ah = area of shear reinforcement parallel to flexural tension reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
An = area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting tensile force, Nc(Nuc), square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7
and Article 2.35.7
As = area of tension reinforcement, square inches (mm2)
A′s = area of compression reinforcement, square inches (mm2)
Asf = area of reinforcement to develop compression strength of overhanging flanges of I- and T-sections, square inches
(mm2). See Article 2.32.3
Ask = area of skin reinforcement per unit height in one side face, square inches/foot (mm2/m). See Section 2.8
Ast = total area of longitudinal reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.33.1 and 2.33.2
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, square inches (mm2)
Avf = area of shear-friction reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
Aw = area of individual wire to be developed or spliced, square inches (mm2)
b = width of compression face of member, inches (mm)
bo = perimeter of critical section for slabs and footings, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.6
bv = width of cross section being investigated for horizontal shear, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.5
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section. For tapered webs, the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width,
whichever is smaller, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.1 and Article 2.35.1
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, inches (mm). See Article 2.31.1
Cm = a factor relating the actual moment diagram to an equivalent uniform moment diagram. See Article 2.34.2
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement, inches (mm)
d′ = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of compression reinforcement, inches (mm)
d″ = distance from centroid of gross section neglecting the reinforcement, to centroid of tension reinforcement, inches
(mm)
db = diameter of bar or wire, inches (mm)

dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar located closest thereto, inches
(mm). See Section 2.39
dp = diameter of round pile or cross sectional depth of H-pile at footing base, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and
Article 2.35.6
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (MPa). See Article 2.23.4
EI = flexural stiffness of compression member. See Article 2.34.2
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa). See Article 2.23.4
fb = average bearing stress in concrete on loaded area, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1 and Section 2.36
fc = extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
f ′c = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f′ c = square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight aggregate concrete, psi (MPa)
fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, psi (MPa). See Section 2.38
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
ff = stress range in steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa). See Section 2.38 and Article 2.26.2
fs = tensile stress in reinforcement at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.2
f ′sb = stress in compression reinforcement at balanced strain conditions, psi (MPa). See Article 2.32.4 and Article 2.33.2
ft = extreme fiber tensile stress in concrete at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi (MPa)
h = overall thickness of member, inches (mm) 1
hf = compression flange thickness of I- and T-sections, inches (mm)
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed to concrete. See Article 2.23.7
Ie = effective moment of inertia for computation of deflection. See Article 2.23.7
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement
Io = moment of inertia of reinforcement about centroidal axis of member cross section
3
k = effective length factor for compression member. See Article 2.34.2
la = additional embedment length at support or at point of inflection, inches (mm). See Article 2.13.2
ld = development length, inches (mm). See Section 2.13 through Section 2.22
ldh = development length of standard hook in tension, measured from critical section to outside end of hook (straight
embedment length between critical section and start of hook [point of tangency] plus radius of bend and one bar
diameter), inches (mm). 4
lhb x applicable modification factors
lhb = basic development length of standard hook in tension, inches (mm).
lu = unsupported length of compression member. See Section 2.34
M = computed moment capacity as defined in Article 2.13.2
Ma = maximum moment in member at section for which deflection is being computed. See Article 2.23.7
Mb = nominal moment strength of a section at balanced strain conditions. See Article 2.33.2
Mc = moment to be used for design of compression member. See Article 2.34.2
Mcr = cracking moment. See Article 2.23.7
Mn = nominal moment strength of a section
Mnx = nominal moment strength of a section considered about the x axis. See Article 2.33.3
Mny = nominal moment strength of a section considered about the y axis. See Article 2.33.3
Mu = factored moment at section ≤ΦMn
Mux = factored moment component in direction of x axis. See Article 2.33.3

Muy = factored moment component in direction of y axis. See Article 2.33.3

M1b = value of small end moment on compression member due to loads that result in no appreciable side sway, calculated
by conventional elastic frame analysis, positive if member is bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double
curvature. See Article 2.34.2
M2b = value of larger end moment on compression member due to loads that result in no appreciable side sway, calculated
by conventional elastic frame analysis, always positive. See Article 2.34.2
M2s = value of larger end moment on compression member due to loads that result in appreciable side sway, calculated by
conventional elastic frame analysis, always positive. See Article 2.34.2
n = modular ratio = Es/Ec. See Article 2.27
N = design axial load normal to cross section occurring simultaneously with V to be taken as positive for compression,
negative for tension, and to include the effects of tension due to shrinkage and creep. See Article 2.29.2
Nc = design tensile force applied at top of bracket or corbel acting simultaneously with V, to be taken as positive for
tension. See Article 2.29.7
Nu = factored axial load normal to the cross section occurring simultaneously with Vu to be taken as positive for
compression, negative for tension, and to include the effects of tension due to shrinkage and creep. See
Article 2.35.2
Nuc = factored tensile force applied at top of bracket or corbel acting simultaneously with Vu, to be taken as positive for
tension. See Article 2.35.7
Pb = nominal axial load strength of a section at balanced strain conditions. See Article 2.33.2
Pc = critical load. See Article 2.34.2
Pn = nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity.
Pnx = nominal axial load strength corresponding to Mnx with bending considered about the x axis only. See Article 2.33.3
Pny = nominal axial load strength corresponding to Mny with bending considered about the y axis only. See Article 2.33.3
Pnxy = nominal axial load strength with biaxial loading. See Article 2.33.3
Po = nominal axial load strength of a section at zero eccentricity. See Article 2.33.2 and Article 2.33.3
Pu = factored axial load at given eccentricity ≤ΦPn
r = radius of gyration of cross section of compression member. See Article 2.34.2
s = tie spacing, inches (mm). See Article 2.22.4
s = shear reinforcement spacing in a direction parallel to the longitudinal reinforcement, inches (mm)
sw = spacing of wire to be developed or spliced, inches (mm)
S = span length as defined in Article 2.23.6, feet (meters)
v = design shear stress at section. See Section 2.29
vc = permissible shear stress carried by concrete. See Section 2.29 and Section 2.35
vdh = design horizontal shear stress at any cross section. See Article 2.29.5
vh = permissible horizontal shear stress. See Article 2.29.5 and Article 2.35.5
vu = factored shear stress at section. See Section 2.35
vuh = factored horizontal shear stress at any cross section. See Article 2.35.5
V = design shear force at section. See Section 2.29
Vu = factored shear force at section. See Section 2.35
wc = weight of concrete, pounds per cubic foot (kg/m3)
yt = distance from centroidal axis of gross section, neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in tension, inches (mm).
See Article 2.23.7
Z = a quantity limiting distribution of flexural reinforcement. See Section 2.39
α = angle between inclined shear reinforcement and longitudinal axis of member
αf = angle between shear-friction reinforcement shear plane. See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4

βb = ratio of area of bars cut off to total area of bars at the section. See Article 2.13.1
βc = ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area. See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.6
βd = ratio of maximum factored axial dead load to maximum total factored axial load, where the load is due to gravity
effects only in the calculation of Pc in EQ 2-43, or ratio of the maximum factored sustained lateral load to the
maximum total factored lateral load in that level in the calculation of Pc in EQ 2-43. See Article 2.34.2
β1 = a factor defined in Article 2.31.1
δb = Moment magnification factor for members braced against sidesway to reflect effects of member curvature between
ends of compression member.
δs = Moment magnification factor for members not braced against sidesway to reflect lateral drift resulting from lateral
and gravity loads.
λ = correction factor related to unit weight of concrete. See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
μ = coefficient of friction. See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
ρ = tension reinforcement ratio = As/bd
ρ′ = compression reinforcement ratio = A′s/bd
ρb = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain conditions. See Article 2.32.1
ρs = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of core (out-to-out of spirals) of a spirally reinforced
compression member. See Article 2.11.2
ρv = ratio of tie reinforcement area to area of contact surface
ρw = reinforcement ratio (As/bwd) used in EQ 2-15 and EQ 2-46. See Article 2.29.2 and Article 2.35.2
Φ = strength reduction factor. See Article 2.30.2
1
2.2.2 DEFINITIONS (2005)
The following terms are for general use in Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design. Specialized terms appear in individual
paragraphs. Refer to the Chapter 8 Glossary located at the end of the chapter for definitions.
3
Compressive Strength of Concrete (f ′c) Nominal Strength
Deformed Reinforcement Plain Reinforcement
Design Load Required Strength
Design Strength Service Load
Development Length Spiral
4
Embedment Length Stirrups or Ties
Embedment Length, Equivalent (le) Yield Strength or Yield Point (fy)
End Anchorage Concrete, Structural Lightweight
Factored Load
2.2.3 DESIGN LOADS (2012)
a. General.

(1) The following loads and forces shall be considered in the design of railway concrete structures supporting
tracks:
D = Dead Load F = Longitudinal Force due to Friction or

L = Live Load Shear Resistance at Expansion Bearings
I = Impact
CF = Centrifugal Force EQ = Earthquake (Seismic)
E = Earth Pressure SF = Stream Flow Pressure
B = Buoyancy ICE = Ice Pressure
W = Wind Load on Structure OF = Other Forces (Rib Shortening, Shrinkage,
WL = Wind Load on Live Load Temperature and/or Settlement of
Supports)
LF = Longitudinal Force from Live Load
(2) Each member of the structure shall be designed for that combination of such loads and forces that can occur
simultaneously to produce the most critical design condition as specified in Article 2.2.4.
b. Dead Load.
(1) The dead load shall consist of the estimated weight of the structural member, plus that of the track, ballast, fill, and
other portions of the structure supported thereby.
(2) The unit weight of materials comprising the dead load, except in special cases involving unusual conditions or
materials, shall be assumed as follows:
• Track rails, inside guardrails and fastenings – 200 lb per linear foot of track. (3kN/m)
• Ballast, including track ties – 120 lb per cubic foot. (1900 kg/m3)
• Reinforced concrete – 150 lb per cubic foot. (2400 kg/m3)
• Earthfilling materials – 120 lb per cubic foot. (1900 kg/m3)
• Waterproofing and protective covering – estimated weight.
c. Live Load.
(1) The recommended live load for each track of main line structure is Cooper E 80 (EM 360) loading with axle loads
and axle spacing as shown in Figure 8-2-1. On branch lines and in other locations where the loading is limited to
the use of light equipment, or cars only, the live load may be reduced, as directed by the engineer. For structures
wherein the material in the primary load-carrying members is not concrete, the E loading used for the concrete
design shall be that used for the primary members.
(2) The axle loads on structures may be assumed as uniformly distributed longitudinally over a length of 3 feet (900
mm), plus the depth of ballast under the tie, plus twice the effective depth of slab, limited, however, by the axle
spacing.
(3) Live load from a single track acting on the top surface of a structure with ballasted deck or under fills shall be
assumed to have uniform lateral distribution over a width equal to the length of track tie plus the depth of ballast
and fill below the bottom of tie, unless limited by the extent of the structure.

Figure 8-2-1. Cooper E 80 (EM 360) Axle Load Diagram
(4) The lateral distribution of live load from multiple tracks shall be as specified for single tracks and further limited
so as not to exceed the distance between centers of adjacent tracks.
(5) The lateral distribution of the live load for structures under deep fills carrying multiple tracks, shall be assumed as
uniform between centers of outside tracks, and the loads beyond these points shall be distributed as specified for
single track. Widely separated tracks shall not be included in the multiple track group.
(6) In calculating the maximum live loads on a structural member due to simultaneous loading on two or more tracks,
the following proportions of the specified live load shall be used:
• For two tracks – full live load, 1

• For three tracks – full live load on two tracks and one-half on the other track,
• For four tracks – full live load on two tracks, one-half on one track, and one-fourth on the remaining track.
(7) The tracks selected for full live load in accordance with the listed limitations shall be those tracks which will
produce the most critical design condition on the member under consideration.
3
d. Impact Load.1
(1) Impact forces, applied at the top of rail, shall be added to the axle loads specified. For rolling equipment without
hammer blow (diesels, electric locomotives, tenders alone, etc.), the impact shall be equal to the following
percentages of the live load: 4
(U.S. Customary)
For L ≤ 14 feet I = 60
For 14 feet < L ≤ 127 feet I = 225 ⁄ ( L )
For L > 127 feet I = 20
1
See Commentary

(Metric)
For L ≤ 4 meters I = 60
For 4 meters < L ≤ 39 meters I = 125 ⁄ ( L )
For L > 39 meters I = 20
Where L is the span length in feet (meters).
This formula is intended for ballasted-deck spans and substructure elements as required.
(2) For continuous structures, the impact value calculated for the shortest span shall be used throughout.
(3) Impact may be omitted in the design for massive substructure elements which are not rigidly connected to the
superstructure.
(4) For steam locomotives with hammer blow, the impact calculated according to Article 2.2.3d(1) shall be increased
by 20%.
e. Centrifugal Force.
(1) On curves, a centrifugal force corresponding to each axle load shall be applied horizontally through a point 8 feet
(2450 mm) above the top of rail measured along a line perpendicular to the line joining the tops of the rails and
equidistant from them. This force shall be the percentage of the live load computed from the formulas below.
(2) On curves, each axle load on each track shall be applied vertically through the point defined in the first paragraph
of this article.
(3) The greater of loads on high and low sides of a superelevated track shall be used for the design of supports under
both sides.
(4) The relationships between speed, degree of curve, centrifugal force and a superelevation which is 3 inches (75
mm) less than that required for zero resultant flange pressure between wheel and rail are expressed by the
formulas:
C = 0.00117 S2D EQ 2-1
C = 0.000452 S2D EQ 2-1M
E = 0.0007 S2D – 3 EQ 2-2

E = 0.0068 S2D – 75 EQ 2-2M
E+3
S = --------------------- EQ 2-3
0.0007D
S =
E + 75
--------------------- EQ 2-3M
0.0068D
where:
C = Centrifugal force in percentage of the live load

D = Degree of curve (Degrees based on 100 foot (30 m) chord)

E = Actual superelevation in inches (mm)

S = Permissible speed in miles per hour (km/hr)
f. Earth Pressure. Earth pressure forces to be applied to the structure shall be determined in accordance with the
provisions of Part 5 Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers.
g. Buoyancy. Buoyancy shall be considered as it affects the design of either substructure, including piling, or the
superstructure.
h. Wind Load on Structure. The base wind load acting on the structure is assumed to be 45 lb per square foot (2160 Pa) on
the vertical projection of the structure applied at the center of gravity of the vertical projection in any horizontal
direction. A base wind velocity of 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) was used to determine the base wind load. If an
increase in the design wind velocity is made, the design wind velocity and design wind load shall be shown on the
plans.
For Group II and Group V loadings, when a design wind velocity greater than 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) is
advisable the base wind load may be increased by the ratio of the square of the design wind velocity to the square of the
base wind velocity. This increase shall not apply to Group III and Group VI Loadings.
i. Wind Load on Live Load. A wind load of 300 lb per linear foot (4.4 kN/m) on the train shall be applied 8 feet (2450
mm) above the top of rail in a horizontal direction perpendicular to the centerline of the track.
j. Longitudinal Force.1
1
(1) The longitudinal force for E-80 (EM-360) loading shall be taken as the larger of:
– Force due to braking, as prescribed by the following equation, acting 8 feet (2450 mm) above top of rail.
Longitudinal braking force (kips) = 45 + 1.2L

(Longitudinal braking force (kN) = 200 + 17.5L) 3
– Force due to traction, as prescribed by the following equation, acting 3 feet (900 mm) above top of rail.
Longitudinal traction force (kips) = 25 L
(Longitudinal traction force (kN) = 200 L ) 4

For design of superstructure elements, L shall be taken as the length in feet (meters) of the span under consideration.
For design of substructure elements, L shall be as follows:
– Where rail is continuous across the bridge, or where load transfer devices that are approved by the Engineer
are employed at discontinuities in the rail, L shall be the total bridge length in feet (meters). Longitudinal
force shall be distributed to individual substructure units as described in Article 2.2.3(j)(2) below.
– Where rail is not continuous across the bridge, and approved load transfer devices are not employed, L shall
be taken as the length in feet (meters) of each bridge segment with rail continuity. The substructure units for
each segment shall be evaluated and the longitudinal force computed for that segment shall be distributed to
individual substructure units as described in Article 2.2.3(j)(2) below.
1
See Commentary

– For design loads other than E-80 (EM-360), these forces shall be scaled proportionally. The points of force
application shall not be changed.
(2) The effective longitudinal force shall be distributed to the various components of the supporting structure, taking
into account their relative stiffness. The resistance of the backfill behind the abutments shall be utilized where
applicable. The mechanisms (rail, bearings, load transfer devices, etc.) available to transfer the force to the
various components shall also be considered.
(3) The longitudinal deflection of the superstructure due to longitudinal force computed in (1) above shall not exceed
1 inch (25 mm) for E-80 (EM 360) loading. For design loads other than E-80 (EM 360), the maximum allowable
longitudinal deflection shall be scaled proportionally. In no case, however, shall the longitudinal deflection exceed
1-1/2 inches (38 mm).
k. Longitudinal Force Due to Friction or Shear Resistance at Expansion Bearings. Provisions shall be made to
accommodate forces due to friction or shear resistance due to expansion bearings.
l. Earthquake. In regions where earthquakes may be anticipated, structures may be designed to resist earthquake motions
by considering the relationship of the site to active faults, the seismic response of the soils at the site, and the dynamic
response characteristics of the total structure. Refer to Chapter 9 Seismic Design for Railway Structures for additional
guidance.
m. Stream Flow Pressure. All piers and other portions of structures which are subject to the force of flowing water or drift
shall be designed to resist the maximum stresses induced thereby.
(1) Stream Pressure
The effect of flowing water on piers and drift build up, assuming a second-degree parabolic velocity distribution
and thus a triangular pressure distribution, shall be calculated by the formula:
Pavg = K(Vavg)2 EQ 2-4
where:
Pavg = average stream pressure, in pounds per square foot, (Pa)

Vavg = average velocity of water in feet per second, (m/s) computed by dividing the flow rate by the
flow area,
K = a constant, being 1.4 (or 725 for metric) for all piers subjected to drift build up and square-ended
piers, 0.7 (or 360 for metric) for circular piers, and 0.5 (or 260 for metric) for angle-ended piers
where the angle is 30 degrees or less.
The maximum stream flow pressure, Pmax, shall be equal to twice the average stream flow pressure, Pavg,
computed by EQ 2-4. Stream flow pressure shall be a triangular distribution with Pmax located at the top of water
elevation and a zero pressure located at the flow line.
(2) The stream flow forces shall be computed by the product of the stream flow pressure, taking into account the
pressure distribution, and the exposed pier area. In cases where the corresponding top of water elevation is above
the low beam elevation, stream flow loading on the superstructure shall be investigated. The stream flow pressure
acting on the superstructure may be taken as Pmax with a uniform distribution.
(3) Pressure Components

When the direction of stream flow is other than normal to the exposed surface area, or when bank migration or a
change of stream bed meander is anticipated, the effects of the directional components of stream flow pressure
shall be investigated.
(4) Drift Lodge Against Pier
Where a significant amount of drift lodge against a pier is anticipated, the effects of this drift build up shall be
considered in the design of the bridge opening and the bridge components. The overall dimensions of the drift
build up shall reflect the selected pier locations, site conditions, and known drift supply upstream. When it is
anticipated that the flow area will be significantly blocked by drift build up, increases in high water elevations,
stream velocities, stream flow pressures, and the potential increases in scour depths shall be investigated.
n. Ice Pressure. The effects of ice pressure, both static and dynamic, shall be accounted for in the design of piers and
other portions of the structure where, in the judgment of the Engineer, conditions so warrant.
(1) General. Ice forces on piers shall be selected having regard to site conditions and the mode of ice action to be
expected. Consideration shall be given to the following modes:
(a) dynamic ice pressure due to moving ice sheets and floes carried by streamflow, wind or currents;
(b) static ice pressure due to thermal movements of continuous stationary ice sheets onlarge bodies of water;
(c) static pressure resulting from ice jams;
(d) static uplift or vertical loads resulting from adhering ice in waters of fluctuating level.
1
The expected thickness of ice, the direction of its movement, and the height at which it acts shall be determined by
field investigations, published records, aerial photography and other means. Consideration shall be given to the
worst expected combination of height, thickness and pressure, to the possibility of unusual thicknesses resulting
from special circumstances or operations, and to the natural variability of ice conditions from year to year.
3
(2) Dynamic Ice Pressure. Horizontal forces resulting from the pressure of moving ice are to be calculated by the
formula:
F = Cnptw EQ 2-5
where:
4
F = horizontal ice force on pier; pounds (N)
Cn = coefficient for nose inclination from Table 8-2-1;
p = ice pressure as indicated below; psi (MPa)
t = thickness of ice in contact withpier; inches (mm)
w = width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at the level of ice action; inches (mm)
Table 8-2-1. Coefficient for Nose Inclination
Inclination of Nose to Vertical Cn

0 degrees to 15 degrees 1.00

(3) The ice pressure “p” shall normally be taken in the range of 100 psi (0.7 MPa) to 400 psi (2.8 MPa) on the
assumption that crushing or splitting of the ice takes place on contact with the pier. The value used shall be based
on an assessment of the probable condition of the ice at time of movement, on previous local experience, and on
assessment of existing structure performance. Relevant ice conditions include the expected temperature of the ice
at time of movement, the size of moving sheets and floes and the velocity at contact. Due consideration shall be
given to probability of extreme rather than average conditions at the site in question.
NOTE: The following values of ice pressure appropriate to various situations may be used as a
guide:
(a) In the order of 100 psi (0.7 MPa) where break-up occurs at melting temperatures and where the ice runs as
small “cakes” and is substantially disintegrated in its structure;
(b) In the order of 200 psi (1.4 MPa) where break-up occurs at melting temperatures, but the ice moves in large
pieces and is internally sound;
(c) In the order of 300 psi (2.1 MPa) where at break-up there is an initial movement of the ice sheet as a whole or
where large sheets of sound ice may strike the piers;
(d) In the order of 400 psi (2.8 MPa) where break-up or major ice movement may occur with ice temperature
significantly below the melting point.
(4) The ice pressure values listed above apply to piers of substantal mass and dimensions. The values shall be
modified as necessary for variations inpier width or pile diameter, and design ice thickness by multiplying by the
appropriate coefficient obtained from Table 8-2-2.
Table 8-2-2. Coefficient for Design Ice Thickness
b/t Coefficient
0.5 1.8
1.0 1.3
1.5 1.1
2.0 1.0
3.0 0.9
4.0 or greater 0.8
where:
b = width of pier or diameter of pile;

t = design ice thickness.
(5) Piers should be placed with their longitudinal axes parallel to the principal direction of ice action. The force
calculated by the formula shall then be taken to act along the direction of the long axis. A force transverse to the
longitudinal axis and amounting to not less than 15% of the longitudinal force shall be considered to act
simultaneously.
(6) Where the longitudinal axis of a pier cannot be placed parallel to the principal direction of ice action, or where the
direction of ice action may shift, the total force on the pier shall be figured by the formula and resolved into vector
components. In such conditions, forces transverse to the longitudinal axis of the pier shall in no case be taken as
less than 20% of the total force.

(7) In the case of slender and flexible piers, consideration should be given to the vibrating nature of dynamic ice
forces and to the possibility of high momentary pressures and structural resonance.
(8) Ice pressure on piers frozen into ice sheets on large bodies of water shall receive special consideration where there
is reason to believe that the ice sheets are subject to significant thermal movements relative to the piers.
o. Other Forces (Rib Shortening, Shrinkage, Temperature and/or Settlement of Supports).
(1) The structure shall be designed to resist the forces caused by rib shortening, shrinkage, temperature rise and/or
drop and the anticipated settlement of supports.
(2) The range of temperature shall generally be as shown in Table 8-2-3.
Table 8-2-3. Temperature Ranges
Climate Temperature Rise Temperature Fall

Moderate 30 degrees F (17 degrees C) 40 degrees F (22 degrees C)
Cold 35 degrees F (20 degrees C) 45 degrees F (25 degrees C)
2.2.4 LOADING COMBINATIONS (2005)
a. General. The following groups represent various combinations of loads and forces to which a structure may be
subjected. Each component of the structure, or the foundation on which it rests, shall be proportioned for the group of 1
loads that produce the most critical design condition.
b. Service Load Design.
(1) The group loading combinations for SERVICE LOAD DESIGN are as shown in Table 8-2-4.
Table 8-2-4. Group Loading Combinations – Service Load Design 3
Allowable Percentage
Group Item
of Basic Unit Stress
I D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF 100
II D + E + B + SF + W 125
4
III Group I + 0.5W + WL + LF + F 125
IV Group I + OF 125
V Group II + OF 140
VI Group III + OF 140
VII Group I + ICE 140
VIII Group II + ICE 150
(2) No increase in allowable unit stresses shall be permitted for members or connections carrying wind load only. If
predictability of service load conditions is different from the specifications, this difference should be accounted for
in the appropriate service load analyses or in the unit stress increase percentages.
c. Load Factor Design.

(1) The group loading combinations for LOAD FACTOR DESIGN are as shown in Table 8-2-5.
Table 8-2-5. Group Loading Combinations – Load Factor Design
Group Item
I 1.4 (D + 5/3 (L + I) + CF + E + B + SF)
IA 1.8 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF)
II 1.4 (D + E + B + SF + W)
III 1.4 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + LF + F)
IV 1.4 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF + OF)
V Group II + 1.4 (OF)
VI Group III + 1.4 (OF)
VII 1.0 (D + E + B + EQ)
VIII 1.4 (D + L + I + E + B + SF + ICE)
IX 1.2 (D + E + B + SF + W + ICE)
(2) The load factors given are only intended for designing structural members by the load factor concept. The actual
loads should not be increased by these factors when designing for foundations (soil pressure, pile loads, etc.). The
load factors are not intended to be used when checking for foundation stability (safety factors against overturning,
sliding, etc.) of a structure. The load factors given above represent usual conditions and should be increased if, in
the Engineer’s judgment, the predictability of loads is different than anticipated by the specifications.
SECTION 2.3 MATERIALS
2.3.1 CONCRETE (1992)
a. Compressive strength of concrete f ′c for which each part of the structure is designed, shall be shown on the plans.
b. Specified compressive strength of concrete f ′c shall be the basis for acceptance. Requirements for f ′c shall be based on
tests of cylinders made and tested in accordance with the methods as prescribed in Part 1 Materials, Tests and
Construction Requirements.
a. Yield strength or grade of reinforcement used in design shall be shown on the plans.
b. Reinforcement to be welded shall be indicated on the plans and the welding procedure to be used shall be specified.
ASTM steel specifications, except for ASTM A706, shall be supplemented to require a report of material properties
(chemical analysis) necessary to conform to welding procedures specified in “Structural Welding Code–Reinforcing
Steel” (AWS D 1.4) of the American Welding Society. If coated bars are to be welded, the Engineer should specify any
additional requirements to those contained in AWS D 1.4, such as removal of zinc or epoxy coating for welding and
field application of new coatings in the weld region if protection is required.
c. Designs shall not be based on a yield strength fy in excess of 60,000 psi (420 MPa).
d. Only deformed reinforcement shall be used except that plain bars or smooth wire may be used as spirals.

e. Reinforcement shall conform to the specifications listed in Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements,
except that, for reinforcing bars, the yield strength shall correspond to that determined by tests on full-size bars.
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
SECTION 2.4 HOOKS AND BENDS
2.4.1 STANDARD HOOKS (2005)
The term “standard hook” as used herein, shall mean one of the following:
a. 180-degree bend plus 4db extension, but not less than 2-1/2 inches (60 mm) at free end of bar.
b. 90-degree bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar.
c. For stirrup and tie hooks:
(1) #5 (#16) bar and smaller, 90-degree bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar, or
1
(2) #6, #7, and #8 (#19, #22, #25) bar, 90-degree bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar, or
(3) #8 (#25) bar and smaller, 135-degree bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar.
2.4.2 MINIMUM BEND DIAMETER (2005)
a. Diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar, other than for stirrups and ties in sizes #3 (#10) through #5 (#16),
3
shall not be less than the values in Table 8-2-6.
Table 8-2-6. Minimum Diameter of Bend
Bar Size Minimum Diameter

#3 through #8 (#10 through #25) 6 bar diameters 4
#9, #10 and #11 (#29, #32 and #36) 8 bar diameters
#14 and #18 (#43 and #57) 10 bar diameters
b. Inside diameter of bends for stirrups and ties shall not be less than 4db for #5 (#16) bar and smaller. For bars larger than
#5 (#16), diameter of bend shall be in accordance with Table 8-2-6.
c. Inside diameter of bend in welded wire fabric, smooth or deformed, for stirrups and ties shall not be less than four wire
diameters for deformed wire larger than D6 and two wire diameters for all other wires. Bends with inside diameter of
less than eight wire diameters shall not be less than four wire diameters from the nearest welded intersection.

SECTION 2.5 SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. For cast-in-place concrete the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than one and one-half
times the diameter of the bars, two times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, nor 1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
b. For precast concrete (manufactured under plant control conditions) the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer
shall be not less than the diameter of the bars, one and one-third times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, nor 1
inch (25 mm).
c. Where positive or negative reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers shall be placed
directly above those in the bottom layer with the clear distance between layers not less than 1 inch (25 mm).
d. Clear distance limitation between bars shall also apply to the clear distance between a contact lap splice and adjacent
splices or bars.
e. Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be limited to four in any one bundle. Bars
larger than #11 (#36) shall not be bundled in beams. Bundled bars shall be located within stirrups or ties. Individual
bars in a bundle cut off within the span of a member shall terminate at different points with at least 40 bar diameters
stagger. Where spacing limitations are based on bar size, a unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a
diameter derived from the equivalent total area.
f. In walls and slabs the principal reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than one and one-half times the wall or
slab thickness, nor more than 18 inches (450 mm).
SECTION 2.6 CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT
2.6.1 MINIMUM CONCRETE COVER (2005)
Table 8-2-7 defines the minimum concrete cover that shall be provided for reinforcement.
Table 8-2-7. Minimum Concrete Cover
Minimum Cover Minimum Cover

Condition of Concrete
(Inches) (mm)
Concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth 3 75
Concrete exposed to earth or weather
Principal reinforcement 2 50
Stirrups, ties and spirals 1-1/2 40
Concrete bridge slabs
Top reinforcement 2 50
Bottom reinforcement 1-1/2 40
Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground
Principal reinforcement 1-1/2 40
Stirrups, ties and spirals 1 25
2.6.2 CONCRETE COVER FOR BAR BUNDLES (2005)
For bar bundles, minimum concrete cover shall be equal to the lesser of the equivalent diameter of the bundle or 2 inches (50
mm), but not less than that given in Article 2.6.1.

2.6.3 CONCRETE COVER FOR CORROSIVE AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS (1992)
In corrosive or marine environments or other severe exposure conditions, the amount of concrete protection shall be suitably
increased, and the denseness and nonporosity of the protecting concrete shall be considered, or other protection shall be
provided.
2.6.4 CORROSION PROTECTION (1992)
Exposed reinforcing bars, inserts, and plates intended for bonding with future extensions shall be protected from corrosion.
SECTION 2.7 MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1992)
a. At any section of a flexural member where tension reinforcement is required by analysis, the reinforcement provided
shall be adequate to develop a design moment strength ΦMn at least 1.2 times the cracking moment calculated on the
basis of the modulus of rupture for normal weight concrete specified in Article 2.26.1a.
b. The requirements of Section 2.7a may be waived if the area of reinforcement provided at the section under
consideration is at least one-third greater than that required by analysis based on the load factors specified in
Article 2.2.4c.
SECTION 2.8 DISTRIBUTION OF REINFORCEMENT IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2005)
a. Flexural tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the zones of maximum tension.
3
(1) For T-girder and box-girder flanges, tension reinforcement shall be distributed over an effective tension flange
width equal to 1/10 the girder span length, or a width as defined in Article 2.23.10b, whichever is smaller. If the
actual slab width, center-to-center of girder webs, exceeds the effective tension flange width, and for excess
portions of deck slab overhang, additional longitudinal reinforcement having a total area at least equal to 0.4% of
excess slab area shall be provided in the outer portions of the slab.
(2) For integral bent caps of T-girder and box girder construction, tension reinforcement shall not be placed outside 4
the bent cap web farther than an overhanging slab width on each side of the bent cap equal to 1/4 the average
spacing of intersecting girder webs or a width as defined in Article 2.23.10b for integral bent caps, whichever is
smaller.
b. If the depth of web exceeds 3 feet (900 mm), longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed along both
side faces of the member for a distance d/2 nearest the flexural tension reinforcement. The area of skin reinforcement
Ask per foot (m) of height on each side face shall be ≥0.012(d-30) (or Ask ≥ 0.3 (d-750) in metric). The maximum
spacing of the skin reinforcement shall be the smaller of d/6 or 12 inches (300 mm). Such reinforcement may be
included in strength computations if a strain compatibility analysis is made to determine stresses in the individual bars
or wires. The total area of longitudinal skin reinforcement in both faces need not exceed one-half of the required
flexural tensile reinforcement.
c. For LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, the distribution of flexural reinforcement requirements of Article 2.39 shall also apply.

SECTION 2.9 LATERAL REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2005)
a. Compression reinforcement used to increase the strength of flexural members shall be enclosed by ties or stirrups, at
least #3 (#10) in size for longitudinal bars #10 (#32) or smaller, and at least #4 (#13) in size for #11, #14, #18 (#36,
#43, #57) and bundled longitudinal bars, or by welded wire fabric of equivalent area. Spacing of the ties shall not
exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters. Such stirrups or ties shall be provided throughout the distance where the
compression reinforcement is required.
b. Torsion reinforcement, where required, shall consist of closed stirrups, closed ties, or spirals, combined with
longitudinal bars.
c. Closed stirrups or ties may be formed in one piece by overlapping standard stirrup or tie end hooks around a
longitudinal bar, or formed in one or two pieces lap spliced with a Class C splice (lap of 1.7ld).
d. In seismic areas, where an earthquake of such magnitude as to cause major damage to construction has a high
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement shall be designed and detailed to provide adequate strength and
ductility to resist anticipated seismic movements.
SECTION 2.10 SHEAR REINFORCEMENT – GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
2.10.1 MINIMUM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be provided in all flexural members, except slabs, footings, and shallow
beams, where the design shear stress is greater than one-half the permissible shear stress vc carried by concrete. Beams
where total depth does not exceed either 10 inches (250 mm), 2-1/2 times the thickness of the flange, or one-half the
width of the web shall be considered shallow beams.
b. Where shear reinforcement is required by Article 2.10.1a, or by analysis, the area provided shall not be less than
Av = 60 bws/fy EQ 2-6
Av = 0.42 bws/fy EQ 2-6M
where:
bw = inches (mm)
s = inches (mm)
c. Minimum shear reinforcement requirements may be waived if it is shown by test that the required ultimate flexural and
shear strength can be developed when shear reinforcement is omitted.
2.10.2 TYPES OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (1992)
a. Shear reinforcement may consist of:
(1) Stirrups perpendicular to axis of member or making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the longitudinal tension
reinforcement.
(2) Welded wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to axis of member.

(3) Longitudinal bars with a bent portion making an angle of 30 degrees or more with the longitudinal tension bars.
(4) Combinations of stirrups and bent bars.
(5) Spirals.
b. Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends in accordance with requirements of Section 2.21.
2.10.3 SPACING OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
Where shear reinforcement is required and is placed perpendicular to axis of member, it shall be spaced not further apart than
0.50d, but not more than 24 inches (600 mm). Inclined stirrups and bent bars shall be so spaced that every 45 degree line,
extending toward the reaction from the mid-depth of the member, 0.50d, to the longitudinal tension bars, shall be crossed by at
least one line of shear reinforcement.
SECTION 2.11 LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
2.11.1 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Longitudinal reinforcement for compression members shall not be less than 0.01 nor more than 0.08 times the gross
area of Ag of the section. The minimum number of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be six for bars in a circular 1
arrangement and four for bars in a rectangular arrangement. The minimum size of bar shall be #5 (#16).
b. When the cross section is larger than that required by consideration of loading, a reduced effective area may be used.
The reduced effective concrete area shall not be less than that which would require 1% of longitudinal reinforcement to
carry the loading.
3
2.11.2 LATERAL REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Spirals. Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:
(1) Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or wire, with a minimum diameter of 3/8 inch (10 mm).
(2) Ratio of spiral reinforcement ρs shall not be less than the value given by: 4
A f′
ρ s = 0.45 ⎛ ------g – 1⎞ -----c- EQ 2-7
⎝A ⎠f
c y
where:
fy = the specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement but not more than 60,000 psi (420 MPa)
(3) Clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed 3 inches (75 mm) nor be less than 1-1/2 inches (40 mm) or 2 times
the maximum size of coarse aggregate used.
(4) Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by 1-1/2 extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each end of a
spiral unit.

(5) Spirals shall extend from top of footing or other support to level of lowest horizontal reinforcement in members
supported above.
(6) Splices in spiral reinforcement shall be welded splices, or they shall be lap splices not less than the larger of
12 inches (300 mm) and the length indicated in one of (a) through (e) below:
(a) deformed uncoated bar or wire......................................................................................................48db
(b) plain uncoated bar or wire.............................................................................................................72db
(c) epoxy-coated deformed bar or wire...............................................................................................72db
(d) plain uncoated bar or wire with a standard stirrup or tie hook in accordance with Article 2.4.1c at ends of
lapped spiral reinforcement. The hooks shall be embedded within the core confined by the spiral
reinforcement................................................................................................................48db
(e) epoxy-coated deformed bar or wire with a standard stirrup or tie hook in accordance with Article 2.4.1c at
ends of lapped spiral reinforcement. The hooks shall be embedded within the core confined by the spiral
reinforcement....................................................................................48db
(7) Spirals shall be of such size and so assembled to permit handling and placing without distortion from designed
dimensions.
(8) Spirals shall be held firmly in place and true to line by vertical spacers. For spiral bar or wire smaller than 5/8 inch
(16 mm) diameter, a minimum of two spacers shall be used for spirals less than 20 inches (500 mm) in diameter,
three spacers for spirals 20 to 30 inches (500 to 750 mm) in diameter, and four spacers for spirals greater than 30
inches (750 mm) in diameter. For spiral bar or wire 5/8 inch (16 mm) diameter or larger, a minimum of three
spacers shall be used for spirals 24 inches (600 mm) or less in diameter, and four spacers for spirals greater than 24
inches (600 mm) in diameter.
b. Ties. Tie reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:
(1) All bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties, at least #3 (#10) in size for longitudinal bars #10 (#32) or smaller, and at
least #4 (#13) in size for #11, #14, #18 (#36, #43, #57), and bundled longitudinal bars. Deformed wire or welded
wire fabric of equivalent area may be used.
(2) Vertical spacing of ties shall not exceed the least dimension of the compression member or 12 inches (300 mm).
When bars larger than #10 (#32) are bundled more than two in any one bundle, tie spacing shall be one-half that
specified above.
(3) Ties shall be located vertically not more than half a tie spacing above the footing or other support and shall be
spaced as provided herein to not more than half a tie spacing below the lowest horizontal reinforcement in
members supported above.
(4) At each tie location, the lateral ties shall be so arranged that no longitudinal bar is farther than 2 feet (600mm) on
either side along the tie from a bar with lateral support provided by the corner of a tie having an included angle of
not more than 135 degrees. Where longitudinal bars are located around the perimeter of a circle, a complete
circular tie may be used.
c. In a compression member which has a larger cross section than required by conditions of loading, the lateral
reinforcement requirements may be waived where structural analysis or tests show adequate strength feasibility of
construction.

d. In seismic areas, where an earthquake of such magnitude as to cause major damage to construction has a high
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement for column piers shall be designed and detailed to provide adequate
strength and ductility to resist anticipated seismic movements.
SECTION 2.12 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT (2005)
Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses shall be provided near exposed surfaces of walls and slabs not otherwise
reinforced. The total area of reinforcement provided shall be at least 0.25 in2/ft (530 mm2/m) measured in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of the reinforcement and be spaced not farther apart than three times the wall or slab thickness,
nor 18 inches (450 mm).
DEVELOPMENT AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
SECTION 2.13 DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS

1
2.13.1 GENERAL (2005)
a. The calculated tension or compression in the reinforcement at each section shall be developed on each side of that
section by embedment length or end anchorage or a combination thereof. For bars in tension, hooks may be used in
developing the bars.
3
b. Tension reinforcement may be anchored by bending it across the web and making it continuous with the reinforcement
on the opposite face of the member, or anchoring it there.
c. Critical sections for development of reinforcement in flexural members are at points of maximum stress and at points
within the span where adjacent reinforcement terminates, or is bent. The provisions of Article 2.13.2c must also be
satisfied.
4
d. Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for a distance equal to
the effective depth of the member, 15 bar diameters, or 1/20 of the clear span, whichever is greater, except at supports
of simple spans and at the free end of cantilevers.
e. Continuing reinforcement shall have an embedment length not less than the development length ld beyond the point
where bent or terminated tension reinforcement is no longer required to resist flexure.
f. Flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength shall not be
terminated in a tension zone unless one of the following conditions is satisfied.
(1) Shear at the cutoff point does not exceed one-half of the design shear strength, ΦVn, including the shear strength
of furnished shear reinforcement.
(2) Stirrup area in excess of that required for shear is provided along each terminated bar over a distance from the
termination point equal to three-fourths the effective depth of the member. The excess stirrups shall be

proportioned such that their (Av/bws)fy is not less than 60 psi (0.42 MPa). The resulting spacings shall not exceed
d/(8βb) where βb is the ratio of the area of bars cut off to the total area of bars at the section.
(3) For #11 (#36) and smaller bars, the continuing bars provide double the area required for flexure at the cutoff point
and shear does not exceed three-fourths of the design shear strength, ΦVn.
2.13.2 POSITIVE MOMENT REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. At least one-half the positive moment reinforcement in simple members and one-fourth the positive moment
reinforcement in continuous members shall extend along the same face of the member into the support. In beams, such
reinforcement shall extend into the support a distance of 12 or more bar diameters, or shall be extended as far as
possible into the support and terminated in standard hooks or other adequate anchorage.
b. When a flexural member is part of the lateral load resisting system, the positive reinforcement required to be extended
into the support by Article 2.13.2a shall be anchored to develop the full fy in tension at the face of the support.
c. At simple supports and at points of inflection, positive moment tension reinforcement shall be limited to a diameter
such that ld computed for fy by Section 2.14 satisfies EQ 2-8; except EQ 2-8 need not be satisfied for reinforcement
terminating beyond centerline of simple supports by a standard hook, or a mechanical anchorage at least equivalent to
a standard hook.
ld ≤M
----- + la EQ 2-8
V
where:
M = the computed moment capacity assuming all positive moment tension reinforcement at the section to be
fully stressed
V = the maximum applied design shear at the section
la = the embedment length beyond center of support or point of inflection
la at a point of inflection shall be limited to the effective depth of the member 12d b , whichever is greater. The value of
M/V in the development length limitation may be increased 30% when the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a
compressive reaction.
2.13.3 NEGATIVE MOMENT REINFORCEMENT (1994)
a. Tension reinforcement in a continuous, restrained, or cantilever member, or in any member of a rigid frame, shall be
anchored in or through the supporting member by embedment length, hooks, or mechanical anchorage.
b. Negative moment reinforcement shall have an embedment length into the span as required by Article 2.13.1a and
Article 2.13.1d.
c. At least one-third the total reinforcement provided for negative moment at the support shall have an embedment length
beyond the point of inflection not less than the effective depth of the member, 12 bar diameters, or one-sixteenth of the
clear span, whichever is greater.

2.13.4 SPECIAL MEMBERS (1994)
Adequate end anchorage shall be provided for tension reinforcement in flexural members where reinforcement stress is not
directly proportional to moment, such as: sloped, stepped, or tapered footings; brackets; deep beams; or members in which the
tension reinforcement is not parallel to the compression face.
SECTION 2.14 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED WIRE

IN TENSION (2005)
Development length ld, in inches (mm), of deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall be computed as the product of the
basic development length of Section 2.14a and the applicable modification factor or factors of Section 2.14b through
Section 2.14e, but ld shall be not less than that specified in Section 2.14f.
a. The basic development length is shown in Table 8-2-8.
Table 8-2-8. Development Length for Deformed Bars and Wire
Type Development Length

For #11 or smaller bars 0.04A b f y 1
----------------------- (Note 1)
f′ c
but not less than:
0.0004dbfy (Note 2)
For #14 bars 0.085f y
------------------- (Note 3)
f′ c 3
For #18 bars 0.11f y
---------------- (Note 3)
f′ c
For deformed wire 0.03d b f y

----------------------
f′ c 4
Note 1: The constant carries the unit of 1/inch.
Note 2: The constant carries the unit of inch2/lb.
Note 3: The constant carries the unit of inch.
b. The basic development length shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.4 for top reinforcement.
NOTE: Top reinforcement is horizontal reinforcement so placed that more than 12 inches (300 mm) of concrete is
cast in the member below the bar.
c. When lightweight aggregate concrete is used, the basic development lengths in Section 2.14a shall be multiplied by
1.18, or the basic development length may be multiplied by 6.7 f′ c ⁄ f ct (or 0.56 f′ c ⁄ f ct in metric), but not
less than 1.0, when fct is specified. The factors of Section 2.14b and Section 2.14d shall also be applied.

d. The basic development length may be multiplied by the applicable factor or factors for:
Reinforcement being developed in length under consideration and spaced laterally at least 6 inches
(150 mm) on center with at least 3 inches (75 mm) clear from face of member to edge bar,
measured in the direction of the spacing (Figure 8-2-2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8
Bars enclosed within a spiral which is not less than 1/4 inch (6 mm) diameter and not more than 4
inch (100 mm) pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75
e. The basic development length for bars coated with epoxy with cover less than 3 bar diameters or clear spacing between
bars less than 6 bar diameters shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.5. The basic development length for all other epoxy
coated bars shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.15. The product obtained when combining the factor for top
reinforcement with the applicable factor for epoxy coated reinforcement need not be taken greater than 1.7.
f. The development length ld shall be taken as not less than 12 inches (300 mm) except in the computation of lap splices
by Article 2.22.3 and anchorage of shear reinforcement by Section 2.21.
Figure 8-2-2. Reinforcement Spacing
SECTION 2.15 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION (2005)
The development length ld for bars in compression shall be computed as 0.02f y d b ⁄ ( f ′c) (or f y d b ⁄ 4 ( f ′c) in metric),
but shall not be less than 0.0003 fydb or 8 inches [or (0.04 dbfy) or 200 mm in metric]. Where excess bar area is provided the ld
length may be reduced by the ratio of required area to area provided. The development length may be reduced 25% when the
reinforcement is enclosed by spirals not less than 1/4 inch (6 mm) in diameter and not more than 4 inch (100 mm) pitch.
SECTION 2.16 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF BUNDLED BARS (1990)
The development length of each bar of bundled bars shall be that for the individual bar, increased by 20% for a three-bar
bundle, and 33% for a four-bar bundle.

SECTION 2.17 DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS IN TENSION (2005)
a. Development length ldh, in inches (mm), for deformed bars in tension terminating in a standard hook (Article 2.4.1)
shall be computed as the product of the basic development length lhb of Section 2.17b and the applicable modification
factor or factors of Section 2.17c but ldh shall not be less than 8db or 6 inches (150 mm), whichever is greater.
b. Basic development length lhb for a hooked bar with fy equal to 60,000 psi (420 MPa) shall be 1200d b ⁄ ( f ′c) (or
100d b ⁄ ( f ′c) in metric).
c. Basic development length lhb shall be multiplied by applicable modification factor or factors for:
(1) Bar yield strength
Bars with fy other than 60,000 psi (420 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fy/60,000

(fy/420)
(2) Concrete cover
For #11 (#36) bar and smaller, side cover (normal to plane of hook) not less than 2-1/2 inches (60
mm), and for 90 degree hook, cover on bar extension beyond hook not less than 2 inches (50 mm). 0.7
(3) Ties or stirrups

1
For #11 (#36) bar and smaller, hook enclosed vertically or horizontally within ties or
stirrup-ties spaced along full development length ldh not greater than 3db, where db is diameter of
hooked bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8
(4) Excess reinforcement
Where anchorage or development for fy is not specifically required, ( A s required )

3
reinforcement in excess of that required by analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ---------------------------------
-
( A s provided )
(5) Lightweight aggregate concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3
d. For bars being developed by a standard hook at discontinuous ends of members with both side cover and top (or 4
bottom) cover over hook less than 2-1/2 inches (60 mm), hooked bar shall be enclosed within ties or stirrups spaced
along full development length ldh not greater than 3db, where db is diameter of hooked bar (Figure 8-2-3). For this case,
factor of Section 2.17c(3) shall not apply.
e. Hooks shall not be considered effective in developing bars in compression.

Figure 8-2-3. Standard Hook Bars
SECTION 2.18 COMBINATION DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
Information deleted in 1990 revision.
SECTION 2.19 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION
2.19.1 DEFORMED WIRE FABRIC (2005)
a. Development length ld, in inches (mm), of welded deformed wire fabric measured from point of critical section to end
of wire shall be computed as the product of the basic development length of Article 2.19.1b or Article 2.19.1c and
applicable modification factor or factors of Section 2.14b, Section 2.14c and Section 2.14d; but ld shall not be less than
8 inches (200 mm) except in computation of lap splices by Article 2.22.6 and development of shear reinforcement by
Section 2.21.
b. Basic development length of welded deformed wire fabric, with at least one cross wire within the development length
not less than 2 inches (50 mm) from point of critical section, shall be
0.03d b ( f y – 20, 000 ) ⁄ f ′c NOTE: The 20,000 has units of psi. EQ 2-9
0.36d b ( f y – 140 ) ⁄ f ′c NOTE: The 140 has units of MPa. EQ 2-9M
but not less than

0.20A w ⎛ f y ⎞
------------------ ⎜ ----------⎟ EQ 2-10
s w ⎝ f′ ⎠
c
c. Basic development length of welded deformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the development length, shall be
determined as for deformed wire.
2.19.2 SMOOTH WIRE FABRIC (2005)
Yield strength of welded smooth wire fabric shall be considered developed by embedment of two cross wires with the closer
cross wire not less than 2 inches (50 mm) from point of critical section. However, development length ld measured from point
of critical section to outermost cross wire shall not be less than
0.27A w ⎛ f y ⎞
------------------ ⎜ ----------⎟ EQ 2-11
s w ⎝ f′ ⎠
c
3.3A w ⎛ f y ⎞
--------------- ⎜ ----------⎟ EQ 2-11M
s w ⎝ f′ ⎠
c
modified by a factor of Section 2.14c for lightweight aggregate concrete, but ld shall not be less than 6 inches (150 mm) except
in computation of lap splices by Article 2.22.7.
1
SECTION 2.20 MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE (1992)
a. Any mechanical device shown by tests to be capable of developing the strength of reinforcement without damage to 3
concrete may be used as anchorage.
b. Development of reinforcement may consist of a combination of mechanical anchorage plus additional embedment
length of reinforcement between point of maximum bar stress and the mechanical anchorage.
SECTION 2.21 ANCHORAGE OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Shear reinforcement shall extend to a distance d from the extreme compression fiber and shall be carried as close to the
compression and tension surfaces of the member as cover requirements and the proximity of other reinforcement
permit. Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends for its design yield strength.
b. The ends of single leg, single U-, or multiple U-stirrups shall be anchored by one of the following means:
(1) For #5 (#16) bar and D31 wire, and smaller, and for #6, #7, and #8 (#19, #22, and #25) bars with fy of 40,000 psi
(280 MPa) or less, a standard hook around longitudinal reinforcement.

(2) See Figure 8-2-4. For #6, #7, and #8 (#19, #22, and #25) stirrups with fy greater than 40,000 psi (280 MPa), a
standard hook around a longitudinal bar plus an embedment between mid-height of the member and the outside
end of the hook equal to or greater than 0.014d b f y ⁄ f ′c ( 0.17d b f y ⁄ f ′c in metric).
(3) For each leg of welded plain wire fabric forming single U-stirrups, either:
(a) Two longitudinal wires spaced at 2 inch (50 mm) spacing along the beam at the top of the U.
(b) One longitudinal wire located not more than d/4 from the compression face and a second wire closer to the
compression face and spaced at least 2 inches (50 mm) from the first wire. The second wire may be located
beyond a bend or on a bend which has an inside diameter of at least 8 wire diameters.
c. Pairs of U-stirrups or ties so placed as to form a closed unit shall be considered properly spliced when the laps are 1.7
ld.
d. Between the anchored ends, each bend in the continuous portion of a transverse single U- or multiple U-stirrup shall
enclose a longitudinal bar.
e. Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear reinforcement shall, in a region of tension, be continuous with the longitudinal
reinforcement and in a compression zone shall be anchored, above or below the mid-depth d/2 as specified for
development length in Section 2.14 for that part of the stress in the reinforcement needed to satisfy EQ 2-21 or EQ 2-
52.
Figure 8-2-4. #6, 7, or 8 Stirrups (fy > 40,000 psi) (#19, 22, or 25) (fy > 280 MPa)

SECTION 2.22 SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
Splices of reinforcement shall be made only as shown on design drawings, or as specified, or as authorized by the Engineer.
2.22.1 LAP SPLICES (2005)
a. Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than #11 (#36).
b. Lap splices of bundled bars shall be based on the lap splice length required for individual bars within a bundle,
increased 20% for a 3-bar bundle and 33% for a 4-bar bundle. Individual bar splices within a bundle shall not overlap.
c. Bars spliced by noncontact lap splices in flexural members shall not be spaced transversely farther apart than 1/5 the
required lap splice length, nor 6 inches (150 mm).
2.22.2 WELDED SPLICES AND MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS (2005)
a. Welded splices and other mechanical connections may be used. Except as provided herein, all welding shall conform to
“Structural Welding Code–Reinforcing Steel” (AWS D1.4).
b. A full welded splice shall have bars butted and welded to develop in tension at least 125% of specified yield strength fy
of the bar.
c. A full mechanical connection shall develop in tension or compression, as required, at least 125% of specified yield
strength fy of the bar. 1
d. Welded splices and mechanical connections not meeting requirements of Article 2.22.2b or Article 2.22.2c may be
used in accordance with Article 2.22.3d.
2.22.3 SPLICES OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED WIRE IN TENSION (2005)

3
a. Minimum length of lap for tension lap splices shall be as required for Class A, B, or C splice, but not less than 12
inches (300 mm),
where:
Class A splice = 1.0ld

Class B splice = 1.3ld 4
Class C splice = 1.7ld
where:
ld = the tensile development length for the specified yield strength fy in accordance with
Section 2.14.
b. Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall conform to Table 8-2-9.
c. Welded splices or mechanical connections used where area of reinforcement provided is less than twice that required
by analysis shall meet requirements of Article 2.22.2b or Article 2.22.2c.
d. Welded splices or mechanical connections used where area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by
analysis shall meet the following:

Table 8-2-9. Tension Lap Splices
(As Provided/As Required) Maximum Percent of As Spliced within Required Lap Length
(Note 1) 50 75 100
Equal to or greater than 2 Class A Class A Class B
Less than 2 Class B Class C Class C
Note 1: Ratio of area of reinforcement provided to area of reinforcement required by analysis at splice location.
(1) Splices shall be staggered at least 24 inches (600 mm) and in such manner as to develop at every section at least
twice the calculated tensile force at that section but not less than 20,000 psi (140 MPa) for total area of
reinforcement provided.
(2) In computing tensile force developed at each section, spliced reinforcement may be rated at the specified splice
strength. Unspliced reinforcement shall be rated at that fraction of fy defined by the ratio of the shorter actual
development length to ld required to develop the specified yield strength fy .
e. Splices in “tension tie members” shall be made with a full welded splice or full mechanical connection and splices in
adjacent bars shall be staggered at least 30 inches (750 mm).
2.22.4 SPLICES OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION (2005)
a. Minimum length of lap for compression lap splices shall be 0.0005fydb, in inches (or 0.07fydb in millimeters), but not
less than 12 inches (300 mm). For f ′c less than 3000 psi (20 MPa), length of lap shall be increased by 1/3.
b. In tied reinforced compression members, where ties throughout the lap splice length have an effective area not less
than 0.0015hs, lap splice length may be multiplied by 0.83, but lap length shall not be less than 12 inches (300 mm).
Tie legs perpendicular to dimension h shall be used in determining effective area.
c. In spirally reinforced compression members, lap splice length of bars within a spiral may be multiplied by 0.75, but lap
length shall not be less than 12 inches (300 mm).
d. Welded splices or mechanical connections used in compression shall meet requirements of Article 2.22.2b or
Article 2.22.2c.
2.22.5 END BEARING SPLICES (1992)
In bars required for compression only, compressive stress may be transmitted by bearing of square cut ends held in concentric
contact by a suitable device. Bar ends shall terminate in flat surfaces within 1-1/2 degrees of a right angle to the axis of the bars
and shall be fitted within 3 degrees of full bearing after assembly. End bearing splices shall be used only in members
containing closed ties, closed stirrups, or spirals.
2.22.6 SPLICES OF WELDED DEFORMED WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION (2005)
a. Minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded deformed wire fabric measured between the end of each fabric sheet
shall not be less than 1.7ld nor 8 inches (200 mm), and the overlap measured between outermost cross wires of each
fabric sheet shall not be less than 2 inches (50 mm). ld shall be the development length for the specified yield strength
fy, in accordance with Article 2.19.1.
b. Lap splices of welded deformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the lap splice length, shall be determined as for
deformed wire.

2.22.7 SPLICES OF WELDED SMOOTH WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION (2005)
Minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded smooth wire fabric shall be in accordance with the following:
a. When area of reinforcement provided is less than twice that required by analysis at splice location, length of overlap
measured between outermost cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than one spacing of cross wire plus 2
inches (50 mm), nor less than 1.5ld nor 6 inches (150 mm). ld shall be the development length for the specified yield
strength fy in accordance with Article 2.19.2.
b. When area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by analysis at splice location, length of overlap
measured between outermost cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 1.5ld nor 2 inches (50 mm). ld shall
be the development length for the specified yield strength fy in accordance with Article 2.19.2.
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN – GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
1
SECTION 2.23 ANALYSIS METHODS
2.23.1 GENERAL (1992)
a. All members of continuous and rigid frame structures shall be designed for the maximum effects of the loads specified
in Article 2.2.3 as determined by the theory of elastic analysis.
3
b. Consideration shall be given to the effects of forces due to shrinkage, temperature changes, creep, and unequal
settlement of supports.
2.23.2 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION (2005)

4
a. In general, provision for temperature changes shall be made in simple spans when the span length exceeds 40 feet (12
m).
b. In continuous bridges, provision shall be made in the design to resist thermal stresses induced or means shall be
provided for movement caused by temperature changes.
c. Movements not otherwise provided for shall be provided by rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads or other means.
2.23.3 STIFFNESS (1992)
a. Any reasonable assumptions may be adopted for computing the relative flexural and torsional stiffnesses of continuous
and rigid frame members. The assumptions made shall be consistent throughout the analysis.
b. Effect of haunches shall be considered both in determining moments and in design of members.

2.23.4 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (2005)
1.5 1.5
a. Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete may be taken as w c 33 f ′c , in psi (or w c 0.043 f ′c in MPa), for values of
wc between 90 and 155 pcf (1500 and 2500 kg/m3). For normal weight concrete (wc = 145 pcf, wc = 2300 kg/m3), Ec
may be considered as 57, 000 f ′c (or 4700 f ′c in metric).
b. Modulus of elasticity of nonprestressed steel reinforcement may be taken as 29,000,000 psi (200 GPa).
2.23.5 THERMAL AND SHRINKAGE COEFFICIENTS (2005)
a. Thermal coefficient for normal weight concrete may be taken as 0.000006 per degree F (or 0.0000105 per degree C).
b. Shrinkage coefficient for normal weight concrete may be taken as 0.0002.
c. Thermal and shrinkage coefficients for lightweight concrete shall be determined for the type of lightweight aggregate
used.
2.23.6 SPAN LENGTH (1992)

a. Span length of members not built integrally with supports shall be considered the clear span plus depth of member, but
need not exceed distance between centers of supports.
b. In analysis of continuous and rigid frame members, center-to-center distances shall be used in the determination of
moments. Moments at faces of support may be used for member design. When fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or
more with the axis of a continuous or restrained member are built monolithic with the member and support, face of
support shall be considered at a section where the combined depth of the member and fillet is at least one and one-half
times the thickness of the member. No portion of a fillet shall be considered as adding to the effective depth.
c. Effective span length of slabs shall be as follows:
(1) Slabs monolithic with beams or walls (without haunches), S = clear span.
(2) Slabs supported on steel stringers, S = distance between edges of flanges plus 1/2 the stringer flange width.
2.23.7 COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS (2005)

a. Where deflections are to be computed, they shall be based on the cross-sectional properties of the entire superstructure
section except railings, curbs, sidewalks or any element not placed monolithically with the superstructure section
before falsework removal. Deflections of composite members shall take into account shoring during erection,
differential shrinkage of the elements and the magnitude and duration of load prior to the beginning of effective
composite action.
b. Computation of live load deflection may be based on the assumption that the superstructure flexural members act
together and have equal deflection. The live loading shall consist of all tracks loaded as specified in Article 2.2.3c. The
live loading shall be considered uniformly distributed to all longitudinal flexural members.
c. Computation of Immediate Deflection.
(1) Deflections that occur immediately on application of load shall be computed by the usual methods of formulas for
elastic deflections. Unless values are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, deflections shall be computed

taking the modulus of elasticity for concrete as specified in Article 2.23.4a for normal weight or lightweight
concrete and taking the effective moment of inertia as follows, but not greater than Ig.
M cr⎞ 3 M cr⎞ 3
I c = ⎛ --------- I g + 1 – ⎛ --------- I EQ 2-12
⎝M ⎠ ⎝ M ⎠ cr
a a
where:
f r Ig
Mcr= --------
- EQ 2-13
yt
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete specified in Article 2.26.1a
(2) For continuous spans, the effective moment of inertia may be taken as the average of the values obtained from EQ
2-12 for the critical positive and negative moment sections.
2.23.7.1 Computation of Long-time Deflection
Unless values are obtained by more comprehensive analysis, the additional long-term deflection for both normal weight and
lightweight concrete flexural members shall be obtained by multiplying the immediate deflection caused by the sustained load
considered, computed in accordance with Article 2.23.7c, by the factor
1
⎛ 2 – 1.2 A′
--------s⎞ ≥ 0.6
⎝ A ⎠s
2.23.8 BEARINGS (2005)
Bearing devices shall be designed in accordance with Part 18 Elastomeric Bridge Bearings and Chapter 15, Part 10 and 3
Part 11. Bearing stresses in concrete shall not exceed the values given in Section 2.26 or Section 2.36.
2.23.9 COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1992)
a. Application. Composite flexural members consist of concrete elements constructed in separate placements but so
interconnected that the elements respond to loads as a unit.
4
b. General Considerations.
(1) The total depth of the composite member or portions thereof may be used in resisting the shear and the bending
moment. The individual elements shall be investigated for all critical stages of loading.
(2) If the specified strength, unit weight, or other properties of the various components are different, the properties of
the individual components, or the most critical values, shall be used in design.
(3) In calculating the flexural strength of a composite member by load factor design, no distinction shall be made
between shored and unshored members.
(4) All elements shall be designed to support all loads introduced prior to the full development of the design strength
of the composite member.
(5) Reinforcement shall be provided as necessary to control cracking and to prevent separation of the components.

c. Shoring. When used, shoring shall not be removed until the supported elements have developed the design properties
required to support all loads and limit deflections and cracking at the time of shoring removal.
d. Vertical Shear.
(1) When the total depth of the composite member is assumed to resist the vertical shear, the design shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Section 2.29 or Section 2.35 as for a monolithically cast member of the same
cross-sectional shape.
(2) Shear reinforcement shall be fully anchored in accordance with Section 2.21. Extended and anchored shear
reinforcement may be included as ties for horizontal shear.
e. Horizontal Shear. In a composite member, full transfer of the shear forces shall be assured at the interfaces of the
separate components. Design for horizontal shear shall be in accordance with the requirements of Article 2.29.5 or
Article 2.35.5.
2.23.10 T-GIRDER CONSTRUCTION (1992)
a. In T-girder construction, the girder web and slab shall be built integrally or otherwise effectively bonded together. Full
transfer of shear forces shall be assured at the interface of web and slab. Where applicable, the design requirements of
Article 2.23.9 for composite concrete members shall apply.
b. Compression Flange Width.
(1) The effective slab width acting as a T-girder flange shall not exceed one-fourth of the span length of the girder, and
its overhanging width on either side of the girder shall not exceed six times the thickness of the slab or one-half the
clear distance to the next girder.
(2) For girders having a slab on one side only, the effective overhanging flange width shall not exceed 1/12 of the span
length of the girder, nor 6 times the thickness of the slab, nor one-half the clear distance to the next girder.
(3) Isolated T-girders in which the flange is used to provide additional compression area shall have a flange thickness
not less than one-half the width of the girder web and a total flange width not more than four times the width of the
girder web.
(4) For integral bent caps, the effective overhanging slab width on each side of a bent cap web shall not exceed six
times the least slab thickness, nor 1/10 the span length of the bent cap. For cantilevered bent caps, the span length
shall be taken as two times the length of cantilever span.
c. Diaphragms. Diaphragms shall be used at span ends. Intermediate diaphragms shall be used where required in the
judgment of the Engineer.
2.23.11 BOX GIRDER CONSTRUCTION (2005)
a. In box girder construction, the girder web and top and bottom slab shall be built integrally or otherwise effectively
bonded together. Full transfer of shear forces shall be assured at the interfaces of the girder web with the top and
bottom slab. Design shall be in accordance with the requirements of Article 2.23.9. When required by design, changes
in girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web thickness.
b. Compression Flange Width.
(1) For box girder flanges, the entire slab width shall be assumed effective for compression.

(2) For integral bent caps, the effective overhanging slab width on each side of a bent cap web shall not exceed six
times the least slab thickness, nor 1/10 the span length of the bent cap. For cantilevered bent caps, the span length
shall be taken as two times the length of cantilever span.
c. Top and Bottom Slab Thickness.
(1) The thickness of the top slab shall be designed for loads specified in Article 2.2.3c, but shall be not less than the
minimum specified in Table 8-2-10.
Table 8-2-10. Recommended Minimum Thickness For Constant Depth Members

(Note 1)
Minimum Thickness Minimum Thickness

Superstructure Type
In Feet (Note 2) In Meters (Note 2)
1
Bridge slabs with main reinforcement S + 10 S + 3-
--------------- -----------
parallel or perpendicular to traffic 20 20
but not less than 0.75 but not less than 0.23
T-Girders S+9 S + 2.75
------------ --------------------
15 15
Box Girders S + 10
3
--------------- S+3
------------
17 17
Note 1: When variable depth members are used, table values may be adjusted to account for change in relative stiffness
of positive and negative moment sections.
Note 2: Recommended values for simple spans; continuous spans may be about 90% of thickness given. S = span
length as defined in Article 2.23.6, in feet (meters).
4
(2) The thickness of the bottom slab shall be not less than 1/16 of the clear span between girder webs or 6 inches (150
mm), whichever is greater, except that the thickness need not be greater than the top slab unless required by
design.
d. Top and Bottom Slab Reinforcement.
(1) Minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.4% of the flange area shall be placed in the bottom slab parallel to the
girder span. A single layer of reinforcement may be provided. The spacing of such reinforcement shall not exceed
18 inches (450 mm).
(2) Minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.5% of the cross-sectional area of the slab, based on the least slab
thickness, shall be placed in the bottom slab transverse to the girder span. Such reinforcement shall be distributed
over both surfaces with a maximum spacing of 18 inches (450 mm). All transverse reinforcement in the bottom
slab shall extend to the exterior face of the outside girder web in each group and be anchored by a standard 90
degree hook.

(3) At least 1/3 of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement in the top slab shall extend to the exterior face of
the outside girder web in each group and be anchored by a standard 90 degree hook. If the slab extends beyond the
last girder web, such reinforcement shall extend into the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond the
exterior face of the girder web not less than that provided by a standard hook.
e. Diaphragms. Diaphragms shall be used at span ends. Intermediate diaphragms shall be used where required in the
judgment of the Engineer. Diaphragm spacing for curved girders shall be given special consideration.
SECTION 2.24 DESIGN METHODS (1992)
The design methods to be used, SERVICE LOAD DESIGN or LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, shall be as directed by the
Engineer.
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN
(APPLICABLE TO Section 2.25 THROUGH Section 2.29)
SECTION 2.25 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (1992)
a. For reinforced concrete members designed with reference to service loads and allowable stresses, the service load
stresses shall not exceed the values given in Section 2.26.
b. Development and splices of reinforcement shall be as required under Development and Splices of Reinforcement.
SECTION 2.26 ALLOWABLE SERVICE LOAD STRESSES
2.26.1 CONCRETE (2005)
For service load design, stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following:
a. Flexure:
Extreme fiber stress in compression fc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 f ′c

Extreme fiber stress in tension for plain concrete, ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 fr
Modulus of rupture f r , from tests, or if data are not available:
Normal weight concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 f ′c
0.62 f ′c (metric)

Lightweight concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 f ′c
b. Shear:
NOTE: For more detailed analysis of permissible shear stress vc carried by concrete, and shear values for
lightweight aggregate concrete – see Article 2.29.2.
Beams and one-way slabs and footings:
Shear carried by concrete vc, but not to exceed 95 psi (0.66 MPa) 0.95 f ′c
Maximum shear carried by concrete plus shear reinforcement v c + 4 f ′c
v c + 0.33 f ′c (metric)
Two-way slabs and footings:

(If shear reinforcement is provided see Article 2.29.6d)
2⎞
⎛ 0.8 + ----
Shear carried by concrete vc - f ′c
⎝ β⎠ c 1
⎛ 0.066 + 0.17
----------⎞ f ′c (metric)
⎝ β ⎠ c
but not greater than 1.8 f ′c
0.15 f ′c (metric) 3
c. Bearing on loaded area fb, but not to exceed 1050 psi (7.2 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.30 f ′c
Minimum distance from edge of bearing to edge of supporting concrete shall be 6 inches (150 mm).
2.26.2 REINFORCEMENT (2005) 4
a. For service load design, tensile stress in reinforcement fs shall not exceed the following:
Grade 40 (Grade 280) reinforcement . 20,000 psi (140 MPa)

Grade 60 (Grade 420) reinforcement . 24,000 psi (170 MPa)
b. Fatigue Stress Limit.
(1) The range between a maximum tensile stress and minimum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load
plus impact shall not exceed the value obtained from:
ff = 21 – 0.33fmin + 8 (r / h)
ff = 145 – 0.33fmin + 55 (r / h) (metric)

where:
ff = stress range in steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa).

fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, ksi (MPa).
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; when the actual value is not
known, use 0.3.
(2) Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in regions of high stress range.
SECTION 2.27 FLEXURE (2005)
For investigation of service load stresses, the straight-line theory of stress and strain in flexure shall be used and the following
assumptions shall be made:
a. A section plane before bending remains plane after bending; strains vary as the distance from the neutral axis.
b. Stress-strain relation of concrete is a straight line under service loads within the allowable service load stresses.
Stresses vary as the distance from the neutral axis except, for deep flexural members with overall depth-clear-span
ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution of stress should be
considered.
c. Steel takes all the tension due to flexure.
d. Modular ratio n = Es/Ec may be taken as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6). Except in calculations for
deflections, the value of n for lightweight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for normal weight concrete of
the same strength.
e. In doubly reinforced flexural members, an effective modular ratio of 2Es/Ec shall be used to transform the compression
reinforcement for stress computations. The compressive stress in such reinforcement shall not be greater than the
allowable tensile stress.
SECTION 2.28 COMPRESSION MEMBERS WITH OR WITHOUT FLEXURE (1992)
The combined axial load and moment capacity of compression members shall be taken as 35% of that computed in accordance
with the provisions of Section 2.33. Slenderness effects shall be included according to the requirements of Section 2.34. The
term Pu in Article 2.33.1b shall be replaced by 2.85 times the design axial load. In using the provisions of Section 2.33 and
Section 2.34, Φ shall be taken as 1.0.

SECTION 2.29 SHEAR
2.29.1 SHEAR STRESS (2005)
a. Design shear stress v shall be computed by:
V- EQ 2-14
v = ---------
bw d
where:
bw = the width of web

d = the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement.
For a circular section, bw shall be taken as the diameter and d shall be taken as 0.8 times the diameter of the section.
b. When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of the member,
sections located less than a distance d from the face of the support may be designed for the same shear v as that
computed at a distance d. An exception occurs when major concentrated loads are imposed between that point and the
face of support. In that case sections closer than d to the support shall be designed for V at distance d plus the major
concentrated loads.
1
c. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall be calculated according to Article 2.29.2. When v exceeds vc, shear
reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.29.3. Whenever applicable, the effects of torsion shall be added.
d. For tapered webs, bw shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
2.29.2 PERMISSIBLE SHEAR STRESS (2005)

3
NOTE: The value of f ′c used in computing vc in this paragraph shall not be taken greater than 100 psi (0.69
MPa).
a. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall not exceed 0.95 f ′c (or 0.079 f ′c in metric) unless a more detailed
analysis is made in accordance with Article 2.29.2b or Article 2.29.2c. For members subject to axial tension, vc shall 4
not exceed the value given in Article 2.29.2d. For lightweight concrete, the provisions of Article 2.29.2f shall apply.
b. Shear stress carried by concrete vc, for members subject to shear and flexure only, may be computed by:
Vd
v c = 0.9 f ′c + 1100ρ w ------- EQ 2-15
M
Vd
v c = 0.075 f ′c + 7.58ρ w ------- EQ 2-15M
M
Vd
but vc shall not exceed 1.6 f c′ (or 0.13 f c′ in metric). The quantity ------- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where
M
M is the design moment occurring simultaneously with V at the section considered.

c. For members subject to axial compression, vc may be computed by:
0.0006N
v c = 0.9 ⎛ 1 + ---------------------⎞ f ′c EQ 2-16
⎝ Ag ⎠
0.0006N
v c = 10.8 ⎛ 0.0069 + ---------------------⎞ f ′c EQ 2-16M
⎝ Ag ⎠
N
The quantity ------ shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
d. For members subject to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry the total shear, unless a
more detailed analysis is made using:
0.004N
v c = 0.9 ⎛ 1 + ------------------⎞ f′c EQ 2-17
⎝ Ag ⎠
0.004N
v c = 10.8 ⎛ 0.0069 + ------------------⎞ f′c EQ 2-17M
⎝ Ag ⎠
where:
N = negative for tension
N shall be expressed in psi (MPa).

The quantity ------
Ag
e. Special provisions for slabs of box culverts. For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet (600 mm) or more fill, shear stress vc
may be computed by:
Vd
vc = f′ c + 2200ρ ------- EQ 2-18
M
v c = 0.083 f′ c + 15.2ρ Vd
------- EQ 2-18M
M
but vc shall not exceed 1.8 f′ c (or 0.15 f′ c in metric). For single cell box culverts only, vc need not be taken less
than 1.4 f′ c (or 0.12 f′ c in metric) for slabs monolithic with walls or 1.2 f′ c (or 0.10 f′ c in metric) for slabs
simply supported. The quantity of Vd

------- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where M is moment occurring
M
simultaneously with V at section considered.
f. The provisions for shear stress vc carried by concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate
concretes are used, one of the following modifications shall apply:
(1) When fct is specified, shear stress vc shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (or 1.8 fct in metric) for f′ c but the
value of fct/6.7 (or 1.8 fct in metric) used shall not exceed f′ c .

(2) When fct is not specified, shear stress vc shall be multiplied by 0.85.
2.29.3 DESIGN OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Shear reinforcement shall conform to the general requirements of Section 2.10. When shear reinforcement
perpendicular to the axis of the member is used, required area shall be computed by:
( v – v c )b w s
A v = ---------------------------- EQ 2-19
fs
b. When inclined stirrups or bent bars are used as shear reinforcement the following provisions apply:
(1) When inclined stirrups are used, required area shall be computed by:
( v – v c )b w s
A v = ---------------------------------------- EQ 2-20
f s ( sin α + cos α )
(2) When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same
distance from the support, required area shall be computed by:
( v – v c )b w d
A v = ----------------------------
f s sin α
- EQ 2-21 1
in which (v – vc) shall not exceed 1.5 f′ c (or 0.12 f′ c in metric).
(3) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at
different distances from the support, required area shall be computed by Article 2.29.3b(1).
3
(4) Only the center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any longitudinal bar that is bent shall be considered
effective for shear reinforcement.
c. Where more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member, required area
shall be computed as the sum for the various types separately. No one type shall resist more than 2/3 of the total shear
resisted by reinforcement. In such computations, vc shall be included only once.
4
d. When (v – vc) exceed 2 f′ c (or 0.17 f′ c in metric), maximum spacings given in Article 2.10.3 shall be reduced by
one-half.
e. The value of (v – vc) shall not exceed 4 f′ c (or 0.33 f′ c in metric).
f. When flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength is terminated in
a tension zone, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 2.13.1f.
2.29.4 SHEAR-FRICTION (2005)
a. Provisions for shear-friction are to be applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given plane,
such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an interface between two concretes
cast at different times.

b. A crack shall be assumed to occur along the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf
across the shear plane may be designed using either Article 2.29.4c or any other shear transfer design methods that
result in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. Provisions of
Article 2.29.4d through Article 2.29.4h shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength.
c. Shear-friction design method.
(1) Shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicular to shear plane, area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf shall be
computed by:
V-
A vf = ------- EQ 2-22
f sμ
where:
μ = the coefficient of friction in accordance with Article 2.29.4c(3).
(2) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to shear plane such that the shear force produces tension in shear-
friction reinforcement, area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf shall be computed by:
V
A vf = ------------------------------------------------- EQ 2-23
f s ( μ sin α f + cos α f )
where:
αf = angle between shear-friction reinforcement and shear plane.
(3) Coefficient of friction μ in EQ 2-22 and EQ 2-23 shall be
concrete placed monolithically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4λ

concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface intentionally roughened as
specified in Article 2.29.4g. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0λ
concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6λ
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs or by reinforcing bars
(see Article 2.29.4h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7λ
where:
λ = 1.0 for normal weight concrete and 0.85 for lightweight concrete.
d. Shear stress v on area of concrete section resisting shear transfer shall not exceed 0.09 f ′c nor 360 psi (2.5 MPa).
e. Net tension across shear plane shall be resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across shear
plane may be taken as additive to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement A v f f s , when calculating required A vf .
f. Shear-friction reinforcement shall be appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be anchored to develop the
specified yield strength on both sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.

g. For the purpose of Article 2.29.4, when concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete, the interface for shear
transfer shall be clean and free of laitance. If μ is assumed equal to 1.0λ, interface shall be roughened to a full
amplitude of approximately 0.25 inches (6 mm).
h. When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded reinforcing bars, steel
shall be clean and free of paint.
2.29.5 HORIZONTAL SHEAR DESIGN FOR COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL

MEMBERS (2005)
a. In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected
elements.
b. Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article 2.29.5c or
Article 2.29.5d, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement
with results of comprehensive tests.
c. Design horizontal shear stress vdh at any cross section may be computed by:
V-
v dh = --------- EQ 2-24
bw d
where: 1
V = design shear force at section considered
d = depth of entire composite section
Horizontal shear vdh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in accordance with the following:
3
(1) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 36 psi
(0.25 MPa).
(2) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.29.5e, and contact surface is clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 36 psi (0.25 MPa).
(3) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.29.5e, and contact surface is clean, free of laitance, 4
and intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of approximately 1/4 inch (6 mm), shear stress vh shall not exceed
160 psi (1.1 MPa).
(4) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the contact surface in excess of the minimum required by
Article 2.29.5e, permissible vh may be increased by 72fy /40,000 psi (or 72fy /280 MPa in metric).
d. Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span, the actual
change in compressive or tensile force, and provisions made to transfer that force as horizontal shear between
interconnected elements. Horizontal shear shall not exceed the permissible horizontal shear stress vh in accordance
with Article 2.29.5c.
e. Ties for horizontal shear.
(1) A minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected elements. Tie area shall not be less
than 50bws/fy (or 0.35bws/fy in metric), and tie spacing ‘s’ shall not exceed 4 times the least web width of support
element, nor 24 inches (600 mm).

(2) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded wire
fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or
hooks.
(3) All beam shear reinforcement shall extend into cast-in-place deck slabs. Extended shear reinforcement may be
used in satisfying the minimum tie reinforcement.
2.29.6 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SLABS AND FOOTINGS (2005)
a. Shear capacity of slabs and footings in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be governed by the more
severe of two conditions:
(1) The slab or footing acting as a wide beam, with a critical section extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or
footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.29.1 through Article 2.29.3.
(2) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a critical section perpendicular to the plane of the slab and located so
that its perimeter is a minimum and approaches no closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated load or
reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.29.6b and
Article 2.29.6c.
(3) At footings supported on piles the shear on the critical section shall be determined in accordance with:
(a) Entire reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more outside the critical section shall be
considered as producing shear on that section.
(b) Reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more inside the critical section shall be considered as
producing no shear on that section.
(c) For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be considered as producing shear
on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation between full value at dp/2 outside the section and
zero value at dp/2 inside the section.
b. Design shear stress for two-way action shall be computed by:
V-
v = -------- EQ 2-25
bo d
where:
V and bo = are taken at the critical section defined in Article 2.29.6a(2).
c. Design shear v shall not exceed the smallest vc given by EQ 2-26 or EQ 2-27 unless shear reinforcement is provided in
accordance with Article 2.29.6d.
2
v c = ⎛ 0.8 + -----⎞ f′ c ; f’c in psi EQ 2-26
⎝ β⎠c
v c = ⎛ 0.066 + 0.17
----------⎞ f′ c ; f’c in MPa EQ 2-26M
⎝ β ⎠c

or
α s d⎞
v c = ⎛ 0.8 + --------
- f′ c ; f’c in psi EQ 2-27
⎝ b ⎠o
α s d⎞ f′ c
v c = ⎛ 0.8 + --------
- ---------- ; f’c in MPa EQ 2-27M
⎝ b ⎠ 12
o
but not greater than 1.8 f′ (or 0.15 f′ in metric). βc is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or
c c
reaction area. αs is 20 for interior concentrated loads or reaction areas, 15 for edge concentrated loads or reaction areas
and 10 for corner concentrated loads or reaction areas.
d. If shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires is provided in accordance with Article 2.29.3, vc at any section shall
not exceed 0.9 f′ c (or 0.075 f′ c in metric) and v shall not exceed 3 f′ c (or 0.25 f′ c in metric). Shear stresses
shall be investigated at the critical section defined in Article 2.29.6a(2) and at successive sections more distant from
the support.
2.29.7 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BRACKETS AND CORBELS (2005)
a. The following provisions shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio av/d not greater than 1
unity, and subject to a horizontal tensile force Nc not larger than V. Distance d shall be measured at face of support.
b. Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.5d.
c. Section at face of support shall be designed to resist simultaneously a shear V, a moment

[Vav + Nc(h-d)], and a horizontal tensile force Nc.
3
(1) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to resist shear V shall be in accordance with Article 2.29.4. For normal
weight concrete, shear stress v shall not exceed 0.09f ′c nor 360 psi (2.5 MPa). For “sand-lightweight” concrete,
shear stress v shall not exceed (0.09 – 0.03av/d)f ′c nor (360 – 126av/d) psi (or 2.5 – 0.09av/d) MPa in metric).
(2) Reinforcement Af to resist moment [Vav + Nc(h-d)] shall be computed in accordance with Section 2.26 and
Section 2.27.
4
(3) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nc shall be computed by An = Nc /fs. Tensile force Nc shall not be taken
less than 0.2V unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces.
(4) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall be made equal to the greater of (Af + An), or
(2Av f / 3 + An).
d. Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with a total area Ah not less than 0.5 (As – An), shall be uniformly distributed
within two-thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As.
e. Ratio ρ = As/bd shall not be taken less than 0.04 (f ′c /fy).
f. At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the following:
(1) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified yield strength fy
of As bars;

(2) bending primary tension bars As back to form a horizontal loop, or
(3) some other means of positive anchorage.
g. Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars As, nor
project beyond interior face of transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
(APPLICABLE TO Section 2.30 THROUGH Section 2.39)
SECTION 2.30 STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
2.30.1 REQUIRED STRENGTH (2005)
Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all sections at least equal to the required
strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in such combinations as stipulated in Article 2.2.4c, which represent
various combinations of loads and forces to which a structure may be subjected. Each part of such structure shall be
proportioned for the group loads that are applicable, and the maximum design required shall be used. Members shall also
follow all other requirements of this Chapter to ensure adequate performance at service load levels.
2.30.2 DESIGN STRENGTH (1992)
a. For reinforced concrete members designed with reference to load factors and strengths, the design strength provided by
a member, its connections to other members, and its cross sections, in terms of flexure, axial load, and shear, shall be
taken as the nominal strength calculated in accordance with the requirements and assumptions of LOAD FACTOR
DESIGN, multiplied by a strength reduction factor φ.
b. Strength reduction factor φ shall be taken as follows:
For flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . φ = 0.90

For shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . φ = 0.85
For spirally reinforced compression members, with or
without flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . φ = 0.75
For tied reinforced compression members with or without flexure. . . . . . . . . . . φ = 0.70

NOTE: The value of φ may be increased linearly from the value for compression
members to the value for flexure as the axial load strength Pn decreases
from Pb to zero.
For bearing on concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . φ = 0.70
NOTE: Development and splices of reinforcement specified in Section 2.13 through Section 2.22 do not require a φ
factor.
SECTION 2.31 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
2.31.1 STRENGTH DESIGN (2005)
Strength design of members for flexure and axial loads shall be based on the assumptions given in this article, and on
satisfaction of the applicable conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains.
a. Strain in the reinforcing steel and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
b. Maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber shall be assumed equal to 0.003.
c. Stress in reinforcement below the specified yield strength fy for the grade of steel used shall be taken as Es times the 1
steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy the stress in the reinforcement shall be considered
independent of strain and equal to fy .
d. Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in flexural calculations of reinforced concrete.
e. The relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain may be assumed to be a
rectangle, trapezoid, parabola, or any other shape which results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with 3
the results of comprehensive tests.
f. The requirements of Article 2.31.1e may be considered satisfied by an equivalent rectangular concrete stress
distribution defined as follows: A concrete stress of 0.85 f′c shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent
compression zone bounded by the edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at a
distance (a = β1c) from the fiber of maximum compressive strain. The distance c from the fiber of maximum strain to
the neutral axis is measured in a direction perpendicular to that axis. The factor β1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete 4
strength f′c up to and including 4000 psi (28 MPa). For strengths above 4000 psi (28 MPa) β1 shall be reduced
continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi (7 MPa) of strength in excess of 4000 psi (28 MPa), but β1 shall not be
taken less than 0.65.
SECTION 2.32 FLEXURE
2.32.1 MAXIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1992)
a. For flexural members, the reinforcement ρ provided shall not exceed 0.75 of that ratio ρb which would produce
balanced strain conditions for the section under flexure.

For flexural members with compression reinforcement, the portion of ρb balanced by compression reinforcement need
not be reduced by the 0.75 factor.
b. Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when the tension reinforcement reaches its specified yield strength fy
just as the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003.
2.32.2 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT ONLY (2005)
a. For rectangular sections, when ρ ≤ 0.75 ρb the design moment strength ΦMn may be computed by:
0.6ρf
ΦM n = Φ A s f y d ⎛ 1 – ---------------y-⎞ EQ 2-28
⎝ f′ c ⎠
a
= Φ A s f y ⎛ d – ---⎞ EQ 2-29
⎝ 2⎠
where:
As f y
a = --------------------
0.85f′ c b
b. The balanced reinforcement ratio ρb for rectangular sections with tension reinforcement only is given by:
0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 87, 000 ⎞

ρ b = ----------------------
- ----------------------------- EQ 2-30
fy ⎝ 87, 000 + f ⎠
y
0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 600 ⎞
ρ b = ----------------------
- -------------------- EQ 2-30M
fy ⎝ 600 + f ⎠
y
2.32.3 I- AND T-SECTIONS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT ONLY (2005)
a. When the compression flange thickness is equal to or greater than the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block a
and ρ ≤ 0.75 ρb, the design moment strength ΦMn may be computed by the equations given in Article 2.32.2.
b. When the compression flange thickness is less than a, the design moment strength ΦMn may be computed by:
ΦM n = Φ ( A s – A sf )f y ⎛ d – --a-⎞ + A sf f y ( d – 0.5h f ) EQ 2-31

⎝ 2⎠
where:
h
Asf = 0.85f′ c ( b – b w ) ----f-
fy

( A s – A sf )f y
a = -------------------------------
0.85f′ c b w
c. The balanced reinforcement ratio ρb for I- and T-sections with tension reinforcement only is given by:
b 0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 87, 000 ⎞

ρ b = -----w- ----------------------
- ----------------------------- + ρ f EQ 2-32
b fy ⎝ 87, 000 + f ⎠
y
b 0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 600 ⎞
ρ b = -----w- ----------------------
- -------------------- + ρ f EQ 2-32M
b fy ⎝ 600 + f ⎠
y
where:
A sf
ρ f = ---------
-
bw d
d. When the compression flange thickness is greater than a, the design moment strength, ΦMn, may be computed by
using the equations in Article 2.32.2.
e. For T-girder and box-girder construction defined by Article 2.23.10 and Article 2.23.11, the width of the compression 1
face b shall be equal to the effective slab width.
2.32.4 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS WITH COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. For rectangular sections when ρ ≤ 0.75 ρb, the design moment strength ΦMn may be computed by:
3
ΦM n = Φ ( A s – A′ s )f y ⎛ d – --a-⎞ + A′ s f y ( d – d′ ) EQ 2-33
⎝ 2⎠
where:
( A s – A′ s )f y
a = ------------------------------
-
4
0.85f′ c b
and the following condition shall be satisfied:
A s – A′ s 0.85β 1 f′ c d ′ ⎛ 87, 000 ⎞

-------------------- ≥ ---------------------------- ----------------------------- EQ 2-34
bd f yd ⎝ 87, 000 – f ⎠
y
A s – A′ s 0.85β 1 f′ c d ′ ⎛ 600 ⎞
-------------------- ≥ ---------------------------- -------------------- EQ 2-34M
bd f yd ⎝ 600 – f ⎠
y
b. When the value of (As – A′s)/bd is less than the value given by EQ 2-34, so that the stress in the compression
reinforcement is less than the yield strength fy or when effects of compression reinforcement are neglected, the

moment strength may be computed by the equations in Article 2.32.2, except when a general analysis is made based on
stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31.
c. The balanced reinforcement ratio ρb for rectangular section with compression reinforcement is given by:
0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 87, 000 ⎞ ρ′f′ sb

ρ b = ----------------------
- ----------------------------- + -------------- EQ 2-35
fy ⎝ 87, 000 + f ⎠ fy
y
0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 600 ⎞ ρ′f′ sb

ρ b = ----------------------
- -------------------- + -------------- EQ 2-35M
fy ⎝ 600 + f ⎠ fy
y
where:
f ′sb is stress in compression reinforcement at balanced strain conditions
f ′sb = d′
87, 000 – ---- ( 87, 000 + f y ) ≤ f y
d
f ′sb = d′
600 – ---- ( 600 + f y ) ≤ f y (metric)
d
2.32.5 OTHER CROSS SECTIONS (1992)
For other cross sections the design moment strength ΦMn shall be computed by a general analysis based on stress and strain
compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31. The requirements of Article 2.32.1 shall also be satisfied.
SECTION 2.33 COMPRESSION MEMBERS WITH OR WITHOUT FLEXURE
2.33.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (2005)
a. Design of cross sections subject to axial load or to combined flexure and axial load shall be based on stress and strain
compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31. Slenderness effects shall be included in accordance with
Section 2.34.
b. Members subject to compressive axial load shall be designed for the maximum moment that can accompany the axial
load. The factored axial load Pu at given eccentricity shall not exceed that given in Article 2.33.1c. The maximum
factored moment Mu shall be magnified for slenderness effects in accordance with Section 2.34.
c. Design axial load strength ΦPa of compression members shall not be taken greater than the following:
(1) For members with spiral reinforcement conforming to Article 2.11.2a:
ΦP a (max) = 0.85Φ [ 0.85f′ c ( A g – A st ) + f y A st ] EQ 2-36
(2) For members with tie reinforcement conforming to Article 2.11.2b:

ΦP a (max) = 0.80Φ [ 0.85f′ c ( A g – A st ) + f y A st ] EQ 2-37
2.33.2 COMPRESSION MEMBER STRENGTHS (2005)
The following provisions may be used as a guide to define the range of the load-moment interaction relationship for members
subjected to combined flexure and axial load.
a. Pure Compression.
(1) The design axial load strength at zero eccentricity ΦPo may be computed by:
ΦP o = Φ [ 0.85f′ c ( A g – A st ) + A st f y ] EQ 2-38
(2) For design, pure compression strength is a hypothetical loading condition since Article 2.33.1c limits the axial
load strength of compression members to 85% and 80% of the design axial load strength at zero eccentricity.
b. Pure Flexure. The assumptions given in Section 2.31, or the applicable equations for flexure given in Section 2.32 may
be used to compute the design moment strength ΦMn in pure flexure.
c. Balanced Strain Conditions. Balanced strain conditions for a cross section are defined in Article 2.32.1b. For a
rectangular section with reinforcement in one or two faces and located at approximately the same distance from the
axis of bending, the balanced load strength ΦPb and balanced moment strength ΦMb may be computed by:
1
ΦP b = Φ [ 0.85f′ c ba b + A′ s f′ sb – A s f y ] EQ 2-39
and
a
ΦM b = Φ 0.85f′ c ba b ⎛ d – d″ – ----b-⎞ + A′ s f′ sb ( d – d′ – d″ ) + A s f y d″ EQ 2-40
⎝ 2⎠ 3
where:
87, 000 -⎞ β d
ab = ⎛⎝ ----------------------------
87, 000 + f y⎠
1
4
600
ab = ⎛⎝ --------------------⎞⎠ β 1 d (metric)
600 + f y
f ′sb = d′
87, 000 – ---- ( 87, 000 + f y ) ≤ f y
d
f ′sb = 600 – d′
---- ( 600 + f y ) ≤ f y (metric)
d
d. Combined Flexure and Axial Load.
(1) The design strength under combined flexure and axial load shall be based on stress and strain compatibility using
the assumptions given in Section 2.31. The strength of a cross section is controlled by tension when the nominal
axial load strength Pn is less than Pb. The strength of a cross section is controlled by compression when the
nominal axial load strength Pn is greater than Pb.

(2) The nominal values of axial load strength Pn and moment strength Mn must both be multiplied by the appropriate
strength reduction factor Φ for spirally reinforced or tied compression members as given in Article 2.30.2. The
value of Φ may be increased linearly from the value for compression members to the value for flexure as the
design axial load strength ΦPn decreases from 0.10f ′c A g or ΦPb whichever is smaller, to zero.
2.33.3 BIAXIAL LOADING (1992)
In lieu of a general section analysis based on stress and strain compatibility for a loading condition of biaxial bending, the
strength of non-circular members subject to biaxial bending may be computed by the following approximate expressions:
1 EQ 2-41
P nxy = ----------------------------------------------------
⎛ -------
1 -⎞ + ⎛ ------- 1 -⎞ – ⎛ ----- 1⎞
⎝P ⎠ ⎝P ⎠ ⎝P ⎠
nx ny o
where the factored axial load,
P u ≥ 0.1f′ c A g
or
M ux M uy
-------------- -≤1
- + -------------- EQ 2-42
ΦM nx ΦM ny
when the factored axial load,
P u < 0.1f′ c A g
SECTION 2.34 SLENDERNESS EFFECTS IN COMPRESSION MEMBERS
a. Design of compression members shall be based on forces and moments determined from an analysis of the structure.
Such an analysis shall take into account the influence of axial loads and variable moment of inertia on member stiffness
and fixed-end moments, the effect of deflections on the moments and forces, and the effects of the duration of the
loads.
b. In lieu of the procedure described in Article 2.34.1a, the design of compression members may be based on the
approximate procedure given in Article 2.34.2.
2.34.2 APPROXIMATE EVALUATION OF SLENDERNESS EFFECTS (2005)
a. Unsupported length lu of a compression member shall be taken as the clear distance between slabs, girders, or other
members capable of providing lateral support for the compression member. When haunches are present, the
unsupported length shall be measured to the lower extremity of the haunch in the plane considered.

b. Radius of gyration r may be taken equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in the direction in which stability is being
considered for rectangular compression members, and 0.25 times the diameter for circular compression members. For
other shapes, r may be computed from the gross concrete section.
c. For compression members braced against sidesway, the effective length factor k shall be taken as 1.0, unless an
analysis shows that a lower value may be used. For compression members not braced against sidesway, the effective
length factor k shall be determined with due consideration of cracking and reinforcement on relative stiffness, and shall
be greater than 1.0.
d. For compression members braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected when klu/r is less than
34 – 12M1b/M2b. For compression members not braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected
when klu/r is less than 22. For all compression members with klu/r greater than 100, an analysis as defined in
Article 2.34.1a shall be made. M1b = value of smaller end moment on compression member calculated from a
conventional elastic analysis, positive if member is bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double curvature, M2b =
value of larger end moment on compression member calculated from a conventional elastic analysis, always positive.
e. Compression members shall be designed using the factored axial load Pu from a conventional frame analysis and a
magnified factored moment Mc defined by EQ 2-43. For members braced against sidesway, δs shall be taken as 1.0.
For members not braced against sidesway, δb shall be evaluated as for a braced member and δs as for an unbraced
member.
M c = δ b M 2b + δ s M 2s EQ 2-43
where: 1
Cm
- ≥ 1.0
-----------------
δb = Pu
1 – ---------
φP c
1 - ≥ 1.0
3
---------------------
δs = ΣP u
1 – ------------ -
φΣP c
and
4
2
Pc = π EI-
--------------
2
( kl u )
In lieu of a more precise calculation, EI may be taken either as
Ec Ig
----------- + E s I s
5
EI = ---------------------------
1 + βd
or conservatively

Ec Ig
-----------
2.5 -
EI = --------------
1 + βd
For members braced against sidesway and without transverse loads between supports, Cm may be taken as:
M 1b
C m = 0.6 + 0.4 ---------
- but not less than 0.4. EQ 2-44
M 2b
For all other cases Cm shall be taken as 1.0.
f. When a group of compression members on one level composes a bent, or when they are connected integrally to the
same superstructure, and all collectively resist the sidesway of the structure, the value of δs shall be computed for the
member group with ΣPu and ΣPc equal to the summations for all compression members in the group.
g. If computations show that there is no moment at both ends of a compression member or that computed end
eccentricities are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm); M2b in EQ 2-43 shall be based on a minimum
eccentricity of (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm) about each principal axis separately. Ratio M1b /M2b in EQ 2-44
shall be determined by either of the following:
(1) When computed end eccentricities are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm), computed end moments
may be used to evaluate M1b /M2b in EQ 2-44.
(2) If computations show that there is essentially no moment at both ends of a compression member, the ratio
M1b/M2b shall be taken equal to one.
h. When compression members are subject to bending about both principal axes, the moment about each axis shall be
amplified by δ computed from the corresponding conditions of restraint about that axis.
i. In structures which are not braced against sidesway, the flexural members shall be designed for the total magnified end
moments of the compression members at the joint.
SECTION 2.35 SHEAR
2.35.1 SHEAR STRENGTH (2005)
a. Factored shear stress vu shall be computed by:
Vu
v u = --------------
- EQ 2-45
Φb w d
where:
bw = the width of web

d = the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement
For a circular section, bw shall be taken as the diameter, and d need not be taken less than the distance from the extreme
compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member.

b. When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of the member and
loads are applied at or near the top of the member, sections located less than a distance d from the face of the support
may be designed for the same shear vu as that computed at a distance d. An exception occurs when major concentrated
loads are imposed between that point and the face of support. In that case sections closer than d to the support shall be
designed for Vu at distance d plus the major concentrated loads.
c. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall be calculated according to Article 2.35.2. When vu exceeds vc, shear
reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.35.3. Whenever applicable, the effects of torsion shall be added.
NOTE: The design criteria for combined shear and torsion given in “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete – ACI318-02” may be used.
d. For tapered webs, bw shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
2.35.2 PERMISSIBLE SHEAR STRESS (2010)
NOTE: The value f’c used in computing vc shall not be taken greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
a. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall not exceed 2 f′ c (or 0.17 f′ c in metric) unless a more detailed analysis is
made in accordance with Article 2.35.2b or Article 2.35.2c. For members subject to axial tension, vc shall not exceed
the value given in Article 2.35.2d. For lightweight concrete, the provisions of Article 2.35.2f shall apply.
b. Shear stress carried by concrete vc, for members subject to shear and flexure only, may be computed by:
1
Vu d
v c = 1.9 f′ c + 2500ρ w ---------
- EQ 2-46
Mu
Vu d
v c = 0.16 f′ c + 17ρ w ---------
- EQ 2-46M
Mu
3
Vu d
but vc shall not exceed 3.5 f′ c (or 0.29 f′ c in metric). The quantity ---------
- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where
Mu
Mu is the factored moment occurring simultaneously with Vu at the section considered.
c. For members subject to axial compression, vc may be computed by: 4
N
v c = 2 ⎛ 1 + 0.0005 ------u-⎞ f′ c EQ 2-47
⎝ A g⎠
N
v c = 0.17 ⎛ 1 + 0.072 ------u-⎞ f′ c EQ 2-47M
⎝ A g⎠
N
The quantity ------u- shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
d. For members subject to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry the total shear, unless a
more detailed analysis is made using

N
v c = 2 ⎛ 1 + 0.002 ------u-⎞ f′ c EQ 2-48
⎝ A g⎠
N
v c = 0.17 ⎛ 1 + 0.29 ------u-⎞ f′ c EQ 2-48M
⎝ A g⎠
where:
Nu is negative for tension
N
the quantity ------u- shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
e. Special provisions for slabs of box culverts. For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet (600 mm) or more fill, shear stress vc
may be computed by:
Vu d
v c = 2.14 f′ c + 4600ρ ---------
- EQ 2-49
Mu
Vu d
v c = 0.18 f′ c + 32ρ ---------
- EQ 2-49M
Mu
but vc shall not exceed 4 f′ c (or 1--- f′ c in metric). For single cell box culverts only, vc need not be taken less than
3
f′ 5
3 f′ c (or ----------c in metric) for slabs monolithic with walls or 2.5 f′ c (or ------ f′ c in metric) for slabs simply
4 24
Vu d
supported. The quantity ---------
- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where Mu is factored moment occurring
Mu
simultaneously with Vu at section considered.
f. The provisions for shear stress vc carried by concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate
concretes are used, one of the following modifications shall apply:
(1) When fct is specified, shear stress vc shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (or 1.8fct in metric) for f′ c , but the
value of fct/6.7 (or 1.8fct in metric) used shall not exceed f′ c .
(2) When fct is not specified, shear stress vc shall be multiplied by 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.
2.35.3 DESIGN OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Shear reinforcement shall conform to the general requirements of Section 2.10. When shear reinforcement
perpendicular to the axis of the member is used, required area shall be computed by:

( v u – v c )b w s
A v = ------------------------------
- EQ 2-50
fy
b. When inclined stirrups or bent bars are used as shear reinforcement the following provisions apply:
(1) When inclined stirrups are used, required area shall be computed by:
( v u – v c )b w s
A v = ----------------------------------------
- EQ 2-51
f y ( sin α + cos α )
(2) When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same
distance from the support, required area shall be computed by:
( v u – v c )b w d
A v = -------------------------------
- EQ 2-52
f y sin α
f′
in which (vu – vc) shall not exceed 3 f′ c (or ---------c- in metric).
4
(3) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at
different distances from the support, required area shall be computed using Article 2.35.3b(1).
(4) Only the center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any one longitudinal bar that is bent shall be considered 1
effective for shear reinforcement.
c. When more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member, required area
shall be computed as the sum for the various types separately. No one type shall resist more than 2/3 of the total shear
resisted by reinforcement. In such computations, vc shall be included only once.
3
f′
d. When (vu – vc) exceeds 4 f′ c (or ----------c in metric), maximum spacings given in Article 2.10.3 shall be reduced by
3
one-half.
2 f′
e. The value of (vu – vc) shall not exceed 8 f′ c (or -------------c in metric). 4
3
f. When flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength is terminated in
a tension zone, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 2.13.1f.
2.35.4 SHEAR-FRICTION (2005)
a. Provisions for shear-friction are to be applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given plane,
such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an interface between two concretes
cast at different times.
b. A crack shall be assumed to occur along the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf
across the shear plane may be designed using either Article 2.35.4c or any other shear transfer design method that
results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. Provisions of
Article 2.35.4d through Article 2.35.4h shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength.

c. Shear-friction design method.
(1) When shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicular to shear plane, area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf shall be
computed by:
Vu
A vf = -----------
- EQ 2-53
φf y μ
where:
μ = the coefficient of friction in accordance with Article 2.35.4c(3).
(2) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to shear plane such that the shear force produces tension in shear-
friction reinforcement, area of shear friction reinforcement Avf shall be computed by:
Vu
A vf = ----------------------------------------------------
- EQ 2-54
φf y ( μ sin α f + cos α f )
where:
αf = angle between shear-friction reinforcement and shear plane
(3) Coefficient of friction μ in EQ 2-53 and EQ 2-54 shall be:
concrete placed monolithically. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4λ

concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface
intentionally roughened as specified in Article 2.35.4g. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0λ
concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6λ
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs or by
reinforcing bars (see Article 2.35.4h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7λ
where λ = 1.0 for normal weight concrete and 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.
d. Shear stress vu on area of concrete section resisting shear transfer shall not exceed 0.2f ′c nor 800 psi (5.5 MPa).
e. Net tension across shear plane shall be resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across shear
plane may be taken as additive to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement A v f f y , when calculating required A vf .
f. Shear-friction reinforcement shall be appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be anchored to develop the
specified yield strength on both sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
g. For the purpose of this paragraph, when concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete, the interface for shear
transfer shall be clean and free of laitance. If μ is assumed equal to 1.0λ, interface shall be roughened to a full
amplitude of approximately 1/4 inch (6 mm).
h. When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded reinforcing bars, steel
shall be clean and free of paint.

2.35.5 HORIZONTAL SHEAR DESIGN FOR COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL

MEMBERS (2005)
a. In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected
elements.
b. Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article 2.35.5c or
Article 2.35.5d, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement
with results of comprehensive tests.
c. Design horizontal shear stress vuh at any cross section may be computed by
Vu
v uh = -----------
- EQ 2-55
φb v d
where:
Vu = factored shear force at section considered

d = depth of entire composite section
Horizontal shear vuh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in accordance with the following:
1
(1) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 80 psi
(0.55 MPa).
(2) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.35.5e, and contact surface is clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 80 psi (0.55 MPa).
(3) When ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.35.5e and contact surfaces are clean, free of laitance and 3
intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of 1/4 inch (6 mm), shear stress, vh, shall be taken equal to (260 +
0.6ρvfy)λ in psi [(1.8 + 0.6ρvfy)λ in MPa]; but not greater than 500 psi (3.5 MPa).
(4) When factored shear stress, vu, at section considered exceeds φ 500 psi (φ 3.5 in MPa), design for horizontal shear
shall be in accordance with Article 2.35.4.
d. Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span, the actual 4
change in compressive or tensile force to be transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as horizontal shear
between interconnected elements. The factored horizontal shear stress shall not exceed the horizontal shear strength
vuh in accordance with Article 2.35.5c, except that length of segment considered shall be substituted for d.
e. Ties for horizontal shear.
(1) A minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected elements. Tie area shall not be less
than 50bws/fy (or 0.35bws/fy in metric), and tie spacing s shall not exceed 4 times the least web width of support
element, nor 24 inches (600 mm).
(2) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded wire
fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or
hooks.
(3) All beam shear reinforcement shall extend into cast-in-place deck slabs. Extended shear reinforcement may be
used in satisfying the minimum tie reinforcement.

2.35.6 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SLABS AND FOOTINGS (2005)
a. Shear strength of slabs and footings in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be governed by the more
severe of the following conditions:
(1) The slab or footing acting as a wide beam, with a critical section extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or
footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.35.1 through Article 2.35.3.
(2) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a critical section perpendicular to the plane of the slab and located so
that its perimeter is a minimum and approaches no closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated load or
reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.35.6b and
Article 2.35.6c.
(3) For footings supported on piles the shear on the critical section shall be determined in accordance with:
(a) Entire reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more outside the critical section shall be
considered as producing shear on that section.
(b) Reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more inside the critical section shall be considered as
producing no shear on that section.
(c) For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be considered as producing shear
on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation between full value at dp/2 outside the section and
zero value at dp/2 inside the section.
b. Factored shear stress for two-way action shall be computed by:
Vu
v u = ------------- EQ 2-56
Φb o d
where:
Vu and bo = are taken at the critical section defined in Article 2.35.6a(2).
c. Factored shear stress vu shall not exceed vu given by EQ 2-57, EQ 2-58, or EQ 2-59 unless shear reinforcement is
provided in accordance with Article 2.35.6d.
αs d
v c = ⎛ --------
- + 2⎞ f′ c EQ 2-57
⎝b ⎠
o
αs d f′
v c = ⎛ --------
- + 2⎞ ----------c EQ 2-57M
⎝b ⎠ 12
o
v c = ⎛ 2 + ----
4-⎞ f′ EQ 2-58
⎝ β⎠
c
c
2 f′
v c = ⎛ 1 + -----⎞ ----------c EQ 2-58M
⎝ β ⎠ 6
c

v c = 4 f′ c EQ 2-59
1
v c = --- f′ c EQ 2-59M
3
βc is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area. αs is 40 for interior concentrated loads or
reaction areas, 30 for edge concentrated loads or reaction areas, and 20 for corner concentrated loads or reaction areas.
d. If shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires is provided in accordance with Article 2.35.3, vc at any section shall
1 1
not exceed 2 f′ c (or --- f′ c in metric) and vu shall not exceed 6 f′ c (or --- f′ c in metric). Shear stresses shall be
6 2
investigated at the critical section defined in Article 2.35.6a(2) and at successive sections more distant from the
support.
2.35.7 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BRACKETS AND CORBELS (2005)
a. The following provisions shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio and av/d not greater than
unity, and subject to a horizontal tensile force Nuc not larger than Vu. Distance d shall be measured at face of support.
b. Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.5d.
c. Section at face of support shall be designed to resist simultaneously a shear Vu, a moment 1
[Vuav + Nuc(h – d)], and a horizontal tensile force Nuc .
(1) In all design calculations in accordance with this paragraph, strength reduction factor φ shall be taken equal to
0.85.
(2) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to resist shear Vu shall be in accordance with Article 2.35.4. For normal
weight concrete, shear stress vu shall not exceed 0.2 f ′c nor 800 psi (5.5 MPa). For “sand-lightweight” concrete, 3
shear stress vu shall not exceed (0.2 – 0.07a v /d) f ′c nor (800 – 280a v /d) psi (5.5 – 1.9a v /d MPa).
(3) Reinforcement Af to resist moment [Vuav + Nuc(h – d)] shall be computed in accordance with Section 2.31 and
Section 2.32.
(4) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nuc shall be computed by An = Nuc/φfy . Tensile force Nuc shall not be
taken less than 0.2Vu unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces. 4
(5) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall be made equal to the greater of (Af + An), or
(2A v f /3 + An).
d. Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with a total area of Ah not less than 0.5(As – An), shall be uniformly distributed
within two-thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As.
e. Ratio ρ = As/bd shall not be taken less than 0.04 (f ′c /fy).
f. At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the following:
(1) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified yield strength fy
of As bars;
(2) bending primary tension bars As back to form a horizontal loop, or

(3) some other means of positive anchorage.
g. Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars As, nor
project beyond interior face of transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).
SECTION 2.36 PERMISSIBLE BEARING STRESS (2005)
Design bearing stress shall not exceed φ (0.85f ′c), except when the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded
area, then the design bearing stress on the loaded area shall be permitted to be multiplied by A 2 ⁄ A 1 , but not more than 2,
where:
A1 = load area
A2 = the area of the lower base of the largest frustrum of a pyramid, cone, or tapered wedge
contained wholly within the support and having for its upper base the loaded area, and having
side slopes of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
Minimum distance from edge of bearing to edge of supporting concrete shall be 6 inches (150 mm).
SECTION 2.37 SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
For flexural members designed with reference to load factors and strengths by LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, stresses at service
load shall be limited to satisfy the requirements for fatigue in Section 2.38, and the requirements for distribution of
reinforcement in Section 2.39. The requirements for deflection control in Section 2.40 shall also apply.
2.37.2 SERVICE LOAD STRESSES (1992)
For investigation of service load stresses to satisfy the requirements of Section 2.38 and Section 2.39, the straight-line theory
of stress and strain in flexure shall be used, and the assumptions given in Section 2.27 shall apply.
SECTION 2.38 FATIGUE STRESS LIMIT FOR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. The range between a maximum tension stress and minimum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load plus
impact at service load shall not exceed:
ff = 21 – 0.33fmin + 8(r/h)
ff = 145 – 0.33fmin + 55(r/h) (metric)

where:
ff = stress range in steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa)

fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, ksi (MPa)
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; when the actual value is not known,
use 0.3
b. Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in regions of high stress range.
SECTION 2.39 DISTRIBUTION OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the zones of maximum tension. When the design yield strength fy for
tension reinforcement exceeds 40,000 psi (280 MPa), cross sections of maximum positive and negative moment shall
be so proportioned that the calculated stress in the reinforcement at service load fs in ksi (MPa), does not exceed the
value computed by:
Z
f s = -------------- but fs shall not be greater than 0.5 fy EQ 2-60
3 d A
c
1
where:
A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the main tension reinforcing bars and having the same
centroid as that reinforcement, divided by the number of bars, square inches (mm2). When the main
reinforcement consists of several bar sizes the number of bars shall be computed as the total steel area
divided by the area of the largest bar used 3
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar located closest thereto,
inches (mm), but dc shall not exceed (2 inches + 1/2 db) (or (50 mm + 1/2 db) in metric).
b. The quantity Z in EQ 2-60 shall not exceed 170 kips per inch (30 kN/mm) for members in moderate exposure
conditions and 130 kips per inch (23 kN/mm) for members in severe exposure conditions. Where members are exposed
to very aggressive exposure or corrosive environments, such as deicer chemicals, the denseness and nonporosity of the 4
protecting concrete should be considered, or other protection, such as a waterproof protecting system, should be
provided in addition to satisfying EQ 2-60.
SECTION 2.40 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS
2.40.1 GENERAL (1992)
Flexural members of bridge structures shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or any deformations
which may adversely affect the strength or serviceability of the structure at service load.

2.40.2 SUPERSTRUCTURE DEPTH LIMITATIONS (1992)
The minimum thicknesses stipulated in Table 8-2-10 are recommended unless computation of deflection indicates that lesser
thickness may be used without adverse effects.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various paragraphs in Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design. In
the numbering of paragraphs of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/paragraph being explained.
C - SECTION 2.1 GENERAL
C - 2.1.5 PIER PROTECTION (2005)
C - 2.1.5.1 Adjacent to Railroad Tracks
a. The provisions of this section are not intended to create a structure that will resist the full impact of a direct collision by
a loaded train at high speed. Rather, the intent is to reduce the damage caused by shifted loads or derailed equipment.
This is accomplished by: deflecting or redirecting the force from the pier; providing a smooth face; providing resisting
mass; and distributing the collisions forces over several columns.
b. Research by the National Transportation Safety Board found no clear break point in the distribution of the distance
traveled from the centerline of the track by derailed equipment. It was therefore decided to retain the existing 25 feet
(7600 mm) distance within which collision protection is required. In addition, it is recognized that the distance traveled
by equipment in a derailment is related to the speed of the train, the weight of the equipment, whether the side slopes
tend to restrain or distribute the equipment and the alignment of the track. In cases where these factors would cause the
equipment to travel farther than normal in a derailment, the required distance should be increased. Structures not
otherwise requiring protection under this section along the railroad right-of-way may also warrant protection by using
crash walls or earthen berms.
c. Where the risk of serious damage to the overhead structure is estimated to be higher than normal in case of an impact,
this distance should also be increased. Among the factors to be considered in this evaluation are: the height of the pier,
bearing type, redundancy of the structure, length of the span and consequences of loss of use of the structure.
d. Examples of crash walls and pier protection for tracks on one side of piers are shown in Figure C-8-2-1. Where tracks
are on both sides of the pier the wall shall protect both sides.
C - 2.1.6 SUPERSTRUCTURE PROTECTION (2010)
C - 2.1.6.1 General Requirements
a. The purpose for this guideline stems from the fact that many existing railroad bridge superstructures have been struck
by trucks and other over-height loads and vehicles. Many of these bridges play a pivotal role in the day-to-day
operations of the railroads and the transportation of goods. Railway networks are less extensive than those of other
modes of transportation to the extend that unplanned shutdowns can have an adverse impact on railroad operations,
particularly along core routes of a railway network. Protection of railroad bridge superstructures to abate impacts to
daily railroad operations is critical and should be evaluated.
Parameters that affect railroad operational requirements include:

(1) The availability of other routes between linked markets
(2) The freight tonnage hauled over the route relative to the rest of the rail network
(3) The types of commodity handled on the line
(4) Future growth of freight or passenger traffic between the served markets or terminals
(5) The density of passenger traffic on the line
Roadway functional classification, which is influenced by traffic volume and type of service it provides for the
community, determines:
(1) Vehicular design speed
(2) Vertical and horizontal alignment of the roadway
(3) Cross section of the roadway
1
C - 2.1.7 SKEWED CONCRETE BRIDGES (2005)
b. There is no supporting documentation for the maximum recommended skew angles given. The information was
compiled from a questionnaire that was sent to several Chief Bridge Engineers of Class I railroad companies. The
skew angle recommendations resulted from the Chief Engineers’ past experience. The preference to use cast-in-place
concrete for skewed bridges is due to the high torsional stiffness of concrete bridges and the flexibility of forming the 3
concrete to fit the bearing area. The maximum recommended skew angle is reduced for precast slabs and box beams
since the bearing area of precast box beams and slabs is longer. This longer bearing area can result in warping of the
section during precasting due to the varying cambers.
c. The placement of interior diaphragms perpendicular to the webs is recommended since they allow for easier
construction or installation of transverse post-tensioning.
4
d. On skewed abutments, the end of the haunch in the backwall of the abutment or the end of the approach slab is set
perpendicular to the centerline of track to ensure adequate stiffness for the last tie off the bridge.
e. The ends of concrete slabs and concrete box girders with flanges 5’-0” wide and wider may be skewed to reduce the
width of pier cap or abutment seat.
C - 2.2.3 DESIGN LOADS (2008)
C - 2.2.3 (d.) IMPACT LOAD
Previously, different impact formulas were included in the Manual for reinforced concrete in Part 2 and prestressed concrete in
Part 17. It was known however that impact values should be similar for both types of structures (ref. 1). In order to resolve
this discrepancy, a new impact formula was developed based on work in Europe (ref. 1) and Canada (ref. 6, 7). The resulting
impact is generally lower than that recommended previously for reinforced concrete, particularly for longer spans. It is

Figure C-8-2-1. Pier Protection: Minimum Crash Wall Requirements (Not To Scale)
generally higher than that recommended previously for prestressed concrete, particularly for shorter spans. This is illustrated in Figure C-8-2-2.

Figure C-8-2-2. Comparison of Impact Formulas
8-2-73
According to the ORE report (ref. 1) the impact can be expressed as:
I = 0.65 x K / (1 - K + K2) where K = V/(2/Lf)
V = speed of train in feet/second (meters/second)

L = span length in feet (meters)
f = natural frequency of the loaded bridge in hertz
In order to get the impact value as a percentage, this formula is multiplied by 100
I = 65 x K / (1 - K + K2)
For simply supported undamped beams, the natural frequency of the bridge can be estimated (see ref. 5) as:
f = 3.5 ⁄ ( δ ) where δ is the deflection due to dead and live load in inches or;
f = 5.6 ⁄ ( δ ) where δ is in centimeters.
NOTE: Limited data exist for impact on continuous structures. The ORE has done one test on such structures which
suggests that impact values do not normally exceed those for simple spans. Article 2.2.3d(2) recommends
using for the entire continuous structure the impact value calculated for the shortest of the continuous spans.
Assuming the deflection under dead and live load is equal to L/750 (where L is the span length) and the speed is 100 miles per
hour (160 kilometers per hour) and transforming to consistent units we get:
K = V/(2Lf) = 2.64/ L where L is the span length in feet or;
K = V/(2Lf) = 1.47/ L where L is in meters
Replacing this value for K in the ORE impact formula and considering the fact that the denominator is practically a constant
for the range of span lengths where the formula is applicable, the impact formula is simplified to:
I = 225/ L where L is the span length in feet or;
I = 125/ L where L is in meters
This formula was validated by the ORE with tests on 37 reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and steel bridges, small
scale models and theoretical calculations. It was found that the formula gave a good representation of the mean impact values
for European railway bridges. For North American bridges, the formula had to be adjusted for higher impacts due to different
track and equipment maintenance standards. It was decided to address this issue by using in the ORE formula a design speed
of 100 mph (160 km/h) which is higher than the actual speed for North American freight operations. Therefore, for bridge
rating purposes, one should not attempt to input actual train speeds in the ORE formula. Impact reduction for bridge rating
purposes is given in Part 19. The different safety factors given in the Manual for impact loading will cover the cases where the
impact would be higher than the mean value.
For piers and abutments, where the weight of the substructure is much greater than the live load, the effects of impact will
generally be minimal and therefore can be neglected in the design.
When the substructure and superstructure are rigidly connected together, the superstructure will undergo additional rotation
due to the impact loading at the point where it is connected to the substructure. In order to maintain compatibility of
deformations, the substructure will experience the same additional rotations. Therefore, impact must be used in this case for
the design of the substructure.

Particular attention should be given to short structural members spanning in the direction perpendicular to the track and
located next to the bridge approach. These members will be subjected to higher impacts due to the transition in stiffness of the
riding surface between the bridge and the approach. Members such as concrete deck slabs and flanges of precast concrete
beams are known to experience higher impacts. However, very limited test data is available to evaluate accurately the level of
impact experienced by these members. Some Railways design these members for impacts as high as 100 percent.
It should be noted that direct fixation can result in much higher impacts than reflected by the formula. This formula is
intended for ballasted deck spans and substructure elements as required. For bridges with direct fixation, refer to Part 27
Concrete Slab Track.
The Association of American Railroads (AAR) conducted a series of tests on nine prestressed concrete bridges in the late
1950s and early- to mid-1960s from which impact data was gathered. Spans varied from 18 feet to 70 feet in length. This data
is summarized in the Committee 30 report found in AREA Bulletin 597, January 1966. The highest impacts measured were 45
percent in a 30 foot span. Other spans tested all had impacts less than 30 percent.
The AAR performed further testing on three prestressed concrete bridges in the early 1990s [ref. 3 & 4]. Tests included cars
equipped with flat wheels or out-of-round wheels near the condemning limit. Impacts up to 51 percent were measured on an
18-foot span.
References
(1) Office de Recherche et d’Essais (ORE), ORE Committee D23 - Report No. 17 Final Report, Utrecht, April 1970.
(2) Skaberna, S., “A Review of Studies of Impact in Concrete Railway Bridges”, Railway Track & Structures,
November 1988, pp. 23-25.
1
(3) Sharma, V., Gamble, W.G., and Choros, J., Impact Factor Measurements for Three Precast Pretensioned Concrete
Railway Bridges, Association of American Railroads, Report No. R-824, January 1993.
(4) Sharma, Vinaya, Flat Wheel Impacts and TLV Tests on a Prestressed Concrete Bridge, Technology Digest TD 94-
016, Association of American Railroads, September 1994. 3
(5) Fryba, Ladislav, “Dynamics of Railway Bridges”, Thomas Telford Services, London, P. 92, 1996.
(6) Skaberna, S. AREA correspondence, April 24 1986.
(7) Skaberna, S. AREA correspondence, January 18 1988.

4
C - 2.2.3 (j.) LONGITUDINAL LOAD. (2008) (References 34, 35, 36, 46, 52, 55, 66, 67, 68, 69, and
105)
a. Longitudinal loads due to train traffic can vary tremendously from train to train. These loads are dependent on train
handling and operating practices. The greatest longitudinal loads result from starting or stopping a train, or moving a
train up or down a grade. The longitudinal loads applied to a bridge from normal train operations could be small in
comparison to the design loads.
b. Maximum adhesion between wheel and rail for train braking is about 15 percent. This level of adhesion would
typically be reached with an emergency application of the train air brakes. The equation for train braking is derived
using 15 percent of the Cooper E-80 (EM 360) live loading.
c. Longitudinal load due to braking acts at the center of gravity of the live load. Center of gravity height is taken as 8 feet
(2450 mm) above top of rail. This load is transferred from vehicle to rail as a horizontal force at the top of rail and a
vertical force couple transmitted through the wheels.

d. Locomotive traction can be applied at levels of adhesion approaching 50 percent, particularly with locomotives using
AC traction motors. Locomotive tractive effort is generally limited by drawbar and coupler capacity to less than about
500 kips (2200 kN), depending on equipment. Large applications of dynamic braking effort (which generate tractive
forces) are also possible. The greatest locomotive tractive efforts are generally reached at speeds below 25 mph (40
km/h). Above this speed, locomotive horsepower generally governs, and available tractive effort drops.
e. Longitudinal load due to locomotive traction acts at the drawbar. Drawbar height is taken as 3 feet (900 mm) above top
of rail. As with braking, this force is transferred from vehicle to rail as a horizontal force at the top of rail and a vertical
force couple transmitted through the wheels.
f. The equation for longitudinal load due to locomotive traction is based on maximum values from AAR measurements
on bridges tested with AC locomotives. The equipment used in the tests was approximately equivalent to a Cooper E-
60 (EM 270) loading on the spans tested. The formula has been scaled to be consistent with the E-80 (EM 360) design
loading.
g. Longitudinal deflection limits are required to increase serviceability of the structure. They can also potentially reduce
track problems (buckling, ballast degradation, etc.) on or just beyond the ends of the bridge.
h. The longitudinal deflection is computed assuming the entire bridge acts as a unit. The stiffness of individual
substructure components must be considered. Stiffer components deflect the same amount as more flexible
components; the stiffer components resist more load.
i. For the case where longitudinal deflection controls the design of fairly tall flexible pile bents, the designer should
consider adding longitudinal bracing to some of the double bents to stiffen them above the ground line, and thus reduce
longitudinal deflection. Battering or increasing the batter of piles, and/or adding more piles can also reduce deflection.

8
Part 3
Spread Footing Foundations1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-2

3.1.1 Scope (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-2
3.1.2 Classification (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3
3.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3 1

3.2.1 Field Survey (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3
3.2.2 Controlling Dimensions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4
3.2.3 Loads (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4
3.2.4 Character of Subsurface Materials (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-5
3.3 Depth of Base of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-6 3

3.3.1 Selection of Tentative Depths (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-6
3.3.2 Revision of Depths of Footings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.4 Sizing of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7

3.4.1 Definitions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.4.2 Safety Factors (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.4.3 Footings on Granular Material (Cohesion = 0) (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-8
3.4.4 Footings on Saturated Clay (φ = 0) (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-10
3.4.5 Footings on Unsaturated Silts and Clays (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-11
3.4.6 Footings on Non-Homogeneous Deposits (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-11
3.4.7 Footings on Soils with Cohesion and Friction (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.5 Footings with Eccentric Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12

3.5.1 Loads Eccentric in One Direction (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.5.2 Loads Eccentric in Two Directions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.5.3 Sizing Footings with Eccentric Loads (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-13
3.6 Footing Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14

3.6.1 Pressure Distribution (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
1
References, Vol. 58, 1957, pp. 633, 1182; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 676, 1188; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 438, 860; Vol. 74, 1973, p. 138; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 206; Vol. 78,
1977, p. 108; Vol. 90, 1989, pp. 53, 56; Vol. 96, p. 59.

3.7 Field Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14

3.7.1 Modification of Design (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.2 Reinforcement (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.3 Footings at Varying Levels (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.4 Drainage (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.5 Treatment of Bottom of Excavation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.6 Stresses (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
3.7.7 Information on Drawings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
3.8 Combined Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15

3.8.1 Uses and Types (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
3.8.2 Allowable Soil Pressures (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
3.8.3 Column Loads (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
3.8.4 Sizing Combined Footings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
LIST OF FIGURES
8-3-1 Bulbs of Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4

8-3-2 Extreme Frost Penetration, in Inches, Based upon State Averages. Source: U.S. National Weather Records Center
................................................................................... 8-3-6
8-3-3 Relationship Among φ, N, and Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-9
8-3-4 Types of Combined Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
SECTION 3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 SCOPE (2013)1
a. This part of the Manual covers investigation, design and construction of rectangular or square spread footings.
b. In general for the purposes of this part, spread footings will be considered to be of rectangular or square shape of
dimensions (B) x (L) where B (width of the footing) is less than or equal to L (length of the footing).
c. A spread footing is a structural unit which transfers and distributes load to the underlying soil at a pressure consistent
with the requirements of the structure and the supporting capacity of the soil. The general approach to sizing footings
on soil is to assure that the maximum contact pressure defined in Article 3.4.1 is equal to or less than the allowable soil
pressure defined in the same article.
d. Sizing of footings on rock is not covered in this part.
1
See C - Commentary

Spread Footing Foundations
3.1.2 CLASSIFICATION (2013)
a. Spread footings may be classified according to their depth and dimensions:
(1) Spread footings may be classified as shallow footings when the depth of foundation, Df, defined as the minimum
vertical distance from the base of the footing to the surface of the surrounding ground or floor, does not exceed the
least width, B, of the footing. See Figure 8-3-1.
(2) Deep footings, for which the depth, Df, is greater than the width, B, (see Figure 8-3-1) are described in Part 4, Pile
Foundations and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations.
b. Spread footings may be classified according to the structural elements they support:
(1) An individual column footing which supports a single column or isolated load
(2) A continuous footing which supports a wall or abutment
(3) A combined footing which supports more than one column
(4) A raft or mat footing, which is not covered in this part, supports all the columns in a structure or a large portion
thereof
c. Spread footings may be classified with respect to the subsurface material from which they derive their support:
1
(1) Footings on granular, non-cohesive soils
(2) Footings on saturated clay or plastic silt
(3) Footings on unsaturated clay or silt
(4) Footings on nonhomogeneous deposits 3

(5) Footings on preconsolidated clay
(6) Footings on rock
4
SECTION 3.2 INFORMATION REQUIRED
3.2.1 FIELD SURVEY (2013)
a. All available information shall be furnished in the form of a topographic map, in order to adapt the structural
requirements to the field conditions. The locations and dimensions of underground and above ground utilities, existing
foundations, roads, tracks, or other structures shall be indicated. In connection with footings for river crossings, the
records of normal high water, low water, floodwater level, depth of scour, stream flow direction and velocities, and
alignment of the stream shall be provided.
b. All available information concerning the nature of the foundations of neighboring structures, the nature of the
underlying materials, and of the settlement and behavior of these foundations shall be assembled and condensed as a
guide to the judgment of the engineer in the design of the new structure.

(kPa)
NO REDUCTION IN ALLOWABLE
SETTLEMENT PRESSURE IS
REQUIRED WHEN WATER
TABLE IS BELOW THIS
ELEVATION - SEE ARTICLE
3.4.3.3b
Reduction in allowable pressure under footing on granular material
Figure 8-3-1. Bulbs of Pressure

(Factors affected by depth)
3.2.2 CONTROLLING DIMENSIONS (2013)
Information shall be assembled concerning the proposed arrangement of the columns, piers, abutments or equipment to be
supported; the depths of basements, tunnels, and other excavations; the surface elevation of fill areas; and all other factors that
may affect or be affected by the proposed construction.
3.2.3 LOADS (2013)
a. The loads to be supported by the foundations shall be subdivided into the following categories:
(1) Dead load
(2) Live load without impact1
(3) Longitudinal and lateral forces
(4) Snow load
(5) Ice load
1
See C - Commentary

(6) Earthquake load
(7) Wind load
(8) Loads from pore water pressures including buoyancy and seepage forces
(9) Area load, defined as any load transmitted to the supporting soil by the addition of fill or adjacent structures
(10) Vibratory loads to footings on granular material shall be considered.
b. An estimate shall be made of the duration of each loading, because the settlement of some types of subsurface
materials depends upon the proportion of the total time the loads are active.
c. The character, frequency, and amplitude of any vibratory loads including earthquakes shall be noted for additional
analysis. If such loads are an important consideration, the foundation design shall be referred to a geotechnical
engineer with expertise in soil dynamics.
d. Footings shall be designed to resist the following loads:
(1) Primary Loads: Dead + Live + Centrifugal Force + Earth Pressure + Pore Water Pressures + Area Load + Special
Vibratory Loads
(2) Secondary Loads: Longitudinal Force + Wind + Ice and Stream Flow Pressures + Earthquake Forces.
1
3.2.4 CHARACTER OF SUBSURFACE MATERIALS (2013)
3.2.4.1 General
a. Pertinent supplementary data with respect to local geological or foundation conditions, including aerial photographs,
river morphology, scour reports and soil maps, shall be assembled if available. Data concerning changes in
groundwater level shall also be investigated. 3
b. The data concerning subsurface materials shall be assembled in suitable graphical form, such as cross sections through
the various deposits, showing the probable arrangement and sequence of lenses or strata, the pertinent physical
properties of each element of the deposit including liquefaction potential, and the location of the groundwater table.
3.2.4.2 Field Investigation

4
a. The nature and extent of the various formations of soil and rock beneath the site and the depth to groundwater shall be
determined by means of test borings or probes and physical tests of a type and to an extent appropriate to the character
and importance of the structure and the nature of the subsurface materials. The borings shall be made in accordance
with Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.
b. Borings should extend at least to a depth equal to two times the least footing width plus the depth of the footing from
the ground surface. At least one boring should, if practical, extend into bedrock. For structures on cohesive soils,
undisturbed samples should generally be recovered for laboratory testing. The recovery of undisturbed samples in
granular soil has not proven satisfactory. In-situ tests may provide useful data for foundation design. These tests
include standard penetration test, vane shear test, Dutch cone penetration test (static penetration test), pressuremeter
test, and other tests as described in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.

3.2.4.3 Depth of Frost and Volume Change
a. The maximum depth of frost penetration shall be determined, usually on the basis of local experience and records.
Figure 8-3-2 is a map showing the depths of frost penetration in the contiguous 48 states. Similarly, in regions of
excessively swelling or shrinking soils, the depth to which significant volume changes occur as a result of seasonal
variations in moisture content shall be determined.
b. Permafrost, or permanently frozen ground, exists in the northern hemisphere in arctic and subarctic regions. Although
the southern boundary of permafrost is irregular, it may extend as far south as the 50th parallel. Foundations for
structures, in areas of permafrost, should be designed in such a way as to not disturb the permanently frozen ground; or
if this is not practical, the influence of the foundation on the permafrost should be predicted so the effect of the changes
can be accommodated in the design. A geotechnical engineer with experience in these ground conditions should be
consulted for design of foundations to be placed on permafrost.
Figure 8-3-2. Extreme Frost Penetration, in Inches, Based upon State Averages. Source:
U.S. National Weather Records Center
SECTION 3.3 DEPTH OF BASE OF FOOTINGS
3.3.1 SELECTION OF TENTATIVE DEPTHS (2013)
On the basis of the data concerning the subsurface materials, tentative elevations for the bases of the footings shall be selected.
Unless special provisions are made, the depth shall not be less than the depth of frost penetration, scour, or in expansive clay

subsoils, less than the thickness of the zone of significant volume change of the subsoil due to seasonal moisture variations.
Footings shall be founded below disturbed shallow soils, uncontrolled fills, soils susceptible to collapse, and organic soils.
3.3.2 REVISION OF DEPTHS OF FOOTINGS (2013)
After the preliminary depths have been selected, the allowable soil pressure shall be determined and the sizes of the footings
proportioned to the pressures. If the resulting design is not feasible or economical, similar studies shall be made of footings
established at other depths until the most suitable and economical arrangement is determined. In considering the relative
economy of footings at various levels, the cost and difficulty of excavation below groundwater level in pervious soils shall be
taken into account. The economy and suitability of other types of foundations, such as piles or drilled shafts, shall also be
considered. For deep foundations, the designer should refer to Part 4, Pile Foundations and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations.
SECTION 3.4 SIZING OF FOOTINGS
The following definitions will be used in the design procedures described below. The pressures used in this Section are net
pressures; that is, they represent pressures at the base level of the footing in excess of pressures at the same level due to the
weight of the surrounding soil immediately adjacent to the footing.
• Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity. The ultimate pressure at which the supporting material will fail in shear beneath 1
the footing, less the pressure due to the weight of the soil at that depth.
• Allowable Bearing Capacity. The net ultimate bearing pressure divided by an appropriate factor of safety.
• Allowable Settlement Pressure. The maximum pressure to which the footings may be subjected without
producing excessive settlement or excessive differential settlement of the structure. This settlement consists of two
stages: 3
– Initial Settlement or Elastic Settlement - occurs shortly after loading.
– Consolidation - occurs over an extended time period.
• Allowable Soil Capacity. The smaller of the allowable bearing pressure and the allowable settlement pressure.
4
• Maximum Contact Pressure. The maximum pressure applied by the combined effects of vertical and moment
loads for eccentrically loaded footings as described in this Part, Section 3.5, Footings with Eccentric Loads.
3.4.2 SAFETY FACTORS1 (2013)
The safety factor for Primary Loads shall not be less than 3; for Primary + Secondary Loads the safety factor shall not be less
than 2. Consideration shall be taken of load duration in relation to foundation soil and groundwater conditions when selecting
a safety factor.
1
See C - Commentary

3.4.3 FOOTINGS ON GRANULAR MATERIAL (COHESION = 0) (2013)
3.4.3.1 General
a. The allowable soil pressure for a footing on granular material depends on the width of the footing, B; the shape of the
footing; the depth of foundation, Df, the SPT1 Blow Count or N-value of the foundation material; the unit weight of the
foundation material, γ ; and the depth of the groundwater table.
b. The depth of the present and/or future groundwater level will noticeably affect the bearing capacity and allowable
settlement pressure of the footing. Consideration shall be given to the future groundwater level - See Figure 8-3-1.
c. Vibrational loads can cause severe settlement of a footing founded on very loose to medium dense granular soils. If
future construction in the adjacent area will require pile driving, vibratory compaction of subsoil, or other vibrations,
then consideration should be given to a more extensive vibratory analysis and a geotechnical engineer knowledgeable
in soil dynamics shall be consulted.
3.4.3.2 Net Bearing Capacity of a Footing on Granular Material
a. The net ultimate bearing capacity of a footing on granular material can be calculated from the following equations:
(1) For a continuous footing:
Q u = 0.5γBN γ + D f γ ( N q – 1 )
(2) For a square footing:
Q u = 0.4γBN γ + D f γ ( N q – 1 )
(3) For a circular footing:
Q u = 0.3γBN γ + D f γ ( N q – 1 )
where:
Qu = the net ultimate bearing capacity in lb/square foot (kPa)

B = the footing width in feet (m)
Df = the footing depth in feet (m)
γ = the unit weight of the granular material in lb/cubic foot (kN/m3)
Nγ and Nq = dimensionless bearing capacity factors which are a function of the internal angle of friction, φ.
The standard penetration blow count, N, is typically utilized to correlate to the internal angle
of friction.
The standard penetration blow count is described in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation. The relationship
among φ, N, and the bearing capacity factors are shown in Figure 8-3-3 as proposed by Peck, Hanson and Thornburn.
b. For saturated sands the buoyant unit weight should be used in the equations above.
1
See C - Commentary

Figure 8-3-3. Relationship Among φ, N, and Bearing Capacity
3.4.3.3 Allowable Settlement Pressure for Granular Material
a. An empirical equation by Meyerhof may be used to estimate the allowable settlement pressure, Qs.

(1) For B ≤ 4 feet (1220 mm):
Ns-
Q s = ------
8
Q s = 0.471sN (metric)
(2) For B > 4 feet (1220 mm):
Ns ( B + 1 )
Q s = ⎛ -------⎞ ------------------
⎝ 12 ⎠ B
( B + 305 )
Q s = ( 0.314sN ) ------------------------ (metric)
B
where:
Qs is in tons/square foot (kPa)

N = the standard penetration blow count
B = the footing width in feet (millimeters)
s = the allowable settlement in inches (millimeters)
(3) The presence of a water table will have the effect of reducing the allowable settlement pressure as the effective
stress is lowered. Therefore the allowable settlement pressure shall be reduced 50% if the water table is at the base
of the footing and 0% if the water table is at a depth greater than B. The reduction for intermediate depths can be
interpolated, see Figure 8-3-1. Fluctuations in water table elevation shall be considered.
3.4.3.4 Sizing Footings on Granular Material
A trial footing size is used to determine the net bearing capacity from Article 3.4.3.2 and the allowable bearing pressure
described in Article 3.4.1 is calculated by dividing the net ultimate bearing capacity by the appropriate safety factor from
Article 3.4.2. The trial footing size is used to determine the allowable settlement pressure defined in Article 3.4.3.3. The loads
defined in Article 3.2.3 are divided by the trial footing area to give the maximum contact pressure defined in Article 3.4.1. If
the maximum contact pressure is greater than either the allowable bearing capacity or the allowable settlement pressure, the
footing size must be increased until the maximum contact pressure is less than the allowable soil pressure defined in
Article 3.4.1.
3.4.4 FOOTINGS ON SATURATED CLAY (φ = 0) (2013)
3.4.4.1 General
The net ultimate bearing capacity of spread footings on saturated clays or clayey soils depends on the footing width, B; the
footing length, L; the depth of the footing below the surface, Df, and on the unconfined compressive strength of the clay, qu.
3.4.4.2 Net Bearing Capacity
a. The net ultimate bearing capacity for a footing may be determined by means of the following equations:
(1) For a continuous footing:

Qu = 2.7qu
(2) For a square or rectangular footing:
Qu = 2.7qu (1 + 0.3 B/L)
(3) For a circular footing:
Qu = 3.5qu
b. In these equations, Qu and qu are expressed in tons/square foot. The value of qu shall be taken as the average
unconfined compressive strength of the clay within a depth B below the base of the footing; provided, however, that
the strength of the clay does not decrease significantly with increasing depth below the footing. In the event that
weaker material underlies stronger material, a special investigation of the bearing capacity shall be undertaken.
3.4.4.3 Sizing Footings on Clay
The appropriate factor of safety as indicated in Article 3.4.2 shall be used in order to obtain an allowable bearing capacity. The
required footing area is determined by dividing the column or wall load by the allowable bearing capacity.
3.4.4.4 Settlement Characteristics
a. For footings located on or above clays with qu below 2.0 tons per square foot (0.19 MPa), a settlement analysis should
generally be undertaken using the footing size and contact pressure determined in Article 3.4.11. If the estimated 1
settlement is greater than the allowable settlement, the footing design shall be reevaluated to bring the estimated
settlement below the allowable limit or a deep foundation shall be used.
b. The potential effect of subsidence due to drainage of the soil shall be considered in the design of the structure.
3.4.5 FOOTINGS ON UNSATURATED SILTS AND CLAYS (2013)

3
a. Laboratory testing is required for accurate determination of the allowable bearing capacity. Due to the existence of
tension cracks in the soil and unknown pore pressures, an extensive field investigation may be required. Similar
structures will not necessarily have the same solution. Careful evaluation is necessary in order to arrive at a satisfactory
footing design. A rise in the groundwater table will reduce the allowable bearing capacity and complicate the analysis.
b. Where loadings on footings are light, due consideration to swelling of a clay soil shall be given. This may be especially 4
important if the percent of soil with particle diameters less than 0.001 mm is greater than 15%.
3.4.6 FOOTINGS ON NON-HOMOGENEOUS DEPOSITS (2013)
a. Footings established above stratified or other non-homogeneous formations shall be proportioned on the assumption
that the most unfavorable condition disclosed by the subsurface exploration may be present under the most heavily
loaded footings, unless detailed information is obtained concerning the actual conditions beneath each footing.
b. Subsoil of this type requires extensive knowledge and investigation in order to obtain a suitable solution. However, in
many cases using the above assumption in order to simplify the solution is satisfactory.
1
See C - Commentary

3.4.7 FOOTINGS ON SOILS WITH COHESION AND FRICTION (2013)
a. Many soils, including preconsolidated clays, fit this category and an accurate analysis can be carried out. The
investigation must be undertaken without the use of the simplifying assumptions made for granular or cohesive soils,
and more extensive laboratory information is required. Triaxial shear tests are required for this analysis.
b. At times, it will be satisfactory to assume the soil alternately only granular or cohesive and use the lower value for
allowable pressure.
SECTION 3.5 FOOTINGS WITH ECCENTRIC LOADS
3.5.1 LOADS ECCENTRIC IN ONE DIRECTION (2013)

a. When a footing is subjected to overturning moments in addition to total vertical loads, the line of action of the resultant
force is located some distance from the centroid of the footing. This distance, called eccentricity, e, is calculated by the
equation
e = M
-----
P
where:
M = the moment
P = total vertical load
The eccentricity shall have a maximum value of B/6.
b. The contact pressure distribution beneath a footing subjected to overturning moment will be non-uniform and the
maximum contact pressure, qmax and minimum contact pressure, qmin, can be calculated from:
P - + ---------
6M-
q max = -------
BL B 2 L
P - – ---------
6M-
q min = -------
BL B 2 L
where:
B = footing width
L = footing length
M = moment
P = total vertical load
3.5.2 LOADS ECCENTRIC IN TWO DIRECTIONS (2013)
a. When a footing is subjected to overturning moments in two directions, the total vertical load, P, is calculated, the
horizontal loads and their lines of action in each direction are determined, and the moments in the two directions are
computed by multiplying the force times the moment arm for each load. The eccentricity in each direction is computed
by dividing the moment in each direction by the vertical load as follows:

M M
e x = -------x and e y = -------y
P P
where:
ex and ey = the eccentricities in the two directions

Mx and My = the moments in the respective directions (i.e. Mx is the moment about the
y axis and My is the moment about the x axis)
B is the footing dimension parallel to the x direction and L is parallel to the
y direction, and all other terms are as previously defined.
The eccentricities ex and ey shall have a maximum value of B/6 and L/6, respectively.
b. The contact pressure distribution beneath a footing subjected to overturning moments in two directions will be non-
uniform, and the maximum contact pressure, qmax, and the minimum contact pressure, qmin, can be calculated from:
P 6M 6M
q max = -------- + ----------x- + ----------y-
BL B 2 L BL 2
P 6M 6M
q min = -------- – ----------x- – ----------y- 1
BL B 2 L BL 2
3.5.3 SIZING FOOTINGS WITH ECCENTRIC LOADS (2013)
a. Footings shall be initially sized using Primary Loads with the required factor of safety and verified by using Primary +
Secondary Loads with their required factor of safety. Both design criteria must be met.
3
b. Select trial footing dimensions B and L. Using these dimensions, the previously determined eccentricities, and the total
vertical load, calculate the maximum and minimum contact pressures beneath the footing according to Article 3.5.1.b
for loads eccentric in one direction or Article 3.5.2.b for loads eccentric in two directions. The maximum contact
pressure is then compared with the allowable soil pressure determined from either Article 3.4.3 for granular material,
or Article 3.4.4 for clays. If the maximum contact pressure exceeds the allowable soil pressures or if the settlement is
excessive, the footing size shall be increased in order to decrease maximum contact pressure and settlement. If the
resulting footing size is too large to be practical, deep foundations, such as piles as described in Part 4, Pile 4
Foundations or drilled shafts as described in Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations, shall be considered.
c. If qmin is negative, the corner of the footing is in tension and larger footing dimensions shall be tried. The computations
of maximum and minimum contact pressures are repeated with new trial dimensions until qmin becomes positive. This
indicates that the soil under the entire footing is in compression and the entire footing area will contribute to the
footing’s load carrying capacity.
d. If a footing is subject to eccentric loading, then it must be sized such that the safety factor of overturning is 2 or greater
and the safety factor of sliding is 1.5 or greater. These safety factors are calculated as follows:
FSoverturning = Σ Resisting Moments ⁄ Σ Overturning Moments
FSsliding = Σ Sliding Resistance ⁄ Σ Driving Horizontal Forces

SECTION 3.6 FOOTING STRESSES
3.6.1 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION (2013)
a. The pressure distribution on the footing itself is eqivalent to the reaction of the soil to the contact pressure.
b. It is desirable, if possible, to proportion the footing for a uniform pressure distribution.
c. A more detailed study may be required for a flexible footing and for a mat footing. In actual practice, the pressure
distribution may vary materially from this ideal distribution. The distribution of the reaction is dependent upon the
rigidity of the structural system, distribution of the loading and characteristics of the soil.
SECTION 3.7 FIELD CONDITIONS
3.7.1 MODIFICATION OF DESIGN (2013)

If excavation discloses soils or soil conditions different from those upon which the design of the footings has been based, the
design shall be altered as necessary.

Wherever the concrete of a reinforced footing is cast against the soil, steel reinforcement shall be provided with a cover of not
less than 3 inches (76 mm). If the concrete is cast against a seal coat or against steel sheeting that is to remain in place, the
cover shall be not less than 2 inches (51 mm).
3.7.3 FOOTINGS AT VARYING LEVELS (2013)

If the footings for two adjacent parts of a structure are established at different elevations, the difference in elevation of the
bases of adjacent footings, divided by the least horizontal clear distance between the footings, shall not exceed a value
appropriate to the characteristics of the subsoil, and in general should not exceed 1.0. An increased load on the lower footing
will result otherwise.
3.7.4 DRAINAGE (2013)

Unless underwater construction is specified, surface water or groundwater shall not be permitted to accumulate in excavations
for footings. Such water shall be conducted to sumps located outside the boundaries of the footings and removed. If the water
cannot be handled by this procedure, groundwater lowering should be accomplished by well points, a tremie seal course, or
other appropriate means.
3.7.5 TREATMENT OF BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION (2013)

a. Care should be exercised to prevent disturbance of the materials at the bottom of the excavation by equipment or
workers. The bottom 3 inches (76 mm) of concrete in the footings shall be neglected for strength calculations.
b. On soft clayey or silty soils a working platform or mud coat of lean concrete, from 2 inches (51 mm) to 3 inches (76
mm) in thickness, is recommended if disturbance is probable. Otherwise, final excavation of the last 3 inches (76 mm)
to 6 inches (152 mm) above grade should be deferred until immediately before placement of the reinforcement. The
concrete in a working platform or mud slab shall not be considered as contributing to the strength of the footing.

c. If a tremie seal is to be placed to permit dewatering of the cofferdam, the thickness of the seal, in addition to other
factors, shall be adequate to withstand the upward pressure of the water beneath the seal at the time of dewatering. This
uplift force shall be determined by a rational analysis1.
3.7.6 STRESSES (2013)

Concrete and reinforcing steel stresses/strength shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
3.7.7 INFORMATION ON DRAWINGS (2013)

Design drawings shall indicate the allowable soil pressure, type of soil, grade of the reinforcing steel, strength of concrete, and
other pertinent data.
SECTION 3.8 COMBINED FOOTINGS
3.8.1 USES AND TYPES (2013)
a. Combined footings support more than one column and are used for reasons such as:
(1) Property line or other obstructions make it undesirable to use a single column on an independent single footing.
(2) Allowable soil pressures are so low or column loads so large that individual footings would overlap. 1
b. Examples of combined footing types are illustrated in Figure 8-3-4 and include: rectangular, trapezoidal, and strap
footings.
Figure 8-3-4. Types of Combined Footings
1
See C - Commentary

3.8.2 ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURES (2013)
a. Allowable soil pressures defined in Article 3.4.1 are determined from Article 3.4.3 for granular material or
Article 3.4.4 for clays. For combined footings, the minimum safety factor is 3 for all load cases.
b. A combined footing is ideally proportioned such that the centroid of the contact area lies on the line of action of the
resultant of column loads, thereby producing a uniform pressure distribution. In situations where it is impossible to
produce a uniform pressure distribution, the pressure distribution is computed and the footing sized according to the
principles outlined in Section 3.5, Footings with Eccentric Loads. The dimensions of the footing are selected so that the
allowable soil pressure is not exceeded.
3.8.3 COLUMN LOADS (2013)
Combined footings should be proportioned for uniform soil pressure under dead load plus the amount of live load that is likely
to govern settlement as recommended in Article 3.2.3. The centroid of the footing should lie on the line of action of the
resultant column loads consisting of dead load plus a fraction of live load required by the specifications or building code, as
applicable.
3.8.4 SIZING COMBINED FOOTINGS (2013)
3.8.4.1 Rectangular Footings
A rectangular footing is used if the rectangle can extend beyond each column the distance necessary to make the centroid of
the rectangle coincide with the point where the resultant of the column loads intersects the base.
3.8.4.2 Trapezoidal Footings
A trapezoidal footing is used if a rectangular footing cannot project the required distance beyond one or multiple columns.
3.8.4.3 Strap Footings
The strap footing is considered as two individual footings connected by a beam.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish an explanation of various articles in Part 3, Spread Footing Foundations. In the
numbering of articles of this Section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained.
C - 3.1.1 SCOPE (2013)
The designer should be aware that the approaches presented here are for the least complicated situation; and where unusual
geology or loadings are expected, geotechnical engineering specialists should be consulted.

C - SECTION 3.2 INFORMATION REQUIRED
C - 3.2.3 LOADS (2013)
a. (2) Impact is not considered in the design of a footing except for special circumstances. Normal live load, defined as
the live load that is likely to be transmitted to the foundation throughout the greater portion of the useful lifetime of the
structure, is commonly used when the foundation soil is saturated clay.
Maximum live load, defined as the greatest live load that may be anticipated at any time during the lifetime of the
structure, is commonly used when the foundation soil is freely draining granular material.
C - SECTION 3.4 SIZING OF FOOTINGS
C - 3.4.2 SAFETY FACTORS (2013)
A factor of safety of 3.0 for Primary Loads should be applied when the bearing capacity of a footing is calculated using the
bearing capacity equations of Articles 3.4.3.2 or 3.4.4.2. However, a reduced factor of safety for Primary Loads may be
considered in cases where detailed site-specific soils investigations have been performed and advanced testing and analytical
methods have been applied to evaluate the load vs. settlement relationship of the footing system. In such cases the footing
may be sized to limit footing settlement to within tolerable limits under Primary and Secondary loading conditions. However,
in no case should the bearing capacity factor of safety be less than 2.0.
C - 3.4.3 FOOTINGS ON GRANULAR MATERIAL (COHESION = 0) (2013) 1

C - 3.4.3.1 General
a. Investigation. Penetration testing is a most useful method to determine the soil condition underlying a site. The
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is the most popular and economical means to obtain this subsurface data. The method
is standardized by ASTM D1586 as “Standard Method for Penetration Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soil” and is
commonly called the Standard Penetration Test. For detailed procedure, see Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface 3
Investigation.
C - 3.4.4 FOOTINGS ON SATURATED CLAY (Φ = 0) (2013)
C - 3.4.4.4 Settlement Characteristics

4
a. In certain cases, large settlements will occur by consolidation of an underlying layer under very small additional loads.
If any doubt exists concerning the consolidation characteristics of the soil, one or more consolidation tests should be
undertaken. Settlement by “consolidation” of underlying clay layers can be many times the initial “elastic settlement.”
Both the consolidation and elastic settlements can be estimated by using data obtained from laboratory analysis.
C - SECTION 3.7 FIELD CONDITIONS
C - 3.7.5 TREATMENT OF BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION (2013)
c. In determining uplift forces and required seal concrete depth in cofferdams, factors such as floods, extreme high tides,
and upstream power generation that raise the normal pool elevation should be considered. The final design pool
elevation shall be clearly noted on the plans, monitored and not exceeded during construction while the cofferdam is
dewatered.


8www.nbm.
Part 4
Pile Foundations1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2

4.1.1 Scope (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2
4.1.2 Pile Types (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2
4.2 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4 1

4.2.1 Subsurface Investigation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4
4.2.2 Loads (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4
4.2.3 Loads on Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-5
4.3 Pile Length Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7

4.3.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7 3
4.3.2 Estimated Tip Elevation and Estimated Length (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7
4.3.3 Minimum Tip Elevation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.4 Wave Equation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.5 Pile Driving Formulas (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.6 Plan Tip Elevations (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.7 Estimated Pile Length (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-9
4.3.8 Pile Driving and Loading Tests (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-9
4.4 Pile Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10

4.4.1 Timber Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10
4.4.2 Steel Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10
4.4.3 Precast Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-11
4.4.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-12
4.4.5 Augered Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-13
4.4.6 Micropiles (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-14
4.5 Installation of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-15

4.5.1 Driven Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-15
4.5.2 Augered Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-17
1
References, Vol. 40, 1939, pp. 418, 764; Vol. 41, 1940, pp. 369, 843; Vol. 49, 1948, p. 254; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 311, 758; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 382, 861; Vol. 63,
1962, pp. 276, 687; Vol. 64, 1963, pp. 226, 624; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 136; Vol. 91, 1990, pp. 63, 74; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 99.

4.6 Inspection of Pile Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
LIST OF TABLES
8-4-1 Recommended Augered Cast-In-Place Concrete Pile Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-14
SECTION 4.1 GENERAL
4.1.1 SCOPE (2013)
a. This Part covers the design and construction of pile foundations.
b. For the purpose of this Part, a pile shall be considered as a slender structural member continuously driven, augered, or
drilled into the earth. Drilled shafts consisting of concrete placed in pre-drilled holes are addressed in Part 24, Drilled
Shaft Foundations.
c. In this Part, factors of safety are suggested. Where information on loads or soil conditions is limited, more conservative
factors of safety should be considered.
4.1.2 PILE TYPES (2013)
4.1.2.1 General
There are numerous types of piles used in pile foundations. The choice of pile type depends on the soil and environmental
conditions, the presence or absence of ground and surface water, the function of the pile (i.e., whether compression, uplift or
lateral loads are to be resisted), the headroom available to install the piles, the desired speed of construction, potential
construction impacts to adjacent structures or facilities and economics. The ability of the pile type to withstand attack by
aggressive substances or organisms in the ground or in the surrounding water must also be considered.
4.1.2.2 Pile Categories1
Piles are generally categorized by:
a. Principal materials of which the piles are made:
(1) Timber
(2) Steel
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
(3) Concrete or Reinforced Concrete
(4) Metal shell cast-in-place concrete with or without reinforcement
(5) High strength drill casing and grout
b. Amount of displacement of soil:
(1) Displacement piles: these include all solid piles, including timber, precast concrete and steel pipe piles closed at
the end by a shoe, conical point or plug.
(2) Small displacement piles: these include rolled steel sections, open-ended pipe and hollow sections if soil enters
freely during driving, and screw piles.
(3) Non-displacement piles: these are formed by drilling or augering. The drill hole may be lined with steel casing that
is either left in place or extracted as the hole is filled with concrete or grout.
c. Method of installation:
(1) Driven
(2) Augered and cast -in-place
(3) Drilled and cast-in-place

1
d. Load Transfer Mechanism:
(1) End-bearing pile: a pile which passes through overburden soil having low to moderate frictional resistance, and
has its tip bearing on relatively impenetrable strata such as rock, hard pan, or other material that offers rapidly
increasing resistance to further penetration.
3
(2) Friction pile: a pile that derives its support principally from the surrounding soil through the development of
frictional resistance between the pile and the soil.
(3) Combination of end-bearing and friction pile.
4.1.2.3 Pile Type Selection1

4
Selection of the type of foundation pile for a particular structure should be based on the following criteria:
a. Design load per pile or pile group
b. Type of foundation material to be penetrated
c. Relative costs of the piles and pile installation
d. Equipment available for installing piles
e. Availability of desired pile type
f. Special considerations based on specific project conditions, including, but not limited to:
1
See C - Commentary

(1) Restricted space both laterally and overhead for pile installation. Space can be restricted laterally by existing
and/or abandoned piles or other obstructions.
(2) Possible damage to existing structures
(3) Exposure to seawater
(4) Possible damage from marine organisms
(5) Chemical attack
(6) Noise level during driving
(7) Underwater vibration
g. Full length piles shall be used wherever possible. If splices cannot be avoided, an approved method of splicing shall be
used which will develop the full strength of the pile. Piles shall not be spliced except by permission of the Engineer,
who must also approve all splice locations and details.
SECTION 4.2 DESIGN
4.2.1 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION (2013)
a. Test borings shall be made at locations and to a sufficient depth below the anticipated tip elevation of the piles to
adequately determine the character of the material through which the piles are to be driven and of the materials
underlying the pile tips. The results of the borings and soil tests, taken into consideration with the function of the piles
in service, will assist in determining the type, spacing, and length of piles that should be used and whether the piles will
be end bearing, friction or a combination of both types.
b. The subsurface investigation should be made in accordance with provisions outlined in Part 22, Geotechnical
Subsurface Investigation.
4.2.2 LOADS (2013)
4.2.2.1 General1
a. Pile foundations shall be designed to resist the entire superimposed load, including the weight of the footing and
overlying loads supported by the footing.
b. Pile foundations shall be designed for the combination of loads and forces in Articles 4.2.2.2 and 4.2.2.3 which
produce maximum load and in accordance with Article 4.2.3, Loads on Piles.
4.2.2.2 Primary Loads and Forces2
a. Dead
b. Live - Vertical
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
c. Live - Horizontal due to surcharge or fluid pressure
d. Centrifugal force
e. Earth pressure
f. Buoyancy
g. Negative skin friction
NOTE: Live Load Impact shall be considered only in Case A of Article 4.2.3 for steel or concrete piles
extended above the ground line where they are rigidly connected to the member supporting the
superstructure.
4.2.2.3 Secondary Loads and Forces
a. Wind and other lateral forces
b. Ice and Stream flow
c. Longitudinal forces
d. Seismic forces
e. Vessel impact in waterways1

1
4.2.3 LOADS ON PILES (2013)2
a. Pile foundations shall be designed using the most restrictive of the following load capacity cases:
(1) Case A: The capacity of an individual pile as a structural member 3

(2) Case B: The ability of the pile to transfer its load to the ground
(3) Case C: The capacity of the ground to support the load from the pile or pile group
b. When pile foundations are designed for primary and secondary loads in combination as defined in Part 2, the allowable
loads may be increased 25% for Load Cases A, B, and C. The number of piles shall not be less than is required for 4
primary forces alone with no increases in allowable stress for Case A. The minimum factor of safety shall be 2.0 for
Cases B and C. For group friction piles, the factor of safety for Case C shall not fall below 2.0 for primary and
secondary load combinations.
c. If the pile design capacity is not determined by geotechnical investigations, known positive contact with bedrock, or
field testing of the pile, the Factor of Safety shall be increased to at least 2.5 times the required design load, and the
Engineer shall be notified.
4.2.3.1 Eccentricity of Loads
The maximum design pile load under eccentric loading shall not exceed the allowable load as determined under Section 4.4,
Pile Structural Design, with the appropriate factors of safety stipulated in Article 4.2.3. The piles shall be so spaced that the
1
For references see C-23.3.2 Sources of Information, Part 23, Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams
2
See C - Commentary

eccentric load on the piles, due to primary loads and forces, will be distributed as equally as practicable to the piles in the
group. Pile loads due to combinations of primary and secondary loads and forces shall not exceed that permitted by
Article 4.2.3.
4.2.3.2 Uplift on Piles
a. In special cases when piles or pile groups are subjected to uplift, and sufficient bond and anchorage are provided
between the pile, pile cap and the supported structure, the uplift shall be considered in the design of the pile foundation.
The pile foundation shall be designed for uplift considering load capacity Cases A, B, and C of Article 4.2.3. The
factor of safety for Cases B and C shall be a minimum of 2.0 for combinations of primary and secondary loads and
forces, and a minimum of 3.0 for combinations of secondary loads and forces with dead load alone. The capacity of the
pile as a structural member (Case A) shall be based on allowable stresses established in the applicable Parts of the
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering: Chapter 7, Timber Structures; Chapter 8, Part 2, Reinforced Concrete
Design; or Chapter 15, Steel Structures. The allowable stresses may be increased 25% for combinations of primary and
secondary loads and forces.
b. The ultimate uplift capacity of an individual pile shall be determined by jacking test piles of identical type and
dimension to that used in the design, and measuring the pull required per square foot of embedded surface area to raise
the pile. When a tension pile group is involved, a group analysis shall also be undertaken. The maximum capacity of a
tension pile group shall be considered to be the smaller of (1) the capacity of a single pile multiplied by the number of
piles in the group, or (2) the weight of the block of soil contained within the perimeter of the groups, each with a
minimum safety factor of 2.0, except as noted in paragraph a.
4.2.3.3 Spacing of Piles
a. Piles shall be spaced to nearly equalize their load consistent with economical design of the footings. The spacing of
piles shall depend upon: the type of pile, that is whether friction or end bearing, the pile's structural and crushing
strength, and the type of material resisting the pile. Generally, piles should be spaced, center-to-center, at least three
times the minimum butt width of the pile. Piles should be spaced far enough apart, or other suitable means used, to
prevent heaving or uplifting of adjacent piles during driving.
b. In small groups, the piles may be battered to enlarge the area sustaining the group, thereby increasing the load-carrying
capacity of the group without unreasonably increasing the size of the foundation. End-bearing piles may be spaced in
accordance with the capacity of the pile and the end-bearing stratum that will carry the design load. When closely
spaced friction piles are contemplated, their total group capacity shall be verified by an acceptable geotechnical
method which considers the capacity of the engaged soil mass to support the applied pile loads.
c. When determining spacing of piles in granular soils, consideration should be given to the increased difficulty of
driving due to the increased soil density that will occur because of soil compaction (packing) or consolidation within
the pile group.
4.2.3.4 Batter Piles1
a. Piles may be battered to help resist horizontal forces. Primary horizontal forces on pile foundations shall be resisted by
batter piles where practicable. Such piles shall be designed to carry horizontal forces combined with their share of the
vertical loads. In general, batter should not exceed 3 (horizontal) to 12 (vertical).
b. Secondary horizontal forces on pile foundations may be resisted by the shear and flexural capacity of the vertical piles
in conjunction with the development of passive soil pressure, or friction between the soil/foundation interface where
these resisting forces can be determined to exist for a particular foundation system. Where these resisting forces are not
expected to be reliable over the service life of the structure, batter piles or other dependable means of resisting these
forces shall be implemented.
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
c. Where large pile groups are involved, where clearance problems limit the pile foundation area, where secondary
horizontal loads are small or in areas of the country where earthquake loading makes use of batter piles undesirable, the
foundation shall be specially designed to include the horizontal forces as acting on the vertical piles. In such a case, the
piles shall be designed to resist all loads, and the structure designed for the horizontal movement to be encountered
subjected to the limitations defined in Part 2.
4.2.3.5 Scour
a. The possible effects of scour on pile foundations located in or adjacent to water should be reviewed as part of the total
pile foundation design.
b. When there is a possibility that the upper portion of the soil formations may be removed by scour, the piles or pile
group shall be designed to have adequate bearing capacity and lateral support below the projected depth of scour. The
free-standing portions of the exposed piles shall be designed as columns.
c. Determination of the estimated depth of scour at a given location should be based on past records of streambed erosion
or wave action in the area, and their influence on existing structures. It is suggested, however, to perform an analysis1
of probable scour depths with consideration of stream flow parameters, streambed material properties, channel
characteristics and bridge configuration. Such an analysis should be used in conjunction with historical records as a
basis for design.
4.2.3.6 Lateral Support
a. A fully embedded pile can generally be considered laterally supported. A pile that is, or may be as a result of scour, in
air or water, or which may be in muck, peat, fluid material or liquefiable soils, shall be investigated for the allowable
1
capacity by the methods given in the Report of ACI Committee 543 "Recommendations for Design, Manufacture, and
Installation of Concrete Piles" or other acceptable method approved by the Engineer.
b. The lateral loads on piles can be taken into account by using recognized structural analysis methods.
SECTION 4.3 PILE LENGTH DETERMINATION
4.3.1 GENERAL (2013)
The determination of the most satisfactory and economical length of piles is one of the key factors in designing an adequate 4
pile foundation. In addition to information that can be obtained from soil borings, pile driving tests, pile load tests, and pile
driving formulas, the use of the one-dimensional wave equation can be a valuable tool on large or difficult foundations, and is
recommended for design and field control purposes2. Pile driving records of nearby adjacent piles may also be used in
determining pile length if definite correlation between the existing and proposed piles as to type, loading, and use can be
determined as well as the accuracy of the previous pile driving record.
4.3.2 ESTIMATED TIP ELEVATION AND ESTIMATED LENGTH (2013)
a. At each boring location, using recognized geotechnical methods, the theoretical length of piles shall be computed
considering contributions from both allowable bearing capacity and frictional resistance. Piles in very deep deposits
are likely to receive support primarily through friction, whereas relatively shallow hardpan or rock conditions are
1
See C - Commentary
2
See Reference 71

likely to provide support primarily through end bearing. Many foundation conditions will provide both allowable
bearing capacity and frictional resistance.
b. At each substructure unit, an estimated tip elevation and an estimated pile length shall be selected and tabulated based
on the design cutoff elevation.
4.3.3 MINIMUM TIP ELEVATION (2013)1
At each boring location, a tip elevation shall be computed, above which no structural piles will be permitted to stop. The
minimum tip elevation reflects the design intent of the pile foundation design and is determined by an experienced foundation
engineer's review of the estimated tip elevations, recognizing practical aspects of foundation construction practice. As an
example, if geotechnical calculations demonstrate that piles should penetrate into a hardpan layer at varying depths, the
minimum tip elevation will be shown at the top of this layer. In certain cases, field conditions during driving may modify this
elevation.
4.3.4 WAVE EQUATION (2013)2
a. The use of the one-dimensional wave equation for driven piles will greatly assist the Engineer and Contractor in
determining the pile foundation adequacy and the construction of the project as planned.
b. By the use of this equation, several values will be obtained:
(1) The ability of the soil-hammer cushion-pile system to obtain the required pile capacity
(2) The estimated blows per foot (300 mm) needed to obtain the required pile capacity at the estimated depth
(3) The means whereby the required blows per foot (300 mm) at other depths can be evaluated
(4) The means of evaluating the required blows per foot (300 mm) when the hammer fails to produce the
manufacturer’s rated energy
c. When this procedure is followed, the Contractor’s hammer selection is evaluated and the Engineer can have the
opportunity to modify the design before construction is started.
4.3.5 PILE DRIVING FORMULAS (2013)3
Many dynamic pile driving formulas have been developed as an aid in determining pile capacities. While such formulas serve
a useful purpose, particularly on smaller projects, greater accuracy, and economy can usually be obtained by use of the wave
equation method as described in Article 4.3.4. If pile driving formulas are proposed for use, formulas that take into account the
relationship between the weight of the pile and the weight of the pile hammer striking parts should be used.
4.3.6 PLAN TIP ELEVATIONS (2013)
4.3.6.1 Friction Piles
For those piles which can be considered to act as true friction piles, i.e. no end-bearing stratum is in evidence within
reasonable depths, only an estimated tip elevation is required. In uniform soils, where a complete soil investigation has
determined the tip elevation, no further driving criteria are required, except the statement that the piles must be driven to the
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
estimated tip elevation. A variation in the expected rate of penetration at the estimated tip elevation would indicate a variable
soil layer, and a reappraisal of the tip elevation will be required.
4.3.6.2 Combined Bearing and Friction Piles, or Bearing Piles
Plans and specifications should require that all piles be driven at least down to the minimum tip elevation shown on the plans.
Driving shall be continued until the required resistance is achieved, as determined by load tests, a wave equation analysis, or a
pile driving formula specified by the Engineer. This will accommodate variations in the consistency and depth of the bearing
layer. An important judgment factor is selection of required hammer energy, hammer type, and cushion. This decision can best
be achieved by a wave equation analysis.
4.3.7 ESTIMATED PILE LENGTH (2013)
The plans should show estimated lengths which have been used for calculation of the Engineer's estimate, and will provide the
bidders with a reasonable basis for pricing the pile foundations.
4.3.8 PILE DRIVING AND LOADING TESTS (2013)
4.3.8.1 Driving Tests1
a. The following procedure is suggested for variable soil conditions. A few of the structural piles should be selected,
including at least one from each substructure unit of the bridge or structure, and they should be driven first before other
service piles are ordered. Their installations should be designated as Pile Driving Tests. A separate pay item should be
provided, to cover piles installed in the Pile Driving Tests. 1
b. Where practical, piles installed by driving tests should have their tips carried five (1520 mm) to ten feet (3040 mm)
below the tip elevation estimated according to Article 4.3.3 for the service piles at each particular location. Pile driving
shall be carefully monitored to avoid damage to the pile. Driving records for each foot (300 mm) of driving of each pile
shall be kept and plotted in the field to provide exploratory information. The plot should be on a log containing the
generalized information from the nearest geotechnical boring. This record will provide an immediate correlation of
driving resistance and subsurface conditions for the pile, hammer and cushion arrangement being used. The record will 3
also provide information on where to select suitable locations for future load tests if required.
c. Driving of test piles is recommended. The driving tests are of particular importance where load tests are not
contemplated, because in that case, they provide the only correlation between soil boring data and driving data.
d. If possible, piles installed by driving tests should be placed in a position where they can serve as production piles in the
completed structure.
4
4.3.8.2 Static Pile Load Testing2
a. Static pile load testing is considered essential for large or important projects, or in subsurface conditions where there is
little precedent for major construction. To date, they give the best knowledge of the probable capacity of an individual
pile.
b. It is preferred that load tests be carried to failure to determine the true factor of safety for the proposed design. If the
margin of safety is higher or lower than desired, driving and elevation criteria can be modified. If, due to very high
loads, tests to failure are not practicable, testing should be carried to not less than twice the design load. Test loads
should not exceed the ultimate capacity of the pile as a structural member, or the capacity of the jack frame.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

c. The test apparatus and procedure shall be in accordance with the current ASTM D1143/D1143M-07 "Standard Test
Methods for Deep Foundations Under Static Axial Compressive Load."
d. By analyzing and interpreting the load tests with the driving test data and subsoil information, it will be possible to
affirm the adequacy of the design and the installation criteria and introduce field modifications as may be necessary.
4.3.8.3 Dynamic Pile Load Testing1
a. Dynamic pile load testing is a testing method that utilizes strain and acceleration measurements obtained from small
gauges attached to the head of a pile as it is driven with a pile driving hammer. This testing can be performed during
both initial driving of the pile and during a subsequent restrike. The restrike is critical to account for possible relaxation
of the supporting soils, or “set-up” which is an increase in pile capacity over time as excess pore pressures built up
during driving are released, particularly in fine-grained soils. Restrikes are typically performed 24 hours after the initial
drive, but longer periods such as one week could be important in obtaining the true long-term pile capacity for finer-
grained soils.
b. Procedures and equipment for use in dynamic pile testing are detailed in ASTM D4945 “Standard Test Method for
High Strain Dynamic Testing of Piles.”
SECTION 4.4 PILE STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.4.1 TIMBER PILES (2013)
a. Timber piles shall conform to the AREMA specifications for wood piles, Chapter 7, Timber Structures, Part 1, Material
Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and
Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood and Part 4, Construction and Maintenance of
Timber Structures. If treatment is required, it shall conform to AREMA specifications for wood preservation – Chapter
30, Ties, Section 3.6, Wood Preserving.
b. For a timber pile which is primarily a friction pile, the maximum allowable load in pounds (kN) shall be computed by
multiplying the tip area (small end) in square inches (mm2) by the value 1,200 psi (8.27 MPa); the maximum load thus
being equivalent to 1,200 psi (8.27 MPa) acting at the tip.
c. For a timber pile that is primarily an end-bearing pile, the maximum allowable load shall be computed as above, but
using the value 800 psi (5.52 MPa) instead of 1,200 psi (8.27 MPa).
d. Timber piles shall be of a length which will allow driving to the specified tip elevation and which also will allow the
complete removal of timber damaged by driving.
4.4.2 STEEL PILES (2013)
4.4.2.1 Types
This type of piling shall include all steel H-section piles and steel pipe piles.
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
4.4.2.2 Material
All steel used for piles shall conform to the current ASTM designations as specified by the Engineer. Special steels may be
used for corrosion protection or other purposes, but where welding is required the ability of the material to be welded must be
determined prior to installation.
4.4.2.3 Size
a. The minimum depth of a steel H-section shall be 8 inches (200 mm). The minimum thickness of the flange or web shall
be 3/8 inch (10 mm). The flange width shall be not less than 85% of the depth of the section.
b. The minimum outside diameter of pipe piles shall be 8-5/8 inches (220 mm). The minimum wall thickness shall be 3/8
inch (10 mm).
4.4.2.4 Pile Cap Plates
In general, steel bearing cap plates are not required on steel H-piles or pipe piles embedded at least 1 foot (300 mm) in
concrete, provided the footing reinforcement is adequately designed to transmit the imposed loads.
4.4.2.5 Protection Against Corrosion1
a. Steel piles that will be exposed to corrosive environments shall be protected by concrete encasement or other suitable
means; such as specially formulated epoxy or bituminous coatings, or additional steel thickness. Protection shall be
provided at least 1 foot (300 mm) above ground surfaces or normal water lines and shall extend at least 3 feet (910
mm) below the ground surface or low-water line. Concrete protection, where provided shall have a minimum thickness
1
of 4 inches (100 mm) and shall contain nominal steel reinforcement.
b. Structural steel piles shall not be used through active corrosion-inducing material or where electrolysis may occur,
without adequate provision for the protection of such piles.
4.4.2.6 Allowable Stresses2 3

The design load per pile shall be determined as specified in Section 4.2, Design. The steel pile section shall be selected so that
the unit stresses due to axial load shall not exceed 12,600 psi (87 MPa). Due allowance shall be made for any bending stresses
caused by horizontal or eccentric loads. Combined axial and bending stress shall be limited to 0.55 Fy. Consideration shall be
given to any column action of a pile that is not fully laterally supported.
4.4.2.7 Pile Tip Reinforcement 4

Pile tip reinforcement may be required to prevent damage to piles when driving through dense gravel, boulders, or formations
known to contain obstructions, or when driving end-bearing piles. Heavy cast steel tips are recommended for this purpose.
4.4.3 PRECAST CONCRETE PILES (2013)
4.4.3.1 General
a. This type of piling includes both conventionally reinforced concrete piles and prestressed concrete piles. Both types
can be formed by either casting, centrifugal casting, or extrusion methods. They are made in various cross section
shapes such as square, octagonal, and round. Such piles may be cast with a hollow core. The piles are usually of
constant cross section but may have a tapered tip.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

b. Precast concrete piles must be designed and manufactured to withstand handling and driving stresses in addition to
service loads. The workmanship, material, and proportioning shall conform to the requirements specified in Part 1,
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
4.4.3.2 Design
The minimum acceptable diameter or side dimension for driven piles is usually 8 inches (200 mm). This may be satisfactory
for short piles which are lightly loaded, however, as a general rule, it is recommended that the minimum average dimension be
10 inches (250 mm), except that the pile tip may be 8 inches (200 mm). Piles may be pointed if directed by the Engineer.
4.4.3.3 Manufacture
The manufacture of the various types of precast concrete piles shall be in accordance with the current Chapter 4 of American
Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 543R-00 report titled "Recommendations for Design, Manufacture, and Installation of
Concrete Piles."
4.4.3.4 Cut-Off
Precast piles shall be driven to or cut off within 2 inches (50 mm) of the elevation shown on the plans, but in all cases, the
cutoff shall be below any indication of fracture. If piles are cut off or driven below the required elevation, they shall be built-
up to the cutoff line as determined by the Engineer. Standard details are to be shown on the plans.
4.4.3.5 Allowable Stresses
The design load per pile shall be determined as specified in Section 4.2, Design. The cross-section of the precast pile shall be
selected so that the concrete unit stresses shall not exceed 0.3 f 'c with a maximum of 1,600 psi (11 MPa). Other stresses shall
conform to the requirements of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete.
4.4.4 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)1
4.4.4.1 Types
Cast-in-place piles shall be cast in driven metal casings or shells which shall remain permanently in place and may or may not
serve in the design strength of the pile. They may be tapered or cylindrical, or a combination of tapered and cylindrical shapes.
4.4.4.2 Tapered Piles
Tapered piles shall not be less than 8 inches (200 mm) in diameter at the tip and shall be uniformly tapered at the rate of not
more than 1 inch in 8 feet (10 mm in 1000 mm), or step tapered, at the same average rate.
4.4.4.3 Cylindrical Piles
Cylindrical piles shall have a minimum diameter of 8 inches (200 mm).
4.4.4.4 Pipe Casings and Shells2
a. Pipe casings driven without a mandrel shall be formed of steel conforming to the current ASTM A252 requirements, or
equivalent. Metal shells driven with a mandrel shall have a thickness of not less than No. 16 USMSG which is 0.0625
inches (1.6 mm) or equivalent and minimum yield strength of 30,000 psi (210 MPa). Casings shall be in one integral
piece or adequately spliced to develop the full strength of the shell.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
b. All piles shall be equipped with approved watertight flat plates or conical points welded to the tip end of the casing.
The end closures approved for cylindrical piles shall not project beyond the diameter of the pile casing.
4.4.4.5 Placing Concrete
a. Casings or shells shall be inspected and approved by the Engineer immediately before any concrete is placed. A
suitable light shall be used to inspect the entire length. Any accumulated foreign matter or water shall be removed
before the concrete is placed. Any broken or otherwise defective shells shall be corrected by removal and replacement,
or by driving an additional pile, as directed by the Engineer. Concrete having a minimum compressive strength of at
least 3,000 psi (21 MPa) at 28 days shall be used to fill the shell. The placing of the concrete shall be carried out as a
continuous operation from the tip to the cutoff elevation, and shall be performed in such a manner as to minimize
segregation and insure complete filling of the casing or shell.
b. No pile shall be driven within 15 feet (4570 mm) of a pile that has been filled with concrete for more than 2 hours and
less than 24 hours. The driving procedure for any particular project shall be approved by the engineer in charge, before
commencing work.
The design strength of the pile shall be determined as specified in Section 4.2, Design. The pile section shall be designed so
that the unit stresses in the pile shall not exceed the following:
a. Concrete: 0.3 of the compressive strength of the concrete used (f 'c), but not to exceed 1,600 psi (11 MPa)
b. Steel: The unit stresses shall not exceed 12,600 psi (87 MPa)
1
4.4.4.7 Protection Against Corrosion
a. When the steel casing is used in computing the design strength of the pile and the piles will be exposed, they shall be
protected from corrosion as specified in Article 4.4.2.5.
3
b. If the strength of the steel is considered in computing the design strength of the pile, the pile shall not be used through
active corrosion-inducing material or where electrolysis may occur without adequate provision for the protection of
such pile.
4.4.4.8 Reinforcement
Cast-in-place piles may be reinforced to provide needed flexural strength, or for uplift anchorage. When used, the reinforcing 4
steel should be pre-assembled into cages and accurately placed in accordance with the plans. The reinforcement shall be clean
of foreign material that could affect bond, and securely positioned before concrete fill is placed.
4.4.5 AUGERED CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
4.4.5.1 General
Augered Cast-In-Place Concrete Piles are primarily used as friction piles. They are installed by rotating a continuous hollow-
shaft flight auger into the ground to a predetermined pile depth. High-strength grout is pumped with sufficient pressure to fill
the resultant hole as the auger is withdrawn, preventing hole collapse and causing the lateral penetration of the grout into soft
or porous zones of the surrounding soil. Above the injection point, a grout head of at least several feet (several hundred
millimeters) is carried around the perimeter of the auger at all times during the withdrawal of the auger so that the high-
strength grout causes a displacing action, removing any loose material from the hole and ensuring consistent pile diameter.

4.4.5.2 Design1
The length of pile will be determined from the examination of soil borings using the shear strength of the soil, and preferably,
verified by static pile load tests as described in Article 4.3.8.2. Recommended pile loads for varying pile diameters, depending
on soil strengths, are given in Table 8-4-1.
Table 8-4-1. Recommended Augered Cast-In-Place Concrete Pile Loads
Nominal Normal Required Compression

Normal Loadings Range
Diameter of Pile Strength of Grout
Tons (kN)
Inches (mm) psi (MPa)
12 (300) 10-40 (90-355) 3,000 (21)
14 (350) 40-75 (355-670) 3,000 (21)
16 (400) 75-100 (670-890) 3,000-4,000 (21-28)
4.4.5.3 Materials
a. The material used to fill the holes shall consist of a mixture of Portland Cement, concrete sand, fluidifier and water
proportioned and mixed as to provide a grout capable of maintaining the solids in suspension without appreciable
water gain and which will laterally penetrate and fill any voids in the foundation material. Portland Cement shall
conform to Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.2, Cement. The fine aggregate shall
conform to Section 1.4, Aggregates, with a fineness modulus between 1.40 and 3.40. Fluidifier shall meet the
requirements of the current ASTM Designation C937.
b. The grout shall be so proportioned as to have a minimum ultimate compressive strength of 3,000 psi (21 MPa) at 28
days. A set of 6 grout cubes shall be made each day and tested in accordance with the current ASTM Designation
C109, with the exception that the grout should be restrained from expansion by a top plate.
4.4.5.4 Tension Piles
Augered cast-in-place piles should be considered for resisting uplift (tension) loads only when steel reinforcement is added,
and such loading conditions are temporary, of short duration, and with the approval of the Engineer.
4.4.6 MICROPILES (2013)2
4.4.6.1 General
Micropiles (also known as pin piles or minipiles) are usually defined as piles of less than 12 inches (300 mm) in diameter. Very
high vertical compression and tension capacities can be achieved. They are generally used for specialized applications,
particularly where there is restricted accessibility, restricted work area and/or headroom available and difficult subsurface
condition. Micropile installation is accomplished by using drilling techniques and grouting technology together to penetrate
the subsurface. Pile lengths of several hundred feet (m) have been achieved. Micropiles may be reinforced with steel
reinforcing.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
4.4.6.2 Design
Because micropiles are usually used in specialty applications, their design should be performed by engineers experienced in
the design and installation of those piles. Materials and material specifications can be selected as suitable for the particular
application.
SECTION 4.5 INSTALLATION OF PILES
4.5.1 DRIVEN PILES (2013)1
Piles shall be driven with steam, air, diesel or hydraulic impact hammers. Size of the type of hammer used should be
determined by guidelines noted in Article 4.5.1.1. The hammer shall be operated at all times at pressures and speeds
recommended by the manufacturer.
Vibratory hammers shall not be used unless authorization and specific instructions are provided by the Engineer. Use of a
gravity drop hammer for driving piles should be limited to foundations where uniform pile capacity is not critical and as
directed by the Engineer.
4.5.1.1 Selection of Hammer Cushion Combination2
a. Preliminary selection of the hammer cushion combination for driving piles can be made with the following guide: 1
(1) Steel Piles – Air, Steam, or Hydraulic Hammers.
(a) Minimum size: 170 ft-lb (230 J) of rated energy per ton of pile service load. Stiff or hard hammer cushion.
(b) Desired size: 250-340 ft-lb (340 J-460 J) of rated energy per ton of pile service load.
3
(c) Pile Cushion: None
(d) Hammer Cushion: Use standard (stiff) hammer cushion
(e) Diesel Hammers: - Use 100 to 135% of size determined for air or steam hammers.
(2) Mandrel-Driven Piles - Same as Steel. 4
(3) Precast or Prestressed Concrete Piles - Air, Steam, or Hydraulic Hammers.
(a) Desired size: 250 ft-lb (340 J) of rated energy per ton of pile service load. The weight of the ram shall
generally not be less than one-fourth of the weight of the pile being driven.
(b) Hammer Cushion:
1 Design by one-dimensional wave theory, or by experience.
2 Use manufacturer’s standard (stiff) cushion material.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

(c) Diesel Hammers: Use 100 to 135% of size determined for air or steam hammers.
(d) Pile Cushion: Design by one-dimensional wave theory, or by experience. Usually, a number of layers of
softwood or plywood cushioning are required.
(4) Timber Piles – Air, Steam, or Hydraulic Hammers.
(a) For normal capacity piles, up to 30 tons service load (270 kN) excluding abnormally large timbers or
fabricated sections use 15,000 ft-lb (20 kJ) maximum rated energy with a wood hammer cushion.
(b) Diesel hammers may be rated up to 20,000 ft-lb (27 kJ) with standard (stiff) internal cushions.
b. The foregoing preliminary selection of hammer and cushion combinations should preferably be confirmed by a wave
equation analysis of pile driving indicating that the pile shall not be damaged during driving and that the desired
capacity can be achieved.
4.5.1.2 Pile Leads
Pile drivers shall have firmly supported leads extending from the highest point to the lowest point that the hammer must travel.
The leads should be supported independently of the pile and constructed to guide and stay the pile during driving.
4.5.1.3 Splicing1
If additional length of pile is required, it shall be supplied by splicing in such a way as to develop the full strength of the
section of the pile. The splice shall be made a sufficient distance, but not less than 1 foot (300 mm), above the ground or water
surface so that the splice can be observed during subsequent driving.
4.5.1.4 Jetting
Piles may be jetted, when permitted by the Engineer, either by use of water jets alone or in combination with the hammer
except where jetting would be performed in soil required to develop friction capacity. The volume and pressure of the water at
the jet nozzles shall be sufficient to freely erode the material adjacent to the pile. Before the desired penetration is reached,
jetting shall be discontinued at the elevation specified by the Engineer and the piles driven to required penetration or
resistance.
4.5.1.5 Preboring
Where piles must be installed through strata offering high resistance to driving, or where jetting would cause damage, to
prevent excessive heaving of cohesive soils, to potentially reduce vibration on adjacent structures or facilities or for other
valid reasons, the Engineer may require or permit holes to be bored with an auger or other equipment especially designed for
the purpose. Depending upon the reasons for preboring, the diameter and depth of the hole shall be as directed by the Engineer
to obtain the proper pile penetration and carrying capacity. The pile shall be inserted into the hole immediately after boring and
be driven to required penetration or resistance.
4.5.1.6 Improperly Driven and Damaged Piles
Piles shall be driven within 3 inches (75 mm) of the plan location. Small variations of more than 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm per
1 meter) from the vertical, or from the batter line when batter piles are required, may be subject to rejection by the Engineer.
Any pile so out of line or out of plumb as to impair its usefulness shall be pulled and/or an additional pile(s) driven, as required
by the Engineer. Any pile so damaged in driving or handling as to impair its structural capacity as a pile under conditions of
use shall be replaced by a new pile, or the damaged part shall be replaced by splicing or other remedial measures, all as
directed by the Engineer.
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
4.5.1.7 Redriving of Heaved Piles
Previously driven piles shall be carefully checked during the driving of adjacent piles, and if any uplift occurs, they shall be
redriven to the required penetration or resistance as directed by the Engineer.
4.5.1.8 Underwater Driving
While it is possible to drive piles underwater by use of a follower between the pile and hammer, or by use of a submersible pile
hammer, such driving methods should be avoided when it is necessary to drive piles to obtain a predetermined bearing
capacity, unless such capacity is determined by a pile load test under similar conditions.
4.5.1.9 Interrupted Driving
When driving is interrupted or the rate of blows retarded for any reason, an accurate record shall be kept of the extent of the
incident. Any significant change in the penetration per blow immediately following such stoppage shall be cause to suspect the
interpretation of the preceding and following blows per foot.
4.5.2 AUGERED CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
4.5.2.1 Augering Equipment
a. The hole through which the high-strength grout is pumped during the placement of the pile shall be located at the
bottom of the auger head below the bar containing the cutting teeth.
1
b. The auger flighting shall be continuous from the auger head to the top of auger with no gaps or other breaks. The pitch
of the auger flighting shall not exceed 9 inches (230 mm).
c. Augers over 40 feet (12200 mm) in length shall contain a middle guide. The piling leads should be prevented from
rotating by a stabilizing arm.
4.5.2.2 Mixing and Pumping of High-Strength Cement Grout 3

a. Only approved pumping, continuous mixing, and agitating equipment shall be used in the preparation and handling of
the grout. All oil or other rust inhibitors shall be removed from mixing drums and grout pumps. If ready-mix grout is
used, an agitating storage tank of sufficient size shall be used between the ready-mix truck and the grout pump to
insure a homogeneous mix and continuity in the pumping operations. All materials shall be such as to produce a
homogeneous grout of the desired consistency. If there is a lapse in the operation, the grout shall be recirculated
through the pump. 4
b. The grout pump shall be a positive displacement piston type pump capable of developing displacing pressures at the
pump of up to 350 psi (2.4 MPa).
4.5.2.3 Pile Top Encasement
Metal sleeves or casing of the proper diameter and at least 18 inches (460 mm) in length shall be placed around the pile tops.
(Special conditions may require metal sleeves of additional length.) Where the pile top elevation is above the existing grade,
the casing shall extend from the top of the pile to a minimum of 12 inches (300 mm) below the existing grade.

SECTION 4.6 INSPECTION OF PILE DRIVING1
Pile driving and augering operations shall be inspected and documented completely as directed by the Engineer.
Recommended techniques of inspection and records to be compiled can be found in the publication titled “The Performance of
Pile Driving Systems: Inspection Manual”, U.S. Department of Transportation, Report No. FHWA – 86/160, Springfield,
Virginia, 1978 (Reference 109).
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish an explanation of various articles in Part 4, Pile Foundations. In the numbering of articles
of this Section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained.
C - 4.1.1 SCOPE (2013)
a. Many texts and foundation reference sources consider drilled shafts as cast-in-place concrete piles. In view of the
special techniques required for the installation of drilled shafts as opposed to driven or augered piles, they have been
treated separately in Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations.
b. Since it is not often practical to obtain definitive geotechnical information for every part of a pile foundation system,
engineering judgment and experience should be used to increase stated factors of safety where warranted by local
conditions.
c. The selection of foundation pile material must take into account many different factors as described in Article 4.1.2.1,
General. However there are additional issues that the designer must remain aware of when selecting a type of
foundation pile. Local conditions may warrant the selection of different pile material types. Events such as floods, fire,
debris flow, freeze and thaw cycles, avalanches and other similar natural occurrences should be considered at each
structure location. The effect of natural organisms such as marine organisms, insects and other wildlife need
consideration as these may vary at each location. Manmade issues such as traffic (vehicular and water), contaminated
soils, pollution and vandalism should also be given attention.
C - 4.1.2.2 Pile Categories
End-bearing piles: The capacity of end-bearing piles depends on the bearing capacity of soil or rock material underlying the
piles, and upon the structural capacity of the pile. The dynamic characteristics of the soil-hammer cushion-pile system coupled
with the installation technique will determine the ability of the pile to penetrate overlaying strata to reach the bearing stratum.
Allowable stresses for pile materials are given elsewhere in this part. When end-bearing piles pass through unconsolidated
material, consideration should be given in design to the additional load (negative skin friction) that may be imposed on the pile
as the material above the bearing stratum consolidates. The bearing stratum must be of sufficient thickness and strength to
support the entire pile group loading. The design load shall preferably be determined by pile load tests. In addition, an analysis
of the group of piles must show that the allowable load on the soil or rock supporting material is not exceeded.
Friction Piles: The capacity of friction piles depends upon the ability of the soil to support the load distributed by the piles
within the limits of settlement that can be safely tolerated by the structure.
a. The design capacity shall preferably be determined by loading test piles in accordance with the provisions of
Article 4.3.8.2. Where groups of piles are driven into plastic materials, consideration should be given not only to the
allowable load per pile, but also to the total load that can be safely assigned to the group. The design load shall be
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
determined by loading a group of piles or by making an allowance for the difference between the capacity of a single
pile and a group of piles by means of a block analysis. A single row of piles need not be considered as a group,
provided the piles are spaced at least three times their butt width.
b. In many cases, a study of the borings and the estimation of approximate soil properties will determine the ability of the
soil to support the applied loads. In foundations involving cohesive soils, the load-settlement relationship should be
investigated by recognized geotechnical methods and procedures.
C - 4.1.2.3 Pile Type Selection
f. If the possibility of damage to adjacent structures from vibration, impact or soil movement exists, all viable
alternatives with regards to type of pile and method of installation should be investigated in order to minimize or
eliminate this hazard. A survey of the adjacent structures that documents before and after conditions should be
considered.
C - SECTION 4.2 DESIGN
C - 4.2.2 LOADS (2013)
C - 4.2.2.1 General
It is not possible to accurately predict the behavior of a combined pile and soil bearing footing. In most cases, because of the
pile supporting system, little load, including that of the footing, will be transferred to the material directly under the footing
after it has been cast. Therefore, in analysis, the pile system will be considered as supporting all loads. 1
C - 4.2.2.2 Primary Loads and Forces
Live loads are separated into two cases, vertical, and horizontal due to surcharge, to ensure that these loads are considered
separately and in combination to determine the governing load combination.
C - 4.2.2.3 Secondary Loads and Forces1 3
The effect of seismic events on pile foundations may not be limited in all cases to the additional loads imposed on the piles. In
certain types of water-bearing sands, a phenomenon referred to as soil liquefaction may be precipitated by the vibrations
induced by a seismic event or other source. When this occurs, soil shear strength is eliminated and support for piles, both
vertically and laterally, is diminished. In geographical areas susceptible to seismic events, the potential for liquefaction should
be evaluated through a competent geotechnical investigation and measures to ensure the stability of foundations should be
employed. Further discussion on methods to predict the occurrence and extent of liquefaction may be found in the
4
Bibliography reference.
C - 4.2.3 LOADS ON PILES (2013)
Cases A, B, and C are listed to ensure that complete consideration is given to the possible failure modes of a pile foundation. A
safety factor of 2.0 is prescribed for Cases B and C for all primary loads or possible primary load combinations. An increase of
25% in allowable stresses or allowable load capacity is allowed for individual piles in a foundation system for combinations of
secondary loads and primary loads except for Case C for group friction pile effect. No increase is specified for this case due to
greater relative uncertainty that is associated with its analysis when compared to individual bearing pile analysis.
1
See Reference 89

C - 4.2.3.4 Batter Piles1
a. It is intended that battered piles be used to resist lateral foundation loads due to primary forces. Where this is not
practical, the lateral resistance of vertical piles can be utilized to resist horizontal forces. The Engineer should make a
careful evaluation of the pile foundation system to ascertain its lateral resistance capacity. Much research has been
done concerning the lateral resistance of vertical piles. The FHWA Manual on Design of Piles and Drilled Shafts
Under Lateral Load DP-66-1, 1986 should be consulted for the design of such pile foundations.
b. Cases A, B and C of Article 4.2.3 should be evaluated for lateral loads on vertical piles. Recent research has indicated
that under certain conditions that may be encountered during a seismic event, battered piles should not be used. The
designer should consult the AASHTO "Standard Specifications for Seismic Design" for guidance.
C - 4.2.3.5 Scour2
Research is continuing into the prediction of the occurrence and extent of scour. The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars
Evaluating Scour at Bridges (HEC-18), Stream Stability at Highway Bridges (HEC-20), Bridge Scour and Stream
Countermeasures (HEC-23) and the Countermeasurers to Protect Bridge Piers from Scour (NCHRP report 593) provide
references for scour analysis.
C - SECTION 4.3 PILE LENGTH DETERMINATION
C - 4.3.3 MINIMUM TIP ELEVATION (2013)
Piles should be monitored closely during driving to avoid damage by overdriving. Damage by overdriving may lead to
splintered piles or broomed tips in the case of timber piles which may not be readily apparent when they are being driven. For
steel H-piles, overdriving may result in separation of the flanges from the web, buckling of the pile tip, redirection of the tip
when striking a hard rock surface at an angle, and in some instances distorting the pile into a “U” or “J” configuration if
driving is continued. Concrete piles may also be crushed at the tip or cracked through overdriving. In each of these instances
the ultimate capacity of the pile may be significantly reduced. If a PDA is not employed for monitoring the driving operation
an expected rate of penetration of the pile per depth of penetration should be developed based on the stratigraphy of the
material into which it is driven or founded and the type of equipment employed. Should the actual driving of the pile differ
significantly from the expected rate of penetration, the pile driving operation should be stopped until further investigation and
the cause of the deviant driving is ascertained. The suspected pile to be relocated or replaced with a new pile at the discretion
the Engineer.
C - 4.3.4 WAVE EQUATION (2013)3
The Wave Equation method of analyzing pile capacity and pile length was developed by Smith (1960). For a detailed
explanation of the Wave Equation methodology, the designer may consult FHWA documentation of the WEAP program.
C - 4.3.5 PILE DRIVING FORMULAS (2013)
Historically, pile driving formulas which make use of the relationship between the hammer energy and the pile movement
when driven have been used to approximate safe pile loads. Most notably, the Engineering News Formula has been used
extensively for this purpose. Tests have shown that these formulas do not give consistent results whereby excessive pile
lengths may be dictated in some instances while in others insufficient factors of safety may result from their use. For these
reasons, the use of these formulas should be limited to projects whose size and importance may justify their use in lieu of the
more elaborate Wave Equation method. When these formulas are to be used, their application should be guided by engineering
1
See References 79 and 96
2
See References 31, 32 and 38
3 See Reference 93

Pile Foundations
judgment and experience. Careful evaluation of the actual hammer energy applied to the pile through the hammer cushion-pile
cushion systems is also required.
C - 4.3.8 PILE DRIVING AND LOADING TESTS (2013)
C - 4.3.8.1 Driving Tests
Load tests should be applied only to standard service piles, not to piles installed by pile driving tests. This is because piles
installed by pile driving tests are deliberately driven to a higher nominal capacity and, therefore, are not typical of the service
piles. Test piles driven with a PDA are typically driven to allowable capacity.
C - 4.3.8.2 Static Pile Load Testing
Alternate methods for determining pile capacity are continually being developed and implemented and static pile load testing
is becoming less common. However these tests are still relevant for certain projects and pile types. Generally projects that do
not have traffic or schedule impacts are best suited for static load pile testing. It is at the Engineer’s discretion and
professional judgment to use static pile load testing to determine the probable capacity of a pile.
C - 4.3.8.3 Dynamic Pile Load Testing
Dynamic pile load testing has been utilized in the evaluation of driven piling for public and commercial projects in the US
since the early 1970s. The test method, originally developed through FHWA funding at Case Western Reserve University,
utilizes strain and acceleration measurements obtained from small gauges attached to the head of a pile as it is driven with a
pile driving hammer. Dynamic pile load testing evaluates the static pile capacity, the performance of the driving system, pile 1
driving stresses, and pile integrity. Due to tremendous advancements in the technology and with years of experience, dynamic
pile testing rivals static pile load tests in adequately determining the capacity of a driven pile.
The Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) represents the field component of the Dynamic Testing in which the attached gauges send
signals during driving to a specialized collection unit. Real time data manipulation and reporting is possible for examining pile
stresses, integrity, drive system energy and capacity. Case Western Reserve University developed the Case Pile Wave Analysis
Program (CAPWAP) numerical modeling technique that refines the PDA data to more accurately match a static load test and 3
provides accurate soil resistance distribution and soil quake and damping parameters for use with the wave equation analysis
program (WEAP).
C - SECTION 4.4 PILE STRUCTURAL DESIGN
C - 4.4.2 STEEL PILES (2013) 4

C - 4.4.2.5 Protection Against Corrosion
Corrosion of steel foundation piles and the reinforcing steel in concrete piles is known to be related to the characteristic of the
steel and the environment in which the piles are embedded. Corrosion can be avoided or mitigated by adding additional
thickness of steel to the pile, or by coating the piles with a corrosion resistant material, by installing a cathodic protection
system or most simply using concrete piles or concrete-filled steel pipe piles in marine and corrosive environments.
C - 4.4.2.6 Allowable Stresses
The compressive stress at the tip of steel H-piles has been limited to 12,600 psi (87 MPa) for design loads. It should be
recognized that stresses during driving may considerably exceed this stress. The Wave Equation formula can predict these
driving stresses. In general, driving stresses should be limited to 0.8 of the yield strength of the pile steel.

C - 4.4.4 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
Cast-in-place concrete pile types include: uniform tapered, step tapered, constant section and a combination of type pile. Piles
are constructed by placing concrete into a hole or cast into a form which consists of a thin shell or thin pipe left in the ground.
The shell or casing shall provide adequate resistance against earth pressure prior to the placement of concrete. Due to
increased stresses encountered during driving, thin shells may be required to be supported internally by a mandrel. Examples
of thin-shell mandrel driven concrete piles include: step taper mandrel-driven pile, core-driven thin-walled pipe pile with end
closed by precast concrete point, and corrugated cylindrical thin-walled pile driven by mandrel when expanded against shell
by compressed air.
C - 4.4.4.4 Pipe Casings and Shells
Where the pipe casing or shell is to serve only as a form for the cast-in-place concrete piles, the steel thickness need only be
sufficient to withstand soil pressures and driving stresses subject to the stated minimum thickness and strength for mandrel
driven piles. If the casing or shell is to be used to compute the structural capacity of the pile, the plans must show the steel
thickness to be used and also splicing details and the grade of steel to be used.
C - 4.4.5 AUGERED CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
C - 4.4.5.2 Design
3,000 psi (21 MPa) grout is considered to be the commonly provided grout.
C - 4.4.6 MICROPILES (2013)
Micropiles can withstand axial (compression and tension) and/or lateral loads. Proper installation minimizes disturbance to
adjacent soil, structures and environment. They can be installed vertically or at a batter. Installation equipment is similar to that
for soil and rock anchors.
References for micropiles:
• Federal Highway Administration, Drilled and Grouted Micropiles State-of-the-Practice Review, 4 volumes,
FHWA/RD-96-016/017/018/019, Washington, DC, 1996.
• Federal Highway Administration, Micropile Design and Construction Guidelines, FHWA-SA-97-070, Washington,
DC, 2000.
• Deep Foundations Institute/International Association of Foundation Drilling, “Guide to Drafting a Specification for
Micropiles” Hawthorne, NJ/ Dallas, TX, First Edition, 2004.
• Federal Highway Administration, Micropile Design and Construction Reference Manual, FHWA-NHI-05-039,
2005.
C - SECTION 4.5 INSTALLATION OF PILES
C - 4.5.1 DRIVEN PILES (2013)
Impact pile hammers are generally classified as external or internal combustion. Recently, hydraulic hammers have been
developed to join air and steam in the external combustion category. All require separate power plants and hydraulic hammers
require an additional control apparatus. However, due to the control and sensing features of hydraulic hammers, energy can be
controlled to a greater degree and in some units an accurate measurement of energy delivered to the pile-cushion system is
available.

Pile Foundations
Research has recently been conducted to determine the vertical load bearing capacity of steel piling driven by vibratory
hammers. However, no widely accepted design procedures or capacity verification from installation are available. Thus, piling
installed by vibratory methods should be verified by a load test program, or vibrated to an elevation higher than planned with
final driving to bearing or tip elevation by an impact hammer.
The term “friction” as used for friction piles implies friction between the pile and the soil as it is driven. This is true only if
driving an “end-bearing pile on rock” and it is considered necessary to eliminate the soil-pile friction component of pile
capacity from consideration of the load-bearing capacity of the pile.
If the pile is a “friction” pile, where all or most of the pile capacity is friction between the pile wall and the soil, then friction is
not a loss.
C - 4.5.1.1 Selection of Hammer Cushion Combination
Evaluating the rated energy of hammers must be done with care as no widely accepted standard is available. Manufacturers
generally publish rated energy as the maximum without considering efficiency. Energy losses and the resulting efficiency
should be evaluated in two ways: mechanical and system.
A mechanical efficiency accounts for the energy lost within the hammer and is the ratio of the energy delivered to the pile
cushion system to the initial theoretical energy produced. This is relatively easy in single acting external hammers where
combustion energy is available at impact. When based on the manufacturer’s rated energy, diesel hammers tend to show lower
mechanical efficiencies than external combustion hammers.
System efficiency is the ratio of the energy consumed in driving the pile to the initial theoretical energy produced. System
efficiency is always lower than mechanical efficiency as it includes, in addition to the internal energy losses in the hammer,
1
losses in the cushion systems and losses due to ground quake, friction, and soil displacement. In selecting a hammer, the
characteristics of the hammer-cushion-pile-soil system should be considered. The one-dimensional wave equation has the
capability to include the interaction of these properties.
C - 4.5.1.3 Splicing
3
Piles may be spliced in a variety of methods to fully develop the strength of the pile section. The following methods may be
used:
• Steel Piles - the method of splicing shall be shown on the plans or as approved by the Engineer. Piles may be spliced
by full penetration butt welds, by the addition of welded splice plates, by a combination of these methods or by other
means approved by the Engineer which fully maintains the strength of the pile section.
4
• Concrete Piles - concrete piles shall preferably not be spliced, unless specifically provided for by the plans, special
provisions or the Engineer. Short extensions may be added to tops of reinforced concrete piles after completion of
driving when the required capacity is not attained at the planned top of pile elevation. These extensions shall be
made by exposing the pile reinforcing steel a sufficient distance to provide a full strength lap splice with the
extension segment steel. Concrete for the extension shall be of the same quality and strength of the pile concrete and
shall be placed in forms of the same shape and dimensions as the driven pile. Prior to placement of the new concrete,
the top of the driven pile shall be cleaned and coated with neat cement or an approved bonding agent. Concrete
extension is valid only for standard, conventionally reinforced concrete piles and not for prestressed piles.
C - SECTION 4.6 INSPECTION OF PILE DRIVING1
Other useful documents to aid in inspection of the pile driving may be found in:
1
See Reference 108

• The Performance of Pile Driving Systems: Inspection Manual, FHWA RD-86-160.
• Inspectors Manual for Driven Pile Foundations,1997, and A Pile Inspector's Guide to Hammers, 1995, published
by
Deep Foundation Institute

326 Lafayette Avenue
Hawthorne, NJ 07506
http://www.dfi.org

8
Part 5
Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers
— 2002 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-2

5.1.1 Types of Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-2
5.1.2 Scour (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-3

5.2.1 Field Survey (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.2 Subsurface Exploration (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.3 Controlling Dimensions (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.4 Loads (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.5 Type of Backfill (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.6 Character of Foundation (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5 3
5.3 Computation of Applied Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5
5.3.1 Loads Exclusive of Earth Pressure (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5
5.3.2 Computation of Backfill Pressure (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-6
5.4 Stability Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7

5.4.1 Point of Intersection of Resultant Force and Base (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.4.2 Resistance Against Sliding (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.4.3 Soil Pressure (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.4.4 Settlement and Tilting (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.5 Design of Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8

5.5.1 Drainage (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.5.2 Compaction (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.6 Designing Bridges to Resist Scour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9

5.6.1 Design Philosophy and Concepts (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9
5.6.2 Design Considerations (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9
5.6.3 Design Procedure (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9
5.7 Details of Design and Construction for Abutments and Retaining Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.7.1 General (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.7.2 Cantilever Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11

5.7.3 Counterfort and Buttress Walls (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.8 Details of Design and Construction for Bridge Piers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12

5.8.1 Pier Spacing, Orientation and Type (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.2 Pier Shafts (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.3 Caissons (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.4 Bearings and Anchorage (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.5 Piers in Navigable Streams (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-13
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-13
LIST OF FIGURES
C-8-5-1 Cases 1, 2 and 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-15

C-8-5-2 Cases 4, 5 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-16
C-8-5-3 Cases 7, 8 and 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-17
C-8-5-4 Earth Pressure Computation – Walls with Heels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-20
C-8-5-5 Earth Pressure Computation – Walls without Heels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-21
C-8-5-6 Earth Pressure Charts for Walls Less than 20 Feet High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-25
LIST OF TABLES
8-5-1 Types of Backfill for Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5

8-5-2 Properties of Backfill Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-6
SECTION 5.1 DEFINITIONS
5.1.1 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS, ABUTMENTS AND PIERS (2002)
a. A retaining wall is a structure used to provide lateral support for a mass of soil which, in turn, may provide vertical
support for loads acting on or within the soil mass.
b. The principal types of retaining walls are as follows:
(1) The gravity wall, which is so proportioned that no reinforcement other than temperature steel is required.
(2) The semi-gravity wall, which is so proportioned that some steel reinforcement is required along the back and along
the lower side of the toe.
© 2013,

(3) The cantilever wall, which has a cross section resembling an L or an inverted T, and which requires extensive steel
reinforcement.
(4) The counterfort wall, which consists of a reinforced vertical face slab supported laterally at intervals by vertical
reinforced counterforts extending into the backfill and supported by a reinforced base slab which usually projects
in front of the face slab to form a toe.
(5) The buttress wall, which is similar to the counterfort wall except that the vertical members, called buttresses, are
exposed on the face of the wall rather than buried in the backfill.
(6) The crib wall, which consists of an earth-filled assembly of individual structural units, and which relies for its
stability on the weight and strength of the earth fill. The design of such walls is treated in Part 6, Crib Walls.
(7) Mechanically Stabilized Embankments (MSE) are covered by Part 7, Mechanically Stabilized Embankment of this
Chapter.
c. An abutment commonly consists of a retaining wall that incorporates a bridge seat in its face. It may also be of the
spill-through type in which the bridge seat rests on horizontal beams supported by piles or columns between which the
fill is permitted to extend. Preferably, abutments shall be of the gravity or semi-gravity type.
d. A pier is an intermediate support for the superstructure. The principal pier types are:
(1) Solid wall, reinforced for strength and temperature.
(2) Rigid frame, consisting of multiple columns with a cap reinforced to act as a frame.
1
(3) Bents, consisting of multiple piles extended to a cap.
(4) Hammerhead, consisting of a column supporting a cap which cantilevers beyond the column.
(5) Drilled shafts, consisting of poured concrete columns extending to a cap. 3

5.1.2 SCOUR (2002)1
Scour is the result of the erosive action of flowing water excavating and carrying away material from the bed and banks of
waterways. There are three types of scour all of which are likely to be present at a structure.
a. Aggradation and Degradation. These are long term streambed elevation changes due to natural or man induced causes 4
within the reach of the river over which the bridge is located. Aggradation involves the deposition of material eroded
from other sections of a stream reach, whereas degradation involves the lowering or scouring of the bed of a stream.
b. Contraction Scour.2 Contraction scour in a natural channel involves the removal of material from the bed and banks
across all or most of the channel width. This component of scour results from a contraction of the flow, such as a
change in downstream control of the water surface elevation. Increased velocities and a resulting increase in bed shear
stresses cause scour. Contraction of the flow by bridge approach embankments encroaching onto the floodplain and/or
into the main channel is the most common cause of contraction scour.
c. Local scour.3 Local scour involves removal of material from around piers, abutments, spurs, and embankments. It is
caused by an acceleration of flow and resulting vortices induced by flow obstructions.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

5.2.1 FIELD SURVEY (2002)
a. Sufficient information shall be furnished, in the form of a profile and cross-sections or a topographic map, to determine
the structural requirements. Present grades and alignments of tracks and roads shall be indicated, together with the
records of high water, low water, and depth of scour, the location of underground utilities, change in channel location
characteristics, site history from local sources, and information concerning the structures that may affect or be affected
by this construction.
b. For bridge construction at a new location, a complete survey is required as detailed in Part 3, Spread Footing
Foundations, Article 3.2.1.
5.2.2 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION (2002)
a. Sufficient borings shall be made along the length of the structure to determine, with a reasonable degree of certainty,
the subsurface conditions. Irregularities found during the initial soil boring program may dictate that additional
borings be taken.
b. The subsurface investigation shall be made in accordance with the provisions of Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface
Investigation.
5.2.3 CONTROLLING DIMENSIONS (1989)

Information shall be assembled concerning clearances, proposed grades of tracks and roads, and all other factors that may
influence the limiting dimensions of the proposed structure.
5.2.4 LOADS (2002)

Loads to be superimposed on piers, retaining walls, abutments, or on backfill, shall be determined and indicated on the plans.
See Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design and Chapter 9 for seismic loading.
5.2.5 TYPE OF BACKFILL (2002)1

a. Backfill is defined as all material behind the wall, whether undisturbed ground or fill, that contributes to the pressure
against the wall.
b. The backfill shall be investigated and classified with reference to the soil types described in
Table 8-5-1.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

Table 8-5-1. Types of Backfill for Retaining Walls
Backfill
Backfill Description
Type
1 Coarse-grained soil without admixture of fine soil particles, very free-draining (sand,
gravel or broken stone).
2 Coarse-grained soil of low permeability due to admixture of particles of silt size.
3 Fine silty sand; granular materials with conspicuous clay content; or residual soil with
stones.
4 Soft or very soft clay, organic silt; or soft silty clay.
5 Medium or stiff clay that may be placed in such a way that a negligible amount of water
will enter the spaces between the chunks during floods or heavy rains.
c. Types 4 and 5 backfill shall be used only with the permission of the Engineer. In all cases the wall design shall be
based on the type of backfill used.
5.2.6 CHARACTER OF FOUNDATION (2002)
The character of the foundation material shall be investigated as specified under Part 3, Spread Footing Foundations of
Article 3.2.4. Where pile supported foundations are required, the provisions of Article 4.3.1 of Part 4, Pile Foundations, shall
be followed for the necessary subsurface investigation.
SECTION 5.3 COMPUTATION OF APPLIED FORCES
5.3.1 LOADS EXCLUSIVE OF EARTH PRESSURE (2002)

3
a. In the analysis of piers, retaining walls and abutments, due account shall be taken of all superimposed loads carried
directly on them, such as building walls, columns, or bridge structures; and of all loads from surcharges caused by
railroad tracks, highways, building foundations, or other loads supported on the backfill. Piers must also be designed
for stream flow pressures as well as ice flow pressures and collision forces where applicable.
b. In calculating the surcharge due to track loading on an abutment and on wingwalls that are in line with the abutment
backwalls, the entire load shall be taken as distributed uniformly on the surface of the ballast immediately below the 4
tie, over a width equal to the length of the tie. With increased depth, the width for distribution can be increased on
slopes of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical, with surcharge loads from the adjacent tracks not being permitted to overlap.
c. To account for variability in backfilling and the dynamic effects of axle loads, abutment backwalls above bridge seats
shall be designed for earth pressures and live load surcharge increased by 100%. This does not apply to the portion of
the abutment below the bridge seat nor the stability of the abutment.
d. In calculating the surcharge due to track loading above a wall and parallel, or roughly parallel, to the wall, the entire
load shall be taken as distributed uniformly over a width equal to the length of the tie.
e. The stability of the abutment or wall as a whole unit, regardless of the distribution of the loads and surcharges, shall
always be checked and shall conform to the requirement of Section 5.4, Stability Computation.
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

f. Live load impact shall not be considered in the design of an abutment or pier unless the bridge bearings are supported
by a structural beam, such as the seat of a spill-through abutment or a pier cap supported by individual columns, piles,
or shafts. In such a case, the impact shall be applied to the beam only, and not to footings, or piles.
g. For the design of abutments and piers, consideration must be given to all forces transmitted from the superstructure to
the substructure, depending on the bearing fixity conditions.
5.3.2 COMPUTATION OF BACKFILL PRESSURE (2002)1
a. Values of the unit weight, cohesion, and angle of internal friction of the backfill material shall be determined directly
by means of soil tests or, if the expense of such tests is not justifiable, by means of Table 8-5-2 referring to the soil
types defined in Table 8-5-1. Unless the minimum cohesive strength of the backfill material can be evaluated reliably,
the cohesion shall be neglected and only the internal friction considered. See Part 20, Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads,
Table 8-20-3.
Table 8-5-2. Properties of Backfill Materials
Type of Unit Weight Cohesion Angle of Internal

Backfill Lb. Per Cu. Ft. “c” Friction
1 105 0 33° 42′ (38° for broken stone)
2 110 0 30°
3 125 0 28°
4 100 0 0°
5 120 240 0°
b. The magnitude, direction and point of application of the backfill pressure shall be computed on the basis of appropriate
values of the unit weight, cohesion and internal friction.
c. When the backfill is assumed to be cohesionless and when 1) the surcharge load, if any, on the backfill can be
converted into an equivalent uniform load or when 2) the surcharge can be converted into an equivalent uniform earth
surcharge, Rankine’s or Coulomb’s formulas may be used under the conditions to which each applies. Formulas and
charts given in the Commentary and the trial wedge methods given in the Commentary are both applicable.
d. When the backfill cannot be considered cohesionless, when the surcharge on the backfill is irregular, or when the
surcharge cannot be converted to an equivalent uniform earth surcharge, the trial wedge methods illustrated in the
Commentary are preferable.
e. If the wall or abutment is not more than 20 ft. high and if the backfill has been classified according to Table 8-5-1, the
charts given in the Commentary may be used.
f. If the surcharge is of a lesser width than the height of the wall, a more satisfactory design can be obtained by the use of
trial wedge methods given in the Commentary.
g. If the wall or abutment is prevented from deflecting freely at its crest, as in a rigid frame bridge, some types of U-
shaped abutments, or in laterally braced or anchored walls, the computed backfill pressure shall be increased 25%.
h. In spill-through abutments, the increase of pressure against the columns due to the shearing strength of the backfill
shall not be overlooked. If the space between columns is not greater than twice the width across the back of the
columns, no reduction in backfill pressure shall be made on account of the openings. No more than the active earth
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

pressure shall be considered as the resistance offered by the fill in front of the abutment. In computing the active earth
pressure of this fill, the negative or descending slope of the surface shall be taken into consideration.
i. The backfilled areas behind a wall or abutment shall be designed to dissipate water pressures by the use of free-
draining backfill material in conjunction with drains. It is preferable that the free-draining backfill material be used
within a wedge behind the wall, bounded by a plane rising at 60 degrees to the horizontal.
j. If local conditions do not permit the construction of drains and, consequently, water may accumulate behind the wall,
the resulting additional pressure shall be taken into account. Consideration should also be given to the eventual
plugging of the drains due to infiltration of soil.
SECTION 5.4 STABILITY COMPUTATION
5.4.1 POINT OF INTERSECTION OF RESULTANT FORCE AND BASE (2002)
The resultant force on the base of a wall or abutment shall fall within the middle third of the structure if founded on soil, and
within the middle half if founded on rock or piles. The resultant force on any horizontal section above the base of a solid
gravity wall should intersect this section within its middle half. If these requirements are satisfied, safety against overturning
need not be investigated.
5.4.2 RESISTANCE AGAINST SLIDING (2002) 1

a. The factor of safety against sliding at the base of the structure is defined as the sum of the forces at or above base level
available to resist horizontal movement of the structure divided by the sum of the forces at or above the same level
tending to produce horizontal movement. The numerical value of this factor of safety shall be at least 1.5. If the factor
of safety is inadequate, it shall be increased by increasing the width of the base, by the use of a key, or by the use of
batter piles.
3
b. In computing the resistance against sliding, the passive earth pressure of the soil in contact with the face of the wall
shall be neglected. The frictional resistance between the wall and a non-cohesive subsoil may be taken as the normal
force on the base times the coefficient of friction f of mass concrete on soil. For coarse-grained soil without silt, f may
be taken as 0.55; for coarse-grained soil with silt, 0.45; for silt, 0.35.
c. If the wall rests upon clay, the resistance against sliding shall be based upon the cohesion of the clay, which may be 4
taken as one-half the unconfined compressive strength. If the clay is very stiff or hard the surface of the ground shall be
roughened before the concrete is placed.
d. If the wall rests upon rock, consideration shall be given to such features of the rock structure as may constitute surfaces
of weakness. For concrete on clean sound rock the coefficient of friction may be taken as 0.60.
e. The factor of safety against sliding on other horizontal surfaces below the base shall be investigated and shall not be
less than 1.5.
5.4.3 SOIL PRESSURE (1989)
The allowable soil pressure beneath the footing shall be determined in accordance with Part 3, Spread Footing Foundations.
©
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

5.4.4 SETTLEMENT AND TILTING (2002)1
a. The soil pressure determined in accordance with Article 5.4.3 provide for adequate safety against failure of the soil
beneath the structure. If the subsoil consists of soft clay or silt, or if a layer of such material lies beneath the subsoil and
is within the pressure zone of influence generated by the base pressure, it is necessary to determine the compressibility
of the soil and to estimate the amount of settlement.
b. If the compressibility of the subsoil would lead to excessive settlement or tilting, the movement can be reduced by
designing the wall so that the resultant of the forces acting at the base of the wall intersects the base near its midpoint.
Otherwise, pile foundations shall be considered.
SECTION 5.5 DESIGN OF BACKFILL
5.5.1 DRAINAGE (2002)
a. The material immediately adjacent to the wall should be noncohesive and free draining. Cinders shall not be used. If a
special back drain is installed, the pore size within the drain shall be coarse enough to permit free flow of water, but not
so coarse that the fill material may ultimately move into it and clog it. Water from the free-draining materials shall be
removed, preferably by horizontal drain pipes or by weep holes. Horizontal drain pipes, if used, shall be installed in
such a position that they will function properly. Such drains shall be accessible for cleaning. Weep holes are considered
less satisfactory than horizontal drains. If used, they shall have diameters not less than 6 inches and shall be spaced not
over
10 feet.
b. Geocomposite and/or geotextile materials in conjunction with free draining backfill may be used as approved by the
Engineer.
5.5.2 COMPACTION (2002)
a. The backfill shall preferably be placed in loose layers not to exceed 12 inches in thickness. Each layer shall be
compacted before placing the next, but overcompaction shall be avoided.2
b. It is recommended that backfill be compacted to no less than 95% of maximum dry density per ASTM D698 and at a
moisture content within 2% of optimum.
c. No dumping of backfill material shall be permitted in such a way that the successive layers slope downward toward the
wall. The layers shall be horizontal or shall slope downward away from the wall.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
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SECTION 5.6 DESIGNING BRIDGES TO RESIST SCOUR
5.6.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS (2002)1
Bridges shall be designed through careful evaluation of the hydraulic, structural, and geotechnical aspects of the bridge
foundation to withstand the effects of scour from the design flood.
5.6.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2002)
5.6.2.1 General
a. Scour types are additive. The design shall provide for the total of all scour types at a location. Local scour holes at
piers and abutments may overlap one another. If scour holes do overlap, the local scour shall be the total depth from
both.2
b. For pile and drilled shaft designs subject to scour, consideration shall be given to using a lesser number of longer piles
or shafts as compared with a greater number of shorter piles or shafts to develop bearing loads. This approach will
provide a greater factor of safety against pile failure due to scour.
5.6.2.2 Piers
a. Pier foundations not in the exisiting channel shall be designed in the same manner as the pier foundations in the stream
channel if there is likelihood that the channel will shift its location to include such piers.
1
b. Consideration shall be given to changes in the flow direction during floods when determining shape and orientation of
piers.3
c. The effects of ice and debris build-up shall be evaluated when considering use of piers in stream channels. Use ice and
debris deflectors where appropriate.4
5.6.2.3 Abutments
3
a. Relief openings, spur dikes, and river channelization should be used where needed to minimize the effects of adverse
flow conditions at abutments.
b. Utilize riprap or other protection devices where needed to protect abutments.

4
c. Where ice build-up is likely to be a problem, set the toe of spill-through slopes or vertical abutment walls some
distance from the edge of the channel bank to facilitate passage of the ice.
5.6.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE (2002)5
The design procedure for scour outlined in the following steps is recommended for bridge substructure units:
(1) Select the design flood event(s). Also check the overtopping flood (if less than the design flood) and other flood
events if there is evidence that such events would create deeper scour than the design flood or overtopping floods.6
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3
See Commentary
4
See Commentary
5
See Commentary
6
See Commentary
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(2) Develop water surface profiles for the flood flows in Step 1, taking care to evaluate the range of potential tailwater
conditions below the bridge which could occur during these floods.
(3) Estimate total scour for the worst condition from Steps 1 and 2 above.
(4) Plot the total scour depths obtained in Step 3 on a cross section of the stream channel and flood plain at the bridge
site.
(5) Evaluate the scour depths obtained in Steps 3 and 4 for reasonableness.1
(6) Evaluate the bridge on the basis of the scour analysis performed in Steps 3-5. Modify the design as necessary.2
(7) Analyze the bridge foundation on the basis that all stream bed material in the scour prism above the total scour line
(Step 4) has been removed and is not available for bearing or lateral support. In the case of a pile foundation, the
piling shall be designed for reduced lateral restraint and column action because of the increase in unsupported pile
length after scour. In areas where the local scour is confined to the proximity of the footing, the lateral ground
stresses on the pile length that remains embedded may not be significantly reduced from the pre-local scour
conditions. The depth of local scour and volume of soil removed from above the pile group shall be considered
when computing pile embedment to sustain vertical load.
(a) Spread Footings on Soil.
Place the top of the footing below the design scour line.
The bottom of the footing shall be at least 6.0 feet below the streambed.
(b) Spread Footings on Rock Highly Resistant to Scour.3
The bottom of the footing shall be placed directly on the cleaned rock surface for massive rock formations (such as
granite) that are highly resistant to scour.
(c) Spread Footings on Erodible Rock.
Carefully assess weathered or other potentially erodible rock formations for scour prior to determining footing
elevation.
(d) Spread Footings Placed on Tremie Seals and Supported on Soil.
The tremie base shall be placed at least three feet below the scour line if the tremie is structurally capable of
sustaining the imposed structural load without lateral soil support.
(e) Deep Foundations (Piling or Drilled Shafts) with Footings.4
Preferably place the top of the footing or pile cap below the streambed a depth equal to the estimated contraction
scour depth to minimize obstruction to flood flows and resulting local scour.
(8) For certain locations and conditions it may be necessary to calculate the scour for a superflood. See the
Commentary for further discussion of superfloods.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See
Commentary
4 See
Commentary
© 2013,

SECTION 5.7 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR ABUTMENTS AND

RETAINING WALLS
5.7.1 GENERAL (2002)
a. The principles of design and permissible unit stresses for walls and abutments shall conform to Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design, with the modifications or additions in the following Articles:
b. The width of the stem of a semi-gravity wall, at the level of the top of the footing shall be at least one-fourth of its
height.
c. The base of a retaining wall, or abutment supported on soil shall be located below frost line, and in no case at a depth
less than 3 ft. below the surface of the ground in front of the toe. The base shall be located below the anticipated
maximum depth of scour. Where this is not practicable the base shall be supported by piles or other suitable means.
d. To reduce temperature and shrinkage cracks in exposed surfaces, reinforcement shall be provided as specified in Part 2
of this Chapter, irrespective of the type of structure.
e. The backs of retaining walls and abutments shall be damp-proofed by an approved material. Particular attention shall
be given to protection of the joint where the bottom of stem meets the top of heel.
f. At horizontal joints between the bases and stems of piers and retaining walls, raised keys should be used. In lieu of
raised shear keys, shear friction may be used.
1
g. Vertical keyed expansion joints shall be placed not over 60 ft. apart to take care of temperature changes. They shall be
protected by membrane waterproofing or noncorrosive water stops.
h. The walls above the footings shall be cast as units between expansion joints, unless construction joints are formed in
accordance with the provisions of these specifications.
3
5.7.2 CANTILEVER WALLS (2002)
a. The unsupported toe and heel of the base slab shall each be considered as a cantilever beam fixed at the edge of the
support.
b. The vertical section shall be considered as a cantilever beam fixed at the top of the base.
4
5.7.3 COUNTERFORT AND BUTTRESS WALLS (2002)
a. The face walls of counterfort and buttress walls and parts of base slabs supported by the counterforts or buttresses shall
be designed in accordance with the requirements of a continuous slab, Part 2 of this Chapter. Due allowance shall be
made for the effect of the toe moment on shears and bending moments in the heel slabs of counterfort walls.
b. Counterforts may be designed in accordance with the requirements of T-beams. As T-beams, reinforcement or stirrups
shall be provided to anchor the face slabs and the heel slabs to the counterforts. Reinforcement shall be proportioned to
carry the end shears of the slabs. Stirrups shall be anchored as near to the outside face of the face walls and as near to
the bottom of the base slab as the requirements for the protective covering permit. It is desirable to run reinforcing bars
through the loops of U-shaped stirrups.
c. Buttresses shall be designed in accordance with the requirements for rectangular beams.
©
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 5.8 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR BRIDGE PIERS
5.8.1 PIER SPACING, ORIENTATION AND TYPE (2002)
5.8.1.1 Grade Separation Structures
a. Piers shall be located to provide the required horizontal and vertical clearances for traffic (highway, railway or other),
to accommodate underground utilities and structures, and to permit the maintenance of surface drainage and other
surface facilities.1
b. Piers supporting bridges over railways and located less than 25 feet clear from centerline of the near railroad track shall
be provided with pier protection conforming with the requirements of Part 2, this Chapter.
5.8.1.2 Structures over Waterways
a. Where possible, the bridge pier axis should be parallel to the direction of the flow. When this is not feasible, special
consideration must be given to additional loads placed on the substructure by the non-parallel flow. Consideration
shall also be given to scour effects.
b. Where piers are exposed to heavy flows, or ice and debris collisions, consideration should be given to longer span
lengths, the use of nose guards, starlings, or other systems to protect against damage to the structures.
5.8.2 PIER SHAFTS (2002)
a. Design of concrete piers shall be in accordanc with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design. Piers consisting of piles or
drilled shafts shall be in accordance with Part 4, Pile Foundations and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations of this
Chapter.
b. The bridge seat/pier cap shall be of sufficient size to keep bearing stresses within allowances and provide adequate
edge distances.2
c. The depths of a pier footing shall not be less than the depth of frost penetration in that part of the country (see Part 3,
Spread Footing Foundations of this Chapter) and not less than 3 feet below grade unless founded on solid, nonerodible
rock.
5.8.3 CAISSONS (2002)
Caisson design shall meet all of the design requirements for transferring the loads from the substructure element being
supported to the soil without exceeding allowable stresses and soil pressures. In addition, caissons shall be designed for (1)
stresses during sinking, including, but not limited to, lateral soil pressures and unequal hydrostatic pressure; (2) adequate
weight or other means of overcoming skin friction of the soil; and (3) means of support during the tremie sealing operation.
5.8.4 BEARINGS AND ANCHORAGE (2002)
The design of bearings and anchorage for steel spans shall be in accordance with Chapter 15 and Part 2, Reinforced Concrete
Design. Any uplift forces caused by buoyancy or the use of continuous spans shall be considered in the design of a pier and its
components with particular emphasis on anchorage of the superstructure. Anchorage that is subject to uplift forces shall be
designed to develop a minimum of one and one-half times the calculated force.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

5.8.5 PIERS IN NAVIGABLE STREAMS (2002)1
a. Consideration shall be given to collision damage. Piers shall be of sufficient size and mass to withstand a reasonable
anticipated collision or be protected in accordance with Part 23, Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable
Streams.
b. Unprotected piers shall be solid structures capable of resisting collision impacts in all directions including torsion.
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 5, Retaining Walls, Abutments and
Piers. In the numbering of articles in this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained.
C - SECTION 5.1 DEFINITIONS
C - 5.1.2 SCOUR (2002)
Different materials scour at different rates. Loose granular soils are rapidly eroded by flowing water, while cohesive or
cemented soils are more scour resistant. However, ultimate scour in cohesive or cemented soils can be as deep as scour in
sandbed streams. Scour will reach its maximum depth in sand and gravel bed material in hours; cohesive bed material in days;
glacial tills, sandstones and shales in months; limestones in years and dense granites in centuries. Massive rock formations
with few discontinuities are highly resistant to scour during the lifetime of a typical bridge. Scour holes may not be visible
during low water stages.
1
b. Contraction scour occurs when the flow area of a stream at flood stage is decreased from the normal, either by a natural
constriction or by a bridge. With the decrease in flow area there is an increase in average velocity and bed shear stress.
Hence, there is an increase in stream power at the contraction and more bed material is transported from the contracted
reach than is transported into the reach. This increase in the transport of bed material lowers the bed elevation.
3
Contraction scour is typically cyclic. That is, the bed scours during the rising stage of a runoff event, and fills on the falling
stage.
Other factors that can cause contraction scour are: (1) a natural stream constriction, (2) long embankment approaches over the
flood plain to the bridge, (3) ice formation or jams, (4) a natural berm forming along the banks due to sediment deposits, (5)
island or bar formations upstream or downstream of the bridge opening, (6) debris, and (7) the growth of vegetation in the
channel or flood plain. 4
In a natural channel, the depth of flow is always greater on the outside of a bend. In fact, there may well be deposition on the
inner portion of the bend. If a bridge is located on or close to a bend, the contraction scour will be concentrated on the outer
part of the bend.
C - 5.1.2 (c) Local Scour
Local scour is caused by the formation of vortices at the base of an abutment or pier. The formation of these vortices results
from the pileup of water on the upstream face and the acceleration of the flow around the pier or abutment. The action of the
vortex removes bed material from the area around the base of the pier. As the depth of the resulting scour hole increases, the
strength of the vortex decreases and equilibrium is eventually reached.
Factors affecting local scour are:
1
See Commentary
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

a. Pier width has a direct influence on depth of local scour. As width of the pier perpendicular to the flow increases, there
is an increase in scour depth.
b. Projected length of an abutment into the stream affects the depth of local scour. An increase in the projected length of
an abutment into the flow increases scour. However, there is a limit on the increase in scour depth with an increase in
length. This limit is reached when the ratio of projected length into the flow to the depth of the approach flow is 25.
c. Pier length has no appreciable effect on local scour depth as long as the pier is aligned with the flow. When the pier is
skewed to the flow, the length has a significant effect; i.e., with the same angle of attack, doubling the length of the pier
increases scour depth 33 percent.
d. Flow depth has an effect on the depth of local scour. An increase in flow depth can increase scour depth by a factor of
2 or greater for piers. With abutments the increase is from 1.1 to 2.15 depending on the shape of the abutment.
e. The approach flow velocity affects scour depth-the greater the velocity, the deeper the scour.
f. Bed material characteristics such as grain size, gradation, and cohesion can affect local scour. Variation in bed material
within the sand size range has no effect on local scour depth. Larger size bed material that can be moved by the flow or
by the vortices and turbulence created by the pier or abutment will not affect the maximum scour depth but only the
time it takes to attain it. Very large particles in the bed material, such as cobbles or boulders, may armor the scour hole.
Fine bed material (silts and clays) will have scour depths as deep as sand bed streams. This is true even if bonded
together by cohesion. The effect of cohesion is to influence the time it takes to reach the maximum scour. With sand
bed material, the maximum depth of scour is reached in hours and can result from a single flood event. With cohesive
bed materials it may take days, months, or even years to reach the maximum scour depth, the result of many flood
events.
g. The angle of attack of the flow to the pier or abutment has a significant effect on local scour, as was pointed out in the
discussion of pier length. Abutment scour is reduced when embankments are angled downstream and increased when
embankments are angled upstream.
h. Shape of the nose of a pier or an abutment has a significant effect on scour. Streamlining the front end of a pier reduces
the strength of the horseshoe vortex, thereby reducing scour depth. Streamlining the downstream end of piers reduces
the strength of the wake vortices. A square-nose pier will have maximum scour depths about 20 percent greater than a
sharp-nose pier and 10 percent greater than either a cylindrical or round nose pier.
i. Full retaining abutments with vertical walls on the streamside (parallel to the flow) will produce scour depths about
double that of spill-through abutments.
j. Ice and debris accumulations potentially increase the effective width of the piers, change the shape of piers and
abutments, increase the projected length of an abutment, and cause the flow to plunge downward against the bed. This
can increase both the local and contraction scour. The magnitude of the increase is still largely undetermined. Debris
can be taken into account in the scour equations by estimating how much debris will increase the width of the pier or
length of an abutment. Debris and ice effects on contraction scour can also be accounted for by estimating the amount
of flow blockage (decrease in width of the bridge opening) in the equations for contraction scour.
C - SECTION 5.2 INFORMATION REQUIRED
C - 5.2.5 TYPE OF BACKFILL (2002)
Type 1 backfill shall be used where feasible. Types 2 and 3, in declining order of preference, may be used due to economic or
other considerations.
© 2013,

C - SECTION 5.3 COMPUTATION OF APPLIED FORCES
C - 5.3.2 COMPUTATION OF BACKFILL PRESSURE (2002)
I. EARTH PRESSURE FORMULAS FROM RANKINE-COULOMB THEORIES
a. The following formulas are applicable only to materials that may be considered cohesionless.
(1) Cases 1 to 3 are for vertical walls without heels. The pressure P is the same as the pressure on a vertical plane in
the backfill (Figure C-8-5-1). Vertical walls with heels come under Cases 4 to 6.
Figure C-8-5-1. Cases 1, 2 and 3
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

(2) Cases 4 to 6 are for walls with heels (Figure C-8-5-2). The wall may be vertical or may lean forward, or may lean
backward as long as the upper edge of the back of the wall is in front of the vertical plane through the edge of the
heel.
© 2013,

(3) Cases 7 to 9 are for walls without heels, leaning backward (Figure C-8-5-3). Walls with heels come under Cases 4
to 6 as long as the upper edge of the back of the wall is in front of the vertical plane through the edge of the heel; if
the upper edge of the back of the wall extends back to the vertical plane through the edge of the heel, the problem
can be solved by combining the solutions of Cases 4 to 6 and 7 to 9.
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

b. For walls leaning forward or walls with the heel extending into the backfill, the pressure of the backfill on a vertical
plane through the back of the heel of the wall is to be combined with the weight of backfill contained between this
vertical plane and the back of the wall.
c. For walls leaning toward the backfill the resultant pressure P will be horizontal for a wall without surcharge, or for a
wall with uniform surcharge, if the surface of the backfill is horizontal; and will make an angle λ with the horizontal
for a wall with a sloping surcharge. The values of λ will vary from δ, where the wall is vertical, to zero, where
Rankine’s theory shows that the resultant pressure is horizontal. Values of λ and values of K, where P = 1/2 wh2K, are
given in Figure C-8-5-3.
II. TRIAL WEDGE METHOD OF EARTH PRESSURE COMPUTATION
A. Scope
The trial wedge method is applicable for backfills of soils possessing cohesion, internal friction, or both; for backfills having
any configuration of ground surface; and for surcharges located at any position on the backfill. The procedure, illustrated in
Figure C-8-5-4 and Figure C-8-5-5, is outlined in the following Articles.
B. Computation of Total Pressure
(1) Make scale drawing of the wall with backfill and any surcharge loads.
(2) Locate surface AB against which earth pressure is to be computed. For walls with heels use vertical section as
shown in Figure C-8-5-4. For walls without heels use back of wall as shown in Figure C-8-5-5.
(3) Establish direction of earth pressure with respect to line AB, by the procedure described below under “Direction of
Pressure P”.
(4) Compute depth ho of tension cracks if soil has cohesion.
(5) Draw boundaries of trial wedges BC1, BD2, etc., wherein BC, BD, etc., are assumed plane surfaces of sliding.
(6) Compute weights of successive wedges ABC 1, ABD 2, etc., including any surcharge acting on the ground surface
within the limits of each wedge.
(7) Lay off weight vectors for successive wedges.
(8) Compute total cohesion on each surface of sliding BC, BD, etc.
(9) Lay off cohesion vectors from lower ends of weight vectors, each parallel to the surface of sliding on which it acts.
(10) From end of each cohesion vector draw line parallel to earth pressure P.
(11) From point B in force diagram lay off of radial lines BC, BD, etc., each making an angle φ with the normal to its
respective surface of sliding (as force R on surface BF).
(12) Locate intersections of vectors R with corresponding lines drawn in paragraph 10 and connect intersections with
smooth curve. This is the earth pressure locus.
(13) Determine maximum distance between the TT′ and the earth pressure locus, measured parallel to line of action of
P. This distance represents the active earth pressure P.
© 2013,

C. Direction of Pressure P
(1) For walls with heels, the following procedure is applicable:
– Determine height h of wall, measured from point a.
– Locate point b on the surface of the backfill at the distance 2h measured horizontally from a.
– Draw line ab.
– Take direction of resultant earth pressure P as parallel to line ab.
(2) For walls without heels, where AB is the back of wall, take angle φ equal to 2/3 φ.
D. Point of Application Process
(1) The point of application of the resultant pressure P can be obtained by determining the approximate pressure-
distribution diagram (Figure C-8-5-4). The procedure is as follows:
– Subdivide the line BB′ into about 4 equal parts h1 below the depth h0 of tension cracking.
– Compute the active earth pressures, P1, P2, P3, etc., as if each of the points C′, D′, E′, etc., were at the base of the
wall. The trial wedge method is used for each computation.
– Determine the average pressures P1, P2, etc., over each distance B′C′, C′D′, etc., as indicated in Figure C-8-5-4.
1
– Determine the elevation of the centroid of this approximate pressure diagram. This is the approximate elevation
of the point of application of the resultant earth pressure P.
(2) If the backfill may be considered cohesionless, the point of application of pressure may be obtained as follows:
3
– Determine the center of gravity of the earth and ballast in the wedge between the plane of rupture and the vertical
plane passing through the heel of the wall (Figure C-8-5-4) or the back of the wall (Figure C-8-5-5).
– Assume the center of gravity of the surcharge loads to be located at the surface of the backfill.
– Determine the center of gravity of the combined loads and draw a line from this point parallel to the plane of
rupture to a point of intersection with the vertical plane through the heel of the wall (Figure C-8-5-4) or the back 4
of the wall (Figure C-8-5-5).
©
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure C-8-5-4. Earth Pressure Computation – Walls with Heels
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Figure C-8-5-5. Earth Pressure Computation – Walls without Heels
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - SECTION 5.4 STABILITY COMPUTATION
C - 5.4.4 SETTLEMENT AND TILTING (2002)
If the pressure on a subsoil containing fairly thick layers of soft clay or peat is increased by the weight of the backfill, the wall
may tilt backward because of the compression of the clay or peat. The tilt may be estimated on the basis of a knowledge of the
compressibility of the subsoil. If the tilt is likely to be excessive, it is advisable to use backfill of lightweight material, to
replace the backfill by a structure, or otherwise to change the type of construction so as to avoid overloading the subsoil.
Progressive Creep or Movement
If the weight of the backfill is greater than one-half the ultimate bearing capacity of a clay subsoil, progressive movement of
the wall or abutment is likely to occur, irrespective of the use of a key or batter piles. In such case, it is advisable to use
backfill of lightweight material, to replace the backfill by a structure, or otherwise to change the construction so as to avoid
overloading the subsoil.
C - SECTION 5.5 DESIGN OF BACKFILL
C - 5.5.2 COMPACTION (2002)
a. For backfill type 4 and 5 a minimum number of passes is required if the moisture content is near optimum (OCM).
When the water content of clayey soil is too high, lamination sometimes occurs as the number of passes increases.
This phenomenon is harmful, so it is advisable to break up layers where this has happened.
C - SECTION 5.6 DESIGNING BRIDGES TO RESIST SCOUR
C - 5.6.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS (2002)
The principles of economic analysis and experience with actual flood damage indicate that it is almost always cost-effective to
provide a foundation that will not fail, even from a very large flood event.
C - 5.6.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2002)
C - 5.6.2.1 General
a. The top width of a local scour hole is about 2.75 times the depth of scour.
C - 5.6.2.2 Piers
b. Assess the hydraulic advantages of various pier shapes where there are complex flow patterns during flood events.
c. Streamline pier shapes to decrease scour and minimize potential for build-up of ice and debris. Where ice and debris
build-up is an obvious problem, design mulitiple pile bents as though they were a solid pier for purposes of estimating
scour. Consider various pier types and span arrangements to minimize scour effects.
C - 5.6.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE (2002)
Design measures incorporated in the original construction are almost always less costly than retrofitting scour
countermeasures.
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The method used to calculate the support for a spread footing foundation on weathered or potentially erodable rock should be
based on an analysis of intact rock cores including rock quality designations and local geology, as well as hydraulic data and
anticipated structure life. An important consideration may be the existence of a high quality rock formation below a thin
weathered zone. For deep deposits of weathered rock, the potential scour depth should be estimated and the footing base
placed below that depth. Excavation into weathered rock should be made with care. If blasting is required, light, closely
spaced charges should be used to minimize overbreak beneath the footing level. Loose rock pieces should be removed and the
zone filled with lean concrete. In any event, the final footing should be poured in contact with the sides of the excavation for
the full design footing thickness to minimize water intrusion below footing level. The excavation above the top of the spread
footing should be filled with riprap sized to withstand flood flow velocities.
(1) The FHWA microcomputer software WSPRO, “Bridge Waterways Analysis Model” (21), the Corps of Engineers
HEC 2, and other current software programs are available for this task.
(5) Consider the limitations in the accuracy of the model and of the scour estimating procedures.
(6) Visualize the overall flood flow pattern at the bridge site for the design conditions. Use this mental picture to
identify those bridge elements most vulnerable to flood flows and resulting scour.
Consider any other factors that may affect scour such as prop wash, etc.
The extent of protection to be provided should be determined by:
– The degree of uncertainty in the scour prediction method.
– The potential for and consequences of failure.

1
– The added cost of making the bridge less vulnerable to scour.
(7b) Spread Footings on Rock Highly Resistant to Scour.
Small embedments (keying) should be avoided since blasting to achieve keying frequently damages the sub- 3
footing rock structure and makes it more susceptible to scour. If footings on smooth massive rock surfaces require
lateral constraint, steel dowels should be drilled and grouted into the rock below the footing level.
(7e) Deep Foundations (Piling or Drilled Shafts) with Footings.
Even lower footing elevations may be desirable for pile supported footings when the piles could be damaged by
erosion from exposure to river currents and corrosion from the elements. 4
C - SECTION 5.8 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR BRIDGE PIERS
C - 5.8.1 PIER SPACING, ORIENTATION AND TYPE (2002)
C - 5.8.1.1 Grade Separation Structures
a. “Highway Clearances for Bridges” and “Highway Clearances for Underpasses” of the Specifications of the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, and local and state clearance requirements are referred to
for appropriate highway clearance requirements.
C - 5.8.2 PIER SHAFTS (2002)
b. Consideration shall be given to providing a large enough seat to allow for jacking and blocking of the proposed
superstructure.
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - 5.8.5 PIERS IN NAVIGABLE STREAMS (2002)
The more massive the bridge pier, the less damage it will suffer in a collision.
The compressive and ultimate bending capacity of concrete piles can be significantly increased by increasing the confining
reinforcement. Battered exterior piles will improve the stability of the substructure as long as there is no seismic activity.
Vertical bar splices in pier shafts are subject to bond failure during impact. For this reason, increased development lengths or
mechnical splices are recommended. Splices should be staggered as far above the pier base as practical.
Laps should be tied at both ends to prevent initiating compression failure due to high bearing under the ends of bars.
Increasing the vertical steel reinforcement in pier shafts at the junction with the base and the cap can significantly increase
ductility as well as ultimate moment capacity, especially if combined with increased lateral reinforcement.
The use of redudant structural systems may allow for local failures without structure collapse.
Tension ties should be considered between the pile and the pier footing. Consideration should be given to designing the pier
footing block to develop the ultimate capacity of the piles without punching shear failure.
The following methods should be considered to increase the capacity of pier shafts to withstand collisions:
(1) Splice vertical bars at different elevations and double the development length for overlap or use mechanical
splices, certified to develop full strength of the bars under impact load.
(2) Tie bar laps at both ends.
(3) Provide confining spirals or ties, in an amount similar to that required for seismic design for columns. Hooks of
ties should be turned in and anchored in compressive zones.
(4) Increase the vertical steel reinforcement near the junction with the base and the cap.
(5) Design multiple shaft piers so that with the rupture of one shaft, the cap is so connected to the remaining shafts
that it can carry the dead load of the span as a cantilever without collapse.
(6) Provide shear walls between two or more shafts.
(7) Utilize keys and dowels for piers founded on firm foundation soil or rock.
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3
The charts may be used for estimating the backfill pressure if the backfill material has been classified in accordance with Table 8-5-1.
NOTE: Numerals on Curves indicate soil types as described inTable 8-5-1.
For materials of Type 5 computations should be based on value of H four feet less than actual value.
4
Figure C-8-5-6. Earth Pressure Charts for Walls Less than 20 Feet High
(Sheet 1 of 2)
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure C-8-5-6. Earth Pressure Charts for Walls Less than 20 Feet High
(Sheet 2 of 2)
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8
Part 6
Crib Walls1
— 1997 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2

6.1.1 Scope (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2
6.1.2 Definitions (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2
6.2 Design of Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2

6.2.1 General (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2 1
6.3 Requirements for Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-3

6.3.1 General (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-3
6.3.2 Manufacture (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-3
6.3.3 Installation (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-4
3
6.4 Requirements for Metal Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-5
6.4.1 General (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-5
6.4.2 Manufacture (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-5
6.4.3 Installation (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-5
6.5 Requirements for Timber Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-6

6.5.1 General (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-6
6.5.2 Materials (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-6
6.5.3 Installation (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-6
LIST OF FIGURES
8-6-1 Typical Sections through Walls of Timber Cribbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-7

8-6-2 Walls of Open-Face Timber Cribbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-7
8-6-3 Walls of Closed-Face Timber Cribbing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-7
1
References, Vol. 49, 1948, p. 244; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 290, 757; Vol. 62, 1961, p. 438, 861; Vol. 70, 1969, p. 223; Vol. 71, 1970, p. 231; Vol. 88, 1987, p 62.

SECTION 6.1 GENERAL
6.1.1 SCOPE (1997)
This part of the Manual covers the design, manufacture and installation of crib walls as defined hereinafter.
6.1.2.1 Crib Wall
a. A “Crib Wall” is an earth-retaining structure, made up of rigid members that are fabricated in the shape of open
squares, open rectangles or other open shapes, or are assembled in the shape of square or rectangular cells, or cells of
other shapes. The cells are filled with granular material. The structure of cells and granular infill all act together as a
gravity structure, obtaining its safety and stability from the proper proportioning of its shape and weight.
b. Crib wall members can be of concrete, metal, or timber. They can form cells with solid-surfaced walls (known as
“closed face” walls) or with slotted openings (known as “open face” walls). The members should interlock with each
other, or otherwise be connected in such a way as to resist the pressures of the granular fill and the retained earth
material. Crib walls can be a traditional cribbing as described in Article 6.1.2.2, or of other units that behave in
accordance with this definition.
6.1.2.2 Cribbing
“Cribbing” defines a traditional assembly of headers and stretchers, used to form the most common kind of crib wall.
SECTION 6.2 DESIGN OF CRIB WALLS
6.2.1 GENERAL (1997)
a. Crib walls shall be assumed to act as a unit and shall be designed to resist the overturning and sliding forces specified
in Part 5, Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers.
b. The wall section resisting overturning shall be taken as a rectangle having a height equal to the total height of the crib
structure and a depth, normal to the front surface, equal to the distance between the front and rear outside faces of the
crib structure.
c. The unit weight of the crib wall section within the above limits, including the weight of the crib members, may be
assumed to be equal to that of the compacted filling material.
d. In general, crib walls shall have a batter of 2:12 on the face, except that low walls, 1.8 meters (6 ft) high and under,
may be made with a plumb face. For walls over 3.6 meters (12 ft) high, supplemental crib units may be added to
provide stability in order to meet design requirements. Crib walls shall generally not exceed 7.2 meters (24 ft) in
height. Higher walls shall receive special engineering considerations.
e. The wall shall be so located that no track tie will bear directly on any crib member.
f. Crib wall foundations shall be designed not to exceed safe soil pressures specified in Part 3, Spread Footing
Foundations, Section 3.4, Sizing of Footings. The possibility of a deep shear failure of the embankment shall be
considered similar to the failure illustrated in Part 20, Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads.
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Crib Walls
g. All structural crib units, including stretchers, headers, or other units, shall be so designed that they will resist the
tensile, bending and shearing stresses imposed on them and shall provide adequate bearing at all contact surfaces. For
walls of cribbing, stretchers at the rear of the cells shall have the same bearing area as those at the front in the same
courses.
h. The headers and stretchers or other units shall be so designed that when assembled in a wall, they form a cellular
structure that will be flexible enough to withstand a reasonable amount of differential settlement. These flexibility
requirements will generally depend on the use of the wall and on the designer’s judgement. However, any crib wall cell
will be expected to withstand a differential deflection of at least 0.015L without damage, where L is the length of the
cell as measured along the face of the wall.
i. The vertical openings within the front face of the assembly shall be small enough to retain the fill material, placed as
described in Article 6.3.3.3, Article 6.4.3.3, or Article 6.5.3.5.
j. Crib walls shall be designed in sections usually not to exceed 30 meters (100 ft) in length. If the soil conditions vary
considerably along this length, it may be necessary to build the crib wall in sections that are shorter than 30 meters (100
ft).
k. Provision shall be made for drainage, if necessary, behind or within cells by means of French drains or other approved
methods, and potential hydrostatic pressure shall be taken into consideration in the wall design.
SECTION 6.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE CRIB WALLS

1
6.3.1 GENERAL (1997)
a. Crib wall units defined as cribbing shall be rectangular in cross section with all exposed edges beveled. Each cribbing
unit shall be reinforced with deformed bars or with welded wire fabric, proportioned in accordance with Part 2,
Reinforced Concrete Design. However, the area of reinforcement for each unit shall be not less than 0.9 percent of its 3
gross cross-sectional area.
b. Members shall be provided with effective locking devices. They shall be of a type which will permit a slight movement
in the wall without damage to the crib units.
c. The headers and stretchers shall be so designed that when assembled in a wall they will bear at two points only, with
bearing points for other kinds of units subject to the engineer’s approval. The arrangement must form a cellular 4
structure flexible enough to withstand a reasonable amount of settlement.
6.3.2 MANUFACTURE (1997)
6.3.2.1 General
The materials, proportioning and workmanship shall conform to Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, with
the following modifications:
a. Aggregates. The maximum size of the coarse aggregate shall not be more than 25 mm (1 in).
b. Class of Concrete. Air-entrained concrete as specified in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, shall
be used, having a minimum compressive strength of 28 MPa (4,250 psi) at 28 days.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

c. Workability and Placement. The concrete mixture shall be of a workable consistency and placed to prevent
honeycombing. Vibrating equipment shall be used in the manufacturing process.
d. Curing. Curing shall be started as soon as possible after completion of placement of the concrete and shall comply with
the Articles on curing in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
6.3.2.2 Defects
All members shall be true to size, and free of depressions and of spalled, patched or plastered surfaces or other defects that
may impair strength or durability.
6.3.2.3 Handling
Members shall be handled carefully. Dropping or severe jarring shall be avoided. Any cracked or otherwise defective members
will be rejected.
6.3.3 INSTALLATION (1997)
6.3.3.1 Preparing Base
a. The foundation or bed for the crib wall shall be firm and as uniform as possible, and shall be approved by the Engineer
before any members are placed. If any members are located directly above rock, a cushion of sand or gravel not less
than 200 mm (8 in) thick shall be provided.
b. The foundation shall be sloped at a right angle to the batter on the face of the finished crib wall.
6.3.3.2 Placing
a. Stretchers or equivalent members shall be used to provide adequate support of the lowest course, front and back.
b. Crib members shall be carefully handled and installed in such a manner as to avoid any damage due to shock or impact.
Any member which becomes cracked or otherwise damaged during erection shall be removed and replaced.
6.3.3.3 Filling
a. The filling of the interior of the crib wall shall follow closely the erection of the successive tiers of units, and at no time
shall the wall be laid up higher than 1 meter (3 ft) above the backfilled portion.
b. Approved fill material shall be pervious, free draining, preferably crushed stone, gravel, or other coarse granular
material, well graded from a maximum size of 100 mm (4 in) down, and shall be placed compacted in the cells and for
600 mm (2 ft) immediately behind the cell in such a manner as to provide a minimum of voids. All organic matter shall
be excluded from the fill materials. The fill and backfill material shall not contain any element detrimental to concrete.
6.3.3.4 Drainage
See Article 6.2.1k, for any special conditions.
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Crib Walls
SECTION 6.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR METAL CRIB WALLS
6.4.1 GENERAL (1997)

a. The sheets from which all members are manufactured shall be made of a base metal meeting the requirements for
chemical composition and zinc coating as specified by the Engineer in conformity with Chapter 1, Roadway and
Ballast, Part 4, Culverts.
b. Aluminum materials may only be used with the engineer’s specific approval.
6.4.2 MANUFACTURE (1997)

a. All members shall be prefabricated in the manufacturer’s plant prior to shipment to the site. If specified by the
Engineer, the crib members shall be specially coated.
b. Headers and stretchers and other members shall interlock or be joined together by means of flexible bolted
connections. Bolts shall be of proper length, made of steel, and galvanized.
c. The various members shall be constructed of a base metal of the gage shown on the plans and not less than 1.5 mm
(16 ga) for walls up to 10 feet in height and of heavier gage for higher walls.
d. The members shall be so fabricated that units of the same nominal depth and length shall be fully interchangeable. All
members shall be straight and true before assembly, and the galvanizing or other coating shall not be damaged. Any
bent or otherwise defective members will be rejected.
1
before any members are placed. If any members are located directly above rock, a cushion of sand or gravel not less
than 200 mm (8 in) thick shall be provided.
3
6.4.3.2 Placing
Crib members shall be carefully handled and installed in such a manner as to avoid damage. Any member which becomes bent
or otherwise damaged during erection shall be removed and replaced.
4
6.4.3.3 Filling
b. Approved fill material shall be pervious, free draining, preferably crushed stone, gravel, or other coarse granular
material, well graded from a maximum size of 100 mm (4 in) down, and shall be placed and compacted in the cells and
for 600 mm (2 ft) immediately behind the cell in such a manner as to provide a minimum of voids. All organic matter
shall be excluded from the filling materials. The fill and backfill material shall not contain any element detrimental to
metal.
6.4.3.4 Drainage
See Article 6.2.1k, for any drainage requirements.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 6.5 REQUIREMENTS FOR TIMBER CRIB WALLS
6.5.1 GENERAL (1997)
Timber crib walls are made of timber cribbing, as defined in Article 6.1.2.2 and no other kinds of timber units are considered
or included herein. Each crib unit shall be rectangular in cross section.
a. Timber used for cribbing shall be sawn, and new timber shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 7, Timber
Structures, Part 1, Material Specifications for Lumber, Piles, Glued Laminated Timber and Fasteners for the grade and
species specified. Timber shall be treated in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 30, Ties.
b. All cutting and framing indicated on the plans shall be completed before treatment. All framing shall be done in a
workmanlike manner, true to line and angle. When any field framing, boring, and cutting of treated material is
required, all such framing and cuts shall receive a thorough coating of approved preservative before assembly.
before any cribbing is placed.
6.5.3.2 Mud Sills
When mud sills are used, they shall be set at right angles to the face of the crib wall and bear firmly and evenly on the
foundation material (see Figure 8-6-1). Mud sills shall be leveled to fit the base tier of face timbers resting directly on
them.
6.5.3.3 Timbers
a. The timber in the base tier and in alternate tiers above the base shall be as long as practicable. Preferably they shall
have a minimum length of 2.5 meters (8 ft). Joints in each tier shall stagger with joints in adjacent tiers. Crib wall faces
shall be laid closed or open as indicated on the plans.
b. Care shall be exercised in the installation of crib walls to produce a true and even face built to the line and grade shown
on the plans. All face timber shall be set horizontally (See Figure 8-6-2 and Figure 8-6-3).
c. Headers shall be spaced not more than 2.5 meters (8 ft) center to center in any horizontal tier if staggered with the
headers in tiers above and below. If headers are not staggered, they shall be spaced not more than 1.8 meters (6 ft)
center to center. The vertical spacing between headers in the same vertical plane shall not exceed 900 mm (3 ft).
6.5.3.4 Fastenings
a. Each successive tier of closed-face cribbing shall be drift bolted to the one upon which it rests by drift bolts not less
than 19 mm (3/4 in) in diameter and of sufficient length to extend through two tiers and not less than 100 mm (4 in)
into the third tier. Drift bolts shall be staggered and not more than 2.5 meters (8 ft) center to center in each tier.
b. All end joints and splices shall be lapped and drift bolted at the center; headers shall be drift bolted to face timbers in
like manner (see Figure 8-6-3).
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Crib Walls
Figure 8-6-1. Typical Sections through Walls of Timber Cribbing
3
TIES STAGGERED TIES IN LINE
Figure 8-6-2. Walls of Open-Face Timber Cribbing
Figure 8-6-3. Walls of Closed-Face Timber Cribbing
c. Each tier of open-face cribbing shall be drift bolted to the tiers beneath at each header using 19 mm (3/4 in) drift bolts
at each intersection where no splice occurs or at lap joints, and two 19 mm (3/4 in) inch drift bolts at butt joints. Drift
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

bolts shall be long enough to extend through one tier and at least three-quarters of the distance into the next tier. Drift
bolts shall be staggered from tier to tier (see Figure 8-6-2).
d. In treated timber cribbing, the hardware shall be galvanized.
6.5.3.5 Filling
b. Approved fill material of pervious, free draining, preferably crushed stone, gravel or other coarse granular material,
well graded from a maximum size of 100 mm (4 in) down, shall be placed in the cells in such a manner as to provide a
minimum of voids. Larger stones may be included if carefully embedded. All organic matter shall be excluded from the
filling material. Clay or material having a large percentage of clay shall not be used as fill.
6.5.3.6 Drainage
See Article 6.2.1k, for drainage requirements.
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8
Part 7
Mechanically Stabilized Embankment
— 1997 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2

7.1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2
7.2 Design of Mechanically Stabilized Embankments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2

7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2
7.2.2 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2 1
7.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-3

7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-3

SECTION 7.1 GENERAL
7.1.1 DEFINITIONS
a. A “Mechanically Stabilized Embankment (MSE)” is an embankment that has its strength increased by the inclusion of
horizontal tensile members within the soil mass. The composite embankment material exhibits improved shear strength
and compressive strength relative to unreinforced material. The MSE will always consist of at least two elements: 1)
earth, and 2) tensile reinforcement; and may have facing elements to provide a vertical or nearly vertical face.
b. “Reinforcing Elements” are horizontal elements placed within the soil mass between successive layers of compacted
soil which are designed to provide tensile reinforcement to restrain soil deformation in the direction of the
reinforcement; and which are placed between successive layers of compacted earth.
c. “Inextensible Reinforcing Elements” are those elements within the soil mass that do not elongate sufficiently under the
design load to allow soil deformations to develop the “active state” on the potential failure surface within the soil mass.
Inextensible reinforcing elements are generally metallic.
d. “Extensible Reinforcing Elements” are those elements within the soil mass that do elongate sufficiently under the
design load to allow soil deformations to develop the “active state” along the potential failure surface within the soil
mass. Extensible reinforcing elements are generally high strength polymer geogrids and other geosynthetic materials.
e. “Facing Elements” are those elements of an MSE that are placed to prevent localized sloughing and erosion of the
embankment face. Facing elements can consist of precast concrete panels, metal panels, polymer panels, wire mesh,
timber, or the polymer reinforcing materials themselves.
SECTION 7.2 DESIGN OF MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EMBANKMENTS
7.2.1 GENERAL
a. Use of any MSE must be approved by the controlling railroad.
b. Design of MSE shall be in accordance with the current AASHTO STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAY
BRIDGES, except as modified by other provisions of this part of this chapter.
c. The factor of safety against pullout of reinforcing elements shall be 1.75 to account for rail traffic induced vibrations.
d. Surcharge live loads applied in the design of MSE shall be those in Part 20.3.2.3 of this chapter.
e. Design live loadings shall be, as given in Part 2.2.3(c) of this chapter, subject to change at the discretion of the railroad.
7.2.2 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
a. Where the use of MSE is proposed on electric traction railroads utilizing direct current, an engineer specializing in
corrosion protection/prevention shall investigate and make site-specific recommendations for special design
considerations.
b. Consideration shall be given to the potential for accelerated corrosion or deterioration of structural elements of MSE
due to the relatively high permeability of railroad roadbeds and the potential for precipitation and other potentially
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Mechanically Stabilized Embankment
corrosive substances infiltrating the roadbed. The use of an impermeable geomembrane connected to lateral drains
below the sub-ballast, but above the top level of reinforcements should be considered.
c. Consideration should be given to placing the first level of reinforcing elements below the depth of excavation that
would be reached in the placement of utilities within the R.O.W. Alternately, conduits for utilities can be placed during
the MSE construction.
d. Excavation to, or below, the top level of reinforcing elements shall not be allowed following the construction of the
MSE.
SECTION 7.3 CONSTRUCTION
7.3.1 GENERAL
a. Construction of MSE shall be in conformance with the provisions of the current edition of the AASHTO STANDARD
SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES, DIVISION II - CONSTRUCTION, unless modified for application
to the specific MSE.
b. Special contract provisions shall be provided as necessary for proper construction of the specific MSE.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 10
Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe1
— 2003 —
Reaffirmed without changes.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2

10.1.1 Scope (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2
10.1.2 Definitions (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2
1
10.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-3

10.2.1 Pipe (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-3
10.2.2 Manholes (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-3
10.2.3 Rubber Gaskets (1989). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-3
10.2.4 Acid Resistant Coatings (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4 3
10.3 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4
10.3.1 General (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4
10.3.2 References (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4
10.3.3 Loads (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4
10.3.4 Bedding Factors (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6
10.3.5 Minimum Pipe Strength (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
10.3.6 Factor of Safety (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
10.3.7 Alternate Design Procedure (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
10.3.8 Pipe Strength (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
10.4 Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12

10.4.1 Preparation of Subgrade (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
10.4.2 Pipe Installation (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-13
10.4.3 Backfill and Embankment (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-14
1
References, Vol. 81, 1980, p. 235; Vol 90, 1989, pp. 53, 67. Revised 1989.

LIST OF FIGURES
8-10-1 Track Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-5

8-10-2 Embankment Beddings – Circular Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-7
8-10-3 Embankment Beddings – Horizontal Elliptical, Arch, and Vertical Elliptical Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-8
8-10-4 Trench Beddings – Circular Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-9
8-10-5 Trench Beddings – Horizontal Elliptical, Arch, and Vertical Elliptical Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-10
8-10-6 Induced and Alternate Induced Trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-11
LIST OF TABLES
8-10-1 Bedding Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6
SECTION 10.1 GENERAL
10.1.1 SCOPE (1989)
This part of the Manual covers the design and installation of reinforced concrete pipe for railway culverts.
10.1.2.1 Pipe Installation Conditions
a. Trench Installation. The pipe is installed in a relatively narrow trench excavated in undisturbed soil and then covered
with backfill extending to the ground surface.
b. Positive Projecting Embankment Installation. The pipe is installed on original ground or compacted fill with the top of
the pipe above the ground, or compacted fill and then covered by embankment.
c. Negative Projecting Embankment Installation. The pipe is installed within a relatively narrow trench with the top of the
pipe below the natural ground, or compacted fill and then covered with embankment.
d. Induced Trench Installation. The pipe is installed in a trench, backfilled with compressible material over the pipe, and
then covered by a high embankment.
e. Jacked or Tunneled Installation. The pipe is installed without removal of the ground above the pipe. Grouting of the
exterior annular space around the pipe may be required to ensure full contact with the soil around the pipe. If existing
soil conditions require an oversized tunnel, or if anticipated service conditions require access to the pipeline, a carrier
pipe may be installed within the tunnel or casing pipe.
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Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe
10.1.2.2 Symbols
Bc = Outside width of the pipe in the in-place condition (ft)

Bd = Width of the pipe trench (ft)
Bf = Bedding factor is defined as the ratio between the supporting strength of buried pipe to the strength of the pipe
determined in the three-edge bearing test obtained according to the requirements of ASTM Designation C497.
D = Inside span (or horizontal width) of the pipe (ft)
D-Load = The supporting strength of a pipe loaded under the three-edge bearing test conditions expressed in pounds per
linear foot per foot of inside diameter or horizontal span.
FS = Factor of Safety (normally taken as 1.0)
H = Height of cover over the top of the pipe (ft)
p = Projection Ratio is defined as the vertical distance between the top of the pipe and the top of the trench divided by
the trench width (negative projecting), or the height of the induced trench divided by the outside horizontal span
of the pipe (induced trench).
w = Unit weight of the backfill material (lb per cubic foot)
WL = Live Load including Impact transmitted to the pipe (lb per square foot)
WE = Earth loads transmitted to the pipe (lb per linear foot)
Ws = Other loads transmitted to the pipe (lb per square foot)
10.2.1 PIPE (1989)

3
Pipe shall conform to the following ASTM Standards for type, size, shape, manufacturing, testing, and strength requirements
as specified by the Engineer:
a. ASTM Designation C76, Specification for Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain and Sewer Pipe.
b. ASTM Designation C506, Specification for Reinforced Concrete Arch Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe.
4
c. ASTM Designation C507, Specification for Reinforced Concrete Elliptical Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe.
d. ASTM Designation C655, Specification for Reinforced Concrete D-Load Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe.
10.2.2 MANHOLES (1989)
Precast concrete manholes, if required, shall conform to ASTM Designation C478, Specification for Precast Concrete
Manhole Sections.
10.2.3 RUBBER GASKETS (1989)
Rubber gaskets, if required, shall conform to ASTM Designation C443, Specification for Joints for Circular Concrete Sewer
and Culvert Pipe.
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© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

10.2.4 ACID RESISTANT COATINGS (1989)
These coatings shall be specified by the Engineer for the particular condition required.
SECTION 10.3 DESIGN
10.3.1 GENERAL (1989)
The design of reinforced concrete pipe culverts must take into account the type of installation and bedding, the soil constants
of the natural ground and backfill, the relative settlements of the pipe, pipe foundation, bedding, backfill and natural ground,
acidity of the flow, the physical measurements such as depth of cover and width of cut, determination of earth load, live load,
impact, and any additional loading.
10.3.2 REFERENCES (1989)
Satisfactory design methods, utilizing more exact design procedures, are referenced for the use of the Engineer:
a. United States Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service Engineering Division Technical Release No. 5.
b. American Concrete Pipe Association Concrete Pipe Design Manual.
c. American Concrete Pipe Association Concrete Pipe Handbook.
10.3.3 LOADS (1989)
a. Design loading on the pipe shall include Earth Load, Cooper E 80 Live Load, Impact, and any other surcharge loads.
b. Earth load tables from the references given in Article 10.3.2 may be used to calculate the weight of earth on the pipe.
The earth load carried by the pipe is generally more than Bc × H × w.
c. The Engineer may use the equations below in order to determine the earth load transmitted to the pipe. Other
acceptable methods of analysis are given in Article 10.3.2.
(1) Trench Installation:
WE = 0.85 × Bd × H × w
(2) Positive Projecting Embankment Condition:
WE = 2.00 × Bc × H × w
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(3) Negative Projecting Embankment Condition:
WE = 1.00 × Bd × H × w
d. Track Loading to be supported by the pipe is shown in Figure 8-10-1 of these specifications. The indicated loading
includes a variable Impact Load of 40% at 0 feet, and 0% at 10 feet.
e. Any surface surcharges, other than track load, shall be converted to additional height of fill to determine their loading
on the pipe.
f. Loading on a carrier pipe, that is within a casing pipe, shall be taken as the full Dead + Live + Impact Load without
consideration of the presence of the casing, unless the casing pipe is permanently protected from corrosion using such
means as providing extra pipe thickness or a resistant coating.
Figure 8-10-1. Track Loading
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

g. The design trench width shall be indicated on the construction drawings as a maximum width of trench, or the Engineer
shall design the pipe for the maximum effective trench width (transition width) as indicated in the Concrete Pipe
Association Design Manual. The minimum width of the trench shall be Bc+2 feet or 1.5 Bc whichever is greater.
10.3.4 BEDDING FACTORS (1989)
Bedding factors to be used in the equation for determination of the D-Load shall be obtained from Table 8-10-1 or as permitted
within that table by more elaborate analysis.
Table 8-10-1. Bedding Factors
Bedding Class (Note 1)

Pipe Installation Methods
A B C D Tunnel
Trench 2.8 1.9 1.5 1.0 –
(Note 2)
Positive Projecting Embankment 2.8 2.0 1.7 1.0 –
(Note 2) (Note 2) (Note 2)
Negative Projecting Embankment 2.8 1.9 1.5 1.0 –
Induced Trench 2.8 2.0 1.7 1.0 –
Jacked or Tunneled
Carrier Pipe 2.8 1.9 1.5 – –
Casing Pipe – – – – 3.0
Any Pipe with less than 3′-0″ of cover between 1.5 1.5 1.5 – –
bottom of tie and the top of the pipe
Note 1: See Figure 8-10-2, Figure 8-10-3, Figure 8-10-4, Figure 8-10-5, and Figure 8-10-6.
Note 2: More elaborate analysis, using the procedures referenced in Article 10.3.2, can result in a more economical
design with greater load factors.
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Figure 8-10-2. Embankment Beddings – Circular Pipe
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

FOR CLASS D BEDDING

SEE FIGURE 8-10-2
Figure 8-10-3. Embankment Beddings – Horizontal Elliptical, Arch, and Vertical Elliptical Pipe
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Figure 8-10-4. Trench Beddings – Circular Pipe
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

For Class D bedding see Figure 8-10-4.
Figure 8-10-5. Trench Beddings – Horizontal Elliptical, Arch, and Vertical Elliptical Pipe
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Figure 8-10-6. Induced and Alternate Induced Trench
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

10.3.5 MINIMUM PIPE STRENGTH (1989)
Pipe subjected to track loads shall have a minimum strength of D = 1350 (Class III) even if analysis indicates that a lower D-
Load is satisfactory.
10.3.6 FACTOR OF SAFETY (1989)
The standard Factor of Safety of 1.0 against a 0.01 inch crack should be used for design unless the Engineer indicates that a
higher Factor of Safety is required.
10.3.7 ALTERNATE DESIGN PROCEDURE (1989)
a. In lieu of carrying out the complete design analysis required by these specifications, the Designer may use Class V
RCP for all sizes up to a height of cover of 14 feet; for greater heights of cover, the designer must make an analysis. For
Elliptical or Arch Pipe where D = 3000 RCP is not available, a design analysis shall be made.
b. The Engineer may specify the use of Class V RCP if he feels that the conditions of the site, or construction procedures,
require this strength of pipe.
10.3.8 PIPE STRENGTH (1989)
The required D-Load of the pipe shall be determined by the following equation:
( W L × B c + W E + W s × B c ) × FS
D-Load = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
Bf × D
SECTION 10.4 INSTALLATION
10.4.1 PREPARATION OF SUBGRADE (1989)
10.4.1.1 Excavation
a. Trenches shall be excavated in accordance with the bank stability requirements to a width sufficient to allow for proper
jointing of the pipe and thorough compaction of the bedding and backfill material under and around the pipe. Where
feasible, trench walls shall be vertical. A maximum trench width in conformance with the design assumptions, should
be specified on the construction plans. Wide trenches generally require the use of stronger pipe, and require a more
complete design analysis. The completed trench bottom shall be firm and cleaned for its full length and width.
b. Where specifically requested the pipe trench bottom may be cambered longitudinally to provide for expected
settlement. If camber of the pipe trench is required, the indicated camber must be shown on the plans.
c. Where specified on the plans, the excavation for a pipe to be placed within embankment fill shall be made after the
embankment has been completed to a specified height above the top of the pipe.
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10.4.1.2 Foundation
a. If the foundation is incapable of supporting the pipe loads, an adequate support shall be supplied by excavating the
unstable soil and backfilling with compacted material, or by such other means as may be specified or approved by the
Engineer.
b. If the foundation is muck, or similar yielding material, the pipe shall be supported by piling, or by other such means as
may be specified or approved by the Engineer.
c. For Class B or Class C Beddings, the subgrade should be undercut and replaced with compacted granular material, if
necessary, so that a firm foundation free of protruding rocks is provided. Special care may be necessary with Class A or
other unyielding foundation to cushion the pipe from shock when blasting can be anticipated in the area.
10.4.2 PIPE INSTALLATION (1989)
10.4.2.1 Laying Pipe
a. Pipe laying shall begin at the downstream end of the culvert. The bell or groove end of the pipe shall be placed
upstream. No culvert shall be put into service until a suitable outlet is provided for the water.
b. Elliptical pipe shall be placed with the vertical axis within 5 degrees of a vertical plane through the longitudinal axis of
the culvert.
10.4.2.2 Bedding 1
a. Pipe bedding and placement shall be specified to conform to one of the Bedding Classes illustrated in Figure 8-10-2,
Figure 8-10-3, Figure 8-10-4, Figure 8-10-5, and Figure 8-10-6.
b. When pipe cannot be placed on a prepared surface but must instead be placed on an unprepared surface, the bedding
shall be considered to be Class D Bedding. Class D Bedding should only be used for emergency work, and is not
permitted for permanent installations unless authorized by the Engineer. For typical Class D Bedding see Figure 8-10- 3
2 and Figure 8-10-4.
10.4.2.3 Joining Pipe
a. Pipe may be either bell and spigot, or tongue and groove design unless otherwise specified. When bell pipe is used, a
shallow excavation shall be made underneath the bell of sufficient depth so that the bell does not rest on the bedding
material. 4
b. Pipe sections shall be joined so that the ends are fully entered and the inner surfaces are reasonably flush and even.
c. Joints shall be made with either mortar, grout, rubber gaskets, plastic mastic compounds, or other combination of these
types as approved and specified by the Engineer. Mortar joints in pipe that is jacked into place shall not be sealed with
mortar until the culvert jacking is complete.
d. In areas where a tendency exists for pipe sections to separate, suitable ties shall be fabricated and installed to prevent
this separation.
e. Endwalls or headwalls should be used for culverts under tracks and designed to resist pipe separation as well as to
retain the embankment.
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© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

10.4.2.4 Water Tightness
If water tightness is a problem, rubber gasketed pipe is recommended. When such joints are specified the pipe should be tested
for infiltration or exfiltration as stipulated by the Engineer. The maximum rate of leakage shall conform to the following
accepted requirements, or to other standards set forth by the Engineer:
• Infiltration – 0.6 gallons per inch of diameter per 100 feet of pipe per hour.
• Exfiltration – 0.6 gallons per inch of diameter per 100 feet of pipe per hour when subjected to an internal head of 2
feet, and increased by 10% for each additional 2 feet of head.
10.4.2.5 Culverts Carrying High Acid Fluids
Where the PH of the conducted fluid is less than 4.5, the internal surfaces of the culvert should be protected from acid attack
by a special permanent coating. The Engineer shall specify the type of coating and the means of application.
10.4.3 BACKFILL AND EMBANKMENT (1989)
10.4.3.1 General
a. The backfill around the culvert shall be placed in accordance with the bedding requirements illustrated in Figure 8-10-
2, Figure 8-10-3, Figure 8-10-4, Figure 8-10-5, and Figure 8-10-6, and other requirements of these specifications.
b. All culverts that are to carry track load shall have the backfill thoroughly compacted to a minimum density of 95% as
determined by ASTM D698, and as specified elsewhere in the project specifications for adjacent embankment.
c. Where the pipe is placed on a shaped subgrade, see Figure 8-10-2 and Figure 8-10-4, extreme care shall be taken not to
overexcavate the shaped surface so that point loading shall not occur on the pipe bottom.
10.4.3.2 Embankment Bedding (See Figure 8-10-2 and Figure 8-10-3).
a. Where rock or noncompressible foundation material is encountered, the hard unyielding material should be excavated
below the elevation of the concrete cradle (Class A) or the bottom of the pipe or pipe bell (Class B and C Beddings) for
a depth of at least 6 inches or 1/2 inch for each foot of fill over the top of the pipe whichever is greater, but not more
than 3/4 inch of the diameter (or horizontal span) of the pipe.
b. For the Negative Projecting Embankment Condition, the width of the excavation, Bd, should be at least 1.5 × Bc and
with a minimum of 2 feet greater than the outside diameter of the pipe for thorough filling and compaction of the void
space under the pipe haunch.
10.4.3.3 Trench Bedding (See Figure 8-10-4 and Figure 8-10-5)
a. Materials for backfill on each side of the pipe for the full width of the trench and to an elevation of 1 foot above the top
of the pipe shall be fine, readily compacted soil or granular material, and shall not contain frozen lumps, stones that
would be retained on a 2 inches sieve, chunks, highly plastic clay, or other objectionable material. Granular backfill
material shall have 100% passing a 3/4 inch sieve, not less than 95% passing a 1/2 inch sieve, and not less than 95%
retained on a No. 16 sieve. Oversized material shall be removed at the source of the material, except as directed by the
Engineer.
b. When the top of the pipe is even with or below the top of the trench, backfill material shall be placed at or near the
optimum moisture content and compacted in layers not exceeding 6 inches (compacted) on both sides of the pipe for
the full required length.
© 2013,

c. Backfill material shall be placed and compacted for the full depth of the trench, unless induced trench installation is
used.
d. When the top of the pipe is above the top of the trench, backfill shall be placed at or near optimum moisture content
and compacted in layers not exceeding 6 inches (compacted) and shall be brought up evenly on both sides of the pipe
for its full length to an elevation 1 foot above the top of the pipe. The width of backfill on each side of the pipe for the
portion above the top of the trench shall be equal to twice the diameter of the pipe or 12 feet whichever is less. The
backfill material used in the trench section and the portion above the top of the trench for a distance on each side of the
pipe equal to the horizontal diameter and to 1 foot above the top of the pipe shall conform to the requirements for
backfill in paragraph a. The remainder of the backfill shall meet the requirements for embankment construction.
e. The width of the trench, Bd, shall be 1.5 × Bc but not less than 2 feet greater than the outside diameter of the pipe in
order to completely fill the void.
10.4.3.4 Induced Trench Bedding (See Figure 8-10-6)
a. The Induced Trench method shall not be used when the pipe is subjected to track loading without making a complete
investigation of the settlements involved.
b. When the Induced Trench method is used, the embankment shall be completed as required in Article 10.4.3.3 and as
illustrated in Figure 8-10-6, to a height above the pipe equal to the vertical outside diameter of the pipe plus 1 foot. A
trench equal in width to the outside horizontal diameter of the pipe, in depth equal to the vertical outside diameter of
the pipe, and to the length shown on the plans shall then be excavated to within 1 foot of the top of the pipe, trench
walls being as nearly vertical as possible. This trench shall be loosely filled with highly compressible material.
Construction of the embankment above the pipe shall then proceed in a normal manner using regular fill material.
1
c. The length of the Induced Trench method shall be determined by the designer in keeping with the design assumptions
and the pipe strength being used.
d. When the Alternate Induced Trench method is used, the embankment shall be constructed in a normal manner to a
height above the culvert bedding elevation equal to twice the outside diameter of the pipe. A trench as required shall 3
then be excavated with the walls as nearly vertical as possible, and the pipe bedded and backfilled to 1 foot above the
pipe as called for in Article 10.4.3.3. The remaining portion of the trench shall then be loosely filled with highly
compressible material. Construction of embankment shall then proceed in a normal manner.
e. In no case shall the length of compressible material extend to the ends of the culvert.
f. Rock fill shall not be dumped over the culvert without a sufficient cushion of earth to prevent breakage of the pipe. 4
10.4.3.5 Jacking Pipe
a. Pipe used for jacking through fills shall be tongue and groove design. The tongue shall preferably be at the downstream
end. Jacking frames shall be so constructed as to avoid breaking the pipe or forcing it out of alignment. The pipe shall
preferably be jacked upgrade in order to provide drainage at the heading during excavation. Satisfactory means shall be
provided for maintaining the lead pipe at the correct line and grade.
b. The pipe shall be installed according to specially prepared plans and specifications. The contractor shall set forth the
construction procedure, extra pipe reinforcement and jack shield (if required), jacking pit location and shoring, and
other special features for the safe and satisfactory completion of the work. Plans prepared by the contractor giving the
construction details shall be submitted for review by the Engineer.
c. Straw filler shall be inserted into voids created by excavation during jacking operations. Locations shall be recorded
and after mining is completed, grout holes are to be drilled through the pipe and the voids filled with grout.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

d. A survey crew must continually monitor elevation and alignment of the railroad track above during the jacking
procedures. Jacking must be stopped and any problems corrected if track movement is detected.
10.4.3.6 Constructing Pipe in Tunnels
When it is necessary to place culvert pipe by tunneling, plans and specifications for the completed structure shall be prepared
by the Engineer. The contractor shall set forth the construction procedures and other necessary details and submit them for
review by the Engineer.
© 2013,

8
Part 11
Lining Railway Tunnels1
— 2012 –
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2

11.1.1 Scope (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2

11.2.1 Interior Dimensions (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2 1
11.2.2 Preliminary Data (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2.3 Floors (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2.4 Sidewalls and Arch (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-3
11.2.5 Construction and Expansion Joints (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-3
11.2.6 Drains (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.2.7 Refuge Niches (Bays) (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7 3
11.2.8 Conduit and Inserts (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7

11.3.1 General (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3.2 Filling of Forms (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3.3 Removal of Forms (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3.4 Inspection Doors (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4 Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8

11.4.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.2 Order of Placing (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.3 Consolidation (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.4 Laitance and Bonding (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.5 Drainage During Placing (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.6 Shotcrete (2004) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
1
References Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 645, 1042; Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 309, 878; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 814, 1343; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 445, 861; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 277, 687;
Vol. 74, 1973, p. 140; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 108. Rewritten 1988.

LIST OF FIGURES
8-11-1 Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Rock Section Single Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-4
8-11-2 Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Single Track Temporary Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-5
8-11-3 Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Double Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-6
11.1.1 SCOPE (2004) R(2012)
This recommended practice covers the lining of new tunnels in rock and those portions of old tunnels in rock which involve no
extraordinary side pressure or special features. The recommended practice covers linings of cast-in-place concrete and
shotcrete with steel sets.
SECTION 11.2 DESIGN
11.2.1 INTERIOR DIMENSIONS (2004) R(2012)
a. The interior dimensions of the clear space provided for single and double-track tunnels should not at any point be less
than tunnel clearances recommended by the AREMA Manual. Where legal requirements provide clearances greater
than AREMA, such legal requirements shall govern.
b. On curved track, the lateral clearance should be increased in conformance with Chapter 28, Clearances, Part 1,
Clearance Diagrams – Fixed Obstructions. The superelevation of the outer rail should be in accordance with the
recommended practice of Chapter 5, Track.
c. To provide for drainage, minimum side clearance of 10 feet (3 m) from centerline of track should be used in tunnels
likely to be wet. Where ventilation is required, the height of single-track tunnel should be increased 1 foot (300 mm)
minimum.
11.2.2 PRELIMINARY DATA (2004) R(2012)
Information shall be obtained for design of new tunnels, consisting of field surveys showing geological formations,
groundwater conditions, environmental conditions, adjacent structures, locations of faults, core borings, hardness and
condition of rock to be encountered, together with any special features and data on existing tunnels through similar formations.
Where a new tunnel is driven adjacent to an existing tunnel, records shall be searched for data as to groundwater conditions,
fault zones, and other special features. Consideration should be given to taking core borings from existing adjacent tunnels.
11.2.3 FLOORS (2004) R(2012)
Floors should, if practical, be paved and may have a ballasted track section, direct fixation to the concrete floor, or other
suitable track design. Paved floors shall be designed for the track section to be used.
© 2013,

Lining Railway Tunnels
11.2.4 SIDEWALLS AND ARCH (2004) R(2012)
a. The depth of sidewalls in sound rock shall be at least 6 inches (150 mm) below the bottom of the gutter and at least 6
inches (150 mm) below the intersection of the floor surface with the sidewalls. In unsound rock, the sidewalls shall be
carried down to provide a stable foundation. At portals and vicinity, sidewalls shall extend at least 6 inches (150 mm)
below the frost line.
b. The minimum thickness of the cast-in-place sidewalls and arch shall be:
(1) Where temporary supports for excavation are not required:
• Single track – See Figure 8-11-1.

• Double track – See Figure 8-11-3.
(2) Where temporary supports are required for face of excavation see Figure 8-11-2 or Figure 8-11-3.
c. Encased timber sets are subject to decay and are not recommended. Exposed timber sets create a fire hazard and also
are not recommended.
d. Steel sets are spaced at least 8 inches (200 mm) apart, and in general not greater than 4 feet (1.2 m) apart. Solid liners
may also be considered.
e. Lagging may be wood, steel lags, steel liner plates, or steel water-diverting lagging. Where the nature of the rock and
water conditions permit, lagging shall be spaced to allow a clearance of 4 inches (100 mm) or more between lags to 1
permit free access of concrete to the face of the tunnel excavation. Prior to concreting, remove as many lags as is
possible. Where it is necessary to solid-lag for protection during excavation and where it is impractical to open up the
lagging just prior to concreting, the space between the lagging and face of excavation shall be packed with lean
concrete, crushed stone, coarse gravel, or pea gravel placed pneumatically. Consolidation grouting shall be used to fill
any voids behind lining. Where timber lagging is used, or where existing packing consists of timber, special care must
be exercised in torch cutting or welding of steel ribs or other components to eliminate the risk of fire.
3
f. Rock bolts may be considered as part of a support system.
11.2.5 CONSTRUCTION AND EXPANSION JOINTS (2004) R(2012)
a. Properly placed and consolidated construction joints do not require keyways. Waterstops shall be provided as
necessary. Monoliths shall be as long as practical to minimize the number of construction joints. 4
b. Construction joints shall not be formed at such locations where they might reduce the effectiveness of the lining to
resist pressure from surrounding earth or rock.
c. Where construction joints are provided, expansion joints are not required.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering
Engineering and
Maintenance-of-Way Association

Figure 8-11-1. Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Rock Section Single Track
© 2013,

4
Figure 8-11-2. Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Single Track Temporary Supports
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering
Engineering and

Figure 8-11-3. Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Double Track
© 2013,

11.2.6 DRAINS (2004) R(2012)

a. Wherever groundwater is encountered or anticipated, vertical and diagonal openings, trench drains, PVC or iron pipe
drains shall be installed between the concrete lining and rock. Adequate outlets shall be provided through sidewalls
with the outer end of the outlets not less than 12 inches (300 mm) above the bottom of the gutter. Subdrains shall be
provided under the concrete floor wherever groundwater is found. Drains shall be provided through curb to drain
ballast section.
b. Where hydrostatic pressure below the floor may be present, consideration should be given to designing the floor to
withstand the pressure.
c. Wherever groundwater drains are installed, they shall be attached to the rock so as to prevent being clogged when
concrete is poured.
d. Drain type selection should take into consideration an analysis of groundwater constituents and effects of water
aeration to discourage formation of precipitates or adverse chemical reaction which may plug or damage the drainage
system.
11.2.7 REFUGE NICHES (BAYS) (2004) R(2012)

Refuge niches shall be provided as shown on the example figures at approximate intervals of 200 feet (60 m) and staggered
with opposite sides so that spacing of niches shall be approximately 100 feet (30 m). Width of niches should accommodate the
number of people and the equipment to be protected. Bottom of niches shall be at elevation of bottom of track ties for
ballasted track sections and at elevation of intersection of invert and walls for solid track sections. For long tunnels, larger
refuge niches should be considered at appropriate intervals to accommodate equipment. 1
11.2.8 CONDUIT AND INSERTS (2004) R(2012)
Where required, provisions shall be made in the lining for conduit or hangers for cables, wires, and lights.
3
SECTION 11.3 FORMS
11.3.1 GENERAL (2004) R(2012)

a. Forms shall conform to requirements as outlined in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, together
with additional provisions given herewith.
4
b. The length of forms between construction joints shall be as long as possible to limit number of joints. Waterproofing at
joints should be considered where appropriate.
11.3.2 FILLING OF FORMS (2004) R(2012)

The space between the face of the form and face of excavation or tight lagging shall be entirely filled with concrete, except for
drainage openings, and except that large cavities back of the normal face of excavation may be packed as outlined in
Paragraph 11.2.4(e).
11.3.3 REMOVAL OF FORMS (2004) R(2012)

Forms shall not be removed until concrete has reached strength sufficient to prevent distortion and sustain the applied load.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering
Engineering and

11.3.4 INSPECTION DOORS (2004) R(2012)

Forms shall be provided with inspection doors in the arch and walls so that the concrete can be thoroughly vibrated and
inspected during the placing.
SECTION 11.4 CONCRETE
11.4.1 GENERAL (2012)
Concrete for lining shall be proportioned and placed in accordance with Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements, together with the additional provisions given herewith. Placement of reinforcement shall be in accordance with
Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
11.4.2 ORDER OF PLACING (2004) R(2012)
A section of the wall and footing may be placed separately from the rest of the wall, but a construction joint shall not be more
than 2 feet (600 mm) above the top of ballast curb elevation. The remainder of the wall and arch shall be placed
monolithically. The floor ballast retainers shall preferably be placed in one operation.
11.4.3 CONSOLIDATION (2004) R(2012)
All concrete shall be consolidated during and immediately after placing by means of internal vibration applied in the mass of
concrete and external vibration applied to the forms.
11.4.4 LAITANCE AND BONDING (2004) R(2012)
a. Concrete surfaces receiving new concrete shall be roughened and cleaned of all laitance, dirt, and water before fresh
concrete is placed. The consistency of the concrete and method of placement shall be such that laitance seams are not
formed. If such seams are formed, they shall be completely removed before additional concrete is placed.
b. All loose or unsound rock shall be removed behind walls and below floors before concrete is placed. Where the type of
rock makes this impractical, the floor and foundations for the walls shall be reinforced.
11.4.5 DRAINAGE DURING PLACING (2004) R(2012)
Concrete shall not be placed in moving water. Separate and distinct provisions shall be provided to drain any area receiving
fresh concrete. Effective weeps and drains shall be provided to prevent any hydrostatic pressure against the lining. Temporary
drains shall be grouted after concrete liner has attained design strength.
11.4.6 SHOTCRETE (2004) R(2012)
Shotcrete and reinforcement for shotcrete for lining shall be proportioned in accordance with Part 14, Repair and
Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures.
© 2013,

8
Part 12
Cantilever Poles1
— 2003 —
Reaffirmed without changes.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2

12.1.1 Scope (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.1.2 Introduction (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
1
12.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.2.1 Pole (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2

12.3.1 Installation (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.4 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-3

3
12.4.1 General (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-3
LIST OF FIGURES
8-12-1 Pole Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-4

8-12-2 Bearing Capacity Factors vs. Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-7
8-12-3 Granular Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-8
LIST OF TABLES
8-12-1 Recommended Value of “nh” for Sands lb/in3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-5

8-12-2 Recommended Value of “K” for Clays for qu>1 tsf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-6
8-12-3 Constants Used in Calculations and their Variances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-8
1
References, Vol. 71, 1970, p. 232; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 78, 98.

12.1.1 SCOPE (1992)

a. This part of the Manual covers the design of the required embedment for poles in cohesive and granular soils that are
subjected to vertical and horizontal forces.
b. Loading on the poles is not considered in this Manual and the loads shall be determined by the applicable sections of
this Manual.
12.1.2 INTRODUCTION (1992)

a. In certain types of construction, poles are subjected to overturning forces. The most common usage of these types of
construction are transmission lines and sign poles. Under certain conditions, piles such as soldier piles for the
protection of excavations, capped pile abutments where the piling acts as a backwall, and stabilization piles for
embankment slopes can be analyzed as poles. This Manual is intended to offer a design procedure which will
determine the required pole embedment.
b. Several factors which will affect the design of cantilever embedded poles and that should be taken into account during
analysis and final design are: cyclical nature of the loads which may leave a void around the pole and allow infiltration
of water, plumbness of the pole, variations in the soil strata, variation of the soil at different locations, and the
indeterminate nature of the loading conditions.
12.2.1 POLE (1992)

The type, size, shape, manufacture, and construction shall be as specified by the Engineer, and shall conform to the following
sections of the Manual:
a. Concrete – Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations, Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
b. Steel – Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Part 1, Design and Part 3, Fabrication.
c. Timber – Chapter 7, Timber Structures, Part 1, Material Specifications for Lumber, Piles, Glued Laminated Timber and
Fasteners.

12.3.1.1 Driven Poles
Poles can be installed by pile driving methods, in which case the installation requirements shall be governed by Chapter 8,
Concrete Structures and Foundations, Part 4, Pile Foundations.
12.3.1.2 Set Poles
a. After the location of the poles has been selected, an oversized hole shall be augered to the design depth, the pole
inserted to the bottom of the hole, and the annular space filled with either compacted soil or concrete.
© 2013,

Cantilever Poles
b. The size of the hole and the method of backfill shall be determined by the use of the pole, and the assumptions made
for design. If the full diameter of the hole is to be used in the structural analysis, concrete backfill shall be used to fill
the annular space between the pole and the surrounding earth. The need for reinforcement of the concrete shall be
determined by analysis.
c. Soil backfill of the annular space shall completely fill the voids, and be compacted to the density of the surrounding
soil.
d. The pole shall be held plumb in such a manner that transverse and vertical loads are not restrained by the ground
around the pole until the backfilling is complete and able to withstand the imposed loads.
e. If concrete backfill is intended to enlarge the diameter of the pole embedment, then suitable bracing shall remain in
place until the concrete has attained the strength set forth on the drawings.
SECTION 12.4 DESIGN
12.4.1 GENERAL (1992)
a. The design of the particular installation will be determined by many different factors. In all cases, the requirements can
be reduced to:
(1) External Loads. The vertical loads and their eccentricity; the magnitude, direction, and location of the horizontal
loads, and the frequency and cyclical nature of the loads shall be included in the design loads.
1
(2) Soil Characteristics. The soil type, unit weight, angle of internal friction for granular soils, cohesion of the soil,
location of the water table, and any variation in the soil. Soil strength values given here are not for soil below the
water table. Soil investigation shall be made in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 8, Concrete
Structures and Foundations, Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation, taking into account the value and use
of the pole.
3
b. When a pole set directly into the earth is dependent upon the horizontal resistance (horizontal subgrade reaction) of the
supporting soil for its stability, and has not been permanently stayed by external supports, the following procedure is
recommended to determine the required embedment of the pole.
(1) The design of the proper pole diameter and depth of embedment is obtained by a trial and error solution. The
design is considered to be complete when the size of the pole (and/or its encasement), depth of embedment,
bending moments, shears, and deflection of the pole have been determined. 4
(2) Upon completion of the given design, the Engineer shall verify that the pole (and its structural encasement if used)
is capable of withstanding the previously determined moments and shears. The structural design for steel poles
shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 15, Steel Structures, concrete poles according to Chapter 8, Concrete
Structures and Foundations, and timber poles should conform to Chapter 7, Timber Structures.
c. The equations found in Article 12.4.1.1, Article 12.4.1.2 and Figure 8-12-1 may be used to determine the required
depth of embedment and width of the pole.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

pa
pb
Figure 8-12-1. Pole Design
Nomenclature
P= Vertical load on the pole acting at an eccentricity e and a distance h above grade.
Q= Resultant of all horizontal loads acting on the pole at a height H above grade.
D= Depth of embedment.
Do = Distance below the ground surface to a point where the horizontal deflection is zero.
B= Width of the pole and/or encasement resisting the horizontal load at the point under consideration.
M= Net overturning moment at the ground surface.
EI = Average flexural stiffness of the pole and/or encasement below grade.
pa = Maximum positive subgrade reaction.
pb = Maximum negative subgrade reaction.
nh = Soil modulus for granular soils.
K = Soil modulus for cohesive soils.
Pcr = Critical vertical load on the pole.
y= The lateral deflection of the pole at the groundline.
x= Distance from the ground surface, positive downward.
w= Unit weight of the soil.
c= Cohesion of the soil.
© 2013,

Cantilever Poles
12.4.1.1 Granular Soils
M 3 a h-⎞
--------- + --- – ------ 36P ⎛ 1 + ---
Do QD 4 12 ⎝ D⎠
------ = ------------------------------- where a = ----------------------------- (See Table 8-12-1) EQ 12-1
D 3 M 3
--- --------- + 1 nh D
2 QD
Table 8-12-1. Recommended Value of “nh” for Sands lb/in3
Density Dry Submerged

Loose 10 5
Medium 30 20
Dense 75 45
3Q D 2
p a = ----------------------------- ------o- EQ 12-2
3D 2D
D ---------o- – 1
2D
1 D D
p a ≤ ----------- B ⎛ ------o⎞ w N q determine N q at x = ------o (See Figure 8-12-2) EQ 12-3
⎝ ⎠
F.S. 2 2 1
3Q D
p b = ----------------------------- ------o – 1 EQ 12-4
3D D
D ---------o- – 1
2D
1 3
p b ≤ – ----------- BDwN q determine N q at x = D (See Figure 8-12-2) EQ 12-5
F.S.
D EI 1⁄5
---- ≤ 3 where T = ------ (See Table 8-12-1) EQ 12-6
T nh
4
D 0.508
B.M. max = M + 0.89QD ------o – 0.667 EQ 12-7
D
P
P cr = ---
a
D
3Q ⎛ ------o⎞
⎝ D⎠
y = --------------------------------------
2 3D
n h D ---------o- – 1
2D
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

12.4.1.2 Cohesive Soils
M- + 0.683 – --------- b-
--------
Do QD 6.78
------ = --------------------------------------------- EQ 12-8
D 1.87M
---------------- + 1
QD
h
14.6P ⎛ 1 + ----⎞
⎝ D ⎠
where b = --------------------------------- (See Table 8-12-2)
2
KD
Table 8-12-2. Recommended Value of “K” for Clays for qu>1 tsf
qu tsf “K” psi

1–2 700
2–4 1400
over 4 2800
qu is the unconfined compressive
strength of the clay.
1.377Q D 1.15
p a = ------------------------------------- ------o EQ 12-9
D D
D 1.87 ------o – 1
D
1
p a ≤ ---------BcN c determine Nc at x = 0.13 Do (See Figure 8-12-2) EQ 12-10
F.S.
2.15Q D
p b = ------------------------------------- ------o – 1 EQ 12-11
D D
D 1.87 ------o – 1
D
1 -BcN
p b ≤ -------- c determine Nc at x = D (See Figure 8-12-2) EQ 12-12
F.S.
D 1⁄4
---- ≤ 3 where R = EI
------ (See Table 8-12-2) EQ 12-13
R K
D 0.823
B.M. max = M + 0.80QD ------o – 0.535 EQ 12-14
D
P
P cr = ---
b
D
2.15Q ⎛ ------o⎞
⎝ D⎠
y = -----------------------------------------
D
KD 1.87 ------o – 1
D
© 2013,

Cantilever Poles
Figure 8-12-2. Bearing Capacity Factors vs. Depth
12.4.1.3 Procedure
a. Determine all loads acting on the pole and assume a desired pole and/or encasement diameter B. Estimate the depth D 3
as the maximum allowable for the assumed pole cross section, as determined by EQ 12-6 or EQ 12-13.
b. Figure 8-12-3 can be used to assist in the design for poles embedded in granular soils.
c. Use a factor of safety of three for permanent loads and two for temporary loads.
d. Carry through several trial designs until the depth chosen corresponds to the allowable soil stresses, as shown in
Article 12.4.1.4 and Article 12.4.1.5. (In EQ 12-2, EQ 12-4, EQ 12-9, and EQ 12-11 the fourth significant figure is 4
important in the denominator.)
e. Where the vertical load is large, the pole shall be investigated as a friction pile. In this investigation the top 2 feet of the
embedded portion of the pole shall be neglected unless the horizontal load is quite small and the eccentricity of the
vertical load is nominal.
f. Table 8-12-3 shows the constants used in the calculations and how to vary them.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

NOTE:Graph will determine approximate values only.
Check EQ 12-6 for limitation on pole embedment depth.
Figure 8-12-3. Granular Soils
Table 8-12-3. Constants Used in Calculations and their Variances
Existing Variations
Constant New Constant Change
B = 18 inches B = 24 inches Reduce obtained value of “D” by 1 foot
w = 70 pcf Increase obtained value of “D” by 1 foot
w = 100 pcf
w = 120 pcf No change in value
nh = 10 lb/in3 Increase obtained value of “D” by 1 foot
nh = 20 lb/in3
nh = 30 lb/in3 Reduce obtained value of “D” by 1 foot
F.S. = 2 F.S. = 3 Increase obtained value of “D” by 1 foot
© 2013,

Cantilever Poles
12.4.1.4 Example A – Granular Soils
a. Soil:
• Granular and dry with φ = 35 degrees
• Unit weight = w = 110 lb/cubic feet
• Medium dense: n h = 75 + 30- = 52.5 lb/in2

-----------------
2
b. Loading:
• P = 5 kips, h = 20 feet, e = 12 inches
• Q = 2 kips, H = 25 feet
• Factor of Safety = F.S. = 3
c. Trial Design:
• It is desired to have a timber pole with a diameter of B = 18 inches

with a modulus of elasticity = E = 1.6 (10)6 psi
1
• M = 25 (2) + 1(5) = 55 kip-ft.
4
6 π ( 18 ) 9
• EI = 1.6 ( 10 ) ----------------- = 8.245 ( 10 )
64
d. Using EQ 12-6: 3
9 1⁄5
8.245 ( 10 )
T = --------------------------- = 44.0 and Dmax ≤ 3(44.0) = 132 inches
52.5
= 11 feet
Try D = 11 feet
4
e. Using EQ 12-1:
55 3 a
-------------- + --- – ------
Do 2 ( 11 ) 4 12
------ = ------------------------------------ = 0.685 neglect “a” for all trial solutions, and check only final design.
D 3 55
--- -------------- + 1
2 2 ( 11 )
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

f. Using EQ 12-2:
3 ( 2 ) - ( 0.3425 ) 2 = 2.327 kips/ft

p a = --------------------------
11 ( 0.0275 )
g. Using EQ 12-3:
Nq = 11.5 for x = 0.3425(11) = 3.77 feet
x 3.77
---- = ---------- = 2.5
B 1.50
1
p a ≤ --- ( 1.5 ) ( 3.77 ) ( 110 ) ( 11.5 ) ⁄ 1000
3
= 2.38 kips/ft
h. Using EQ 12-4:
3(2)
p b = --------------------------- ( 0.685 – 1.000 ) = – 6.25 kips/ft
11 ( 0.0275 )
i. Using EQ 12-5:
x
Nq = 16.5 for ---- = 7.33
B
1
p b ≤ – --- ( 1.5 ) ( 11 ) ( 110 ) ( 16.5 ) ⁄ 1000
3
= –9.88 kips/ft
NOTE: A check using the value of “a” in EQ 12-1 will give no change.
j. Using EQ 12-7:
B.M. max = 55.00 + 0.89 (0.685 - 0.677)0.508 (2)(11)

= 56.69 kip-ft
y = 3 (2000) (0.685)/52.5 (132) (132) (0.0275)
= 0.17 inches
Pcr = 5000/0.0044 = 1130 kips
20
36 ( 5000 ) ⎛ 1 + ------⎞
⎝ 11⎠ - = 0.0044
for a = ---------------------------------------------------------
( 52.5 ) ( 132 ) ( 132 ) ( 132 )
© 2013,

Cantilever Poles
12.4.1.5 Example B – Cohesive Soils
a. Soil:
• Cohesive and dry with φ = 0 degrees,
• qu = 2 tons/square foot
• Unit weight = 110 lb/cubic foot
• c = 1 ton/square foot and use K = 1400 psi (See Table 8-12-2)
b. Loading:
• Same as previous example
c. Trial Design. It is desired to use an 18-inch pole with
• E = 1.6(10)6 psi
• M = 55 kip-ft, and EI = 8.245(10)9
d. Using EQ 12-13:
9 1⁄4
1
8.245 ( 10 )
R = --------------------------- = 49.3
1400
Dmax = 3 (49.3) = 147.9 = 12.3 feet.
After several trials it was decided to try D = 7.5 feet.

3
e. Using EQ 12-8:
55
--------------- + 0.683
Do 2 ( 7.5 )
------ = ----------------------------------- = 0.554
D 1.87 ( 3.05 ) + 1
4
f. Using EQ 12-11:
2.15 ( 2 )
p b = -------------------------------------------------- ( – 0.446 ) = – 6.73 kips/ft
7.5 [ 1.87 ( 0.554 ) – 1 ]
g. Using EQ 12-12:
1
p b = --- ( 1.5 ) ( 2 ) ( 6.9 ) = – 6.90 kips/ft
3
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

h. Using EQ 12-9:
1.377 ( 2 ) - ( 0.554 ) 1.15 = 4.89 kips/ft

p a = -------------------------
7.5 ( 0.038 )
i. Using EQ 12-10:
1
p a ≤ --- ( 1.5 ) ( 2 ) ( 3.8 ) = 3.80 kips/ft
3
Not satisfied
for x = 0.13 (0.554) (7.5) = 0.53 feet.
Nc = 3.8 (See Figure 8-12-2)
Try D = 9 feet
j. Using EQ 12-8:
55 - + 0.683
----------
Do 2(9)
------ = ----------------------------------- = 0.556
D 1.87 ( 3.05 ) + 1
k. Using EQ 12-9:
1.377 ( 2 ) 1.15
p a = -------------------------- ( 0.556 ) = 3.80 kips/ft
9.0 ( 0.041 )
l. Using EQ 12-10:
1
p a ≤ --- ( 1.5 ) ( 2 ) ( 3.9 ) = 3.90 kips/ft
3
pb will obviously be satisfactory for this increased depth.
m. Using EQ 12-14:
B.M. max = 55.00 + 0.80 (9) (2) (0.021)0.823

= 55.60 kip-ft
y = 2.15 (2000) (0.556)/(1400) (108) (0.041)
= 0.39 inches
© 2013,

8
Part 14
Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures1
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
14.1 Scope (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.2 Determination of the Causes of Concrete Deterioration (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.3 Evaluation of the Effects of Deterioration and Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4 1

14.3.1 Methods of Evaluation (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4
14.3.2 Results of Evaluation (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4
14.3.3 Special Cases (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.3.4 Reevaluation (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4 Principal Materials Used in the Repair of Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5 3

14.4.1 Cement (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.2 Admixtures (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.3 Aggregate (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.4 Reinforcement (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.5 Polymers in Concrete (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.6 Bonding Compounds (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.7 Epoxy Materials (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.8 Non-shrink Grouts (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.9 Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP Composites) (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.5 Repair Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-7

14.5.1 Surface Repairs Using Portland Cement Materials (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-7
14.5.2 Surface Repairs Using Polymer Concretes and Polymer Portland Cement
Concretes (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-12
14.5.3 Tuckpointing (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-12
14.5.4 Arch Lining (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-12
14.5.5 Internal Structural Repairs (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-13
14.5.6 Non-Structural Crack Repair (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-19
14.5.7 Reinforcement Splices (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-20
1
References, Vol. 36, 1935, pp. 870, 1028; Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 297, 878; Vol. 43, 1942, pp. 336, 716; Vol. 51, 1950, pp. 365, 895; Vol. 53, 1952, p. 617; Vol.
54, 1953, pp. 819, 1343; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 443, 444, 861; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 277, 688; Vol. 65, 1964, pp. 362, 758; Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 357, 360, 657; Vol.
84, 1983, p. 93; Vol. 93, 1992, pp. 78, 98.

14.6 Repair Methods for Prestressed Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22

14.6.1 Cracks Exist with No Significant Section Loss and No Tendon Damage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
14.6.2 There is Minor Section Loss, but No Tendon Damage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
14.6.3 Shattered Concrete and/or Significant Section Loss, but No Tendon Damage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
14.6.4 There is Section Loss and Tendon Damage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
14.6.5 Member Is Damaged Beyond Reasonable Repair (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-23
14.6.6 Member Has Inadequate Strength (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-23
14.6.7 Summary (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-23
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-24
LIST OF FIGURES
8-14-1 Repair of Cracks by Stitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-17

8-14-2 Repair of Cracks by Pinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-18
8-14-3 External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-18
8-14-4 External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-19
8-14-5 Detail Copper Plate Joint Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-19
8-14-6 Detail PVC Pipe Joint Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-20
8-14-7 External Splice Sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-21
C-8-14-1Preloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-31
C-8-14-2External Post-Tensioning Section Between Corbels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-32
C-8-14-3Metal Splice Sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-33
LIST OF TABLES
8-14-1 Supporting Loads for Expansion Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-8

8-14-2 Expansion Bolt Placement – Concrete 4 Inches or More in Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-8
© 2013,

Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures
SECTION 14.1 SCOPE (2006)1
a. This part applies to the repair and rehabilitation of concrete2 structures by the following methods: patching,
encasement with concrete, shotcrete, pressure grouting, injection grouting of preplaced aggregates, tremie placement,
bagged concrete, epoxy injection, external post-tensioning, splicing of damaged reinforcement and component
replacement. They are intended to provide means of accomplishing repairs both above and below water using a variety
of materials.
b. This part also identifies some of the major causes for the deterioration of concrete and the methods of protecting
against deterioration.
c. Repair of a structure usually consists of five basic steps:
(1) Identifying the deterioration.
(2) Determining the cause.
(3) Evaluating the strength of the existing structure.
(4) Evaluating the need for repair.
(5) Selecting and implementing a repair procedure.
SECTION 14.2 DETERMINATION OF THE CAUSES OF CONCRETE

DETERIORATION (2006)3
a. In order to select the proper repair procedure for concrete, the cause of the deterioration must first be established. One
or more of the following factors may contribute to the deterioration of the concrete:
3
(1) Lack of quality in the original concrete and/or its placement.
(2) Deficiency of reinforcement.
(3) Properties of surrounding environment. 4

(4) Inadequate structural capacity.
(5) Physical damage.
b. The investigation should try to determine the possible cause(s) and then select a repair procedure which will correct the
existing condition and prevent further deterioration by any and all of the suspect cause(s).
1
See Commentary
2
May be applicable to either concrete or masonry.
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 14.3 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF DETERIORATION AND DAMAGE
14.3.1 METHODS OF EVALUATION (2006)
14.3.1.1 Visual Inspection
Periodic inspections (see Part 21 Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures) should be made to detect deterioration and
damage before the structure becomes irreparable. The engineer in charge of maintenance and inspection should be experienced
in determining the parts of structures in need of repair and the extent of deterioration or damage.
14.3.1.2 Analysis of Actual Stress Condition
This method involves a stress analysis of the structure in its existing condition.
14.3.1.3 Non-Destructive Tests1
There are several common test procedures available to determine the in-place condition of the structure. The most appropriate
test should be determined by the Engineer.
14.3.1.4 Sampling
This procedure consists of removing samples of material, usually by coring, in order to analyze physical and chemical
characteristics of concrete and reinforcing.
14.3.1.5 Load Test
a. This method involves the instrumenting of a structure to measure strains or deflections as a means of determining the
capability of the structure to sustain service loads. A prescribed test load is permitted to cross the structure at a given
speed. Often it is desirable to stop the test load on the structure at a predetermined position and take measurements
under static conditions.
b. The test should be monitored as the loading progresses to verify that the observed data compares favorably with the
theoretical calculations. If a significant difference is observed the test should be stopped and further evaluated before
proceeding.
c. This method should be used only if calculations indicate a reasonable margin of safety against collapse under the test
load. Loads considerably below the desired service load level may be used initially to make a preliminary evaluation
and to predict the reaction of the structure under a full test load.
14.3.2 RESULTS OF EVALUATION (2006)2
Based on the evaluation, one or more of the following determinations can be made regarding the present condition:
a. Requires no action.
b. Requires action to arrest or minimize deterioration.
c. Requires action to repair or strengthen the structure.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

d. Requires reconstruction or replacement of the structure.
e. Requires restricting traffic speed and/or weight or closing the structure to traffic.
14.3.3 SPECIAL CASES (2006)
In special cases (i.e. windstorm, flooding, scour, seismic activity, fire damage, etc.), the resulting damage to the structure may
not be apparent to the inspector in a visual examination of the surface. Care should be exercised in these cases to properly
evaluate all defects using, where necessary, special inspection and nondestructive testing techniques.
14.3.4 REEVALUATION (2006)
During repair or rehabilitation of a structure it may be found that the extent of the damage or deterioration is greater than
originally determined. This further damage should be reviewed for the effectiveness of the proposed repair under these
conditions.
SECTION 14.4 PRINCIPAL MATERIALS USED IN THE REPAIR OF CONCRETE

STRUCTURES
NOTE: The materials used should conform in physical properties to Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction 1
Requirements, or as hereinafter specified.
14.4.1 CEMENT (2006)
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.2 Cement and Section 1.3 Other Cementitious Materials.
14.4.2 ADMIXTURES (2006) 3
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.7 Concrete Admixtures.
14.4.3 AGGREGATE (2006)
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.4 Aggregates. 4
a. See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.6 Reinforcement.
b. Reinforcement may consist of one or more of the following materials: Deformed steel bars, prestressing tendons, wire
mesh or reinforcing fibers consisting of steel, glass, or plastic.
c. When increased protection from corrosion is required, coatings or cathodic protection of steel reinforcement may be
considered.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

14.4.5 POLYMERS IN CONCRETE (2006)
a. See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.14.9 Bonding (1993).
b. Polymer Concrete may be used as a patching material and where high strengths are needed in a short time.
c. Polymer Cement Concrete may be used as an overlay (an example of PCC is latex-modified concrete).
14.4.6 BONDING COMPOUNDS (2006)
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.7 Concrete Admixtures.
14.4.7 EPOXY MATERIALS (2006)
Epoxy materials are manufactured with a wide range of properties for various applications and should be chosen to provide for
the requirements (i.e. viscosity, strengths, flexibility, adhesion, etc.) of the specific repair. In addition, they should meet the
requirements of ASTM Specification C881, Type 1, Epoxy Resin Base Compounds for Concrete. Epoxy materials are used for
a variety of purposes including bonding new concrete to old, repair of cracks, sealing and patching. Selection is subject to
approval of the Engineer.
14.4.8 NON-SHRINK GROUTS (2006)1
a. Non-shrink grouts consist of either portland cement based grouts with an expanding agent added to counter the
shrinkage from the hydration of the portland cement grout or non-cementitious based grouts such as epoxy grouts.
b. Non-shrink grouts are generally used for setting and leveling bearings. Selection of the grout is subject to approval by
the Engineer.
c. Non-shrink grouts should conform to ASTM C1107. Design and use of portland cement non-shrink grouts should be in
conformance with ACI-223 – Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage Compensating Concrete.
14.4.9 FIBER REINFORCED POLYMERS (FRP COMPOSITES) (2006)
a. Fiber reinforced polymers may be considered for strengthening or repairing existing reinforced or prestressed concrete.
b. Polymer resins are manufactured with a wide range of properties for various applications and should be chosen to
provide for the requirements of the specific repair. Selection is subject to the approval of the Engineer.
c. Reinforcement typically consists of carbon, glass or aramid fiber. Reinforcement is manufactured with a wide range of
properties for various applications and should be chosen to provide for the requirements of the specific repair.
Selection is subject to approval of the Engineer.
d. Fiber-reinforced polymers are typically applied in alternating layers of polymer resin and woven-fabric fiber
reinforcing. Concrete underlying repairs should be cleaned and checked for soundness prior to surface application.
e. Design and application for FRP repairs should conform to manufacturer’s recommendations and sound engineering
principles.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

SECTION 14.5 REPAIR METHODS
14.5.1 SURFACE REPAIRS USING PORTLAND CEMENT MATERIALS (2006)
14.5.1.1 Scope
a. Repairs should consist of removal of soft, disintegrated, broken, or honeycombed concrete or stone; cleaning and
preparing the bonding surface and exposed reinforcement; placing of anchors and reinforcement; placing of concrete
by shotcreting, handpatching, forming and placing, tremieing, grouting of preplaced aggregate, or as specified. Such
concrete is to be finished to true line and surface as shown on the plans and properly cured.
b. Concrete in the repaired area below the neutral axis in prestressed members should be repaired under an externally
applied preload. Preload may be applied by means of jacks or a known load.1
14.5.1.2 Preparation2
a. All loose, soft, honeycombed and disintegrated concrete or stone should be removed from the areas to be repaired by
proper tools, to expose a bonding surface of sound material. Appropriately sized equipment should be used so as not to
damage sound underlying material.
b. Following the removal of all loose, disintegrated or otherwise defective concrete, the entire exposed surfaces of the
structure should be carefully inspected for locations of seepage, internal honeycombed areas, cracks or voids.
c. In prestressed concrete, extreme care should be taken to avoid any damage to prestressing strands. Exposed strands 1
should be chemically cleaned by an approved method.
d. Thin or feathered edges should be avoided and the boundaries of the areas to be repaired should be square cut or
slightly undercut to a depth of 1 inch. For shotcreting, the boundary edges should be 45-degree bevel cuts to a depth of
at least 1 inch. The maximum depth of removal shall be determined based on an analysis of the existing structure and
its condition.
3
e. The bonding surface should be rough, clean, sound concrete or stone. Oil or film of any sort that may reduce the bond
should not be permitted. Loose particles, dust and dirt, should be removed.
f. Sand and water blasting may require containment of dust and/or runoff water. Cracks are to be prepared as specified in
Article 14.5.5.
14.5.1.3 Anchorage 4
a. Concrete repairs applied less than 1-1/2 inches thick will not require anchorage, unless specified by the Engineer. A
bonding compound may be specified.
b. Where new concrete greater than 1-1/2 inches thick and less than 4 inches thick is to be placed, 1/4 inch diameter
galvanized expansion hook bolts should be spaced not more than 18 inches center to center on vertical surfaces and not
more than 12 inches center to center on overhead surfaces. Each bolt should have sufficient engagement in the sound
concrete to resist a pull of 150 pounds. When pried from the wall with a bar inserted under the bend of the bolt, the
bend should straighten out without pulling the bolt.
c. The specified spacing of expansion bolts should be based on supporting three times the total weight of suspended
concrete and two times the weight of concrete on vertical surfaces. Facilities should be provided for testing the
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

supporting value of the bolts. Each bolt should be set in sound concrete and should be capable of supporting, without
loosening, the suspended load indicated in Table 8-14-1.
Table 8-14-1. Supporting Loads for Expansion Bolts
Diameter of Expansion Bolt Load

in Inches in lb
1/4 150
3/8 400
1/2 750
5/8 1,200
3/4 1,750
d. Any expansion bolt failing to support such load should be reset and tested.
e. Where concrete 4 inches or more in thickness is to be placed, approved expansion bolts should be set where shown on
the plans, or in accordance with Table 8-14-2.
Table 8-14-2. Expansion Bolt Placement – Concrete 4 Inches or More in Thickness
Spacing in Each Direction

Thickness
of Concrete Suspended Concrete Vertical Surfaces Top Surfaces
(Inch) Inches Diameter Inches Diameter Inches Diameter
at Feet-Inch at Feet-Inch at Feet-Inch
4 3/8 @ 1-8 3/8 @ 2-0 3/8 @ 3-0
5 3/8 @ 1-5 3/8 @ 1-9 3/8 @ 3-0
6 3/8 @ 1-4 3/8 @ 1-8 3/8 @ 3-0
7 3/8 @ 1-2 3/8 @ 1-6 3/8 @ 3-0
8 1/2 @ 1-7 1/2 @ 1-11 1/2 @ 3-0
9 1/2 @ 1-6 1/2 @ 1-10 1/2 @ 3-0
10 1/2 @ 1-5 1/2 @ 1-9 1/2 @ 2-0
11 1/2 @ 1-4 1/2 @ 1-8 1/2 @ 2-0
12 1/2 @ 1-3 1/2 @ 1-6 1/2 @ 2-0
f. Where the thickness of concrete is more than 12 inches, the size, length, spacing and embedment of expansion bolts
should be determined or approved by the Engineer.
g. The exposed end of each expansion hook bolt should have a right angle, or greater, bend for engaging reinforcement.
h. No isolated area greater than 2 square feet should have fewer than 3 bolts.
i. Where only a single line of bolts is required, the maximum spacing should be 24 inches and the size should be
determined by the supported load shown in Table 8-14-1.
j. Dowels made of deformed steel bars, grouted in, may be used instead of expansion bolts. When dowels are used, the
size, spacing and bond capacity shall be the same as that required for expansion bolts. Horizontal dowel holes should
be drilled downward on a slope of approximately 1 inch per foot.
© 2013,

14.5.1.4 Placement of Reinforcement
14.5.1.4.1 General
Reinforcement should be securely wired to the anchors. The clear distance from the existing concrete to the first layer of
reinforcing should be 1-1/2 times the maximum aggregate size, but not less than 1/2 inch. Cover of reinforcement should meet
the requirements of Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.6.
14.5.1.4.2 Shotcrete
a. No reinforcement is required for shotcrete encasement less than 1-1/2 inches thick unless specified by the Engineer.
b. A layer of reinforcement for each 4 inches (3 inches for suspended encasement) thickness of encasement or fraction
thereof. Each layer should be 3″× 3″ – W 1.4 × W 1.4 welded wire reinforcing.
c. For encasement thicknesses in excess of 4 inches (3 inches suspended), an additional two-way system of No. 3
reinforcing bars spaced the same as the anchors in both directions should be provided. The last layer of wire mesh
should be secured by wiring to the bars.
d. Each layer of mesh must be completely encased in the shotcrete or concrete which has taken initial set before the
succeeding layer of mesh is applied.
e. Mesh extending around corners or reentrant angles should be bent to a template before securing to anchorage and not
sprung or forced into position. At corners, double reinforcing mesh should be provided and extended a minimum
distance of 6 inches beyond the intersection of the 2 planes.
1
f. When splicing wire mesh is necessary, a lap of 1-1/2 mesh spacings should be required, wired together at intervals of
not more than 18 inches.
g. Where special reinforcement is required for structural strength, engineering plans should be furnished.
3
14.5.1.4.3 Concrete
Reinforcement should meet the requirements of Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.12 Shrinkage and Temperature
Reinforcement (2005).
14.5.1.5 Bonding1
4
14.5.1.5.1 Slurry Bonding
After the bonding surfaces of the old concrete have been prepared as outlined in Article 14.5.1.2, the bonding surface should
be kept constantly wet for a minimum of 1 hour immediately prior to application of the bonding coat. In no case should fresh
material be applied to a dry surface. The bonding coat should be applied to the damp bonding surface and should be vigorously
brushed on to completely fill all surface pores immediately prior to placing the body of the new concrete. The bonding coat
should be composed of cement or one part cement to one part fine sand and sufficient water to make a creamy mixture. If
required by the Engineer, an approved shrinkage reducing material should be added. The bonding coat should not be troweled,
screeded, disturbed or allowed to dry before the next layer of new concrete is applied.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

14.5.1.5.2 Other Bonding Agent
At locations where positive bond is mandatory, an approved bonding compound should be specified. Since a large variety of
bonding products are available, surface preparation and compound application should be in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
14.5.1.6 Hand Patching
Immediately after the bonding coat has been applied, the entire cavity should be filled and finished to true line and surfaced
with an approved patching material suitable for hand patching vertically, horizontally or overhead. Application should be in
conformance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
14.5.1.7 Cast-in-Place
a. When restoration or encasement is accomplished by placing concrete in between forms and the old surface by gravity
or pressure placement, the forms should have sufficient strength to withstand the pressure of the new concrete without
yielding appreciably.
b. The concrete should be proportioned per Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
c. The new concrete should completely fill the space provided and present a surface comparable to the original.
d. Concrete is to be compacted per Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.14.6.
14.5.1.8 Shotcrete1
14.5.1.8.1 General
Shotcrete is a mixture of Portland cement, fine aggregate and water, shot into place by compressed air. There are two different
processes in use, namely the “dry mix” process and “wet mix” process.
14.5.1.8.2 Dry Mix Method
a. Shotcrete should be made of a mixture of portland cement and sand in the proportion of one bag of cement for every 4
cubic feet of sand by volume. The amount of sand should be based on dry, loose measurement with proper correction in
quantity for effect of bulking due to moisture content. The sand and cement should be thoroughly mixed dry, passed
through a 3/8 inch screen before being placed in the pneumatic apparatus, and placed by pneumatic pressure through
shotcrete equipment with proper amount of water applied in the mixing nozzle for the necessary placement
consistency. The screened sand and cement should be applied on the surface within one hour after combining them. To
avoid voids and reduce shrinkage cracks, shotcrete should be applied as dry as practicable. Suitable prepackaged
materials may be used as approved by the engineer.
b. Shrinkage reducing and/or bonding compounds are to be applied as specified by the manufacturer.
c. The air pressure in the pneumatic apparatus should be maintained uniform and not less than 35 psi while placing the
mixed material, with necessary increase in pressure for horizontal delivery distances of more than 100 feet or vertical
distances of more than 25 feet. The water pressure applied through the nozzle should be not less than 10 psi greater
than the air pressure in the shotcrete machine.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

14.5.1.8.3 Wet Mix Method
The wet mix method varies from the dry mix method only in that the materials are mixed in a vessel prior to pumping the mix
to the nozzle, whereas the mixing with water occurs at the nozzle in the Dry Mix Method. This method may therefore require
variations in pressure from those required for dry mixing.
14.5.1.8.4 Application
a. Shooting strips should be employed to ensure square corners, straight lines and a plane surface of shotcrete, except as
otherwise permitted by plans or approved by the Engineer. They should be so placed as to keep the trapping of rebound
at a minimum.
b. Where no separate bonding agent is used, the surface, particularly porous brick, to which shotcrete is to be applied
should be thoroughly wet, without free water, to facilitate bond.
c. At the end of each day’s work, or similar stopping periods requiring construction joints, the shotcrete should be sloped
off to a thin edge. No square joints will be allowed. In shooting vertical surfaces, care must be taken in general to begin
the shotcrete area at the bottom and complete at the top.
A sufficient number of coats should be applied to obtain the required thickness. The thickness of each coat should not
be greater than 1 inch, except as approved by the Engineer, and should be so placed that it will neither slough nor
decrease the bond of the preceding coat. Where a successive coat is applied on shotcrete, which has set more than two
hours, the surface should be cleaned and water blasted.
d. When placing shotcrete, the stream of flowing material from the nozzle should impinge as nearly as possible at right 1
angles to the surface being covered, and the nozzle should be held from 2 to 4 feet from the working surface.
e. Deposits of rebound from previous shooting, whether loose or cemented, should be removed and not covered up.
Should any such deposits be covered, they should be cut out and the area reshot.
f. The final surface of shotcrete should be given either:

3
(1) a thin finishing or flash coat;
(2) a screeded finish;
(3) a rubbed finish; or
(4) a brush finish, as specified. 4

14.5.1.9 Preplaced Aggregate Grouting
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.15.10d.
14.5.1.10 Tremie Placement
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.15.10a.
14.5.1.11 Pumping Concrete
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.14.5.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

14.5.1.12 Curing and Protection1
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.18 Curing.
14.5.2 SURFACE REPAIRS USING POLYMER CONCRETES AND POLYMER PORTLAND

CEMENT CONCRETES (2006)2
14.5.2.1 Scope
a. Repair should consist of removal of soft, disintegrated or honeycombed concrete; cleaning and preparing the bonding
surface; placing the Polymer Concrete or Polymer Cement Concrete; and finishing to true lines and surface.
b. Preloading. Concrete in the repaired area below the neutral axis in prestressed members should be repaired under an
externally applied preload. Preload may be applied by means of jacks or a known load.
14.5.2.2 Surface Preparation, Materials and Application
Surface preparation materials and application should be in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
14.5.3 TUCKPOINTING (2006)
14.5.3.1 Scope
Repair should consist of the removal of soft, disintegrated or loose grout between masonry units, cleaning the joints and filling
the joints with mortar.
14.5.3.2 Preparation
All deteriorated mortar, dirt and loose particles should be removed from the masonry joints with hand tools followed by blast
cleaning with water or oil free air.
14.5.3.3 Materials
a. Mortar should consist of one part cement to three parts sand with sufficient water to produce a workable mixture.
b. Cement should be Portland cement C150, Type I or as specified by the Engineer.
c. Sand should be fine mason sand with a fineness modulus of not more than 2.0.
14.5.3.4 Procedure
a. Areas to be tuckpointed should be wet thoroughly to prevent absorption of water from the mortar.
b. All excess material should be removed and the joint tooled to a neat workmanlike appearance.
14.5.4 ARCH LINING (2006)
The lining of stone and brick masonry arches with steel liner plates is covered in Chapter 1 Roadway and Ballast, Part 8
Tunnels. Lining with cast-in-place concrete or shotcrete is covered in Chapter 8, Part 11 Lining Railway Tunnels.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

14.5.5 INTERNAL STRUCTURAL REPAIRS (2006)
14.5.5.1 Scope1
Internal structural repair of concrete consists of the filling of internal voids and/or restoring the cracked sections to meet
original strength with Portland cement grouts or epoxies and reinforcement where required.
14.5.5.2 Cement Grouts
14.5.5.2.1 Preparation
Before the grouting operation is started, all defective materials should be removed and the entire surface should be thoroughly
inspected for points of leakage and indications of voids. Inserts for grouting should be so located and set that the pressure grout
will reach all voids and paths of leakage. All defective exposed joints and cracks in the structure should be chipped out, then
thoroughly cleaned of all foreign materials by means of high pressure air or water. The joints, cracks and disintegrated areas
should be restored to the original surface with hand pointing or shotcrete.
14.5.5.2.2 Grout Holes in Stone
a. Before drilling of the grout holes is started, the test drillings should be made completely through the masonry to
determine the thickness of the masonry. From the test drillings, the proper depth of grout holes should be determined in
order that grout holes are not drilled completely through the masonry.
b. Grout holes should be drilled at regular intervals, staggered to include approximately 25 square feet of surface area per 1
hole or at such other locations as may be specified. In cases of arch rings, the holes should be drilled diagonally to
intercept the longitudinal joints (parallel to the barrel) and staggered at such intervals as to include approximately 12
square feet of surface area per hole. Holes should be 1-1/2 inches minimum diameter for Portland cement grout and
should be drilled to such a depth, and in such manner, as necessary to intercept joints and internal voids, to completely
consolidate the structure. Holes which have been drilled completely through the structure should not be used for
pressure grouting and these holes must be completely plugged before grouting begins.
3
c. On structures, or parts of structures, of one stone thickness, the grout holes should be drilled in such a manner as to
intercept the horizontal joints where possible; however, if, due to insufficient clearance, the holes cannot be drilled
through the horizontal joints, they should then be drilled so as to intercept the vertical joints. The holes in the courses
of masonry below ground line should be drilled diagonally downward at various angles to the natural foundation below
the masonry, so that the bottom courses and any underlying cavities, including cavities in or under timber grillages,
should be completely filled.
4
14.5.5.2.3 Grout Holes in Concrete
For Portland cement grout 1-1/2 inches diameter grout holes should be drilled to a depth and spacing as necessary to provide
maximum dissemination of the pressure grout throughout the repair areas. Prior to pressure grouting, the chipped areas should
be restored as previously specified, provisions being made to extend the grout holes through the replacement material for
grouting after the exposed surfaces are sealed.
14.5.5.2.4 Portland Cement Grout Mixture
a. For stone masonry the pressure grout mixture should consist of one part of cement, one-half part of sand and, if
required, an approved type of shrinkage reducing material. The amount of sand to be used in the grouting mixture
should be determined by starting the grouting operation with neat cement grout and adding sand in gradually
increasing proportions until the optimum ratio of sand to cement has been reached which will give a free flowing grout.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. If it is found through application of the above that the addition of sand retards the free flow of the grouting material, the
sand should be omitted.
c. For concrete, the pressure grout should consist of neat cement grout only, and, if required by the Engineer, an approved
type of shrinkage reducing materials.
d. Polymer grouts may be used for concrete or stone masonry, as specified by the Engineer.
e. Other suitable prepackaged materials may be used if approved by the Engineer.
14.5.5.2.5 Grouting Procedures for Portland Cement Grouts
a. Grout inserts should be set in drilled holes and the interior voids cleaned with water, prior to the application of the
pressure grout.
b. The grout should be pressure induced into the internal voids and joints of the structure to fill them completely.
c. Grout should be applied by pumping or gravity pressure.
d. Excessive pressure should be avoided to prevent damage to the structure.
e. Grouting should be started at the lowest row of holes and at the hole nearest the center line of structure.
f. If grout appears in adjacent holes at the same elevation, these holes should be temporarily plugged and grouting
continued in the original hole until grout appears at the next adjacent hole at the same elevation or at the next line of
holes above the one being grouted. When this condition occurs, grouting of the original hole should be discontinued
and the grout line moved to the last hole at the current elevation at which grout appeared, and the same procedure
followed until all holes in the current line have been grouted, at which time grouting should proceed in a like manner
along the next line of holes above, etc., until the entire structure has been completely filled.
g. During the course of all grouting operations, extreme care should be given to observing the surrounding ground, track
subgrade, ballast and the stream bed for the breaking out of grout, and when such breaking out occurs, the grout line
should be moved to some other part of structure. Grouting may be resumed in the original location after the elapse of
24 hours. In grouting foundations, pressure grout should be applied to the various holes in rotation. The above program
should be followed until the grout is brought up into the masonry.
h. When grouting foundations founded on rock, care should be taken to watch for movement of the track structure caused
by the lifting of all or a portion of the structure.
14.5.5.3 Epoxy Injection
14.5.5.3.1 General
a. Epoxy injection is generally applicable to cracks ranging in width from 0.003 inch to 0.25 inch. Injection of epoxy into
cracks wider than 0.25 inch should be approved by the Engineer.
b. Certain members, especially prestressed members, may require preloading during injection.
c. Cold weather epoxy injection may require special procedures and materials.
14.5.5.3.2 Preparation
a. The area surrounding the crack should be cleaned of efflorescence, deteriorated concrete and other contaminants that
may be detrimental to adhesion of the epoxy gel. If unsound or deteriorated concrete is located adjacent to the crack,
© 2013,

which could prevent the complete injection of the crack, the unsound or deteriorated concrete should be removed prior
to the injection.
b. Cracks should be flushed with water under pressure to remove debris and other contaminants.
14.5.5.3.3 Injection Ports
a. Install the injection ports at appropriate intervals to accomplish full penetration of the injection resin. The spacing of
the injection ports should be determined by the size of the crack and the depth of the concrete substrate.
b. Injection ports should be designed for the intended use and should be acceptable to the epoxy manufacturer.
c. Injection ports should have the capability of being positively capped and sealed following the injection work.
d. The injection ports should be installed using one or more of the following methods:
(1) Surface Mounted Injection Ports:
(a) Center the injection port over the crack and secure in place using the epoxy gel.
(b) Completely seal the exposed crack located between the injection ports and other area, as required to prevent
leaking of the resins, using epoxy gel.
(c) If the crack extends through the member, and is accessible, install telltale injection ports on the opposite side
and seal all exposed areas of the crack. Generally, the spacing of the telltale injection ports should be between
1
12 inches and 24 inches.
(2) Drilled-In Injection Ports:1
(a) The holes should be drilled a minimum of 5/8 inch deep. Exercise care so as not to drill beyond a crack which
may be running at an angle to the surface. 3
(b) The injection ports should be inserted into the drilled holes about 1/2 inch, allowing for a small reservoir
below the injection port. Secure the injection ports into position using epoxy gel. Seal the exposed crack using
the same procedures as described above.
(3) Injection Ports Mounted Against a Head of Water:

4
(a) For cracks that have water running from them, use an hydraulic cement (fast setting) to set the injection ports,
and seal the crack.
(b) After the hydraulic cement has cured, seal the cracks and injection ports by overlapping the hydraulic cement
about 1 inch on either side using epoxy gel.
14.5.5.3.4 Curing of Epoxy Crack Surface Sealer
Allow all bonded ports and sealed cracks to cure overnight at temperatures of 50 degrees F or above. Should temperatures
below 50 degrees F exist, additional cure time may be required. Under these circumstances, it will be necessary to consult the
manufacturer for proper cure times. In any event, pressure injection operations should not commence until the epoxy gel has
adequately cured and has been deemed capable of sustaining pressures of the injection process.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

14.5.5.3.5 Materials and Equipment
a. The following minimum properties should be required of all epoxy used in the repair of the damaged concrete:
(1) Epoxy injection material should meet requirements of ASTM C881, Type IV, Grade 1, Class A, B or C.
(2) Epoxy crack surface sealant gel (paste type) should meet the requirements of ASTM C881, Type 1, Grade 3, Class
A, B or C.
(3) It is recommended that the ratio of the components should be between 1:1 and 2:1 by volume, with similar
viscosities of components.1
(4) The colors of the components should be distinctly different, and when mixed in proper ratio yield a distinctly
different third color.
(5) All injected epoxies should be wet bonding agents.
b. Epoxy injection equipment should be the automatic mixing and dispensing type. The equipment should include
positive displacement pumps inline pressure gauges, pressure gauges on the mixed materials at the point of injection,
and positive connection to the injection ports. The unit should be capable of delivering 125 psi dynamic fluid pressure
at the point of injection at a minimum flow rate of 2 gpm. The equipment should indicate when the supply of one
component has been exhausted to prevent injection of only a single component.
14.5.5.3.6 Injection of Epoxy
a. After proper curing of epoxy bonded ports and crack surfaces, commence pressure injection operations.
b. Take ratio checks as follows: The mixing head of the injection equipment should be disconnected and the two adhesive
components should be pumped simultaneously into separate calibrated containers. The amounts discharged into the
calibrated containers simultaneously during the same time period should be compared to determine the mix ratio.
c. After the test has been completed at a 200 psi discharge pressure the procedure should be repeated for 0 psi discharge
pressure.
d. The ratio test should be run for each injection unit at the beginning of each day that unit is used.
e. Samples of the mixed epoxy should be taken before commencing work each day, at least once every hour during
injection work, and each time the mixing head is flushed with solvent. Time, dates and curing of the samples are to be
noted. The samples before work and after flushing should be from the injection nozzles. Samples during work should
be from injected ports.
f. Commence pumping at the lowest point possible, or first injection port in a line, whichever is applicable. Continue
pumping until the epoxy appears at one or more of the next ports in line. When this occurs, stop pumping, cap the port
through which liquids were being injected and move up to the next port in line from which liquids were observed to
flow. Repeat this operation until all cracks have been filled to refusal.
g. During installation pressures should normally be limited to a maximum of 100 psi.2
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

14.5.5.3.7 Cure
Allow injected epoxies to cure overnight, or in accordance with the manufacturer’s directions for those temperatures
prevailing during application. Generally, at temperatures above 50 degrees F, overnight cure is adequate.
14.5.5.3.8 Port Removal and Clean Up
After adequate curing of injection epoxy, all ports and the epoxy gel should be ground smooth to eliminate any sharp edges or
protrusions. No epoxy materials or injection ports should extend beyond the surface of the existing concrete.
14.5.5.3.9 Record Cores
Obtain record cores of sufficient diameter (2 inches to 4 inches), and length (10 inches to 30 inches) from each member to
determine the completeness of the injection and the bond. Each core should be identified. All core holes should be filled prior
to completion of the work at the structure. Location of the core should be at the discretion of the Engineer.
14.5.5.4 Reinforcement of Cracks1
14.5.5.4.1 Stitching
The integrity of a cracked concrete section can at times be restored by stitching. The process involves the application of steel
reinforcing bars (stitching dogs or staples) across a cracked section (see Figure 8-14-1) on the surface of the members. Where
surface appearance is a consideration, the stitches may be installed below the finished surface. The stitching dogs should be of
various lengths, spacing and orientation so that a single plane is not overstressed. Their spacing should decrease near the ends
of the crack to avoid stress concentration. The ends of the stitching dogs should be grouted with a non-shrink or expanding
mortar so that a proper anchorage is achieved. It should be realized that repairs of this type may cause the cracking to migrate
1
to another portion of the structure.
3
STAPLES
Figure 8-14-1. Repair of Cracks by Stitching
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

14.5.5.4.2 Pinning
Cracks may be immobilized by drilling holes through the concrete so as to intercept the crack and grouting reinforcing into
them as specified by the Engineer. (See Figure 8-14-2.)
Figure 8-14-2. Repair of Cracks by Pinning
14.5.5.4.3 External Reinforcing
a. Placing external reinforcing across the crack and extending for a substantial length can distribute the stresses causing
the crack. The stresses at the ends of such reinforcing should be considered to eliminate simply relocating the cracked
condition.
b. Tensile stress cracks can be arrested by removing the stresses by tensioning the external reinforcement, thereby
compressing the member. Cleaned cracks can be closed by inducing a compressive force sufficient to overcome the
tension and to provide a residual compression.
c. The principle is similar to stitching and the problem of crack migration must be considered in this process also.
d. Anchorage is required for the external post-tensioning. Some form of abutment is needed such as a strongback bolted
to the face of the concrete (see Figure 8-14-3 and Figure 8-14-4).
Figure 8-14-3. External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Slab
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Figure 8-14-4. External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Beam
14.5.5.4.4 Banding
Members which are exposed around their perimeter may have steel members placed around them to arrest movement in the
crack. These bands should be anchored at regular intervals to the member.
14.5.6 NON-STRUCTURAL CRACK REPAIR (2006)

14.5.6.1 Sealing Cracks or Joints
a. Where there may be movement in the structure, by reason of expansion, contraction or vibration, structural joints
subject to leakage may be sealed by using a water stop such as a 10 inch, 16 ounce, cold-rolled copper expansion plate, 1
preformed along the longitudinal centerline of the copper to produce a modified “V”-shape as shown in Figure 8-14-5,
or a half round 2 inches diameter PVC pipe, secured in place with straps and anchors as shown in Figure 8-14-6, or
similar noncorrosive materials with the necessary flexibility as approved by the
Engineer.
Figure 8-14-5. Detail Copper Plate Joint Sealing
b. The concrete or stone should be chipped out sufficiently to provide space for installation of a watertight joint between
the water stop and concrete and also for a channel for water seepage, properly drained at the base of crack or joint, or as
otherwise specified by the Engineer.
c. The expansion joint between the finished surface and the water stop should be filled with a flexible joint sealing
material. The patch should be reinforced and placed as previously specified.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-14-6. Detail PVC Pipe Joint Sealing
d. Non-leaking cracks or joints where movement in the structure by reason of expansion, contraction or vibration is
apparent, may be sealed with a flexible joint sealing material. Where it has been determined that no movement exists, a
rigid compound can be used.
14.5.6.2 Surface Crack Repairs
Routing and sealing may be used to make surface crack repairs where surface appearance is not a consideration. This method
consists of enlarging the crack along its exposed face with a concrete saw or hand pneumatic tools to open the crack
sufficiently to receive the sealant. Minimum surface width should be 1/4 inch. The surface of the routed joint should be clean
and dry before placing the sealant. Sealant and installation should be according to the sealant manufacturer’s recommendation.
14.5.7 REINFORCEMENT SPLICES (2006)
14.5.7.1 Scope
Severely damaged reinforcing in members may be repaired by splicing. Where damaged reinforcement is spliced, the repairs
should be designed so that there is no change in stress due to the damage. Preloading of the member may be required to
achieve this, depending on the repair method used. The strength of the splice should meet the required ultimate strength of the
member.
14.5.7.2 Internal Splicing of Prestressing Tendons or Conventional Reinforcement
a. Strands or bars should be spliced by attaching a coupling device to the severed ends. The ends should be trimmed to
sound, undamaged material prior to splicing. The strand or bar should be stressed by tightening the coupling device
until the desired stress is reached.
b. Consideration should be given to fatigue and space limitations in selecting this method of repair for multiple strands or
bars.
c. Splices in conventional reinforcing may be accomplished by lap splices. Sufficient bar length must be exposed for
development of the splice and preloading may be required.
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14.5.7.3 External Post Tensioning
a. External post tensioning should consist of threaded bars or prestress strands applied to the member. The applied post
tensioning force should be calculated based on the internal stresses required under live and dead loads. Location of the
anchorage for the post tensioning system should be based upon the stresses at the transfer of load into the original
member.
b. Anchorages typically consist of corbels attached to the concrete with expansion bolts and bonding agents. Care should
be taken to ensure that existing tendons or bars are not damaged in the placement of anchor bolts.
14.5.7.4 External Metal Splice Sleeves
a. Metal sleeve splices consist of bonding steel plates across the damaged area with sufficient bond length to develop both
the damaged reinforcing and the metal plates.
b. Concrete surfaces in the bond area must be clean. Metal plates are galvanized steel with the contact surface scored
vertically by wire brushing.
c. The plates are bonded to the concrete by pressure injection by epoxy resin. A 1/16 inch gap should be left between the
concrete and the steel. The gap should be maintained by use of metal spacers. The edges of the splice sleeve should be
bolted to the concrete taking care not to damage existing reinforcing. Sufficient mechanical fasteners should be used to
transfer the stresses from the concrete to the sleeve.
d. Damaged concrete areas within the splice area should be filled with concrete. See Figure 8-14-7.
1
Figure 8-14-7. External Splice Sleeve
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 14.6 REPAIR METHODS FOR PRESTRESSED MEMBERS
14.6.1 CRACKS EXIST WITH NO SIGNIFICANT SECTION LOSS AND NO TENDON

DAMAGE (2006)1
Cracks should be repaired by epoxy injection. Cracks in the precompression zone should be repaired under preload if live load
alone applied to the section produces a tensile stress exceeding the bond strength or the base concrete allowable tension.
14.6.2 THERE IS MINOR SECTION LOSS, BUT NO TENDON DAMAGE (2006)
14.6.2.1 Minor Concrete Nicks, Spalls, or Scrapes (Adequate cover remains and there was not significant
section loss)2
Clean and seal minor defects with penetrating sealer to prevent moisture intrusion.
14.6.2.2 Gouges Across Bottom Flange with Loss of Cover (No Significant Section Loss)3
a. Girder designed for zero tension in bottom flange concrete under live load. Clean and seal minor defects with
penetrating sealer to prevent moisture intrusion. Additional protection may be provided by patching with an acceptable
concrete patching material.
b. Girder designed for tension in bottom flange concrete under live load. Clean and seal minor defects with penetrating
sealer to prevent moisture intrusion. If patching is used to provide additional protection, the patch should be applied
under preload. If under preload it is found that a crack has propagated from the gouge either the cracked concrete
should be removed or the crack repaired by epoxy injection. The gouge should be patched with an approved concrete
patching mortar and the preload removed after the patch has reached adequate strength. (This applies to existing
girders that may have tension in the bottom flanges. Current standards do not allow this design).
14.6.3 SHATTERED CONCRETE AND/OR SIGNIFICANT SECTION LOSS, BUT NO

TENDON DAMAGE (2006)
a. Replacement of lost concrete should be executed under preload if the repaired section would be subject to tensile
stresses when live load is applied.
b. In preparation of the surface for placement of repair material and in removal of damaged concrete extreme care must be
taken to avoid any damage to prestressing tendons. Tendons should be chemically cleaned.
14.6.4 THERE IS SECTION LOSS AND TENDON DAMAGE (2006)
14.6.4.1 General4
Repairs should be designed so there is no change in stress due to the damage. Preloading the member may be required to
achieve this end. The ultimate strength of the splice should always meet or exceed the required ultimate strength. Splicing of
reinforcing is covered in Article 14.5.7 Reinforcement Splices (2006).
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
© 2013,

14.6.4.2 Few Tendons Are Damaged1
a. Tendons should be repaired by internal splicing. After tendons are repaired the concrete is repaired, usually under
preload.
b. Repair of more than 2-4 tendons by this method is usually difficult.
14.6.4.3 Several Tendons Are Damaged (6-8 Tendons)2
The span may be repaired with external post-tensioning. Due to the externally applied tensioning, preload may not be required.
The damaged concrete may be repaired utilizing appropriate patching methods. Protection of the post-tensioning system must
be considered.
14.6.4.4 Multiple Tendon Damage with Large Section Losses3
Repairs can be accomplished with metal splice sleeves. The damaged concrete areas within the splice area are filled with
concrete. Preloading is not required if the stresses at the top and the end of the sleeve are within the allowable.
14.6.5 MEMBER IS DAMAGED BEYOND REASONABLE REPAIR (2006)
Replacement of some severely damaged members may be the only solution.
14.6.6 MEMBER HAS INADEQUATE STRENGTH (2006)

1
External post-tensioning and metal sleeve splices may be used to increase the strength of members.
14.6.7 SUMMARY (2006)4
The type of repair must be determined by the extent and type of damage, the time the structure will be out of service, the repair
cost, durability, and the ultimate load capacity of the repair. Combinations of repairs such as internal splicing with external 3
post-tensioning should also be considered.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - COMMENTARY
-2006-
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various paragraphs in Part 14 Repair and Rehabilitation of
Concrete Structures. In the numbering of paragraphs of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the
section/paragraph being explained.
C - SECTION 14.1 SCOPE (2006) (REFERENCES 5 AND 29)
a. The techniques and materials described in this chapter are applicable to cast-in-place and precast concrete, stone, and
concrete and brick masonry.
(1) UNDERWATER REPAIRS
General - Repairs to submerged concrete elements can generally be performed by divers working underwater or by
dewatering the work area and using conventional above water repair techniques. Most repairs can be satisfactorily
completed below water, if appropriate preparation and installation procedures are followed. Underwater repairs,
however, will generally take longer and be more expensive than comparable work done in the dry. Regardless,
underwater repairs are often more cost-effective in consideration of the costs to dewater the repair site.
The primary techniques available to permit work to be carried out under dry conditions are sheet pile cofferdams,
earthen dikes, and portable dams. Because underwater repairs are specialized and more difficult to inspect,
prequalification of the underwater contractor is recommended. Whether repairs are performed submerged or in the dry,
all environmental regulations should be complied with. Final acceptance of below water repairs should be made in
conjunction with an independent underwater inspection.
(2) UNDERWATER REPAIR OF CONCRETE
Materials - For underwater placement of concrete, durability and workability are usually as important as strength and
those properties can be enhanced with the proper admixtures. For below water applications, the most important factor
in achieving concrete durability is low permeability. This is accomplished with low water/cement ratio, the use of
pozzolans, and good consolidation. Improper concrete workability will also adversely affect durability.
Specialized concrete mix designs, which differ for marine or freshwater applications, should be used to provide a
durable, long lasting repair. Aggregates should themselves be durable, non-reactive and of the appropriate size for the
means of concrete placement. Admixtures, including water reducers, air entrainers, pozzolans, retarders, and anti-
washout additives, are available to assist concrete mixes in satisfying particular requirements. However, their use
should be checked for the compatibility of those to be used together, as well as suitability for the means of concrete
placement and the specific repair parameters. The implementation of trial mixes and placement is recommended prior
to the performance of the repairs. Water reducers are usually used to obtain low water / cement ratios. Air entraining
should be used for freeze-thaw exposures; however, it may not be suitable for other applications since it can increase
permeability. The use of pozzolans (such as fly ash and silica fume) will aid in reducing permeability and
susceptibility to sulfate attack; however, rate of strength gain will vary and moist curing will be needed for a dewatered
application. Anti-washout admixtures (AWA) assist in retaining concrete mix fines during underwater placement, and
can be used in conjunction with water reducers, rich mixes, and pozzolans to obtain maximum benefits. AWA's can
have disadvantages, including high cost, sensitivity to mix changes, and incompatibility with other admixtures, so their
use should be thoroughly investigated.
When steel reinforcement is used for concrete repairs in water related applications, a dense concrete and adequate
cover are imperative. Potential problems related to the concrete reinforcement can also be lessened with the use of
© 2013,

epoxy coated, galvanized, stainless steel, fiberglass or composite reinforcement. Corrosion inhibitors, such as calcium
nitrite, can also be added to the concrete to lower the corrosion potential of the reinforcement.
Methods - Concrete substructure repairs made underwater can address material deterioration and/or undermining. For
relatively small and shallow areas of concrete deterioration, hand-patching techniques can be used for placement of
repair mortar above and below water. Materials commonly used for hand patching applications include mortars made
with portland cement, hydraulic cement, epoxies or polymers, with the hydraulic mortars often having the smallest
reduction from their dry bond strength when used underwater. For larger areas to be repaired, rigid or flexible forms,
constructed from a variety of materials and designed to either stay-in-place or be removed, can be used for the
placement of the mortar. Materials used for rigid forms include wood, steel, fiberglass and concrete, whereas flexible
forms include fabric pile jackets, fabric bags and plastic membranes typically intended to be left in place. Grout filled
fabric bags can be used to fill large irregularly shaped voids, including those created by undermining, when outward
appearance is not a concern.
Prior to any placement of repair materials, the affected area should be properly prepared by removing all unsound
concrete and cleaning corrosion from any exposed reinforcement. Preparation techniques are similar to those used
above water, including pneumatic and hand hammers, wire brushes, and water or abrasive blasting which can be used
below water. Proper preparation may also include the installation of replacement or supplemental reinforcement and
expansion or grouted anchorage mechanisms for the repair mortar/concrete. Underwater placement of concrete can be
accomplished by tremie or pumping methods, with the incorporation of anti-washout admixtures in the concrete.
Preplaced aggregate within the forms may also be used with a pumping application to enhance durability and reduce
shrinkage of the repair.
Cracks below water can be structurally repaired with the injection of specially formulated, water insensitive resins that
contain particular polymers not found in true epoxies. The same injection techniques used above water are applicable
1
underwater; however, cracks must be adequately flushed with clean water or cleaning agents for proper resin bond and
penetration. Special resin compositions are required for water temperatures below 55°F (13°C). Hand applied or
formed mortar repairs and crack injection can also be used for concrete piles below water.
Synthetic membrane pile wraps can be used to inhibit further deterioration of concrete piles by creating a barrier
against chloride penetration and chemically aggressive waters. The structural repair of a concrete pile can be 3
accomplished with any of a number of pile jackets or encasements. Jacket repairs should typically incorporate
reinforcement around the pile within the forming system, which can consist of either rigid or flexible forms usually
intended to stay-in-place. Ideally, the forms should be filled by pumping of the grout from the bottom up, with
underwater monitoring to ensure uniform consolidation during placement.
Undermining of substructure footings caused by channel bottom scour can be repaired with grout bags, grouted stone,
or formed concrete used to fill the void under the footing. Grout bags can be used to occupy the void entirely, or 4
assembled as a form to contain the concrete that is placed behind to fill the void. Stone of the appropriate size can also
be used to fill around and within the void, with grout again being placed behind and among the stone. Placement of the
cement grout within the forms, bags or stones at the undermining can be accomplished by either a tremie or pumping
process, with anti-washout admixtures and underwater monitoring for leakage being incorporated. Repairs to
undermined substructures should be analyzed for effects on scour potential and the structural stability. The installation
of scour countermeasures in conjunction with the repairs should be considered.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(3) UNDERWATER REPAIR OF MASONRY
Materials - For underwater repair of masonry, stone of good, durable quality should be specified. Specifications for
stone should include minimum allowable compressive strengths, and limits on maximum porosity and bedding planes
or cracks. Cut stone replacement blocks should be aged to allow stress relaxation and moisture equilibrium, as well as
to allow time for the development of any cracks, which can occur in stone quarried by blasting. Mortars for masonry
joints are typically made of sand, cement and lime with newer compositions incorporating polymers and/or fine
aggregates. Older mortars were generally softer than those used in current practice, and new mortars should attempt to
match existing properties to maintain structure flexibility. Hard mortars should be avoided since they are more
inclined to crack or cause edge spalls.
Methods - Underwater masonry repairs can address both stone and mortar joint deterioration. Common repair
techniques include stone replacement with concrete to fill voids created by missing stones; mortar joint repointing; and
encasement of a masonry substructure unit with concrete. Stone replacement is typically incorporated when
appearance is a concern. Stones can also be replaced with concrete which is less expensive, but also less attractive.
The stone void can be filled by pumping concrete behind formwork that should include a venting mechanism to
completely fill the void.
The repair of deteriorated masonry joints can be accomplished by hand-applied mortar. The joints should first be
cleaned of all loose and unsound material, dirt and marine growth. Hand-applied mortar repairs below water are
conducted in the same manner as above water, with repointing accomplished with a trowel or squeeze bag, although
hydraulic cement mortars are often used underwater. Where joint strength is not a concern, caulk may be used in the
joint to arrest further deterioration of the mortar. For deeper joint problems, joints can also be pressure-grouted with
cement grout or epoxy after an exterior seal is installed along the joints. To restore deteriorated areas, as well as to
afford future protection, masonry substructure units can be encased with concrete, either partially or completely.
Dowels should be used to hold and aid in supporting the encasement. The methods for the placement of concrete for
encasements, as well as for stone replacements, should be consistent with the recommendations for underwater
concrete repairs.
C - SECTION 14.2 DETERMINATION OF THE CAUSES OF CONCRETE

DETERIORATION (2006)
a. Several factors contribute to the deterioration of concrete. These include:
(1) Lack of quality in the original concrete and/or its placement can be caused by deficiencies in:
(a) Quality of materials such as: improperly stored or handled cement; reactive, porous or soft aggregates;
contaminated water; or inappropriate admixtures or combinations of admixtures
(b) Mix design and proportioning
(c) Workmanship, placing, finishing or curing
(2) Deficiency of reinforcement such as:
(a) Design deficiencies
(b) Inadequate or improper details
(c) Damaged coating on epoxy coated reinforcement
© 2013,

(d) Insufficient concrete cover
(3) Properties of surrounding environment including:
(a) Use of deicing agents
(b) Alkali soil or water
(c) Industrial chemicals
(d) Marine environment
(4) Inadequate structural capacity due to:
(a) Excessive loads
(b) Design deficiencies
(c) Inadequate or improper details
(d) Inadequate consolidation
(5) Physical damage due to:
(a) Impact
1
(b) Abrasion from ice, stream flow, traffic
(c) Settlement of the foundation
(d) Freeze-thaw cycles 3

(e) Fire
(f) Seismic activity
(g) Wind
4
(h) Storm
C - SECTION 14.3 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF DETERIORATION AND

DAMAGE
C - 14.3.1.3 Non-Destructive Tests
a. For determining the extent of concrete or masonry deterioration, the following are some of the non-destructive
techniques available.
(1) For surface conditions, visual inspection can be used to identify the location and size of cracks, voids, scaling,
spalls, delaminations, and exposed (corroded) reinforcement.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(2) For internal conditions and subsurface deterioration, conventional testing methods include:
(a) Audio methods for detection of cracks, voids and delaminations require the use of hand tools, including
hammers, steel rods and chains, which are used for striking the structure to detect sound differentials between
good and defective ("hollow" sounding) material.
(b) Electrical methods for evaluation of reinforcement corrosion activity include the use of half-cells or multiple
electrode systems, which measure resistance and potential differences. The method requires connection be
made to an exposed section of steel reinforcement.
(c) Impulse radar uses electromagnetic wave (radar) reflection to detect voids, measure material thickness, and
evaluate presence and location of embedments (reinforcement) in structures. This method is affected by
moisture in the concrete or masonry, and relative measurements should be correlated to known dimensions.
(d) Infrared thermography uses heat flow through structures to determine anomalies such as voids and
delaminations.
(e) Magnetic methods for determining location, size and depth of reinforcement include the use of pachometers
or R-meters that make measurements based on the principles of induction.
(f) Stress wave reflection/refraction methods, including pulse-echo, impact-echo and stress wave refraction,
introduce a stress pulse into the structure, and reflections of the stress waves denote material flaws or
interfaces such as voids, cracks, and delaminations.
(g) Rebound (impact) hammers use a spring-loaded weight impacted against the structure, with the amount of
rebound being a measurement of material hardness and strength. This commonly used method is inexpensive,
but results can be affected by surface conditions, material moisture content and aggregate type.
(h) Ultrasonic pulse velocity methods use measurements of the time for a sound wave to travel to and from a
reflection surface (backside of a structure or internal discontinuity) to determine material thickness and to
identify the presence and location of voids, cracks or delaminations. This method is affected by material
density and component make-up, and relative measurements should be correlated to known dimensions.
C - 14.3.2 RESULTS OF EVALUATION (2006)
Both cost-effectiveness of the repair and the business costs of the time impacts on rail operations should be considered in
evaluating a course of action.
C - SECTION 14.4 PRINCIPAL MATERIALS USED IN THE REPAIR OF CONCRETE

STRUCTURES
C - 14.4.8 NON-SHRINK GROUTS (2006)
Non-shrink grouts are available in a wide variety of compositions for special purposes. This results in highly variable
properties of the products. The variables include flowability, resistance to chemical attack, set time, rate of strength gain,
ultimate strength and impact resistance. No single product is applicable for all cases. Product should be checked for
suitability of application.
© 2013,

C - SECTION 14.5 REPAIR METHODS
C - 14.5.1 SURFACE REPAIRS USING PORTLAND CEMENT MATERIALS (2006)
C - 14.5.1.1 Scope
b. Preload consists of the application of external loads during the repair process to restore the prestressing forces in
members where the prestress has been lost due to damage. If the prestress is restored to a level less than the original
design level, the capacity of the member should be evaluated at the reduced level of prestressing.
C - 14.5.1.2 Preparation
Proper preparation of the surfaces to be repaired is critical to the success of the repair. Failure to provide a sound, clean
surface prior to application of repair material is a common cause of failure of repairs.
C - 14.5.1.5 Bonding
When using bonding agents, timing can be critical. Extended exposure of the bonding agent prior to application of the new
material may cause failure of the bond.
C - 14.5.1.8 Shotcrete
The successful application of shotcrete requires experience and knowledge. The use of an experienced, qualified crew is
recommended, especially in the nozzleman position. 1
C - 14.5.1.12 Curing and Protection
Curing of cast-in-place concrete and shotcrete repairs may be more critical than for concrete in new construction. Where there
is an existing concrete or masonry substrate, shrinkage is limited to the repair material only and cracking may result. In
addition, the substrate may pull water from the repair material, reducing the available water in the mix. In the case of
shotcrete, which has a low water cement ratio, there is no form to reduce moisture loss further increasing the need for 3
protection from drying during the curing process.
C - 14.5.2 SURFACE REPAIRS USING POLYMER CONCRETES AND POLYMER

PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETES (2006)
Polymer concrete mixes may contain unpolymerized chemicals that can be hazardous. Particular attention should be given to 4
the ingredients and handling instructions. Many of these materials have a very rapid strength gain, high strengths and high
impact capacity. These features make these materials useful where load bearing concrete must be replaced in short time
frames. The particular characteristics of the materials vary from product to product. The characteristics of the product should
be evaluated before use.
C - 14.5.5 INTERNAL STRUCTURAL REPAIRS (2006)
C - 14.5.5.1 Scope
Care should be taken in the choice of whether to use portland cement grouts or epoxy for injection. The two materials have
different characteristics and costs. Cement grouts are generally thicker and considerably less expensive, making them
appropriate for applications where large internal voids, large cracks and a pathway to the earth fill behind the member are
present. Where high strength is important, cracks are thin and the material can be well contained in the crack, epoxy materials
are appropriate.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - 14.5.5.3 Epoxy Injection
C - 14.5.5.3.3 Injection Ports
d. (2) Care should be taken to prevent concrete dust generated during drilling from plugging the crack. A vacuum
attached to the drill and hollow drill bits should be used to remove the dust as drilling occurs and prevent it from
blocking the flow of the epoxy.
C - 14.5.5.3.5 Materials and Equipment
a. (3) Where one component is used in a high ratio to the other component it is difficult to assure even mixing and pockets
of unmixed materials may result. When this occurs the epoxy may never jell or reach the desired strength.
C - 14.5.5.3.6 Injection of Epoxy
g. Injection pressures above 100 psi (0.7 MPa) are not recommended as the pressure could cause further damage to the
member. If the normal pressures are not sufficient to cause penetration of the materials into the cracks, a lower
viscosity epoxy should be considered.
C - 14.5.5.4 Reinforcement of Cracks
Injection of materials into a crack should not be considered to restore the tensile capacity of the concrete. Where tension is to
be transferred across the crack, reinforcement should be installed to carry the tension. The selection of the type of
reinforcement should consider where the tension forces are to be transferred. The reinforcement should continue to a point
where the existing capacity of the structure can resist the forces, with proper consideration to development of reinforcement.
C - SECTION 14.6 REPAIR METHODS FOR PRESTRESSED MEMBERS

(REFERENCES 60 AND 61)
C - 14.6.1 CRACKS EXIST WITH NO SIGNIFICANT SECTION LOSS AND NO TENDON

DAMAGE (2006)
The application of preload should be investigated in conjunction with concrete repairs. Applying preload prior to epoxy
injection can result in live load stresses no greater than original.
© 2013,

Figure C-8-14-1. Preloading
C - 14.6.2 THERE IS MINOR SECTION LOSS, BUT NO TENDON DAMAGE (2006)

3
C - 14.6.2.1 Minor Concrete Nicks, Spalls, or Scrapes (Adequate cover remains and there was not
significant section loss)
The application of two coats of a penetrating sealer is recommended to prevent moisture intrusion or other corrosive elements
to the prestressing steel.
C - 14.6.2.2 Gouges Across Bottom Flange with Loss of Cover (No Significant Section Loss) 4
Gouge patches should attain required strength prior to removal of preload.
C - 14.6.4 THERE IS SECTION LOSS AND TENDON DAMAGE (2006)
Impact damage may cause sweep (lateral curvature in the bottom flange) or abrupt lateral curvature caused by the combination
of torsional and transverse flexural stress induced by tendon eccentricities when strands are broken on one side of a girder. It
may be possible to jack the tension flange into alignment and hold it using an additional diaphragm.
C - 14.6.4.2 Few Tendons Are Damaged
One advantage of internal strand splices is that they restore strength internally. Combined with preloading, the girder should
be restored to its original condition.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - 14.6.4.3 Several Tendons Are Damaged (6-8 Tendons)
Jacking corbels may be used to secure the ends of post-tensioned rods. The strength of the corbels will generally control the
number of severed strands that can be spliced by post-tensioning. Between corbels, the post-tensioning rods should be grouted
after post-tensioning inside of a conduit to protect the rods.
Figure C-8-14-2. External Post-Tensioning Section Between Corbels
C - 14.6.4.4 Multiple Tendon Damage with Large Section Losses
The use of metal splice sleeves does not restore prestress unless preloading is used. Intermediate cracks which are covered by
the splice should not reduce structure integrity or durability.
© 2013,

Figure C-8-14-3. Metal Splice Sleeve 1
C - 14.6.7 SUMMARY (2006)
For independent precast members, replacement of the member may be the most effective solution.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 16
Design and Construction of Reinforced
Concrete Box Culverts
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
16.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-2 1

16.1.1 Scope (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-2
16.1.2 Units (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-3
16.1.3 Definition (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-3
16.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-4

16.2.1 Existing Foundation Material (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-4
16.2.2 Existing Embankment Material (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-4 3
16.2.3 Backfill and Bedding Materials (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-5
16.2.4 Concrete (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-5
16.2.5 Reinforcement (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-5
16.2.6 Miscellaneous Metal (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-5
16.2.7 Miscellaneous Materials (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-5
16.3 Design Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6

16.3.1 Design Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.3.2 Design to Accommodate Flow (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.3.3 Structural Design (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.4 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6

16.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.4.2 Dead Load (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-7
16.4.3 Live Load (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-9
16.4.4 Impact Load (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13
16.4.5 Other Forces (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13
16.5 Details of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13

16.5.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13
16.5.2 Wingwalls (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13
16.5.3 Barrel and Apron (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13

16.5.4 Longitudinal Reinforcement (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15

16.5.5 Drainage and Waterproofing (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15
16.5.6 Backfill (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15
16.6 Manufacture of Precast Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15

16.6.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15
16.6.2 Manufacturing Tolerances (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-16
16.6.3 Physical Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-16
16.6.4 Marking (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
16.7 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17

16.7.1 Construction Tolerances (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
16.7.2 Joints (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
16.7.3 Waterproofing or Dampproofing (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
16.7.4 Handling Devices (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
16.7.5 Foundations (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-18
16.7.6 Backfilling (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-18
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-19
LIST OF FIGURES
8-16-1 Uniformly Distributed Load to Top of Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-8

8-16-2 Distribution of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-9
8-16-3 Design Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-10
8-16-4 Design Equations U.S. Customary Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-11
8-16-5 Design Equations Metric Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-12
8-16-6 Tongue and Groove Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-14
8-16-7 Male and Female Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-14
8-16-8 Backfilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-18
16.1.1 SCOPE (2006)1
a. This recommended practice governs the design and construction of precast or cast-in-place rigid frame reinforced
concrete box culverts on soil foundations.
b. This recommended practice does not apply to installations where the vertical dimension (H) from the top of the
structure to the base of rail is less than 18 inches (450 mm).
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts
c. This recommended practice does not provide for installation of precast units by jacking. Provisions for jacking must
be considered separately and in addition to the recommendations of this Part.
d. This recommended practice applies to installations beneath conventional ballasted track.
16.1.2 UNITS (2006)
This recommended practice uses U. S. customary units. The metric (SI) units in parentheses are approximate, and are
provided for information only.
ASTM Standard Specifications are cited, where available. Corresponding Metric ASTM International Specifications are
shown in parenthesis where available.
16.1.3 DEFINITION (2006)1
A box culvert is a structure which forms one or more rectangular openings through an embankment.
The size designation of a box culvert opening indicates first the width, followed by the height.
16.1.3.1 Notations
U.S. Metric
Customary Units
1
b The width of a box culvert opening. ft m
b´ The horizontal distance between center lines of box culvert ft m
walls.
h The height of a box culvert opening. ft m
h´ The vertical distance between center lines of box culvert ft m
top and bottom slabs. 3
H The vertical distance between the top of a box culvert and ft m
the base of rail.
H´ The vertical distance between the center of a box culvert ft m
opening and the base of rail.
I The impact load applied to the top of a box culvert, as a % %
percentage of WLL. 4
IS Moment of inertia of the box culvert top slab gross section, in4 mm4
per foot (meter) of culvert length.
IW Moment of inertia of the box culvert wall gross section, per in4 mm4
foot (meter) of culvert length.
ke The coefficient of active earth pressure of embankment fill none none
excluding surcharge loading.
ks The coefficient of active earth pressure of embankment fill none none
including surcharge loading.
k The ratio of S to R. none none
Ld Lateral live load distribution length illustrated in Figure 8- ft m
16-2.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

U.S. Metric
Customary Units
MA The maximum negative moment at the exterior corner of a kip.ft kN.m
box culvert per foot (meter) of culvert length.
MB The maximum positive moment in a box culvert top slab kip.ft kN.m
near the center of a culvert opening per foot (meter) of
culvert length.
MC The maximum negative moment in the top slab of a box kip.ft kN.m
culvert at the top of a center wall per foot (meter) of culvert
length.
Pe The uniformly distributed design load on the sides of a box lbs/ft2 kN/m2
culvert, excluding surcharge loading.
Ps The uniformly distributed design load on the sides of a box lbs/ft2 kN/m2
culvert, including surcharge loading.
R The ratio of b´ to h´. none none
S The ratio of Is to Iw none none
VA The maximum vertical shear in the top slab of a box lbs kN
culvert, at the face of support near an exterior corner per
foot (meter) of culvert length.
VC The maximum vertical shear in the top slab of a box lbs kN
culvert, at the face of support near a center wall per foot
(meter) of culvert length.
W The total uniformly distributed load on the top of a box lbs/ft2 kN/m2
culvert; a combination of WLL , WDL , and I.
WDL The uniformly distributed dead load on the top of a box lbs/ft2 kN/m2
culvert.
We Weight density of embankment fill taken as 120 lbs/ft3 lbs/ft3 kg/m3
(Mass density of embankment fill taken as 1900 kg/m3).
WLL The uniformly distributed live load on the top of a box lbs/ft2 kN/m2
culvert.
Ws Weight of concrete per square foot of top slab area (Mass lbs/ft2 kg/m2
of concrete per square meter of top slab area).
16.2.1 EXISTING FOUNDATION MATERIAL (2006)
The Engineer shall investigate the characteristics of existing foundation materials as recommended in Part 22, Geotechnical
Subsurface Investigation.
16.2.2 EXISTING EMBANKMENT MATERIAL (2006)
The Engineer shall investigate the characteristics of existing embankment materials in conjunction with existing foundation
conditions where existing embankment material will be excavated and reused.
© 2013,

16.2.3 BACKFILL AND BEDDING MATERIALS (2006)
a. Backfill and bedding materials shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer. Wet or impervious materials shall not
be used except as outlined in Article 16.2.3 g, and all backfill and bedding shall be free from brush and other organic
materials.
b. Crushed stone for bedding shall consist of crushed rock graded such that 100% passes a 2 inch (50 mm) sieve, and
100% is retained on a 3/4 inch (19 mm) sieve.
c. Sand for foundation leveling shall consist of selected excavated sand, free from clay and organic materials, and free
from rock fragments exceeding 3/4 inch (19 mm).
d. Crushed stone placed around drainage pipes shall meet the same requirements for bedding, except that the Engineer
may specify a different grading.
e. Unless otherwise shown on the contract documents, structural granular backfill shall consist of well-graded granular
pit run gravel or crushed stone with 100% passing the 4-1/4 inch (106 mm) sieve and 100% retained on the Number
200 (75 μm) sieve.
f. Native or imported backfill materials not meeting the requirements of structural granular backfill may be used subject
to the approval of the Engineer.
g. Clay for seepage barriers shall consist of clay or silty clay of a medium to high plasticity and of a low permeability, all
subject to the approval of the Engineer. 1
16.2.4 CONCRETE (2006)1
a. The minimum compressive strength of concrete shall be 4000 psi (28 MPa) at 28 days.
b. Concrete materials shall comply with the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements that
affect the durability of the culvert, including alkali-aggregate reactions, sulfate and other chemical reactions, and 3
freezing and thawing. Use air entraining and other admixtures only when approved by the Engineer. Admixtures
containing chlorides shall not be used.
Reinforcing steel shall meet the requirements of ASTM 615 (A615M) Grade 60 (Grade 420), or ASTM A706 (A706M), or 4
welded steel wire fabric conforming to ASTM A497 (ASTM A497M), with an allowable tensile stress of 24,000 psi (165
MPa) for service load design.
16.2.6 MISCELLANEOUS METAL (2006)
All hardware for sleeves, anchor bolts, inserts and other hardware shall be either hot-dip galvanized in accordance with ASTM
A153, or epoxy coated in accordance with ASTM A775 (ASTM A775M), or stainless steel in accordance with ASTM A955
(A955M), as approved by the Engineer.
16.2.7 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS (2006)
a. Water stops shall meet the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements for watertight
construction joints.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. Gasket material shall conform to ASTM C990-03 Preformed Flexible Joint Sealant, as approved by the Engineer.
SECTION 16.3 DESIGN METHODS
16.3.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2006)1
a. The design shall consider the following:
(1) The purpose of the structure.
(2) Depth of culvert from base of rail to invert level.
(3) Requirements for soil cover above the top of the structure and below the base of rail, as specified by the Engineer,
in addition to the requirements of these recommendations.
(4) Waterway alignment and skew angle.
(5) Subgrade width and embankment slopes.
(6) Existing foundation conditions.
b. For precast culverts, the design shall consider the following:
(1) Stresses induced by handling and transportation of units.
(2) Methods of installation.
(3) Methods of connecting sections of box culverts together to secure the units in their intended position.
16.3.2 DESIGN TO ACCOMMODATE FLOW (2006)
Calculation of flow rates and the design of the culvert and approaches to accommodate flows in accordance with Chapter 1,
Roadway and Ballast, Part 3, Natural Waterways.
16.3.3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN (2006)2
a. The design shall comply with all provisions of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, except as modified in this part.
b. The structure shall be analyzed assuming that all joints between slabs and walls are rigid, with positive and negative
bending moments determined by the theory of elasticity.
SECTION 16.4 DESIGN LOADS
16.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
a. The design of box culverts supporting track shall consider the following loads:
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

(1) dead load,
(2) live load,
(3) impact load.
b. The loads, uniformly distributed per square foot (per square meter) to the top of the box, are shown in Figure 8-16-1 for
various depths of fill.
16.4.2 DEAD LOAD (2006)1
a. The vertical dead load consists of the estimated weight of the track, fill, and top slab of the structure. Dead load shall be
determined from, and uniformly distributed to the culvert as shown on Figure 8-16-1 and Figure 8-16-2, respectively.
b. The minimum lateral pressure on the sides of the box shall be based on an assumed earth pressure coefficient of 0.33.
c. The maximum lateral pressure on the sides of the box shall be based on an assumed earth pressure coefficient of 1.0.
d. As an alternative to paragraph c, the Engineer may determine the maximum designed density of a fully saturated fill,
and the corresponding earth pressure coefficient that would apply, and use these in the calculation of both vertical and
lateral pressures from dead loads.
e. The lateral pressures on each side of the box may be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the entire height, equal
and opposite in direction. This assumption has been made in the design equations shown in Figure 8-16-4 and 1
Figure 8-16-5. If a more exact distribution is used, Figure 8-16-4 and Figure 8-16-5 do not apply.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

DISTANCE H - BASE OF RAIL TO TOP OF BOX, METERS

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4500
210
4250
4000
3750 180
3500
DEAD LOAD + LIVE LOAD + IMPACT
3250
150
UNIFORM LOAD W = LB. PER SQ FT.
3000
2750
UNIFORM LOAD W = kPa

2500 120
2250
2000
DEAD LOAD 90
1750
1500
1250 60
1000
LIVE LOAD E-80 (EM 360)
750
30
500
IMPACT
250
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
DISTANCE H - BASE OF RAIL TO TOP OF BOX, FEET
Figure 8-16-1. Uniformly Distributed Load to Top of Box
© 2013,

16.4.3 LIVE LOAD (2006)1
a. Determine live load for each track in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design. Distribution of the live load
to the culvert shall be in accordance with Figure 8-16-2.
Ld
Figure 8-16-2. Distribution of Loads

3
b. No increase in live load shall be used for multiple track loadings.
c. Calculate the minimum lateral pressure induced from live load on the sides of the box using the earth pressure
coefficient determined by Article 16.4.2.
d. The maximum lateral pressures that may be generated on the sides of the box shall be considered in the design, except 4
that the earth pressure coefficient of Article 16.4.2 c need not be applied to live loads. If the provisions of
Article 16.4.2 d are used with respect to dead loads, then they shall be used for the calculation of maximum pressures
from live loads also.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-16-3. Design Data
© 2013,

Figure 8-16-4. Design Equations U.S. Customary Units
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-16-5. Design Equations Metric Units
© 2013,

16.4.4 IMPACT LOAD (2006)
a. Add impact load to the live load as determined from Figure 8-16-1 or Figure 8-16-4 or Figure 8-16-5, respectively, and
uniformly distributed to the culvert top slab in the same manner as the live load.
b. No impact shall be added to the lateral forces on the sides of the box.
16.4.5 OTHER FORCES (2006)
a. Centrifugal force, wind force, and longitudinal forces resulting from starting and stopping of trains need not be
considered.
SECTION 16.5 DETAILS OF DESIGN
16.5.1 GENERAL (2006)
a. The contract documents shall show construction elements in detail including dimensions, spacing and size of
reinforcement, permitted locations for the placement of handling devices and holes in the case of precast, construction
and expansion joints, water stops, waterproofing, and drainage. The maximum design foundation pressure shall also be
shown.
1
b. When it is anticipated that multiple culverts will be built, standardization of the design and construction details is
recommended.
c. The culvert shall be designed with a camber along its longitudinal axis where required by the Engineer, to counteract
the effects of settlement.
3
16.5.2 WINGWALLS (2006)
a. Wingwalls may be cast-in-place or precast.
b. Wingwalls shall have such slope and length as required to retain the embankment and maintain the culvert opening.
c. Wingwalls may be straight or flared, as local conditions and hydraulic design require. 4
16.5.3 BARREL AND APRON (2006)
a. The minimum concrete cover for reinforcement shall be 2 inches (50 mm) unless approved otherwise by the Engineer.
This requirement does not apply at the joints of precast units.
b. The same barrel section shall be used throughout, except under deep fills where a reduced barrel section may be used
toward the ends of the box. Consideration shall be given to the construction of future tracks.
c. Wall and top and bottom slab thicknesses shall be a minimum of 10 inches (250 mm), or as required by the Engineer.
Greater wall and slab thicknesses should be considered for cast-in-place construction to facilitate concrete placement.
d. A minimum haunch of 6 inches (150 mm) shall be provided.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

e. In long culverts, or culverts under deep fills, consideration should be given to the placement of joints to provide for
possible vertical and longitudinal movements of the barrel of cast-in-place culverts. If joints are used, the first joint
shall be not less than 10 feet (3 meters) from the end of the cast-in-place barrel. For cast-in-place construction, joints
should not be placed in regions of maximum stress.
f. Precast units shall be designed with tongue and groove or male and female ends such as shown in Figure 8-16-6 and
Figure 8-16-7 or as determined by the Engineer. The inside face reinforcement shall extend into the male portion of the
joint, and the outside face reinforcement shall extend into the female portion of the joint.
g. Where differential deflection from live load between units exceeds b/800, (where b is the width of the box opening)
joints between precast units shall be capable of transferring shear loads through the top slab between adjacent units by
a method or devices which may be mutually agreed upon by the box culvert manufacturer and the Engineer. If
individual shear connectors are used to fasten the adjacent top slabs together, they shall be spaced no more than 30
inches (750 mm) on center, with a minimum of two shear connectors per joint.
Figure 8-16-6. Tongue and Groove Joint
Figure 8-16-7. Male and Female Joint
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h. The floor of the barrel and apron may be sloped toward the center. Flow energy dissipation may be provided by
texturing the floor of the culvert if this is taken into account in the flow capacity design.
i. The surface of the top slab in contact with the backfill may be sloped toward the sidewalls for drainage.
j. The length of the apron, and rip-rap requirements, shall be determined by field conditions in accordance with Chapter
1, Roadway and Ballast.
k. Cutoff walls shall be used at inlet and outlet ends to a depth consistent with the field conditions and potential scour.
16.5.4 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT (2006)
a. The minimum longitudinal reinforcement in the top slab, bottom slab and walls shall be as follows:
(1) 0.4% of concrete cross sectional area for fill depths over the top of the top slab equal to or less than 10 feet (3
meters).
(2) For fill depths greater than 10 feet (3 meters), this percentage shall be increased proportionally to 1.0% for fills of
100 feet (30 meters).
b. The minimum reinforcement determined from paragraph a shall be provided half on each face of the slab or wall.
16.5.5 DRAINAGE AND WATERPROOFING (2006)1

1
a. Pipe drains in the backfill adjacent to the side walls shall be shown on the contract drawings when necessary.
Horizontal drain pipes shall be not less than 8 inches (200 mm) in diameter, perforated, and in such a position that they
will function properly. Provisions shall be made for cleaning drainage pipes.
b. Special provision may be made for waterproofing by use of non-corrosive water stops in accordance with Part 1,
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements for watertight construction joints, and/or by use of a waterproofing
membrane in accordance with Part 29, Waterproofing. 3
16.5.6 BACKFILL (2006)
a. The limits of structural granular backfill shall be shown on the contract drawings.
b. Where structural granular backfill is not required, the Engineer shall specify the materials to be used. 4
c. When a seepage barrier is required, the details of its location and thickness shall be shown on the contract drawings.
d. The Engineer shall specify any other backfill details required.
SECTION 16.6 MANUFACTURE OF PRECAST UNITS
16.6.1 GENERAL (2006)
a. Manufacturer’s shop drawings shall be submitted to the Engineer for review and approval.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. Precast reinforced concrete culvert units shall be manufactured using steel forms and cured in accordance with Part 1,
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
c. Concrete shall be placed by the wet cast method when air-entrainment is specified in the contract documents. When
air-entrainment is not specified, the precast reinforced concrete culvert units may be manufactured by the dry cast
method if approved by the Engineer.
d. Handling devices or holes shall be provided where shown on the contract drawings. Details of handling devices shall
be shown on the shop drawings and shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer, and shall also satisfy the
requirements of Article 16.7.4.
16.6.2 MANUFACTURING TOLERANCES (2006)
a. Opening Dimensions — The dimensions of the culvert opening shall vary by not more than +/– 1% from the
dimensions shown on the contract documents. Such variations shall also satisfy the requirements of Article 16.6.3 a.
The haunch dimensions shall vary by not more than 1/4 inch (7 mm) from the dimensions shown on the contract
documents.
b. Slab and Wall Thickness — The slab and wall thickness shall not be less than 95% of that shown on the contract
documents. A thickness more than that shown on the contract documents shall not be cause for rejection.
c. Length of Opposite Surfaces — Variations in laying lengths of two opposite surfaces of the box unit shall not be more
than 1/8 inch per foot (10 mm per meter) of span, with a maximum of 3/4 inch (20 mm) in any box unit, except where
beveled ends for laying on curves are specified on the contract documents.
d. Length of Precast Unit — The length of a precast unit shall vary by not more than 1/8 inch per foot (10 mm per meter)
of length from that shown on the contract documents with a maximum variation of 1/2 inch (12 mm) in any box unit.
e. Position of reinforcement — The maximum variation in the position of reinforcement shall be 3/8 inch (10 mm) from
that shown on the contract documents. In no case, however, shall the as-manufactured cover over the reinforcement be
less than 1-1/2 inch (40 mm) as measured to the internal surface or the external surface of the completed box unit
unless approved otherwise by the Engineer. This minimum cover limitation does not apply at the mating surfaces of
joints.
f. Area of Reinforcement — The areas of steel reinforcement shall be as required by the contract documents. Steel areas
greater than those required shall not be cause for rejection.
16.6.3 PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS (2006)
a. The ends of the units shall be produced with joints as shown on the contract documents, and so formed that when the
units are laid together they will make a continuous line of box units with a smooth interior free of irregularities
exceeding 3/8 inch (10 mm) at the joints.
b. The manufacturer may use alternate joint details to those shown on the contract documents subject to the approval of
the Engineer.
c. When concrete is placed by the wet cast method concrete compressive strength shall be determined from cylindrical
concrete specimens made in conformance with ASTM Standard C39/C39M, and prepared in conformance with ASTM
Standard C31/C31M.
d. When units are manufactured by the dry cast method, cylinders shall be made in conformance with ASTM Standard
C361, Article 10.3.2.
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e. At least five test cylinders shall be prepared from each day’s production of concrete.
f. Compression test requirements shall be in accordance with ASTM Standard C361, Article 10.3.3.
16.6.4 MARKING (2006)
a. The following information shall be clearly marked on each box unit by indentation, waterproof paint, or other
approved means:
(1) Project name.
(2) Date of manufacture.
(3) Name or trademark of the manufacturer.
(4) Identification of the plant.
(5) Location number/match mark.
(6) Identification of top slab.
(7) Weight (mass) of unit.
16.7.1 CONSTRUCTION TOLERANCES (2006)
The construction tolerances of Article 16.6.2 a, b, e, and f shall also apply for cast-in-place concrete.
3
16.7.2 JOINTS (2006)
a. Joints shall be located as shown on the contract drawings or as approved by the Engineer. Joints in cast-in-place box
culverts shall be formed as prescribed in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
4
b. Premolded bituminous filler at least 1/2 inch (12 mm) thick may be used at joints in cast-in-place box culverts.
c. Precast units shall be placed against previously completed units in such a manner as to assure an adequate seal.
16.7.3 WATERPROOFING OR DAMPPROOFING (2006)
a. Waterproofing, if any, shall be provided in accordance with Part 29, Waterproofing, or as specified by the Engineer.
b. Where no waterproofing is specified, the surface in contact with the backfill may be dampproofed. Dampproofing, if
any, shall be in accordance with the provisions of Part 29, Waterproofing.
16.7.4 HANDLING DEVICES (2006)
Following installation of precast units, and before waterproofing or backfilling, all protruding handling devices shall be
removed, and all holes and pockets shall be filled with a non-shrink grout approved by the Engineer.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

16.7.5 FOUNDATIONS (2006)1
a. The foundation requirements apply where the reinforced concrete box culvert is to be constructed by open cut.
b. Foundation conditions shall be inspected and approved by the Engineer.
c. Existing unsuitable foundation materials shall be excavated and replaced with new material as required by the
Engineer.
d. A compacted crushed stone bed shall be provided under precast reinforced concrete box culverts. The depth of the
crushed stone bed shall be a minimum of 12 inches (300 mm), and shall extend 12 inches (300 mm) on each side of the
precast reinforced concrete box culvert with a minimum one to one side slope as shown on Figure 8-16-8.
Figure 8-16-8. Backfilling
e. In cast-in-place construction, the crushed stone bed may be omitted if foundation conditions are favorable, as
determined by the Engineer.
f. The foundation surface upon which the reinforced concrete box culvert is to be supported shall be carefully graded to
the required line and grade. A well compacted sand layer not exceeding 4 inches (100 mm) in thickness may be
provided directly under a precast culvert, and on top of the crushed stone bedding, to facilitate this.
16.7.6 BACKFILLING (2006)
a. The backfilling requirements apply where the reinforced concrete box culvert is to be constructed by open cut.
b. Structural granular backfill shall be used for the entire backfill area unless shown otherwise on the contract drawings,
and except as required for:
(1) foundations, as recommended in Article 16.7.5; and
(2) drainage materials, as recommended in Article 16.2.3 d; and
(3) parallel installations as recommended by Article 16.7.6 c.
c. When reinforced concrete culverts are used in parallel for multicell installations, positive means of ensuring lateral
support shall be provided by grouting with non-shrink grout between the units or by filling the space between adjacent
units with compacted granular or cementitious material as approved by the Engineer.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

d. Backfill shall be placed alternately on each side of the box and deposited in layers not more than 12 inches (300 mm)
thick. The layers shall be horizontal or sloping away from the structure, with each layer carefully tamped.
e. Care shall be taken in selecting and placing the backfill to prevent damage when the exterior of the culvert has a
waterproofing coating or membrane. Protective cover material may be used to prevent damage to the waterproofing
system.
COMMENTARY
C - 16.1 GENERAL
C - 16.1.1 SCOPE (2006)
The design and construction of reinforced concrete box culverts having more than two openings may be modeled upon these
recommendations, but the design equations of Figure 8-16-4 and Figure 8-16-5 will not apply.
For culverts of more than two openings the effects of unbalanced loading or pattern loading should be considered.
The design of box culverts on pile or rock foundations is governed by support conditions, and box culverts on pile foundations
will require a special analysis because of these different support conditions. However, the design of box culverts on rock
foundations may be based on these recommendations if the Engineer ensures that there is sufficiently elastic backfill bedding
between the culvert and the rock.
1
The design and construction of reinforced concrete box structures having a vertical dimension from the top of the structure to
the base of rail of less than 18 inches (450 mm) may be modeled upon these recommendations, but the effects of impact
loading will require special determination. The design equations of Figure 8-16-4 and Figure 8-16-5 will not apply,
particularly with regard to impact.
Reinforced concrete box culvert installations will normally be by open cut, and the reference to jacking in Article 16.1.1 c will
not apply. 3
C - 16.1.3 DEFINITION (2006)
Box culverts are used principally for waterways, but may also be used as pedestrian or livestock underpasses, or for other
purposes.
4
C - 16.2 MATERIALS
C - 16.2.4 CONCRETE (2006)
Air entrainment should always be provided where concrete will be subjected to freeze-thaw cycles. To increase the
imperviousness of the concrete, air entrainment should also be considered in chemically aggressive environments including
dissolved sulfates, industrial effluent, and acid rain. Since the dry cast method is not compatible with air entrainment, the
Engineer should consider this when preparing the contract specifications.
The preparation of cylinders for determining concrete compressive strength differs for wet cast and dry cast concrete. The
Engineer should determine the methods employed by potential manufacturers when preparing the contract specifications.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - 16.3 DESIGN METHODS
Shallow boxes or boxes without much fill may be subject to heaving depending on conditions of the soil below the box.
C - 16.3.3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN (2006)
A box culvert may be designed as a rigid “U” shape, with a top slab acting as a simple span without negative corner moments.
A box culvert may also be designed as an inverted U-shape and placed upon a separate footing slab. Design of such culverts
may be modeled upon these recommendations but the design equations of Figure 8-16-4 and Figure 8-16-5 will not apply.
C - 16.4 DESIGN LOADS
C - 16.4.2 DEAD LOAD (2006) and
C - 16.4.3 LIVE LOAD (2006)
Pressures applied to a box culvert will vary with soil moisture content, and over time with increased compaction under traffic.
To accurately account for these changes, it would be necessary to determine a range of soil density, earth pressure coefficients,
and hydrostatic conditions. These would then be applied in combinations to determine both maximum positive and maximum
negative moments.
Article 16.4.2 and Article 16.4.3 permit such an approach, but also offer a simplified method. The intent of Article 16.4.2 c
with regard to a maximum design earth pressure coefficient for the application of dead loads is to approximate the more
rigorous analysis of maximum negative moments.
C - 16.5 DETAILS OF DESIGN
C - 16.5.5 DRAINAGE AND WATERPROOFING (2006)
Waterproofing will not normally be required for reinforced concrete box culverts. However, the Engineer may require
waterproofing at special installations, such as where culverts are to serve as pedestrian underpasses.
C - 16.7 CONSTRUCTION
C - 16.7.5 FOUNDATIONS (2006)
The Engineer may determine that special foundation requirements should apply, for example, where precast culverts are to
serve as pedestrian underpasses. In such cases, grillage supports may be considered in order to control differential
displacements.
© 2013,

8
828
Part 17
Prestressed Concrete1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
17.1 General Requirements and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-4

17.1.1 Scope (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-4
17.1.2 Design Loads (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-4
17.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-5 1
17.3 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-7
17.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-9

17.4.1 Concrete (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-9
17.4.2 Prestressing Tendons (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-9 3
17.4.3 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10
17.4.4 Grout for Post-Tensioning Tendons (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10
17.4.5 Rigid Ducts (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10
17.5 Details of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10

17.5.1 Spacing of Tendons and Ducts (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10
17.5.2 Minimum Concrete Cover (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-11
17.5.3 Protection for Prestressing Tendons (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-11
17.5.4 Protection for Debonded Prestressing Tendon (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-11
17.5.5 Post-Tensioning Ducts (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-11
17.5.6 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-12
17.5.7 Tendon Anchorage Zones (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-12
17.5.8 Development of Prestressing Strand (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-12
17.6 General Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.7 Expansion and Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.8 Span Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.9 Frames and Continuous Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-14
1
References, Vol. 84, 1983, p. 93; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 53; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 102.

17.10 Effective Flange Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-14

17.10.1 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with Wide Top Flanges (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-15
17.11 Flange and Web Thickness-Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-15
17.12 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-16
17.13 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-16
17.14 General Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17

17.14.1 Design Theory and General Considerations (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.14.2 Basic Assumptions (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.14.3 Composite Flexural Members (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.15 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17

17.15.1 Required Strength (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.16 Allowable Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-18

17.16.1 Prestressing Tendons (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-18
17.16.2 Concrete (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-19
17.17 Loss of Prestress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-20

17.17.1 Prestress Losses (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-20
17.18 Flexural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-25

17.18.1 Introduction (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-25
17.18.2 Rectangular Sections (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-25
17.18.3 Flanged Sections (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-26
17.18.4 Steel Stress (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-26
17.19 Ductility Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-27

17.19.1 Maximum Prestressing Steel (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-27
17.19.2 Minimum Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-28
17.20 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-28
17.21 Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-29

17.21.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-29
17.21.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-29
17.21.3 Shear Strength Provided by Web Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-31
17.21.4 Horizontal Shear Design-Composite Flexural Members (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-33
17.22 Post-Tensioned Anchorage Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-34

17.22.1 Geometry of Anchorage Zone (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-34
17.22.2 General Zone and Local Zone (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-34
17.22.3 Design of the General Zone (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-35
17.22.4 Application of Strut-and-Tie Models to the Design of Anchorage Zones (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-38
17.22.5 Elastic Stress Analysis (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-39
17.22.6 Approximate Methods (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-39

Prestressed Concrete
17.22.7 Design of the Local Zone (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-42
17.23 Pretensioned Anchorage Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.24 Concrete Strength at Stress Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.25 General Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44

17.25.1 Flange Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.25.2 Cover and Spacing of Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.25.3 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.25.4 Embedment of Prestressed Tendon (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-47
17.26 General Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-47

17.26.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-47
17.26.2 Contractor’s Drawings (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-48
17.26.3 Materials and Fabrication (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-48
17.26.4 Curing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-48
17.26.5 Storage and Handling (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-48
17.26.6 Erection (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-48
17.26.7 Placement of Ducts, Steel, and Anchorage Hardware (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-49 1
17.26.8 Application and Measurement of Prestressing Force (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-50
17.27 Mortar and Grout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-51

17.27.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-51
17.27.2 Materials and Mixing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-51
17.27.3 Placing and Curing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-51
3
17.28 Application of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.29 Materials - Reinforcing Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52

17.29.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.29.2 Bar Lists and Bending Diagrams (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.29.3 Fabrication (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.29.4 Handling, Storing and Surface Condition of Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-53 4
17.29.5 Placing and Fastening (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-53
17.29.6 Splicing of Bars (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-53
17.30 Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-53
Commentary (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-55
LIST OF FIGURES
8-17-1 Annual Average Ambient Relative Humidity, (R), %. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-22

8-17-2 Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-56

LIST OF TABLES
8-17-1 Values for K and μ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-24

8-17-2 Estimated Loss of Prestress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-25
SECTION 17.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
17.1.1 SCOPE1 (2001)
a. This recommended practice shall govern the design of prestressed concrete members of railway structures supporting
or protecting tracks.
b. Provisions of Part 17 supplement Part 2 of Chapter 8. All provisions of Part 2 not in conflict with provisions of Part 17
shall apply to prestressed concrete. The following provisions of Part 2 shall not apply to prestressed concrete:
Article 2.2.3d, Section 2.7, Section 2.8, Article 2.11.1, Article 2.23.9, Article 2.32.1, Section 2.38, Section 2.39 and
Section 2.40.
c. Long span or unusual structures require detailed consideration of effects which have not been included under Part 17.
d. Bearing devices for prestressed concrete structures shall be designed in accordance with Chapter 15, Part 10.
e. Segmental concrete bridges shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of Part 26.
f. Structures with direct fixation track shall be designed in accordance with Part 27.
Design loads and loading combinations shall be in accordance with Part 2, Article 2.2.3 and Article 2.2.4, including that
percentage of live-load for impact.
Equation 17-1 deleted. EQ 17-1
1
See C - 17.1.1 Scope (2001)

SECTION 17.2 NOTATIONS
As = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement (Articles 17.18, 17.20 and 17.22), in.2 (mm2)
A′s = area of compression reinforcement (Article 17.20), in.2 (mm2)
As* = area of prestressing steel (Article 17.18), in.2 (mm2)

Asf = steel area required to develop the compressive strength of the overhanging portions of the flange
(Article 17.18), in.2 (mm2)
Asr = steel area required to develop the compressive strength of the web of a flanged section (Articles 17.18-
17.20), in.2 (mm2)
Av = area of web reinforcement (Article 17.21), in.2 (mm2)
b = width of flange of flanged member or width of rectangular member, in. (mm)
bw = web width (Article 17.21), in. (mm)
bv = width of cross section at the contact surface being investigated for horizontal shear (Article 17.21), in.
(mm)
b’ = width of a web of a flanged member, in. (mm)
CRc = loss of prestress due to creep of concrete (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
CRs = loss of prestress due to relaxation of prestressing steel (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
D = nominal diameter of prestressing steel (Articles 17.18 and 17.24), in. (mm)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the prestressing force, or to centroid of 1
negative moment reinforcing for pre-cast girder bridges made continuous, in. (mm)
db = nominal diameter of prestressing wire, bar or strand, in. (mm)
dburst = the distance from the loaded surface where the bursting force is computed, in. (mm)
dd = outside diameter of post-tensioning duct, in. (mm)
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of prestressing steel, in. (mm) 3
dt = distance from the extreme compressive fiber to the centroid of the non-prestressed tension
reinforcement (Articles 17.18-17.20), in. (mm)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, ksi (MPa)
Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer, ksi (MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa) 4
ES = loss of prestress due to elastic shortening (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
e = base of Naperian logarithms (Article 17.17)
Fpu = ultimate load of the post-tensioned tendon (Article 17.25.3), lbs (N)
fcds = average concrete compressive stress at the c.g. of the prestressing steel under full dead load (Article
17.17), psi (MPa)
fcir = average concrete stress at the c.g. of the prestressing steel at time of release (Article 17.17), psi (MPa)
f′ c = compressive strength of concrete at 28 days, psi (MPa)
f′ ci = compressive strength of concrete at time of initial prestress (Article 17.16), psi (MPa)
fct = average splitting tensile strength of light-weight aggregate concrete, psi (MPa)
fd = stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads (Article 17.21), psi (MPa)

fpc = compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all prestress losses) at centroid of cross section
resisting externally applied loads or at junction of web and flange when the centroid lies within the
flange (In a composite member, fpc is resultant compressive stress at centroid of composite section, or
at junction of web and flange when the centroid lies within the flange, due to both prestress and
moments resisted by precast member acting alone) (Article 17.21), psi (MPa)
fpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress forces only (after allowance for all prestress
losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads (Article
17.21), ksi (MPa)
fps = guaranteed ultimate strength of the prestressing tendon, As*f’s, lbs (N)
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete, as defined in Article 17.16.2.3 (Article 17.19), ksi (MPa)
Δf s = total prestress loss, excluding friction (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)

fse = effective stress prestress after losses (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
f*su = average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate load (Article 17.18), ksi (MPa)
f’s = ultimate strength of prestressing steel (Articles 17.16 and 17.18), ksi (MPa)
fsy = yield strength of non-prestressed conventional reinforcement in tension (Articles 17.20 and 17.21), ksi
(MPa)
f’y = yield strength of non-prestressed conventional reinforcement in compression (Article 17.20), ksi
(MPa)
f*y = yield point stress of prestressing steel (Article 17.16), psi (MPa)
h = overall depth of member (Article 17.21), in. (mm)
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the cross section (Article 17.21), in.4 (mm4)
K = friction wobble coefficient per foot (meter) of prestressing steel (Article 17.17)
l = length of prestressing steel element from jack end to point x (Article 17.17), in. (mm)
Mcr = moment causing flexural cracking at section due to externally applied loads (Article 17.21), ft-lbs (N-
m)
M*cr = minimum steel cracking moment (Article 17.19), ft-lbs (N-m)
Md/c = composite dead load moment at the section (Article 17.19), ft-lbs (N-m)
Md/nc = non-composite dead load moment at the section (Article 17.19), ft-lbs (N-m)
Mmax = maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads (Article 17.21), ft-lbs (N-m)
Mn = nominal moment strength of a section, ft-lbs (N-m)
p = As/bdt ratio of non-prestressed tension reinforcements (Articles 17.18-17.20)
p* = As*/bd, ratio of prestressing steel (Articles 17.18 and 17.20)
p’ = A’s/bd, ratio of compression reinforcement (Article 17.20)
Pu = factored tendon force, lbs (N)
Q = statical moment of cross sectional area, above or below the level being investigated for shear, about
the centroid (Article 17.21), in.3 (mm3)
SH = loss of prestress due to concrete shrinkage (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
s = longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement (Article 17.21), in. (mm)

Sb = noncomposite section modulus for the extreme fiber of section where the tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads (Article 17.19), in.3 (mm3)
Sc = composite section modulus for the extreme fiber of section where the tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads (Article 17.19), in.3 (mm3)
t = average thickness of the flange of a flanged member (Articles 17.18 and 17.19), in. (mm)
Tburst = the bursting force computed from the post-tensioning tendon loads at a given point (Article 17.22),
Kips (N)
To = steel stress at jacking ends (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
Tx = steel stress at any point x (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
T1 = edge tension force (Article 17.22), Kips (N)
T2 = bursting force (Article 17.22), Kips (N)
v = permissible horizontal shear stress (Article 17.21), psi (MPa)
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vci = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking results from combined shear and
moment (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vcw = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking results from excessive principal
tensile stress in web (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vd = shear force at section due to unfactored dead load (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vi = factored shear force at section due to externally applied loads occurring simultaneously with Mmax
1
(Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vnh = nominal horizontal shear strength (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vp = vertical component of effective prestress force at section (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
3
wc = unit density (weight) of concrete, Lbs/cu. ft. (kg/m3)
yt = distance from centroidal axis of gross section, neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in tension
(Article 17.21), in. (mm)
μ = friction curvature coefficient (Article 17.17)
α = total angular change of prestressing steel profile in radians from jacking end to point x (Article 17.17)
ß1 = factor for concrete strength, as defined in Part 2 of this Chapter (Articles 17.18-17.20)
4
γ* = factor for type of prestressing steel (Article 17.18)
ϕ = Strength Reduction Factor (Article 17.15)
SECTION 17.3 TERMS
The following terms are defined for general use. Specialized definitions appear in individual articles.
Anchorage Device - Mechanical device to transmit post-tensioning force to concrete in a post-tensioned member. Also referred
to as an End Anchorage.

Anchorage Seating - Deformation of anchorage or seating of tendons in anchorage device when prestressing force is
transferred from jack to anchorage device.
Anchorage Spacing - Center-to-center spacing of anchorage devices.
Anchorage Zone - The portion of the structure in which the concentrated prestressing force is transferred from the anchorage
device into the concrete (Local Zone), and then distributed more widely into the structure (General Zone) (Article 17.22).
Basic Anchorage Device - Anchorage device meeting the restricted bearing stress and minimum plate stiffness requirements of
Articles 17.22.7.2b through 17.22.7.2d; no acceptance test is required for Basic Anchorage Devices.
Bonded Tendon - Prestressing tendon that is bonded to concrete either directly or through grouting.
Coating - Material used to protect prestressing tendons against corrosion, to reduce friction between tendon and duct, or to
debond prestressing tendons.
Coupler or Coupling - Means by which prestressing force is transmitted from one partial length prestressing tendon to another.
Creep - Time-dependent deformation of concrete under sustained load.
Curvature Friction - Friction resulting from bends or curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile.
Debonding or Blanketing - Wrapping, sheathing or coating prestressing tendon to prevent bond between strand and
surrounding concrete.
Diaphragm - Transverse stiffener in girders to prevent buckling or rotation.
Duct - Hole or void formed in prestressed member to accommodate tendon for post-tensioning.
Edge Distance - Distance from the center of the anchorage device to the edge of the concrete member.
Effective Prestress - Stress remaining in concrete due to prestressing after all calculated losses have been deducted, excluding
effects of superimposed loads and weight of member; stress remaining in prestressing tendons after all losses have occurred
excluding effects of dead load and superimposed load.
Elastic Shortening of Concrete - Shortening of member caused by application of forces induced by prestressing.
End Anchorage - Length of reinforcement, or mechanical anchor or a hook, or combination thereof, beyond point of zero
stress in reinforcement. See Anchorage Device.
End Block - Enlarged end section of member designed to reduce anchorage stresses.
Friction - Surface resistance between tendon and duct in contact during stressing.
General Zone - Region within which the concentrated prestressing force spreads out to a more linear stress distribution over
the cross section of the member (Saint Venant Region).
Grout Opening or Vent - Inlet, outlet, vent, or drain in post-tensioning duct for grout, water or air.
Intermediate Anchorage - Anchorage not located at the end surface of a member or segment; usually in the form of embedded
anchors, blisters, ribs, or recess pockets.
Jacking Force - Temporary force exerted by device that introduces tension into prestressing tendons.

Loss of Prestress - Reduction in prestressing force resulting from combined effects of strains in concrete and steel, including
effects of elastic shortening, creep and shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of steel stress, friction, and anchorage seating.
Post-Tensioning - Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened.
Precompressed Zone - Portion of flexural member cross-section compressed by prestressing force.
Prestressed Concrete - Reinforced concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses
in concrete resulting from loads.
Pretensioning - Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed.
Relaxation of Tendon Stress - Time-dependent reduction of stress in prestressing tendon at constant strain.
Shear Lag - Nonuniform distribution of transverse bending stress over the cross section.
Shrinkage of Concrete - Time-dependent deformation of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes (hydration process).
Special Anchorage Device - Anchorage device whose adequacy must be proven empirically as specified by construction
contract documents.
Tendon - Wire, strand, or bar, or bundle of such elements, used to impart prestress to concrete.
Transfer -
1
(1) Act of transferring stress in prestressing tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete member.
(2) Transfer of stress in a pretensioned tendon to surrounding concrete.
Transfer Length - Length over which prestressing force is transferred to concrete by bond in pretensioned members.
3
Wobble Friction - Friction caused by unintended deviation of prestressing sheath or duct from its specified profile.
Wrapping or Sheathing - Enclosure around a prestressing tendon to prevent bond between prestressing tendon and surrounding
concrete.
4
17.4.1 CONCRETE (2001)
Concrete shall conform to the provisions of Part 1. The required compressive strength, fc', of the concrete for the various
members shall be as shown on the plans. The minimum fc' for prestressed concrete should be 4500 psi (31 MPa).
17.4.2 PRESTRESSING TENDONS (2001)
Provisions of Part 17 shall apply to members prestressed with wire, strands, or bars conforming to one of the following
specifications:
– "Standard Specification for Steel Strand Uncoated Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete" (ASTM A416).

– "Standard Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete" (ASTM A421).
– "Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete" (ASTM A722).
17.4.3 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT (2001)
Non-prestressed reinforcement shall conform to the provisions of Part 1 and Article 17.28.
17.4.4 GROUT FOR POST-TENSIONING TENDONS (2006)1
All grout for post-tensioning tendons shall comply with the provisions of the current PTI GUIDE SPECIFICATION
“SPECIFICATION FOR GROUTING OF POST-TENSIONED STRUCTURES” prepared by the Post-Tensioning Institute
Committee on Grouting Specifications and published by the Post-Tensioning Institute.
The applicable provisions of the PTI guide specification include the following:
a. Materials
b. Design
c. Testing, Quality Assurance and Quality Control
d. Requirements for Technician and Inspector Certification
17.4.5 RIGID DUCTS (2001)
Rigid ducts shall have sufficient strength to maintain their correct alignment without visible wobble during placement of
concrete. Rigid ducts may be fabricated with either welded or interlocked seams. Galvanizing of the welded seam will not be
required.
SECTION 17.5 DETAILS OF PRESTRESSING TENDONS AND DUCTS
17.5.1 SPACING OF TENDONS AND DUCTS (2006)2
a. The minimum clear distance between prestressing tendons at each end of a member shall not be less than 1-1/3 times
the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. The minimum spacing center-to-center of tendon shall be as follows:
Tendon Size Spacing

1/2 inch special, 9/16 inch, 9/16 inch special, and 0.6 inch 2 inches (50 mm)
7/16 inch and 1/2 inch 1-3/4 inches (45 mm)
3/8 inch 1-1/2 inches (40 mm)
b. Clear distance between post-tensioning ducts or trumpets at each end of a member shall not be less than 1-1/2 in. (40
mm) nor 1-1/2 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
1
See C - 17.4.4 Grout for Post-Tensioning Tendons (2006)
2
See C - 17.5.1 Spacing of Tendons and Ducts (2006)

c. Post-tensioning ducts may be bundled in groups of 3 maximum, provided the spacing limitations specified in
Paragraph b are maintained in the end 3 feet (900 mm) of the member.
d. Where pretensioning tendons are bundled, all bundling shall be done in the middle third of the beam length and the
deflection points shall be investigated for secondary stresses.
17.5.2 MINIMUM CONCRETE COVER (2001)
a. For Precast Concrete the following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for prestressing tendons and non-
prestressed reinforcement, and ducts:
Minimum Cover
Pretensioning tendons ................................. 1½ in. (40 mm)
Post-tensioning ducts ........................... 1½ in. (40 mm), but not less than dd/2
Non-prestressed reinforcement ....................... 1½ in. (40 mm)
Stirrups, ties and spirals .......................... 1 in. (25 mm)
b. For Cast-in-Place Concrete, the following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for prestressing tendons and
non-prestressed reinforcement, and ducts:
1
Post-tensioning ducts ........................... 3 in. (75 mm), but not less than dd/2
Non-prestressed reinforcement ........................ 2 in. (50 mm)
Stirrups, ties and spirals ...................... 2 in. (50 mm)
Concrete cast against earth ...................... 3 in. (75 mm) 3

c. In corrosive or marine environments or other severe exposure conditions, the amount of tendon and reinforcement
protection shall be increased by use of more dense and impervious concrete, by increasing the minimum cover or other
suitable means.
17.5.3 PROTECTION FOR PRESTRESSING TENDONS (2001) 4

a. Anchorages, end fittings, couplers, and exposed tendons shall be protected from corrosion.
b. Burning or welding operations in vicinity of prestressing tendons shall be carefully performed, so that tendons are not
subjected to excessive temperatures, welding sparks, or ground currents and the shock to the concrete is minimized.
17.5.4 PROTECTION FOR DEBONDED PRESTRESSING TENDON (2001)
Tendon wrapping, sheathing, or coating shall be continuous over entire debonded length, and shall prevent intrusion of cement
paste during concrete placement.
17.5.5 POST-TENSIONING DUCTS (2001)
a. Ducts shall be mortar-tight and nonreactive with concrete, tendons, or grout.

b. Ducts for single wire, strand, or bar tendons shall have an inside diameter not less than ¼ in. (10 mm) larger than
tendon diameter.
c. Ducts for multiple wire, strand, or bar tendons shall have an inside cross sectional area not less than 2 times the net area
of tendons.
d. Ducts shall be maintained free of water.
e. Ducts shall be grouted within twenty-four hours of post-tensioning, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer.
17.5.6 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS (2001)
a. Anchorages and couplers for post-tensioning tendons shall develop not less than 95 percent of the specified ultimate
strength of the tendons, when tested in an unbonded condition, without exceeding anticipated set.
b. Couplers shall be located in areas approved by the Engineer and enclosed in housing long enough to permit necessary
movements. Couplers shall not be located at points of sharp tendon curvature. Couplers located in areas of high stress
range shall be investigated for fatigue.
17.5.7 TENDON ANCHORAGE ZONES (2001)
a. Reinforcement shall be provided where required in tendon anchorage zones to resist bursting, splitting, and spalling
forces induced by tendon anchorages. Regions of abrupt change in section shall be adequately reinforced.
b. End blocks shall be provided where required for support bearing or for distribution of concentrated prestressing forces.
c. Post-tensioning anchorages and supporting concrete shall be designed to resist maximum jacking force for strength of
concrete at time of prestressing.
d. For design criteria of post-tensioning anchorage zones refer to Article 17.22.
17.5.8 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSING STRAND1 (2013)
a. Seven-wire prestressing strand shall be bonded beyond the critical section for a development length, in inches (mm),
not less than
(f*su - 2/3 fse) D EQ 17-2
(f*su - 2/3 fse) D/7 EQ 17-2 (Metric)
where f*su and fse are expressed in ksi (MPa), and D is strand diameter in inches (mm).
b. Investigation may be limited to cross sections nearest each end of the member that are required to develop full design
strength under specified factored loads.
c. Where a portion or portions of pretensioning strands are not bonded and where tension exists in the precompressed
tensile zone, the development length, measured from the end of the debonded zone, shall be twice the calculated length
determined by EQ 17-2.
1
See C - 17.5.8 Development of Prestressing Strand (2013)

Debonded strands shall be symmetrically distributed about the centerline of the member and the length of a pair of
debonded strands shall be the same. The length of debonding any strand shall be such that all design criteria are
satisfied with consideration of the total developed resistance at any section being investigated.
The following provisions are to be included in analysis and design:
(1) The number of partially debonded strands shall not exceed 25 percent of the total number of strands.
(2) The number of partially debonded strands in any horizontal row shall not exceed 40 percent for that row.
(3) Not more than 40 percent of the partially debonded strands, or four strands, whichever is greater, shall have the
debonding terminated at any section.
(4) Exterior strands in each horizontal row shall be fully bonded.
SECTION 17.6 GENERAL ANALYSIS1
All members shall be designed for adequate strength and satisfactory behavior using these recommended practices as
minimum guidelines. Behavior shall be determined by elastic analysis, taking into account the reactions, moments, shears,
and axial forces produced by prestressing, the effects of temperature, creep, shrinkage, axial deformation, restraint of attached
structural elements, and foundation settlement. 1
SECTION 17.7 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
In all bridges, provisions shall be made in the design to resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall be provided for 3
movement caused by temperature changes.
Movements not otherwise provided for, including shortening during stressing, shall be provided for by means of hinged
columns, rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads, or other devices.
SECTION 17.8 SPAN LENGTH
The effective span lengths of simply supported beams shall be the distance center to center of bearings.
The span length of continuous or restrained floor slabs and beams shall be the distance center to center of supports.
Where fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the axis of a continuous or restrained slab are built monolithic with
the slab and support, the span shall be measured from the section where the combined depth of the slab and the fillet is at least
one and one-half times the thickness of the slab. Maximum negative moments are to be considered as existing at the ends of
the span, as above defined. No portion of the fillet shall be considered as adding to the effective depth.
1
See C - Section 17.6 General Analysis

SECTION 17.9 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION1
Frames and continuous construction of prestressed concrete, where permitted by the Engineer, shall be designed for adequate
strength and for satisfactory performance at service load conditions.
Moments to be used to compute required strength shall be the algebraic sum of the moments due to reactions induced by
prestressing (with a load factor of 1.0) and the moments due to factored loads.
Composite flexural members consisting of prestressed concrete elements shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.23.9.
Design for horizontal shear shall be in accordance with Articles 2.29.5 or 2.35.5.
Composite Semi-Continuous Construction
a. These provisions shall apply for design of superstructures of two or more spans composed of simple span precast-
prestressed girders made continuous with deck slab for live load and superimposed dead load.
b. Positive Moment Connection at Piers
(1) Provision shall be made for positive moments that may develop at piers due to combined effects of creep and
shrinkage in girders and deck slab, and due to effects of live load in remote spans.
(2) Non-prestressed positive moment connection reinforcement may be designed for a service load stress of 0.6 fy but
not greater than 36 ksi (250 MPa).
c. Continuity Negative Moment Reinforcement
(1) Non-prestressed negative moment reinforcement shall be proportioned by the strength design method of Part 2 of
this Chapter.
(2) Effect of initial precompression due to prestress in the precast girders may be neglected in calculation of negative
moment strength if maximum precompression stress is limited to 0.45f 'c and continuity reinforcement ratio is less
than 0.015.
(3) Negative moment strength shall be calculated using compressive strength of girder concrete, regardless of strength
of diaphragm concrete.
(4) Extreme fiber stress in compression at ends of girders at piers due to prestress and negative continuity moment
shall not exceed 0.60f 'c.
Segmental Box Girders shall conform to the requirements of Part 26 of these recommended practices.
SECTION 17.10 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH
For composite prestressed construction where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with the beam, the effective flange
width shall conform to the provisions for T-girder flanges in Article 2.23.10.
1
See C - Section 17.9 Frames and Continuous Construction

For monolithic prestressed construction, with normal slab span and girder spacing, the effective flange width shall be the
distance center-to-center of beams. For very short spans, or where girder spacing is excessive, analytical investigations shall
be made to determine the effective width of flange acting with the beam.
For monolithic prestressed design of isolated beams, the flange width shall not exceed 15 times the web width and shall be
adequate for all design loads.
For cast-in-place box girders with normal slab span and girder spacing, where the slabs are considered an integral part of the
girder, the entire slab width shall be assumed to be effective in compression.
For box girders of unusual proportions, methods of analysis which consider shear lag shall be used to determine stresses in the
cross section due to longitudinal bending.
Adequate fillets shall be provided at the intersections of all surfaces within the cell of a box girder, except at the junction of
web and bottom flange where none are required.
17.10.1 PRECAST/PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAMS WITH WIDE TOP FLANGES

(2001)
a. For composite prestressed concrete where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with the precast beam, the
effective web width of the precast beam shall be the lesser of:
(1) six (6) times the maximum thickness of the flange (excluding fillets) on either side of the web plus the web and
fillets; and, 1
(2) the total width of the top flange.
b. The effective flange width of the composite section shall be the lesser of:
(1) one-fourth of the span length of the girder;

3
(2) six (6) times the thickness of the slab on each side of the effective web width as determined by Article 17.10.1a
plus the effective web width; and,
(3) one-half the clear distance on each side of the effective web width plus the effective web width.
SECTION 17.11 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS-BOX GIRDERS1
The minimum top flange thickness shall be 1/30th of the clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than 6 inches (150
mm), except the minimum thickness may be reduced for factory produced precast, pretensioned elements to 5 ½ inches (140
mm).
The minimum bottom flange thickness shall be 1/30th of the clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than 5 ½ inches
(140 mm), except the minimum thickness may be reduced for factory produced precast, pretensioned elements to 5 inches
(130 mm).
Changes in girder stem thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web thickness.
1
See C - Section 17.11 Flange and Web Thickness-Box Girders

SECTION 17.12 DIAPHRAGMS1
a. Diaphragms shall be provided in accordance with Articles 17.12b through 17.12e, except that adequate bracing of the
compression flange shall be provided by a cast-in-place deck.
b. Diaphragms or other means shall be used at span ends to strengthen the free edge of the slab and to transmit forces to
the substructure.
c. For spread box beams, diaphragms shall be placed within the box and between boxes at span ends and at the points of
maximum moment for spans over 80 feet (24 m).
d. For precast box multi-beam bridges, diaphragms are required only if necessary for slab end support or to contain or
resist transverse tension ties.
e. For cast-in-place box girders, diaphragms or other means shall be used at span ends to resist lateral forces and maintain
section geometry. Intermediate diaphragms are not required for bridges with inside radius of curvature of 800 feet (245
m) or greater.
f. For all types of prestressed boxes in bridges with inside radius of curvature less than 800 feet (245 m), intermediate
diaphragms may be required and the spacing and strength of diaphragms shall be given special consideration in the
design of the structure.
SECTION 17.13 DEFLECTIONS
Flexural members of bridge structures shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or any deformations that
may adversely affect strength and serviceability of the structure at service load. Members having simple or continuous spans
shall be designed so that the deflection due to service live load plus impact does not exceed l/640 of the span.
Deflections that occur immediately on application of load shall be computed by usual methods or formulas for elastic
deflections, and moment of inertia of gross concrete section may be used for uncracked sections.
Additional long-time deflection shall be computed taking into account stresses in concrete and steel under sustained load and
including effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of prestressing steel.
Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete and Es for nonprestressed steel reinforcement shall be as specified in Article 2.23.4.
Modulus of elasticity Es for prestressing tendons shall be determined by tests or supplied by manufacturer.
1
See C - Section 17.12 Diaphragms

SECTION 17.14 GENERAL DESIGN
17.14.1 DESIGN THEORY AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS (2001)
17.14.1.1 Design of prestressed members shall be based on strength (Load Factor Design) and on
behavior at service load conditions (Article 17.6) at all load stages that may be critical during the life of the
structure from the time prestressing is first applied.
17.14.1.2 Stress concentrations due to prestressing shall be considered in design.
17.14.1.3 Effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage shall be considered in design.
17.14.2 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS (2001)
17.14.2.1 Strength design of prestressed members for flexure and axial loads shall be based on the
following assumptions for design of monolithic members:
a. Strains vary linearly over the depth of the member throughout the entire load range.
b. Before cracking, stress is linearly proportional to strain.
c. After cracking, tension in the concrete is neglected.
17.14.3 COMPOSITE FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2001)1

1
Composite flexural members consisting of precast and/or cast-in-place concrete elements constructed in separate placements
but so interconnected that all elements respond to superimposed loads as a unit shall conform to the provisions of Articles
17.21.4 and the following:
17.14.3.1 When an entire member is assumed to resist the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance 3
with the requirements of Articles 17.21.1 through 17.21.3.
17.14.3.2 The design shall provide for full transfer of horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of
interconnected elements. Design for horizontal shear shall be in accordance with the requirements of
17.21.4.
SECTION 17.15 LOAD FACTORS
17.15.1 REQUIRED STRENGTH (2001)
a. Prestressed members shall have design strengths at all sections at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the
factored loads and forces in such combinations as stipulated in Article 2.2.4c for the load groups that are applicable.
For the design of post-tensioned anchorage zones, a load factor of 1.2 shall be applied to the maximum tendon jacking
force.
b. The following strength capacity reduction factors shall be used:
1
See C - 17.14.3 Composite Flexural Members (2001)

(1) For flexure: ϕ = 0.95
(2) For shear ϕ = 0.90
(3) For anchorage zones ϕ = 0.85 for normal weight concrete and ϕ = 0.70 for lightweight concrete
SECTION 17.16 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
The design of precast prestressed members and cast-in-place post-tensioned concrete spans ordinarily shall be based on f 'c =
5000 psi (35 MPa). An increase to 6000 psi (40 MPa) is permissible where, in the Engineer’s judgement, it is reasonable to
expect that this strength will be obtained consistently. Higher concrete strengths may be considered on an individual basis. In
such cases, the Engineer shall satisfy himself completely that the controls over materials and fabrication procedures will
provide the required strengths. The provisions of this Article are equally applicable to prestressed concrete structures and
components designed with lower concrete strengths.
17.16.1 PRESTRESSING TENDONS (2001)
17.16.1.1 Tensile stress in prestressing tendons shall not exceed the following:
a. Due to tendon jacking force .................................................................................................. 0.75f 's or 0.90f*y
whichever is smaller, but not greater than the maximum value recommended by the manufacturer of the
prestressing tendons or anchorages.
b. Slight over stressing of pretensioning tendons up to 0.85f 's for short periods of time may be permitted to offset seating
losses, provided the stress after seating does not exceed the value in Paragraph a.
c. Stress-relieved pretensioning tendons immediately after prestress transfer .................... 0.82f*y or 0.70f 's
whichever is larger.
d. Stabilized (low-relaxation) pretensioning tendons immediately after prestress transfer..0.82f*y or 0.75f 's
whichever is larger.
17.16.1.2 Tensile stress in post-tensioning shall not exceed the following:
a. Immediately after tendon anchorage ....................................................................................0.82f*y or 0.70f 's
whichever is larger, but not greater than 0.70f 's at end anchorage.
b. Over stressing of post-tensioning tendons up to 0.90f 's for short periods of time may be permitted to offset seating and
friction losses provided the stress at the anchorage does not exceed the value in Paragraph a. above. The stress at the
end of the seating loss zone must not exceed 0.82f*y immediately after seating.

17.16.2 CONCRETE (2001)1
17.16.2.1 Stresses in concrete immediately after prestress transfer (before time-dependent prestress
losses-Creep and Shrinkage) shall not exceed the following:
a. Extreme fiber stress in compression
Pretensioned members..................................................................0.60f 'ci
Post-tensioned members...............................................................0.55f 'ci
b. Extreme fiber stress in tension
(1) Members without bonded auxiliary reinforcement .............................. 200 psi (1.38 MPa) or
3 f ′ ci
0.25 f ′ ci (metric)
Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds this value, bonded reinforcement shall be provided to resist the total
tension force in the concrete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section. 1
(2) Members with bonded auxiliary reinforcement provided in the tensile zone to resist the total tensile force in
concrete computed with the assumption of an uncracked section ..........................
7.5 f ′ ci
3
0.623 f ′ ci (metric)
17.16.2.2 Stresses in concrete at service loads (after allowance for all prestress losses) shall not exceed 4
the following:
Compression...........................................................................................................................0.40f 'c
Tension in the precompressed tensile zone...................................................................................0
Tension in other areas is limited by allowable temporary stresses specified in Article 17.16.2.1.
17.16.2.3 Cracking Stress2
Modulus of rupture from tests or if not available:
1
See C - 17.16.2 Concrete (2001)
2
Refer to Article 17.19

For normal weight concrete................................................................................
7.5 f ′ c
0.623 f ′ c (metric)
For sand lightweight concrete...............................................................................
6.3 f ′ c
0.523 f ′ c (metric)
17.16.2.4 Anchorage Bearing Stress
Post-tensioned anchorage at service load.......................................................................................3000 psi (21 MPa)
(but not to exceed 0.9f 'ci)
SECTION 17.17 LOSS OF PRESTRESS
17.17.1 PRESTRESS LOSSES (2004)
a. To determine effective prestress fse, allowance for the following sources of loss of prestress shall be considered:
Δf s = ES + CR c + SH + CR s
where:
ES =Elastic shortening of concrete
CRc =Creep of concrete
SH =Shrinkage of concrete
CRs =Relaxation of tendon stress
Anchorage seating and friction due to intended or unintended curvature in post-tensioning tendons shall be considered.
b. Total loss of prestress shall be determined in accordance with a method of calculating prestress losses supported by
appropriate research data, representing properties of the materials to be used, methods of curing, ambient service
conditions, and any pertinent structural details.1

c. In lieu of the more exact procedure prescribed in Paragraph b, loss of prestress may be determined in accordance with
either Paragraph d or Paragraph e for the conditions stated.
d. Loss of prestress may be determined by the following procedure for normal weight concrete and the following types of
prestressing tendons:
270 ksi (1860 MPa) uncoated seven-wire stress-relieved or low-relaxation strand; 145 to 160 ksi (1000 to 1100 MPa)
uncoated high-strength steel bar (plain or deformed).
Data representing properties and effects of lightweight concrete shall be determined from documented tests.
(1) Elastic shortening of concrete
(a) For Pretensioned members:
E
ES = ⎛ ------s-⎞ f cir EQ 17-3
⎝E ⎠
ci
(b) For Post-tensioned1 members:
E
ES = 0.5 ⎛ ------s-⎞ f cir EQ 17-4 1
⎝E ⎠
ci
Es = modulus of elasticity for prestressing tendons to be determined from documented test data.
Eci = modulus of elasticity for concrete at time of transfer; may be taken as

3
1.5 ′
wc ( 33 ) f ci in pounds per square inch
wc
1.5
( 0.0428 ) f
′
ci in MPa 4
fcir = stress in concrete at centroid of prestressing reinforcement immediately after transfer, due to total
prestress force and dead load acting at transfer. fcir shall be computed at the section or sections of
maximum moment. For pretensioned members, fcir shall be calculated using a prestress force reduced
below stress at transfer by elastic shortening of concrete and tendon relaxation during placing and
curing of concrete. For post-tensioned members, fcir shall be calculated using a prestress force
reduced below stress at transfer by elastic shortening of concrete and tendon friction. Amount of
reduction below prestress stress at transfer can be estimated, or for pretensioned members the reduced
tendon stress may be taken as 0.63fs', for stress relieved strand or 0.69fs' for low relaxation strand.
(2) Creep of concrete
1
“Estimating Prestress Losses” by Paul Zia, H. Kent Preston, Norman L. Scott, and Edwin B. Workman, ACI Concrete International, June 1979, pp. 32-38.
1
Certain post-tensioning procedures may alter the elastic shortening loss.

(a) For pretensioned and post-tensioned members:
CRc = 12fcir - 7fcds EQ 17-5
where:
fcds = stress in concrete at centroid of prestressing reinforcement, due to all dead load not included in
calculation of fcir.
(3) Shrinkage of Concrete
(a) For pretensioned members:
SH = 17 - 0.150 R EQ 17-6
SH = 117 - 1.03 R EQ 17-6

(Metric)
(b) For post-tensioned members:
SH = 0.8 (17 - 0.150 R) EQ 17-7
SH = 0.8 (117 - 1.03 R) EQ 17-7

(Metric)
where:
R = annual average ambient relative humidity in percent. The following map may be used to determine R.
Figure 8-17-1. Annual Average Ambient Relative Humidity, (R), %
(4) Relaxation of tendon stress

(a) For Pretensioning tendons:
1 270 ksi stress-relieved strand tensioned to 0.70f's
CRs = 20 - 0.4 ES - 0.2 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-8a
2 1860 MPa stress-relieved strand tensioned to 0.70f's
CRs = 138 - 0.4 ES - 0.2 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-8a (Metric)
3 270 ksi low-relaxation strand tensioned to 0.75f's
CRs = 5 - 0.10 ES - 0.05 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-8b
4 1860 MPa low-relaxation strand tensioned to 0.75f's
25% of CRs in previous above EQ 17-8b (Metric)
(b) For Post-tensioning tendons:
1 270 ksi stress-relieved strand anchored at 0.70f's
CRs = 20 - 0.3 FR - 0.4 ES - 0.2 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-9a
2 1860 MPa stress-relieved strand anchored at 0.70f's

1
CRs = 138 - 0.3 FR - 0.4 ES - 0.2 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-9a (Metric)
3 270 ksi low-relaxation strand anchored at 0.75 f's
CRs = 5 - 0.07 FR - 0.1 ES - 0.05 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-9b 3

4 1860 MPa low-relaxation strand anchored at 0.75f's
CRs = 25% of CRs in EQ 17-9a above EQ 17-9b (Metric)
5 145 to 160 ksi high-strength steel bar

4
CRs = 3.0 EQ 17-9c
6 1000 to 1100 MPa high-strength steel bar
CRs = Loss due to relaxation should be based on approved test data. If test EQ 17-9c (Metric)
data are not available the loss may be assumed to be 21 MPa
where:
FR = friction loss below 0.70f's at point being considered, computed according to Paragraph d(6) below.
ES, SH, CRc = appropriate values as determined for either pretensioned or post-tensioned member.
(5) Anchorage Seating

Allowance shall be made for loss of prestress in post-tensioning tendons due to anchorage seating. Calculations
shall be made in accordance with a method consistent with the friction coefficients for the materials used.
(6) Friction
Effect of friction loss due to intended or unintended curvature in post-tensioning tendons shall be computed by:
f lfx = f po [ l – e – ( Kl x + μα ) ]
T o = T x e ( KL + μα ) EQ 17-10
When (Klx + μα) is not greater than 0.3, effect of friction loss may be computed by:
f lfx = f po ( Kl x + μα )
T o = T x ( 1 + KL + μα ) EQ 17-11
Friction coefficients K and μ shall be determined experimentally, and shall be verified during tendon stressing
operations. When experimental data for the materials used are not available, the following values for K and μ may
be used.
Table 8-17-1. Values for K and μ
Type of Steel Type of Duct K μ

Uncoated wire or strand Bright Metal Sheathing 0.0020 (0.0027) 0.30
Galvanized Metal Sheathing 0.0015 (0.0020) 0.25
Galvanized Rigid 0.0002 0.25
(0.00027)
Polyethylene 0.0020 (0.0027) 0.25
Uncoated high strength bar Bright Metal Sheathing 0.0003 (0.0004) 0.20
Galvanized Metal Sheathing 0.0002 0.15
(0.00027)
Friction losses should be estimated for design and verified during stressing operations. Rigid ducts shall have
sufficient strength to maintain proper alignment without visible wobble during placement of concrete. Rigid ducts
may be fabricated with either welded or interlocked seams. Galvanizing of the welded seam will not be required.
e. Loss of prestress, excluding friction loss, may be estimated for preliminary design in accordance with the following
values for prestressed members or structures of usual design. Tabulated estimates are based on normal weight

concrete, normal prestressing levels, and average exposure conditions. Friction loss in post-tensioning tendons shall be
determined in accordance with Paragraph d(6), above.
Table 8-17-2. Estimated Loss of Prestress
Total Loss of Prestress (Note 1)

Type of Prestressing Tendon
f′c = 4,000 psi (28 MPa) f ′c = 5,000 psi (35 MPa)
Pretensioning tendon:
Stress relieved 45,000 psi (310 MPa)
Low relaxation 35,000 psi (240 MPa)
Post-tensioning wire or strand:
Stress relieved 32,000 psi (220 MPa) 33,000 psi (228 MPa)
Low relaxation 24,000 psi (165 MPa) 25,000 psi (172 MPa)
Post-tensioning bar 22,000 psi (152 MPa) 23,000 psi (158 MPa)
Note 1: Excluding friction losses in post-tensioning tendons.
SECTION 17.18 FLEXURAL STRENGTH1 1
17.18.1 INTRODUCTION (2001)
Prestressed concrete members may be assumed to act as uncracked members subjected to combined axial and bending stresses
within specified service loads. In calculations of section properties, the transformed area of bonded reinforcement may be
included in pretensioned members and in post-tensioned members after grouting; prior to bonding of tendons, areas of the 3
open ducts shall be deducted.
17.18.2 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS (2001)
For rectangular or flanged sections having prestressing steel only, in which the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block,
defined as (A*s f*su)/(0.85 f 'cb), is not greater than the compression flange thickness “t”, and which satisfy EQ 17-23, the
design flexural strength shall be assumed as:
4
ϕMn = ϕ[A*s f*su d{1-0.6(p*f*su/f'c)}] EQ 17-12
For rectangular or flanged sections with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included, in which the depth of the equivalent
rectangular stress block, defined as (A*s f*su + As fsy)/(0.85 f'c b), is not greater than the compression flange thickness “t” and
which satisfy EQ 17-24, the design flexural strength shall be assumed as:
ϕMn = ϕ{A*sf*sud[1-0.6((p*f*su/f 'c)+(dt/d)(pfsy/f 'c))] + Asfsydt[1-0.6((d/dt)(p*f*su/f 'c)+(pfsy/f 'c))]} EQ 17-13
1
See C - Section 17.18 Flexural Strength

17.18.3 FLANGED SECTIONS (2001)
For sections having prestressing steel only, in which the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block, defined as (Asr
f*su)/(0.85 f'cb') is greater than the compression flange thickness “t”, and which satisfy EQ 17-24 the design flexural strength
shall be assumed as:
ϕMn = ϕ{Asrf*sud[1-0.6(Asrf*su/b'df 'c)] + 0.85 f'c(b-b')(t)(d-0.5t)} EQ 17-14
For sections with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included, in which the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress
block, defined as (Asr f*su)/(0.85 f'cb') is greater than the compression flange thickness “t”, and which satisfy EQ 17-24, the
design flexural strength shall be assumed as:
ϕMn = ϕ{Asrf*sud[1-0.6(Asrf*su/b' df'c)] + Asfsy(dt-d) + 0.85 f'c(b-b')(t)(d-0.5t)} EQ 17-15
where:
Asr = A*s - Asf, in EQ 17-14 EQ 17-16
Asr = A*s + (Asfsy/f*su) - Asf, in EQ 17-15 EQ 17-17
Asf = 0.85f'c(b-b')t/f*su EQ 17-18
Asf = The steel area required to develop the ultimate compressive strength of the overhanging portions of the
flange.
17.18.4 STEEL STRESS (2001)
17.18.4.1 As an alternative to a more accurate determination of f*su based on strain compatibility, the
following approximate values of f*su shall be permitted to be used:
Bonded Members:
with prestressing only (as defined):
f*su = f's[1-(γ*/ß1)(p*f's/f'c)] EQ 17-19
with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included:
f*su = f's{1-(γ*/ß1)[(p*f's/f'c)+dt/d(pfsy/f'c)]} EQ 17-20
where γ* :
= 0.28 for low-relaxation steel
= 0.40 for stress-relieved steel
= 0.55 for bars
Unbonded members:

f*su = fse + 15,000 EQ 17-21

f*su = fse + 100 EQ 17-21 (Metric)
provided that:
a. The stress strain properties of the prestressing steel conform to the requirements of ASTM A416 (Low-Relaxation).
b. The effective prestress after losses is not less than 0.5 f 's.
17.18.4.2 At ultimate load, the stress in the prestressing steel of precast deck panels shall be limited to:
f*su = lx/D + 2/3 fse EQ 17-22
f*su = 7 lx/D + 2/3 fse EQ 17-22 (Metric)
but shall not be greater the f*su as given by the equations in Article 17.18.4.1. In the above equation:
D = nominal diameter of strand in inches (mm);
fse = effective stress in prestressing strand after losses in psi (MPa);
lx = distance from end of prestressing strand to center of panel in inches (mm).

1
SECTION 17.19 DUCTILITY LIMITS
17.19.1 MAXIMUM PRESTRESSING STEEL (2001) 3

Prestressed concrete members shall be designed so that the steel is yielding as ultimate capacity is approached. In general, the
reinforcement index shall be such that:
p*f*su/f 'c, for rectangular sections EQ 17-23
and 4
Asrf*su/b'df 'c, for flanged sections EQ 17-24
does not exceed 0.36ß1. (See Article 17.20 for reinforcement indices of sections with non-prestressed reinforcement).
For members with reinforcement indices greater than 0.36ß1, the design flexural strength shall be assumed not greater than:
For rectangular sections: ϕMn = ϕ[(0.36ß1 - 0.08ß12)f'cbd2] EQ 17-25
For flanged sections: ϕMn = ϕ[(0.36ß1 - 0.08ß12)f'cbd2 +0.85f'c(b-b')t(d-0.5t)] EQ 17-26

17.19.2 MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT (2001)
17.19.2.1 The total amount of prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement shall be adequate to develop
an ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1.2 times the cracking moment M*cr.
ϕM n ≥ 1.2M* cr
where:
M*cr = (fr + fpe)Sc - Md/nc(Sc/Sb - 1) EQ 17-27
Appropriate values for Md/nc and Sb shall be used for any intermediate composite sections. Where beams are designed to be
noncomposite, substitute Sb for Sc in the above equation for the calculation of M*cr.
17.19.2.2 The minimum amount of non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement provided in the cast-in-
place portion of slabs utilizing precast prestressed deck panels shall be 0.25 square inch per foot (530
mm2 per meter) of slab width.
SECTION 17.20 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT
Non-prestressed reinforcement may be considered as contributing to the tensile strength of the beam at design flexural strength
in an amount equal to its area times yield strength, provided that:
For rectangular sections:
( pf sy ⁄ f′ c )d t ⁄ d + ( p*f * su ⁄ f′ c ) – ( p′f′ y ⁄ f′ c ) ≤ 0.36β 1 EQ 17-28
For flanged sections:
( A s f sy ) ⁄ ( b′df′ c ) + ( A sr f * su ) ⁄ ( b′df′ c ) – ( A′ s f ′ y ) ⁄ ( b′df′ c ) ≤ 0.36β 1 EQ 17-29
Design flexural strength shall be calculated based on EQ 17-13 or EQ 17-15 if these values are met, and on EQ 17-25 or EQ
17-26 if these values are exceeded.

SECTION 17.21 SHEAR
17.21.1 GENERAL (2001)
17.21.1.1 Prestressed concrete flexural members, except solid slabs and footings, shall be reinforced for
shear and diagonal tension stresses. Voided slabs shall be investigated for shear, but shear reinforcement
may be omitted if the factored shear force, Vu, is less than half the shear strength provided by the concrete
ϕVc.
17.21.1.2 Web reinforcement shall consist of stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or welded
wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to the axis of the member. Web reinforcement shall extend to
a distance d from the extreme compression fiber and shall be carried as close to the compression and
tension surfaces of the member as cover requirements and the proximity of other reinforcement permit.
Web reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends for its design yield strength in accordance with the
provisions of Article 2.21.
17.21.1.3 Members subject to shear shall be designed so that
Vu ≤ ϕ ( Vc + Vs ) EQ 17-30
where Vu is the factored shear force at the section considered, Vc is the nominal shear strength provided by concrete and Vs is
the nominal shear strength provided by web reinforcement.
1
17.21.1.4 When the reaction to the applied loads introduces compression into the end regions of the
member, sections located at a distance less than h/2 from the face of the support may be designed for the
same shear Vu as that computed at a distance h/2. An exception occurs when major concentrated loads
are imposed between that point and the face of support. In that case sections closer than d to the support
shall be designed for Vu at distance d plus the major concentrated loads.
17.21.2 SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY CONCRETE (2007) 3
17.21.2.1 For members with effective prestress force not less than 40 percent of the total tensile strength
of flexural reinforcement, unless a more detailed calculation is made in accordance with 17.21.2.2, shear
strength Vc shall be computed by:
EQ 17-31 4
⎛ f′ V u d p⎞ EQ 17-31
V c = ⎜ ---------c- + 5 ------------⎟b d (Metric)
⎝ 20 Mu ⎠ w
but Vc need not be taken less than
2 f′ c b w d
1
--- f′ c b w d Metric
6

nor shall Vc be taken greater than
5 f ′c bw d
0.4 f ′ c b w d Metric
nor the value given in 17.21.2.3. The quantity Vudp/Mu shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where Mu is factored moment
occurring simultaneously with factored shear force, Vu at the section considered.
17.21.2.2 For more precise analysis the shear strength provided by concrete, Vc, shall be taken as the
lesser of the values Vci or Vcw.
The shear strength, Vci, shall be computed by:
V i M cr EQ 17-32
V ci = 0.6 f′ c b′d + V d + ---------------
M max
4 V i M cr EQ 17-32
V ci = 5 × 10 f ′ c b′d + V d + --------------- (Metric)
M max
but Vci need not be less than
1.7 f′ c b′d
220 f′ c b′d Metric
and d need not be taken less than 0.8h.
The moment causing flexural cracking at the section due to externally applied loads, Mcr, shall be computed by:
M cr = ( I ⁄ y t ) ( 6 f′ c + f pe – f d ) EQ 17-33
EQ 17-33
M cr = ( I ⁄ y t ) ( 0.5 f′ e + f pe – f d ) (Metric)
The maximum factored moment and factored shear at the section due to externally applied loads, Mmax and Vi, shall be
computed from the load combination causing maximum moment at the section.

17.21.2.3 The shear strength, Vcw, shall be computed by:
EQ 17-34
V cw = ( 3.5 f′ c + 0.3f pc )b′d + V p
5 EQ 17-34
V cw = 10 × 10 [ ( 0.29 f′ c + 0.3f pe )b′d ] + V p (Metric)
but d need not be taken less than 0.8h.
17.21.2.4 In a pretensioned member in which the section at a distance h/2 from face of support is closer to
the end of member than the transfer length of the prestressing steel, the reduced prestress shall be
considered when computing Vcw. This value of Vcw shall also be taken as the maximum limit for EQ 17-31.
The prestress force shall be assumed to vary linearly from zero at the end of prestressing steel, to a
maximum at a distance from the end of prestressing steel equal to the transfer length, assumed to be 50
diameters for strand and 100 diameters for single wire.
17.21.2.5 In a pretensioned member where bonding of some tendons does not extend to the end of
member, a reduced prestress shall be considered when computing Vc in accordance with 17.21.2.1 and
17.21.2.2. The value of Vcw calculated using the reduced prestress shall also be taken as the maximum limit
for EQ 17-31. The prestress force due to tendons, for which bonding does not extend to the end of member,
shall be assumed to vary linearly from zero at the point at which bonding commences to a maximum at a 1
distance from this point equal to the transfer length, assumed to be 50 diameters for strand and 100
diameters for single wire.
17.21.2.6 The provisions for computing the shear strength provided by concrete, Vci and Vcw , apply to
normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate concretes are used, (see definition, concrete,
structural lightweight, Article 2.2.2), one of the following modifications shall apply:
3
a. When fct is specified, the shear strength, Vci and Vcw, shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (1.8 fct) for but the value
f′ c
of fct/6.7 (1.8 fct) used shall not exceed
f′ c 4
b. When fct is not specified, Vci and Vcw shall be modified by multiplying each term containing
f′ c
by 0.85 for “sand-lightweight” concrete.
17.21.3 SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY WEB REINFORCEMENT (2001)
Shear reinforcement shall consist of stirrups perpendicular to axis of member or welded wire fabric with wires located
perpendicular to axis of member. Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends in accordance with Article 2.21.

17.21.3.1 The shear strength provided by web reinforcement shall be taken as
Vs = (Avfsyd)/s EQ 17-35
where Av is the area of web reinforcement within a distance s. Vs shall not be taken greater than
8 f′ c b′d
0.66 f′ c b′d Metric
and d need not be taken less than 0.8h.
17.21.3.2 The spacing of web reinforcing shall not exceed 0.75h or 24 inches (600 mm). When Vs exceeds
4 f′ c b′d
0.332 f′ c b′d Metric
this maximum spacing shall be reduced by one-half.
17.21.3.3 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be provided in all flexural members, except: slabs, footings, and shallow beams,
where factored shear force Vu exceeds ½ the shear strength provided by concrete ϕVc, (Beams with total depth not greater
than either 10 in. (250 mm), 2-1/2 times the thickness of the flange, or one-half the width of web shall be considered shallow
beams).
The minimum area of web reinforcement shall be:

Av = (50 b's)/fsy EQ 17-36
Av = (0.345 b's)/fsy EQ 17-36 (Metric)
where b' and s are in inches (mm) and fsy is in psi (MPa).

17.21.3.4 The design yield strength of web reinforcement, fsy, shall not exceed 60,000 psi (420 MPa).
17.21.4 HORIZONTAL SHEAR DESIGN-COMPOSITE FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2001)
17.21.4.1 In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact
surfaces of interconnected elements.
17.21.4.2 Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of
Article 17.21.4.3 or 17.21.4.4, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of
strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
17.21.4.3 Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be based on:
V u ≤ ϕV nh EQ 17-37
where Vu is factored shear force at section considered, Vnh is nominal horizontal shear strength in accordance with the
following, and where d is for the entire composite section.
a. When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh shall not be taken
greater than 80bvd in pounds (0.552bvd in newtons).
b. When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 17.21.4.5, and contact surface is clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh shall not be taken greater than 80bvd, in pounds (0.552bvd 1
in newtons).
c. When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 17.21.4.5, and contact surface is clean, free of laitance,
and intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of approximately 1/4 in. (7 mm), shear strength Vnh shall not be taken
greater than 350bvd, in pounds (2.413bvd in newtons).
d. For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the contact surface in excess of the minimum required by Article
3
17.21.4.5, shear strength Vnh may be increased by (160fy/40,000)bvd, in pounds [(90fy/100,000) bvd in newtons].
17.21.4.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of
the span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be transferred, and provisions made to transfer
that force as horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The factored horizontal shear force shall
not exceed horizontal shear strength ϕVnh in accordance with Article 17.21.4.3, except that length of 4
segment considered shall be substituted for d.
17.21.4.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear
a. When required, a minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected elements. Tie area
shall not be less than 50 bvs/fy, and tie spacing “s” shall not exceed four times the least web width of support element,
nor 24 in. (600 mm).
b. Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded wire fabric.
All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or hooks.
c. All beam shear reinforcement shall extend into cast-in-place deck slabs. Extended shear reinforcement may be used in
satisfying the minimum tie reinforcement.

SECTION 17.22 POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES
17.22.1 GEOMETRY OF ANCHORAGE ZONE (2001)
a. The anchorage zone is geometrically defined as the volume of concrete through which the concentrated prestressing
force at the anchorage device spreads transversely to a linear stress distribution across the entire cross section.
b. For anchorage zones at the end of a member or segment, the transverse dimensions may be taken as the depth and
width of the section. The longitudinal extent of the anchorage zone in the direction of the tendon (ahead of anchorage)
shall be taken as not less than the larger transverse dimension but not more than one and one-half times that dimension.
c. For intermediate anchorages in addition to the length of Article 17.22.1b the anchorage zone shall be considered to also
extend in the opposite direction for a distance not less than the larger transverse dimension.
d. For multiple slab anchorages, both width and length of the anchorage zone shall be taken as equal to the center-to-
center spacing between stressed tendons, but not more than the length of the slab in the direction of the tendon axis.
The thickness of the anchorage zone shall be taken equal to the thickness of the slab.
e. For design purposes, the anchorage zone shall consist of two regions; the general zone as defined in Article 17.22.2.1
and the local zone as defined in Article 17.22.2.2.
17.22.2 GENERAL ZONE AND LOCAL ZONE (2001)
17.22.2.1 General Zone
The geometric extent of the general zone is identical to that of the overall anchorage zone as defined in Article 17.22.1 and
includes the local zone.
Design of general zones shall meet the requirements of Articles 17.15 and 17.22.3.
17.22.2.2 Local Zone
The local zone is defined as the rectangular prism (or equivalent rectangular prism for circular or oval anchorages) of concrete
surrounding and immediately ahead of the anchorage device and any integral confining reinforcement. The dimensions of the
local zone are defined in Article 17.22.7.
Design of local zones shall meet the requirements of Articles 17.15 and 17.22.7 or shall be based on the results of experimental
tests required in Article 17.22.7.3 and described in Article 17.25.3.5. Anchorage devices based on these acceptance tests of
Article 17.25.3.5, are referred to as special anchorage devices.
17.22.2.3 Responsibilities
The Engineer is responsible for the overall design and approval of working drawings for the general zone, including the
specific location of the tendons and anchorage devices, general zone reinforcement, and the specific stressing sequence. The
Engineer is also responsible for the design of local zones based on Article 17.22.7.2 and for the approval of special anchorage
devices used under the provisions of Article 17.22.7.3. All working drawings for the local zone must be approved by the
Engineer.
Anchorage device suppliers are responsible for furnishing anchorage devices which satisfy the anchor efficiency requirements
of Article 17.25.3.1. In addition, if special anchorage devices are used, the anchorage device supplier is responsible for
furnishing anchorage devices that satisfy the acceptance test requirements of the Engineer. This acceptance test and the anchor
efficiency test shall be conducted by an independent testing agency acceptable to the Engineer. The anchorage device supplier
shall provide records of the acceptance test to the Engineer and to the constructor and shall specify auxiliary and confining

reinforcement, minimum edge distance, minimum anchor spacing, and minimum concrete strength at time of stressing
required for proper performance of the local zone.
The responsibilities of the constructor shall be as specified by the Engineer.
17.22.3 DESIGN OF THE GENERAL ZONE (2001)
17.22.3.1 Design Methods
The following methods may be used for the design of general zones:
a. Equilibrium based plasticity models (strut-and-tie models) (see Article 17.22.4)
b. Elastic stress analysis (finite element analysis or equivalent) (see Article 17.22.5)
c. Approximate methods for determining the compression and tension forces, where applicable (see Article 17.22.6).
Regardless of the design method used, all designs shall conform to the requirements of Article 17.22.3.4.
The effects of stressing sequence and three-dimensional effects shall be considered in the design. When these three
dimensional effects appear significant, they may be analyzed using three-dimensional analysis procedures or may be
approximated by considering two or more planes. However, in these approximations the interaction of the planes’ models
must be considered, and the model loadings and results must be consistent.
1
17.22.3.2 Nominal Material Strengths
The nominal tensile strength of bonded reinforcement is limited to fsy for nonprestressed reinforcement and to fy for
prestressed reinforcement. The nominal tensile strength of unbonded prestressed reinforcement is limited to fse + 15,000 psi
(fse + 105 MPa).
The effective nominal compressive strength of the concrete of the general zone, exclusive of confined concrete, is limited to 3
0.7 f 'c. The tensile strength of the concrete shall be neglected.
The compressive strength of concrete at transfer of prestressing shall be specified on the construction drawings. Stress shall
not be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by methods
identical with the curing of the member, meets the requirements of the drawings.
17.22.3.3 Use of Special Anchorage Devices 4

Whenever special anchorage devices which do not meet the requirements of Article 17.22.7.2 are to be used, reinforcement
similar in configuration and at least equivalent in volumetric ratio to the supplementary skin reinforcement permitted under the
provisions of Article 17.25.3.5 shall be furnished in the corresponding regions of the anchorage zone.
17.22.3.4 General Design Principles and Detailing Requirements
Good detailing and quality workmanship are essential for the satisfactory performance of anchorage zones. Sizes and details
for anchorage zones should respect the need: for tolerances on the bending, fabrication and placement of reinforcement; the
size of aggregate; and, the placement and sound consolidation of the concrete.
a. Compressive stresses in the concrete ahead of basic anchorage devices shall meet the requirements of Article
17.22.7.2.

b. Compressive stresses in the concrete ahead of special anchorage devices shall be checked at a distance measured from
the concrete bearing surface equal to the smaller of:
(1) The depth to the end of the local confinement reinforcement.
(2) The smaller lateral dimension of the anchorage device.
These compressive stresses may be determined according to the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 17.22.4,
from an elastic stress analysis according to Article 17.22.5b, or by the approximate method outlined in Article
17.22.6.2. These compressive stresses shall not exceed 0.7 f 'ci.
c. Compressive stresses shall also be checked where geometry or loading discontinuities within or ahead of the anchorage
zone may cause stress concentrations.
d. The bursting force is the tensile force in the anchorage zone acting ahead of the anchorage device and transverse to the
tendon axis. The magnitude of the bursting force, Tburst , and its corresponding distance from the loaded surface,
dburst, can be determined using the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 17.22.4, from an elastic stress analysis
according to Article 17.22.5c, or by the approximate method outlined in Article 17.22.6.3. Three-dimensional effects
shall be considered for the determination of the bursting reinforcement requirements.
e. Resistance to bursting forces, ϕ Asfsy and/or ϕ A*s f*y, shall be provided by non-prestressed or prestressed
reinforcement, in the form of spirals, closed hoops, or well anchored transverse ties. This reinforcement is to be
proportioned to resist the total factored bursting force. Arrangement and anchorage of bursting reinforcement shall
satisfy the following:
(1) Bursting reinforcement shall extend over the full width of the member and must be anchored as close to the outer
faces of the member as cover permits.
(2) Bursting reinforcement shall be distributed ahead of the loaded surface along both sides of the tendon throughout a
distance of 2.5 dburst for the plane considered, but not to exceed 1.5 times the corresponding lateral dimension of
the section. The centroid of the bursting reinforcement shall coincide with the distance dburst used for the design.
(3) Spacing of bursting reinforcement shall exceed neither 24 bar diameters nor 12 inches (300 mm).
f. Edge tension forces are tensile forces in the anchorage zone acting parallel and close to the transverse edge and
longitudinal edges of the member. The transverse edge is the surface loaded by the anchors. The tensile force along
the transverse edge is referred to as spalling force. The tensile force along the longitudinal edge is referred to as
longitudinal edge tension force.
g. Spalling forces are induced in concentrically loaded anchorage zones, eccentrically loaded anchorage zones, and
anchorage zones for multiple anchors. Longitudinal edge tension forces are induced when the resultant of the
anchorage forces considered causes eccentric loading of the anchorage zone. The edge tension forces can be
determined from an elastic stress analysis, strut-and-tie models, or in accordance with the approximate methods of
Article 17.22.6.4.
h. In no case shall the spalling force be taken as less than two percent of the total factored tendon force.
i. Resistance to edge tension forces, ϕAsfsy and/or ϕA*sf*y, shall be provided in the form of non-prestressed or
prestressed reinforcement located close to the longitudinal and transverse edge of the concrete. Arrangement and
anchorage of the edge tension reinforcement shall satisfy the following:
• Minimum spalling reinforcement satisfying Article 17.22.3.4h shall extend over the full width of the member.
• Spalling reinforcement between multiple anchorage devices shall effectively tie these anchorage devices together.

• Longitudinal edge tension reinforcement and spalling reinforcement for eccentric anchorage devices shall be
continuous. The reinforcement shall extend along the tension face over the full length of the anchorage zone and
shall extend along the loaded face from the longitudinal edge to the other side of the eccentric anchorage device or
group of anchorage devices.
17.22.3.5 Intermediate Anchorages
a. Intermediate anchorages shall not be used in regions where significant tension is generated behind the anchor from
other loads. Whenever practical, blisters shall be located in the corner between flange and webs, or shall be extended
over the full flange width or web height to form a continuous rib. If isolated blisters must be used on a flange or web,
local shear, bending and direct force effects shall be considered in the design.
b. Bonded reinforcement shall be provided to tie back at least 25 percent of the intermediate anchorage unfactored
stressing force into the concrete section behind the anchor. Stresses in this bonded reinforcement are limited to a
maximum of 0.6fsy or 36 ksi (250 MPa). The amount of tie back reinforcement may be reduced using EQ 17-38, if
permanent compressive stresses are generated behind the anchor from other loads.
Tia = 0.25Ps - fcbAcb EQ 17-38
where:
Tia = the tie back tension force at the intermediate anchorage;
Ps = the maximum unfactored anchorage stressing force;

1
fcb = the compressive stress in the region behind the anchor;
Acb = the area of the continuing cross section within the extensions of the sides of the anchor plate or
blister. The area of the blister or rib shall not be taken as part of the cross section.
c. Tie back reinforcement satisfying Article 17.22.3.5b shall be placed no further than one plate width from the tendon
axis. It shall be fully anchored so that the yield strength can be developed at a distance of one plate width or half the 3
length of the blister or rib ahead of the anchor as well as at the same distance behind the anchor. The centroid of this
reinforcement shall coincide with the tendon axis, where possible. For blisters and ribs, the reinforcement shall be
placed in the continuing section near that face of the flange or web from which the blister or rib is projecting.
d. Reinforcement shall be provided throughout blisters or ribs are required for shear friction, corbel action, bursting
forces, and deviation forces due to tendon curvature. This reinforcement shall be in the form of ties or U-stirrups
which encase the anchorage and tie it effectively into the adjacent web and flange. This reinforcement shall extend as
4
far as possible into the flange or web and be developed by standard hooks bent around transverse bars or equivalent.
Spacing shall not exceed the smallest of blister or rib height at anchor, blister width, or 6 inches (150 mm).
e. Reinforcement shall be provided to resist local bending in blisters and ribs due to eccentricity of the tendon force and
to resist lateral bending in ribs due to tendon deviation forces.
f. Reinforcement required by Articles 17.22.3.4d through 17.22.3.4i shall be provided to resist tensile forces due to
transfer of the anchorage force from the blister or rib into the overall structure.
17.22.3.6 Diaphragms
For tendons anchored in diaphragms, concrete compressive stresses shall be limited within the diaphragm in accordance with
Articles 17.22.3.4a through 17.22.3.4c. Compressive stresses shall also be checked at the transition from the diaphragm to
webs and flanges of the member.

Reinforcement shall be provided to ensure full transfer of diaphragm anchor loads into the flanges and webs of the girder. The
more general methods of Article 17.22.4 or 17.22.5 shall be used to determine this reinforcement. Reinforcement shall also be
provided to tie back deviation forces due to tendon curvature.
17.22.3.7 Multiple Slab Anchorages
a. Minimum reinforcement meeting the requirements of Articles 17.22.3.7b through 17.22.3.7d shall be provided unless a
more detailed analysis is made.
b. Reinforcement shall be provided for the bursting force in the direction of the thickness of the slab and normal to the
tendon axis in accordance with Article 17.22.3.4d and 17.22.3.4e This reinforcement shall be anchored close to the
faces of the slab with standard hooks bent around horizontal bars, or equivalent. Minimum reinforcement is two No.
10 (#3) bars per anchor located at a distance equal to one-half the slab thickness ahead of the anchor.
c. Reinforcement in the plane of the slab and normal to the tendon axis shall be provided to resist edge tension forces, T1,
between anchorages (EQ 17-39) and bursting forces, T2, ahead of the anchorages (EQ 17-40). Edge tension
reinforcement shall be placed immediately ahead of the anchors and shall effectively tie adjacent anchors together.
Bursting reinforcement shall be distributed over the length of the anchorage zones (see Article 17.22.1d).
(
T1 = 0.10Pu 1- a/s ) EQ 17-39
(
T2 = 0.20Pu 1 - a/s ) EQ 17-40
where:
Pu = the factored tendon load on an individual anchor;
a = the anchor plate width;
s = the anchorage spacing.
d. For slab anchors with an edge distance of less than two plate widths or one slab thickness, the edge tension
reinforcement shall be proportioned to resist 25 percent of the factored tendon load. This reinforcement shall
preferably be in the form of hairpins and shall be distributed within one plate width ahead of the anchor. The legs of
the hairpin bars shall extend from the edge of the slab past the adjacent anchor but not less than a distance equal to five
plate widths plus development length.
17.22.4 APPLICATION OF STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS TO THE DESIGN OF ANCHORAGE

ZONES (2001)
17.22.4.1 General
The flow of forces in the anchorage zone may be approximated by a series of straight compression members (struts) and
straight tension members (ties) that are connected at discrete points (nodes). Compression forces are carried by concrete
compression struts and tension forces are carried by non-prestressed or prestressed reinforcement.
The selected strut-and-tie model shall follow a load path from the anchorages to the end of the anchorage zone. Other forces
acting on the anchorage zone, such as reaction forces, tendon deviation forces, and applied loads, shall be considered in the
selection of the strut-and-tie model. The forces at the end of the anchorage zone can be obtained from an axial-flexural beam
analysis.

17.22.4.2 Nodes
Local zones which meet the provisions of Article 17.22.7 or Article 17.25.3.5 are considered as properly detailed, adequate
nodes. The other nodes in the anchorage zone are adequate if the effective concrete stresses in the struts meet the requirements
of Article 17.22.4.3 and the tension ties are properly detailed to develop the full yield strength of the reinforcement.
17.22.4.3 Struts
The effective concrete compressive strength for the general zone shall usually be limited to 0.7ϕf 'ci. In areas where the
concrete may be extensively cracked at ultimate due to other load effects, or if large plastic rotations are required, the effective
compressive strength shall be limited to 0.6ϕf 'ci.
In anchorage zones the critical section for compression struts is ordinarily located at the interface with the local zone node. If
special anchorage devices are used, the critical section of the strut can be taken as that section whose extension intersects the
axis of the tendon at a depth equal to the smaller of the depth of the local confinement reinforcement or the lateral dimension
of the anchorage device.
For thin members with a ratio of member thickness to anchorage width of no more than three, the dimension of the strut in the
direction of the thickness of the member can be approximated by assuming that the thickness of the compression strut varies
linearly from the transverse lateral dimension of the anchor at the surface of the concrete to the total thickness of the section at
a depth equal to the thickness of the section.
The compression stresses can be assumed as acting parallel to the axis of the strut and as uniformly distributed over its cross
section.
1
17.22.4.4 Ties
Tension forces in the strut-and-tie model shall be assumed to be carried completely by non-prestressed or prestressed
reinforcement. Tensile strength of the concrete shall be neglected.
Tension ties shall be properly detailed and shall extend beyond the nodes to develop the full tension tie force at the node. The 3
reinforcement layout must closely follow the directions of the ties in the strut-and-tie model.
17.22.5 ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS (2001)
a. Analyses based on assumed elastic material properties, equilibrium, and compatibility of strains are acceptable for
analysis and design of anchorage zones.
4
b. If the compressive stresses in the concrete ahead of the anchorage device are determined from a linear-elastic stress
analysis, local stress maxima may be averaged over an area equal to the bearing area of the anchorage device.
c. Location and magnitude of the bursting force may be obtained by integration of the corresponding tensile bursting
stresses along the tendon path.
17.22.6 APPROXIMATE METHODS (2001)
17.22.6.1 Limitations
In the absence of a more accurate analysis, concrete compressive stresses ahead of the anchorage device, location and
magnitude of the bursting force, and edge tension forces may be estimated by EQ 17-41 through EQ 17-42, provided that:
a. The member has a rectangular cross section and its longitudinal extent is at least equal to the largest transverse
dimension of the cross section.

b. The member has no discontinuities within or ahead of the anchorage zone.
c. The minimum edge distance of the anchorage in the main plane of the member is at least one and one-half times the
corresponding lateral dimension, a, of the anchorage device.
d. Only one anchorage device or one group of closely spaced anchorage devices is located in the anchorage zone.
Anchorage devices can be treated as closely spaced if their center-to-center spacing does not exceed one and one-half
times the width of the anchorage devices in the direction considered.
e. The angle of inclination of the tendon with respect to the center line of the member is not larger than 20 degrees if the
anchor force points toward the centroid of the section and for concentric anchors, and is not larger than 5 degrees if the
anchor force points away from the centroid of the section.
17.22.6.2 Compressive Stresses
a. No additional check of concrete compressive stresses is necessary for basic anchorage devices satisfying Article
17.22.7.2.
b. The concrete compressive stresses ahead of special anchorage devices at the interface between local zone and general
zone shall be approximated by EQ 17-41 and EQ 17-42.
⎛ ⎞
0.6P ⎜ k ⎟
f ca = ⎛ -------------⎞ ⎜ --------------------------------------⎟
u
EQ 17-41
⎝ A ⎠⎜ 1 1
b 1 + l c ⎛ --------- – ---⎞ ⎟
⎝ ⎝b t⎠⎠
eff
k = 1 + (2 - s/aeff) (0.3 + n/15) for s < 2aeff
k=1 for s ≥ 2a eff EQ 17-42
where:
fca = the concrete compressive stress ahead of the anchorage device;
k = a correction factor for closely spaced anchorages;
Ab = an effective bearing area as defined in Article 17.22.6.2c;
aeff = the lateral dimension of the effective bearing area measured parallel to the larger dimension of the cross
section or in the direction of closely spaced anchors;
beff = the lateral dimension of the effective bearing area measured parallel to the smaller dimension of the cross
section;
lc = the longitudinal extent of confining reinforcement for the local zone, but not more than the larger of 1.15 aeff
or 1.15 beff;
Pu = the factored tendon load;
t = the thickness of the section;

s = the center-to-center spacing of multiple anchorages;
n = the number of anchorages in a row.
If a group of anchorages is closely spaced in two directions, the product of the correction factors, k, for each direction is used
in EQ 17-42.
c. Effective bearing area, Ab, in EQ 17-41 shall be taken as the larger of the anchor bearing plate area, Aplate, or the
bearing area of the confined concrete in the local zone, Aconf, with the following limitations:
(1) If Aplate controls, Aplate shall not be taken larger than
( 4 ⁄ π )A conf
(2) If Aconf controls, the maximum dimension of Aconf shall not be more than twice the maximum dimension of Aplate
or three times the minimum dimension of Aplate. If any of these limits is violated the effective bearing area, Ab,
shall be based on Aplate.
(3) Deductions shall be made for the area of the duct in the determination of Ab.
17.22.6.3 Bursting Forces
Values for the magnitude of the bursting force, Tburst, and for its distance from the loaded surface, dburst, shall be estimated by
EQ 17-43 and EQ 17-44. In the application of EQ 17-43 and EQ 17-44, the specified stressing sequence shall be considered if
more than one tendon is present.
1
T burst = 0.25ΣP u ( 1 – a ⁄ h ) + 0.5P u sin α EQ 17-43
dburst = 0.5 (h - 2e) + 5e sin α EQ 17-44
where: 3
ΣP u = the sum of the total factored tendon loads for the stressing arrangement considered;
a = the lateral dimension of the anchorage device or group of devices in the direction considered.
e = the eccentricity (always taken as positive) of the anchorage device or group of devices with respect to the
centroid of the cross section; 4
h = the lateral dimension of the cross section in the direction considered;
α = the angle of inclination of the resultant of the tendon forces with respect to the centerline of the member.
17.22.6.4 Edge Tension Forces
For multiple anchorages with a center-to-center spacing of less than 0.4 times the depth of the section, the spalling forces shall
be given by Article 17.22.3.4h. For larger spacings, the spalling forces shall be determined from a more detailed analysis, such
as strut-and-tie models or other analytical procedures.
If the centroid of all tendons considered is located outside of the kern of the section both spalling forces and longitudinal edge
tension forces are induced. The longitudinal edge tension force shall be determined from an axial-flexural beam analysis at a
section located at one half the depth of the section away from the loaded surface. The spalling force shall be taken as equal to
the longitudinal edge tension force but not less than specified in Article 17.22.3.4h.

17.22.7 DESIGN OF THE LOCAL ZONE (2001)
17.22.7.1 Dimensions of the Local Zone
a. When no independently verified manufacturer’s edge distance recommendations for a particular anchorage device are
available, the transverse dimensions of the local zone in each direction shall be taken as the larger of:
(1) The corresponding bearing plate size plus twice the minimum concrete cover required for the particular
application and environment.
(2) The outer dimension of any required confining reinforcement plus the required concrete cover over the confining
reinforcing steel for the particular application and environment.
b. When independently verified manufacturer’s recommendations for minimum cover, spacing and edge distance for a
particular anchorage device are available, the transverse dimensions of the local zone in each direction shall be taken as
the smaller of:
(1) The bearing plate size plus twice the edge distance specified by the anchorage device supplier,
(2) The center-to-center spacing specified by the anchorage device supplier.
The manufacturer’s recommendations for spacing and edge distance of anchorages shall be considered minimum
values.
c. The length of the local zone along the tendon axis shall be taken as the greater of:
• The maximum width of the local zone.
• The length of the anchorage device confining reinforcement.
• For anchorage devices with multiple bearing surfaces, the distance from the loaded concrete surface to the bottom of
each bearing surface plus the maximum dimension of that bearing surface.
In no case shall the length of the local zone be taken as greater than one and one-half times the width of the local zone.
d. For closely spaced anchorages an enlarged local zone enclosing all individual anchorages shall also be considered.
17.22.7.2 Bearing Strength
a. Anchorage devices may be either basic anchorage devices meeting the bearing compressive strength limits of Articles
17.22.7.2b through 17.22.7.2d or special anchorage devices meeting the requirements of Article 17.22.7.3.
b. The effective concrete bearing compressive strength fb used for design shall not exceed that of EQ 17-45 or EQ 17-46 .
Pr = ϕfb Ab
f b ≤ 0.7f ′ ci A ⁄ A g EQ 17-45
but:
f b ≤ 2.25f ′ ci EQ 17-46

where:
fb = the maximum factored tendon load, Pu, divided by the effective bearing area Ab;
f 'ci = the concrete compressive strength at stressing;
A = the maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that is geometrically similar to the loaded area and
concentric with it;
Ag = the gross area of the bearing plate if the requirements of Article 17.22.7.2c are met, or is the area calculated
in accordance with Article 17.22.7.2d;
Ab = the effective net area of the bearing plate calculated as the area Ag minus the area of openings in the bearing
plate.
EQ 17-45 and EQ 17-46 are only valid if general zone reinforcement satisfying Article 17.22.7.3 is provided and if the
extent of the concrete along the tendon axis ahead of the anchorage device is at least twice the length of the local zone
as defined in Article 17.22.7.1c.
c. The full bearing plate area may be used for Ag and the calculation of Ab if the anchorage device is sufficiently rigid.
To be considered sufficiently rigid, the slenderness of the bearing plate (n/t) must not exceed the value given in EQ 17-
47. The plate must also be checked to ensure that the plate material does not yield.
n ⁄ t ≤ 0.08 3 E b ⁄ f b EQ 17-47
1
where:
n = the largest distance from the outer edge of the wedge plate to the other edge of the bearing plate. For
rectangular bearing plates this distance is measured parallel to the edges of the bearing plate. If the
anchorage has no separate wedge plate, the size of the wedge plate shall be taken as the distance between the
extreme wedge holes in the corresponding direction. 3
t = the average thickness of the bearing plate.
Eb = the modulus of elasticity of the bearing plate material.
d. For bearing plates that do not meet the stiffness requirements of Article 17.22.7.2c, the effective gross bearing area, Ag,
shall be taken as the area geometrically similar to the wedge plate (or to the outer perimeter of the wedge hole pattern 4
for plates without separate wedge plate) with dimensions increased by assuming load spreading at a 45 degree angle.
A larger effective bearing area may be calculated by assuming an effective area and checking the new fb and n/t values
for conformance with Articles 17.22.7.2b and 17.22.7.2c.
17.22.7.3 Special Anchorage Devices
Special anchorage devices that do not meet the requirements of Article 17.22.7.2 as well as other devices that do not meet the
requirements of Article 17.22.7.2 but which the Engineer requires to have tested may be used provided that they have been
tested by an independent testing agency acceptable to the Engineer according to the procedures described in Article 17.24 (or
equivalent) and meet the acceptance criteria specified in Article 17.25.3.5.3c. For a series of similar special anchorage
devices, tests are only required for representative samples unless tests for each capacity of the anchorages in the series are
required by the Engineer.

SECTION 17.23 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES
In pretensioned beams, vertical stirrups acting at a unit stress of 20,000 psi (140 MPa) to resist at least 4 percent of the total
prestressing force shall be placed within the distance of d/4 of the end of the beam.
For at least the distance d from the end of the beam, nominal reinforcement shall be placed to enclose the prestressing steel in
the bottom flange.
For box girders, transverse reinforcement shall be provided and anchored by extending the leg into the web of the girder.
Unless otherwise specified, stress shall not be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the concrete as
indicated by test cylinders, cured by methods identical with the curing of the member, is at least 4,000 psi (28 MPa).
SECTION 17.24 CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRESS TRANSFER
Unless otherwise specified, stress shall not be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the concrete as
indicated by test cylinders, cured by methods identical with the curing of the members, is at least 4,000 psi (28 MPa) for
pretensioned members (other than piles) and 3,500 psi (24 MPa) for post-tensioned members and pretensioned piles.
SECTION 17.25 GENERAL DETAILING
17.25.1 FLANGE REINFORCEMENT (2001)
Bar reinforcement for cast-in-place T-beam and box girder flanges shall conform to the provisions in Articles 2.23.10 and
2.23.11 except that the minimum reinforcement in bottom flanges shall be 0.3 percent of the flange section.
17.25.2 COVER AND SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT (2001)
The minimum concrete cover to be provided for prestressing tendons and non-prestressing reinforcement shall conform to the
requirements of Article 17.5.2.
Drainage details shall dispose of chemical spill solutions without constant contact with the prestressed girders. Where such
contact cannot be avoided, or in locations where members are exposed to salt water, salt spray, or chemical vapor, additional
cover should be provided.
The minimum clear spacing of prestressing tendons and post-tension ducts shall conform to the requirements of Article 17.5.1.
Prestressing tendons in precast deck panels shall be spaced symmetrically and uniformly across the width of the panel. They
shall not be spaced farther apart than 1 ½ times the total composite slab thickness or more than 18 inches (460 mm).
17.25.3 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS (2001)
17.25.3.1 Anchorages, Couplers, and Splices
Anchorages, couplers, and splices for bonded post-tensioned reinforcement shall develop at least 95 percent of the minimum
specified ultimate strength of the prestressing steel, tested in an unbonded state without exceeding anticipated set. Bond

transfer lengths between anchorages and the zone where full prestressing force is required under service and ultimate loads
shall normally be sufficient to develop the minimum specified ultimate strength of the prestressing steel. Couplers and splices
shall be placed in areas approved by the Engineer and enclosed in a housing long enough to permit the necessary movements.
When anchorages or couplers are located at critical sections under ultimate load, the ultimate strength required of the bonded
tendons shall not exceed the ultimate capacity of the tendon assembly, including the anchorage or coupler, tested in an
unbonded state.
17.25.3.2 Anchorages, End Fittings, Couplers, and Exposed Tendons
Anchorages, end fittings, couplers, and exposed tendons shall be permanently protected against corrosion.
17.25.3.3 Bonded Systems
Bond transfer lengths between anchorages and the zone where full prestressing force is required under service and ultimate
loads shall normally be sufficient to develop the minimum specified ultimate strength of the prestressing steel. When
anchorages or couplers are located at critical sections under ultimate load, the ultimate strength required of the bonded tendons
shall not exceed the ultimate capacity of the tendon assembly, including the anchorage or coupler, tested in an unbonded state.
Housings shall be designed so that complete grouting of all the coupler components will be accomplished during grouting of
tendons.
17.25.3.4 Unbonded Systems
For unbonded tendons, a dynamic test shall be performed on a representative anchorage and coupler specimen and the tendon
shall withstand, without failure, 500,000 cycles from 60 percent to 66 percent of its minimum specified ultimate strength, and
1
also 50 cycles from 40 percent to 80 percent of its minimum specified ultimate strength. The period of each cycle involves the
change from the lower stress level to the upper stress level and back to the lower. The specimen used for the second dynamic
test need not be the same used for the first dynamic test. Systems utilizing multiple strands, wires, or bars may be tested
utilizing a test tendon of smaller capacity than the full-sized tendon. The test tendon shall duplicate the behavior of the full-
sized tendon and generally shall not have less than 10 percent of the capacity of the full-sized tendon. Dynamic tests are not
required on bonded tendons, unless the anchorage is located or used in such a manner that repeated load applications can be 3
expected on the anchorage.
Anchorages for unbonded tendons shall not cause a reduction in the total elongation under ultimate load of the tendon to less
than 2 percent measured in a minimum gauge length of 10 feet (3 meters).
All the coupling components shall be completely protected with a coating material prior to final encasement in concrete.
4
17.25.3.5 Special Anchorage Device Acceptance Test
The test block shall be a rectangular prism. It shall contain those anchorage components which will also be embedded in the
structure's concrete. Their arrangement has to comply with the practical application and the suppliers specifications. The test
block shall contain an empty duct of size appropriate for the maximum tendon size which can be accommodated by the
anchorage device.
The dimensions of the test block perpendicular to the tendon in each direction shall be the smaller of the minimum edge
distance or the minimum spacing specified by the anchorage device supplier, with the stipulation that the cover over any
confining reinforcing steel or supplementary skin reinforcement be appropriate for the particular application and environment.
The length of the block along the axis of the tendon shall be at least two times the larger of the cross-section dimensions.
The confining reinforcing steel in the local zone shall be the same as that specified by the anchorage device supplier for the
particular system.

In addition to the anchorage device and its specified confining reinforcement steel, supplementary skin reinforcement may be
provided throughout the specimen. This supplementary skin reinforcement shall be specified by the anchorage device supplier
but shall not exceed a volumetric ratio of 0.01.
The concrete strength at the time of stressing shall be greater than the concrete strength of the test specimen at time of testing.
Either of three test procedures is acceptable: cyclic loading described in Article 17.25.3.5.1, sustained loading described in
Article 17.25.3.5.2, or monotonic loading described in Article 17.25.3.5.3. The loads specified for the tests are given in
fractions of the ultimate load Fpu of the largest tendon that the anchorage device is designed to accommodate. The specimen
shall be loaded in accordance with normal usage of the device in post-tensioning applications except that load can be applied
directly to the wedge plate or equivalent area.
17.25.3.5.1 Cyclic Loading Test
In a cyclic loading test, the load shall be increased to 0.8 Fpu . The load shall then be cycled between 0.1 Fpu and 0.8 Fpu until
crack widths stabilize, but for not less than 10 cycles. Crack widths are considered stabilized if they do not change by more
than 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) over the last three readings. Upon completion of the cyclic loading the specimen shall be preferably
loaded to failure or, if limited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.1 Fpu.
Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at the initial load of 0.8 Fpu at least at the last three consecutive peak
loadings before termination of the cyclic loading, and at 0.9 Fpu. The maximum load shall also be reported.
17.25.3.5.2 Sustained Loading Test
In a sustained loading test, the load shall be increased to 0.8 Fpu and held constant until crack widths stabilize but for not less
than 48 hours. Crack widths are considered stabilized if they do not change by more than 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) over the last
three readings. After sustained loading is completed, the specimen shall be preferably loaded to failure or, if limited by the
capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.1 Fpu.
Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at the initial load of 0.8 Fpu, at least three times at intervals of not less than
4 hours during the last 12 hours before termination of the sustained loading, and during loading to failure at 0.9 Fpu. The
maximum load shall also be reported.
17.25.3.5.3 Monotonic Loading Test
a. In a monotonic loading test, the load shall be increased to 0.9 Fpu and held constant for 1 hour. The specimen shall then
be preferably loaded to failure or, if limited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.2 Fpu.
b. Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at 0.9 Fpu after the 1-hour period, and at 1.0 Fpu. The maximum load
shall also be reported.
c. The strength of the anchorage zone must exceed:
Specimens tested under cyclic or sustained loading............................................................1.0 Fpu
Specimens tested under monotonic loading.........................................................................1.2 Fpu
d. The maximum crack width criteria specified below must be met for moderately aggressive environments.
e. For higher aggressive environments the crack width criteria shall be reduced by at least 50 percent.
(1) No cracks greater than 0.010 in. (0.254 mm) at 0.8 Fpu after completion of the cyclic or sustained loading, or at 0.9
Fpu after the 1-hour period for monotonic loading.

(2) No cracks greater than 0.016 in. (0.406 mm) at 0.9 Fpu for cyclic or sustained loading, or at 1.0 Fpu for monotonic
loading.
f. A test series shall consist of three test specimens. Each one of the tested specimens must meet the acceptance criteria.
If one of the three specimens fails to pass the test, a supplementary test of three additional specimens is allowed. The
three additional test specimen results must meet all acceptance criteria of Article 17.25.3.5.
For a series of similar special anchorage devices, tests are only required for representative samples unless tests for each
capacity of the anchorages in the series are required by the Engineer.
g. Records of the anchorage device acceptance test shall include:
(1) Dimensions of the test specimen.
(2) Drawings and dimensions of the anchorage device, including all confining reinforcing steel.
(3) Amount and arrangement of supplementary skin reinforcement.
(4) Type and yield strength of reinforcing steel.
(5) Type and compressive strength at time of testing of concrete.
(6) Type of testing procedure and all measurements required in Articles 17.25.3.5.1 through 17.25.3.5.3c for each
specimen.
1
17.25.4 EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED TENDON (2001)
Seven-wire pretensioning strand shall be bonded beyond the critical section for a development length in inches (mm) not less
than
(f*su - 2/3 f se)D EQ 17-48
3
(f*su - 2/3 fse) D/7 EQ 17-48 (Metric)
where D is the nominal diameter in inches (mm), f*su and fse are in psi (MPa), and the parenthetical expression is considered
to be without units.
Investigations may be limited to those cross sections nearest each end of the member which are required to develop their full
4
ultimate capacity.
Where strand is debonded at the end of a member and tension at service load is allowed in the precompressed tensile zone, the
development length required above shall be doubled.
SECTION 17.26 GENERAL FABRICATION
17.26.1 GENERAL (2001)
Precast concrete members shall be fabricated, erected and installed in accordance with the contract documents, except as may
be modified by Contractor's drawings that have been reviewed and accepted by the Engineer.

17.26.2 CONTRACTOR’S DRAWINGS (2001)
Such drawings shall be submitted to the Engineer for review and acceptance.
17.26.3 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION (2001)
a. Materials and manufacture shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter, except as modified by this Part.
b. The fabricator shall perform all tests required by the contract documents and ASTM Standards, and the Engineer or his
representative shall be allowed access to observe all of this sampling and testing. The results of all tests shall be
submitted to the Engineer for review and acceptance.
c. Precast members shall be cast on unyielding beds. Bearing surfaces shall be cast in accordance with the contract
documents, so that they will join properly with other elements of the structure.
d. Precast members that are to be abutted together in the finished work shall be match-cast with adjacent segments.
e. Forms may not be removed until such time as the removal will not damage the member. A member shall not be lifted
until its strength is sufficient to prevent damage.
f. When cast-in-place concrete will later be cast against a precast member, mating surfaces shall be finished to a coarse
texture as approved by the Engineer.
17.26.4 CURING (2001)1
Unless otherwise specified in the contract documents, precast members shall be cured by the water method or the steam or
radiant heat method. Curing shall not be interrupted or compromised by the removal of forms.
17.26.5 STORAGE AND HANDLING (2001)
a. Care shall be taken during storage and handling to prevent damage to precast units. Units damaged during storage or
handling shall be replaced at the Contractor's expense.
b. Precast girders shall be transported in an upright position with points of support as shown on the Contractor's drawings.
c. Prestressed concrete members shall not be shipped until tests demonstrate that the concrete has attained a compressive
strength equal to the specified design compressive strength.
17.26.6 ERECTION (2001)
a. The Contractor shall be responsible not to damage precast members during construction. Lifting devices shall be used
in accordance with Contractor’s drawings that have been reviewed and accepted by the Engineer. Temporary supports
shall be used as necessary to prevent damage.2
b. Where cast-in-place concrete is to be cast against precast members, forms shall be erected and sealed so that excessive
leakage will not occur.
1
See C - 17.26.4 Curing (2001)
2
See C - 17.26.6 Erection (2001)

17.26.7 PLACEMENT OF DUCTS, STEEL, AND ANCHORAGE HARDWARE (2001)
17.26.7.1 Placement of Ducts
Ducts shall be rigidly supported at the proper locations in the forms by ties to reinforcing steel which are adequate to prevent
displacement during concrete placement. Supplementary support bars shall be used where needed to maintain proper
alignment of the duct. Hold-down ties to the forms shall be used when the buoyancy of the ducts in the fluid concrete would
lift the reinforcing steel.
Joints between sections of duct shall be coupled with positive connections which do not result in angle changes at the joints
and will prevent the intrusion of cement paste.
After placing of ducts, reinforcement and forming is complete, an inspection shall be made to locate possible duct damage.
All unintentional holes or openings in the duct must be repaired prior to concrete placing.
Grout openings and vents must be securely anchored to the duct and to either the forms or to reinforcing steel to prevent
displacement during concrete placing operations.
After installation in the forms, the ends of ducts shall at all times be covered as necessary to prevent the entry of water or
debris.
17.26.7.1.1 Vents and Drains

1
All ducts for continuous structures shall be vented at the high points of the duct profile, except where the curvature is small, as
in continuous slabs, and at additional locations as shown on the plans. Where freezing conditions can be anticipated prior to
grouting, drains shall be installed at low point in ducts where needed to prevent the accumulation of water. Low-point drains
shall remain open until grouting is started.
The ends of vents and drains shall be removed 1 inch (25 mm) below the surface of the concrete after grouting has been
completed, and the void filled with mortar. 3
17.26.7.2 Placement of Prestressing Steel
17.26.7.2.1 Placement for Pretensioning
Prestressing steel shall be accurately installed in the forms and held in place by the stressing jack or temporary anchors and,
when tendons are to be harped or draped, by hold-down devices. The hold-down devices used at all points of change in slope 4
of tendon trajectory shall be of an approved low-friction type.
Prestressing steel shall not be removed from its protective packaging until immediately prior to installation in the forms and
placement of concrete. Openings in the packaging shall be resealed as necessary to protect the unused steel. While exposed,
the steel shall be protected as needed to prevent corrosion.
17.26.7.2.2 Placement for Post-Tensioning
All prestressing steel preassembled in ducts and installed prior to the placement of concrete shall be accurately placed and held
in position during concrete placement.
When the prestressing steel is installed after the concrete has been placed, the Contractor shall demonstrate to the satisfaction
of the Engineer that the ducts are free of water and debris immediately prior to installation of the steel. The total number of
strands in an individual tendon may be pulled into the duct as a unit, or the individual strand may be pulled or pushed through
the duct.

Anchorage devices or block-out templates for anchorages shall be set and held so that their axis coincides with the axis of the
tendon and anchor plates are normal in all directions to the tendon.
The prestressing steel shall be distributed so that the force in each girder stem is equal or as required by the plans, except as
provided herein. For box girders with more than two girder stems, at the Contractor's option, the prestressing force may vary
up to 5 percent from the theoretical required force per girder stem provided the required total force in the superstructure is
obtained and the force is distributed symmetrically about the center line of the typical section.
17.26.7.2.2.1 Protection of Steel after Installation
Prestressing steel installed in members prior to placing and curing of the concrete, or installed in the duct but not grouted
within the time limit specified below, shall be continuously protected against rust or other corrosion by means of a corrosion
inhibitor placed in the ducts or directly applied to the steel. The prestressing steel shall be so protected until grouted or
encased in concrete. Prestressing steel installed and tensioned in members after placing and curing of the concrete and grouted
within the time limit specified below will not require the use of a corrosion inhibitor described herein and rust which may form
during the interval between tendon installation and grouting will not be cause for rejection of the steel.
The permissible interval between tendon installation and grouting without use of a corrosion inhibitor for various exposure
conditions shall be as follows unless approved by the Engineer:
Very Damp Atmosphere (Humidity > 70%) or Over Saltwater ..........................................7 days
Moderate Atmosphere (Humidity from 40% to 70%)..........................................................15 days
Very Dry Atmosphere (Humidity < 40%)............................................................................20 days
After tendons are placed in ducts, the openings at the ends of the ducts shall be sealed to prevent entry of moisture.
When steam curing is used, steel for post-tensioning shall not be installed until the steam curing is completed.
Whenever electric welding is performed on or near members containing prestressing steel, the welding ground shall be
attached directly to the steel being welded. All prestressing steel and hardware shall be protected from weld spatter or other
damage.
17.26.7.3 Placement of Anchorage Hardware
The contractor is responsible for the proper placement of all materials according to the design documents of the Engineer and
the requirements stipulated by the anchorage device supplier. The Contractor shall exercise all due care and attention in the
placement of anchorage hardware, reinforcement, concrete, and consolidation of concrete in anchorage zones. Modifications
to the local zone details verified under provisions of Section 17.22.7.3 and Section 17.26.3 shall be approved by both the
Engineer and the anchorage device supplier.
17.26.8 APPLICATION AND MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE (2005)1
Prestressing force shall be determined by both of the following methods:
(1) Observation of jacking force on a calibrated gage or load cell or by use of a calibrated dynamometer.
(2) Measurement of tendon elongation. Required elongation shall be determined from average load elongation curves
for prestressing tendons used.
1
See C - 17.26.8 Application and Measurement of Prestressing Force (2005)

Cause of any difference in force determination between Paragraph 1 and Paragraph 2 that exceeds 5% for pretensioned
elements or 7% for post-tensioned construction shall be ascertained and corrected.
Where transfer of force from bulkheads of pretensioning bed to concrete is accomplished by cutting prestressing tendons,
cutting points and cutting sequence shall be predetermined to avoid undesired temporary stresses. Unless otherwise required
by the Contract Documents long lengths of exposed pretensioned strand shall be cut near the member to minimize shock to
concrete.
Wire failure in prestressing tendons is acceptable provided total area of broken wires does not exceed 2% of total area of
tendons in member, and wire failure is not symptomatic of a more extensive distress condition.
SECTION 17.27 MORTAR AND GROUT
17.27.1 GENERAL (2001)
This article governs mortars and grouts except as required for prestressing ducts.
17.27.2 MATERIALS AND MIXING (2001)
a. Grout shall consist of portland cement and water; or portland cement, water and approved admixtures.
1
b. Materials for mortar and grout shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter except as modified by this
Part.
c. The grading of sand for use in grout or mortar shall be adjusted in accordance with Part 1 the use to which the mortar
or grout is being put.
d. Air entraining Portland cement shall be used for grout whenever air entrainment is required for the concrete.
3
e. When non-shrink mortar or grout is specified in the contract documents or on the Contractor's drawings, a non-shrink
admixture or an expansive hydraulic cement approved by the Engineer, shall be used.
f. Six proportions for mortars and grouts shall be submitted to the Engineer for review and acceptance.
4
g. Mortar or grout shall not be retempered by the addition of water and shall be placed within one hour of mixing.
17.27.3 PLACING AND CURING (2001)
a. Concrete areas to be patched shall be free of all loose material and shall be sprayed with water and allowed to surface
dry immediately prior to placing the mortar or grout.
b. After placing all surfaces of mortar or grout shall be cured by the water method.
c. Locations to be grouted shall be mortar-tight before placing mortar.

SECTION 17.28 APPLICATION OF LOADS
a. Loads shall not be applied to prestressed members until the concrete has attained sufficient strength to prevent damage
or until as specified on the accepted Contractor's drawings.
b. Application of loads to members that are to be post-tensioned shall only be done in accordance with construction
sequences shown on the accepted Contractor's drawings.
c. Materials and equipment shall not be supported on the work except as shown on the accepted Contractor's drawings.
d. Earth loads shall be applied in such a way as not to cause movements or deformations during construction.
e. Railway loading shall not be permitted on the completed work until the concrete strengths and other requirements
specified on the contract documents have been achieved.
SECTION 17.29 MATERIALS - REINFORCING STEEL1
17.29.1 GENERAL (2001)
a. Uncoated reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter except that welded steel wire
fabric for concrete reinforcement shall conform to the requirements of either ASTM Standard A185 or ASTM Standard
A497, as shown on the contract documents.
b. Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter except that when epoxy
coating of reinforcing bars is shown on the contract documents, the coating materials and process, fabrication,
handling, identification of the steel, and the repair of any damaged coating material that occurs during fabrication and
handling shall conform to the requirements of ASTM Standard A775.
c. Contractor's Reports:
(1) Whenever steel bars, other than bars conforming to ASTM A706 are to be welded, or when otherwise required by
the contract documents a certified copy of the mill test report showing physical and chemical analysis for each
heat or lot of reinforcing bars shall be provided to the Engineer for review and acceptance.
(2) Shipments of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall include a certificate of compliance that the coated bars or coated
wire conform to the applicable ASTM Standard.
17.29.2 BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS (2001)
The Contractor shall provide bar lists and bending diagrams in accordance with the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter to
the Engineer for review and acceptance.
17.29.3 FABRICATION (2001)
Steel reinforcement shall be cut and bent as shown on the bar lists and bending diagrams.
1
See C - Section 17.29 Materials - Reinforcing Steel

17.29.4 HANDLING, STORING AND SURFACE CONDITION OF REINFORCEMENT (2001)
a. Steel reinforcement shall be handled and stored in such a way as to meet the surface condition requirements of Part 1 of
this Chapter.
b. Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall be handled and stored as not to damage the epoxy coating. Materials and
equipment for handling epoxy-coated reinforcement shall have adequate padding to prevent damage. The
requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter shall also be satisfied.
17.29.5 PLACING AND FASTENING (2001)
17.29.5.1 General
a. Steel reinforcement shall be placed as shown on the accepted Contractor's drawings and held firmly in position as
required by Part 1 of this Chapter.
b. Tie wires and metal clips for epoxy-coated reinforcement shall be plastic or epoxy-coated.
17.29.5.1.1 Support Systems
a. Reinforcing steel shall be supported in position by mortar blocks, wire bar supports, supplementary bars or other
devices subject to the acceptance of the Engineer. Supports shall prevent shifting of the reinforcement within the
forms.
1
b. Mortar blocks shall have a compressive strength not less than that of the concrete in which they are to be embedded.
c. Wire bar supports shall meet the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter.
d. Any damage to the epoxy coating of reinforcing steel shall be repaired in accordance with Part 1 of this Chapter.
17.29.6 SPLICING OF BARS (2001) 3
All reinforcement shall be furnished in the lengths indicated in the contract documents unless otherwise permitted by the
accepted Contractor's drawings. Splices shall not be provided except as so approved.
4
SECTION 17.30 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE CAP AND/OR SILL FOR TIMBER PILE
TRESTLE (2003)1
For guidelines for prestressed concrete cap and/or sill for timber pile structures, refer to Figure 8-17-2.
1
References, Vol. 78, 1977, p. 109.

Figure 8-17-2. Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle

COMMENTARY (2013)
C - SECTION 17.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
C - 17.1.1 SCOPE (2001)
c. For practical reasons a long span structure would be greater than 150 feet (50 m).
C - 17.4.4 GROUT FOR POST-TENSIONING TENDONS (2006)
Several bridges have experienced corrosion of post-tensioning tendons because grout did not completely fill the tendon ducts
allowing water to be entrapped. The primary cause of these grout voids in the tendon ducts has been attributed by
investigators to construction methodology and to bleeding of the grout after it was installed.
Substantial effort was expended by the Post-Tensioning Institute and the American Segmental Bridge Institute in cooperation
with several State Departments of Transportation to develop an acceptable set of grout requirements and specifications to
assist the correcting the deficiencies of the existing grout specifications. The result was the creation of the “Specification For
Grouting Of Post-Tensioned Tendons” published by the Post-Tensioning Institute.
All of the State Departments of Transportation have accepted and are using the new guide specifications. The specifications
will remain guide specifications until such time as AASHTO accepts them for inclusion into the AASHTO bridge code
1
publications. The guide specifications makes substantial revisions for materials, testing and prequalification of materials,
certification of personnel, equipment requirements and installation procedures. The industry and the design community
believe all post-tensioning tendons should be grouted in compliance with these guide specifications.
C - 17.5.1 SPACING OF TENDONS AND DUCTS (2006)

3
With the increased use of High Performance Concrete and the desire to use 0.6 inch tendon to take advantage of the higher
strength concrete being used, the U. S. D. O. T. - Federal Highway Administration had extensive tests performed relative to the
bond and spacing of these new prestressing tendons. The test results indicated that the 0.6 inch tendon was “behaving fine: 2
inch (50 mm) spacing for 0.6 inch diameter tendons was acceptable”, and that designers could use 1/2 inch diameter tendons at
1-3/4 inch (45 mm) spacing. Subsequently, AASHTO adopted these criteria in the Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges.
4
Since the prestressing industry has been using this strand at the 2 inch (50 mm) spacing with success, it is believed, in the
interest of uniformity of facilities and economy, Part 17 should follow this criteria adopted by the industry.
C - 17.5.8 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSING STRAND (2013)
EQ 17-2 gives the development length beyond which a three- or seven-wire prestressing strand is considered bonded. The
equation can be divided into two components, the transfer length and the flexural bond length. In October 1988, the Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA) issued a memorandum to all State Highway Departments expressing concern that the
AASHTO Equation 9-32 was not conservative in determining the flexural bond length and thus the total development length.
The memorandum has resulted in a great deal of research by a number of universities, State Departments of Transportation,
and the FHWA. Two documents are available from the FHWA giving more information on this issue. Publication No. FHWA-
RD-93-076, “The Prestensioned Concrete History of the Prestressing Strand Development Length Equation”, and Publication
No. FHWA-RD-94-049, “An Analysis of Transfer and Development Lengths for Pretensioned Concrete Structures”. Until
research proves otherwise, the 1988 memorandum from the FHWA increased the required development length for fully
bonded uncoated strand by 1.6 times the development length specified by AASHTO in Equation 9-32. For debonded strands,

the factor was specified as 2.0 times the AASHTO Equation. Research at various institutions has been conducted to validate
that partially debonded pretensioned strands require longer development lengths.
Tests completed by researchers (Shahawy, Robinson, and Batchelor 19931, and Shahawy and Batchelor 19912) indicate that
the anchored strength of the strands is one of the primary contributors to shear resistance at end zones of prestressed concrete
beams. The recommended debonding limit of 25 percent of the total number of strands is derived from the tests of the
researchers. Where 40 percent of the total strands were debonded in full-scale beams, shear capacity was found to be
inadequate.
C - SECTION 17.6 GENERAL ANALYSIS
Where load or external forces, or geometry of the structure produces a torsion in the member the provisions of ACI 318 may
be appropriate for use.
C - SECTION 17.9 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION
When designing grade separations, solid cast-in-place conventionally reinforced or post-tensioned concrete spans may be used
for continuous construction. Prior approval from the Engineer must be obtained. Most railroads normally do not utilize
continuity in precast superstructures so that repairs can be made after derailments without the potential for overstressing
members to remain.
For post-tensioned cast-in-place concrete continuous bridges, any benefits from the restraint moment should not be considered
when checking the ultimate moment. At ultimate state, the slab may be cracked and there would be a redistribution of the
restraint moment.
C - SECTION 17.11 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS-BOX GIRDERS
Consideration should be given to the potential damage that may be caused to the top flange by track tampers being used on the
bridge with insufficient ballast depth during the track installation. Increasing the flange thickness may mitigate this problem.
C - SECTION 17.12 DIAPHRAGMS
It is suggested that intermediate diaphragms are not required for typical “I” beam structures. Temporary diaphragms are
suggested during deck casting to provide stability.
1
See Reference 91
2
See Reference 92

C - 17.14.3 COMPOSITE FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2001)
In structures with a cast-in-place slab on precast beams, the differential shrinkage tends to cause tensile stresses in the slab and
in the bottom of the beams. Because the tensile shrinkage develops over an extended time period, the effect on the beams is
reduced by creep. Differential shrinkage may influence the cracking load and the beam deflection profile. When these factors
are particularly significant, the effect of differential shrinkage should be added to the effect of loads.
C - 17.16.2 CONCRETE (2001)
The “auxiliary reinforcement” cited is additional mild steel reinforcement added to the member to resist part of the tension.
C - SECTION 17.18 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
Strand A*s may be considered as non-prestressed reinforcement.
C - SECTION 17.26 GENERAL FABRICATION

1
C - 17.26.4 CURING (2001)
Curing of prestressed members shall be in accordance with the provisions of Section 17.1 of this chapter.
C - 17.26.6 ERECTION (2001)
a. It is recommended that lifting devices shall be designed with a safety factor to account for temporary stresses due 3
to shipping and erection.
C - 17.26.8 APPLICATION AND MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE (2005)
Elongation measurements for prestressed elements should be in accordance with the procedures outlined in the “Manual for
QUALITY CONTROL for Plants and Production of STRUCTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS” published by the 4
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute.
Elongation measurements for post-tensioned construction are affected by several factors that are less significant, or that do not
exist, for pretensioned elements. The friction along prestressing steel in post-tensioning applications may be affected to
varying degrees by placing tolerances and small irregularities in tendon profile due to concrete placement. The friction
coefficients between the prestressing steel and the duct are also subject to variation. The 5 percent tolerance for pretensioned
elements was proposed by ACI-ASCE Committee 423 in 1958, and primarily reflected experience with production of
pretensioned concrete elements. Because the tendons for pretensioned elements are usually stressed with minimal friction
effects, the 5 percent tolerance for such elements has been retained.
Where differences are less than 5% for pretensioned elements or 7% for post-tensioned construction, the gage readings are to
be used.

C - SECTION 17.29 MATERIALS - REINFORCING STEEL
A497 is already cited in Part 1, but A185 is not. A497 is for fabric made of deformed wire, and A185 is for fabric made of
plain wire. This reference to A185 is from AASHTO. Article 17.29 now gives the designer a choice.

8
Part 18
Elastomeric Bridge Bearings
— 2001 —
This Part has now been eliminated. This material can now be found in Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Part 10, Bearing Design and
Part 11, Bearing Construction.


8
Part 19
Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
19.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2

19.1.1 Scope (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.2 Rating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2

19.2.1 General (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2 1
19.2.2 Normal Rating (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.2.3 Maximum Rating (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.2.4 Load Carrying Capacity (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-3
19.2.5 Inspection (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-3
19.2.6 Computation of Stresses or Strengths (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-3
3
19.3 Loads and Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.3.1 General (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.3.2 Dead Load (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.3.3 Live Load (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.3.4 Impact (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.3.5 Longitudinal Forces (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-5
19.3.6 Other Loads (2005) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-5
19.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-5

19.4.1 Concrete (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-5
19.4.2 Reinforcing Steel (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-6
19.5 Load Combinations and Rating Formulas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-8

19.5.1 Loads and Forces (2005) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-8
19.5.2 Notations (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-8
19.5.3 Formulas (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-8
19.6 Excessive Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-10

19.6.1 Action to be Taken (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-10
1
References Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 355, 656; Vol. 71, 1970, p. 232; Vol. 90, 1989, pp. 53, 80.

Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-10
LIST OF TABLES
8-19-1 Maximum Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-6

8-19-2 Reinforcing Steel - Unknown Yield Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-7
8-19-3 Prestressing Steel - Unknown Yield Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-7
8-19-4 Welded Wire Fabric or Cold Drawn Steel Wire - Unknown Yield Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-7
19.1.1 SCOPE (2000) R(2013)
a. The provisions of Parts 2 and 17, this Chapter, should be followed except as modified by this Part.
SECTION 19.2 RATING
19.2.1 GENERAL (2000)1 R(2013)
a. Concrete railway bridges shall be rated according to their load carrying capacity as determined by the rules specified
herein.
b. The rating of the bridge shall be made either with reference to service loads and allowable service load stresses as
provided in SERVICE LOAD RATING or, alternately, with reference to load factors and strength as provided in
LOAD FACTOR RATING. The method to be used, SERVICE LOAD RATING or LOAD FACTOR RATING, shall be
as directed by the Engineer.
c. Each bridge shall be assigned two ratings; NORMAL and MAXIMUM. The stated normal and maximum ratings of
each bridge as a unit shall be the lowest of the ratings determined for the various components.
19.2.2 NORMAL RATING (2000) R(2013)
a. Normal rating is the maximum load level which can be carried by an existing structure for an indefinite period of time.
19.2.3 MAXIMUM RATING (2000) R(2013)
a. Maximum rating is the maximum load level which the structure can support at infrequent intervals.
1
See Commentary

Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges
19.2.4 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY (2000)1 R(2013)
a. The load-carrying capacity of a bridge should be determined by the computation of stresses or strengths based on
actual records of the design, details, materials, workmanship, and physical condition, including data obtained by
inspection and load tests, if feasible.
a. Inspection of the bridge shall be made in accordance with Part 21, this Chapter, with special attention to the following
items:
(1) Whether the actual sections and details conform to the plans. Dimensions of the concrete sections should be
measured to nearest 1/4 inch (nearest 5 mm). Location and size of reinforcement should be checked at critical
sections by use of a pachometer or other suitable device.
(2) Any additions to the dead load not shown on the plans, such as heavier rail, deeper ballast section, concrete ties,
walkways, pipelines, conduits, signal devices, and wire supports.
(3) The position of the track with respect to the center line of the bridge.
(4) Any loss of concrete. All loose concrete shall be removed before making this determination.
(5) Any reduction in reinforcing steel area due to corrosion. This determination should be made by measurements
after removal of corrosion. 1
(6) The physical condition, noting such conditions as excessive cracking at points of maximum moment and at points
of maximum shear. If cracks are deemed critical, they should be observed during the passage of a train to
determine whether live load stresses cause movement or growth in the cracks.
(7) Uneven settlement of supports.

3
(8) Vertical or horizontal misalignment of spans or supports.
(9) Superelevation of track.
19.2.6 COMPUTATION OF STRESSES OR STRENGTHS (2013)

4
19.2.6.1 General3
a. The computation of stresses or strengths should be made for all load-carrying members and components, giving
particular attention to the increased load carried by any member due to eccentricity.
19.2.6.2 Critical Sections
a. The critical sections at which computations are made should be approved by the Engineer. In addition to the main
reinforcement, consideration shall be given to:
(1) Sizes, spacing and development length of shear reinforcement.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

(2) Development length of and splices in longitudinal reinforcement.
(3) Column moments due to continuous construction or eccentricity of loading.
(4) The bond (development length) requirements in effect at the time the bridge was designed.
19.2.6.3 Redistribution of Moments1
a. For continuous bridges, moments determined by elastic analysis may be redistributed by increasing or decreasing the
negative moments by not more than 20 percent.
b. This redistribution of moments should follow that given in “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete–
ACI 318-11 (ACI 318-11M),” ART. 8.4 for nonprestressed members or ART 18.10.4 for prestressed members.
19.2.6.4 Maximum Reinforcement
a. For LOAD FACTOR RATINGS the area of tension steel to be used in computing the design moment strength should
not exceed that available at the section. If the area of the tension steel exceeds the reinforcement required for balanced
conditions, then a general analysis is required.
SECTION 19.3 LOADS AND FORCES
19.3.1 GENERAL (2000)2 R(2013)
a. The loads and forces should be computed and are defined as follows:
19.3.2 DEAD LOAD (2013)
a. The dead load should be the weight of the bridge, including the track, ballast, and fill, together with that of any other
loads (mass multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity).
19.3.3 LIVE LOAD (2013)
a. The live load should be one of the Cooper E (EM) series. Other standard loading criteria, or a load consisting of a
specific locomotive or other equipment may be used, depending on the purpose for which the rating is being done.
b. The lateral and longitudinal distribution of the axle loads to the structure should be determined as outlined in Part 2,
this Chapter.
19.3.4 IMPACT (2013)3
a. The impact should be determined as outlined in Part 2, or Part 17, this Chapter, as applicable.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

b. Reduction of impact may be allowed as follows: for speeds less than 40 mph (65 km/h) the impact shall be reduced in
a straight-line variation from full effect at 40 mph (65 km/h) to 0.5 of the full effect at 10 mph (15 km/h). The load
rating may be increased by reducing the speed over the structure.
19.3.5 LONGITUDINAL FORCES (2013)1
Longitudinal forces shall be as specified in Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.3(j). The E80 (EM360) loading is
to be scaled proportionally to be consistent with the live load plus impact rating of the structure.
19.3.6 OTHER LOADS (2005) R(2013)
a. Other loads shall be determined as given in Part 2, this Chapter.
19.4.1 CONCRETE (2013)
19.4.1.1 General2
a. The compressive strength of the concrete shall be taken as the 28-day strength of the concrete, if records of same are 1
available. If there is no record of the compressive strength of the concrete, it shall be assumed as 3,000 psi (20 MPa).
For deteriorated concrete, the compressive strength should be assumed as not more than 2,500 psi (17 MPa), or a lower
value should be used as required by the Engineer.
19.4.1.1.1 Coring for Strength Tests3
a. In the event that the concrete stress proves to be critical, the compressive strength of the concrete may be determined 3
by “Standard Methods of Obtaining Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete,” ASTM Standard C42
(C42M), or other methods as determined by the Engineer.
19.4.1.1.2 Treatment of Core Holes
a. All core holes shall be filled with cementitious material having a 28-day specified compressive strength equal to or
higher than that of the structure, or with a commercial grout approved by the Engineer. Epoxy bonding compound, 4
meeting the approval of the Engineer, shall be used to bond the new concrete to the existing concrete.
19.4.1.2 Service Load Rating
a. The permissible stress for the concrete shall be taken as 1.2 fc, where fc is the allowable stress as specified in Part 2,
this Chapter.
b. Modular ratio n shall be determined as the ratio of elasticity of steel to that of concrete, Es/Ec, as specified in Part 2,
this Chapter.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

19.4.1.3 Load Factor Rating
a. The applicable concrete design assumptions shall follow those in Part 2, this Chapter.
19.4.2 REINFORCING STEEL (2013)
19.4.2.1 Maximum Allowable Stresses
a. The following maximum allowable stresses should be used where fy is determined as indicated in Article 19.4.2.2.
Table 8-19-1. Maximum Allowable Stresses
METRIC UNITS IMPERIAL UNITS
1. Tension reinforcement in flexural members: (with or without axial loads)
Structural-grade steel bars. . . 0.8 fy 0.8 fy

Intermediate-grade steel bars and Grade 40 (280) bars. . . 0.7 fy 0.7 fy
Hard-grade steel bars and Grade 50 (340) or Grade 60 (410) bars. . . 0.6 fy 0.6 fy
Wrought Iron. . . 20 ksi 140 MPa
Wire mesh or cold-drawn steel wire not exceeding 1/2 inch (12 mm) in diameter when
used in one-way solid slabs only. . . 0.7 fy 0.7 fy
but not to exceed. . . 34 ksi 230 MPa
2. Tension in shear reinforcement:
All grade of steel. . . 24 ksi 165 MPa
3. Compression in column vertical reinforcement:
Structural-grade steel bars. . . 0.6 fy 0.6 fy
Intermediate-grade steel bars and Grade 40 (280) bars. . . 0.6 fy 0.6 fy
Hard-grade steel bars and Grade 50 (340) or Grade 60 (410) bars. . . 0.5 fy 0.5 fy
4. Compression reinforcement in flexural members:
5. Compression in composite column:
19.4.2.2 Yield Strength
19.4.2.2.1 Known Yield Strengths1
a. The yield strengths of the reinforcement shall be as shown on the plans unless mill test reports of the reinforcement
used in the structure are available. If the reports are available, the yield strength of the reinforcement used in
determining the rating shall be the lowest value shown for the size of bar used at the section being analyzed.
19.4.2.2.2 Unknown Yield Strengths
a. If the yield strength is unknown the following should be used:
1
See Commentary

Table 8-19-2. Reinforcing Steel - Unknown Yield Strengths
MINIMUM YIELD STRENGTH fy

REINFORCING BARS
Imperial Metric
Structural Grade or unknown before 1968 33 ksi 230 MPa
Intermediate Grade, Grade 40 (300) or unknown after 1967 40 ksi 300 MPa
Hard Grade or Grade 50 (350) 50 ksi 350 MPa
Grade 60 (400) 60 ksi 400 MPa
Grade 75 (500) 75 ksi 500 MPa
Table 8-19-3. Prestressing Steel - Unknown Yield Strength
MINIMUM YIELD STRENGTH fpy

PRESTRESSING STEEL
Imperial Metric
1. Strands ASTM A416 (A416M)
a. Grade 270 (1860)
1) Low-Relaxation 243 ksi 1670 MPa
2) Stress-Relieved 230 ksi 1580 MPa
b. Grade 250 (1720)
1) Low-Relaxation 225 ksi 1550 MPa 1
2) Stress-Relieved 213 ksi 1470 MPa
2. Wire ASTM A421 (A421M)

a. Low-Relaxation 212 ksi 1460 MPa
b. Stress-Relieved 200 ksi 1380 MPa
3
3. High-Strength Bar ASTM A722 (A722M)
a. Low-Relaxation 128 ksi 880 MPa
b. Stress-Relieved 120 ksi 820 MPa
Table 8-19-4. Welded Wire Fabric or Cold Drawn Steel Wire - Unknown Yield Strength 4
WELDED WIRE FABRIC OR COLD-DRAWN STEEL WIRE Imperial Metric
1. Plain Wire ASTM A82 (A82M)
a. 1961 & Before 64 ksi 440 MPa
b. 1962 & After 70 ksi 480 MPa
2. Plain Welded Wire Fabric ASTM A185 (A185M)

a. Smaller than W1.2 56 ksi 380 MPa
b. W1.2 and larger 60 ksi 410 MPa
3. Deformed Wire ASTM A496 (A496M) 75 ksi 510 MPa

4. Deformed Welded Wire Fabric ASTM A497 (A497M) 70 ksi 480 MPa

SECTION 19.5 LOAD COMBINATIONS AND RATING FORMULAS
19.5.1 LOADS AND FORCES (2005) R(2013)
a. The following notations represent the effect, due to the load or force specified, to be considered in the rating of a
railroad bridge. The effects should be determined as stresses for service load rating and as forces for load factor
rating.
D = Dead Load
L = Live Load
I = Impact Load
CF = Centrifugal Force
E = Earth Pressure
B = Buoyancy
W = Wind Force on Structure
WL = Wind Force on Live Load
LF = Longitudinal Force from Live Load
F = Longitudinal Force due to Friction or Shear Resistance at Expansion Bearings
SF = Stream Flow Pressure
19.5.2 NOTATIONS (2000) R(2013)
SLN = Service Load Normal Rating Factor

SLM = Service Load Maximum Rating Factor
LFN = Load Factor Normal Rating Factor
LFM = Load Factor Maximum Rating Factor
Sf = Permissible Stress
SN = Nominal Strength
φ = Strength Reduction Factor as specified in Part 2 or Part 17, this Chapter, whichever applies
19.5.3 FORMULAS (2013)
19.5.3.1 Service Load Rating
19.5.3.1.1 Normal Rating
a. The rating factor (SLN) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
[ S f ⁄ 1.2 ] – [ D + E + B + SF ]
SLN = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-1
[ L + I + CF ]
S f – [ D + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + F ]
SLN = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-2
[ L + I + CF + LF ]

b. The rating expressed in terms of Cooper E (EM) Series shall be computed in accordance with the following expression.
For example, if the live load in EQ 19-1 or EQ 19-2 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360) series, then the rating value
would be:
Normal Rating = SLN × 80 ( SLNx360 ) EQ 19-3
19.5.3.1.2 Maximum Rating
a. This rating factor (SLM) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
S f – [ D + E + B + SF ]
SLM = -----------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-4
[ L + I + CF ]
1.2S f – [ D + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + F ]
SLM = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-5
[ L + I + CF + LF ]
For example, if the live load used in EQ 19-4 or EQ 19-5 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360) series, then the rating value
would be:
Maximum Rating = SLM × 80 ( SLMx360 ) EQ 19-6
19.5.3.2 Load Factor Rating

1
19.5.3.2.1 Normal Rating
a. The rating factor (LFN) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
φS N – 1.1 ( D + E + B + SF )
LFN = ------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-7
3
1.3 [ 5 ⁄ 3 ( L + I ) + CF ]
φS N – 1.1 [ D + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + F ]
LFN = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-8
1.3 [ L + I + CF + LF ]
4
For example, if the live load used in EQ 19-7 or EQ 19-8 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360) series, then the rating value
would be:
Normal Rating = LFN × 80 ( LFNx360 ) EQ 19-9
19.5.3.2.2 Maximum Rating
a. The rating factor (LFM) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
φS N – 1.1 ( D + E + B + SF )
LFM = ------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-10
1.3 ( L + I + CF )

φS N – 1.1 [ D + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + F ]
LFM = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-11
1.1 [ L + I + CF + LF ]
b. The rating expressed in terms of Cooper E (EM) Series for full speed shall be computed in accordance with the
following expression. For example, if the live load used in EQ 19-10 or EQ 19-11 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360)
series, then the rating value would be:
Maximum Rating = LFMx80 ( LFMx360 ) EQ 19-12
SECTION 19.6 EXCESSIVE LOADING
19.6.1 ACTION TO BE TAKEN (2000)1 R(2013)
a. If the normal operating loads exceed those permissible under these rules, the speed and/or the loading should be
restricted so that the permissible loads will not be exceeded; otherwise, appropriate action should be taken until the
bridge is strengthened or replaced. When the operating loads are determined to be close to permissable loads, or when
the physical conditions of the main members or components are marginal, the bridge should be frequently inspected as
long as it is in service.
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this Commentary is to provide additional information and explanation regarding various articles in Part 19
Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges. The numbers after the “C -” correspond to the Article or Section being explained.
C - SECTION 19.2 RATING
C - 19.2.1 GENERAL (2005) R(2013)
a. Protection of the investment made in a bridge facility through well programmed preventative maintenance, inspections,
ratings, and repairs is second only to the overall safety of the structure and the traffic it carries. The procedure for
rating requires careful evaluation of a number of complex and often conflicting factors in the continuing effort to
extend the useful life of concrete railroad bridges. The evaluation of bridges should include a detailed inspection, a
thorough structural analysis, and consideration of the degree of control the railroad can exercise over the bridge
loading. This work is to be performed in the interest of obtaining the maximum safe and cost-effective utilization of
the assets of the railroad facility.
b. Two methods of structural analysis are allowed. These methods should both account for the strength of the bridge in its
current state, and the method used should be identified for future reference.
c. The MAXIMUM load rating is the higher level rating, and reflects the absolute maximum permissible load level to
which the structure may be subjected on an infrequent basis. The NORMAL load rating reflects the load level that can
1
See Commentary

safely utilize an existing structure on a regular basis. Both ratings need to be re-evaluated periodically to account for
ongoing deterioration that may be detected in regular inspections.
C - 19.2.4 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY (2005) R(2013)
a. Field tests should be made and the results given due consideration in the assessment of the load carrying capacity if
required by the Engineer. For a specific service, the location, history, and behavior of the bridge under investigation
should be taken into account.
C - 19.2.5 INSPECTION (2005) R(2013)
a. Rating of a bridge generally should start with a detailed field inspection. All physical features of the bridge having an
affect upon its structural integrity should be examined. In some cases, a detailed physical inspection may be all that is
required for the Engineer to make a judgment that the bridge is safe for normal, every-day loads. An example could be
a sound concrete bridge carrying normal traffic for many years and shows no distress. Features other than the bridge
itself that may affect the structure should also be observed and noted. For example, a rough or otherwise abrupt
transition between the track on the embankment section and the track on the bridge may cause an increase in the impact
above what would routinely be calculated.
C - 19.2.6 COMPUTATION OF STRESSES OR STRENGTHS (2005) R(2013)
C - 19.2.6.1 GENERAL
1
a. Generally, most bridges requiring load restrictions are either old, or are of insufficient strength as a result of damage.
With some exceptions, the elements of older structures with insufficient strength are usually in the superstructures, not
in the piers or abutments. The susceptibility of substructure elements to the effects of scour at bridges over waterways
should be considered, as well as potential detrimental effects of longitudinal force from live load.
C - 19.2.6.3 REDISTRIBUTION OF MOMENTS

3
a. Under certain specific conditions, negative moments at interior supports of continuous beams may be reduced. Such
reduction must be accompanied by an increase in the positive moments in the adjacent spans equal to the average
decrease in negative moment. Moment redistribution is dependant upon adequate ductility in the plastic hinge regions
to allow plastic hinges to develop. Often, the ductility required to allow redistribution of moments is not available in
members designed by the Working Stress Method.
4
C - SECTION 19.3 LOADS AND FORCES
C - 19.3.1 GENERAL (2013)
a. The total load in any member caused by dead load, live load, and other loads deemed applicable by the Engineer shall
not exceed the member capacity. When it becomes necessary to reduce the allowable live load in order to avoid
exceeding the capacity of the bridge, such a reduction is based upon the assumption that each axle load maintains a
constant relation to the total load. For example, each axle of an E-60 (EM-270) live load is exactly three-fourths of the
magnitude of each corresponding axle of an E-80 (EM360) live load.

C - 19.3.4 IMPACT (2005) R(2013)
a. A reduced speed of operation may be considered where it is desirable to reduce impact loads. In some cases, a
reduction in speed of operation will reduce impact loads to the extent that decreasing the load rating will not be
required. Consideration of a reduced speed of operation will require the judgment of the Engineer and much will
depend upon the track alignment, the bridge location, as well as the type and volume of traffic. The condition of the
approaching track and the transition from the embankment section to the bridge section may also influence the
selection of an appropriate impact factor.
C - 19.3.5 LONGITUDINAL FORCES (2013)
a. Longitudinal forces due to train traffic on railway bridges are influenced by a number of factors including: 1) the type
of motive power used, 2) train tonnage, 3) grades, 4) braking forces, 5) likelihood of starting or stopping a train at or
near a particular bridge, and 6) individual railroad operating practices. For further information, see Chapter 8
commentary section on design for longitudinal forces (C -2.2.3(j)), and see related material in Chapter 15.
b. The longitudinal force in Article 2.2.3(j) is based on E-80 (EM-360) loading. For structures with a live load plus
impact rating different from E-80 (EM-360), the longitudinal force used in the rating is to be reduced or increased by
the ratio of the rating for live load plus impact to E-80 (EM-360).
c. It is important to trace the load path these forces will follow to the point at which they are taken out of the structure,
and ensure the load path is consistent with compatibility of deflections and rotations.
d. Longitudinal forces are included in the Group III load case in design. The same load case is used to include
longitudinal forces for rating purposes.
e. These rating cases cover the extreme events of emergency braking, and starting a train from a static state at maximum
tractive effort. Longitudinal forces applied during normal train operations might be significantly lower. If the rating of
a particular structure is too restrictive because of longitudinal forces, the methodology provided in Chapter 15, Part 7,
may be considered and adapted to provide relief for normal train operations, at the discretion of the Engineer.
Additionally, a reduction in impact may be considered, as the maximum longitudinal force due to tractive effort or
braking occurs at speeds below 25 mph (40 km/h).
C - SECTION 19.4 MATERIALS
C - 19.4.1 CONCRETE (2005) R(2013)
C - 19.4.1.1 GENERAL
a. In some cases, such as with compression members or over-reinforced flexural sections, the strength of the concrete
may be the controlling factor in the rating calculation of the member. In such cases, use of an assumed concrete
strength may not be advisable.
C - 19.4.1.1.1 CORING FOR STRENGTH TESTS
a. Care must be exercised in gathering and interpreting the results of field and laboratory tests. Several issues may play a
part in the evaluation, especially if the test results indicate incipient failure, the need for immediate repairs, or load
rating reduction below acceptable levels. For example, was sampling done properly? Were the location, size, and
number of samples adequate to represent the member being evaluated? Is there a pattern or consistency in the results?

Are other tests or inspections needed to verify results, or to investigate other members in the bridge for similar defects?
Is there a possibility or likelihood other structures on the system have similar problems that may not have been
discovered yet?
C - 19.4.2 REINFORCING STEEL (2005) R(2013)
C - 19.4.2.2 YIELD STRENGTH
C - 19.4.2.2.1 UNKNOWN YIELD STRENGTHS
a. These strengths are provided to facilitate rating of bridges with unknown steel reinforcement properties. Records
should exist for most bridges, and these records should be researched in an effort to determine the most accurate data to
use in the bridge rating. The yield strengths given in this section should only be used after an exhaustive search for the
actual records proves unproductive. The values given in this section may also be used as a rough approximation prior
to searching for the actual data.
C - SECTION 19.6 EXCESSIVE LOADING
C - 19.6.1 ACTION TO BE TAKEN (2005) R(2013)

1
a. All bridges should be included in a regular inspection program. More frequent inspections are required for any bridge
with known deficiencies or which is in questionable condition. Also, bridges with no apparent deficiencies loaded at a
level above their “NORMAL” rating should be subject to more frequent, competent inspections. Several factors may
influence the selection of the load level. For example:
(1) A higher safety factor for a bridge carrying a large volume of traffic may be desirable as compared with the safety
factor for a bridge carrying very little traffic, especially if the bridge carrying the high traffic volume also carries a 3
high percentage of heavy loads.
(2) Bridges with extensive material losses may warrant a lower load level due to the greater uncertainty in evaluating
the present strength of the bridge. This is especially true if the loss of material is in a highly stressed region.
(3) The ratio of dead load to live load may have an influence on the selection of the appropriate load level. Structures
with high dead load to live load ratios and no signs of distress may merit consideration of higher load levels. 4


8
Part 20
Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads
— 1995 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
20.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-2

20.1.1 Scope (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-2
20.1.2 Types of Flexible Bulkheads (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-2
20.2.1 Field Surveys and Records (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-3
20.2.2 Soil Investigation (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-3
20.2.3 Loads (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-3
20.2.4 Drainage (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-3
20.2.5 Character of Backfill (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-3
20.3 Computation of Lateral Forces Acting on Bulkheads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-5
20.3.1 Active Earth Pressure Due to the Weight of Backfill (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-5 3
20.3.2 Active Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge Loads (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-5
20.3.3 Active Earth Pressure Due to Unbalanced Water Pressure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-8
20.3.4 Passive Earth Pressure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
20.3.5 Reduction of Weight in Passive Wedge Due to Upward Seepage (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
20.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
20.4.1 Stability Calculations (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
20.5 Design of Anchored Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-10
20.5.1 Depth of Embedment (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-10
20.5.2 Maximum Moment (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-11
20.5.3 Anchor Pull (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-11
20.5.4 Flexibility of Anchorage (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-11
20.5.5 Anchorages (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-11
20.5.6 Connections (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-14
20.5.7 Allowable Stresses (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-14
20.6 Cantilever Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-14
20.6.1 Scope (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-14
20.7 Notations (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-15
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-16

LIST OF FIGURES
8-20-1 Lateral Pressure Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-5

8-20-2 Pressure Distribution for Strip Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-6
8-20-3 Pressure Distribution for Line Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-7
8-20-4 Pressure Distribution for Point Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-8
8-20-5 Flow Net for Upward Seepage of Water After Rapidly Receding High Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
8-20-6 Stability Analysis – Massive Earth Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-10
8-20-7 Depth of Total Embedment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-11
8-20-8 Maximum Moment Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-12
8-20-9 Anchorage Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-13
LIST OF TABLES
8-20-1 Granular Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-4

8-20-2 Silt and Clay Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-4
8-20-3 Unit Weights of Soils, and Coefficients of Earth Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-4
20.1.1 SCOPE (1995)1

a. This part of the Manual provides a recommended practice for the design of flexible sheet pile bulkheads. The
guidelines are intended for SERVICE LOAD DESIGN only.
b. Braced excavations and cofferdams are not within the scope of these recommended practices.
20.1.2 TYPES OF FLEXIBLE BULKHEADS (1995)2

a. A sheet pile bulkhead is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from the
passive resistance of the soil in which the bulkhead is embedded. Bulkheads are frequently referred to as retaining
walls of the waterfront or as seawalls.
b. For purposes of this part of the Manual, the “bulkhead” is considered to include the sheet piling, the soil masses behind
and in front of the sheet piling, and the various kinds of anchors.
c. Sheet pile bulkheads may be constructed of steel, concrete, or timber. They may be cantilevered; or they can be
anchored by tie rods connected to deadman, pile foundations, or existing structures. Bulkheads may be anchored by
batter piles secured to wales connecting the sheet piles.
d. Sheet piles bulkheads are generally designed as flexible structures which yield sufficiently to mobilize full active earth
pressure and a portion of the passive pressure. For anchored bulkheads, movement at the anchor rod in the range of
0.001Hf to 0.002Hf is needed to develop full active pressure.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

e. Where adjacent structures would be endangered by a flexible bulkhead, a rigid type bulkhead not covered in this design
guideline must be utilized.
f. Braced excavations and cofferdams, not included in the scope of this design guideline, exhibit different types of
deformation with resulting higher earth pressures.
20.2.1 FIELD SURVEYS AND RECORDS (1995)

Sufficient information shall be furnished in the form of a profile and cross sections, or a topographical map to determine
general design and structural requirements. Present and proposed grades and alignment of tracks and roads shall be indicated
together with records of: reference datum, maximum and minimum high water, mean high water, minimum and mean low
water, existing ground water level, location of utilities, construction history of the area, indication of any conditions which
might hamper proper installation of the piling, depth of scour, allowance for overdredging, wave heights, and seiches.
20.2.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION (1995)1

The characteristics of the foundation soils shall be investigated as indicated in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.
20.2.3 LOADS (1993)

a. All design criteria, temporary and permanent loading, boring and laboratory test results, and properties of construction
materials, including yield stress, should be clearly stated in the design calculations and on the contract and record 1
plans. Temporary loads include, but are not limited to: construction equipment, construction materials, lower water
levels adjoining the bulkhead causing unbalanced hydrostatic pressure. Permanent loads include, but are not limited to:
future grading and paving, railroads or highways, structures, material storage piles, snow and earthquake.
b. The allowable live load after construction should be clearly shown in the plans and painted on the pavements behind
the bulkheads or shown on signs at the site and also recorded on the record plans.
3
c. The “loads” listed above are external to the total bulkhead system. There are also internal effects that are treated as
loads in the design of individual members of the bulkhead system. These internal loads are active and passive soil
pressures, acting separately or combined algebraically, saturated or dry as appropriate, for granular or cohesive soil or
a combination thereof.
20.2.4 DRAINAGE (1993)

4
a. The drainage pattern of the site before and after construction should be analyzed, and adequate drainage provisions
incorporated into the plans and specifications. Consideration should be given to underdrainage as well as surface
drainage.
b. Drainage provisions for backfill should be compatible with the assumed water conditions in design.
20.2.5 CHARACTER OF BACKFILL (1993)

a. A reconnaissance survey should be made of cost and availability of local materials. At major structures, gradation,
maximum and minimum density, specific gravity, and shear strength determinations should be performed and
classified with reference to granular soils (Table 8-20-1) and Silt and Clay Soils (Table 8-20-2).
b. Granular backfill is recommended where the depth of the bulkhead is great or the bulkhead deformation must be
minimized.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

c. The range of the unit weight of soils and the coefficients of active pressure, Ka, and passive pressure, Kp , for
horizontal ground surface are shown in Table 8-20-3.
Table 8-20-1. Granular Soils
Descriptive Term for Relative Density Standard Penetration Test Blows per Foot “N”
Very Loose 0–4
Loose 4 – 10
Medium 10 – 30
Dense 30 – 50
Very Dense Over 50
Table 8-20-2. Silt and Clay Soils
Unconfined Compressive Strength

Descriptive Term for Consistency
Tons per Square Foot
Very Soft Less than 0.25
Soft 0.25 – 0.50
Medium 0.50 – 1.00
Stiff 1.00 – 2.00
Very Stiff 2.00 – 4.00
Hard Over 4.00
Table 8-20-3. Unit Weights of Soils, and Coefficients of Earth Pressure
Coefficient of Active Earth Pressure, Coefficient of Passive

Unit Weight of Moist Unit Weight of Ka Earth Pressure, Kp
Type of Soil, γ Submerged Soil, γ ′ Friction

(Note 1) (Note 1) Friction Angles For
Soil For For Soils Angles
(Note 2) Soils in
Backfill in Place (Note 2)
Place
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum φ δ φ δ
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Clean Sand:
Dense 110 140 65 78 0.20 38 20 9.0 38 25
Medium 110 130 60 68 0.25 34 17 7.0 34 23
Loose 90 125 56 63 0.35 0.30 30 15 5.0 30 20
Silty Sand:
Dense 110 150 70 88 0.25 7.0
Medium 95 130 60 68 0.30 5.0
Loose 80 125 50 63 0.50 0.35 3.0
Silt and qu qu
165 ( 1 + w ) 103 1 – -------------- 1 + --------------
Clay (Note --------------------------- ------------------------ 1.00
3) 1 + 2.65w 1 + 2.65w p + γz p + γz
Note 1: In pounds per cubic foot.
Note 2: These angles, expressed in degrees, are φ, the angle of internal friction, and δ, the angle of wall friction, and are used in estimating the coefficients
under which they are listed.
Note 3: The symbol γ represents γ or γ ′, whichever is applicable; p is the effective unit pressure on the top surface of the stratum; qu is the unconfined
compressive strength; w is the natural water content, in percentage of dry weight; and z is the depth below the top surface of the stratum.
© 2013,

SECTION 20.3 COMPUTATION OF LATERAL FORCES ACTING ON BULKHEADS
20.3.1 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE DUE TO THE WEIGHT OF BACKFILL (1993)
a. The active earth pressure due to the weight of the backfill may be computed by the Coulomb Theory, and is represented
in the loading diagram by area I, Figure 8-20-1.
b. The active earth pressure at depth “z” is:
pA = Kaγz
20.3.2 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE DUE TO SURCHARGE LOADS (1993)
20.3.2.1 Uniform Load q
The active earth pressure due to a uniform surcharge load q (pounds per square foot) is:
pu = Kaq
which is represented by area II, Figure 8-20-1.
Figure 8-20-1. Lateral Pressure Diagrams
©
© 2013,
2012, American
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Railway Engineering

20.3.2.2 Strip Load q
a. A continuous strip of surcharge load q (pounds per square foot) parallel to the bulkhead is shown in Figure 8-20-2. The
intensity of pressure at a given point may be computed by:
p s = 2q
2 2
------ ( β + sin β sin α – sin β cos α )
π
b. The Strip Load is not shown in Figure 8-20-1. Symbols and notations are shown in Figure 8-20-2.
20.3.2.3 Line Load
a. A very narrow strip surcharge load q′ (pounds per linear foot) may be considered as a line load. The intensity of lateral
pressure, p1, may be computed by the following semi-empirical formulas:
2
1.27q′ m n
p 1 = --------------- -------------------------- For ( m > 0.40 )
H 2 2 2
(m + n )
q′ n
p 1 = 0.203 ---- ------------------------------ For ( m ≤ 0.40 )
H 2 2
( 0.16 + n )
Figure 8-20-2. Pressure Distribution for Strip Load
© 2013,

b. The pressure is represented by area IV, Figure 8-20-1. Symbols and notations are shown in Figure 8-20-3.
Figure 8-20-3. Pressure Distribution for Line Load
20.3.2.4 Point Load
a. The lateral pressure due to a point load, Q, Figure 8-20-4, varies with the depth as well as the horizontal distance from
the load. The intensity of lateral pressure pq on line ab directly opposite the load may be computed by the following
formulas:
2 2
Q m n
p q = 1.77 ------ -------------------------- For ( m > 0.40 ) 1
2 3
H ( m2 + n2 )
2
Q n
p q = 0.28 ------ ------------------------------ For ( m ≤ 0.40 )
2 3
H ( 0.16 + n 2 )
3
b. The unit pressure on any other point, on both sides of ab is smaller than pq at the same depth, and may be computed by:
p2 = pqcos2(1.1Ψ).
c. Point loading is not shown in the diagram in Figure 8-20-1. Symbols and notations are shown in
Figure 8-20-4.
4
©
© 2013,
2012, American
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Railway Engineering

d. A Trial Wedge analysis, Part 5, Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers, Commentary, is accepted as an alternate
solution for the loading obtained in Article 20.3.2.2, Article 20.3.2.3, or Article 20.3.2.4.
Figure 8-20-4. Pressure Distribution for Point Load
20.3.3 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE DUE TO UNBALANCED WATER PRESSURE (1993)
a. When bulkheads are used for waterfront construction, the bulkhead is subjected to a maximum earth pressure at the
low water stage. During a rainstorm or a rapidly receding high water, the water level behind the bulkhead may be
several feet higher than in front, as shown in Figure 8-20-5. The unbalanced water pressure is represented by area III in
Figure 8-20-1.
b. Drained conditions in backfill apply when clean sand or clean sand and gravel, as defined in Article 20.2.5 are used
and adequate permanent drainage outlets are provided. Where drained conditions exist, the design water level may be
assumed at the drainage outlet elevation.
© 2013,

20.3.4 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE (1993)
The passive earth pressure, pp, in front of the bulkhead may also be computed by the Coulomb Theory. This pressure is also
shown in Figure 8-20-1.
pp = Kpγ z
20.3.5 REDUCTION OF WEIGHT IN PASSIVE WEDGE DUE TO UPWARD SEEPAGE (1993)
a. During a rainstorm or rapidly receding high water, the water level behind the bulkhead may be several feet higher than
in front. The receding water percolates downward through the backfill and then upward in front of the bulkhead as
illustrated in Figure 8-20-5. The upward flow causes a significant reduction in the effective weight of the soil γ ′ and
consequently must be considered in the design using passive pressure where applicable.
b. Piping under the sheeting may be a problem for bulkheads driven to a shallow depth.
Figure 8-20-5. Flow Net for Upward Seepage of Water After Rapidly Receding High Water
SECTION 20.4 STABILITY
20.4.1 STABILITY CALCULATIONS (1993)

4
a. The stability condition referred to herein concerns a local condition immediately under the bulkhead. Massive earth
movements such as the type indicated in Figure 8-20-6 are not covered by this calculation. Massive movements may
occur independently of the type and design of the bulkhead and constitute a slope stability problem.
b. The vertical effective pressure behind the bulkhead at the elevation of the mud line is denoted by p . It is made up of
the effective submerged unit weight of the soil below the low water line, the weight of the soil above the low water
line, the uniform surcharge load q as shown in Figure 8-20-1, and a distributional load of any line, point, and other
loads. For purposes of this stability calculation line, strip, and point loads may be distributed uniformly over the area
covered (behind the bulkhead only) by a 2:1 (horizontal:vertical) distribution to the elevation of the mud line.
c. The stability calculation is carried out by treating the area behind the bulkhead as though it were a spread footing
resting on the surface of the soil at the elevation of the mud line. Generally, stability problems will arise only with
weak silts and clays. To meet the stability requirements the passive pressure must satisfy the following:
p ≤ 5.14c
-------------
FS
©
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

where:
c = the cohesion which can be taken as one-half the unconfined compressive strength of soft clays below the
mud line
FS = the factor of safety
For well defined loading conditions and thoroughly determined soil parameters, the minimum factor of safety for
permanent construction may be 1.50. If temporary loading is included, the minimum factor of safety may be reduced to
1.30.
d. If weaker layers exist below, then the shear strength value applicable to these layers should be used in the above
calculations.
e. If the above criteria for stability are not satisfied, then these design guidelines are not applicable. In such an event, a
thorough soils investigation and analysis, combined with field observations, may lead to a satisfactory design, but this
condition is considered beyond the scope of this Manual.
Figure 8-20-6. Stability Analysis – Massive Earth Movements
SECTION 20.5 DESIGN OF ANCHORED BULKHEADS
20.5.1 DEPTH OF EMBEDMENT (1993)
a. The total depth of embedment D is found by extending the active and passive pressures downward to the bottom of the
pile as schematically shown in Figure 8-20-7. The total embedment D, is satisfactory when the moment about the
elevation of the anchorage Ap, due to the passive pressure resultant Pp equals that due to the active pressure resultant Pa
with a factor of safety of 2.0 for permanent construction and 1.5 if temporary loads are included.
b. The designer should be on guard against shallow penetration of sheet piling into relatively strong soil layers. The
moment summations described above are greatly affected when a relatively strong layer is encountered. It is suggested
that arbitrary reductions in strengths, or assumption of the lowest probable elevation of the mudline, be made for such
layers in order to avoid unrealistically short penetrations.
© 2013,

20.5.2 MAXIMUM MOMENT (1993)1
a. It will usually be found that a maximum positive moment controls the selection of the sheet pile section. The maximum
moment for design is to be not less than that calculated according to the assumed equivalent beam shown in Figure 8-
20-8. The structure has been made statically determinate by assuming that a hinge occurs at the lowest elevation of the
mud line. Naturally, the designer shall make a structural check for all loading conditions.
b. If a thin layer of relatively soft soil exists at the mud line, the point of contraflexure is moved to the base of said layer,
but not deeper than 0.1D. It may be assumed that the maximum negative moment, below the dredge line as shown in
Figure 8-20-8, is less than the maximum positive moment. In selecting a structural section, interlock friction is to be
ignored. If materials other than steel are used, their flexural stiffness EI should not be greater than that for the required
steel sheet pile section; otherwise, this part of the design procedure does not apply.
3
Figure 8-20-7. Depth of Total Embedment
20.5.3 ANCHOR PULL (1993)2
For design of the anchorage system, the anchor pull shall be increased arbitrarily by at least 20% when determined according 4
to the equivalent beam theory given in Figure 8-20-8.
20.5.4 FLEXIBILITY OF ANCHORAGE (1993)
The anchor, anchor rod, and the connecting details are to be sufficiently flexible that a deformation of 0.001 Hf to 0.002 Hf can
develop at the wall without distress to the structural system. If the specified deformation cannot develop, then the active earth
pressures should be recomputed as for a braced cut and the bulkhead redesigned accordingly.
20.5.5 ANCHORAGES (1993)
a. All reactions to the anchor pull are developed entirely beyond the active pressure wedge behind the face of the
bulkhead as indicated in Figure 8-20-9. If batter piles are used as the anchorage, the piles are to develop the anchor pull
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-20-8. Maximum Moment Calculations
entirely below and in back of the active earth pressure wedge. Deadman anchorages as shown in Figure 8-20-9 are
designed utilizing passive earth pressures as resistance against anchor pull.
(1) Deadman type anchorages are preferred.
(2) Next in order of preference, is the A-Frame shown in Figure 8-20-9, utilizing a combination of tension and
compression batter piles connected by a pile cap.
(3) The least desirable anchorage is a tension pile as shown in Figure 8-20-9. The tension pile may be difficult to
develop and costly. The flexibility requirements may be difficult to develop because of the high axial stiffness of
the pile; further, this is frequently a very expensive anchorage.
b. Corrosion protection of the anchor rods shall be provided consistent with the electrochemical properties of the soil and
external factors affecting corrosion.
c. The probable settlement of the backfill should be estimated and the anchor rods designed to withstand the added
loading. Alternately, the rods may be encased in tubes sufficient in size to enable the settlement to occur without
adding loads to the rods.
d. Anchorages should never be proportioned for a factor of safety less than 2.0.
© 2013,

Figure 8-20-9. Anchorage Design
©
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

20.5.6 CONNECTIONS (1993)
The walers, brackets, and all connections shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 15, Steel Structures.
20.5.7 ALLOWABLE STRESSES (1993)
a. The allowable stresses shall be determined on the following basis:
(1) Sheet Pile Sections:
• 1/3 compressive strength for concrete.
• 2/3 tensile yield strength for steel.
(2) Anchor Rods – 1/2 tensile yield strength for steel.
(3) Other structural Members:
• According to the applicable section of the Manual.
b. All connections shall be designed for the computed structural loads after allowances for wear and corrosion. The
minimum corrosion allowance for anchor rods shall be 1/32 inch for each surface. Provision should be made to
facilitate maintenance of structural elements subjected to significant wear and corrosion.
SECTION 20.6 CANTILEVER BULKHEADS
20.6.1 SCOPE (1993)1
Cantilever bulkheads are not covered within these design guidelines.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

SECTION 20.7 NOTATIONS (1993)
Ap = Anchor Pull
c= Cohesion
D= Depth of embedment below mud line
D′ = Minimum depth of embedment below mud line for equilibrium
EI = Flexural Stiffness
FS = Factor of Safety
H= Length of sheet pile
Hf = Length from top of sheet pile to mud line
Hu = Unbalanced head of water
Ka = Active earth pressure coefficient
Kp = Passive earth pressure coefficient
m= Horizontal distance from top of sheet pile as a percentage of H
n= Vertical distance below top of sheet pile as a percentage of H
N= Blows per foot, Standard Penetration Test
Pa = Resultant horizontal active earth pressure
Pp = Resultant horizontal passive earth pressure
pa = Horizontal active earth pressure
p1 = Horizontal active earth pressure due to a Line Load 1
pp = Horizontal passive earth pressure
p2 = Horizontal active earth pressure due to a Point Load Q
ps = Horizontal active earth pressure due to a Strip Load of intensity q
pu = Horizontal active earth pressure due to a Uniform Surcharge
pq = Maximum horizontal active earth pressure due to a Point Load 3
p = Vertical effective pressure behind the bulkhead at elevation of mud line
p = Vertical effective pressure behind the bulkhead at lowest elevation of the mud line
Q = Point Load
q = intensity of strip load or surcharge load
q′ = intensity of line load
qu = Unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil
4
w= Water content
x= Horizontal distance from top of wall
z= Vertical distance from top of sheet pile
α= Angle (in radians) from wall to center of a uniform strip load Article 20.3.2
β= Angle (in radians) made by a uniform strip load Article 20.3.2
γ= Moist unit weight of soil
γ′ = Submerged unit weight of soil
δ= Angle of wall friction
φ= Angle of internal friction of soil
ψ= Angle of point in question from maximum Article 20.3.2
©
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 20, Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads. In
the numbering of articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained. See
Reference 1, 22, 33, and 101.
C - 20.1.1 SCOPE (1995)
a. This part of the Manual has been prepared for permanent construction. Braced excavations and cofferdams are not
included.
b. This part of the Manual is primarily based on the references listed in the References.
c. Tiebacks drilled into in situ soil are not included within the scope at this time.
C - 20.1.2 TYPES OF FLEXIBLE BULKHEADS (1995)
a. Most bulkheads or sheet pile walls are sufficiently flexible to meet the design criteria of a total deflection more than
0.0015 times the wall height. If this requirement is not satisfied, the magnitude and distribution of the earth pressures
can be much greater and the loads must be calculated on the basis of a braced cut. See any major soil text for the
pressure distribution for “braced excavations.”
b. This part of the Manual has been prepared assuming waterfront construction and designed backfill. The principles
given are fully applicable to other situations, i.e. sheeting used for a retaining wall or wingwall. When natural soil is
retained, consideration must be given to several other conditions:
(1) Swelling soils.
(2) Poor drainage which may result in higher pressures.
(3) Difficulty in the tieback installation, including necessary shoring for this installation.
(4) Unknown driving conditions for piling.
Though some or all of the above conditions can be a part of any installation, they are more apt to occur where virgin
ground is retained.
C - 20.2.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION (1995)
a. Consideration must be given to the importance of the structure and anchorages when planning geotechnical work. A
thorough study may result in shorter piling lengths and/or lower anchor loads, and thus result in an economical design.
b. The present and future location of the water table is of great importance since water reduces the passive pressure, and
increases the active pressure.
c. Corrosiveness of the soil shall be investigated. (See Reference 101.)
d. Considerations shall be given to possibility of liquefaction due to seismic loadings.
© 2013,

C - 20.5.2 MAXIMUM MOMENT (1993)
For sheeting in water, the elevation of mud line shall be considered at minimum 2′-0″ below the dredge line. If site
investigation reveals that the mud and/or silt build-up is more than 2′-0″, the lowest elevation of mud and/or silt build-up shall
be used as mud line elevation. Effect of sloping soil in front of the bulkhead which would reduce passive resistance should be
investigated.
C - 20.5.3 ANCHOR PULL (1993)
a. The anchor pull is determined by an assumption that the sheet pile penetration below the mud line is sufficient to
provide for fixed support of the piling at the bottom. Considerations should be given to future construction possibilities
and design should be modified accordingly.
b. Since the pressure behind a bulkhead will build up if the deflection of the bulkhead is not sufficient to fully mobilize
the active pressure, rigid anchorages can be a problem, and this condition should be recognized by the designer.
C - SECTION 20.6 CANTILEVER BULKHEADS
C - 20.6.1 SCOPE (1993)
a. Since cantilever bulkheads are not recommended for permanent construction, they are not covered in these design
guidelines.
1
b. Cantilever sheet pile bulkheads often undergo large lateral deflections which are not easily calculated. Erosion in front
of the bulkhead materially affects the stability of the structure. For these reasons, cantilever sheet pile bulkheads are
recommended only for temporary installations and not for permanent construction. Further, the use of cantilever sheet
pile bulkheads is generally not recommended where a track will be located on the higher elevation behind the
bulkhead.
c. Cantilever sheet pile bulkheads receive all of their lateral support from passive pressure exerted on the embedded 3
portion of the bulkhead. For this reason, the depth of penetration can become very large, which can result in very high
stresses and deflections in the sheet piling.
d. The recommended restrictions on cantilever sheet pile bulkheads are:
(1) Temporary construction only.

4
(2) No track or railroad loads behind the bulkhead, except for very short cantilevers in medium to very dense or hard
soil.
(3) Maximum height not to exceed 12 feet.
©
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 21
Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures1
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
21.1 General (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-1
21.2 Reporting of Defects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
21.3 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2 1

21.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
21.3.2 Structural Protection (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-5
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-19
3
SECTION 21.1 GENERAL (2006)2
a. All concrete and masonry structures and components should be given thorough, detailed condition inspections at
scheduled intervals. For timber and steel components, refer to Chapter 7 and Chapter 15, respectively. The scope and
detail of the inspection should be based on the condition and age of the structure, and traffic type and tonnage in order
to determine that the physical condition of each structure is suitable for the imposed loading and to determine
maintenance or rehabilitation needs. A record of physical conditions should be kept.
b. A special inspection may be required when the structure is subjected to abnormal conditions which may affect the
capacity of the structure such as: floods, storms, fires, earthquakes, collisions, overloads and evidence of recent
movement. Refer to Commentary for information related to inspection of fire damaged concrete.
c. The inspector should review prior inspection reports before making the inspection. Previously noted defects should be
examined in the field and any changes in conditions recorded. Field book, sketch pad, inspection form, camera,
monitoring gages, etc., should be used to record the inspection data. Appropriate personal safety equipment should be
used throughout the inspection.
1
References, Vol. 71, 1970, p. 246; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 53.
2
See Commentary

SECTION 21.2 REPORTING OF DEFECTS (2006)
a. When the inspector finds defects that appear to be of such a nature as to make the passage of traffic unsafe, the
condition should immediately be reported. After steps have been taken to protect traffic, the train dispatcher and
appropriate officers should be notified, consistent with established policies, recommending a speed limit and briefly
describing the conditions which prompted the action. The inspector should follow this immediately with a report so
that a detailed investigation and recommendation for repair can be made.
b. Upon completion of the inspection, a written record covering the inspection should be forwarded to the engineer or
other officer in charge of maintenance. Upon receipt of the report, a review should be made to determine the need for
remedial action.
c. A sample inspection form for concrete and masonry structures is included at the end of this part.
SECTION 21.3 INSPECTION1
21.3.1 GENERAL (2006)

a. The inspection of concrete and masonry structures should be carried out in a methodical manner. Of primary
importance in all structures is evidence of distress, misalignment, deflection, settlement, cracks, and general
deterioration. Evidence of deterioration of concrete such as width and length of structural cracks, size and location of
spalling and scaling, and location and extent of water-saturation of concrete should be recorded. Cleaning of the
structure or component parts may be necessary prior to inspection.
b. The inspector should report indications of failure in any portion of the structure and any conditions which could
contribute to a future failure.
c. Reference points should be established for monitoring misalignment, deflection, settlement, and cracks. The amount of
tilt, separation between components, width and length of cracks, efflorescence and rust-staining and other
measurements necessary for future checking should be recorded.
d. The inspection should include the structure and all related features.
21.3.1.1 Track2
The inspector should note the alignment, profile and surface of the track on the structure, its approaches and bridge ends. Any
irregularities in line or surface should be noted along with their magnitude, location and any other information that may
indicate the cause of the irregularities. Depth of ballast and condition of ballast, ties and hardware should be noted.
21.3.1.2 Site and Crossing3
a. Where a structure crosses over a waterway, the inspector should note the condition and alignment of the waterway. The
condition of the slopes and any slope protection (such as riprap) should be noted along with any indication of debris
accumulation. The inspector should note any indication of damage from marine collision, ice or debris.
b. Where scour is possible, the channel bottom at piers and abutments should be checked by sounding, probing or other
means.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
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Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures
c. Where a structure carries tracks over a roadway, waterway or another track, the inspector should note any indication of
collision damage from high or wide loads. Roadway clearances should be measured and signage verified for accuracy.
d. The inspector should note any indication of collision damage from high or wide loads to the bridge superstructure,
bearings and substructure.
21.3.1.3 Foundations, Piers and Abutments1
a. The type of foundation and type and condition of material used in the various structural components should be noted.
The inspector should note any settlement and/or rotation of foundations, piers, abutments or their component parts.
Reference points should be established for monitoring of structural movement if appropriate.
b. Location and extent of exposed and/or corroded reinforcing steel should be reported. The condition of the structure at
the bridge seats, bearings and near the waterline should also be investigated.
c. Crack width, orientation and location should be noted. Widths and lengths of structural cracks should be marked and
dated to monitor crack progression. On masonry structures note cracked, shifted, or missing stones, and condition of
mortar.
d. Location, size and description of unsound areas, spalling, scaling or other deterioration should be noted.
e. Condition of retained fill, drainage and slope protection at abutments should be inspected. Water-saturated masonry or
concrete and extent of efflorescence and rust-staining should be noted. Check weepholes and drains for proper
function.
21.3.1.4 Pile and Pile Bents

1
a. Inspection of piling and pile bents should be in general conformance with Article 21.3.1.3. For timber and steel
components, refer to Chapter 7 and Chapter 15, respectively.
b. Alignment and condition of piling should be recorded. Impact damage from debris, vessels or vehicles should also be
noted.
c. Condition of piles should be investigated for soundness. Loss of section and cracking should be noted. These may be 3
especially severe in a marine environment, particularly in the tidal zone.
d. Condition of connections between cap and piling should be noted.
e. Condition of bracing members and their connections should be noted.
21.3.1.5 Underwater Inspections2

4
The need and frequency for underwater inspections should be evaluated for every structure having submerged components.
These inspections should identify the channel bottom conditions and presence of any scour, extent of foundation exposure and
any undermining, and all deterioration and damage below water.
a. Divers should be experienced in the inspection of bridge substructures.
b. Inspection data should be recorded by written description, sketches, reports, photography and/or video.
c. During high water events when scour conditions may be expected, channel activity should be monitored, which may
include the use of sonar readings, until inspections can be made.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

21.3.1.6 Retaining Walls1
a. Concrete inspection should be in general conformance with Article 21.3.1.
b. The inspector should note any settlement and/or rotation of retaining walls. Changes in wall alignment or cracks in
earth embankment which parallel the wall should be noted.
c. Condition of retained fill and drainage at walls should be inspected. The extent of water-saturated concrete and
exposed or corroded reinforcing steel should be recorded.
21.3.1.7 Slabs and Beams2
a. Inspector should note if prestressed or conventionally reinforced concrete is used in the structure. Method of
construction, cast-in-place or precast, simple or continuous, should also be recorded.
b. Any cracks that open and close under traffic, diagonal cracks near supports, or wide or numerous cracks in any location
should be reported immediately to the proper authority. Acute corners of skewed bridges should be examined for
cracks, delaminations and spalls.
c. Structural members should be inspected for excessive deflection, misalignment or collision damage.
d. Curbs, ballast retainers, walkways and handrails should be inspected, noting the condition as to soundness and security
of fastening devices. Soundness, uniformity and condition of bearings and bearing areas should also be noted. Areas
exposed to drainage should be checked for spalls and cracks.
21.3.1.8 Box Girders3
a. Type of box construction (precast, cast-in-place, segmental, pre-tensioned, post-tensioned, simple or continuous spans)
should be recorded.
b. General inspection guidelines should be as outlined in Article 21.3.1.7. Top flange, bottom flange and web walls
should be inspected when accessible. Chamfers of boxes should be inspected for cracking which may extend along the
sides or bottom of the girders.
c. Shear transfer devices between adjacent box girders should be inspected, where accessible. Condition of grout,
hardware, tie rods, and other materials used in tying together adjacent box girders should be noted. Evidence of
differential box deflections or misalignments should be recorded.
d. Condition of void drain holes and evidence of leakage between adjacent boxes should be noted.
21.3.1.9 Arches4
a. Type of arch construction, such as segmental, open spandrel, closed spandrel, single or multiple span should be noted.
Shape of arch span (circular, elliptical or parabolic) should be recorded, if known. Type and general condition of
material (brick, stone, mortar or concrete) should also be recorded.
b. Arch foundations should be investigated for settlement, shifting, scour and undermining.
c. Arch ribs and bearing areas of arches at springings (spring lines) should be inspected for loss of cross section due to
spalling or cracking.
d. Open spandrel columns and walls should be inspected with particular attention to areas near the interface with the arch
rib and cap.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
© 2013,

e. Arch ribs connected with struts should be inspected for diagonal cracking due to torsional shear.
f. Floor systems of open spandrel arches and closed spandrel arches with no fill material should be inspected as outlined
in Article 21.3.1.7.
g. Inspect areas exposed to drainage and seepage for deteriorated and contaminated areas. For closed spandrel arches,
note whether weepholes are working properly.
21.3.2 STRUCTURAL PROTECTION (2006)
Structural protection devices including crash walls, cellular dolphins, pile clusters, shear fences, floating shear booms,
anchored pontoons, fender systems, navigation lights and warning mechanisms should be inspected as part of the scheduled
inspection of their related foundation or substructure element. The inspection should identify all deterioration, damage,
displacement, misalignment, instability, undermining, and any other detrimental conditions which would inhibit these devices
from protecting the structure or cause them to create an obstruction. All submerged portions of structural protection devices
should be inspected underwater based on the recommendations set forth in Article 21.3.1.5. The inspection of structural
protection devices should also note any aspects which may present a hazard to navigation, railroad or highway operations, and
identify the necessary measures to correct the situation.
21.3.2.1 Culverts1
a. Inspection of a concrete or masonry culvert in general should be in conformance with Article 21.3.1.3.
b. Inspector should note any settlement, variations in cross-sectional shape and misalignment along the horizontal axis of
a culvert. All joints between end treatments and within the culvert itself should be examined for differential movement,
and all transverse or longitudinal cracking within a culvert should be noted.
1
c. A culvert should be inspected for any scour or undermining at either end. Any embankment damage around the culvert
openings and debris or vegetation within the culvert should be noted. All submerged portions of a culvert should be
inspected underwater based on the recommendations set forth in Article 21.3.1.5.
21.3.2.2 Tunnels
3
a. Important features of a tunnel might be obscured by a shield or lining, therefore the inspector should review plans, if
available, prior to the inspection. Note the structural configuration, provisions for drainage, ventilation and lighting.
Note if secondary passageways that would provide additional access for inspection are present.
b. Concrete inspection should be in general conformance with Article 21.3.1.3. In exposed masonry construction, make
special note of bulges in walls and displacement, shifting or loss of masonry or mortar.
4
c. Walls should be inspected for indications of water leakage or ice buildup. The condition and effectiveness of drainage
systems should be noted.
d. Note whether ancillary systems for lighting, ventilation, and fire prevention are in working order, if discernible.
e. The accumulation of trash or foreign debris or the blockage of safety niches should be noted.
f. Any new construction above or adjacent to the tunnel should be noted.
g. Horizontal and vertical clearances should be verified. Items causing changes in clearance should be noted.
h. The inspector should note the alignment, profile and surface of the track and clearance of the tunnel.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

RECORD OF INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES
Division __________________________________ Date: _____________________________________
Bridge No. ____________________________ (MP) Inspector __________________________________
Weather __________________________________ Temperature _______________________________
Description of Structure:
NOTE: Remarks should include an estimate of the urgency to repair the structure.
(i.e., Immediate, 1 or 2 years, over 2 years).
TRACK CONDITION
1.Surface of track on structure and approaches
2.Alignment of track and its location with reference to the structure
3.Location, amount and probable causes of any track out of line or surface
4.Ballast, condition and depth
5.Remarks
SUBSTRUCTURE
1. General:
Alignment of unit (horizontal, vertical)
Evidence of settlement
Evidence of scour (wingwalls, abutments, piers)
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RECORD OF INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES (Continued)
SUBSTRUCTURE (Continued)
Condition of retained fill (drainage, slope protection)
Alignment of waterway and evidence of debris
Changes apparent since last inspection
2. Piers and Abutments:

Material (brick, stone, concrete)
Condition of backwall (plumb, clearance of structure)
1
Condition of bridge seat
Condition of bearings (level, bedding)

3
Brick and Stone:

Condition of mortar joints
4
Condition of bricks or stones
Conditions at waterline
Concrete:
Cracks (location, size, description)
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© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Spalling or cracking (location, size, description)
Condition of reinforcing steel (exposed, corroded – location)
Condition at waterline
3. Bents and Pile Piers:

Type of Piles
(prestressed concrete, conventional concrete, concrete filled, metal shells, steel H, timber, other)
Alignment of piles (horizontal and vertical)
Cracks, corrosion and decay (location, size, description)
Spalling or crazing (location, size, description)
Condition of reinforcing steel (exposed, corroded – location and description)
Condition of pile shells (corroded – location, size and description)
Condition of pile at waterline
Caps, Bracing and Collars

Cracks (location, size and description)
Spalling and crazing (location, size and description)
© 2013,

Condition of bridge seat
Condition of bearings (level, bedding)
4. Remarks
PRESTRESSED AND REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS

1. General:
Type of construction (prestressed or reinforced concrete)
1
Spalling and crazing (location, size and description) 3
Condition of reinforcing steel (exposed, corroded, rust around cracks – location and description)
4
Condition of end blocks (voids draining)
Condition of bearings
Condition of expansion joints
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

PRESTRESSED AND REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

AND SLABS (Continued)
Condition of curbs (cracks, spalls)
Condition of handrail (fastenings)
Indications of movement
Other deterioration (location and description)
2. Remarks
ARCHES – SOLID AND OPEN SPANDREL

1. General:
Materials (stone or concrete)
Headwalls and wingwalls
Barrel of arch
Alignment of unit (horizontal, vertical)
Evidence of settlement
© 2013,

ARCHES – SOLID AND OPEN SPANDREL (Continued)

Leakage through barrel of arch
Condition of expansion joints
2. Headwalls and Wingwalls:

Condition of embankment (spilling over, drainage, cavities)
Indications of wingwall movement
1
Evidence of scour
Headwall pulling away from barrel of arch

3
Stone:
4
Condition of stones
Concrete:
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

ARCHES – SOLID AND OPEN SPANDREL (Continued)

3. Stone Arch Barrel:

Condition of stones
4. Concrete Arch Barrel:

5. Remarks
CULVERTS
1. General:
Type (box, pipe, arch)
Material
Condition of channel (open)
Culvert undermined
© 2013,

CULVERTS (Continued)
Indications of settlement
Cracks or open joints (location and description)
Condition of embankment (spilling over, drainage, cavities)
Condition of headwalls and wingwalls
Indications of wingwall movement
Water leaking into embankment 1
3
2. Remarks
TUNNELS
1. General: 4
Material
Portals
Lining (or unlined)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

TUNNELS (Continued)
Track alignment
Condition of side ditches and drainage
2. Portals
Conditions of overburden (spilling over, drainage, cavities)
Sealing required
Evidence of washing
Portal pulling away from tunnel
3. Tunnel lining
Lined:
Bulges, cracks, open joints, flaking (location, size and description)
Seepage through walls (weep holes functioning)
Deterioration of lining material (location, size and description)
Unlined:
Condition of rock (loose)
© 2013,

TUNNELS (Continued)
Seepage into tunnel
Condition of rock anchors (if present)
4. Remarks
RETAINING WALLS
1. General:
Material
Indicated movement (settling, sliding, leaning)

1
Condition of fill (spilling over, cavities, stability)
Washing or scouring 3
Condition of drainage (weep holes functioning, ditches open)
4
Cracks, deterioration or open joints (location, size and description)
Condition of prefabricated members (broken, misaligned)
Changes apparent since last inspection (wall movement)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

RETAINING WALLS (Continued)

2. Remarks
PIER PROTECTION
1. General:
Type
Materials
General condition of alignment
Collision damage
Evidence of scour
Condition of navigation channel
Condition of navigation aids (lighting, fog horn)
Debris trapped on system
Apparent ability to protect pier
© 2013,

PIER PROTECTION (Continued)

2. Integral:
Condition of energy absorbing devices
Condition of rubbing strips (non-sparking)
Condition of fasteners and splicing materials
Condition of pier adjacent to fender
3. Dolphins:
Pile clusters
Type of piles 1
Condition of piles
3
Location relative to planned position
Condition of lashings or connections

4
Cellular dolphins:
Type of construction (sheet piles, steel rings, etc.)
Condition of piles or rings
Type and condition of fill material
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering


4. Floating shear booms:

Condition of floating material
Condition of boom material
Condition of anchoring system
5. Hydraulic devices:
Condition of suspended cylinder
Condition of suspension system
Condition of supporting piles, caissons, or piers
Changes in water level affecting cylinder engagement
6. Independent Fenders:
Condition of pile supports
Condition of energy absorbers
© 2013,


Condition of longitudinal wales
Condition of rubbing strips
7. Remarks
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 21, Inspection of Concrete and 1
Masonry Structures. In the numbering of articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article
being explained.
C - EVALUATING FIRE DAMAGED CONCRETE RAILWAY BRIDGES (2006)
General
3
Concrete structures exposed to fire may experience a permanent loss of strength, formation of structural cracks, surface
spalling, and reinforcing damage. However, concrete structures exposed to fire generally perform well and usually are
repairable. The heat conductivity of concrete is low and thus heat from a fire is usually confined to shallow depths. The extent
of structural damage is related to the intensity and duration of the fire, and the mass and details of the concrete structure.
The exposure of concrete to a temperature of 572°F (300°C) is significant for two reasons:
4
• Below this temperature the effects of heat on concrete are likely to be insignificant.
• Above this temperature concrete coloration changes may indicate permanent damage.
Water directed on hot concrete may cause spalling, crack development and the embrittlement of steel. Fire fighting
efforts should be directed to extinguishing the combustible material and not cooling the structure.
Traffic should not cross the structure if significant deflection or distortion is noted or if there are reasons to doubt that
adequate strength remains.
Inspection
a. Prior to the inspection of a damaged concrete structure, it should be determined whether the site is safe for entry.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. Damage may include the deflection of concrete beams and slabs, distortion of columns, cracking, spalling and
unsightly appearance.
c. Inspection observations should include looking for and measuring any unusual component deflection, recording the
location and extent of structural cracks, spalls and exposed reinforcing. Fire exposed surfaces should be mapped to
indicate those areas having structural and cosmetic damage. If fire exposed surfaces exhibit colorations of pink, white
or buff, those surfaces should be mapped and color noted. Surfaces may need to be cleaned of soot to make these
observations.
d. Information concerning the combustible material, duration, intensity indicators and method for extinguishing should be
obtained from eyewitnesses or other reliable sources for assistance in evaluating the damage. Although any concrete
coloration from the fire may provide sufficient information concerning the intensity of the fire, if coloration is not
evident, to a lesser degree other materials associated with the fire site may have melted and may provide some
indication of the fire intensity, such as: lead 621°F (327°C), plastics 572-842°F (300–450°C), glass 752–932°F (400–
500°C), aluminum 1218°F (660°C), and copper 1981°F (1083°C). Other information concerning the original concrete
strength, age, reinforcing details and types of aggregates may be obtained from structural plans, specifications and
construction records.
Evaluation
e. Generally, all concrete that has coloration changes (pink, white, buff) is considered damaged. The pink coloration
572°F (300°C) experienced by heating concrete is the formation of ferrous salts and is more pronounced in concrete
with siliceous aggregates. At approximately 1110°F (600°C), concrete may have a whitish coloration from the
hydration of lime. At 1650°F (900°C) the coloration may be grey-buff.
f. Indications of possible structural damage may be evident by visual examination, but the extent of damage will require
tests and analysis. Evaluation tools for testing include: surface hammer sounding, impact hammers, coring and/or
drilling and pulse-echo non-destructive testing. Sounding the concrete surface with hammers may be sufficient to
determine if there is any internal concrete delamination. Calibrated impact hammers can give direct measurements of
the concrete compressive strength and may be used on sound and unsound concrete for quick strength comparisons.
Coring will assist in determining the depth of damage and corings destructively tested will ascertain accurate
compressive strength. A petrographic analysis of cored samples will give a detailed analysis of the concrete condition
but the analysis is time consuming. Pulse-echo testing can give a rapid and accurate determination of internal concrete
conditions relative to micro-cracking and bond loss. Additional testing may be needed for prestressed and post-
tensioned concrete.
g. Concrete strength decreases as temperature is increased and further decreases on cooling as a result of micro-cracking.
Approximately 75% residual strength remains in most concrete after exposure to fire. This loss may be offset by excess
residual strength of mature concrete. Internal induced stresses from differential heating may result in the formation of
cracks. Young concrete may experience more damage than mature concrete due to larger amounts of internal moisture
that may convert to steam and increase internal tensile stresses.
h. Damage may result from aggregate spalls due to physical or chemical changes. Explosive spalling may occur from the
release of tensile stresses by the formation of steam within aggregates. Slough-off or the detachment of layers of
concrete may occur where reinforcement is restrained. Igneous aggregates (granite, basalt) generally perform well
when exposed to fire, carbonate aggregates (limestone) perform well to about 1290°F (700°C), and siliceous
aggregates (quartz) do not perform well due to expansion and cracking.
i. The absence of deflection or distortion in any element may indicate that the steel was not damaged. Reinforcing steel
usually recovers in strength unless exposed to temperatures over 1110°F (600°C). Anchorages of post-tensioned
members may require special evaluation. The tension in pretensioned steel or post-tensioned ducts exposed by spalling
should generally be assumed to be zero. Prestressed members may suffer substantial relaxation losses, additional to
those allowed by normal design. Low relaxation strands may have improved fire performance. At 572°F (300°C) the
© 2013,

residual bond strength is approximately 85% and at 932°F (500°C) the bond strength is approximately 50% of initial
bond. Bond strength losses of epoxy coated reinforcing steel subjected to fire may require special evaluation.
j. Resins used in construction bonding of concrete elements and in repairs may not perform well in the presence of
elevated temperatures.
k. Hydrochloric acid fumes occurring in fires involving PVC and other plastic ducts may react with hardened cement
paste to form calcium chloride which may constitute a hazard to the reinforcement. A silver/chromate test can confirm
the presence of calcium chloride ions.
Repairs
l. Repair procedures, as applicable, are outlined in Part 14.
m. Pulse-echo or other nondestructive testing may be used to confirm that all damaged concrete is removed and can be
used to confirm proper bonding of new concrete to old concrete and bonding to reinforcement.
C - 21.3 INSPECTION
There are many common defects that occur on concrete bridges. The following definitions are provided as a guideline for
consistency in reporting of defects.
Abrasion — Abrasion damage is the result of external forces acting on the surface of the concrete member. Erosive action of
silt-laden water running over a concrete surface and ice flow in rivers and streams can cause considerable abrasion damage to
concrete.
1
Cold joint displacement or deterioration — Unbonded concrete resulting from intended separate concrete placement or by
lack of consolidation.
Cracking — A crack is a linear fracture that may extend partially or completely through the concrete member. When
recording cracks, the inspector should describe the type, width, depth, length, direction, location and appearance of the crack
as appropriate for the inspection. 3
Delamination — Delamination occurs when layers of concrete separate at or near the level of the top or outermost layer of
reinforcing steel. The major cause of delamination is expansion of corroding reinforcing steel. Delaminated areas can
generally be identified by a hollow sound when tapped with a hammer.
Efflorescence — Efflorescence is a white deposit on concrete caused by crystallization of soluble salts (calcium chloride)
brought to the surface by moisture in the concrete. 4
Freeze-Thaw Damage — The deterioration of concrete, typically a crack or spall, due to introduction of moisture and the
subsequent alternate freezing and thawing of the retained moisture.
Honeycombs — Honeycombs are hollow spaces or voids that may be present within the concrete. Honeycombs are caused by
improper consolidation during construction, resulting in the segregation of the coarse aggregates from the fine aggregates and
cement paste.
Pop-Outs — Pop-outs are conical fragments that break out of the surface of the concrete leaving small holes. Generally, a
shattered aggregate particle will be found at the bottom of the hole, with a part of the fragment still adhering to the small end
of the pop-out cone.
Scaling — Scaling is the gradual and continuing loss of surface mortar and aggregate over an area. When reporting scaling,
the inspector should note the location of the defect, the size of the area, and the depth of penetration of the defect.
Spalling — A spall is a roughly circular or oval depression in the concrete. Spalls result from the separation and removal of a
portion of the surface concrete, revealing a fracture roughly parallel to the surface. Spalls can be caused by corroding
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

reinforcement and friction from thermal movement. Reinforcing steel is often exposed after spalling. When reporting spalls,
the inspector should note the location of the defect, the size of the area, and the depth of the defect.
C - 21.3.1.1 Track
Line swings may be an indication of pier movement. Sags in the track over the structure may indicate settlement. Effects of
creep and strand relaxation may affect track profile.
C - 21.3.1.2 Site and Crossing
a. The inspector should note any changes in the alignment of a waterway both upstream and downstream and the resulting
effect that they may have on the structure. A major change in the alignment of a waterway may place it outside the
spans intended for the crossing.
b. Sedimentation deposits may fill scour holes after high water events. Underwater investigations may be required as per
Article C - 21.3.1.5. Structures located downstream of spillways or locks may be subject to increased scour potential.
C - 21.3.1.3 Foundations, Piers and Abutments
Concrete and masonry structures are placed on foundations of earth, piling, cribbing, rock or other similar material. Cracks
may be evidence of settlement which has occurred during consolidation of the foundation. Settlement may occur without
cracking. Noticeable changes in track surfaces and alignment, plumbness or elevation may indicate foundation settlement.
Changes in backwall alignment or cracks in the earth embankment parallel to the backwall may indicate movement. Constant
wetting may indicate swelling, premature loss of mortar, deterioration of facing or excessive water pressure behind backwalls.
Exposure of timber mats or untreated timber piling may lead to rapid deterioration of the timber.
C - 21.3.1.5 Underwater Inspections
In evaluating the need for an underwater inspection, consideration should be given to type and depth of foundation, depth of
water, normal and peak flow rates, nature of channel bottom and susceptibility to and history of scour, type of aquatic
environment, typical extent of drift and ice accumulation, and amount and type of watercraft traffic. The inspections should be
performed with sufficient frequency to provide early detection of any detrimental conditions, and between inspections, the
measuring of water depths should be considered to monitor channel bottom activity. In the event of a high water and/or flow
occurrence, an excessive accumulation of ice or drift, a watercraft collision, a significant change in channel bottom
configuration, or any submerged component movement, consideration should be given to performing an emergency inspection
as soon as conditions will safely permit.
C - 21.3.1.6 Retaining Walls
In addition to structural deficiencies, retaining wall failures may result from:
a. Softening of the supporting material by moisture.
b. Overloading of the embankment behind the wall.
c. Scour or erosion beneath the foundation.
d. Expansive backfills.
e. Hydrostatic pressure behind wall.
f. Seismic event.
g. Cracks in the earth embankment which parallel the wall may be signs of wall movement.
© 2013,

C - 21.3.1.7 Slabs and Beams
a. Transverse cracks in the bottom of simple span slabs and beams can indicate overload, particularly if cracks open and
close during passage of a train. Hairline cracks on the tops of simple span prestressed beams are generally due to
shrinkage of the concrete. Hairline cracks in the top or bottom of simple span reinforced concrete slabs and beams are
generally not significant. Diagonal cracks running up the sides of the slab or beam from near the supports may indicate
excessive shear stress in the member or the beginning of shear failure.
b. Transverse cracks in the top of continuous beams over support locations or in the bottom of continuous beams within
the span can indicate overload.
(1) Sagging or excess deflection may indicate a loss of prestress. Loss of prestress may be caused by strand slippage,
which may be visible at the ends of beams.
(2) End spalling can lead to a loss of bond in the prestressing tendons. Note any deterioration that has exposed or
damaged prestressing tendons.
C - 21.3.1.8 Box Girders
a. Horizontal or vertical cracks in the top of girder ends are frequently due to stresses created at the transfer of
prestressing forces. Flexural cracks in the lower portion of the girders, particularly at mid-span, may indicate a problem
resulting from overload or loss of prestress.
b. Individual girder deflection under live load may indicate that shear keys between boxes have been broken and that
boxes are acting independently of each other.
1
C - 21.3.1.9 Arches
a. A true arch has an elliptical shape and functions in a state of pure compression. Many arches are not elliptical and resist
loads by a combination of axial compression and bending moment.
3
b. Changes in horizontal alignment, sags in the arch crown, bulges in the sidewalls, transverse cracks, longitudinal cracks
and expansion joint failures may be signs of settlement, overload or impending arch failure.
c. The area between the arches and the deck is called the spandrel. Open spandrel concrete arches receive traffic loads
through spandrel bents which support a slab or tee beam floor system. Horizontal cracks in spandrel columns within
several feet of the arch indicate excessive bending in the column, which may be caused by overloads and differential
arch rib deflection. 4
d. The spandrel area in closed spandrel arches is typically occupied by fill retained by vertical walls. Surface water should
drain properly and not penetrate the fill material.
C - 21.3.2.1 Culverts
a. Horizontal alignment of a culvert can be inspected by sighting along one of the culvert walls. Sag in the culvert axis
may be identified by a location of sediment buildup on the culvert floor. Spalls or cracking in the vicinity of a joint may
be a sign of movement at the joint. Both longitudinal and transverse cracking may be an indication of differential
settlement. Longitudinal cracks can also be caused by a structural overloading of the culvert. Holes appearing in the
track structure may be an indication of open culvert joints. For culvert extensions, integrity of connection should be
noted.
b. Insufficient hydraulic capacity, either by design or due to obstructions, may cause upstream ponding and lateral flow
movements which can erode the embankments and supporting material around the culvert end treatments. Culverts
often convey short-term, high volume flows, and consequently, all culverts should be carefully inspected for scour and
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

undermining. Tipping, cracking or separation of the headwalls, wingwalls or apron may indicate the presence of
undermining. For arch and frame type culverts with earthen floors, undermining beneath the wall foundations along
their full length should also be investigated.
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8
Part 22
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation1
— 1992 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
22.1 General (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.2 Scope (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.3 Classification of Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2 1

22.3.1 Foundation Investigations (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.3.2 Failure Investigations (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-3
22.4 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-3

22.4.1 Planning an Exploration Program (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-3
22.4.2 Number and Location of Borings (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4 3
22.4.3 Depth of Borings (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4
22.4.4 Equipment (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4
22.4.5 Permits (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4
22.5 Exploration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4

22.5.1 Dry Sample Borings (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4
22.5.2 Test Pits (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-5
22.5.3 Core Borings in Rock (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-5
22.6 Determination of Groundwater Level (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6
22.7 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6

22.7.1 Dry Samples (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6
22.7.2 Rock Cores (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-7
22.8 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-7

22.8.1 Scope (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-7
22.8.2 General (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-7
22.8.3 Borings – Dry Sample (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-8
22.8.4 Core Borings (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-8
1
References Vol. 78, 1977, p. 102; Vol. 93, 1992, pp. 78, 98.

22.9 Inspection (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.10 Geophysical Explorations (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.11 In-Situ Testing of Soil (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.12 Backfilling Bore Holes (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-10
22.13 Cleaning Site (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-10
SECTION 22.1 GENERAL (1992)
a. The intent of this part is to furnish the Engineer with certain guidelines for the formulation of specifications for a
particular project. Subsurface investigation for structures only is addressed in this section. Site investigations for fills
and cuts shall follow the requirements of Chapter 1, Roadway and Ballast, Part 1, Roadbed.
b. It is recommended that a qualified geotechnical engineer be retained to perform the investigation, conduct the
laboratory and/or in-situ testing, and prepare the geotechnical analysis and report.
SECTION 22.2 SCOPE (1992)
These specifications entail a procedure for performing borings through soil and into rock, to determine the nature and extent of
the various soil and rock strata, location of groundwater level, as well as, to obtain samples for identification and tests for the
purpose of development of the subsoil profile and determination of the engineering properties of the soil and rock.
SECTION 22.3 CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTIGATIONS
22.3.1 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATIONS (1992)
22.3.1.1 New Structure
For a new structure, the site investigation shall provide sufficient information to determine:
a. Location of groundwater level, at least to the extent that it is within the zone of influence, beneath the footing.
b. Bearing capacity of the soil.
c. Data on soil and/or rock properties relative to shallow and deep foundations.
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Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation
d. Settlement predictions.
e. Selection of alternative types and/or depth of foundations.
f. In seismic areas, evaluation of liquefaction potential of various soil strata.
22.3.1.2 Existing Structure
For an existing structure, if it is desired to make additions or increase the service loading (Ex: heavier rolling stock), then an
investigation shall be conducted based on the increased loadings. The information obtained shall be employed in determining
the ability of the existing foundation to carry additional loading, both in terms of bearing capacity and settlement.
22.3.2 FAILURE INVESTIGATIONS (1992)
Failure investigations are made to obtain information for the failure analysis of a structure related to the foundation conditions.
22.4.1 PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAM (1992)
a. Preliminary site reconnaissance and review of existing information will facilitate the understanding of the site 1
subsurface information. Useful information includes:
(1) Topographic and geologic maps.
(2) Aerial photographs.
(3) Geologic and subsurface exploration reports.

3
(4) Related articles in engineering and geologic journals.
(5) Study of local ground features.
(6) Survey of existing or adjacent structures on site and their influence on ground type. 4
(7) Condition of adjacent structures.
(8) Information on previous and future planned use of the site.
b. For buildings the Engineer should provide to the geotechnical engineer information on column spacing, column loads,
dimensions, and use of the structure. For bridges, the geotechnical engineer should have access to type, span length,
foundation loading, and controlling dimensions.
c. If project funding and scheduling permits, explorations can be conducted in a phase sequence as: reconnaissance
investigation; and, explorations for preliminary design, followed by explorations for final design.
d. Thorough research for details of any contaminated materials and associated appurtenances must be made. A Risk
Management procedure needs to be in-place that conforms with federal, state and local government guidelines for
removal of elements.
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

22.4.2 NUMBER AND LOCATION OF BORINGS (1992)
The number and location of borings shall be such that the soil profiles obtained will permit an accurate estimate of the extent
and character of the underlying soil and/or rock masses and will disclose important irregularities in the subsurface conditions.
Borings shall be uniformly distributed or located in accordance with the loading pattern imposed by the structure. The number
and location of the borings shall be determined by the Engineer.
22.4.3 DEPTH OF BORINGS (1992)
a. The depth of borings shall be based on the magnitude and distribution of the load imposed by the structure and the
nature of the subsurface conditions. In all projects, the borings as a minimum, must extend to a depth sufficient to
reveal the nature of all materials which could be significantly affected by the loads imposed by the structure and which
by settlement and/or shear failure could affect the integrity of the structure.
b. As a rule of thumb, for spread footings the borings should extend to a depth such that from a Boussinesq (or similar)
analysis the increase in pressure is 10% of the contact pressure, in other words the boring depth shall be 1.5 to 2 times
the anticipated width of the footing.
c. For piles and other deep foundations the depth of borings should extend below the zone of influence and not less than
10 feet below the estimated tip elevation.
d. When a structure is to be founded on rock, one or more borings should be extended at least 15 feet into sound rock
(defined as RQD1 equal to 90%) in order to determine the extent and character of the weathered zone of the rock and to
ensure that bedrock and not boulders have been encountered. For failure investigations, borings shall extend to a depth
sufficient to determine the limits of the failure.
22.4.4 EQUIPMENT (1992)
Drill rigs shall be specifically designed and manufactured for drilling, coring and sampling soil and rock. Drill rigs shall have
adequate capacity, be in satisfactory operating condition and have the power to accomplish the required work. The rigs shall be
supplemented with the necessary auxiliaries, appurtenances, tools and other equipment required for proper operation. The
operator in charge shall be thoroughly experienced in soil and rock boring.
22.4.5 PERMITS (1992)
All necessary permits shall be secured before the work is started as provided by the contract.
SECTION 22.5 EXPLORATION METHODS
22.5.1 DRY SAMPLE BORINGS (1992)
22.5.1.1 Auger Borings
Auger borings shall conform to current ASTM D1452 requirements and may be used for exploratory borings as a rapid means
of obtaining a preliminary soil profile.
1
Rock Quality Designation defined as the ratio of the total length of pieces 4 inches or greater to the length cored. In determining the length of 4 inch pieces,
fresh fractures caused by the drilling process shall be ignored.
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a. Procedure. Auger borings shall be made by turning a screw-type auger into the soil a short distance, either by hand or
mechanical means, withdrawing the auger and the soil that clings to it, and removing the soil from the auger for
examination. The auger shall not be less than 1-1/2 inches in diameter. Most cohesive soils above the water table will
permit auger borings to a depth of 20 feet or more without casing to support the walls of the hole.
b. Casing. If the hole does not stand open because of caving or squeezing from the sides, it shall be lined with a casing the
diameter of which is larger than that of the auger. The casing shall be driven to a depth not to exceed the top of the next
sample. In lieu of casing, a continuous-flight hollow-stem auger may be used, sampling being done through the stem
with a split-barrel sampler. Point closure devices shall be used where the soils have a tendency of flowing into the
hollow stem.
c. Sampling. The soil auger can be used for both boring the hole and bringing up disturbed samples of the soil
encountered. Other sampling methods shall be as specified in Article 22.7.1.
22.5.1.2 Wash Borings
a. Procedure. Casing shall be driven to the required sampling elevation and the inside cleaned partly by a chopping and
twisting action of a light bit and partly by the jetting action of water which is pumped through the hollow drill rod and
bit. Cuttings are removed from the hole by circulating water which passes down the drill rod and returns to the surface
between the drill rod and the casing pipe. Wash borings shall conform to current ASTM D1586 requirements. (Split
Barrel.)
b. Casings. Casings shall not be less than 1-1/2 inches inside diameter and shall be extra-heavy pipe.
c. Sampling. Whenever there is a change in the appearance of the mixture of wash water and soil that comes out of the
1
hole, but not greater than at intervals of 5 feet, a sample shall be taken by one of the methods specified in Section 22.7,
Sampling.
22.5.2 TEST PITS (1992)
Test pits are preferable for shallow investigations where the surface material is extremely variable. Test pits are required when 3
there is a need for load testing of the soil in-situ. They shall be made to the full depth of the layer. Excavation shall be by
suitable methods and materials of each class shall be kept in separate piles as far as is practicable. Representative samples of
the formations shall be taken progressively from the natural formation where requested by the Engineer, placed in suitable
sample jars or containers and properly labeled.
22.5.3 CORE BORINGS IN ROCK (1992) 4

22.5.3.1 Equipment
Drilling into bedrock shall be done with a double-tube, swivel-type core barrel equipped with a diamond, shot or other
approved bit which will obtain a core, not less than 2-1/8 inches in diameter, from the rock penetrated. The drilling rig shall be
capable of applying a constant hydraulic pressure on the bit during drilling.
22.5.3.2 Starting Core Bit
Before starting the core bit in the hole, a chopping bit shall be used to break up and remove all disintegrated rock, and the
casing shall be seated firmly on hard rock, by driving and washing out.
22.5.3.3 Procedure
The core bit shall be in the hole and drilled to a depth of 5 feet. It shall then be withdrawn, the core removed, labeled as
specified in Article 22.7.2, and stored. After the core is removed, the core bit shall be replaced in the hole and another 5 feet of
©
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

depth drilled, the core bit withdrawn and the core removed as noted above. Drilling shall continue in this manner until the
required depth has been reached. If the core bit becomes blocked, it shall immediately be withdrawn and cleaned before
advancing further. Core borings in rock shall conform to current ASTM D2113 requirements.
SECTION 22.6 DETERMINATION OF GROUNDWATER LEVEL (1992)
a. The elevation of the groundwater at each boring location shall be accurately determined at a time when the
groundwater table has stabilized.
b. When the hole is in a material that caves when the casing is withdrawn, a 1 inch diameter perforated plastic tubing shall
be inserted in the casing before it is withdrawn. If long-term observations of the groundwater are desired, a short casing
shall be installed and sealed to prevent inflow of surface water. The casing shall be threaded and capped at the upper
end. The elevation of the groundwater can then be read in the plastic tube after the casing is withdrawn. If the boring is
located where the groundwater level may be influenced by a tidal body of water, a record of the exact stage and
direction of the tide at the time of taking the elevation of the groundwater shall also be made.
SECTION 22.7 SAMPLING
22.7.1 DRY SAMPLES (1992)
22.7.1.1 Split-Barrel Sampling of Soil
a. Scope. This procedure covers the method for recovering disturbed samples with a split-barrel sampler and to obtain a
record of the resistance of the soil to the penetration of the sampler. Split-barrel sampling borings shall conform to
current ASTM D1586 requirements.
b. Procedure. The casing shall be driven to the sampling elevation and the hole cleaned out by augering, washing or other
methods insuring that the material to be sampled is not disturbed by the clean-out operation. Sampling shall either be
continuous or at 5 feet intervals of depth and at all changes in strata. The split-barrel sampler shall be slowly lowered to
the bottom of the hole, then driven into the soil a distance of 18 inches by a series of blows from a 140 lb hammer
falling freely for a drop of 30 inches. The number of blows required to produce each 6 inches of penetration shall be
recorded. Where the bottom of the boring is below the water table at the time of sampling, the water level in the hole
should be at or above the groundwater level. The number of blows for the last 12 inches is termed the Standard
Penetration Blow Count or N-Value. If blow counts for the last 6 inches are abnormally high, indicating a different
layer, blow counts for the first 12 inches shall be used. If it is not possible to obtain 1 foot of penetration, the fraction of
a foot penetrated and the corresponding number of blows shall be reported.
c. In cohesionless, or nearly cohesionless, soils located below the water table, a core catcher attached to the lower end of
the sampler or a scraper bucket or other similar devices shall be used in order to prevent the sample from falling out
before it can be brought to the surface. The soil shall be promptly removed from the sampler and immediately placed in
airtight suitable containers of sufficient size to hold a section of the sample intact. The containers shall be marked to
indicate the job designation, boring number, sample number and elevation or depth at which the soil was taken. The
samples obtained by this methodology are disturbed samples. Strength or compressibility testing results should be
viewed with caution.
22.7.1.2 Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soil
a. Scope. This procedure covers the method of obtaining relatively undisturbed samples of suitable size of cohesive soils
for laboratory testing. The minimum size sample shall not be less than 3 inches outside diameter. Piston-type samples
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shall be used if satisfactory samples cannot be obtained with the thin-walled tube samplers. Thin-walled tube samplers
shall conform to the current ASTM D1587 requirements.
b. Procedure. The casing shall be driven to the sampling elevation and the hole cleaned out by augering, washing, or
other methods insuring that the material to be sampled is not disturbed by the clean-out operations. With the sampling
tube resting on the bottom of the hole and the water level in the hole approximately at groundwater elevation, the tube
shall be pushed into the soil with a continuous and rapid motion without impact or twisting by means of a hydraulic
jack, for a distance about 6 inches less than the length of the tube. The sample shall then be rotated to shear the end of
the sample and the sample tube slowly raised to the surface. Disturbed material at each end of the tube shall be
completely removed. To insure laboratory test results that are representative of the in-situ conditions, it is necessary for
the samples to be transported and delivered to the laboratory in an undisturbed condition and without loss of moisture.
A recommended procedure is to fill the space in the tube with a minimum of 1 inch of micro-crystalline paraffin wax,
cap and tape the ends and seal them with wax. If the samples are to be tested in the field, they can be carefully extruded
from the tubes and tested. Each sample shall be labeled with the job designation, boring number, sampler number,
elevation or depth at which the sample was taken and the orientation of the sample. Thin-walled tube sampling borings
shall conform to current ASTM D1587 requirements. (Shelby Tube.)
22.7.2 ROCK CORES (1992)
The rock cores shall be placed in wooden boxes in the order in which they were taken. These boxes shall be about 5 feet long,
containing only one layer, capable of holding approximately 25 feet of core, and substantially made of 1/2 inch lumber. Each
row of cores shall be separated from the adjacent row by a 1/4 inch wood strip. Cores from each run shall be separated from
those of the next run by a wooden block nailed into place. If cores from more than one boring are placed in the same box, two
wooden blocks shall be nailed between cores from adjacent borings. On each of these two blocks, the boring number referring 1
to the adjacent core shall be marked. On the lid and ends of each box shall be clearly marked the job designation, boring
number, core runs, and the elevation or depth for each run.
SECTION 22.8 RECORDS 3
22.8.1 SCOPE (1992)

Full and complete records of all pertinent data shall be kept. All items listed in Article 22.8.2, Article 22.8.3 and Article 22.8.4
shall be included.
4
22.8.2 GENERAL (1992)
The following information shall be recorded:
a. Name of railroad, site and weather conditions.
b. Location and identifying number of test boring and reference to permanent survey data.
c. Date and time of start and completion of boring.
d. Name of contractor, names and titles of all boring crew members, inspectors, and engineer.
e. Ground surface elevation at each boring and datum used, preferably United States Geodetic Survey datum.
f. Elevation of groundwater or surface of waterway and time of observation.
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

22.8.3 BORINGS – DRY SAMPLE (1992)

a. Diameter and description of casing (when used).
b. Weight and drop of hammer and number of blows used to drive the casing for each successive foot of elevation.
c. Depths at which major changes in the character of the soil take place.
d. Method and total force used to push sampler into soil.
e. If sampler is driven, height and weight of drop hammer used to drive sampler and number of blows required to drive it
each 6 inches for each sample.
f. Elevation of bottom of sampler at the start of taking each sample.
g. Elevation to which sampler was forced into the soil.
h. The length of the sample obtained.
i. The stratum represented by the sample.
j. Detailed description of the soil in each major stratum, to include:
• Kind: top soil, fill, clay, sand, gravel, etc.
• Color: Light, dark blue, red, etc.
• Moisture: Dry, moist, wet, very wet, etc.
• Consistency: Loose, soft, compact, stiff, etc.
22.8.4 CORE BORINGS (1992)
a. Elevation of bottom of casing when seated according to Article 22.5.3.2.
b. Type of core drill, including size of core.
c. Length of core recovered for each 5 feet length drilled, with resulting percentage of recovery, and Rock Quality
Designation.
d. Elevation of each change in type of rock.
e. Elevation of bottom of core hole.
f. The rock shall be described in accordance with the following classifications.
• Type: Shale, slate, limestone, sandstone, granite, etc.
• Condition: Broken, fissured, laminated, solid, etc.
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• Hardness: Soft, medium hard, very hard, etc.
g. Rate at which each 5 feet section was cored in minutes per foot.
SECTION 22.9 INSPECTION (1992)
No drilling shall be done except in the presence of the Engineer or his representative (inspector). No more than two drilling
crews working in the same vicinity at the same time shall be covered by one inspector. The Engineer or inspector shall identify
bench marks for the determination of the required elevations, check the log of the boring to determine that the information
designated in Section 22.8, Records is being obtained, and to establish its accuracy and see that all soil samples and cores are
properly boxed and stored in a suitable place or shipped to its designated destination.
SECTION 22.10 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATIONS (1992)
Two geophysical methods, seismic and electrical resistivity, have proven useful as rapid means of obtaining subsurface
information and as economical supplements to borings in exploratory programs. These methodologies supply information for
bedrock profiling, for locating firmer material underlying softer material and for yielding a general definition of subsurface
conditions including the depth to groundwater. However, there are numerous limitations to the information obtained. All 1
geophysical information should be used in conjunction with borings.
SECTION 22.11 IN-SITU TESTING OF SOIL (1992)

3
a. Techniques for the measurement of soil properties by in-situ tests have developed rapidly during the decade of 1980-
1990. Some of the advantages are:
(1) Provides an almost continuous soil record with depth.
(2) Ability to determine the properties of sands and offshore deposits which are difficult to sample undisturbed for
laboratory testing. 4
(3) Capacity of evaluating the properties of a much larger volume of soil and provides a cost effective technique
because of large collection of data in a short time which is processed automatically. Some of the common methods
are vane shear, sounding, dutch cone, and self-boring pressure meter test (SBPMT). Based on the nature and
complexity of the project, the project schedule and funding availability, the geotechnical engineer shall make the
judgement for use of the in-situ testing.
b. To determine values for shear use current ASTM D2573 requirements. (Field Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soils.)
©
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 22.12 BACKFILLING BORE HOLES (1992)
Open bore holes, as well as open exploratory excavations, can be a safety hazard and shall be backfilled when they are no
longer required. Backfilling with available local soil tamped in place will be adequate unless local or state regulations require
backfilling with grout or other means. In certain cases to prevent movement of water from one stratum to another and to
prevent piping of material through the bore hole or contamination of groundwater, the use of grout is appropriate.
SECTION 22.13 CLEANING SITE (1992)
After completion of the work, the casing shall be withdrawn, all equipment removed and the site restored to its original
condition as directed by the Engineer.
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8
Part 23
Pier Protection Systems at Spans
Over Navigable Streams
— 2010 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
23.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-2 1

23.1.1 Scope (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-2
23.1.2 Purpose (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-2
23.1.3 Terms (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-2
23.2 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-3

23.2.1 Vessel (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-3
23.2.2 Waterway (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-3 3
23.2.3 Types of Construction (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-3
23.2.4 Permits (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-4
23.3 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-4

23.3.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-4
23.3.2 Design Loads (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-5
23.3.3 Suggested Design Procedure (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-6
23.3.4 Types of Protection (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-8
23.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-20

23.4.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-20
23.4.2 Materials (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-21
23.4.3 Handling and Storage of Materials (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-23
23.4.4 Framing of Timber (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-23
23.4.5 Fabrication of Structural Steel (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-23
23.4.6 Pile Driving (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-24
Commentary (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-24

LIST OF FIGURES
8-23-1 Energy Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-7

8-23-2 Pier Protection - Sheet Pile Dolphin - Deep Water, Poor River Bottom (For General Information Only). . 8-23-9
8-23-3 Pier Protection - Treated Timber Pile Dolphin (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-11
8-23-4 Pier Protection - Hydraulic Type Hydrocushion Dolphin (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-12
8-23-5 Pier Protection - Floating Sheer Boom (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-13
8-23-6 Pier Protection - Fender System Integral with Pier (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-14
8-23-7 Pier Protection - Independent Fender System (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-15
8-23-8 Pier and Swing Span Protection - Pivot Pier (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-16
8-23-9 Pier Protection (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-17
8-23-10 Pier Protection - Modular Fender Systems (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-18
8-23-11 Rock Blanket Pier Protection (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-20
23.1.1 SCOPE (2010)
These recommendations cover the design, construction, and maintenance of protective systems for railway bridge piers located
in or adjacent to channels of navigable waterways. The details included in these recommendations may also be applied for the
protection of railway bridge abutments. For inspection of protective systems, see Article 21.3.2.
23.1.2 PURPOSE (2001)
The purpose of the protective systems is to prevent or minimize damage to supporting piers of railway bridges caused by
accidental collision from floating debris and vessels. Such protection should be designed to eliminate or reduce the impact
energy transmitted to the pier from the debris or vessel, either by redirection of the force, or by absorption or dissipation of the
energy to nondestructive levels.
23.1.3 TERMS (2001)
Following is a list of terms associated with this Part. These terms are defined in the Glossary at the end of this Chapter.
Dolphin
Fender
Sheer Boom
Wales
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Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams
SECTION 23.2 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
23.2.1 VESSEL (2010)
The size and type of vessel to be chosen as a basis for design of the pier protection should reflect the maximum vessel tonnage,
type of cargo and velocity to be reasonably expected for the specific facility involved.
23.2.2 WATERWAY (2001)
a. Consideration should be given to the exposure of the structure in the waterway, including the alignment and width of
the channel, skew of pier, visibility for approaching vessels, as well as effect of wind, ice, current, or tide in the
vicinity.
b. The use of increased bridge span length to reduce the chance of ship collision, by constructing piers in shallow water or
on land away from the waterway, may reduce or eliminate pier protection.
c. Depth of water, fluctuation of water level, and scour potential may dictate the type of protection to be chosen. If the
depth is so great, or the character of the waterway bottom does not lend itself to proper anchorage and support for an
independent protective system, it may be necessary to design a suspended or floating protective system.
23.2.3 TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION (2001)
a. The type of construction to be chosen for the protective system should be based on the physical site conditions and the 1
amount of energy to be absorbed or deflected, as well as the size and ability of the pier itself to absorb or resist the
impact.
b. Some of the more common types of construction are as follows.
23.2.3.1 Integral
3
Where the pier is considered to be stable enough to absorb the impact of floating vessels, it may be necessary to attach
cushioning devices to the surfaces of the pier in the areas of expected impact to reduce localized damage to concrete surfaces
and exposure of reinforcing steel, or damage to masonry and its jointing. Such cushioning may include strips of material
attached to the face of the pier, such as solid or preformed rubber, timber, pneumatic, hydraulic or hydrocushion strips.
23.2.3.2 Dolphins
4
Where depth of water and other conditions are suitable, the driving of pile clusters may be considered. Such clusters have the
piles lashed together with cable to promote integral action. The clusters should be flexible to be effective in absorbing impact
through deflection.
Cellular dolphins may be filled with concrete, loose material or material suitable for grouting. Cells filled with uncemented
materials may lose fill material in the event of rupture due to collision.
23.2.3.3 Floating Sheer Booms
Where the depth of water or other conditions precludes the consideration of dolphins or integral pier protection, floating sheer
booms may be used. These are suitably shaped and positioned to protect the pier and are anchored to allow deflection and
absorption of energy. Anchorage systems should allow for fluctuations in water level due to stream flow or tidal action.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

23.2.3.4 Hydraulic Devices
Suspended cylinders engaging a mass of water to absorb or deflect the impact energy may be used under certain conditions of
water depth or intensity of impact. Such cylinders may be suspended from independent caissons, booms projecting from the
pier, or other supports. Such devices are customarily most effective in locations subject to little fluctuations of water levels.
23.2.3.5 Fenders
Construction of fender systems, using piling with horizontal wales, is a common means of protection where water depth is not
excessive and severe impacts are not anticipated.
23.2.3.6 Other Types
Various other types of protective systems, such as earthen and riprap islands around piers, have been successfully used and
may be considered by the designer.
23.2.4 PERMITS (2001)
Proposed protective systems must receive approval of the appropriate regulating agencies prior to installation. Advance
coordination with these agencies to determine waterway clearance, lighting and any other special requirements, is
recommended.
SECTION 23.3 DESIGN1
23.3.1 GENERAL (2010)
a. Criteria for the design of protective systems cannot be specified to be applicable to all situations. Investigation of local
conditions is required in each case, the results of which may then be used to apply engineering judgment to arrive at a
reasonable solution.
b. In any type of pier protection system, general details should be designed to provide the following:
(1) Adequate mass and resilience so that the railroad facility will not be vulnerable to damage from reasonably
expected collision of marine traffic.
(2) A smooth transition past the pier with particular attention to protrusions and details that could cause damage to a
vessel.
(3) Ease of replacement of damaged parts.
(4) Elimination of sparking upon vessel impact.
(5) Accessibility for inspection.
c. The effects of scour for the protective system and the adjacent structure being protected should be considered.
1
See Commentary (2010).
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Design loads to be used shall be determined for each individual structure, based on factors unique to the location. Information
may be available from ship owners and operators, port facility authorities, industry representatives, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Federal Highway Administration, and the U.S. Coast Guard.
a. General factors to be considered in determining the desired degree of pier protection include, but are not limited to, the
following:
(1) Piers at the edge of a channel having a wide horizontal clearance may require only minimum protection.
(2) The type of construction of the pier should be considered.
(a) A massive pier may be capable of resisting most reasonably expected loads so that the additional resistance
offered by a protective system may not be warranted.
(b) A pier incapable of resisting reasonably expected loads should be provided with greater protection than a
massive pier might require.
(3) Piers may be especially vulnerable because of difficulty of navigation caused by high stream velocity or tidal flow,
wind velocity, waterway traffic, poor visibility, limited horizontal clearances, channel curvature, proximity of
other obstacles, or other similar factors.
(4) Foundation conditions will have a bearing on the resistance capability of the pier and on the practicality of 1
providing the desired degree of protection.
(5) The history of collisions with existing bridges or other obstacles in the vicinity should be considered.
b. To estimate the actual collision forces which could be encountered, and their effects, the following items should be
known:
(1) Maximum sizes and types of vessels. 3

(2) Impact velocity of vessels.
(3) Crushing resistance of hulls.
(4) Stream velocities.

4
(5) High and low water elevations.
(6) Impact angle.
(7) Wind velocities.
(8) Velocity and mass of floating ice.
c. The kinetic energy in the moving vessel may be determined as follows:
KE = MV2/2
where:
KE = Kinetic energy
M = Total mass of the vessel
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

V = Velocity of the vessel relative to the pier
d. Energy may be dissipated according to the following (see Figure 8-23-1):
E=F×d
where:
E = Energy dissipated
F = Average force applied to the moving vessel
d = Distance vessel moves (in the direction of F) during the time F is applied
The distance (d) is measured after initial contact and is composed of deflection of the protective system, crushing of the
system and vessel, or a combination thereof. System flexibility determines, to a large extent, the relative amounts of
deflection and crushing, and is more fully discussed in the appended commentary.
e. The effects of stream flow forces, wind forces and ice forces, where applicable, and the probability of collision should
be taken into consideration in the design of pier protection systems.
23.3.3 SUGGESTED DESIGN PROCEDURE (2010)
As a practical matter, pier protection will not always be adequate to completely dissipate the kinetic energy of a vessel at high
speed. However, in many cases, the protection will deflect a vessel, reducing damage that may otherwise occur. The outline
presented here provides an approach to the problem of evaluating the effect on the kinetic energy of a vessel when a collision
occurs:
a. Compute the kinetic energy (KE) based on the mass and impact velocity of the vessel.
b. Assume trial configuration of the pier protective device and estimate resistance force (F) of the pier protection for the
following:
(1) Assuming allowable stresses equivalent to 1.5 times basic allowable unit stress of the material.
(2) Assuming ultimate strength of materials.
c. Equate kinetic energy (KE) with energy dissipated (E):
MV2/2 = F × d
solve for d to determine total movement required to dissipate energy (see Commentary (2010)).
d. The above outline provides a basis for evaluating the amount of energy that can be dissipated by the pier protection and
the total resistance capability.
e. Vertical movement of the vessel can be considered in the dissipation of energy.
© 2013,

Figure 8-23-1. Energy Dissipation
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

23.3.4 TYPES OF PROTECTION (2010)
The various types of pier protection systems shown in this section are for general information only. For the most part, they
have been taken from protection systems currently in use on both highway and railway bridges in the United States. Member
sizes, numbers of units, types of material, and details of construction are those used for specific installations and cannot be
considered standards since the design of pier protection systems depends on many parameters that may vary markedly from
one installation to another. Each pier protection system must be chosen and designed to fulfill the unique requirements at the
given location.
The following types of protection are commonly used; however, other types may be considered.
23.3.4.1 Sheet Pile Cell Dolphins (Figure 8-23-2)
a. Sheet pile cells preferably should be of circular configuration. A typical cell includes interlocking steel sheet piles
filled with concrete or grouted material. If loose fill materials are used, a concrete or grouted liner and a reinforced
concrete top should be considered. The concrete top should be adequately anchored to the sheet piles. Desirable
qualities of fill material include free draining characteristics, high unit weight, shear strength, and high coefficient of
friction.
b. The designer should make an evaluation of the cell stability and resistance to overturning and sliding. Factors to be
considered include characteristics of the underlying soil or rock and the cell fill material, interaction of the cell fill
material with the cell walls, and friction of the sheet piles embedded in the underlying soil.
c. Additional resistance against overturning may be provided by driving and attaching additional piles around the
perimeter of the cell. Increased penetration into the underlying soil may be obtained in this manner, in lieu of extension
of all sheet piles.
d. The possibility of scour occurring near a dolphin or at the pier due to the dolphin, should be investigated and protection
should be provided, if required.
23.3.4.2 Pile Cluster Dolphins (Figure 8-23-3)
Pile cluster type dolphins should be composed of groups of battered and/or vertical piles which are held together at the top.
The designer should evaluate the resistance to lateral forces, considering the effects of any battered piles, and the interaction of
the piles and the surrounding soils.
23.3.4.3 Gravity Pendulum Dolphin (Hydrocushion Type) (Figure 8-23-4)
a. Typically, a heavy cylindrical mass of steel or concrete is suspended from a cantilevered supporting structure, which
may be a part of the pier, or may be an independent support. Energy is dissipated by movement of the pendulum when
a force is applied by a striking vessel.
b. The designer should evaluate the energy dissipated by the pendulum, taking the following items into account.
(1) Movement of the pendulum. When the pendulum is suspended in water, the effective mass includes an amount of
water which moves along with the pendulum; in the case of a ring, (as shown in Figure 8-23-4) the volume of
water enclosed by the ring is part of the total mass to be moved.
x
(2) The resisting horizontal force component = W r ⎛ ------------⎞
⎝ L – y⎠
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where:
Wr = Weight of the ring

x = The horizontal displacement of the ring
L = Length of hanger to the ring
y = The amount the ring is lifted
23.3.4.4 Floating Sheer Booms (Figure 8-23-5)
a. The configuration of a sheer boom will depend upon the requirements of a particular location.
b. The designer should evaluate the capability of the device to dissipate energy, recognizing the following:
(1) The mass to be considered as part of the moving element includes a volume of water which will be forced to move
with the boom.
(2) Deflection movements of supporting elements will account for some energy loss.
(3) Frictional resistance is provided by the water adjacent to the moving elements.
23.3.4.5 Fenders (Figure 8-23-6, Figure 8-23-7, Figure 8-23-8, Figure 8-23-9, and Figure 8-23-10)
a. Pier fenders are intended to provide protection to the pier in the event of contact by a vessel. Fenders are usually 1
positioned with the anticipated direction of impact from a vessel at a relatively small angle with respect to the fender
line. A fender may be supported by the pier it is intended to protect, or it may be independently supported.
b. Independently supported fender systems typically consist of vertical and/or battered piles with horizontal members
connecting the piles so the fender system acts as a unit. The horizontal members may be used as rubbing strips or
separate rubbing strips may be attached to these members.
3
c. Pier-supported fenders vary in type from simple rubbing strips attached directly to the pier face to more elaborate
installations which provide for some energy dissipation by the fender when struck by a vessel.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-23-2. Pier Protection - Sheet Pile Dolphin - Deep Water, Poor River Bottom (For General
Information Only)
© 2013,

11 WRAPS OF CABLE COMFORMING TO

ARTICLE 23.4.2.10. EACH TURN SHOULD
BE STAPLED TO EACH PERIMETER PILE
Figure 8-23-3. Pier Protection - Treated Timber Pile Dolphin (For General Information Only)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-23-4. Pier Protection - Hydraulic Type Hydrocushion Dolphin (For General Information Only)
© 2013,

Figure 8-23-5. Pier Protection - Floating Sheer Boom (For General Information Only)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-23-6. Pier Protection - Fender System Integral with Pier (For General Information Only)
© 2013,

Figure 8-23-7. Pier Protection - Independent Fender System (For General Information Only)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

UP STREAM END
Figure 8-23-8. Pier and Swing Span Protection - Pivot Pier (For General Information Only)
DOWN STREAM END
Figure 8-23-9. Pier Protection (For General Information Only)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-23-10. Pier Protection - Modular Fender Systems (For General Information Only)
d. The designer should consider the following items pertaining to fenders:
(1) Fenders should preferably be detailed so that a maximum number of piles, or other supporting elements, will
participate in resisting applied loads.
(2) Fenders should have a somewhat flexible arrangement to provide for deflection of the fender and for energy
dissipation.
(3) The effects of battered piles and pile-soil interaction should be considered when evaluating the capability of the
fender to resist lateral forces.
(4) Consideration should be given to providing a weak point in the design, thus causing the unit to fail in a pre-
planned manner when struck by a force in excess of the capacity. Details can then be arranged to facilitate the
replacement of damaged elements.
23.3.4.6 Riprap Used as Pier Protection
a. Riprap may be mounted around a pier to prevent a vessel from making contact.
b. The designer should consider the following items pertaining to the use of riprap around piers:
(1) The depth of water and resulting amount of fill required.
(2) The effect on waterway opening required for navigation and hydraulics.
1
(3) The riprap should be designed to adequately dissipate the kinetic energy of the vessel prior to making contact with
the pier.
(4) Environmental and permitting concerns.
(5) Overburden on the pier foundation. 3

c. The use of protective islands may be considered for pier protection for major bridges.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-23-11. Rock Blanket Pier Protection (For General Information Only)
23.4.1 GENERAL (2010)
a. Construction permits from all federal, state and local regulatory bodies should be obtained prior to beginning
construction.
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b. All construction should be performed in accordance with all applicable laws and regulations including navigational
clearances, maintenance of marine traffic, environmental considerations, navigation lighting and temporary warning
signs and devices.
c. All temporary construction facilities should be approved by the Engineer and the concerned regulatory bodies.
Temporary construction should be removed upon completion of the work and the construction site returned to a
condition acceptable to the regulatory bodies and the Engineer.
d. Excavated material and debris of demolition and of construction should be disposed of in accordance with all
applicable laws and regulations.
e. Construction inspection safeguards should be provided to ensure that pier protection structures are constructed in the
correct location with respect to the navigation channel. Underwater inspection services should be provided if necessary
to determine conditions relevant to the construction. As-built plans should be furnished to the Engineer upon
completion of the work.
23.4.2 MATERIALS (2010)
23.4.2.1 Timber1
a. All new timber should meet the requirements of the current standard Methods for Establishing Structural Grades and
Related Allowable Properties for Visually Graded Lumber, ASTM Designation D245. Timber should be Dense
Structural 65 or Long-Leaf Structural 65, southern yellow pine, conforming to the Grading Rules of the Southern Pine
Inspection Bureau; or No. 1 Douglas Fir conforming to the Standard Grading Rules for West Coast Lumber; or other 1
species conforming to the flexural strength specified for Southern Pine and Douglas Fir, other requirements being
comparable.
b. Timber for joists, planks, beams, wales and walkways should be square edge and shall be grade marked.
c. The preservative treatment should be in accordance with AREMA Chapter 30, Ties, Section 3.6, Wood Preserving and
Section 3.7, Specifications for Treatment, and applicable environmental regulations. Alternative preservative treatment 3
is subject to approval of the Engineer.
d. Timber should be treated with a fire retardant, if appropriate.
23.4.2.2 Concrete
a. Workmanship, materials and proportioning for concrete members used in pier protection structures should be in 4
accordance with requirements for Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
b. The design of concrete members used in pier protection structures should be in accordance with the requirements for
Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
c. The minimum cover on reinforcing steel in concrete faces subject to impact should be 3 inches (75 mm).
23.4.2.3 Structural Steel
Structural steel shapes and plates should conform to the Standard Specification for Structural Steel, ASTM A36, or ASTM
A709, with a minimum of 0.2% copper. Other steels may be used having greater strength and enhanced corrosion resistance as
required by the design of the pier protection work. The recommended minimum thickness of all metal components to be used
is 3/8 inch (10 mm).
1
See See Commentary (2010).
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

23.4.2.4 Composites and Other Materials
Other materials that can be used for fender wales and other pier protection components include: composite plastic, low-
friction rubber, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and ultra high molecular weight polymers (UHMV). These materials come
in various sections and lengths.
23.4.2.5 Timber Piles
a. Timber piles should be First Class piles in accordance with AREMA Chapter 7, Timber Structures, Part 1, Material
Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and
Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood and Part 3, Rating Existing Wood Bridges and
Trestles, and should conform to ASTM D25.
b. Preservative treatment is required and should conform to AREMA Chapter 30, Ties, Section 3.6, Wood Preserving and
Section 3.7, Specifications for Treatment and be in accordance with applicable environmental regulations.
23.4.2.6 Steel Piles
a. W and H steel shapes should have minimum flange and web thicknesses of 3/8 inch (10 mm) and as appropriate
should, conform to ASTM A36, A572, or A709, with a minimum 0.2% copper; or should conform to ASTM A588.
b. Steel pipe piles should have a minimum wall thickness of 3/8 inch (10 mm) and shall conform to ASTM A252, Grade
2, with minimum 0.2% copper. A weathering steel equivalent may also be considered.
c. Steel sheet piles should have a minimum thickness of 3/8 inch (10 mm) and shall conform to ASTM A328, with
minimum 0.2% copper, or shall conform to ASTM A690. The designer should specify the minimum strength required
in the interlock joint.
23.4.2.7 Composite Plastic Piles
Composite plastic piles suitable for cluster dolphins and fenders are available in uniform diameters from 10 to 16 inches (250
to 400 mm) and of virtually any length that can be handled. The proprietary material is recycled plastic with either steel or
fiberglass reinforcing strands. The material is high energy absorptive, low friction, ultraviolet light resistant, impervious to
marine borers and can be cut and drilled with common construction tools. These pilings are generally used as a direct
substitution (one-for-one) for timber piling.
23.4.2.8 Hardware
Bolts, nuts, washers, spikes, lag bolts, staples, cable clamps and similar hardware items should be galvanized steel or stainless
steel. In lieu of using galvanized or stainless steel hardware, other means of corrosion protection should be provided.
a. Galvanized standard carbon steel fasteners should conform to the standard Specification for Carbon Steel Externally
and Internally Threaded Standard Fasteners, ASTM A307; or to the Standard Specification for High Strength Bolts for
Structural Steel Joints, Including Suitable Nuts and Plain Hardened Washers, ASTM A325, Type I. Galvanizing should
be in accordance with the requirements of ASTM A153, Class C. If galvanizing is not required, fasteners should
conform to the Standard Specifications for High Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints, Including Suitable Nuts and
Plain Hardened Washers, ASTM A325, Type 3.
b. Stainless steel hardware should be manufactured from material conforming to the Standard Specifications for Stainless
and Heat-Resisting Steel Bars and Shapes, ASTM A276, Type 304 or 316. Type 316 should be used in a salt water
atmosphere and treated with a positive corrosion resistant material.
© 2013,

23.4.2.9 Wrapping for Dolphins
Cable for wrapping dolphins should be galvanized 6 × 7 steel rope; or galvanized 7 × 7 mild plow steel rope. Where enhanced
corrosion resistance is required, 7 × 19 stainless steel wire rope should be used. The designer should evaluate the cost,
expected life, usage, susceptibility to damage and other pertinent factors when choosing the dolphin wrapping cable. All wire
ropes should have steel wire cores.
23.4.2.10 Corrosion Protection
Consideration should be given to protecting submerged steel surfaces cathodically and exposed surfaces by means of suitable
paint systems or by galvanizing.
23.4.3 HANDLING AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS (2010)
a. All timber, lumber, timber piles and associated hardware should be handled and stored in accordance with Chapter 7,
Timber Structures, Part 4, Construction and Maintenance of Timber Structures, Section 4.4, Workmanship for
Construction of Pile and Framed Trestles and Part 1, Material Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood
Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted
Wood, Section 1.5, Specifications for Timber Piles.
b. Concrete materials such as cement, aggregates and steel reinforcement, should be stored in accordance with Part 1,
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.8, Storage of Materials.
c. Handling and storage of steel items should be in accordance with Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Part 4, Erection, 1
Section 4.8, Handling and Storing Materials.
d. Miscellaneous parts and materials should be handled in a manner as to prevent loss and damage, and should be stored
on blocking or on platforms above the ground. Weather and fire protection should be provided as necessary.
23.4.4 FRAMING OF TIMBER (2010)

3
a. Timber should be cut and framed in accordance with Chapter 7, Timber Structures, Part 4, Construction and
Maintenance of Timber Structures.
b. Bolt heads and washers on the navigation side should either be recessed below the rubbing surface of the fender or be
of the dome-head type flush with the rubbing surface.
4
23.4.5 FABRICATION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL (2001)
Fabrication of structural steel should be in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 15, Steel Structures, except as noted
herein:
a. Substitution of stronger, but less energy absorbing members will not be permitted.
b. Substitution of higher grade, but less ductile steel will not be permitted.
c. Shop assembly will not be required.
d. Field welding will not be permitted, unless specifically authorized by the Engineer. All field connections should be
held to a minimum and should be made by means of bolts with appropriate washers and nuts.
e. Washers should be placed under both the heads and nuts of all bolts (except dome-head bolts) bearing on timber.
Suitable lock nuts should be provided where fastenings may tend to loosen.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

23.4.6 PILE DRIVING (2001)
Pile driving should be performed in accordance with Part 4, Pile Foundations, Section 4.5, Installation of Piles or Chapter 7,
Timber Structures, Part 3, Rating Existing Wood Bridges and Trestles.
23.4.6.1 Pile Driving Records
An accurate record should be kept of all piles driven, on the form prescribed by the Engineer. The log should show date, type
of pile driven, pile number, location, type of hammer used, water depth and elevation, pile depth into soil, and ultimate driving
resistance. The form should be signed by the person recording the information, including their job title. The record should be
made a permanent part of the job statistics.
COMMENTARY (2010)
C - 23.3.2 DESIGN LOADS (2010)
C - ENERGY DISSIPATION
a. A moving vessel has a certain amount of kinetic energy, which is dependent upon the mass of the vessel and its
velocity. To redirect or stop a vessel in protecting the pier, a portion or all of its kinetic energy must be absorbed or
dissipated. This energy is dissipated by applying a force to the vessel over a given distance. For the fender to function
properly, this distance must be less than the distance from initial contact until the vessel would strike the pier. For large
vessels, traveling at fair speeds, in deep water, the amount of kinetic energy provided is large and the resistance of the
fender is relatively small and it is very difficult to design a fender that will completely protect a pier for such a collision
if the vessel is headed directly at the pier.
b. The energy in any contact with the fender is dissipated by deflection of the fender itself, by lifting a portion of the
fender, by lifting the vessel out of the water, by crushing of the fender, by crushing of the bow of the vessel, by
displacement of the water adjacent to the vessel, by displacement of the ground or river bottom, etc.
c. Several general facts should be considered and are noted briefly:
(1) It should be recognized that the total resisting force is not developed immediately upon impact, but requires some
movement until it develops.
(2) If the crushing force of the vessel is greater than the ultimate resisting force of the fender, then dissipation of the
kinetic energy occurs. Initially, the impact creates a force between the vessel and the fender, which causes the
vessel to decelerate and the fender to accelerate (F = mass × acceleration). At some point, the fender and the vessel
reach the same velocity and move along together, being slowed by the resisting forces of the fender and/or the soil
being acted upon. This will continue until either the vessel stops, the fender breaks or some combination of the
two.
(3) If the crushing force of the vessel is less than the total ultimate resisting force of the fender, then the velocity of the
fender will increase from zero to a maximum and decrease to zero again without a common velocity being
achieved. When the fender stops, the vessel continues to decelerate, acted upon by the crushing force.
C - FENDER FLEXIBILITY (2001)
a. An ideal pier fender would be constructed so that the fender itself absorbs all of the energy of the moving vessel in
stopping the vessel before it hits the pier and then returns to its normal position without damage to either the fender or
© 2013,

the vessel. Except for relatively small vessels and low speeds, design of such a fender is impractical due to the large
required resisting force and the short distance in which to stop the vessel.
b. A flexible fender, one that acts elastically, will absorb energy with little or no damage to the vessel; however, the
horizontal force that such a fender can resist is usually relatively small and may be insufficient to protect the pier. On
the other hand, a rigid fender is capable of resisting a considerably larger force, although this force may only be applied
over a small deflection before the member breaks, or is damaged locally. In this case, the total amount of energy
absorbed may be far less than is absorbed in a flexible fender, although a considerable amount of energy is absorbed in
breaking of the fender parts. In most cases, some compromise between a truly flexible and a very rigid fender is the
better solution.
c. In fender systems, incorporating steel pipe piles or sheet pile cells, a concrete fill will provide a much more rigid
device than will one filled with sand, stone or riprap. In the latter case, the energy absorbing qualities are improved due
to the rubbing of the fill particles on each other, by friction in the interlocks of the sheet piles and the like. On the other
hand, one must be extremely careful that the pile wall or the sheet pile wall is protected to prevent damage resulting in
the loss of fill, which would materially reduce the effectiveness of the fender and its energy absorbing capability.
d. The type of fender used in any particular application must take into account the size and velocity of the vessel, flow of
the stream, the depth of the water, the founding conditions, the distance between the pier protection and the pier, the
strength of the pier itself and the types of cargo that are normally carried. The designer must normally use his
discretion in selecting a pier protection design that best suits all of the parameters of the individual case considered.
C - 23.4.2 MATERIALS (2010)

1
Timber, except walkway planking and handrails, may be preservative treated with creosote or other appropriate preservative
subject to environmental regulations. Walkway planking and handrails may be treated either with creosote, pentachlorophenol
or other preservative subject to environmental regulations. Pentachlorophenol or other appropriate treatments should be used
if the member is to be painted with exterior paints. Creosoted members will generally not accept exterior paints.
C - SOURCES OF INFORMATION (2001)

3
a. Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges, Volume I: Final Report,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., February, 1991.
b. Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges, NHI Course No. 13060, Publication No. FHWA HI-92-050-July, 1992.
c. Stream velocities for various river stages on most navigable waters can be obtained from the U.S. Corps of Engineers.
Channel locations, navigation maps and scour potential, may be available from the U.S. Corps of Engineers and the
4
U.S. Coast Guard.
d. Information regarding principal sizes, capacities and power of various vessels, as well as the type of cargo is usually
available for navigable waters from the U.S. Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Coast Guard, the American Waterways
Operators, Inc., port authorities, pilot associations and others.
e. Specific site parameters such as riverbed conditions, soil information, local wind and current effects on navigation
usually must be developed by the design engineer, although local pilot associations and and waterway users
associations may be able to help with the latter.
f. References are located at the end of this Chapter. Refer to Reference 16, 19, 28, 48, 75, 77, 79, 81, 83, 84, and 102.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 24
Drilled Shaft Foundations1
— 2010 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
24.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-2

24.1.1 Scope (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-2
24.1.2 Purpose and Necessity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-3
24.1.3 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-3
24.1.4 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-3 1
24.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5

24.2.1 Field Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.2.2 Subsurface Investigation (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5 3

24.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3.2 The Transfer of Load from the Drilled Shaft to the Rock or Soil Bearing Strata (2010) . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3.3 Connection Between Supported Structure and Drilled Shaft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-7
24.3.4 Group Action of Drilled Shafts (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-7
24.4 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8

24.4.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8
24.4.2 Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8
24.4.3 Permanent Steel Casing Material (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.4.4 Temporary Casing Material (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9

24.5.1 Contractor Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5.2 Shaft Excavation (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5.3 Casing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5.4 Bells or Underreams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.5 Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.6 Tolerances (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.7 Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.8 Inspection (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
1

24.5.9 Placing Reinforcing Steel (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10

24.5.10 Placing Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.5.11 Casing Removal (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.5.12 Continuity of Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.5.13 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.6 Testing ............................................................................... 8-24-12

24.6.1 Material Testing (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
24.6.2 Capacity Testing (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
24.6.3 Integrity Testing (2010)1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
C - Commentary (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
LIST OF FIGURES
8-24-1 Drilled Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-4
24.1.1 SCOPE (2010)1
a. This part covers the description and general aspects of design, installation, inspection and testing of drilled shafts, also
frequently referred to as drilled caissons, drilled piers, or bored piles.
b. This part is intended to serve as guidelines in developing specific designs and construction specifications on a project
basis.
c. For the purpose of this part, the minimum diameter of these units shall be 30 inches (760 mm). Drilled shafts with
smaller diameters have been constructed, but are not included in this specification.
d. This part relates primarily to single, vertical drilled shafts.
e. Factors to be used in modifying the capacities of single drilled shafts for determination of the capacity of a group of
drilled shafts which support a common rigid cap are included elsewhere in this part.
f. The use of battered drilled shafts to accommodate lateral loads by the horizontal component of the shaft’s axial
resistance is not recommended and is not addressed by this part. Lateral loads applied to drilled shafts are to be resisted
by the effect of soil/rock interaction between the shaft and ground.
1
See C - Commentary (2010).
© 2013,

Drilled Shaft Foundations
24.1.2 PURPOSE AND NECESSITY
a. Drilled shafts are used to transmit loads through soils of poor bearing capacity into rock or soil formations having
adequate bearing capacity. Generally, single drilled shafts have load capacities much larger than piling due to their
larger size and capability of belling to increase the bearing area without enlarging either the footing or the drilled shaft.
b. The selection of foundation treatment for a given site should be determined by subsurface conditions, and by economic
considerations as there is often a choice of several types of foundations for a structure.
24.1.3 TERMS
Drilled Shaft — A machine and/or hand excavated shaft, concrete filled, with or without steel reinforcing, for the
purpose of transferring structural loads to bearing strata below the structure.
Protective Casing — Protective steel unit, usually cylindrical in shape lowered into the excavation to protect
workmen and inspectors from collapse or cave-in of the side wall.
Bell or Underream — An enlargement at the bottom of the drilled shaft made by hand excavation or mechanical
underreaming with drilling equipment for the purpose of spreading the load over a larger area.
Socket — A shaft of equal or smaller diameter extended into the bearing material.
Toe — Vertical section at bottom of bell.
Permanent Casing — A steel cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from the 1
excavations. It is used as a form to contain concrete placed for the drilled shaft and remains in place.
Temporary Casing — A cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from the excavations. It
may also be used as a form for the shaft concrete, but is withdrawn as the shaft concrete is placed.
24.1.4 DESIGN LOADS

3
a. Loading for drilled shafts shall be the design loads from the supported structure without application of load factors
used for Load Factor design procedure. Design loads shall include the following:
• Primary Forces:
– Dead Load
4
– Live Load
– Centrifugal Force
– Earth Pressure
– Buoyancy
– Negative Soil Friction
• Secondary Forces (Occasional):
– Wind and Other Lateral Forces
– Ice and Stream Flow

– Longitudinal Forces
– Seismic Forces
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-24-1. Drilled Shaft
b. When drilled shaft foundations are designed for both primary and secondary forces, the allowable load on the drilled
shafts may be increased by 25 percent, provided that the size or number of drilled shafts is not less than that required
for primary forces alone. In soils where downward movements of surrounding soil relative to the drilled shaft are
expected to occur, axial loads shall include negative soil friction forces, acting downward on the drilled shaft. Under
special conditions swelling soils can produce upward forces, with fluctuation of the water table, which should also be
considered in design.
© 2013,

24.2.1 FIELD SURVEY
Sufficient information shall be furnished in the form of profile and cross sections to determine general design and structural
requirements. The location of overhead and underground utilities, existing foundations, roads, tracks, or other structures shall
be indicated. Records pertaining to high and low water levels and depth of scour shall be provided for stream crossings.
24.2.2 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION (2010)
a. Foundation material shall be investigated as specified under Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation, in order to
determine soil or rock properties, ground water elevations, and any other pertinent conditions.
b. Where a large portion of the required shaft capacity is to be generated from tip resistance of the shaft or rock socket,
the geotechnical investigation shall be of sufficient scope to permit the determination that the strata in which the tip is
founded is of sufficient depth and strength to carry the loads to which it is subjected.
c. Reference is also made to Article 4.3.1, Part 4, for additional information.
SECTION 24.3 DESIGN

1
24.3.1 GENERAL
The design is divided into three basic parts:
a. The transfer of load from the drilled shaft to the rock and/or soil bearing strata.
3
b. The drilled shaft itself.
c. The connection between the supported structure and the drilled shaft.
24.3.2 THE TRANSFER OF LOAD FROM THE DRILLED SHAFT TO THE ROCK OR SOIL
BEARING STRATA (2010)1 4
24.3.2.1 Drilled shafts transfer load to the bearing strata as follows:
a. An end bearing-type drilled shaft transfers essentially all of its load through weaker soils to a layer of soil or rock with
adequate bearing capacity.
b. A friction-type shaft is one whereby the drilled shaft load is transferred to the surrounding material primarily through
friction between the shaft wall and the adjacent material.
c. A combination end bearing and friction-type drilled shaft is a shaft in which some of the load is transferred into the
stratum by soil friction and the remainder by end bearing.
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

24.3.2.2 Lateral Loads and Moment
When the drilled shaft is subjected to lateral load and moments, as well as axial load, the distribution of soil pressures and the
variation of moments and shear in the shaft must be determined.
24.3.2.3 Belled Shafts
a. Where the bearing strata has insufficient strength to support the load on the base of the shaft, the shaft bottom may be
enlarged by belling or underreaming to reduce the pressure by distributing the load over a greater area. Belled shafts
shall be used only where the soil in which the bell is placed will not collapse due to the underreaming. Bells are
normally unreinforced. The base diameter of the bell shall not exceed three times the shaft diameter and the sides shall
not be less than 60 degrees from the horizontal. The toe height of bottom edge shall not be less than 6 inches (150 mm).
b. The ultimate axial capacity of a drilled shaft (Qult) shall be based on the summation of the ultimate shaft tip capacity
and ultimate side resistance capacity minus the weight of the shaft. The allowable shaft capacity shall be the ultimate
capacity divided by a factor of safety.
c. The ultimate shaft tip capacity (QT) shall be QT = qT · AT, where qT is the ultimate unit soil tip resistance determined
by geotechnical analysis and AT is the area of the shaft tip.
d. The ultimate side resistance (QS) of the shaft in a layer of uniform unit side resistance (qS) shall be equal to the
circumference of the shaft multiplied by the embedment length in a soil layer of uniform unit side resistance (qS)
multiplied by qS. The value(s) of qS shall be determined by geotechnical analysis. Where a shaft passes through
stratified soil having different values of qS for the various soil type layers, the value of QS shall be the shaft
circumference multiplied by the summation of various qS values multiplied by the depth of the respective layer. In
general, the top five feet (1,520 mm) of an embedded shaft and a bottom length equal to the diameter of the shaft tip or
perimeter of the bell shall be considered as noncontributing to the side resistance of the shaft. Where the drilled shaft is
located in scour susceptible areas, the probable depth of scour shall also be deducted when calculating the ultimate
shaft side resistance.
e. Where rock sockets having a diameter equal to or less than the nominal diameter of the shaft are used, the ultimate tip
capacity of the shaft shall be equal to the area of the socket tip multiplied by the uniaxial ultimate unit rock capacity.
The ultimate socket side resistance shall be the product of the socket circumference, socket embedment and ultimate
unit side shear resistance along the socket/rock interface.
f. Unless an analysis is used which accounts for the load/deflection relationship of the various soil or rock strata
encountered, the ultimate capacity of a drilled shaft which utilizes a rock socket shall be based on the sum of the
ultimate tip and side resistance capacities of the rock socket only, neglecting side resistance of the shaft in the soil
overburden.
24.3.2.4 Uplift Capacity
The ultimate uplift capacity of a drilled shaft shall be equal to or less than the weight of the shaft plus 0.7 times the ultimate
side resistance of the shaft. If belled, the uplift capacity of the shaft may be increased by taking into consideration the
reinforcement details of the shaft and bell together with the strength characteristics of the adjacent soil.
24.3.2.5 Factors of Safety
For drilled shafts in soil or socketed in rock, a minimum design factor of safety of 2.5 shall be used against bearing capacity
failure. A factor of safety of 2.5 shall be used when designing for conditions which produce uplift.
© 2013,

24.3.2.6 Shafts Under Water1
a. Wherever practicable, the drilled shaft shall be designed to permit the placing of the concrete in the dry, and for visual
inspection of the hole, the bearing strata, and the rock socket.
b. When it is impractical to dewater the excavation for rock-socketed shafts, the concrete may be placed under water by
means of a tremie or pumped concrete and appropriate allowances made in the concrete mix design. The water level
shall have reached a static condition before concrete placement begins.
c. When concrete cannot be placed in the dry and a thorough visual inspection cannot be made by television or by divers,
the Design Engineer shall reduce the allowable bearing and side resistance stress appropriately.
24.3.2.7 The Drilled Shaft
a. The drilled shaft is generally designed as a short column for axial loads due to the lateral support provided by the
soil/rock. In muck or water, slenderness effects of the column must be taken into consideration.
b. When the drilled shaft is subjected to moment and lateral forces at the connection to the supported structure, the shaft
must be designed for bending and shear in addition to axial force. Moment and shear along the length of the shaft must
be calculated, and adequate reinforcement provided.
c. The shaft shall satisfy the design requirements of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design of this Chapter.
24.3.3 CONNECTION BETWEEN SUPPORTED STRUCTURE AND DRILLED SHAFT 1

The connection between the drilled shaft and the supported structure (parts above the top of shaft) shall be capable of
transferring the design loads, including direct load, shear and moment. This can be accomplished by the following means:
a. When the supported structure at the top of shaft is of concrete, the reinforcing steel cage shall be extended into the cap
so that the load is transferred into the reinforcing steel of the drilled shaft by bond and into the concrete by
compression. 3
b. When the cap section is a steel element, appropriate design shall be developed to transmit all loads, conforming to the
requirements of Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Part 1, Design or Part 3, Fabrication.
24.3.4 GROUP ACTION OF DRILLED SHAFTS (2010)
Evaluation of group shaft capacity assumes the effects of negative soil friction (if any) are negligible.
4
24.3.4.1 Cohesive Soil
a. Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesive soil shall consider the presence and contact of a cap with the ground
surface and the spacing between adjacent shafts.
b. If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, or if the soil at the surface is loose or soft, the individual capacity of
each shaft having a diameter B should be reduced by a reduction factor times QT for an isolated shaft. This factor
equals 0.67 for a center-to-center (CTC) spacing of 3B and 1.0 for a CTC spacing of 6B. For intermediate spacings, the
reduction factor may be determined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may then be computed as the lesser of:
• the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group, and
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

• the capacity of an equivalent pier defined as the perimeter area of the group.
For a shaft group with a cap in firm contact with the ground, Qult may be computed as the lesser of:
• the sum of the individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or
• the capacity of an equivalent pier as described above.
For the equivalent pier, the shear strength of soil shall not be reduced by any factor to determine the QS component of
Qult. The total base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to determine the QT component of Qult and the additional
capacity of the cap shall be ignored.
24.3.4.2 Cohesionless Soil
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts. Regardless of
cap contact with the ground, the individual capacity of each shaft should be reduced by a reduction factor times QT for an
isolated shaft. This factor equals 0.67 or a center-to-center (CTC) spacing of 3B and 1.0 for a CTC spacing of 8B. For
intermediate spacings, the reduction factor may be determined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may be computed as
the lesser of:
a. the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or
b. the capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing the group, including resistance over the entire perimeter and base
areas.
24.3.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Soil
a. If a group of shafts which are embedded in a strong soil deposit overlies a weaker deposit (cohesionless or cohesive
soil), consideration shall be given to the potential for a punching failure of the tip into the weaker soil strata.
b. If the underlying soil unit is a weaker cohesive soil strata, careful consideration shall be given to the potential for large
settlements in the weaker layer.
SECTION 24.4 MATERIAL
24.4.1 CONCRETE
Unless otherwise stipulated in this specification, concrete shall be produced and placed in accordance with Part 1 of this
Chapter. Concrete shall have a minimum compressive strength of 3,000 psi (21 MPa) in 28 days. Approved additives, such as
set retarders, may be used to improve workability. Slump at time of placement shall be not less than 4 inches (100 mm), and
not more than 6 inches (150 mm). If temporary casing is to be used, the slump should be not less than 5 inches (125 mm), and
a set retarder may be necessary.
24.4.2 REINFORCING STEEL
Unless otherwise stipulated in this specification, any required reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of
this Chapter.
© 2013,

24.4.3 PERMANENT STEEL CASING MATERIAL (2010)
If the steel casing is relied upon as a structural element, the steel casing material shall conform to the requirements of ASTM
A252 or ASTM A709, Grade 36.
24.4.4 TEMPORARY CASING MATERIAL (2010)
Casing that is not intended to be a structural element of the shaft or that is to be removed shall be considered temporary casing.
Temporary casing may be metal, fiber or other material that possesses adequate strength for its intended purpose and is not
detrimental to the design function of the shaft.
24.5.1 CONTRACTOR QUALIFICATIONS
Drilled shafts shall be installed by the Owner with experienced personnel, or by a Contractor or Subcontractor who specializes
in such work. Availability of all required special equipment, tools, and experienced personnel are important items to be
considered when determining Owner installation or selecting an installation contractor.
24.5.2 SHAFT EXCAVATION (2010) 1

a. When excavating a drilled shaft, earth walls shall be adequately and securely protected against cave-in, subsidence
and/or displacement of surrounding earth, and for the exclusion of groundwater by means of temporary or permanent
steel casings.
b. Whenever personnel are required to enter the shaft, a protective casing shall be used and there shall be adequate
provisions for fresh air, light and protection from falling objects and toxic gases. 3
c. Rock grapples or special tools for removal of boulders or other obstructions must be readily available for use. Blasting
will be permitted only upon obtaining written approval from the Engineer.
d. Inspection of the shaft base, and any socket, by a qualified inspector is highly recommended and should be omitted
only with the approval of the Engineer.
4
e. No shaft excavation shall be made within 15 feet (4,570 mm) of an uncased shaft filled with concrete that is less than
one day old. The construction procedure used shall be approved by the Engineer before commencing work.
24.5.3 CASING
a. Where called for, permanent steel casing shall be installed to the plan elevation or to the elevation designated by the
Engineer in the field. When the top of the drilled shaft is below the surface of the ground, installation of additional
large diameter casing may be required to extend above the working level to minimize the possibility of foreign
materials or water entering the top of the shaft.
b. Casings shall be of adequate size and thickness to safely retain the adjacent earth materials and water from entering the
shaft excavation, without exceeding allowable steel stresses, distortion, or collapse of the casing.
c. A protective casing is also to be provided, where required, to serve as protection for personnel entering the shaft
excavations not provided with casings as specified above. Casing size and thickness shall meet the requirements stated
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

above. The outside diameter of the protective casing shall be as large as possible, yet small enough to be lowered and
removed without damage to the sides of the shaft.
d. If conditions are such that casing withdrawal will cause dislocation of the reinforcing steel or permit sloughing soils to
enter the shaft, a double casing should be used. By this method, the shaft is drilled oversize and a temporary casing
installed. A light gage permanent inner casing the same size as the required shaft diameter is then installed. This inner
casing shall be of sufficient strength to serve as a form for the concrete shaft, but need not be designed for soil pressure.
Concrete is then placed within the permanent inner casing. After the concrete has set, the annular space between the
permanent casing and surrounding soil is filled with grout, lean concrete, sand or by another approved method and the
temporary outer casing is withdrawn.
24.5.4 BELLS OR UNDERREAMS
Before belling, the Engineer shall determine that the formation encountered at the plan elevation is adequate. When shafts are
required to be belled, the bells shall be formed either by hand or by use of special belling equipment to the angle and slope
called for on the drawings. The bottoms of bells shall be thoroughly cleaned of all loose materials and inspected before the
concrete is placed.
24.5.5 SOCKETS
When sockets are required, they shall be formed by machine or by hand to the proper size and depth called for in the plans.
Sides and bottom of sockets must be thoroughly cleaned of all loose material since the bond of the concrete to the socket sides
is used in design.
24.5.6 TOLERANCES (2010)
The center of the top of each shaft shall not vary from its design location by more than 1/24 of the shaft diameter, or 3 inches
(75 mm), whichever is less, and the shaft shall not be out of plumb by more than 1.5 percent of the length, not exceeding 12.5
percent of shaft diameter.
24.5.7 DEWATERING
Suitable dewatering procedures shall be as agreed upon between the Engineer and Contractor as determined at such time as
conditions warrant. Unless otherwise agreed, the shaft at the time of placement of steel reinforcing cage, if any, and concrete
shall be essentially free of standing water in excess of 2 inches (50 mm) deep.
Immediately prior to placement of any reinforcement or concrete, each shaft shall be thoroughly inspected as directed by the
Engineer to ascertain that the shaft has been properly prepared, that the bearing material is compatible with design
requirements, and whether additional investigation of the bottom is required. If conditions vary from the assumed conditions
determined by the borings, additional investigation shall be conducted as directed by the Engineer.
24.5.9 PLACING REINFORCING STEEL (2010)
Reinforcing steel shall be prefabricated and placed as a unit immediately prior to concrete operations. In order to minimize
displacement of reinforcing steel cage when casing is pulled, the cage may be reinforced by welding horizontal bands to the
cage at about 5 feet (1,520 mm) intervals. When concrete is placed by tremie methods, temporary hold-down devices shall be
employed to prevent uplift of the cage during concrete placement.
1
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24.5.10 PLACING CONCRETE
24.5.10.1 Dry Hole
Prevent segregation of concrete through use of tube, sectionalized pipe or other means to direct the free fall of concrete, so that
it does not strike the sides of reinforcement in the shaft.
24.5.10.2 Under Water
Utilize a tremie or pumped concrete in accordance with Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements,
Article 1.15.10 and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations, Article 24.3.2.6.
24.5.10.3 Consolidation
Rodding or mechanical vibrating is necessary only for the top 5 feet (1,520 mm) of shaft. Any special requirements for
concrete placement shall be approved by the Engineer.
24.5.11 CASING REMOVAL (2010)
a. In situations where temporary casing is to be removed, the head of concrete inside the casing must be adequate to
preclude infiltration of water and sluffage of the shaft face and sides.
b. Elapsed time from beginning of concrete placement in cased portion of shaft, until extraction of casing is begun, shall
not exceed one hour. 1
c. Extreme care shall be taken when a casing is removed to prevent subsidence of the surrounding ground.
d. Elevation of top of the steel cage should be carefully checked before and after casing extraction. The top of the
concrete shall not raise during extraction of the casing.
e. The exterior temporary casing, if a double-cased shaft, shall not be removed until three (3) days after the shaft is 3
poured.
24.5.12 CONTINUITY OF WORK
Drilled shaft construction work shall be planned so that all required operations proceed in a continuous manner until the shaft
is complete. A precise time schedule agreement between the Contractor and the Engineer should be established. Provision 4
shall be made for protecting the shaft and adjacent construction in case of unforeseen interruptions. Such provisions shall be
approved by the Engineer before drilling begins.
24.5.13 RECORDS
An accurate record shall be kept of each drilled shaft as installed. The record shall show the top and bottom elevations, shaft
and bell diameters, depths of test holes if required, date the shaft is excavated, inspection report of the bearing stratum, depth
of water in excavation at time of placing steel and concrete, quantity of concrete placed compared with theoretical quantity,
and any other pertinent data. Records shall be made and signed by both the project superintendent and inspector and
distributed to proper authorities daily.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 24.6 TESTING
24.6.1 MATERIAL TESTING (2010)
Materials used in construction of drilled shafts should be sampled and tested as designated elsewhere in Part 1 of this Chapter.
At least two (2) concrete test cylinders shall be taken for each shaft. When permanent steel casing is used in determining the
capacity of the shaft, certified mill test reports in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 15 shall be provided to document
the adequacy of the material properties of the casing.
24.6.2 CAPACITY TESTING (2010)1
Drilled shafts may be static load tested per ASTM D1143 “Standard Method of Testing Piles under Axial Compressive Load.”
As an alternate, drilled shafts may be tested by use of a hydraulic load cell or other method as approved by the Engineer.
24.6.3 INTEGRITY TESTING (2010)1
It is essential that the excavation for drilled shafts, placement of permanent casing or placement and extraction of temporary
casing, placement of reinforcing steel and placement of concrete be conducted in a manner such that all construction
operations are under close supervision to verify that completed shaft will not contain any voids, deleterious or other extraneous
material or other defects that may reduce the ability of the shaft to support its design loading. When shafts are constructed
under conditions where all elements of the shaft’s construction cannot be reliably inspected, the use of Crosshole Sonic Log
(CSL) testing shall be employed to verify the integrity of the shaft(s).
CSL testing shall be performed by firms specializing in such testing and having a minimum of 5 years prior documented
related experience. Prior to testing, testing personnel, their qualifications and all elements of the testing process shall be
submitted to the Engineer for approval. All CSL testing procedures and equipment shall conform to the requirements of
ASTM D6760. CSL testing shall not commence until a minimum of 24 hours has elapsed after placement of the shaft
concrete.
C - COMMENTARY (2010)
C - 24.1.1 SCOPE (2010) (Bibliography 79)
f. Vertical drilled shafts, adequately reinforced, can accommodate significant lateral loading. Internal moments and
shears are highly dependent not only on the loading condition, but also on the physical properties of the material
through which the shaft passes. For additional information see Handbook on Design of Piles and Drilled Shafts Under
Lateral Load, U.S. DOT Report No. FHWA–IP-84-11 and Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and Design
Methods, U.S. DOT Report No. FHWA-IF-99-025.
C - 24.3.2 THE TRANSFER OF LOAD FROM THE DRILLED SHAFT TO THE ROCK OR SOIL
BEARING STRATA (2010)
For drilled shafts it is very important that the engineer work closely with the geotechnical engineer in order that both have a
clear understanding of what portion of the applied load to the drilled shaft is resisted by side friction and what is resisted by
end bearing. The interaction of side friction with end bearing is often very complex and the possibility of large and possibly
unsafe settlement occurring prior to complete mobilization of the anticipated end bearing resistance must be considered.
1
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C - 24.3.2.6 SHAFTS UNDER WATER
When drilled shafts are to be constructed under water the concrete as it is placed in the casing may carry miscellaneous debris
(rock cuttings, sediment, diluted concrete, etc.) to the top of the shaft. Therefore, the top portion of the shaft in this situation
may contain poor quality concrete. It is recommended for such conditions that concrete in the casing be carried 1 to 2 feet
(300 to 600 mm) above the final top of shaft elevation to allow for the careful removal of that portion of the shaft which may
contain such deleterious material.
C - 24.5.8 INSPECTION (2010)
For further information on the inspection of drilled shafts, the following document is available.
Drilled Shaft Inspector’s Manual

Deep Foundations Institute
326 Lafayette Avenue
Hawthorne, NJ 07506
C - 24.6.2 CAPACITY TESTING (2010)
In lieu of a static load test which may be inefficient due to the typical large capacity of drilled shafts relative to driven piles,
consideration may be given to the use of a hydraulic load cell referred to as an Osterberg Cell®. This test method uses an
instrumented hydraulic cell placed typically near the tip of the shaft. After placement and curing of the shaft concrete the cell
is activated, loading the tip of the shaft and providing an upward force on the shaft above the cell. The use of the cell thus can
provide a measurement of tip base capacity as well as the frictional force developed along the side of the shaft. After testing, 1
the hydraulic fluid is replaced with a high strength grout. Use of this test method should be reserved for experienced specialty
contractors and requires the submission and approval of proposed test details.
C - 24.6.3 INTEGRITY TESTING (2010)1

(2010)
In the past the taking of concrete cores of drilled shafts was the primary means of ascertaining the quality and consolidation of 3
the shaft concrete. As an alternate to coring for determination of the quality of drilled shaft concrete, the measurement of the
response of ultrasonic pulse waves as they pass from a signal source to a receiver source within the shaft concrete will provide
an indication of the soundness of shaft. This method of testing is often referred to as Crosshole Sonic Log (CSL) Testing.
This method utilizes a number of tubes placed within the shaft to allow for transmission and reception of the ultrasonic pulse
waves. After testing, the tubes are fully grouted.
As opposed to coring, which verifies the concrete quality in the immediate vicinity of the core only, CSL Testing provides for 4
greater coverage of the shaft. CSL Testing is, however, limited to the area of the shaft within the arrangement of the CSL tubes
and therefore does not provide an assessment of concrete quality outside of the interior of the reinforcing steel cage. Also the
decision to use CSL Testing must be made before concrete placement. Therefore, if anomalies occur during the placement of
the shaft concrete, which may lead to questioning of the concrete integrity, coring remains the only viable test for such
situations.
Use of Crosshole Sonic Log Testing should be reserved for specialty firms with satisfactory experience in the use of this
method. Prior to testing, submittals detailing the materials to be used, the number of tubes, the vertical spacing of the tests and
the procedures to be employed should be made to the engineer for review and approval, if acceptable.
Where the CSL test indicates void or other anomalies present in the shaft, or when supplementary testing when the concrete
for the shaft is placed under water or where the use of a slurry is employed, the use of sample cores of approximate 2 inches
(50 mm) in diameter and extending the entire length of the shaft may be employed to verify the adequate consolidation and
composition of the concrete. After coring, the hole shall be filled with a cement grout compatible with the shaft concrete.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Reference: Osterberg, J.O. and S.F. Pepper, A New Simplified Method for Load Testing Drilled Shafts, Foundation Drilling,
Association of Drilled Shaft Contractors, August 1984, pp.9-11.
© 2013,

8
Part 25
Slurry Wall Construction1
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
25.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-2

25.1.1 Purpose (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-2
25.1.2 Scope (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-2
25.1.3 Terms (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3
25.1.4 References (1988) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3 1
25.2 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3

25.2.1 General (1988) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3
25.2.2 Qualifications (2002) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3
25.2.3 Subsurface Investigation (1988) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-4
25.2.4 Design for Construction Phase (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-4 3
25.2.5 Methods of Increasing Stability (1988) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-6
25.2.6 Final Condition (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-6
25.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-7

25.3.1 Slurry (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-7
25.3.2 Bentonite (2002) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-8
25.3.3 Cement (2002) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-8
25.3.4 Water (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-8
25.3.5 Additives (2002) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-8
25.3.6 Backfill (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-8
25.3.7 Tremie Concrete (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
25.3.8 Precast Panels (2002) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
25.3.9 Permanent Joint Beams (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
25.3.10 Materials Quality Control (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
25.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9

25.4.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
25.4.2 Trench Excavation (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-11
25.4.3 Slurry Material (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-11
25.4.4 Wall Construction (2002) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-12
25.4.5 Inspection (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-13
1
References, Vol. 89, 1988, p. 114. Adopted 1988.

Commentary (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-13
LIST OF FIGURES
8-25-1 Forces in Non-Cohesive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-6

C-8-25-1 Marsh Funnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-14
LIST OF TABLES
8-25-1 Backfill Gradation Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9

8-25-2 Materials Quality Control Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-10
25.1.1 PURPOSE (2012)
These recommended practices apply to the use of bentonite slurry trenching techniques for the construction of underground
foundations and cutoff walls. Other materials such as polymers may be considered as an alternative to bentonite.
25.1.2 SCOPE (2012)
a. The use of bentonite slurry to permit deep, unshored excavation work is an effective construction method when
properly employed. The applicability of slurry trench techniques to any proposed site must be established by
subsurface investigation.
b. In practice, excavations are kept constantly filled with a bentonite slurry during both digging and backfilling
operations. The excavation is held open by the hydrostatic thrust of the slurry. Formation of an impermeable bentontitic
seal, or filter cake, at the trench interface prevents slurry loss and allows the development of the hydrostatic head.
Presence of slurry in the trench also prevents the drawdown of the ground water table, a frequent result of open
excavation.
c. Slurry applications include temporary and permanent construction of concrete foundation walls, both precast and cast-
in-place, and flow-controlling cutoff walls. Critical procedures such as cleaning the slurry, cleaning the bottom of the
trench and checking slurry density prior to placing tremie concrete should be considered.
d. The decision to use the slurry trench method on an excavation project, and the design of the appropriate slurry, must be
based on:
(1) Analysis of subsurface investigations.

Slurry Wall Construction
(2) Soil stability analysis.
(3) Risk assessment.
(4) Site constraints.
(5) Economic alternatives analysis.
(6) Possible adverse effects of stray current on slurry quality.
25.1.3 TERMS (2012)
Bentonite - An ultra fine natural clay whose principal mineral constituent is premium-grade sodium cation montmorillonite.
Slurry - A stable colloidal suspension of hydrated bentonite or other suitable material in water used as a drilling or trenching
fluid.
Slurry Trench - A vertical trench excavation filled with slurry to support the trench sidewalls.
Slurry Wall - A semi-impervious barrier of blended soil or cement and bentonite with a hydraulic conductivity of 1 x 10-6
cm/sec or less, constructed using a slurry trench during excavation and backfilling.
Slurry Ponds - Ponds constructed for the purpose of storing mixed slurry.
1
25.1.4 REFERENCES (1988) R(2012)
References for Part 25, Slurry Wall Construction are found at the end of this chapter. Refer to Reference 7, 8, 10, 18, 37, 60,
and 111.
SECTION 25.2 DESIGN
25.2.1 GENERAL (1988) R(2012)
a. Slurry walls are designed in large part according to accepted foundation engineering practices; however, the interaction 4
of the slurry and the surrounding soil affects the stability and functionality of the wall to a much greater degree than in
most other structure types.
b. Slurry walls must be designed for both the construction and the final conditions. While the design for one condition
affects the other, different forces and criteria apply.
25.2.2 QUALIFICATIONS (2002) R(2012)
It is highly recommended that the engineer for the design of the slurry wall have previous experience in the design of slurry
trench construction.

25.2.3 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION (1988) R(2012)
Subsurface investigation prior to the design of the slurry system shall be in accordance with Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface
Investigation. Additional information, such as permeability and pH of the soil, may also be required as part of this
investigation.
25.2.4 DESIGN FOR CONSTRUCTION PHASE (2012)
25.2.4.1 Trench Design
Design of the slurry trench for the construction phase has the following objectives:
a. Provide stability of the trench during excavation.
b. Prevent drawdown of groundwater.
c. Minimize settlement of surrounding soil and structures bearing thereon.
d. Minimize loss of the slurry into the groundwater of particular concern in very porous soils.
e. Assurance of integrity of adjacent structures.
25.2.4.2 Stability Analysis
a. The hydrostatic pressure from the slurry in the trench provides the main stabilizing force to offset the pressures acting
on the trench walls. These include pressures due to:
(1) Soil loads;
(2) Surcharge loads, including structures and construction equipment;
(3) Fluid pressures due to groundwater.
b. The factor of safety of the trench, with respect to stability based on these pressures, is calculated as follows:
Pf
F. S. = ----------------
-
Pa + Ps
H
where P f = H f γ f ⎛ -----f-⎞
⎝ 2⎠
(1) For cohesive soils
2
γH
P a = --------- – 2S u H
2
Ps = qs H
Assuming φ = 0

(2) For non-cohesive soils (Figure 8-25-1).
Pa = P1 + P2 + P3 + Pw
( H – Hw )
P 1 = ( H – H w )γK a ----------------------
-
2
P 2 = ( H – H w )γK a ( H w )
Hw
P 3 = ( H w γ′K a )-------
-
2
Hw
P w = H w γ w -------
-
2
2 2 2
( H – Hw ) ( Hw ) ( Hw ) γw
P a = -------------------------( γK a ) + H w ( H – H w )γK a +--------------
- ( γ′K a ) + ---------------------
-
2 2 2
Ps = Ka qs H
1
where:
Su = Undrained Shear Strength

qs = Surcharge Loading
H = Depth of Trench 3
Hf = Depth of Slurry
Hw = Depth of Water Table Above Bottom of Trench
γ = Unit Weight of Soil
γf = Unit Weight of Slurry
γw = Unit Weight of Water
4
γ’ = Unit Weight of Submerged Soil
Ka = Active Coefficient
Pa = Active Pressure
Ps = Pressure Due to Surcharge
Pf = Slurry Pressure
Pw = Pressure Due to Groundwater
φ = Angle of Internal Friction
c. Fluctuations in groundwater elevations have a large effect upon the stability of the trench. Therefore, in areas of porous
soil adjacent to bodies of water or other locations where the water table may vary quickly, the water table shall be
monitored.

Filter Cake
Figure 8-25-1. Forces in Non-Cohesive Soils
d. In addition to the force from the fluid pressure of the slurry, the formation of the filter cake that develops at the soil-
slurry interface may contribute to the stability of the trench. Due to this, the minimum allowable factor of safety for
slurry trenches is often lower than that used in the stability analyses of other systems where this interaction between the
soil and the retaining substance does not occur. The appropriate factor of safety for the trench shall be determined by
the Engineer, based upon previous experience with slurry walls, the soil type and an overall project risk assessment,
including the risk involved to the surrounding track or structures.
25.2.5 METHODS OF INCREASING STABILITY (1988) R(2012)
A number of measures may be taken to increase the stability of the trench:
a. Adjusting slurry level and density to increase the hydrostatic pressure within the trench.
b. The water table outside of the trench may be lowered by means of well points to decrease the hydrostatic pressure
outside the trench. Lowering the water table may increase settlement outside of the trench.
c. Grouting to lessen loss of slurry into coarse gravel layers, to lessen sloughing off of wall surfaces into the trench in
loose materials or to increase bearing capacity in areas with surcharge loads.
d. Adjusting the length of cut open at one time in order to increase the arching action in the soil.
25.2.6 FINAL CONDITION (2012)

25.2.6.1 Wall
The design of the wall for the final condition is dependent upon the type and purpose of wall.
25.2.6.2 Cutoff Walls
Slurry cutoff walls may be of either soil-bentonite or cement-bentonite construction. The design of either system shall be
based, in part, on the following factors:

a. Permeability. In order to be effective, cutoff walls must be keyed into an underlying aquaclude (impervious layer). The
soil-bentonite or cement-bentonite mixture shall be designed and tested for the desired degree of permeability, as
required to contain the lateral flow of the groundwater. It should be determined that chemical attack on the cutoff wall
from toxic wastes or acids will not reduce the integrity of the walls.
b. Strength. The cutoff wall shall have sufficient strength to withstand the hydraulic gradient across the wall, in addition
to pressures from any embankment or surcharge.
c. Flexibility. The wall should be sufficiently flexible to withstand movements due to deformation of the adjacent soil
under the loads listed in Article 25.2.4.2.
25.2.6.3 Foundation Walls
Foundation walls should be designed (see Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design) for the following applicable horizontal and
vertical loads:
a. Earth pressure.
b. Hydrostatic pressure from the difference in water table on the opposite sides of the wall.
c. Live load and structure surcharges on the retained fill.
d. Direct live and dead loads on the wall.
25.3.1 SLURRY (2012)
25.3.1.1 Bentonite-Water Slurry

3
Slurry consists of a stable colloidal suspension of bentonite in water and shall be controlled in accordance with the most
current American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 13B, “Standard Procedure for Field Testing Drilling Fluids,” and the
following requirements:
a. At the time of introduction of the slurry into the trench the slurry shall be a mixture of not less than 18 pounds (8.16 kg) 4
of bentonite per barrel (42 U.S. gallons) (159 L) of water. Additional bentonite may be required, depending on the
hardness and temperature of the water and the quality of the bentonite. The slurry shall have a minimum apparent
viscosity of 15 centipoise or 40 seconds reading through a Marsh Funnel Viscosimeter at 68 F (20 C), a maximum
filtrate loss of 30 cubic centimeters (1.83 in3) in 30 minutes at 100 psi (690 kPa), and a pH of not less than eight.
b. The slurry mixture in the trench shall have unit weight not less than 64 pcf (1.03 g/cm3) and not greater than 87 pcf
(1.40 g/cm3).
25.3.1.2 Soil-Bentonite Slurry
The slurry to be mixed with the soil should be either slurry taken from the trench or slurry meeting the requirements of slurry
introduced into the trench. If slurry from the trench is used, it shall be cleaned of unsuitable excavated materials (lumps) and
tested prior to reuse.

25.3.1.3 Cement-Bentonite Slurry
The cement-bentonite slurry consists of a stable suspension of cement in a bentonite water slurry and shall be controlled in
accordance with the most current API Standard 10A: “Well Cements” and the following requirements:
a. At the time of introduction of cement in the bentonite-water slurry, the bentonite slurry shall have a minimum 34
seconds reading through a Marsh Funnel, 1.6 U.S. qt (1500 ml) in and 1 U.S. qt (946 ml) out.
b. Cement should be weighed and added to the bentonite slurry to produce a cement-water ratio of 0.20 by weight.
c. At the time of introduction in the trench, the cement-bentonite slurry should be generally proportioned so as to have a
viscosity corresponding to a Marsh Funnel reading not less than 40 seconds or more than 50 seconds, as measured at
the batch plant. If a reading falls outside these limits, the next batch will be corrected to fall within the limits.
25.3.2 BENTONITE (2002) R(2012)
Bentonite used in preparing slurry shall be pulverized (powder or granular) premium grade sodium cation montmorillonite and
shall meet the most current API Standard 13A “Drilling Fluid Materials.”
25.3.3 CEMENT (2002) R(2012)
a. Cement used in cement-bentonite slurry shall conform to ASTM C150, “Requirements for Portland Type 1 Cement.”
b. Cement used in tremie concrete shall conform to the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements.
25.3.4 WATER (2012)
Fresh water, free of deleterious substances that adversely affect the properties of the slurry, shall be used to manufacture
bentonite slurry. It is the responsibility of the Contractor that the slurry resulting from the water shall meet the requirements of
this Part.
25.3.5 ADDITIVES (2002) R(2012)
Additives such as softening agents, dispersants, retarders or plugging or bridging agents, may be added to the water or the
slurry to permit efficient use of bentonite and proper workability of the slurry only with the approval of the Engineer.
25.3.6 BACKFILL (2012)
a. When consolidation of the trench backfill is a concern, the material for trench backfilling for a Soil/Bentonite slurry
trench cutoff wall should be composed of slurry and selected granular soils obtained from the excavation and/or
designated borrow areas. The soil shall be friable and free from roots, organic matter, or other deleterious materials.
The backfill shall be thoroughly mixed and reasonably well-graded between the gradation limits found in Table 8-25-
1.
b. When a coefficient of permeability for the backfill must be less than or equal to 1 × 10-7 cm/sec, the fines in the
backfill mix shall have sufficient plasticity so that the material can be rolled into a 1/8 inch (3 mm) thread without
crumbling. The water content of the backfill material shall not exceed 20% prior to blending with bentonite slurry.
Laboratory permeability tests shall be run to verify the suitability of the mix. Dry bentonite may be added to further
decrease the permeability if needed.

Table 8-25-1. Backfill Gradation Limits
U.S. Standard Percent Passing by

(metric) Dry Weight
3/8 inches 65 to 100
(9.5 mm)
No. 20 35 to 85
(850 μm)
No. 200 15 to 35
(75 μm)
c. When consolidation of the backfill is not a concern and a coefficient of permeability in excess of 1 × 10-6 cm/sec for
the wall is acceptable, the excavated soil, cleaned of deleterious material, should be used for economy.
d. The material used to backfill trenches where precast panels are used shall be composed of any fine grain soil of low
plasticity capable of flowing in place between the precast panel and the walls of the trench excavation. Alternately, the
void between panels can be filled with an approved grout mix such as cement-bentonite.
25.3.7 TREMIE CONCRETE (2012)
Concrete shall be produced and placed in accordance with Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements. Approved
additives, such as set retarders, may be used to improve workability. Slump at time of placement should not be less than 8 1
inches (200 mm).
25.3.8 PRECAST PANELS (2002) R(2012)
Design of precast panels shall meet all requirements of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
3
25.3.9 PERMANENT JOINT BEAMS (2012)
If used with cast-in-place concrete walls, permanent joint beams may be precast concrete or steel shapes.
25.3.10 MATERIALS QUALITY CONTROL (2012)
a. Proper quality control should be maintained for the cutoff wall construction, under the direction of a qualified engineer. 4
Testing requirements are summarized in Table 8-25-2.
b. Results of all tests performed should be recorded.
25.4.1 GENERAL (2012)
The construction of precast, cast-in-place, and flow-controlling cutoff walls all generally follow the same construction
techniques, i.e., trench excavation under the influence of a restraining bentonite slurry fluid, and fluid replacement by a wall or
barrier material. Construction methods should be such that slurry material is contained and controlled to prevent loss of trench
excavation, leaks, spillage, and then properly disposed.

Table 8-25-2. Materials Quality Control Program
Minimum
Subject Standard Type of Test Specified Values
Frequency
Materials Water – – pH Per Water Source or as As Required to Properly
– Total Hardness Changes Occur Hydrate Bentonite with
Approved Additives
Additives – Manufacturer Certificate of Compliance As Approved by Engineer
with Stated Characteristics
Bentonite API Std. 13A Manufacturer Certificate of Compliance Premium Grade Sodium
Cation Montmorillonite
Backfill Soils – Selected Soils Obtained from a Borrow 65% to 100% Passing 3/8
Area Approved by the Engineer inches Sieve (9.5 mm)
35% to 85% Passing #20 Sieve
(850 μm)
15% to 35% Passing
#200 Sieve (75 μm)
Roll to 1/8 inch (3 mm) Thread
Cement (for ASTM C150 Manufacturer Certificate of Compliance Portland, Type I
Cement–
Bentonite
Slurry Wall)
Slurry Prepared for API Std. 13B – Unit Weight One Set per Shift or Unit Weight ≥ 64 lb/cu. ft.
Placement into – Viscosity Per Batch (Pond) (1.03 g/cm3)
the Trench – Filtrate Loss V ≥ 15 Centipoise or 40
– pH Sec-Marsh @ 68 degrees
F (20 degrees C)
Marsh Funnel as Loss ≤ 30 cc in 30 min @ 100
per ASTM psi (690 kPa)
D6910 pH ≥ 8
In Trench API Std. 13B 1 – Unit Weight One Set per Shift at Unit Weight = 64 - 87 lb/cu. ft.
Point of Trenching and (1.03 – 1.40 g/cm3)
Near the Bottom of
Trench
Backfill At Trench ASTM C143 – Slump One Set per 200 Cubic Slump 2 inches to 6 inches (50
Mix – Gradation Yards (153 m3) mm to 150 mm)
65% to 100% Passing 3/8
inches Sieve (9.5 mm)
35% to 85% Passing #20 Sieve
(850 μm)
15% to 35% Passing
#200 Sieve (75 μm)
Cement- Upon API Std. 13B – C/W Ratio Each Batch C/W = 0.20
BentoniteSl Introduction in API Std. 10 – Viscosity Five per Shift V = 40 to 50 Sec-Marsh
urry the Trench

25.4.2 TRENCH EXCAVATION (2012)
25.4.2.1 General
The trench should be constructed to line and grade and tolerances as shown on the plans. Boring logs indicate the general type
of materials to be excavated.
25.4.2.2 Pretrenching
Pretrenching may be performed to relocate, remove, or preserve utilities. Isolated additional excavations “in the dry” may be
needed to remove obstructions.
25.4.2.3 Trenching Method
a. Trenching should be performed using suitable earth-moving equipment, such as grab or clamshell buckets, backhoe,
chisels, drills, special patented equipment, or other means for the removal of material. Excavation shall be to full-depth
at the point of start, proceed along the trench line full-depth and be performed under bentonite slurry. Methods and
techniques are chosen to minimize over-excavation, loosening and/or caving of material outside the designated wall
width.
b. Guide walls are commonly constructed ahead of the trenching operations to assist in the control of line and grade,
protect the trench sides against sloughing and/or caving of material, support surcharge loads, and act as a reservoir for
the slurry.
1
c. The distance of trench excavation at any one time should not exceed practical limits for placement of permanent wall
material in a given period of time.
d. Additional equipment, such as an air lift, pump, or clamshell buckets, may be needed to clean the trench bottom of
loose material. Means shall be provided to verify the trench depth and condition prior to wall construction.
e. Continuous trenching may be allowed in soil-bentonite wall construction, but individual panels with joints are required 3
for reinforced concrete wall construction.
f. Joints are very important and their design and detail should be carefully considered.
25.4.3 SLURRY MATERIAL (2012)

25.4.3.1 General 4
Sufficient batch plant mixers, pumps, supply lines, ponds and tanks, and reserve material should be provided to assure proper
mixing and placement of the slurry. No slurry shall be prepared in the trench. Mixing of water and bentonite shall continue
until bentonite particles are fully hydrated and the resulting slurry appears homogeneous. The slurry shall be agitated or
recirculated in storage ponds or tanks as required to maintain a homogeneous mix.
25.4.3.2 Slurry Introduction
At the start of trench excavation, the bentonite slurry shall be introduced into the excavation.
25.4.3.3 Slurry Maintenance
The slurry shall be maintained in the excavated trench until the completion of the excavation and displacement of the wall
construction. The slurry level shall meet the design requirements of Section 25.2, Design and be maintained within a
reasonable distance from the top of excavation, generally within 3 feet (1 m), and at least 2 feet (0.7 m) above the groundwater
level. The Contractor should have sufficient personnel, equipment, and material ready to raise the slurry level at any time.

25.4.3.4 Quality Control
Quality control shall be maintained under the direction of a qualified engineer. Testing of the slurry should be performed each
working shift and include testing slurry pH, unit weight, filtration loss, and viscosity.
25.4.3.5 Slurry Disposal
As the slurry is displaced by the construction of the wall, means should be provided for holding the fluid or for its disposal.
Slurry must be disposed of properly.
25.4.4 WALL CONSTRUCTION (2002) R(2012)

25.4.4.1 General
In addition to the above construction requirements and methods, the following should be considered by the Engineer:
25.4.4.2 Cutoff Wall (Soil-Bentonite)
a. Introduce and maintain bentonite-water slurry into the trench. It is essential that the bottom of the slurry trench be
keyed a minimum specified penetration into the underlying aquaclude, as indicated by soil borings.
b. Prepare wall material per project requirements. Soil-bentonite wall material (backfill) shall be composed of slurry and
selected soils obtained from designated borrow areas. The soil shall be free of organic or other deleterious materials.
The backfill shall be thoroughly mixed to a homogeneous paste consistency and reasonably well-graded.
c. Place the wall material continuously, starting at the beginning of the trench in a manner that will produce a
homogeneous wall free of voids or pockets of slurry. Before drying occurs, the top of the wall shall be capped.
25.4.4.3 Cutoff Wall (Cement-Bentonite)
a. Introduce and maintain cement-bentonite slurry into the trench. If, at any time, the slurry in the trench begins to set or
gel before excavation is complete to the full-depth, or otherwise becomes unworkable, additional freshly prepared
cement-bentonite shall be introduced. Addition of water to slurry in the trench shall not be permitted.
b. It is essential that the bottom of the slurry trench be keyed a minimum specified penetration into the underlying
aquaclude, as indicated by soil borings.
c. After initial set, the top of the completed wall shall be checked for decantation. After the wall has been topped off and
set, but before drying occurs, the wall shall be capped.
d. Any time that a wall segment is extended where the slurry in the previously excavated trench has taken a set, a
minimum of 3 feet (1 m) overlap into the previously excavated trench shall be removed.
25.4.4.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Wall
a. Trench to the line and grade shown on the plans, introducing water-bentonite slurry as trenching progresses. Trench
length open at any one time should not exceed the capacity for placing concrete.
b. Set panel end forms or joint material as required by the plans.
c. Place reinforcement (bars or structural steel) in slurry (for reinforced wall construction).
d. Place wall concrete by tremie (gravity flow or pump) using high slump concrete with 3/4 inches (2 cm) maximum size
aggregate, of the compressive strength designated on the plans. The concrete placement shall be controlled to prevent

segregation and not be allowed to fall through the slurry, but rather placed on the trench bottom and allowed to displace
slurry in accordance with Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
e. The wall top shall be finished to the grade designated on the plans.
f. Additional requirements for cast-in-place concrete wall construction are beyond the scope of this Part.
25.4.4.5 Precast Panel Wall
a. Trench to the line and grade shown on the plans, introducing water-bentonite slurry as trenching progresses. Trench
length should not exceed the capacity for placing precast panels and tremie concrete.
b. Place precast panels in trench (held in position by guide restraints) displacing the slurry fluid.
c. Place tremie concrete at toe of set precast panels as shown on the plans.
d. Backfill with granular material between panel and trench after concrete has set. Remove panel restraints.
25.4.5 INSPECTION (2012)
Only competent and experienced contractors, prequalified by the Engineer, should be engaged for slurry wall construction.
Slurry trench specialists (as approved by the Engineer) should supervise the construction, slurry preparation, and quality
control. Documentation of all materials used shall be furnished to the Engineer, along with certification that the wall
construction conforms to the requirements of the plans and all applicable environmental regulations.
1
C - COMMENTARY (2012)
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various paragraphs in Part 25, Slurry Wall Construction. In 3
the numbering of paragraphs of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/paragraph being explained.
C - SECTION 25.3 MATERIALS
C - 25.3.1 SLURRY (2012)
C - 25.3.1.1 Bentonite-Water Slurry

4
A bentonite-water slurry is generally used during an initial excavation to stabilize the soil on both sides of a trench. The
bentonite usually mixes with the soil on the faces of the excavation creating a “filter cake” that has low permeability.
C - 25.3.1.2 Soil-Bentonite Slurry
Following excavation, bentonite may be mixed with soil and reintroduced into the trench. The soil-bentonite slurry has low
permeability with good chemical resistance and lower cost than pure bentonite and can be used as a long term cutoff wall.
C - 25.3.1.3 Cement-Bentonite Slurry
Cement is mixed with bentonite when a stronger wall is required, either to withstand movement of the adjacent soil due to
loading or to withstand loads applied to the wall itself.
C - 25.3.1.10 Materials Quality Control

In Table 8-25-2 references to “Marsh” are to the Marsh Funnel (see Figure C-8-25-1) test used as a measure of viscosity. The
Marsh funnel is a cone 6 inches (152 mm) in diameter tapering down over the 12-inch (305 mm) height to a 2-inch (52 mm)
long tube 3/16 inch (4.75 mm) in diameter. The funnel is filled with about 1.6 U.S. quarts (1500 mL) of the slurry and the time
for 1.0 U.S. quart (946 mL) to pass through the funnel is recorded as a measure of viscosity. If water is used, the time is 26 +/-
0.5 seconds. The time for slurry should be about 40 seconds and for soil-bentonite slurry between 40 and 50 seconds as per
Table 8-25-2.
C - SECTION 25.4 CONSTRUCTION
C - 25.4.3 SLURRY MATERIAL (2012)
C - 25.4.3.5 Disposal
Slurry must be disposed of at a permitted disposal facility or on site if approved by the Owner/Engineer in compliance with
federal, state and local laws and regulations. Care must be taken to ensure that slurry does not escape to nearby drainage
courses, sewers, wetlands or detention basins.
Figure C-8-25-1. Marsh Funnel

8
Part 26
Recommendations for the Design of
Segmental Bridges1
— 1996 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

26.1 General Requirements and Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.1.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.1.2 Notations (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.1.3 Terms (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-7 1
26.1.4 Concrete (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.1.5 Segmental Bridges, Design Reinforcement (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2.2 Strut-and-Tie-Models (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2.3 Effective Flange Width (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8 3
26.2.4 Transverse Analysis (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-11
26.2.5 Longitudinal Analysis (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3 Design Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3.2 Dead Loads (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3.3 Erection Loads (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-13
26.3.4 Thermal Effects (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-13
26.3.5 Creep and Shrinkage (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.3.6 Post-Tensioning Force (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4.2 Service Load Combinations for Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.4 (1996). . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4.3 Strength Reduction Factors (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-17
26.4.4 Construction Load Combinations, Stresses and Stability (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-18
26.5 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
26.5.1 Prestressing Steel (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
26.5.2 Prestressed Concrete (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
1
References, Vol. 97, p. 60. Adopted 1996.


26.6 Prestress Losses (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-22
26.7 Flexural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.7.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.7.2 Strain Compatibility (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.7.3 Center of Gravity Correction for Strand Tendons (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8 Shear and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8.1 Scope (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8.2 General Requirements (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-24
26.8.3 Traditional Shear and Torsion Design for Plane Section Type Regions (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-27
26.8.4 Strut-and-Tie Truss Model Design for Either Beam Type or Discontinuity Regions (1996). . . . 8-26-28
26.8.5 Special Requirement for Diaphragms, Deep Beams, Corbels and Brackets (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-30
26.8.6 Shear Transfer at Interfaces (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.8.7 Two-way Punching Shear (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.9 Fatigue Stress Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.9.1 Fatigue Stress Limits for Bonded Nonprestressed Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.9.2 Fatigue Stress Limits for Prestressed Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10 Design of Local and General Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation Saddles . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10.2 Forces and Reinforcement in General Anchorage Zones (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-33
26.10.3 Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-33
26.10.4 Reinforcement Detailing (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-34
26.10.5 Anchorages in Special Blisters (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-34
26.10.6 Anchorages in Diaphragms (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-34
26.10.7 Anchorage Bearing Reaction Force (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-34
26.10.8 Deviation Saddles (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11 Provisional Post-Tensioning Ducts and Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11.2 Bridges with Internal Ducts (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11.3 Provision for Future Dead Load or Deflection Adjustment (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12 Duct Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.1 Material Thickness (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.2 Duct Area (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.3 Minimum Radius of Curvature (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.4 Duct Supports (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-37
26.12.5 Duct Size, Clearance and Detailing (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-37
26.12.6 Duct Confinement Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.13 Couplers (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.14 Connection of Secondary Beams (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.15 Concrete Cover and Reinforcement Spacing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.15.1 Cover and Spacing (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.15.2 Reinforcement Details for Erection Loads (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
© 2013,

Recommendations for the Design of Segmental Bridges
26.16 Inspection Access (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40

26.17 Box Girder Cross Section Dimensions and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17.1 Minimum Flange Thickness (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17.2 Minimum Web Thickness (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17.3 Length of Top Flange Cantilever (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
26.17.4 Overall Cross Section Dimensions (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
LIST OF FIGURES
8-26-1 Cross Sections and Corresponding Effective Flange Widths, bm, for Bending and Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-9
8-26-2 Pattern of the Effective Flange Width bm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-10
8-26-3 Effective Flange Width bm/b Coefficients bf bs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-10
8-26-4 Effective Flange Widths bn for Normal Faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-11
8-26-5 Normal Daily Minimum Temperatures (Degrees F) for January . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-14
8-26-6 Normal Daily Maximum temperatures (Degrees F) for July. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-15 1
8-26-7 Negative Moment Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
8-26-8 Reinforcement Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-39
C-8-26-1Relative Joint Displacement Shear Key Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-45
C-8-26-2Stress Trajectories in a B-Region and Near Discontinuities (D-Regions)1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-47
C-8-26-3Beam with Direct Supports1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-47
C-8-26-4T-beam1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-48
C-8-26-5Longitudinal Shear Transfer by Bottom Slab to Web Haunches1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-48 3
C-8-26-6Truss Model of a Beam with Cantilever1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-51
C-8-26-7The Two Most Frequent and Most Useful Strut-and-Tie Models1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-52
C-8-26-8The Compression Strut in the Web with the Stirrups1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-53
C-8-26-9Examples of the Basic Types of Nodes1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-54
C-8-26-10Diaphragm of a Box Girder Bridge1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-55
C-8-26-11Fan Action1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-56
C-8-26-12Different Support Conditions Lead to Different Strut-and-Tie Models and Different
4
Reinforcement Arrangements of Corbels1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-57
C-8-26-13Bursting Stresses Under Bearing Plate Anchorages1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-59
C-8-26-14A Typical D-Region1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-59
C-8-26-15Schematic Drawing of Different Types of “Hanger” Reinforcement1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-63
C-8-26-16Extent of the Intersection Zone for the Connection of Secondary Beams1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-63
LIST OF TABLES
8-26-1 Strength Reduction Factor φ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-18

8-26-2 Allowable Tensile Stresses for Construction Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-20
1 Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute PCI Journal, see individual figure for volume and page number.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 26.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIAL
26.1.1 GENERAL (1996)1
The specifications of this part are intended for design of longitudinally and/or transversely post-tensioned bridges utilizing
normal weight concrete constructed with either precast or cast-in-place box segments of single or multiple cells, or
combinations thereof, as well as simple span and continuous segmental beam-type bridges. The specifications pertain to
bridges of all sizes and are restricted to bridge span lengths of 200 feet or less. Unless otherwise stated or superseded by these
specifications, the provisions of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering are intended to apply to the design of
segmental concrete bridges.
26.1.2 NOTATIONS (1996)
Notations are in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete and the following:
A = area of concrete surrounding a bar, (see Article 26.15.2) square inch.

Ab = bearing area of tendon anchorage, square inch.
A' = maximum area of the portion of the concrete anchorage surface that is geometrically similar to and concentric with
b
the bearing area of the tendon anchorage, square inch.
Acc = area of concrete in compression chord, square inch.
Acn = area of one face of a truss node region, square inch.
Acp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross section, square inch.
Acs = area of inclined compression strut, square inch.
Ag = gross area of concrete cross section, square inch.
Al = total area of additional longitudinal reinforcement to resist torsion, square inch.
Ao = area enclosed by shear flow path, See Article 26.8.2j, square inch.
As = area of nonprestressed tensile reinforcement, square inch.
A's = area of compression reinforcement, square inch.
A *s = area of prestressed reinforcement in tension zone, square inch.
At = area of one leg of continuous, closed transverse torsion reinforcement within a distances, square inch.
AV = area of transverse shear reinforcement within a distance s, square inch.
a = portion of single span, end span, or span adjacent cantilever arm subject to shear lag effects (see Figure C-8-26-2),
feet.
b = top or bottom flange width either side of web (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
be = minimum effective shear flow web or flange width to resist torsional stresses, (see Article 26.8.2j, Article 26.8.2e
and Article 26.8.3a), feet.
bf = effective flange width coefficient for interior portion of span (see Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3), unitless.
bm = effective width of flange (see Figure C-8-26-2), feet.
bm1 = effective width of cantilever flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bm2 = effective width of half of interior top flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bm3 = effective width of half of bottom flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bmf = effective width for center portion of span (see Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3), feet.
bms = effective width at support or for cantilever arm (see Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3), feet.
bn = effective flange width for lateral distribution of post-tensioning force (see Figure C-8-26-4), feet.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

bno = web width at anchorage of post-tensioning force (see Figure C-8-26-4), feet.
bo = web width (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bs = effective top or bottom flange width coefficient at supports and for cantilever arms (see Figure C-8-26-2 and
Figure C-8-26-3), feet.
bw = minimum web width, (see Article 26.8.2e), inches.
b1 = width of cantilever flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
b2 = width of half of interior top flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
b3 = width of half of interior bottom flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
CE = weight of specialized construction equipment, kips.
CLE = longitudinal construction equipment load, kips.
CLL = construction live load, psf, normally taken as 10 psf.
c = portion of continuous span adjacent to interior support subject to shear lag effects (see Figure C-8-26-2), feet.
D = sum of dead load of structure (DL), superimposed dead load (SDL), and permanent effects of erection loads (EL),
kips.
DIFF = differential (unbalanced) dead load from one cantilever, kips.
DL = dead load of structure only, kips.
DT = thermal differential from centerline of top flange to centerline of bottom slab, degrees F.
d = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement, inches. For
prestressed concrete members, the greater of the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
prestressed tension reinforcement or 0.8h may be used, feet.
1
da = depth of anchor plate, inches.
dc = thickness of cover from tension fiber to center of bar, (see Article 26.15.2) inches.
do = total depth of section (see Figure C-8-26-2), feet.
dON = construction height of secondary beam (see Figure C-8-26-8), feet.
dOH = construction height of main beam (see Figure C-8-26-8), feet.
dsp = total depth of symmetric concrete prism above and below the anchor plate (also assumed to be the length of the 3
anchorage zone), inches.
Ecm = secant modulus of elasticity, psi or ksf.
Eeff = effective modulus of elasticity for long term loads considering creep deformations, psi or ksf.
EL = permanent effect of erection loads (final state), psi or ksf.
e = base of Naperian logarithms
4
Fbst = total bursting force (tensile) due to a tendon anchorage, kips.
Fr = radial force due to tendon curvature, lb per foot.
f c' = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi or ksf.
f c' = square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, (see Article 26.8.2f for limit) psi or ksf.
f ci
' = compressive strength of concrete at time of initial prestress, psi or ksf.
fcn = compressive stress in the concrete node regions, (see Article if) psi or ksf.
fcp = permissible concrete compressive stress under anchorage, psi or ksf.
fcu = crushing strength of diagonally cracked concrete, (see Article id) psi or ksf.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

fpc = compressive strength in concrete after allowance for all prestress losses, psi or ksf. Critical stress to be determined
at:
(a) the centroid of the cross section resisting external loads, or
(b) the junction of the web and compression flange when the centroid lies within the flange, or
(c) in composite members, the stress at (a) or (b) for stresses due to both prestress and the moments resisted by the
precast member acting alone.
fpμ = ultimate strength of prestressing steel, psi.
fs = stress in nonprestressed reinforcement under erection loads, (see Article 26.15.2), psi.
f s' = stress in compression reinforcement, psi.
fst = steel stress at beginning of time intervals tl, psi.
*
f su = average stress in prestressed reinforcement at ultimate load, psi.
fsy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed reinforcement, psi.
f y* = yield point stress of prestressing steel, psi.
h = overall thickness of member, inches.
IE = impact load from equipment
f pc
K = 1 + -------------
- , factor for torsional cracking moment (see Article 26.8.2j and l)
2 f ′c
l = span length, (see Figure C-8-26-2) feet.

li = span length for use in determining effective flange width, (see Figure C-8-26-2) feet.
Mu = factored moment at section, in-lb or ft-lb.
Nuc = factored compressive axial force normal to cross section, lb.
Nut = factored tensile axial force normal to cross section, lb.
P = tendon force, (see Article 26.12.3 and Article 26.12.6.1) lb.
pcp = outside perimeter of the concrete cross section, inches.
Pj = tendon jacking force, kips.
ph = perimeter of centerline of outermost continuous closed transverse reinforcement, inches.
R = tendon radius of curvature, (Article 26.12.3) feet.
R = rib shortening and creep effects, (see Article 26.4.2 and Article 26.4.4.1) kips.
Rlr = loss of prestress due to steel relaxation, low relaxation strand, psi.
Rsr = loss of prestress due to steel relaxation, stress relieved steel, psi.
S = shrinkage effects, (see Article 26.4.4.1) kips.
Su = force in a truss member due to factored ultimate loads, lb.
SDL = superimposed dead load, kips.
s = spacing of shear or torsion reinforcement measured parallel to the longitudinal axis of the member, inches.
s = bar spacing, inches (see Article 26.15.2).
T = sum of effects of thermal rise or fall (TRF) and thermal differential (DT), kips.
TRF = thermal rise or fall, degrees F.
Tc = torsional cracking moment, (see Article 26.8.2j) in-lb.
Tn = nominal torsion resistance, in-lb.
To = tendon stress at jacking end, psi.
Tu = factored torsion at section, in-lb.
U = load due to segment unbalance on opposite cantilever ends, kips.
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete, lb.
© 2013,

Vn = nominal shear force resisted by member, lb.

Vp = component of the effective prestressing which acts in the direction of the applied shear (see Article 26.8.1g and
Article 26.8.2h).
Vs = nominal shear resisted by the 45 degrees truss model as measured by the stirrup capacity, lb.
VU = factored shear force at section, lb.
WTdl = area of concrete surrounding a bar, (see Article 26.15.2), square inch.
WUP = wind uplift on cantilever, kips.
Z = correction dimension for location of center of gravity of tendon bundle in duct, (see Article 26.7.3) inch.
Z = quantity for detailing of reinforcement to control flexural cracking during erection, (see Article 26.15.2) kips per
inch.
σo = average compressive stress in the concrete section due to the post-tensioning anchorage force after the force is
distributed over the depth, d, of the section, psi.
σy = transverse tensile stress in the concrete section due to the post-tensioning anchorage force, psi (see Figure C-8-26-
13).
φ = strength reduction factor (see Article 26.4.3).
φb = strength reduction factor for bearing (see Article 26.4.3).
φc = creep coefficient, ratio of creep strain to elastic strain.
φf = strength reduction factor for flexure (see Article 26.4.3).
φv = strength reduction factor for shear and diagonal tension (see Article 26.4.3).
μ = friction coefficient (per radian)
1
α = total angular deviation from jacking end to point x, radians.
3
8 26
26.1.3 TERMS (1996)
Terms are in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete and the following. Refer
to the Chapter 8 Glossary located at the end of the chapter for definitions. 4
Anchorage Blister General Zone Secondary Moment
Closure Internal Tendon Strut-and-Tie Model
Confinement Anchorage Local Zone Temperature Gradient
Deviation Saddle Launching Bearing Type A Joints
External Tendon Launching Nose Type B Joints
General Bursting Forces Low Relaxation Steel
©
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

26.1.4 CONCRETE (1996)

Structural concrete used in segmental construction shall have a minimum 28-day strength of 4,500 psi, or greater as specified
by the Engineer. The required concrete strength at the time of stressing shall be determined in accordance with Article 26.5.2.
26.1.5 SEGMENTAL BRIDGES, DESIGN REINFORCEMENT (1996)1

26.1.5.1 Prestressing Steel
As per Part 17, Prestressed Concrete.
26.1.5.2 Reinforcing Steel
a. ASTM Grade 60 unless otherwise specified.
b. All bridge deck reinforcement, including any reinforcement projecting from the web into the deck, shall be provided
with a corrosion protective system in aggressive environments.
SECTION 26.2 METHODS OF ANALYSIS
26.2.1 GENERAL (1996)2

Elastic analysis and beam theory may be used to determine design moments, shears, and deflections. The effects of creep,
shrinkage, and temperature differentials shall be considered, as well as the effects of shear lag. Shear lag shall be considered in
accordance with the provisions of Article 26.2.3.
26.2.2 STRUT-AND-TIE-MODELS (1996)3

Strut-and-tie-models may be used for analysis when tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of the concrete, and for areas
where strain distribution is non-linear.
26.2.3 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH (1996)

26.2.3.1 General4
Effective flange width may be determined by elastic analysis procedures (Reference 87 and 88), by the provisions of Section
3-10.2 of the 1983 Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (Reference 63) or by the provisions of Article 26.2.3.2.
26.2.3.2 Effective Flange Width for Analysis, and for Calculation of Section Capacity and Stresses5
a. Section properties for analysis and for calculation of the effects of bending moments and shear forces may be based on
the flange widths specified in this section, or may be based on flange widths determined by other procedures listed in
Article 26.2.3.1. The effects of unsymmetrical loading on effective flange width may be disregarded. For flange width,
b, less than or equal to 0.3 do, bm may be assumed equal to b, where do is taken as the web height in accordance with
Figure C-8-26-1. For flange widths, b, greater than 0.3 do, the effective width may be determined in accordance with
Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3. The value of bs shall be determined using the greater of the effective span
lengths adjacent to the support. If bmf is less than bms in a span, the pattern of the effective width within the span may
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
5 See Commentary
© 2013,

be determined by the connecting line of the effective width bms at adjoining support points. However, bm shall not be
greater than b.
Figure 8-26-1. Cross Sections and Corresponding Effective Flange Widths, bm, for Bending and Shear
4
b. The section properties for normal forces may be based on the pattern according to Figure C-8-26-4, or may be
determined by more rigorous analytical procedures.
c. Stresses due to bending, shear and normal forces may be determined by using their corresponding section properties.
d. For the superposition of the bending stresses of the main load-bearing structure over the slab bending stresses
generated by local loads, the former may be assumed to have a straight line pattern in accordance with Figure C-8-26-
1. The linear stress distribution is determined from the constant stress distribution under the condition that the flange
force remains unchanged.
e. The capacity of a cross-section at the ultimate state may be determined by considering the full flange width effective.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-26-2. Pattern of the Effective Flange Width bm
Figure 8-26-3. Effective Flange Width bm/b Coefficients bf bs
© 2013,

Figure 8-26-4. Effective Flange Widths bn for Normal Faces

4
1
26.2.4 TRANSVERSE ANALYSIS (1996)
a. The transverse design of box girder segments for flexure shall consider the segment as a rigid box frame. Flanges shall
be analyzed as variable depth sections considering the fillets between the flange and webs. Combinations of track
loads, if the structure may support more than one track, shall be positioned to provide maximum moments, and elastic
analysis shall be used to determine the effective longitudinal distribution of wheel loads for each load location. Tracks
shall be positioned on the structure in accordance with clearance policies. Consideration shall be given to the increase
in web shear and other effects on the cross-section resulting from eccentric loading or unsymmetrical structure
geometry.
b. Influence surfaces (Reference 41, 42 and 74) or other elastic analysis procedures may be used to evaluate live load plus
impact moment effects in the top flange of the box section.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

c. Transverse elastic and creep shortening due to prestressing and shrinkage shall be considered in the transverse analysis.
d. The secondary effects due to prestressing shall be included in stress calculations at working load. In calculating
ultimate strength moment and shear requirements, the secondary moments or shears induced by prestressing (with a
load factor of 1.0) shall be added algebraically to the moments and shears due to factored ultimate dead and live loads.
26.2.5 LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS (1996)
26.2.5.1 General1
a. Longitudinal analysis shall be in accordance with the provisions of Article 26.2.1. Longitudinal analysis of segmental
concrete bridges shall consider a specific construction method and construction schedule, as well as the time-related
effects of concrete creep, shrinkage, and prestress losses.
b. The secondary effects due to prestressing shall be included in stress calculations at working load. In calculating
ultimate moments and shear requirements, the secondary moments or shears induced by prestressing (with a load factor
of 1.0) shall be added algebraically to moments and shears due to factored dead and live loads.
c. Internal Tendons shall be designed and constructed as bonded tendons. Details of construction methods resulting in
unbonded or partially unbonded internal tendons are not allowed.
26.2.5.2 Erection Analysis
Analysis of the structure during the construction stage, shall consider the construction load combinations, stresses, and
stability considerations outlined in Article 26.4.4.
26.2.5.3 Analysis of the Final Structural System
The final structural system shall be analyzed for redistribution of erection stage moments resulting from the effects of creep
and shrinkage, and from any change in the statical system, including the closure of joints. Thermal effects on the final
structural system shall be considered in accordance with Article 26.3.4. The effect of prestress losses occurring after closure
shall be evaluated in accordance with Section 26.6, Prestress Losses (1996). The maximum moments resulting from the above
analyses shall be utilized in conjunction with the combinations of loads specified in Article 2.2.4 for determination of required
flexural strength.
SECTION 26.3 DESIGN LOADS
26.3.1 GENERAL (1996)
All loadings shall be in accordance with the latest edition of the Manual For Railway Engineering except as provided below.
26.3.2 DEAD LOADS (1996)2
Unit weight of concrete (including reinforcing steel) – 155 pcf or as determined for the project. Weight of diaphragms, anchor
blocks, or any other deviations from the typical cross section shall be included in the dead load calculations.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

26.3.3 ERECTION LOADS (1996)1
a. Erection loads comprise all loadings arising from the designer’s anticipated system of temporary supporting works
and/or special erection equipment to be used in accordance with the assumed construction sequence and schedule. The
assumed erection loads (magnitude and configuration) and acceptable closure forces due to misalignment corrections
shall be stated on the drawings. Due allowance shall be made for all effects of any changes to the statical structural
scheme during construction. The application, changes or removal of the assumed temporary supports or special
equipment shall be considered by taking into account residual “built-in” forces, moments, deformations, secondary
post-tensioning effects, creep, shrinkage and any other strain induced effects.
b. All elements of the bridge shall be designed for the anticipated construction system assumed by the Engineer and
shown on the plans. Any accepted contractor proposals which present differing construction loads shall be evaluated,
by the Engineer, for effects upon the structure.
26.3.4 THERMAL EFFECTS (1996)
26.3.4.1 Normal Mean Temperature
Unless more precise local data are available, normal mean temperature for the location shall be taken as the average of the
January and July values from Figure C-8-26-5 and Figure C-8-26-6, (Reference 43) respectively.
26.3.4.2 Seasonal Variation
a. For the purposes of design of the structure, the minimum and maximum overall temperatures shall be taken from 1
Figure C-8-26-5 and Figure C-8-26-6, respectively, unless more precise local data is available.
b. The temperature setting variations for bearings and expansion joints shall be stated on the bridge plans.
26.3.4.3 Thermal Coefficient2
The coefficient of thermal expansion used to determine temperature effects shall be taken as 6.0 × 10-6 per degree F, unless 3
more precise data are available.
26.3.4.4 Differential Temperature3
Positive and negative differential superstructure temperature gradients shall be considered in accordance with Appendix A of
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 276 “Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Superstructures.”
(Reference 43) More precise data may be used if available. 4
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-26-5. Normal Daily Minimum Temperatures (Degrees F) for January
Figure 8-26-6. Normal Daily Maximum temperatures (Degrees F) for July
26.3.5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE (1996)1
Effects due to creep and shrinkage strains shall be calculated in accordance with provisions of Article 26.2.5.3. The creep
coefficient φc may be evaluated in accordance with the provisions of the ACI Committee 209 Report, (Reference 2) the CEB-
FIP Model Code, (Reference 15) or by a comprehensive test program. Creep strains and prestress losses (Reference 14) which
occur after closure of the structure causes a redistribution of the forces. Stresses shall be calculated for this effect based on an
assumed construction schedule stated on the plans.
26.3.6 POST-TENSIONING FORCE (1996)2
The structure shall be designed for both initial and final post-tensioning forces. Prestress losses shall be calculated for the
construction schedule stated on the plans. The final post-tensioning forces used in service load stress calculations shall be
based on the most severe condition at each location along the structure.
SECTION 26.4 LOAD FACTORS
26.4.1 GENERAL (1996)
In the final working condition, service or load factor load combinations shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design as amended below. Allowable stresses shall be in accordance with Section 26.5, Allowable Stresses. When
checking tensile stresses for service load, Groups II through IX, the variable load effects shall be divided by the allowable
stress increases in Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.4. Strength reduction factors, φ, shall be in accordance with
Article 26.4.3. During construction, load case combinations, allowable stresses and stability shall be in accordance with
Article 26.4.4.
26.4.2 SERVICE LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR PART 2, REINFORCED CONCRETE

DESIGN, ARTICLE 2.2.4 (1996)
26.4.2.1 Creep and Shrinkage
a. The permanent effects of creep and shrinkage shall be added to all specified loading combinations with a load factor of
1.0.
b. For the group loading combinations listed in Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.4, the following
abbreviations shall apply:
D = DL + SDL + EL and
OF = TRF + DT + R where:
EL = Erection Loads (final state)
NOTE: See Article 26.4.2.2.
TRF = Thermal – Rise or Fall
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

DT = Thermal – Differential
R = Creep Effects
NOTE: Creep effects to be considered, in conjunction with any rib shortening, shrinkage and anticipated
support settlement effects as loading designation R.
A thermal differential of 0.5DT is permissible when the load combination includes full live load + impact.
26.4.2.2 Erection Loads at End of Construction
The final state erection loads are defined as the final accumulated “built-in” forces and moments resulting from the
construction process.
26.4.2.3 Additional Thermal Loading Combination
In addition to Group Loads IV, V, and VI at service load, the following combination and stress shall apply:
(DL + SDL + EL) + E + B + SF + R + S + (DT) @ 100% Allowable Stress
NOTE: Letters in parenthesis are as per Article 26.1.2, others are as per Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.2.3.
26.4.3 STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS (1996)1 1

a. The basic strength reduction factors, φf and φv for flexure and shear, respectively, shall consider both the type of joint
between segments and the degree of bonding of the post-tensioning system provided. The appropriate value of φv listed
below shall be used for torsional effect calculations in Section 26.8, Shear and Torsion.
b. Since the post-tensioning provided may be a mixture of fully bonded tendons and unbonded or partially bonded
tendons, the strength reduction factor at any section shall be based upon the bonding conditions for the tendons 3
providing the majority of the prestressing force at the section. All internal tendons shall be designed and constructed as
bonded tendons.
c. In order for a tendon to be considered as fully bonded to the cross-section at a section, it must be bonded beyond the
critical section for a development length. The development length shall be calculated by a rational approach based
upon tendon pull out tests.
4
d. Cast-in-place concrete joints and wet concrete joints shall be considered as Type A joints.
e. Epoxy joints between precast units shall be considered as Type B joints.
f. Dry joints between precast units shall be considered as Type B joints.
g. Strength reduction factor, φ, shall be taken as shown in Table 8-26-1.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
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Railway Engineering

Table 8-26-1. Strength Reduction Factor φ
φf φv
Type
Flexure Shear
Fully Bonded Tendons

Type A Joints 0.95 0.85
Type B Joints 0.90 0.80
Unbonded or Partially Bonded External
Tendons
Type A Joints 0.90 0.90
Type B Joints 0.85 0.75
NOTE: The appropriate value of φv from Table 8-26-1 shall be used for torsional effect calculations in Section
26.8, Shear and Torsion.
h. The strength reduction factor for bearing, φb shall be taken as 0.70 for all types of construction. This value shall not be
applied to bearing stresses under anchorage plates for post-tensioning tendons.
26.4.4 CONSTRUCTION LOAD COMBINATIONS, STRESSES AND STABILITY (1996)
26.4.4.1 Erection Loads During Construction1
a. Erection Loads as defined by AREMA and as stated on the plans shall be as follows:
(1) Dead load of structure (DL). Unit weight of concrete (including rebar) 155 pcf or as determined for the project.
Weight of diaphragms, anchor blocks, or any other deviations from the typical cross-section shall be included in
the dead load calculations.
(2) Differential load from one cantilever (DIFF). This only applies to balanced cantilever construction. The load is
2% of the dead load applied to one cantilever.
(3) Superimposed dead load (SDL). This does not normally apply during construction. If it does, it should be
considered as part of the dead load (DL).
(4) Distributed construction live load (CLL). This is an allowance for miscellaneous items of plant, machinery and
other equipment apart from the major specialized erection equipment. The following magnitudes shall be used as
minimum unless loads of different magnitudes can be verified. Distributed load allowance 10 psf. In cantilever
construction, distributed load shall be taken as 10 psf on one cantilever and 5 psf on the other. For bridges built by
incremental launching, construction live load may be taken as zero.
(5) Specialized construction equipment (CE). This is the load from any special equipment such as a launching gantry,
beam and winch, truss or similar major item. This also includes segment delivery trucks and the maximum loads
applied to the structure by the equipment during the lifting of segments.
(6) Impact Load from equipment (IE). To be determined according to the type of machinery anticipated. For very
gradual lifting of segments, where the load involves small dynamic effects, the impact load may be taken as 10%.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

(7) Longitudinal construction equipment load (CLE). The longitudinal force from the construction equipment.
(8) Segment unbalance (U). This applies primarily to balanced cantilever construction but can be extended to include
any “unusual” lifting sequence which may not be a primary feature of the generic construction system. The load
“U” is the effect of any out of balance segments or other unusual condition as applicable.
(9) Wind uplift on cantilever (WUP). 5 psf minimum (balanced cantilever construction applied to one side only).
(10) Accidental release or application of a precast segment load or other sudden impact from an otherwise static
segment load of WTd1. Force plus Impact = 2WT1.
(11) Creep (R). In accordance with Article 26.3.5. Creep effects shall be considered as part of rib shortening (R).
(12) Shrinkage (S). In accordance with Article 26.3.5.
(13) Thermal (T). The sum of the effects due to thermal rise and fall (TRF) and differential temperature (DT) from
Article 26.3.4.
26.4.4.2 Construction Load Combinations and Allowable Stresses
a. Stresses shall be checked under the service load combinations given in Table 8-26-2. The distribution and application
of the individual erection loads (Article 26.4.4.1) appropriate to a construction phase shall be such as to produce the
most unfavorable effects. Table 8-26-2 is a guide; if more unfavorable conditions may occur with the particular
construction system, these shall be taken into account. The maximum allowable construction load compressive stress
shall be 0.5 f c' .
1
b. Load factor design need not be used for construction conditions with the exception of Article 26.4.4.3.
26.4.4.3 Construction Load Combinations Load Factor Design Check
Using strength reduction factors (φ) in accordance with Article 26.4.3, the strength provided shall not be less than required by 3
the following load factor combinations:
a. For maximum forces and moments:
1.1 (DL + DIFF) + 1.3CE + 2A
b. For minimum forces and moments: 4

DL + CE + 2A
©
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

Table 8-26-2. Allowable Tensile Stresses for Construction Load Combinations
8-26-20

Super-
Segmental
Dead Loads Live Loads Wind Loads structure
Substructure Only
Only
Combination
Comments
(1)
Allowable (2) βE
(R+S+T) Including B SF (3) (4)
Stress (Note 3) Excluding Including
(R+S+T)
DL DIFF U CLL CE IE CLE W WUP WE (Note 4) (R+S+T) (R+S+T)
Allowable
Allowable Allowable
Stress
Stress Stress
(Note 4)
a 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 6 f c' 1 7 f c' βE 1 1 6 f c' 7 f c'

b 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 6 f c' 1 7 f c' βE 1 1 6 f c' 7 f c'

0.7
c 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.7 0 6 f c' 1 7 f c' 1 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 1)
0.7 βE Equipment
d 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0.7 7 f c' 1 7 f c' 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 1) not working
0.3 βE Normal
e 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0.3 7 f c' 1 7 f c' 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 2) Erection
0.3 βE Moving
f 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0.3 7 f c' 1 7 f c' 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 2) Equipment
The allowable stresses in Columns (1) and (2) apply to the summation of all the loads multiplied by their tabulated coefficients in all the columns to the left. Similarly
for Columns (3) and (4) with the exceptions of (R+S+T) as noted.
Note 1: Reduction is to allow for lesser probability of maximum wind during construction period.
Note 2: Reduction is to allow for limiting wind beyond which construction is halted.
Note 3: The βE term is as defined in AASHTO Section 3.22.
Note 4: When less than 50% of the tendon capacity is provided by internal tendons, the maximum allowable construction stresses shall be 3 f c' for Type A joints,
and 0 for Type B joints.
SECTION 26.5 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
26.5.1 PRESTRESSING STEEL (1996)
The allowable stresses for prestressing steel shall be in accordance with the provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete.
26.5.2 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (1996)
26.5.2.1 Temporary Stresses Before Losses Due to Creep and Shrinkage, at the Time of Application of the
Prestress
a. Maximum Compression:
0.55 f ci' .
b. Longitudinal stresses in the PRECOMPRESSED tensile zone:
(1) Type A joints with minimum bonded mild steel auxiliary reinforcement through the joints sufficient to carry the
calculated tensile force at a stress of 0.5 fsy; internal tendons.
3 f ci' maximum tension
(2) Type A joints without the minimum bonded mild steel auxiliary reinforcement through the joints; internal or
1
external tendons: 0 tension
(3) Type B joints, external tendons not less than: 200 psi minimum compression
(4) Tension in other areas without bonded nonprestressed reinforcement: 0 tension.

3
(5) Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds the allowable tensile value, bonded reinforcement shall be provided at
a stress of 0.5 fsy to resist the total tensile force in concrete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section.
In such cases, the maximum tensile stress shall not exceed
6 f ci' .
4
26.5.2.2 Stresses at the Service Level After Losses
a. Maximum Compression:
0.4 f c'
b. Longitudinal stresses in the PRECOMPRESSED tensile zone:
(1) Type A joints with minimum bonded auxiliary reinforcement through the joints sufficient to carry the calculated
tensile force at a stress of 0.5 fsy; internal tendons:
3 f c' maximum tension
(2) Type A joints without minimum bonded auxiliary reinforcement through joints: 0 tension
©
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

(3) Type B joints, external tendons, not less than: 200 psi minimum compression
(4) Tension in other areas without bonded reinforcement: zero tension
(5) Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds this value, bonded reinforcement shall be provided at a stress of 0.5 fsy
to resist the total tensile force in the concrete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section. In such cases,
the maximum tensile stress shall not exceed
6 f c' .
c. Transverse tension in the precompressed tensile zone:
3 f c' maximum tension
26.5.2.3 Anchorage
a. The bearing stresses under the anchor plates shall be in accordance with the provisions of Part 17, Prestressed
Concrete, Article 17.16.2.4 as modified by this section. The stresses calculated at application of the post-tensioning
force and at the service load shall be limited to 5,000 psi and 6,250 psi, respectively.
b. Anchorage devices which function on the basis of confinement reinforcing need not conform to the bearing stress
limitations for plate type anchorage devices specified in paragraph a. Acceptance of such anchorage devices shall be
based on review of test data or on the basis of documented performance on major bridge projects.1
c. The concrete splitting force shall be calculated in accordance with Article 26.10.2; by test results based on similar
anchorages, tendon trajectory, and concrete section geometry; or by more rigorous analytical procedures.2
d. Reinforcement shall be provided to resist the anchorage splitting forces.
e. Tensile stress in anchorage splitting reinforcement at the time of application of the prestress: 0.6 fsy , where fsy shall not
exceed 60,000 psi.
SECTION 26.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES (1996)
Prestress losses shall be computed in accordance with the provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete. Lump sum losses shall
only be used for preliminary design purposes. Losses due to creep, shrinkage, and elastic shortening of the concrete as well as
friction, wobble, anchor set and relaxation in the tendon shall be calculated for the construction method and schedule shown
on the plans in accordance with time-related procedures for calculation of prestress losses.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

SECTION 26.7 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
26.7.1 GENERAL (1996)1
Flexural strength of segmental concrete bridges shall be calculated in conjunction with Part 17, Prestressed Concrete. The
flexural capacity required by the load factor provisions of Article 26.4.1 shall be less than or equal to φf times the flexural
capacity provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete. The values of φf shall be taken from Article 26.4.3.
26.7.2 STRAIN COMPATIBILITY (1996)
As an alternative to use of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete, flexural strength of bonded tendon bridges may be calculated in
accordance with the strain compatibility provisions of Section 10.2 of the ACI 318 Building Code (Reference 4). Strain
compatibility analysis may also be used for computation of bridges with unbonded tendons provided that the analysis correctly
recognizes the differences in strain between the tendons and the concrete section, and provided that the analysis recognizes the
effect of tendon anchorage lateral restraints and deflection geometry changes on the effective stress in the tendons.
26.7.3 CENTER OF GRAVITY CORRECTION FOR STRAND TENDONS (1996)
Draped strand tendons shall be assumed to be at the bottom of the duct in negative moment areas, and at the top of the duct in
positive moment areas. For both strength and allowable stress calculations, the location of the tendon center of gravity with
respect to the center line of the duct shall be assumed as illustrated by Figure C-8-26-7 (negative moment area shown).
z
3
Figure 8-26-7. Negative Moment Region

4
SECTION 26.8 SHEAR AND TORSION
26.8.1 SCOPE (1996)2
a. The provisions of this section shall apply to the design of prestressed concrete segmental bridges subjected to shear or
combined shear and torsion. Design for shear of combined shear and torsion shall be based on ultimate load conditions.
The provisions of Article 26.8.2 shall apply to all parts of this section.
b. Regions with one-way beam or thin plate type action or similar conditions in which the plane sections assumption of
flexural theory can be applied shall be designed for shear or shear and torsion according to Article 26.8.1, and either
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

the traditional approach of Article 26.8.3 or the strut-and-tie model approach of Article 26.8.4. Detailing of all shear
and torsion reinforcement must meet the requirements of Article 26.8.2.1
c. Discontinuity regions where the plane sections assumption of flexural theory is not applicable such as regions adjacent
to abrupt changes in cross sections, openings, dapped ends, regions where large concentrated loads, reactions, or post-
tensioning forces are applied or deviated, diaphragms, deep beams, corbels or joints shall be designed for the applied
forces causing shear or shear and torsion according to Article 26.8.2 and the strut-and-tie model approach of
Article 26.8.4. In addition, special discontinuity regions like deep beams, brackets and corbels should be designed for
the applicable parts of Article 26.8.5.2
d. Interfaces between elements such as webs and flanges, between dissimilar materials, between concretes cast at
different times, or at an existing or potential major crack shall be designed for shear transfer in accordance with
Article 26.8.6.3
e. Slab type regions subjected to local concentrated forces such as concentrated loads or column reactions shall be
designed for two-way punching shear in accordance with Article 26.8.7.
f. The applied shear on a cross section shall consist of the shear due to factored ultimate dead load (VuDL) including
continuity effects, factored ultimate live load (VuLL) and any other factored ultimate load cases specified. Torsional
moments (Tu) shall be included in design for factored ultimate load when their magnitude exceeds the value specified
in Article 26.8.2j.4
g. The applied shear due to the component of the effective longitudinal prestress force which acts in the direction of the
section being examined (Vp) shall be considered as a load effect.
h. The vertical component of inclined tendons shall only be considered to reduce the applied shear on the webs for
tendons which cross the webs and are anchored or fully developed by anchorages, deviators, or internal ducts located
in the outer 1/3 of the webs.
a. For members subjected to combined shear and torsion, the resulting shear forces in the different elements of the
structure from the combined shear flows from shear and from torsion shall be considered. The individual elements
shall be designed for the resultant shear forces.
b. The effects of axial tension due to creep, shrinkage and thermal effects in restrained members shall be considered
wherever applicable.
c. The component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the shear force shall be considered in accordance
with Article 26.8.1f.
d. The components of inclined flexural compression or tension in variable depth members shall be considered.
e. The effects of any openings or ducts in members shall be considered. In determining the effective web width, bw or be
the diameters of ungrouted ducts or one-half the diameters of grouted ducts shall be subtracted from the web width at
the level of these ducts.
f. The values of f c' used in any part of this section shall not exceed 100 psi.5
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
5 See Commentary
© 2013,

g. The design yield strength of nonprestressed transverse shear or torsion reinforcement shall not exceed 60 ksi. The shear
and torsion resistance contribution of prestressed transverse shear or torsion reinforcement shall be based on
substitution of the effective stress after allowance for all prestress losses plus 60 ksi, but not to exceed f y* , in place of
fsy in transverse reinforcement expressions.
h. In pretensioned elements, the reduced prestress in the transfer length of the prestressing tendons shall be considered
when computing fpc and Vp. The prestress force due to a given tendon shall be assumed to vary linearly from zero at
the point at which bonding commences to a maximum at a transfer length which may be assumed as 50 diameters for
1/2 inch diameter strand.1
i. Shear effects may be neglected in areas of members where the factored shear force Vu is less than φ V c /2 (Vc is
defined in this article (Reference 3). Nominal minimum stirrup capacity of not less than the equivalent of two No. 4
Grade 60 bars at 1 foot on centers shall be provided per web in such areas or the minimum shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement required by Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.12.2
j. Torsional effects may be neglected in members where the factored torsional moment Tu is less than φ T c /3. In lieu of a
more detailed calculation, Tc may be taken as
T c = 2K f c' ( 2A o b e )
K shall be computed as
1 + ( f pc ⁄ 2 f c' ) but K ≤ 2.0 1
However, K shall not exceed 1.0 at any section where the stress in the extreme tension fiber due to factored load and
effective prestress force exceeds 6 f c' in tension. The influence of axial tension, Nut, shall be accounted for by
replacing fpc by (f p c – N u t /A g ). The influence of axial compression, Nuc, shall be accounted for by replacing fpc by
the term (f p c + N u c /A g ). Ao is the area enclosed by the shear flow path defined by the centroids of the longitudinal
chords of the space truss model resisting the applied torsion. In lieu of a more precise analysis, Ao may be taken as
3
85% of the area enclosed by the centerline of the exterior closed transverse torsion reinforcement. be is the effective
width of the shear flow path of the elements making up the space truss model resisting torsion. In box girders be may
be taken as A c p /p c p , where Acp is the area enclosed by the outside perimeter of the concrete cross section and Pcp is
the outside perimeter of the concrete cross section. The effects of openings and ducts must be considered as required in
paragraph e.
4
k. In a statically indeterminate structure where significant reduction of torsional moment in a member can occur due to
redistribution of internal forces upon cracking, the factored torsion moment Tu may be reduced to φTc [Tc is defined in
paragraph j], provided that moments and forces in the member and in adjoining members are adjusted to account for
the redistribution. In lieu of a more exact analysis, the torsional loading from a slab may be assumed as linearly
distributed along the member.
l. Transverse reinforcement shall be provided in all elements except for slabs and footings, and elements where Vu is less
than 0.5 φVc. In lieu of more detailed calculations, Vc may be taken as:
V c = 2K f c' b w d
K shall be computed in accordance with paragraph j.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

m. Where transverse reinforcement is required, the minimum tensile capacity of the transverse reinforcement shall be 50
bws, where bw and s are in inches. Greater amounts may be required to carry shear and torsion to meet the requirements
of Article 26.8.3 or Article 26.8.5.
n. Transverse reinforcement may consist of:
(1) Stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the longitudinal
tension reinforcement, inclined to intercept potential cracks.
(2) Welded wire fabric sheets or cages with wires located perpendicular to the axis of the member.
(3) Longitudinal bars bent to provide an inclined portion making an angle of 30 degrees or more with the longitudinal
tension reinforcement and inclined to intercept potential diagonal cracks.
(4) Well-anchored prestressed tendons which are carefully detailed and constructed to minimize seating and time
dependent losses.
(5) Combinations of stirrups, tendons, and bent longitudinal bars.
(6) Spirals.
o. Transverse reinforcement shall be detailed so that the shear forces between the different elements or zones of a member
are effectively transferred. Transverse shear or torsion reinforcement shall extend as a continuous tie from the extreme
compression fiber (less cover) to the outermost tension reinforcement. All transverse reinforcement shall be fully
anchored according to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.13.1.
p. Torsion reinforcement shall consist of longitudinal bars or tendons and:
(1) closed stirrups or closed ties, perpendicular to the axis of the member;
(2) a closed cage of welded wire fabric with transverse wires perpendicular to the axis of the member:
(3) spirals.
q. Transverse torsion reinforcement shall be made fully continuous and shall be anchored according to Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design, Section 2.21b(1), where the concrete surrounding the anchorage is restrained against spalling by
flange or slab or similar element. Anchorage shall be by 135 degrees standard hooks around longitudinal reinforcement
where the concrete surrounding the anchorage is unrestrained against spalling. Spacing of closed stirrups or closed ties
shall not exceed one-half of the shortest dimension of the cross section, nor 12 inches.
r. At any place on the cross section where the axial tension due to torsion and bending exceeds the axial compression due
to prestressing and bending, either supplementary tendons to counter the tension must be added or local longitudinal
reinforcement which is continuous across the joints between segments is required.
s. If supplementary tendons are added, they shall be distributed around the perimeter of the precompressed tension zone
inside the closed stirrups. At least one tendon shall be placed near each corner of the stirrups in the precompressed
tension zone.
t. If longitudinal reinforcement is added, the bars shall be distributed around the perimeter formed by the closed stirrups.
Perimeter bar spacing shall not exceed 18 inches. At least one longitudinal bar shall be placed in each corner of the
stirrups. The minimum diameter of the corner bars shall be 1/24 of the stirrup spacing but no less than that of a #5 bar.
u. Maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not exceed 0.5d in nonprestressed elements, 0.75h in prestressed
elements nor 36 inches. When Vu exceeds 6φ f c' b w d , these maximum spacings shall be reduced by one-half.
© 2013,

v. Flexural reinforcement, including tendons, shall be extended beyond the theoretical termination or deviation points for
a distance of at least h/2. Transverse reinforcement for shear and torsion shall be provided for a distance at least h/2
beyond the point theoretically required.1
w. Shear keys in webs of precast segmental bridges shall extend for as much of the web height as is compatible with other
detailing requirements. Alignment shear keys shall also be provided in top and bottom flanges.
26.8.3 TRADITIONAL SHEAR AND TORSION DESIGN FOR PLANE SECTION TYPE
REGIONS (1996)2
a. The design of beam-type members or regions for shear and torsion may be carried out according to this article
provided:
(1) Vn does not exceed 10 f c' b w d
2 2
(2) ( V n ⁄ b w d ) + ( T n ⁄ 2A o b e ) does not exceed 15 f c' .
(3) There are no significant discontinuities such as abrupt changes in cross section or openings.
(4) No concentrated load located within 2d of a support causes more than one-third of the shear at that support.
(5) Where required, shear reinforcement consists of tendons and stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or
welded wire fabric sheets or cages with wires perpendicular to the axis of the member, and conforms to
Article 26.8.2.
1
(6) Where required, torsion reinforcement consists of longitudinal bars, and closed stirrups perpendicular to the axis
of the member, and conforms to Article 26.8.2.
b. The design of cross sections subject to shear shall be based on Vu ≤ φVn where Vu is the factored shear force and Vn is
the nominal shear strength. Vu shall consider any unfavorable effects of prestressing and may consider favorable
effects of prestressing in accordance with Article 26.8.1f. For the purposes of this section, Vn may be computed as: 3
Vn = Vc + Vs
where:
Vc = may be determined from Article 26.8.2l 4

Vs = may be determined from paragraph d.
In equations for Vc and Vs, d shall be the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressed
reinforcement in the tension chord or 0.8h, whichever is greater.
c. The applied shear Vu in regions near supports may be reduced to the value computed at a distance h/2 from the support
when both of the following conditions are satisfied:
(1) The support reaction, in the direction of the applied shear, introduces compression into the support region of the
member, and
(2) No concentrated load occurs within a distance h from the face of the support.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

d. The nominal shear contribution of the truss model with concrete diagonals at 45 degrees inclination as determined by
the shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of the member is
V s = A v f s y d/s
e. Where required by Article 26.8.2j, torsion reinforcement shall be provided in addition to the reinforcement required to
resist the factored shear, flexure and axial forces that act in combination with the torsion.
f. The longitudinal and transverse reinforcement required for torsion shall be determined from:
Tu ≤ φTn
g. The nominal torsional resistance provided by a space truss with concrete diagonals at 45 degrees inclination and the
indicated transverse reinforcement for torsion is:
T n = 2A o A t f s y /s
where:
Ao = defined in Article 26.8.2j
h. The additional longitudinal reinforcement for torsion shall not be less than:
Al = (Tnph) / (2Aofsy)
where:
ph = the perimeter of the polygon defined by the centroids of the longitudinal chords of the space truss
resisting torsion.
ph may be taken as the perimeter of the centerline of the outermost closed stirrups. Al shall be distributed around the
perimeter of the closed stirrups in accordance with Article 26.8.2t.1
i. The area of additional longitudinal torsion reinforcement in the flexural compression zone may be reduced by an
amount equal to M u /(0.9d f s y ) where Mu is the factored bending moment acting at that section except that the
reinforcement provided shall not be less than required by Article 26.8.2t.
26.8.4 STRUT-AND-TIE TRUSS MODEL DESIGN FOR EITHER BEAM TYPE OR

DISCONTINUITY REGIONS (1996)2
a. The design of any region for shear and torsion may be carried out according to this article based on an analysis of the
internal load paths for all forces acting on the member or region. The effects of the prestress force shall be included in
accordance with Article 26.8.1f. The internal load paths shall be idealized using appropriate strut-and-tie or space truss
models consisting of:
(1) Concrete and compressive reinforcement compression chords.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
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(2) Inclined concrete compressive struts.
(3) Longitudinal reinforcement tension chords or ties.
(4) Transverse reinforcement tension members or ties.
(5) Node regions at all joints of chords, struts and ties.1
b. The proportions of the elements and the reinforcement shall be selected so that the tension ties yield before the
compression chords or struts crush. Chord capacities shall be based on underreinforced sections for flexure.
c. The size of the members and joint regions in the truss shall be chosen so that the computed forces in the struts, ties, and
truss members, Su, due to factored loads shall satisfy:
(1) Compression chords
φ f ( 085f c' A cc + A's f s' ) ≥ S u
where:
φf = the appropriate φ value for flexure
(2) Inclined compressive struts

1
φv(fcuAcs) ≥ Su
where:
φv = the appropriate φ value for shear and diagonal tension

fcu = the limiting strut compressive stress from paragraph d
3
(3) Reinforcement tension chords
φ f ( A s f sy + A *s f su
* )≥S
u
where:
4
φf = the appropriate φ value for flexure
* = the average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate load considering the anchorage and bonding
f su
conditions
(4) Transverse reinforcement tension members or ties:
φv(Avfsy) ≥ Su
where:
φv = the appropriate φ value for shear and diagonal tension
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

When such members or ties are prestressed, the effective stress after prestress losses shall be used in place of fsy.
(5) Node regions
φb(fcnAcn) ≥ Su
where:
φb = the appropriate φ value for bearing

fcn = the limiting compressive stress in a node region from paragraph f
d. The compressive stress in an inclined compressive strut, fcu shall not exceed:
(1) For essentially undisturbed, uniaxial compressive stress states 0.6 f c' .
(2) For compressive stress states where tensile strains in the cross-direction or transverse tensile reinforcement may
cause cracking of normal crack width parallel to the strut 0.45 f c' .
(3) For compressive stress states with skew cracking or skew transverse reinforcement 0.35 f c' .
(4) For compressive stress states with very wide skew cracks when the strut orientation differs appreciably from the
elastic orientation of the internal load path 0.25 f c' .
e. The tension chord and all tension ties shall be effectively anchored to transfer the required tension to the truss node
regions in accordance with the ordinary requirements of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design for development of
reinforcement (Section 2.14) and shall be detailed to satisfy the stress limits of paragraph f.
f. Unless special confining reinforcement is provided, the concrete compressive stress fcn in the node regions shall not
exceed:
(1) 0.85f c' in node regions bounded by compressive struts and bearing areas,
(2) 0.70f c' in node regions anchoring only one tension tie, or
(3) 0.60f c' in node regions anchoring tension ties in more than one direction.
26.8.5 SPECIAL REQUIREMENT FOR DIAPHRAGMS, DEEP BEAMS, CORBELS AND

BRACKETS (1996)
26.8.5.1 General
All discontinuity regions must be proportioned using the strut-and-tie model approach of Article 26.8.4. Special discontinuity
regions like diaphragms, deep beams, corbels, brackets must also satisfy the special provision of Article 26.8.5.
26.8.5.2 Diaphragms and Deep Beams
a. Diaphragms are ordinarily required in pier and abutment superstructure segments to distribute the high shear forces to
the bearings. Vertical and transverse post-tensioning shall be analyzed using the strut-and-tie model of Article 26.8.4
and the effective prestress forces of Article 26.8.1f. The diaphragm tendons must be effectively tied into the
© 2013,

diaphragms with bonded nonprestressed reinforcement to resist tendon forces at the corners of openings in the
diaphragms.1
b. Deep beams are members in which the distance from the point of zero shear to the face of the support is less than 2d or
members in which a load causing more than one-third of the shear at a support is closer than 2d from the face of the
support.
(1) The strut-and-tie model of Article 26.8.4 shall be used to analyze and design deep beams.2
(2) The minimum tensile capacity of transverse reinforcement shall be 120bws, and s shall not exceed d/4 nor 12
inches.
(3) Bonded longitudinal bars shall be well distributed over each face of the vertical elements in pairs. The minimum
tensile capacity of this bonded reinforcement pair shall be 120bws. The vertical spacing between each pair, s, shall
not exceed d/3 nor 12 inches.
(4) In deep beam vertical elements with a width less than 10 inches, the pairs of bonded bars required by paragraph (3)
may be replaced by a single bar with the required tensile capacity.
26.8.5.3 Brackets and Corbels
a. The strut-and-tie model of Article 26.8.4 shall be used to analyze and design brackets and corbels.3
b. The depth at the outside edge of the bearing area shall be at least half the depth at the face of the support.
1
c. Corbels and brackets shall be designed to resist the calculated external tensile force Nut acting on the bearing area, but
Nut shall not be less than 0.2 Vu unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces. Therefore, Nut shall be
regarded as a live load even when tension results from creep, shrinkage or temperature change.
d. The steel ratio A s /bd at the face of the support shall be at least 0.04f c' ⁄ f sy , where d is measured at the face of the
support. 3
e. Closed stirrups or ties parallel to the primary tensile tie reinforcement, As, with a total area not less than 0.5 As shall be
uniformly distributed within 2/3 of the effective depth adjacent to As.
f. At the front face of a bracket or corbel, the primary tension reinforcement As shall be effectively anchored to develop
the specified yield strength, fsy, by:
4
(1) A structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size, or;
(2) Bending the primary bars, As back to form a continuous loop, or;
(3) Some other positive means of anchorage.
g. The bearing area of the load on a bracket or corbel shall not project beyond the interior portion of the primary tension
bars, As, nor project beyond the interior face of any transverse anchor bar.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

26.8.6 SHEAR TRANSFER AT INTERFACES (1996)
Shear transfer at interfaces shall be designed in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.35.4 using the f
values found in this Part.
26.8.7 TWO-WAY PUNCHING SHEAR (1996)
Two-way punching shear slab type elements shall be designed in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.35.6 using the appropriate φ values from this Specification.
SECTION 26.9 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS
26.9.1 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR BONDED NONPRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT

(1996)1
Design of bonded nonprestressed reinforcement for fatigue shall conform to the provisions of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete
Design, Article 2.26.2.
26.9.2 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT (1996)2
Fatigue of prestressed reinforcement need not be considered for bridges designed in accordance with this Specification.
SECTION 26.10 DESIGN OF LOCAL AND GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES, ANCHORAGE

BLISTERS AND DEVIATION SADDLES
26.10.1 GENERAL (1996)3
a. Anchorage zones for post-tensioning tendons are regions of complex stresses. The post-tensioned anchorages zone
may be considered as comprised of two zones.
b. The local zone is the region immediately surrounding each anchorage device. It may be taken as a cylinder or prism
with transverse dimensions approximately equal to the sum of the projected size of the bearing plate plus the
manufacturer’s specified minimum side or edge cover. The length of the local zone extends for the length of the
anchorage device plus an additional distance in front of the anchor equal to at least the maximum lateral dimensions of
the anchor. Performance of the anchorage device and furnishing of any supplementary reinforcement required in this
local zone is the responsibility of the constructor and material suppliers. These responsibilities shall be set forth in the
project plans and specifications.
c. The general zone is the region in front of the anchor which extends along the tendon axis for a distance equal to the
overall depth of the member. The height of the general zone is taken as the overall depth of the member. In the case of
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
© 2013,

intermediate anchorages which are not at the end of a member, the general zone shall be considered to also extend
along the projection of the tendon axis for about the same distance before the anchor.
d. Design and specification of any supplementary reinforcement required in the general zone (in addition to the required
local zone reinforcement) is the responsibility of the engineer of record. Proper installation of such supplementary
reinforcement is the responsibility of the constructor.
e. Reinforcement shall be provided for bursting, splitting, and spalling tensile stresses generated by tendon anchorages
and deviation saddles in accordance with the following provisions of this Section. The method of analysis shall
consider anchorage eccentricity, tendon inclination, and tendon curvature.
f. The proportions and supplementary reinforcement of the local zone containing the tendon anchors must be adequate to
transfer the tendon force into the mass of the concrete structure. The load transfer may be achieved by either bearing
plate type anchors or by special anchorage devices which in combination with special anchor reinforcement (such as
spirals, stirrups or other reinforcement) transfer the local zone loads from the anchors into the general anchorage zone
of the structure.
26.10.2 FORCES AND REINFORCEMENT IN GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES (1996)1
a. The general distribution of forces and the reinforcement required to provide the necessary general anchorage zone
tensile capacity to counteract the bursting forces of the anchorages may be determined using the strut-and-tie model
approach of Article 26.8.4.
b. In lieu of analysis using the strut-and-tie approach, the total bursting force, Fbst, for an individual anchorage shall be 1
taken as:
F bst = 0.30 ( 1 – d a ⁄ d sp )P j

3
26.10.3.1 Local Zones
The local zone shall be reinforced for the bursting forces as required for the anchor type used in accordance with the
provisions of Article 26.5.2.3 and Article 26.10.2. The reinforcement may consist of stirrups, ties, spirals, or combinations of
these.
26.10.3.2 General Anchorage Zone Bursting and Directional Forces2 4

The structure shall be reinforced with stirrups or ties to resist general anchorage zone bursting forces and directional forces
due to total post-tensioning forces anchored at a section in accordance with the provisions of Article 26.5.2.3 and
Article 26.10.2.
26.10.3.3 Stress in Reinforcement for Bursting Forces3
Reinforcement for bursting forces shall be designed for maximum jacking forces at time of stressing with
fs = 0.6 fsy where fsy shall not exceed 60 ksi.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

26.10.3.4 Post-Tensioning
Post-tensioning may be provided to supplement reinforcement restraint against anchorage bursting or directional forces.
26.10.4 REINFORCEMENT DETAILING (1996)
Reinforcement may be in the form of spirals, stirrups, orthogonal reinforcement, or combinations of these. Groups of
anchorages shall be restrained by reinforcement stirrups or lateral post-tensioning enclosing the entire group. All orthogonal
reinforcement must be mechanically anchored around reinforcement running parallel with tendons. All spirals, stirrups, or
orthogonal reinforcement shall have sufficient extra length to develop full bond with the concrete, or shall be mechanically
anchored by 135 degrees bends around reinforcement. The clear distance between bars or pitch of spirals used as anchorage
zone reinforcement shall be at least the maximum size of the coarse aggregate plus 1/2 inch but not less than 1-1/2 inches.
26.10.5 ANCHORAGES IN SPECIAL BLISTERS (1996)
26.10.5.1 Design
In addition to reinforcements provided for tensile stresses perpendicular to the tendon trajectory, blisters shall also be designed
for shear and bending between the blister and web/flange interface. For these purposes, the strut-and-tie models of Section
26.8, Shear and Torsion, or the rules for shear friction and special provisions brackets and corbels as set out in Part 2,
Reinforced Concrete Design shall be applied. The reinforcement required for anchorage zone tensile stress may also be used
for shear friction calculations if full bond development or mechanical anchorage within the web and slab is provided for the
reinforcement.
26.10.5.2 Local Bending
When blisters are used, a check shall be made for the localized bending induced into the web and/or flange in the region
surrounding the anchorage. Reinforcement shall be provided equivalent to the force represented by the concrete tensile stress
block proportioned at a stress of not more than 0.6 fsy, where fsy shall not exceed 60 ksi.
26.10.5.3 Local Tensile Stresses Behind Anchorage Blisters
Blisters should preferably be located at the juncture of the flange and the web. Calculations shall be made to assure that
sufficient residual compression exists behind anchorage blisters that no localized tensile stresses occur, or sufficient
reinforcement shall be provided at an allowable stress of 0.6 fsy (maximum value of fsy to be 60 ksi) to take all the tensile
force. Use of anchorage blisters projecting from one surface only, such as a flange, should preferably be restricted to
anchorage of small tendons and bars. Blisters shall preferably be located sufficiently far from a joint to allow dispersal of local
tensile stress effects through the reinforced slab. Minimum reinforcement shall be provided to carry 25-50% of the anchor load
into the concrete behind the anchor. The amount of reinforcement provided shall be based on evaluation of the compressive
stress level due to other tendons or loads in the local area behind the anchor, and shall increase to an amount of reinforcement
sufficient to carry 50% of the tendon force whenever local net tensile stresses might be generated behind the anchorage.
26.10.6 ANCHORAGES IN DIAPHRAGMS (1996)
Reinforcement shall be provided to ensure a full transfer of shear load from the diaphragm to the webs and flanges. The
diaphragm shall be designed and reinforced for any localized bending effects due to concentrated anchorage loads. Anchorage
zones in diaphragms shall be reinforced in accordance with Article 26.10.2.
26.10.7 ANCHORAGE BEARING REACTION FORCE (1996)
In situations where the anchorage reaction force is not parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam, it is necessary to take into
account the magnitude and direction of the anchorage bearing reaction. Reinforcement or post-tensioning shall be provided as
© 2013,

required to contain the component of the anchorage reaction perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the girder. The
reinforcement stress may be taken as 0.6 fsy but not greater than 36 ksi (for Grade 60 steel).
26.10.8 DEVIATION SADDLES (1996)
26.10.8.1 General
Deviation saddles are blisters external to the webs and flanges, normally on the inside of a box at the junction of web and
flange where tendons placed external to the concrete are deviated in direction to produce the required tendon profile.
26.10.8.2 Design
Reinforcement shall be provided in the form of fully anchored reinforcement and bent bars in webs or flanges to take the
* from the deviated tendon(s) at a service stress of 0.5 f . Additional reinforcement
resultant pull out force computed at f su sy
shall be provided to take any out of balance longitudinal forces by shear friction action according to the ACI 318-86 Standard
Building Code, Article 11.7. Reinforcement shall also be provided to take any localized bending and axial effects transmitted
from the deviation saddles to the webs and/or flanges.
26.10.8.3 Detailing
All reinforcements shall have a full effective development length measured from the tendon axis or shall otherwise be fully
mechanically anchored around longitudinal reinforcement located at the outside of the (box) section. Consideration shall be
given to constructibility and clearances between reinforcement for adequate concrete compaction. Not more than two
reinforcing bars shall be bundled and the clear distance between reinforcement shall be at least 1/2 inch greater than the 1
maximum coarse aggregate size and in no case less than 1-1/2 inches.
26.10.8.4 Localized Effects on Transverse Design
The transverse design of the section shall be checked for the transverse force imparted through deviation saddles, including
any unsymmetrical effects due to sequential post-tensioning. Additional bonded reinforcement proportioned at a tensile stress
of 0.6 fsy, where fsy shall not be taken as greater than 60 ksi, or transverse post-tensioning shall be provided equivalent to the 3
tensile force induced in the slab.
SECTION 26.11 PROVISIONAL POST-TENSIONING DUCTS AND ANCHORAGES

4
26.11.1 GENERAL (1996)
In accordance with Article 26.11.2, the design of ducts and anchorages for bridges with internal tendons shall provide for
increases in the post-tensioning force at selected locations along the bridge during construction to compensate for excessive
friction and wobble losses during stressing. For bridges with either internal or external tendons, the design shall provide for
future addition of external unbonded tendons in accordance with provisions of Article 26.11.3 as an allowance for addition of
future dead load, or to adjust for deflection of the bridge.
26.11.2 BRIDGES WITH INTERNAL DUCTS (1996)1

At intervals of not more than three segments, provisional anchorage and duct capacity for negative and positive moment
tendons located symmetrically about the bridge centerline shall provide for an increase in the post-tensioning force. The total
provisional force potential of both positive and negative moment anchorages and ducts shall not be less than 5% of the total
1
See Commentary
©
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

positive and negative moment forces, respectively, and shall be distributed uniformly at three segment intervals along the
length of the bridge. At least one empty duct per web shall be provided with anchorages at appropriate locations. Except for
non-continuous bridges, and the minimum empty duct capacity noted above, provisional positive moment duct and anchorage
capacity shall not be required for 25% of the span length either side of pier supports. Any provisional ducts not utilized for
adjustment of the post-tensioning force shall be grouted at the same time as other ducts in the span.
26.11.3 PROVISION FOR FUTURE DEAD LOAD OR DEFLECTION ADJUSTMENT (1996)1

Specific provisions shall be made for access and for anchorage attachments, pass through openings, and deviation block
attachments to permit future addition of unbonded external tendons symmetrically about the bridge centerline for a post-
tensioning force of not less than 5% of the total positive moment and negative moment post-tensioning force.
SECTION 26.12 DUCT DETAILS
26.12.1 MATERIAL THICKNESS (1996)

26.12.1.1 Metal Ducts2
Metal ducts shall be galvanized corrugated semi-rigid conduit. For strand and wire tendons, the duct thickness shall be 26 gage
up to 2-5/8 inches diameter. Ducts larger than 2-5/8 inches diameter shall be 24 gage. For bar tendons, the duct thickness shall
not be less than 31 gage.
26.12.1.2 Polyethylene Duct3
Polyethylene duct or rigid pipe used as external duct shall be high density polyethylene conforming to ASTM D3350. Internal
polyethylene duct shall have spiral corrugations. Rigid pipe may be manufactured in accordance with ASTM D2447, ASTM
F714, or ASTM D2239. Material thickness shall be as follows:
a. Internal polyethylene duct = 0.050 inches ± 0.010 inch.
b. External polyethylene duct shall have a minimum external diameter to wall thickness ratio of 21 or less.
26.12.2 DUCT AREA (1996)4
Duct for strand and wire tendons shall be sized so that the area of the duct is at least 2-1/2 times the area of the prestressing
steel it contains.
26.12.3 MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVATURE (1996)5
a. Tendon ducts shall preferably be installed with a radius of curvature of 20 feet or more. Ducts with sharper curvature
down to a minimum of 10 feet shall have confinement reinforcement detailed to tie the duct into the concrete. Duct
curvature with radii less than 10 feet may be approved by the Engineer based on review of test data. The minimum
radius for corrugated polyethylene duct shall be 30 feet. The confinement reinforcement shall be proportioned to resist
radial forces calculated as:
Fr = P/R
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
5 See Commentary
© 2013,

where:
P = the tendon force in pounds per foot

R = the radius of curvature, in feet
Fr = the radial force in pounds per foot
Confinement reinforcement shall be proportioned at 0.6 fsy where fsy shall not exceed 60 ksi. Spacing of confinement
reinforcement shall not exceed 12 inches. Closer spacing shall be used for duct with radius of curvature less than 15
feet.
b. When the tendon profile radius of curvature is less than 20 feet, design consideration shall also be given to lateral
forces exerted by multistrand tendons on thin webs due to bunching of the strand at the top or bottom of circular ducts.
Confinement reinforcement, preferably in the form of spirals, shall be provided whenever the nominal shear stress due
to tendon jacking forces in the concrete cover beside the tendon exceeds 2 f c' .
26.12.4 DUCT SUPPORTS (1996)
26.12.4.1 Internal Supports1
a. Internal ducts shall be rigidly supported by ties to reinforcing steel as follows:
(1) Transverse slab tendons in metal duct: 2 feet.

1
(2) Transverse slab tendons in polyethylene duct: 2 feet.
(3) Longitudinal slab or web tendons in metal duct: 4 feet.
(4) Longitudinal slab or web tendons in polyethylene duct: 2 feet.

3
26.12.4.2 External Ducts2
External ducts shall have a maximum unsupported length of 25 feet unless a vibration analysis is made.
26.12.5 DUCT SIZE, CLEARANCE AND DETAILING (1996)
a. Maximum size of ducts shall not exceed 0.4 × web thickness. 4

b. Where two curved tendons run parallel such that the outer one is bearing inwards toward the inner one, a minimum
clearance of one duct diameter shall preferably be maintained between the ducts. If this is not possible, reinforcement
shall be provided between the ducts to fully restrain the outer tendon if it has to be stressed before the inner tendon has
been stressed and grouted. In cases where longitudinal tendons cross each other, at least one-half duct diameter but not
less than 2 inches clear space shall be provided. This restriction does not apply to transverse ducts crossing longitudinal
ducts at approximately 90 degrees.
c. Curved tendons should not be placed around re-entrant corners or voids. If this is unavoidable, then the tendons must
be provided with well anchored, full reinforcement restraint proportioned as per Article 26.12.6.1. In no case shall the
distance between the re-entrant corner or void and the edge of the duct be less than 1.5 duct diameters.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

26.12.6 DUCT CONFINEMENT REINFORCEMENT (1996)
26.12.6.1 Ducts in Webs of Curved Bridges
a. When curved tendons are located in thin webs or close to internal voids reinforcement shall be provided to prevent the
tendon from bursting through the concrete into the void whenever the nominal shear stress in the cover beside the
tendon due to tendon jacking forces exceeds 2 f c' . The area of steel required may be estimated from:
A s = P/(R × 0.6 f s y )
where:
Asy = Area of steel required, inches2/foot
b. The lateral force exerted on the concrete by the tendons may be calculated by dividing the tendon force by the radius of
curvature in accordance with Article 26.12.3.
26.12.6.2 Ducts in Flanges1
a. Ducts in bottom slabs shall be located between top and bottom layers of transverse and longitudinal slab reinforcement.
For ducts in the bottom flanges of variable depth segments, nominal confinement reinforcing shall be provided around
the duct at each segment face. The reinforcement shall not be less than two rows of #4 hairpin bars at both sides of each
duct with vertical dimensions equal to the slab thickness less top and bottom cover dimensions.
b. When closely spaced transverse or longitudinal ducts are located in top or bottom flanges, the top and bottom
nonprestressed reinforcement mats shall be tied together with vertical reinforcement consisting of #4 hairpin bars with
spacing not to exceed 18 inches or 1-1/2 times the slab thickness in each direction, whichever is the lesser.
SECTION 26.13 COUPLERS (1996)2
Not more than 50% of the longitudinal post-tensioning tendons shall be coupled at one section. The spacing between adjacent
coupler locations shall not be closer than the segment length or twice the segment depth. The void areas around couplers shall
be deducted from the gross section area and moment of inertia when computing stresses at the time of application of the post-
tensioning force.
SECTION 26.14 CONNECTION OF SECONDARY BEAMS (1996)3
a. The load from secondary beams connected to the main beam (indirect support) shall be resisted by suspension stirrups
or inclined bars. Not less than 2/3 of this suspension reinforcement shall be located in the immediate area of the
intersection. The entire load shall be transmitted within the intersection zone specified in Figure C-8-26-8. Existing
shear reinforcement within the intersection zone may be considered as part of the suspension reinforcement provided
that the secondary beam extends for the full height of the main beam. Suspension stirrups and inclined bars shall be
anchored in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.21.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
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b. Detailing of the connection may be accomplished by use of the strut-and-tie procedures outlined in Article i.
Figure 8-26-8. Reinforcement Details
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

SECTION 26.15 CONCRETE COVER AND REINFORCEMENT SPACING
26.15.1 COVER AND SPACING (1996)
Reinforcement cover and spacing shall conform to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.6 and to Article 26.15.2.
26.15.2 REINFORCEMENT DETAILS FOR ERECTION LOADS (1996)1
The transverse analysis of the box girder shall include an evaluation of the quantity Z of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Section 2.39, EQ 60, for any loads applied prior to attainment of full design strength. The value of Z calculated for flanges and
webs shall not exceed 130 kips per inch.
SECTION 26.16 INSPECTION ACCESS (1996)
Inspectability of the structure shall be assured by providing secured access hatches with minimum dimensions of 2′-6″ × 4′-0″.
Interior diaphragms shall be provided with openings larger than the dimensions specified for access hatches. The box section
shall be vented by drains or screened vents in webs at intervals not greater than 50 feet. Such venting is to prevent the build up
of potential hazardous gas which might endanger inspection personnel.
SECTION 26.17 BOX GIRDER CROSS SECTION DIMENSIONS AND DETAILS
26.17.1 MINIMUM FLANGE THICKNESS (1996)2
Top and bottom flange thickness shall not be less than any of the following:
a. 1/30 the clear span between webs or haunches, a lesser dimension will require transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the
clear span between webs or haunches.
b. Top flange, 9 inches where transverse post-tensioning is anchored. Transverse post-tensioning or pretensioning shall be
used where the clear span between webs or haunches is 15 feet or larger. Strand used for transverse pretensioning shall
be 0.5 inch diameter or less.
26.17.2 MINIMUM WEB THICKNESS (1996)3
a. Webs with no longitudinal or vertical post-tensioning tendons – 8 inches.
b. Webs with only longitudinal (or vertical) post-tensioning tendons – 12 inches.
c. Webs with both longitudinal and vertical post-tensioning tendons – 15 inches.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
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26.17.3 LENGTH OF TOP FLANGE CANTILEVER (1996)
The cantilever length of the top flange measured from the centerline of web should preferably not exceed 0.45 the interior span
of the top flange measured between the centerline of the webs.
26.17.4 OVERALL CROSS SECTION DIMENSIONS (1996)1
Overall dimensions of the box girder cross section should preferably not be less than required to limit live load plus impact
deflection calculated using the gross section moment of inertia and the secant modulus of elasticity to 1/1800 of the span. The
live loading shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.3c. The live loading shall be
considered to be uniformly distributed to all longitudinal flexural members.
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 26, Recommendations for the Design
of Segmental Bridges. In the numbering of articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article
being explained.
C - SECTION 26.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIAL

1
C - 26.1.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. Segmental bridges contemplated under this Article include but are not limited to those erected by the following
methods:
(1) Balanced cantilever

3
(2) Span-by-span with truss or falsework
(3) Span-by-span lifting
(4) Incremental launching
(5) Progressive placement 4

b. The span length of bridges considered by these specifications ranges to approximately 800 feet. Bridges supported by
stay cables are not specifically covered although many of the specification provisions are applicable to cable-stayed
bridges.
c. Lightweight concrete has been infrequently used for segmental bridge construction. Provision for the use of
lightweight aggregates represents a significant complication of both design and construction specifications. For these
reasons, as well as questions concerning the economic benefit of use of lightweight aggregates for segmental bridges,
their use is not explicitly covered in these specifications.
1
See Commentary
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

C - 26.1.5 SEGMENTAL BRIDGES, DESIGN REINFORCEMENT (1996)
a. Special corrosion protection is considered necessary for all bridge deck reinforcement in areas of contamination or
where de-icer or other harmful chemicals may be applied. Corrosion protection should also be provided for all
reinforcement of bridges located in coastal areas or over sea water, or in heavily industrialized areas.
b. See the ACI Committee 222 report “Corrosion of Metals in Concrete” (Reference 3) for a comprehensive discussion of
methods of corrosion protection.
C - SECTION 26.2 METHODS OF ANALYSIS
C - 26.2.1 GENERAL (1996)
Results of elastic analyses should be evaluated with consideration of possible variations in the modulus of elasticity of the
concrete, and variations on the concrete creep and shrinkage properties, as well as the impact of variations in the construction
schedule on these (and other) design parameters.
C - 26.2.2 STRUT-AND-TIE-MODELS (1996)
Strut-and-tie models provide one means of analyzing areas near concentrated loads, bearing areas, diaphragms, corners, bends,
openings, anchorage zones for post-tensioning tendons, and other areas where non-linear strains exist, as well as the cracked
global structural system. Morsch proposed an extension of this concept in 1989. (Reference 18, 56 and 85)
The procedures of Article 3-10.2 of the 1983 Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code provides an equation for determining the
effective flange width for use in calculating bending resistances and bending stresses.
C - 26.2.3.2 Effective Flange Width for Analysis, and for Calculation of Section Capacity and Stresses
a. Note that b as used in this Article is the flange width on either side of the web. (b1, b2, or b3 in
Figure C-8-26-1).
b. The pattern of stress distribution in Figure C-8-26-4 is intended only for calculation of stresses due to anchorage of
post-tensioning tendons, and may be disregarded in the general analysis to determine design moments, shears and
deflections.
c. Superposition of local slab bending stresses due to track loads (two-way slab action) and the primary longitudinal
bending stresses is not normally required.
C - 26.2.4 TRANSVERSE ANALYSIS (1996)
See references (Reference 73 and 86) for background on transverse analysis of concrete box girder bridges.
a. Analysis of concrete segmental bridges requires consideration of variation of design parameters with time, as well as a
specific construction schedule and method of erection. This, in turn, requires the use of a computer program developed
to trace the time-dependent response of segmentally erected prestressed concrete bridges through construction, and
under service loads. Among the many programs developed for this purpose, several are in the public domain, and may
be purchased for a nominal amount. (Reference 21, 46 and 90)
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b. A comprehensive series of equations for evaluating the time-related effects of creep and shrinkage is presented in the
ACI Committee 209 report, “Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures.”
(Reference 2) A procedure based on graphical values for creep and shrinkage parameters is presented in the CEB-FIP
Model Code. (Reference 15)
c. Recent research results (Reference 14) have suggested that the ACI 209 predictions underestimate the creep and
shrinkage strains for the large scale specimens used in segmental bridges. The ACI 209 creep predictions were
consistently about 65% of the experimental results in these tests. The report suggests modifications of the ACI 209
equations based on the size or thickness of the members.
C - SECTION 26.3 DESIGN LOADS
C - 26.3.2 DEAD LOADS (1996)
a. The use of lightweight concrete is not covered in these specifications for the reasons outlined in the commentary to
Article 26.1.1.
b. The value of 155 pcf for the unit weight of concrete is intended to provide for more heavily reinforced sections than
would be anticipated in more conventional concrete superstructures.
C - 26.3.3 ERECTION LOADS (1996)
Erection loads may be imposed on opposing cantilever ends by use of the Formtraveler, diagonal alignment bars, a jacking
tower, or by external weights. Cooling of one cantilever with water has also been used to provide adjustment of misalignment.
1
Any misalignment of interior cantilevers should be corrected at both ends before constructing either closure. The frame
connecting cantilever ends at closure pours should be detailed to prevent differential vertical movement between cantilevers
due to forces including thermal gradient until the final structural connection is complete. The magnitude of closure forces
should not induce stresses in the structure in excess of those stipulated in these specifications.
C - 26.3.4.3 Thermal Coefficient 3

For major bridges, tests or use of previous test data to determine more precise thermal coefficients is recommended.
C - 26.3.4.4 Differential Temperature
a. Additional field research is recommended to verify the temperature gradients specified in the referenced NCHRP
report for four temperature zones in the United States. Railroad bridges differ from highway bridges when the deck is 4
ballasted and require special attention. While the need for consideration of thermal gradients in design of concrete box
girder bridges has been clearly demonstrated, opinion is divided as to the need for use of complex gradients and
relatively high temperature differentials outlined in NCHRP Report 276. However, the use of the provisions of
Appendix A of NCHRP Report 276 is conservative and is recommended for unballasted decks until such time as
additional research data on thermal gradients and temperature differentials becomes available.
b. Transverse analysis for the effects of differential temperature outside and inside box girder Articles is not considered
generally necessary. However, such an analysis may be necessary for relatively shallow bridges with thick webs.
(Reference 43, 49, 50 and 73) In that case, a ±10 degrees F temperature differential is recommended. Additional field
research is recommended to determine temperature differentials between the inside and outside surfaces of segmental
concrete box girder Articles in U. S. temperature zones.
C - 26.3.5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE (1996)

a. A variety of computer programs and analytical procedures have been published to evaluate creep and shrinkage effects
in segmental concrete bridges. (Reference 2, 15, 21, 27, 46 and 90)
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Railway Engineering

b. For permanent loads, the behavior of segmental bridges after closure may be approximated by use of an effective
modulus of elasticity, Eeff, which may be calculated as:
E eff = E cm /φ c
where:
φc = the creep coefficient

Ecm = the 28 day secant modulus of elasticity of the concrete calculated from:
E cm = 57, 000 f c'
where:
Ecm, Eeff and f c' are all in psi.
C - 26.3.5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE (1996)

Prestress losses vary significantly with different values of the creep coefficient, type of prestressing steel (low relaxation steel
is recommended), and with the creep model (ACI 209 or CEB-FIP). Further, the prestress losses vary significantly at different
sections along the superstructure.
C - SECTION 26.4 LOAD FACTORS
C - 26.4.3 STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS (1996)

a. The values of φf and φv presented in Article 26.4.3 are based on consideration of relatively limited test results
(Reference 4, 47 and 76 and Figure C-8-26-1) and are considered interim provisions until further comprehensive tests,
analyses, and experience with completed structures are obtained.
b. The proposed φf values for flexure for segmental bridges with fully bonded tendons with cast-in-place concrete joints,
wet concrete joints or epoxy joints are based on the current AASHTO value of 0.95 for monolithic post-tensioned
construction. This specification assumes the practice of requiring epoxy for all joints having internal tendons passing
through them is valid. Comprehensive tests (Reference 95) of a large continuous three span model of a twin cell box
girder bridge built from precast segments with fully bonded internal tendons and epoxy joints indicated that cracking
was well distributed throughout the segment lengths, no epoxy joint opened at failure, and the load-deflection curve
was identical to that calculated for a monolithic specimen. The complete ultimate strength of the tendons was
developed at failure. The model had substantial ductility and full development of calculated deflection at failure.
Recent tests (Reference 40 and 76) on single span segmental girders with varied tendon arrangements (internal, mixed
and external tendons) and with dry joints indicate that the deflection at failure was less than would be expected for
monolithic girders. Flexural cracking concentrated at joints, and final failure came with a central joint opening widely
and crushing occurring at the top of the joint. The somewhat limited ductility is reflected in the reduced φ factors for
Type B (dry) joints as well as reduced φ factors with unbonded tendons which allow the concentration of articulation at
a single joint opening. The reduction in nominal strength for unbonded construction is adequately reflected in the
determination of unbonded tendon stress at ultimate using AREMA calculation procedures.
c. The proposed φv values for shear utilize the current AREMA value of 0.85 for monolithic construction as the accepted
value for Type A joints (cast-in-place, wet concrete or epoxy joints) in bonded tendon construction based on the very
favorable experience in the ultimate shear tests reported in Reference 95. Comparative shear tests of epoxy and dry
joints indicate the epoxied joints develop the full strength of monolithically cast specimens. However, dry joints
developed less strength and allowed appreciable slip along the joint. Because of this, lower φv factors are specified for
dry joints (Type B).
© 2013,

Figure C-8-26-1. Relative Joint Displacement Shear Key Behavior 1

(Reference 4)
d. The development length computation for defining a bonded tendon assumes that the duct is completely filled with
grout and the grout completely surrounds all the strands. Therefore, the development length of a tendon is similar to
that of an individual strand.
C - 26.4.4.1 Erection Loads During Construction 3

The differential load between cantilevers is to allow for possible variations in cross-section weight.
C - SECTION 26.5 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
C - 26.5.2.3 paragraph b 4
The bell anchor for threadbar tendons is an example of a confinement anchorage device that has demonstrated satisfactory
performance over many years on major bridge projects. Other confinement anchorages which have demonstrated satisfactory
performance utilize spiral reinforcement in conjunction with plate or casting type anchorages which do not comply with the
bearing stress limitations of Article 26.5.2.3a.
C - 26.5.2.3 paragraph c
a. NCHRP Project 10-29, “Anchorage Zone Reinforcement for Post-Tensioned Concrete Girders” is now underway at the
University of Texas at Austin to develop more comprehensive recommendations for proportioning reinforcement for
anchorage splitting stresses. Previous work at the University of Texas at Austin (Reference 70, 95 and 96) includes
recommendations for design of anchorage zone reinforcement that may be utilized until NCHRP Project 10-29 is
completed.
b. Bursting or splitting forces occur in front of individual anchors inside the local zone. The magnitude of these forces
depends on the shape and design of the particular anchor. For plate type anchors these bursting forces and the required
©
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

reinforcement can be determined by computation or by test. For confinement anchors, bursting forces in the local zone
are normally not accessible by computations. Their adequacy can only be determined by representative tests. It is the
suppliers responsibility to determine the required bursting reinforcement in the local zone for such special anchors.
c. General zone bursting forces exist beyond the individual tendon local zones. The general zone bursting forces are
dependent primarily on the overall concrete dimensions and the magnitude, direction and location (eccentricity) of
total prestressing force anchored and not on the particular anchor design. The reinforcement for these general zone
bursting forces is part of the overall structural design, and is the responsibility of the Engineer. For design purposes, it
may be conservatively assumed that any local zone reinforcement provided does not contribute to the strength of the
general zone.
C - SECTION 26.7 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
C - 26.7.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. The minimum reinforcement provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete were developed to avoid a brittle failure in a
grossly under-reinforced simple span precast, prestressed section. Application to segmental concrete bridges results in
requirements of more bonded reinforcement for bridges with more conservative (arbitrary) design tensile stress levels
which is contrary to load requirements. Minimum reinforcement requirements are adequately covered by the allowable
stresses and load factor requirements of these specifications.
b. * unbonded members. The German DIN Specification

Additional research is recommended to verify the value of f su
allows a stress increase of only 6 ksi for unbonded cantilever tendons, and no stress increase for fully continuous
unbonded tendons.
C - SECTION 26.8 SHEAR AND TORSION
C - 26.8.1 SCOPE (1996)
All design for shear and torsion of prestressed concrete segmental bridges is based on ultimate load conditions because little
information is available concerning actual shear stress distributions at working or service load levels.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph b
Regions with beam-type action are basically those where the Bernoulli hypotheses that linear strain profiles exist are valid. See
B-regions in Figure C-8-26-2, Figure C-8-26-3, and Figure C-8-26-4.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph c
Discontinuity regions, where the assumption that strain profiles are linear is invalid, usually exist for about a distance h from a
concentrated load or point of geometrical discontinuity. See D-regions in Figure C-8-26-2, Figure C-8-26-3, and Figure C-8-
26-4. Moving wheel loads need not be considered as large concentrated loads. The use of strut-and-tie models in design is well
described in “Towards a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete,” by J. Schlaich, K. Schafer, and M. Jennewein, Vol. 32, No.
3 PCI Journal, May/June 1987, pp. 74–150. (Reference 85) Note that a structure can be made up of both beam-type and
discontinuity regions. The strut-and-tie model procedures must be used in the discontinuity regions. Either the traditional
beam approach of the strut-and-tie approach can be used in the beam-type regions.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph d
a. In addition for obvious checks for shear transfer when dissimilar materials are utilized, adequate shear transfer
reinforcement must be provided perpendicular to the vertical planes of web/slab interfaces to transfer flange
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Figure C-8-26-2. Stress Trajectories in a B-Region and Near Discontinuities (D-Regions)1
Figure C-8-26-3. Beam with Direct Supports1
1 Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3, May-June 1987, pp. 74-150.
©
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(a) real structure
(b) loads and reactions applied in

accordance with Bernoulli
hypothesis
(c) self equilibrating state of stress,

and
(d) real structure with B- and

D-regions
Figure C-8-26-4. T-beam1
Figure C-8-26-5. Longitudinal Shear Transfer by Bottom Slab to Web Haunches1
1
Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3 May-June 1987, p. 1.
© 2013,

longitudinal forces at ultimate conditions. This shear transfer shall account for the shear force, F, as shown in Figure C-
8-26-5, as well as any localized shear effects due to prestress anchorages at that Article.
b. Article 11.7 of ACI 318 is generally termed the “shear-friction” method but does provide in Article 11.7.3 that a wide
range of shear transfer design methods may be utilized. In some cases, the designer may find the strut-and-tie method
of Article i useful in proportioning transverse reinforcement to assist in transfer of horizontal shear between elements.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph f
a. The shear effect of moving vehicle loads may be considered by development of maximum factored shear envelopes
and the use of these values in determining the factored ultimate live load shear on the section.
b. Prestressing is considered as an applied load with a carefully controlled magnitude and direction. The components of
the prestress force can add to or subtract from the shear on a cross section. In cantilevered segmental construction, the
prestress vertical component can reverse the applied shear direction near the supports.
C - 26.8.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (1996)
C - 26.8.2 paragraph f
The limitation on the effective diagonal tension and aggregate interlock components of shear strength contributed by the
concrete has been adopted by ACI Committee 318.
C - 26.8.2 paragraph h 1
Research is recommended on the transfer length of 0.6 inch diameter strand.
C - 26.8.2 paragraph i
A simplified determination of Vc is presented which eliminates the need to check Vci and Vcw as in the present AREMA
Specifications and which eliminates the complex V u d /M u term. This expression has been checked against a wide range of test 3
data and has been found to be a conservative yet simpler expression.
C - 26.8.2 paragraph v
In place of requiring additional longitudinal reinforcement for shear as indicated by the mechanics of the truss model, the
requirement of extending all flexural reinforcement beyond the theoretical bend or cut off points for a distance of h/2
automatically satisfies this need. Since actual shear and torsion may vary from the assumed calculation, it is also 4
recommended that transverse reinforcement be provided for the same distance beyond the zone theoretically required.
C - 26.8.3 TRADITIONAL SHEAR AND TORSION DESIGN FOR PLANE SECTION TYPE
REGIONS (1996)
This Article is a simplified version of the present AREMA approach for section design in beam-type regions. It is based on the
simplified Vc term introduced in Article 26.8.2l. Provision of a “traditional” but less complex approach for beam-type regions
is desirable since designers may find its application easier than strut-and-tie models for moving loads.
C - 26.8.3 paragraph h
In determining the required amount of longitudinal reinforcement, the beneficial effect of longitudinal prestressing may be
taken into account by considering it equivalent to an area of reinforcing steel with a yield force equal to the effective
prestressing force.
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Railway Engineering

C - i. The area of additional longitudinal torsion reinforcement in the flexural compression zone may be reduced by an amount
equal to Mu/(0.9d fsy) where Mu is the factored bending moment acting at that section except that the reinforcement
provided shall not be less than required by Article 26.8.2t.
This Article combines the recommendations of Schlaich, Schafer, and Jennewein with recommendations of Marti
(Reference 56) as developed by ACI Committee 318, Subcommittee E for a future edition of the ACI Building Code. The
proposed stress limits on struts and nodes may be subject to further refinement.
C - i paragraph a
Figure C-8-26-6 (Reference 85) and Figure C-8-26-7 (Reference 85) illustrate the analysis using strut-and-tie models.
Figure C-8-26-8 (Reference 85) shows a compression strut in a web with a tension tie in the stirrups. Figure C-8-26-9
(Reference 85) gives examples of basic types of nodes. An inclination angle φ (Figure C-8-26-6) of 30 to 35 degrees is
recommended for the inclined compressive struts in prestressed members.
C - 26.8.5.2 Diaphragms and Deep Beams
C - 26.8.5.2 paragraph a
Figure C-8-26-10 (Reference 85) illustrates application of the strut-and-tie model to analysis of forces in the diaphragm of a
box girder bridge.
C - 26.8.5.2b paragraph (1)
Figure C-8-26-11 (Reference 85) shows application of the strut-and-tie model to analysis of deep beams.
C - 26.8.5.3 paragraph a
Figure C-8-26-12 (Reference 85) illustrates application of strut-and-tie models to analysis of corbels.
C - SECTION 26.9 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS
C - 26.9.1 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR BONDED NONPRESTRESSED

REINFORCEMENT (1996)
Calculation of fatigue stress limits in bonded reinforcement is necessary only for cracked sections.
C - 26.9.2 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT (1996)
Bridges designed under the allowable stresses of this specification should be uncracked at service load levels. Fatigue of
prestressed reinforcement will not occur in uncracked sections due to the related small stress range. Fretting fatigue due to
rubbing between duct and strand also does not occur in uncracked sections.
C - SECTION 26.10 DESIGN OF LOCAL AND GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES,

ANCHORAGE BLISTERS AND DEVIATION SADDLES
C - 26.10.1 GENERAL (1996)
See Article 26.5.2.3a for allowable local zone bearing stresses under anchorage plates, and allowable general zone tensile
stress in reinforcement for the anchorage splitting force. The Commentary to Article 26.5.2.3a provides references for
anchorage zone analysis and design. The pattern of splitting stresses due to bearing plate anchorages the same width as the
web is illustrated by Figure C-8-26-13. Note that the maximum splitting stress occurs at 1/4 d to 1/2 d in front of the anchor.
© 2013,

(a) Model
(b) Distribution of inner

1
forces
(c) Magnitude of inner

forces derived from
equilibrium of a
beam element 3
Figure C-8-26-6. Truss Model of a Beam with Cantilever1
1
Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3, May-June 1987, pp. 74-150.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(a) and (b) Most frequent and useful

strut-and-tie Models
(c), (d), and (e) variations of above
Figure C-8-26-7. The Two Most Frequent and Most Useful Strut-and-Tie Models1
1
© 2013,

Figure C-8-26-8. The Compression Strut in the Web with the Stirrups1
1 Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3, May-June 1987, pp. 74-150.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(a) CCC-nodes. Idealized “hydrostatic” singular nodes transfer the concentrated loads from an anchor plate
(a1) or bearing plate (a2) into (bottle shaped) compression fields
(b) CCT-nodes. A diagonal compression strut and the vertical support reaction are balanced by
reinforcement which is anchored by an anchor plate behind the node (b1), bond with the node (b2), bond
within and behind the node (b3), bond and radial pressure (b4)
Figure C-8-26-9. Examples of the Basic Types of Nodes1
© 2013,

(a) D-regions and model of the web near the diaphragm

(b) Diaphragm and model
(c) Prestressing of the web and the diaphragm
Figure C-8-26-10. Diaphragm of a Box Girder Bridge1
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(a) Strut-and-tie model of uniformly loaded deep beam
(b) Fan-shaped stress field
(c) Strut-and-tie system for equivalent single load R replacing distributed load q
(d) Continuous fan developed from discrete strut
Figure C-8-26-11. Fan Action1
1
© 2013,

Figure C-8-26-12. Different Support Conditions Lead to Different Strut-and-Tie Models and Different
Reinforcement Arrangements of Corbels1
3
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

The value of the total bursting force in Article 26.10.2a is an approximation of the area under the splitting stress curve in
Figure C-8-26-13.
C - 26.10.2 FORCES AND REINFORCEMENT IN GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES (1996)
a. The strut-and-tie approach suggested by Schlaich et al. (Reference 85) will give a good approximation of the
reinforcement quantity and distribution required to counteract the general anchorage zone tensile forces set up both
directly in advance of the anchorages (see Figure C-8-26-7) and in the outer regions of general anchorage zones with
eccentrically located anchorages (see Figure C-8-26-14). The anchorage local zone becomes a node for the strut-and-
tie model and the adequacy of the node must be checked by appropriate analysis or full scale testing as required under
Article 26.5.2.3b.
b. The center of the bursting force is located approximately 3/8 of the depth of the section in front of the anchorage (see
Figure C-8-26-13).
c. Tendon inclination, tendon curvature, and the blockout to achieve tendon inclination at the face of the anchorage all
increase the bursting stresses. (Reference 70)
C - 26.10.3.2 General Anchorage Zone Bursting and Directional Forces
Local anchorage zone reinforcement supplied as part of a proprietary post-tensioning system shall be shown on post-
tensioning system shop drawings. Adjustment of general anchorage zone tensile reinforcement due to reinforcement supplied
as part of a proprietary post-tensioning system may be considered as part of the shop drawing approval process. The
responsibility for design of general anchor zone reinforcement remains with the Engineer of Record.
C - 26.10.3.3 Stress in Reinforcement for Bursting Forces
For flange thickness ranging from 5 to 9 inches, an upper limit of 12 - 1/2 inches φ 270 k strand is recommended for tendons
anchored in blisters supported only by the flange. The anchorage force of 347 kips for a tendon of this size must be carefully
distributed to the flange by reinforcement.
C - SECTION 26.11 PROVISIONAL POST-TENSIONING DUCTS AND ANCHORAGES
C - 26.11.2 BRIDGES WITH INTERNAL DUCTS (1996)
Excess capacity may be provided by use of oversize ducts and oversize anchorage hardware at selected anchorage locations.
C - 26.11.3 PROVISION FOR FUTURE DEAD LOAD OR DEFLECTION ADJUSTMENT

(1996)
This provides for future addition if internal unbonded post-tensioning tendons draped from the top of the diaphragm at piers to
the intersection of the web and bottom slab at midspan. Tendons from adjacent spans have to be lapped at opposite faces of the
diaphragm to provide negative moment capacity. The requirement of a force of 5% of the total positive moment and negative
moment post-tensioning force is an arbitrary value. Provision for larger amounts of post-tensioning might be developed as
necessary to carry specific amounts of additional dead load as considered appropriate for the structure.
C - SECTION 26.12 DUCT DETAILS
C - 26.12.1.1 Metal Ducts
Thickness of metal duct material is related to duct diameter and the method of installing the tendon. Strand tendons are
normally installed in the duct after the concrete is placed, requiring a stiffer duct. Bar tendons are preassembled inside small
© 2013,

Figure C-8-26-13. Bursting Stresses Under Bearing Plate Anchorages1
(a) Elastic trajectories
(b) Elastic stresses
(c) Strut-and-tie models
Figure C-8-26-14. A Typical D-Region1
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

diameter ducts and placed as a unit. The bar fills most of the void and helps to prevent duct damage. The use of epoxy coated
metal duct is not recommended due to questionable bond characteristics.
C - 26.12.1.2 Polyethylene Duct
a. Ontario Ministry of Transportation tests indicate a tendency for air entrapment for ducts with concentric corrugations.
b. ASTM D2239 relates to rigid pipe manufactured by a process based on controlled inside diameter. ASTM D2447 and
ASTM F714 relate to rigid pipe manufactured by a process based on controlled outside diameter. All three
specifications produce pipe satisfactory for bridge applications.
C - 26.12.2 DUCT AREA (1996)
Placement of tendons by the pull-through method requires duct area of 2-1/2 times the prestressing steel area specified for
grouting.
C - 26.12.3 MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVATURE (1996)
Polyethylene duct abrades at curvature radii less than 30 feet.
C - 26.12.4.1 Internal Supports
It is recommended that duct support requirements be stipulated or shown in the contract documents.
C - 26.12.4.2 External Ducts
External ducts are normally polyethylene.
C - 26.12.6.2 Ducts in Flanges
a. The hairpin bars tie the slab together in event of spalling forces at slab joints.
b. Ducts spaced closer than 12 inches on center in either direction should be considered as closely spaced. The hairpin
bars are provided to prevent slab delamination along the plane of the post-tensioning ducts. The hairpin bars are not
required in areas where duct congestion does not exist.
C - SECTION 26.13 COUPLERS (1996)
European experience indicates that the prestressing force decreases locally in the region of a coupler. This is believed to result
partially from increased creep caused by high compressive stresses in the reduced concrete Article due to coupling of tendons.
Cracking has not been observed in bridges where the number of tendons coupled at an Article has been limited to 50% of the
total number of tendons.
C - SECTION 26.14 CONNECTION OF SECONDARY BEAMS (1996)
Figure C-8-26-15 and Figure C-8-26-16 (Reference 49) provides schematic illustration of various methods of transmitting
load from secondary beams to the main beam.
© 2013,

C - SECTION 26.15 CONCRETE COVER AND REINFORCEMENT SPACING
C - 26.15.2 REINFORCEMENT DETAILS FOR ERECTION LOADS (1996)
The quantity Z provides reinforcement detailing that will reasonably control flexural cracking. Crack potentials are largest
when handling and storing segments for precast construction and when stripping forms and supports from cast-in-place
construction.
C - 26.17.1 MINIMUM FLANGE THICKNESS (1996)
a. The top flange thickness of 9 inches is preferable in the area of anchorages for transverse post-tensioning tendons.
b. Further research is recommended on the transfer length of 0.6 inch diameter strand before such strand is used for
transverse pretensioning in thin sections of segmental bridges.
C - 26.17.2 MINIMUM WEB THICKNESS (1996)
Ribbed webs may be reduced to 7 inches thickness.
C - 26.17.4 OVERALL CROSS SECTION DIMENSIONS (1996)
Girder depth and web spacing determined in accordance with the following will generally provide satisfactory deflection
behavior: 1
a. Constant depth girder
1/15 > d o /L > 1/30 (optimum 1/18 to 1/20)
where:
3
do = girder depth, feet
L = span length between supports, feet
In case of incrementally launched girders, the girder depth should preferably be between the following limits:
L = 100 feet, = 1/15 < d o /L < 1/12 4

L = 200 feet, = 1/13.5 < d o /L < 1/11.5
L = 300 feet, = 1/12 < d o /L < 1/11
b. Variable Depth Girder with Straight Haunches
at pier 1/16 > d o /L > 1/20 (optimum 1/18)
at center of span 1/22 > d o /L > 1/28 (optimum 1/24)
NOTE: A diaphragm will be required at the point where the bottom flange changes direction.
c. Variable Depth Girder with Circular or Parabolic Haunches
at pier 1/16 > d o /L > 1/20 (optimum 1/18)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

at center of span 1/30 > d o /L > 1/50
d. Depth to Width Ratio
A single cell box should preferably be used when
d o / b ≥ 1/6
A two cell box should preferably be used when
d o /b < 1/6
where:
b = width of the top flange
If in a single cell box the limit of depth to width ratio given above is exceeded, a more rigorous analysis is required and
may require longitudinal edge beams at the tip of the cantilever to distribute loads acting on the cantilevers. An
analysis for shear lag should be made in such cases. Transverse load distribution is not substantially increased by the
use of three or more cells.
© 2013,

Figure C-8-26-15. Schematic Drawing of Different Types of “Hanger” Reinforcement1
Figure C-8-26-16. Extent of the Intersection Zone for the Connection of Secondary Beams1
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 27
Concrete Slab Track
8
— 2011 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
27.1 Scope and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3

27.1.1 Scope (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.1.2 Notations (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.2 Application and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3

27.2.1 Application (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3 1
27.2.2 Definitions (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-5
27.3 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-6

27.3.1 Introduction (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-6
27.3.2 Loading Conditions (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
3
27.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.4.1 General (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.4.2 Subgrade (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.4.3 Stabilized Subbase (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.4.4 Concrete Slab (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.4.5 Metal Reinforcement (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.5 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8

27.5.1 Design Considerations (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.5.2 Subgrade (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.5.3 Subbase (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.5.4 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Slab (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.5.5 Drainage (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.6 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10

27.6.1 Subgrade (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.2 Subbase (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.3 Construction Methods (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.4 Reinforcement Placement (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.5 Concrete Placement (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-11
27.6.6 Curing (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-11
27.6.8 Installation of Fastener Inserts (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-11

TABLE OF CONTENTS
27.6.9 Testing Anchor Inserts (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-13

27.6.10 Placement of Rail Fasteners (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.6.11 Installation of Running Rail (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.7 Direct Fixation Fastening System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14

27.7.1 Rail Fastening Requirements (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.7.2 Types of Rail Fasteners (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-15
27.7.3 Design Features (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
27.7.4 Laboratory Testing of Fasteners for Acceptance (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
27.8 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16

27.8.1 Transition Areas (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
27.8.2 Treatment at Slab Ends (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-17
27.8.3 Continuity of Slab Track Over Bridge Deck (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-19
27.8.4 Modification of Existing Tunnel Concrete Invert to Slab Track (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-19
27.8.5 New Tunnel - Slab Track (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-20
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-24
LIST OF FIGURES
8-27-1 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Slab Track System (Typical). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-4

8-27-2 Fastener Insert Attachment to the Slab Track (Typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-12
8-27-3 Restrained Test (Not to Scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-13
8-27-4 A Typical Direct Fixation Fastener Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-15
8-27-5 Detail for Termination of Slab Track at Approach to a Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-18
8-27-6 Typical Direct Fixation Fastener System for Existing Tunnel Invert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-21
8-27-7 Single-Pour Method for New Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-22
8-27-8 New Tunnel Floating Slab Track. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-23
LIST OF TABLES
C-8-27-1 Example of Computer Static Analysis of Concrete Slab Track. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-26
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
SECTION 27.1 SCOPE AND NOTATIONS
27.1.1 SCOPE1 (2011)
a. These recommendations for design and construction of continuously reinforced concrete slab track system provide
guidelines to railroads, rail transit systems, public agencies, consultants, contractors and other interested professionals.
A typical continuously reinforced concrete slab track system is shown in Figure 8-27-1.
27.1.2 NOTATIONS (2011)
CWR = Continuous Welded Rail
CRC = Continuously Reinforced Concrete
ks = Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, lb/in³ (N/mm³)
DFF = Direct Fixation Fastener
K = Fastener Vertical Spring Rate, lb/in (N/mm)
u = Track Modulus, lb/in/in (N/mm/mm)
SECTION 27.2 APPLICATION AND DEFINITIONS
a. The concrete slab track system described herein is suitable for:

3
(1) At-grade guideways
(2) Existing or new embankments
(3) Existing or new tunnels 4

b. These recommendations state minimum performance requirements and are applicable for both moderate rolling stock
speed up to 125 mph (200 km/h), and high speed over 125 mph (200 km/h), low axle loads (light rail transit, rail transit
system), medium axle loads (commuter rail-electric or diesel system) and heavy axle loads (freight).
c. Other types of concrete2 slab tracks which have been used but are not addressed in these recommendations include:
(1) Cast-In-Place Unreinforced or Conventionally Reinforced
(2) Cast-In-Place Post-Tensioned
(3) Precast Reinforced
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-27-1. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Slab Track System (Typical).
Concrete Slab Track
(4) Precast Reinforced
(5) Floating Slab
(6) Embedded Slab
(7) Independent Dual Block
The following terms are defined for general use in Part 27.
BROKEN RAIL - The fracture of a continuous welded rail which has been directly fastened to the concrete slab.
CROSS TIE - A transverse component of a track system whose functions are the control of track gage and the
transmitting of rail loads to ballast.
CONVENTIONAL TRACK - Two rails seated on tie plates or pads fastened to ties embedded in a ballast layer.
CONCRETE SLAB TRACK SYSTEM - A continuously reinforced concrete (CRC) slab supported on a stabilized
subbase and compacted subgrade.
CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL - Running rails that act as a continuous structural element as a result of full
penetration welding and connection of individual sections of rail in lengths of 400 feet (122m) or longer. 1
DIRECT FIXATION FASTENING SYSTEM - A group of components of track structure which directly attaches the
rail to the concrete slab.
FLEXURAL STRENGTH - The maximum resistance to bending of a given cross section.
INSERT - A component of the fastening system which is embedded in the concrete slab. The insert may be installed 3
by presetting it in the formwork prior to placement of concrete, or inserting it in a hole either drilled, cored or formed
in the slab, after concrete has hardened.
LATERAL LOAD - A load or a component of a load at the gage side of the rail parallel to the transverse axis of the
slab and perpendicular to the rail. The lateral load shall be assumed to be applied at the base of rail.
LONGITUDINAL LOAD - A load acting along the longitudinal axis of a rail. The longitudinal load shall be assumed 4
to be applied at the base of rail.
MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTION (ks) - The modulus of subgrade reaction (also soil "spring" constant or
coefficient of subgrade reaction) is expressed as:
ks = q/y with units of force/length³, lb/in³ (N/mm³)
where q = intensity of contact pressure, psi (MPa)
y = soil deformation, in (mm)
The modulus of subgrade reaction can be obtained by performing a plate load test (ASTM D1196) and plotting a curve
of q versus y.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TIE - A tie utilizing precompressed concrete and prestressing tendons.
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

RAIL SEAT - The area of the slab surface on which the rail rests.
TRACK MODULUS (u) - is defined as:

1 Pd ⎞ 4
⎛ ------
u= --- 3 ⁄ ( EI ) lb/in/in (N/mm/mm)
4 ⎝Y ⎠
o
where,
Pd = Dynamic wheel load, lb (N)
E = Modulus of elasticity of rail steel, psi (MPa)
I = Moment of Inertia of Rail Section, in4 (mm4)
Yo = Maximum rail deflection under single wheel load, in (mm).1
VERTICAL LOAD - A load or a component of a load at right angles to a line joining the two opposite rail seats, and
normal to the longitudinal axis of the rail.
SECTION 27.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
27.3.1 INTRODUCTION2 (1999)
a. In supporting and guiding railway rolling stock, the track structure shall be adequate to sustain repeated longitudinal,
vertical and lateral forces. Hence, in the design of a concrete slab track system, the concrete slab shall be considered
interconnected with other components of the track structure.
b. Items to consider in the design of the concrete slab track system are:
(1) The concrete slab, rail, fasteners, subbase and subgrade.
(2) The quality of each component, method of manufacture, installation and maintenance.
(3) The direction, magnitude and frequency of traffic induced loads, the effect of environmental factors such as
temperature and weather.
(4) The need to adequately support and safely guide railway rolling stock while sustaining repeated longitudinal,
vertical and lateral forces.
(5) Overall economics of installation and maintenance.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
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Concrete Slab Track
27.3.2 LOADING CONDITIONS (1999)
27.3.2.1 Load Distribution
a. A properly designed concrete slab track system shall distribute the load uniformly through a layered system of three
distinct materials: compacted subgrade (low stiffness), stabilized subbase (medium stiffness), and reinforced concrete
slab (high stiffness).
27.3.2.2 Rail, Lateral and Longitudinal Loads
a. Rail, lateral and longitudinal loads shall be as formulated in AREMA Manual Chapter 30, Part 4, Concrete Ties, and
modified as deemed appropriate by the Engineer.
27.3.2.3 Slab Dimensions1
a. The width of the slab is a function of the number of tracks, the distance between tracks, and the gage of the tracks.
Other components such as third rail for electrification may affect the width of the slab. For a single track layout with
standard gage, a minimum width dimension of 10.5 feet (3.2 m) is recommended. The thickness of the slab shall be
based on requirements stated in Article 27.5.4.
27.3.2.4 Subbase Pressure
a. The subbase pressure on stabilized asphaltic subbase shall not exceed 30 psi (0.2MPa).
1
27.3.2.5 Subgrade Pressure2
a. The subgrade pressure on well compacted subgrade shall not exceed 20 psi (0.14MPa).
27.3.2.6 Impact Factor3
a. An impact factor of 200 percent shall be used for design of continuously reinforced concrete slab track. 3
27.4.1 GENERAL (1999)
a. The properties and characteristics of the existing foundation conditions shall be investigated as specified in Part 22,
4
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.
27.4.2 SUBGRADE (2011)
a. The subgrade material shall preferably be cohesionless, gravel-sand well draining material. The top 24 inches (610
mm) shall be free from organic material, and be suitable to distribute the loads to stratum below. In case of
construction on either existing or new embankment, it is recommended to limit the sandy material to a 1/4 inch (6 mm)
maximum size. However, the No. 200 fines shall be limited to a maximum of 15 percent by weight to reduce
possibility of pumping action and to mitigate frost heave in cold regions.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

27.4.3 STABILIZED SUBBASE (1999)
a. Stabilized subbases that have been used successfully include stabilized bituminous (asphalt). Some of the other types
of subbase materials which have been used and may be appropriate, are the following:
(1) Crushed Stone.
(2) Granite Stone.
(3) Lean Concrete.
(4) Cement-Treated Gravel.
(5) Cement-Treated Crushed Stone.
(6) Expanded Polystyrene Concrete.
27.4.4 CONCRETE SLAB (1999)
a. The minimum 28-day compressive strength of concrete shall be 4000 psi (28MPa) as determined by ASTM C39.
b. Cement shall be portland cement and shall meet the requirements of ASTM Specification C150. Aggregates and mix
water shall meet the requirements of Part 1, of Chapter 8. Air entraining admixtures shall be used in freeze-thaw
environments. Admixtures containing chloride ions shall not be used.
c. Based on requirements of Part 1, consideration shall be given to selection of concrete ingredients and properties that
affect the durability of the concrete slab. These include alkali-aggregate reaction, freezing and thawing, air entraining
agents and other admixtures, and sulfate and adverse chemical reactions.
27.4.5 METAL REINFORCEMENT (1999)
a. Reinforcement shall meet the requirements as stipulated in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
b. When the concrete is subjected to aggressive environments, the top mat of reinforcing steel shall be provided with a
corrosion protection system.
SECTION 27.5 DESIGN
27.5.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS1 (1999)
a. The design procedures shall be as per Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design. Moreover, the design of the continuously
reinforced concrete (CRC) slab shall be based on the existing construction technology available in North America for
CRC highway and airfield pavements.
b. The design can be formulated by using the modulus of subgrade reaction (ks), and elastic theory analytical techniques.
The slab track system generally involves three distinct materials. The compacted subgrade with a low stiffness is
overlaid with a stabilized subbase followed by the CRC slab, which is a stiff structure. This will ensure that the
stresses induced by the rolling stock are minimized in the various layers, enabling the entire track system to perform
satisfactorily. However, in case of subgrade material being sound rock2, the subbase can be eliminated.
1
See Commentary
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Concrete Slab Track
c. The following design considerations should be established for any concrete slab track system:
(1) Track must be structurally adequate and capable of maintaining alignment and profile.
(2) The system must be capable of being constructed efficiently and economically.
(3) A fastening assembly with the capability of allowing lateral and vertical adjustments shall be utilized.
(4) Concrete slab must have provision for attaching contact (third) rail assembly for electrification, if required or
expected in the future.
27.5.2 SUBGRADE (2011)
a. A minimum of 350 lb/in³ (0.09 N/mm³) is suggested as the modulus of subgrade reaction (ks) for subgrade, on which
the slab track is to be constructed.
27.5.3 SUBBASE1 (1999)
a. A subbase of one of the types listed in Article 27.4.3 shall be provided between the concrete slab and the finished
subgrade.
27.5.4 CONTINUOUSLY REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB2 (2011)
a. The thickness of the concrete slab shall be established by considering both the fatigue effect and the static wheel load,
1
for 50,000 Cooper E-80 (EM-360) loadings for 50 years, or loading as deemed appropriate by the Engineer.
b. In calculating the longitudinal bending stiffness (EI) of the concrete slab about the neutral axis of the slab cross section,
the tensile strength of concrete shall be assumed to be zero.
c. Slab thickness shall be computed so as to be adequate and rigid enough to withstand: 3

(1) Bending and shear stresses produced by wheel loads (live load plus impact).
(2) Longitudinal stresses induced as a result of anchoring continuous welded rail (CWR) to the concrete slab.
(3) Warping stresses (temperature differential between the top and bottom of the slab).
4
d. Adequate reinforcement shall be provided to ensure that the cracks in concrete do not exceed 0.012 inch (0.30 mm), so
that the passage of water or moisture to reinforcement is minimized. In addition, longitudinal reinforcement shall be
sufficient to maintain aggregate interlock for transfer of the load at the crack locations.
27.5.5 DRAINAGE (1999)
a. The slab track shall be designed to provide for transverse drainage to the edges of the slab. To reduce infiltration of
water under the slab, a paved ditch shall be provided between individual slab tracks.
b. Drainage water shall be collected in a paved ditch. Water shall be discharged through sub-invert pipes to an external
discharge system for an at-grade concrete slab.
2
Rock quality shall be as defined in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation, sub-article 22.4.3 (d), of Chapter 8.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

c. For concrete slab on embankment, drop inlets shall be provided in the embankment discharging to a positive drainage
system. To reduce embankment erosion, paved ditches shall be installed adjacent to the slab.
d. In tunnel construction, a trough shall be provided in the center of the slab with a longitudinal slope to drain through
sub-invert pipe(s), which discharge to a positive drainage system.
27.6.1 SUBGRADE (2011)
a. All materials susceptible to frost heave shall be removed to at least 24 inches (610 mm) depth below subbase and
replaced with frost free cohesionless material. The subgrade should be compacted in order to achieve a minimum ks
value of 350 lb/in³ (0.09 N/mm³).
b. If the construction is on a new embankment, the top 24 inches (610 mm) at a minimum shall be granular material. Soil
for embankment shall be placed in layers not thicker than 9 inches (230 mm) and compacted to 95 percent of maximum
density obtained by the Standard Proctor Method (ASTM 698). Soils having a moisture content in excess of 2 percent
above optimum moisture content as determined by Modified Proctor Method (ASTM 1557), shall be unacceptable as
an embankment material. When the construction entails placement on an existing embankment, all load bearing soil
material in the frost zone shall be removed and replaced with cohesionless granular material. The top 24 inches (610
mm) shall be compacted to achieve the specified ks value.
27.6.2 SUBBASE (1999)
a. A minimum 4 inches (100 mm) thick subbase material as determined by geotechnical evaluation, shall be laid over the
finished subgrade. The subbase shall project 2 feet (610 mm) beyond each side of the concrete slab.
27.6.3 CONSTRUCTION METHODS (2011)
a. The contractor should be responsible for means and methods of construction. There are basically two types of
construction methods used for installing direct-fixation fastener system on concrete surfaces: “Bottom-Up” and “Top-
Down”.
The bottom-up construction is generally used when the concrete slab track has already been poured. This conventional
approach involves installing formwork and reinforcements in place, placing concrete, coring/drilling for fastener
inserts, fitting rail fasteners to cast concrete and shimming/adjusting rail to final position.
The top-down construction entails pre-assembling (skeletonized) track and setting the rail and the fasteners to a final
line and surface on temporary supports, and then pouring the concrete as a final operation.
27.6.4 REINFORCEMENT PLACEMENT (1999)
a. Steel reinforcement shall be placed on chairs in two layers, with the main longitudinal reinforcement divided between
the bottom and top layers. Longitudinal steel shall be spliced in tension only as specified under Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design, of Chapter 8. Transverse bars shall be spaced as necessary in the top and bottom layers. Steel
reinforcing bars shall be placed so as to be clear of the drilling/coring areas, using special templates for marking hole
locations, both before and after concrete placement. This technique will minimize damage or cutting of reinforcing
steel which may be encountered during the concrete drilling or coring operation.
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Concrete Slab Track
27.6.5 CONCRETE PLACEMENT (2011)
a. It is recommended that in order to achieve the proper tolerances, conventional highway paving forms be utilized. For
large projects, the use of slipform paving equipment may be warranted, for obtaining higher production rates for
concrete placement. Paving equipment shall include vibrating screed and associated components necessary to obtain
the required slab cross section. The paving equipment train can be mounted on adjustable screed rails, accurately set
by a surveyor for both horizontal and vertical alignments. Concrete should be consolidated by internal vibrators.
b. In order to minimize shimming and/or grinding of concrete, it is recommended that tight vertical tolerance of +0 inches
(+0 mm) and -1/4 inches (-6 mm) be required of the finished concrete. Careful attention should be paid to obtain the
required finish tolerances when using slipform paving equipment.
c. The concrete can be placed either in a single pour method, a two separate pour sequence, or a recessed two pour
method, which can maximize clearance in tunnel construction.
d. The two pours (sections) shall be adequately attached to each other by dowels and an adhesive bonding material.
27.6.6 CURING (1999)
a. The curing of concrete shall be as specified under Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
a. The following provisions shall be specified, when construction joints are required at the end of a day's concrete 1
placement.
(1) Construction joints shall not be closer than 5 feet (1.5 m) from splices in longitudinal reinforcement.
(2) Transverse reinforcement shall be doubled for a 10 feet (3 m) distance each side of a construction joint.
(3) Longitudinal reinforcement shall be increased by one third for a 10 feet (3 m) distance each side of a construction
3
joint.
(4) Formed keys or dowel bars can also be used to prevent differential settlement.
27.6.8 INSTALLATION OF FASTENER INSERTS (1999)

4
a. Inserts may be installed by presetting them in the formwork, by means of a template, prior to the placement of
concrete. Accurately locate female inserts, into which fastener hold down bolts can be threaded, prior to casting the
slab. After casting, the tops of the inserts must be flush with the slab surface. The surface around the inserts shall be
smooth and flat, providing a satisfactory bearing area for the rail fasteners. A variation of this method would be, to
cast-in-place rail holding devices (shoulders).
b. An alternative method is the installation of inserts after placement and curing of concrete, either by drilling or coring
holes. Percussion drilling is not permitted. Precision must be exercised in locating and drilling/coring of holes, into
which inserts (or anchor bolts) are installed.
c. It is recommended that slab drilling or coring for fastener inserts be performed after the initial shrinkage of the
concrete has occurred and the 28 day specified compressive strength has been obtained. Slight adjustment in spacing of
inserts may be permitted to avoid existing shrinkage cracks.
d. The inserts shall be held plumb in the hole, either by templates or other means, and the hole filled with an adhesive
material. Fastener inserts may be epoxy coated to provide additional electrical insulation.
©
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

e. Figure 8-27-2 depicts fastener insert attachment to the slab track.
Figure 8-27-2. Fastener Insert Attachment to the Slab Track (Typical).
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Concrete Slab Track
27.6.9 TESTING ANCHOR INSERTS (2011)
a. The inserts which attach the rail fastener to the slab track are subject to pull-out forces generated by bolt torque,
vertical uplift forces produced by a passing train, and forces produced by thermal conditions.
27.6.9.1 Insert Pull-Out Testing
a. For rail fastener bolts, or female inserts that are embedded in concrete and rely on concrete tensile strength for pull-out
resistance, the tensile stress in the concrete at maximum pull-out load shall not exceed 6 percent fc’, where fc’ =
compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa).
b. In order to determine the load capacity of an anchoring system, tests shall be performed in accordance with ASTM
E1512. A mock-up test shall be required to simulate the in-situ conditions, with satisfactory results.
c. A minimum of 10 percent of the inserts shall be randomly tested for a pull-out force of not less than 14,000 lb (62,300
N). In case of inserts failing pull-out testing, the percentage of inserts being tested shall be increased, as per judgement
of the Engineer. The test load shall be applied in three equal increments. The final load shall be held constant for one
minute and the epoxy, concrete and insert inspected for distress.
d. If no drop in gage pressure occurs after one minute, the insert shall be accepted. If the insert fails to meet the pull-out
strength, then it shall be cored out and replaced with a new insert. The pull-out tests shall be performed using the
Restrained Test as shown in Figure 8-27-3.
Figure 8-27-3. Restrained Test (Not to Scale).
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

27.6.9.2 Insert Torque Testing
a. Screw anchor bolt into insert, tight against lock nut. Apply 600 foot-pounds (813 N-m) torque to the anchor bolt head.
b. The insert shall be considered acceptable, if it shows no evidence of rotational movement in the concrete.
27.6.10 PLACEMENT OF RAIL FASTENERS (1999)
a. After installation of inserts, the finished surface of concrete shall be surveyed, and if necessary, grinding the high spots
of concrete may be required. If the concrete finished surface is lower than that required, then shim pads up to a
maximum height of 3/8 in (9 mm) can be placed under the fastener at the discretion of the Engineer. The inserts
(anchor bolts) shall be checked for vertical plumbness and correct location prior to the placement of rail fasteners. Rail
fasteners shall then be installed.
27.6.11 INSTALLATION OF RUNNING RAIL1 (1999)
a. Continuous welded rail (CWR), the weight and type to be determined by the individual agency, may be delivered on
work trains with factory welded sections and shall be carefully placed on the fasteners. As an alternative, the rail can
be entirely field welded at the project site to form continuous welded rails.
b. Changes in temperature of CWR will develop stresses in the rail and the concrete slab. Rail is typically installed at a
high neutral temperature, to reduce the risk of rail buckling at high temperatures and rail pull-apart at low
temperatures.
c. The suggested procedure, during low temperatures, is that each section of the CWR be heated at installation to a
predetermined temperature, in order to ensure that the rail will remain in tension a large percentage of the time. The
base of the rail shall be secured to the direct fixation fastener, with elastic clips.
d. It is suggested that the Engineer should refer to the detail guidelines of Chapter 5, Track, for the handling, transporting,
laying and construction of CWR.
SECTION 27.7 DIRECT FIXATION FASTENING SYSTEM
27.7.1 RAIL FASTENING REQUIREMENTS (1999)
a. Rail fasteners for installation under the continuous welded rail shall satisfy the following:
(1) Allow for vertical and lateral adjustment, if required.
(2) Provide resilience that will reduce the effect of dynamic impact on the track structure, minimize vibrations, absorb
energy and reduce noise.
(3) Maintain a consistent clamping force on the rail to provide resistance to rail creep, and maintain rail alignment.
(4) Provide the required electrical insulation for electrified and/or signalized railways.
(5) Exhibit resistance to track environment (weather, oil, etc.).
1
See Commentary
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Concrete Slab Track
27.7.2 TYPES OF RAIL FASTENERS1 (2011)
a. There are a variety of rail fasteners of different design and capabilities available. It is recommended that for slab track
construction the direct fixation fasteners with satisfactory in-service performance history be installed. As an
alternative, new direct fixation fasteners which have satisfactory passed extensive laboratory testing may be used.
b. The type of direct fixation fastener to be specified shall be a function of the slab track operating environment (main
line, yard, etc.), axle load, train speeds and maintenance considerations. Figure 8-27-4 shows a typical direct fixation
fastener envelope.
Figure 8-27-4. A Typical Direct Fixation Fastener Envelope.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

27.7.3 DESIGN FEATURES (2011)
27.7.3.1 Fastener Vertical Spring Rate1
a. The vertical spring rate, K, of direct fixation fasteners normally ranges from 90,000 pounds/inch (15.8 kN/mm) which
is considered as soft pad to 300,000 pounds/inch (52.5 kN/mm) which is considered a hard pad. The slope of the load-
deflection curve (the fastener spring rate) shall be within 20 percent of a constant slope calculated at each 1000 pounds
(4450 N) increment (secant modulus between two given load points).
b. The selection of a spring rate for a fastener shall be determined by the individual railroad based on its operating needs,
requirements and practice.
27.7.3.2 Elastic Clips2
a. Elastic clips shall be used in combination with direct fixation fasteners, in order to attach the base of the rail to the
fasteners.
b. The recommended toe load for elastic clips shall be in the range of 2200 pounds (9800 N) to 3200 pounds (14,240 N).
27.7.4 LABORATORY TESTING OF FASTENERS FOR ACCEPTANCE (1999)
a. The laboratory testing requirements are comprehensively covered in AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering,
Chapter 30, Part 4, Concrete Ties.
b. It is recommended that the Engineer adhere to Chapter 30, with modifications as deemed appropriate.
SECTION 27.8 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
27.8.1 TRANSITION AREAS3 (2011)
a. Transition areas such as behind abutments at bridge approaches or at change of track structure from slab track to wood
tie track require special considerations.
b. Factors to be considered in the design of transition areas are: susceptibility of backfill soil material to settlement
behind bridge abutments, difference in track modulus between stiff (concrete slab) track, and soft (wood tie) track,
respectively.
c. In the case of bridge abutments, a sub-surface approach slab adequately reinforced and varying in thickness from 18 in
(450 mm) at bridge abutment to 12 in (300 mm) at the opposite end, for a length of 25 feet (7.5 m), may be installed as
detailed in Figure 8-27-5.
d. Where change of track structure from concrete slab to wood tie track occurs, a sub-surface concrete slab of similar
design features as in (c) above, may be installed starting from the end of the concrete slab track and carried below the
wood track structure a length of at least 20 ft (6 meters).
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
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Concrete Slab Track
27.8.2 TREATMENT AT SLAB ENDS (1999)
a. Expansion joints are recommended at slab ends to handle slab movements at bridge sites and at ends of the slab track
construction.
b. The slab track can be terminated 25 feet (7.5 m) from bridge abutment approaches, if the bridge is at the end of the slab
track. Transverse reinforcing steel shall be doubled for a 15 feet (4.5 m) distance from slab ends. A galvanized
structural steel inverted T-section shall be installed in a 10 feet (3 m) long reinforced concrete slab that supports one
end of the slab track. The structural steel inverted T-section shall have expansion joints that permit up to a 3 in (75
mm) expansion and a 2 in (50 mm) contraction. Expansion material shall be installed in the expansion joints. Refer to
Figure 8-27-5 as one example for design details.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-27-5. Detail for Termination of Slab Track at Approach to a Bridge.
Concrete Slab Track
27.8.3 CONTINUITY OF SLAB TRACK OVER BRIDGE DECK1 (1999)
a. This section is applicable to straight, simply supported concrete deck bridges of spans up to 75 feet (23 m). If it is
required to continue the concrete slab track over a bridge deck, the following provisions shall be addressed:
(1) In order to minimize slab cracking and to permit sliding of bridge deck under the concrete slab track, it is
imperative to reduce friction at the interface between the bottom of the slab track and top of the bridge deck
concrete.
(2) Provide two layers of bituminous material separated by two sheets of polyethylene between slab and bridge
decking.
(3) As an alternative, teflon may be used as a friction reducing material, if additional cost considerations are
acceptable.
27.8.4 MODIFICATION OF EXISTING TUNNEL CONCRETE INVERT TO SLAB TRACK

(1999)
a. In existing tunnels, the following two types of track structures are generally encountered:
(1) Type (A) Concrete tunnel invert with ballast and ties.
(2) Type (B) Half wood ties embedded in concrete tunnel invert.
1
b. The following reconstruction methodology can be used to modify the tunnel invert:
(1) Type (A) Tunnel Invert:
(a) Remove ballast and cross ties.
(b) If additional vertical clearance is required or the top section of concrete invert consists of unsuitable or 3
deteriorated concrete, it shall be removed until sound matrix of concrete is reached. If reinforcing steel is
encountered, remove the steel and replace it with new bars.
(c) Apply bonding material.
(d) If required by the Engineer, drill and grout vertical dowels into existing concrete for mechanical anchorage.
4
(e) Place concrete grouting material to achieve the required elevation.
(f) Drill or core holes for anchor bolts.
(g) Install fasteners, lay rail and secure clips as stipulated in the previous sections.
(2) Type (B) Tunnel Invert:
(a) Remove the embedded ties and concrete section to at least one inch (25mm) below the ties.
(b) Follow the same procedure as detailed above in Type (A) Concrete Tunnel Invert.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

One type of Direct Fixation Fastener System for modifying existing tunnel invert is depicted in
Figure 8-27-6.
27.8.5 NEW TUNNEL - SLAB TRACK (2011)
Slab Track in a new tunnel can be constructed in any of the following four ways:
a. Single-pour method
b. Recessed single-pour method
c. Two-pour method
d. Recessed two-pour method
Figure 8-27-6 shows Direct Fixation Fastener System for modifying existing Tunnel Invert.
Figure 8-27-7 shows Single-Pour method of construction of a new Tunnel Slab Track.
Figure 8-27-8 shows a New Tunnel Floating Slab Track.
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Concrete Slab Track
Figure 8-27-6. Typical Direct Fixation Fastener System for Existing Tunnel Invert.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-27-7. Single-Pour Method for New Tunnel.
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Concrete Slab Track
Figure 8-27-8. New Tunnel Floating Slab Track.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - COMMENTARY
C - 27.1.1 Scope (2011)
A concrete slab track can provide improvements over a conventional track system, and solutions to the problems of costly
track maintenance, increasing axle loads, and faster operating speed.
A concrete slab track system consisting of a continuously reinforced concrete slab, supported on a subbase and compacted
subgrade, is one example of an improved track structure.
A slab track system provides the following advantages:
(1) Elimination of those components with inherent weakness that require periodic maintenance such as ballast, ties, tie
plates and spikes.
(2) Rail fasteners with better lateral and longitudinal restraint characteristics are used.
(3) Load is distributed more uniformly on the subgrade, thus settlement is reduced.
(4) Proper line and surface are maintained, thus reducing need for surfacing and lining.
(5) When combined with continuous welded rail, ride quality is improved, and faster operating speeds are possible.
(6) Reduced maintenance results in less traffic disruption.
(7) Due to improved track structure, rolling stock encounters less wear and tear, and thus, requires less maintenance.
C - 27.2.1 (c) Other Types of Concrete Slab Tracks (2011)
A Floating slab design incorporates elastomeric pads which separate, and therefore isolate and dampen, the rail support slab
from the underlying concrete sub-slab. Floating slab track system as show in Figure 8-27-8 is an effective and reliable
solution for mitigating mechanical vibrations and ground-borne noise generated by rolling stock.
An Embedded Slab Track system, consists of dual tie blocks, set in rubber boots using microcellular pads locked-in with a
second pour of concrete.
Some of the slab track systems in use are proprietary in nature, such as: Individual Dual Block Track and Precast Reinforced
and Precast Pretensioned both developed in Europe and used in various systems around the world.
C - 27.2.2 Definitions (1999)
Track Modulus (u)
The value of modulus of elasticity of rail support (u) for directly fixed track is dependent upon the moment of inertia of the rail
section and the amount of deflection obtained by the compression of the fastener pad.
The allowable deflection of a rubber pad is limited to 15 percent of it s uncompressed thickness. Direct fixation fasteners
presently in service use 1/2 in (12 mm) pads. These pads allow a maximum deflection of 0.075 in (2 mm).
Track Modulus for slab track systems are generally in the range of 8,000 lb/in/in (55 N/mm/mm) to 10,000 lb/in/in (70
N/mm/mm).
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
C - 27.3.1 Introduction (1999)
The concrete slab as part of the track structure system, is subjected to loads from the rails through the direct fixation fastening,
and in turn concrete slab transfers loads to the subbase and subgrade.
C - 27.3.2.3 Slab Dimensions (2011)
The use of a 10.5-ft (3.2-m) wide slab is recommended. This will minimize or eliminate the development of punchout failure,
which is predominantly due to edge loading. For the 10.5-ft. (3.2-m) wide slab track, the loading under the rail is about 34
inches (863 mm) from the slab edge and this loading is considered an interior loading condition, which is far less damaging
than an edge load. Also, this loading is channeled, that is, the loading is always maintained along the same location within the
slab. There is no lateral wander of the loading, for example, as for highway CRC pavements. However, if the slab width were
less, a concern may develop due to the edge loading conditions. Edge loading conditions include higher concrete stresses and
higher slab deflections. These may lead to progressive cracking in the slab and deflection related failures such as slab
settlement.
C - 27.3.2.5 Subgrade Pressure (1999)
Due to the reduction of number of load pulses on subgrade, a well constructed slab track structure minimizes the subgrade
pressure.
C - 27.3.2.6 Impact Factor (2011)
The requirements are based on calculations including an assumed impact factor. This factor is a percentage increase over
static vertical loads, intended to estimate the dynamic effect of wheel and rail irregularities. The Impact Factor is comparable
1
to that used in Chapter 30, for Concrete Ties.
The following criteria provide a guideline for slab track system design:
3
(1) Rail vertical deflection not to exceed 0.25 inches (6 mm).
(2) Rail bending stress not to exceed 11000 psi (77 MPa).
(3) Subbase pressure not to exceed 30 psi (0.21 MPa).
(4) Subgrade pressure not to exceed 20 psi (0.14 MPa). 4
C - 27.5.3 SUBBASE (1999)
A subbase shall be provided to serve the following functions:
(1) Prevent mud pumping
(2) Increase the modulus of subgrade reaction.
(3) Serve as a working platform for erection of concrete slab formwork.
(4) Distribute pressure to subgrade more uniformly.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - 27.5.4 CONTINUOUSLY REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB TRACK (1999)
Computer Analysis (1999)
The static analysis of the concrete slab track is based on a longitudinal structure which is represented as a continuous beam
(rail) on a continuous uniform support (resilient fasteners) in turn resting on another continuous beam (concrete slab) resting
on another continuous uniform support (stabilized subbase and compacted subgrade).
Reference numbers 26 and 57 in the References refer to the computer program which was written to facilitate the analysis.
The outputs from the program include rail deflection and bending moment, fastener deflection and loads, slab deflection and
bending moment, and subgrade deflection and bearing pressure.
For illustration purpose, based on the computer program, in case of 35000lb (155,750 N) wheel load, 136 lb (61.2 kg) rail and
6 foot (1.8 m) axle spacing, the output in Table C-8-27-1 on the following page was obtained:
Table C-8-27-1. Example of Computer Static Analysis of Concrete Slab Track
Given: 8 foot (2.4 m) slab, ks = 500lb/in3 (0.135 N/mm3 )

Fastener spacing = 30 in (762mm)
Slab
Slab Rail Peak Rail Slab Slab Slab Bearing
Stiffness
Depth Deflection Stress Deflection Stress Pressure
EI
inches inches psi inches psi psi
lb-in2
(mm) (mm) (MPa) (mm) (MPa) (MPa)
(N-m2)
6 516 x 107 0.047 9600 0.022 1025 10.85

(152) (1.19) (67.2) (0.55) (7.17) (0.076)
(1.48 x107)
18 13,380 x107 0.044 9150 0.018 800 9.15

(457) (1.11) (64.0) (0.46) (5.6) (0.064)
(3.971 x107)
Design Procedure (1999)
The following is a guideline for a simplified design procedure for the major design elements:
Background: A continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) is a portland cement concrete pavement with continuous
longitudinal reinforcement and no intermediate expansion or contraction joints. Transverse reinforcement is also required at
intervals corresponding to the rail fastener spacing to absorb the loads transmitted into the slab at the rail fastener attachment
points. It also aids in construction by supporting and maintaining longitudinal reinforcement spacing.
Slab thickness and longitudinal reinforcement design must be considered simultaneously in a continuously reinforced concrete
pavement. If too small an amount of steel is used, transverse cracks will open an excessive amount and aggregate interlock
will be lost, resulting in appreciable slab deflections and ultimate slab deterioration and failure.
A properly designed CRC slab typically develops regularly spaced, hairline transverse cracks at 3 feet (0.9 m) to 10 feet (3 m)
intervals. The resultant pavement is composed of a series of short slabs held tightly together by the longitudinal
reinforcement. With a sufficient amount of reinforcement, a high degree of shear transfer across the cracks is assured because
the cracks are held tightly closed.
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
Slab Bending Stiffness (EI) (1999)

Compute bending stiffness, assuming slab width, depth, fc' and weight of concrete.
Reference number 57 has additional information on bending stiffness trade-offs (deeper concrete section versus less
percentage of reinforcement), and track structure cost as a function of bending stiffness.
Stresses in Slab (2011)

Assume: 50,000 Cooper E-80 (or equivalent) loading for 50 years.
Say spacing between fasteners is 24 inches (610 mm) to 30 inches (760 mm). Use contact area between rail fastener
and slab as 7 inches (178 mm) x 14 inchs (356 mm).
Use fc' = 4000 psi (28 MPa), MR = 475 psi (3.3 MPa)
Assume ks = 450 lb/in3 (12451.5 N/mm3), includes
4 in (102 mm) stabilized bituminous subbase.
Using "Influence charts for concrete pavements", ASCE, Vol.116, and "Thickness design for concrete pavements", PCA,
compute
• pavement thickness
• stresses in slab
1
Longitudinal Reinforcement (2011)
Selection of percentage of steel should be based on the following considerations:
• The reinforcement should help the slab resist train loads. 3

• Crack width not to exceed 0.012 inch (0.30 mm), in order to limit corrosion by minimizing passage of water or
moisture to reinforcement.
• Given contraction of the slab, the tensile stresses in the reinforcement should be within elastic range.
a. Longitudinal reinforcement to resist train loads. 4

Use Mstatic, ft-lbs (N-m)
Add 200% impact
Therefore, M = (Mstatic)(3), ft-lbs (N-m)
Say: fc' = 4000 psi (28 MPa), n = 7.5,

total slab thickness = Say 12 inches (305 mm)
d = 12 inches (305 mm) - 3 inches (76 mm) = 9 inches (229 mm)
fs = 20,000 psi (140 MPa)
Using trial and error:
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Say fc = 0.3 fc'

f ck
Compute k, p = -------
- , As, and Moment M, ft-lbs (N-m)
2f s
When Moment available = Moment Imposed
Use that area of reinforcement (% steel) at the bottom of slab.
Use 2/3 of lower reinforcement to resist negative moment at top.
Total percent steel = percent steel at bottom + percent steelat top.
b. Longitudinal reinforcement to prevent cracks from widening and reinforcement at the crack location must be less than
its yield point, say fsy = 60,000 psi (420 MPa).
Based on the axle loads, operating considerations, and if mitigation of noise and vibrations along the right-of-way is
required, the use of softer pads may be more desirable However, if the track structure is subjected to higher axle loads,
and the objective is to minimize fastener replacement cycles and associated costs, then the selection of harder pads may
be more appropriate.
C - 27.6.11 (b) Installation of Runnng Rail (2011)
The neutral temperature is defined as the temperature at which the axial forces in a rail are zero. Usually it is the rail
temperature at which the stressless rail is anchored to the track.
Given that the rail in tunnels is not exposed to a wide range of temperature variations being underground as compared to at-
grade or elevated structures, the thermal effects of CWR are considerably less.
C - 27.7.2 TYPES OF RAIL FASTENERS (2011)
Proprietary products primarily developed for transit, commuter, and high speed application drive the direct fixation fastener
market. These fasteners are comprised of elastomeric pads, steel plates, insulating components, and anchoring devices. Direct
fixation fasteners are either unbonded or bonded. An unbonded fastener is made of a steel plate resting on an elastomeric pad.
Whereas a bonded fastener utilizes one or two steel plates bonded to an elastomeric pad. Some of the new designs developed
come from the containment design philosophy. Unlike the typical sandwich type DFF that depends on the rubber-to-metal
bond to secure the top plate to the base plate, this design contains the top plate inside an outside containment frame. While the
elastomer bonds the two castings together there are internal design features to restrain the top plate in all lateral and
longitudinal directions.
As a general criteria for slow speeds and light axle loads, a light duty single plate fastener with or without bonded elastomer
can be used. However, for higher axle loads and faster operating speeds, it is recommended that heavy duty fasteners with a
double plate and bonded elastomer be utilized. Elastic clips are recommended to hold the base of running rail to the fasteners.
C - 27.7.3.1 Fastener Vertical Spring Rate (1999)
Based on the axle loads, operating considerations, and if mitigation of noise and vibrations along the right-of-way is required,
the use of softer pads may be more desirable. However, if the track structure is subjected to higher axle loads, and the
objective is to minimize fastener replacement cycles and associated costs, then the selection of harder pads may be more
appropriate.
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
C - 27.7.3.2 Elastic Clips (1999)
In the selection of the elastic clips, it should be recognized that the clip toe load requirement must be adequate to
longitudinally restrain the rail under braking or tractive forces of rolling stock wheels, and also in case of rail breakage be
capable of resisting the pull-apart forces in continuous welded rail, and thus prevent a potential derailment condition.
C - 27.8.1 TRANSITION AREAS (1999)
These installations will help in minimizing maintenance costs generally associated with these transition areas, and also provide
continuity of ride comfort to train passengers.
C - 27.8.3 CONTINUITY OF SLAB TRACK OVER BRIDGE DECK (1999)
In case of long bridges, horizontally curved bridges, etc. an independent analysis should be undertaken and appropriate design
features incorporated.
C - 27.8.4 MODIFICATION OF EXISTING TUNNEL CONCRETE INVERT TO SLAB TRACK

(2011) C - 27.8.5 NEW TUNNEL - SLAB TRACK (2011)
Some of the considerations in selection of the final design option are:
(a) Clearances
1
(b) Tolerances during construction
(c) Construction equipment mobility
(d) Maintenance considerations in terms of CWR and DFF renewals
3
FINAL ACCEPTANCE (2011)
At the completion of slab track project, Rail properties having access to a Track Geometry Car (TGC), can employ the TGC as
a quality control, as part of the final acceptance of slab track construction, to check track gauge, alignment, cross level,
superelevation, and profile.
4
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES (2011)
1 Slab Track Field Test and Demonstration Program for Shared Freight and High Speed Passenger Service,
PCA, R & D Serial No. 2988, 2007.
2 Performance of Direct-Fixation Track Structure, Design Guidelines, Battelle, Ohio, April 1999.
3 Paving Alternatives to Ballasted Track, Heiner H. Moehren, AREA, Volume 98, Bulletin 762, December
1997.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 28
Temporary Structures for Construction
8
— 2002 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
28.1 General ............................................................................... 8-28-2

28.1.1 Scope (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.1.2 Criteria (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.1.3 Responsibility (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.1.4 Types of Temporary Structures (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-3
1
28.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.1 Field Surveys and Records (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.2 Soil Investigation (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.3 Loads (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.4 Drainage (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.5 Soil Properties (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4 3
28.3 Computation of Lateral Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.5 Design of Shoring Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5

28.5.1 Design of Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.5.2 Design of Anchored Sheet Pile Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-6
28.5.3 Design of Cantilever Soldier Beam with Lagging Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-7
28.5.4 Design of Anchored Soldier Beam with Lagging Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-8
28.5.5 Design of Braced Excavations (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-10
28.5.6 Design of Cofferdams (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-10
28.6 Design of Falsework Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-14

28.6.1 Review and Approval of Falsework Drawings (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-14
28.6.2 Design Loads (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-15
28.6.3 Design Stresses, Loadings, and Deflections (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-16
28.6.4 Special Conditions (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-18
28.6.5 Falsework Construction (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-19
28.6.6 Removing Falsework (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-19
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-20

LIST OF FIGURES
8-28-1 Lateral Earth Pressure - Granular Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-6

8-28-2 Apparent Earth Pressure Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-9
28.1.1 SCOPE (2002)
a. These specifications provide a recommended practice for the design of the most commonly used temporary structures.
Other types of temporary structures may be used with the approval of the Engineer. These specifications are intended
for SERVICE LOAD DESIGN only.
b. Temporary structures are defined as those structures used to facilitate the construction of a permanent structure. The
temporary structures addressed by these specifications are primarily shoring and falsework systems.
c. All temporary structures anticipated to be in service for more than an 18-month period are not within the scope of these
specifications.
d. Temporary bridges to carry railroad traffic shall be designed as permanent structures and are not included in these
specifications.
28.1.2 CRITERIA (2002)
a. All temporary structures shall be designed and constructed to provide safe and adequate rigidity and support for the
loads imposed.
b. All temporary structures shall be constructed with minimal interference to the operating tracks.
28.1.3 RESPONSIBILITY (2002)
a. The Contractor shall be solely responsible for the design, construction and performance of the temporary structure.
b. The Contractor shall submit to the Engineer working drawings and design calculations for the temporary structures.
The drawings and calculations shall be signed and sealed by a registered professional engineer having a minimum of
five years experience in the design of temporary structures and licensed in the jurisdiction in which the work is being
constructed. The temporary structure(s) shall follow the lines, grades and location as shown on the plans. The
temporary structure(s) shall be designed to conform to the right-of-way and easement restrictions provided and shall
protect existing and proposed utilities shown on the plans.
c. Acceptance by the Engineer of the designs and working drawings shall in no way relieve the Contractor of full
responsibility for the temporary structure, or its effect upon other adjacent structures.

28.1.4 TYPES OF TEMPORARY STRUCTURES (2002)
28.1.4.1 Shoring Systems
a. A cantilever sheet pile wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from
passive resistance of the soil in which the sheet pile is embedded.
b. An anchored sheet pile wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from
passive resistance of the soil in which the sheet pile is embedded and the tensile resistance of the ground anchors.
c. A cantilever soldier beam with lagging wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and
derives stability from passive resistance of the soil in which the soldier beam is embedded.
d. An anchored soldier beam with lagging wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and
derives stability from passive resistance of the soil in which the soldier beam is embedded and the tensile resistance of
the ground anchors.
e. For purposes of these specifications, soldier beams include steel H-piles, wide flange sections or other fabricated
sections that are driven or set in concrete in drilled holes. Lagging refers to the members spanning between soldier
beams.
f. For purposes of these specifications, ground anchors shall be cement-grouted tiebacks designed, furnished, installed,
tested and stressed in accordance with these specifications.
1
g. Anchored soldier beam with lagging walls are generally designed as flexible structures which have sufficient lateral
movement to mobilize active earth pressures and a portion of the passive pressure.
h. A braced excavation is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from passive
resistance of the soil in which the vertical members are embedded and from the structural capacity of the bracing
members.
3
i. For purposes of these specifications, the vertical members of the braced excavation system include steel sheet piling or
soldier beams comprised of steel H-piles, wide flange sections, or other fabricated sections that are driven or installed
in drilled holes. Wales are horizontal structural members designed to transfer lateral loads from the vertical members
to the struts. Struts are structural compression members that support the lateral loads from the wales.
j. A cofferdam is an enclosed temporary structure used to keep water and soil out of an excavation for a permanent
structure such as a bridge pier or abutment or similar structure. Cofferdams may be constructed of timber, steel, 4
concrete or a combination of these. These specifications consider cofferdams primarily constructed with steel sheet
piles.
28.1.4.2 Falsework
a. Falsework is defined in general terms as a temporary construction work on which a main or permanent work is wholly
or partially supported until it becomes self-supporting.
b. Falsework for roll-in/roll-out construction methods is not covered in these specifications.
28.1.4.3 Types of Falsework Systems
a. Conventional falsework typically consists of timber posts and caps, timber bracing, and either timber or steel stringers
and timber joists. Foundation support is usually provided by timber pads or sills set on the surface of the ground,
although poor soil conditions may require the use of concrete footings, or by steel sills designed to distribute the loads
to adequate timber pads or cribbing.

b. Large-diameter, typically 20 inches (508 mm) or more, welded steel pipe columns are occasionally used to support
steel caps and girders. When properly braced, pipe columns may provide an economical design when falsework is
high and spans are long.
c. Patented steel shoring typically consists of individual components that may be assembled into modular units and
erected in place to make any desired falsework configuration. When erected, the shoring consists of a series of
internally-braced steel towers which, either directly or through a cap system, support the longitudinal load-carrying
members.
d. Depending on load-carrying capacity, steel shoring systems are classified as pipe-frame shoring, heavy-duty shoring or
intermediate strength shoring. For bridge falsework the use of pipe-frame shoring is limited to installations where
tower leg loads do not exceed 11 kips (49 kN). In contrast, a properly designed heavy-duty shoring system will be
capable of supporting loads of 100 kips (490 kN) per tower leg. Intermediate strength shoring will have a load carrying
capacity of up to 25 kips (111 kN) per tower leg. Typically, timber caps and stringers are used with pipe-frame
intermediate strength systems, whereas rolled-beams or welded plate girders will be more economical for the longer
spans which are possible with heavy-duty shoring. Pipe-frame shoring is usually supported on timber pads; however,
the larger leg loads associated with heavy-duty shoring will require, depending on soil conditions, solid timber cribbing
or reinforced concrete footings.
28.2.1 FIELD SURVEYS AND RECORDS (2002)
a. Sufficient information shall be furnished in the form of profiles and cross sections, or topographical maps to determine
general design and structural requirements. Existing and proposed grades and alignment of tracks and roads shall be
indicated together with records of: reference datum, maximum and minimum high water, minimum and mean low
water, existing ground water level, location of utilities, construction history of the area, indication of any conditions
which might hamper proper installation of the piling, soldier beams, ground anchors, depth of scour, allowance for
overdredging, and wave heights.
28.2.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION (2002)
a. The characteristics of the foundation soils shall be investigated as indicated in Part 22, this Chapter with the
investigation being done specifically for the temporary structure being designed.
28.2.3 LOADS (2002)
a. Loads shall be as indicated in Part 20, Article 20.2.3, this Chapter.
28.2.4 DRAINAGE (2002)
a. Drainage shall be as indicated in Part 20, Article 20.2.4, this Chapter.
28.2.5 SOIL PROPERTIES (2002)
a. Soil properties shall be determined and soils classified as indicated in Part 20, Article 20.2.5, this Chapter.

SECTION 28.3 COMPUTATION OF LATERAL FORCES
a. Computation of lateral forces shall be as indicated in Part 20, Section 20.3, this Chapter.
SECTION 28.4 STABILITY
a. The stability of the system shall be investigated as indicated in Part 20, Section 20.4, this Chapter.
SECTION 28.5 DESIGN OF SHORING SYSTEMS
28.5.1 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS (2002)
28.5.1.1 Restrictions of Use1
a. Cantilever sheet pile walls shall not exceed 12 feet (3.7 m) in height and shall be used only in granular soils or stiff
clays.
1
b. If used for shoring adjacent to an operating track the wall should be at least ten feet (3 m) away from the centerline of
track, and its maximum height shall not exceed ten feet (3 m).
28.5.1.2 Depth of Embedment2
a. The total depth embedment D shall be found by assuming rigid body rotation of the sheet pile wall about a point x
located at a distance Z above the pile tip elevation. The resulting active and passive pressures are shown schematically 3
in Figure 8-28-1 for a granular soil. The actual lateral pressure distributions shall be determined as specified in
Part 20, Section 20.3 of this Chapter. The passive resistance shall include a factor of safety of 1.5 and be reduced by
multiplying Kp by 0.66. The requirements for static equilibrium (the sum of the forces in the horizontal direction must
be zero and the sum of the moments about, say the pile tip elevation, must be zero) may be expressed in terms of Z and
D. The two equations obtained may be solved simultaneously for D, or a trial and error process may be used.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

Figure 8-28-1. Lateral Earth Pressure - Granular Soil
b. Conditions such as unrealistically short penetration requirements into relatively strong layers, potential for overall
instability, scour or erosion shall be taken into account, and the depth of embedment increased to not less than the
height of the wall.
28.5.1.3 Maximum Moment1
a. Determine the depth at which the shear in the wall is zero by starting from the top of the wall and finding the point at
which the areas of the driving and resisting pressure diagrams are equivalent. Calculate the maximum bending
moment at the point of zero shear.
(1) Sheet Pile Section: 2/3 tensile yield strength for new steel. Allowable stresses shall be reduced depending on the
extent of usage for reused material.
(2) All other structural material to comply with applicable parts of AREMA specifications.
28.5.2 DESIGN OF ANCHORED SHEET PILE WALLS (2002)
a. The design of anchored sheet pile wall systems shall be as indicated in Part 20, this Chapter. Requirements of
Article 28.5.4.1, 28.5.4.2, 28.5.4.3, 28.5.4.5, and 28.5.4.6 shall be satisfied as applicable to the anchored sheet pile
walls.
1
See Commentary

28.5.3 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SOLDIER BEAM WITH LAGGING WALLS (2002)
28.5.3.1 Restrictions of Use1
a. Cantilever soldier beam with lagging walls shall not exceed 12 feet (3.7 m) in height and shall be used only in granular
soils or stiff clays.
b. If used for shoring adjacent to an operating track the wall should be at least 13 feet (4.0 m) away from the centerline of
track, and its maximum height shall not exceed eight feet (2.4 m).
28.5.3.2 Depth of Embedment2
a. The total depth of embedment D shall be determined using the guidelines given in Article 28.5.1.2 except that the
pressure distribution on the soldier piles below the excavation elevation shall be adjusted based on their equivalent
width. The equivalent width shall be assumed to equal the width of the soldier pile multiplied by a factor of 3 for
granular soils and a factor of 2 for cohesive soils. The width of the soldier piles shall be taken as the width of the
flange or diameter for driven sections and the diameter of the concrete-filled hole for sections encased in concrete.
Also, when determining the passive pressure distribution on the soldier piles, a depth of 1.5 times the width of the
soldier pile in soil, and a depth of one foot in rock below the excavation elevation shall not be considered in providing
passive lateral support.
b. Conditions such as unrealistically short penetration requirements into relatively strong layers, potential for overall
instability, scour or erosion shall be taken into account, and the depth of embedment increased to not less than the
height of the wall. 1
28.5.3.3 Maximum Moment
a. Determine the depth at which the shear in the soldier piles is zero by starting from the top of the wall and finding the
point at which the areas of the driving and resisting pressure diagrams are equivalent. Calculate the maximum bending
moment at the point of zero shear.
3
(1) Sheet Pile Section: 2/3 tensile yield strength for steel. Allowable stresses shall be reduced depending on the extent
of usage for reused material.
4
(2) All other structural material to comply with applicable parts of AREMA specifications.
28.5.3.5 Lagging
a. The design load on the lagging is the theoretical pressure computed to act on it. When arch action can form in the soil
behind the lagging (e.g., in granular or stiff cohesive soils where there is sufficient space to permit the in place soil to
arch and the back side of the soldier piles bear directly against the soil) the moment computed based on simple end
supports may be reduced by one third.
b. Well compacted fill shall be provided behind the lagging.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

28.5.4 DESIGN OF ANCHORED SOLDIER BEAM WITH LAGGING WALLS (2002)
28.5.4.1 Qualifications
a. The performance of anchored soldier beam with lagging walls is strongly influenced not only by the methods and
materials used but also the experience of the Contractor. The specifications presented herein are intended for
evaluating earth pressure loading, tieback anchor design, wall facing design, stability considerations and corrosion
protection requirements.
b. The Contractor or the Subcontractor selected for the design and construction shall be prequalified as a specialty
Contractor for the design and construction of anchored soldier beam with lagging walls in order for the contract to be
awarded. The Contractor shall submit proof of 5 anchored soldier beam with lagging walls successfully completed
within the past 5 years. The Contractor's staff shall include an engineer with at least 5 years of experience in the design
and construction of permanently tied back structures. The use of a manufacturer's representative by the contractor will
not meet this qualification.
28.5.4.2 Submittals
a. The drawings shall include all details, dimensions, cross-sections, and sequence of construction necessary to construct
the wall. The drawings and calculations shall include, but not be limited to:
(1) A description of the tieback installation including drilling, grouting and stressing information.
(2) Anchor capacity, type of tendon, anchorage hardware, minimum unbonded lengths, minimum anchor lengths,
angle of installation and tieback locations and spacings.
(3) Testing schedule and procedures for tiebacks.
(4) An elevation view indicating the elevation at the top and bottom of the wall including all horizontal and vertical
dimensions.
(5) A plan view of the wall indicating the offset from the construction centerline to the face of the wall at all changes
in horizontal alignment.
(6) All details for construction of drainage facilities associated with the wall shall be clearly indicated.
(7) Relationship between existing and proposed utilities.
28.5.4.3 Design Criteria
a. The lateral earth pressures shall be computed as indicated below:
(1) For cantilevered conditions, and single tier anchored walls, lateral earth pressures shall be computed using Part 20.
(2) For masses which do not have a history of sliding, the magnitude of lateral pressures on multi-tiered anchored
walls shall be computed following the guidelines on Figure 8-28-2.
b. Where soldier beams are used, the width shall be assumed to be equal to the width of the flange for driven sections and
the shaft diameter of the drilled sections. The resultant passive resistance of a soldier beam assumes that passive
resistance is mobilized across an equivalent width described in Article 28.5.3.2, Paragraph a. The effects of backfill
compaction and surcharge loads applied to the surface behind the wall shall be considered in the design earth pressure.
The design stresses shall be in accordance with the current edition of Chapter 15.

c. The unbonded tendon length shall extend beyond the critical failure surface and be a minimum of 15 feet (4.6 m) in
length. The critical failure surface starts at the bottom of the excavation. The wall-anchor system shall be checked for
adequate stability. The overall stability of the earth mass being retained shall be checked and shall have a minimum
factor of safety of 1.3.
1
Figure 8-28-2. Apparent Earth Pressure Diagram
28.5.4.4 Soldier Beam Installation
a. Installation Method
3
(1) Soldier beams may be installed by driving with impact or vibration hammers or set in predrilled holes and encased
with concrete below subgrade elevation and with lean concrete backfill above subgrade elevation. Encasement
below subgrade level shall be concrete with a minimum 28-day compressive strength of 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa).
Methods and equipment used for soldier beam installations shall be determined by the Contractor.
(2) For driven soldier beams, leads or spuds shall be centered in such a manner as to afford freedom of movement to
the hammer and shall be rigged to hold the soldier beam and hammer in alignment during driving. The soldier 4
beam shall be driven with equipment which will ensure a properly distributed hammer impact on the soldier beam
and prevent damage while driving.
(3) For drilled-in soldier beams, side wall stability shall be maintained during drilling. If required by soil and water
conditions, provide casing for hole excavation. Provide casing of sufficient strength to withstand handling
stresses, lean concrete backfill pressure and surrounding earth and/or water pressure. Drilling mud may also be
used to maintain side wall stability of soldier beam holes subject to the approval of the Railroad. Pump water from
drill holes. Contractors may use tremie methods in lieu of pumping water.
The soldier beam shall be fully encased in lean concrete backfill after completion of soldier beam hole excavation.
The soldier beam may be set prior to, or after, lean concrete backfill placement at the option of the Contractor.
Free fall lean backfill may be used. Vibrating of lean backfill mix is not required.
(4) Soldier beams may be furnished in full-length sections or may be spliced according to the method of splicing as
shown on the plans. Field welding will be allowed only in accordance with the requirements for welding as
specified in AWS D1.1, except as amended on the plans.

(5) Structural welding of steel, steel reinforcement and soldier beams shall be made by personnel qualified to perform
the type of welding involved in accordance with the qualification procedure of AWS D1.1, except as amended on
the plans.
(6) Any field welder will be required to present a certificate stating that he/she has been qualified in accordance with
the requirements on these specifications within the previous 24-month period. A welder having a certificate which
expired within the last 12 months may be permitted to commence welding provided a retest specimen is submitted
immediately. The engineer may require a confirming qualification test during the progress of the work.
28.5.4.5 Ground Anchors (Tiebacks)
a. Unless otherwise directed, the Contractor shall select the tieback type and the installation method, and determine the
bond length, anchor length and anchor diameter.
b. Ground anchor materials shall be in accordance with current "Recommendations for Prestressed Rock and Soil
Anchors" from the Post-Tensioning Institute or as specified on the shoring plans.
c. Ground anchors shall be designed, fabricated, stored, handled, installed, tested and locked off in accordance with
current "Recommendations for Prestressed Rock and Soil Anchors" from the Post-Tensioning Institute or as specified
on the shoring plans.
a. Ground anchor components shall comply with current "Recommendations for Prestressed Rock and Soil Anchors"
from the Post-Tensioning Institute.
b. Allowable stresses and factors of safety for all other wall structural components shall be in accordance with the
applicable sections of the Manual.
28.5.5 DESIGN OF BRACED EXCAVATIONS (2002)
a. Braced excavations shall be designed using the apparent earth pressure diagram shown in Figure 8-28-2.
28.5.6 DESIGN OF COFFERDAMS (2002)
28.5.6.1 General
a. This section deals primarily with cofferdams constructed with steel sheet piles. This section applies to the case where
the water level lies above the soil or rock level such as in rivers, lakes and bays.
b. A single-wall cofferdam consists of a single wall of sheet piling driven in the form of a box. Single-walled cofferdams
shall be designed as flexible sheet pile bulkheads or braced excavations.
c. A double-walled cofferdam consists of two rows of steel sheet piling driven parallel to each other and tied to each other
with anchors and wales. Double wall cofferdams shall be designed similar to single-wall cofferdams. The two rows of
sheet piles shall not be assumed to share equally in resisting the outside pressure unless concrete fill or rigid bracing is
used between them. The need for double-wall cofferdams over single-wall cofferdams is usually to provide increased
watertightness.
d. A cellular cofferdam consists of soil-filled interconnected circular or diaphragm cells constructed of steel sheet piling.
Cellular cofferdams are designed as gravity retaining structures.

28.5.6.2 Required Data
a. The required information about the site includes the following:
•High water elevation
•Velocity of water flow
•Wave height and period
•Ice conditions
•Scour
•Groundline cross-sections and profiles
•Existing soil types, layer thicknesses, and properties
•Properties of backfill materials
•Flow net
•Vessel impact
28.5.6.3 Design Stresses and Factors of Safety

1
a. The maximum stresses for cofferdam materials shall not exceed 125% of the allowable stresses used for the design of
permanent structures. The minimum factors of safety for stability of cofferdams shall be 1.25. The factors of safety
shall be calculated as the sum of the resisting forces or moments divided by the sum of the driving forces or moments.
The factors of safety may be calculated on a unit length of cofferdam. A flow net analysis shall be conducted to
determine the stability of the bottom of the excavation. 3
28.5.6.4 Driving Forces
a. In determining the stability of cofferdams, the driving forces shall include the following as applicable:
•Hydrostatic water pressure

4
•Seepage force
•Stream flow pressure
•Wave forces
•Active earth pressure
•Vessel impact
•Ice forces

28.5.6.5 Equivalent Width
a. The stability of cellular cofferdams may be determined using an equivalent width. The equivalent width of a
cofferdam is defined as the width of an equivalent rectangular section having an area equal to that of the actual
cofferdam.
28.5.6.6 Saturation Line
a. The location of the line of saturation or phreatic surface within a cofferdam cell may be taken as a straight line sloping
downward from the water surface level on the outboard side to the inboard side. The slope of the saturation line may
be assumed as shown below. A horizontal line representing the average level of saturation may be assumed for
stability calculations.
Cell Fill Material Slope (Horizontal to Vertical)

Free draining coarse grained 1 to 1
Silty coarse grained 2 to 1
Fine grained 3 to 1
28.5.6.7 Sliding
a. Cofferdams shall be investigated for sliding at the base. The resisting forces shall consist of the frictional resistance of
the soil along the bottom of the cofferdam, the passive resistance of soil on the inboard face, and the passive resistance
of a berm, if any, on the inboard face. The unit weight of the soil below the saturation line shall be the submerged unit
weight.
28.5.6.8 Overturning
a. Cofferdams shall be investigated for overturning about the inboard toe. The resultant of the driving forces and the cell
weight shall lie within the middle one-third of the cofferdam.
28.5.6.9 Piling Uplift
a. Cofferdams shall be investigated for uplift of the outboard piling. The moments shall be summed about the inboard
toe. The resisting moments shall be those due to the frictional forces on the inner and outer surfaces of the outboard
sheeting plus the effective passive resistance of the soil and berm, if any, on the outboard face. The weight of the cell
fill shall not be used for resisting moment.
28.5.6.10 Vertical Shear
a. Cofferdam cells shall be investigated for vertical shear failure on the centerline of the cells. The total shearing force,
Q, on the neutral plane at the centerline of the cell shall be as follows:
Q = 3M/2E
Q = total shearing force per unit length of cofferdam
M = net overturning moment per unit length of cofferdam
E = equivalent width of cofferdam

b. The shearing force, Q, shall be resisted by vertical shear within the cell fill and friction in the interlocks of the sheeting.
In computing the vertical shear resistance of the fill material, the coefficient of earth pressure shall be as follows:
2
cos φ -
K = ----------------------
2
2 – cos φ
φ = angle of internal friction of cell fill
c. The total centerline shear force resistance of the cell fill per unit length of cofferdam shall be the resultant lateral force
due to soil fill material times tanφ. The frictional resistance of the sheet pile interlocks per unit length of cofferdam
shall be the interlock tension times the coefficient of friction of the interlocks.
28.5.6.11 Horizontal Shear
a. Cofferdam cells shall be investigated for tilting failure through horizontal shear in the cell fill material. The resisting
moments shall be those due to the lateral resistance of the cell fill, the frictional resistance of the sheet pile interlocks,
and the passive resistance of the berm if one is used.
b. The lateral resisting moment, M, of the cell fill about the base of the cofferdam shall be:
(H - Etanφ) (Etanφ)2 + (Etanφ)3

M = gs [ 2 3
]
M = resisting moment per unit length of cofferdam
1
H = height of cofferdam
E = equivalent width of cofferdam
gs = submerged unit weight of fill material

3
φ = angle of internal friction of fill material
c. The resisting moment due to frictional resistance of the interlocks shall be the interlock tension times the coefficient of
friction of the interlocks times the equivalent width of the cofferdam.
28.5.6.12 Interlock Tension

4
a. The hoop or interlock forces for circular cells and connecting arcs shall be calculated by the following equation:
T = PR
T = hoop or interlock force
P = maximum lateral pressure from cell fill and water
R = radius of circle or arc
b. The maximum lateral pressure may be taken as maximum at 1/4 the height from the mudline to the top of the
cofferdam.
c. The interlock force at the connection of arc to circular cell shall be calculated by the following equation:
Tc = PLsec Φ

Tc = hoop or interlock force at connection
P = maximum lateral pressure from cell fill and water
L = ½ the center-to-center distance of full circular cells
Φ = angle between centerline of cells and a line from center of cell to point on cell
periphery where connecting arc is attached.
d. The interlock tension shall not exceed the manufacturer's recommended values.
e. The maximum coefficient of friction of steel on steel at the interlocks shall not exceed 0.3.
28.5.6.13 Construction Requirements
a. Cofferdams for foundation construction shall be carried well below the bottom of the excavation or as near the bottom
of the excavation as foundation conditions will permit and shall be well braced and as watertight as practical. The
interior dimensions of cofferdams shall provide sufficient clearance inside the wales for constructing forms, driving
piles, pumping outside the forms, and inspection.
b. Cofferdams which are tilted or moved out of position by any causes during the process of construction shall be righted
or enlarged so as to provide the necessary clearances.
c. No shoring will be permitted in cofferdams which will induce stress, shock, or vibration in the permanent structure.
d. Cellular cofferdams with diaphragm walls shall be filled equally on each side of the diaphragm walls to avoid
distortion of the cells.
e. After completion of the construction, the cofferdams with all sheeting and bracing shall be removed as directed by the
Engineer or as shown on the plans. Such removal shall be done in a manner that will not disturb or mar the permanent
structure.
SECTION 28.6 DESIGN OF FALSEWORK SYSTEMS
28.6.1 REVIEW AND APPROVAL OF FALSEWORK DRAWINGS (2002)
a. Falsework design drawings and calculations covering falsework adjacent to or over Railroad's operating tracks shall be
certified to be complete and satisfactory to the submitting public agency prior to being submitted to the Railroad.
b. There shall be sufficient detail in the drawings to permit a complete stress analysis. In particular, the drawings shall
show the size of all load-supporting members; all lateral and longitudinal bracing, including connections; the method
of adjustment; and similar design features.
c. All design-controlling dimensions shall be shown, including, but not limited to, beam length; beam spacing; post
location and spacing; vertical distance between connectors in diagonal bracing; overall height of falsework bents; and
similar dimensions critical to the analysis.
d. The falsework drawings shall include a superstructure placing diagram showing the concrete placing sequence and
construction joint locations. When a schedule of placing concrete is shown on the contract plans, no deviation will be
permitted without the approval of design engineer.

e. When footing type foundations are to be used, the Contractor shall determine the bearing value of the soil and shall
show the values assumed in the design of the falsework on the falsework drawings.
f. Anticipated total settlements of the falsework and forms shall be shown on the falsework drawings.
g. Falsework footings shall be designed to carry the load imposed upon them without exceeding the estimated soil
bearing values and anticipated settlements. Refer to Part 3 of this Chapter for allowable soil pressures of various
material and settlements.
h. When falsework will be supported on pile bents, the required pile capacity and the maximum allowable driving
tolerances shall be shown.
i. The support systems for form panels supporting concrete deck slabs and overhangs on girder bridges shall also be
considered to be falsework and designed as such.
j. The falsework drawings shall show all openings which are required through the falsework. Horizontal and vertical
clearances shall be adequate and be shown on the plans.
k. Temporary bracing shall be provided to all falsework bents adjacent to the operating tracks, and shall be designed to
withstand all imposed loads during erection, construction and removal. Wind loads shall be included in the design of
such bracing.
l. In addition to the falsework drawings, the design engineer shall submit a copy of design calculations. The design
calculations shall show the stresses and deflections of all load-supporting members, calculations furnished by the
design engineer are for information only, rather than for review and acceptance. Accordingly, design and/or
1
construction details which may be shown in the falsework in the form of sketches on the calculation sheets shall be
shown on the falsework drawings as well; otherwise the drawings will not be complete.
a. The design loads for falsework shall consist of the sum of dead and live vertical loads, and the assumed horizontal 3
load. The minimum total design load for any falsework shall be not less than 100 pounds per square foot (4.8 kPa) for
the combined live and dead load regardless of slab thickness.
b. Dead load shall include the weight of concrete, reinforcing steel, forms and falsework. The weight (mass density) of
concrete, reinforcing steel and forms shall be assumed to be not less than 160 pounds per cubic foot (2563 kg/m3 ) for
normal concrete.
4
c. Live loads shall consist of the actual weight of equipment to be supported by the falsework applied as concentrated
loads at the points of contact and a uniform load of not less than 20 pounds per square foot (958 Pa) applied over the
area supported, plus 75 pounds per linear foot (1095 N/m) applied at the outside edge of deck overhangs.
d. The assumed horizontal load to be resisted by the falsework bracing system shall be the sum of the actual horizontal
loads due to equipment, construction sequence or other causes and an allowance for wind, but in no case shall the
assumed horizontal load to be resisted in any direction be less than 2 percent of the total dead load.
e. The falsework shall be designed so that it will have sufficient rigidity to resist the assumed horizontal load without
considering the weight of the concrete.
f. The minimum horizontal load to be allowed for wind on each heavy-duty steel shore having a vertical load carrying
capacity exceeding 30 kips (133 kN) per leg shall be the sum of the products of the wind impact area, shape factor, and
the applicable wind pressure value for each height zone. The wind impact area is the total projected area of all the

elements in the tower face normal to the applied wind. The shape factor for heavy-duty shoring shall be taken as 2.2.
Wind pressure values shall be determined from the following table:
WIND PRESSURE
Height Zone Shores Adjacent to At Other Locations
Distance above ground Traffic Openings
0 to 30 ft. (0 to 9 m) 20 psf (958 Pa) 15 psf (718 Pa)
30 to 50 ft. (9 to 16.4 m) 25 psf (1197 Pa) 20 psf (958 Pa)
50 to 100 ft. (16.4 to 30 m) 30 psf (1436 Pa) 25 psf (1197 Pa)
Over 100 ft. (30 m) 35 psf (1676 Pa) 30 psf (1436 Pa)
g. The minimum horizontal load to be allowed for wind on all other types of falsework, including falsework supported on
heavy-duty shoring, shall be the sum of the products of the wind impact area and the applicable wind pressure value for
each height zone. The wind impact area is the gross projected area of the falsework and any unrestrained portion of the
permanent structure, excluding the areas between falsework posts or towers where diagonal bracing is not used. Wind
pressure values shall be determined from the following table:
WIND PRESSURE VALUE

Height Zone For Members over and Bents Adjacent to At Other Locations
(Feet above ground) Traffic Openings
0 to 30 (0 to 9 m) 2.0 Q psf (Pa) 1.5 Q psf (Pa)
30 to 50 (9 to 16.4 m) 2.5 Q psf (Pa) 2.0 Q psf (Pa)
50 to 100 (16.4 to 30 m) 3.0 Q psf (Pa) 2.5 Q psf (Pa)
Over 100 (30 m) 3.5 Q psf (Pa) 3.0 Q psf (Pa)
The value of Q in the above tabulation shall be determined as follows:
Q = 1 + 0.2W (Q = 1 + 0.656W); but shall not be more than 10
In the preceding formula, W is the width of the falsework system in feet (meters), measured in the direction of the wind
force being considered.
h. The entire superstructure cross-section, except railing, shall be considered to be placed at one time. If the concrete is to
be prestressed, the falsework shall be designed to support any increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing
forces.
28.6.3 DESIGN STRESSES, LOADINGS, AND DEFLECTIONS (2002)
a. The maximum allowable design stresses and loadings listed are based on the use of undamaged, high-quality structural
grade material. Stresses and loadings shall be reduced by the design engineer if lesser quality materials are to be used.
b. The maximum allowable stresses, loadings and deflections used in the design of the falsework shall be as follows:

28.6.3.1 Timber
a. Compression perpendicular to the grain 450 psi (3,100 kPa).
b. Compression parallel to the grain 480,000/(L/d)2 psi (33,000/(L/d)2 MPa), but not to exceed 1,600 psi (11.0 MPa).
c. Flexural stress 1,800 psi (12.4 MPa) reduced to 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa) for members with a nominal depth of 8 inches
(20 mm) or less.
d. Horizontal shear 140 psi (965 kPa).
e. Axial tension 1,200 psi (8.3 MPa).
f. Deflection due to the weight of concrete only L/240 of the span irrespective of the fact that the deflection may be
compensated for by camber strips.
g. In the foregoing formulas, L is the unsupported length, d is the least dimension of a square or rectangular column, or
the width of a square of equivalent cross-sectional area for round columns.
h. The maximum modulus of elasticity, E, for timber shall be 1.6 x 106 psi (11.0 x 103 MPa).
i. Timber piles, maximum loading 45 tons (400 kN).
j. Timber connections shall be designed in accordance with the stress and loads allowed in the National Design
Specification of Wood Construction, as published by the National Forest Products Association except that (1)
1
reductions in allowable loads required therein for high moisture condition of the lumber and service conditions shall
not apply, and (2) the design value of bolts in two member connections (single shear) when used for falsework bracing
shall be 0.75 of the tabulated design value.
28.6.3.2 Steel
3
a. For identified grades of steel, design stresses, except stresses due to flexural compression, shall not exceed those
specified in the Manual of Steel Construction as published by the AISC.
b. When the grade of steel cannot be positively identified, design stresses, except stresses due to flexural compression,
shall not exceed either those specified in said AISC Manual for ASTM Designation A36 steel or the following:
c. Tension, axial and flexural 22,000 psi (151.7 MPa). 4

d. Compression, axial16,000-0.38 (L/r)2 psi (110.3-0.38(L/r)2 MPa) except L/r shall not exceed 120.
e. Shear on gross section of web 14,500 psi (100 MPa).
f. Web crippling for rolled shapes 27,000 psi (186 MPa).
g. For all grades of steel, design stresses and deflections shall not exceed the following:
h. Compression, flexural 12,000/(Ld/bt) psi (82,000/(Ld/bt) MPa), but not to exceed 22,000 psi (151.7 MPa) for
unidentified steel or steel conforming to ASTM Designation A36 nor 0.6 Fy, for other identified steel.
i. Deflection due to the weight of concrete only L/240 irrespective of the fact that the deflection may be compensated for
by camber strips.

j. In the foregoing formulas, L is the unsupported length; d is the least dimension of rectangular columns, or the width of
a square of equivalent cross-sectional area for round columns, or the depth of beams; b is the width and t is the
thickness of the compression flange; and r is the radius of gyration of the member. All dimensions are expressed in
inches (millimeters). Fy is specified minimum yield stress in psi (MPa), for the grade of steel used.
k. The modulus of elasticity, E, used for steel shall be 30x106 psi (2.07x103 MPa).
28.6.3.3 Manufactured Assemblies
a. The maximum loadings and deflections used on jacks, brackets, columns, joists and other manufactured devices shall
not exceed the manufacturer's recommendations except that the dead load deflection of such joists used at locations
other than under deck slabs between girders shall not exceed L/240. If requested by the Engineer, the design engineer
shall furnish engineering data from the manufacturer verifying the manufacturer's recommendations or shall perform
tests as necessary to demonstrate the adequacy of any such device proposed for use.
28.6.4 SPECIAL CONDITIONS (2002)
a. In addition to the minimum requirements specified in Section 28.6.2 falsework over or adjacent to the railroad tracks
which are open to traffic shall be protected from impact by motor vehicles and construction equipment. The falsework
design shall include, but not be limited to, the following minimum provisions:
b. The vertical load used for design of falsework posts and towers, but not footings, which support the portion of the
falsework over openings, shall be the greater of the following:
(1) 150 percent of the design load calculated in accordance with the provisions for the design load previously
specified but not including any increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing forces, or
(2) The increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing forces.
c. Falsework posts adjacent to railroads shall consist of either steel with a minimum section modulus about each axis of
9.5 inches cubed (155,700 mm3) sound timbers with a minimum section modulus about each axis of 250 inches cubed
(4,097,000 mm3).
d. Each falsework post adjacent to railroad shall be mechanically connected to its supporting footing at its base, or
otherwise laterally restrained, so as to withstand a force of not less than 2,000 pounds (8.90 kN) applied at the base of
the post in any direction except toward the railroad track. Such posts also shall be mechanically connected to the
falsework cap or stringer. Such mechanical connection shall be capable of resisting a load in any horizontal direction
of not less than 1,000 pounds (4.45 kN).
e. For falsework spans over railroads all stringers shall be mechanically connected to falsework cap or framing. Such
mechanical connections shall be capable of resisting a load in any direction, including uplift on the stringer, of not less
than 500 pounds (2.22 kN).
f. When timber members are used to brace falsework bents which are located adjacent to railroads, all connections for
such timber bracing shall be bolted type using 5/8 inch (16 mm) diameter or larger bolt.
g. Falsework bents adjacent to tracks shall have a minimum horizontal clearance of twelve feet (3.7 m) from centerline of
track. Falswork to be sheathed solid on the side adjacent to track between 3 feet (0.9 m) and 17 feet (5.2 m) above the
top of rail elevation. Sheathing shall consist of plywood not less than 5/8 inch (16 mm) thick or lumber not less than
one inch thick (25 mm), nominal. Bracing on such bents shall be adequate so that the bent will resist the required
assumed horizontal load or 5,000 pounds (22.2 kN) whichever is greater. Collision posts and sheathing shall not be
required if horizontal clearances to falsework is 18 feet (5.5 m) or greater.

h. A minimum vertical clearance of 22'-6" (6.9 m), or as established by the Railroad, above top of higher rail shall be
maintained at all times.
28.6.5 FALSEWORK CONSTRUCTION (2002)
a. The falsework shall be constructed to conform to the falsework drawings. The materials used in the falsework
construction shall be of quality necessary to sustain the stress required by the falsework design. The workmanship
used in falsework construction shall be of such quality that the falsework will support the loads imposed on it without
excessive settlement or take-up beyond that shown on the falsework drawings.
b. Falsework shall be founded on solid footings, safe against undermining, protected from softening, and capable of
supporting the loads imposed on it. When requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall demonstrate by suitable load
tests that the soil bearing values assumed for the design of the falsework do not exceed the supporting capacity of the
soil.
c. When falsework is to be supported on piles, the piles shall be driven until the required pile capacity is obtained as
shown on the falsework drawings.
d. For falsework over or adjacent railroad tracks, all details of the falsework system which contribute to the horizontal
stability and resistance to impact, except for bolts in bracing, shall be installed at the time each element of the
falsework is erected and shall remain in place until the falsework is removed.
e. Falsework shall be designed to compensate for falsework deflection, vertical alignment and anticipated structure
deflection. 1
f. Contractor shall provide tell-tales attached to the soffit forms and readable from the ground in enough systematically
placed locations to determine the total settlement of the entire portion of the structure where concrete is being placed.
28.6.6 REMOVING FALSEWORK (2002)
a. Falsework supporting any span of a simple span concrete bridge shall not be released before 10 days after the last 3
concrete, excluding concrete above the bridge deck, has been placed in that span and in the adjacent portions of each
adjoining span of a length equal to at least ½ the length of the span where falsework is to be released.
b. Falsework for cast-in-place prestressed portions of structures shall not be removed until after the prestressing tendons
have been tensioned and released.
c. Falsework supporting any span of a continuous or rigid frame bridge shall not be removed until all required
4
prestressing has been completed in that span and in the adjacent portions of each adjoining span for a length equal to at
least ½ the length of the span where falsework is to be removed.
d. Falsework supporting overhangs, deck slabs between girders and girder stems which slope 45 degrees or more off
vertical shall not be removed before 7 days after the deck concrete has been placed.
e. In addition to the above requirements, no falsework for bridge spans shall be removed until the supported concrete has
attained a compressive strength of 2,600 pounds per square inch (17.9 MPa) or 80 percent of the specified strength,
whichever is higher.
f. When falsework piling are used to support falsework within the limits of the railroad right-of-way, such piling within
this area shall be removed to at least 2 feet (0.6 m) below the finished grades.
g. All debris and refuse resulting from the work shall be removed and the premises left in a neat and presentable
condition.

COMMENTARY
C - SECTION 28.5 DESIGN OF SHORING SYSTEMS
C - 28.5.1 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS (2002)
C - 28.5.1.1 Restrictions of Use
A cantilever wall derives support from the passive resistance below the excavation line to support the active pressure from the
soil above excavation elevation without an anchorage. Cantilever walls undergo large lateral deflections, and the member
stresses increase rapidly with height. Therefore, it is important to restrict the maximum height of the wall and require good
quality soil below the excavation line that can provide adequate passive resistance.
C - 28.5.1.2 Depth of Embedment
The large moment and deflections that need to be resisted in cantilever type walls may require quite large penetration depths.
C - 28.5.1.3 Maximum Moment
See Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual, US Steel, 1975, for charts that may be used to obtain preliminary values for the depth of
penetration D and the maximum moment for the case of a cantilever sheet pile wall in homogeneous granular soil and in a
cohesive soil with granular soil behind above the excavation elevation. The D values obtained from the charts shall be
increased by 20 percent.
C - 28.5.3 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SOLDIER BEAM WITH LAGGING WALLS (2002)
C - 28.5.3.1 Restrictions of Use
A cantilever soldier pile wall behaves similarly to a cantilever sheet pile wall. The active soil pressure and surcharge loadings
are transmitted through the lagging to the soldier piles above the excavation elevation. Below the excavation the soldier piles
utilize the soils passive resistance to resist the driving pressures. Due to the rapid increase in deflections and moments with the
wall height, maximum height restrictions needed to be imposed.
C - 28.5.3.2 Depth of Embedment
The depth of embedment of the soldier piles must be sufficient to mobilize the passive resistance. The arching capability of
soils allows the use of an equivalent width for the soldier pile below the excavation.

8
Part 29
Waterproofing
8
— 2005 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
29.1 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4

29.1.1 Purpose (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.1.2 Scope (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.2 Waterproofing (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4

1
29.3 Dampproofing (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4 Specific Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5

29.4.1 Abutments and Retaining Walls (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4.2 Short Single-Span Arches and Box Culverts (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4.3 Pedestrian Subways (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6 3
29.4.4 Arches – Long Single-Span and Multiple-Span with Spandrel Fill (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.5 Precast Slabs for Bridge Decks and Floors (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.6 Cast-in-Place Concrete Bridge Decks or Floors (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.7 Pump Pits for Subways and Basements (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.8 Pipe Manholes and Pipe Tunnels (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.9 Water Containers (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.10 Walls and Floors of Buildings (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.11 Platforms, Walkways and Roadways (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.4.12 Grain Elevator Pits and Similar Underground Structures (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.4.13 Scale Pits and Other Similar Structures Below Grade (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.5 Terms (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.6 Applicable ASTM Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8

29.6.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.2 ASTM D41 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.3 ASTM D43 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.4 ASTM D173 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.5 ASTM D226 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.6 ASTM D227 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.7 ASTM D312 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.8 ASTM D449 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-9
29.6.9 ASTM D450 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-9

29.6.10 ASTM D517 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10

29.6.11 ASTM D692 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.12 ASTM D946 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.13 ASTM D1187 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.14 ASTM D1190 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.15 ASTM D1227 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.16 ASTM D1327 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.17 ASTM D1668 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.18 ASTM D2178 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.19 ASTM D2823 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.20 ASTM D3515 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.21 ASTM D4215 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.22 ASTM D4479 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.23 ASTM D4586 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.6.24 ASTM D6134 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.7 General Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12

29.7.1 Design (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.7.2 Types (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.8 Primers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13

29.8.1 General (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.8.2 Primer (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9 Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13

29.9.1 Asphalt for Mopping (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9.2 Coal-Tar Pitch for Mopping (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9.3 Fabric (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9.4 Felt (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-14
29.9.5 Butyl Rubber (Butyl-based IIR) or EPDM (Ethylene-propylene-diene-monomers) (2001) . . . . . . 8-29-14
29.9.6 Adhesive (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.7 Cement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.8 Butyl Gum Tape (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.9 Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board Membrane (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.10 Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-16
29.10 Membrane Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17

29.10.1 Portland Cement Concrete (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.10.2 Asphalt Plank (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.10.3 Asphaltic Panels (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.11 Sealing Compounds for Joints and Edges of Membrane Protection (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.12 Anti-Bonding Paper (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.13 Inspection and Tests (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.14 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20

29.14.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
© 2013,

Waterproofing
29.14.2 Primer (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-21

29.14.3 Membrane (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-21
29.14.4 Protective Cover (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-26
29.15 Introduction to Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27

29.15.1 Damproofing Scope (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16 Materials for Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27

29.16.1 Asphalt Primer (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16.2 Creosote Primer (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16.3 Woven Cotton Fabrics (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.4 Coal-Tar Saturated Organic Felt (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.5 Asphalt (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.6 Coal-Tar Pitch (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.7 Emulsified Asphalt Coatings (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.8 Emulsified Asphalt Protective Coating (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.9 Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coatings (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.10 Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coating (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.11 Inspection and Tests (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
1
29.17 Application of Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
29.17.1 Preparation of Surfaces (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
29.17.2 Temperature (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
29.17.3 Method of Application (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
C - Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
3
LIST OF FIGURES
8-29-1 Joint Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7

8-29-2 Lapping of Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-22
8-29-3 Recommended Butyl Membrane Field Seam Assembly Recommended in Order Listed for Field Assembly 8-29-24
4
LIST OF TABLES
8-29-1 ASTM D6134 Physical Requirements for Vulcanized Rubber Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-14
8-29-2 Performance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-16
8-29-3 Performance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
8-29-4 Degree of Resistance to Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-19
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 29.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
29.1.1 PURPOSE (2001)
These recommended practices are intended to be used for work carried out by railroad companies or their selected contractors
when requested by the Engineer. These recommended practices apply to bridges and other structures constructed of either
concrete or steel.
29.1.2 SCOPE (2005)
These recommended practices describe the selection, sampling and testing of materials to be used, material properties and
construction requirements under specific conditions. They also apply to materials and construction methods for impervious
membranes and auxilliary components to protect structures or parts of structures, except roofs of buildings, from the harmful
effects of water.
SECTION 29.2 WATERPROOFING (2001)
a. Adequate and effective drainage should be provided to remove free water and lessen the possibilities of the
development of a hydrostatic pressure head.
b. Where the range of temperature varies from above freezing to below freezing, the disintegrating effect of frost action
on water-saturated concrete and masonry should be recognized and adequately protected against.
c. All surfaces of concrete, masonry, or steel structures that are or will be in contact with ballast, fill or water or will be
inaccessible for inspection, shall be considered for waterproofing to eliminate the corrosive action of liquids upon the
structural members.
d. All waterproofing materials shall be applied when surface and air temperature are both above 40 degrees F (4 degrees
C) and rain is not likely before completion of material application, unless specifically recommended by the material
manufacturer and with written approval of the Engineer.
e. The materials for waterproofing and the methods of application must ensure that the bond is permanently maintained to
the concrete, masonry, or steel interface.
f. Where the waterproofing membrane is subject to potential injury or violation from abrasion, pressure, puncture, or
other job-site abuse, a protection course is required.
g. Waterproofing shall be applied where required to protect and extend the service life of the structure.
h. The type of waterproofing should be determined by the use and probable life of the structure as related to the potential
future cost of renewal of the waterproofing.
i. Waterproofing of the most durable and effective type should be used on all concrete, steel and masonry structures:1
(1) In locations subject to water or other liquids under a hydrostatic head.
(2) Where repair or removal is impractical or prohibitive in cost.
1
See C - Commentary
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Waterproofing
(3) Where certainty of watertightness must be positive because of heavy damage if water enters.
(4) For the protection of structural members from corrosive action caused by liquid infiltration.
j. Waterproofing specially designed for the purpose should be used where the structure must be protected against liquids
containing corrosive or deleterious substances.
k. A waterproofing membrane on the surface adjacent to the water source is the most effective externally applied
waterproofing.
SECTION 29.3 DAMPPROOFING (1994)
a. Dampproofing is effective in preventing the accumulation of surface moisture from condensation only in proportion to
its temperature-insulating value.
b. Dampproofing is not effective where masonry is subject to moisture saturation accompanied by cycles of freezing and
thawing.
c. Dampproofing is not effective where cracks may occur in concrete or masonry walls as it does not have the ability to
bridge those cracks.
1
d. A frequent fault of one-coat dampproofing is failure to produce a continuous covering free from pin holes. This should
be considered in deciding upon the number of coats that should be applied.
e. The purpose and character of dampproofing should not require special protection or covering. Where protection or
covering is necessary, the conditions will usually warrant the use of a waterproofing membrane.
f. A prime requisite of a dampproof coating is that it must remain in place. Bond with the surface is therefore essential. 3
g. The selection of materials for dampproofing should include consideration of the effect of temperature extremes, the
effect of ultraviolet exposure, and the physical and chemical effects of the liquid to which they will be subjected.
4
SECTION 29.4 SPECIFIC APPLICATION
29.4.1 ABUTMENTS AND RETAINING WALLS (2001)
Once effective drainage has been provided, waterproofing on the back of an abutment or retaining wall is generally not
necessary, but dampproofing should be provided above the footings. Where it is desired to prevent the passage of water
through expansion joints, contraction joints or construction joints, a suitable waterstop shall be installed.
29.4.2 SHORT SINGLE-SPAN ARCHES AND BOX CULVERTS (1994)
Short single-span arches and box culverts should be dampproofed on the surfaces in contact with the fill.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

29.4.3 PEDESTRIAN SUBWAYS (1994)
Pedestrian subways should be waterproofed on surfaces in contact with the fill.
29.4.4 ARCHES – LONG SINGLE-SPAN AND MULTIPLE-SPAN WITH SPANDREL FILL

(1994)
Long single-span arches and arches of multiple span with spandrel fill should be fully waterproofed on all surfaces in contact
with the fill, including the parapets. Special attention should be given to the drainage and to the position of the fill in order to
prevent the pocketing of water.
29.4.5 PRECAST SLABS FOR BRIDGE DECKS AND FLOORS (2001)
a. The top surface of reinforced slabs and the backs of parapets should be dampproofed or waterproofed. When
construction is over streets or walkways, waterproofing shall be applied.
b. Prior to the application of hot-poured rubberized asphalt joint sealing material in joints between precast units, a heat-
resistant backer rod should be inserted to a minimum depth of 1/2 inch (13 mm) below the slab surface ss shown in
Figure 8-29-1. The remaining reservoir should then be filled with hot-poured rubberized asphalt joint sealing
compound. Fill flush with the slab surface. The joint width should be twice the joint depth.
29.4.6 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE BRIDGE DECKS OR FLOORS (1994)
a. The top surface of slabs and the backs of parapets should be waterproofed or dampproofed and the construction joints
closed with suitable waterstops, where the slab is an integral part of the structure, as in rigid frames or girderless flat
slabs, or where it is the main load-carrying element, as in simple or continuous slabs.
b. When the slab is supported on steel beams, all construction joints should be closed with suitable waterstops and
membrane waterproofing applied.
29.4.7 PUMP PITS FOR SUBWAYS AND BASEMENTS (1994)
Pump pits should be waterproofed or dampproofed on all exterior surfaces.
29.4.8 PIPE MANHOLES AND PIPE TUNNELS (1994)
Pipe manholes and concrete pipe tunnels should be dampproofed or waterproofed on all exterior surfaces.
29.4.9 WATER CONTAINERS (1994)
The walls and floors of water containers, such as reservoirs and tanks, should be made of dense concrete to insure
watertightness. Special attention should be given to the waterproofing of all joints and a suitable waterstop shall be
installed.
29.4.10 WALLS AND FLOORS OF BUILDINGS (2001)
a. The walls and floors of all buildings subject to hydrostatic pressure should be waterproofed on the pressure surfaces.
b. If not subject to hydrostatic pressure, all exterior walls should be dampproofed below ground.
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Waterproofing
Figure 8-29-1. Joint Preparation
c. Dampproofing should be applied to the back and top (under coping) of parapet walls and to the back and to the
embedded surfaces of architectural masonry trim; also, to the inside of exterior masonry walls if plaster is to be directly
applied.
d. Special attention should be given to all joints and to places where pipes or other facilities pass through walls.
1
29.4.11 PLATFORMS, WALKWAYS AND ROADWAYS (1994)
Platforms, walkways and roadways over rooms or spaces used as adjuncts to building should be waterproofed.
29.4.12 GRAIN ELEVATOR PITS AND SIMILAR UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES (1994) 3
Grain elevator pits and similar underground structures should be made watertight by design and construction and waterproofed
on the exterior.
29.4.13 SCALE PITS AND OTHER SIMILAR STRUCTURES BELOW GRADE (1994)
4
Scale pits and other similar structures below grade should be made watertight by design and construction as well as
waterproofed or dampproofed, subject to the following conditions:
• The walls and floors of all pits subject to hydrostatic pressure should be waterproofed.
• If not subject to hydrostatic pressure, all exterior walls should be dampproofed below grade.
• Utility openings that pass through these walls shall be given special attention to prevent water infiltration or leakage.
SECTION 29.5 TERMS (2001)
The following terms are defined in the Chapter 8 Glossary located at the end of this Chapter:
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Asphaltic Panels for Waterproofing Protection
Butyl Rubber
Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane
EPDM
Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board Membrane
SECTION 29.6 APPLICABLE ASTM DESIGNATIONS
29.6.1 GENERAL (2001)
These descriptions are offered as an assist to railway Engineers as a capsulized summary of their intended usage; whether it be
on grade, above grade or whether they be used in structures horizontally or vertically, to include railway bridges and
structures.
29.6.2 ASTM D41 (2001)
Covers asphaltic primers suitable for use with asphalt in dampproofing and waterproofing below or above ground level, for
application to concrete, masonry and metal surfaces.
29.6.3 ASTM D43 (2001)
Covers coal tar primers suitable for use with coal-tar pitch in dampproofing and waterproofing below or above ground level,
for application to concrete and masonry surfaces.
29.6.4 ASTM D173 (2001)
Covers woven cotton fabrics saturated with either asphalt or coal-tar pitch and suitable for use with asphalts conforming to
D449 or D312 and coal-tar pitch conforming to D450 in the membrane system of waterproofing.
29.6.5 ASTM D226 (2001)
Covers asphalt-saturated organic felts, either with or without perforations, 36 inches (915 mm) in width, suitable for use with
mopping asphalts conforming to D449 in the membrane system of waterproofing, and with mopping asphalts conforming to
D312 in the construction of built-up roofs.
29.6.6 ASTM D227 (1994)
Covers coal-tar-saturated organic felt for use with coal-tar pitches conforming to the appropriate requirements of D450 in the
construction of built-up roofs and in the membrane system of waterproofing.
29.6.7 ASTM D312 (2001)
Covers four types of asphalt intended for use in built-up roofing construction. This is intended for general classification
purposes only and does not imply restrictions on the slope in which an asphalt must be used.
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• Type I. Includes asphalts that are generally susceptible to flow at roof temperatures, with good adhesive and “self-
healing properties.” They are generally used in slag or gravel surfaced roofs on inclines up to 2%, or 1/4 inch per
foot (20 mm/m) slope.
• Type II. Includes asphalts that are moderately susceptible to flow at roof temperatures. They are generally for use
with built-up roof construction on inclines from approximately 2%, or 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm/m) to 8%, or 1 inch
per foot (80 mm/m) slope.
• Type III. Includes asphalts that are generally not susceptible to flow at roof temperatures for use in the construction
of built-up roof construction on inclines from approximately 2%, or 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm/m) to 25%, or 3 inches
per foot (250 mm/m) slope.
• Type IV. Includes asphalts that are generally not susceptible to flow at roof temperature, for use in the construction of
built-up roofing on inclines from approximately 2%, or 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm/m) to 50%, or 6 inches per foot
(500 mm/m) slope. These asphalts may be useful in areas where relatively high year-round temperatures are
experienced.
29.6.8 ASTM D449 (2001)

Covers three types of asphalts suitable for use as a mopping coat in dampproofing; or as a plying or mopping cement in the
construction of membrane waterproofing systems with felts conforming to D226; fabrics conforming to D173 or D1668
(asphalt types); asphalt-impregnated glass mat conforming to D2178 and with primer conforming to D41.
• Type I. A soft, adhesive, “self-healing” asphalt that flows easily and is suitable for use below grade under uniformly
moderate temperature conditions both during the process of installation and during the service. 1
NOTE: Type I asphalt is suitable for foundations, tunnels, subways, etc.
• Type II. An asphalt somewhat less susceptible to flow than Type I with good adhesive and “self-healing” properties,
suitable for use above grade where it will not be exposed to temperatures exceeding 122 degrees F (50 degrees C).
NOTE: Type II asphalt is suitable for railroad bridges, culverts, retaining walls, tanks, dams, conduits, spray decks, 3
etc.
• Type III. An asphalt less susceptible to temperature than Type II, with good adhesive properties, and suitable for use
above grade on vertical surfaces exposed to direct sunlight or temperatures above 122 degrees F (50 degrees C).
29.6.9 ASTM D450 (2001)

4
Covers three types of coal-tar pitch suitable for use in the construction of built-up roofing, dampproofing and membrane
waterproofing systems.
• Type I. Suitable for use in built-up roofing, dampproofing, and membrane waterproofing systems with felts
conforming to the requirements of D227 or as specified by the manufacturer.
• Type II. Suitable for use in dampproofing and in membrane waterproofing systems with primers conforming to the
requirements of D43, felts conforming to the requirements of D227, and fabrics with coal-tar saturant conforming to
the requirements of D173, D1327, or D1668 or in systems using any combination of components specified by the
manufacturer.
• Type III. Suitable for use in built-up roofing, dampproofing, and membrane waterproofing systems but having less
volatile components than Types I or II.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

29.6.10 ASTM D517 (1994)

Covers asphalt plank of two types as used for bridge floors:
• Type I. Plain asphalt plank.
• Type II. Mineral-surfaced asphalt plank.
29.6.11 ASTM D692 (1994)
Covers crushed stone, crushed hydraulic-cement concrete, crushed blast-furnace slag, and crushed gravel suitable for use in
bituminous paving mixtures, as described in D3515 or D4215.
29.6.12 ASTM D946 (1994)
Covers asphalt cement for use in the construction of pavements and covers the following penetration grades:
• 40 - 50.
• 60 - 70.
• 85 - 100.
• 120 - 150.
• 200 - 300.
29.6.13 ASTM D1187 (2001)
Covers emulsified asphalt suitable for application in a relatively thick film as a protective coating for metal surfaces.
• Type I. Quick-setting emulsified asphalt suitable for continuous exposure to water within a few days after
application and drying.
• Type II. Emulsified asphalt suitable for continuous exposure to the weather, only after application and drying.
29.6.14 ASTM D1190 (2001)
Covers concrete joint sealants of the hot-pour elastic type, intended for use in sealing joints and cracks in concrete pavements,
bridges and other structures.
29.6.15 ASTM D1227 (2001)
Covers emulsified asphalts suitable for use as a protective coating for built-up roofs and other exposed surfaces with inclines
of not less than 4%, or 1/2 inch per foot (40 mm/m).
• Types II and III. Emulsified asphalt prepared with mineral colloid emulsifying agents and not containing asbestos.
29.6.16 ASTM D1327 (2001)
a. Covers woven burlap fabrics, saturated with either asphalt or refined coal-tar, as specified by the Engineer, for use in
the membrane system of roofing or waterproofing or as specified by the manufacturer.
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b. Asphalt-saturated burlap fabric shall be used with asphalt-based cement; a mopping asphalt conforming to D312,
D449, or appropriate solvent bearing bitumen materials.
c. Coal-tar-saturated burlap fabric shall be used with coal-tar-based cement; a coal-tar pitch conforming to ASTM D450,
which is an appropriate solvent bearing bitumen material.
29.6.17 ASTM D1668 (2001)
Covers finished treated (coated) woven glass fabrics, coated with either asphalt, coal-tar pitch, or an organic resin compatible
with the waterproofing system, as specified by the Engineer.
• Type I, Asphalt Treated. Is suitable for use with all asphalts and asphalt based compounds.
• Type II, Coal Tar Pitch Treated. Is suitable for use with all coal-tar pitches and coal tar based compounds.
• Type III, Organic Resin Treated. The Engineer and supplier shall agree on an organic resin which is compatible with
or suitable for the plying materials. The organic resins shall not be water soluble.
29.6.18 ASTM D2178 (2001)
a. Covers glass felts impregnated to varying degrees with asphalt, that may be used with asphalts conforming to the
requirements of D312 in the construction of built-up roofs, and with asphalts conforming to the requirements of D449
in the membrane system of waterproofing.
1
b. Asphalt-impregnated glass felts, 36 inches (914 mm) wide, covered by this Designation are Types III, IV and VI.
29.6.19 ASTM D2823 (2001)
Covers asphalt roof coatings of brushing or spraying consistency.
• Type I. Is made from asphalts characterized as self-healing, adhesive and ductile, conforming to the requirements of 3
D312, Type I; D449, Types I or II; or D946.
• Type II. Is made from asphalts characterized by a high softening point and relatively low ductility, conforming to the
requirements of D312, Type II or III; or D449, Type III.
29.6.20 ASTM D3515 (2001) 4

Covers hot-mixed, hot-laid asphalt, tar, emulsified asphalt, and recycled bituminous paving mixtures for base, binder, leveling,
and surface covers.
29.6.21 ASTM D4215 (2001)
Covers cold-mixed, cold-laid and recycled cold-mixed, cold-laid bituminous paving mixtures for base, binder, leveling, and
surface covers.
29.6.22 ASTM D4479 (1994)
Covers asbestos-free asphalt roof coatings of brushing or spraying consistency.
• Type I. Made from asphalts characterized as self-healing, adhesive, and ductile, and conforming to the requirements
of D312, Type I; D449, Types I or II; or D946.
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

• Type II. Is made from asphalts characterized by high softening point and relatively low ductility, conforming to the
requirements of D312, Types II or III; or D449, Type III.
29.6.23 ASTM D4586 (2001)
Covers asbestos-free asphalt roof cement suitable for trowel application to roofings and flashings.
• Type I. Made from asphalt characterized as self-healing, adhesive, and ductile, conforming to the requirements of
D312, Type I; D449, Types I or II; or D946.
• Type II. Made from asphalt characterized by high softening point and relatively low ductility, and conforming to
D312, Types II or III; or D449, Types II or III.
29.6.24 ASTM D6134 (2001)
Covers unreinforced, vulcanized rubber sheets made from ethylene propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM) or butyl (IIR), used in
waterproofing systems.
SECTION 29.7 GENERAL PRACTICES
29.7.1 DESIGN (2005)1
a. Section 29.2, Waterproofing (2001) and Section 29.3, Dampproofing (1994) enumerate the principles which shall
govern the waterproofing of railway structures. Structures which require waterproofing shall be designed so that they
can be waterproofed by the methods and with the materials specified herein. Special care shall be taken to provide
flexibility in the waterproofing membrane or in the joints between sections of membrane at expansion joints or at those
locations where deflection deformation may cause excessive stretching of the membrane. Care shall be taken to seal
effectively or flash all places where the waterproofing membrane terminates, such as along the webs of girders.
b. Right-angle bends should be avoided by using rounded or chamfered edges on outside corners and suitable fillet on
inside corners. An underlayment of portland cement concrete or bituminous mastic may be used under the membrane
waterproofing on bridge deck to cover rough or uneven surfaces or to provide slope for drainage.
c. Requirements affecting details of waterproofing as may be included in this Chapter or in Chapter 6, Buildings and
Support Facilities; Chapter 7, Timber Structures; Chapter 15, Steel Structures; AAR Scale Handbook (included in this
manual) – should be observed in the design of the structure.
29.7.2 TYPES (1996)
The membrane shall consist of one of the following types, as illustrated:
a. Two layers of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and three moppings of bitumen (Figure 8-29-2, Type A).
b. Three layers of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and four moppings of bitumen (Figure 8-29-2, Type B).
c. Two layers of bitumen-treated felt, one middle layer of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and four moppings of bitumen
(Figure 8-29-2, Type C).
1
See C - Commentary
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Waterproofing
d. Four layers of bitumen-treated felt, one middle layer of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and six moppings of bitumen
(Figure 8-29-2, Type D).
e. One layer of butyl rubber or EPDM secured as indicated with an approved adhesive (Figure 8-29-3).
f. Rubberized asphalt with plastic film or preformed board membrane.
g. Multiple layers of cold liquid-applied elastomeric membrane with an approved primer.
SECTION 29.8 PRIMERS
29.8.1 GENERAL (1994)
Bitumen shall consist of asphalt or coal-tar pitch. The mopped-on material shall be asphalt for use with asphalt-saturated felt
or fabric and coal-tar pitch for use with coal-tar-saturated felt or fabric.
29.8.2 PRIMER (2001)
a. Asphaltic Primer. Asphaltic primer shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D41.
b. Coal Tar Primer. Coal tar for priming for use with coal-tar pitch shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation 1
D43.
c. Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane Primer. Primer shall be of the type compatible with the substrate and
membrane type as recommended by the manufacturer.
d. Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board. Primer shall be cold-applied as recommended by the
manufacturer.
3
SECTION 29.9 MEMBRANES

4
29.9.1 ASPHALT FOR MOPPING (2001)
Asphalt shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D449. This Designation requires a choice of Types I, II or III based
on conditions relating to use. Type II asphalt shall be used for membranes on ballasted-deck railroad bridges.
29.9.2 COAL-TAR PITCH FOR MOPPING (2001)
Coal-tar pitch shall meet requirements of ASTM designation D450. The use of this Designation requires a choice of Types I, II
or III based on conditions relating to use. Type I coal-tar pitch shall be used for membranes on ballasted-deck railroad bridges.
29.9.3 FABRIC (2001)
Fabric shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D173 covering woven cotton fabrics saturated with a bituminous
substance. The use of this Designation requires a choice of asphalt meeting ASTM designation D449 or coal-tar pitch meeting
the requirement of ASTM designation D450 as a saturant.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

29.9.4 FELT (2001)
a. Felts for use with an asphalt mopping shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D226. This Designation offers
a choice of two types of felt. Type I shall be used for construction of membranes on ballasted-deck railroad bridges.
b. Felt for use with coal-tar pitch moppings shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D227.
29.9.5 BUTYL RUBBER (BUTYL-BASED IIR) OR EPDM

(ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE-DIENE-MONOMERS) (2001)
a. Membrane shall be 0.060 inch, 0.090 inch, or 0.120 inch (1.5, 2.3 or 3.1 mm) thick at the Engineer’s option.
b. Membrane shall conform to the properties found in Table 8-29-1.
Table 8-29-1. ASTM D6134 Physical Requirements for Vulcanized Rubber Sheets
Type EPDM Butyl

Thickness, minimum inch (mm) .054 (1.37) .054 (1.37)
Hardness, durometer A 60 +/- 10 60 +/- 10
Tensile strength, minimum psi (MPa) 1,300 (9) 1,200 (8.3)
Elongation, ultimate minimum % 300 300
Tensile set, maximum % 10 10
Tear resistance, minimum lbf./in. (kN/m) 150 (26.2) 150 (26.2)
Brittleness temperature, maximum degress F (degrees C) -49 (-45) -49 (-45)
Heat aging at 240 degrees F (116 degrees C):
Tensile strength, minimum psi (MPa) 1200 (8.3) 900 (6.2)
Elongation, ultimate minimum % 210 210
Linear dimensional change, maximum % +/- 1 +/- 2
Water absorption maximum, mass % 4 2
Factory seam strength, minimum psi (MPa) 50 (8.8) 50 (8.8)
2)
Water vapor permeance, maximum perms (mg/pasm .06 (3.5) .0025 (.14)
Resistance to soil burial (% change, maximum in original value):
Breaking factory 10 10
Elongation at break 10 10
Puncture resistance lbs. (Kg) 70 (32) 95 (43)
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29.9.6 ADHESIVE (1994)
Adhesive for securing membrane and the protective cover shall be in accordance with the recommendations of the membrane
manufacturer.
29.9.7 CEMENT (2001)
Cement for splicing either membrane shall be a self-vulcanizing butyl rubber compound conforming to the following
requirements:
a. Viscosity at 77 degrees F (25 degrees C) Brookfield Viscometer (#3 Spindle at 10 rpm) 1,700-3,400 cps. Total Solids
30% (min).
b. Applied to both mating surfaces at 2 gallons/150 square foot (5.4 liters/m2).
29.9.8 BUTYL GUM TAPE (2001)
Butyl gum tape for splicing either membrane shall be black, vulcanizable butyl rubber with an 8 mil (200 μm) polyethylene
film backing. The tape shall be 30 (+4) mils (750 (+100) μm) thick, including the backing.
29.9.9 RUBBERIZED ASPHALT WITH PLASTIC FILM OR PREFORMED BOARD

MEMBRANE (2001)
1
Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic film or preformed board membrane shall consist of a preformed layer of highly rubberized
asphalt formed on plastic film or preformed board, with cold applied primer and/or mastic.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

a. Performance Requirements, Properties. See Table 8-29-2.
Table 8-29-2. Performance Requirements
Property Requirements Test Methods

Membrane Thickness, minimum - inches 0.060 (1.5)
(mm)
Permeability, maximum - perms 0.1 (5.72 x 10-10) ASTM E96
(g.Pa-1.S-1.m-2)
Accelerated aging, 400 h minimum no decline ASTM D822 and ASTM G23
(procedure 4)
Exposure to fungi in soil, 16 weeks unaffected GSA-PBS-407121 (spec)
Peel Adhesion, 7 days dry, +7 days at l20 5.0 (0.9) TT-S-00230 Modified
degrees F (49 degrees C), +7 days dry -
lb/in (N/mm) of width - minimum
Peel Adhesion - lb./inch of width (N/mm) 5.0 (0.9) minimum TT-S-00230 Modified
after 7 days dry, and 7 days at 120
degrees F (49 degrees C), and 7 days
of water immersion
Crack bridging on Application 1/4 inch (6 100 TT-S-00230 Modified and TT-S-
mm) cycling at -15 degrees F (-26 227 Modified
degrees C) (crack opened and closed
from 0 to 1/4 inch (0 to 6 mm)) -
minimum cycles
Puncture Resistance - minimum pounds (N) 40 (180) ASTM E154
b. Certification. Manufacturer shall furnish certification that materials meet requirements.
c. Samples. A one square foot (0.1 m2) sample shall be furnished for testing, when required, from each production run of
membrane to be supplied.
29.9.10 COLD LIQUID-APPLIED ELASTOMERIC MEMBRANE (2005)1
The membrane shall be 100% reactive spray-applied material.
a. Performance Requirements, Properties. See Table 8-29-3.
For a product to be accepted, it must meet all tests detailed below within the manufacturer’s recommended thickness
which is not to be less than 80 mils (2.0 mm) dry film thickness.
1
See C - Commentary
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Table 8-29-3. Performance Requirements
Property Requirements Test Method

Water Vapor Transmission Equal to or less than 0.2 perms, ASTM E96, procedure B or BW
which is 0.1 grains/ft2/h
(1.14x10-8g/Pa.s.m2)
Elongation at Break Minimum 80% ASTM D638
Minimum Tensile Strength 930 psi (6.4 MPa) ASTM D638
Adhesion to Steel 290 psi (2.0 MPa) ASTM D4541
Adhesion to Concrete 100 psi (0.7 MPa) ASTM D4541
Crack Bridging Meet the low temperature flexibility and ASTM C836
crack bridging requirements of 10 cycles of
1/8 inch (3.2 mm) at -15 degrees F (-26
degrees C)
b. Certification. Manufacturer shall furnish certification from an approved independent testing agency that the supplied
material meets designated test performance requirements. Manufacturer, if requested, shall supply the infrared
spectrometer analysis (finger print) of the product from which the tests were conducted. The owner may, for quality
assurance purposes, wish to corroborate material tested versus material received by means of sampling and further
Infrared Spectrometer mapping.
SECTION 29.10 MEMBRANE PROTECTION1
29.10.1 PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE (2001)

3
a. Materials for portland cement concrete shall meet the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements. The concrete shall be air entrained, have a minimum cement content of 564 lbs. per cubic yard (334
kg/m3) and a maximum water to cement ratio of 0.53 by weight (mass). The maximum size of coarse aggregate shall
be 3/4 inch (20 mm).
b. The concrete shall be reinforced with wire fabric which shall meet the requirements of ASTM A185. The minimum
gage of wires shall be No. 12 (2.7 mm) and the wire shall have a maximum spacing of 6 inches (150 mm) in both 4
directions.
29.10.2 ASPHALT PLANK (2001)
Asphalt plank shall meet the requirements of ASTM D517. Asphalt plank used for protection of waterproofing membranes
shall be plain and have a minimum total thickness of 1 inch (25 mm) using one or more layers. Edges of asphalt planks to be
applied in a single layer shall be supplied with shiplapped joints.
29.10.3 ASPHALTIC PANELS (2001)
Asphaltic panels shall meet the following requirements:
1
See C - Commentary
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

29.10.3.1 Manufacture
a. Each panel is formed as a 5-layer member, including a core of a selected blend of asphalt and inorganic mineral filler
particles, a bottom reinforcing cover of asphalt-saturated felt and on the top, a cover of asphalt-saturated felt or fiber
glass mat that is weather coated and has bond breaking film or coating.
b. Asphalt and inorganic mineral filler particles shall be blended to form the core, with the asphalt forming the matrix of
the blend to carry the particles. The mineral filler particles function to impart increased density and enhance stiffness
and body in the core.
c. The inorganic mineral filler particles constitute an aggregate bound in the asphalt matrix which will permit points of
ballast rock to penetrate a short distance into the core to secure a good seating position. The aggregate will then resist
further penetration and will support the ballast rock.
29.10.3.2 Workmanship
The protection course shall be free from defects affecting its serviceability and appearance; it shall have straight edges and
square corners.
29.10.3.3 Properties
a. Asphaltic panels shall have the dimensions specified or shown on the plans. Tolerance of ± 1/16 inch (1.5 mm) in
thickness, ± 1/8 inch (3 mm) in width and ± 1/4 inch (6.5 mm) in length shall be permitted.
b. Weight (mass) minimum for 0.375 inch (9.5 mm) thickness, 2.60 pounds per square foot (12.7 kg/m2).
c. Weight (mass) minimum for 0.50 inch (13 mm) thickness, 3.50 pounds per square foot (17.1 kg/m2).
d. Water absorption, max, ASTM D545, 1.0%.
e. Thickness of asphalt weather-coating, rivuleted average, 0.020 inch (0.5 mm) minimum.
f. Asphalt saturated felt liners maximum 15 lb per 100 square foot (0.7 kg/m2) after saturation.
g. Asphalt content 50-60% by weight (mass).
h. Inorganic mineral filler particle contents minimum 25% by weight (mass).
i. Resistance to deterioration from organisms and substances in contacting soil, ASTM E154. No effect.
j. Flexibility, No cracking or breaking.
k. Brittleness at 39-43 degrees F (4 to 6 degrees C), ASTM D994. No cracking or shattering.
l. Heat distortion ASTM D994, 0.3125 inch (7.9 mm) maximum.
m. Mineral Filler, Carefully selected and graded inorganic mineral filler particles shall be blended with the asphalt to form
the matrix of each panel.
n. Weathercoating, Asphaltic weathercoating shall be flowed on the exterior top surface of the protection course. This
coating shall be of sufficient thickness to provide complete dimensional stability to the material, when stored outdoors
in direct sunlight. A suitable bond breaking film or coating shall be applied, to function as a release sheet. During
installation, the asphalt-saturated felt side shall be placed against the membrane waterproofing; the side with the bond
breaking film or coating shall be exposed to the ballast rock.
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o. Resistance to Penetration, Dynamic Loading.
(1) The degree of resistance to penetration, when tested in accordance with ASTM D1883, modified as described
below, shall meet the requirements found in Table 8-29-4.
Table 8-29-4. Degree of Resistance to Penetration
Temperature Dynamic Load Penetration
Deg. F Deg. C lbs. kN ins., max. mm, max.

100 38 225 1.00 0.10 2.54
77 25 350 1.56 0.10 2.54
40 4 600 2.67 0.10 2.54
(2) Pertinent modifications to ASTM D1883:
(a) Section 5.1 Loading Machine – as described, except that the movable head is capable of traveling at a uniform
rate of 0.025 inch per minute (0.61 mm/minute).
(b) Section 5.7 Penetration Piston – as described, except that the diameter of the piston shall be 1.0 +/- 0.005 inch
(25.4 +/- 0.13 mm).
1
(c) Section 5.8 Gages - as described.
(d) Section 6 Sample - Test three specimens 6 × 6 inches (152.4 x 152.4 mm), cut from each board sample.
(e) Section 7 Preparation of Test Specimens - The test specimens shall be conditioned in a chamber maintained at
the selected test temperature (±3 F degrees ±1.7 C degrees) for a minimum of 2 hours prior to testing.
3
(f) Section 8.1 - The test specimen, after conditioning, shall be immediately placed on the platform of the loading
machine and the piston placed in the center of the specimen.
(g) Section 8.2 - As described.
(h) Section 8.3 - Apply the load on the penetration piston so that the rate of penetration is approximately 0.025
inch per minute (0.61 mm/minute). The penetration shall be recorded at an applied load reading of 40 lb (178 4
kN) intervals, except where the load increases too fast to record (40 degrees F test (4 degrees C test)).
p. Inspection. Sample from each lot shall be examined for appearance, straightness of edges and squareness of corners,
and measured for width and length. They shall be calibered at four standard points each, with a micrometer having flat
bearing surfaces at both contact points of not less than 3/4 inch (19 mm) diameter. The average of the readings shall be
considered the thickness of the protection course.
q. Flexibility Test
(1) Three specimens 3 × 12 inches (75 x 305 mm) shall be conditioned at 770 ± 50 degrees F (400 ± 28 degrees C) for
not less than 2 hours immediately prior to being subjected to test.
(2) Place specimen with the 12 inch (305 mm) dimension perpendicular to and centered over the axis of a horizontal
cylinder having a diameter of 19 ± 1 inch (483 ± 25 mm).
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

(3) Clamp one end and grasp the other end of the samples and bend around the cylinder at the uniform rate to
complete bend in 60 ± 10 seconds until the specimen is in full contact with the surface of the cylinder.
(4) Examine for any cracking or breaking of the sample.
SECTION 29.11 SEALING COMPOUNDS FOR JOINTS AND EDGES OF MEMBRANE

PROTECTION (2001)
a. Hot-poured elastic-type joint sealer shall meet the requirements of ASTM D1190.
b. Plastic cements for cold application for sealing joints and edges are generally proprietary products. The literature of the
several manufacturers should be studied, and the Engineer shall select a material which will best serve the purpose as
governed by conditions of use.
c. For types of plastic cement, refer to Section 29.16 for material description and conformance.
SECTION 29.12 ANTI-BONDING PAPER (2001)
Anti-bonding paper shall be a tough paper that shall be impervious to the bituminous material applied to the membrane. It shall
have a weight (mass) not less than 5 lb per 100 square foot (0.25 kg/m2).
SECTION 29.13 INSPECTION AND TESTS (1994)
a. Materials shall be sampled and tested by the current methods recommended by ASTM.
b. The acceptance of any material by the inspector shall not be a bar to their subsequent rejection if found defective.
Rejected material shall be promptly removed from the job and replaced with acceptable material.
c. No material shall be used until it has been accepted by the Engineer.
29.14.1 GENERAL (2001)
a. Bituminous membranes and Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic film or Preformed Board shall not be applied when
atmospheric temperatures are below 50 degrees F (10 degrees C). Butyl Rubber Membrane shall not be applied when
atmospheric temperature is below 10 degrees F (-12 degrees C) without written permission of the Engineer. Surfaces to
be waterproofed shall be clean, smooth, dry, and free of fins, sharp edges, oil, grease and loose or foreign materials.
New concrete shall have cured for a minimum of seven days, or for a longer period if recommended by the
manufacturer, before applying the waterproofing system. Projections or depressions on the surface on which the
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membrane is to be applied that may cause injury to the membrane shall be removed or filled as directed by the
Engineer.
b. There shall be no depressions or pockets in horizontal surfaces of the finished waterproofing. The membrane shall be
carefully turned into drainage fittings. Special care shall be taken to make the waterproofing effective along the sides
and ends of girders and at stiffeners, gussets, etc.
c. Cold liquid-applied elastomeric membrane shall be applied when substrate temperatures are in the range of 32–104
degrees F (0–40 degrees C) providing that the substrate is above the dew point. The condition of the substrate shall
meet the Manufacturer’s recommendations and be approved by the Engineer. Material shall be sprayed on horizontal or
vertical surfaces up to, around or into details.
29.14.2 PRIMER (2001)
a. Surfaces to be protected with asphalt waterproofing shall be given one coat of asphaltic primer before the first mopping
of asphalt. Surfaces to be protected with coal-tar-pitch waterproofing shall be given one coat of creosote primer before
the first mopping of coal-tar pitch. A minimum of 1 gal of primer per 100 square foot (4 liters/10 m2) of surface shall
be used. The primer shall be applied approximately 24 hr before applying the waterproofing membrane.
b. At expansion joints, the primer shall be omitted for a width of 9 inches (230 mm) of each side of the joint, and a strip of
anti-bonding paper 18 inches (450 mm) wide laid thereon before the membrane is applied.
c. Surfaces to be protected with a cold liquid-applied elastomeric membrane shall be given one coat of Manufacturer
approved primer prior to the application of the membrane. The primer shall be applied by either spray, brush, roller or 1
a method approved by the Manufacturer.
29.14.3 MEMBRANE (2001)
29.14.3.1 Bituminous Membrane
a. Coal-tar pitch shall not be heated above 300 degrees F (150 degrees C). Asphalt shall not be heated above 350 3
degrees F (177 degrees C).
b. The surface to be waterproofed shall be mopped in sections slightly wider than the strip of fabric or felt to be placed.
While the mopping of bitumen is hot, a strip of cotton fabric or felt shall be laid on the mopping and pressed into place.
The amount of bitumen used for each mopping shall not be less than 1/2 gallon per 100 square feet (18.3 liters/10 m2)
of surface.
4
c. Lapping of layers of felt or fabric shall be in accordance with one of the types shown in Figure 8-29-2. Ends of fabric
and felt shall be lapped a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) where necessary to splice the material in a strip.
d. On surfaces that are vertical or nearly vertical, the strips of fabric or felt shall be laid vertical or in the direction of the
slope. On other surfaces the strips shall be lapped in accordance with one of the types shown in Figure 8-29-2,
beginning at the lowest part of the surface, to be waterproofed. Sufficient fabric or felt shall be allowed for suitable lap
or anchorage at the upper edge of the surface to be waterproofed.
e. At expansion joints of bridge decks protected with bituminous membrane waterproofing, a strip of anti-bonding paper
18 inches (450 mm) wide and a sheet of 22-gage (0.76 mm) galvanized metal a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) wide
shall be laid and centered on the joint both above and below the membrane before the protective cover is applied.
f. The work shall be regulated so that at the end of the day, all fabric or felt that has been laid shall have been mopped.
g. The waterproofing membrane shall be free from punctures or folds. Patching shall be done only with permission of the
Engineer. Where patching is permitted for defective waterproofing, it shall extend a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm)
©
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-29-2. Lapping of Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing.
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beyond the outermost edge of the defective portion. The second and each succeeding ply of the patch shall extend at
least 3 inches (75 mm) beyond the preceding ply.
29.14.3.2 Butyl Rubber or EPDM Membrane
a. For surfaces to be waterproofed with a membrane secured with adhesive, the adhesive shall be applied to ballast
retainers and ends of deck in a solid area extending a minimum of 36 inches (915 mm). At the Engineer’s option,
adhesive may be applied to the entire surface to be waterproofed. Adhesive should be applied in a thin layer (by using
a roller or brush as recommended by the manufacturer) at a minimum rate of 1 gallon per 60 square foot (6.8 liters/10
m2) based on both mating surfaces.
b. Membrane sheets shall first be positioned and drawn tight without stretching. Half of the membrane is then uniformly
rolled up in a direction away from the starting edge or subsequent splice. Adhesive is now applied to the exposed area.
Allow adhesive to dry so as to not stick to a dry finger touch and all solvent is evaporated. The membrane is now
unrolled and pressed firmly and uniformly in place, using care to avoid trapping of air. The same procedure is repeated
for the remaining half of the membrane sheets. Wrinkles and buckles shall be avoided. Each succeeding sheet shall be
positioned to fit the previously installed sheet and spliced.
c. Splices shall be of tongue-and-groove or lap type as specified by the Engineer. Splices shall be made as shown in
Figure 8-29-3. All seam, lap and splice areas shall be cleaned with heptane, hexane, toluene, trichloroethylene or white
gasoline, using a clean cloth, mop or similar synthetic cleaning device. Cement shall be spread continuously on seam,
lap and splice areas at a uniform rate of not less than 2 gal per 150 square foot (5.4 liters/10 m2) based on both mating
surfaces. After cement is allowed to dry until it will not stick to a dry finger touch, apply butyl gum tape to cemented
area of membrane, pressing firmly into place, obtaining full contact. Bridging and wrinkles shall be avoided. Corner
splices shall be reinforced with two continuous layers of rubber membrane over one layer of butyl tape.
1
d. All projecting pipe, conduits, sleeves, etc., passing through membrane waterproofing shall be flashed with
prefabricated or field-fabricated boots, fitted coverings, etc., as necessary to provide watertight construction. Butyl
gum tape shall be used between layers of rubber membrane.
e. At expansion joints of bridge decks protected with butyl rubber membrane waterproofing, a strip of anti-bonding paper 3
18 inches (450 mm) wide and a sheet of 22-gage (0.76 mm) galvanized metal a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) wide
shall be laid and centered on the joint both above and below the membrane before the protective cover is applied.
f. Any holes in the membrane sheeting shall be patched with a minimum overlap of 4 inches (100 mm) and in accordance
with manufacturer’s instructions.
g. During construction, care shall be exercised to prevent damage to the waterproofing membrane by men or equipment. 4
29.14.3.3 Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board
a. Surface Preparation.
(1) All concrete or masonry surfaces shall be surface dry. Surfaces shall be broom cleaned, shall be free of voids,
loose aggregate, sharp protrusions, form release agents or other contaminants. Horizontal concrete or masonry
surfaces shall be wood float finished.
(2) All concrete or masonry surfaces shall be primed with manufacturer’s recommended primer, applied by brush or
roller at the rate of 100 to 250 square foot per gal (2.5 to 6.1 m2/liter). Primer shall be dried one hour or until tack
free. Primed surfaces not covered within 36 hours shall be reprimed. Dense surfaces such as metal shall be primed,
and shall be clean, dry and free of grease, oil, dust, or other contaminants before being primed. Wood shall be
primed.
b. Application Procedures.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-29-3. Recommended Butyl Membrane Field Seam Assembly Recommended in Order Listed
for Field Assembly
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Waterproofing
(1) Rubber Asphalt with Plastic Film shall be overlapped 2-1/2 inches (64 mm) to adjacent material surfaces. Rubber
Asphalt with Preformed Board shall be butt-jointed with 6 inches (150 mm) gusset tape as recommended by the
manufacturer applied directly over the joints.
(2) All corners shall be double-covered with a double layer of membrane by applying an initial 12 inches (305 mm)
strip centered along the axis of the corner.
(3) Expansion joints shall be double covered with membrane. Prior to waterproofing over expansion joints, a
minimum 12 inches (305 mm) wide galvanized 16 gage (1.52 mm) steel plate shall be placed and centered on the
joint, then an inverted strip of membrane (plastic side down) 4 inches (100 mm) wider than the galvanized plate
shall be centered on the galvanized plate. This should then be covered over with a full width of membrane,
centered on the joint.
(4) The perimeter of the membrane placed in any day’s operation and all outside edges of membrane shall have a
trowelled bead of cold applied rubberized asphalt mastic applied after the membrane is placed.
(5) Areas around drains, posts, bolts, or other protrusions shall have a double layer of membrane and shall be liberally
coated with mastic adjacent to seams and protrusions after application of the membrane.
(6) Immediately before covering the membrane, a careful inspection shall be made and any ruptures, misaligned
seams or other discontinuities shall be patched with membrane.
29.14.3.4 Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane
a. Surface Preparation. 1
(1) All concrete surfaces shall be surface dry. Surfaces to be waterproofed shall be clean, smooth, dry and free of oil,
grease and loose or foreign material.
(2) The surface preparation shall be performed by means approved by the Engineer. The surface profile is not to
exceed 1/4 inch (6.3 mm), peak to valley. Test method ASTM D4541 shall be used to verify that the surface
preparation meets the required adhesion/pull off values of 100 psi (0.7 MPa) for concrete and 290 psi (2.0 MPa) 3
for steel surfaces.
(3) Steel substrates shall be cleaned and sand blasted to a near white SSPC SP-10 specification or to a condition that
exceeds the Manufacturer’s minimum requirements. Special attention shall be given to welds, bolts, rivets, etc., so
that preparation complies with Manufacturer’s recommendations. Primer is to be applied within 4 hours of
preparation.
4
(4) Other methods of surface preparation recommended by the manufacturer may be used as approved by the
Engineer.
b. Application Procedures.
(1) Immediately prior to the application of any component of the system, the surface shall be dry. Any remaining dust
or loose particles shall be removed using a vacuum or clean, dry, oil-free compressed air.
(2) Where the area to be waterproofed is vertical, the system shall be capable of being sprayed at the specified
thickness.
(3) The membrane shall be carefully sprayed around and into drainage fittings to ensure proper runoff of water.
Special care shall be taken with the spraying of the system to get full coverage along the sides and ends of girders,
stiffeners, gussets, and over welds, bolts or rivets, etc.
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2012, American
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Railway Engineering

(4) Where the membrane is to be joined to existing cured material the new application shall overlap the existing
material by at least 4 inches (100 mm).
(5) All overlap areas shall be wiped with a cleaner in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendation.
(6) The membrane shall be applied in a methodical manner to ensure proper coverage. Wet film thickness shall be
checked once every 100 square feet (9 m2).
(7) If required by site conditions, or for application to small areas, or touch-up the membrane can be applied by brush
or trowel in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
(8) The membrane shall be fully cured before it is covered. Membrane shall be inspected prior to covering and any
surface defects or damage shall be repaired in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
(9) Protective cover in accordance with Article 29.14.4.1b shall be installed prior to ballast placement.
(10) Other application procedures may be used as recommended by the manufacturer and approved by the Engineer.
29.14.4 PROTECTIVE COVER (2001)
29.14.4.1 General
a. Protective cover shall be placed over all waterproofing membranes to eliminate damage from ballast contact as soon as
practicable within 24 hours after the membrane has been laid. Dirt and other foreign material shall be removed from
the surface of the membrane before the protective cover is placed. Protective cover shall be shielded with permanent
cover within 48 hours, unless a temporary cover, approved by the Engineer, is placed.
b. One of the following methods of protection shall be used:
(1) A layer of reinforced portland cement concrete not less than 2 inches (50 mm) thick.
(2) A layer of asphalt block or asphalt plank not less than 1 inch (25 mm) thick.
(3) A layer or layers of asphaltic panels not less than 3/4 inch (19 mm) total thickness.
29.14.4.2 Portland Cement Concrete Protection
Portland cement concrete shall be mixed in accordance with the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements. It shall be reinforced with one layer of wire fabric. Traffic shall not be allowed on the concrete until it is
adequately cured as judged by the Engineer.
29.14.4.3 Asphalt Plank
a. Asphalt plank protection shall be laid in hot asphalt applied at not less than 5 gallons per 100 square foot (20 liters/10
m2). As successive planks are laid, the edges and ends of adjacent planks already laid shall be coated heavily with hot
asphalt. This shall be the same asphalt as specified for mopping in Article 29.9.1. Planks shall be held tightly against
those previously laid so that the asphalt will completely fill the joints and be squeezed out of the top. After all of the
planks have been laid, any joints not completely filled shall be filled with hot asphalt.
b. Asphalt planks for use with a butyl rubber or EPDM membrane shall be laid in a coating of bonding adhesive as
specified in Article 29.9.6. The adhesive shall be applied at a rate of not less than 1 gal per 100 square foot (4.1
liters/10 m2). Voids between the joints should be filled with a compatible material as described in Article 29.9.1.
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29.14.4.4 Asphaltic Panels
a. Asphaltic panels are available in various thicknesses. To obtain the thickness of 3/4 inch (19 mm), the recommended
application is two layers with the joints staggered. The panels shall be laid tight jointed, with or without an approved
adhesive. The adhesive shall be the same as specified in Article 29.9.1 when used with Bituminous membrane or in
Article 29.9.6 when used with Butyl rubber or EPDM membrane. Any voids between the panels shall be filled with a
material compatible to both the membrane and the panel.
b. Where edges or protrusions of asphaltic panels are exposed to prolonged sunlight exposure, coat exposed areas with
Fibre Aluminum Roof Coating meeting ASTM D2824, Type II at a rate of 12 square feet per gallon (3 m2/10 liter), for
a 1/8 inch (3 mm) thickness.
29.14.4.5 Sealing Joints and Edges
a. Joints shown on the plan to be filled with a joint sealing compound shall be filled where possible with a hot-poured
elastic-type joint sealer or with an approved hot or cold elastic-type joint sealer. Steeply sloped or vertical areas shall
be sealed with cold-applied mastic.
b. The following precaution (from ASTM D1190) should be observed in using hot-poured elastic-type joint sealer:
Some, if not all, of the known materials conforming to these recommended practices may be damaged by heating to too
high a temperature for too long a time. Care should be exercised to secure equipment for heating that is suitable for the
purpose. The material should be heated in a kettle with mechanical agitation, constructed as a double boiler, with the
space between the inner and outer shells filled with oil or other heat transfer medium. Thermostatic control for the heat
transfer medium shall be provided and shall have sufficient sensitivity to maintain sealant temperature within the
1
manufacturer’s specified application temperature range.
SECTION 29.15 INTRODUCTION TO DAMPROOFING 3

29.15.1 DAMPROOFING SCOPE (2001)
a. Dampproofings are not to be used in any area where a hydrostatic head is anticipated.
b. Dampproofings are a surface coating intended to repel free water.

4
c. These recommended practices apply to materials and methods for dampproofing concrete surfaces.
SECTION 29.16 MATERIALS FOR DAMPROOFING
29.16.1 ASPHALT PRIMER (1994)
Asphaltic primer shall meet the requirements of ASTM D41.
29.16.2 CREOSOTE PRIMER (2001)
Coal tar primer for use with coal-tar pitch shall meet the requirements of ASTM D43.
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2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

29.16.3 WOVEN COTTON FABRICS (1994)
Woven cotton fabrics saturated with either asphalt or coal-tar bitumen shall meet the requirements of ASTM D173.
29.16.4 COAL-TAR SATURATED ORGANIC FELT (1994)
Coal-tar saturated organic felt shall meet the requirements of ASTM D227.
29.16.5 ASPHALT (1994)
Asphalt shall meet the requirements of ASTM D449. Three types: I, II, or III are specified. Type II asphalt shall be used for
dampproofing.
29.16.6 COAL-TAR PITCH (1994)
Coal-tar pitch shall meet the requirements of ASTM D450. Three types: I, II, or III are specified. Type I coal-tar pitch shall be
used for dampproofing.
29.16.7 EMULSIFIED ASPHALT COATINGS (2001)
Emulsified asphalt coatings shall meet the requirements of ASTM D1187, Type I.
29.16.8 EMULSIFIED ASPHALT PROTECTIVE COATING (2001)
Emulsified asphalt protective coating shall meet the requirements of ASTM D1227, Type II, Class 1.
29.16.9 ASBESTOS-FREE ASPHALT ROOF COATINGS (1994)
Asbestos-free asphalt roof coatings to be brush or spray applied shall meet the requirements of ASTM D4479. Two types: I
and II are specified.
29.16.10 ASBESTOS-FREE ASPHALT ROOF COATING (1994)
Asbestos-free asphalt roof coating to be trowel applied shall meet the requirements of ASTM D4586.
29.16.11 INSPECTION AND TESTS (1994)
a. Contractor shall supply certification that materials used are in full conformance to applicable ASTM designations. If
requested by the Engineer, sampling and testing will be completed.
b. The acceptance of any material by the inspector shall not bar their subsequent rejection if found defective. Rejected
materials shall be promptly removed from the job and replaced with acceptable material.
c. No material shall be used until it has been accepted by the Engineer.
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SECTION 29.17 APPLICATION OF DAMPROOFING1
29.17.1 PREPARATION OF SURFACES (2001)
a. The surfaces upon which a dampproofing coating is to be applied shall be cleaned of all dirt and loose or foreign
material by sandblasting, the use of wire brushes, chisels or scrapers, or washing with water.
b. Spalled, cracked, or honeycombed areas shall be repaired in accordance with Part 14, Repair and Rehabilitation of
Concrete Structures.
c. All surfaces to be dampproofed shall be dry and free from sharp projections or porous places.
29.17.2 TEMPERATURE (2001)
All dampproofing materials shall be applied when surface temperature is above 40 degrees F (4 degrees C) and rain is not
likely before completion of the project, unless specifically recommended by the material manufacturer and with written
approval of the Engineer.
29.17.3 METHOD OF APPLICATION (2001)2
a. The primer shall be applied to the concrete surface at least 24 hours in advance of applying the first mopping of
bitumen. The primer need not be heated but shall be applied in a uniform coat that completely covers the area to which
the bitumen is to be applied. 1
b. The bitumen for mopping shall be heated to permit uniform covering; however, asphalt shall not be heated above 350
degrees F (177 degrees C) and coal-tar pitch shall not be heated above 300 degrees F (150 degrees C). Two mop coats
of bitumen shall be applied, using a total of approximately 8 gallons of bitumen for 100 square feet of dampproofing
surface (32.6 liters/10 m2). If imperfections appear in the coating, additional coats shall be applied until the
imperfections are corrected.
3
c. Cover or backfill within 72 hours after application. Backfill with care to avoid damage to dampproofed areas.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 29, Waterproofing. In the numbering
of articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being commented upon. 4
C - SECTION 29.2 WATERPROOFING (2001)
C - Paragraph i
When doing remedial waterproofing on existing railway bridges, it is possible to encounter unusual materials used as the
protection cover. These may include premoulded asphalt block, industrial or paving brick, mixed-in-place asphalt or coar tar
mastic with selected aggregates. These older methods of protection can be readily recognized and if being removed, should be
replaced with current acceptable AREMA recommended materials and practices.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - SECTION 29.7 GENERAL PRACTICES
C - 29.7.1 DESIGN (2005)
a. Roll, sheet or liquid applied systems that, when applied to concrete and masonry surfaces, will prevent the ingress of
moisture in both its liquid and gaseous forms. Systems are suitable for application on and below grade as well as
railway structures of all types, including bridge structures.
b. Selected materials must be suitable for, and capable of handling, the inherent pressures of a hydrostatic head.
C - SECTION 29.9 MEMBRANES
C - 29.9.10 COLD LIQUID-APPLIED ELASTOMERIC MEMBRANE (2005)
The recommended waterproofing membrane thickness applied to the bridge deck is not to be less than recommended by the
manufacturer. The minimum required dry film thickness of 80 mils at any location on the bridge deck is to ensure adequate
coverage of substrate irregularities, and a greater thickness may be specified in order to insure that this minimum is achieved.
The absence of pin holes should be verified in accordance with ASTM D4787. The thickness of membrane applied is to be at
least equal to the thickness used by the manufacturer for the crack bridging test.
C - SECTION 29.10 MEMBRANE PROTECTION
There has been a continuing debate on the use of protection board material over cold liquid applied membrane since cold
liquid applied membrane was included in previous AREMA recommendations. The initial recommendations allowed cold
liquid applied membrane to be used without protection board, provided the membrane material passed the ballast impact test.
The use of protection board placed over cold liquid membrane material is an economic decision that an owner makes. The
AREMA recommendation gives a standard practice, but does not prohibit the use of a cold liquid applied membrane without a
protection board. The decision is a question of length of useful life (economical cost of replacement versus higher initial
capital cost).
C - SECTION 29.17 APPLICATION OF DAMPROOFING
Dampproofing is a surface coating applied to concrete or masonry that will prevent or repel water in its liquid form. May be
applied in single or multiple layers, suitable for application above and below grade.
C - 29.17.3 METHOD OF APPLICATION (2001)
Dampproofings are not to be used in any area where a hydrostatic head is anticipated.
© 2013,

8w
Chapter 8 Glossary
— 2006 —
The following Terms are listed in the various Parts of Chapter 8 Concrete Structures and Foundations and are defined here.
These definitions apply only to those Parts in which they are cited as Terms since they may have different meanings where
used in other Parts.
AASHTO
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 444 North Capitol Street, Suite 249, Washington,
D.C. 20001. www.aashto.org. Term cited in Part 1.
Absorption
The process by which a liquid is drawn into and tends to fill permeable pores in a porous solid; also the increase in mass of
a porous solid resulting from the penetration of a liquid into its permeable pores. Term cited in Part 1.
1
Abutment
Commonly consists of a retaining wall that incorporates a bridge seat in its face. It may also be of the spill-through type, in
which the bridge seat rests on horizontal beams supported by piles or columns between which the fill is permitted to extend.
Term cited in Part 5.
3
ACI International
American Concrete Institute, P.O. Box 9094, Farmington Hills, Michigan 48333. www.aci-int.org. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture
A material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement and fiber reinforcement, used as an ingredient of concrete or
mortar, and added to the batch immediately before or during its mixing. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Accelerating
An admixture that causes an increase in the rate of hydration of the hydraulic cement, and thus shortens the time of setting,
or increases the rate of strength development, or both. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Air-Entraining
An addition for hydraulic cement; also an admixture for concrete or mortar which causes entrained air to be incorporated in
the concrete or mortar during mixing, usually to increase its workability and frost resistance. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Retarding
An admixture which delays the setting of cement paste and hence of mixtures such as mortar or concrete containing
cement. Term cited in Part 1.

Admixture, Water Reducing

An admixture that either increases slump of freshly mixed mortar or concrete without increasing water content or maintains
slump with a reduced amount of water, the effect being due to factors other than air entrainment. Also known as a
plasticizer. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Water Reducing (High Range)

A water reducing admixture capable of producing large water reduction or great flowability without causing undue
retardation or entrainment of air in mortar or concrete. Also known as a superplasticizer. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Water Reducing and Accelerating

An admixture that reduces the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency and accelerates
the setting and early strength development of concrete. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Water Reducing and Retarding

An admixture that reduces the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency and retards the
setting of concrete. Term cited in Part 1.
Agent, Bonding
A substance applied to a sound substrate to create a bond between it and a succeeding layer or adjacent concrete placement,
conforming to ASTM C881 Standard Specification for Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding Systems for Concrete. Term cited in
Part 1.
Aggregate
Inert material such as sand, gravel or crushed stone used with a hydraulic cementing medium to produce either concrete or
mortar. Term cited in Part 1.
Air, Entrained
Microscopic air bubbles intentionally incorporated in mortar or concrete during mixing, usually by use of a surface-active
agent; typically between 0.4 to 40 mils (10 and 1000 micrometers) in diameter and spherical or nearly so. Term cited in
Part 1.
Anchorage Blister
Build-out in the web, flange, or web-flange junction to provide area for one or more tendon anchorages. Term cited in Part
26.
Anchorage Seating
Deformation of anchorage or seating of tendons in anchorage device when prestressing force is transferred from jack to
anchorage device. Term cited in Part 17.
Approved or Approval
Approved or approval shall be understood to mean written consent. Term cited in Part 1.
Asphaltic Panels for Waterproofing Protection

Asphaltic panels that are fortified in order to protect membrane waterproofing from ballast penetration and abrasion. They
are furnished in sheet form, applied either dry or in asphalt mastic.
© 2013,

Glossary
ASTM - International
ASTM - International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania 19428-2959. www.astm.org Term cited
in Part 1.
Bell or Underream
An enlargement at the bottom of the drilled shaft made by hand excavation or mechanical underreaming with drilling
equipment for the purpose of spreading the load over a larger area. Term cited in Part 24.
Blast-Furnace Slag
The non-metallic product consisting essentially of silicates and alumino silicates of calcium and other bases, that is
developed in a molten condition simutaneously with iron in a blast-furnace. Term cited in Part 1.
Blast-Furnace Slag, Ground Granulated

The glassy granular material formed when blast furnace slag is rapidly chilled, as by immersion in water. Term cited in Part
1.
Bleeding
The autogenous flow of mixing water within, or its emergence from, newly placed concrete or mortar (caused by the
settlement of the solid materials within the mass) also called water gain. Term cited in Part 1.
Bonded Tendon
See Tendon, Bonded. Term cited in Part 17. 1
Butyl Rubber
An elastomeric membrane sheet formed of multiple plies of rubber factory-fabricated into a single ply for waterproofing
bridge decks, foundations and tunnels. It is capable of being field spliced with appropriate adhesives, cements and butyl
gum tape.
3
Casing, Permanent
A permanent steel cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from excavations. It is used as a
form to contain concrete placed for a drilled shaft and remains in place. Term cited in Part 24.
Casing, Protective
Protective steel unit, usually cylindrical in shape, lowered into the excavation to protect workmen and inspectors from 4
collapse or cave-in of the side wall. Term cited in Part 24.
Casing, Temporary
A temporary steel cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from the excavations. It may also be
used as a form for the shaft concrete but is withdrawn as the concrete shaft is placed. Term cited in Part 24.
Cement, Blended
Hydraulic cement consisting essentially of an intimate and uniform blend of granulated blast-furnace slag and hydrated
lime; or an intimate and uniform blend of portland cement and granulated blast-furnace slag; portland cement and pozzolan,
or portland blast-furnace slag cement and pozzolan, produced by intergrinding portland cement clinker and other materials
or by blending portland cement with other materials, or a combination of intergrinding and blending. Term cited in Part 1.
Cement, Hydraulic
A cement that sets and hardens by chemical interaction with water and is capable of doing so underwater.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Cement, Slag
Hydraulic cement consisting mostly of an intimate and uniform blend of granulated blast-furnace slag and hydrated lime in
which the slag constituent is more than a specified minimum percentage. Term cited in Part 1.
Cementitious
Having cementing properties. Term cited in Part 1.
Centering
Falsework that may be used in the construction of a continuous or other special structure, where the entire falsework is
lowered (struck or decentered) as a unit. Term cited in Part 1.
Chemical Resistance
The ability of the material to resist attack by chemicals such as caustics, chlorides or acids (e.g. salt or diesel fuel). Term
cited in Part 1.
Closure
Cast-in-place concrete segment or segments used to complete a span. Term cited in Part 26.
Coating
Material used to protect prestressing tendons against corrosion, to reduce friction between tendon and duct, or to debond
prestressing tendons. Term cited in Part 17.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane

A two component, resinous-based system that is brush, roll, or spray applied to form a seamless waterproof membrane,
preventing the intrusion of moisture into the concrete or steel substrate. This type of membrane provides high bond
strength to the substrate and excellent crack bridging capabilities.
Company
Company shall be understood to mean the Railroad or Railway Company. Term cited in Part 1.
Compound, Curing
A liquid that can be applied to the surface of newly placed concrete to retard the loss of water. Term cited in Part 1.
Compressive Strength
See Strength, Compressive. Term cited in Parts 1 and 2.
Compressive Strength of Concrete (f 'c)

See Compressive Strength. Terms cited in Parts 1 and 2.
Concrete
A composite material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are embedded particles or fragments of
aggregate, usually a combination of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate; in portland-cement concrete, the binder is a
mixture of portland cement and water. Term cited in Part 1.
© 2013,

Glossary
Concrete Curing Compound

See Curing Compound, Concrete. Term cited in Part 1.
Concrete, Cyclopean
A term describing mass concrete in which large individual aggregates (cyclopean aggregates) each of 100 pounds (45 kg)
or more are placed and embedded as concrete is deposited. Term cited in Part 1.
Concrete, Polymer
Concrete in which an organic polymer serves as the binder; also known as resin concrete; sometimes erroneously employed
to designate hydraulic cement mortars or concretes in which part or all of the mixing water is replaced by an aqueous
dispersion of a thermoplastic copolymer. Term cited in Part 1.
Concrete, Polymer Cement

A mixture of water, hydraulic cement, aggregate, and a monomer or polymer; polymerized in place when a monomer is
used. Term cited in Part 1.
Concrete, Structural Lightweight

A structural concrete made with lightweight aggregate; having an air-dry unit weight of not more than 115 lb/ft3 (1850
kg/m3). Term cited in Parts 1 and 2.
Confinement Anchorage
Anchorage device for a post-tensioning tendon that functions on the basis of confinement of the concrete in the immediate 1
anchorage zone by confinement reinforcing (stirrups, spirals or other devices to provide confinement to the concrete).
Contractor
The individual, partnership, corporation, or joint venturer undertaking performance of the work covered by the plans and
specifications and in accordance with the terms of the contract. Term cited in Part 1. 3
Couplers (Couplings)
Means by which prestressing force is transmitted from one partial-length prestressing tendon to another. Cited in Parts 17
and 26.
Creep of Concrete 4
Time-dependent deformation of concrete under sustained load. Term cited in Part 17.
Crib Wall, Cribbing

A Crib Wall consists of an earth filled assembly of individual structural units, which relies for its stability on the weight and
strength of the earth fill. The design of such walls is treated in Part 6, Crib Walls.
A Crib Wall is an earth-retaining structure made up of rigid members fabricated in the shape of open squares, open
rectangles or other open shapes, or are assembled in the shape of square or rectangular cells, or cells of other shapes. The
cells are filled with granular material. The structure of cells and soil infill act together as a gravity structure, obtaining
safety and stability from the proper proportioning of its shape and weight (mass). Crib walls can be of traditional cribbing
as described in Article 6.1.2.2, or of other units that behave in accordance with this definition. Crib wall members can be of
concrete, metal, or timber.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Cribbing also defines a traditional assembly of headers and stretchers, used to form the most common kind of crib wall.
Curing Compound, Concrete

A chemical compound which is applied to a concrete surface to prevent the loss of moisture during early stages of cement
hydration. Term cited in Part 1.
Curvature Friction
Friction resulting from bends or curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile. Term cited in Part 17.
Cyclopean Concrete
See Concrete, Cyclopean. Term cited in Part 1.
Debonding or Blanketing
Wrapping, sheathing or coating prestressing tendon to prevent bond between strand and surrounding concrete. Term cited
in Part 17.
Deformed Reinforcement
See Reinforcement.
Design Load
All applicable loads and forces or related internal moments and forces used to proportion members. For design by
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN, design load refers to loads without load factor, for LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, design load
refers to loads multiplied by appropriate load factors. Term cited in Part 2.
Design Strength
Nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction factor Φ – See Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.30.2.
Development Length
Length of embedded reinforcement required to develop the design strength of the reinforcement at a critical section. Term
cited in Part 2.
Deviation Saddle
Build-out in the web, flange, or web-flange junction to provide for change of direction of an external tendon. Term cited in
Part 26.
Dolphin
A stand-alone unit placed upstream or downstream of a substructure element, placed to protect portions of a bridge exposed
to possible damage from impacts by floating debris or vessels. The dolphin may be a pile cluster, a filled cellular sheet pile
structure, a reinforced concrete shaft or other structural unit intended to protect the bridge. Term cited in Part 23.
Drilled Shaft
A machine and/or hand excavated shaft, concrete filled, with or without steel reinforcement, for the purpose of transferring
structural loads to bearing strata below the shaft and/or through transfer of structural load through friction between the sides
of the shaft and the adjacent material through which the shaft passes. Term cited in Part 24.
© 2013,

Glossary
Duct
Hole or void formed in prestressed member to accommodate tendon for post-tensioning. Term cited in Part 17.
Effective Prestress
Stress remaining in concrete due to prestressing after all calculated losses have been deducted, excluding effects of
superimposed loads and weight of member; stress remaining in prestressing tendons after all losses have occurred
excluding effects of dead load and superimposed load. Term cited in Part 17.
Elastic Shortening of Concrete

Shortening of member caused by application of forces induced by prestressing. Term cited in Part 17.
Embankment Installation, Negative Projecting

An embankment installation made over a pipe which is installed within a relatively narrow trench with the top of the pipe
below the natural ground or compacted fill. Term cited in Part 10.
Embankment Installation, Positive Projecting

An embankment installation made over a pipe which is installed on original ground or compacted fill with the top of the
pipe above the ground or compacted fill. Term cited in Part 10.
Embedment Length
Length of embedded reinforcement provided beyond a critical section. Term cited in Part 2.
1
Embedment Length, Equivalent (le)
End Anchorage
Length of reinforcement, or a mechanical anchor or a hook, or combination thereof, beyond the point of zero stress in the
reinforcement. Term cited in Parts 2 and 17.
3
End Block
Enlarged end section of member designed to reduce anchorage stresses. Term cited in Part 17.
Engineer 4
Engineer shall be understood to mean the Chief Engineer of the Company or the Chief Engineer’s duly authorized
representative. Term cited in Part 1.
EPDM
A sheet, elastomeric membrane formed of Ethylene-Propylene-Diene-Monomers for waterproofing bridge decks,
foundations, and tunnels. It is capable of being field spliced with appropriate adhesive, cements, and butyl gum tape.
Expansion Joint
A joint or dimensional gap between adjacent parts of a building, structure or concrete work which permits relative
movement due to temperature changes (or other conditions) without rupture or damage. Term cited in Part 1.
External Tendon
See Tendon, External. Term cited in Part 26.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Factored Load
Load, multiplied by appropriate Load Factors, used to proportion member by the LOAD FACTOR DESIGN method. Term
cited in Part 2.
Falsework
A temporary structure erected to support concrete, formwork, machinery, workers or other loads during the process of
construction; composed of shoring, posting and/or bracing. Term cited in Part 1.
Fender
A protective structure or cover placed on or around a pier or abutment face, placed as a buffer to protect portions of bridge
exposed to possible damage from impacts by floating debris or vessels. Fenders are frequently attached to the substructure
element. Term cited in Part 23.
FHWA
Federal Highway Administration, 1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE, Washington, D.C. 20590. www.fhwa.dot.gov. Term cited
in Parts 1 and 4.
Fineness Modulus
See Modulus, Fineness. Term cited in Part 1.
Fly Ash
The finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered coal and which is transported from the
firebox through the boiler by flue gases. Term cited in Part 1.
Form / Formwork
The enclosures or panels which contain the fresh concrete and withstand the forces due to its placement and consolidation.
Forms may in turn be supported on shores or falsework. Term cited in Part 1.
Friction (Post Tensioning)

Surface resistance between tendon and duct in contact during stressing. Term cited in Part 17.
See also Curvature Friction and Wobble Friction.
General Bursting Forces

Bursting forces due to all of the tendons anchored at a cross section. Dependent on the overall concrete dimensions, and the
magnitude, direction and location of the total prestressing force anchored. Term cited in Part 26.
Grout Opening or Vent

Inlet, outlet, vent, or drain in post-tensioning duct for grout, water or air. Term cited in Part 17.
Heel
That portion of the footing of a cantilever retaining wall which lies beneath the retained soil mass. Term cited in Part 5.
Honeycomb
Voids left in concrete by failure of the mortar to effectively fill the spaces among coarse aggregate particles. Term cited in
Part 1.
© 2013,

Glossary
Internal Tendon
See Tendon, Internal. Term cited in Part 26.
Jacked or Tunneled Installation

A pipe installation that is made without removal of the ground above the pipe. Term cited in Part 10.
Jacking Force
Temporary force exerted by device that introduces tension into prestressing tendons. Term cited in Parts 17 and 26.
Joint, Expansion
See Expansion Joint. Term cited in Part 1.
Joint, Type A
Cast-in-place joint between previously cast concrete and wet concrete. Term cited in Part 26.
Joint, Type B
Epoxied joint or dry joint between precast units. Term cited in Part 26.
Laitance
A layer of weak and nondurable material containing cement and fines from aggregates, brought by bleeding water to the top
of overwet concrete. Term cited in Part 1. 1
Launching Bearing
Temporary bearing with low friction characteristics used for launching of bridges constructed by the incremental launching
method. Term cited in Part 26.
Launching Nose 3
Temporary assembly attached to the front of an incrementally launched bridge to reduce superstructure moments during
launching. Term cited in Part 26.
Local Zone
The region immediately surrounding each anchorage device. It may be taken as a cylinder or prism with transverse
dimensions approximately equal to the sum of the projected size of the bearing plate plus the manufacturer’s specified 4
minimum side or edge cover. The length of the local zone may also extend the length of the anchorage device plus an
additional distance in front of the anchor equal to at least the maximum lateral dimension of the anchor. Term cited in Part
26.
Loss of Prestress
Reduction in prestressing force resulting from combined effects of strains in concrete and steel, including effects of elastic
shortening, creep and shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of steel stress, friction, and anchorage seating. Term cited in Parts
17 and 26.
Low Relaxation Steel

Prestressing strand in which the steel relaxation losses have been substantially reduced by additional manufacturing
procedures (stretching at elevated temperatures). Terms cited in Parts 17 and 26.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Modulus, Fineness
A factor obtained by adding the total percentages of material in the sample that are coarser than each of the following sieves
(cumulative percentages retained), and dividing the sum by 100: No. 100 (150 micrometer), No. 50 (300 micrometer), No.
30 (600 micrometer), No. 16 (1.18 mm), No. 8 (2.36 mm), No. 4 (4.75 mm), 3/8 inch (9.5 mm), 3/4 inch (19 mm), 1-1/2
inch (37.5 mm), 3 inch (75 mm), 6 inch (150 mm). Term cited in Part 1.
Nominal Strength
Strength of a member or cross section calculated in accordance with provisions and assumptions of the LOAD FACTOR
DESIGN method before application of any strength reduction factors–See Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.30.2. Term cited in Part 2.
PCI
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, 209 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, Illinois 60606. www.pci.org Term cited in Parts 1
and 26.
Permanent Casing
See Casing, Permanent. Term cited in Part 24.
Plain Reinforcement
See Reinforcement.
Plans
The drawings, specifications and other contract documents prepared and approved by the Engineer. Term cited in Part 1.
Plasticizer
See 'Admixture, Water Reducing'.
Post-Tensioning
Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened. Term cited in Part 17.
Pozzolan
A siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, which in itself possesses little or no cementitious value but will, in finely
divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form
compounds possessing cementitious properties. Term cited in Part 1.
Precompressed Zone
Portion of flexural member cross-section compressed by prestressing force. Term cited in Part 17.
Reinforced concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in concrete resulting
from loads. Term cited in Part 17.
Prestressing Tendon
Term cited in Parts 1, 17, and 26.
Pretensioning
Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed. Term cited in Part 17.
© 2013,

Glossary
Protective Casing
See Casing, Protective. Term cited in Part 24.
psi
Pounds per square inch.
Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing

Reinforcement
Bars, wires, or other slender members, excluding prestressing tendons unless specifically included, conforming to Part 1,
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, which are embedded in concrete in such a manner that they and the
concrete act together in resisting forces.
1. Reinforcement, Deformed. Reinforcement with a manufactured pattern of surface ridges which provide a locking
anchorage with surrounding concrete.
2. Reinforcement, Plain. Reinforcement that does not conform to the definition of deformed reinforcement.
Terms cited in Parts 1 and 2.
Relaxation of Tendon Stress 1

Time-dependent reduction of stress in prestressing tendon at constant strain. Term cited in Part 17.
Required Strength
Strength of a member or cross section required to resist factored loads or related internal moments and forces in such
combinations as are stipulated in Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.4c and Article 2.30.1. Term cited in Part
2.
3
Resistance, Chemical
The ability of the material to resist attack by chemicals such as caustics, chlorides, sulphates or acids. Term cited in Part 1.
Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board Membrane

Consists of a layer of highly rubberized asphalt formed on plastic film or on preformed board for bridge deck, wall 4
foundation and tunnel waterproofing. It is supplied in roll or sheet form, and is capable of field splicing using an
appropriate primer, adhesive and/or gusset tape as recommended by the manufacturer.
Secondary Moment
Restraint moments induced in continuous post-tensioned structures due to forces induced by the tendons at the time of
stressing. The secondary moment changes with time only due to prestress losses. Term cited in Part 26.
Service Load
Loads and forces without load factors. Term cited in Part 2.
Sheer Boom
A longitudinal structural element or system of structural elements, generally positioned at a small angle to the direction of
stream flow, placed to protect portions of a bridge exposed to possible damage from impacts by floating debris or vessels.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Sheer booms are generally positioned and anchored to accomodate fluctuations in water level and deflect the debris or
vessel past the substructure element. Term cited in Part 23.
Shore / Shoring
Props or posts of timber or other materials used in the temporary support of formwork; the process of erecting shores. Term
cited in Part 1.
Shrinkage of Concrete
Time-dependent deformation of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes (hydration process). Term cited in Part
17.
Sieve
A metallic plate or sheet, a woven-wire cloth, or other similar device, with regularly spaced apertures of uniform size,
mounted in a suitable frame or holder for use in separating granular material according to size. Term cited in Part 1.
Sieve Analysis
Particle size distribution; usually expressed as the weight percentage retained upon each of a series of standard sieves of
decreasing size and the percentage passed by the sieve of smallest size. Term cited in Part 1.
Sieve Number
A number used to designate the size of a sieve, usually the approximate number of openings per linear inch; applies to
sieves with openings smaller than ¼ inch (6.3 mm). Term cited in Part 1.
Silica Fume
Very fine noncrystalline silica produced in electric arc furnaces as a byproduct of the production of elemental silicon or
alloys containing silicon; also known as condensed silica fume or microsilica. Term cited in Part 1.
Slump
A measure of consistency of freshly mixed concrete or mortar; equal to the subsidence measured to the nearest 1/4 inch (5
mm) of the molded specimen immediately after removal of the slump cone. Term cited in Part 1.
Slump Cone
Mold used to form a mass of concrete for measuring the slump of freshly mixed concrete. Term cited in Part 1.
Socket
A shaft having a diameter equal or smaller to that of the main portion of a drilled shaft foundations, extended into the
bearing material. Term cited in Part 24.
Soundness
The freedom of a solid from cracks, flaws, fissures, or variations from an accepted standard; in the case of a cement,
freedom from excessive volume change after setting; in the case of aggregate, the ability to withstand the aggressive action
to which concrete containing it might be exposed, particularly that due to weather. Term cited in Part 1.
Spiral
Continuously wound reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix. Term cited in Part 2.
© 2013,

Glossary
Stirrup or Tie
Lateral reinforcement formed of individual units, open or closed, or of continuously wound reinforcement. The term
“stirrup” is usually applied to lateral reinforcement in horizontal members beams and the term “tie” to lateral reinforcement
in vertical members columns. Term cited in Part 2.
Strength, Compressive
The measured maximum resistance of a concrete or mortar specimen to axial compressive loading, expressed as a force per
unit cross sectional area; or the specified resistance used in design calculations. In the case of concrete, compressive
strength (f’c) is the specified strength in psi (MPa). Wherever this quantity is under a radical sign, the square root of the
numerical value only is intended, and the resultant is expressed as a force per unit cross sectional area. Term cited in Parts
1 and 2.
Strut-and-Tie Model
A structural model used for analysis of shear, torsion and other forces based on a truss analysis by assuming compression
struts in the concrete and tension ties in the concrete which must be reinforced. Term cited in Parts 17 and 26.
Superplasticizer
See ‘Admixture, Water Reducing (High Range)’.
Temperature Gradient
Variation of temperature of the concrete over the cross section. Term cited in Part 26.
1
Temperature Stick
Calibrated crayon that melt at a predetermined temperature. Term cited in Part 1.
Temporary Casing
See Casing, Temporary. Term cited in Part 24.
3
Tendon
Wire, strand, or bar, or bundle of such elements, used to impart prestress to concrete. Term cited in Part 17.
Tendon, External
Tendon located outside the flanges or webs of the structural member, generally inside the box girder cell. Term cited in Part
26. 4
Tendon, Internal
Tendon located within the flanges or webs (or both) of the structural member. All internal tendons shall be designed and
constructed as bonded tendons. Term cited in Part 26.
Toe
That portion of the footing of a cantilever retaining wall which is typically in front of the retained soil mass and is the
location of the highest soil bearing pressure. Term cited in Part 5.
Vertical section at bottom of bell. Term cited in Part 24.
Transfer
a. Act of transferring stress in prestressing tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete member.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. Transfer of stress in a pretensioned tendon to surrounding concrete.
Transfer Length
Length over which prestressing force is transferred to concrete by bond in pretensioned members. Term cited in Part 17.
Trench Installation and Induced Trench Installation

A pipe is installed by trench installation when it is installed in a relatively narrow trench excavated in undisturbed soil and
then covered with backfill extending to the ground surface. A pipe is installed by induced trench installation when it is
installed in a trench, backfilled with compressible material over the pipe, and then covered by a high embankment. Term
cited in Part 10.
Tunneled Installation
See Jacked or Tunneled Installation. Term cited in Part 10.
Type A Joint and Type B Joint

See Joint. Terms cited in Part 26.
USDOT
United States Department of Transportation, 1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE, Washington, D.C. 20590. www.dot.gov. Term
cited in Part 1.
Wales
Horizontal or generally horizontal structural members used to brace vertical members. Wales are often used in conjunction
with struts or other bracing elements to form a structural system. Wales may be subject to axial and lateral loads. Term
cited in Part 23.
Wall, Buttress
A retaining wall which is similar to a counterfort wall except that the vertical members, called buttresses, are exposed on
the face of the wall rather than buried in the backfill. Term cited in Part 5.
Wall, Cantilever
A retaining wall which has a cross section resembling an L or an inverted T, and which requires extensive steel
reinforcement. Term cited in Part 5.
Wall, Closed Face

A crib wall with solid-surfaced walls. Term cited in Part 6.
Wall, Counterfort
A retaining wall which consists of a reinforced vertical face slab supported laterally at intervals by vertical reinforced
counterforts extending into the backfill and supported by a reinforced base slab which usually projects in front of the face
slab to form a toe. Term cited in Part 5.
Wall, Gravity
A retaining wall which is so proportioned that no reinforcement other than shrinkage and temperature steel is required.
© 2013,

Glossary
Wall, Open Face

A crib wall with slotted openings. Term cited in Part 6.
Wall, Retaining
A structure used to provide lateral support for a mass of soil which, in turn, may provide vertical support for loads acting on
or within the soil mass. Term cited in Part 5.
Wall, Semi-Gravity
A retaining wall which is so proportioned that some steel reinforcement is required along the back and along the lower side
of the toe. Term cited in Part 5.
Water Absorption
See Absorption. Term cited in Part 1.
Water-Cementitious Material Ratio

The ratio of the mass of water, exclusive only of that absorbed by the aggregate, to the amount of material having
cementing properties in a concrete or mortar mixture. Term cited in Part 1.
Wobble friction
Friction caused by unintended deviation of prestressing sheath or duct from its specified profile. Term cited in Part 17.
Workmanship
1
Wrapping or Sheathing
Enclosure around a prestressing tendon to prevent bond between prestressing tendon and surrounding concrete. Term cited
in Part 17.
3
Yield Strength or Yield Point (fy)
Specified minimum yield strength or yield point of reinforcement in psi (MPa) generally to define the limit of elastic
behavior. Term cited in Part 2.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

81
References1
— 2013 —
The following list of references used in Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations is placed here in alphabetical order for
your convenience.
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1
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1
References, Vol. 97, p. 108.
© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-R-1

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References
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1
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3
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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-R-3

58. Meacham, H.C., et al, "Studies For Rail Vehicle Track Structures", Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, D.C.,
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1980.
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No. 177-16, Center for Highway Research, University of Texas, Austin, Aug, 1979.
64. Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code, Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.
65. Osterberg, J.O. and S.F. Pepper, A New Simplified Method for Load Testing Drilled Shafts, Foundation Drilling,
Association of Drilled Shaft Contractors, August 1984, pp. 9-11.
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101-105.
68. Otter, Duane E., and LoPresti, Joseph, "Longitudinal Forces in an Open-Deck Steel Deck Plate-Girder Bridge," Railway
Track & Structures, May 1997, pp. 14-15.
69. Otter, Duane E., and LoPresti, Joseph A., "Longitudinal Forces in Three Open-Deck Steel Bridges," Proceedings,
AREMA Technical Conference, September 1998.
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TRB, 1974.
71. PCI Committee on Prestress Losses. Recommendations for Estimating Prestress Losses, PCI Journal, Vol. 20, No. 4,
July–Aug. 1975.
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1974.
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74. Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridge Manual, Post-Tensioning Institute and Prestressed Concrete Institute, Phoenix,
Arizona, Chicago, Illinois, 1978.
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77. Rabbat, Basile G., and Koz Sowlat. Testing of Segmental Concrete Girders with External Tendons, Journal of the
Prestressed Concrete Institute, Vol. 32, No. 2, March/April 1987.

References
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79. Recording Coding Guide for Structure Inventory and Appraisal of the Nations Bridges, January, 1979, by USDOT,
FHWA.
80. Reese, L.C. Handbook on Design of Piles and Drilled Shafts Under Lateral Load, U.S. Department of Transportation,
Report No. FHWA-IP-84-11, Springfield, VA, National Technical Information Service, 1984.
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and Development, Implementation Package 77-21, July 1977.
82. Renard, J., Energy Considerations on the Design of Dolphins, Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 2-1966 pp. 80-89
83. Roadways and Airport Pavements, Publication SP-51, American Concrete Institute, 1975.
84. Rooryck, ir. R., ir. J. Renard, Dimensions and Design of Protection and Braking Systems at the Entrances and Exits of
Large Modern Locks
85. Saurin, Brendan F.1, Design Criteria for Fenders and Berthing Structures, Summary of Lecture, July 29, 1965
86. Schlaich, J., K. Schafer, and M. Jennewain. Towards a Consistent Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, PCI Journal,
May–June 1987, Vol. 32, No. 3.
87. Schlaich, J. and H. Scheef. Concrete Box Girder Bridges, International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering,
1
Zurich, Switzerland, 1982.
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California, Berkeley, November 1987.
89. Scordelis, A.C., E.C. Chan, M.A. Ketchum and P.P. Van Der Walt. Computer Programs for Prestressed Concrete Box 3
Girder Bridges, SESM-85/02, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, March 1985.
90. Seed, H. Bolton and Idriss, Izzat M. “Simplified Procedure for Evaluating Soil Liquefaction Potential,” Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Division Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 97, No. SM9,
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91. Shahawy, M., B. Robinson and B. deV. Batchelor. 1993. “An Investigation of Shear Strength of Prestressed Concrete 4
AASHTO Type II Girders,” Tallahassee Structures Research Center, Florida Department of Transportation.
92. Shahawy, M. and B. deV. Batchelor. 1991. “Bond and Shear Behavior of Prestressed AASHTO Type II Beams. Progress
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94. Smith, E. A. L. “Pile Driving Analysis by the Wave Equation,” Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 86, No. SM4, April 1960.
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1
Interpretation from notes by J. T. O’Brien and B. W. Wilson

96. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, Sixteenth Edition, 1996; American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials.
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98. Stone, W.C., W. Paes-Filha and J.E. Breen. Behavior of Post-Tensioned Girder Anchorage Zones, Research Report 108-2,
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Technology Digest TD98-020, August 1998.

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116.Otter, D E and LoPresti, J A, Longitudinal Forces in Three Open-Deck Steel Bridges, Proceedings of the AREMA 1998
Annual Conferences, Chicago IL, September 1998.
117.Joy, Richard, LoPresti, Joseph, Otter, Duane, Longitudinal Forces in a Single-Span, Ballasted-Deck, Plate-Girder Bridge,
AAR Technology Digest TD99-026, July 1999.
118.Otter, Duane, Joy, Richard, and LoPresti, Joseph A., Longitudinal Forces in a Single-Span, Ballasted Deck, Steel Plate
Girder Bridge, AAR Research Report R-935, November 1999.
119.Otter, D.E., Sweeney, R.A.P., Dick, S.M., New Rating Guidelines for Longitudinal Loads in Steel Bridges, AAR
120.Otter, D.E., Sweeney, R.A.P., Dick, S.M., Development of Design Guidelines for Longitudinal Forces in Bridges, AAR
121.Uppal, S., Otter, D., Joy, R., Doe, B., Longitudinal Forces in Bridges Due to Revenue Service Traffic, AAR Technology
Digest TD00-020, November 2000.
122.Otter, Duane E. and Sweeney, Robert, Development of Guidelines for Longitudinal Forces in Bridges, Railway Track &
Structures, February 2001, pp. 13-15.
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1
124.Uppal, A.S., Otter, D.E., Joy, R.B., Doe, B.E., LoPresti, J.A., Maal, D.O., Longitudinal Forces in Bridges Due to Revenue
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125.Uppal, A.S., Otter, D.E., Doe, B.E., Foutch, D.A. and Kim, T. W., Longitudinal Forces in a Long Railroad Trestle,
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3
126.Otter, Duane E., Uppal, A. Shakoor, Doe, Brian E., Longitudinal Forces in a Long Railroad Trestle Bridge, AAR
Technology Digest TD01-021, October 2001.
127.Uppal, A. Shakoor; Otter, Duane E.; Doe, Brian E.; Foutch, Douglas; Kim, Tae W., Investigation of Longitudinal Forces
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128.Sweeney, Robert A.P. and Suthon, Felton, Design and Rating for Longitudinal Force, Proceedings of the AREMA 2002 4
Annual Conferences, Washington DC, September 2002.
129.AREMA Longitudinal Force Seminar Participant Guide, September 2004.
130.Payne, R.D. and Unsowth, J.F., Designing for Longitudinal Force, Proceedings of the AREMA 2006 Annual
Conferences, Louisville KY, September 2006.
131.Foutch, Douglas A., Kim, Tae-Wan, Otter, Duane E., and Doe, Brian E., Investigation of Longitudinal Forces in a
Concrete Railroad Trestle, ASCE Journal of Bridge Engineering, Vol. 11, No. 5, September/October 2006, pp. 618-625.


0
CHAPTER 9
SEISMIC DESIGN FOR RAILWAY
STRUCTURES1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Seismic Design for Railway Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-1

1.1 Introduction (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-3 1
1.2 Post-Seismic Event Operation Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-3
1.3 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-7
1.4 New Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-17
1.5 Existing Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-29
1.6 Other Facilities and Infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-31
1.7 Construction by Others (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-35
1.8 Retired Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-35 3
2 Commentary to Seismic Design for Railway Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-1
C - Section 1.2 Post-Seismic Event Operation Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-2
C - Section 1.3 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-4
C - Section 1.4 New Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-10
C - Section 1.5 Existing Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-23
C - Section 1.6 Other Facilities and Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-23
Chapter 9 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-G-1
Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-N-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-R-1
1

INTRODUCTION
identified by a Section number. These Sections are subdivided into articles designated by numbered side headings.

9
Part 1
Seismic Design for Railway Structures1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-3
1.2 Post-Seismic Event Operation Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-3

1.2.1 General (2001) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-3
1.2.2 Guidelines (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-3
1
1.3 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-7
1.3.1 Approach (2004) R(2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-7
1.3.2 Ground Motion Levels (2004) R(2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-8
1.3.3 Performance Criteria (1998) R(2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-17
1.4 New Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-17 3

1.4.1 Scope (2004) R(2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-17
1.4.2 Design Approach (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-17
1.4.3 Conceptual Design (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-18
1.4.4 Structure Response (2003) R(2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-19
1.4.5 Analysis Procedures (2003) R(2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-21
1.4.6 Load Combinations and Response Limits (2002) R(2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-23
1.4.7 Detailing Provisions (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-23
1.5 Existing Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-29

1.5.1 Scope (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-29
1.5.2 Inventory (1995) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-29
1.5.3 History (1995) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-30
1.5.4 Assessment and Retrofit (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-30
1.6 Other Facilities and Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-31

1.6.1 Scope (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-31
1.6.2 Track and Roadbed (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-32
1.6.3 Culverts (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-32
1.6.4 Retaining Walls (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-33
1.6.5 Tunnels and Track Protection Sheds (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-33
1.6.6 Buildings and Support Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-34
1
References, Vol. 94, 1994, p.110; Vol. 96, p. 64, Vol. 97, p. 113.

Seismic Design for Railway Structures
1.6.7 Utilities, Signal and Communication Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-34

1.6.8 Rail Transit (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-34
1.7 Construction by Others (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-35
1.8 Retired Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-35
LIST OF FIGURES
9-1-1 Plate 1 – 100-year Return Period – United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-12

9-1-2 Plate 2 – 475-year Return Period – United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-13
9-1-3 Plate 3 – 2,400-year Return Period – United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-14
9-1-4 Plate 4 – 100-year Return Period – Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-15
9-1-5 Plate 5 – 475-year Return Period – Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-16
LIST OF TABLES
9-1-1 Specified Response Radii. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-4

9-1-2 Damage Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-4
9-1-3 Seismic Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-8
9-1-4 Ground Motion Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-8
9-1-5 Weighting Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-11
9-1-6 Site Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-19
9-1-7 Analysis Procedure Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-21
9-1-8 Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-23
9-1-9 Response Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1-23

SECTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION (2004) R(2012)
The railroad industry is vitally interested in maintaining reliability in its infrastructure to assure safety for its employees,
passengers, customers’ goods and the public at large.
These guidelines have been developed specifically for Railroad facilities to help reduce damage from earthquakes. While
many structures, such as culverts, retaining walls and buildings, may not be substantially different because of use on railroads,
North America’s railroad bridges are functionally and behaviorally different from highway and other types of bridges.
This document provides a framework of considerations and methodologies for seismic design of new bridges, roadbed and
other railroad facilities. This document also addresses retrofit and post-seismic event response and inspection considerations.
Railroad bridges historically have performed well in seismic events with little or no damage. Contributing to this ability are
several factors, unique to railroad bridges, which are consistent throughout North America. First, bridges are traversed by track
structure that functions as a restraint against longitudinal and lateral movement during earthquakes. Second, configurations of
railroad bridges typically differ from other types of bridges. Third, the controlled operating environment permits different
seismic performance requirements for railroad bridges compared to highway bridges.
SECTION 1.2 POST-SEISMIC EVENT OPERATION GUIDELINES
1.2.1 GENERAL (2001) R(2012) 1

The responses of track and structures to seismic events vary greatly with respect to each other and to the various types of
construction, geotechnical conditions and other seismic parameters such as importance and risk factors, structural importance
and value, etc.
1.2.2 GUIDELINES (2009) 3

Unless more appropriate guidelines have been developed as a result of experience with significant earthquakes in the affected
area and/or consideration of other local conditions, the following are recommended:
1.2.2.1 Operations1
After an earthquake is reported to the Railroad, Train Dispatcher shall notify all trains and engines within a 100 mile radius of 4
the reporting area to run at restricted speed until magnitude and epicenter have been determined by proper authority.
Inspection of track, structures, signal and communication systems shall be initiated. Upon determination of the magnitude and
epicenter, the following response levels will govern operations within the specified radius from the epicenter:
1
See Part 2 Commentary to Seismic Design for Railway Structures

Table 9-1-1. Specified Response Radii
Earthquake Response California and Baja Remainder of North

(Richter) Level California America
0.0 - 4.99 I
5.0 - 5.99 II 50 miles (80 km) 100 miles (160 km)
6.0 - 6.99 III 100 miles (160 km) 200 miles (320 km)
II 150 miles (240 km) 300 miles (480 km)
7.0 or greater III As directed, but not less than for 6.0 - 6.99.
II As directed, but not less than for 6.0 - 6.99.
1.2.2.2 Response Levels
I Resume maximum operating speed. The need for the continuation of inspections will be determined
by proper Maintenance of Way authority.
II All trains and engines will run at restricted speed within a specified radius of the epicenter until
inspections have been made and appropriate speeds established by proper authority.
III All trains and engines within the specified radius of the epicenter must stop and may not proceed until
proper inspections have been performed and appropriate speed restrictions established by proper
authority. For earthquakes of 7.0 (Richter) or greater, operations shall be as directed by proper
authority, but the radius shall not be less than that specified for earthquakes between 6.0 and 6.99.
The associated damage philosophy with respect to the above operating procedures can be correlated with the damage criterion
shown in Table 9-1-2.
Table 9-1-2. Damage Criterion
Response Ground Expected Damage to Track, Structure, Signal and

Level Motion Level Communications
I 0 Very low probability of damage or speed restrictions.
II 1 Moderate damage which may require temporary speed restrictions.
III 2 Heavy damage which can be economically repaired. Track or structures
may be out of service for a short period of time.
III 3 Severe damage or failure requiring new construction or major
rehabilitation. Track or structures may be out of service for an indefinite
period of time.
The post-seismic event response will be affected by the individual Railroad’s operating requirements based in part on the risk
factor, return periods, required factor of safety, structural occupancy, signal and communication systems and appurtenances
such as highways, building types and waterways.
1.2.2.3 Post Earthquake Inspection
Inspection procedures and modifications of facilities to expedite the inspection process should be established before the
seismic event. The following list provides a general guideline that may be used for developing an inspection procedure:

1.2.2.3.1 Track and Roadbed
Line, surface and cross level irregularities caused by embankment slides or liquefaction, track buckling or pull aparts
due to soil movement, offset across fault rupture, etc.
Disturbed ballast
Cracks or slope failures in embankments
Slides and/or potential slides in cuts, including loose rocks that could fall in an aftershock
Scour due to tsunami in coastal areas
Potential for scour or ponding against embankment due to changes in water courses
1.2.2.3.2 Drainage
Blockage of cut ditches or other changes in drainage patterns. (While these conditions will not usually prevent
restoration of service, they will require correction.)
1.2.2.3.3 Bridges
NOTE: Following an earthquake, inspectors may need to travel by rail between bridges. The time required for
bridge inspection will be critical and normally dry stream beds may be flooded when inspection is required.
Therefore, provisions should be made beforehand to permit quick access to bearing areas and other critical
1
points from the track rather than from the ground.
a. Steel
Displaced or damaged bearings

3
Stretched or broken anchor bolts
Distress in viaduct towers
Buckled columns or bracing
Tension distress in main members or bracing 4

Displaced substructure elements
b. Concrete
Displacement at bearings
Displaced substructure elements
Cracks in superstructure
Cracks in substructure
c. Timber Trestles

Line, surface and cross level of track. (Movements that do not affect line, surface or cross level are unlikely to be
damaging, especially in open deck trestles).
Displaced timbers, particularly in framed bents
Broken bracing
Bent bolts or drift bolts
d. Movable Spans
Damage to counterweight guides
Open draw span shifted on pivot pier
Relative movement of piers that prevents opening or closing, including mis-alignment of track girders and segmental
girders of rolling lift spans.
1.2.2.3.4 Culverts
Damage is unlikely if line and surface of track are good and no slides or embankment spreading are observed.
1.2.2.3.5 Retaining Walls
Increased tilt in walls which may be caused by footing rotation or cracking at base of stem. (Walls with surcharge above top of
wall appear particularly vulnerable.)
1.2.2.3.6 Tunnels
Fallen material or loose material that may fall in an aftershock
New cracks or failures in lining
Offsets due to displacement across fault
Unusual flow of water within tunnel
1.2.2.3.7 Other Structures1
Structural and/or non-structural damage to essential buildings that would prevent or inhibit use.
NOTE: Inspect promptly, with concurrence of local building authorities, to prevent outside inspectors from
“red tagging” buildings that are damaged but not unsafe.
Leaks and/or structural damage to fueling facilities, including tanks and pipelines. Look for evidence of leaks in buried fuel
lines.
Catenary support structures and tension-regulating systems of electrified lines.
NOTE: Substations should be inspected by a qualified individual.
1

1.2.2.3.8 Structures That May Fall on Track
a. Overpasses
Reduced support for span at bearings
Column damage
Damage to any span restraint system
b. Adjacent Buildings
Structural damage affecting ability to resist aftershocks
Clearance infringements
Power lines that may be vulnerable to aftershocks
1.2.2.3.9 Signal and Communication Facilities
Signal and communications facilities must be inspected by qualified personnel. However, others involved in inspection should
note damage to pole lines and other obvious damage to equipment. Signal masts, signal bridges or instrument housings
observed to be out-of-plumb should be reported immediately.
1.2.2.4 Tsunamis1
1
After a tsunami warning is issued to the Railroad, Train Dispatchers shall notify all trains and engines within the areas
vulnerable to the tsunami to move out of those areas before the estimated arrival of the tsunami. To the extent possible all other
equipment should also be moved. The movement should be to the closest location at an elevation deemed to be safe. This
movement may be in reverse of the train’s normal direction.
3
Railroad offices within potential tsunami affected areas and railroad dispatch centers shall be included on the email
notification system provided by The National Weather Service. All railroad employees in those offices and those working on
line with equipment in such areas shall be notified by their respective offices to move out of areas vulnerable to the tsunami
when a warning is received.
Following a large earthquake near the coast, trains should not enter areas vulnerable to tsunamis until it is determined that the
tsunami danger has passed. Trains already in vulnerable areas should not be stopped if the track is passable, but should proceed 4
to protected or higher areas if possible.
SECTION 1.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
1.3.1 APPROACH (2004)2 R(2009)
Structures shall be designed to satisfy the specified performance criteria. The main objectives of the required performance
criteria are to ensure the safety of trains and to minimize the costs of damage and loss of use caused by potential earthquakes.
1
2

In order to provide a framework for evaluating seismic effects on railroad structures, a three-level ground motion and
performance criteria approach consistent with the railroad post-seismic event response procedures is employed. The ground
motion levels, the structure performance requirements and the railroad response levels are as shown in Table 9-1-3.
Table 9-1-3. Seismic Performance Criteria
Railroad Response Level Ground Motion Level Performance Criteria Limit State
II 1 Serviceability
III 2 Ultimate
III 3 Survivability
1.3.2 GROUND MOTION LEVELS (2004) R(2009)
The ground motion levels reflect the seismic hazard at the site. They are defined in terms of peak ground acceleration levels
associated with a given average return period.
The average return period for each ground motion level may be determined based on seismic risk considerations (see
Paragraph 1.3.2.1) and structure importance classification (see Paragraph 1.3.2.2), using the range of average return periods
shown in Table 9-1-4.
Table 9-1-4. Ground Motion Levels
Ground Motion Level Frequency Average Return Period (Yrs.)

1 Occasional 50-100
2 Rare 200-500
3 Very Rare 1000-2400
Level 1 Ground Motion represents an occasional event with a reasonable probability of being exceeded during the life of the
structure. Level 2 Ground Motion represents a rare event with a low probability of being exceeded during the life of the
structure. Level 3 Ground Motion represents a very rare or maximum credible event with a very low probability of being
exceeded during the life of the structure.
1.3.2.1 Risk Factors1
Earthquakes are extreme events associated with a great amount of uncertainty and risk factors are an integral part of seismic
design. To achieve a balance between seismic risk and costs associated with risk reduction, a certain amount of risk must be
accepted. If there is a severe social penalty associated with structure failure, the acceptable level of risk will be greatly
reduced.
The greatest amount of uncertainty is associated with the seismic hazard at the site. Therefore, the overall seismic risk of a
bridge is strongly affected by the design ground motion used.
The acceptable risk criteria with respect to Level 1 Ground Motion shall consider the safety and continuing operation of trains
with speed restrictions. For Ground Motion Levels 2 and 3, the acceptable risk criteria may be based mainly on economic
1

considerations unless the bridge has a high passenger train occupancy rate. Train traffic is stopped per Railroad Response
Level III for Ground Motions Levels 2 and 3 until bridge inspections are completed.
1.3.2.2 Structure Importance Classification1
The purpose of the structure importance classification system is to assist the engineer in determining the appropriate average
ground motion return period for each of the three limit states: serviceability, ultimate and survivability. The importance of a
structure is determined by three measures: Immediate Safety, Immediate Value and Replacement Value. These three measures
are combined in Article 1.3.2.2.4 to determine the appropriate return period for each of the limit states.
1.3.2.2.1 Immediate Safety2
Immediate safety is a measure of the magnitude of earthquake a structure should be able to survive without any interruption of
service. Factors to be considered are occupancy, hazardous material and community life lines. These factors should be
summed to obtain the immediate safety factor. The immediate safety factor should not exceed 4.
a. Occupancy Factor
Freight Service only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Less Than 10 Passenger Trains per Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
More than 10 Passenger Trains per Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
b. Hazardous Material Factor
The value of the hazardous material factor should be determined by the engineer by considering the type of material
1
being handled, the volume and the proximity of the structure to population. The hazardous material factor should be a
value between 0 and 4.
c. Community Life Lines Factor
The community life line factor should reflect the danger to community if the structure fails during a seismic event. The 3
community life line factor should be a value between 0 and 4. The nature of the structure should be taken into account
when determining the community life line factor. If the structure is over a route that is critical for post seismic
evacuation, a high community life line factor should be used. A high community life line factor should also be used
when the structure is over a community’s water supply. The potential disruption of telephone, electric, and water lines
attached to the bridge and the importance of continued rail service should also be considered when determining the
community life line factor.
4
1.3.2.2.2 Immediate Value3
Immediate Value is a measure of the magnitude of earthquake a structure should be able to survive with an interruption of
service but with the ability to return to service after minor repairs. The factor is based on the railroad’s utilization of the
structure and the ability to detour around the structure. The utilization of the structure by others should also be taken into
account.
a. Railroad Utilization Factor
Under 10 million gross tons annual traffic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Between 10 million and 50 million gross tons annual traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Over 50 million gross tons annual traffic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1
2
3 See Part 2 Commentary to Seismic Design for Railway Structures

b. Detour Availability Factor
No Detour Available. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.00

Inconvenient Detour Route. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.50
Detour Route Readily Available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25
The Immediate Value factor should be determined by multiplying the railroad utilization factor by the detour
availability factor. Usage by outside parties should be taken into account after this railroad utilization and detour
availability is taken into account.
1.3.2.2.3 Replacement Value1
Replacement value is a measure of the magnitude of the ultimate earthquake the structure should be able to survive. The factor
is determined by the difficulty of replacing the structure.
a. Span Length Factor
Span length less than 35 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Span length between 35 feet and 125 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Span length between 125 feet and 250 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Span length greater than 250 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
b. Bridge Length Factor
Bridge length less than 100 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0

Bridge length between 100 feet and 1,000 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
Bridge length greater than 1,000 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0
c. Bridge Height Factor
Bridge height less than 20 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75

Bridge height between 20 feet and 40 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.00
Bridge height greater than 40 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.25
The replacement value factor is determined by multiplying the span length, bridge length and bridge height factors, but
should not exceed 4.0. The replacement value should be increased for conditions that would increase the difficulty of
replacement such as multiple track, movable structures, difficult foundation and substructure reconstruction conditions,
urban location and difficult access.
1.3.2.2.4 Conversion of Factors to Return Periods
The importance classification factor for each limit state is calculated using the following weighting factors. Individual
railroads may decide to change the weighting factors to better represent the conditions that they operate under.
1

Table 9-1-5. Weighting Factors
Weighting Factors
Limit State
Immediate Safety Immediate Value Replacement Value
0.80 0.20 0.00 Serviceability
0.10 0.80 0.10 Ultimate
0.00 0.20 0.80 Survivability
To calculate the importance classification factor for each limit state, add the Immediate Safety, Immediate Value and
Replacement Value factors together after multiplying them by the appropriate weighting factor.
a. Return Periods
The return period for each limit state is calculated using a linear relationship between the appropriate average return
period limits shown in Table 9-1-4. To calculate the return period, multiply the importance classification factor by the
difference between the maximum and minimum return periods and divide by 4. Add this result to the minimum return
period to get the final value.
1.3.2.3 Base Acceleration Coefficient Maps1
Several base acceleration coefficient maps are provided in this Article to help define the earthquake hazard. Figures 9-1-1, 9-
1-2 and 9-1-3 show base accelerations in the United States for return periods of 100 years, 475 years and 2400 years. Figures 1
9-1-4 and 9-1-5 illustrate base accelerations in Canada for return periods of 100 years and 475 years. Other maps or site-
specific procedures may be used to define the base accelerations as long as they are based on accepted methods.
Base acceleration coefficients for locations in the United States with return periods other than those provided in Figures 9-1-1
through 9-1-3 may be determined based on the following formulas:
• Acceleration for return period, R, less than 475 years 3

R n
A R = A 475 ⎛ ---------⎞
⎝ 475⎠
A 100⎞
ln ⎛ ---------- -
⎝A ⎠
475
n = -----------------------
– 1.558
4
• Acceleration for return period, R, between 475 years and 2400 years
AR = en
n = ln(A475) + [ln(A2400) - ln(A475)] x [0.606 x ln(R) - 3.73]
AR = Base acceleration coefficient for return period = R
A100 = Base acceleration coefficient for return period = 100 years (Figure 9-1-1)
1

Figure 9-1-1. Plate 1 – 100-year Return Period – United States
Figure 9-1-2. Plate 2 – 475-year Return Period – United States
Figure 9-1-3. Plate 3 – 2,400-year Return Period – United States
Figure 9-1-4. Plate 4 – 100-year Return Period – Canada
Figure 9-1-5. Plate 5 – 475-year Return Period – Canada
1.3.3 PERFORMANCE CRITERIA (1998) R(2009)1
The requirements for each of the following limit states shall be satisfied.
1.3.3.1 Serviceability Limit State2
The serviceability limit state contains restrictions on bridge stresses, deformations, vibrations and track misalignments due to a
Level 1 Ground Motion. Critical members shall remain in the elastic range. Only moderate damage that does not affect the
safety of trains at restricted speeds is allowed. The structure shall not suffer any permanent deformation due to deformations or
liquefaction of the foundation soil.
1.3.3.2 Ultimate Limit State3
The ultimate limit state ensures the overall structural integrity of the bridge during a Level 2 Ground Motion. The strength and
stability of critical members shall not be exceeded. The structure may respond beyond the elastic range, but displacement,
ductility and detailing requirements shall be satisfied to reduce damage and loss of structure use. The damage should occur as
intended in design and be readily detectable and accessible for repair. The structure shall not suffer any damage which
threatens the overall integrity of the bridge due to deformations or liquefaction of the foundation soil.
1.3.3.3 Survivability Limit State4
The survivability limit state ensures the structural survival of the bridge after a Level 3 Ground Motion. Extensive structural
damage, short of bridge collapse, may be allowed. Structural and geometric safety measures that add redundancy and ductility
shall be used to reduce the likelihood of bridge collapse. Failures of the foundation soil shall not cause major changes in the 1
geometry of the bridge. Depending on the importance and the replacement value of a bridge, an individual railroad may allow
irreparable damage for the survivability limit state, and opt for new construction.
SECTION 1.4 NEW BRIDGES 3

1.4.1 SCOPE (2004) R(2009)
This article applies to bridges with spans not exceeding 500 feet in length. Movable bridges, arch type bridges and bridges
with spans exceeding 500 feet in length may require additional analysis and design considerations, which are beyond the scope
of this article.
4
1.4.2 DESIGN APPROACH (2001) R(2011)
Bridge design for seismic loads should start with conceptual considerations to select the appropriate bridge type and
configuration. The conceptual phase should be followed by analysis for Level 1 Ground Motion to size the various structure
members. Finally, appropriate detailing provisions should be incorporated to allow the bridge to respond well during the
Level 2 and 3 Ground Motions. Structures located in areas of low ground motion levels need not meet the conceptual design
requirements and detailing provisions provided they are capable of withstanding the full Level 3 Ground Motion loadings
within the elastic range.
1
2

1.4.3 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN (2001) R(2011)1
Conceptual design provisions contained herein should be followed as much as practical. The design should maintain a balance
between functional requirements, cost and seismic resisting features.
1.4.3.1 Configuration2
The preferred configuration should be incorporated as shown below when possible. Special design and detailing
considerations may be necessary for other configurations.
PREFERRED CONFIGURATION SPECIAL CONSIDERATION

Straight bridge alignment Curved bridge alignment
Normal piers Skewed piers
Uniform pier stiffness Varying pier stiffness
Uniform span stiffness Varying span stiffness
Uniform span mass Varying span mass
1.4.3.2 Superstructure3
The preferred superstructure characteristics should be incorporated as shown below when possible. Special design and
detailing considerations may be necessary for other superstructure characteristics.
PREFERRED SUPERSTRUCTURE SPECIAL CONSIDERATION

Simple spans Continuous spans
Short spans Long spans
Light spans Heavy spans
No hinges Intermediate hinges
1.4.3.3 Substructure4
The preferred substructure characteristics should be incorporated as shown below when possible. Special design and detailing
considerations may be necessary for other substructure characteristics.
PREFERRED SUBSTRUCTURE SPECIAL CONSIDERATION

Wide seats Narrow seats
Seat bent caps Integral bent caps
Multiple column Single column
1
2

1.4.3.4 Ground Conditions1
Structures should be founded on competent, stable soils or otherwise designed to satisfy the performance requirements during
soil instability.
1.4.4 STRUCTURE RESPONSE (2003) R(2007)
1.4.4.1 Site Coefficient2
The Site Coefficient (S) shall be determined from Table 9-1-6 based on the foundation soil characteristics.
Table 9-1-6. Site Coefficient
Site
Soil Type Description
Coefficient
1 Rock of any characteristic, either shale-like or crystalline in 1.0
nature, that may be characterized by a shear wave velocity
greater than 2,500 feet per second, or stiff soil conditions where
the soil depth is less than 200 feet and the soil types overlying the
rock are stable deposits of sand, gravel, or stiff clays.
2 Deep cohesionless or stiff clay conditions where the soil depth 1.2
exceeds 200 feet and the soil types overlying rock are stable
deposits of sands, gravel, or stiff clays. 1
3 20 to 40 feet of soft to medium-stiff clays with or without 1.5
intervening layers of cohesionless soils.
4 Soil containing more than 40 feet of soft clays or silts, that may 2.0
be characterized by a shear wave velocity of less than 500 feet
per second.
3
1.4.4.2 Damping Adjustment Factor3
The Damping Adjustment Factor (D) may be calculated from the following formula. In the absence of more definitive
information, a damping adjustment factor of 1.0 shall be used.
1.5
D = ⎛ ------------------------- + 0.5⎞
⎝ ( 0.4ξ + 1 ) ⎠ 4
D= Damping Adjustment Factor

ξ= Percent Critical Damping (e.g. 5%)
1.4.4.3 Seismic Response Coefficient4
The Seismic Response Coefficient (Cm) to be used in the methods of analysis recommended in Paragraph 1.4.5, shall be
calculated from the following formula. For areas with soft soil conditions and high seismicity, or close proximity to known
faults, use of a site-specific response spectrum is preferred.
1
2

1.2ASD
C m = -------------------- ≤ 2.5AD
2⁄3
Tm
Cm= Seismic Response Coefficient for the mth mode

A= Base Acceleration Coefficient determined in
accordance with Paragraph 1.3.2.3
S= Site Coefficient determined in accordance with
Paragraph 1.4.4.1
D= Damping Adjustment Factor determined in
accordance with Paragraph 1.4.4.2
Tm= Period of vibration of the mth mode in seconds
1.4.4.4 Low Period Reduced Response1
a. The seismic response of the bridge may be reduced in accordance with Paragraph 1.4.4.4b if the following provisions
are satisfied.
(1) The period, T, of the bridge is determined using the effective moment of inertia, Ie, for reinforced concrete
substructure members. The effective moment of inertia may be calculated using EQ 2-12 in Chapter 8, Part 2,
Paragraph 2.23.7c.
(2) The period, T, of the bridge is determined including the effects of foundation flexibility.
(3) The bridge response considers the lateral flexibility of the spans between piers.
(4) The effects of foundation rocking are accounted for if the moment due to seismic loads exceeds the overturning
moment of the footing.
b. The seismic response coefficient, Cm, for bridge structures with periods less than the initial transition period, To, may
be determined as follows:
Cm = A for T ≤ 0.03 seconds
( T – 0.03 ) ( 2.5D – 1 )
C m = A 1 + --------------------------------------------------- for0.03 < T < T o sec onds
( T o – 0.03 )
To = initial transition period = 0.096S

A = Base acceleration coefficient from Paragraph 1.3.2.3
T = Period of vibration
D = Damping adjustment factor from Paragraph 1.4.4.2
S = Site coefficient from Paragraph 1.4.4.1
1

1.4.5 ANALYSIS PROCEDURES (2003) R(2007)
1.4.5.1 General
1.4.5.1.1 Serviceability Limit State1
Methods based on elastic analysis shall be used to determine stresses and deformations for the serviceability limit state. The
methods recommended include: (1) Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure that is applicable to regular bridges and (2) Modal
Analysis Procedure for multi-span irregular bridges.
1.4.5.1.2 Ultimate and Survivability Limit State2
Conceptual design methods shall be used to ensure satisfactory performance for both the ultimate and the survivability limit
states. Recommendations for the selection of an appropriate bridge type, geometry and materials and requirements for
ductility, redundancy and good detailing, as described in Article 1.4.2, Article 1.4.3, and Article 1.4.7, shall be incorporated.
Non-ductile, non-redundant primary load carrying elements of structures shall be designed to satisfy the performance criteria
with respect to Level 2 and/or Level 3 Ground Motions. The design forces shall be the lesser of the seismic loads or the
maximum forces which can be transmitted to the element. The seismic loads may be computed by increasing the Level 1
Ground Motion forces by the ratio of the Base Acceleration Coefficients.
1.4.5.2 Procedure Selection3
The selection of the analysis procedure for the serviceability limit state shall be based on the bridge configuration as shown in 1
Table 9-1-7.
Table 9-1-7. Analysis Procedure Selection
Bridge Configuration Analysis Procedure1 3

Single-span No analysis required
Two-span ELF or MA Procedure
Multi-span regular2 ELF or MA Procedure
Multi-span irregular2 MA Procedure
Notes: 4
1. ELF denotes Equivalent Lateral Force
Procedure, MA denotes Modal
Analysis Procedure.
2. Irregular bridges are those structures with
significantly irregular configuration or
support stiffness.
1.4.5.3 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure4
The Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure may be used for two-span bridges or multi-span regular bridges as described in
Paragraph 1.4.5.2. The procedure is described below.
1
2

a. Calculate the Seismic Response Coefficient (Cm) for each of the two principal directions of the structure as follows.
(1) Calculate the natural period of vibration (Tm) for each of the two principal directions of the structure using any
commonly accepted method.
(2) Calculate the Seismic Response Coefficient (Cm) for each of the two principal directions of the structure from
Paragraph 1.4.4.3 “Seismic Response Coefficient.”
b. Perform static analysis on the bridge in each of the two principal directions.
(1) Calculate the distributed seismic load in each direction from the following formula.
p ( x ) = Cm w ( x )
p(x) = distributed seismic load per unit length of bridge

Cm= Seismic Response Coefficient
w(x) = distributed weight of bridge per unit length
(2) Distribute the seismic load to individual members based on the stiffness and support conditions.
c. Combine the loads in each of the two principal directions of the structure to get the final seismic design loads.
(1) Combination 1: Combine the forces in principal direction 1 with 30% of the forces from principal direction 2.
(2) Combination 2: Combine the forces in principal direction 2 with 30% of the forces from principal direction 1.
1.4.5.4 Modal Analysis Procedure1
The Modal Analysis Procedure may be used for any structure configuration. The procedure is described below.
a. Develop elastic response spectra from Paragraph 1.4.4.3 “Seismic Response Coefficient.”
b. Perform dynamic analysis on the structure in each of the two principal directions using the elastic response spectra to
determine the individual member loads.
(1) A mathematical model should be used to calculate the mode shapes, frequencies and member forces. The model
should accurately represent the structure mass, stiffness and support conditions.
(2) An adequate number of modes should be included so that the response in each principal direction includes a
minimum 90% mass participation.
c. Combine the loads in each of the two principal directions of the structure using one of the following methods to get the
final seismic design loads.
(1) SRSS Method - Combine forces in individual members using the square root of the sum of the squares from each
principal direction.
(2) Alternate Method - Perform two load combinations for investigation.
(a) Combination 1: Combine the forces in principal direction 1 with 30% of the forces from principal direction 2.
1

(b) Combination 2: Combine the forces in principal direction 2 with 30% of the forces from principal direction 1.
1.4.6 LOAD COMBINATIONS AND RESPONSE LIMITS (2002)1 R(2007)
a. The loads shall be combined in accordance with the formulas in Table 9-1-8 based on the structure material. These
combinations shall be used in lieu of those specified in Chapter 8 Concrete Structures and Foundations, Part 2
Reinforced Concrete Design and Chapter 15 Steel Structures, Part 1 Design for seismic loads.
Table 9-1-8. Load Combinations
Material Design Method Combination1, 2

Steel Allowable Stress Design D + E + B + EQ
Concrete Load Factor Design 1.0D + 1.0E + 1.0B + 1.0PS + 1.0EQ
D= Dead Load
E= Earth Pressure
B= Buoyancy
PS= Secondary Forces from Prestressing
EQ= Earthquake (Seismic)
1
NOTE:
(1) Effects of other loads, such as stream flow pressure, live load and friction shall be included if they have a
significant likelihood of acting concurrently with earthquake loads.
(2) Buoyancy loads should be based on the water level that has a significant likelihood of occurring concurrently with 3
earthquake loads and produces the most conservative load combination.
b. The response limits given in Table 9-1-9 shall be satisfied for each structure material.
Table 9-1-9. Response Limits
Material Stress 4
Steel The allowable stresses used in Chapter 15, Steel Structures,
Part 1, Design may be increased by 50%.
Concrete The design strengths should be used as specified in Chapter
8, Concrete Structures and Foundations.
1.4.7 DETAILING PROVISIONS (2001) R(2011)2
Appropriate detailing provisions shall be incorporated into the structure to meet the performance requirements for the Level 2
and 3 Ground Motion.
1
2

1.4.7.1 Continuity Provisions1
The structure shall be designed with an uninterrupted load path to transfer lateral forces from the superstructure to the ground.
1.4.7.1.1 Superstructure2
The superstructure shall be designed to carry the lateral forces to the bearings or shear connectors. The lateral forces from the
span may be carried to the end supports by the following load paths:
a. Lateral bracing system.
b. Lateral bending of the girders, including torsional effects as applicable.
c. Diaphragm action of concrete decks or steel ballast pans provided that the deck is adequately connected to the girders.
End cross frames or diaphragms shall be designed to carry the lateral forces to the bearings or shear connectors.
1.4.7.1.2 Bearings3
The bearings shall be designed to transfer the lateral forces to the substructure. Bearings may be supplemented by shear
connectors to help transfer the lateral forces provided that the movement required to engage the shear connectors does not
cause failure of the bearing device.
1.4.7.2 Ductility Provisions4
The ductility provisions contained herein shall be incorporated into the structure design.
1.4.7.2.1 Longitudinal Reinforcing Confinement5
Longitudinal reinforcing in concrete columns, pier walls and piles shall be adequately confined to allow the member to
respond in the post-yield range. This requirement may be met by the following provisions.
a. Concrete columns and concrete piles fixed at the pile cap shall meet the following requirements:
(1) The volumetric ratio of spiral or circular hoop reinforcement in the plastic hinge zone shall not be less than:
f′
ρ s ≥ 0.12 -----c-
fy
ρ s ≥ that required by Chapter 8, Article 2.11.2
1
2

(2) The total cross-sectional area of rectangular hoop reinforcement in the plastic hinge zone shall not be less than:
f′ Ag
A sh ≥ 0.3 ⎛ sh c -----c-⎞ ⎛ --------
- – 1⎞
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝A ⎠
y ch
f′
A sh ≥ 0.09sh c -----c-
fy
Ach = cross-sectional area of a member measured out-to-out of confinement reinforcement.

Ash = total cross-sectional area of hoop reinforcement, including cross-ties.
hc = cross-sectional dimension of member core measured center-to-center of confinement reinforcement.
(3) The longitudinal spacing of the confinement reinforcement in the plastic hinge zone shall not be greater than:
s≤ that required by Chapter 8, Article 2.11.2
s ≤ one-quarter of the minimum member dimension
s ≤ six times the diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement
s ≤ 6” (150 mm) 1
14 – h ⎧ 350 – h ⎫
s ≤ 4″ + ⎛ ----------------x-⎞ inches ⎨ s ≤ 100 + ⎛ -------------------x-⎞ mm ⎬
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
⎩ ⎭
hx = maximum transverse spacing (inches or mm) of hoop or cross-tie legs

3
(4) The transverse spacing of hoop or cross-tie legs in the plastic hinge zone shall not exceed 14 inches (350 mm).
(5) The length of the plastic hinge zone from the joint face shall not be less than:
l o ≥ the depth of the member 4
l o ≥ one-sixth of the clear span of the member
l o ≥ 18” (450 mm)
lo = length of plastic hinge zone from the joint face

(6) The longitudinal spacing of the column confinement reinforcement outside the plastic hinge zone shall not be
greater than:
s ≤ six times the longitudinal reinforcement diameter
s ≤ 6” (150 mm)
s ≤ that required by Chapter 8, Article 2.11.2
(7) The design shear force shall be determined from consideration of the maximum forces that can be generated at the
faces of the joints at each end of the member. These joint forces shall be determined using the member strength
defined in Paragraph 1.4.7.3.1.b.
(8) The confinement reinforcement in the plastic hinge zone shall be proportioned to resist shear assuming the
nominal concrete shear strength is zero when the shear force determined in Paragraph 1.4.7.2.1.a.(7) is greater
than one-half the maximum required shear strength in this area and the factored axial compressive force for the
seismic load condition is less than Agf 'c/20.
b. Reinforced concrete pier walls with axial loading below the lesser of 0.4Pb or 0.1f 'cAg may be exempted from the
column transverse reinforcing requirements if the ratio of the Level 3 Ground Motion acceleration to the Level 1
Ground Motion acceleration is less than or equal to 2. The reinforcing shall meet the following requirements:
(1) Minimum percent of horizontal reinforcing is 0.25%.
(2) Cross ties shall have a minimum cross sectional area of 0.2 in2 (129 mm2) with a 135° hook on one end and a 90°
hook on the opposite end and shall be placed so that the 90° and 135° hooks of adjacent ties shall be alternated
both horizontally and vertically.
(3) Spacing of all horizontal bars and cross ties shall not exceed 12 inches (300 mm) in any direction, except vertical
spacing shall not exceed 6 inches (150 mm) in plastic hinge zones.
1.4.7.2.2 Splices in Reinforcing1
Lap splices are not allowed in a main load carrying member within a distance “d” (effective depth) of any area designed to
respond in the post-yield range.
1.4.7.3 Provisions to Limit Damage2
The following provisions shall be incorporated into the design to limit damage.
1.4.7.3.1 Weak Column Provisions3
Reinforced concrete columns which are designed to respond in the post-yield range shall be detailed to prevent damage to
adjacent superstructure, bent cap and foundations. This requirement may be met by the following provisions:
a. Concrete column longitudinal reinforcement shall comply with ASTM A706. ASTM A615 reinforcement shall be
permitted if the actual yield strength based on mill tests does not exceed the specified yield strength by more than
1
2

18000 psi (124 MPa) and the ratio of the actual ultimate tensile strength to the actual tensile yield strength is not less
than 1.25.
b. The bent cap and foundation shall be designed for the lesser of 1.3 times the nominal column strength or the Level 3
ground motion load.
c. The plastic hinge zone should be designed to occur in locations that can be inspected.
1.4.7.3.2 Concrete Joints1
The joint shall be configured and reinforced to reduce the likelihood of damage to the superstructure and bent cap and
foundation. This requirement may be met by the following provisions:
a. Concrete column joints with superstructure, bent cap and foundation shall be designed in accordance with the
following provisions:
(1) Column longitudinal reinforcement shall extend as close as practical to the far face of the adjoining member, but
not less than:
For hooked bars in tension:
l dh ≥ that required by Chapter 8, Section 2.17
l dh ≥ 8d b
1
l dh ≥ 6″ ( 150mm )
f y db ⎛ f y db ⎞
l dh ≥ ---------------
-inches ⎜ l dh ≥ -----------------
- mm⎟ 3
65 f′ c ⎝ 5.4 f′ c ⎠
For straight bars:
l d ≥ that required by Chapter 8, Sections 2.14 through 2.16
4
l d ≥ 2.5 times that required in this Article for hooked bars in tension
(2) Confinement reinforcement shall be provided throughout the joint to the end of the longitudinal column
reinforcement in an amount equal to the greater of that specified in Article 1.4.7.2.1a or Paragraph b of this
Article.
(3) The nominal shear strength of the joint shall not be taken greater than:
20 f c ′psi ( 1.7 f′ c MPa )
b. Concrete column joints where the column is integral with the bent shall meet the following requirements:
1

(1) Vertical stirrups with a total area of 0.16 times the area of longitudinal column reinforcement shall be placed on
each moment resisting side of the column within a distance of half the column width from the column face.
(2) Vertical stirrups with a total area of 0.08 times the area of longitudinal column reinforcement shall be placed
within the column width.
(3) The top and bottom bent cap and integral superstructure flexural reinforcement in the area of the joint shall be
increased by 0.08 times the area of longitudinal column reinforcement and adequately developed or hooked
beyond the columns at the ends.
(4) The volumetric ratio of column transverse reinforcement carried into the cap shall not be less than 0.4 times the
area of longitudinal column reinforcement divided by the square of the longitudinal column reinforcement
embedment length into the cap.
1.4.7.3.3 Steel Joints
Joints in main lateral load carrying steel members shall be designed to be stronger than the adjoining member. This
requirement may be met by designing the connections for the lesser of 1.3 times the connecting member yield strength or the
Level 3 ground motion load. Slip-critical bolts may be designed to carry the higher ground motion loads by bearing rather
than friction.
1.4.7.4 Redundancy Provisions1
The redundancy provisions listed below are suggested to increase survivability during the higher level ground motion events.
1.4.7.4.1 Bearing Seats2
Bearing seats should be proportioned to accommodate the maximum relative movements caused by earthquakes. This
requirement may be met by the following provision:
Bearing seats supporting the ends of girders which are allowed to move relative to the seat during an earthquake shall be
designed to provide a minimum support width, N, measured normal to the face of the abutment or pier, not less than that
specified below:
N = (12 + 0.03L + 0.12H)(1+0.000125S2) inches {N = (305 + 2.5L + 10H)(1+0.000125S2) mm}
L = length (ft or m) of the bridge deck to the adjacent movement joint, or to the end of the deck.
S = angle of skew (degrees) measured from a line normal to the span.
H = At abutments, H is the average height (ft or m) of piers supporting the bridge deck to the next
movement joint, or H = 0 for single span bridges. At piers, H is the pier height (ft or m).
1.4.7.4.2 Shear Connectors3
Shear connectors may be provided to resist the maximum seismic loads. The shear connectors should be positioned so that
they are engaged prior to failure of the bearing device.
1
2

1.4.7.4.3 Span Ties
Span ties may be used to reduce the likelihood of unseating during the higher level ground motion events. The spans may be
tied together by alternate means through the bent caps such as by anchor bolts, shear rods or common bearing plates provided
the load path is adequately verified. The span ties shall be designed to allow for the effects of thermal movement of the span.
1.4.7.4.4 Foundation Rocking1
Foundation rocking response may be used to satisfy the performance requirements for the Level 3 Ground Motion for non-
ductile single pier foundations. The analysis should be conducted in accordance with well established procedures. New
bridge design using rocking response shall have bearing blocks at the toe and heel of the footing with elastomeric material
placed between the footing and bearing blocks.
1.4.7.4.5 Continuous Welded Rail2
Continuous welded rail (CWR) may be evaluated as a redundant load path for seismic loads or to increase bridge damping
provided the following requirements are satisfied:
a. No expansions joints are allowed in the CWR over the bridge length and at least 200 feet (60 meters) onto the
embankments.
b. CWR shall be adequately anchored to the ties over the bridge length and at least 200 feet (60 meters) onto the
embankments.
1
SECTION 1.5 EXISTING BRIDGES
1.5.1 SCOPE (2012)

3
This part of the chapter will address the extent to which existing bridges should be reviewed for resistance to seismic forces. In
those areas where the horizontal acceleration shown in Figure 9-1-2 exceeds 10% of gravity, existing bridges should be
reviewed for resistance to seismic forces.
1.5.2 INVENTORY (1995)3 R(2012)

4
Of first importance is recognizing what existing bridges are in areas subject to seismic events. Equally important is knowing
what construction of others is on, over and under the operating property in these areas.
The accumulation of this information is found, or best contained, in inventory or inspection records. All such records, not so
noting, should be modified to provide for indicating the bridge is in a seismic activity zone. Further, these records should note
constructions which have been designed, or analytically shown, to be seismic resistant. A reference to the level of resistance
might be included.
1
2

1.5.3 HISTORY (1995)1 R(2012)
Existing bridges in areas of seismic activity can be expected to have a history of response to various levels of seismic activity.
To a large extent, the need for and direction of analytical investigation can be based on the response of the bridges to past
events.
In order to take advantage of past experience, it is necessary to develop and correlate event and results histories. A detailed
history of seismic events, based on public records, could be developed for each area of interest to the railway, The length of the
history would be determined by the oldest in-service structure within the area. Statistical analysis of the data might be used to
reduce the volume to more manageable ranges of values.
A history of the results of seismic activity would be assembled from railway inventory records or inspection reports, and other
sources such as news media archives and witness oral accounts. Further, current inspection routines could be modified to
specifically make observations designed to detect evidence of past seismic events.
An investigator developing a seismic history would be expected to have experience in the field of seismology. An investigator
correlating seismic history and results records would be expected to have experience in the field of engineering forensics.
1.5.4 ASSESSMENT AND RETROFIT (2011)
1.5.4.1 General
All bridges supporting track, except certain timber trestles, and all other bridges owned by the railway which support
pedestrian or human operated vehicle traffic should be screened, evaluated or analyzed for resistance to seismic loads, except
in areas where the value on Figure 9-1-2 is 10 or less.
1.5.4.2 Timber Trestles Exclusion
Timber trestles may be screened and eliminated from further evaluation if they are free of conditions that would require
attention in the near future to permit continuation of normal railroad traffic. Seismic evaluation of timber trestles not
eliminated by screening should focus on the potential effect of a seismic event on deficient conditions or details.
1.5.4.3 Investigation of Railway Owned Bridges
The analysis of an existing bridge for its response to a seismic load shall be conducted in accordance with the applicable
provisions of Section 1.4, New Bridges. The results of this investigation will determine the level of seismic load the structure
is capable of withstanding.
The Engineer may, when justified by historic event/results data, declare a bridge structure resistant to a specific level of
seismic load.
1.5.4.4 Investigation of Bridges Owned by Others
The Engineer may require that the Owner of a bridge over the operating right-of-way of the railway certify that the structure is
of a design resistant to a specific level of seismic load. Such certification shall be furnished in a form determined by the
Engineer and shall be attested to by a professional licensed to render such judgment.
1.5.4.5 Retrofit Designs
Railroads may decide to retrofit bridges to minimize the potential for human casualties and major property loss in the event of
an earthquake, or to expedite restoration of service following an earthquake. It is recognized that few structures can be made
1

totally resistant to the effects of an earthquake of great magnitude. The likelihood and severity of loss must therefore be
balanced against the cost of retrofit.
a. Many different schemes of retrofit are available for various types of bridges. These schemes generally accomplish
their purposes by one or a combination of the following:
(1) Changing characteristic frequencies of response to reduce seismic forces in the structure.
(2) Strengthening components of the structure to accommodate the seismic loads.
(3) Providing alternate paths for seismic forces within the structure.
(4) Accommodating displacements with catchers, stoppers, enlarged bearing areas or other devices.
(5) Providing for “yielding type response” at non-crictical points of the structure to relieve seismic stresses.
b. The following factors should be considered in any retrofit design:
(1) Retrofit design must be site specific and must consider the condition and stability of the existing structure,
including soils and foundation.
(2) Attachments of substructure to superstructure must permit normal movement of the structure.
(3) Behavior of the retrofit system shall not cause damage to the primary structure which would preclude promptly
returning the structure to service after a seismic event.
1
(4) Retrofits must permit both routine and post-seismic inspection, repair, and component replacement.
c. Primary retrofit designs would provide catchment areas with stop blocks to retain dislocated bearing areas. The design
would consider guides to return vertically separated members to the foundation area, and provide for returning the
structure to its design location. 3
SECTION 1.6 OTHER FACILITIES AND INFRASTRUCTURE
1.6.1 SCOPE (2007) 4
Considerations for seismic effects on new and existing railroad facilities and infrastructure, other than bridges, are provided in
this section. These facilities and infrastructure include, but are not limited to, track and roadbed, culverts, retaining walls,
tunnels, track protection sheds, stations, office and shop buildings, locomotive fueling facilities, utilities, signal and
communication facilities. Rail transit facilities and infrastructure are also addressed herein.
General considerations include assumptions of seismic resistance, areas of seismic vulnerability and recommendations to
improve seismic performance. Detailed procedures for performing seismic design of other railroad facilities and infrastructure
are beyond the scope of this section.
In those areas where the horizontal acceleration for the 475-year return period does not exceed 10% of gravity, no
consideration for seismic effects on these other facilities and infrastructure is deemed necessary.

1.6.2 TRACK AND ROADBED (2007)1
The largest potential danger to track and roadbed in an earthquake is from failures in the subgrade due to slumping or
liquefaction of the soils. This potential can be significantly reduced by eliminating excess water from ballast pockets and
saturated embankments. French drains or drainpipes can be very effective.
The track and ballast can also be disturbed in earthquakes, but the potential for extensive damage to track is low. During the
shaking process the stability of the ties and ballast will be momentarily weakened and if the rail is in compression it can
buckle. The shaking may also result in surface and alignment deviations, loss of welded rail neutral temperature, jointed rail
gapping or the loss of superelevation in curves. Primarily, the nature of concern with track following an earthquake is the
availability of equipment to reestablish surface and line and welded rail neutral temperature or jointed rail gaps where track
has been disturbed.
1.6.2.1 Track Structure
The existing track structure and all manner of special trackwork, including the rail, cross ties, other track material, and the
ballast section is presumed resistant to all levels of seismic forces, but not to displacements caused by offset across a fault or
other gross ground movements, including liquefaction.
Existing track facilities constructed by direct fixation of rail to a continuously reinforced concrete slab is presumed equally
resistant to all levels of seismic forces.
1.6.2.2 Fills and Earth Cuts
Variations in soil materials and soil moisture contents found within existing fills and earth cuts in any areas in general,
economically precludes adequate data collection for analysis of the site conditions. The Engineer may, based on the geometry,
the applicable standards of construction and a conservative estimate of existing soil properties, make an analysis of slope
stability for the general case.
The magnitude of the seismic force should be calculated as a function of the vertical acceleration component of the design
event. The combination will affect both magnitude and direction of the resultant force exerted by the mass above the failure
(sliding) surface. This load would be applied as a uniform dead load surcharge at the level of the centroid of the mass. The
Factor of Safety against sliding would be determined based on risk factors, and a value close to unity may be acceptable.
Fills founded on sloping strata or on strata of high moisture content should be given special attention.
Retrofit designs for fills would include stabilization by piling, toe berms and revised side slope run-to-rise ratios. Earth cut
retrofit designs include stabilization by piling and revised side slope run-to-rise ratios.
1.6.2.3 Rock Cuts
Analytical investigation of rock cuts, as groups or as individual structures, is generally not practical. The Engineer should
review the history of rock scaling programs for evidence of an extraordinary frequency of work at a specific site.
Retrofit designs include increased scaling efforts, rock stabilization by bolting or other means, increasing existing bench
catchment capacity and selective rebenching.
1.6.3 CULVERTS (2013)
Drainage structures are subject to damage from distortion of the soils in which they are embedded. The most important
consideration with culverts is that they maintain their ability to function following an event. Slumping and slope failures of the
1

embankments can result in the ends of culverts becoming constricted, obstructed and/or buried. Consideration should
therefore be given on new construction or during major maintenance projects to protect or lengthen the ends where this
appears to be of practical benefit.
Culverts are presumed to be of a design generally resistant to seismic forces, but not to displacements due to fault rupture at
the site, and to other large ground movements such as those caused by soil liquefaction. One method to improve resistance to
failure due to ground displacement is the provision of flexible joints. Retrofit designs include installation of structural linings
throughout the culvert. New construction may be required to improve seismic resistance.
1.6.4 RETAINING WALLS (2007)1
There are few, if any, unique railroad-specific issues related to retaining wall seismic design. There are a number of
precautions to be taken in designing and constructing earth retaining structures in high seismic areas.
The primary need is to minimize potential for the retained earth to absorb and retain excess moisture. If the soil moisture
increases appreciably above the optimum level used for good compaction, there can exist a potential for the soil to liquefy in
an earthquake. This would immediately increase lateral loads which could result in lateral displacement, tilting or complete
failure of the retaining wall.
Gravity-type structures should be designed to fail by sliding rather than by overturning, thereby taking advantage of active
earth pressures developed by the sliding, and also thereby reducing the seismic induced earth pressures. Rigidly fixed
structures could be subjected to very high soil forces that could only be reasonably predicted through an intensive soils
investigation and analysis. Unless supported by a pile foundation, cantilever walls should be designed so that the design
failure mode is sliding rather than overturning or collapse. 1
In summary, designers should minimize any potential for tilting in their design, take full advantage of active earth pressures
and drain the retained earth or use other methods, such as capping, to minimize or eliminate any potential for liquefaction.
1.6.5 TUNNELS AND TRACK PROTECTION SHEDS (2007)
1.6.5.1 Tunnels2 3
Tunnels are presumed to be of a design generally resistant to seismic forces, but not to displacements due to fault rupture at the
site, and to other large ground movements such as those caused by soil liquefaction. Existing tunnel conditions should be
reviewed to determine susceptibility to damage in a seismic event. Specific attention should be paid to the design of and
conditions at the portal structure. The Engineer should review the history of tunnel maintenance programs for evidence of an
extraordinary frequency of work at specific locations.
4
New tunnel design is beyond the scope of this chapter.
Retrofit designs include increased scaling efforts, rock stabilization by bolting or other means, and the installation of linings at
unlined sites.
1.6.5.2 Track Protection Sheds
The superstructures of track protection sheds are, by the nature of their function, presumed to be of a design generally resistant
to seismic forces. In active seismic regions, consideration should be given to review existing sheds for resistance to seismic
forces, particularly in the transverse direction, applying the appropriate design accelerations.
1
2

Primary retrofit designs would provide catchment areas with stop blocks to limit the dislocation of column and beam bearing
areas. The design should consider guides to return vertically separated members to the foundation area, and purchase points or
jacking blocks for returning the structure to its design location.
1.6.6 BUILDINGS AND SUPPORT FACILITIES1 (2007)
Seismic design loads and other requirements for railroad building and support facilities should be governed by the Uniform
Building Code or other applicable local, state or federal regulations.
Building codes address the structural adequacy of the building with regard to life-safety but do not necessarily address
functionality of railroad facilities. In addition to the safety of occupants, continuing function of the building and the
equipment, which it contains, can be of great importance to the railway.
The fact that a structure situated in a seismic activity zone currently exists in an acceptable state of maintenance does justify
the presumption that a level of seismic-resistant design is inherent to the construction. It does not, however, permit the
presumption that the structure has been subjected to the maximum seismic loading anticipated for the zone.
The fact that a structure of a specific structural design performed successfully at a given level of seismic loading does not
justify the presumption that all structures of that design will perform equally at that level of loading. The foundation conditions
of a structure are of primary importance in determining resistance to seismic forces.
Seismic load analysis of a structure is site specific. The results of one analysis may not be transferred to a second structure
except in the case where each and every design parameter is exactly equal.
Appurtenances associated with these facilities, such as storage racks, tanks, machinery, and stand-by generators, need specific
attention. These need to be attached to the structure to resist overturning and shear in order to remain safe and operable.
1.6.7 UTILITIES, SIGNAL AND COMMUNICATION FACILITIES (2007)
Seismic design and maintenance of railroad utility services shall be governed by the Uniform Building Code or other
applicable local state or federal regulations.
Utility services includes, but is not limited to, electric power supply, water, gas, fuel pipe lines, fire sprinkler system, heating
and air conditioning, waste water treatment, water treatment, fuel storage, oil storage and distribution systems.
Design and maintenance of environmental facilities should consider seismic forces and other requirements as provided for by
the Uniform Building Code and the applicable environmental regulatory agency. Additional consideration shall be made with
respect to failure-risk factors and potential impact in high environmentally sensitive areas. Some facilities may be required to
have spill prevention, containment and countermeasure plans in case of a seismic event.
The following measures are currently practiced to reduce the possibility of damage to the signal system. In new instrument
bungalows, shelf-type relays are suspended with coil springs, providing additional seismic force reduction to reduce the
possibility of overturning and of electrical relays setting. In existing instrument bungalows, a process has been initiated for
securing the relays to shelves with straps.
1.6.8 RAIL TRANSIT (2007)
AREMA Committee 12, Rail Transit, deals primarily with transit systems. As with other topics, Chapter 12 Rail Transit, will
include references to this chapter on seismic guidelines for bridges, buildings, support facilities, track and roadbed items. The
Structure Importance Classification of Rail Transit Facilities will be high due to a maximum value for Immediate Safety and
Immediate Value.
1

SECTION 1.7 CONSTRUCTION BY OTHERS (2013)
Existing and proposed construction by others on the operating right-of-way should be reviewed for compliance with seismic
code governing the type of construction involved.
The Engineer may require the Owner of such construction to certify that the structure is of a design resistant to a specific level
of seismic force. Such certification should be furnished in a form determined by the Engineer and should be sealed by a
licensed professional qualified to render such judgments.
SECTION 1.8 RETIRED FACILITIES (2007)
To the extent possible, abandoned railroad right-of-way structures, such as bridges, buildings and facilities should be removed
to their foundation level as soon as possible after the time they are removed from service. Economic justification of
expenditures for this work should include avoidance of analytical costs necessary to show the structure is stable and the
reduced exposure to liability arising from failure of the retired construction during a seismic event.


9
Part 2
Commentary to Seismic Design for
Railway Structures1
— 2013 —
FOREWORD
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various Articles in Part 2, Commentary to Seismic Design for
Railway Structures. In the numbering of Articles of this Section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the Section/Article
being explained.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
C- Section 1.2 Post-Seismic Event Operation Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-2

C -1.2.2 Guidelines (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-2
3
C- Section 1.3 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-4
C -1.3.1 Approach (2004) R(2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-4
C -1.3.2 Ground Motion Levels (2004) R(2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-4
C -1.3.3 Performance Criteria (2006) R(2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-9
C- Section 1.4 New Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-10

C -1.4.3 Conceptual Design (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-10
C -1.4.4 Structure Response (2003) R(2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-12
C -1.4.5 Analysis Procedures (2003) R(2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-15
C -1.4.6 Load Combinations and Response Limits (2002) R(2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-18
C -1.4.7 Detailing Provisions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-19
C- Section 1.5 Existing Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-23

C -1.5.2 Inventory (1995) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-23
C -1.5.3 History (1995) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-23
C- Section 1.6 Other Facilities and Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-23

C -1.6.2 Track and Roadbed (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-23
C -1.6.3 Culverts (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-24
C -1.6.4 Retaining Walls (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-24
1
References, Vol. 94, 1994, p.110; Vol. 96, p. 64, Vol. 97, p. 113.


C -1.6.5 Tunnels and Track Protecting Sheds (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-25
C -1.6.6 Buildings and Support Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-25
LIST OF FIGURES

9-C-1 Acceleration vs. Return Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-9
9-C-2 Normalized Response Spectra with Low Period Reduced Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-15
9-C-3 Normalized Response Spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-18
LIST OF TABLES
9-C-1 Damping Values for Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-12
9-C-2 Exceptions to Seismic Response Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-13
9-C-3 FRA Horizontal Track Alignment Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2-19
C - SECTION 1.2 POST-SEISMIC EVENT OPERATION GUIDELINES
C - 1.2.2 GUIDELINES (2009)
C - 1.2.2.1 Operations
The post-seismic event operation guidelines are intended for use where experience or adequate knowledge of regional
attenuation rates is not available. The response guidelines are based primarily on decades of experience with earthquakes in
California. They provide the basis for a policy for areas where attenuation rates are relatively high, such as California. A more
conservative policy is appropriate in areas where seismic experience is limited and/or attenuation rates are relatively low.
These conditions exist in most of central and eastern North America. Seismic attenuation models were used to extend the
California guidelines to cover other areas of North America. Where justified by adequate experience and/or analysis, a less
conservative policy may be appropriate.
For earthquakes of 6.0 (Richter) and greater, a two-level response is recommended. In areas closer to the epicenter, operations
are more restricted. In areas further from the epicenter, a zone of less restrictive response is recommended. This less
restrictive zone may be useful for moving trains away from the affected zone. Further information on the response levels is
found in Reference 23.
In 1998, the Association of American Railroads (AAR) conducted a study of seismic attenuation rates in various regions in
North America, primarily the United States and Canada (Reference 23). The study reviewed the response policies of four
railroads, the various seismological regions in North America, and the corresponding seismic attenuation models. The seismic
attenuation models were used to extend California-based policies to cover other areas of North America, based on equivalent
levels of acceleration. The development of one railroad’s response policies, including extension of California-based policies
to other regions, is described in Reference 6. Examples of findings in post-earthquake inspections of railroad infrastructure
can be found in Reference 7, 16, 19 and 22.
C - 1.2.2.3.7 Other Structures
It may be desirable to have an arrangement with a technically and legally qualified engineer to inspect essential buildings
immediately after an earthquake so that their safety can be determined and certified to avoid unnecessary evacuations and/or

Commentary to Seismic Design for Railway Structures
restrictions on building use. Essential buildings would include, among others, dispatching centers, yardmaster’s towers, shop
facilities, fueling facilities, buildings containing certain communications facilities, and, for lines with commuter service,
passenger stations.
C - 1.2.2.4 Tsunamis
Tsunamis are associated with large offshore, and some near-shore, earthquakes. In some cases, they have been a primary
source of earthquake-associated damage. Of about 100 earthquakes known to have damaged railroads, fewer than 40 have
occurred in locations where they could possibly have caused tsunamis. Tsunamis associated with eight of these caused
significant railroad damage. They washed out embankments, washed spans off bridges and overturned rolling stock along
coasts near the earthquakes.
Because of its very long wavelength, a tsunami behaves as a shallow surface wave. Its amplitude in mid-ocean is very small;
as it approaches land, the amplitude builds up and all the energy of the original disturbance is concentrated into a few
wavelengths with devastating results, erroneously called a tidal wave.
In addition to damage in the immediate area of the earthquake, tsunamis have caused damage at large distances from the
earthquake. The tsunami generated by the December 26, 2004 magnitude 9.0 earthquake off the coast of Sumatra washed a
train off a track adjacent to the coast in southern Sri Lanka, killing a large number of passengers. Alaskan earthquakes have
caused damage and loss of life in Hawaii and California and significant damage in Oregon and Washington. Earthquakes near
Chile have caused damage and loss of life in Japan. Hawaii, Japan and some other islands in the Pacific appear particularly
vulnerable to tsunamis from distant earthquakes.
Evaluation of the potential hazard to coasts of North America is appropriate. Some railroad lines are adjacent to the coast in
Alaska, Washington, California, and a few locations in Mexico, and the Alaska Railroad was damaged by a tsunami in 1964.
1
The Washington coast and west coast of Mexico are subject to earthquakes that could generate large tsunamis. Tsunamis have
been generated by submarine landslides due to earthquakes in California. There is a small, but definite, risk of tsunamis
affecting the Atlantic coast.
Tsunami hazard can be considered in two scenarios: tsunamis generated by nearby earthquakes, and those generated by distant
earthquakes. An earthquake near Santa Barbara, CA in 1812 caused a tsunami that produced a run-up (increase in the water 3
surface elevation) of about 10 feet at the coast in the area. Tsunamis from northern California earthquakes in 1859 and 1868
caused local run-ups of between 10 and 15 feet along the coast and in San Francisco Bay. The March 28, 1964 Alaska
earthquake caused a tsunami that produced run-ups in the 10 foot to 15 foot range at locations in Washington, Oregon and
northern California. About 1100 years ago, a tsunami with wave heights in the 15 to 20 foot range apparently occurred in
Puget Sound due to a magnitude 7, or larger, earthquake on the Seattle fault (Reference 17).
A study prepared for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission indicates maximum tsunami wave heights for distant 4
earthquakes of about 4 feet, in deep water off the coast, for both Washington and southern California, and up to 7 feet for
northern California, with the height increasing dramatically as the wave moves into more shallow coastal waters. In the case of
Washington, the narrow channels and islands between the open ocean and the Puget Sound coast could reduce the wave height
from the height at the outer coast. In the case of California, the coast is exposed. Advance warnings would be issued by the
West Coast & Alaska Tsunami Warning Center of the National Weather Service one to several hours before arrival of the first
wave, with identification of vulnerable coastal areas.
The waves generated by a nearby earthquake will arrive shortly after the earthquake with the time between the earthquake and
the arrival of the tsunami depending on the distance, by water, between the location of concern and the source of the tsunami.
For a large earthquake, the wave height could be much greater than for a comparable distant earthquake. The strike-slip
earthquakes that occur in California are relatively unlikely to produce a large tsunami unless they cause submarine landslides.
On the other hand, a large interplate subduction zone earthquake, similar to the 1964 Alaska earthquake, which can occur near
the coast in Washington, is likely to produce a major tsunami. There is good evidence that a large earthquake near the
Washington-Oregon coast caused a tsunami in Japan in January of 1700. A very crude estimate of the time interval between
such an earthquake off the Washington coast and the arrival of the first wave at the coast in Puget Sound is in the order of one
hour. If the generating earthquake occurred in Puget Sound, the travel time would be a matter of minutes.

Characteristics of the tsunami generated by the June 23, 2001 magnitude 8.4 earthquake in southern Peru, although affecting
the open coast, which is a different environment from the rail lines along Puget Sound in Washington, are of interest as the
generating earthquake is similar to what could occur in Washington. At a location near the earthquake, the first wave arrived
about 6 minutes after the earthquake. At a location near the end of the tsunami damage, the first wave arrived about 35 minutes
after the earthquake. At most locations, the second and third waves were larger than the first wave. The earthquake occurred at
low tide, which resulted in a smaller area of damage than would have been produced at high tide. The maximum run-up was
about 30 feet. In a relatively flat area where the run-up was about 16 feet, inundation extended nearly a mile inland from the
coast (Reference 10). The tsunami produced extreme scour. If a tsunami-generating earthquake and landslide were to occur off
the California coast, travel times would be similar to those observed in Peru.
The appropriate response for a tsunami with a distant source would be movement of trains and, to the extent possible, other
equipment out of areas designated in a tsunami warning before the estimated arrival of the tsunami. In the case of a nearby
earthquake, advance warning may not be possible. Although most earthquakes do not cause tsunamis, the possibility does exist
for large earthquakes in coastal areas.
Vulnerable areas are close to the coast and have relatively low elevations. Wave run-up heights are rarely greater than 30 to 35
feet although extreme values in the order of 100 feet have been estimated and local variations due to ocean floor topography
and focusing effects can be large. The crest to trough measurements for the December 26, 2004 tsunami at points on the
Pacific coast of North and South America were generally in the 6 to 20 inch range but the crest to trough at Manzanillo,
Mexico was about 9 feet (Reference 24). Although most information on tsunami effects is related to vertical run-up, distance
from the coast without significant increase in elevation would provide a degree of protection. A first approximation of the
maximum inland penetration of a tsunami wave in a very flat region, based on the 2001 southern Peru earthquake and a 30 to
35 foot vertical run-up, would be in the order of two miles.
C - SECTION 1.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
C - 1.3.1 APPROACH (2004) R(2009)
The vulnerability of a bridge is determined by the risk associated with the earthquake ground motion and the specified
performance criteria. The risks associated with the magnitude of the ground motion at a given location are defined by the
acceleration coefficient maps in Paragraph 1.3.2.3.
The performance criteria specified in this Section is consistent with the post seismic event operating procedures described in
Section 1.2, Post-Seismic Event Operation Guidelines. Together, they aim to minimize consequences of earthquakes.
C - 1.3.2 GROUND MOTION LEVELS (2004) R(2009)
C - 1.3.2.1 Risk Factors

There are many sources of uncertainty involved in seismic design. The greatest source of uncertainty is associated with the
regional seismicity and the expected ground motion characteristics at the site. The response of the bridge, which is affected by
both the soil and the structure dynamic characteristics, and also the methods of analysis used, add to the overall degree of
uncertainty.
Even when conservative earthquake magnitudes and assumptions are used in design, during its life a bridge may be subjected
to maximum earthquake loads that exceed the desired performance criteria. The design of a bridge for extreme ground motion
is economically undesirable, unless there is a severe social penalty associated with bridge failure. Therefore, a certain amount
of risk must be accepted so that a balance between the probability of large earthquakes and the costs of overdesign can be
achieved.
Determining “acceptable seismic risk” is a very complex task that must consider both social and economic aspects. Obviously
the amount of risk that may be accepted for some bridges is greater than for others. Factors such as the volume and the type of
train traffic, the value and the importance of the bridge and the cost of loss of use have to be considered when establishing

acceptable seismic risk levels (see Paragraph 1.3.2.2). The acceptable seismic risk levels must also be consistent with the risks
due to other extreme events such as flood waters, fire and ship collision.
A relatively simple approach is to adjust the acceptable seismic risk levels used by seismic design codes of other structures,
such as buildings and highway bridges to railroad bridges. Buildings and highway bridge design codes put a major emphasis
on life safety. This is primarily due to their high occupancy rate and the social implications of a large loss of life at one
location. Also, some highway bridges are part of lifelines that must remain open even after severe earthquakes. When the
occupancy rate of most railroad bridges is compared to the occupancy rate of buildings and highway bridges the very large
difference between the levels of risk of loss of life becomes apparent. In addition to this, the movement of trains is controlled
by signalization and dispatchers, so that in the event of an earthquake trains may be stopped. Thus, lower ground motion return
periods may be used for railroad bridge design, and more emphasis can be put on the economic aspects that are more rational
and easier to express in a quantitative way.
Another approach is to perform a probability-based overall seismic risk or cost-benefit analysis. A probabilistic approach can
account for uncertainties in the ground motion, the performance of the bridge during a given ground motion and the methods
of analysis used. Seismic risk analysis may be performed in three steps: (1) Seismic Hazard Analysis, that yields a probability
distribution function of ground motion parameters at the bridge site, (2) Seismic Performance Analysis, that yields
probabilistic statements of the risks of the bridge exceeding the specified limit states, conditioned upon specified levels of
ground motion, (3) Seismic Risk Analysis, that integrates the first two steps to yield the overall risk of the bridge exceeding
the specified limit states. This approach, however, is only recommended for special bridge projects and is limited by the
uncertainty involved in seismic hazard estimates.
C - 1.3.2.2 Structural Importance Classification
Examples of Determining Structural Importance Classification

1

Example 1
The proposed structure is a 130’ concrete trestle consisting of 5 spans each 26’ long. The bridge has a height of 30’. The
structure is located on a branchline that has 12 million gross tons of traffic a year. There is no detour around the bridge.
Approximately 25% of the traffic is hazardous material. There is not any passenger service on the line and the structure does
not cross a community life line.
Immediate Safety Replacement Value
Occupancy Factor= 1 Span Length Factor = 1
Hazardous material Factor = 1 Bridge Length Factor = 1.50
Community Life Line Factor = 0 Bridge Height Factor = 1.00
2 1.50
Immediate Value
Utilization Factor = 2
Detour Factor = 1.00
2
Serviceability Weighing Factor Weighted Value

Immediate Safety 2 0.80 1.60
Immediate Value 2 0.20 0.40
Replacement Value 1.5 0.00 0.00
2.00
Return Period = 50 +2.00(100-50)/4 = 75 years
Ultimate Weighing Factor Weighted Value

1.95
Return Period = 200 + 1.95(500-200)/4 = 346 years
Survivability Weighing Factor Weighted Value

1.60

Example 2
The proposed structure is a 500’ steel bridge consisting of 2 trusses each 250’ long. The bridge has a height of 50’. The
structure is located on a mainline that has over 50 million gross tons of traffic a year. There is no detour around the bridge.
Approximately 25% of the traffic is hazardous material There are two passenger trains per day on the line. The structure does
not cross a community life line.
Immediate Safety Replacement Value

Occupancy Factor= 2 Span Length Factor = 3
Hazardous material Factor = 1 Bridge Length Factor = 1.50
Community Life Line Factor = 0 Bridge Height Factor = 1.25
3 5.63
Note: the factor cannot exceed 4
Immediate Value Replacement Value = 4.00
Utilization Factor = 4
Detour Factor = 1.00
4
Serviceability Weighing Factor Weighted Value

Replacement Value 4 0.00 0.00 1
3.20
Return Period = 50 +3.20(100-50)/4 = 90 years
Ultimate Weighing Factor Weighted Value

3
Replacement Value 4 0.10 0.40
3.90

4
Survivability Weighing Factor Weighted Value
Replacement Value 4 0.80 3.20
4.00

C - 1.3.2.2.1 Immediate Safety
Immediate safety is divided into three factors; occupancy, hazardous materials and community life lines to represent the three
most likely risks during and immediately after a seismic event.
These risks are:
Occupancy: Risk to train crews and passengers due to damage to the structure
Hazardous Materials: Risk to the community caused by the possible release of hazardous
materials
Community Life Lines: Risk to the community caused by the damaged structure disrupting a
community lifeline
The engineer should factor in any additional hazards that may be caused by the structure becoming unserviceable during a
seismic event. The immediate safety factors are added together because the threat that each factor represents to railroad
personnel and the public is independent of each other.
C - 1.3.2.2.2 Immediate Value
Immediate Value evaluates the railroads’s need to return the structure to service after a seismic event. The utilization factor is
multiplied by the detour factor because the need to return a structure to service is reduced when a detour route is available.
The engineer should examine the possibility of the detour route also being damaged in a seismic event when determining the
detour availability factor.
C - 1.3.2.2.3 Replacement Value
Replacement Value evaluates the costs associated with replacing the structure. Replacement Value accounts for three of the
major factors that affect replacement cost: span length, bridge length and bridge height. These factors are designed to be
multiplied together to obtain a value which reflects the difficulty associated with replacing the structure. These factors may not
represent the total cost to replace the structure. Other factors that should be considered are double track structures, movable
structures, urban location, difficult access, environmental and political concerns.
C - 1.3.2.3 Base Acceleration Coefficient Maps
Acceleration coefficient maps reflect the seismic hazard at a site. They account for both maximum ground motion intensity
expected and frequency of occurrence. The maps give ground acceleration levels with a uniform probability of being exceeded
in all areas of the country. The steps involved in the development of these maps include: (1) the definition of the nature and
location of earthquake sources, (2) magnitude-frequency relationships for the source, (3) attenuation of ground motion with
distance from the source and (4) determination of ground motion parameters at the site having the required probability of
exceedance.
The base acceleration maps for return periods of 100 years, 475 years and 2400 years in the United States were obtained from
Reference 4. More recent maps are available from U.S.G.S. for the higher return periods, however, this is the latest report that
includes the 100-year return period map. Likewise more recent Canadian maps are available, however, they do not include the
100-year return period. The Level 1 seismic analysis procedure defined in this Chapter is based on earthquakes with return
periods less than 100 years, therefore it is important that the 100-year return period maps are included.
Formulas are included to determine base accelerations in the United States for return periods other than those shown on the
maps. These formulas are based on the procedure shown in Article 2.6.1.3 of Reference 14. The FEMA 273 formulas were
simplified for use with the AREMA base acceleration maps. The FEMA 273 formula for return periods less than 475 years
has an exponent that is based on the acceleration level and site location. This exponent can be determined more directly using
the AREMA acceleration maps for return periods of 100 and 475 years. Section C2.6.1.3 of Reference 15 indicates that the
acceleration-return period curves are nearly linear on a log-log plot between return periods of 475 years and 2400 years,

therefore a single formula is used in this range. Example acceleration vs. return period curves, developed using the formulas
shown in this Article, are shown in Figure 9-C-1 for various cities throughout the United States. These curves were developed
for example purposes only using specific latitude and longitude values and should not be used for design.
0.80
0.70
0.60
Acceleration (G's)
0.50
Los Angeles, CA
Seattle, WA
0.40 Butte, Montana
Memphis, TN
New York, NY
0.30
0.20
0.10
1
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Return Period (years)
Figure 9-C-1. Acceleration vs. Return Period
3
C - 1.3.3 PERFORMANCE CRITERIA (2006) R(2009)
A three-level ground motion and performance criteria approach is employed to ensure train safety and structure serviceability
after a moderate earthquake, minimize the cost of damage and loss of structure use after a large earthquake and prevent
structure collapse after a very severe earthquake. Considering all the limit states can account for the unique structural and
operating characteristics of railroad structures, and the specific needs of railroad bridge owners. Also, the performance based
format used allows for future updates as the state of the art in earthquake engineering advances. Railroad bridge owners may
4
use alternate seismic design criteria or waive certain requirements contained herein provided that adequate precautions are
taken to protect the safety of trains and the public following an earthquake.
C - 1.3.3.1 Serviceability Limit State
The primary aim of the serviceability limit state is to ensure the safety of trains. After Level 1 earthquakes, trains are allowed
to proceed at a reduced speed until inspections are completed, and the track is cleared. The stresses and deformations are
limited to immediate use of the structure after a Level 1 earthquake. The allowable deformations of the structure and track may
be related to the train speed restrictions after a Level 1 earthquake. Vibration of flexible bridges with natural periods in the
transverse direction around 1 second may cause derailments even in the elastic response range.
C - 1.3.3.2 Ultimate Limit State
The primary aim of the ultimate limit state is to minimize the extent of damage and to ensure the overall structural integrity of
the bridge. After Level 2 earthquakes, trains are stopped until inspections are completed. Structural damage that can be readily

detected and economically repaired may be allowed. By allowing the structure to respond beyond the elastic range and
undergo inelastic deformations, the earthquake resistance capacity of bridges with good ductility is significantly increased.
C - 1.3.3.3 Survivability Limit State
The survivability limit state aims to prevent overall bridge collapse. After Level 3 earthquakes, the expected track damage
would prevent immediate access to the bridge. The performance of the bridge during such earthquakes will mainly depend on
the ductility and redundancy characteristics of the bridge and on the additional safety measures designed to prevent bridge
collapse.
C - SECTION 1.4 NEW BRIDGES
C - 1.4.3 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN (2001) R(2011)
The behavior of bridges during past earthquakes has shown that the structure type, configuration and structural details have a
significant effect on seismic performance. At many locations certain bridge types have survived earthquakes with relatively
minor damage, while other bridges in the same vicinity have sustained extensive damage or collapsed. The survival or failure
of bridges of a similar type has been linked to their configuration and the particular design and detailing criteria used. For
example, bridges with skewed or irregular configurations have experienced extensive damage, often at locations where other
bridges remained unharmed.
The conceptual approach recommended for satisfying the ultimate and survivability limit states consists of seismic design
guidelines based on conceptual principles regarding structure type, configuration and details. Incorporating conceptual seismic
design principles, especially during the early stages of bridge planning and design, can significantly improve seismic behavior
at low additional costs. Also, such an approach is less sensitive to the uncertainties involved in the ground motion description,
the numerical analysis of structure response in the post-yield range, and the limited analytical and experimental seismic
research data on railroad bridges that is currently available.
The recommendations provided are intended to reduce the seismic demands by selecting an appropriate structure type for the
existing site conditions. Following basic requirements for simplicity, symmetry and displacement capability will increase the
seismic resistance by providing adequate strength, stability, ductility, redundancy, energy dissipation and deformation
capability. Strength and stability are important attributes for satisfying the serviceability limit state, while ductility and
redundancy have a significant effect on the ultimate and the survivability limit states. Displacement and deformation capacity
is quite important for structures on poor soil conditions or near a fault line.
The conceptual design phase for railroad bridges should consider the soil conditions and the seismic hazard at the site and
incorporate appropriate means to cope with the seismic induced forces that affect superstructure, substructure (including
foundation) and load bearing strata. Since the nature and direction of gravity and seismic induced forces are significantly
different, it is incumbent upon the design engineer to consider both types of loading conditions in the conceptual design phase
in order to meet the performance requirements of the structure.
C - 1.4.3.1 Configuration
Bridge vulnerability to seismic effects is determined by the ability to resist earthquake forces and/or to withstand large relative
movements. The selection of an appropriate structure type and configuration should take into account the seismic hazard at
the site, the soil conditions and the bridge performance requirements. In general, sites near active faults, sites with potentially
liquefiable or unstable soil conditions, and sites with unstable sloping ground conditions should be avoided, if practical, and
measures to improve the soil conditions should be considered as an alternative. Conventional bridge structures are difficult to
design to resist the load magnitudes generated by large ground displacements and possible settlement or shifting of
foundations. Therefore, where the extent of poor soil conditions is relatively large, a structure type that can accommodate
large ground displacements is recommended. For example, simple span structures with ample bearing support length can
accommodate large movements, without accumulating loads.

Criteria for determining adequate structure configuration and layout include simplicity, symmetry and regularity, integrity,
redundancy, ductility and ease of inspection and repair. Bridges should be simple in geometry and structural behavior. Simple
structures provide a direct and clear load path in transmitting the inertial forces from superstructure to ground. The bridge
behavior under seismic loads can be predicted with more certainty and accuracy with fewer dominant modes of vibration. To
the extent possible, the preferred configuration characteristics of Article 1.4.3.1 should be incorporated. The horizontal
strength and stiffness of substructure elements should not vary much along the bridge and the placement of the fixed and
expansion bearings should be such that a balanced seismic load distribution to all piers can be achieved. Severe skews should
be avoided even at the expense of providing longer spans or making changes in alignment.
Bridges with features such as extreme curvature or skew, varying stiffness or mass and abrupt changes in geometry require
special attention in analysis and detailing to avoid premature damage or failure. The use of integral crash walls with piers in
high seismic areas requires special considerations, since it creates an abrupt change in the pier stiffness. Alternative crash wall
configurations, such as separate walls or piers of heavy construction as defined in Chapter 8, Article 2.1.5.1c, are
recommended.
Redundancy and ductility considerations should also be taken into account when establishing the bridge configuration. In
addition, it is desirable to have a certain degree of deformation capability within the seismic load transfer path, since seismic
demands are reduced when controlled movements are allowed. Bridges with rigid superstructures and rigid substructures
could benefit from some allowance for movements at the bearing location. However, adequate bridge seat widths are needed
to ensure that movements can be accommodated without potential for span loss. A strong and stiff superstructure to
substructure connection is more appropriate when the substructure is not too rigid or when the end diaphragms or cross frames
of spans are designed and detailed to undergo ductile deformations during a strong earthquake.
C - 1.4.3.2 Superstructure
1
Simple spans of standard configuration are preferred by railroads since they have performed well during past earthquakes and
can be returned to service or replaced. Continuous spans may reduce the likelihood of unseating at the piers. This feature can
be incorporated in simple spans by providing wider seat widths or span ties. Long spans produce higher load demands on
fewer foundations which will increase foundation vulnerability and reduce redundancy. Heavy ballasted concrete spans will
produce higher load demands on the foundation with subsequent increases in foundation cost. These costs should be
compared to the increase in material and maintenance costs of steel to determine the optimum superstructure type. Excessive 3
ballast and other non-structural weight should be avoided as much as practical. Intermediate hinges attract high seismic
demands and require special detailing to provide the lateral load paths required to withstand seismic loads.
C - 1.4.3.3 Substructure
Wide seat widths at the abutments and piers allow for large displacements without unseating the bridge spans. Integral bent
caps have performed poorly during large earthquakes and require extensive detailing to reduce the likelihood of superstructure 4
damage. Multiple columns provide redundancy in the substructure which is needed to survive the higher level ground
motions. Battered piles tend to attract most of the lateral load during an earthquake.
C - 1.4.3.4 Ground Conditions
The foundation soil should be investigated for susceptibility to liquefaction and slope failure during the seismic ground
motion. To the extent possible, bridges in regions of high seismicity should be founded on stiff, stable soil layers.
Consideration should be given to ground improvement techniques when the extent of soil instability threatens the performance
of the bridge or approach embankments. It may be possible to satisfy the performance requirements by other means, such as
designing the foundation to survive the soil instability. Large diameter pile foundations may be used to withstand a slope
failure or carry the bridge loads through liquefiable soil layers to competent material.
In some cases, ground improvement or design for soil instability may be impractical. Approach embankments may be allowed
to fail during the higher level ground motion events provided that they can be quickly repaired using earth moving equipment.
Retaining walls founded on deep liquefiable soils may require costly ground improvement to ensure stability. The effects of
wall failure on rail operations should be carefully evaluated and weighed with the costs to improve the soils.

C - 1.4.4 STRUCTURE RESPONSE (2003) R(2007)
C - 1.4.4.1 Site Coefficient
The site coefficients are consistent with those in Reference 2 and Reference 12. A default site coefficient is not given, as this
would require a judgment based on little to no knowledge of the soils. Current seismic codes have default site coefficients
ranging from 1.2 to 2.0.
Experience has shown that most railroad bridge failures that have occurred in seismic events were due to soil failures such as
lateral spreading or liquefaction. Because of this, it is recommended that the foundation investigation should include soil
borings or test pits taken to an adequate depth to determine the soil profile. It should be emphasized that the need for adequate
foundation investigation is necessary to determine the appropriate foundation type for the structure.
C - 1.4.4.2 Damping Adjustment Factor
The Damping Adjustment Factor provides a simplistic method for scaling the seismic response coefficient to account for
different structure types and conditions. The seismic response coefficient is given for 5% critical damping without the
damping adjustment factor. The percent critical damping varies based on the structure material and system, effect of structure
attachments (i.e., track and ballast), whether the structure responds in the elastic-linear or post-yield range, and whether or not
the structure response is dominated by the foundation or abutment response.
The percent critical damping (ξ) preferably should be based on actual test data from similar structure types. A table of
damping values for different structural (building) systems from Reference 11 is included below for information and guidance.
Table 9-C-1. Damping Values for Structural Systems
Structural System Elastic-Linear Post-Yield

Structural Steel 3% 7%
Reinforced Concrete 5% 10%
Masonry Shear Walls 7% 12%
Wood 10% 15%
Dual Systems See note 1 See note 2
Notes:
1. Use the value of the primary, or more rigid, system. If both
systems are participating significantly, a weighted value,
proportionate to the relative participation of each system, may
be used.
2. The value for the system with the higher damping value may
be used.
C - 1.4.4.3 Seismic Response Coefficient
The Seismic Response Coefficient is the basis for determining the structure design loads for both the Equivalent Lateral Force
Procedure and the Modal Analysis Procedure. The Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure only uses a single value based on the
natural period of vibration of the structure for each of the two principal directions of the structure. The Modal Analysis
Procedure combines values for multiple modes of vibration in each of the two principal directions of the structure.

For areas with soft soil conditions and high seismicity, or close proximity to known faults, or for special bridge projects, a site-
specific hazard analysis is preferred. The analysis should be based on accepted practice using the ground motion return period
determined in accordance with Paragraph 1.3.2.2 “Structure Importance Classification.” A good discussion of site-specific
hazard analysis is contained in Reference 11.
The formula for the Seismic Response Coefficient is adopted from Reference 12 without the exceptions and modified by the
Damping Adjustment Factor from Reference 11. The coefficient is based on 5% critical damping. The exceptions to the
formula were not included since they differ from code to code and unnecessarily complicate the Seismic Response Coefficient.
The values obtained using the basic formula are conservative compared to all the exceptions but one. The exceptions from
various codes are listed below for information. If the bridge designer believes that the exceptions are needed for his site, he
may include them or preferably use site-specific response spectra.
Table 9-C-2. Exceptions to Seismic Response Coefficient
Source Exception
Reference 12 & The limiting value of 2.5A is not applicable to important structures in areas with A ≥ 0.2 with a
Reference 13 period of 0.7 seconds or greater located on Type 4 soils.
Reference 12 & For soil profiles 3 and 4, and for modes other than the fundamental mode which have periods
Reference 13 less than 0.3 seconds, Cm = A(1.0 + 5.0Tm)
Reference 2 For soil profiles 3 and 4, and for modes other than the fundamental mode which have periods 1
less than 0.3 seconds, Cm = A(0.8 + 4.0Tm)
Reference 2, For buildings where any modal period of vibration (Tm) exceeds 4.0 seconds, the Seismic
Reference 12 & Response Coefficient for that mode is permitted to be determined by the following equation:
Reference 13 3 AS
C m = -----------
4⁄3
T
3
C - 1.4.4.4 Low Period Reduced Response
Railroad bridges are often more rigid than typical multi-level buildings or highway bridge structures. Therefore the response
of railroad bridges in the low period range needs to be thoroughly addressed. Most general response spectra curves, such as
those defined in Reference 14 have reduced responses in the low period range. Typically, these curves vary linearly from the
peak ground acceleration at zero period to a maximum constant acceleration response at the initial transition period, To as
shown in Figure 9-C-2. Other response spectra curves, such as those given in Reference 5 show a flat region for very low
4
periods that represent perfectly rigid response. The AREMA seismic response coefficient defined in Article 1.4.4.3 does not
include the reduced response at low periods since it was felt that typical railroad bridge analysis underestimates the actual
period of the bridge. Underestimation of the structure period can result in unconservative response for low period structures
when the reduced response region of the response spectra is used. This section was developed to allow the bridge designer to
take advantage of the reduced response for low period structures when appropriate. The provisions listed in Article 1.4.4.4
account for the most common sources of flexibility in the structure, however, the bridge designer should consider any other
component that will increase the structure period.
Typical railroad bridge analysis uses the gross moment of inertia for reinforced concrete members to determine the stiffness
and load distribution. Use of the gross moment of inertia for a reinforced concrete substructure member will underestimate the
structure period when the flexural tension stress exceeds the concrete modulus of rupture. The effective moment of inertia, as
determined from EQ 2-12 in Chapter 8, Part 2, Article 2.23.7c, of reinforced concrete members will provide a more

representative structure period. The cracked moment of inertia used in EQ 2-12 may be determined from moment-curvature
analysis of the member using the following relationship.
My1 = Moment at first yield of reinforcing steel

φy1 = Curvature at first yield of reinforcing steel
Ec = Concrete modulus of elasticity (Chapter 8, Part 2, Article 2.23.4)
It is common practice to model bridge foundations as either pinned or fixed. If the foundation stiffness is overestimated, then
the structure period will be underestimated. Foundation flexibility for spread footings may be accounted for by including a
rotational footing stiffness calculated in accordance with accepted procedures, such as those defined in Section 5.3 of
Reference 18. Lateral translation flexibility of a spread footing need not be considered provided that the base soil friction is
not exceeded. Foundation flexibility for pile footings may be accounted for by using accepted procedures, such as including a
rotational pile cap stiffness that is derived from realistic pile load-deflection (t-z) data. When vertical piles are used, the lateral
translation foundation stiffness should be determined from realistic pile lateral load-deflection (p-y) data, supplemented, if
appropriate, by lateral soil resistance on the pile cap. If either of these foundation types is founded on sound rock, the effects
of foundation flexibility can be neglected.
Lateral flexibility of the bridge spans may amplify the seismic response between the bridge piers. For example, a point in the
middle of the span may have a higher response acceleration than the point at the top of the pier. This effect is typically
accounted for by performing modal analysis of the bridge using a model with at least four elements making up the span length.
Foundation rocking is a response that occurs when the applied moment on a spread footing exceeds the overturning moment
resistance. Rocking response will increase the period of the foundation and most likely take it out of the low period reduced
response range.
The low period reduced response defined in this Article has been developed based on review of the response spectra from
other codes along with visual inspection of a number of response spectra generated from actual strong motion records. The
perfectly-rigid period limit of 0.03 seconds corresponds to a frequency of 33 Hz and has generally been considered appropriate
for this type of response. Evaluation of response spectra generated from actual strong motion records indicates that this is
conservative except for sites very close (< 10 miles or 16 km) to the fault. The only structures that are expected to fall in the
perfectly-rigid range are rigid piers with spread footings or piles founded on rock. Other rigid piers will generally fall in the
low period linear transition region due to foundation flexibility.

0.00 < T ≤ 0.03 Perfectly-rigid region
0.03 < T ≤ To Low period linear transition region 1

To < T ≤ Ts Constant acceleration region
To = Initial transition period = 0.096S

3
Ts = Constant acceleration transition period = (0.48S)3/2
S = Site coefficient from Paragraph 1.4.4.1
T = Period of vibration
4
Figure 9-C-2. Normalized Response Spectra with Low Period Reduced Response
C - 1.4.5 ANALYSIS PROCEDURES (2003) R(2007)
C - 1.4.5.1 General
C - 1.4.5.1.1 Serviceability Limit State
Within the serviceability limit state the response of a bridge is limited to its elastic range. Therefore, methods based on elastic
analysis are most appropriate. The methods specified depend on the bridge configuration. The Equivalent Lateral Force
Procedure expresses earthquake loads in terms of structure mass and Seismic Response Coefficient for the site. It will
probably be applicable to the majority of the existing railroad bridges. The Modal Analysis Procedure is a more accurate
approach that can evaluate irregular bridges, effects of higher modes of vibration and specific ground motion characteristics.

Other analysis procedures such as time-history analysis or deformation-based methods may be appropriate for certain
structures and/or site conditions, but are not addressed herein.
C - 1.4.5.1.2 Ultimate and Survivability Limit State
The response of a bridge near its ultimate limit state is highly nonlinear and uncertain due to incomplete knowledge of
inelastic structural action. Seismic highway bridge design codes specify the use of elastic analysis for the ultimate loads, and
response modification factors that account for nonlinear behavior. Satisfying the ultimate state criteria is practically the main
requirement of these codes, and there is on-going research to improve the analysis models and to get more reliable estimates of
the response modification factors recommended. Using a similar approach for the evaluation of railroad bridges for the
ultimate limit state would require more research into nonlinear response of railroad bridges to extreme horizontal loads. Also,
for railroad bridges, satisfying the serviceability limit state, that is concerned with the continuing operation of trains after a
seismic event, is the main design condition. The serviceability limit state criteria is associated with very low risk levels of
being exceeded, and it will most likely be more restrictive than the other limit states. Using a conceptual design approach for
the ultimate and the survivability limit states can overcome the high level of uncertainties involved in numerical analysis of the
nonlinear bridge response. Conformance with the ultimate and the survivability limit states is based on requirements for type,
geometry, materials, ductility and redundancy. The conceptual design methods recommended to ensure satisfactory
performance for the ultimate and the survivability limit states are based primarily on experience from past earthquakes and
from research and testing results applicable to railroad bridges. Commonly accepted detailing provisions and guidelines for a
specific seismic region which are consistent with railroad practices may be used until more specific requirements for adequate
details, connections, ductility and redundancy are developed herein.
The requirement for non-ductile, non-redundant primary load carrying elements of structures to be designed for higher seismic
loads is necessary to ensure survivability of some structures during an extreme event. The design forces to be used in this case
are the lesser of the seismic forces or the maximum load which can be transmitted to the element. Non-ductile, non-redundant
primary load carrying elements are bridge components whose failure can cause structure collapse. An example of such a
component is a poorly reinforced single column concrete bent.
C - 1.4.5.2 Procedure Selection
The procedure used to analyze the structure is based on the bridge configuration. Single-span bridges do not require formal
analysis, however they should be investigated using commonly accepted empirical formulations to ensure that the abutment
seat widths are adequate to prevent span collapse. Two-span bridges are considered regular since they have only one bent,
which precludes stiffness irregularity. Irregular bridges may be those with bridge vulnerability aspects as listed in Paragraph
1.4.3.1. A more specific description of bridge irregularity may be found in other codes such as Reference 2.
C - 1.4.5.3 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
The Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure is included as a simple method of analysis that may be used for regular bridges. The
calculations for this procedure are appropriate for hand calculation methods in most cases, though static computer analysis
may be used to determine the load distribution to the individual members.
The two principal directions of the structure are typically the longitudinal and transverse directions of the bridge. For curved
bridges, the longitudinal direction may be taken as a straight line connecting the centerline of the bridge at the beginning and
end.
The natural period of vibration (Tm) for each of the two principal directions of the structure may be calculated using any
commonly accepted method. The following simple formulation may be used.

W
T m = 2π -------
gK
W= Total weight of the bridge.

g= Acceleration due to gravity (length/time2)
K= The total structure stiffness including the stiffness of the superstructure, supporting members and
surrounding soil.
The seismic response coefficient, Cm, applied to the substructure of single level bridges may be reduced to the average of the
Cm value calculated in Paragraph 1.4.5.3a for the superstructure and the base acceleration coefficient, A, determined in
accordance with Paragraph 1.3.2.3 for the ground, but shall not be less than the base acceleration coefficient, A. The actual
seismic response coefficient, Cm, varies throughout the structure in proportion to the relative lateral movement. A common
method of equivalent lateral force analysis assumes that one-half the weight of the substructure is lumped at the superstructure
level for the period calculation and the foundation load is calculated using the complete bridge weight with the seismic
response coefficient determined for the superstructure. This analysis approach is accurate when the substructure weight is
small relative to the superstructure weight, but may be too conservative for heavy pier substructures. Rather than using the
more accurate modal analysis approach, a simple modification to the equivalent lateral force procedure may be used to
minimize the foundation demand for bridges supported by large pier substructures. It is conservative to assume that the actual 1
seismic response coefficient, Cm, varies linearly from the base acceleration coefficient, A, at the ground level to the seismic
response coefficient calculated at the superstructure level as long as the response at the superstructure level exceeds the base
acceleration. Therefore the average of these two acceleration values may be applied to the weight of the pier to more
accurately determine the demand at the foundation.
The seismic load should be distributed to the individual members based on the stiffness and support conditions. For a regular 3
structure with uniform weight per unit length and simple supports, this reduces to a simple beam calculation for the
superstructure between supports and a single lateral load calculation for the supporting bents.
C - 1.4.5.4 Modal Analysis Procedure
The Modal Analysis Procedure is included as a general method of analysis that may be used for any bridge configuration. The
calculations for this procedure are appropriate to be performed by any commonly available finite element computer program. 4
The response spectra is developed from Paragraph 1.4.4.3 “Seismic Response Coefficient.” The value of the Seismic Response
Coefficient (Cm) should be calculated for a range of period (Tm) values to adequately define the spectral shape for the range of
period (Tm) values needed to represent the structure. Figure 9-C-3 gives a typical normalized spectral shape for values of A, S
and D all equal to 1.0.

Figure 9-C-3. Normalized Response Spectra
C - 1.4.6 LOAD COMBINATIONS AND RESPONSE LIMITS (2002) R(2007)
The load combination used for the level 1 ground motion should be consistent with the probability of occurrence of the
earthquake. For this reason, live load is usually not included in the load combination. Certain situations, such as long viaducts
with high traffic volume or bridges in yard and terminal areas, may require consideration of combinations which include live
loading. Extreme loads, such as wind and stream flow pressure, are not normally combined with the seismic loading. In cases
where a certain minimum level of stream flow is constant, that minimum level should be included in the earthquake load
combination. Friction forces can vary significantly due to contact surface conditions and vertical earthquake accelerations,
therefore the use of friction should be carefully considered if it reduces the effects of the earthquake load.
The stress limits are provided to satisfy the performance requirements of the serviceability limit state. The seismic loads are
calculated at the yield level rather than at the working stress level, so it is appropriate to use a 50% allowable stress increase
for steel and a 1.0 load factor for concrete.
Specific lateral deflection limits are not provided, however, the bridge must satisfy the performance requirements of
Section 1.3.3. PΔ effects should be considered if they are significant enough to affect the performance of the bridge.
Columns designed in accordance with Article 1.4.7.3.1 may account for PΔ effects using conventional methods for the level 1
earthquake, however, this is not appropriate for the higher level earthquakes. The only reliable way to account for PΔ effects
in the inelastic range of the columns for the higher level earthquakes is to perform nonlinear time history analysis. A practical
limit from Reference 9 may be used which requires that the PΔ moment should not exceed 20% of the plastic moment capacity
of the column for the maximum credible earthquake. To perform a similar comparison, the column PΔ moment for the level 1
earthquake should be multiplied by the ratio of the level 3 base acceleration coefficient divided by the level 1 base acceleration
coefficient and should not exceed 20% of 1.3 times the nominal moment capacity of the column.

The lateral deflection of the bridge must not preclude train operations outlined in Article 1.2.2.1. Because the fixed steel rails
are the riding surface over which rail equipment operates, railroad bridges have inherently strict limitations on the tolerable,
permanent displacement and distortion they can undergo in a seismic event, and still remain serviceable. After a level 1
ground motion event, the trains are allowed to continue at restricted speed. For most bridges, there is a very low probability
that the train will be on the bridge during the earthquake. Therefore the track deflection to be considered is the permanent
deflection which will remain after the earthquake has occurred. It is the responsibility of the bridge designer to determine how
much permanent track deformation will result from the elastic deflection of the structure. For bridges where a train is
considered to be on the bridge during the earthquake, the deflection limitations must be satisfied directly. The Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 49, Part 213, Section 55 (49 CFR 213.55) provides alignment requirements based on the class of track and
49 CFR 213.9 defines the speed limits for each class of track. Table 9-C-3 includes the information from the 49 CFR and is
provided herein as an indication of order of magnitude limits to track misalignment tolerable for 'safe' conditions at various
speeds. However, the designer must establish with the railroad(s) the tolerable limits for permanent track deformations used in
the design. The individual railroads may have maintenance limits on various railways for horizontal, vertical and
superelevation alignments that are more restrictive than the FRA standards. Table 9-C-3 can be used to determine the track
alignment requirements for a given train speed. For example, the track on a bridge supporting a freight train operating at a
restricted speed, which cannot exceed 20 mph (32 kph) after an earthquake, would have to satisfy the alignment requirements
of a class 2 track, which is no more than a 3" (76 mm) mid-offset on a 62 ft. (18.9 m) long tangent section of track.
Table 9-C-3. FRA Horizontal Track Alignment Requirements
Class of Maximum Operating Speed Maximum Horizontal Track

Track mph (km/h) Deviation from Alignment, in (mm)
Freight Passenger Tangent track1 Curved track2
1 10 (16) 15 (24) 5 (127) 5 (127) 1
2 25 (40) 30 (48) 3 (76) 3 (76)
3 40 (64) 60 (97) 1.75 (44) 1.75 (44)
4 60 (97) 80 (129) 1.5 (38) 1.5 (38)
5 80 (129) 90 (145) 0.625 (16) 0.625 (16)
3
NOTE:
(1) The deviation of the mid-offset from 62 foot (18.9 m) line. The ends of the line must be at points on the gage side
of the line rail, five-eighths of an inch (16 mm) below the top of the railhead.
(2) The deviation of the mid-ordinate from 62 foot (18.9 m) chord. The ends of the chord must be at points on the
gage side of the outer rail, five-eighths of an inch (16 mm) below the top of the railhead. 4
C - 1.4.7 DETAILING PROVISIONS (2013)
The detailing provisions are required to meet the performance requirements of the Level 2 and 3 Ground Motion. These
provisions are based on accepted practice in high seismic areas and recent research. The structure design need not meet the
required provisions provided that the structure is capable of resisting the Level 3 Ground Motion loadings in the elastic range.
C - 1.4.7.1 Continuity Provisions
Continuity provisions for transferring lateral forces from the superstructure to the ground are necessary to ensure structural
integrity during a seismic event. All portions of the load path must be investigated to see that the lateral forces can be
transferred. This is especially true for the load path from the superstructure span to the substructure, which is often not
investigated for static loads. Friction should be neglected as a means to transfer lateral forces where there is a potential for
uplift. At locations where movements are allowed, they should be accommodated or limited.

C - 1.4.7.1.1 Superstructure
Critical members which transfer lateral forces from the superstructure to the substructure and are non-ductile must be designed
for the Level 3 Ground Motion forces or the maximum loads which can be transmitted to the member. Lateral bending of the
girders is the load path for concrete box girders. Lateral bending resistance may also be used for other structures as long as the
loads are investigated. For example, shorter open deck steel girders will often have the capability to transfer lateral loads
without additional bracing since the live load is usually not combined with the seismic load.
C - 1.4.7.1.2 Bearings
Bearings are often the critical component in transferring seismic loads to the substructure. They shall be configured to transfer
the lateral loads to the substructure or accommodate movement while allowing access for maintenance and replacement.
Seismic isolation bearings are not commonly used in railroad bridges due to the restraint or limits in span or bearing
translation induced by other railroad bridge components such as continuous rail. If these bearings are used, the design of the
superstructure, substructure, and bearings must consider the translation restraining effects of the railroad bridge components
that limit the span or bearing displacements that seismic isolation bearings are intended to accommodate.
C - 1.4.7.2 Ductility Provisions
The importance of ductility during bridge response to large magnitude earthquakes is well recognized. During large
earthquakes stresses in bridge members and connections exceed the elastic range and structures could experience large
inelastic deformations. The ductility of a structure is usually defined in terms of the ratio between maximum deformation
without failure and yield deformation. It depends on the individual member ductility and their loading condition, the ductility
of the connection details and also on the structure configuration. For example, nonductile and poorly braced members loaded
in compression may experience sudden failure even prior to reaching yield stresses. A ductile structure can undergo large
inelastic deformations without significant strength degradation.
Ductile behavior reduces seismic loads and provides an energy dissipation mechanism. To achieve good ductility, locations
that are expected to experience plastic deformations need to be adequately designed and detailed, and instability or brittle
failure modes need to be prevented. At the same time the structure should have sufficient stiffness to maintain stability and
avoid excessive drift.
The ductility provisions are required to ensure that the structure will meet the performance requirements of the Level 2 and 3
Ground Motion. These provisions are based on accepted practice in high seismic areas and recent research. The requirements
for structure ductility for reinforced concrete, steel or timber structures are different, since they must take into account the
inherent material properties and the typical structural configurations.
The requirements for reinforcement details in concrete structures in seismically active regions are well established in design
codes and State guidelines for seismic design of highway bridges. These requirements should be followed in a manner
consistent with railroad design and detailing practices. In general, these requirements are intended to increase ductility and
reduce the likelihood of brittle shear failures.
The ductility requirements for steel structures are intended to prevent buckling and fracture and provide adequate connections
and details. Due to differences in geometry, stiffness, ductility, mass and damping characteristics, the seismic behavior of
steel bridges is fundamentally different from that of concrete bridges. One main difference is that steel bridges can yield and
dissipate energy at various locations throughout the structure, and therefore plastic hinge regions do not need to be restricted
only to the columns. Also, in steel members, the shear yielding mechanism is preferable, since it provides substantial stable
energy dissipation, which is different from concrete members where flexural failure modes are desired and shear failure is
avoided.
Seismic design and detailing requirements for steel bridges are not as well established and codified as those for concrete
bridges. This is probably because of the inherent ductility of structural steel and the relatively good performance of steel

bridges during past earthquakes. In addition, by following relatively simple design and detailing guidelines, significant
ductility levels can be achieved. Such guidelines include the following recommendations:
• Limit the width to thickness (b/t) ratios for plates in compression;
• Limit the slenderness ratio for main compression and bracing members;
• Avoid using details susceptible to fracture in areas expected to respond in the plastic range;
• Avoid field welds and other fatigue prone details;
• Design steel members such that yielding of the gross section occurs before local buckling or fracture;
• Avoid triaxial tension stress conditions that may occur at locations such as near the intersection of welds in thick
elements. They can inhibit the ability of steel to exhibit ductility.
• Use stiffeners that are more rigid than the minimum needed to prevent buckling.
• Limit the axial compression load in columns to a percentage of their yield capacity;
• Provide means for an alternative load path in case of damage;
• Ensure that when damage occurs, the damage is confined to secondary, non-gravity carrying elements, such as
bracing members;
1
• Consider using the end diaphragms or cross frames as locations for ductile behavior.
C - 1.4.7.2.1 Longitudinal Reinforcing Confinement
The provisions in this Article were adapted from Sections 21.6.4 and 21.6.5 of Reference 3 with minor changes in notation and
terminology to be consistent with Chapter 8 notation and railroad bridge terminology. Notation which is not defined in this 3
section is defined in Chapter 8, Article 2.2.1 and additional commentary is contained in Sections R21.6.4 and R21.6.5 of
Reference 3.
Longitudinal reinforcing confinement is critical to ensuring that the concrete column will respond well in the post-yield range.
Concrete piles with fixed heads will develop high bending moments at the cap interface, therefore they should be adequately
confined to reduce the possibility of permanent damage. Extended concrete piles should be treated as regular columns above
the ground. The reduced requirements for concrete pier walls with low axial loading have been shown by testing to exceed a 4
ductility factor of 2.
C - 1.4.7.2.2 Splices in Reinforcing
The concrete cover tends to spall off of concrete members responding in the post-yield range. This eliminates the load transfer
of lap splices and can cause premature failure.
C - 1.4.7.3 Provisions to Limit Damage
To limit damage during Level 2 Ground Motion, the distribution of strength and stiffness should be such that damage occurs at
predetermined locations, and certain critical load carrying members are “protected” from inelastic response. The
predetermined damage locations must be well detailed to sustain large inelastic deformations without strength degradation,
and at the same time they should be the weakest links within their respective load paths in order to restrict damage to other
members. In addition, the distribution of stiffness and strength should be such that plastic response or damage does not occur
in locations inaccessible for inspection and repair.

Since seismic demands are reduced when movements and ductile deformations are allowed, such damage control criteria can
achieve good and reliable seismic performance at relatively low costs. The use of sacrificial elements, which could be easily
replaced in the event of damage, may also offer a cost-effective way of enhancing the bridge seismic response and providing
protection to other members. Knowledge of likely failure locations and modes also allows for the design of connection details
and jacking locations for temporary support during repairs.
C - 1.4.7.3.1 Weak Column Provisions
Bridges in high seismic areas are typically designed so that plastic hinging is allowed in the reinforced concrete columns. The
provisions for reinforcing steel material with maximum yield strength are adapted from Chapter 21, Section 21.1.5 of
Reference 3, and are necessary to limit the post-yield loads delivered to the adjacent bent cap and foundation. The bent cap
and foundation may be designed for 1.3 times the nominal column strength to ensure that they will not be damaged during
plastic hinging. This requirement is also applicable for the superstructure when it is built integrally with the bent cap, as with
cast-in-place box girder structures. Extended pile columns are not allowed to yield below the ground, since the area is
inaccessible for inspection and repair.
C - 1.4.7.3.2 Concrete Joints
The provisions in this Article were adapted from Section 21.7 of Reference 3 with changes in notation and terminology to be
consistent with Chapter 8 notation and railroad bridge terminology. Some of the ACI 318 provisions were modified or omitted
to be consistent with the other provisions of this Chapter. For example, provision 21.7.2.1 of Reference 3 is omitted since it
conflicts with the column overstrength requirements of Paragraph 1.4.7.3.1b and provision 21.7.4.1 of Reference 3 is modified
since the joint shear reinforcement requirements of this Article allow for higher joint stresses. Notation which is not defined
in this section is defined in Chapter 8, Article 2.2.1 and additional commentary is contained in Section R21.7 of Reference 3.
Concrete joints must be adequately detailed to reduce the likelihood of damage extending into the superstructure and bent cap.
The additional so called “joint shear” requirements for integral bent caps and superstructure have been used on California
bridges since the Northridge earthquake. Further details on these requirements may be obtained from Reference 20.
C - 1.4.7.4 Redundancy Provisions
Redundancy provisions are suggested to provide additional safety against failure during the Level 3 ground motion event.
These provisions are particularly important when the Level 3 ground motion acceleration is much greater than the Level 1
ground motion acceleration.
C - 1.4.7.4.1 Bearing Seats
The provisions in this Article were adapted from Division I-A, Section 7.3.1 of Reference 1 with minor changes in
terminology to be consistent with railroad bridge terminology. Some of the AASHTO provisions were omitted since they are
already addressed with the other provisions of this Chapter. For example, the AASHTO linkage provisions are omitted since
they are already addressed in Article 1.4.7.4.3.
Wide bearing seats will provide additional redundancy if bearing anchor bolts or shear rods fail during a high level ground
motion. The AASHTO requirements provide an empirical equation for determining the minimum seat width as a function of
the bridge length, height and skew. Seismic analysis of the bridge may also be used to determine the maximum relative
movements. The bearing seat width requirements are not necessary if the superstructure is adequately connected to the
substructure to prevent relative movement.
C - 1.4.7.4.2 Shear Connectors
Shear connectors are often used in high seismic areas to transfer the seismic loads from the superstructure to the substructure.
Reinforced concrete shear keys should be placed as close to the girders as practical so that the bearings do not fail before shear
key engagement. Shear connectors may also take the form of rods or pipes embedded through the superstructure of concrete
box girder structures supported on elastomeric bearings.

C - 1.4.7.4.4 Foundation Rocking
Rocking response is a form of seismic isolation which reduces the response frequency of the bridge while dissipating energy.
Bearing blocks are required on new bridge construction to reduce the permanent soil deformation which will result at the toe
and heel of the rocking footing. This response mode is especially useful for evaluating existing bridges with large, non-
ductile, single pier foundations. Further information on foundation rocking may be obtained from Reference 21.
C - 1.4.7.4.5 Continuous Welded Rail
The presence of track on railroad bridges has long been considered a distinguishing characteristic between the seismic
response of highway bridges and railroad bridges. Properly detailed continuous welded rail will provide a continuous load
path for longitudinal loads on the bridge. Further research into the load transfer mechanisms is required to adequately quantify
the effect of CWR at this time, however, the presence of CWR is considered a desirable feature to add redundancy and
increase damping in the longitudinal direction of short, straight bridges. Reference 8 allows an increase in damping of
between 10 and 15 percent for straight bridges less than 300 feet if the abutments are capable of mobilizing the soil and are
well tied into the soil. This increase in damping may be applied to straight railroad bridges less than 300 feet in length with
CWR to reduce the seismic loading.
C - SECTION 1.5 EXISTING BRIDGES
C - 1.5.2 INVENTORY (1995) R(2012)
Most railroads have a good inventory of their own facilities. However, in several earthquakes where damage to railroad
facilities was minor, structures owned by others, including structures over or adjacent to tracks, have collapsed. The presence 1
of any structures whose collapse could adversely affect operations should be determined and recorded. Underground structures
subject to seismic failure and buried utilities, including pipelines, should also be identified.
C - 1.5.3 HISTORY (1995) R(2012)
Areas with frequent significant seismic activity are more appropriate for historical analysis than areas that have rare, but 3
severe, earthquakes, such as parts of central and eastern North America.
C - SECTION 1.6 OTHER FACILITIES AND INFRASTRUCTURE
C - 1.6.2 TRACK AND ROADBED (2007)
Although the track structure, with the possible exception of the ballast, is rarely affected by shaking, the distortion of the
4
underlying ground may severely impact track geometry. Longitudinal distortion can cause track buckling, or high tensile
stresses in the rails with the resulting risk of the track pulling apart. Lateral movements and/or settlement due to liquefaction
or embankment failure can cause serious defects in line, surface and cross-level.
Fills supporting track are subject to two types of failures as a result of seismic activity. They are horizontal or vertical
misalignment of the embankment and loss of fill materials by soil liquefaction.
Misalignment could result from:
a. Movement associated with tectonic plate acceleration differentials at, or near, fault lines.
b. Local soil shear failure from forces generated by earth mass acceleration differentials.
c. Slope failures of the fill embankment.

d. Soil liquefaction. (Liquefaction requires the existence of a specific set of soil grain sizes and soil moisture conditions
at the time a vibratory energy source is applied.)
e. Water damage caused by failed retaining structures, distribution systems or redirected water courses.
Track in earth cuts is subject to the same misalignment from tectonic plate movements as is track on fills. Local soil shear
failures and liquefaction may also occur, resulting in covering the track structure with debris.
It is suggested that efforts to analytically predict these failures is of little value, as there is no practical design of retrofit that
would prevent the movement.
Whatever the type of movement imposed on the track it is likely the disturbance will affect the rail’s neutral temperature, for
continuously welded rail (CWR), or the joint gapping for jointed rail, thus reducing the rail’s resistance to buckling at high
temperatures (sun kinks). When realigning the track to the pre-earthquake alignment, CWR must be cut and stressed to the
neutral temperature, and jointed rail regapped to the requirements specified by the railroad.
C - 1.6.3 CULVERTS (2013)
Culverts fall into three general types; rigid pipe, flexible pipe (including pipe arches) and box. The mechanisms by which
these different types resist seismic loading are also different. Rigid pipe culverts primarily resist loads through their bending
strength. Flexible pipes and pipe arches are primarily supported by passive pressures exerted on the surrounding soils under
loading. Structurally, boxes do not depend on soil interaction for design capacity.
The primary modes of failure for culverts under seismic loading are;
• Failure of the structure through buckling or distortion.
• Pulling apart of joints through movement or displacement of surrounding earth.
• End failures through slope failure either burying the end of a culvert or the separation of end sections because of
slope movement.
Hence, the integrity of the barrel and the support provided under the culvert at the time of construction are key factors in
performance. Culverts should be installed in accordance with the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 1,
Part 4.
Partially collapsed or damaged culverts can be difficult to repair; thus, where the barrel is in good enough condition to accept
a structural sleeve and hydrolic conditions permit this is the recommended repair method. Structural sleeves should be
inserted and then grouted in place to assure the flow of water through the sleeve.
C - 1.6.4 RETAINING WALLS (2007)
Design of retaining walls to fail by sliding instead of overturning or failure of the stem of cantilever walls is analogous to the
use of strong column-weak beam moment resisting frames in buildings. If a wall supporting the railway embankment slides
during an earthquake, a large amount of energy is absorbed and track damage is limited to loss of line and surface in amounts
that may be readily corrected. If a wall supporting a hillside above the track slides, the resulting reduction of clearance may be
corrected by realigning the track. In either case, restoration of service will likely be considerably faster than in the case of
collapse or overturning of the wall.

C - 1.6.5 TUNNELS AND TRACK PROTECTING SHEDS (2007)
C - 1.6.5.1 Tunnels
Tunnels usually are subjected to less severe loading from earthquakes than structures on the surface of the ground. However,
they have been damaged by shaking and severely damaged by displacements at locations where they were intersected by fault
ruptures.
Tunnel lining damage, possibly due to earthquake accelerations even at some distance from the seismic event, has occurred
where the tunnel floor slab has been removed to increase vertical clearances within the tunnel.
C - 1.6.6 BUILDINGS AND SUPPORT FACILITIES (2007)
Structures located near the fault rupture are likely to suffer serious damage in a major earthquake. Safety of operation
ultimately depends on post-event inspection of facilities in areas subjected to major ground movements and/or severe shaking.
Proper design can reduce, but not totally eliminate, the probability of significant damage.


9
Chapter 9 Glossary
The following terms are used in Chapter 9 Seismic Design for Railway Structures and are placed here in alphabetical order for
your convenience.
Amplitude
Maximum value of a function as it varies with time.
Attenuation
A decrease in amplitude of the seismic waves with distance due to geometric spreading, energy absorption and scattering.
Collapse
Major change in the geometry of a bridge rendering it unfit for use.
Damping 1
Resistance which reduces vibrations by energy absorption.
Ductility
Property of a member or connection that allows inelastic response.
Ductility Ratio
3
The ratio between the maximum displacement for elastoplastic behavior and the displacement corresponding to yield point.
Dynamic Magnification
An increase in the induced lateral forces in a structure due to frequency matching between the ground and structure.
Elasticity
The ability of a material to return immediately to its original form or condition after removal of the loads.
Elastoplastic
Implies elastic behavior for a force that does not exceed a maximum value and plastic behavior above this maximum.
Epicenter
The point on the Earth’s surface located vertically above the point where the first rupture and the first earthquake motion
occur.
Fault
A fracture or fracture zone in the earth along which there has been displacement of the two sides relative to one another and
which is parallel to the fracture.

Flexible Structure
A structure that will sustain relatively large displacements without failure.
Fundamental Period
The longest period (duration in time of one full cycle of oscillatory motion) of vibration of a structure which has several
modes of vibration, each with a different period.
Ground Movement
Term that refers to all aspects of ground motion, e.g. particle acceleration, velocity, displacement due to earthquakes.
Hoop Reinforcement
Circular or rectangular transverse reinforcement capable of confining the concrete core after the concrete cover has spalled
off. Circular hoop reinforcement shall either be welded or mechanically coupled with no lap splices. Rectangular hoop
reinforcement shall consist of single or multiple overlapping stirrups which are closed by 135° hooks around a longitudinal
reinforcing bar with no lap splices and cross-ties consisting of single-leg stirrups with a 90° hook around a longitudinal
reinforcing bar on one end and a 135° hook around a longitudinal reinforcing bar on the other end. Cross-ties shall be
alternated end for end along the longitudinal reinforcement.
Inelastic Behavior
Behavior of a member beyond its elastic limit.
Intensity
Qualitative or quantitative measure of the severity of seismic ground motion at a specific site. The most common intensity
scale used in the United States today is the Modified Mercalli, 1956 version.
Limit State
A condition beyond which a bridge, member or connection ceases to satisfy the performance requirements for which it was
designed.
Liquefaction
Transformation of a granular soil from a solid state into a liquefied state as a consequence of increased pore-water pressure
induced by vibrations.
Magnitude
Qualitative measure of the size of an earthquake, related indirectly to the energy released, which is independent of the place
of observation, e.g. Richter Magnitude Scale.
Mean Return Period, T

The average time (in years) between occurrences of an event of a given size or a condition associated with a given severity.
The inverse of the mean return period is the average annual probability of exceedance. For an estimate of the probability of
exceedance, p, during an exposure time, t (in years), the following relation may be used: p = 1–(1–1/T)t. An event with a
particular mean return period has a 63% probability of being exceeded during an exposure time equal to that return period.
Natural Frequency
The frequency (number of cycles per second) of free vibration of a structure if damping effects are neglected. Sometimes
expressed in radians per second.

Glossary
Natural Period
The time interval (in seconds) for a vibrating structure in free vibration to do one oscillation. The inverse of the natural
period is the natural frequency.
Occupancy Rate
Average number of persons occupying a structure each 24-hour day of the year.
Predominant Periods
The most significant periods of the earthquake ground motion.
Regular Bridge
A bridge that has no abrupt or unusual changes in mass stiffness or geometry along its span and has no large differences in
these parameters between adjacent supports.
Resonance
A state of maximum amplitude of vibration caused by the matching of the excitation frequency with the natural frequency
of the structure itself.
Response Spectrum
A plot showing maximum earthquake response with respect to natural period or frequency of the structure for a given
damping. It reflects the response of an infinite series of single-degree-of-freedom systems subjected to a time history of
earthquake ground motion. 1
Richter Magnitude Scale

A measure of the magnitude of an earthquake. The measure is determined by taking the common logarithm (base 10) of the
largest ground motion amplitude observed and applying a standard correction for distance to the epicenter.
Seismic Hazard 3
The probability that given ground motion parameters at the site of a given bridge will be exceeded during a specified
exposure time. May also be expressed in terms of average annual probability of exceedance of mean return period.
Seismicity
Frequency of occurrence of earthquakes per unit area in a given region.
4
Serviceability Limit State
Limit state that relates to maximum stresses and deformations within the elastic range that ensures safety of trains traveling
at reduced speeds.
Survivability Limit State

Limit state that relates to bridge collapse.
Tsunami
A sea-wave caused by an earthquake, or a submarine landslide or eruption.
Ultimate Limit State

Limit state that relates to ultimate strength of material and stability of critical members. Structural damage that can be
repaired within a short period of time is allowed.

Vulnerability
Amount of damage induced by a given degree of hazard.

9
Notations
A = base acceleration coefficient, G’s. See Article 1.3.2.3
A100 = base acceleration coefficient for return period = 100 years. See Article 1.3.2.3
Ach = cross-sectional area of a member measured out-to-out of confinement reinforcement, in2 (mm2). See Article 1.4.7.2.1
Ag = gross area of section, in2 (mm2). See Article 1.4.7
AR = base acceleration coefficient for return period = R
Ash = total cross-sectional area of hoop reinforcement, including cross-ties, in2 (mm2). See Article 1.4.7.2.1
1
B = buoyancy. See Article 1.4.6
Cm = seismic response coefficient for the mth mode, G’s. See Article 1.4.4.3
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement, inches (mm). See Article 1.4.7.2.2 3
db = diameter of reinforcing bar or wire, inches (mm). See Article 1.4.7.3.2
D = damping adjustment factor. See Article 1.4.4.2
D = dead load. See Article 1.4.6
E = earth load. See Article 1.4.6
Ec = concrete modulus of elasticity. See Paragraph C -1.4.4.4
EQ = earthquake (seismic). See Article 1.4.6
f ‘c = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa). See Article 1.4.7
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi (MPa). See Article 1.4.7
g = acceleration due to gravity. See Paragraph C -1.4.5.3
hc = cross-sectional dimension of member core measured center-to-center of confinement reinforcement, inches (mm). See
Article 1.4.7.2.1
hx = maximum transverse spacing of hoop or cross-tie legs, inches (mm). See Article 1.4.7.2.1
© 2013 , American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 9-N-1

K = Total structure stiffness. See Paragraph C -1.4.5.3
H = height of piers, feet (m). See Article 1.4.7.2.1
Icr = cracked moment of inertia. See Paragraph C -1.4.4.4
ld = development length, inches (mm). See Article 1.4.7.3.2
ldh = development length of standard hook in tension, inches (mm). See Article 1.4.7.3.2
lo = length of plastic hinge zone from the joint face, inches (mm). See Article 1.4.7.2.1
L = length of the bridge deck to the adjacent movement joint, or to the end of the deck, feet (m). See Article 1.4.7.4.1
My1 = moment at first yield of reinforcing steel. See Paragraph C -1.4.4.4
N = minimum support width, inches (mm). See Article 1.4.7.4.1
p(x) = distributed seismic load per unit length of bridge. See Article 1.4.5.3
Pb = nominal axial load strength of a section at balanced strain conditions. See Article 1.4.7.2.1
PS = secondary forces from prestressing. See Article 1.4.6
s = longitudinal spacing of confinement reinforcing, inches (mm). See Article 1.4.7.2.1
S = site coefficient. See Article 1.4.4.1
S = angle of skew measured from a line normal to the span, degrees. See Article 1.4.7.4.1
T = period of vibration, seconds. See Article 1.4.4.4
To = initial transition period, seconds. See Article 1.4.4.4
Tm = period of vibration of the mth mode, seconds. See Article 1.4.4.3
Ts = constant acceleration transition period, seconds. See Paragraph C -1.4.4.4
W = total weight of bridge. See Paragraph C -1.4.5.3
w(x) = distributed weight of bridge per unit length. See Article 1.4.5.3
ρs = ratio of volume of spiral or circular hoop reinforcement to total volume of concrete core (measured out-to-out of spirals or
hoops). See Article 1.4.7.2.1
ξ = percent critical damping (e.g. 5%). See Article 1.4.4.2
φy1 = curvature at first yield of reinforcing steel. See Paragraph C -1.4.4.4
9-N-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

719
19
References
— 2009 —
The following list of references used in Chapter 9, Seismic Design for Railway Structures is placed here in alphabetical order
for your convenience.
1. AASHTO (2002), Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th edition, American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.
2. AASHTO (1994), AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Customary U.S. Units, 1st edition, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.
3. ACI (2008) , Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-08) and Commentary (ACI 318R-08),
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
1
4. Algermissen, S.T., D. M. Perkins, P. C. Thenhaus, and B. L. Bender (1982), “Probabilistic Estimates of Maximum
Acceleration and Velocity in Rock in the Contiguous United States”, Open File Report 82-1033, U. S. Geological Survey,
Reston, VA.
5. ATC (1996), “Improved Seismic Design Criteria for California Bridges: Provisional Recommendations”, ATC-32 Report,
Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, CA. 3
6. Byers, William G., “Evolution of a Railroad’s Earthquake Response”, Lifeline Earthquake Engineering, Michael J.
O’Rourke, ed., ASCE, 1995, pp 445-460.
7. Byers, William G., “Railroad Bridge Behavior During Past Earthquakes”, Building an International Community of
Structural Engineers, S. K. Gosh & Jamshid Mohammadi, eds., ASCE, 1996, pp 175-182.
8. Caltrans (1995), “Memo to Designers 20-4: Earthquake Retrofit Guidelines for Bridges”, Memos to Designers, California
Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.
9. Caltrans (2001), Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria, Version 1.2, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento,
CA.
10. Dengler, Lori et al., Tsunami, Earthquake Spectra, Supplement A to Vol. 19, pages 115-144, 2003.
11. Departments of the Army, Navy and Air Force (1986), “Seismic Design Guidelines for Essential Buildings”, Technical
Manual TM 5-809-10-1, NAVFAC P-355.1, AFM 88-3, Chapter 13, Section A, Joint Departments of the Army, Navy and
Air Force, Washington, D.C.
12. FEMA (1991a), “NEHRP Recommended Provisions for the Development of Seismic Regulations for New Buildings”,
1991 Edition, Part 1 Provisions, FEMA 222 Report, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C.

13. FEMA (1991b), “NEHRP Recommended Provisions for the Development of Seismic Regulations for New Buildings”,
1991 Edition, Part 2 Commentary”, FEMA 223 Report, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C.
14. FEMA (1997a), “NEHRP Guidelines for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings”, FEMA 273 Report, Federal
Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C.
15. FEMA (1997b), “NEHRP Commentary on the Guidelines for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings”, FEMA 274
Report, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C.
16. Kealey, T.R., and Lewis, D.J., “Railroad Bridges inthe Loma Prieta Earthquake”, Bulletin, American Railway Engineering
Assocation, No. 727, Vol. 91, October 1990, pp. 263-271.
17. Koshimura, Shunichi et al., Modeling the 1100 bp paleotsunami in Puget Sound, Washington, Geophysical Research
Letters, Vol. 29, No. 20, pages 9-1 to 9-4, 2002.
18. Lam, I. And Martin, G. (1986), “Seismic Design of Highway Bridge Foundations”, Volume II, FHWA-RD-86-102 Report,
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
19. McCulloch, David S. & Bonilla, Manuel G., “Effects of the Earthquake of March 27, 1964 on the Alaska Railroad”,
USGS Professional Paper 545-D, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1970.
20. Priestley, M. J. N. (1993), “Assessment and Design of Joints for Single-Level Bridges with Circular Columns”, Report
No. SSRP-93/02, University of California, San Diego, CA.
21. Priestley, M.J.N., Seible, F. and Calvi, G.M. (1996), Seismic Design and Retrofit of Bridges, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, N.Y.
22. Priestly, M.J Nigel, Singh, J.P., Youd, T. Leslie, and Rollins, Kyle M., “Costa Rica Earthquake of April 22, 1991
Reconnaissance Report, Chapter 6 - Bridges”, Earthquake Spectra, Supplement B to Volume 7, Publication 91-02,
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, October 1991, pp. 59-91.
23. Rogers, Peter D., Otter, Duane E., and Uppal, A. Shakoor, Development of Seismic Response Criteria for North American
Railroads, Report No. R-923, Association of American Railroads, Transportation Technology Center, Inc., Pueblo,
Colorado, November 1998.
24. Tsunami Bulletin No. 003, Pacific Tsunami Warning Center/NOAA/NWS, December 27, 2004.
25. Wammel, Kenneth L., Prucz, Zolan, and Boraas, Roger S., “The Philosophy and Development of AREA Seismic Design
Criteria”, Bulletin, American Railway Engineering Association, No. 760, Vol. 98, May 1997, pp. 77-79.
A comprehensive bibliography regarding seismic design and performance of railroads can be found at
www.asce.org/inside/bibliography/
Information about the National Weather Services system for email notification of a potential Tsunami can be found at
http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/watcher.php (web site address subject to change).

CHAPTER 10
STRUCTURES, MAINTENANCE AND
CONSTRUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
1 Guidelines for the Development of Bridge Management Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-1
1.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-2
1.2 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-3
1.3 Components of a Bridge Management Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-4
1.4 Protection of Train Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-9
1.5 Bridge Inspection Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-11
1.6 Scheduling of Bridge Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-11
1.7 Special Bridge Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-12
1.8 Bridge Inspection Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-13
1.9 Review of Bridge Inspection Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-14
1.10 Repair and Modification of Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-15
1.11 Audits of Bridge Management Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-15
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-R-1
© 2013 , American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 10-i

INTRODUCTION

16
Part 1
Guidelines for the Development of
Bridge Management Programs
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-2 1

1.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-3
1.3 Components of a Bridge Management Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-4

1.3.1 Inventory (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-4
1.3.2 Bridge Load Capacity Rating Process (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-4
1.3.3 Preservation of Documents (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-6 3
1.3.4 Bridge Inspection Program (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-7
1.3.5 Designations and Qualifications of Responsible Persons (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-8
1.4 Protection of Train Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-9

1.4.1 Deficient Bridge Condition (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-9
1.5 Bridge Inspection Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-11

1.5.1 Bridge Management Program (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-11
1.5.2 Bridge Inspection Procedures (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-11
1.5.3 Level of Detail of Inspections (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-11
1.5.4 Bridge Inspection Team Leaders (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-11
1.6 Scheduling of Bridge Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-11

1.6.1 Inspection Frequency (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-11
1.6.2 Increased Frequency of Inspections (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-11
1.6.3 Out of Service Bridges (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-12
1.6.4 Underwater Inspections (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-12
1.7 Special Bridge Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-12

1.7.1 Special Flood Inspections (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-12
1.7.2 Special Underwater Inspections (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-12
1.7.3 Special Load Rating Inspections (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-13

Structures, Maintenance and Construction
1.7.4 Special Detail Inspections (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-13
1.8 Bridge Inspection Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-13

1.8.1 Bridge Inspection Report (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-13
1.9 Review of Bridge Inspection Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-14

1.9.1 Structure of Bridge Inspection Report Forms (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-14
1.9.2 Review of Bridge Inspection Reports (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-14
1.10 Repair and Modification of Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-15

1.10.1 Design of Repairs or Modifications (Refer to MRE Volume 2 Chapters 7, 8, 9, 15 and MRE Volume 4 Chapter
28) (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-15
1.11 Audits of Bridge Management Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-15

1.11.1 Reasons for Audits (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-15
1.11.2 Representative Samples (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-16
1.11.3 Compliance and Correct Application (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-16
LIST OF FIGURES
10-1-1 Example of Work Order Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1-23
SECTION 1.1 PURPOSE
The purpose of a Bridge Management Program is to provide recommended procedures for sound inspection and infrastructure
management processes that should consistently:
a. Ensure the integrity of bridges.
b. Prevent component failures.
c. Protect vital infrastructure investments.
d. Reduce the risk of human casualties/injuries.
e. Reduce the risk of environmental damage.
f. Avoid disruption to railroad traffic.
It is not the intent of this part to comprehensively incorporate practices to comply with evolving national, state, or local
regulatory agency rules and regulations. The Track Owner is advised to keep abreast of rules and regulations that apply to
railroad bridges. (See Commentary)

Guidelines for the Development of Bridge Management Programs
SECTION 1.2 DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this part the terms and definitions below shall apply:
Annual Inspection: A periodic documented inspection of a railroad bridge conducted by a Railroad Bridge Inspector. The
inspection process includes measuring and documenting specific defects and verifying the general conditions of the bridge and
its surroundings (may include soundings) in order to confirm the general safety of the bridge and identify changes or defects
which may have developed since the previous inspection. (See Commentary)
Bridge Inspection Handbook: A publication of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of- Way Association
(AREMA).
Bridge Inspection Report: The documentation of the results of any bridge inspection, recorded on a form or set of forms that
shall become part of the bridge inspection record. The report should include descriptions and measurements of defects,
sketches, and photographs verifying the general conditions of the bridge and its surroundings.
Bridge Load Capacity Rating: A term used to describe the load carrying capacity of a bridge subject to railroad loading.
Bridge Management Record: A compilation of all documents pertaining to a particular bridge including Bridge Inspection
Reports, photographs, sketches, calculations, correspondence, and other records.
Bridge Modification: A change to the configuration of a railroad bridge that affects the load capacity of the bridge.
Bridge Program Manager: The representative designated by the Track Owner or Operator to be responsible for overseeing 1
all aspects and implementation of the Bridge Management Program according to Article 1.3.5.1.
Bridge Repair: A remediation of damage or deterioration which has affected the structural integrity of a Railroad Bridge.
MRE: Manual for Railway Engineering published by the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of -Way
Association, most current version.
3
Periodic Inspection: (Refer to Annual Inspection.) A Periodic Inspection incorporates the same procedures as an Annual
Inspection except that it is performed at shorter intervals.
Railroad Bridge: Any structure with a deck, regardless of length, which supports one or more railroad tracks, or any other
undergrade structure with an individual span length of 10 feet or more located at such a depth that it is affected by live loads.
Railroad Bridge Engineer: A person who is determined by the Track Owner to meet the qualifications of Article 1.3.5.2. 4
Railroad Bridge Inspector: A person who is determined by the Track Owner to meet the qualifications of Article 1.3.5.4.
Railroad Bridge Supervisor: A person who is determined by the Track Owner to meet the qualifications of Article 1.3.5.3.
Soundings: A survey of the stream bed elevations. Soundings are a series of measurements of the vertical distance between a
plane of reference on the railroad bridge and the streambed. The bottom of the railroad bridge deck is typically used as the
plane of reference. (See Commentary)
Special Bridge Inspection: Any inspection conducted outside of the Annual Inspection. A Special Bridge Inspection may be
limited to certain portions of the bridge or may encompass the entire bridge.
Track Owner or Operator: The entity assigned with the responsibility for bridge management.

SECTION 1.3 COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
1.3.1 INVENTORY (2012)
An accurate Inventory of railroad bridges should include:
a. A unique identifier such as milepost location and a subdivision code.
b. The location of the bridge by nearest town or station and geographic coordinates.
c. The name and/or type of the geographic features crossed by the bridge and the angle of skew.
d. The number of tracks and the alignment of tracks on the bridge.
e. The number of spans in the bridge.
f. The lengths of the spans.
g. Overall length of the bridge and the maximum height of the bridge from the ground line to the bottom of the bridge
deck.
h. Types of construction of:
(1) Substructure
(2) Superstructure
(3) Deck
i. Scope and dates of:
(1) Construction
(2) Major renovation
(3) Strengthening
j. Identification of entities responsible for maintenance of the bridge or certain portions of the bridge, including attached
utility lines. Include known contract numbers and contact phone numbers.
k. All other information necessary to provide for the effective management of bridges. Refer to the most current AREMA
Bridge Inspection Handbook and MRE for guidance.
1.3.2 BRIDGE LOAD CAPACITY RATING PROCESS (2012)
1.3.2.1 Bridge Load Capacity Ratings
The bridge load capacity shall be determined for each bridge. Records of the bridge load capacity determination should be
maintained within the Bridge Management Records.

1.3.2.1.1 Nomenclature of Bridge Load Capacity Ratings
Bridge load capacity ratings can be expressed in terms of numerical values related to a standard system of train loads (such as
Cooper’s E configurations). In addition, capacity should be stated in terms of weight and length of individual or combined
cars and locomotives for use by transportation personnel.
a. Bridge load capacity should be expressed in terms of normal load conditions.
b. Operation of equipment that produces forces greater than the normal capacity shall be subject to any restrictions or
conditions that may be prescribed by a Railroad Bridge Engineer on a case by case basis.
1.3.2.1.2 Maximum Load Capacity
The maximum load capacity is generally determined in terms of the axle spacing for specific equipment. The maximum
capacity is not required for the Bridge Management Program, however if such determination is made for special loads, those
documents shall be maintained with the Bridge Management Records.
1.3.2.2 Person Responsible for Determining Bridge Load Capacity Ratings
The bridge owner shall assign a qualified Railroad Bridge Engineer to determine the load capacity of the railroad bridge.
1.3.2.3 Method for Determining Bridge Load Capacity Ratings
Appropriate engineering methods and standards that are applicable to railroad bridges shall be used to determine the load
capacity.
1
1.3.2.3.1 Recommended Methods
MRE - Volume 2 contains recommended methods to determine the load capacity as follows:
Timber Bridges are addressed in Chapter 7, Timber Structures 3

Concrete bridges are addressed in Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations
Steel Bridges are addressed in Chapter 15, Steel Structures
1.3.2.4 Existing Design and Modification Records

4
Bridge load capacity may be determined from records of the existing design and subsequent records of modifications made to
the bridge, provided the following:
a. The bridge substantially conforms to its recorded configuration.
b. The condition of the bridge has not changed significantly from its as-built condition.
c. For statically determinate structures, the stresses resulting from the service loads can be correlated to the stresses for
which the bridge was designed or rated.
1.3.2.4.1 Other Methods for Determining Bridge Load Capacity Ratings
If conditions do not meet all provisions (a) through (c) above, the load capacity of a bridge may be determined based on
calculation of the properties of its individual components, or other methods as determined by a Railroad Bridge Engineer. The
method by which the capacity was determined, including calculations, strain gauge data, deflection measurements,

nondestructive tests for identifying embedded concrete reinforcing bars and all other information utilized to determine
capacity should be preserved in the Bridge Management Records. (See Commentary)
1.3.2.5 Re-Determining Bridge Load Capacity Ratings
Where a bridge inspection reveals that, in the determination of the Railroad Bridge Engineer, the condition of a bridge or a
bridge component might adversely affect the ability of the bridge to carry the train traffic being operated, a new capacity
should be determined.
1.3.2.6 Documenting Bridge Load Capacity Ratings
The load capacity of each bridge should be documented in the Bridge Management Record, together with the method by which
the capacity was determined. Calculations, strain gauge data, deflection measurements, nondestructive test results and all other
information utilized to determine capacity should be preserved in the Bridge Management Records.
1.3.3 PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS (2012)
Bridge Management Records including bridge inspection reports, original plans and calculations, pile driving records, repairs,
modifications, load capacity (rating) calculations, and special inspection records of each bridge should be recorded and
preserved.
1.3.3.1 Recommended Time Limits for Document Preservation
Documents within a Bridge Management Records should be kept throughout the life of the bridge including Sounding
measurements and Special Inspections conducted for the purpose of obtaining data that is used for load capacity calculations.
(See Commentary)
Exceptions are as follows:
a. Periodic and Annual Inspection Reports should be kept for a minimum of 2 years.
b. Special Inspection reports should be kept for a minimum of 2 years.
c. Underwater inspection reports must be kept, as a minimum, until completion and review of the next underwater
inspection. (See Commentary)
d. Historical records of substructure foundations should be preserved even after the bridge is replaced. These records
prove to be valuable for future bridge replacements and when future tracks are constructed parallel to an existing
bridge.
e. All other records, including copies of Contracts or Agreements affecting the structure, should be kept for as long as the
information is pertinent to the bridge.
1.3.3.2 Storage of Documents
Documents and records should be stored at a facility that provides:
a. Reasonable security measures against unauthorized access, alteration, or theft.
b. Reasonable protection from damage from fire, vermin, flood, or other natural causes.
c. Ready access for audits, inspection and reproduction if requested by representatives of a regulatory agency in
compliance with the policy of the Track Owner or Operator.

d. If records for an individual bridge are kept at more than one location, the Bridge Management Program should include
a list of locations and types of documents stored at each location such that an audit of bridge records can be performed
with reasonable assurance that all records for an individual bridge are found.
1.3.3.3 Electronic Media Storage of Documents
Where electronic media is utilized as the method of storing Bridge Management Program Records, the system used to generate
the electronic records should be monitored by the Track Owner through a sufficient number of monitoring indicators to ensure
a high degree of accuracy.
1.3.3.3.1 Training
The Track Owner should train employees on the proper use of the electronic record keeping system.
1.3.3.3.2 Security
An effective information technology security program should be incorporated to ensure the integrity of the electronic records,
prevent corruption or loss of data and prohibit unauthorized access to the program or individual records. It is essential that the
security system incorporate a user identity and password, or a comparable method, to establish appropriate levels of program
and record data access. (See Commentary)
1.3.4 BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM (2012)
1.3.4.1 Minimum Requirements 1

The Track Owner or Operator should establish a bridge inspection program covering as a minimum:
a. Inspection personnel safety considerations.
b. A list of the types of bridge inspections to be performed and the specific details to be included with individual
inspections. 3
c. Definitions of defect levels along with associated condition codes.
d. The method of documenting inspections including standard forms and formats.
e. Bridge type and component nomenclature.

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f. Numbering or identification protocol for substructure units, spans, and individual components. (See Article 1.3.4.2 for
references to other MRE Volume 2 Chapters)
1.3.4.2 Methodology and Manner
The methodology and manner of inspecting, examining and assessing railroad bridges should be in accordance with the most
current version of the MRE as follows:
a. Timber Bridges are addressed in Volume 2 Chapter 7, Timber Structures
b. Concrete Bridges are addressed in Volume 2 Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations
c. Steel Bridges are addressed in Volume 2 Chapter 15, Steel Structures
d. Seismic Inspections are addressed in Volume 2 Chapter 9, Seismic Design for Railway Structures

e. Clearances are addressed in Volume 4 Chapter 28, Clearances
1.3.4.3 AREMA Bridge Inspection Handbook
The AREMA Bridge Inspection Handbook contains valuable information pertaining to the inspection of timber, concrete and
steel railroad bridges.
1.3.5 DESIGNATIONS AND QUALIFICATIONS OF RESPONSIBLE PERSONS (2012)
The Bridge Management Program should establish defined roles and responsibilities for all persons who are designated or
authorized to make determinations regarding the integrity of the Track Owner/Operator’s bridges as follows:
a. The designations should include a Bridge Program Manager, Railroad Bridge Engineer(s), Railroad Bridge
Supervisor(s), and a Railroad Bridge Inspector(s).
b. The designations should be made by the name of an individual and their title.
c. Each designation should include a written basis for the qualifications and designation in effect.
d. Each designation should be recorded and maintained with the Bridge Management Program documents.
e. A qualified individual may assume multiple roles.
f. Responsibilities may be shared between individuals.
1.3.5.1 Bridge Program Manager
Responsibilities include:
a. Assure the integrity of all assigned bridges and culverts.
b. Consulting with the Railroad Bridge Engineer when required.
c. Determination of the qualifications of Railroad Bridge Inspector(s), Railroad Bridge Supervisor(s) and Railroad Bridge
Engineer(s).
d. Correction of substandard conditions.
e. Tracking of critical deficiencies to resolution.
f. Remedial action for Emergency Conditions.
g. Prioritization of maintenance & capital program requirements.
h. Audit procedures.
i. Establish procedures to ensure that bridges are not loaded beyond their capacity.
1.3.5.2 Railroad Bridge Engineer
A Railroad Bridge Engineer is a person who is determined by the Bridge Program Manager to meet the minimum educational
qualifications and have applicable licensures and be competent to perform the following functions as they apply to the
particular engineering work to be performed: (See Commentary)

a. Determine the forces and stresses on railroad bridges and bridge components.
b. Prescribe safe loading conditions for railroad bridges.
c. Prescribe inspection and maintenance procedures for railroad bridges.
d. Design repairs and modifications to railroad bridges.
1.3.5.3 Railroad Bridge Supervisor
A Railroad Bridge Supervisor is a person, regardless of position or title, who is determined by the Bridge Program Manager to
have the experience and appropriate educational training to be technically competent to supervise the construction,
modification, or repair of a railroad bridge in conformance with common or particular specifications, plans, and instructions
applicable to the work to be performed. Additionally, a Railroad Bridge Supervisor should be:
a. Thoroughly familiar with regulatory agency railroad workplace safety laws and safety laws governing working at
heights.
b. Proficient with climbing methods required to access structural components of a bridge.
c. Authorized to restrict the operation of railroad traffic over a bridge according to its immediate condition or state of
repair.
1.3.5.4 Railroad Bridge Inspector

1
A Railroad Bridge Inspector is a person who is determined by the Bridge Program Manager to have experience and
appropriate educational training to be technically competent to view, measure, report, and record the condition of a railroad
bridge and its individual components which that person is designated to inspect. Additionally, a Railroad Bridge Inspector
should be:
a. Thoroughly familiar with regulatory agency railroad workplace safety laws and safety laws governing working at 3
heights.
b. Proficient with climbing methods required to access structural components of a bridge.
c. Authorized to restrict the operation of railroad traffic over a bridge according to its immediate condition or state of
repair.
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SECTION 1.4 PROTECTION OF TRAIN OPERATIONS
1.4.1 DEFICIENT BRIDGE CONDITION (2012)
If a Railroad Bridge Inspector, Railroad Bridge Supervisor, or Railroad Bridge Engineer discovers a deficient bridge condition
that affects the immediate safety of train or other associated operations over/under the bridge, it is essential to report the
condition promptly to the person who controls the operation of train movements across the bridge and other appropriate
company officials.

1.4.2 PROCEDURES TO REGULATE ALLOWABLE WEIGHTS AND LOAD DIMENSIONS

OVER A BRIDGE (2012)
1.4.2.1 Documentation
A bridge load capacity and clearance restrictions should be determined for each bridge and preserved in the Bridge
Management Record.
1.4.2.2 Instructions
Track Owner/Operator should issue instructions to personnel who are responsible for the configuration and operation of trains
over its bridges to prevent the operation of cars, locomotives and other equipment that would exceed the load rating or
controlling clearance dimensions of a particular bridge. Instructions may apply to individual bridges or a defined line segment
or group(s) of line segments where the published load ratings and dimensions are within the limits of all bridges on the subject
line segments.
1.4.3 PROCEDURES TO RESTRICT LOADS OVER A DAMAGED OR COMPROMISED

BRIDGE (2012)
1.4.3.1 Restrictions
Where a bridge inspection reveals that the condition of a bridge or a bridge component might adversely affect the ability of the
bridge to carry the train traffic being operated, remedial actions shall be taken to restrict train operations. Remedial actions
may include reduction in allowable train speeds until repairs can be made. It may be necessary to consult with a Railroad
Bridge Engineer to evaluate the condition and determine if a revised load capacity rating is required. Refer to MRE Volume 4
Chapter 28 for railroad Clearance recommendations.
1.4.3.1.1 Train Speed Considerations
Train speeds must be taken into consideration when expressing the load capacity rating. The maximum allowable speed over
the bridge and other train operation restrictions should be clearly stated whenever load capacity ratings are issued.
1.4.3.2 Overload
Operation of equipment that produces forces greater than the bridge load capacity should be evaluated by a Railroad Bridge
Engineer. Train operating speed restrictions and other conditions may be prescribed as required on a case by case basis.
1.4.4 PROCEDURES TO ALLOW PASSAGE OF EXCEPTIONALLY HEAVY AND

EXCEPTIONAL DIMENSION LOADS (2012)
1.4.4.1 Authority for Exceptions
Equipment exceeding the load capacity rating or allowable clearance dimensions on a bridge should be operated only under
conditions that are determined by a Railroad Bridge Engineer to be safe without overstressing the bridge members beyond
their maximum allowable unit stress and exceeding the allowable bridge clearances.
1.4.4.2 Restrictions and Limitations
Operating conditions for excessive loads may include speed restrictions, restriction of traffic from adjacent multiple tracks,
location of cars in the train and weight limitations on adjacent cars in the same train.

SECTION 1.5 BRIDGE INSPECTION PROCEDURES
1.5.1 BRIDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM (2012)
The Bridge Management Program should incorporate bridge inspection procedures designed to detect, report, and protect
against deterioration and deficiencies before they present a hazard to safe train operation. Refer to the current AREMA Bridge
Inspection Handbook and the appropriate MRE Volume 2 Chapters for recommended inspection procedures.
1.5.2 BRIDGE INSPECTION PROCEDURES (2012)
Specific bridge inspection procedures may be written for certain bridges or class of similar bridges as required.
1.5.2.1 Bridge Inspection Procedure Details
The bridge inspection procedures should incorporate the methods, means of access, and level of detail to be recorded for the
various components of that bridge or class of bridges.
1.5.2.2 Storage of Bridge Inspection Procedures
Written bridge inspection procedures for a specific bridge, if required, should be maintained with the Bridge Management
Records.
1.5.3 LEVEL OF DETAIL OF INSPECTIONS (2012) 1

The bridge inspection procedures should ensure that the level of inspection detail required is appropriate for the configuration
of the bridge and conditions found during previous inspections, the nature of the railroad traffic moved over the bridge and the
vulnerability of the bridge to damage.
1.5.4 BRIDGE INSPECTION TEAM LEADERS (2012)

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Bridge inspections should be led by a qualified Railroad Bridge Inspector who shall be responsible for the accuracy of the
results and the conformity of the inspection to the Bridge Management Program.
SECTION 1.6 SCHEDULING OF BRIDGE INSPECTIONS

4
1.6.1 INSPECTION FREQUENCY (2012)
The Bridge Management Program should ensure that each Railroad Bridge receives a complete Annual Inspection once each
calendar year. Periodic Inspections equivalent to an Annual Inspection may be conducted at shorter intervals. Refer to
regulatory agency requirements for maximum elapsed time between successive inspections.
1.6.2 INCREASED FREQUENCY OF INSPECTIONS (2012)
A bridge or portions of a bridge may be inspected more frequently than once each calendar year when a Railroad Bridge
Engineer determines that such inspection frequency is necessary considering:
a. Conditions noted on prior inspections

b. The type and configuration of the bridge
c. The weight and frequency of rail traffic carried on the bridge
d. The type or nature of rail traffic
1.6.3 OUT OF SERVICE BRIDGES (2012)
Any railroad bridge that has not been in railroad service and has not received a complete annual inspection within the time
limit prescribed by the Bridge Management Program should be inspected by a Railroad Bridge Inspector and the Bridge
Inspection Report should be reviewed by a Railroad Bridge Engineer prior to subjecting the bridge to railroad live loading.
1.6.4 UNDERWATER INSPECTIONS (2012)
Underwater inspections should be routinely conducted for those structural components that are normally submerged. The
Railroad Bridge Engineer shall determine the frequency of routine underwater inspections based on site conditions. A typical
frequency for routine underwater inspections is once every five years. Bridge substructures that can be inspected during dry
seasons do not usually require an underwater inspection.
SECTION 1.7 SPECIAL BRIDGE INSPECTIONS
Special inspections provide additional detailed information not contained in Annual or Periodic inspection reports. A special
inspection should be conducted when a bridge is involved in a natural or accidental event which may have compromised the
integrity of the bridge such as floods, derailments, collisions, fires, earthquakes or impacts from vessels or vehicles. The
Bridge Management Program should prescribe procedures for conducting a Special Bridge Inspection specific for the type of
event. (See Commentary)
1.7.1 SPECIAL FLOOD INSPECTIONS (2012)
Flood conditions may dictate the need for an underwater inspection especially if there is an unusually long duration of high
water flows. Scour at piers can accumulate with long duration flows. Any change in the orientation of a submerged pier is
evidence that underwater scour may have occurred.
1.7.2 SPECIAL UNDERWATER INSPECTIONS (2012)
Special Underwater inspections should be conducted for those structural components that are submerged and subjected to
unusual flow volume or velocity. Detailed underwater inspections may be conducted by specialists who have experience in
detecting structural deficiency in an underwater environment where visual acuity is limited. Specialized underwater imaging
equipment may be necessary to supplement visual and tactile inspections.
1.7.2.1 Components to Inspect
For those bridges subject to damage from streambed erosion, underwater inspection procedures should contain instructions for
detecting deterioration of structural support around submerged components.
1.7.2.2 Frequency
Where there is potential for cumulative scour due to continuously flowing water, the Special Underwater Inspection should be
conducted more frequently.

1.7.3 SPECIAL LOAD RATING INSPECTIONS (2012)
Special inspection procedures may be necessary to perform a load capacity rating of an existing bridge or to design a repair
plan. The inspection may require detailed measurements of components and samples of materials for use in laboratory testing.
Refer to MRE Volume 2 Chapters 7, 8 and 15 for recommended inspection procedures.
1.7.4 SPECIAL DETAIL INSPECTIONS (2012)
Bridges with fatigue susceptible details may require specialized inspection procedures such as dye penetrant testing, ultrasonic
testing, acoustic emission testing, magnetic particle testing, or other non-destructive or destructive testing.
SECTION 1.8 BRIDGE INSPECTION REPORTS
1.8.1 BRIDGE INSPECTION REPORT (2012)
The Bridge Inspection Report should be prepared from notes taken on the day(s) the inspection is performed, supplemented
with sketches and photographs as needed.
1.8.1.1 Contents of the Bridge Inspection Report
The Bridge Inspection Report should include the following information:

1
a. A precise identification of the bridge inspected.
b. The Bridge Inspection Report should be dated with the date(s) the physical inspection takes place and the date the
record is created.
3
c. The identification and written or electronic signature of the person(s) conducting the inspection.
d. The type of inspection performed, in conformance with the definitions of inspection types.
e. An indication on the report as to whether any item noted thereon requires expedited or critical review by a Railroad
Bridge Engineer.
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f. Any restrictions that were placed at the time of the inspection.
g. The condition of components inspected, which may be expressed in code format defined in the bridge inspection
procedure, together with any narrative descriptions necessary for the correct interpretation of the report.
1.8.1.2 Bridge Inspection Reports for Partial Bridge Inspection
When an inspection does not encompass the entire bridge, the portions of the bridge which were inspected should be identified
in the Bridge Inspection Report.
1.8.1.3 Initial Bridge Inspection Reports
After completion of a bridge inspection, an initial report should be placed in the Bridge Management Program records within
the time limit specified by applicable regulatory agencies. An initial inspection report is not necessary if the final inspection
report is filed first. The initial inspection report should include as a minimum the information described in Article 1.8.1.1,
items (a) through (f).

1.8.1.4 Final Bridge Inspection Reports
A complete signed and dated Bridge Inspection Report for each inspection conducted, encompassing (as a minimum) all items
of Article 1.8.1.1, should be placed in the Bridge Management Record within the maximum allowable time limit according to
applicable regulatory agency requirements.
1.8.1.5 Preservation of Bridge Inspection Reports
Bridge Inspection Reports should be preserved in accordance with Section 1.3.3. (See Commentary)
SECTION 1.9 REVIEW OF BRIDGE INSPECTION REPORTS
1.9.1 STRUCTURE OF BRIDGE INSPECTION REPORT FORMS (2012)
Bridge Inspection Report forms should be structured to promote comprehensive inspections and effective communication
between the Railroad Bridge Inspector, the Railroad Bridge Supervisor, and the Railroad Bridge Engineer.
1.9.2 REVIEW OF BRIDGE INSPECTION REPORTS (2012)
Bridge Inspection Reports should be reviewed by a Railroad Bridge Supervisor and/or a Railroad Bridge Engineer. The
review may include:
a. Determination of the adherence to the Bridge Management Program prescribed inspection schedule and the prescribed
inspection procedures.
b. Evaluation of items on the Bridge Inspection Report for a present or potential hazard to safety including the potential
need to conduct a revised bridge load rating.
c. Determination of the need to modify the inspection procedures or the frequency of inspections for that particular
bridge.
d. Scheduling of repairs or modifications to the bridge necessary to maintain its structural integrity.
e. Determination of the need for further higher-level review.
1.9.3 BRIDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM AND BRIDGE INSPECTION REPORT

COORDINATION (2012)
Information from Bridge Inspection Reports should be incorporated into the Bridge Management Program to ensure that
exceptions on the reports are corrected or resolved by other means.
1.9.3.1 Maintaining Bridge Inspection Reports
A series of inspection reports prepared over time should be maintained so as to provide a valuable record of trends and rates of
degradation of bridge components.

SECTION 1.10 REPAIR AND MODIFICATION OF BRIDGES
1.10.1 DESIGN OF REPAIRS OR MODIFICATIONS (REFER TO MRE VOLUME 2

CHAPTERS 7, 8, 9, 15 AND MRE VOLUME 4 CHAPTER 28) (2012)
Each repair or modification which could modify the load carrying capacity of a bridge and all repairs or modifications to a
primary load-carrying component of a bridge must be designed by a Railroad Bridge Engineer. (See Commentary)
1.10.1.1 Considerations during Repairs or Modifications
The design should specify the manner in which railroad traffic or other live loads may be permitted on the bridge while it is
being modified or repaired.
1.10.1.2 Common Standards
Designs and procedures for repair or modification of bridges of a common configuration, such as timber trestles, or
instructions for in-kind replacement of bridge components, may be issued as a common standard that has been approved by a
Railroad Bridge Engineer.
1.10.1.3 Duties of the Railroad Bridge Supervisor
The work shall be performed under the immediate supervision of a Railroad Bridge Supervisor who is designated and
authorized to supervise the particular work to be performed. The Railroad Bridge Supervisor shall ensure that railroad traffic
or other live loads permitted on the bridge under repair or modification are in conformity with the specifications in the design. 1
The Railroad Bridge Supervisor shall ensure that repairs or modifications are in conformity with the repair procedures and
design specifications established by the Railroad Bridge Engineer.
1.10.1.4 After Completion of Repairs or Modifications
Upon completion of major repairs or modifications:

3
a. The Bridge Management Record should be updated to reflect the work performed.
b. A new load rating may need to be calculated and entered into the Bridge Management Program records. A revised
clearance may need to be entered into the Bridge Management Program records.
c. The Railroad Bridge Engineer should be notified that the work has been completed so that a follow up field inspection
can be conducted if desired.
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SECTION 1.11 AUDITS OF BRIDGE MANAGEMENT RECORDS
1.11.1 REASONS FOR AUDITS (2012)
An annual audit should be conducted by the Bridge Program Manager or their designee for a representative sampling of
Bridge Inspection Reports to determine if the Bridge Management Program is effectively providing for the continued safety of
the subject bridges. The auditors should examine records to ascertain if the inspection provisions of the Bridge Management
Program are being followed. The audit should include a sampling of Bridge Inspection Reports to determine if they accurately
describe the condition of the bridge.

1.11.1.1 Tracking of Critical Deficiencies
The audit should include tracking of critical deficiencies to ensure they have been resolved.
1.11.2 REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES (2012)
An audit of a representative sample of the Bridge Inventory data should be performed to ensure the descriptions accurately
reflect the actual conditions in the field. The samples should include examples of steel, concrete and timber bridges. The
suggested minimum number of samples selected is 3% of each type of structure.
1.11.3 COMPLIANCE AND CORRECT APPLICATION (2012)
An audit should be conducted to ensure compliance and correct application of movement restrictions to railroad equipment of
exceptional weight or configuration.
COMMENTARY
(C) SECTION 1.1 PURPOSE
These Guidelines for the Development of Bridge Management Programs are advisory in nature. Where a Railroad Bridge
Owner is bound by mandatory requirements of applicable government regulations, the descriptive term “should” within these
Guidelines will commonly be changed to “shall” in order to comply with a mandatory regulation.
(C) SECTION 1.2 DEFINITIONS
Annual Inspection is also denoted as a Periodic Inspection by some railroads because they perform the inspection more than
once a year. Refer to regulatory agency statutes for maximum time intervals between successive Annual/Periodic Inspections.
Culvert can be defined as any under grade structure not identified as a bridge not having a deck whose purpose is to provide
passage from one side of the railroad right of way to the other for drainage, pedestrians, livestock, etc. Culvert inspections are
often performed by the same personnel who inspect bridges. Refer to MRE Volume 1, Chapter 1, Part 4, Culverts.
Overhead Bridge is any structure passing over the track(s) constructed for the purpose of carrying railroads, highways,
pedestrians, pipelines, conveyors, or other miscellaneous purposes and is supported by structural elements on one or both sides
of the track(s). This category may also include signal bridges when configured such that all or a portion of the bridge extends
over the clearance envelope above the track. Except for Signal Bridges, most Overhead bridges are maintained by outside
entities. The Railroad Bridge Inspector should perform a cursory inspection of Overhead Bridges when conducting Annual or
Periodic Inspections. The cursory inspection includes observing only the very obvious defects such as a severely out of plumb
support or an obvious broken or detached member or any obstruction that may reduce vertical or horizontal clearances for train
traffic.
Railway right-of-way means any property on which a line of railway is situated, including yard tracks, sidings, spurs, and
other track auxiliary to the line of railway. When evaluating the risk of streambed erosion, the Railroad Bridge Inspector may
need to inspect the streambed for evidence of changes that are occurring outside of the right-of-way.
Soundings: Soundings are a series of measurements of the vertical distance between a plane of reference on the railroad
bridge and the streambed. Soundings should be taken during routine periodic and annual inspections. Sounding measurements
are typically plotted on graph paper to provide a visual cross section of the streambed. Successive periodic soundings should
be plotted together on the same graph to provide a visual history of changes in the streambed so that trends can be easily

recognized by the Railroad Bridge Supervisor who reviews Bridge Inspection Reports. Historical soundings should also be
compared to underwater inspection results. It is important to retain sounding records for the life of the bridge.
The bottom of the railroad bridge deck is typically used as the plane of reference because it seldom changes in elevation over
the life of a bridge. Top of rail elevations should not be used as the plane of reference because track elevations tend to be
raised over the life of the bridge.
Visual inspection is a documented inspection made by a Railroad Bridge Inspector, Railroad Bridge Supervisor or Railroad
Bridge Engineer to record any changes or repairs and identify defects which may have developed or deteriorated since the last
inspection. Visual inspection includes measuring specific defects and verifying the general conditions of the bridge and its
surroundings (may include soundings) in order to confirm the general safety of the bridge. Most Periodic, Annual and Special
Inspections are predominantly Visual Inspections.
(C)1.3.2 BRIDGE LOAD CAPACITY RATING PROCESS (2012)
Concrete superstructure load capacity can be determined from records of existing design, provided that the bridge substantially
conforms to its recorded configuration. If no records are available, the capacity of a concrete superstructure will be difficult to
calculate because of the uncertainty of the size and location of embedded steel reinforcing bars and tensioned strands. In
certain circumstances, an estimated capacity can be made using records of similar bridges that were constructed by the same
entity in the same time frame. Sound engineering judgment by an experienced Railroad Bridge Engineer is essential. Refer to
MRE Volume 2, Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations.
Timber bridge superstructure and substructure load capacity determination can be subjective and should only be performed by 1
qualified experienced personnel. Timber decay is difficult to quantify. Timber pile records are usually not available. Refer to
MRE Volume 2, Chapter 7, Timber Structures.
(C) 1.3.3.1 RECOMMENDED TIME LIMITS FOR DOCUMENT PRESERVATION
Many bridge owners will elect to retain every inspection report as well as all other documents of the Bridge Management 3
Record through the life of the structure. Paper records present a problem if storage space is inadequate. However, most future
records will be stored electronically. When storage space is not a problem, there is much value for a bridge owner to have the
ability to retrieve the trail of older inspection reports on a particular defect. Many defects begin in a small way. Review of
older inspection documents allows the Bridge Engineer to pick up on trends.
Comparing a series of historical underwater inspections and chronological graphic plots of soundings can provide valuable
information for the Bridge Engineer to detect trends in streambed erosion patterns. 4
(C) 1.3.3.3.2 SECURITY
Example of Electronic Security:
a. No two individuals have the same electronic identity.
b. A record as originally submitted cannot be deleted or altered by any individual after the record is certified by the
employee who created the record.
c. Each amendment to a record uniquely identifies the person making the amendment.
d. Any amendment to a record is either:

(1) Electronically stored apart from the record that it amends or
(2) Electronically attached to the record as information without changing the original record.
(C) 1.3.5.2 RAILROAD BRIDGE ENGINEER
The United States Federal Railroad Administration defines the minimum educational qualifications for a Railroad Bridge
Engineer as follows:
a. A degree in engineering granted by a school of engineering with at least one program accredited by ABET, Inc. or its
successor organization as a professional engineering curriculum, or a degree from a program accredited as a
professional engineering curriculum by a foreign organization recognized by ABET, Inc. or its successor, or
b. Current registration as a licensed Professional Engineer in the appropriate discipline.
(C) 1.4.2 PROCEDURES TO REGULATE ALLOWABLE WEIGHTS AND LOAD

DIMENSIONS OVER A BRIDGE (2012)
The instructions regarding weight are usually expressed in terms of maximum equipment weights, and either minimum
equipment lengths or axle spacing.
The instructions regarding dimensions are usually expressed in terms of feet and inches (meters and millimeters) of cross
section and equipment length, in conformance with common railroad industry practice for reporting dimensions of
interchanged oversized equipment in which height above top-of-rail is shown for each cross section measurement, followed by
the width of the car of the shipment at that height. Refer to MRE Volume 4, Chapter 28, Clearances for Clearance information.
(C) SECTION 1.7 SPECIAL BRIDGE INSPECTIONS
Examples of Special Bridge Inspection Instructions
a. Example of Post- Earthquake response instructions
(1) At the first indication of an earthquake, contact all trains within 100 miles of the epicenter to proceed at restricted
speed until the earthquake magnitude and epicenter have been determined. An acknowledgment must be obtained
from each train or engine receiving these instructions.
(2) Use the U.S.G.S. web site for current earthquake information http://earthquake.usgs.gov
This web site has a subscription service that will automatically notify subscribers by email and cell phone of
current seismic activity within a user defined area and user defined threshold magnitude.
(3) After the magnitude and epicenter have been determined, Train Operation and Inspection Response criteria should
be initiated according to MRE Volume 2, Chapter 9, Seismic Design for Railway Structures.
(4) The AREMA Bridge Inspection Handbook contains recommended procedures for conducting post seismic
inspections.
b. Example of Underwater Inspection Instructions

(1) Underwater inspections that require divers are typically conducted by specialty consultants who have experience
in detecting structural deficiency in an underwater environment. Most underwater inspections cannot be conducted
using visual methods. Special sonar and radar equipment may be necessary to obtain a meaningful result.
(2) Frequency of underwater inspections is typically 5 years. Bridge substructures that can be inspected during dry
seasons do not require an underwater inspection. Flood conditions may dictate the need for an underwater
inspection, especially if there is an unusually long duration of high water flows. Scour at piers will accumulate
with long duration flows. Any change in the orientation of a submerged pier will necessitate an underwater
inspection.
(3) Soundings should be taken during routine periodic and annual inspections and the results plotted on graph paper.
The Railroad Bridge Supervisor who reviews Bridge Inspection Reports should compare previous soundings with
current soundings so as to detect trends in subsurface degradation. Historical soundings should also be compared
to underwater inspection results. It is important to retain sounding records for the life of the bridge and to plot
those soundings graphically to provide a visual comparison of the trends of historical changes in streambed
elevation.
c. Examples of Instructions for High Water, Flood, Streambed Erosion and Drift accumulation
(1) Bridge Engineer, Bridge Supervisor and Bridge Inspectors should review FRA Safety Advisory 97-1, which
addresses Scour Critical Bridges. A list of Scour Critical bridges should be provided to those individuals who may
be called upon to inspect bridges for damages due to high flow conditions.
(2) A Special Inspection should be conducted whenever high flow conditions result in streambed erosion, stream
lateral migration or sediment deposition. Pay particular attention to track geometry over the bridge. Any slight
1
deviation in track alignment, cross level or vertical settlement is an indication that structural stability may have
been compromised. Do not allow passage of trains until the water recedes enough to allow visual verification or
other means are utilized to affirm that the substructure has not been undermined.
(3) Floating debris that accumulates on the upstream side of bridge piers can result in scour holes at the base of the
debris pile. Steam flows that have changed direction such that they are no longer parallel with the line of the 3
piers/piles will cause underwater scour around the perimeter of the pier/piles. An experienced Bridge Engineer
should be consulted if there is any doubt as to the structural stability due to scour.
(4) There may be signs of changes within a streambed occurring upstream and downstream of the railroad right-of-
way that could impact bridge stability. Construction of roads, bridges, buildings, parking lots, residential and
commercial developments could result in changes in the volume and velocity of runoff reaching the railroad
bridges. Public agencies may have constructed flood control channels that result in increased scour or sediment 4
accumulation at the railroad bridge.
d. Example of Vehicle & Vessel Impact Response Instructions and Inspection Procedures
(1) Upon receipt of notification of possible damage to a railroad bridge, all trains should be stopped immediately until
a competent person under the direction of a Railroad Bridge Inspector, Railroad Bridge Supervisor or Railroad
Bridge Engineer has ascertained that the bridge is safe for passage.
(2) Do not depend upon Restricted Speed to provide safe train passage over a damaged railroad bridge. Train Crews
can only see the top of a bridge. There can be serious damages to structural members under the track that are not
visible to train crews. Restricted Speed, by definition, allows a Train Crew to pass over a bridge if there is no
visible damage within ½ of the stopping sight distance
(3) If the Railroad Bridge Inspector, Railroad Bridge Supervisor or Railroad Bridge Engineer is able to establish direct
communication with a reliable person on the scene who is able to observe and relay information, they may instruct
that person to inspect critical components and provide comprehensive verbal descriptions. The Railroad Bridge

Inspector, Railroad Bridge Supervisor or Railroad Bridge Engineer has the authority to authorize resumption of
train operations based on the descriptive communication with the reliable person at the scene. A follow up
inspection by a Railroad Bridge Inspector should be performed as soon as practicable.
(4) If the description of the damages incurred leaves any doubt as to the safe carrying capacity of the bridge, a
Railroad Bridge Engineer must be consulted before allowing trains to resume operating over the bridge.
(5) A follow-up inspection should be conducted as soon as practicable by a Railroad Bridge Inspector, Railroad
Bridge Supervisor or Railroad Bridge Engineer.
e. Example of Fire Damage Response and Special Inspection Procedures
(1) Trains should be stopped from passing over a railroad bridge that has been subjected to a fire. This includes
bridges exposed to high heat from a burning vehicle under the bridge.
(2) Only a qualified Railroad Bridge Engineer should make the decision to allow trains to resume operations over a
fire damaged bridge. The following guidelines are provided to assist those who are called upon to perform
inspections:
• When evaluating the damage from a fire, it can be helpful to get any available information about the intensity of
the fire. Eyewitnesses may be able to provide valuable information. Some materials on site may have melted and
can give a clue about the temperature such as: lead 620ºF, plastics 300-450ºF, glass 750-900ºF, aluminum
1200ºF, and copper (rail bonding wire) 2000ºF. Check to see if the rails are kinked or warped due to the heat.
• Timber Fire damage is easily evaluated on timber bridges, but that evaluation can be quite time consuming. The
damage caused by fire is often not quite as severe as the actual event would seem to indicate. The only way to
ascertain the true extent of damage is to chip away the charred material at a number of locations and measure the
section of good timber that remains. Locations where two or more members come together often experience the
greatest section loss. Look closely at pile to bracing connections and cap to stringer connections. Stringers with
spacing washers between them often exhibit significant section loss due to a “chimney” effect between the
stringers during a fire. Critical locations to check on stringers are at the bent caps and mid-span. Ties on timber
trestles should be evaluated to see if there is sufficient section left below and around the tie plates to transfer the
load to the stringers. Ties on steel stringers or girders need to be checked for remaining cross section and
evaluated for shear and bending capacity.
• Concrete bridges exposed to fire generally perform quite well but, depending on the intensity and duration of the
fire, permanent damage can occur at temperatures above 570ºF. As temperatures go above 570ºF concrete will
have discoloration progressing from pink to white to a grey-buff at very high temperatures. Note any
discoloration. Sound areas of concrete that have been exposed to fire with a hammer to check for any
delamination or damage. Check for cracking, distortion, spalling or any other indications that damage may have
occurred. Note any exposed reinforcing, particularly in precast prestressed or cast-in-place tensioned members.
Refer to AREMA Volume 2, Chapter 8, Part 21, Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures for more
information related to fire damaged concrete.
• Steel that has been damaged in a fire should be carefully examined for evidence of deformation. Check the
straightness of beams, columns, and other members. On plate girders, the girder will often look straight but there
may be localized deformation of the web plate between stiffeners. Note the amount and location of any
deformations. Members exposed to extreme heat that would permanently reduce their strength capacity are
typically so badly deformed that they will require replacement anyway. Connections should be carefully
examined for damage caused by thermal stresses created by the heating and cooling of steel members. Look for
sheared or loose rivets or bolts as well as cracked welds. It may be necessary to obtain coupons of the steel from
appropriate locations for laboratory testing of mechanical properties. Refer to MRE Volume 2, Chapter 15.

(C) SECTION 1.10 REPAIR AND MODIFICATION OF BRIDGES
“Each repair or modification which could modify the load carrying capacity of a bridge and all repairs or modifications to a
primary load-carrying component of a bridge must be designed by a Railroad Bridge Engineer.” The Railroad Bridge
Supervisor or the Railroad Bridge Inspector would typically consult with a Railroad Bridge Engineer for advice as to whether
a modification or repair will affect the load carrying capacity of the bridge. Some bridge owners have elected to issue
instructions to the effect that any repair or modification to a bridge should be approved by the Railroad Bridge Engineer before
the work is performed. An example is welding cable supports to the bottom flange of a steel bridge. If the cable supports are
attached with welds that are in a direction transverse across the bottom of the flange, the load carrying capacity of the bridge is
reduced significantly. People making such attachment may not realize that they have affected the allowable load carrying
capacity of the bridge.
(C) EXAMPLE OF BRIDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM INSTRUCTIONS
a. Bridge Inspection Report and Work Orders
(1) The Railroad Bridge Inspector conducts the periodic field inspection and completes a Bridge Inspection Report
according to the provisions of the Bridge Management Program. The Bridge Inspection Report may include the
Bridge Inspector’s recommended repairs or modifications.
(2) The Bridge Inspection Report is submitted to the Railroad Bridge Supervisor. The Railroad Bridge Supervisor
reviews the Inspection report and compiles a prioritized list of recommended bridge repairs or modifications.
Consult a Railroad Bridge Engineer for assistance when warranted. 1
(3) A separate Work Order form is drafted for each repair/modification (see example). The Work Order form is
assigned a unique Work Order Number. The form includes areas for the detailed explanation of the
repair/modification and may include a sketch and photographs showing dimensions, location, position, etc. The
form should have data entry lines for recording:
(a) the date of the Bridge Inspection Report. 3

(b) the date the Work Order was generated.
(c) the name of the Railroad Bridge Supervisor (and, if applicable, Railroad Bridge Engineer) who participated in
drafting the Work Order.
(d) the desired date for completion of the work. 4

(e) the Priority code for the work.
(f) a list of specialized equipment and materials needed to complete the repair.
(g) the date the work was completed.
(h) name of Railroad Bridge Supervisor and railroad personnel who performed the repairs/modifications. If
applicable, list the Contractors who performed the work.
(i) name of Railroad Bridge Supervisor or Railroad Bridge Engineer who inspected the completed
repair/modification.
(4) For each individual bridge, copies of the Bridge Inspection Report and copies of pending Work Orders and
completed Work Orders are placed in the Bridge Management Record.

(5) Repairs/modifications for critical deficiencies that affect the load capacity of a bridge will require consultation or
participation of a Railroad Bridge Engineer when drafting the Work Order.
b. Prioritization of repairs and replacements:
(1) The Railroad Bridge Supervisor or Railroad Bridge Engineer assigns a Priority Code to each Work Order.
Example of Priority Codes:
Priority 1 = Emergency outage. Stop train operations over the bridge until repairs are completed.
Priority 2 = Repairs must be completed expeditiously, but are not of such critical nature as to prohibit passage of
trains. They may require temporary train operation restrictions such as slow orders or equipment weight
restrictions. Examples are large holes on a bridge walkway, cracks in a steel member that is a non-redundant
major structural member, open vertical split in a timber cap, stringers that have moved longitudinally to the point
of minimal bearing contact, etc.
Priority 3 = Items that should be corrected before the next scheduled inspection. These repair items are in the
advanced stages of deterioration. They are often in redundant members or in members that are not directly in a
primary path of live load. Examples are horizontal split timber stringers that have adjacent stringers to take over
the loads; one timber pile that has failed where there is an adjacent pile capable of taking the load; minor concrete
deterioration under bearing areas; etc.
Priority 4 = Items that should be repaired, but repairs can be deferred until the next scheduled inspection. These
items are not critical to the safe operation of trains or the safety of personnel. Examples are one missing bolt in a
group of bolts; evidence of the inception of streambed erosion; etc.
Priority 5 = Items that should be kept under observation. These items do not require repair unless they deteriorate.
Examples are surface rust in non-critical members; a slight bend in a steel tension member; an expansion bearing
that demonstrates slight non-vertical geometry in moderate temperatures; etc.
c. Work Order Completion.
(1) Following the completion of the repairs/modifications listed on the Work Order, lines (g) through (i) on the form
are filled out and signed by person(s) who performed the repairs/modifications. The Railroad Bridge Supervisor
then signs the Work Order as being successfully completed. For repairs/modifications that may affect the load
capacity rating or clearance, the completed Work Order should also be reviewed and signed by a Railroad Bridge
Engineer. Photographs of the completed work are recommended.
(2) The completed and signed original Work Order, along with any photographs of the completed work, is returned to
the Bridge Program Manager for safekeeping with the Bridge Management Record for the individual bridge.
(3) Completed repairs/modifications of critical deficiencies that restore the load capacity of a bridge may require
inspection and approval by a Railroad Bridge Engineer before releasing any of the pre-repair train operations
restrictions that may have been issued.

Figure 10-1-1. Example of Work Order Form 4
d. Example of Bridge Records and Correspondence filing system
(1) Filing systems should incorporate a numbering system that is intuitive such that any incoming correspondence can
be easily tagged with the proper Correspondence File Number. Examples are Line Segment-Mile Post numbers. A
correspondence file number of “LS51-BR10.7” will be for a branch of the railroad designated as Line Segment 51
and a bridge located at Mile Post 10.7.
(2) Filing systems should be created for both hard copy correspondence and electronic correspondence. It is
recommended that all hard copy correspondence be scanned into electronic media and stored on the electronic file.
Conversely, it is prudent to print out electronic correspondence and place it on the hard copy file system. This

method insures redundancy for important documents in case one system becomes damaged, lost or otherwise
unavailable.
(3) The Bridge Management Record for each bridge should include all plans, calculations, pile & foundation records,
hydrology & hydraulics data, inspection records, contracts, correspondence, repair records and pending and
completed Work Orders.
(4) An important aspect of any filing system is training employees to assiduously save all correspondence to the filing
system. It is important to capture and store all incoming and outgoing electronic correspondence as well as
historical documents, preferably in one location, such that future generations can easily locate all documents for
any given bridge.
e. Contracts affecting Bridge Management Program
(1) Certain bridges will have formal Contracts, Easements, Deeds, License Agreements or other legal documents
associated with the construction or maintenance of portions of the bridge. Examples are utility lines installed on
the bridge, underground utility lines near the bridge, public agency grade separation agreements, flood control
agencies, etc. Copies of these formal agreements should be kept in the Bridge Management files for the affected
bridges. They must be kept with the bridge file so that the responsible agency can be quickly identified and
contacted in case of an emergency, i.e. post-earthquake damage to a public roadway underpass or derailment
damage to a public roadway overpass.
(2) Contract information and phone numbers of responsible entities should be included on the Bridge Inspection Form
so that the Railroad Bridge Inspector is made aware of outside agency responsibilities and can contact them in case
of emergency.
f. Regulatory and Environmental
(1) Certain railroad bridges may be in an environmentally sensitive area that may limit the access for inspection or
repairs. Examples are nesting birds, salmon runs, endangered species, etc. All known environmental restrictions
should be posted on the Bridge Management Record as well as on the Bridge Inspection form and Work Order
forms.
g. Examples of procedures for clearing High-Wide-Heavy loads
(1) Route Clearance Measurements are conducted periodically. Typically measurements are conducted between 5 and
10 year intervals. Measurements are performed by special equipment using laser technology.
(2) Bridge Rating is a component of the Bridge Management program. Refer to Section 3.2.
(3) Customers who desire to move over-dimensional loads or heavy loads will typically supply the originating
railroad with measurements and weights according to industry standards. The originating railroad forwards
information to connecting railroads.
(4) Refer to Section 1.4.2 for procedures to move over-dimension or heavy loads over bridges.

719
19
References
— 2012 —
The following list of references used in Chapter 10, Structures, Maintenance and Construction is placed here in alphabetical
order for your convenience.
1. American Short Line and Regional Railroad Association.
2. Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 213 Track Safety Standards.
3. Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 237 Safety of Railroad Bridges.
4. Transport Canada Rail Safety Guidelines for Bridge Safety Management.

1


151
CHAPTER 15
STEEL STRUCTURES1
FOREWORD
Part 1 through Part 4, Part 6, and Part 7 formulate specific and detailed recommendations for the design, fabrication, erection,
maintenance, inspection, and rating of steel railway bridges for:
• Spans up to 400 feet,
• Standard gage track,
• Normal North American passenger and freight equipment, and 1

The requirements, however, apply to spans of any length, but special provisions for spans longer than 400 feet should be added
by the company as may be required. Part 5, Bearing Design and Construction, formulates specific and detailed
recommendations for the design and construction of bearings for nonmovable railway bridges. Recommendations for the
design and construction of special bearings for movable railway bridges are included in Part 6, Movable Bridges. Part 8 covers 3
miscellaneous items. Part 9 is a commentary, including references, for explanation of various articles in the other parts.
This chapter is presented as a consensus document by a committee composed of railroad engineers, engineers in private
practice, engineers involved in research and teaching, and other industry professionals having substantial and broad-based
experience designing, evaluating, and investigating steel structures used by railroads. The recommendations contained herein
are based upon past successful usage, advances in the state of knowledge, and changes in design and maintenance practices.
These recommendations have been developed and are intended for routine use and may not provide sufficient criteria for
infrequently encountered conditions. Therefore, professional judgment must be exercised when applying the
recommendations of this chapter as part of an overall solution to any particular issue.
In general, this chapter is revised and published anew on an annual basis. The latest published edition of the chapter should be
used, regardless of the age of an existing structure. For purposes of determining historical recommendations under which an
existing structure may have been built and maintained, it can prove useful to examine previously published editions of the
chapter. However, when historical recommendations differ from the recommendations contained in the latest published
edition of the chapter, the recommendations of the latest published edition of the chapter shall govern.
1
concerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties (except signals and communications), and allied services and facilities
(Reference 16). For the purpose of this Manual, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE is defined as a material, device, design, plan, specification, principle or
practice recommended to the railways for use as required, either exactly as presented or with such modifications as may be necessary or desirable to meet
the needs of individual railways, but in either event, with a view to promoting efficiency and economy in the location, construction, operation or
maintenance of railways. It is not intended to imply that other practices may not be equally acceptable.

Grateful acknowledgment is hereby made to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials and the
American Welding Society for having made available their Bridge Welding Code (AWS D1.5) for use by reference in these
recommended practices. In applying AWS D1.5, the term “allowable stresses” is to be construed as those allowed herein.
Certain other modifications and exceptions to the Code are also recommended.
Grateful acknowledgement is also made to the Society of Protective Coating (SSPC) for use of their publications by reference
in the recommendations cited in Part 8, Section 8.7, regarding the cleaning and painting of existing steel railway bridges.
Part 2, Design – High Strength Steels was combined with Part 1, Design in 1993.
Part 5, Special Types of Construction was combined with Part 1, Design in 2008.
Part 10, Bearing Design, and Part 11, Bearing Construcion, were combined into a new Part 5, Bearing Design and
Construction in 2013.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Special Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-vi
1 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-1
1.1 Proposals and Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-5
1.2 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-7
1.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-14
1.4 Basic Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-39
1.5 General Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-44
1.6 Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension or Compression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-49
1.7 Members Stressed Primarily in Bending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-54
1.8 Floor Members and Floorbeam Hangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-65
1.9 Riveted and Bolted Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-66
1.10 Welded Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-67
1.11 Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-69
1.12 Pins and Pin-Connected Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-71
1.13 Continuous and Cantilever Steel Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-71
1.14 Fracture Critical Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-75
1.15 Live Load Moments, Shears and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-77
3 Fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-1
3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-3 1
3.2 Riveted and Bolted Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-10
3.3 Welded Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-20
3.4 Shop Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-21
3.5 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-21
3.6 Shipment and Pay Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-23
4 Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-1 3
4.1 General (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-2
4.2 Definitions of Terms (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-2
4.3 Work to be Done (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-3
4.4 Drawings or Special Provisions to Govern (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-3
4.5 Plant (1992) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-3
4.6 Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-3
4.7 Delivery of Materials (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4 4
4.8 Handling and Storing Materials (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4
4.9 Establishment of Lines and Elevations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4
4.10 Bearings and Anchorage (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4
4.11 Erection Procedure (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4
4.12 Reinforcement of Members (1992) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-5
4.13 Falsework (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-5
4.14 Allowable Stresses During Erection (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-5
4.15 Drift or Traffic Pins (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-5
4.16 Field Assembly of Members (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-6
4.17 Fitting-up of Field Connections (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-6
4.18 Riveted Field Connections (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7
4.19 High Strength Bolted Field Connections (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7
4.20 Field Welding (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7
4.21 Field Connections Using Pins (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7
4.22 Field Inspection (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7

4.23 Misfits (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7
4.24 Field Cleaning and Painting (2002) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-8
4.25 Deck (1991) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-8
4.26 Removal of Old Structure and Falsework, and Cleanup (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-8
4.27 Interference with Traffic (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-9
4.28 Company Equipment (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-9
4.29 Work Train Service (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-9
4.30 Risk (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-9
4.31 Laws and Permits (1983) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-10
4.32 Patents (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-10
5 Bearing Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-1

5.1 Bearing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-4
5.2 Basic Allowable Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-11
5.3 Steel Bearing Component Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-12
5.4 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-18
5.5 PTFE Sliding Bearing Surface Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-19
5.6 Elastomeric Bearing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-22
5.7 Multi-Rotational Bearing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-33
5.8 Bearing Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-38
5.9 Steel Bearing Component Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-39
5.10 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearing Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-43
5.11 PTFE Sliding Bearing Surface Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-44
5.12 Elastomeric Bearing Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-47
5.13 Multi-Rotational Bearing Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-51
6 Movable Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-1

6.1 Proposals and General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-5
6.2 General Features of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-13
6.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-17
6.4 Basic Allowable Stresses and Hydraulic Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-27
6.5 General Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-33
6.6 Wire Ropes and Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-68
6.7 Power Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-72
6.8 Workmanship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-95
6.9 Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-100
7 Existing Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-1

7.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-2
7.2 Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-4
7.3 Rating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-13
7.4 Repair, Strengthening and Retrofitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-23
7.5 Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-30
8 Miscellaneous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-1
8.1 Turntables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-3
8.2 Method of Shortening Eyebars to Equalize the Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-10
8.3 Anchorage of Decks and Rails on Steel Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-13
8.4 Unloading Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-19
8.5 Walkways and Handrails on Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-26
8.6 Guidelines for Evaluating Fire Damaged Steel Railway Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-28

8.7 Guide to the Preparation of a Specification for the Cleaning and Coating of Existing Steel Railway Bridges15-8-31
9 Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-1
Part 1 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-6
Part 3 Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-46
Part 5 Bearing Design and Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-49
Part 6 Movable Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-54
Part 7 Existing Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-59
Part 8 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-66
Welding Index (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-79
Chapter 15 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-G-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-R-1
INTRODUCTION
identified by a Section number. These Sections are subdivided into Articles designated by numbered side headings. 1
3
as a whole and designates the year in which revisions were last published somewhere in the document, unless an attached
footnote indicates that the document was adopted, reapproved, or rewritten in that year.
Article Dates – Each Article shows the date (in parenthesis) of the last publication of revisions to that Article.
Reaffirmed Dates - Each Article is being reviewed and reaffirmed every 6 years beginning with the year 2002. If no
4
technical changes are made, the publication date of the last reaffirmation is shown following the title of the Article and the
Article Date.
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 15-v

Special Index
This special index is provided for assistance in the preparation of plans and other contract papers for the construction of new
bridges. It covers Part 1, Design and Part 3, Fabrication, with limited references to other chapters and parts.
Subject Article Number

Abutting joints 3.1.13
Accessibility of parts 1.5.5
Advance material 3.6.2
Alignment of finished holes 3.2.12
Allowable bearing pressure on concrete Part 5
Allowable bearing pressures, masonry 1.4.4 & Part 5
Allowable fatigue stress range 1.3.13
Allowable load, HS bolts, special surface treatment Table 15-9-2
Allowable stresses, basic Part 1, Section 1.4
Allowable stresses, cast steel 1.4.3
Allowable stresses, end floorbeams 1.8.1
Allowable stresses, structural steel, rivets, bolts and pins 1.4.1
Allowable stresses, weld metal 1.4.2
Anchor bolts Part 5
Angles or tees, effective section 1.6.5
Angles, size of fasteners 1.9.5
Assembly 3.2.10
Attachments, welded 1.10.4
Authority of inspector 3.5.2
AWS Structural Welding Code application 1.2.2
Ballasted deck structures, distribution of live load 1.3.4.2
Base and cap plates, fitting 3.1.16
Base plates Part 5
Bearing area effective for rivets and pins 1.5.3
Bearing plates and pedestals, surfaces Part 5
Bearing stiffeners 1.7.7
Bearings, end Part 5
Bearings inclined Part 5
Bent bracing 1.11.5
Bolts, high strength, installation 3.2.3
Bolts, nuts and washers, high strength 3.2.2
Box members, drainage 1.5.15
Bracing between compression members 1.3.11
Bracing of top flange of through girders 1.11.1
Bracing of viaduct towers and bents 1.11.5
15-vi AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Bracing, lateral 1.11.2
Bracing, portal and sway 1.11.3
Built-up member, connection of components 1.5.14
Butt joints, width or thickness transition for welding 1.10.1
Camber 1.2.10
Cambering of girder webs 3.1.6
Cantilever spans Part 1, Section 1.13
Cast steel, allowable stresses 1.4.3
Categories for fatigue stresses, examples Table 15-1-9
Categories of stress for fatigue consideration Table 15-1-9
Centrifugal force 1.3.6
Clearance diagram Figure 15-1-1
Clearances 1.2.6
Clearances for electrified operation 1.2.6
Clearances for pins 3.1.14
Combinations of welds, high strength bolts, rivets 1.5.12
Combined axial compression and bending, allowable stresses 1.3.14.1 1
Combined axial tension and bending, allowable stresses 1.3.14.2
Composite steel and concrete spans 1.7.9
Compression members 1.6.1
Compression members, bracing between 1.3.11
Compression members, forked ends 1.12.4 3
Concrete deck design 1.3.4.2.2d
Concrete, allowable bearing pressures Part 5
Conflict between drawings and specifications 1.1.4
Connections and splices 1.5.9
Connections of components of built-up members 1.5.14
4
Connections, field 1.5.10
Consultant use on public works projects 1.1.8
Contact surfaces not to be painted 3.4.1c
Continuous spans Part 1, Section 1.13
Cooper E series live load 1.3.3
Cover plates on rolled beams 1.7.2.2
Cross frames for deck spans 1.11.4
Cycles of stress for fatigue considerations Table 15-1-7
Dead load 1.3.2
Deck design, concrete 1.3.4.2.2d
Deck design, timber 1.3.4.2.2d
Deck spans, cross frames and diaphragms 1.11.4
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 15-vii

Deck thickness, minimum for various materials 1.3.4.2.2c
Definitions, FCM provisions 1.14.2
Definitions, general 1.1.1
Deflection 1.2.5
Detail categories for fatigue consideration Table 15-1-9
Development of fillers 1.5.11
Diaphragms for deck spans 1.11.4
Dimensional tolerances 3.1.7
Dimensional tolerances for truss and viaduct tower members 3.1.7.2
Dimension for stress calculations 1.2.7
Direct tension indicators for use with high strength bolts 3.2.3
Dissimilar fasteners in a connection 1.5.12
Distribution of live load 1.3.4
Distribution of live load, ballasted deck structures 1.3.4
Distribution of live load, open deck structures 1.3.4
Drainage of pockets 1.5.6
Drawings 1.1.3
Drawings govern over specifications 1.1.4
Drifting during assembly 3.2.13
Earthquake forces 1.3.17
Eccentric connections 1.5.7
Edge distance, base and masonry plates Part 5
Edge distance, fasteners 1.9.4
Effective diameter of fasteners 1.5.2
Effective dimensions of base and masonry plates Part 5
Effective dimensions of rollers and rockers Part 5
Effective dimensions of shoes and pedestals Part 5
Effective dimensions, base and masonry plates Part 5
Effective section of angles or tees 1.6.5
End bearings Part 5
End floorbeams 1.8.1
Erection Part 4
Existing bridges Part 7
Expansion 1.2.13
Fabricated material, marking, shipping and loading 3.6.1
Fabricator qualification 3.1.1
Fabricator qualification, fracture control plan 1.14.4
Facilities for inspection 3.5.1
Facing floorbeams, stringers and girders 3.1.12
15-viii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Fastener sizes in angles 1.9.5
Fasteners for field use, quantity to be supplied 3.2.4
Fasteners in indirect splices 1.9.6
Fasteners, dissimilar types in a connection 1.5.12
Fasteners, edge distance 1.9.4
Fasteners, effective diameter 1.5.2
Fasteners, minimum number per connection plane 1.5.9
Fasteners, pitch and gage defined 1.9.1
Fasteners, spacing 1.9.3
Fatigue loading on high strength bolts 1.3.13.1
Fatigue, classification of members for E80 loading Table 15-1-7
Fatigue, dissimilar fasteners in a connection 1.5.12
Fatigue, general 1.3.13
Fatigue, stress categories Table 15-1-9
Fatigue, stress ranges allowed Table 15-1-10
Field connections 1.5.10
Field welds for live load stress prohibited 1.5.10 1
Fillers, development 1.5.11
Fillet welds 1.10.3
Fit of stiffeners 3.1.10
Fitting for shop riveting or bolting 3.2.13
Fitting of base and cap plates 3.1.16 3
Flange sections of girders 1.7.2
Flanges splices, girders 1.7.5
Flange-to-web connection, girders 1.7.4
Flange-to-web welds 3.3.3
Floor members, end connections 1.8.3
4
Floorbeam reactions for E80 live load Part 9
Floorbeams and Floorbeam hangers 1.8.2
Floorbeams, end 1.8.1
Floorbeams, end connections 1.8.3
Forked ends of compression members 1.12.4
Fracture control plan 1.14.1
Fracture critical members or member components definitions 1.14.2
Fracture critical members, design responsibilities 1.14.3
Fracture critical members Part 1, Section 1.14
General rules Part 1, Section 1.5
Girder flanges, riveted or bolted construction 1.7.2.1
Girder flanges, welded construction 1.7.2.2
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 15-ix

Girders and beams, proportioning 1.7.1
Girders, through, bracing of top flanges 1.11.1
Guard (inner) rails, steel 1.2.12
Guard timbers 1.2.12
Gusset plates of trusses, minimum thickness 1.5.4
Height of rail 1.2.6
High strength bolted joints, inspection 3.5.4
High strength bolts fatigue tension loading on 1.3.13.1
High strength bolts, installation 3.2.3
High strength bolts, installation tension required Table 15-1-12
High strength bolts, nuts and washers 3.2.2
High strength bolts, re-use 3.2.3(3)
High strength bolts, special surface treatment Part 9, Section 9.1.4
High strength structural steel Table 15-1-1
Hole Alignment 3.2.12
Holes for field fasteners 3.2.7
Holes for shop fasteners 3.2.6
Holes, oversize, short slotted, long slotted 9.3.2.6
Holes, size and workmanship 3.2.5
Impact load 1.3.5
Impact load, girder flange-to-web connections 1.7.4
Impact tests, FCM material 1.14.5
Impact test, non-FCM material Table 15-1-14
Impact test, non-FCM material Table 15-1-2
Inclined bearings Part 5
Indirect splices, fasteners 1.9.6
Inspection facilities 3.5.1
Inspection of high strength bolted joints 3.5.4
Inspection of welded fabrication 3.5.5
Inspector authority 3.5.2
Installation of high strength bolts 3.2.3
Interaction formula for combined compression and bending 1.3.14.1
Intermediate stiffeners 1.7.8
Intermittent field welds prohibited 1.10.2
Jacking provisions applied to end floorbeams 1.8.1
Lacing 1.6.4.2
Lacing bars, round ends required 3.1.9
Lacing, shear force 1.6.4.1
Lateral bracing 1.11.2
15-x AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Lateral forces from equipment 1.3.9
Live load 1.3.3
Live load distribution, ballasted deck structures 1.2.3
Live load distribution, open deck structures 1.3.4
Load, live 1.3.3
Loads and forces 1.3.1
Longitudinal beams or girders, design 1.3.4.2.4
Longitudinal force 1.3.12
Machined surfaces, shop painting 3.4.2
Map for service temperature, Canada Figure 15-9-2
Map for service temperatures, USA Figure 15-9-1
Marking fabricated material 3.6.1
Masonry plates Part 5
Masonry allowable bearing pressures 1.4.4 & Part 5
Match marking 3.2.11
Material orders and shipping statements 3.1.2
Material storage 3.1.4 1
Material weldability 1.10.6
Materials 1.2.1
Moment, shear, pier reaction table, E80 Part 9
Movable bridges Part 6
Multiple tracks, live load 1.3.3 3
Nameplates 1.2.11
Net section 1.5.8
Non-destructive testing personnel qualification, FCM work 1.14.1
Notch toughness for weld metal, fracture control plan 1.14.1
Notch toughness, FCM material 1.14.5 and Table 15-1-14
4
Notch toughness, other than FCM material Table 15-1-2
Notice of beginning fabrication 3.1.3
Notice to Engineer 1.1.6
Open deck structures, distribution of live load 1.3.4.1
Oversize holes 9.3.2.6
Painting of interiors of closed box members not required 1.5.15
Patented devices 1.1.5
Pay weight 3.6.3
Pedestals Part 5
Perforated cover plates 1.6.4.3
Perforated cover plates, shear force 1.6.4.1
Permits 1.1.7
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 15-xi

Pier reactions for E80 live load Part 9
Pin clearance 3.1.14
Pin holes, reinforcing plates 1.12.3
Pin holes, section 1.12.2
Pins 1.12.1
Pins and rollers 3.1.15, Part 5
Planning sheared edges 3.1.8
Plug and slot welds prohibited 1.10.2
Portal bracing 1.11.3
Preferred types of bridges 1.2.3
Preparation of material for welding 3.3.2
Prohibited types of joints and welds 1.10.2
Prohibited weld, tack welding on tension flanges 3.3.3
Proportioning girders and beams 1.7.1
Proportioning truss web members 1.3.16
Proposals 1.1.2
Prying action on high strength bolts 1.3.13.1
Public works projects 1.1.8
Qualification of fabricator, fracture critical members 1.14.1 and 3.1.1
Qualification of fabricators 3.1.1
Qualification of welders and welding operators 3.3.5
Qualification of welders, fracture critical members 1.14.1
Quality control and assurance, fracture critical members 1.14.1
Quantity of field fasteners 3.2.4
Radial force from welded rail Part 8, Section 8.3
Rail height 1.2.6
Re-entrant corners, thermal cutting 3.1.6
Reaming and drilling after assembly 3.2.10
Reaming and drilling templates 3.2.8
Reaming and drilling through templates 3.2.9
Reinforcing plates at pin holes 1.12.3
Rejection of shop fabrication 3.5.3
Reuse of high strength bolts 3.2.3(3)
Rigid frame structures 1.7.10
Rivet grip, taper and extra rivet requirements 1.9.2
Riveting requirements and riveting 3.2.1
Rivets and pins, effective bearing area 1.5.3
Rockers Part 5
Rocking effect 1.3.5
15-xii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Sealing 1.5.13
Secondary stress 1.3.15
Secondary stress floorbeam hangers, subverticals 9.1.3.15
Service temperature map, Canada Figure 15-9-2
Service temperature map, USA Figure 15-9-1
Shear force in lacing or perforated cover plates 1.6.4.1
Sheared Edges, planning 3.1.8
Shears for E80 live load Part 9
Shipping fabricated material 3.6.1
Shoes Part 5
Ship drawings 1.1.3
Shop painting 3.4.1
Shop painting of machined surfaces 3.4.2
Size and workmanship of holes 3.2.5
Skew bridges 1.2.8
Slenderness ratio 1.5.1
Slotted holes 9.3.2.6 1
Spacing of fasteners 1.9.3
Spacing of trusses, girders, and stringers 1.2.4
Specifications governed by drawings 1.1.4
Splices, abutting joints 3.1.13
Splices, girder flanges 1.7.5 3
Splices, girder webs 1.7.6
Splicing compression members 1.5.9
Squaring up bridge ends 1.2.8
Stability of spans and towers 1.3.10
Stay plates 1.6.3
4
Steel, structural Table 15-1-1
Stiffener fit 3.1.10
Stiffeners, bearing 1.7.7
Stiffeners, intermediate 1.7.8
Stiffeners, intermediate, welded to girder webs 1.10.4
Storage of material 3.1.4
Straightening material 3.1.5
Stress categories for fatigue consideration Table 15-1-9
Stresses allowed, basic Part 1, Section 1.4
Stringers, end connections 1.8.3
Structural steel Table 15-1-1
Structural steel, high strength Table 15-1-1
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 15-xiii

Surfaces of bearing plates and pedestals Part 5
Sway bracing 1.11.3
Tack welding, prohibited on tension flanges 3.3.4
Templates for reaming and drilling 3.2.8
Tension required in installed high strength bolts Table 15-1-12
Thickness of compression members elements 1.6.1
Thickness of girder web plates 1.7.3
Thickness of metal 1.5.4
Thickness outstanding elements of compression members 1.6.2
Through girders, bracing of top flanges 1.11.1
Ties for open deck bridges 1.2.9
Timber bridge tie requirements Chapter 6
Timber deck design 1.3.4.2.2d
Timber guards 1.2.12
Thermal cutting 3.1.6
Tolerances of dimensions 3.1.7
Tolerances of dimensions, truss and viaduct tower members 3.1.7.2
Tolerances, sweep and camber 3.1.7.1e paragraph (2)
Tower and span stability 1.3.10
Transition of thickness or width in welded butt joints 1.10.1
Transverse beams without stringers, diaphragm requirements 1.11.4h
Transverse beams, design 1.3.4.2.3
Turn-of-nut method for installing HS bolts, nut rotation Table 15-3-3
Turn-of-nut method of installing high strength bolts 3.2.3d
Turntables Part 8, Section 8.1
Types of bridges preferred 1.2.3
Unloading pits Part 8, Section 8.4
Uplift on anchor bolts Part 5
Viaduct tower bracing 1.11.5
Walkways and handrails on bridges Part 8, Section 8.5
Web members of trusses, proportioning 1.3.16
Web plate thickness, girders 1.7.3
Web splices, girders 1.7.6
Webs of riveted or bolted girders, control of edge position 3.1.11
Weight of fabricated material for payment purposes 3.6.3
Weights of material shipped 3.1.2
Weld metal, allowable stresses 1.4.2
Weldability of material 1.10.6
Welded attachments 1.10.4
15-xiv AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Welded butt joints 1.10.1
Welded closed box members 1.5.15
Welded fabrication Part 3, Section 3.3
Welded fabrication, inspection 3.5.5
Welded rail on bridges Part 8, Section 8.3
Welders and welding operators, qualification 3.3.5
Welding index Part 9
Welding requirements, fracture critical members 1.14.1
Welding requirements, general 1.2.2
Welding, general 3.3.1
Welds and joints, prohibited types 1.10.2
Welds, fillet 1.10.3
Welds, intermediate stiffeners to girder webs 1.10.4
Width of outstanding elements of compression members 1.6.2
Wind combined with other loads, allowable stresses 1.3.14.3
Wind force on loaded bridge 1.3.7
Wind force on unloaded bridge 1.3.8 1
Wind force only, allowable stresses 1.3.14.3
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 15-xv

15-xvi AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

15
15310
Part 1
Design1
— 2013 —
FOREWORD
The purpose of this part is to formulate specific and detailed rules as a guide for the design of fixed spans using structural steel.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
1.1 Proposals and Drawings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-5

1.1.1 Definition of Terms (1984) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-5
1.1.2 Proposals (1984) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-5
1.1.3 Shop Drawings (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-5 3
1.1.4 Drawings to Govern (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-6
1.1.5 Patented Technologies (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-6
1.1.6 Notice to Engineer (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-6
1.1.7 Permits (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-6
1.1.8 Design of Public Works Projects (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-6
1.2 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-7

1.2.1 Materials (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-7
1.2.2 Welding (2003) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-10
1.2.3 Types of Bridges (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-11
1
References, Vol. 4, 1903, pp. 130, 141, 253; Vol. 5, 1904, p. 581; Vol. 6, 1905, pp. 218, 447; Vol. 7, 1906, pp. 185, 235; Vol. 11, 1910, part 1, pp. 115, 160;
Vol. 21, 1920, pp. 493, 1398; Vol. 25, 1924, pp. 1072, 1262; Vol. 35, 1934, pp. 1021, 1196; Vol. 36, 1935, pp. 633, 987; Vol. 39, 1938, pp. 153, 891; Vol. 41,
1940, pp. 408, 858; Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 356, 874; Vol. 43, 1942, pp. 365, 737; Vol. 44, 1943, pp. 400, 670, 685; Vol. 45, 1944, pp. 180, 605; Vol. 47, 1946,
pp. 245, 647; Vol. 48, 1947, pp. 391, 930; Vol. 49, 1948, pp. 199, 666; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 425, 749; Vol. 51, 1950, pp. 443, 904; Vol. 53, 1952, pp. 508,
1061; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 905, 1346; Vol. 55, 1954, pp. 586, 1020; Vol. 56, 1955, pp. 590, 1085; Vol. 57, 1956, pp. 554, 998; Vol. 58, 1957, pp. 685, 1191;
Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 700, 702, 1194, 1195; Vol. 60, 1959, pp. 506, 508, 1098, 1100; Vol. 61, 1960, pp. 560, 1127; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 545, 550, 551, 876, 877;
Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 382, 699; Vol. 64, 1963, pp. 361, 630; Vol. 65, 1964, pp. 382, 775; Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 292, 653; Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 341, 697; Vol. 68, 1967,
p. 350; Vol. 70, 1969, p. 241; Vol. 71, 1970, p. 375; Vol. 72, 1971, p. 153; Vol. 73, 1972, p. 176; Vol. 74, 1973, p. 137; Vol. 75, 1974, p. 334; Vol. 76, 1975,
p. 240; Vol. 77, 1976, p. 249; Vol. 78, 1977, p. 77; Vol. 79, 1978, p. 45; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 188; Vol. 82, 1981, p. 78; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 372; Vol. 84, 1983, p.
100; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 90; Vol. 87, 1986, p. 103; Vol. 88, 1987, p. 87; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 98; Vol. 91, 1990, p. 121; Vol. 92, 1991, 67; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 131;
Vol. 96, p. 66; Vol. 97, p. 171. Reapproved with revisions 1996.

Steel Structures
1.2.4 Spacing of Trusses, Girders, and Stringers (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-11

1.2.5 Deflection (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-11
1.2.6 Clearances (1995) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-12
1.2.7 Dimensions for Calculations of Stresses (2004) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-12
1.2.8 Skew Bridges (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-13
1.2.9 Open Deck Bridge Ties (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-14
1.2.10 Camber (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-14
1.2.11 Nameplates (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-14
1.2.12 Steel Inner Guard Rails and Guard Timbers (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-14
1.2.13 Provision for Expansion (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-14
1.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-14

1.3.1 Loads and Forces (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-14
1.3.2 Dead Load (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-15
1.3.3 Live Load (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-15
1.3.4 Distribution of Live Load (1993) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-16
1.3.5 Impact Load (2007) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-18
1.3.6 Centrifugal Force (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-20
1.3.7 Wind Forces on Loaded Bridge (2003) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-20
1.3.8 Wind Forces on Unloaded Bridge (2006) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-21
1.3.9 Lateral Forces from Equipment (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-21
1.3.10 Stability Check (2005) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-22
1.3.11 Bracing Between Compression Members (2000) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-22
1.3.12 Longitudinal Forces (2005) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-22
1.3.13 Fatigue (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-23
1.3.14 Combined Stresses (2005) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-37
1.3.15 Secondary Stresses (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-38
1.3.16 Proportioning of Truss Web Members (2004) R(2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-38
1.3.17 Earthquake Forces (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-39
1.4 Basic Allowable Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-39

1.4.1 Structural Steel, Rivets, Bolts and Pins (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-39
1.4.2 Weld Metal (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-43
1.4.3 Cast Steel (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-44
1.4.4 Masonry (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-44
1.4.5 Timber Bridge Ties (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-44
1.5 General Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-44

1.5.1 Slenderness Ratio (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-44
1.5.2 Effective Diameter of Fasteners (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-45
1.5.3 Effective Bearing Area of Bolts, Rivets and Pins (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-45
1.5.4 Thickness of Material (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-45
1.5.5 Accessibility of Parts (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-45
1.5.6 Drainage of Pockets (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-45
1.5.7 Eccentric Connections (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-45
1.5.8 Net Section (2005) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-46
1.5.9 Connections and Splices (2003) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-46
1.5.10 Field Connections (1994) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-47
1.5.11 Development of Fillers (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-47

Design
1.5.12 Combinations of Dissimilar Types of Connections (1993) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-47

1.5.13 Sealing (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-48
1.5.14 Connections of Components of Built-up Members (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-48
1.5.15 Welded Closed Box Members (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-48
1.6 Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension or Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-49

1.6.1 Compression Members (2004) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-49
1.6.2 Outstanding Elements in Compression (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-49
1.6.3 Stay Plates (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-50
1.6.4 Lacing and Perforated Cover Plates for Tension and Compression Members (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-51
1.6.5 Effective Net Area for Tension Members - Strength (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-52
1.6.6 Effective Area for Tension Members - Fatigue (2007) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-54
1.7 Members Stressed Primarily in Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-54

1.7.1 Proportioning Girders and Beams (2004) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-54
1.7.2 Flange Sections (1994) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-55
1.7.3 T hickness of Web Plates (2004) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-55
1.7.4 Flange-to-Web Connection of Plate Girders (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-56
1.7.5 Flange Splices (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-56
1.7.6 Web Splices (1994) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-56 1
1.7.7 Stiffeners at Points of Bearing (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-57
1.7.8 Web Plate Stiffeners (Intermediate Transverse and Longitudinal) (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-57
1.7.9 Composite Steel and Concrete Spans (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-59
1.7.10 Rigid Frame Structures (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-63
1.8 Floor Members and Floorbeam Hangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-65

1.8.1 End Floorbeams (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-65 3
1.8.2 Floorbeams and Floorbeam Hangers (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-65
1.8.3 End Connections of Floor Members (1993) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-65
1.9 Riveted and Bolted Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-66

1.9.1 Pitch and Gage of Fasteners (1993) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-66
1.9.2 Grip of Rivets (1993) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-66
1.9.3 Minimum Spacing of Fasteners (1993) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-66 4
1.9.4 Edge Distance of Fasteners (2005) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-66
1.9.5 Sizes of Fasteners in Angles (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-67
1.9.6 Fasteners in Indirect Splices (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-67
1.10 Welded Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-67

1.10.1 Transition of Thickness or Widths in Welded Butt Joints (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-67
1.10.2 Prohibited Types of Joints and Welds (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-68
1.10.3 Fillet Welds (1993) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-68
1.10.4 Welded Attachments (2004) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-68
1.10.5 Fracture Critical Members (1994) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-68
1.10.6 Material Weldability (2006) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-68
1.11 Bracing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-69

1.11.1 Bracing of Top Flanges of T hrough Girders (2000) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-69
1.11.2 Lateral Bracing (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-69

Steel Structures
1.11.3 Portal and Sway Bracing (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-69

1.11.4 Cross Frames and Diaphragms for Deck Spans (1994) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-70
1.11.5 Bracing of Viaduct Towers and Bents (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-70
1.11.6 Bracing Members Used as Ties or Struts Only (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-70
1.12 Pins and Pin-Connected Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-71

1.12.1 Pins (1994) R(2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-71
1.12.2 Section at Pin Holes (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-71
1.12.3 Reinforcing Plates at Pin Holes (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-71
1.12.4 Forked Ends of Compression Members (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-71
1.13 Continuous and Cantilever Steel Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-71

1.13.1 Definition (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-71
1.13.2 Basic Design Assumptions (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-72
1.13.3 Deflection (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-72
1.13.4 Camber (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-72
1.13.5 Impact Load (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-72
1.13.6 Uplift (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-72
1.13.7 Bracing (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-73
1.13.8 Longitudinal Stiffeners (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-73
1.13.9 Cover Plates (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-74
1.13.10 Splices in Flexural Members (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-74
1.14 Fracture Critical Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-75

1.14.1 Scope (2001) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-75
1.14.2 Definitions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-75
1.14.3 Design and Review Responsibilities (1997) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-75
1.14.4 Special Welding Requirements (1997) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-75
1.14.5 Notch Toughness of Steel in Fracture Critical Members (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-75
1.15 Live Load Moments, Shears and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-77

1.15.1 Tabulated Values for Simple Spans (2003) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-77
1.15.2 Supplemental Formulas for Simple Spans (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-78
LIST OF FIGURES
15-1-1 Minimum Railway Bridge Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-13

15-1-2 Cooper E 80 Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-16
15-1-3 Alternate Live Load on 4 Axles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-16
15-1-4 Location of Eccentric Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-22
15-1-5 Determination of x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-53

Design
LIST OF TABLES
15-1-1 Structural Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-8

15-1-2 Impact Test Requirements for Structural Steel – Other than Fracture Critical Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-9
15-1-3 Equivalent Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-10
15-1-4 Curved Track Clearance Increases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-13
15-1-5 Unit Weights for Dead Load Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-15
15-1-6 Impact Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-19
15-1-7 Number of Stress Cycles, N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-24
15-1-8 Assumed Mean Impact Load Percentages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-24
15-1-9 Detail Categories for Load Induced Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-26
15-1-10 Allowable Fatigue Stress Range, SRfat (ksi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-36
15-1-11 Structural Steel, Rivets, Bolts and Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-40
15-1-11a Allowable Stress for Slip-Critical Connections (Slip Load per Unit of Bolt Area, psi). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-43
15-1-12 Minimum Tension of Installed Bolts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-43
15-1-13 Allowable Stress on Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-44
15-1-14 Impact Test Requirements for Structural Steel - Fracture Critical Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-76
15-1-15 Maximum Moments, Shears and Pier (or Floorbeam) Reactions for Cooper E 80 Live Load or Alternate Live Load
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-77
15-1-16 Calculation of Maximum Moments on Short, Simple Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1-78
SECTION 1.1 PROPOSALS AND DRAWINGS
1.1.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS (1984) R(2008)
The term “Company” means the railway company party to the contract. The term “Engineer” means the chief engineering
3
officer of the Company or this individual’s authorized representative. The term “Inspector” means the inspector representing
the Company. The term “Contractor” means the manufacturing, fabricating or erecting contractor party to the contract.
1.1.2 PROPOSALS (1984) R(2008)
a. Bidders shall submit proposals conforming to the terms in the letter of invitation. The proposals shall be based on plans 4
and specifications furnished by the Company. Such plans and specifications shall show the conditions determining the
design of the bridge, the general dimensions, force and stress data and typical details.
b. When the invitation requires the Contractor to furnish the design, the invitation shall state the design criteria and the
general conditions at the site, such as the track spacing, foundation soil conditions, presence of old structures and
traffic conditions.
1.1.3 SHOP DRAWINGS (2009)
a. After the contract has been awarded, the Contractor shall submit to the Engineer, for review and approval as to
conformity to contract requirements, prints from checked plans in the number required, of stress sheets, shop drawings
and erection procedures, unless such sheets, drawings and procedures have been prepared by the Company.
b. The original drawings shall be legible. They shall be delivered to and become the property of the Company upon
completion of the contract.

Steel Structures
c. Alternately, electronic drawings may be submitted in an approved format and via a method approved by the Engineer.
d. Shop drawing size shall be preferably 24 inches by 36 inches, including left margin 1-1/2 inches wide and 1/2 inch
margin on other edges. An approved title shall be in the lower right corner.
e. Where any changes or corrections are required by the Engineer, one print, with changes shown thereon, shall be
returned to the Contractor either electronically or by conventional method. Prints from corrected plans shall be
submitted to the Engineer for review, and this procedure shall continue until each drawing, etc., is approved.
f. No additional change shall be made to such approved drawings without the consent of the Engineer.
g. The Contractor shall furnish to the Company as many prints of the drawings as required to carry out the work.
h. The Contractor shall be wholly responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the drawings, regardless of the
approval by the Engineer.
i. Any work performed or material ordered prior to approval by the Engineer shall be at the sole risk of the Contractor.
1.1.4 DRAWINGS TO GOVERN (1993) R(2008)
Where the drawings and the specifications conflict, the drawings shall govern.
1.1.5 PATENTED TECHNOLOGIES (1993) R(2008)
The Contractor shall protect the Company against claims arising from the use of patented technologies or parts proposed by
the Contractor.
1.1.6 NOTICE TO ENGINEER (1993) R(2008)
No material shall be rolled or any work performed before the Engineer has been notified in writing where the orders have been
placed.
1.1.7 PERMITS (1993) R(2008)
All permits required for the location and construction of the structure shall be obtained as directed by the Company.
1.1.8 DESIGN OF PUBLIC WORKS PROJECTS (1993)1 R(2008)
a. The design, plans, special provisions and specifications for railroad bridges to be built as a public works project and
paid for with public funds administered by a public agency shall be prepared by the engineering staff of the Company
involved or by a consulting engineer or the staff of a public agency whose selection has been mutually approved by the
Company and the public agency. Selection of consultants shall be limited to those who are familiar with the design of
railroad bridges, and particularly with the special requirements and operating conditions of the Company concerned.
b. When a consulting engineer is engaged, the contract for services may be administered either by the public agency or by
the Company. In either case, the technical aspects of the work of the consulting engineer shall be under the direction of
the Company and the final plans and specifications shall be subject to the approval of the Company.
1
See Part 9 Commentary

Design
SECTION 1.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
1.2.1 MATERIALS (2010)1
a. The design requirements of these recommended practices, contained in this part are based on the use of materials
conforming to the current requirements of the following ASTM specifications:
Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 15-1-1

Where this material is to be used for applications in which improved notch toughness is important, such as welded
main load carrying components subject to tensile stress other than Fracture Critical Members, defined in
Article 1.14.2, the impact test requirements of Table 15-1-2 shall be met. Notch toughness requirements for
Fracture Critical Members shall be in accordance with Table 15-1-14. Components requiring these toughness
requirements shall be designated on the design drawings and/or in the specifications.
For bridge construction, the material shall not be rimmed or capped steel.
Rivet steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 502, Grade 1, 2, or Grade 3
High strength bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 325 and A 490
Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 563
Washers, Steel, Hardened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F 436
Direct Tension Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F 959
High Strength “Twist Off” Type Tension Control Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . F 1852
Machine bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 307 1
Cast steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 27, Grade 65–35 or A 148
Forged steel, for large pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 668
Welding electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See AWS D1.5
For A709, Grade HPS 70W see
Article 1.2.2c
3
1

Steel Structures
Table 15-1-1. Structural Steel

(Note 1)
Thickness Limitation
Fu
Fy - Min
Ultimate Tensile
ASTM Yield Point or
Strength or Tensile For Plates and Applicable to
Designation Yield Strength
Strength Bars, inches Shapes
psi
psi
A36 36,000 min 58,000 min To 8 incl. All (Note 3)

80,000 max
A709, Grade 36 36,000 min 58,000 min To 4 incl. All (Note 3)
80,000 max
A588 (Note 2) 50,000 min 70,000 min To 4 incl. All
A709, Grade 50W (Note 2)
A709, Grade HPS 50W (Note 2)
Over 4 to
A588 (Note 2) 46,000 min 67,000 min 5 incl. None
Over 5 to
A588 (Note 2) 42,000 min 63,000 min 8 incl. None
A992 (Note 4) 50,000 min 65,000 min None All
A709, Grade 50S (Note 4) 65,000 max Yield to Tensile Ratio,
(Note 5) 0.85 max
A572, Grade 50 50,000 min 65,000 min To 4 incl. All
A709, Grade 50
A572, Grade 42 42,000 min 60,000 min To 6 incl. All
A709, Grade HPS 70W (Note 2) 70,000 min 85,000 min To 4 incl. None
110,000 max
Note 1: These requirements are current as of May 2009. Refer to ASTM specifications for additional requirements.
Note 2: A588 and A709, Grade 50W, Grade HPS 50W, and Grade HPS 70W have atmospheric corrosion resistance in most
environments substantially better than that of carbon steels with or without copper addition. In many applications
these steels can be used unpainted.
Note 3: For wide flange shapes with flange thickness over 3 inches, the 80,000 psi maximum tensile strength limit does not
apply.
Note 4: The yield to tensile ratio shall be 0.87 or less for shapes that are tested from the web location; for all other shapes,
the requirement is 0.85 maximum.
Note 5: A maximum yield strength of 70,000 psi is permitted for structural shapes that are required to be tested from the
web location.

Design
Table 15-1-2. Impact Test Requirements for Structural Steel – Other than Fracture Critical Members
(See Notes 1 and 5)
Minimum Average Energy, Ft-lb, (J)

ASTM Thickness and Test Temperatures
Designation Inches, (mm)
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
A36/A36M To 6(150)incl. 15(20)@ 15(20)@ 15(20)@
70°F(21°C) 40°F(4°C) 10°F(-12°C)
A709/A709M, Grade 36T(250T) (Note To 4(100)incl. 15(20)@ 15(20)@ 15(20)@
6) 70°F(21°C) 40°F(4°C) 10°F(-12°C)
A992/A992M (Note 2) To 2(50)incl. 15(20)@ 15(20)@ 15(20)@
A709/A709M, Grade 50ST (Grade 70°F(21°C) 40°F(4°C) 10°F(-12°C)
345ST) (Notes 2 and 6) Over 2(50)to 20(27)@ 20(27)@ 20(27)@
A588/A588M (Note 2) 4(100)incl. 70°F(21°C) 40°F(4°C) 10°F(-12°C)
A572/A572M, Grade 42 (Grade 290)
(Note 2)
A572/A572M, Grade 50 (Grade 345)
(Note 2)
A709/A709M, Grade 50T (Grade 345T)
(Notes 2 and 6)
A709/A709M, Grade 50WT (Grade
345WT) (Notes 2 and 6) 1
A572/A572M, Grade 42 (Grade 290) Over 4(100) to 20(27)@ 20(27)@ 20(27)@
(Note 2) 6(150)incl. 70°F(21°C) 40°F(4°C) 10°F(-12°C)
A588/A588M (Note 2) Over 4(100) to 20(27)@ 20(27)@ 20(27)@
5(125)incl. 70°F(21°C) 40°F(4°C) 10°F(-12°C)
A709/A709M, Grade HPS 50WT To 4(100)incl. 20(27)@ 20(27)@ 20(27)@
(Grade HPS 345WT) (Notes 2 and 6) 10°F(-12°C) 10°F(-12°C) 10°F(-12°C) 3
A709/A709M, Grade HPS 70WT To 4(100)incl. 25(34)@ 25(34)@ 25(34)@
(Grade HPS 485WT) (Notes 3 and 6) -10°F(-23°C) -10°F(-23°C) -10°F(-23°C)
Minimum Service Temperature (Note 4) 0°F(-18°C) –30°F(-34°C) –60°F(-51°C)
Note 1: Impact tests shall be in accordance with the Charpy V-Notch (CVN) tests as governed by ASTM Specification
A673/A673M with frequency of testing H for all grades except for A709/A709M, Grade HPS 70WT (Grade HPS
485WT), which shall be frequency of testing P. 4
Note 2: If the yield point of the material exceeds 65,000 psi (450 MPa) the test temperature for the minimum average energy
required shall be reduced by 15°F (8°C) for each increment or fraction of 10,000 psi (70 MPa) above 65,000 psi (450
MPa).
Note 3: If the yield strength of the material exceeds 85,000 psi (585 MPa) the test temperature for the minimum average energy
required shall be reduced by 15°F (8°C) for each increment or fraction of 10,000 psi (70 MPa) above 85,000 psi (585
MPa).
Note 4: Minimum service temperature of 0°F (-18°C) corresponds to Zone 1, –30°F (-34°C) to Zone 2, and –60°F (-51°C) to
Zone 3, referred to in Article 9.1.2.1.
Note 5: Impact test requirements for structural steel of Fracture Critical Members are specified in Table 15-1-14.
Note 6: The suffix T is an ASTM A709/A709M designation for non-fracture critical material requiring impact testing. A numeral
1, 2 or 3 should be added to the T marking to indicate the applicable service temperature zone.

Steel Structures
b. For the properties of steel used in this Manual unless otherwise provided use:
Modulus of Elasticity, E = 29,000,000 psi
Poisson’s Ratio, μ = 0.3
Shear Modulus, G = 11,200,000 psi
c. Throughout this chapter, the equivalent materials of Table 15-1-3 may be used interchangeably, subject to the
additional requirements of Article 1.2.1a. A36 and A588 plate and bar over 4 inches in thickness have no equivalent
A709 grade.
d. A588/A588M material in thickness of 5 in. (125 mm) to 8 in. (200 mm) shall be used in compression or other non-
toughness applications.
e. Material over 4 inches (100mm) in thickness shall not be used as a Fracture Critical Component.
f. The design requirements for materials of Fracture Critical Members shall further comply with the Fracture Control
Plan specified in Section 1.14, Fracture Critical Members. The Engineer shall designate on the plans which members
or member components fall in the category of Fracture Critical Members.
Table 15-1-3. Equivalent Materials
ASTM Applicable Thickness

ASTM A709 Designation for Plates
Equivalent Material Shapes
and Bars
Grade 36 A36 To 4 inches incl. All
Grade 50 A572 Grade 50 To 4 inches incl. All
Grade 50W A588 To 4 inches incl. All
Grade 50S A992 None All
1.2.2 WELDING (2003)1 R(2008)
a. Welding shall conform to the applicable provisions of the Bridge Welding Code ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 of the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials and the American Welding Society, herein
referred to as AWS D1.5, unless otherwise modified or supplemented by these recommended practices.
b. In applying the AWS D1.5 the following substitutions shall be made:
(1) Wherever the designation AASHTO is used it shall be construed to refer to AREMA.
(2) Wherever the term AASHTO Specification or AASHTO Standard Specification for Highway Bridges is used, it
shall be construed to refer to this chapter’s recommended practices.
(3) Wherever the word “highway” (as in highway bridge) appears, it shall be interpreted to mean railway or railroad.
(4) Wherever the word “State” (as in State approval, State specification, State inspector, etc.) appears, it shall be
construed to refer to the Company as defined in Article 1.1.1 herein.
1

Design
(5) The terms “Engineer,” “Inspector” and “Contractor” shall have the definitions given in Article 1.1.1 herein.
(6) Wherever AASHTO Material Specifications or AASHTO-M specifications are referenced, the corresponding
ASTM specification shall be used.
(7) The term “allowable stresses” is to be construed as those allowed herein.
(8) In addition to the herein referenced specifications, the welding of Tubes and Pipes shall conform to the applicable
provisions of the Structural Welding Code–Steel ANSI/AWS D1.1 of the American Welding Society.
c. Welding of ASTM A709, Grade HPS 70W shall conform to the latest edition of AWS D1.5. The AASHTO document
“Guide Specification for Highway Bridge Fabrication with HPS 70W (HPS 485W) Steel” shall be used as a
supplement to AWS D1.5.
1.2.3 TYPES OF BRIDGES (1995) R(2008)
a. The preferred types of bridges are as follows:
• Rolled or welded beams for spans of 50 feet or less.
• Bolted or welded plate girders for spans over 50 feet to 150 feet.
• Bolted or welded trusses for spans over 150 feet.

1
b. Pin connected trusses may be used for unusual conditions, but special provisions applicable to their design and
construction shall be prepared and furnished by the Engineer.
1.2.4 SPACING OF TRUSSES, GIRDERS, AND STRINGERS (1995) R(2008)
a. The distance between centers of outside trusses or girders shall be sufficient to prevent overturning by the specified
lateral loads. In no case shall it be less than 1/20 of the span for through spans, nor 1/15 of the span for deck spans. 3
b. Where the track is supported by a pair of deck girders or stringers, the distance center to center shall be not less than
6′-6″. If multiple girders or stringers are used, they shall be arranged as nearly as possible to distribute the track load
uniformly to all members.
1.2.5 DEFLECTION (2013)1 4

a. The deflection of the structure shall be computed for the live loading plus impact loading condition producing the
maximum bending moment at mid-span for simple spans. The computation of component stiffness shall be based on
the following assumed behavior:
• For flexural members use the gross moment of inertia.
• For truss members without perforated cover plates use the gross area.
• For truss members with perforated cover plates use the effective area.
The effective area shall be the gross area reduced by the area determined by dividing the volume of a perforation by the
distance center to center of perforations.
1

Steel Structures
b. The structure shall be so designed that the computed deflection shall not exceed 1/640 of the span length center to center
of bearings for simple spans.
c. Lateral deflection of the structure shall be limited such that the mid-ordinate of any 62 foot (19 m) chord shall not
exceed 3/8 inch (10 mm) for tangent track. On curved track, lateral deflection shall be limited to 1/4 inch (6 mm) as
measured on any 31 foot (9.5 meter) chord, and not more than 5/16 inch (8 mm) on any 62 foot (19 meter) chord.
The lateral deflection calculated is to be the maximum lateral deflection at track level due to all applicable lateral forces
and loads specified in Section 1.3 excepting those due to earthquake (seismic) or wind on unloaded bridges. The
maximum lateral deflection at track level shall be referenced to the point on a vertical plane below which lateral
deflection is restrained (i.e. base of structure, span bearings, bottom flange of girder; depending on the lateral deflection
being considered).
1.2.6 CLEARANCES (1995)1 R(2008)
a. The clearances on straight track shall be not less than those shown in Figure 15-1-1. On curved track, the lateral
clearance each side of track centerline shall be increased 1-1/2 inches per degree of curvature. When the fixed
obstruction is on tangent track, but the track is curved within 80 feet of the obstruction, the lateral clearance each side
of track centerline shall be increased as shown in Table 15-1-4.
b. Where legal requirements specify greater clearances, such requirements shall govern.
c. The superelevation of the outer rail shall be specified by the Engineer. The distance from the top of rail to the top of tie
shall be assumed as 8 inches, unless otherwise specified by the Engineer.
d. Where there are plans for electrification, the minimum vertical clearance shall be increased to that specified in Chapter
28, Clearances.
e. The clearances shown are for new construction. Clearances for reconstruction work or for alterations are dependent on
existing physical conditions and, where reasonably possible, should be improved to meet the requirements for new
construction.
1.2.7 DIMENSIONS FOR CALCULATIONS OF STRESSES (2004) R(2008)
a. For calculation purposes the distance between the center of rails shall be taken as 5’-0” for standard gage track.
1

Design
NOTE: See Article 1.2.6a for curve corrections.
Figure 15-1-1. Minimum Railway Bridge Clearances
Table 15-1-4. Curved Track Clearance Increases
Distance from Obstruction Increase per Degree 1

to Curved track in Feet of Curvature in Inches
0–21 1-1/2
21–40 1-1/8
41–60 3/4
61–80 3/8 3
b. The length of span or member shall be assumed as follows:
• For trusses and girders, the distance between centers of bearings.

4
• For truss members, the distance between centers of joints.
• For floorbeams, the distance between centers of trusses or girders.
• For stringers, the distance between centers of floorbeams.
c. The depth shall be assumed as follows:
• For trusses, the distance between gravity axes of chords.
1.2.8 SKEW BRIDGES (1994) R(2008)
At the ends of skew bridges, the ends of the supports for each track shall be perpendicular to the centerline of track.

Steel Structures
1.2.9 OPEN DECK BRIDGE TIES (1994) R(2008)
Timber bridge ties shall meet the requirements of Chapter 7, Timber Structures and be not less than 10 feet long and spaced
such that the gap between the ties is not more than 6 inches. They shall be secured against bunching and uplift.
1.2.10 CAMBER (1995) R(2008)
The camber of trusses shall be equal to the deflection produced by the dead load plus a live load of 3,000 lb per foot of track.
The camber of plate girders more than 90 feet in length shall be equal to the deflection produced by the dead load only. Plate
girders 90 feet or less in length and rolled beams need not be cambered.
1.2.11 NAMEPLATES (1995) R(2008)
An approved nameplate showing the name of the fabricator and the year of construction shall be attached to one end of each
span at a point convenient for inspection.
1.2.12 STEEL INNER GUARD RAILS AND GUARD TIMBERS (1995) R(2008)
Recommendations pertaining to the use of steel inner guard rails and guard timbers are contained in
Chapter 7, Timber Structures; Part 4, Construction and Maintenance of Timber Structures, Section 4.10, Use of Guard Rails
and Guard Timbers (2004).
1.2.13 PROVISION FOR EXPANSION (2008)
The design shall be such as to allow for the change in length of the spans resulting from change in temperature, at the
minimum rate of 1 inch in 100 feet. Provision shall be made for change in length of the span resulting from live load. In spans
more than 300 feet long, allowance shall be made for expansion of the floor system. For specific provisions for bearings, see
Part 5.
1.3.1 LOADS AND FORCES (1995) R(2008)
a. Bridges shall be proportioned for the following:
(1) Dead load.
(2) Live load.
(3) Impact load.
(4) Wind forces.
(5) Centrifugal force.
(6) Forces from continuous welded rail – See Part 8, Miscellaneous; Section 8.3, Anchorage of Decks and Rails on
Steel Bridges.
(7) Other lateral forces.

Design
(8) Longitudinal forces.
(9) Earthquake forces.
b. Member forces and stresses shall be shown separately on the stress sheet.
1.3.2 DEAD LOAD (1995) R(2008)
a. In estimating the weight for the purpose of computing dead load stresses, the unit weights found in Table 15-1-5 shall
be used.
Table 15-1-5. Unit Weights for Dead Load Stresses
Pounds per
Type
Cubic Foot
Steel 490
Concrete 150
Sand, gravel, and ballast 120
Asphalt-mastic and bituminous macadam 150
Granite 170
Paving bricks 150
Timber 60
1
b. The track rails, inside guard rails, and their rail fastenings shall be assumed to weigh 200 lb per linear foot for each
track.
1.3.3 LIVE LOAD (1995)1 R(2008)

3
a. The recommended live load in lb per axle and uniform trailing load for each track is the Cooper E 80 load shown in
Figure 15-1-2 or the Alternate Live Load on 4 axles spaced as shown in Figure 15-1-3, whichever produces the greater
stresses.
b. The Engineer shall specify the live load to be used, and such load shall be proportional to the recommended load, with
the same axle spacing.
4
c. For bridges on curves, provision shall be made for the increased proportion carried by any truss, girder, or stringer due
to the eccentricity of the load.
d. For members receiving load from more than one track, the design live load on the tracks shall be as follows:
• For two tracks, full live load on two tracks.
• For three tracks, full live load on two tracks and one-half on the other track.
• For four tracks, full live load on two tracks, one-half on one track, and one-quarter on the remaining one.
• For more than four tracks, as specified by the Engineer.
1

Steel Structures
• The selection of the tracks for these loads shall be such as will produce the greatest live load stress in the
member.
Figure 15-1-2. Cooper E 80 Load
Figure 15-1-3. Alternate Live Load on 4 Axles
1.3.4 DISTRIBUTION OF LIVE LOAD (1993)1 R(2008)
1.3.4.1 Open Deck Structures
a. Timber bridge ties shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 7, Timber Structures, based on the
assumption that the maximum wheel load on each rail is distributed equally to all ties or fractions thereof within a
length of 4 feet, but not to exceed 3 ties, and is applied without impact.
b. For the design of beams or girders, the live load shall be considered as a series of loads as shown in Figure 15-1-2 or
Figure 15-1-3. No longitudinal distribution of such loads shall be assumed.
c. Where two or more longitudinal beams per rail are properly diaphragmed, in accordance with Article 1.11.4, and
symmetrically spaced under the rail, they shall be considered as equally loaded.
1.3.4.2 Ballasted Deck Structures
1.3.4.2.1 Design
The designated lateral and longitudinal distribution of live load is based on the following assumptions:
1

Design
a. Standard ties shall be used which are not less than 8 feet long, approximately 8 inches wide, and spaced at not over 24
inches on centers. If another type of tie or greater spacing is used, the design shall be modified for the greater load
concentrations, or increased thickness of ballast used, or both.
b. Not less than 6 inches of ballast shall be provided under the ties.
c. The designated widths for lateral distribution of load shall not exceed 14 feet, the distance between track centers of
multiple track structures, nor the width of the deck between ballast retainers.
d. The effects of track eccentricity and of centrifugal force shall be included.
1.3.4.2.2 Deck
a. Each axle load shall be uniformly distributed longitudinally over a length of 3 feet plus the minimum distance from
bottom of tie to top of beams or girders, but not to exceed 5 feet nor the minimum axle spacing of the load system used.
b. In the lateral direction, the axle load shall be uniformly distributed over a width equal to the length of the tie plus the
minimum distance from bottom of tie to top of beams or girders.
c. The thickness of the deck shall not be less than 1/2 inch for steel plate, 3 inches for timber, or 6 inches for reinforced or
prestressed concrete.
d. Timber and concrete decks shall be designed in accordance with the applicable provisions of Chapter 7, Timber
Structures and Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations, respectively.
1
1.3.4.2.3 Transverse Steel Beams
a. For ballasted decks supported by transverse steel beams without stringers, the portion of the maximum axle load on
each beam shall be as follows:
1.15AD
P = ------------------- 3
S
⎛ ⎞
1 1 H
For moment: D = d ⎜ ----------------⎟ ⎛ 0.4 + --- + --------⎞
⎜ d⎠ ⎟ ⎝ d 12 ⎠
⎝ 1 + ------ -
aH
4
but not greater than d or S.
For end shear: D = d.
where:
P = load on a beam from one track

A = axle load
S = axle spacing, feet
d = beam spacing, feet
a = beam span, feet
n = the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete
Ib = moment of inertia of beam, inch4

Steel Structures
h = thickness of concrete deck slab, inches
nI b
H = -------3-
ah
D = effective beam spacing, feet
b. The load P shall be applied as two equal concentrated loads on each beam at each rail, equal to P/2. No lateral
distribution of such loads shall be assumed.
c. D = d for bridges without a concrete deck; or for bridges where the concrete slab extends over less than the center 75%
of the floorbeam.
d. Where d exceeds S, P shall be the maximum reaction of the axle loads, assuming that the deck between the beams acts
as a simple span.
e. For bridges with concrete decks, the slab shall be designed to carry its portion of the load.
1.3.4.2.4 Longitudinal Steel Beams or Girders
a. Where beams or girders are spaced symmetrically about the centerline of tangent track, the axle loads shall be
distributed equally to all beams or girders whose centroids are within a lateral width equal to the length of tie plus
twice the minimum distance from bottom of tie to top of beams or girders. Distribution of loads for other conditions
shall be determined by a recognized method of analysis.
b. For the design of beams or girders, the live load shall be considered as a series of loads as shown in Figure 15-1-2 or
Figure 15-1-3. No longitudinal distribution of such loads shall be assumed.
1.3.5 IMPACT LOAD (2007)1 R(2008)

a. Impact load, due to the sum of vertical effects (Paragraph c) and rocking effect (Paragraph d) created by passage of
locomotives and train loads, shall be determined by taking a percentage of the live load specified in Article 1.3.3 and
shall be applied vertically at top of each rail.
b. For open deck bridges the percentage of live load to be used shall be determined in accordance with Paragraph c and
Paragraph d below. For ballasted deck bridges the impact load to be used shall be 90% of that specified for open deck
bridges. These formulas do not cover direct fixation decks.
c. Impact load due to vertical effects, expressed as a percentage of live load applied at each rail, shall be determined by
the applicable formula below:
(1) Percentage of live load for rolling equipment without hammer blow (freight and passenger cars, and locomotives
other than steam):
2
3L
(a) For L less than 80 feet: 40 – ------------ .
1600
600
(b) For L 80 feet or more: 16 + --------------- .
L – 30
(2) Percentage of live load for steam locomotives with hammer blow:
1

Design
(a) For beam spans, stringers, girders, floorbeams, posts of deck truss spans carrying load from floorbeam only,
and floorbeam hangers:
2
L-
• For L less than 100 feet: 60 – -------- .
500
1800
• For L 100 feet or more: 10 + --------------- .
L – 40
4000
(b) For truss spans: 15 + ---------------- .
L + 25
where:
L = length, feet, center to center of supports for stringers, transverse floorbeams without stringers, longitudinal
girders and trusses (main members), or
L = length, feet, of the longer adjacent supported stringers, longitudinal beam, girder or truss for impact in
floorbeams, floorbeam hangers, subdiagonals of trusses, transverse girders, supports for longitudinal and
transverse girders and viaduct columns.
d. Impact load due to rocking effect, RE, is created by the transfer of load from the wheels on one side of a car or
locomotive to the other side from periodic lateral rocking of the equipment. RE shall be calculated from loads applied
as a vertical force couple, each being 20 percent of the wheel load without impact, acting downward on one rail and 1
upward on the other. The couple shall be applied on each track in the direction that will produce the greatest force in
the member under consideration.
e. For members receiving load from more than one track, the impact load shall be applied on the number of tracks
designated in Table 15-1-6.
3
Table 15-1-6. Impact Loads
Span Length, L Impact
Load Received From Two Tracks 4

For L less than 175 feet Full impact on two tracks
For L from 175 feet to 225 feet Full impact on one track and a percentage of
full impact on the other as given by the
formula,
450 – 2L
For L greater than 225 feet Full impact on one track and none on the
other
Load Received From More than Two Tracks
For all values of L Full impact on any two tracks that creates the
largest load effect

Steel Structures
1.3.6 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE (2002)1 R(2008)
a. On curves, a centrifugal force shall be applied horizontally through a point 8 feet above the top of rail measured along
a line perpendicular to the plane at top of rails and equidistant from them.
b. Where a maximum design speed is not specified by the Engineer, the centrifugal force shall correspond to 15 percent of
each axle load without impact. The superelevation of the outer rail used in determining the point of application of the
force shall be assumed as 6 inches.
c. Where the maximum design speed and superelevation are specified by the Engineer, the relationship among curvature,
speed, and superelevation shall be determined in accordance with Chapter 5, Track, Section 3.3, Elevations and Speeds
for Curves (1962), of this Manual. The resulting centrifugal force shall correspond to the percentage of each axle load,
without impact, determined by the following formula:
C = 0.00117S2D
where:
C = centrifugal factor, percent

S = speed, miles per hour
D = degree of curve (central angle of curve subtended by a chord of 100 ft.)
The superelevation of the outer rail used in determining the point of application of the force shall be as specified by the
Engineer.
d. On curves, each axle load on each track shall be applied vertically through the point defined above. Impact load shall
be applied as specified in Article 1.3.5.
e. On curves, the forces in a stringer, girder or truss toward the outside and inside of curve shall be determined separately,
and the greater section required shall be used on both sides. For members toward the outside of curve, the full impact
load of Article 1.3.5 and the centrifugal force as defined in Paragraph a shall apply. For members toward the inside of
curve, any effect of the centrifugal force shall be omitted.
1.3.7 WIND FORCES ON LOADED BRIDGE (2003)2 R(2008)
In general, the wind force shall be considered as a moving load acting in any horizontal direction. As a minimum, the bridge
shall be designed for laterally and longitudinally applied wind forces acting independently as follows:
a. On the train, the lateral wind force shall be taken at 300 lb. per linear foot applied normal to the train on one track at a
distance of 8 feet above top of rail.
b. On the bridge, lateral wind pressure shall be taken at 30 lb. per square foot normal to the following surfaces:
(1) For girder spans, 1.5 times the vertical projection of the span.
1
2

Design
(2) For truss spans, the vertical projection of the span plus any portion of leeward trusses not shielded by the floor
system.
(3) For viaduct towers and bents, the vertical projection of all windward and leeward columns and bracing.
c. The lateral wind force on girder and truss spans, however, shall not be taken as less than 200 lb. per foot for the loaded
chord or flange and 150 lb. per foot for the unloaded chord or flange, neglecting the wind force on the floor system.
d. The longitudinal wind force on spans shall be taken as:
(1) For girder spans, 25 percent of the lateral wind force.
(2) For truss spans, 50 percent of the lateral wind force.
(3) For viaduct towers and bents, 30 lb. per square foot on the vertical projection of all windward and leeward
columns and bracing.
1.3.8 WIND FORCES ON UNLOADED BRIDGE (2006)1 R(2008)
In general, the wind force shall be considered as a moving load acting in any horizontal direction. As a minimum, the bridge
shall be designed for laterally and longitudinally applied wind forces acting independently as follows:
a. The lateral wind force on the unloaded bridge shall be taken as 50 lb per square foot of surface as defined in 1
Article 1.3.7b.
b. The longitudinal wind force on the unloaded spans shall be taken as:
(1) For girder spans, 25 percent of the lateral wind force.
(2) For truss spans, 50 percent of the lateral wind force. 3

(3) For viaduct towers and bents, 50 lb per square foot on the vertical projection of all windward and leeward columns
and bracing.
1.3.9 LATERAL FORCES FROM EQUIPMENT (1993) R(2008)
a. A single moving concentrated lateral force equal to one-quarter of the weight of the heaviest axle of the specified live
4
load, without impact, shall be applied at the base of rail in either direction and at any point along the span in addition to
the other lateral forces specified (Reference 20). On spans supporting multiple tracks, the force shall be applied on one
track only.
b. The only resulting stresses to be considered are axial stresses in members bracing the flanges of stringer, beam and
girder spans, axial stresses in the chords of truss spans and in members of cross frames of such spans, and stresses from
lateral bending of flanges of longitudinal flexural members having no bracing system. The effects of lateral bending
between braced points of flanges, axial forces in flanges, vertical forces and forces transmitted to bearings shall be
disregarded.
1

Steel Structures
1.3.10 STABILITY CHECK (2005)1 R(2008)
a. In calculating the stability of spans and towers, the live load on one track shall be 1,200 lb per linear foot applied
without impact. On multiple track bridges, this live load shall be on the leeward track.
b. For beam and girder deck spans requiring lateral bracing in accordance with Article 1.11.2 an eccentric load is to be
applied as a check to cross frames, diaphragms and anchor rods only. This is in addition to the requirements of
Article 1.11.4. The permissible maximum resulting stress in these elements is to be 1.5 times that listed in Section 1.4.
This check is not required on floor systems and anchor rods of through truss spans and through girder spans.
A single line of wheel loads (Q) equal to the design load per rail (Article 1.3.3) including full design impact is to be
applied at an eccentricity of 5 feet from the centerline of track as shown in Figure 15-1-4, but no further than the edge
of the deck or, for open decks, the bridge ties.
Figure 15-1-4. Location of Eccentric Load
1.3.11 BRACING BETWEEN COMPRESSION MEMBERS (2000) R(2008)
The lateral bracing of the compression chords or flanges of trusses, deck girders and through girders and between the posts of
viaduct towers shall be proportioned for a transverse shear force in any panel equal to 2.5% of the total axial force in both
members in that panel, in addition to the shear force from the specified lateral loads.
1.3.12 LONGITUDINAL FORCES (2005)2 R(2008)

a. The longitudinal force for E-80 loading shall be taken as the larger of:
Force due to braking, as prescribed by the following equation, acting 8 feet (2500 mm) above top of rail:
Longitudinal braking force (kips) = 45 + 1.2 L

(Longitudinal braking force (kN) = 200 + 17.5 L)
1
2

Design
Force due to traction, as prescribed by the following equation, acting 3 feet (900 mm) above top of rail:
Longitudinal traction force (kips) = 25 L
(Longitudinal traction force (kN) = 200 L )
where:
L is length in feet (meters) of the portion of the bridge under consideration.
For design loads other than E-80, these forces shall be scaled proportionally. The points of force application shall
not be changed.
b. The longitudinal force shall be distributed to the various components of the supporting structure, taking into account
their relative stiffness. The soil resistance of the backfill behind the abutments shall be utilized where applicable. The
mechanisms (rail, bearings, load transfer devices, etc.) available to transfer the force to the various components shall
also be considered.
1
c. For multiple track structures, longitudinal forces shall be applied as per Article 1.3.3d.
1.3.13 FATIGUE (2013)1

a. Members and connections subjected to repeated fluctuations of stress shall meet the fatigue requirements of this article
as well as the strength requirements of Section 1.4, Basic Allowable Stresses.
3
b. The major factors governing fatigue strength at a particular location of a member or connection are the number of
stress cycles, the magnitude of the stress range, and the relevant Fatigue Detail Category.
c. The number of stress cycles, N, to be considered shall be selected from Table 15-1-7, unless traffic surveys or other
considerations indicate otherwise, N depends on the span length in the case of longitudinal members, and on the
number of tracks in the case of floorbeams, hangers, and certain truss members.
4
d. Mean Impact Load shall be taken as the Table 15-1-8 percentages of the impact load specified in Article 1.3.5.
e. The live load for fatigue design is specified in Article 1.3.3.
f. The stress range, SR, is defined as the algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum calculated stress due
to dead load, live load, mean impact load, and centrifugal load. Where live load, impact load and centrifugal load result
in compressive stresses and the dead load stress is compression, fatigue need not be considered. The stress range, SR,
shall be computed on the basis of the effective net area or the effective gross area as defined in Article 1.6.6.
g. Examples of various construction details are illustrated and categorized in Table 15-1-9.
h. The stress range shall not exceed the allowable fatigue stress range. SRfat, listed in Table 15-1-10.
1

Steel Structures
i. The prime focus on Fracture Critical Members must be on quality of the material and fabrication. Using low fatigue
resistant details should be avoided. Detail Category E and E’ details shall not be used on fracture critical members, and
Detail Category D details shall be discouraged and used only with caution.
j. For span lengths exceeding 300 feet, a special analysis of the number of relevant cycles is required (see Part 9,
Commentary).
Table 15-1-7. Number of Stress Cycles, N
Span Length, L of Flexural

Constant Stress
Member Description Member or Truss or Load
Cycles, N
Condition
Classification I
Longitudinal flexural members and L > 100 feet 2,000,000
their connections. Truss chord L ≤ 100 feet > 2,000,000
members including end posts, and
their connections
Classification II
Floorbeams and their connections. Two Tracks Loaded 2,000,000
Truss hangers and sub-diagonals that One Track Loaded > 2,000,000
carry floorbeam reactions only, and
their connections. Truss web
members and their connections.
Note: This table is based on bridges designed for the live loading specified in Article 1.3.13e. For
bridges designed for other live loadings see Part 9, Commentary, Article 9.1.3.13.
k. Load paths that are sufficiently rigid to transmit all forces shall be provided by connecting all transverse members to
appropriate components comprising the cross-section of the longitudinal member to deal with distortion-induced
fatigue. To control web buckling and elastic flexing of the web, the provision of Article 1.7.3 must be satisfied.
Table 15-1-8. Assumed Mean Impact Load Percentages
Member Percentage
Members with loaded Lengths
≤ 10 feet (3m) and no load sharing 65%
Hangers 40%
Other Truss members 65%
Beams, Stringers, Girders and Floor Beams 35%
Note: Where bridges are designed for operation of trains handling a large percentage
of cars with flat or out of round wheels which increase impact and/or poor track
which increases impact, and the loaded length of the member is less than 80 feet
(24m), the mean impact should be 100% of the design impact.

Design
1.3.13.1 High Strength Bolts Subjected to Tensile Fatigue Loading
Fully pretensioned high strength bolts subjected to tensile fatigue loading shall be designed for the combined external load and
prying force using the following allowable tensile stress ranges:
A 325 Bolts in axial tension: 31,000 psi on the tensile stress area (see Table 15-1-9, section 8.2) at the threads
A 490 Bolts in axial tension: 38,000 psi on the tensile stress area (see Table 15-1-9, section 8.2) at the threads
In no case shall the prying force exceed 20% of the total externally applied load.
1.3.13.2 Anchor Bolts Subject to Tensile Fatigue Loading1
Anchor bolts at locations where the bolts will be subject to fluctuating tensile stress calculated on the tensile stress area shall
be designed to transfer the applied forces. All anchor bolts in the bolt pattern resisting tension from the applicable horizontal
and vertical live load forces shall be designed for fatigue in accordance with Table 15-1-9, Section 8 for the allowable fatigue
stress range limit of 7 ksi. After the grout pad is completed, anchor bolts intended for resistance to uplift shall be pretensioned
to a minimum of 0.8 Fy but need not be more than 100 kips unless calculations by the Engineer indicate a need for a higher
pretension force. The pretension shall also be sufficient to ensure that separation from the grout pad will not occur.
Anchor bolts shall be ASTM F1554, Grade 55 or Grade 105. See Commentary for discussion of stainless steel for anchor
bolts.
1

Steel Structures
Table 15-1-9. Detail Categories for Load Induced Fatigue
Potential
Constant Threshold
Crack
Description Category A SRfat Illustrative Examples
Initiation
(ksi3) (Ksi)
Point
SECTION 1 - PLAIN MATERIAL AWAY FROM ANY WELDING
1.1 Base metal, except non- A 250 x 108 24 Away from all
coated weathering steel, with welds or
rolled or cleaned surfaces. structural
Flame-cut edges with surface connections
roughness value of 1,000 μ-
in. or less, but without re-
entrant corners.
1.2 Non-coated weathering B 120 x 108 16 Away from all

steel base metal with rolled or welds or
cleaned surfaces detailed in structural
accordance with connections
(Reference 44). Flame-cut
edges with surface roughness
value of 1,000 μ-in. or less,
but without re-entrant
corners.
1.3 Member with re-entrant C 44 x 108 10 At any

corners at copes or other external edge
geometrical discontinuities
made to the requirements of
AASHTO/AWS D1.5, except
weld access holes. A 1 inch
minimum radius shall be
provided at any cope.
1.4 Rolled cross sections with C 44 x 108 10 In the base

weld access holes made to the metal at the
requirements of edge of the
AASHTO/AWS D1.5, Article access hole.
3.2.4. A 1 inch minimum
radius shall be provided at
any cope.
1.5 Open fastener holes in D 22 x 108 7 In the net

members (Reference 30). section
originating at
the side of the
hole

Design
Table 15-1-9. Detail Categories for Load Induced Fatigue (Continued)
Potential
Constant Threshold
Crack
Initiation
(ksi3) (Ksi)
Point
SECTION 2 - CONNECTED MATERIAL IN MECHANICAL FASTENED JOINTS
2.1 Base metal at the gross B 120 x 108 16 Through the
section of high-strength gross section
bolted joints designed as slip- near the hole
critical connections; i.e., with
pre-tensioned high-strength
bolts installed - e.g. bolted
flange and web splices,
bolted stiffeners, bolted
lateral bracing members and
bolted lateral connection
plates.
2.2 Base metal at the net B 120 x 108 16 In the net

section of high-strength section
bolted joints designed as originating at
bearing-type connections, but the side of the 1
fabricated and installed to all hole
requirements for slip-critical
connections; i.e., with pre-
tensioned high strength bolts
installed.
3
2.3 Base metal at the net D 22 x 108 7 In the net
section of all bolted section
connections in hot dipped originating at
galvanized members the side of the
(Reference 30, 141), and at hole
the net section of other 4
mechanically fastened joints,
except for eyebars and pin
plates; e.g., joints using A
307 bolts, rivets, or non pre-
tensioned high strength bolts.
2.4 Base metal at the net E 11 x 108 4.5 In the net

section of eyebar heads or pin section
plates (Note: for base metal originating at
in the shank of eyebars or the side of the
through the gross section of hole
pin plates, see Condition 1.1
or 1.2, as applicable).

Steel Structures
Potential
Constant Threshold
Crack
Initiation
(ksi3) (Ksi)
Point
SECTION 3 - WELDED JOINTS JOINING COMPONENTS OF BUILT-UP MEMBERS
3.1 Base metal and weld B 120 x 108 16 From surface or
metal in members without internal
attachments built-up of plates discontinuities in
the weld away
or shapes connected by
from the end of
continuous longitudinal the weld
complete joint penetration
groove welds back-gouged
and welded from the second
side, or by continuous fillet
welds parallel to the direction
of applied stress.
3.2 Base metal and weld B’ 61 x 108 12 From surface or
metal in members without internal
attachments built-up of plates discontinuities in
the weld,
or shapes connected by
including weld
continuous longitudinal attaching
complete joint penetration backing bars
groove welds with backing
bars not removed, or by
continuous partial joint
penetration groove welds
parallel to the direction of
applied stress.
3.3 Base metal and weld D 22 x 108 7 From the weld

metal at the termination of termination
longitudinal welds at weld into the web
access holes made to the or flange.
requirements of
AASHTO/AWS D1.5, Article
3.2.4 in built-up members.
(Note: does not include the
flange butt splice).
3.4 Base metal and weld B 120 x 108 16 From surface or
metal in partial length welded internal
cover plates connected by discontinuities in
the weld away
continuous fillet welds
from the end of
parallel to the direction of the weld
applied stress.

Design
Potential
Constant Threshold
Crack
Initiation
(ksi3) (Ksi)
Point
SECTION 3 - WELDED JOINTS JOINING COMPONENTS OF BUILT-UP MEMBERS
3.5 Base metal at the In the flange
termination of partial length at the toe of
welded cover plates having the end weld
square or tapered ends that or in the
are narrower than the flange, flange at the
with or without welds across termination of
the ends, or cover plates that the
are wider than the flange with longitudinal
welds across the ends: weld or in the
edge of the
flange with
wide cover
plates
Flange thickness < 0.8 in. E 8 4.5
11 x 10
Flange thickness > 0.8 in. E’ 3.9 x 108 2.6

1
3.6 Base metal at the B 120 x 108 16 In the flange

termination of partial length at the
welded cover plates with slip- termination of
critical bolted end the
connections designed to longitudinal 3
transfer the full strength of weld
the cover plate.
3.7 Base metal at the E’ 3.9 x 108 2.6 In the edge of

termination of partial length the flange at
welded cover plates that are the end of the
wider than the flange and cover plate
without welds across the weld
ends.

Steel Structures
Potential
Constant Threshold
Crack
Initiation
(ksi3) (Ksi)
Point
SECTION 4 - WELDED STIFFENER CONNECTIONS
4.1 Base metal at the toe of C’ 44 x 108 12 Initiating from
transverse stiffener-to-flange the geometrical
fillet welds and transverse discontinuity at
stiffener-to-web fillet welds. the toe of the
fillet weld
(Note: includes similar welds
extending into
on bearing stiffeners and
the base metal
connection plates.)
4.2 Base metal and weld B 120 x 108 16 From the surface
metal in longitudinal web or or internal
longitudinal box - flange discontinuities in
the weld away
stiffeners connected by
from the end of
continuous fillet welds the weld
applied stress.
4.3 Base metal at the

termination of longitudinal
stiffener-to-web or
longitudinal stiffener-to-box
flange welds:
With the stiffener attached by In the primary

fillet welds and with no member at the
transition radius provided at end of the
the termination: weld at the
weld toe
Stiffener thickness < 1.0 in. E 11 x 108 4.5
Stiffener thickness > 1.0 in. E’ 3.9 x 108 2.6
With the stiffener attached by

welds and with a transition
radius R provided at the
termination with the weld
termination ground smooth:
R > 24 in. B 120 x 108 16 In the primary

24 in. > R > 6 in. C 44 x 108 10 member near
6 in. > R > 2 in. D 22 x 108 7 the point of
2 in. > R E 11 x 108 4.5 tangency of
the radius.

Design
Potential
Constant Threshold
Crack
Initiation
(ksi3) (Ksi)
Point
SECTION 5 - WELDED JOINTS TRANSVERSE TO THE DIRECTION OF PRIMARY STRESS
5.1 Base metal and weld From internal
metal in or adjacent to discontinuities in
complete joint penetration the filler metal or
along the fusion
groove welded butt splices,
boundary or at
with weld soundness the start of the
established by NDT and with transition
welds ground smooth and
flush parallel to the direction
of stress. Transitions in
thickness or width shall be
made on a slope no greater
than 1:2.5.
Fy < 100 ksi B 120 x 108 16
Fy > 100 ksi B’ 61 x 108 12 1

5.2 Base metal and weld B 120 x 108 16 From internal
metal in or adjacent to discontinuities in
complete joint penetration the filler metal or
discontinuities
groove welded butt splices,
along the fusion
with weld soundness boundary
established by NDT and with
welds ground parallel to the 3
direction of stress at
transitions in width made on
a radius of not less than 2 ft
with the point of tangency at
the end of the groove weld.
4
5.3 Base metal and weld C 44 x 108 10 From the
metal in or adjacent to the toe surface
of complete joint penetration discontinuity at
groove welded T or corner the toe of the
weld extending
joints, or in complete joint
into the base
penetration groove welded
metal along the
butt splices, with or without fusion boundary
transitions in thickness
having slopes no greater than
1:2.5 when weld
reinforcement is not
removed. (Note: cracking in
the flange of the ‘T’ may
occur due to out-of-plane
bending stresses induced by
the stem.)

Steel Structures
Potential
Constant Threshold
Crack
Initiation
(ksi3) (Ksi)
Point
SECTION 5 - WELDED JOINTS TRANSVERSE TO THE DIRECTION OF PRIMARY STRESS
5.4 Base metal and weld C or as 44 x 108 10 Initiating from
metal at details where loaded adjusted by the geometrical
discontinuous plate elements Note 4 discontinuity at
are connected with a pair of the toe of the
weld extending
fillet welds or partial joint
into the base
penetration groove welds on
metal, or
opposite sides of the plate initiating at the
normal to the direction of weld root
primary stress. subject to
tension
extending up
and then out
through the
weld.
SECTION 6 - TRANSVERSELY LOADED WELDED ATTACHMENTS

6.1 Base metal in a Near point of
longitudinally loaded tangency of the
component at a transversely radius at the
loaded detail (e.g. a lateral edge of the
longitudinally
connection plate) attached by
loaded
a weld parallel to the
component
direction of primary stress
and incorporating a transition
radius R with the weld
termination ground smooth.
See Notes 1 & 2.
R > 24 in. B 120 x 108 16
24 in. > R > 6 in. C 44 x 108 10
6 in. > R > 2 in. D 22 x 108 7
2 in. > R E 11 x 108 4.5
With the weld termination

not ground smooth: E 11 x 108 4.5
(Note: Condition 6.2, 6.3 or

6.4, as applicable, shall also
be checked.)

Design
Potential
Constant Threshold
Crack
Initiation
(ksi3) (Ksi)
Point
6.2 Base metal in a
transversely loaded detail
(e.g. a lateral connection
plate) attached to a
longitudinally loaded
component of equal thickness
by a complete joint
penetration groove weld
primary stress and
incorporating a transition
radius R, with weld
soundness established by
NDT and with the weld
1
With the weld reinforcement Near points of
removed: tangency of the
radius or in the
weld or at the
fusion boundary
R > 24 in. B 120 x 108 16 of the 3
24 in. > R > 6 in. C 44 x 108 10 longitudinally
6 in. > R > 2 in. D 22 x 108 7 loaded
component or
2 in. > R E 11 x 108 4.5
the transversely
loaded
attachment
4
With the weld reinforcement At the toe of the
not removed: weld either
along the edge
of the
longitudinally
loaded
R > 24 in. C 44 x 108 10
component or
24 in. > R > 6 in. C 44 x 108 10
the transversely
6 in. > R > 2 in. D 22 x 108 7
loaded
2 in. > R E 11 x 108 4.5 attachment
(Note: Condition 6.1 shall

also be checked.)

Steel Structures
Potential
Constant Threshold
Crack
Initiation
(ksi3) (Ksi)
Point
6.3 Base metal in a At the toe of the
transversely loaded detail weld along the
(e.g. lateral connection plate) edge of the
attached to a longitudinally thinner plate
loaded component of unequal
In the weld
thickness by a complete joint
termination of
penetration groove weld small radius
parallel to the direction of weld transitions
primary stress and
incorporating a weld At the toe of the
transition radius R, with weld weld along the
soundness established by edge of the
NDT and with the weld thinner plate
With the weld reinforcement

removed:
R > 2 in. D 22 x 108 7
R < 2 in. E 11 x 108 4.5
For any weld transition radius

with the weld reinforcement
not removed:
E 11 x 108 4.5

also be checked.)
6.4 Base metal in a See

transversely loaded detail Condition
(e.g. a lateral connection 5.4
plate) attached to a
longitudinally loaded
component by a fillet weld or
a partial joint penetration
groove weld, with the weld
primary stress

also be checked.)

Design
Potential
Constant Threshold
Crack
Initiation
(ksi3) (Ksi)
Point
SECTION 7 - LONGITUDINALLY LOADED WELDED ATTACHMENTS
7.1 Base metal in a In the primary
longitudinally loaded member at the
component at a detail with a end of the
length L in the direction of weld at the
the primary stress and a weld toe
thickness t attached by
groove or fillet welds parallel
or transverse to the direction
of primary stress where the
detail incorporates no
transition radius:
See Notes 1 & 2.
L < 2 in. C 44 x 108 10

2 in. < L < 12t or 4 in. D 22 x 108 7
L > 12t or 4 in. 1
t < 1.0 in. E 11 x 108 4.5
t > 1.0 in. E’ 8 2.6
3.9 x 10
SECTION 8 - MISCELLANEOUS
8.1 Base metal at stud-type C 44 x 108 10 At the toe of
shear connectors attached by the weld in the
fillet or automatic stud base metal 3
welding
8.2 Non pretensioned high- At the root of

strength bolts, common bolts, the threads
threaded anchor rods and extending into 4
hanger rods with cut, ground the tensile
or rolled threads. Use the stress area
stress range acting on the
tensile stress area due to live
load plus prying action when
applicable.
Finite Life E’ 3.9 x 108 N/A
Infinite Life D N/A 7

Steel Structures
Potential
Constant Threshold
Crack
Initiation
(ksi3) (Ksi)
Point
Notes
1. Transversely loaded partial penetration groove welds are prohibited except as permitted in Article 1.7.4.
2. Gusset plates attached to girder flange surfaces with only transverse fillet welds are prohibited.
3. The Detail Constant ‘A’ can be used to calculate the fatigue life of the detail (N) for any stress range less than the SRfat
using the relationship: N = (A)/(SRfat)3.
4. The nominal fatigue resistance for base metal and weld metal at details where loaded discontinuous plate elements are
connected with a pair of fillet welds or partial joint penetration groove welds on opposite sides of the plate normal to the
direction of primary stress shall be taken as:
Where:
SRC Constant amplitude fatigue limit of 10 ksi for category C
SR allowable design stress range
tp thickness of the loaded plate (in)
w the leg size of the reinforcement or contour fillet if any in the direction of the thickness of the loaded plate (in)
2a the length of the non-welded root face in the direction of the thickness of the loaded plate (in). For fillet welded
connections, the quantity (2a/tp) shall be taken as 1.0.
Table 15-1-10. Allowable Fatigue Stress Range, SRfat (ksi)

(See Notes 1 and 2)
No. of Constant Stress Cycles

Detail Category
2,000,000 Over 2,000,000
A 24 24
B 18 16
B′ 14.5 12
C 13 10
C’ 13 12
D 10 7Note 3

Design
Table 15-1-10. Allowable Fatigue Stress Range, SRfat (ksi)

(See Notes 1 and 2) (Continued)
No. of Constant Stress Cycles

Detail Category
2,000,000 Over 2,000,000
E 8 4.5
E′ 5.8 2.6
F 9 8
Note 1: This Table is based on bridges designed for live loading specified in
Article 1.3.13e. For bridges designed for other live loadings see Part 9,
Commentary, Article 9.1.3.13.
Note 2: For Fracture Critical Members, See Article 1.3.13i
Note 3: For base metal in members with riveted or bolted connections with low
slip resistance, use the variable amplitude stress range of 6.
1.3.14 COMBINED STRESSES (2005)1 R(2013)
1.3.14.1 Axial Compression and Bending
Members subject to both axial compression and bending stresses shall be proportioned to satisfy the following requirements:
f
when ----a- ≤ 0.15
1
Fa
f f b1 f b2
----a- + -------
- + -------- ≤ 1.0
F a F b1 F b2
3
f
when ----a- > 0.15
Fa
f f b1 f b2
----a- + ------------------------------------------------------------------ - ≤ 1.0
- + ------------------------------------------------------------------
Fa fa k l 2 f k l 2
F b1 1 – ----------------------- ⎛ --------- 1 1⎞
- F b2 1 – ----------------------- a ⎛ ---------
2 2⎞
- 4
2 ⎝ r ⎠ 2 ⎝ r ⎠
0.514π E 1 0.514π E 2
and, in addition, at points braced in the planes of bending,
fa f b1 f b2
---------------- - + -------- ≤ 1.0
+ -------
0.55F y F b1 F b2
where:
E = modulus of elasticity of the material

Fy = yield point of the material as specified in Table 15-1-1
1

Steel Structures
Fa = axial stress that would be permitted if axial force alone existed

Fb1 and Fb2 = compressive bending stress about axes 1–1 and 2–2, respectively, that would be permitted if
bending alone existed
fa = calculated axial stress
fb1 and fb2 = calculated compressive bending stress about axes 1–1 and 2–2, respectively, at the point under
consideration
k1 l1 k2 l2
- = ratios of the effective length in inches to the radius of gyration in inches, of the compression
---------- and ---------
r1 r2 member about axes 1–1 and 2–2, respectively
1.3.14.2 Axial Tension and Bending
Members subject to both axial tension and bending stresses shall be proportioned so that the total of the axial tensile stress and
the bending tensile stresses about both axes shall not exceed the values indicated in Table 15-1-11. The compressive stress, if
any, resulting from combining the compressive stress with respect to either axis and the minimum simultaneous axial tension
stress shall not exceed the value indicated by Table 15-1-11 for compression in the extreme fibers of flexural members.
1.3.14.3 Allowable Stresses for Combinations of Loads or Wind Forces Only
a. Members subject to stresses resulting from dead load, live load, impact load and centrifugal force shall be designed so
that the maximum stresses do not exceed the basic allowable stresses of Section 1.4, Basic Allowable Stresses, and the
stress range does not exceed the allowable fatigue stress range of Article 1.3.13.
b. The basic allowable stresses of Section 1.4, Basic Allowable Stresses shall be used in the proportioning of members
subject to stresses resulting from wind forces only, as specified in Article 1.3.8.
c. Members, except floorbeam hangers, which are subject to stresses resulting from longitudinal forces and/or lateral
forces other than centrifugal force may be proportioned for stresses 25% greater than those permitted by paragraph a.
However, the section of the member shall not be less than that required to meet the provisions of paragraph a or
paragraph b alone.
d. Increase in allowable stress permitted by paragraph c shall not be applied to allowable stress in high strength bolts.
1.3.15 SECONDARY STRESSES (1994)1 R(2008)
The design and details shall be such that secondary stresses will be as small as practicable. Secondary stresses due to truss
distortion usually need not be considered in any member the width of which, measured parallel to the plane of distortion, is
less than one-tenth of its length. If the secondary stress exceeds 4,000 psi for tension members and 3,000 psi for compression
members, the excess shall be treated as a primary stress.
1.3.16 PROPORTIONING OF TRUSS WEB MEMBERS (2004)2 R(2010)
Web members and their connections shall be proportioned such that an increase in the specified live load that will increase the
total stress in the most highly stressed chord by one-third will produce total stresses in the web members and their connections
not greater than one and one-third times the allowable stresses.
1
2

Design
1.3.17 EARTHQUAKE FORCES (1994) R(2008)
Members and connections subjected to earthquake forces shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 9,
Seismic Design for Railway Structures.
SECTION 1.4 BASIC ALLOWABLE STRESSES
The basic allowable stresses to be used in proportioning the parts of a bridge shall be as specified below. When the allowable
stress is expressed in terms of Fy , Fy = yield point of the material as specified in Table 15-1-1. Fu = lowest ultimate strength
of the material as specified in Table 15-1-1.
1.4.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL, RIVETS, BOLTS AND PINS (2011)1
See Table 15-1-11.
1

Steel Structures
Table 15-1-11. Structural Steel, Rivets, Bolts and Pins
Stress Area Pounds per square inch

Axial tension, structural steel, gross section 0.55Fy
Axial tension, structural steel, effective net area (See Articles 1.5.8 and 1.6.5) 0.47Fu
Axial tension, structural steel, effective net area at cross-section of pin hole of pin 0.45Fy
connected members
Tension in floorbeam hangers, including bending, gross section:
Using rivets in end connections 0.40Fy
Using high strength bolts in end connections 0.55Fy
Tension in floorbeam hangers, including bending, effective net area at cross-section of 0.45Fy
pin hole of pin connected members
Tension in floorbeam hangers, including bending, on effective net section: 0.50Fu
Tension in extreme fibers of rolled shapes, girders and built-up sections, subject to
bending, net section 0.55Fy
Tension on fasteners, including the effect of prying action:
A325 bolts, gross section 44,000
A490 bolts, gross section 54,000
Axial compression, gross section:
For stiffeners of beams and girders See Article 1.7.7c
For splice material 0.55Fy
For compression members centrally loaded,
when kl ⁄ r ≤ 0.629 ⁄ Fy ⁄ E 0.55Fy
F 3 ⁄ 2 kl
0.60F y – ⎛ 17, 500 -----y⎞ -----
when 0.629 ⁄ F y ⁄ E < kl ⁄ r < 5.034 ⁄ Fy ⁄ E ⎝ E⎠ r
2
when kl ⁄ r ≥ 5.034 ⁄ 0.514π E
Fy ⁄ E -----------------------
2
( kl ⁄ r )
where:
kl is the effective length of the compression member, inches, under usual
conditions
k = 7/8 for members with pin-end connections,
k = 3/4 for members with riveted, bolted or welded end connections,
k to be evaluated for each gusset plate on the effective width, Lw,
(See Commentary Figure 15-9-5),
and
r is the applicable radius of gyration of the compression member, inches.
Compression in extreme fibers of I-type members subjected to loading perpendicular to
the web 0.55Fy

Design
Table 15-1-11. Structural Steel, Rivets, Bolts and Pins (Continued)

Compression in extreme fibers of flexural members symmetrical about the principal axis
2
in the plane of the web (other than box-type flexural members) that are rolled beams 0.55 ( F y ) ⎛ l ⎞ 2
0.55F y – ------------------------
- ----
or welded built-up members with solid rectangular flanges, the larger of the values ⎝ ⎠
6.3π E r y
2
computed by the following formulas.
where: l = distance between points of lateral support for the compression flange, or
inches.
0.131πE
-------------------------------------
ry = minimum radius of gyration of the compression flange and that portion of
( ld 1 + μ ) ⁄ A f
the web area on the compression side of the axis of bending, about an axis
in the plane of the web, inch. but not to exceed 0.55Fy
Af = area of the smaller flange excluding any portion of the web, inch2.
d = overall depth of the member, inches.
Compression in extreme fibers of standard rolled channels.
0.131πE
-------------------------------------
( ld 1 + μ ) ⁄ A f
but not to exceed 0.55Fy
2
Compression in extreme fibers of riveted or bolted built-up flexural members 0.55F l 2
symmetrical about the principal axis in the plane of the web (other than box-type 0.55F y – -----------------y ⎛ ----⎞
2 ⎝ ⎠
flexural members) 6.3π E r y
Compression in extreme fibers of box type welded, riveted or bolted flexural members 1
symmetrical about the principal axis midway between the webs and whose 2
0.55F y ⎛ l⎞ 2
proportions meet the provisions of Article 1.6.1 and Article 1.6.2 0.55F y – ----------------- -
2 ⎝ r⎠ e
6.3π E
where (l/r)e is the effective slenderness ratio of the box type flexural member as
1.105πlS x Σs ⁄ t
determined by the following formula: -----------------------------------------
-
Iy 3
A -----------------
(1 + μ)
where:
l = distance between points of lateral support for the compression flange,
inches.
Sx= Section modulus of the box type member about its major axis, inch3
A= total area enclosed within the center lines of the box type member webs
and flanges, inch2
4
s/t = ratio of width of any flange or depth of web component to its thickness.
(Neglect any portion of the flange which projects beyond the box section.)
Iy= moment of inertia of the box type member about its minor axis, inch4
Diagonal tension in webs of girders and rolled beams at sections where maximum shear 0.55Fy
and bending occur simultaneously
Stress in extreme fibers of pins 0.83Fy
Shear in webs of rolled beams and plate girders, gross section 0.35Fy
Shear in A 325 bolts (slip critical connection) 17,000 (Note 1)
Shear in A 490 bolts (slip critical connection) 21,000 (Note 1)
Shear in power driven A 502 Grade 1 rivets 13,500
Shear in power driven A 502 Grade 2 rivets 20,000
Shear in hand driven A 502 Grade 1 rivets 11,000

Steel Structures
Table 15-1-11. Structural Steel, Rivets, Bolts and Pins (Continued)

Shear in pins 0.42Fy
Bearing on power driven A 502 Grade 1 rivets,
in single shear 27,000
in double shear 36,000
Bearing on power driven A 502 Grade 2 rivets, on material with a yield point of Fy
in single shear 0.75Fy
but not to exceed 40,000
in double shear Fy
(Rivets driven by pneumatically or electrically operated hammers are considered power
driven.)
Bearing on hand driven A 502 Grade 1 rivets 20,000
Bearing on pins 0.75Fy
Fy = yield point of the material on which the pin bears, or of the pin material, as
specified in Table 15-1-1 whichever is less
Bearing on A 325 and A 490 bolts LF u (Note 2)
where: ---------or 1.2F u
L = Distance, inches, measured in the line of force from the center line of a bolt 2d
to the nearest edge of an adjacent bolt or to the end of the connected part
toward which the force is directed. (whichever is smaller)
d = Diameter of bolts, inch.
Fu = lowest specified minimum tensile strength of the connected part, psi, as
specified in Table 15-1-1.
Bearing on milled stiffeners and other steel parts in contact 0.83Fy
Bolts Subjected to Combined Tension and Shear Fv ≤ Sa (1 – ftAb/Tb)
where:
Fv = Allowable shear stress, reduced due to combined stress, psi
Sa = Allowable shear stress, when loaded in shear only, psi
ft = Average tensile stress due to direct load, psi
Ab = Nominal bolt area, inch2
Tb = Minimum tension of installed bolts, Table 15-1-12, lb
Note 1: Applicable for surfaces with clean mill scale free of oil, paint, lacquer or other coatings and loose oxide for standard
size holes as specified in Part 3, Fabrication, Article 3.2.5. Where the Engineer has specified special treatment of
surfaces or other than standard holes in a slip-critical connection, the allowable stresses in Table 15-1-11a. may be
used if approved by the Engineer.
Note 2: For single bolt in line of force or connected materials with long slotted holes, 1.0 Fu is the limit. A value of
allowable bearing pressure Fp on the connected material at a bolt greater than permitted can be justified provided
deformation around the bolt hole is not a design consideration and adequate pitch and end distance L are provided
according to F p = LF u ⁄ 2d ≤ 1.5F u

Design
Table 15-1-11a. Allowable Stress for Slip-Critical Connections (Slip Load per Unit of Bolt Area, psi)
Hole Type and Direction of Applied Application

Contact Surface Any Direction Transverse Parallel
of Bolted Parts
Standard Oversize and Long Slot Long Slot
Short Slot
A325 A490 A325 A490 A325 A490 A325 A490
Class A (Slip Coefficient 0.33)
Clean mill scale and blast-cleaned surfaces 17,000 21,000 15,000 18,000 12,000 15,000 10,000 13,000
with Class A coatings
(Note 1), (Note 2)
Class B (Slip Coefficient 0.50)
Blast-cleaned surfaces and blast-cleaned 28,000 34,000 24,000 29,000 20,000 24,000 17,000 20,000
surfaces with Class B coatings (Note 1),
(Note 2)
Class C (Slip Coefficient 0.40)
Hot-dip Galvanized and roughened surfaces 22,000 27,000 19,000 23,000 16,000 19,000 14,000 16,000
(Note 3)
Note 1: Coatings classified as Class A or Class B include those coatings which provide a mean slip coefficient not less than
0.33 or 0.50, respectively, as determined by Testing Method to Determine the Slip Coefficient for Coatings Used in Bolt
Joints (Appendix A of Reference 124).
Note 2: For Classes A and B, uncoated, contact surfaces shall be free of oil, paint, lacquer, or other coatings and loose oxide. 1
Note 3: Contact surfaces shall be lightly scored by wire brushing or blasting after galvanizing and prior to assembly.
Table 15-1-12. Minimum Tension of Installed Bolts
Nominal Bolt Size Minimum Tension in Kips 3

Inches A325 Bolts A490 Bolts
1/2 12 15
5/8 19 24
3/4 28 35
7/8 39 49 4
1 51 64
1-1/8 56 80
1-1/4 71 102
1-3/8 85 121
1-1/2 103 148
1.4.2 WELD METAL (1994)1 R(2008)
See Table 15-1-13. In the formulas, Fy = yield point of base metal as specified in Table 15-1-1.
1

Steel Structures
Table 15-1-13. Allowable Stress on Welds
Pounds per
Type of Weld and Stress
square inch
Groove Welds
Tension or compression 0.55Fy
Shear 0.35Fy
Fillet Welds
Shear, regardless of direction of applied force.
Electrodes or electrode-flux combinations with:
60,000 psi tensile strength 16,500 (Note 1)
Note 1:but not to exceed 0.35 Fy , shear stress on base metal.
1.4.3 CAST STEEL (1994)1 R(2008)
For cast steel, the allowable stresses in compression and bearing shall be the same as those allowed for structural steel with the
same yield point or yield strength. Other allowable stresses shall be three-quarters of those allowed for structural steel with the
same yield point or yield strength.
1.4.4 MASONRY (2002) R(2008)
Refer to Part 5.
1.4.5 TIMBER BRIDGE TIES (1994) R(2008)
Timber ties shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 7, Timber Structures.
SECTION 1.5 GENERAL RULES
1.5.1 SLENDERNESS RATIO (2011)
The slenderness ratio (ratio of length to least radius of gyration) shall not exceed:
• 100 for main compression members.
• 100 for gusset plates (see Article 9.1.5.4.a).
• 120 for wind and sway bracing in compression.
• 140 for single lacing.
• 200 for double lacing.
1

Design
• 200 for tension members.
1.5.2 EFFECTIVE DIAMETER OF FASTENERS (1993) R(2008)
The nominal diameter of fasteners shall be considered the effective diameter.
1.5.3 EFFECTIVE BEARING AREA OF BOLTS, RIVETS AND PINS (1993) R(2008)
The effective bearing area of bolts, rivets and pins shall be the diameter multiplied by the length in bearing: except that for
countersunk bolts and rivets, one-half the depth of the countersink shall be deducted from the length.
1.5.4 THICKNESS OF MATERIAL (2011)1
a. Metal, except for fillers, shall not be less than 3/8 inch thick. Parts subject to marked corrosive influences shall be of
greater thickness than otherwise or else protected against such influences.
b. The thickness of gusset plates connecting the chords and web members of a truss shall be proportioned for the force to
be transferred but not less than 1/2 inch.
c. If the unsupported length of an edge of a gusset plate exceeds its thickness times
E
2.06 ----- the edge shall be stiffened.
Fy
1
1.5.5 ACCESSIBILITY OF PARTS (1993) R(2008)
Details shall be such that all exposed parts will be accessible for inspection, cleaning and painting. Preferably not less than 18
inches clear shall be provided between the flanges of parallel lines of beams having depths in excess of 38 inches. 3
1.5.6 DRAINAGE OF POCKETS (1993) R(2008)
Pockets or depressions that would hold water either shall have effective drain holes or shall be filled or caulked with an
approved permanent-type waterproof caulking compound. Structural members shall not be caulked by welding except as
approved by the Engineer. 4
1.5.7 ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS (1993) R(2008)
a. Eccentricity between intersecting parts and between gravity axes of members intersecting at a panel point shall be
avoided, insofar as practicable. If eccentric connections are unavoidable, adequate provision shall be made for the
bending stresses resulting from the eccentricity.
b. For members having symmetrical cross sections, the connecting welds or fasteners shall be arranged symmetrically
about the axis of the member, or proper allowance shall be made for unsymmetrical distribution of stresses.
1

Steel Structures
1.5.8 NET SECTION (2005)1 R(2008)
a. The net section of a riveted or bolted tension member, An, is the sum of the net sections of its component parts. The net
section of a part is the product of the thickness of the part multiplied by its least net width.
b. The net width for any chain of holes extending progressively across the part shall be obtained by deducting from the
gross width the sum of the diameters of all the holes in the chain and adding, for each space in the chain, the quantity:
2
s
------
4g
where:
s = pitch of the two successive holes in the chain, in the direction of tensile stress
g = gage of the same holes, in the transverse direction
The net section of the part is obtained from that chain which gives the least net width, except that the net width shall in
no case be considered as more than 85% of the corresponding gross width.
c. For angles, the gross width shall be the sum of the widths of the legs less the thickness. The gage for holes in opposite
legs shall be the sum of the gages, measured from back of angle, less the thickness.
d. For splice material, the effective thickness shall be only that part of the material which has been developed by rivets or
bolts.
e. The diameter of the hole shall be taken as 1/8 inch greater than the nominal diameter of the rivet or bolt.
1.5.9 CONNECTIONS AND SPLICES (2003)2 R(2008)

a. Connection and splices, except as used in paragraph d below for milled splices in compression, shall be in accordance
with the following provisions:
(1) Splices of main members shall have a strength not less than the capacity of the member and shall satisfy the
requirements of Article 1.7.5 and Article 1.7.6.
End connections of main members receiving load from the combined effect of floor system and truss action shall
have a strength not less than the capacity of the member. End connections of members carrying direct load from
one floorbeam only shall be proportioned for at least 1.25 times their computed reactions.
End connections of simply supported floorbeams, stringers, and other beams and girders acting and framed
similarly, shall be proportioned for at least 1.25 times their computed shear. Alternatively, these connections shall
be proportioned for the combined effect of moment and shear.
(2) End connections of secondary and bracing members shall have a strength of the lesser of the strength of the
member based on the allowable unit stress or 1.5 times the maximum computed stress.
The requirement of Article 1.3.13 shall be satisfied. Bracing members used only as ties or struts to reduce the
unsupported length of a member to which they connect need not be connected for more than the force specified in
Article 1.11.6.
1
2

Design
b. All groove welds shall have full penetration, and shall satisfy the requirements of Article 1.3.13.
c. Bolted or riveted connections shall have not less than three fasteners per plane of connection or equivalent strength in
welding. The weld shall preferably be a fillet weld and be parallel and symmetrical to the direction of force.
d. Members subject to compression only, if faced for bearing, shall be spliced on 4 sides sufficiently to hold the abutting
parts accurately and securely in place. The splice shall be as near a panel point as practicable and shall be designed to
transmit at least one-half of the force through the splice material. Where such members are in full milled bearing on
base plates, there shall be sufficient bolted or riveted connecting material, or welding, to hold all parts securely in
place.
e. Block shear shall be evaluated at beam end connections where the top flange is coped, at the end connections of tension
members, in connections utilizing gusset plates and all other connections where failure by block shear is a concern.
The allowable block shear rupture strength in pounds is as follows:
(1) When FuAnt ≥ 0.60FuAnv: 0.35FyAgv + 0.50FuAnt
(2) When FuAnt < 0.60FuAnv: 0.30FuAnv + 0.55FyAgt
(3) But no greater than: 0.30FuAnv + 0.50FuAnt
where:
Agv = gross area subject to shear

Agt = gross area subject to tension 1
Anv = net area subject to shear
Ant = net area subject to tension
1.5.10 FIELD CONNECTIONS (1994)1 R(2008)
Field connections, including splices, shall be made using rivets or high strength bolts except that field welding may be used for
minor connections not subject to live load force, and for joining sections of deck plates, etc., which do not function as part of
3
the load carrying structure. Otherwise, welding shall not be used for field connections.
1.5.11 DEVELOPMENT OF FILLERS (1993) R(2008)

a. For high strength bolted construction, no additional bolts are necessary for the development of fillers.
4
b. For riveted construction, when rivets subject to force pass through fillers, the fillers shall be extended beyond the
connected member and the extension secured by enough rivets to distribute the total force to the member uniformly
over the combined sections of the member and the fillers, except that fillers less than 1/4 inch thick shall not be
extended beyond the splicing material, and additional rivets are not required.
c. For riveted construction, eccentricity must be considered on short, thick fillers.
1.5.12 COMBINATIONS OF DISSIMILAR TYPES OF CONNECTIONS (1993)2 R(2008)

a. Rivets and high strength bolts in the same connection plane may be considered as sharing the force. When such a
connection plane is subjected to fatigue conditions, the requirements of Article 1.3.13 applicable to rivets shall be
satisfied for both types of fasteners.
1
2

Steel Structures
b. Welds acting in the same connection with rivets and/or bolts shall be proportioned to carry the entire force.
1.5.13 SEALING (1993)1 R(2008)

a. Where two or more plates or shapes are in contact, provision shall be made for sealing their edges for protection
against the entrance of moisture between them.
b. For riveted and bolted members, sealing shall be accomplished by limiting the spacing of the fasteners connecting
component parts. The pitch on a single line adjacent to a free edge of an outside plate or shape shall not exceed 4 + 4t,
where t is the thickness of the thinnest outside plate or shape in inches, nor 7 inches. Where there is a second line of
fasteners uniformly staggered with those in the line adjacent to the free edge, at a gage, g, less than 1-1/2 + 4t inches,
therefrom, the staggered pitch of the fasteners in the two lines shall not exceed 4 + 4t – 3/4 g inches, nor 7– 3/4 g
inches, but need not be less than one-half the requirement for a single line.
c. For welded members, longitudinal sealing may be accomplished by the use of continuous welds at exposed edges of
contact surfaces, of such dimensions and made by such procedure as will ensure weld soundness throughout.
1.5.14 CONNECTIONS OF COMPONENTS OF BUILT-UP MEMBERS (1993)2 R(2008)
a. Where two or more plates or shapes are in contact, they shall be connected adequately to make them act in unison.
b. For riveted and bolted members, stitch fasteners shall be used to make component parts of the member act in unison.
The pitch of stitch fasteners in compression members on any single line shall not exceed 12t, where t is the thickness of
the thinnest outside plate or shape, except that, if the fasteners on adjacent lines are staggered and the gage, g, between
the line under consideration and the farther adjacent line is less than 24t, the staggered pitch in such two lines shall not
exceed 12t, nor 15t – 3/8 g. The gage between adjacent lines of such stitch rivets shall not exceed 24t. At the ends of
compression members, the pitch of stitch fasteners on any single line in the direction of stress shall not exceed 4 times
the diameter of the fasteners for a distance equal to 1.5 times the width of the member. In tension members, the pitch of
stitch fasteners shall not exceed twice that specified for compression members, and the gage shall not exceed that
specified for compression members.
c. The requirements of Article 1.5.13 and this Article are not additive, but both must be satisfied by the detail used.
1.5.15 WELDED CLOSED BOX MEMBERS (1993) R(2008)
a. Absolute airtightness of box members is not required.
b. Box members shall be closed to the elements so as to inhibit access of water or moisture to the interior.
c. Crevices in areas where standing water may be drawn into the box member as a result of interior pressure changes shall
be sealed with an approved permanent-type waterproof caulking compound; or, alternatively, such crevices may be
sealed by welding if the details are approved by the Engineer.
d. Effective drain holes shall be provided to prevent accumulation of any water inside the member.
e. The interiors of box members meeting the requirements of this article need not be painted.
1
2

Design
SECTION 1.6 MEMBERS STRESSED PRIMARILY IN AXIAL TENSION

OR COMPRESSION
1.6.1 COMPRESSION MEMBERS (2004)1 R(2008)
a. Compression members shall be so designed that the main elements of the section are connected directly to the gusset
plates, pins, or other members.
b. In members consisting of segments connected by lacing or by solid cover plates, the thickness of the web plate, inches,
shall not be less than
F
0.90b -----y
E P
------------------------; -----c not to exceed 2
P f
-----c
f
and the thickness of the cover plate, inches, shall not be less than
F
0.72b -----y
E P
------------------------; -----c not to exceed 2
P f
-----c 1
f
where:
b = unsupported distance between the nearest lines of fasteners or welds, or between the roots of rolled flanges,
inches
Pc = allowable stress for the member of axial compression, psi, as determined by the applicable formula of
3
Article 1.4.1.
f = calculated stress in compression, psi.
Fy = yield point, psi, as specified in Table 15-1-1 for the material.
c. For the thickness requirements for perforated plates, see Article 1.6.4.3. 4
1.6.2 OUTSTANDING ELEMENTS IN COMPRESSION (2004)2
a. The width of outstanding elements of members in compression shall not exceed the following, where t, inches, is the
thickness of the element:
(1) Legs of angles or flanges of beams or tees:
E for stringers and girders where ties rest on the flange

0.35t -----
Fy
1
2

Steel Structures
E
0.43t ----- for main members subject to axial force, and for stringers and girders where ties do
F y not rest on the flange
E
0.50t ----- for bracing and other secondary members
Fy
(2) Plates:
E
0.43t -----
Fy
(3) Stems of tees:
E
0.56t -----
Fy
where:
Fy = yield point as specified in Table 15-1-1 for the material.
b. The width of plates shall be measured from the free edge to the center line of the first row of fasteners or welds. The
width of legs of angles, and the stems of tees, shall be considered as the full nominal dimension. The width of flange of
beams and tees shall be measured from the free edge to the toe of the fillet.
c. Where a projecting element exceeds the width-to-thickness ratio prescribed above, but would conform to that ratio and
would satisfy the stress requirements with a portion of its width considered as removed, the member will be acceptable.
1.6.3 STAY PLATES (1994) R(2008)
a. On the open sides of compression members, the segments shall be connected by lacing bars, and there shall be stay
plates as near each end as practicable. There shall be stay plates at intermediate points where the lacing is interrupted.
In main members, the length of the end stay plates shall not be less than 1.25 times the distance between the lines of
connections to the outer flanges. The length of intermediate stay plates shall not be less than three-quarters of that
distance.
b. The segments of tension members composed of shapes shall be connected by stay plates. The length of the stay plates
shall not be less than two-thirds of the lengths specified for stay plates on compression members.
c. The thickness of stay plates shall not be less than 1/50 of the distance between the lines of connections to the outer
flanges for main members, or 1/60 of that distance for bracing members.
d. For riveted or bolted stay plates, the fasteners shall not be spaced more than four diameters on centers, and at least 3
fasteners shall be used in a line. For welded stay plates, 5/16 inch minimum continuous fillet welds shall be used along
their longitudinal edges.

Design
1.6.4 LACING AND PERFORATED COVER PLATES FOR TENSION AND COMPRESSION
MEMBERS (2009)1
1.6.4.1 Shear Force
The shear force normal to the member in the planes of lacing or continuous plates with or without perforations shall be
assumed divided equally among all such parallel planes. The total shear force shall include any force due to weight of member
and to other forces and, for compression members, 2.5% of the compressive axial force but not less than:
AF
---------y-
150
where:
A = member area required for axial compression, square inches (axial compressive force divided by allowable
compressive stress).
Fy = yield point of member material as specified in Table 15-1-1
1.6.4.2 Lacing
a. Lacing bars of compression members shall be so spaced that the slenderness ratio of the portion of the flange included
between lacing-bar connections will not be more than 40 nor more than 2/3 of the slenderness ratio of the member.
1
b. The section of the lacing bars shall be determined by the formula for axial compression in which l is taken as the
distance along the bar between its connections to the main segments for single lacing, and as 70% of that distance for
double lacing.
c. Where the distance across the member between connection lines in the flanges is more than 15 inches and a bar not
over 3-1/2 inches wide is used, the lacing shall be double and connected at the intersections.
3
d. The angle between the lacing bars and the axis of the member shall be approximately 45 degrees for double lacing and
60 degrees for single lacing.
e. Lacing bars may be shapes or flat bars. For main members, the minimum thickness of flat bars shall be 1/40 of the
distance along the bar between its connections for single lacing, and 1/60 for double lacing. For bracing members the
limits shall be 1/50 for single lacing and 1/75 for double lacing.
4
f. For riveted or bolted construction, the diameter of the fasteners in lacing bars shall not exceed 1/3 the width of the bar.
There shall be at least two fasteners in each end of lacing bars fastened to flanges more than 5 inches width.
g. For welded construction, fillet welds comparable in strength to that required for riveted or bolted construction shall be
used.
1.6.4.3 Perforated Cover Plates
a. Perforations shall be ovaloid or elliptical.
b. The length of perforation shall not be more than twice its width. For compression members the ratio of the length of
perforation to the radius of gyration of the half-member at the center of perforation about its own axis shall not be more
than 20 nor more than one-third of the slenderness ratio of the member about its axis perpendicular to the perforation.
1

Steel Structures
c. The clear distance between perforations shall not be less than the distance between the nearer lines of connections.
d. For tension members the thickness of the perforated plate shall not be less than 1/50 of the distance between the nearer
lines of connections. For compression members the thickness shall not be less than 1/50 of such distance nor less than
F
2.34 -----y times the distance from such a line of connections to the edge of the perforation at the center of perforation,
E
where Fy = the yield point as specified in Table 15-1-1 for the material, nor less than that specified in Article 1.6.1b for
solid plates. Also, for all members, the thickness shall not be less than that required by the formula:
3cV
t = ---------------------------
2vh ( c – a )
where:
t = thickness of plate, inches

c = spacing of perforations, inches
V = maximum transverse shearing force in the plane of the plate, kips
v = basic allowable unit stress for shear in webs of plate girders, ksi
h = width of plate, inches
a = length of perforation, inches
c – a = distance between perforations
e. Where the plate is spliced for transfer of force, the clear distance between the end perforation and the end of the plate
shall not be less than the distance between the nearer lines of connections, except that one-half such distance may be
used for compression members which are faced for bearing. Where the plate is not spliced for transfer of force, an open
perforation may be used at the end of the plate provided that its length does not exceed one-half the distance between
the nearer lines of connections.
f. The gross section of the plate through the perforation for compression members and the net section of the plate through
the perforation for tension members shall be considered as a part of the area of the member.
1.6.5 EFFECTIVE NET AREA FOR TENSION MEMBERS - STRENGTH (2008)1

a. When a tension load is transmitted directly to each of the elements of the cross section of a member by fasteners or
welds, the effective net area, Ae, is equal to the net area as described in Article 1.5.8.
b. When a tension load is transmitted directly to some, but not all of the elements of the cross section of a member, the
effective net area Ae of that member shall be computed as follows:
(1) When the tension load is transmitted by bolts or rivets:
Ae = UAn
where An = Net area of member, per Article 1.5.8
U = Shear lag reduction coefficient
U = (1 - x/L)
1

Design
x = distance from the centroid of the connected area to the shear plane of the connection.
(See Figure 15-1-5)
L = Connection length in the direction of the loading, between the first and last fasteners.
For rolled or built-up shapes, the distance x is to be referenced to the center of gravity of the material lying on
either side of the centerline of symmetry of the cross-section.
3
Figure 15-1-5. Determination of x.
In lieu of calculated values, the reduction coefficient, U, for angles shall be taken as 0.80 for members with four or
more bolts or rivets per line, and 0.60 for members with less than four bolts or rivets per line.
4
(2) When the tension load is transmitted by only longitudinal welds to other than plate members, or by longitudinal
welds in combination with transverse welds:
Ae = UAg
where Ag = Gross area of member
U = Shear lag reduction coefficient, as in (1)
(3) When the tension load is transmitted by only welds transverse to the direction of loading:
Ae = Area of directly connected elements

Steel Structures
(4) When the tension load is transmitted to a plate by longitudinal welds, welds shall be on both edges, for a length not
less than the distance between the welds:
Ae = UA
For L ≥ 2w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U = 1.00
For 2w > L ≥ 1.5w . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .U = 0.87
For 1.5w >L ≥ w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .U = 0.75
where A= area of plate

L= length of weld
w= distance between welds
1.6.6 EFFECTIVE AREA FOR TENSION MEMBERS - FATIGUE (2007)1 R(2013)
a. When a tension load is transmitted directly to all of the elements of the cross section of a member by fasteners or
welds, the effective net area, Ae, is equal to the net area, An, as described in Article 1.5.8.
b. When a tension load is transmitted directly to some, but not all, of the elements of the cross section of a member, the
effective net area, Ae, of that member shall be taken as the sum of the net areas of the component parts directly loaded.
c. When a tension load is transmitted directly to some, but not all, of the elements of the cross section of a member, the
effective gross area of that member shall be taken as the sum of the gross areas of the component parts directly loaded.
SECTION 1.7 MEMBERS STRESSED PRIMARILY IN BENDING
1.7.1 PROPORTIONING GIRDERS AND BEAMS (2004)2 R(2008)
a. Plate girders, I-beams, and other members subject to bending that produces tension on one face, shall be proportioned
by the moment of inertia method. The neutral axis shall be considered as the center of gravity of the gross section. The
tensile stress shall be computed from the moment of inertia of the entire net section and the compressive stress from
moment of inertia of the entire gross section.
b. Where the compression flange is not fully supported laterally, the flexural member shall be proportioned so that the
ratio of the distance between points of lateral supports and the radius of gyration of the compression flange, including
that portion of the web area on the compression side of the axis of bending about an axis in the plane of the web, shall
not exceed:
E
5.55 -----
Fy
1
2

Design
where:
Fy = the yield point, psi, as specified in Table 15-1-1 for the material.
1.7.2 FLANGE SECTIONS (1994)1 R(2013)
1.7.2.1 Riveted or Bolted Construction
a. Flanges of plate girders should be made without side plates.
b. Where flanges of plate girders are subjected to transverse local bending from bridge ties, the minimum angle thickness
shall be 5/8 inch where cover plates are used and 3/4 inch where cover plates are not used.
c. Where cover plates are used, at least one plate of each flange shall extend the full length of the girder or beam. Any
cover plate which is not full length shall extend beyond the theoretical end far enough to develop the capacity of the
plate, or shall extend to a section where the stress in the remainder of the girder or beam flange is equal to the allowable
fatigue stress, whichever extension is greater. The term “theoretical end of cover plate” refers to the section where the
stress in the flange without the cover plate equals the allowable stress, exclusive of fatigue considerations.
1.7.2.2 Welded Construction
a. Flanges of welded plate girders shall be made using only one plate in each flange, i.e. without cover plates. Side plates
shall not be used in welded construction. The thickness and width of the flange plate may be varied by butt welding
parts of different thickness or width with transitions conforming to the requirements of Article 1.10.1. 1
b. Not more than one cover plate may be used on each flange of a rolled beam. Such cover plates shall be full length and
of uniform thickness and width, and shall be connected to the flange of the rolled beam with continuous fillet welds of
sufficient strength to transmit the horizontal shear into the cover plate. The thickness of a cover plate shall not be
greater than 1.5 times the thickness of the flange to which it is attached.
3
1.7.3 T HICKNESS OF WEB PLATES (2004)2 R(2013)
a. The thickness of the webs of plate girders without longitudinal stiffeners shall not be less than:
F
0.18 -----y
E 4
of the clear distance between the flanges, except that if the extreme fiber stress in the compression flange is less than
the allowable, the above calculated thickness may be divided by the factor:
Pc
-----
f
where:
Pc = allowable stress in the compression flange, psi, as determined by the applicable formula
of Article 1.4.1.
f = the calculated extreme fiber stress in the compression flange, psi.
1
2

Steel Structures
Fy = yield point as specified in Table 15-1-1 for the material
b. The thickness of the webs of plate girders with longitudinal stiffeners, proportioned in accordance with Article 1.7.8,
shall not be less than 1/2 that determined in paragraph a.
c. The thickness of the webs of plate girders with or without longitudinal stiffeners shall not be less than 1/6 the thickness
of the flange.
1.7.4 FLANGE-TO-WEB CONNECTION OF PLATE GIRDERS (2009)1
a. The flanges of plate girders shall be sufficiently connected to the web to transmit to the flange the horizontal shear
force at any point together with the force from any load that is applied directly on the flange. Where the ties bear
directly on the flange, one wheel load, including 80% impact, shall be assumed to be distributed over 3 feet. On
ballasted deck girders, the wheel load, including 80% impact, shall be assumed to be distributed over 5 feet.
b. Flange to web joints of welded plate girders:
(1) Flange to web joints on welded plate girders shall be identical welds for both compression and tension flanges.
(2) Deck plate girders and stringers. For open and non-composite, non-ballasted decks, the flange-to-web joints shall
be made using continuous, complete joint penetration (CJP) or if directed by the engineer, partial joint penetration
(PJP) groove welds or fillet welds. If PJP groove welds or fillet welds are used, the root opening and/or fillet weld
reinforcement shall be proportioned such that the fatigue strength of the joint is controlled by weld toe cracking
and not throat cracking as calculated using the provisions of detail description 5.4 in Table 15-1-9.
For ballasted, welded steel plate or composite concrete decks, the flange to web joint may be continuous, CJP
groove welds, PJP groove welds or fillet welds.
(3) Through plate girders. The flange-to-web joints may be continuous, CJP, PJP, or fillet welded connections.
1.7.5 FLANGE SPLICES (2012)
a. Flange members that are field spliced, or that are shop spliced by riveting and/or bolting, shall be covered by extra
material not less in section than the member spliced. There shall be enough fasteners on each side of the splice to
transmit to the splice material the force in the part cut. Flange angles shall be spliced with angles. No two elements in
the same flange shall be spliced at the same cross section.
b. In shop welded construction, flange members may be shop spliced by riveting or bolting as in paragraph a or by
welding as in paragraphs c and d.
c. Welded shop splices shall be made with complete joint penetration groove welds that are located at a separation of 6
inches or more from a web splice.
d. Welded shop splices of rolled beams shall be made with complete joint penetration groove welds at the same cross
section. Filling of cope holes is not permitted.
1.7.6 WEB SPLICES (1994) R(2013)
a. Splices in the webs of plate girders or rolled beams shall be designed to meet both of the following conditions:
1

Design
(1) Full shear strength of the web, gross section.
(2) The combination of the full moment strength of the web, net section, with the maximum shear force that can occur
at the section where the splice is located.
b. Shop or field web splices in riveted or bolted construction and field web splices in welded construction shall be made
using splice plates on each side of the web, of the strength required by paragraph a. The net moment of inertia of these
web splice plates shall not be less than that of the web.
c. Shop web splices in welded construction may be made as indicated in paragraph b, or may be welded. Welded shop
splices shall be made with full penetration groove welds, and the entire cross section shall be welded.
1.7.7 STIFFENERS AT POINTS OF BEARING (2012)
a. Stiffeners shall be placed in pairs at end bearings of plate girders and beams, and at points of bearing of concentrated
loads. They shall extend as nearly as practicable to the edges of the flange to give effective distribution and shall be
connected to the web by enough rivets, bolts or welds, to transmit the load. They shall be cut at upper and lower ends to
clear the fillet or weld connecting flange plate to web, as applicable. Angle stiffeners shall not be crimped.
b. The outstanding portion of a bearing stiffener shall meet the width-thickness ratio requirements for outstanding
elements in compression.
c. Bearing stiffeners shall be designed as columns, assuming the column section to comprise the pair of stiffeners and a
centrally located strip of the web whose width is equal to 25 times its thickness at interior stiffeners or a width equal to 1
12 times its thickness when the stiffeners are located at the end of the web. The effective length shall be taken as three-
quarters of the length of the stiffeners in computing the ratio l/r.
d. Bearing stiffeners shall also be designed for bearing, without considering any part of the web. Only that part of the
outstanding leg of an angle stiffener or that part outside the corner clip of a plate stiffener, which is in contact with the
flange angle or flange plate, shall be considered effective in bearing. Where bearing stiffeners are welded to the flange
in compliance with Part 3, Fabrication, Article 3.1.10a, an area equal to the length of the full penetration groove weld 3
multiplied by the stiffener thickness shall be considered effective in bearing.
1.7.8 WEB PLATE STIFFENERS (INTERMEDIATE TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL)

(2012)1
a. Where the depth of the web between the flanges or side plates of a riveted, bolted or welded plate girder exceeds 4
2.12 ( E ⁄ F y ) times its thickness, it shall be transversely stiffened by pairs (except as noted in paragraph c) of angles
riveted or bolted, or of plates welded, to the web. The actual clear distance, da, between intermediate transverse
stiffeners shall not exceed 96 inches, nor the clear distance between flanges or side plates, nor d. The maximum clear
distance, d, inches, between intermediate transverse stiffeners to preclude web shear buckling is given by the formula:
E
d = 1.95t ---
S
where:
t = thickness of web, inches

S = calculated shear stress in the gross section of the web at the point under consideration, psi
1

Steel Structures
Fy = minimum yield point, psi, as specified in Table 15-1-1 for the web material
The moment of inertia of the intermediate transverse stiffeners shall not be less than:
2
3 ⎛D ⎞
I = 2.5d a t ⎜ ------ – 0.7 ⎟ where 1 < D/d < 5
⎝d 2 ⎠
taken about the centerline of the web plate in the case of stiffeners furnished in pairs (on each side of web plate) and
taken about the face of the web plate in contact with the stiffener in the case of single stiffeners.
where:
da = actual stiffener spacing

I = moment of inertia, inches 4
D = depth of web between flanges or side plates, inches
b. For intermediate transverse stiffeners, the width of the outstanding leg of each angle, or the width of the welded
stiffener plate, shall not be more than 16 times its thickness nor less than 2 inches plus 1/30 of the depth of the girder.
c. Intermediate transverse stiffeners used on one side of the web plate only (single stiffeners), shall be connected to the
outstanding portion of the compression flange.
d. All intermediate stiffeners on the track side of through plate girders shall be fastened to the compression flange in order
to minimize out-of-plane deformations in the web caused by rotations of the ends of the floorbeam.
e. Intermediate stiffeners on through plate girders located within a distance equal to the depth of the girder from the
bearing shall be fastened to the tension flange.
f. Where the depth of the web between the flanges or side plates of a riveted, bolted, or welded plate girder exceeds
4.18 ( E ⁄ f ) times its thickness (where f = the calculated compressive bending stress in the flange, psi), it shall be
stiffened by intermediate transverse stiffeners in accordance with paragraphs a, b, and c; and by a longitudinal stiffener.
Longitudinal stiffeners are usually placed on one side of the web plate with the transverse stiffeners on the other side.
Where longitudinal stiffeners and intermediate transverse stiffeners are on the same side and intersect, the longitudinal
stiffener should be continuous and the intermediate transverse stiffener should be discontinuous. The stress in the
stiffener (from participation in the girder stress) shall not be greater than the basic allowable bending stress for the
material used in the stiffener. See Article 9.1.10.2 for further guidance on detailing intersecting stiffeners.
g. The centerline of a plate longitudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle longitudinal stiffener shall be D/5 from the
inner surface or leg of the compression flange component.
h. The longitudinal stiffener shall be proportioned so that:
2
3⎛ da ⎞
IE = Dt ⎜ 2.4 -------
- – 0.13⎟
⎝ D 2 ⎠

Design
where:
da = actual clear distance between intermediate transverse stiffeners, inches

IE = minimum required moment of inertia of longitudinal stiffeners about the edge in contact with the web plate,
inches4, for stiffeners used on one side of the web or about the centerline of the web plate for stiffeners used
on both sides of the web.
i. The thickness of the longitudinal stiffener (inches) shall not be less than:
f
2.39b′ ---
E
where:
b′ = width of outstanding leg of longitudinal stiffener, inches

f = calculated compressive bending stress in the flange, psi
1.7.9 COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE SPANS (2008)1
1.7.9.1 Definition (1986) R(2005)
The term “composite steel and concrete spans” refers to simple span bridges in which steel beams and concrete deck slab are
designed, and are so constructed, on the assumption that the two materials act as an integral unit.
1
1.7.9.2 Basic Design Assumptions (1986) R(2005)
a. Composite steel beams and concrete deck slab shall be proportioned by the moment-of-inertia method, using the net
composite section.
3
b. The design of the concrete deck shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations,
except that the live load and impact load shall be as specified in Article 1.3.3 and Article 1.3.5, respectively.
c. The effective width of flange on either side of any beam shall not exceed the following:
(1) One-half of the distance to the center line of the adjacent beam.
4
(2) One-eighth of the span length of the beam.
(3) Six times the thickness of the slab.
d. For exterior beams, the effective width of flange on the exterior side shall not exceed the actual overhang. When the
exterior beam has a flange on one side only, the requirements of paragraph c shall be modified to limit the total
effective flange width to one-twelfth of the span length of the beam.
e. Composite construction shall not be used for isolated beams.
f. The value of n, the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to the modulus of elasticity of concrete of various design
strengths, shall be as given in Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations.
1

Steel Structures
g. Composite sections should be proportioned so that the neutral axis lies below the top surface of the steel beam. Where
concrete is on the tension side of the neutral axis, it shall not be considered in computing moments of inertia or
resisting moments.
h. Where no temporary intermediate supports are provided for the beams during casting and curing of the concrete slab,
then the steel and concrete dead loads shall be considered as acting on the steel beams alone, and all subsequent loads
as acting on the composite section. Where the beams are provided with effective temporary intermediate supports
which are kept in place until the concrete has attained 75% of its required 28-day strength, then the concrete dead load
and all subsequent loads shall be assumed as acting on the composite section.
i. The effect of creep shall be considered in the design of composite beams which have the dead loads acting on the
composite section. Stresses and horizontal shear produced by such dead loads shall be taken as the greater of those
computed for the value of n or for 3 times that value.
j. Horizontal shear at the point under consideration between steel beam and concrete slab shall be computed by both the
following formulas:
Vr Q Vm Q
S r = ---------- and S m = ------------
I I
where:
Sr = the range of horizontal shear, lb per linear inches

Sm = the maximum horizontal shear, lb per linear inches
Vr = the range of vertical shear due to live load and impact load. At any section, the range of shear shall be
taken as the difference in the minimum and maximum shear envelopes, lb
Vm = the maximum vertical shear due to live load and impact load combined with any portion of dead load
superimposed on the composite span after the concrete slab is cured, including its weight if temporary
intermediate supports during casting and curing are provided, lb
Q = the static moment of the transformed compressive concrete area about the neutral axis of the composite
section, inch3
I = the moment of inertia of the composite section. If the dead load shear is included in Sm, the horizontal
shear resulting therefrom shall be computed separately as specified in paragraph i and added to the
horizontal shear from the other loads, inch4
k. The vertical shear shall be considered to be resisted entirely by the web of the steel beam.
1.7.9.3 Shear Transfer Devices (2006)
a. Resistance to horizontal shear at the junction of the slab and beam shall be provided by studs or channels welded to the
beam flange.
b. The spacing of the shear transfer devices shall be the smaller of the two values determined by dividing the resistance
value of the individual device, as specified in Article 1.7.9.3.1, by the value of Sr or Sm as defined in Article 1.7.9.2j.
The maximum spacing shall be 2 feet.
c. The shear connectors shall be so spaced that the concrete can be thoroughly compacted and in direct contact with all
surfaces of the shear connectors.
d. The clear depth of concrete cover over the top of the shear connectors shall be not less than 2 inches Shear connectors
shall penetrate at least 2 inches above the bottom of the slab.

Design
e. The clear distance between the edge of the beam flange and the edge of the shear connector shall be not less than 1 inch
for channels and 1-1/2 inches for studs.
f. When stud shear connectors are used, a maximum variation of 1 inch from the location shown on the plans shall be
accepted provided that this does not reduce the center to center distance to the nearest stud to less than 2-1/2 inches, or
the edge distance required in paragraph e.
1.7.9.3.1 Design Force for Shear Connectors
a. The allowable horizontal design force range per shear connector for fatigue (Sr) when channels are used shall be
2,400(w) lb and 2,100(w) lb for 2,000,000 cycles and over 2,000,000 cycles respectively. The maximum allowable
horizontal design force per shear connector (Sm) when channels are used shall be taken as 3,600(w) lb. In the
equations for horizontal design force, w is the length of the channel in inches measured in a transverse direction to the
flange of the beam.
b. The allowable horizontal design force range per shear connector for fatigue (Sr) when studs are used shall be
10,000(As) lb and 7,000(As) lb for 2,000,000 cycles and over 2,000,000 cycles respectively. The maximum allowable
horizontal design force per shear connector (Sm) when studs are used shall be taken as 20,000(As) lb. In the equations
for horizontal design force, As is the nominal cross sectional area of the stud, inch2.
c. Where either stud or channel shear connectors are used, fatigue due to primary bending stress range must be checked
on the base metal of the member to which the shear connectors are attached as per Table 15-1-9 for longitudinally
loaded fillet welded attachments.
1.7.9.3.2 Channels as Shear Transfer Devices

1
When channels are used as shear transfer devices they shall be from the American Standard series and of ASTM A 36 steel.
They shall be placed transverse to the beam and with one channel flange welded all around to the flange of the beam with at
least 3/16 inch fillet welds.
1.7.9.3.3 Studs as Shear Transfer Devices 3

a. Where welded studs are used as shear transfer devices they shall be headed, and shall be 3/4 inch or 7/8 inch nominal
diameter, and their overall length after welding shall be at least 4 times their diameter.
b. Studs shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A108, grades 1010 through 1020, either semi- or fully-killed.
c. Tensile properties as determined by tests of bar stock after drawing or of finished studs shall conform to the following 4
requirements:
Tensile strength (min). . . . . . . . . . . . 60,000 psi

Elongation (min) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20% in 2 inches
Reduction of area (min) . . . . . . . . . . 50%
Tensile properties shall be determined in accordance with the applicable sections of ASTM A370. Where fracture
occurs outside of the middle half of the gage length, the test shall be repeated.
d. Finished studs shall be of uniform quality and condition, free from laps, fins, seams, cracks, twists, bends or other
injurious defects. Finish shall be as produced by cold drawing, cold rolling or machining. However, cracks or bursts in
the heads of shear connectors do not adversely affect the structural strength or other functional requirements of shear
studs, and are not to be considered cause for rejection of the stud, except that where they are deeper than one-half the
distance from the periphery of the head to the shank, they may be cause for rejection. Cracks or bursts, as here used,
apply to an abrupt interruption of the periphery of the head of the stud by radial separation of the metal.

Steel Structures
e. The Contractor shall, upon request by the Engineer, furnish the stud manufacturer’s certification that the studs that are
delivered are in accordance with the applicable requirements of this article. Certified copies of the stud manufacturer’s
test reports of the last completed set of in-plant quality control mechanical tests of the diameters of studs to be
provided, made not more than six months prior to the delivery of the studs, shall be furnished to the Engineer on
request.
f. The Engineer may select, at the Contractor’s expense, studs of each type and size used, as necessary for checking the
requirements of this article. The cost of these check tests shall be at the Company’s expense.
g. Stud shear connectors shall be of a design suitable for end welding, and shall be end welded to the steel beams with
automatically timed stud welding equipment. The equipment and procedure followed in making the welds shall be as
recommended by the manufacturer of the type of stud used. The flux and the ceramic arc shield utilized in this
procedure shall be furnished by the manufacturer, and shall be compatible with the equipment and procedure used.
h. Before installation, the Contractor shall submit to the Engineer for approval information on the studs to be furnished as
follows:
(1) The name of the manufacturer.
(2) A detailed description of the stud and arc shield.
(3) A certification from the manufacturer that the stud weld base is qualified as specified in paragraph g. Qualification
test data shall be retained in the files of the manufacturer.
i. The first two stud shear connectors welded on each member, after being allowed to cool, shall be bent 45 degrees by
striking the stud with a hammer. If failure occurs in the weld zone of either stud, the procedure shall be corrected and
two more studs shall be welded to the member and tested. Two consecutive studs shall be satisfactorily welded and
tested before any more production studs are welded to the member. The foregoing testing shall be performed after any
change in the welding procedure. If failure occurs in the stud shank, an investigation shall be made to ascertain and
correct the cause before further welds are made. Studs tested that show no sign of failure shall be left in the bent
position.
j. Where the automatically made weld joining the stud to the beam is not a full 360 degrees, the stud shall be removed
and replaced, or, at the option of the Contractor, the weld may be repaired by adding a 3/16 inch fillet weld in place of
the lack of weld, using the shielded metal- arc process with low-hydrogen welding electrodes.
k. Before welding a new stud where a defective one has been removed, the area shall be ground smooth and flush, or in
the case of a pullout of metal, the pocket shall be filled with weld metal using the shielded metal-arc process with low-
hydrogen welding electrodes and then ground flush.
l. In addition to the inspection requirements of paragraph i, the Inspector shall visually inspect all studs after all studs
have been welded to a beam, and shall give each stud a light blow with a hammer. Any stud which does not have a
complete weld, any stud which does not emit a ringing sound when given the light blow with the hammer, any stud
which has been repaired by welding or any stud which has less than normal reduction in height due to welding, shall be
struck with a hammer and bent 15 degrees from the correct axis of installation, and, in the case of a defective or
repaired weld, the stud shall be bent 15 degrees in the direction that will place the defective portion of the weld in the
greatest tension. Studs that crack either in the weld or in the shank shall be replaced. Studs tested that show no sign of
failure shall be left in the bent position.
m. If during the progress of the work, inspection and testing indicate that the shear connectors are not satisfactory, the
Contractor will be required at his expense to make such changes in welding procedure, welding equipment and type of
shear connector as necessary to secure satisfactory results.

Design
1.7.9.4 Deflection (1983) R(2005)
Composite spans shall be designed so that the deflection, computed using the composite section, for the live load plus impact
load condition does not exceed 1/640 of the span length center to center of bearings.
1.7.9.5 Camber (1983) R(2005)
Beams in composite construction shall be cambered when the dead load deflection exceeds 1 inch. Dead load deflection in
composite construction, where the beams are provided with falsework or other effective intermediate supports during casting
and curing of the concrete slab, shall be computed using the composite section, but including the effect of creep as specified in
Article 1.7.9.2i. If such supports are not provided, the dead load deflection shall be computed using the steel beams alone.
1.7.10 RIGID FRAME STRUCTURES (2008)1
1.7.10.1 Definition (1983) R(2005)
The term “rigid frame” is used to denote a load-carrying frame in which the horizontal member is structurally integral with the
upright supports; either or both may vary in section.
1.7.10.2 Basic Design Assumptions (1983) R(2005)
a. Moments, shears and reactions shall be determined by recognized methods of analysis based on gross moments of
inertia and gross areas of members. If the structure has a box type cross section, with perforated cover plates, the
effective area of the cover plates, as defined in Article 1.2.5, shall be used in calculating deformations caused by axial 1
stress.
b. Hinged bearings for the upright supports are preferred. Where hinged bearings are not practicable, or where details
may render them inoperative, the analysis of the rigid frames shall be made assuming (1) fixed bases, (2) hinged bases,
and the design shall be based on the larger stress so determined.
c. Loads and forces shall include those specified in Article 1.3.1a, except that the longitudinal forces as specified in 3
Article 1.3.12 shall be applied at the mid height of the horizontal member of the frame. In addition to the loads and
forces specified in Article 1.3.1a, rigid frame structures shall be proportioned for the most unfavorable combinations of
those loads and forces with loads and forces resulting from the following:
(1) Earth pressure, which shall be assumed to act on both ends, on one end only, or be omitted, whichever requires the
largest section. Where granular back fill is used behind the cut off walls, only active pressure at both ends shall be
included. Earth pressure shall be determined in accordance with the recommendations given in Chapter 8, 4
Concrete Structures and Foundations.
(2) Temperature change, which shall be based on a range of from plus 40 degrees F to minus 60 degrees F from the
temperature expected at time of closure. Closure must be effected when the actual temperature is within 10
degrees F of the assumed figure; where this is not possible, the adequacy of the structure must be investigated for
the actual temperature, and reinforcement added if necessary.
(3) Rib-shortening and elastic yielding of the supports, which must be investigated and their effect included, if larger
sections would be required thereby.
1
References, Vol. 44, 1943, pp. 413, 670, 685; Vol. 60, 1959, pp. 506, 1098; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 386, 699; Vol. 70, 1969, p 241.

Steel Structures
1.7.10.3 Foundations (1983) R(2006)
a. Footings shall be founded on rock, on substantially unyielding material, or on piles driven to an unyielding stratum. If
the footings are founded on piles, there shall be a sufficient number of battered piles to provide the necessary resistance
to the horizontal thrust.
b. Where conditions make it impracticable to provide resistance to the horizontal thrust by means of direct bearing or by
battered piles, steel tie rods may be used. Such tie rods shall be encased in concrete with a minimum cover on all sides
of 6 inches.
1.7.10.4 Spacing (1983)
In addition to the requirements of Article 1.2.4, the distance between frames shall be great enough to facilitate the attachment
of bracing between them, and for painting.
1.7.10.5 Deflection (1983) R(2005)
The structure shall be so proportioned and designed that the computed total elastic deflection at the mid span of the horizontal
member for live load plus impact load shall not exceed 1/640 of the distance center to center of the upright supports.
1.7.10.6 Camber (1983) R(2005)
Rigid frame structures in which the distance center to center of upright supports is 60 feet or less need not be cambered. Rigid
frame structures in which that length exceeds 60 feet shall have camber equal to the deflection produced by the dead load plus
a load of 3,000 lb per foot of track.
1.7.10.7 Impact Load (1983) R(2005)
In computing impact load in accordance with Article 1.3.5, L shall be considered as the length, in feet, center to center of the
upright supports for longitudinal rigid frames, and, for transverse rigid frames, L shall be considered as the length in feet of the
longer adjacent supported longitudinal beam or girder.
1.7.10.8 Stresses (1983)
The stresses resulting from earth pressure, temperature change, rib shortening and elastic yielding of supports shall be
combined with the stresses resulting from the loadings of Article 1.3.14.3a, and the member shall be proportioned for the
stresses specified in Article 1.3.14.3a. The provisions of Article 1.3.14.3b for combinations including stresses resulting from
other lateral loads and/or longitudinal load shall apply.
1.7.10.9 Bracing (1983)
a. Bracing for rigid frames shall conform to the requirements of Section 1.11, Bracing, with the modifications of this
section. There shall be continuous bracing in the planes of the compression flanges of both horizontal and vertical
members. If the top flanges are rigidly connected to a steel deck plate, or laterally restrained by a cast-in-place
reinforced concrete deck, only such top lateral bracing as is required for erection purposes need be provided.
b. There shall be cross frames or diaphragms between the main members of the rigid frames so placed as to act with the
horizontal bracing to provide lateral support for the compression flange.
1.7.10.10 Stiffeners at Points of Bearing (1983) R(2005)
a. Where the bottom flange of the horizontal member in a rigid frame extends across the upright members and bears
thereon, there shall be bearing stiffeners directly above the flanges of the upright members, milled to fit tight against

Design
the bottom flange of the horizontal member and designed to transmit the stress in the flanges of the vertical members to
the web of the horizontal member.
b. Where the inner flanges of the upright members are made continuous up to the top flange of the horizontal member, the
ends of the bottom flange of the horizontal member shall be milled to bear against the inner flanges of the upright
members. There shall be bearing stiffeners on the webs of the vertical members opposite the milled ends of the bottom
flange of the horizontal member, designed to transmit the force from that flange to the webs of the vertical members.
c. Where rounded corners at the junction of horizontal and vertical members are used, they shall be proportioned by
recognized methods of analysis and adequately stiffened.
1.7.10.11 Splices (1983) R(2005)
Splices in any component of the rigid frame structure shall be designed to develop the full strength of that component.
SECTION 1.8 FLOOR MEMBERS AND FLOORBEAM HANGERS
1.8.1 END FLOORBEAMS (1993) R(2008)
Spans with floor systems shall have end floorbeams unless otherwise specified. Except where other means are provided, end
floorbeams shall be proportioned for lifting the span without exceeding the basic allowable stresses by more than 50%. 1
1.8.2 FLOORBEAMS AND FLOORBEAM HANGERS (1993) R(2008)
a. Floorbeams should be perpendicular to the center line of the track.
b. The main material of floorbeam hangers shall not be coped or notched. Built-up hangers shall have solid or perforated
web plates, or lacing. The minimum thickness of main material of floorbeam hangers shall be 1/2 inch.
3
1.8.3 END CONNECTIONS OF FLOOR MEMBERS (1993)1 R(2013)
a. Beams in solid floor construction, stringers and floorbeams shall have end connection angles to ensure the necessary
flexibility in the connection. Welding shall not be used to connect the flexing leg.
4
b. The flexing legs of the connection angles shall not be less than 4 inches width and 1/2 inch finished thickness.
c. For stringers, the gage from back of angle to first line of fasteners in the flexing legs of the connection angles over the
top one-third of the stringer depth shall not be less than the quantity:
lt
----
8
where:
l = length of stringer span, inches

t = thickness of angle, inches
1

Steel Structures
SECTION 1.9 RIVETED AND BOLTED CONSTRUCTION
1.9.1 PITCH AND GAGE OF FASTENERS (1993) R(2008)
The pitch of fasteners is the distance, inch, between centers of adjacent fasteners, measured along one or more lines of
fasteners. The gage of fasteners is the distance, inches, between adjacent lines of fasteners, or the distance from the back of
angle or other shape to the first line of fasteners.
1.9.2 GRIP OF RIVETS (1993) R(2008)
Where the grip of rivets carrying calculated stress exceeds 4.5 times the diameter, the number of rivets shall be increased at
least 1% for each additional 1/16 inch of grip. Where the grip equals or exceeds 6 times the nominal diameter, the body shall
be tapered from the head for a distance not less than 3.42 times the nominal diameter, but not more than 4-3/4 inches. The
body diameter at the head shall be 1/32 inch greater and where not tapered, 1/64 inch less than the nominal diameter.
1.9.3 MINIMUM SPACING OF FASTENERS (1993) R(2011)
a. The distance between centers of fasteners shall not be less than 3 times the diameter of the fasteners.
b. The distance between high strength bolts measured in the line of force from the center line of a bolt to the center line of
an adjacent bolt shall not be less than:
2df p d
----------- + ---
Fu 2
where:
d = diameter of bolt, inches

fp = calculated bearing stress due to design load, ksi
Fu = lowest specified minimum tensile strength of the connected part, ksi
1.9.4 EDGE DISTANCE OF FASTENERS (2005)1 R(2011)
a. The distance from the center of a fastener to a sheared edge shall not be less than 1.75 times the diameter of the
fastener. The distance from the center of a fastener to a rolled, planed, or thermally-cut edge shall not be less than 1.5
times the diameter of the fastener. The minimum edge distance may be decreased to 1.25 times the diameter of the
fastener in flanges of rolled beams and channels if necessary to meet required clearances.
b. The distance from the free edge of an outside plate or shape to the first line of fasteners shall not exceed:
1-1/2 + 4t, nor 6 inches
where:
t = thickness, inches, of the plate or shape
c. The distance between the center of the nearest bolt and that end of the connected member towards which the pressure
of the bolt is directed shall not be less than:
1

Design
2df p
-----------
Fu
where:
d = diameter of bolt, inches

fp = calculated bearing stress due to design load, ksi
Fu = lowest specified minimum tensile strength of the connected part, ksi
1.9.5 SIZES OF FASTENERS IN ANGLES (1993) R(2008)
In angles, the size of which is determined by calculated stress, the diameter of the fasteners shall not exceed one-quarter of the
width of the leg in which they occur. In angles, the size of which is not so determined, 1 inch fasteners may be used in 3-1/2
inch legs, 7/8 inch fasteners in 3 inch legs, and 3/4 inch fasteners in 2-1/2 inch legs.
1.9.6 FASTENERS IN INDIRECT SPLICES (1993) R(2008)
For riveted construction only, where splice plates are not in direct contact with the parts which they connect, there shall be
rivets on each side of the joint in excess of the number required in the case of direct contact, to the extent of two extra lines for
each intervening plate. Where high strength bolts are used, no additional bolts need be added for indirect splices, nor for
connections or splices with fillers.
1
SECTION 1.10 WELDED CONSTRUCTION
1.10.1 TRANSITION OF THICKNESS OR WIDTHS IN WELDED BUTT JOINTS (2012)1 3

a. Where butt joints subject to axial or flexural tensile stress, or to flexural compressive stress, are used to join material of
different thicknesses, there shall be a smooth transition between offset surfaces at a slope not greater than 1 in 2.5 with
the surface of either part. The transition of thickness may be accomplished by sloping weld faces or by chamfering the
thicker part, or by a combination of the two methods. The fatigue stress range for the transitional detail shall be as
allowed by Table 15-1-9.
4
b. Where butt joints subject to axial or flexural tensile stress, or to flexural compressive stress, are used to join material of
different widths, there shall be a common longitudinal axis of symmetry, and there shall be a smooth transition between
offset edges at a slope of not greater than 1 in 2.5 with the edge of either part or the offset edges shall be transitioned
with a radius of not less than 2 feet with the point of tangency to the narrower width preferably a minimum of 3 inches
from the center of the butt joint.
c. Where butt joints subject to axial compressive stress are used to join material of different thickness and the offset
between surfaces is equal to or less than the thickness of the thinner plate, the face of the weld shall have a slope of not
greater than 1 in 2.5 with the surface of the thinner part. When the offset is greater than the thickness of the thinner
plate the transition of thickness shall be as described in paragraph a.
d. Where butt joints subject to axial compressive stress are used to join material of different widths, reduction in width of
the wider plate to effect a smooth transition is preferable, but is not mandatory.
1

Steel Structures
1.10.2 PROHIBITED TYPES OF JOINTS AND WELDS (2008)1
a. Those listed as such in AWS D1.5.
b. Plug or slot welds (This does not prohibit the use of fillet welds in holes or slots.)
c. Intermittent welds.
d. Butt joints of plates with transition of both thickness and width, and transmitting other than axial compressive stress.
e. Partial joint penetration groove welds transverse to the direction of stress.
f. Transverse tack welds on tension flanges of flexural members.
g. Highly constrainted joints. Welded connections shall be detailed to avoid welds that intersect or overlap. Welded
attachments should be detailed so that the welds parallel to the primary stresses are continuous and the transverse
welded connection is discontinuous. If unavoidable, welds in low stress range areas that are interrupted by intersecting
members shall be detailed to allow a minimum gap of at least one inch between weld toes and weld terminations and
shall be properly designed for the applicable fatigue limit state. (See Commentary)
1.10.3 FILLET WELDS (1993) R(2011)
a. Fillet welds which resist a tensile force which is not parallel to the axis of the weld, or which are proportioned to resist
repeated stress, shall not terminate at corners of parts or members, but shall be returned continuously, full size, around
the corner for a length equal to twice the weld size where such return can be made in the same plane. End returns shall
be indicated on design and detail drawings.
b. Fillet welds in holes or slots may be used to transmit shear in lap joints or to prevent buckling or separation of lapped
parts. Fillet welds in a hole or slot shall not overlap.
1.10.4 WELDED ATTACHMENTS (2004)2 R(2008)
a. Where stiffeners, brackets, gussets, clips, or other detail material are welded to members or parts subjected to fatigue
conditions, the stress range in base material adjacent to the welds shall not exceed that permitted by Article 1.3.13.
b. An intermediate stiffener shall not be welded to the web of girder for a minimum distance of 6 times the thickness of
web starting from the toe of the tension flange to web weld.
c. Wrap-around welds should not be used when an intermediate stiffener is fillet welded to a girder web or flange.
1.10.5 FRACTURE CRITICAL MEMBERS (1994) R(2013)
Welding of Fracture Critical Members shall be in accordance with Section 1.14, Fracture Critical Members.
1.10.6 MATERIAL WELDABILITY (2006) R(2010)
a. When a grade of structural steel is to be supplied and the grade meets the chemical and mechanical properties of
ASTM A709, the applicable prequalified procedures of AWS D1.5 shall apply.
1
2

Design
b. When a steel listed in Table 15-1-1 is to be supplied, other than a steel described in Paragraph a above or in AWS D1.5
Article 1.2.2, weldability and weld procedure qualification shall be established by the contractor in accordance with
AWS D1.5 Article 5.4.3. For weldability and weld procedure qualification of ASTM A709, Grade HPS 70W, the latest
edition of the AASHTO document “Guide Specification for Highway Bridge Fabrication with HPS 70W (HPS 485W)
Steel” shall be used as a supplement to AWS D1.5. The contractor, rather than the company, shall assume additional
costs described in AWS D1.5 Article 5.4.3.2.
c. Welding procedures qualified in accordance with AWS D1.5 for materials 4 inches thick also qualify materials
permitted in Table 15-1-1 over 4 inches thick.
SECTION 1.11 BRACING
1.11.1 BRACING OF TOP FLANGES OF THROUGH GIRDERS (2000) R(2008)
The top flanges of through plate girders shall be braced at the panel points by brackets with web plates (knee braces). The
brackets shall extend to the top flange of the main girder and be as wide as clearance will allow. They shall be attached
securely to a stiffener on the girders and to the top flange of the floorbeam. On solid floor bridges the brackets shall not be
more than 12 feet apart. The brackets shall be designed for the bracing force specified in Article 1.3.11.
1.11.2 LATERAL BRACING (2012)1

1
a. There shall be bottom lateral bracing in all spans greater than 50 feet long, except that such bracing shall not be
required for deck spans having four or more beams per track and a depth of beam less than 72 inches in which either
adequate shear transfer to a reinforced concrete deck is provided or the concrete is cast in place to engage not less than
1 inch of the beam flange thickness.
b. There shall be top lateral bracing in all deck spans and in through spans that have sufficient clearance.
3
c. Where the construction of the floor is such as to afford the specified lateral resistance in deck spans or through plate
girder spans, the floor shall be taken as the lateral bracing required in its plane. Loads from such floors shall be
transferred to the bearings without introducing torsion into the floor system or main members. Concrete decks are not
to be used in through spans unless the deck is isolated from the main girders or trusses.
d. Where the bracing is a double system and the members meet the requirements for both tension and compression 4
members, both systems may be considered effective simultaneously.
1.11.3 PORTAL AND SWAY BRACING (1994) R(2008)
a. In through truss spans there shall be portal bracing, with knee braces, as deep as the clearance will allow. There shall be
sway bracing at the intermediate panel points if the trusses are high enough to allow a depth of 6 feet or more for such
bracing. Where there is not sufficient clearance to allow that depth, the top lateral struts shall be of the same depth as
the chord, and there shall be knee braces as deep as the clearance will allow.
b. In deck truss spans there shall be sway bracing at the panel points. The top lateral forces shall be carried to the supports
by means of a complete system of bracing.
1

Steel Structures
1.11.4 CROSS FRAMES AND DIAPHRAGMS FOR DECK SPANS (1994)1 R(2002)
a. Cross frames and diaphragms, and their connections, shall be adequate to resist forces induced by out of plane bending
and the lateral distribution of loads. Connection plates for cross frames and diaphragms between beams or girders shall
be adequately fastened to the web and both the top and bottom flanges of the beams or girders. Connection angles for
diaphragms between rolled beams in single track spans, without skew and on tangent alignment, need not be fastened
to the flanges.
b. Longitudinal girders or beams having depth greater than 3′-6″ and spaced more than 4 feet on centers shall be braced
with cross frames. The angle of cross frame diagonals with the vertical shall not exceed 60 degrees.
c. Longitudinal girders or beams not requiring cross frames shall be braced with I-shaped diaphragms which are as deep
as girders or beams will permit. Connections to the girder or beam webs for such diaphragms shall be designed to carry
shear at least equal to one-half of the shear capacity of the diaphragm.
d. Cross frames or diaphragms shall be used at the ends of spans (except where the girders or beams are framed into
floorbeams), and shall be proportioned for centrifugal and lateral forces.
e. In open deck construction, cross frames or diaphragms shall be used at intervals not exceeding 18 feet.
f. Where steel plate, timber or precast concrete decking is utilized in ballasted deck construction, cross frames or
diaphragms without top lateral bracing shall be used at intervals not exceeding 12 feet; or with top lateral bracing, at
intervals not exceeding 18 feet.
g. Where poured-in-place concrete decking is used in ballasted deck construction, cross frames or diaphragms shall be
used at intervals not exceeding 24 feet. For girders or beams up to 4′-6″ deep, concrete diaphragms with reinforcement
extending through the girders or beams may be used instead of steel diaphragms.
h. Where ballast and track are carried on transverse beams without stringers, the beams shall be connected with at least
one line of longitudinal diaphragms per track.
1.11.5 BRACING OF VIADUCT TOWERS AND BENTS (1994) R(2008)
a. The bracing of bents and towers shall consist of double systems of diagonals with struts at caps and bases and at
intermediate panel points. In towers supporting two or more tracks there shall be horizontal bracing at the top of the
tower to transmit horizontal loads.
b. The bottom struts shall be proportioned for either the calculated forces or force in tension or compression equal to one-
quarter of the dead load reaction on one pedestal, whichever is greater. The column bearings shall be designed to allow
for the expansion and contraction of the tower bracing.
1.11.6 BRACING MEMBERS USED AS TIES OR STRUTS ONLY (1994) R(2008)
Bracing members used only as ties or struts, to reduce the unsupported length of a member to which they connect, need not be
designed for more than 2.5% of the force in that member.
1

Design
SECTION 1.12 PINS AND PIN-CONNECTED MEMBERS
1.12.1 PINS (1994) R(2003)
a. Pins more than 7 inches in diameter shall be forged and annealed.
b. In pins more than 9 inches in diameter, there shall be a hole not less than 2 inches in diameter bored longitudinally on
the center line.
c. The turned bodies of pins shall be long enough to extend at the ends 1/4 inch beyond the outside faces of the parts
connected. The pins shall be secured by recessed pin nuts or by solid nuts and washers. If the pins are bored, through
rods with cap washers may be used. The screw ends shall be long enough to allow burring the threads.
1.12.2 SECTION AT PIN HOLES (1993) R(2008)
The net section beyond the pin hole, parallel with the axis of the member, shall not be less than the required net section of the
member. The net section through the pin hole, transverse to the axis of the member, shall be at least 40% greater than the
required net section of the member. The ratio of the transverse net width through the pin hole to the thickness of the segment
shall not be more than eight.
1.12.3 REINFORCING PLATES AT PIN HOLES (1993) R(2008)
Where necessary for the required section or bearing area, the section at pin holes shall be increased on each segment by plates 1
so arranged as to reduce the eccentricity of the segment to a minimum. One plate on each side shall be as wide as the
outstanding flanges will allow. At least one full width plate on each segment shall extend to the far edge of the stay plate, and
the others not less than 6 inches beyond the near edge. These plates shall be connected adequately to transmit the bearing
pressure and so arranged as to distribute it uniformly over the full section.
1.12.4 FORKED ENDS OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS (1993) R(2008)

3
Forked ends of compression members shall be permitted only where unavoidable. There shall be enough pin plates on forked
ends to make the section of each jaw equal to that of the member. The pin plates shall be long enough to develop the pin plate
beyond the near edge of the stay plate, but not less than the length required by Article 1.12.3.
4
SECTION 1.13 CONTINUOUS AND CANTILEVER STEEL STRUCTURES1
1.13.1 DEFINITION (2008)

a. A continuous steel structure is one in which the principal load-carrying beams, girders, or trusses have moment-
carrying capacity without interruption throughout at least two adjacent spans. The calculation of reactions and forces
involves the deformations due to stress in the member or members of the structure, and the structure is therefore said to
be statically indeterminate.
b. A cantilever steel structure is one in which the principal load-carrying beams, girders or trusses have moment carrying
capacity throughout one span without interruption, and project or cantilever over at least one support of that span into
the adjacent span or spans, with an interruption in the moment-carrying capacity of the structure within the adjacent
1
References, Vol. 58, 1957, pp. 694, 1203; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 705, 1196; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 386, 699; Vol. 70, 1969, p. 241; Vol. 79, 1978, p. 45; Vol. 97, p.
172.

Steel Structures
span or spans. The calculation of reactions and forces, except in the case where two projections or cantilever arms are
joined by a shear connection without a suspended span between them, are independent of the deformations due to
stress in the member or members in the structure, and the structure is therefore said to be statically determinate. In the
exception stated, the structure is statically indeterminate, as noted for continuous structures in paragraph a.
1.13.2 BASIC DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS (2008)

a. Moments, shears and reactions shall be determined by recognized methods of analysis. In the case of the statically
indeterminate structures described under Article 1.13.1, the gross moments of inertia for flexural members, and the
gross and effective areas, as defined in Article 1.2.5a, for truss members, shall be used in the calculations.
b. Bearing supports should be constructed so that the supports may be considered to be unyielding. When such
construction is not practical, provision shall be made in the design to allow for settlement of the supports based on
reasonable assumptions as to the magnitude of the settlement.
c. A portion or portions of the live load specified in Article 1.3.3 and positioning on the structure shall be selected so as to
produce maximum effects. In case of discontinuous loading not more than two separated loaded lengths shall be used,
with one of the lengths subjected to uniform load only, and with the other subjected to the load headed in either
direction.
1.13.3 DEFLECTION (2008)
a. The deflections of the individual spans of continuous or cantilever structures shall be computed for live load plus
impact load, placed so as to produce maximum downward deflection in that span. In this computation, gross moment
of inertia shall be used for flexural members, and gross or effective area, as defined in Article 1.2.5a, shall be used for
truss members.
b. The structure shall be proportioned and designed so that the computed downward deflection within any span which has
moment-carrying capacity throughout its length shall not exceed 1/640 of that span length. In the case of cantilever
structures, the computed downward deflection at the end of the cantilever arm shall not exceed 1/250 of the length of
that arm and the downward deflection of a suspended simple span shall not exceed 1/640 of the length of that span.
1.13.4 CAMBER (2008)
The camber of trusses shall be equal to the deflection produced by dead load plus a continuous uniform load of 3,000 lb per
foot of track. The camber of plate girders shall be equal to the deflection produced by the dead load only. Rolled beams shall
not be cambered, but shall be fabricated and erected so that any natural camber in the beam is upward.
In computing impact load in accordance with Article 1.3.5, L shall be taken as the length, in feet, of the longest span, center to
center of supports within the structure; except that, in the case of simple suspended spans in cantilever structures, the length of
that span shall be used as L in computing impact loads in that span.
1.13.6 UPLIFT (2008)
Span lengths should be selected so that the dead load reaction at any support of the group will be at least 1.5 times the uplift
from live load and impact load. Should net calculated uplift occur, that end shall be securely anchored in a vertical direction.
Anchorage against uplift shall engage a substantial mass of masonry, and shall be designed for at least 1.5 times the net
calculated uplift.

Design
1.13.7 BRACING (2008)
Bracing for continuous spans shall be as required by Section 1.11, Bracing, and, in addition, top flanges of through plate girder
spans in regions of negative moment as well as in regions of positive moment shall be braced as required in Article 1.11.1, and
bottom flanges of all beam and girder spans, regardless of length, shall have a continuous lateral bracing system.
1.13.8 LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS (2010)1
a. Longitudinal stiffeners shall be placed as specified by Article 1.7.8f to provide flexural stiffness to the web plate over
supports of continuous or cantilever deep girders, where there is negative moment. Longitudinal stiffeners are usually
placed on one side only of the web plate with transverse stiffeners on the other side. Where bearing stiffeners are
placed on both sides of the web and the longitudinal stiffeners intersect with bearing stiffeners, the longitudinal
stiffener should be discontinuous with the bearing stiffener. The stress in the stiffener (from participation in the girder
stress) shall not be greater than the basic allowable bending stress for the material used in the stiffener. Longitudinal
stiffeners shall also be used at other locations as specified by Article 1.7.8f. See Article 9.1.10.2 for further guidance
on detailing intersecting stiffeners.
b. The center line of a plate longitudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle longitudinal stiffener shall be D/5 from the
inner surface or leg of the compression flange component.
c. The longitudinal stiffener shall be proportioned so that:
2
3⎛ d ⎞
I E = D t ⎜ 2.4 ------ – 0.13⎟ 1
⎝ D2 ⎠
where:
IE = minimum required moment of inertia of longitudinal stiffeners about the edge in contact with the web plate,
inch4 3
D = clear distance between flange, inches
t = thickness of the web plate, inches
d = clear distance between the transverse stiffeners, inches
d. The thickness of the longitudinal stiffener shall not be less than

4
b′ f
--------------b
2250
where:
b′ = width of stiffeners, inches

fb = calculated compressive bending stress in the flange, psi
1

Steel Structures
1.13.9 COVER PLATES (2008)
The requirements for cover plates in Article 1.7.2 shall apply except as modified in Article 1.13.9.1 and Article 1.13.9.2
wherein the term “theoretical end of cover plate” refers to the section where the stress in the flange without that cover plate
equals the allowable stress, exclusive of fatigue considerations.
1.13.9.1 For Riveted or Bolted Construction
Partial length cover plates shall extend beyond the theoretical end far enough to develop the capacity of the plate, or shall
extend to a section where the stress in the remainder of the girder flange is equal to the allowable fatigue stress, whichever
extension is greater.
1.13.9.2 For Welded Construction
a. Flanges of welded plate girders shall be made using only one plate in each flange (i.e. without cover plates).
b. Partial length cover plates may be used on rolled beam spans under the following conditions:
(1) Partial length cover plates should be limited to one on any flange. The maximum thickness of the cover plate (or
total thickness of all cover plates) on a flange shall not be greater than 1.5 times the thickness of the flange to
which the cover plate is attached.
(2) Cover plates may be wider or narrower than the beam flange to which they are attached.
(3) Any partial length cover plate shall extend beyond the theoretical end by the terminal distance, or it shall extend to
a section where the stress range in the beam flange is equal to the allowable fatigue stress range for base metal
adjacent to or connected by fillet welds, whichever extension is greater. The terminal distance is 2 times the
nominal cover plate width for cover plates not welded across their ends, and 1.5 times for cover plates welded
across their ends. The width at ends of tapered cover plates shall be not less than 3 inches. All welds connecting
the cover plate to the flange in its terminal distance shall be of sufficient size to develop a total stress of not less
than the computed stress in the cover plate at its theoretical end.
1.13.10 SPLICES IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2008)

a. Splices in continuous or cantilever flexural members shall be designed for maximum moment and simultaneous shear,
or for maximum shear and simultaneous moment.
b. Splices should be located at points of dead load contraflexure in the case of continuous structures.
c. Bolted or riveted flange splices shall have a minimum strength equal to 75% of the strength of the flange component
spliced.

Design
SECTION 1.14 FRACTURE CRITICAL MEMBERS
1.14.1 SCOPE (2001)1 R(2013)
Fracture Critical Members and member components (FCMs) have special requirements for materials, fabrication, welding,
inspection and testing. The provisions of Section 12, AWS D1.5 “Fracture Control Plan (FCP) for Nonredundant Members”,
shall apply to FCMs, except as modified herein.
1.14.2 DEFINITIONS (2013)2
a. Fracture Critical Members or member components (FCM’s) are defined as those tension members or tension
components of members whose failure would be expected to result in collapse of the bridge or inability of the bridge to
perform its design function.
b. Tension components of steel bridges include all portions of tension members and those portions of flexural members
subjected to tension stress. Any attachment, except for bearing sole plates, having a length in the direction of the
tension stress greater than 4 inches (100 mm) that is welded to a tension component of a FCM shall be considered part
of the tension component and, therefore, shall be considered Fracture Critical.
1.14.3 DESIGN AND REVIEW RESPONSIBILITIES (1997)3 R(2008)
a. The Engineer is responsible: for the suitability of the design of the railway bridge; for the selection of the proper
materials; for choosing adequate details; for designating appropriate weld requirements; and for reviewing shop 1
drawings and erection plans to determine conformance with the contract documents.
b. The Engineer is also responsible: for determining which, if any, bridge members or member components are in the
FCM category; for evaluating each bridge design to determine the location of any FCM’s that may exist; for the clear
delineation on the contract plans of the location of all FCM’s; for reviewing shop drawings to determine that they
correctly show the location and extent of FCM’s; and for verifying that the Fracture Control Plan is properly
implemented in compliance with contract documents at all stages of fabrication and erection. 3
c. Welding procedure specifications are considered an integral part of shop drawings and shall be reviewed for each
contract.
1.14.4 SPECIAL WELDING REQUIREMENTS (1997) R(2008)
The Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) process shall be used for flange and web butt splices, flange to web welds, and box 4
member corner welds unless otherwise authorized by the Engineer.
1.14.5 NOTCH TOUGHNESS OF STEEL IN FRACTURE CRITICAL MEMBERS (2010)4
Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact test requirements for steels in FCM’s shall be as given in Table 15-1-14 except as shown in
Note 6.
1
2
3 See Part 9 Commentary

Steel Structures
Table 15-1-14. Impact Test Requirements for Structural Steel - Fracture Critical Members
(See Note 1)
Minimum Minimum Average Energy, Ft-lb(J)

ASTM Thickness Test Value and Test Temperatures
Designation In.(mm) Energy
Ft-lb(J) Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
A36/A36M (Note 6) To 4(100) incl. 20(27) 25(34) @ 25(34) @ 25(34) @
A709/A709M, Grade 36F(Grade 70°F(21°C) 40°F(4°C) 10°F(-12°C)
250F) (Notes 5 and 6)
A992/A992M (Note 2) To 2(50) incl. 20(27) 25(34) @ 25(34) @ 25(34) @
A709/A709M, Grade 50SF(Grade 70°F(21°C) 40°F(4°C) 10°F(-12°C)
345SF) (Notes 2, 5 and 6)
A572/A572M, Grade 50(Grade 345) Over 2(50) to 4(100) incl. 24(33) 30(41) @ 30(41) @ 30(41) @
(Notes 2 and 6) 70°F(21°C) 40°F(4°C) 10°F(-12°C)
A709/A709M, Grade 50F(Grade
345F) (Notes 2, 5 and 6)
A588/A588M (Notes 2 and 6)
A709/A709M, Grade 50WF(Grade
345WF) (Notes 2, 5 and 6)
A709/A709M, Grade HPS 50WF To 4(100) incl. 24(33) 30(41) @ 30(41) @ 30(41) @
(Grade HPS 345WF) (Notes 2 and 5) 10°F(-12°C) 10°F(-12°C) 10°F(-12°C)
A709/A709M, Grade HPS 70WF To 4(100) incl. 28(38) 35(48) @ 35(48) @ 35(48) @
(Grade HPS 485WF) (Notes 3 and 5) -10°F(-23°C) -10°F(-23°C) -10°F(-23°C)
Minimum Service Temperature (Note 4) 0°F(-18°C) -30°F(-34°C) -60°F(-51°C)
Note 1: Impact tests shall be Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact testing, “P” plate frequency, in accordance with ASTM
Designation A673/A673M except for plates of A709/A709M Grades 36F(250F), 50F(345F), 50WF(345WF), HPS
50 WF (HPS 345 WF) and HPS 70 WF (HPS 485 WF) and their equivalents in which case specimens shall be
selected as follows:
(1) As-rolled plates shall be sampled at each end of each plate-as-rolled.
(2) Normalized plates shall be sampled at one end of each plate-as-heat treated.
(3) Quenched and tempered plates shall be sampled at each end of each plate-as-heat-treated.
Note 2: If the yield point of the material exceeds 65,000 psi(450 MPa), the test temperature for the minimum average energy
and minimum test value energy required shall be reduced by 15°F(8°C) for each increment or fraction of 10,000
psi(70 MPa) above 65,000 psi(450 MPa). The yield point is the value given on the certified “Mill Test Report”.
Note 3: If the yield strength of the material exceeds 85,000 psi(585 MPa), the test temperature for the minimum average
energy and minimum test value energy required shall be reduced by 15°F(8°C) for each increment of 10,000 psi(70
MPa) above 85,000 psi(585 MPa). The yield strength is the value given on the certified “Mill Test Report”.
Note 4: Minimum service temperature of 0°F(-18°C) corresponds to Zone l, –30°F(-34°C) to Zone 2, –60°F(-51°C) to Zone
3 referred to in Part 9, Commentary, Article 9.1.2.1.
Note 5: The suffix “F” is an ASTM A709/A709M designation for fracture critical material requiring impact testing. A
numeral l, 2 or 3 shall be added to the F marking to indicate the applicable service temperature zone.
Note 6: Steel backing for groove welds joining steels with a minimum specified yield strength of 50,000 psi(345 MPa) or
less may be base metal conforming to ASTM A36/A36M, A709/A709M, A588/A588M or A572/A572M, at the
Contractor’s option, provided the backing material is furnished as bar stock rolled to a size not exceeding 3/8
in(10mm) by 1-1/4 in(32mm). The bar stock so furnished need not conform to the Charpy V-Notch impact test
requirements of this table.

Design
SECTION 1.15 LIVE LOAD MOMENTS, SHEARS AND REACTIONS
1.15.1 TABULATED VALUES FOR SIMPLE SPANS (2003) R(2008)
For the maximum moments, shears and pier (or floorbeam) reactions for Cooper E 80 live load (Figure 15-1-2) or alternate
live load (Figure 15-1-3) refer to Table 15-1-15.
Table 15-1-15. Maximum Moments, Shears and Pier (or Floorbeam) Reactions for
Cooper E 80 Live Load or Alternate Live Load
All Values are for one rail (one-half track load)
Maximum Maximum Shears Maximum

Span Maximum Kips
Moment Pier Reaction
Length Moment
Quarter Point At Quarter Kips
Ft Ft–Kips
Ft–Kips At End At Center (2)
Point
E-80 Alt. E-80 Alt. E-80 Alt. E-80 Alt. E-80 Alt. E-80 Alt.
5 50.00 62.50 37.50 46.88 40.00 50.00 20.00 25.00 40.00 50.00
6 60.00 75.00 45.00 56.25 46.67 58.33 30.00 37.50 20.00 25.00 53.33 58.33
7 70.00 87.50 55.00 68.75 51.43 64.29 31.43 39.29 20.00 25.00 62.86 71.43
8 80.00 100.00 70.00 87.50 55.00 68.75 35.00 43.75 20.00 25.00 70.00 81.25
9 93.89 117.36 85.00 106.25 57.58 72.22 37.78 47.23 20.00 25.00 75.76 88.89
1
10 112.50 140.63 100.00 125.00 60.00 75.00 40.00 50.00 20.00 25.00 80.00 95.00
11 131.36 164.20 115.00 143.75 65.45 77.27 41.82 52.28 21.82 27.28 87.28 100.00
12 160.00 188.02 130.00 162.50 70.00 83.33 43.33 54.17 23.33 29.17 93.33 108.33
13 190.00 212.83 145.00 181.25 73.84 88.46 44.61 55.76 24.61 30.76 98.46 115.39
14 220.00 250.30 165.00 200.00 77.14 92.86 47.14 57.14 25.71 32.14 104.29 121.43
16 280.00 325.27 210.00 250.00 85.00 100.00 52.50 62.50 27.50 34.38 113.74 131.25 3
18 340.00 400.24 255.00 318.79 93.33 111.11 56.67 68.05 28.89 36.11 121.33 138.89
20 412.50 475.00 300.00 362.50 100.00 120.00 60.00 72.50 28.70 37.50 131.10 145.00
24 570.42 668.75 420.00 500.00 110.83 133.33 70.00 83.33 31.75 41.67 147.92 154.17
28 730.98 866.07 555.00 650.00 120.86 142.86 77.14 92.86 34.29 46.43 164.58
32 910.85 1064.06 692.50 800.00 131.44 150.00 83.12 100.00 37.50 50.00 181.94 4
36 1097.30 1262.50 851.50 950.00 141.12 155.56 88.90 105.56 41.10 55.56 199.06
40 1311.3 1461.25 1010.50 1100.00 150.80 160.00 93.55 110.00 44.00 60.00 215.90
45 1601.2 1710.00 1233.60 1287.48 163.38 164.44 100.27 114.45 45.90 64.45 237.25
50 1901.80 1959.00 1473.00 1481.05 174.40 106.94 118.42 49.73 68.00 257.52
55 2233.10 1732.30 185.31 113.58 120.91 52.74 70.91 280.67
60 2597.80 2010.00 196.00 120.21 123.33 55.69 73.33 306.42
70 3415.00 2608.20 221.04 131.89 61.45 77.14 354.08
80 4318.90 3298.00 248.40 143.41 67.41 80.00 397.70
90 5339.10 4158.00 274.46 157.47 73.48 82.22 437.15
100 6446.30 5060.50 300.00 173.12 78.72 84.00 474.24
120 9225.40 7098.00 347.35 202.19 88.92 544.14
140 12406.00 9400.00 392.59 230.23 101.64 614.91

Steel Structures
Table 15-1-15. Maximum Moments, Shears and Pier (or Floorbeam) Reactions for
Cooper E 80 Live Load or Alternate Live Load (Continued)
All Values are for one rail (one-half track load)
Maximum Maximum Shears Maximum

Span Maximum Kips
Moment Pier Reaction
Length Moment
Quarter Point At Quarter Kips
Ft Ft–Kips
Ft–Kips At End At Center (2)
Point
E-80 Alt. E-80 Alt. E-80 Alt. E-80 Alt. E-80 Alt. E-80 Alt.
160 15908.00 (1) 11932.00 436.51 265.51 115.20 687.50
180 19672.00 (1) 14820.00 479.57 281.96 128.12 762.22
200 23712.00 (1) 17990.00 522.01 306.81 140.80 838.00
250 35118.00 (1) 27154.00 626.41 367.30 170.05 1030.40
300 48800.00 (1) 38246.00 729.34 426.37 197.93 1225.30
350 65050.00 (1) 51114.00 831.43 484.64 225.51 1421.70
400 83800.00 (1) 65588.00 933.00 542.40 252.44 1619.00
Note (1) - Values for Cooper E-80 Live Load. Moment values taken at center span.
Note (2) - Maximum pier reactions are for equal span lengths.
1.15.2 SUPPLEMENTAL FORMULAS FOR SIMPLE SPANS (2009)
Units are in feet and kips. All values are for one rail (one-half track load).
Table 15-1-16. Calculation of Maximum Moments on Short, Simple Spans
Span, L Location of Mmax Maximum Moment (Cooper E-80)

0.00 ft. < L ≤ 8.54 ft. L/2 Mmax = 10L
8.54 ft. < L ≤ 11.12 ft. L/2 +/-1.25 ft Mmax = 20L - 100 + 125/L
11.12 ft. < L ≤ 18.66 ft. L/2 Mmax = 30L - 200
18.66 ft. < L ≤ 27.61 ft. L/2 +/-1.25 ft Mmax = 40L - 400 + 250/L
27.61 ft. < L ≤ 34.97 ft. L/2 +/-0.389 ft Mmax = 45L - 530 + 27.2/L
34.97 ft. < L ≤ 38.72 ft. L/2 +/-0.961 ft Mmax = 51.5L - 762 + 190/L
38.72 ft. < L ≤ 49.56 ft. L/2 +/-0.211 ft Mmax = 58L - 1009 + 10.35/L
48.31 ft. < L ≤ 53.54 ft. L/2 +/-1.45 ft Mmax = 64.5L - 1334 + 542.2/L
53.54 ft. < L ≤ 58.47 ft. L/2 +/-0.127 ft Mmax = 71L - 1672 + 4.6/L
58.47 ft. < L ≤ 63.42 ft. L/2 +/-1.374 ft Mmax = 77.5L - 2062 + 585.4/L
63.42 ft. < L ≤ 75.15 ft. L/2 +/-0.068 ft Mmax = 84L - 2465 + 1.6/L
75.15 ft. < L ≤ 79.831 L/2 +/-0.088 ft Mmax = 97L - 3442 + 3/L
1At L = 80 ft., the last formula will give a value which is 99.98% of the value given in Table 15-1-15.
Span, L Location of Mmax Max Moment (Alt LL: 4 - 100k Axles)

0.00 ft. < L ≤ 8.54 ft. L/2 Mmax = 12.5L
8.54 ft. < L ≤ 12.94 ft. L/2 +/-1.25 ft Mmax = 25L - 125 + 156.25/L
12.94 ft. < L ≤ 20.24 ft. L/2 +/-0.167 ft Mmax = 37.5L - 275 + 4.17/L
L > 20.24 ft. L/2 +/-1.5 ft Mmax = 50L - 550 + 450/L

Design
2
For L ≥ 288: M 0.5 = 0.5L + 3800
For L ≥ 101: V e = 2L + 144 – 4398

------------
L
4238
For L ≥ 134.67: V 0.25 = 1.124L + 103 – ------------
L
4238
For 202 ≥ L ≥ 296: V 0.5 = 0.5L + 62 – ------------
L
5422
For L > 296: V 0.5 = 0.5L + 66 – ------------
L
7600
For L ≥ 144: R = 4L + ------------
L
where:
L = span length
Mmax = maximum moment
1
M0.5 = maximum moment at center
Ve, V0.25 and V0.5 = maximum shear at end of span, at 1/4 point and at center, respectively
R = maximum pier reaction from two adjoining spans each of length L

Steel Structures

15
Part 3
Fabrication1
— 2013 —
FOREWORD
The purpose of this part is to formulate specific and detailed rules as a guide for the fabrication of railway bridges.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article Description Page 1

3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-3
3.1.1 Quality of Workmanship (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-3
3.1.2 Material Orders and Shipping Statements (1987) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-3
3.1.3 Notice of Beginning Work (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-3
3.1.4 Storage of Material (1987) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-3
3.1.5 Straightening Material (1987) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-3 3
3.1.6 Thermal Cutting, Copes, and Access Holes (2005) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-3
3.1.7 Dimensional Tolerances for Structural Members (2006) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-4
3.1.8 Planing Sheared Edges (1994) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-7
3.1.9 Lacing Bars (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-7
3.1.10 Fit of Stiffeners (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-7
3.1.11 Flexural Member Web Plates, Riveted and Bolted Construction (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-8
3.1.12 Facing Floorbeams, Stringers, and Girders (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-8
3.1.13 Abutting Joints (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-8
3.1.14 Pin Clearances (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-8
3.1.15 Pins and Rollers (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-8
3.1.16 Fitting of Base and Cap Plates (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-8
3.1.17 Surfaces of Bearing Plates and Pedestals (2002) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-8
3.1.18 Bent Plates (2007) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-8
3.1.19 Piece Marking (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-9
3.2 Riveted and Bolted Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-10

3.2.1 Rivets and Riveting (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-10
3.2.2 High Strength Bolts, Nuts and Washers (1995) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-10
1
References, Vol. 70, 1969, p. 241; Vol. 71, 1970, p. 376; Vol. 72, 1971, p. 153; Vol. 74, 1973, p. 132; Vol. 75, 1974, p. 336; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 241; Vol. 77,
1976, p. 249; Vol. 79, 1978, p. 45; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 188; Vol. 81, 1980, p. 129; Vol. 82, 1981, p. 78; Vol. 84, 1983, p. 100; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 90; Vol. 88,
1987, p. 87; Vol. 91, 1990, p. 121; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 78; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 124; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 142; Vol. 96, p. 69; Vol. 97, p. 171. Reapproved with
revisions 1996.

Steel Structures
3.2.3 Installation of High Strength Bolts (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-10

3.2.4 Quantity of Field Fasteners (2003) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-14
3.2.5 Size and Workmanship of Holes (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-14
3.2.6 Preparation of Holes for Shop Fasteners (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-15
3.2.7 Preparation of Holes for Field Fasteners (2007) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-16
3.2.8 Templates for Reaming and Drilling (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-16
3.2.9 Reaming and Drilling Through Templates (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-17
3.2.10 Reaming and Drilling After Assembly (1995) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-17
3.2.11 Match Marking (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-17
3.2.12 Alignment of Finished Holes (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-17
3.2.13 Fitting for Shop Riveting or Bolting (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-17
3.2.14 Testing and Documentation of ASTM A325 and A490 Bolts (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-17
3.3 Welded Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-20

3.3.1 General (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-20
3.3.2 Preparation of Material for Welding (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-20
3.3.3 Flange-to-Web Welds of Flexural Members (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-20
3.3.4 Tack Welds (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-21
3.3.5 Welder and Welding Operator Qualifications (1997) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-21
3.4 Shop Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-21

3.4.1 Shop Painting of Structural Steel (2003) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-21
3.4.2 Shop Painting of Machined Surfaces (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-21
3.5 Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-21

3.5.1 Facilities for Inspection (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-21
3.5.2 Inspector Authority (1991) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-22
3.5.3 Rejection (1991) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-22
3.5.4 Inspection – High Strength Bolted Joints (2003) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-22
3.5.5 Inspection – Welded Work (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-22
3.6 Shipment and Pay Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-23

3.6.1 Marking, Packaging and Loading (1995) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-23
3.6.2 Advance Material (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-23
3.6.3 Pay Weight (2003) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-23
LIST OF TABLES
15-3-1 Minimum Radii for Cold Bending of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-9

15-3-2 Minimum Tension of Installed Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-10
15-3-3 Nut Rotation from Snug Tight Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-11
15-3-4 Contractor Acceptable Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-15
15-3-5 Minimum Required Rotational Capacity Test Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3-19

Fabrication
SECTION 3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 QUALITY OF WORKMANSHIP (1995) R(2008)
a. Structural steel fabricators shall be certified for the type of structure being fabricated under the AISC Quality
Certification Program (SBR - Simple Steel Bridge Structures or CBR - Major Steel Bridges [all bridge structures other
than unspliced rolled beam bridges]) or another suitable program as determined by the Engineer. Evidence of
certification shall be submitted to the Engineer for his approval before beginning any work.
b. Structural steel fabricators of Fracture Critical Members shall be certified under the AISC Quality Certification
Program, with a Fracture Critical Endorsement (F) or another suitable program as determined by the Engineer. The
fabricator shall also meet the additional requirements for Fracture Critical Members specified in Part 1, Design,
Section 1.14, Fracture Critical Members.
c. The workmanship and finish shall be equal to the best general practice in modern bridge shops.
3.1.2 MATERIAL ORDERS AND SHIPPING STATEMENTS (1987) R(2008)
The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer as many copies of material orders and shipping statements as the Engineer may
require. The weights of the individual members shall be shown on the statements.
3.1.3 NOTICE OF BEGINNING WORK (2002) R(2008) 1

The Contractor shall give the Engineer ample written notice of the beginning of work in the shop, in order that inspection may
be provided. Work shall not be done in the shop before the Engineer has been so notified.
3.1.4 STORAGE OF MATERIAL (1987) R(2008)
Structural material, either plain or fabricated, shall be stored properly above the ground upon platforms, skids, or other 3
supports. It shall be kept free from dirt, grease and other foreign matter, and shall be protected as far as practicable from
corrosion.
3.1.5 STRAIGHTENING MATERIAL (1987) R(2008)
Rolled material, before being laid off or worked, shall be straight within the tolerances allowed by ASTM Specification A6. If 4
straightening is necessary, it shall be done by methods which will not adversely affect the behavior of the material.
3.1.6 THERMAL CUTTING, COPES, AND ACCESS HOLES (2005)1 R(2008)
3.1.6.1 Thermal Cutting
a. The steels covered by these recommended practices may be thermally-cut, provided that a smooth surface free from
cracks and notches is secured and provided that an accurate profile is secured by the use of a mechanical guide.
Freehand cutting shall be done only when specifically approved by the Engineer.
b. Cutting shall be done in such a manner as to avoid cutting inside the prescribed lines. The Surface Roughness value of
cut surfaces, as defined in “ASME B46.1-1995 Surface Texture (Surface Roughness, Waviness and Lay), an American
National Standard” published by The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, shall not exceed 1,000 μin (25 μm)
1

Steel Structures
for material up to 4 inches (100 mm) thick and 2,000 μin (50 μm) for material 4 inches (100 mm) to 8 inches (200 mm)
thick. Member ends not subjected to calculated stress may have a surface roughness value up to 2,000 μin (50 μm).
The procedure described below shall be used to correct roughness exceeding the applicable value or occasional notches
or gouges. Roughness exceeding the applicable value and occasional notches or gouges not more than 3/16 inch (5
mm) deep, on otherwise satisfactory surfaces, shall be removed by machining or grinding. Cut surfaces and edges shall
be left free of adhering slag. Corrections of defects shall be faired to the oxygen-cut surfaces with a slope not
exceeding 1 in 10. Defects in oxygen-cut edges shall not be repaired by welding except occasional notches or gouges
up to 7/16 inch (11 mm) deep in material up to 4 inches (100 mm) thick if so approved by the Engineer. The procedure
for such weld repair shall be subject to the Engineer’s approval, shall ensure sound metal free from cracks, and shall
produce a workmanlike finish.
c. Re-entrant corners shall be filleted to a radius of not less than 1 inch (25 mm). The fillet and its contiguous cuts shall
meet without offset or cutting past the point of tangency.
d. Edges of built-up beam and girder webs shall be cut to prescribed camber with suitable allowance for shrinkage due to
cutting and welding. However, moderate deviation from the specified camber tolerance may be corrected by a carefully
supervised application of heat.
3.1.6.2 Copes and Access Holes
a. The re-entrant corners of copes shall be shaped with a radius of not less than 1 inch (25 mm) with a smooth transition
that meets the adjacent edges without offset or cutting past the point of tangency.
b. In hot rolled shapes and built up shapes all beam copes and weld access holes shall be shaped free of notches or sharp
re-entrant corners, except when web-to flange fillet welds are used on built-up shapes access holes are permitted to
terminate perpendicular to the flange. Thermal cut edges shall meet the requirements of Paragraph 3.2.2 of AWS D1.5.
c. The thermal cut surfaces of holes and re-entrant cuts in primary members and their connections shall be ground to
bright metal. For ASTM A6 Group 4 and 5 shapes and built-up shapes with web material thickness greater than 1-1/2
inch (38 mm), the thermal cut surfaces shall be inspected by either magnetic particle or dye-penetrant methods. If the
curved transition portion of holes and beam copes are formed by predrilled or sawed holes, that portion of the hole or
cope need not be ground. Unless specified by the Engineer, holes and copes in other members need not be ground nor
dye-penetrant or magnetic-particle inspected.
d. All weld access holes required to facilitate welding operations shall have a length from the toe of the weld preparation
of not less than 1-1/2 times the thickness of the material in which the hole is made. The height of the access hole shall
be adequate for the deposition of sound weld metal in the adjacent plates and shall provide clearance for the weld tabs
for the weld in the material in which the hole is made, but shall not be less than the thickness of the material.
3.1.7 DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS (2006) R(2008)

3.1.7.1 General Provisions
a. Members and parts of members shall be straight, true to line, and free from twists and bends. In determining
acceptability under these general requirements, the tolerances stated hereinafter shall be applied as indicated. When
more accurate conformance to detailed dimensions is required for any member or part of a member, it shall be
specifically stated on the contract plans.
b. Surfaces intended to be in a common plane at connections, joints, splices and bearings shall have no offset greater than
1/8 inch unless properly accommodated by fillers.
c. For rolled shapes or plates, the tolerance for any dimension shall conform with the requirements of ASTM A6 except
as otherwise shown on the contract drawings.

Fabrication
d. The tolerances stated hereinafter have been established to apply primarily to members fabricated by welding. Riveted
and bolted members shall be well within these specified tolerances, as shall rolled members to the extent not excepted
by paragraph c above.
e. Allowable deviations.
(1) Deviation from detailed length:
For members with ends milled for bearing and members with end
connection angles faced ±1/32 inch
For framed members not milled or faced:
Lengths of 30 feet and under ±1/16 inch
Lengths over 30 feet ±1/8 inch
For other members ±1/4 inch
(2) Deviation from detailed straightness or curvature, that is, sweep or deviation from camber:
No. of feet of length between points

±1/16 inch × --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10
or
±1/4 inch, whichever is greater. 1

(3) Deviation from parallelism between corresponding elements of the same part at different cross-sections along the
length of the member (i.e. twist):
No. of feet of length between sections

For box sections 1/16 inch in 12 inches bevel × -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10
3
No. of feet of length between sections
For I sections 1/8 inch in 12 inches bevel × -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10
(4) Deviation from detailed depth or width, measured at the centerline of each web or flange:
D-⎞
± ⎛ 1 ⁄ 8 inch + --------
4
⎝ 500 ⎠
where:
D = the dimension, inch, being considered
(5) Out of square for box-shaped members. The deviation of parts on opposite sides of a member measured transverse
to the principal axis of the cross-section shall not exceed:
D
3/16 inch + ------------
1000

Steel Structures
where:
D = the nominal distance, inch, between the opposite sides.
(6) Lateral deviation between the centerline of flanges measured transverse to the theoretical center line of web of I-
shaped members at splice points and contact points of connection shall not exceed:
D
3/16 inch + ------------
1000
where:
D = the nominal distance, inch, between the flanges
(7) Combined warpage and tilt of flange at any cross section of welded I-shaped beams or girders shall be determined
by measuring the offset at toe of flange from a line normal to the plane of the web through the intersection of the
centerline of web with the outside surface of the flange plate. This offset shall not exceed 1/100 of total width of
flange or 1/4 inch, whichever is greater, at any point along the member and 1/32 inch at any bearing.
(8) The tolerances for out of flatness of seats and bases shall be as specified in Article 5.9.6.
(9) Deviation from flatness or detailed curvature of panels of plate elements shall be determined by measuring offsets
perpendicular to a template, edge having the detailed straightness or curvature and a length not less than the
smaller of d1 or d2 as defined below and not more than 1.5 times the smaller of d1 or d2. The measurements shall
be taken between points of contact of the template edge with the plate. The template edge may be placed anywhere
within the panel of plate. The maximum offset shall not exceed the applicable values computed as follows:
d - but not greater than 0.75 × t.

(a) For girder webs without intermediate stiffeners --------------
200 t
d
(b) For all stiffened plate elements --------------- but not greater than 1.5 × t.
100 t
where:
d = the least dimension, inch, of:

d1 the maximum transverse distance between longitudinal flanges edges or stiffeners, inch,
d2 the maximum longitudinal distance between transverse edges or stiffeners, inch, or
d3 the clear distance between points of contact of the template with the plate or web, inch
t = the minimum thickness of the plate within the panel, inch
(10) Deviation from detailed position of secondary parts and connections. (The detailed position is defined as the
detailed distance from the member connection, centerline of bearing, or other primary working point or line):
(a) For each secondary part not used for connection of other members except bearing stiffeners. (That is, a part
such as a plain stiffener plate or bar.) ±1/4 inch.

Fabrication
(b) For each secondary part used for connection of secondary members, and also for bearing stiffeners. (That is, a
part used for connections in which the holes would be permitted to be punched full size if the connections
were bolted.) ±1/8 inch.
(11) Deviations from full surface contact:
(a) At least 70% of the surfaces specified to be in bearing contact shall have the contact surfaces within 0.005
inch of each other. No remaining portion of the surfaces specified to be in bearing contact shall have a
separation exceeding 0.03 inch. Any element of the main material which is composed of multiple elements
shall have a minimum of 60% of its bearing area in contact.
(b) Contact surfaces specified to be prepared by milling, grinding, or planing shall have a surface roughness value
not to exceed 250 μin (ANSI/ASME) B46.1 Surface Texture.
3.1.7.2 Special Provisions for Trusses and Viaduct-Tower Main Members
a. Abutting joints of compression members which have been faced for bearing, when assembled, shall conform to
Article 3.1.7.1e(11).
b. For member connections or splices, whether at joints or between joints, the clearance between the in-to-in dimension
of the gusset plates or splice plates and the out-to-out dimensions of the entering member shall not exceed 3/16 inch or
as otherwise indicated by the Engineer for joints with thick or multiple gusset plates, long diaphragms, or other special
framing conditions.
c. The use of squaring-up diaphragms may be necessary to meet the tolerances established in Article 3.1.7.1 and this
1
Article. Design details of squaring-up diaphragms and any design restrictions on their use shall be shown on the design
plans. Unless designated otherwise, their use will be optional with the contractor. All squaring-up diaphragms shall be
shown on the shop drawings.
3.1.8 PLANING SHEARED EDGES (1994)1 R(2008)

3
Sheared edges of ASTM A36 main material over 5/8 inch thick and all high strength main material shall be planed to a depth
of 1/4 inch. Web plates and pin plates (regardless of thickness) of pin connected tension members shall be universal mill plates
or shall have edges planed 1/4 inch and the ends back of pins planed 1/4 inch.
3.1.9 LACING BARS (1994) R(2008)
The ends of lacing bars shall be rounded unless otherwise required.

4
3.1.10 FIT OF STIFFENERS (1994) R(2008)
a. The ends of stiffeners on flexural members at points of bearing, as defined in Part 1, Design, Article 1.7.7, shall be
milled or ground to bear against the flange, or shall be welded to the flange with a full penetration groove weld. Refer
to Article 3.1.7.1e(7) and Article 3.1.7.1e(11) for combined warpage and tilt of flange and deviation from full surface
contact.
b. The fit of intermediate stiffener ends against the flange shall be such as to exclude water after being painted, except
that for welded flexural members the ends of stiffeners adjacent to the tension flange may be cut back as appropriate to
comply with the requirements of Part 1, Design, Article 1.10.4.
c. Fillers and splice plates under angle stiffeners shall be made to fit within 1/4 inch at each end.
1

Steel Structures
3.1.11 FLEXURAL MEMBER WEB PLATES, RIVETED AND BOLTED CONSTRUCTION

(1994) R(2008)
a. The edges of web plates of riveted or bolted flexural members that have no cover plates shall not be more than 1/8 inch
above or below the backs of the top flange angles. Web plates of such members with cover plates may be 1/2 inch less
in width than the distance back to back of flange angles.
b. In riveted or bolted splices of web plates there shall not be more than 3/8 inch opening between the plates.
3.1.12 FACING FLOORBEAMS, STRINGERS, AND GIRDERS (1994) R(2008)
Floorbeams, stringers, and girders having end connection angles shall be made to exact length with tolerance as allowed in
Article 3.1.7.1e(1). If facing is necessary, the thickness of the end connection angles shall not be reduced more than 1/8 inch at
any point.
3.1.13 ABUTTING JOINTS (1994) R(2008)
Where splice material at joints and splices in compression members or girder flanges is designed to transmit force as specified
in Part 1, Design, Article 1.5.9d, all main material at that joint or splice shall be milled and brought to an even bearing in one
plane across the end of each abutting piece at the joint or splice. When so specified on the drawings, this requirement shall also
apply to tension members. When the abutting surfaces are not milled, the opening shall not be more than 1/4 inch. Note: Refer
to Article 3.1.7.1e(11) for deviations from full surface contact.
3.1.14 PIN CLEARANCES (1994) R(2008)

The difference in diameter between the pin and the pin hole shall be 1/50 inch for pins up to 5 inches diameter, and 1/32 inch
for larger pins.
3.1.15 PINS AND ROLLERS (1994) R(2008)

Pins and rollers shall be turned accurately to gage and shall be straight, smooth, and free from flaws. For additional
information on pins and rollers see Part 5.
3.1.16 FITTING OF BASE AND CAP PLATES (1994) R(2008)

Both top and bottom surfaces of base and cap plates of columns shall be planed or straightened and the parts of the members in
contact with them faced to fit. Connection angles for base plates and cap plates shall be connected to compression members
before the members are faced. Note: Refer to Article 3.1.7.1e(11) for deviations from full surface contact.
3.1.17 SURFACES OF BEARING PLATES AND PEDESTALS (2002) R(2008)
Refer to Part 5.
3.1.18 BENT PLATES (2007)1 R(2008)
a. Bending procedures shall be such that no cracking of the plate occurs. Large dents or upsets shall be avoided. All
bends shall receive at least visual inspection. Material that does not form satisfactorily when fabricated in accordance
with the requirements of this Article shall be subject to rejection.
b. The bend radius and the radius of the male die should be as liberal as the finished part will permit. The width across
the shoulders of the female die should be at least 8 times the plate thickness for ASTM A36/A36M and ASTM
1

Fabrication
A709/A709M, Grade 36 (250). Higher strength steels may require larger die openings. The surface of the dies in the
area of radius should be smooth.
c. Where the concave face of a bent plate must fit tight against another surface, the male die shall be sufficiently thick and
have the proper radius to ensure that the bent plate has the required concave surface.
d. Bent plates for connections should preferably be oriented so that the bend line will be essentially perpendicular to the
direction of rolling. If the bend line is parallel to the direction of rolling, the suggested minimum radii in Table 15-3-1
should be multiplied by 1.5.
Table 15-3-1. Minimum Radii for Cold Bending of Plates
Material Plate Thickness
Over 1 in.
Up to 1 in. (25 mm) to Over 2 in.
ASTM Grade
(25 mm) incl. 2 in. (50 mm) (50 mm)
incl.
A36/A36M --
A572/A572M 42 (290) 1.5t 1.5t 2.0t
A709/A709M 36 (250)
A572/A572M 50 (345)
A588/A588M -- 1.5t 2.0t 2.5t
A709/A709M 50 (345) 1
A709/A709M 50W (345W)
A572/A572M 55 (380)
A709/A709M HPS 70W (485W) 1.5t 2.5t 3.0t
e. In the area where bending is to occur, the edges of the plate should be ground smooth and the corners rounded before
bending. 3
f. Suggested minimum bend radii for cold bending (i.e. at room temperature), measured to the concave face of the plate,
are given in Table 15-3-1. If a shorter radius is required, then heat may need to be a part of the bending procedure.
Heat may also be applied to facilitate bends with radii meeting or exceeding those listed in Table 15-3-1. The
temperature of the heated plate shall not exceed 1200 °F (650 °C) or 1100 °F (600 °C) in the case of ASTM
A709/A709M, Grade HPS 70W (485W). Heat should be essentially uniform through the thickness of the plate.
4
3.1.19 PIECE MARKING (2013)1
Piece marking and erection marking, when used, shall be done using crayons, tags, commercial low-stress steel die stamps or
other methods approved by the Engineer. If a marking method is used that creates an indentation on the steel surface:
a. Marking shall be by low-stress die stamp or mill or other methods which have been demonstrated by test to meet
Fatigue Category B.
b. The mark shall be placed near a connection detail located a minimum distance of one plate thickness or 1 inch,
whichever is greater, away from plate discontinuities such as welds, holes, or plate edges.
c. For fracture critical members, marks shall be clearly shown on the shop drawings for approval by the Engineer.
1

Steel Structures
SECTION 3.2 RIVETED AND BOLTED CONSTRUCTION
3.2.1 RIVETS AND RIVETING (1995) R(2008)
a. Rivet dimensions shall conform to the current requirements of the American National Standards Institute for large
rivets, 1/2 inch in nominal diameter and larger, ANSI Standard B 18.4.
b. Rivets shall be heated uniformly to a light cherry red and driven while hot to fill the holes completely. They shall be
free from slag, scale and carbon deposit. Loose, burned, or otherwise defective rivets shall be replaced. In removing
rivets, care shall be taken not to injure the adjacent metal and, if necessary, the rivets shall be drilled out. Caulking or
recupping shall not be done.
c. Rivets shall be driven by direct-acting riveters where practicable. The pressure shall be continued after the upsetting
has been completed.
d. Where rivets are driven with a pneumatic riveting hammer, a pneumatic bucker shall be used where practicable.
e. Driven rivet heads shall be fully formed, neatly made, concentric with the rivet holes, and in full contact with the
member.
f. Rivets of ASTM A502, Grade 2, shall not be driven by hand.
3.2.2 HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS, NUTS AND WASHERS (1995)1 R(2008)
High strength bolts, nuts and washers shall conform to Part 1, Design, Article 1.2.1a. Other types of fasteners may be used
provided all requirements of Article 2.8 of the Specification of the Research Council on Structural Connections are met and
provided further it can be shown that the tension of installed fasteners meets the tensile requirements of Table 15-3-2 after
installation.
3.2.3 INSTALLATION OF HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS (2013)2
a. After compacting the joint to the snug-tight condition, bolts shall be tensioned so as to obtain, when all the bolts in the
joint are tight, at least the minimum tension per bolt shown in Table 15-3-2 for the grade and size of bolt using either
the turn-of-nut method, twist-off-type tension-control bolts, or direct-tension-indicators as described in paragraphs d, e,
or f. The calibrated wrench method may also be used.
Table 15-3-2. Minimum Tension of Installed Bolts
Nominal Bolt Minimum Tension in Kips

Size–Inches A325 Bolts A490 Bolts
1/2 12 15
5/8 19 24
3/4 28 35
7/8 39 49
1 51 64
1
2

Fabrication
Table 15-3-2. Minimum Tension of Installed Bolts (Continued)
Nominal Bolt Minimum Tension in Kips

Size–Inches A325 Bolts A490 Bolts
1-1/8 56 80
1-1/4 71 102
1-3/8 85 121
1-1/2 103 148
b. Snug Tightening: All bolt holes shall be aligned to permit insertion of the bolts without undue damage to the threads.
Bolts shall be placed in all holes with washers provided as required in paragraph c and the nuts installed to complete
the assembly. Compacting the joint to the snug-tight condition shall progress systematically from the most rigid part of
the joint in a manner that will minimize relaxation of previously snugged bolts. The snug-tight condition is the
tightness that is attained with a few impacts of an impact wrench or the full effort of an ironworker using an ordinary
spud wrench to bring the connected plies into full contact.
c. ASTM F436 washers are required under the turned element. When ASTM A490 bolts are used with connected
material having a specified yield strength of less than 40 ksi, ASTM F436 washers shall be used under both the bolt
head and the nut. Special washer requirements when using direct-tension-indicator tensioning are given in paragraph f.
Beveled washers shall be used where an outer face of the bolted parts has a slope of more than 1:20 with respect to a
plane normal to the bolt axis.
1
d. Turn-of-Nut Tensioning: An installation verification test specified in paragraph g shall be performed prior to bolt
installation. All bolts shall be installed in accordance with the requirements of paragraph b with washers installed as
required in paragraph c. Subsequently, the nut or head rotation specified in Table 15-3-3 shall be applied to all fastener
assemblies in the joint, progressing systematically from the most rigid part of the joint in a manner that will minimize
relaxation of previously tensioned bolts. The part not turned by the wrench shall be prevented from rotating during this
operation.
3
Table 15-3-3. Nut Rotation from Snug Tight Condition
Condition of Outer Faces of Bolted Parts

Bolt Length
(as measured from underside of
Both faces One face normal to bolt axis Bolt faces sloped to bolts 4
normal to bolt and other sloped not more axis not more than 1:20
head to extreme end of point) axis. than 1:20 (bevel washer not from normal (bevel washer
used) not used)
Up to and including 1/3 turn 1/2 turn 2/3 turn
4 diameters
Over 4 diameters but not exceeding 1/2 turn 2/3 turn 5/6 turn
8 diameters
Note 1: Nut rotation is relative to bolt regardless of the element (nut or bolt) being turned. For bolts tightened by
one-half turn or less, the tolerance is ± 30 degrees; for bolts tightened by two-thirds turn or more, the
tolerance is ± 45 degrees.
Note 2: Where the bolt length exceeds 12 diameters, the required rotation shall be determined by actual tests in a
suitable tension device simulating actual conditions.

Steel Structures
Table 15-3-3. Nut Rotation from Snug Tight Condition (Continued)
Condition of Outer Faces of Bolted Parts

Bolt Length Both faces One face normal to bolt axis Bolt faces sloped to bolts
(as measured from underside of normal to bolt and other sloped not more axis not more than 1:20
head to extreme end of point) axis. than 1:20 (bevel washer not from normal (bevel washer
used) not used)
Over 8 diameters but not exceeding 2/3 turn 5/6 turn 1 turn
12 diameters (Note 2)
Note 1: Nut rotation is relative to bolt regardless of the element (nut or bolt) being turned. For bolts tightened by
one-half turn or less, the tolerance is ± 30 degrees; for bolts tightened by two-thirds turn or more, the
tolerance is ± 45 degrees.
Note 2: Where the bolt length exceeds 12 diameters, the required rotation shall be determined by actual tests in a
suitable tension device simulating actual conditions.
e. Twist-Off-Type Tension-Control Bolt Tensioning: If the use of twist-off-type tension-control bolt assemblies is
permitted by the Engineer, the following provisions shall apply.
(1) Twist-off-type tension-control bolt assemblies that meet the requirements of ASTM F1852 shall be used.
(2) An installation verification test specified in paragraph g shall be performed prior to bolt installation.
(3) All fastener assemblies shall be installed in accordance with the requirements of paragraph b without severing the
splined end and with washers positioned as required in paragraph c. If a splined end is severed during snugging,
the fastener assembly shall be removed and replaced. Subsequently, all the bolts in the joint shall be tensioned
with the twist-off-type tension-control bolt installation wrench, progressing systematically from the most rigid part
of the joint in a manner that will minimize relaxation of the previously tensioned bolts.
f. Direct-Tension-Indicator Tensioning: If the use of direct-tension-indicators is permitted by the Engineer the direct-
tension-indicators shall meet the requirements of ASTM F959. The pre-installation verification procedure in
paragraph g shall be performed before the indicators are used in the work to establish the job inspection gap. Direct-
tension-indicators shall be installed with protrusions bearing against a hardened washer or the unturned nut or bolt
head. All bolts shall be installed in accordance with paragraph b with the washers positioned as follows:
(1) When the nut is turned and the direct-tension-indicator is located under the bolt head, an ASTM F436 washer shall
be used under the nut;
(2) When the nut is turned and the direct-tension-indicator is located under the nut, an ASTM F436 washer shall be
used between the nut and the direct-tension-indicator;
(3) When the bolt head is turned and the direct-tension-indicator is located under the nut, an ASTM F436 washer shall
be used under the bolt head;
(4) When the bolt head is turned and the direct-tension-indicator is located under the bolt head, an ASTM F436
washer shall be used between the bolt head and the direct tension indicator.
The installer shall verify that the direct-tension-indicator protrusions have not been compressed to a gap that is less
than the job inspection gap during the snug tightening of the connection, and if this has occurred, the direct tension
indicator shall be removed and replaced. Subsequently, all bolts in the joint shall be tensioned, progressing
systematically from the most rigid part of the joint in a manner that will minimize the relaxation of the previously
tensioned bolts. The installer shall verify that the direct-tension-indicator protrusions have been compressed to a gap
that is less than the job inspection gap.

Fabrication
g. A Skidmore-Wilhelm Calibrator or an acceptable equivalent tension-measuring device shall be available for use
whenever high-strength bolts are being installed. The device shall be used to confirm the suitability of the complete
fastener assembly, including lubrication, for installation and confirm the procedure and proper use by the bolting crew
of the tensioning method to be used. The required testing consists of:
(1) A representative sample of not fewer than three complete fastener assemblies of each combination of diameter,
length, grade, and lot to be used in the work shall be checked at the site of installation in a tension calibrator to
verify that the tensioning method develops a tension that is equal to or greater than 1.05 times that specified in
Table 15-3-2. Washers shall be used in the pre-installation verification assemblies as required in the work in
accordance with the requirements in paragraphs c and f. If the actual tension developed in any of the fastener
assemblies is less than 1.05 times that specified in Table 15-3-2, the cause(s) shall be determined and resolved
before the fastener assemblies are used in the work. Cleaning, lubrication, and retesting of these fastener
assemblies, except for ASTM F1852 twist-off-type tension-control assemblies, are permitted, provided all
assemblies are treated in the same manner.
(2) When direct-tension-indicators are used, five fastener assemblies of each combination of diameter, length, grade,
and lot to be used in the work shall be tightened to 1.05 times the tension specified in Table 15-3-2. The measured
gap shall not be less than the job inspection gap. The position of the direct-tension-indicator, the ASTM F436
washer, and the turned element shall match the conditions in the work.
(3) When the calibrated wrench method is used periodic testing shall be performed at least once each working day and
when conditions change.
h. A490 bolts and galvanized A325 bolts shall not be reused after having once been fully tensioned. These same type
bolts may be used for both fitting up and final bolting if tightened to no more than snug-tight during fitting up. Other
1
A325 bolts that have been tensioned beyond snug-tight condition only once may be reused if approved by the Engineer.
i. Fasteners shall be protected from dirt and moisture. Only as many fasteners as are anticipated to be installed and
tightened during a work shift shall be taken from protected storage. Fasteners not used shall be returned to protected
storage at the end of the shift. Fasteners shall not be cleaned of lubricant that is present in as-delivered condition.
Fasteners for slip critical connections which accumulate dirt shall be cleaned and relubricated prior to installation, 3
except that ASTM F1852 twist-off-type tension control assemblies shall be discarded or returned to the manufacturer.
j. The rotational-capacity test for ASTM A325 and A490 high strength bolts described in Article 3.2.14 shall be
performed on each rotational-capacity lot at the site prior to the start of bolt installation. Hardened steel washers are
required as part of the test although they may not be required in the actual installation procedures.
k. Lubrication: 4
(1) Galvanized nuts shall be checked to verify that a visible lubricant is on the threads.
(2) Black bolts shall be “oily” to the touch when delivered and installed.
(3) Weathered or rusted bolts or nuts, except as noted below in (4), shall be cleaned and relubricated prior to
installation. Recleaned or relubricated bolt, nut and washer assemblies shall be retested in accordance with
paragraph j prior to installation.
(4) ASTM F1852 twist-off-type tension control assemblies that are not in the as-delivered condition shall not be
relubricated in the field, they shall be discarded or returned to the manufacturer.
l. Bolt, nut and washer (when required) combinations as installed shall be from same rotational-capacity lot.

Steel Structures
3.2.4 QUANTITY OF FIELD FASTENERS (2003) R(2008)
a. The number of field rivets of each size and length furnished in excess of the nominal number required shall be 10%
plus 10.
b. The number of field high strength bolts of each size and length furnished in excess of the nominal number required
shall be 5% plus 10. The number of nuts and washers of each size and type furnished in excess of the nominal number
required shall be 5% plus 10.
3.2.5 SIZE AND WORKMANSHIP OF HOLES (2010)
a. The diameter of standard holes punched full-size and of standard holes reamed or drilled shall be 1/16 inch greater than
the nominal diameter of the rivets or high strength bolts.
b. The diameter of the punch shall be the diameter of the hole to be punched.
c. Holes shall be cylindrical, unless punched full-size; also they shall be perpendicular to the member, clean cut, and free
of cracks and ragged edges. All burrs shall be removed either by chamfering no more than 1/16 inch or by grinding.
For riveted construction where the grip exceeds 4-1/2 inches the holes shall be chamfered 1/32 inch.
d. At locations approved by the Engineer, oversize holes, short slotted, or long slotted holes may be used with high
strength bolts 5/8 inch in diameter or larger in accordance with the following requirements.
NOTE: Refer to Table 15-1-11a.
(1) Oversize holes may have nominal diameters up to 3/16 inch larger than bolts 7/8 inch and less in diameter, 1/4 inch
larger than bolts 1 inch in diameter, and 5/16 inch larger than bolts 1-1/8 inch and greater in diameter. They may
be used in any or all plies of connections. Hardened washers shall be installed over oversized holes in an outer ply.
Where A490 bolts over 1 inch in diameter are used in oversized holes in external plies, a single hardened washer
conforming to ASTM F436, except with a 5/16 inch minimum thickness, shall be used under both the head and the
nut in lieu of standard thickness hardened washers. Multiple hardened washers with combined thickness equal to
or greater than 5/16 inch do not satisfy this requirement.
(2) Short slotted holes are nominally 1/16 inch wider than bolt diameter and have a length which does not exceed the
oversized diameter provisions for oversize holes by more than 1/16 inch. They may be used in any or all plies of
connections without regard to direction of loading. Hardened washers shall be installed over short slotted holes in
an outer ply. Where A490 bolts over 1 inch diameter are used in short slotted holes in external plies, a single
hardened washer conforming to ASTM F436, except with a 5/16 inch minimum thickness, shall be used under
both the head and the nut in lieu of standard thickness hardened washers. Multiple hardened washers with
combined thickness equal to or greater than 5/16 inch do not satisfy this requirement.
(3) Long slotted holes are nominally 1/16 inch wider than the bolt diameter and have a length more than allowed for
short slotted holes, but not more than 2.5 times the bolt diameter. The slots may be used without regard to
direction of loading. Long slotted holes may be used in only one of the connected parts at an individual faying
surface. Where A325 bolts of any diameter or A490 bolts equal to or less than 1 inch in diameter are to be
installed and tightened in a long slotted hole in an outer ply, a plate washer or continuous bar of at least 5/16 inch
thickness with standard holes shall be provided. These washers or bars shall have a size sufficient to completely
cover the slot after installation and shall be of structural grade material, but need not be hardened except as
follows. When A490 bolts over 1 inch in diameter are to be used in long slotted holes in external plies, a single
hardened washer conforming to ASTM F436 but with 5/16 inch minimum thickness shall be used in lieu of
washers or bars of structural grade material. Multiple hardenend washers with combined thickness equal to or
greater than 5/16 inch do not satisfy this requirement. If hardened washers are required to satisfy specification
provisions, the hardened washers shall be placed over the outer surface of the plate washer or bar.

Fabrication
3.2.6 PREPARATION OF HOLES FOR SHOP FASTENERS (1995)1 R(2008)
a. For meeting the requirements of this article, the tabulation of acceptable substitutes, for use at contractor’s option
Table 15-3-4 shall apply:
Table 15-3-4. Contractor Acceptable Substitutes
Requirement Acceptable Substitute

Punching full-size Drilling full size or subpunching and reaming to size with or without all
parts assembled.
Subpunching Subdrilling
Reaming with parts assembled Drilling full size with parts assembled or, if approved by the Engineer,
drilling full size without assembly, provided the drilling is done by suitable
numerically controlled (N/C) drilling equipment, subject to the specific
limitations contained in Article 3.2.7f and Article 3.2.7g.
Subpunching 1/8 inch less dia. Subpunching 1/4 inch less dia. than that of the finished hole.
than the finished hole.
b. Holes to be reamed shall be subpunched or subdrilled.
c. Except as prohibited by paragraph f, holes may be punched full size in A36 material not more than 7/8 inch thick and
in high strength material not more than 3/4 inch thick for fasteners which are not stressed by vertical live load. This
provision applies to, but is not limited to, holes for stitch fasteners; lateral, longitudinal or sway bracing or their 3
connecting material; lacing stay plates; diaphragms which do not transfer shear or other force; inactive fillers; and
stiffeners not at bearing points.
d. Holes in rolled beams and plate girders, including stiffeners and active fillers at bearing points, in material not thicker
than the nominal diameter of the fastener less 1/8 inch shall be subpunched 1/8 inch less diameter than that of the
finished hole, and reamed to size with parts assembled.
4
e. Holes in A36 material thicker than 7/8 inch and in high strength material thicker than 3/4 inch shall be subdrilled 1/4
inch less diameter than that of the finished hole, and reamed to size with parts assembled.
f. Where matching holes in two or more plies of material are required to be reamed with parts assembled and the
assembly consists of more than five plies with more than three plies of main material, the matching holes in other plies
shall also be reamed with parts assembled, with holes in these other plies subpunched 1/8 inch less diameter than that
of the finished hole.
g. Other holes for shop fasteners shall be subpunched 1/4 inch less in diameter than that of the finished hole, and reamed
to size with parts assembled.
h. If approved by the Engineer, the contractor shall have the option to drill full size through individual pieces or any
combination of pieces held tightly together, the holes designated to be subpunched or subdrilled and reamed in
1

Steel Structures
paragraph d, paragraph e, paragraph f and paragraph g, provided the drilling is done by suitable numerically controlled
(N/C) drilling equipment, subject to the specific limitations contained in Article 3.2.7f and Article 3.2.7g.
3.2.7 PREPARATION OF HOLES FOR FIELD FASTENERS (2007)1 R(2008)
a. Field splices in plate girders and in truss chords shall be reamed or drilled full size with the members assembled. Truss
chord assemblies shall consist of at least three abutting sections, and milled ends of compression chords shall have full
bearing.
b. Holes for field fasteners where assembly is not required shall be either:
(1) subpunched or subdrilled 1/4 inch less in diameter than that of the finished holes and reamed to size through steel
templates with hardened steel bushings, or
(2) drilled full size through steel templates with hardened steel bushings.
c. Holes in A 36 material thicker than 7/8 inch and in high strength material thicker than 3/4 inch shall be either:
(1) subdrilled 1/4 inch less in diameter than that of the finished holes and reamed to size with parts assembled, or
(2) drilled full size with parts assembled.
d. Holes for field fasteners in lateral, longitudinal or sway bracing shall conform to the requirements for shop fastener
holes in such members.
e. If approved by the Engineer, the fabricator shall have the option to drill full size into unassembled pieces, the holes
designated in paragraph a, paragraph b, or paragraph c to be assembled reamed or drilled full size, provided the drilling
is done by suitable numerically controlled (N/C) drilling equipment, subject to the specific limitations contained in
paragraph f and paragraph g.
f. Where N/C drilling equipment is used, the fabricator shall, if required by the Engineer, demonstrate by means of check
shop assemblies that the drilling equipment will consistently produce holes and connections meeting all of the
requirements of Article 3.2.5 and Article 3.2.12.
g. Where check shop assemblies are designated, paragraph a shall be modified to require a check shop assembly for either
one line of plate girders or for three abutting chord sections, one each for the top and bottom chords, of one truss
including representative web members which connect to these chord assemblies.
Composition of check shop assemblies shall be based on the proposed order of erection, joints in bearing, special
complex points and similar considerations. The fabricator shall submit his designation of members to be shop
assembled to the Engineer for approval. If the shop assembly fails to produce holes and connections meeting the
requirements of Article 3.2.5 and Article 3.2.12, the Engineer may require further shop assemblies or may rescind his
approval for the use of N/C drilling equipment.
h. When a span, intended to carry an active track, is to be erected during a work window between trains, all connections
necessary for the erected span’s ability to carry traffic shall be checked by shop assembly unless exempted by the
Engineer.
3.2.8 TEMPLATES FOR REAMING AND DRILLING (1983) R(2008)

Each steel template shall have hardened steel bushings accurately positioned with respect to connection center-lines inscribed
on the template.
1

Fabrication
3.2.9 REAMING AND DRILLING THROUGH TEMPLATES (1995) R(2008)

a. Reaming or drilling full size of field connections through templates shall be done only after the templates have been
positioned with the utmost care, and firmly clamped or bolted. Templates used for the reaming of matching members,
or of the opposite faces of one member, shall be exact duplicates. Templates for connections which duplicate shall be
so accurately positioned that like members are duplicates and require no match-marking.
b. Where templates are used to ream or drill field connections of truss web members, at least one end of each such
member shall be milled or scribed normal to the long axis of the member, and the templates shall be accurately set at
both ends with respect to this milled or scribed end. Templates for reaming or drilling truss gusset plates shall be
accurately positioned to the geometric dimensions shown on the shop plans.
c. Templates for field connector holes for joining floor sections to girders or trusses shall be positioned so as to space the
field connectors correctly from the floor expansion joints.
3.2.10 REAMING AND DRILLING AFTER ASSEMBLY (1995) R(2008)
Reaming, or drilling full size, of assembled parts shall be done only after the parts are firmly clamped together with the
surfaces in close contact. If necessary, parts shall be separated before riveting or bolting for removal of shavings.
3.2.11 MATCH MARKING (1995) R(2008)
Parts assembled in the shop for reaming or drilling holes for field connectors shall be match marked before disassembly.
Diagrams showing match marks shall be furnished to the Engineer. 1
3.2.12 ALIGNMENT OF FINISHED HOLES (1995) R(2008)
a. The offset in any hole reamed 1/4 inch in any ply of material measured from an outer ply after the hole has been
finished for riveting or bolting, shall not exceed 1/16 inch. Not more than 10% of the holes shall be offset as much as
1/16 inch and not more than 20% shall be offset as much as 1/32 inch. 3
b. The offset in any hole reamed 1/8 inch or punched full size, in any ply of material, measured from an outer ply after the
hole has been finished for riveting or bolting, shall not exceed 1/8 inch. Not more than 10% of the holes shall be offset
as much as 1/8 inch, and not more than 20% shall be offset as much as 1/16 inch.
c. Where approved by the Engineer, holes may be overreamed to meet these requirements, and larger rivets or bolts
installed. 4
3.2.13 FITTING FOR SHOP RIVETING OR BOLTING (1995) R(2008)
The parts of riveted or bolted members shall be adequately pinned and firmly drawn together in close contact with bolts before
riveting or final bolting is begun. Tack welding shall not be used. The drifting done during assembly shall be only such as to
bring the parts into position and shall not enlarge the holes or distort the metal.
3.2.14 TESTING AND DOCUMENTATION OF ASTM A325 AND A490 BOLTS (2012)1
3.2.14.1 Bolt Testing
a. Bolts:
1

Steel Structures
(1) Proof load tests in accordance with Method 1 of ASTM F606 are required. Minimum frequency of tests shall be as
specified in ASTM A325 and A490 per the production lot method.
(2) Wedge tests on full size bolts (ASTM F606 paragraph 3.5) are required. If bolts are to be galvanized, tests shall be
performed after galvanizing. Minimum frequency of tests shall be as specified in ASTM A325 and A490 per the
production lot method.
(3) If galvanized bolts are supplied, the thickness of the zinc coating shall be measured. Measurements shall be taken
on the wrench flats or top of bolt head.
b. Nuts:
(1) Proof load tests (ASTM F606 paragraph 4.2) are required. Minimum frequency of tests shall be as specified in
ASTM A563 paragraph 9.3. If nuts are to be galvanized, tests shall be performed after galvanizing, overtapping
and lubricating.
(2) If galvanized nuts are supplied, the thickness of the zinc coating shall be measured. Measurements shall be taken
on the wrench flats.
c. Washers:
(1) If galvanized washers are supplied, hardness testing shall be performed after galvanizing. (Coating shall be
removed prior to taking hardness measurements.)
(2) If galvanized washers are supplied, the thickness of the zinc coating shall be measured.
d. Assemblies:
(1) Rotational capacity tests are required and shall be performed on all ASTM A325 and A490 bolt, nut and washer
assemblies by the manufacturer or distributor prior to shipping. Washers are required as part of the test procedure.
Galvanized A325 assemblies shall be tested after galvanizing.
(2) Each combination of bolt production lot, nut lot and washer lot shall be tested as an assembly. Where washers are
not required by the installation procedures, they need not be included in the lot identification.
(3) A rotational-capacity lot number shall be assigned to each combination of lots tested.
(4) The minimum frequency of testing shall be two assemblies per rotational capacity lot.
(5) The rotational capacity test shall be performed in accordance with the procedure given in ASTM A325 except as
modified herein:
(a) The bolt, nut and washer assembly shall be assembled in a Skidmore-Wilhelm Calibrator or an acceptable
equivalent device. A calibrated torque wrench is required for the test. For short bolts which are too short to
be assembled in the Skidmore-Wilhelm Calibrator, see paragraph (d).
(b) After the required installation tension listed above has been exceeded, one reading of tension and torque shall
be taken and recorded. Torque and tension shall be read with the nut rotating. The torque value shall conform
to the following:
Torque ≤ 0.25PD

Fabrication
where:
Torque = measured torque (foot-pounds)

P = measured bolt tension (pounds)
D = bolt diameter (feet)
(c) After the rotational capacity nut rotation (given in ASTM A325) has been reached, the bolt tension shall be
equal to or greater than 1.15 times the required installation tension. The installation tension and the rotational
capacity test tension values are given in Table 15-3-5.
Table 15-3-5. Minimum Required Rotational Capacity Test Tension
Diameter (Inch) 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1-1/8 1-1/4 1-3/8 1-1/2
Req. Installation A325 12 19 28 39 51 56 71 85 103
Tension (Kips) A490 15 24 35 49 64 80 102 121 148
Rotational Capacity A325 14 22 32 45 59 64 82 98 118
Test Tension (Kips) A490 17 28 40 56 74 92 117 139 170
(d) Bolts that are too short to test in a Skidmore-Wilhelm Calibrator shall be tested in a steel joint. The tension
requirement of paragraph (c) need not apply. The maximum torque requirement of paragraph (b) shall be
computed using a value of P equal to the rotational capacity test tension shown in Table 15-3-5.
1
(6) Acceptance criteria shall be as specified in ASTM A325 in addition to the torque and tension requirements given
in paragraphs (b), (c) and (d) above. Failure of any one item on either assembly constitutes a failure of the
rotational capacity test. When a failure occurs, the subject rotational capacity lot of fasteners is rejected. An entire
lot may be cleaned and re-lubricated in order to conduct one retest of the fastener assemblies.
e. Reporting:
3
(1) The results of all tests (including zinc coating thickness) required herein shall be recorded on the appropriate
document.
(2) Location where tests are performed and date of tests shall be reported on the appropriate document.
f. Witnessing. The tests need not be witnessed by an inspection agency; however, the manufacturer or distributor that 4
performs the tests shall certify that the results recorded are accurate.
3.2.14.2 Documentation
a. Mill Test Report(s) (MTR):
(1) MTR shall be furnished for all mill steel used in the manufacture of the bolts, nuts, or washers.
(2) MTR shall indicate the place where the material was melted and manufactured.
b. Manufacturer Certified Test Report(s) (MCTR):
(1) The manufacturer of the bolts, nuts and washers shall furnish test reports (MCTR) for the item furnished.
(2) Each MCTR shall show the relevant information required in accordance with Article 3.2.14.1e.

Steel Structures
(3) The manufacturer performing the rotational-capacity test shall include on the MCTR:
(a) The lot number of each of the items tested.
(b) The rotational-capacity lot number as required in Article 3.2.14.1d(2)(3).
(c) The results of the tests required in Article 3.2.14.1d.
(d) The pertinent information required in Article 3.2.14.1e(2).
(e) A statement that MCTR for the items are in conformance to this recommended practice.
(f) The location where the bolt assembly components were manufactured.
c. Distributor Certified Test Report(s) (DCTR):
(1) The DCTR shall include MCTR above for the various bolt assembly components.
(2) The rotational-capacity test may be performed by a distributor (in lieu of a manufacturer) and reported on the
DCTR.
(3) The DCTR shall show the results of the tests required in Article 3.2.14.1d.
(4) The DCTR shall also show the pertinent information required in Article 3.2.14.1e(2).
(5) The DCTR shall show the rotational-capacity lot number as required in Article 3.2.14.1d(2)(3).
(6) The DCTR shall certify that the MCTRs are in conformance with this recommended practice.
SECTION 3.3 WELDED CONSTRUCTION
3.3.1 GENERAL (2002) R(2008)
a. These recommended practices cover requirements for welding practices and inspection to ensure that the resulting
structure will be satisfactory for service. The AWS D1.5 shall be used for all requirements not specifically covered in
these recommended practices.
b. Electroslag and electrogas welding processes shall not be used.
c. Welding of Fracture Critical Members shall be in accordance with the requirements of Part 1, Design, Section 1.14,
Fracture Critical Members.
3.3.2 PREPARATION OF MATERIAL FOR WELDING (1995) R(2008)
Surfaces within 2 inches of any weld location shall be free from any paint or other material which would prevent proper
welding or produce objectionable fumes while welding.
3.3.3 FLANGE-TO-WEB WELDS OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1995)1 R(2008)
Flange-to-Web welds of flexural members shall be made by machine welding.

Fabrication
3.3.4 TACK WELDS (1995)1 R(2008)
Transverse tack welds on tension flanges of flexural members are prohibited.
3.3.5 WELDER AND WELDING OPERATOR QUALIFICATIONS (1997) R(2008)
Welds shall be made only by welders, welding operators and tack welders currently qualified, in accordance with AWS D1.5,
to perform the type of work required.
SECTION 3.4 SHOP PAINTING
3.4.1 SHOP PAINTING OF STRUCTURAL STEEL (2003) R(2008)
a. Steel surfaces for new structural steel fabrication, shall be prepared and painted in accordance with the “Standard
Specification for Coating Systems with Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer” (AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration
publication S8.1) as prepared by the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Collaboration Task Group 8, Coatings, unless another
coating system is specified by the Company.
b. For welded construction, slag shall be cleaned from all welds. Welded joints shall not be painted until after the work
has been completed and accepted. The surfaces to be painted shall be cleaned of spatter, rust, loose scale, oil and dirt.
1
c. Shop and field contact surfaces shall not be painted unless required by the Engineer.
d. Weathering steels, ASTM A588, A709, Grade 50W, Grade HPS 50W, and Grade HPS 70W need not be shop painted
provided the shop painting requirement is waived in the contract documents or is otherwise deleted by the Engineer.
3.4.2 SHOP PAINTING OF MACHINED SURFACES (1995) R(2008) 3

a. Machine finished surfaces of steel (except abutting joints and base plates) shall be protected against corrosion by a
rust-inhibiting coating which can be removed readily prior to erection, or which has characteristics which make
removal unnecessary prior to erection. This coating shall be applied as soon as the surfaces have been finished and
approved by the Inspector.
b. Abutting joints and base plates shall be painted as required by Article 3.4.1a. 4
SECTION 3.5 INSPECTION
3.5.1 FACILITIES FOR INSPECTION (1991) R(2008)
The Contractor shall provide to the Inspector, without charge, facilities for the inspection of materials and workmanship. The
Inspector shall be allowed free access to the fabricating areas.
1
1

Steel Structures
3.5.2 INSPECTOR AUTHORITY (1991) R(2008)
The Inspector shall have authority to reject materials or workmanship that do not meet the requirements of the contract
documents. In case of dispute, the Contractor may appeal to the Engineer, whose decision shall be final.
3.5.3 REJECTION (1991) R(2008)
a. The acceptance by the Inspector of material or finished members shall not prevent their rejection later if found
defective.
b. Rejected material and workmanship shall promptly be replaced or made good by the Contractor.
3.5.4 INSPECTION – HIGH STRENGTH BOLTED JOINTS (2003) R(2008)
a. The Inspector shall observe the installation and tightening of bolts to determine that the specified tightening procedure
is properly used, and shall determine that all bolts have been tightened.
b. When there is disagreement concerning the results of tension in the turn-of-nut method of installation, the arbitration
procedure described in the current Specification for Structural Joints using A325 and A490 Bolts approved by the
Research Council on Structural Connections (RCSC) shall be used, unless a different procedure is specified in the
inquiry and order for the work. Required fastener tension shall be as specified in Part 1, Design, Table 15-1-12 (not as
specified in the RCSC specifications).
3.5.5 INSPECTION – WELDED WORK (2002)1 R(2008)
a. All weld inspection shall be performed by the Inspector, or shall be witnessed by him. The Contractor shall place
pieces so that the Inspector has ready access. When specified on the design plans or in special provisions covering the
work, the Contractor may be required to perform specific non-destructive testing work, such as radiography, etc., but
this must be witnessed by the Inspector. The Inspector must not unnecessarily delay such inspection by refusing to be
present when this work must be done.
b. All groove welds carrying live-load stress in flanges of flexural members and in tension members shall be inspected by
radiographic, ultrasonic or another nondestructive testing method which will satisfactorily present evidence to the
Engineer that the welds meet the quality requirements of the AWS D1.5. At least 10% of all other groove welds, except
flange-to-web full penetration welds, shall be similarly inspected. At least 10% of the flange-to-web complete joint
penetration groove welds shall be inspected by the ultrasonic method or they may be inspected by the magnetic particle
method if so authorized by the Engineer. If rejectable discontinuities are found, the provisions of AWS D1.5 for
additional testing shall apply.
c. At least 10% of flange-to-web fillet welds shall be inspected by the magnetic particle method unless such inspection is
waived by a statement in the design plans or special provisions. If rejectable discontinuities are found, the provisions of
AWS D1.5 for additional testing shall apply.
d. Inspection of welded work for Fracture Critical Members shall be in accordance with Part 1, Design, Section 1.14,
Fracture Critical Members.
e. Time delay prior to NDT of weld repairs to groove welds of ASTM A588 or A709, Grade 50W, or A709, Grade HPS
50W, or A709, Grade HPS 70W material over 2 inches in thickness, subject to tensile stress, shall be 16 hours
minimum.
1

Fabrication
SECTION 3.6 SHIPMENT AND PAY WEIGHT
3.6.1 MARKING, PACKAGING AND LOADING (1995) R(2008)

a. Erection marks shall be painted on all members. Members weighing more than 10 tons shall have their weight marked
thereon. Marks on weathering steel shall be placed in suitable inconspicuous places.
b. The responsibilities of the shipper shall include proper loading, positioning, supporting and stabilizing of structural
members in accordance with the carrier’s instructions and in case the material is damaged proper correction of the
damage.
The fabricator shall make certain that structural members are loaded for shipment in a manner that will ensure that they
will not be damaged in shipment. The method of loading must not adversely affect the potential life of the permanent
structure. Welding of tie-down attachments to a member is prohibited.
The Engineer may request that loading diagrams be furnished to him for unusual or special members.
The Engineer may also request the fabricator to notify the Engineer when any member is ready for shipment so that the
method of loading can be observed.
c. Rivets and bolts, except ASTM A325 and A490 high strength bolts shall be packaged separately according to length
and diameter. Loose nuts and washers shall be packaged separately according to size.
d. Pins and other small parts and packages of rivets, bolts, except ASTM A325 and A490 high strength bolts, nuts and
washers shall be shipped in boxes, crates, kegs, or barrels, none of which shall exceed 300 lb gross weight. A list and
description of material contained therein shall be firmly secured to or marked on the outside of each container.
1
e. ASTM A325 and A490 high strength bolts, nuts, and washers (where required) from each rotational-capacity lot shall
be shipped in the same container. If there is only one production lot number for each size of nut and washer, the nuts
and washers may be shipped in separate containers. Each container (not the lid) shall be permanently marked with the
rotational-capacity lot number such that identification will be possible at any stage prior to installation.
The appropriate Mill Test Report(s) (MTR), Manufacturer Certified Test Report(s) (MCTR) and Distributor Certified
3
Test Report(s) (DCTR) for high strength bolts as required in Article 3.2.14.2 shall be supplied to the Engineer.
f. Long girders shall be so loaded that they can be delivered to the site in position for erection without turning.
Instructions for such delivery shall be furnished to the carrier.
g. Special precautions may be needed where girders are supported at points other than permanent support points, and 4
where girder intermediate stiffeners are not in contact with flanges.
3.6.2 ADVANCE MATERIAL (1995) R(2008)

Anchor bolts and washers and other anchorage or grillage materials to be built into the masonry shall be shipped in time
therefore.
3.6.3 PAY WEIGHT (2003)1 R(2008)
Payment in unit price contracts shall be based on the weight determined in accordance with the Code of Standard Practice of
the American Institute of Steel Construction.
1

Steel Structures

15
Part 4
Erection1
— 2008 —
FOREWORD
The purpose of this part is to formulate general rules as a guide for the erection of railway bridges. Part 1, Design is applicable
to erection of steel railway bridges except as modified by Part 4, Erection.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
4.1 General (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-2
4.2 Definitions of Terms (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-2
4.3 Work to be Done (2002) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-3
4.4 Drawings or Special Provisions to Govern (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-3 3

4.5 Plant (1992) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-3
4.6 Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-3

4.6.1 Steel Structure Supplied by Company (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-3
4.6.2 Steel Structure Fabricated by Contractor (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-3
4.7 Delivery of Materials (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4
4.8 Handling and Storing Materials (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4
4.9 Establishment of Lines and Elevations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4

4.9.1 Substructure Constructed by Company (2003) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4
4.9.2 Substructure Constructed by Contractor (2003) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4
4.10 Bearings and Anchorage (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4
4.11 Erection Procedure (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-4
4.12 Reinforcement of Members (1992) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-5
1
References, Vol. 13, 1912, pp. 83, 935; Vol. 24, 1923, pp. 146, 1143; Vol. 38 1937, p. 630; Vol. 49, 1948, pp. 206, 669; Vol. 57, 1956, pp. 555, 998; Vol. 62,
1961, pp. 550, 877; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 386, 699; Vol. 68, 1967, p. 351; Vol. 70, 1969, p. 241; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 241; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 188; Vol. 92, 1991, p.
78; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 124; Vol. 94, p. 1. Reapproved with revisions 1993.

Steel Structures
4.13 Falsework (1991) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-5
4.14 Allowable Stresses During Erection (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-5
4.15 Drift or Traffic Pins (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-5
4.16 Field Assembly of Members (1991) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-6
4.17 Fitting-up of Field Connections (1991) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-6
4.18 Riveted Field Connections (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7
4.19 High Strength Bolted Field Connections (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7
4.20 Field Welding (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7
4.21 Field Connections Using Pins (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7
4.22 Field Inspection (1991) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7
4.23 Misfits (1991) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-7
4.24 Field Cleaning and Painting (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-8
4.25 Deck (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-8
4.26 Removal of Old Structure and Falsework, and Cleanup (1991) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-8
4.27 Interference with Traffic (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-9
4.28 Company Equipment (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-9
4.29 Work Train Service (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-9
4.30 Risk (1983) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-9
4.31 Laws and Permits (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-10
4.32 Patents (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4-10
SECTION 4.1 GENERAL (1992) R(2008)
These recommended practices establish general rules for the erection of railway bridges. For work of a special nature, or work
to be done under unusual conditions, these recommended practices may be modified, or supplemented, to adapt them to
special requirements. When applicable these general rules apply to contracted work or work to be done by Company forces.
SECTION 4.2 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS (1992) R(2008)
The term “Engineer” refers to the chief engineering officer of the Company or his subordinates in authority. The term
“Inspector” refers to the inspector or inspectors representing the Company. The term “Company” refers to the railway

Erection
company or railroad company party to the agreement. The term “Contractor” refers to the erection contractor party to the
agreement.
SECTION 4.3 WORK TO BE DONE (2002) R(2008)
The Contractor shall erect the metalwork including erecting and removal of special erecting devices and falsework as required
and shall make all connections and adjustments, and do all the work required to complete the bridge superstructure, in
accordance with the plans, special contract provisions, and these recommended practices, and as required by the terms of the
contract.
SECTION 4.4 DRAWINGS OR SPECIAL PROVISIONS TO GOVERN (1992) R(2008)
Where the drawings, special provisions and/or these recommended practices differ, the drawings, special provisions and these
recommended practices shall govern in that order.
1
SECTION 4.5 PLANT (1992) R(2008)
The Contractor shall provide all tools, equipment, temporary connectors, special erecting devices, and erecting falsework as
required for the expeditious handling of the work and for completion within the time specified.
SECTION 4.6 PLANS
4.6.1 STEEL STRUCTURE SUPPLIED BY COMPANY (2002) R(2008)
a. The Company will be responsible for furnishing, if available, the complete detail plans for the steel structure or 4
structures to be erected, including shop drawings, shop details, camber diagrams, erection diagrams, match marking
diagrams, list of field fasteners, and shipping statements showing a full list of parts and weights.
b. The Contractor shall prepare erection procedures and submit them for review and acceptance by the Company.
4.6.2 STEEL STRUCTURE FABRICATED BY CONTRACTOR (2002) R(2008)
a. The Company will be responsible for furnishing the design drawings and special provisions for the steel structure or
structures to be fabricated and erected.
b. The Contractor shall prepare shop drawings, shop details, camber diagrams, erection diagrams, match marking
diagrams, list of field fasteners, erection procedures, and shipping statements showing a full list of parts and weights;
and shall submit them for review and acceptance by the Company.

Steel Structures
SECTION 4.7 DELIVERY OF MATERIALS (1992) R(2008)
Where the contract indicates that materials are to be furnished by the Company, the Contractor shall receive all such materials
at the place and under the terms specified in the contract documents.
SECTION 4.8 HANDLING AND STORING MATERIALS (1992) R(2008)
a. Where the contract requires unloading of the materials, the Contractor shall unload promptly on delivery. Demurrage
charges, when unloading is delayed for reasons within the control of the Contractor, shall be his responsibility.
b. Stored material shall be piled securely at least 12 feet clear from the center line of the track. Material shall be placed on
blocking, above the ground. It shall be kept clean and properly drained. Long members, such as columns, chords and
girders, shall be supported on blocking placed close enough together to prevent injury from deflection. The Contractor
shall check all material turned over to him against shipping lists and report promptly in writing any shortage or damage
discovered. The Contractor will be held responsible for the loss of any material while in his care, or for any damage
resulting from his work.
SECTION 4.9 ESTABLISHMENT OF LINES AND ELEVATIONS
4.9.1 SUBSTRUCTURE CONSTRUCTED BY COMPANY (2003) R(2008)
The Company will be responsible for the construction of the substructure to correct lines and elevations, and for the
establishment of the lines and elevations required by the Contractor for setting the steelwork.
4.9.2 SUBSTRUCTURE CONSTRUCTED BY CONTRACTOR (2003) R(2008)
The Contractor shall be responsible for the construction of the substructure to correct lines and elevations, and for the
establishment of the lines and elevations requred for setting the steelwork.
SECTION 4.10 BEARINGS AND ANCHORAGE (2002) R(2008)
Refer to Part 5.
SECTION 4.11 ERECTION PROCEDURE (1992) R(2008)
a. To assure the Company that erection will proceed in an orderly sequence and that it will be completed within the
contract time, the Contractor shall advise the Engineer fully as to the procedure which will be followed and the amount
and kind of equipment which he proposes to use. When required by the nature of the structure and so stipulated in the
special provisions of the contract, erection procedure plans shall be prepared by the Contractor.

Erection
b. The Engineer will review the information and plans submitted in accordance with paragraph a, and his approval shall
be obtained before field erection may be started. This approval shall not be considered as relieving the Contractor of
his responsibility for the safety of the procedure and equipment, or from carrying out the work in compliance with the
contract requirements.
SECTION 4.12 REINFORCEMENT OF MEMBERS (1992) R(2008)
Where the approved erection procedure requires the reinforcement or modification of any members of the permanent structure,
the Contractor shall make such arrangements as are necessary with the fabricator for having this done. Such reinforcement or
modification shall be at the Contractor’s expense, and shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer. Such approval shall not
relieve the Contractor from responsibility for avoiding damage or detrimental overstress in the permanent member of the
structure at all times during erection.
SECTION 4.13 FALSEWORK (1991) R(2008)
Where the approved erection procedure involves the use of falsework, the Contractor shall prepare and submit to the Engineer
for review, plans for the falsework. The falsework shall be properly designed and substantially constructed for the loads to
which it will be subjected. Review by the Engineer of the Contractor’s plans shall not be considered as relieving the Contractor 1
of full responsibility.
SECTION 4.14 ALLOWABLE STRESSES DURING ERECTION (1991) R(2008)

3
a. During erection, members and connections subject to erection loads shall not be stressed to more than 1.25 times the
basic allowable stress. When the erection loads are combined with wind loads, members and connections shall not be
stressed to more than 1.33 times the basic allowable stress.
b. The allowable shear stress for drift or traffic pins in a fitted-up connection shall be 20,000 psi.
4
c. Fully torqued high-strength bolts and drift or traffic pins in the same connection plane may be considered as sharing the
stress.
SECTION 4.15 DRIFT OR TRAFFIC PINS (1991) R(2008)
a. Drift or traffic pins (cylindrical body pins with tapered ends to facilitate driving) shall be used to line up the open holes
in a connection. They shall have the same nominal diameter as that of the open hole into which they are driven.
b. Drift or traffic pins shall be of hardened steel with a minimum yield strength of 50,000 psi.

Steel Structures
c. Drift or traffic pins shall not be driven to deform the material but only to line up the holes. High strength bolts or
temporary fit-up bolts shall be used in combination with the pins to hold the plies of material together during the fit-up
process.
SECTION 4.16 FIELD ASSEMBLY OF MEMBERS (1991) R(2008)
a. Members shall be accurately assembled as shown on the plans and carefully handled so that no parts will be bent,
broken or otherwise damaged. Hammering which will injure or distort the members will not be permitted. Bearing
surfaces and surfaces to be in permanent contact shall be cleaned just before the members are assembled as required by
Section 4.24a.
b. Unless erected by the cantilever method, truss spans shall be erected on blocking or falsework so placed as to
accommodate proper truss camber.
c. Beams and girders which are field spliced shall be erected on blocking, falsework, or held in the falls until sufficient
holes in the splices can be made fair and have been fitted-up as required by Section 4.17.
SECTION 4.17 FITTING-UP OF FIELD CONNECTIONS (1991) R(2008)
a. The Contractor shall furnish the Company information showing the erection and/or erection plus erection wind forces
in all members, and shall show his proposed provisions for withstanding these forces and procedure for fitting-up the
connections.
b. All connections shall be accurately aligned by driving sufficient drift or traffic pins in a pattern to fair-up the holes.
Light drifting will be permitted to effect this fairing-up of the holes, but heavy drifting which would deform the
material shall not be permitted. Unfair holes may be reamed or drilled oversize and corresponding high strength bolts
or rivets used in such holes, subject to review and approval by the Engineer. Sufficient fitting-up bolts shall be used
with pins as necessary to bring the parts into contact and to stabilize the joint during alignment.
c. Following fairing-up of the holes, fitting-up of the connection shall be completed with fitting-up bolts and pins in a
pattern suitable to hold the joint material together and to withstand calculated erection stresses until final bolting or
riveting is accomplished.
d. Where plain A325 high strength bolts are used as the field connectors the same bolts may be used both for fitting-up
and for final bolting. Where galvanized A325 high strength bolts or A490 high-strength bolts are used as the field
connectors, the same bolts, if tightened to no more than snug-tight fitting-up, may be used for final bolting. Galvanized
A325 high strength bolts and A490 bolts shall not be re-used after having been once fully tightened.
e. Snug-tight is the tightness attained by a few impacts of an impact wrench or the full effort of a man using an ordinary
spud wrench.

Erection
SECTION 4.18 RIVETED FIELD CONNECTIONS (1991) R(2008)
a. Where rivets are used in field connections, they shall be driven with pneumatic riveting hammers, and when practical,
shall be bucked with pneumatic buckers.
b. The requirements for the rivets, and for the general procedure of heating and driving, shall be as specified in Part 3,
Fabrication, Article 3.2.1.
SECTION 4.19 HIGH STRENGTH BOLTED FIELD CONNECTIONS (1991) R(2008)
a. Where high strength bolts are used in field connections, they shall meet the requirements of Part 3, Fabrication,
Article 3.2.2.
b. The installation procedure for permanent high strength bolts and for fully tightened high strength fitting-up bolts shall
be as specified in Part 3, Fabrication, Article 3.2.3.
SECTION 4.20 FIELD WELDING (1991) R(2008)

1
Field welding, where permitted by the provisions of Part 1, Design, Article 1.5.10, shall be done in accordance with the
provisions of Section 3.3.
3
SECTION 4.21 FIELD CONNECTIONS USING PINS (1991) R(2008)
Pins may be driven or jacked into place. Pin nuts shall be screwed tight, and the threads burred, unless another means of
retaining the pin nut is specified.
SECTION 4.22 FIELD INSPECTION (1991) R(2008)
a. The work shall be subject at all times to inspection by the Engineer or the Inspector.
b. The requirements for inspection and procedures to be followed for each type of work shall be as specified in
Section 3.5.
SECTION 4.23 MISFITS (1991) R(2008)
a. The correction of non-repetitive minor misfits shall be done by the Contractor without additional compensation.

Steel Structures
b. Any error in shop work which prevents the proper assembling and fitting up of parts by the moderate use of drift or
traffic pins or a moderate amount of reaming and slight chipping or cutting, shall immediately be reported to the
Inspector, and his approval of the method of correction obtained. The correction shall be made in the presence of the
Inspector, who will check the time and material. Where material requiring correction is furnished by the Company, the
Contractor shall render to the Company within 30 days an itemized bill for such work of correction for the approval of
the Engineer.
SECTION 4.24 FIELD CLEANING AND PAINTING (2002) R(2008)
a. Unpainted field contact surfaces shall be thoroughly wire brushed to remove loose rust and loose mill scale, and any
grease or shop paint on such surfaces shall be removed with proper solvents.
b. Where the rust-inhibiting coating on machined surfaces required by Part 3, Fabrication, Article 3.4.2a is of a type
which must be removed prior to erection, such coating shall be removed immediately prior to field assembly of mating
surfaces so that rust will not form.
c. The intermediate and finish coats of field paint shall be in accordance with the system selected and specified by the
Engineer from Table 1 – General Painting Guide for Steel Structures of the Steel Structures Painting Council Manual,
Vol. 2.
d. Steel work inaccessible after placing of deck shall be field painted before the deck is placed.
e. Weathering steels, ASTM A588, and A709 Grade 50W, Grade HPS 50W, and Grade HPS 70W, need not be field
painted provided the field painting requirement is waived in the contract documents or is otherwise deleted by the
Engineer.
SECTION 4.25 DECK (1991) R(2008)
Where required by the special provisions and the terms of the contract, the ties, guard timbers, guard rails, fire decking,
concrete decking, waterproofing, ballast, deck planking, track rails, and tie plates, and other specified deck appurtenances shall
be placed and, when applicable, fastened by the Contractor in accordance with the plans, specifications, and special provisions
furnished by the Company. Unless otherwise specified, all such material will be delivered by the Company to the Contractor. If
treated timber is used, the Company will deliver it properly framed to the Contractor. Untreated ties shall be framed by the
Contractor to give a full and even bearing on girders or stringers and under the rails. Where necessary to do any framing or
cutting of treated timber, the resulting surfaces shall be treated with wood preservatives as directed by the Engineer.
SECTION 4.26 REMOVAL OF OLD STRUCTURE AND FALSEWORK,

AND CLEANUP (1991) R(2008)
a. Where required by special provisions and terms of the contract, the Contractor shall dismantle the old structure and
either load the material on cars for shipment or pile it neatly at a site immediately adjacent to the tracks with clearance
specified in Section 4.8b, and at an elevation convenient for future handling, as specified. Where the old structure is to
be used again, it shall be dismantled without unnecessary damage and the parts match marked according to diagrams
furnished by the Company.

Erection
b. Where the falsework is the property of the Company, the Contractor shall follow the same procedure as specified by
paragraph a.
c. Where the falsework is the property of the Contractor, he shall dismantle it and remove it completely from the site.
d. The Contractor shall cut off piling at the surface of the ground, or at a lower elevation, or shall completely remove it as
required by the special provisions and terms of the contract.
e. On completion of his work, the Contractor shall remove all debris and refuse from the site, and leave the premises in
good condition.
SECTION 4.27 INTERFERENCE WITH TRAFFIC (1983) R(2008)
a. The special provisions and terms of the contract will state definitely the procedures to be followed by the Contractor to
minimize interference with the movement of trains where the structure is being erected under traffic.
b. The special provisions and terms of the contract will stipulate any special requirements which may apply to
interference with waterborne traffic when the structure is erected over a navigable body of water.
c. The special provisions and terms of the contract will stipulate any special requirements which may apply to
interference with vehicular or railroad traffic above or below the structure being erected. 1
SECTION 4.28 COMPANY EQUIPMENT (1983) R(2008)
When the special provisions and terms of the contract provide that the Company will furnish equipment to the Contractor, such 3
as flat cars, water cars, bunk cars, etc., the Contractor shall repair all damage to such equipment furnished for his use and
return it in as good condition as when he received it, less normal wear and tear.
4
SECTION 4.29 WORK TRAIN SERVICE (1983) R(2008)
Where the special provision and terms of the contract provide that work train or engine service is furnished to the Contractor
without charge, the Contractor shall state in his bid the number of days such service will be required. Any excess over the time
specified in this bid shall be paid for by the Contractor at the Company’s schedule of rates.
SECTION 4.30 RISK (1983) R(2008)
The Contractor shall be responsible for loss or damage to materials, for all damage to persons or property, and for casualties of
every description caused by his operations during the progress of the work. Injuries or losses due to events beyond the control
of the Contractor shall not be borne by him unless they occurred because he was dilatory in handling the work, with the result
of extending the time beyond the limit designated in the contract.

Steel Structures
SECTION 4.31 LAWS AND PERMITS (1983) R(2008)
a. Permits for the location and construction of the structure shall be obtained as directed by the Company.
b. The Contractor shall comply with Federal, State and local laws, regulations and ordinances, and shall obtain at his
expense the necessary permits for his operations.
SECTION 4.32 PATENTS (1983) R(2008)
The Contractor shall protect the Company against claims on account of patented technologies used by him on the work.

15
1510
Part 5
Bearing Design and Construction1
— 2013 —
Current until revision of next edition
FOREWORD
The purpose of this part is to formulate specific and detailed recommendations for the design of bearings for nonmovable
railway bridges. Recommendations for the design of special bearings for movable railway bridges are included in Part 6,
Movable Bridges.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
5.1 Bearing Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-4

5.1.1 Definition of Terms (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-4
5.1.2 General Requirements (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-7 3
5.1.3 Expansion Bearings (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-8
5.1.4 Fixed Bearings (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-9
5.1.5 Bearing Selection Criteria (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-9
5.2 Basic Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-11

5.2.1 Structural Steel, Bolts and Pins (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-11
5.2.2 Cast Steel (1997) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-11
5.2.3 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Plates (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-11
5.2.4 PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-12
5.2.5 Elastomeric Bearings (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-12
5.2.6 Polyether Urethane Disc Bearings (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-12
5.2.7 Masonry (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-12
5.2.8 Timber (1997) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-12
5.3 Steel Bearing Component Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-12

5.3.1 Scope (1997) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-12
5.3.2 Materials (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-13
5.3.3 Shoes and Pedestals (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-14
5.3.4 Rocker Plates, Rockers and Rollers (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-14
5.3.5 Sole, Base and Masonry Plates (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-16
1
References, Vol. 96, p.92.

Steel Structures
5.3.6 Inclined Bearings (1997) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-16

5.3.7 Anchor Bolts and Rods (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-16
5.3.8 Central Guide Keys and Guide Bars (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-17
5.4 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-18

5.4.1 Scope (2000) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-18
5.4.2 Materials (2000) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-18
5.4.3 Design (2006) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-18
5.5 PTFE Sliding Bearing Surface Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-19

5.5.1 Scope (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-19
5.5.2 Materials (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-19
5.5.3 Design (2006) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-20
5.6 Elastomeric Bearing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-22

5.6.1 Scope (1999) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-22
5.6.2 Materials (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-22
5.6.3 Design (2004) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-22
5.7 Multi-Rotational Bearing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-33

5.7.1 Scope (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-33
5.7.2 Materials (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-33
5.7.3 Design (2007) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-34
5.7.4 Disc Bearings (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-36
5.7.5 Spherical Bearings (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-37
5.8 Bearing Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-38

5.8.1 General (1999) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-38
5.8.2 Shop Drawings (1999) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-38
5.8.3 Packaging, Handling and Storage (1999) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-38
5.8.4 Manufacture or Fabrication (1999) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-38
5.8.5 Construction and Installation (1999) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-39
5.9 Steel Bearing Component Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-39

5.9.1 General (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-39
5.9.2 Shoes and Pedestals (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-39
5.9.3 Rockers, Rollers and Sliding Bearings (2001) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-40
5.9.4 Sole, Base and Masonry Plates (2001) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-40
5.9.5 Anchor Bolts (1999) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-41
5.9.6 Tolerances (2001) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-42
5.10 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearing Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-43

5.10.1 General (2000) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-43
5.10.2 Materials (2000) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-43
5.10.3 Fabrication (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-43
5.10.4 Erection (2000) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-44
5.11 PTFE Sliding Bearing Surface Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-44

5.11.1 General (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-44

Bearing Design and Construction
5.11.2 Materials (2006) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-44

5.11.3 Fabrication (2006) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-45
5.11.4 Erection (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-46
5.12 Elastomeric Bearing Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-47

5.12.1 General (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-47
5.12.2 Materials (1999) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-47
5.12.3 Plain Elastomeric Bearings (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-47
5.12.4 Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings (2001) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-48
5.12.5 External Steel Load Plates (1999) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-48
5.12.6 Tolerances (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-48
5.12.7 Marking (1999) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-49
5.12.8 Acceptance Criteria (1999) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-49
5.12.9 Test Criteria I (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-50
5.12.10 Test Criteria II (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-51
5.12.11 Certification (1999) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-51
5.12.12 Installation (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-51
5.13 Multi-Rotational Bearing Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-51

5.13.1 General (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-51 1
5.13.2 Materials (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-51
5.13.3 Fabrication (2007) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-52
5.13.4 Testing and Acceptance (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-54
5.13.5 Pre-assembly and Shipping (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-55
5.13.6 Erection (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-56
LIST OF FIGURES 3
15-5-1 Stress to Strain and Shear Modulus to Hardness Relationship of Neoprene Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-30
15-5-2 Stress to Strain and Shear Modulus to Hardness Relationship of Polyurethane Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-31
4
LIST OF TABLES
15-5-1 Bearing Suitability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-10

15-5-2 Classes of Steel Forgings Acceptable for Pins, Rollers, and Rockers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-13
15-5-3 ASTM F1554 Anchor Bolts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-13
15-5-4 Elastomeric Material Property Test Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5-24

Steel Structures
SECTION 5.1 BEARING DESIGN
5.1.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS (2011)
5.1.1.1 Contractual Terms
a. The term “Company” means the railway company party to the contract. The term “Engineer” means the chief
engineering officer of the Company or his authorized representatives. The term “Inspector” means the inspector
representing the Company. The term “Contractor” means the manufacturing, fabricating or erecting contractor party to
the contract.
b. See Section 1.1, Proposals and Drawings, for other contractual terms and/or requirements for “Proposals,” “Shop
Drawings,” “Drawings to Govern,” “Patented Technologies” and “Notice to Engineer.”
5.1.1.2 Bearing Component Terms
Anchor Bolt: A mechanical device, such as a threaded rod or headed bolt with one or more nuts or other locking
mechanism, that is embedded in concrete or grouted, chemically adhered, or wedged into concrete or masonry for the
purpose of transferring horizontal and uplift forces from the superstructure or bridge bearings to the substructure or
bridge seat.
Anchor Rod: A plain or deformed bar or rod that is embedded in concrete or grouted, chemically adhered, or wedged
into concrete or masonry for the purpose of transferring horizontal forces from the superstructure or bridge bearings to
the substructure or bridge seat. Deformed bars may also be designed to transfer uplift forces.
Base Plate: A steel plate, whether cast, rolled or forged, usually used to uniformly distribute line bearing loads from a
rocker, rocker plate, roller, or roller nest to other bridge bearing components.
Bed Plate: See Masonry Plate or Base Plate.
Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearing: A sliding expansion bearing device consisting of a bronze or
copper-alloy plate assembled between upper and lower steel plates and having finished surfaces to accomodate heavy
loads undergoing slow rotational and/or translational movements. The bronze or copper-alloy plate is frequently
fabricated with a lubricating material compressed into trepanned recesses in the upper and/or lower surfaces of the
plate. The lubricating material is intended to provide permanent lubrication to the sliding contact surfaces with the
steel plates.
Bolster: A block-like member composed of wood, metal, or concrete used to transmit and distribute a bridge bearing
load to the top of a pier cap or abutment bridge seat; or to raise a bridge bearing above moisture or debris that may
collect on a bridge seat. Metal bolsters frequently consist of voided iron or steel castings, or built up steel weldments.
Disc Bearing: A type of multi-rotational bearing which provides for end rotation of bridge spans by means of a flat,
circular shaped, elastomeric disc.
Elastomeric Bearing: A device constructed partially or wholly from elastomer for the purpose of transmitting loads
and accommodating movement between a bridge span and its supporting structure.
External Steel Load Plate: A steel plate bonded to the upper and/or lower surfaces of an elastomeric bearing.
Guide Bar: An element of an expansion bearing which is usually a steel bar of rectangular or square cross section
fastened to or machined from a sole plate, base plate, or masonry plate and protrudes beyond the sliding surface of the
bearing assembly. The guide bar’s long dimension is parallel to the direction of movement and limits the lateral
movement of the bearing or span.

Guide Key: An element of a steel expansion bearing consisting of a projecting bar fitted into a keyway in the opposing
bearing element. Keyways are machined into the upper and/or lower bearing elements. The key is of rectangular or
square cross section. The fit between the key and keyway is such as to limit lateral movement of the bearing or span,
while allowing longitudinal movement. The long dimension of the guide key is parallel to the direction of movement.
Hold Down Device: An assembly which prevents upward vertical movement of the bridge superstructure with respect
to the substructure that is added to a bearing with no inherent resistance to vertical uplift.
Lateral Restraint Device: An assembly which prevents lateral movement of the bridge superstructure with respect to
the substructure at an expansion bearing with no inherent resistance to lateral movement.
Masonry Plate: A steel plate or plate-shaped member, whether cast, rolled or forged, usually placed upon a masonry
pier, abutment or other substructure unit and used to distribute loads from upper components of a bridge bearing
uniformly over the masonry bridge seat below.
Multi-Rotational Bearing: A type of bearing or bearing device which has the capability of allowing rotation in any of
several directions, typically both transverse and longitudinal directions. Multi-rotational bearings frequently include a
circular elastomeric disc or pad, or spherical sliding surface.
Pedestal: A block-like member or assemblage composed of wood, metal, or concrete used to transmit and distribute a
load from a bridge bearing or other member or part of a structure to another member or part. Metal pedestals frequently
consist of voided iron or steel castings, or built up steel weldments.
Pin: A cylindrical bar, usually steel, used to connect, hold in position, and/or transmit loads from one bridge bearing
component to another, while allowing for the rotation of those bridge bearing components relative to each other.
1
Pintle: A machined steel pin press fit, machined or fastened into an upper or lower element, frequently a base plate, of
a bearing assembly. One or more pintles are usually used with bearings utilizing a rocker, rocker plate or roller element.
The pintle provides a positive horizontal shear connection between the upper or lower element, or base plate, and the
rocker or roller elements of the bearing while allowing for rotation.The head of the pintle is shaped and sized to fit into
a hole machined into the mating element of the bearing assembly. 3
Plain Elastomeric Bearing: An elastomeric bearing that consists of elastomer only.
Pot Bearing: A type of bearing which usually consists of an elastomeric disc confined in a steel cylinder, or pot, with a
ring sealed steel piston which transmits bridge bearing loads to the elastomeric disc.
PTFE Bearing Surface: A low-friction sliding surface which utilizes a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) sheet or woven 4
fiber fabric manufactured from pure virgin unfilled PTFE resin, which is bonded to a steel backing substrate and
usually slides against a polished stainless steel sheet.
Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing: An elastomeric bearing that consists of layers of elastomer restrained at their
interfaces by integrally bonded steel reinforcement.
Rocker: A cylindrical sector shaped member attached, frequently by a pin at its axis location, to the expansion end of a
girder or truss that will transmit bridge bearing loads in line bearing contact upon its perimetrical surface with a base
plate, bolster, pedestal or masonry plate and thus provide for longitudinal movements by a wheel-like translation.
Rocker Plate: A steel plate with one cylindrical surface that will transmit bridge bearing loads in line bearing contact
upon its perimetrical surface to other bearing components and allow for longitudinal rotation of the span ends due to
span deflection.

Steel Structures
Roller: A steel, cylindrical shaped member, frequently forming an element of a roller nest or any other bearing device
intended to provide longitudinal movements by rolling contact and that will transmit bridge bearing loads in line
bearing contact with both a top plate or sole plate above, and a base plate, bolster, pedestal or masonry plate below.
Roller Nest: A group of two or more steel cylinders forming a part of an expansion bearing at the movable end of a
girder or truss intended to provide longitudinal movements by rolling contact and that will transmit bridge bearing
loads in line bearing contact with both a top plate or sole plate above, and a base plate, bolster, pedestal or masonry
plate below. Commonly, the rollers of a roller nest are assembled in a frame or box.
Seismic Isolation Bearing: A type of bridge bearing which is intended to reduce the dynamic response of a bridge
superstructure and thus minimize seismic loads acting on, and damage to, the bridge by providing a compliant
connection between the superstructure and substructure through viscous damping, friction or metallic yielding.
Seismic Isolation Device: A device which is intended to reduce the dynamic response of a bridge superstructure and
thus minimize seismic loads acting on, and damage to, the bridge by providing a compliant connection between the
superstructure and substructure through viscous damping, friction or metallic yielding. A seismic isolation device may
be a component of a seismic isolation bearing or may be a device, or one of several devices, independently connected
between the bridge superstructure or substructure.
Shoe: A bolster-like or pedestal-like member or plate, typically placed under the end of a plate girder or truss, to
transmit and distribute bridge bearing loads to the masonry bridge seat, other bearing components or other substructure
members.
Sole Plate: A steel plate bolted, riveted, or welded directly under the bottom flange of a rolled beam or plate girder,
bottom chord of a truss, or cast into the bottom of a concrete girder, to uniformly distribute the bridge bearing loads
into other bridge bearing components below, such as a roller nest, rocker plate, base plate, pedestal, multi-rotational
bearing or masonry plate.
Spherical Bearing: A type of multi-rotational bearing which provides for end rotation of bridge spans by means of a
convex spherical surface hinging, rocking or sliding in a mating concave spherical surface. Lubrication of the mating
surfaces is usually required and is frequently accomplished by providing a PTFE Bearing Surface or a Bronze or
Copper-Alloy Sliding Surface.
Trepanned Recess: A disk or ring shaped void machined into a metal plate or bushing. The disk or ring shaped void
usually has a rectangular or square cross section. Trepanned recesses are generally machined into bronze or copper-
alloy bearing elements and are filled with a lubricating material. The lubricating material is intended to provide
permanent lubrication to the sliding interface between the bronze or copper-alloy bearing element and the opposing
steel bearing elements.

5.1.1.3 Common Bearing Type and Component Illustrations
5.1.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (2010)1
a. Bearings may be fixed or expansion as required by the bridge configuration and design. Expansion bearings may
include guides or other means to control the direction of translation. Fixed and guided bearings shall have lateral
strength adequate to resist all design loads and restrain unwanted translations. Combinations of different types of
bearings shall not be used at the same bearing line or substructure unit unless the effects of differing deflection and
rotational characteristics on the bearings and structure are accounted for in the design.
1

Steel Structures
b. Bearings shall be designed to resist the loads and accommodate the movements stipulated herein. The most adverse
combination of loads and movements shall be used for design. No damage to bridge span, bearings, or substructure
due to joint or bearing movements shall be permitted under any appropriate combination of design load and movement.
Horizontal forces and moments induced in the bridge by restraint of movement at the bearings shall be taken into
account in the design of the bridge and the bearings. They should be determined using the calculated movements and
the bearing characteristics given in Sections 5.2 through 5.7. It is recommended that all bearing design requirements
be tabulated in a rational form to substantiate bearing type selection.
c. Design of bearings shall be such as to allow for expansion and contraction of the spans resulting from change in
temperature at the rate of 1 inch (25 mm) in 100 feet (30 000 mm) for Minimum Service Temperature1 Zone 1 and 1-
1/4 inch (30 mm) in 100 feet (30 000 mm) for Minimum Service Temperature Zones 2 and 3. Provisions shall also be
made for change in length of the span resulting from live load. In steel spans more than 300 feet (90 000 mm) long,
allowance shall be made for expansion of the floor system. Due consideration shall be given to the effects of lateral
thermal movement for structures wider than 40 feet (12 000 mm).
d. Bearings and ends of spans shall be securely anchored against lateral and vertical movement as stipulated in
Article 5.3.7. The Engineer may waive the requirement for vertical restraint of concrete spans.
e. Bearings for spans of less than 50 feet (15 000 mm) need not use radial/spherical surfaces or other special mechanisms
to accommodate rotation due to live load deflection of the span, provided that the structural system otherwise permits
adequate rotation.
f. Bearings for spans of 50 feet (15 000 mm) or greater shall have provision to accommodate rotation due to deflection of
the span. This requirement can be accommodated by use of a type of bearing employing a hinge, curved bearing plate
or rocker plate, elastomeric pad, or pin arrangement.
g. End bearings subject to both longitudinal and transverse rotation shall consist of elastomeric or multi-rotational
bearings.
h. Due consideration shall be given to bearing stability under seismic loading in the selection of bearing type.
i. Bearings on masonry should be raised above the bridge seat by masonry plates, pedestals or bolsters. The Engineer
may waive this requirement for elastomeric bearings.
j. Provision for the replacement of bearings shall be considered in the design.
k. When directed or authorized by the Railroad, bearings may incorporate special devices to attenuate the transfer of
horizontal forces such as braking, traction and seismic loads, to the substructure. These devices may transmit forces
past weak or flexible substructures and through adjacent spans into stronger substructure elements. They may allow
controlled differential displacements between the span and the substructure and may also include energy dissipation
mechanisms. Such devices must not prevent the proper transfer of Dead, Live, Impact, Centrifugal, and Wind loadings
to the substructure, nor may they appreciably restrict thermal expansion and contraction of the spans.
5.1.3 EXPANSION BEARINGS (2007)
a. The expansion end of spans of 70 feet (21 000 mm) or less may be designed to accommodate movement through the
use of low friction sliding surfaces or elastomeric pads.
b. The expansion end of spans longer than 70 feet (21 000 mm) shall be supported by bearings employing rollers, rockers,
reinforced elastomeric pads, or low friction sliding surfaces designed to accommodate larger longitudinal movements.
1
See Commentary, Article 9.1.2.1d and e.

c. Expansion bearings shall be capable of accommodating the full anticipated longitudinal movement plus an allowance
for construction tolerances. The minimum construction tolerance shall be one-half inch (13 mm) for every 100 feet
(30 000 mm) of span length but shall not be less than one inch (25 mm).
5.1.4 FIXED BEARINGS (2004) R(2012)
a. The fixed end of spans shall be securely anchored to the substructure as stipulated in Article 5.3.7 to prevent horizontal
movement.
b. Span rotation shall be accommodated as stipulated in the provisions of Article 5.1.2 e, f and g.
5.1.5 BEARING SELECTION CRITERIA (2010)1
a. Each type of bearing system or component has differing characteristics and capacities to accommodate or restrain
translational and rotational movements and to resist vertical and horizontal loads. The bearing type chosen for a
particular application must have adequate load and movement capabilities. Table 15-5-1 may be used as a guide for
selecting appropriate bearing types for each application. Commentary Article 9.5.1.5.a provides additional insight into
typical movement capabilities of the various bearing types.
b. Bearing types with an “R” listed in Table 15-5-1, may be suitable for the application but require special considerations
or additional elements such as sliders or guideways to accomodate or control movements; or pintles, link bars, or other
restrainers to provide load resistance.
c. Pot-type multi-rotational bearings should not be used for support of railroad bridges due to concerns over large cyclical 1
live load deformations and rotation.
d. Due to thickness, rotation and compressive deflection limitations stipulated in Section 5.6, the size of elastomeric
bearings is limited for applications with rotation. For preliminary bearing selection, unless approved by the Engineer,
the width of elastomeric bearings in the direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation shall be limited to 12 inches (300
mm) for plain elastomeric pads and to 24 inches (600 mm) for reinforced elastomeric bearings.
3
1

Table 15-5-1. Bearing Suitability
15-5-10
Steel Structures
Translation2 Rotation About Bridge Axis Resistance to Loads
Bearing Type Indicated2
Long Trns Trns Long Vert Vert Long Trns
Flat Steel Plate on Flat Steel Plate L U L U U S R R
[<50 foot (125 000 mm) Span Length]
Rocker Plate Bearing (fixed) U U S U U S R R
Rocker Plate & Flat Sliding1 Bearing S L S U L S R R
Pin & Pedestal Bearing (fixed) U U S U U S S R
Pin & Rocker Bearing S U S U U S R R
Single Roller Bearing S U S U U S U R

Pin & Multiple Roller Bearing S U S U U S U U
Flat Bronze or Copper Alloy or PTFE S S U U L S R R
Sliding Bearing
Cylindrical & Flat Sliding Bronze or S L S U L S R R
Copper Alloy or PTFE Bearing
Plain Elastomeric Pad S S S S L L L L
Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing S S S S L S L L
Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric & Flat S L S S L S R R
Sliding1 Bearing
Disc Bearing (fixed) U U S S L S S S

1
Disc & Flat Sliding Bearing S L S S L S R R
Double Cylindrical (Bi-radial) Bronze or L L S S U S R R
Copper Alloy or PTFE Bearing
Spherical Bronze or Copper Alloy or U U S S S S R R
PTFE Bearing (fixed)
Spherical & Flat Sliding Bronze or Copper S L S S S S R R
Alloy or PTFE Bearing
1
With flat Bronze or Copper-Alloy or PTFE sliding surface S = Suitable Long = Longitudinal axis
2 U = Unsuitable Trns = Transverse axis
See Commentary Article 9.5.1.5.a for additional insight
L = Suitable for limited applications. Vert = Verical axis
into typical ranges of movements usually accommodated by
R = May be suitable but requires special
each bearing type.
considerations
SECTION 5.2 BASIC ALLOWABLE STRESSES
The basic allowable stresses to be used in proportioning the parts of a bridge bearing shall be as specified below.
5.2.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL, BOLTS AND PINS (2012)1
a. Except as provided in paragraph c below, the basic allowable stresses for all steel bearing components, weld metal,
bolts or rivets, shall be as specified in Section 1.4, Basic Allowable Stresses.
b. The allowable stress for steel bearing components is expressed in terms of Fy or Fu as specified in Article 5.3.2.1,
Table 15-5-2, Article 5.3.2.2, Table 15-5-3 or Table 15-1-1.
psi (MPa)
c. Bearing on pin material or material on which the pin bears 0.75Fy
Bearing on milled web members, milled stiffeners and other steel parts in 0.83Fy
contact, except as specified in this Article
Bearing between rockers and rocker pins 0.375Fy
Stress in extreme fibers of pins 0.83Fy
Shear in nominal unthreaded area of F1554 anchor bolt or rod 0.20Fu 1

Tension in nominal unthreaded area of F1554 anchor bolt or rod 0.38Fu
Pounds per linear inch (kN/mm)
Line bearing on rollers, rockers, rocker plates, or base plates:

( F y – 13000 )600d ⎛ (-------------------------
F y – 90 )d⎞ 3
For diameters up to 25 inch (600 mm) -------------------------------------------- -
20000 ⎝ 33000 ⎠
( F y – 13000 )3000 d ⎛ (-----------------------------

F y – 90 ) d⎞
For diameters from 25 inch (600 mm) to 125 inch (3 000 mm) --------------------------------------------------- -
20000 ⎝ 1300 ⎠
d = diameter of roller, rocker, or rocker plate curved surface; inch (mm)

4
5.2.2 CAST STEEL (1997) R(2008)
For cast steel, the allowable stresses in compression and bearing shall be the same as those allowed for structural steel with the
same yield point or yield strength. Other allowable stresses shall be 75 percent of those allowed for structural steel with the
same yield point or yield strength.
5.2.3 BRONZE OR COPPER-ALLOY PLATES (2001) R(2008)
For self-lubricating bronze or copper-alloy plates, the allowable bearing stress on the net area shall not exceed 2,000 psi (14
MPa).
1

Steel Structures
5.2.4 PTFE SLIDING BEARING SURFACES (2002) R(2008)
For unfilled polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) bearing against stainless steel sliding surfaces (whether virgin PTFE resin, PTFE
sheets, or woven PTFE fabric) the allowable stress in bearing on the net area shall not exceed 2,000 psi (14 MPa).
5.2.5 ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS (2001) R(2008)
For unconfined elastomeric bearings, the allowable average compressive stress shall be as specified in Article 5.6.3.4, but shall
not exceed 1,000 psi (7 MPa) for reinforced bearings, or 800 psi (5.5 MPa) for plain bearings.
5.2.6 POLYETHER URETHANE DISC BEARINGS (2007)1
For polyether urethane discs in disc bearings, the average allowable compressive stress shall not exceed 5,000 psi (34.5 MPa).
5.2.7 MASONRY (2012)
a. Except as provided in paragraph b, the basic allowable stresses for all concrete masonry and reinforcing steel shall be
as specified in Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations.
b. Bearing pressure:
psi (MPa)
Granite 800 (5.5)
Sandstone and limestone 400 (3)
Concrete 0.30 of the ultimate compressive strength
(When the strength of concrete is unknown, use 2,500 psi (17 MPa) for the design ultimate compressive strength.)
5.2.8 TIMBER (1997) R(2008)
Allowable bearing stresses and other design stresses for all timber members shall be as specified in Chapter 7, Timber
Structures.
SECTION 5.3 STEEL BEARING COMPONENT DESIGN
5.3.1 SCOPE (1997) R(2008)
a. This Section covers the materials for, and the design of, steel bearings or steel bearing components made from rolled
steel plates and shapes, steel forgings or cast steel which are used to carry railroad loading. The use of ductile or
malleable iron castings is also covered for specific bearing components.
b. The fabrication and installation of steel bridge bearings or steel bearing components shall be in accordance with the
requirements of Section 5.9, Steel Bearing Component Construction, Part 3, Fabrication, and Part 4, Erection.
1

Except as provided in Article 5.3.2.1 through Article 5.3.2.5 below, material for all bearing components produced from rolled
steel plates or shapes, shall conform to one of the ASTM designations listed in Table 15-1-1.
5.3.2.1 Pins, Rollers, and Rockers
In addition to the designations listed in Table 15-1-1, steel for pins, rollers, and rockers may conform to one of the ASTM
A668 (A668M) classes: Steel Forgings, Carbon and Alloy, for General Industrial Use, listed below in Table 15-5-2.
Table 15-5-2. Classes of Steel Forgings Acceptable for Pins, Rollers, and Rockers
ASTM A668 Fy - Min Yield Size

(A668M) Class Point, psi (MPa) Limitation1
Class C 33,000 (230) To 20 inches (500 mm) in dia.
Class D 37,500 (260) To 20 inches (500 mm) in dia.
Class F 50,000 (345) To 10 inches (250 mm) in dia.
Class G2 50,000 (345) To 10 inches (250 mm) in dia.
1Expansion rollers shall be not less than 6 inch (150 mm) in diameter.
2Rolled material of the same properties may be substituted.
5.3.2.2 Anchor Bolts and Anchor Rods

1
Anchor bolts including hooked, headed, or threaded anchor bolt end treatments, and anchor rods shall meet the requirements
of ASTM F1554. Anchor bolts and rods are currently manufactured in three grades with their respective Minimum Yield
Strength (Fy) and Tensile Strength (Fu) listed below in Table 15-5-3.
Table 15-5-3. ASTM F1554 Anchor Bolts 3

Grade Fy - Min Yield Strength, Fu - Tensile Strength,
ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa)
36 36 (248) 58 - 80 (400 - 558)
55 55 (380) 75 - 95 (517 - 655)
105 105 (724) 125 - 150 (862 - 1034)
4
5.3.2.3 Fasteners—Rivets and Bolts
Fasteners may be carbon steel bolts, ASTM A307, power-driven rivets, ASTM A502 Grades 1 or 2, or high-strength bolts,
ASTM A325 (A325M) or ASTM A490 (A490M) in accordance with Part 1, Design, and Part 3, Fabrication.
5.3.2.4 Weld Metal
Weld metal shall conform to the current requirements of AWS D1.5, Part 1, Design, and Part 3, Fabrication.

Steel Structures
5.3.2.5 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings and Malleable Castings
5.3.2.5.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron
a. Cast steel shall conform to specifications for Mild-to-Medium Strength Carbon-Steel Castings for General Application,
ASTM A27, Grade 65-35 (A27M, Grade 450-240); High Strength Steel Castings for Structural Purposes, ASTM A148
(A148M) and Corrosion-Resistant Iron-Chromium, Iron-Chromium-Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloy Castings for
General Applications, ASTM A743 (A743M).
b. Ductile iron castings shall conform to ASTM A536.
5.3.2.5.2 Malleable Castings
Malleable castings shall conform to specifications for Malleable Iron Castings, ASTM A47 (A47M), Grade 32510 (22010)
[minimum yield point, Fy, 32,500 psi (220 MPa)].
5.3.3 SHOES AND PEDESTALS (2001)1 R(2008)
a. Shoes and pedestals shall be designed on the assumption that the vertical load is distributed uniformly over the entire
bearing surface. They shall be either made of cast steel or built-up by welding rolled steel and/or cast steel elements
together.
b. Shoes and pedestals should be made of cast steel or structural steel. No part of a cast steel shoe, and no load carrying
part of a welded shoe, shall be less than 1 inch (25 mm) thick.
c. In a welded shoe, the vertical load shall be carried directly in bearing between elements. Diaphragms shall be provided
between web surfaces to ensure stability of component parts.
d. The difference in width and length between top and bottom bearing surfaces shall not exceed twice the vertical distance
between them. For hinged bearings with pins, the vertical distance shall be measured from the centerline of pin.
e. Webs and pin holes in the webs shall be arranged to keep any eccentricity to a minimum. The net section through the
hole shall provide 140 percent of the net section required for the actual stress transmitted through the pedestal or shoe.
Pins shall be of sufficient length to ensure a full bearing. Pins shall be secured in position by appropriate nuts with
washers. All portions of shoes and pedestals shall be secured against lateral movement of the pins.
5.3.4 ROCKER PLATES, ROCKERS AND ROLLERS (2001) R(2008)
5.3.4.1 Rocker Plates
a. Rocker plates shall be used in preference to either rockers or rollers where conditions permit. Rocker plates must be
used in conjunction with a base plate. For expansion bearings, the base plate must be supported on a reinforced
elastomeric pad or low friction sliding surface designed to accommodate longitudinal movements from both
temperature and translations at the span bearing elevation resulting from span rotations due to span deflections. The
elastomeric pad or sliding surface should only be placed at the expansion end of the span and must be designed to also
accommodate the additive longitudinal movements resulting from fixed end span rotation.
b. The nominal centerline thickness of the rocker plate shall not be less than 1-1/2 inch (40 mm) and the curved surface
shall be cylindrical.
1

c. The rocker plate shall be doweled to the base plate to prevent lateral movement, skewing or creeping of the rocker plate
on the base plate.
d. The effective length of rocker plate, for calculating line bearing stress, shall be the lesser of the actual length of the
rocker plate or the least length determined as follows:
(1) The length of any bearing surface above or below the rocker plate, such as the bottom flange width or length of
sole plate for steel spans, plus the total thickness of all plates between the bearing surface and the line bearing or
curved surface of the rocker plate (including the nominal centerline thickness of the rocker plate if between the
two surfaces).
(2) For steel spans, the distance out-to-out of bearing stiffeners plus the total thickness of all plates between the
bottom of bearing stiffener surface and the line bearing or curved surface of the rocker plate (including the bottom
flange thickness and the nominal centerline thickness of the rocker plate if between the two surfaces).
(3) For concrete spans, the length of sole plate cast into the bottom of the span plus the total thickness of all plates
between the bottom of sole plate bearing surface and the line bearing or curved surface of the rocker plate
(including the nominal centerline thickness of the rocker plate if between the two surfaces).
e. The effective length of rocker plate, for calculating line bearing stress, shall also be reduced by the diameter of each
dowel hole located on the line bearing surface.
5.3.4.2 Rockers
a. Rockers shall be used in preference to rollers where conditions permit. The upper surface of rockers shall have a pin or
1
cylindrical bearing.
b. The lower portion of a rocker, at the nominal center line of bearing, shall not be less than 1-1/2 inch (40 mm) thick and
the lower surface shall be cylindrical with its center of rotation at the center of rotation of the upper bearing surface.
c. The rocker shall be doweled to the base plate to prevent lateral movement, skewing or creeping of the base of the 3
rocker.
d. The effective length of rocker, for calculating line bearing stress, shall not be greater than the length of the upper
bearing surface plus the distance from the lower surface to the upper bearing surface. There shall be sufficient web
material between the upper and lower portion of the rocker to ensure uniform distribution of load over the effective
length of rocker.
4
e. The effective length of rocker, for calculating line bearing stress, shall also be reduced by the diameter of each dowel
hole located on the line bearing surface.
5.3.4.3 Rollers
a. Rollers may be either cylindrical or segmental and shall not be less than 6 inches (150 mm) in diameter.
b. Rollers shall be connected by substantial side bars to ensure parallelism and shall be guided by gearing or other
effective means to prevent lateral movement, skewing, and creeping.
c. Rollers and bearing plates shall be protected from dirt and water as far as practicable, and the design shall be such that
water will not be retained and the roller nests will be accessible for inspection and cleaning.

Steel Structures
5.3.5 SOLE, BASE AND MASONRY PLATES (2001) R(2008)
a. Base and masonry plates shall be designed on the assumption that the vertical load is distributed uniformly over a
bearing area with effective length and width as defined in paragraph b, except for eccentricity from rocker travel.
b. The effective length of the bearing area shall not be greater than the effective length of the rocker plate or rocker as
defined in Article 5.3.4.1d or Article 5.3.4.2d, or the length of the roller, plus 2 times the thickness of the base plate.
The effective width of the bearing area shall not be greater than 4 times the thickness of the base plate for a single
roller, rocker plate or rocker, or the distance between multiple rollers plus 4 times the thickness of the base plate for
roller nests.
c. For spans designed to slide on bearings with smooth surfaces without hinges, the distance from centerline of bearing to
edge of masonry plate, measured parallel with the track, shall not be more than 2 times the thickness of the plate plus 4
inches (100 mm).
d. Sole plates shall have a minimum thickness of 3/4 inch (20 mm).
e. Base and masonry plates shall have a minimum thickness of 1-1/2 inch (40 mm).
5.3.6 INCLINED BEARINGS (1997) R(2008)
For spans on an inclined grade and without hinged bearings, the sole plates shall be beveled so that the bottom of the sole plate
is level, unless the bottom of the sole plate is radially curved. All other bearing plate and masonry surfaces shall be made level.
5.3.7 ANCHOR BOLTS AND RODS (2012)
a. Anchorages shall be designed to transfer the applicable horizontal and vertical forces. Provision for anchorage of
spans to the substructure shall be as follows:
(1) Steel trusses, steel girders, steel rolled beam spans, steel masonry plates and timber beams shall be securely
anchored to the substructure with anchor bolts.
(2) Except when waived by the Engineer, concrete spans shall be anchored to the substructure with anchor bolts or
anchor rods.
b. Except as provided in paragraph e below, anchor bolts shall not be less than 1-1/4 inch (32 mm) diameter. There shall
be washers under the nuts. Anchor bolt holes in pedestals, masonry plates, or sole plates shall be 3/8 inch (10 mm)
larger in diameter than the bolts. At expansion bearings the holes in the sole plates may be slotted.
c. Except as provided in paragraph e below, anchor bolts and anchor rods shall extend at least 12 inches (300 mm) into
masonry substructures. Those that are required to resist uplift shall be designed to engage a substantial mass of
masonry, the weight of which is at least 1.5 times the computed uplift at the bearing.
d. Anchor bolts and anchor rods may be cast into the substructure concrete or may be installed in holes drilled into the
masonry substructure. Anchor bolts and anchor rods shall be swedged, threaded or shall have rolled deformations to
secure a satisfactory bond with the material in which they are embedded.
e. In addition to meeting the allowable stress requirements of Article 5.2.1c, the following are minimum requirements for
anchorages at each bearing:
(1) For timber elements:
Spans 50 feet (15 000 mm) or less: In accordance with Chapter 7, Timber Structures.

Spans greater than 50 feet (15 000 mm) to 100 feet (30 000 mm): 2 anchor bolts.
Spans greater than 100 feet (30 000 mm) to 150 feet (46 000 mm): 2 anchor bolts, 1-1/2 inch (40 mm) in diameter,
embedded 15 inches (400 mm) in masonry substructures.
Spans greater than 150 feet (46 000 mm): 4 anchor bolts, 1-1/2 inch (40 mm) in diameter, embedded 15 inches
(400 mm) in masonry substructures, or equivalent.
(2) For concrete spans:
For slab and double box beams: 2 anchor rods per slab or beam end.
For multiple single box beams: 1 anchor rod per beam end.
For I-beams: 2 anchor bolts per beam end.
(3) For steel spans:
For steel rolled beam spans: 2 anchor bolts.
For steel trusses or steel girders:
Spans 100 feet (30 000 mm) or less: 2 anchor bolts.
Spans greater than 100 feet (30 000 mm) to 150 feet (46 000 mm): 2 anchor bolts, 1-1/2 inch (40 mm) in
1
diameter, embedded 15 inches (400 mm) in masonry substructures.
Spans greater than 150 feet (46 000 mm): 4 anchor bolts, 1-1/2 inch (40 mm) in diameter, embedded 15
inches (400 mm) in masonry substructures, or equivalent.
5.3.8 CENTRAL GUIDE KEYS AND GUIDE BARS (2001) R(2008) 3

a. Central guide keys may be made integral by machining from the solid. Where a separate key or guide bar is used it
shall be fitted in a keyway slot machined into the plate to give a press fit and bolted or welded to the plate to resist
overturning.
b. Guide bars may be made integral by machining from the solid or may be fabricated from bars and welded or bolted to
resist overturning. 4
c. Guide bars and central guide keys shall be designed for the specified horizontal forces, but not for less than 10% of the
vertical capacity of the bearing.
d. The total clearance between the key/guide bars and guided members shall be 1/8 inch (3 mm) maximum.
e. Guided members must have their contact area within the guide bars in all operating positions.
f. Guiding off the fixed base or any extensions of it, where transverse rotation is anticipated, shall be avoided.

Steel Structures
SECTION 5.4 BRONZE OR COPPER-ALLOY SLIDING EXPANSION BEARING DESIGN
5.4.1 SCOPE (2000) R(2008)
a. This Section covers the materials for, and the design of, self-lubricating bronze or copper-alloy sliding expansion
bearing plates and the permanent solid lubricating material compressed into trepanned recesses in the upper and/or
lower sliding surfaces.
b. The fabrication and installation of self-lubricating bronze or copper-alloy sliding expansion bearing plates shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Section 5.10.
5.4.2 MATERIALS (2000) R(2008)
5.4.2.1 Bronze Bearing And Expansion Plates
Bronze bearing and expansion plates shall conform to the Standard Specification for Bronze Castings for Bridges and
Turntables, ASTM B22. Alloy C91100 shall be furnished unless otherwise specified by the Engineer.
5.4.2.2 Copper-Alloy Bearing And Expansion Plates
Copper-Alloy bearing and expansion plates shall conform to the Standard Specification for Wrought Copper-Alloy Bearing
and Expansion Plates and Sheets for Bridge and Other Structural Uses, ASTM B100. Alloy C51000 or C51100 shall be
furnished unless otherwise specified by the Engineer.
5.4.2.3 Solid Lubricant
Solid lubricant shall consist of a combination of solids having non-deteriorating characteristics, as well as lubricating qualities
and shall be capable of withstanding long term atmospheric exposure, de-icing materials and water. Molybdenum disulfide
and other ingredients which may promote electrolytic or chemical action between the bearing elements shall not be used.
Shellac, tars and asphalts, and petroleum solvents shall not be used as binders.
5.4.3 DESIGN (2006)1 R(2012)
a. Bronze or copper-alloy sliding plates shall be chamfered at the edges. They shall be held securely in position, usually
with machine screws or by being inset into the metal of the pedestals or bearing plates. Provisions shall be made
against any accumulation of debris which may obstruct free movement of the span.
b. The minimum design static coefficient of friction shall be 0.10.
c. Bearings with bronze or copper-alloy sliding elements shall incorporate a sole plate and masonry plate designed in
accordance with Article 5.3.5 and Article 5.3.6.
d. Masonry plates in bearings with bronze or copper-alloy sliding elements shall be bedded on a minimum 1/4 inch (6
mm) thick preformed fabric or plain elastomeric pad. When nominal transverse rotation of the sole plate or bearing is
expected, such as that due to deflection of a through structure floor system, masonry plates in bearings with bronze or
copper-alloy sliding elements shall be bedded on a minimum 1/2 inch (13 mm) thick preformed fabric or plain
elastomeric pad. Bedding pads shall be designed in accordance with Section 5.6 of this Chapter. Bedding pads shall
rest directly on the substructure and shall meet the requirements of Article 5.9.4.4b or Article 5.9.4.4e.
1

SECTION 5.5 PTFE SLIDING BEARING SURFACE DESIGN
5.5.1 SCOPE (2002) R(2008)
a. This Section covers the materials for, and the design of, self-lubricating polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) sliding
expansion bearing surfaces and the mating stainless steel or other hard corrosion resistant polished surface against
which the PTFE expansion bearing material slides.
b. Proprietary PTFE fixed and expansion bearings may be used if, in the opinion of the Engineer, and substantiated either
by tests or experience, they meet design requirements.
c. The fabrication and installation of PTFE sliding expansion bearing surfaces shall be in accordance with the
requirements of Section 5.11.
5.5.2.1 PTFE Sliding Surfaces
a. PTFE sliding surfaces shall be virgin unfilled resin, unfilled PTFE sheets or unfilled PTFE fabric. Sheet PTFE may
contain dimples.
b. Filler material, such as milled glass fibers or carbon shall not be used in railroad bridge PTFE sliding surfaces.
c. PTFE resin shall be virgin material (not reprocessed) meeting the requirements of ASTM D4894. Specific Gravity 1
shall be between 2.13 and 2.19. Melting point shall be 621°F±18 (327°C±10).
d. Finished unfilled PTFE sheet shall be made of virgin PTFE resin, shall be in accordance with ASTM D3294, Type II,
Grade 1, Class C and shall conform to the following requirements:
3
Tensile Strength ASTM D4894 2,800 psi (20 MPa) (minimum)
Elongation ASTM D4894 200% (minimum)
e. Dimples in dimpled PTFE sheet shall have a diameter that does not exceed 5/16 inch (8 mm) at the surface of the PTFE
sheet and their depth shall not be less than 0.8 inches (2 mm) and not more than half the thickness of the PTFE sheet.
The dimples shall be uniformly distributed over the surface area and shall cover more than 20% but less than 30% of 4
the area. If specified in the contract requirements, the dimples shall contain a lubricant. The lubricant shall be silicone
grease which conforms to military specification MIL-S-8660.
f. PTFE fabric shall be manufactured from virgin PTFE oriented monofilament fibers and other fibers as approved by the
Engineer and required by proprietary designs. PTFE fibers shall conform to the following requirements:
Tensile Strength ASTM D2256 24,000 psi (170 MPa) (minimum)

Elongation ASTM D2256 35% (minimum)
g. PTFE fabric shall be capable of carrying unit loads of 10,000 psi (70 MPa) without cold flow.
h. Adhesive material, when used to bond PTFE sheet or fabric to a substrate material, shall be an epoxy resin meeting the
requirements of Federal Specification MMM-A-134, FEP film or equal, as approved by the Engineer.

Steel Structures
5.5.2.2 Stainless Steel Mating Surface
a. Sheet stainless steel mating surfaces shall conform to ASTM A167 or A240 Type 304.
b. Welded stainless steel overlay shall be produced using Type 309L electrodes.
5.5.3 DESIGN (2006)1 R(2012)
5.5.3.1 General
a. PTFE sliding surfaces are intended to translate or rotate by the sliding of a self-lubricating PTFE surface across a
smooth hard mating surface, preferably stainless steel or other equally corrosion resistant material. A PTFE surface
sliding against another PTFE surface shall not be used.
b. Expansion bearings having PTFE sliding surfaces shall not be used without provision for a minimum rotation of 0.015
radians, to prevent excessive local stresses on the PTFE sliding surface. Rotation shall be considered the sum of live
load rotation, changes in camber during construction, and misalignment of the bearing seats due to construction
tolerances. The design shall include a compensating provision for grade as stipulated in Section 5.3.6. Provisions for
rotation may be accomplished with a hinge, rocker, rocker plate, curved sliding surface, elastomeric pad or other
means.
c. The minimum design static coefficient of friction (whether virgin PTFE resin, PTFE sheets, or woven PTFE fabric) is
a function of the design bearing pressure and shall be determined using straight-line interpolation between the
following limits:
Bearing Pressure Coefficient of Friction

500 psi (4 MPa) 0.08
2,000 psi (14 MPa) 0.06
d. Holes or slots shall not be used in the sliding surfaces.
e. When PTFE is used on guiding surfaces it shall be designed to carry the greater of 5% of the dead load carried by the
bearing assembly or the maximum combined transverse loads as specified in Section 1.3 of this chapter, Chapter 8,
Concrete Structures and Foundations or Chapter 9, Seismic Design for Railway Structures. PTFE used on a guiding
surface and the stainless steel or other mating surface shall meet all design requirements specified herein and shall
contain an ultraviolet (UV) inhibitor or screen.
5.5.3.2 PTFE Sliding Surfaces and Backing Substrate
a. PTFE sliding surfaces shall have the following minimum and maximum thickness under the application of 2,000 psi
(14 MPa) load:
Unfilled PTFE cast against 1/32 in. (1 mm) minimum

a backing substrate 3/32 in. (2 mm) maximum
Unfilled Sheet PTFE 1/8 in. (3 mm) minimum

3/16 in. (5 mm) maximum
1

Fabric containing unfilled 1/32 in. (1 mm) minimum

PTFE fibers 1/8 in. (3 mm) maximum
b. PTFE sheet shall be epoxy-bonded into a square-edged recess 1/16 in. (1.5 mm) deep. If sheet PTFE is used for guided
surfaces, it shall be pigmented.
c. PTFE fabric shall be epoxy-bonded, or epoxy-bonded and mechanically fastened, to the substrate using a system that
prevents migration of epoxy through the fabric. The fabric-substrate bond shall be capable of withstanding a shear
force equal to 10 percent of the perpendicular or normal applied loading without delamination in addition to the shear
force developed as a result of the natural bearing friction. Any edges, other than the selvage, shall be oversewn or
recessed so that no cut fabric edges are exposed. Fabric PTFE sliding surfaces shall, in the free state, be a minimum of
1/16 in. (1.5 mm) thick when measured in accordance with ASTM D1777.
d. The substrate or back-up material to which the PTFE sliding surface is bonded shall be a rigid material capable of
resisting any bending stresses to which the sliding surfaces may be subjected. If the other side of the back-up material
is to be bonded to an elastomeric pad, the back-up material must have sufficient tensile strength to restrain the
elastomeric pad. The elastomeric pad must be sufficiently hard to allow sliding of the PTFE contact surface, perferably
at least 70 durometer hardness.
e. Welding to a steel substrate plate that has a bonded PTFE surface may be permitted providing welding procedures are
established which restrict the maximum temperature reached by the bond area to less than 300°F (150°C) as
determined by temperature indicating wax pencils or other suitable means.
1
5.5.3.3 Stainless Steel or Other Mating Surface
a. The mating surface to the PTFE shall be an accurate flat, cylindrical, or spherical surface as required by the design and
shall have minimum Brinell hardness of 125.
b. Stainless steel or other mating surfaces shall be rolled or polished as necessary to produce a surface finish less than 20 3
microinches (0.5 μm) root mean square (rms) and to meet the friction requirements of Section 5.11.1(c).
c. The mating surface shall completely cover the PTFE surface in all operating positions plus one inch (25 mm) in each
direction of movement.
d. Wherever possible, the mating surface shall be at the top (face down) or otherwise oriented so that sliding movements
will cause dirt and dust accumulation to fall from the mating surface. 4
e. Sheet stainless steel mating surfaces shall be 20 gage minimum thickness and shall be connected to its backing
substrate by a continuous weld around the entire perimeter. Intermittent interior spot-welding may also be used in
addition to the perimeter weld. The stainless steel sheet shall be in full contact with the substrate.
f. Welded stainless steel overlay shall be a minimum of 3/32 in. (2 mm) thick after welding, grinding and polishing.
5.5.3.4 Sole and Masonry Plates
a. Bearings with PTFE sliding elements shall incorporate a sole plate and masonry plate designed in accordance with
Article 5.3.5 and Article 5.3.6.
b. Masonry plates in bearings with PTFE sliding elements shall be bedded on a minimum 1/4 inch (6 mm) thick
preformed fabric or plain elastomeric pad. When nominal transverse rotation of the sole plate or bearing is expected,
such as that due to deflection of a through structure floor system, masonry plates in bearings with PTFE sliding
elements shall be bedded on a minimum 1/2 inch (13 mm) thick preformed fabric or plain elastomeric pad. Bedding

Steel Structures
pads shall be designed in accordance with Section 5.6 of this Chapter. Bedding pads shall rest directly on the
substructure and shall meet the requirements of Section 5.9.4.4b or Section 5.9.4.4e.
SECTION 5.6 ELASTOMERIC BEARING DESIGN
5.6.1 SCOPE (1999) R(2008)
a. This Section covers the materials for, and the design of, plain and reinforced elastomeric bearings made from
polyisoprene (natural rubber), polychloroprene (neoprene) and plain bearings made from polyurethane which are used
to carry railroad loading. (Reference 114, 115, and 126)
b. Cushioning pads, used to provide a smooth, even bearing surface, are not covered in this recommended practice since
they are very thin and are not designed to translate or to withstand the loads without failure.
c. The fabrication and installation of elastomeric bridge bearings shall be in accordance with the requirements of
Section 5.12.
5.6.2 MATERIALS (2001) R(2008)
5.6.2.1 Elastomer
a. The elastomeric compound shall be specified by the Engineer and shall be 100 percent virgin polyisoprene (natural
rubber), virgin crystallization-resistant polychloroprene (neoprene), or cast polyurethane meeting the requirements of
Table 15-5-4. When test specimens are cut from the finished product, a ten percent variation in physical properties
shall be allowed.
b. Material with a nominal hardness greater than 60 durometer shall not be used in reinforced bearings.
5.6.2.2 Steel Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement for reinforced elastomeric bearings shall be not less than 0.0598 inch (1.5 mm) thick, and shall be rolled
from mild steel sheet conforming to ASTM A1011 (A1011M), Grade 36; or ASTM A1008 (A1008M), Grade D unless
5.6.2.3 External Steel Load Plates
a. Elastomeric bridge bearings may have external steel load plates bonded to the upper and/or lower surfaces. Such load
plates shall be at least as large as the elastomer layer to which they are bonded. Steel load plates shall be tapered, if
necessary, to ensure full bearing contact between non-parallel load surfaces. Tapered layers of elastomer are not
permitted.
b. External steel load plates shall meet the requirements of Part 1, Design, except as modified by Section 5.3.
5.6.3 DESIGN (2004) R(2012)
This section covers the design of plain pads (consisting of elastomer only) and reinforced bearings (consisting of layers of
elastomer restrained at their interfaces by integrally bonded steel reinforcement).

5.6.3.1 General
a. The size of elastomeric bearings shall be such that the external steel load plate and/or elastomer surfaces are in full
contact with the loaded surface under all loading conditions.
b. The properties of elastomeric compounds depend on their constituent elements. Where shear modulus or creep
deflection properties are specified or known for the specific elastomer of which the bearings are to be made, they
should be used in the design. Otherwise the values used shall be those from the applicable range given in Table 15-5-4
which provide the least favorable results. Values for intermediate hardness may be obtained by interpolation. The
hardness grade (durometer) of the elastomer shall be selected on the basis of the requirements of Section 5.12 and the
environmental conditions anticipated at the bridge site. The shear modulus shall be determined using the test specified
in Sections 5.12.9 and 5.12.10. Unless otherwise specified, elastomeric bearings shall be made from a 60 durometer
rubber or neoprene elastomer or a 90 durometer polyurethane elastomer.

Table 15-5-4. Elastomeric Material Property Test Requirements
15-5-24
Steel Structures
Material ASTM
Test Requirements Natural Rubber Neoprene Polyurethane
Property Standard
Hardness D2240 Durometer (±5)—Shore A Pts. 50 60 70 50 60 70 80 90
Physical D412 Minimum Tensile 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250 2250 4500 5000
Properties Strength in psi (MPa) (15.5) (15.5) (15.5) (15.5) (15.5) (15.5) (31) (35)
Minimum Ultimate Elongation— 450 400 300 400 350 300 300 250
%*
Heat Aging D573 Specified Temperature 158 158 158 212 212 212 212 212
in Degrees F (C) (70) (70) (70) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100)
Aging Time-hours 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
Max change in Durometer +10 +10 +10 +15 +15 +15 +5 +5
Shore A Pts.
Max change in Tensile –25 –25 –25 –15 –15 –15 –10 –10
Strength—%
Max change in Ultimate –25 –25 –25 –40 –40 –40 –10 –10
Elongation—%
High Temp. D412 Minimum Tensile strength at 2500 2800
Strength 140F (60C) in psi (MPa) (17) (19)
Compression D575 Vertical load in psi (MPa) 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
Strain Method (7.0) (7.0) (7.0) (7.0) (7.0) (7.0) (7.0) (7.0)
B**
Max Permissible Strain % 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
Compression D395 Specified Temperature 158 158 158 212 212 212 158 158
Set Method B in Degrees F (C) of the test 22 (70) (70) (70) (100) (100) (100) (70) (70)
hours
Max Permissible Set % 25 35 45 25 35 45 35 35
Tear Resistance D624 Die C, Min. lbs/inch (N/mm) 180 180 180 180 180 180 400 500
(32) (32) (32) (32) (32) (32) (70) (87)
Coefficient of Incline Max. Static C.O.F. on steel 0.35 0.35
Friction
*Compounds of nominal hardness between the given values shall have the requirement determined by interpolation between the given values.
**Tested using shape factor of bearing.
***Engineer to specify the required test temperature.
****The test method set forth in Sections 5.12.9 and 5.12.10 shall be used.
Table 15-5-4. Elastomeric Material Property Test Requirements (Continued)
Material ASTM
Test Requirements Natural Rubber Neoprene Polyurethane
Property Standard
Abrasion D4060 H-18 Wheel, 1000g wt. Max 25 20
Resistance Weight Loss per 1000 cycles - mg
Hydrolytic D543 Specified Water Temperature F 212 212
Stability (C) (100) (100)
Aging Time - days 30 30
Maximum Change in Tensile -15 -15
Strength - %
Optional Requirements
Ozone D1149 Partial Pressure of Ozone 7250 7250 7250 7250 7250 7250 7250 7250
Resistance in psi (MPa) (50.0) (50.0) (50.0) (50.0) (50.0) (50.0) (50.0) (50.0)
Duration of Test in Hrs. 100 100 100 100 100 100 500 500
Tested at 20% Strain 100°F no no no no no no no no
(38°C) mounting procedure cracks cracks cracks cracks cracks cracks cracks cracks
ASTM D518 Procedure A.
Shear Modulus None**** Modulus at 73°F (23°C) in psi 95±15 140±20 205±40 95±15 140±20 205±40 550±150 780±150
(MPA) (0.7±0.1) (1.0±0.1) (1.4±0.3) (0.7±0.1) (1.0±0.1) (1.4±0.3) (3.8±1.0) (5.4±1.0)
Low Temperature D2137 Low Temperature Brittleness no no no no no no no no
Properties*** failure failure failure failure failure failure failure failure
D1415 Low Temperature Stiffness Max +15 +15 +15 +15 +15 +15 +20 +20
change in hardness Shore A
Points

D1229 Low Temperature Compression 65 65 65 65 65 65 70 70
Set Max %
*Compounds of nominal hardness between the given values shall have the requirement determined by interpolation between the given values.
**Tested using shape factor of bearing.
***Engineer to specify the required test temperature.
****The test method set forth in Sections 5.12.9 and 5.12.10 shall be used.
15-5-25
Steel Structures
c. If elastomeric bearings are to be used at locations where temperatures less than -25 degrees F (-32 degrees C) can be
expected for a period of several days, consideration shall be given to specifying natural rubber and to requiring special
testing by the manufacturer for the temperature range expected. The increase in stiffness, embrittlement, and
crystallization are areas of importance to be investigated.
5.6.3.2 Loads
“Service Load Design” shall be used for the design of elastomeric bearings.

5.6.3.3 Notations
A = Plan area of bearing—inch2 (mm2)

aL = Relative rotation of top and bottom surfaces of bearing about an axis perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the bridge—radians
aW = Relative rotation of top and bottom surfaces of bearing about an axis parallel to the longitudinal axis
of the bridge—radians
D = Gross diameter of reinforcement of a circular bearing—inch (mm)
dc = Instantaneous compressive deflection of bearing—inch (mm)
ds = Shear deflection of bearing excluding construction tolerance—inch (mm)
eci = Compressive strain of an individual elastomer layer [change in thickness divided by unstressed
thickness]
fa = Average compressive stress on bearing caused by dead load and live load with normal impact—psi
(MPa)
= P/A—psi (MPa)
Fs = Shear force on bearing—lbs (N)
Fy = Yield Point of internal steel reinforcement—psi (MPa)
G = Shear modulus of elastomer at the design temperature—psi (MPa)
k = Modifying factor
1
= 1.0 for internal layers of reinforced bearings
= 1.4 for cover layers
= 1.8 for plain bearings
L = Length of a rectangular bearing parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bridge. For reinforced bearings
these values refer to the internal reinforcement dimensions—inch (mm).
P = Vertical load on the bearing—lbs (N) 3
S = Shape factor of one layer of a bearing
loaded area
= ----------------------------------------------------------------
effective area free to bulge
= LW
--------------------------- Rectangular Bearing 4
2t i ( L + W )
D
= ------ Circular Bearing
4t i
T = Total elastomer thickness of bearing—inch (mm) = ∑ ti

ti = Actual elastomer thickness between reinforcing plates of an individual elastomer layer—inch (mm)
ts = Thickness of one internal steel reinforcement—inch (mm)
W = Width of a rectangular bearing perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bridge. For reinforced
bearings these values refer to the internal reinforcement dimensions—inch (mm).

Steel Structures
5.6.3.4 Compressive Stress
For bearings which may experience shear deformation, the average compressive stress, fa, shall not exceed GS/k, nor shall it
exceed 1,000 psi (7 MPa) for reinforced bearings, or 800 psi (5.5 MPa) for plain bearings. In bearings containing layers of
different thicknesses, the value of S/k shall be taken as the smallest value obtained for the various layers of the bearing.
Allowable compressive stress may be increased by 10% where shear translation is prevented or a positive slip apparatus is
provided. Recommendations for a positive slip apparatus are not covered by this recommended practice. Design of a positive
slip apparatus must be approved by the Engineer.
5.6.3.5 Compressive Deflection
a. Compressive deflection, dc, of the bearing shall be so limited as to ensure the serviceability of the bridge.
b. Instantaneous deflection shall be calculated as d c = ∑ eci ti and shall be less than 0.07T or
0.125 inch (3 mm), whichever is lower.
c. Values for eci shall be obtained from design aids based on tests such as presented in Figure 15-5-1, Graph A or B, and
Figure 15-5-2, Graph A, by testing, or by rational analysis.
d. The effects of compression set of the elastomer shall be added to the instantaneous deflection when considering long-
term dead load deflections. They shall be computed from information specific to the elastomer compound used, if it is
available; if not, the values of 25% for 50 durometer elastomer, 35% for 60 durometer elastomer, and 45% for 70
durometer elastomer may be used. For polyurethane, 35% may be used for an 80 or 90 durometer elastomer. The
0.125 in. (3 mm) limit in paragraph b does not apply for long-term dead load deflections.
e. The total compressive instantaneous deflection—excluding dead load deflection—of all elastomeric pad and bearing
elements that occur between the top of deck and rigid support foundations (pads between deck slabs and girder top
flanges, elastomeric bearings, elastomeric pads between masonry plates and top of masonry, etc.) shall also be
calculated as d c = ∑ e ci t i and shall be less than 0.125 inch (3 mm).
5.6.3.6 Rotation
The relative rotation between top and bottom surfaces of the bearing shall be limited by
L(aL) + W(aW) ≤ 2(dc) for rectangular bearings
D[(aL)2 + (aW)2]1/2 ≤ 2(dc) for circular bearings
5.6.3.7 Shear
a. The shear deformation shall be taken as the maximum possible deformation caused by creep, shrinkage, post-
tensioning, live load rotation and thermal effects computed between the installation temperature and the least favorable
extreme temperature, unless a positive slip apparatus is installed.
b. The bearing shall be designed so that
T ≥ 2 ds
c. The shear force induced by shear deformation is approximated by
Fs = G ds A/T
d. Variations of G with temperature shall be taken into account. Test data from the manufacturer or from special testing
for the project shall be used for the design. Since the physical data can be expected to vary widely, maximum values

should be used for obtaining forces involved, and minimum values used to determine shear deflection. Design aids are
given in Figure 15-5-1, Graph C, and Figure 15-5-2, Graph B, and can be used if special project values are not
available.
5.6.3.8 Stability
To ensure stability, the total thickness of the bearing shall not exceed the smallest of:
L/5, W/5 or D/6 for plain bearings
L/3, W/3 or D/4 for reinforced bearings
5.6.3.9 Steel Reinforcement
a. The reinforcement must be adequate to maintain proper alignment during fabrication and to sustain the tensile stresses
induced by compression of the bearing. The minimum thickness is limited to require ts ≥ 0.092 ti.
b. For these purposes, ti shall be taken as the mean thickness of the two layers of elastomer bonded to the reinforcement.
The determination of the steel reinforcement thickness shall take into account an allowance for stress concentration
caused by holes in the bearing. Holes are discouraged for all bearings.
5.6.3.10 Anchorage
When some combination of loads exists which causes a shear force greater than 1/5 of the simultaneously occurring
compressive force, the bearing shall be secured against horizontal movement. When the bearing is attached to both top and
1
bottom surfaces, the attachment must be such that no tension is possible in the vertical direction. When the dead load stress on
the bearing is less than 200 psi (1.4 MPa), or the horizontal loads are greater than the frictional resistance when using a
coefficient of friction of 0.20, the bearing shall be restrained against horizontal movement. All anchorages shall also meet the
requirements stipulated in Article 5.3.7.

Steel Structures
SHEAR MODULUS G - psi (MPa)
Relationship of shear modulus to hardness of

neoprene compounds at various temperatures
Figure 15-5-1. Stress to Strain and Shear Modulus to Hardness Relationship of Neoprene Compounds

Figure 15-5-2. Stress to Strain and Shear Modulus to Hardness Relationship of Polyurethane Compounds

Steel Structures
5.6.3.11 Stiffeners for Steel Girders
a. Steel girders seated on elastomeric bearings must have flanges which are stiff enough locally not to cause damage to
the bearing. Any necessary stiffening may be accomplished by attaching a sole plate to the bottom flange of the girder
or by vertical stiffeners connected to the girder web and flanges. The requirements of Part 1, Design, shall govern the
design of steel girder stiffeners and connections.
b. Single-webbed girders symmetrical about their vertical axis and placed symmetrically on the bearing need no
additional stiffening if:
bf/2tf ≤ [Fy /3.4 fa]1/2
where
bf = total flange width—inch (mm)

tf = flange thickness or combined coverplate + flange thickness—inch (mm)
Fy = yield point stress of girder steel—psi (MPa)
fa= calculated axial stress—psi (MPa)
c. If the requirement of paragraph b is not satisfied, it will be necessary to add two or more bearing stiffeners on each side
of the girder at a spacing “a” given by the following requirement:
a ≤ [(tf)2 Fy /1.2 fa]1/2
where
tf = flange thickness or combined coverplate + flange thickness—inch (mm)

Fy = yield point stress of girder steel—psi (MPa)
fa= calculated axial stress—psi (MPa)
5.6.3.12 Geometrics
a. Misalignment in bridge girders due to fabrication tolerance, camber, or other source, shall be considered in the bearing
design or shall be accounted for with tapered sole plates or by a device which prevents eccentric loading on the
bearing.
b. Bearings which are used in pairs shall be placed along an axis perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a beam.
5.6.3.13 Alternate Design Procedures
The design of bearings by procedures other than those outlined above shall be permitted, at the discretion of the Engineer.
Such procedures shall take into account the stresses and deformation in the bearing determined from a rational analysis and the
design shall be based on the material properties pertinent to the elastomer of which the bearing is to be made. Performance
shall be verified by test, using the standards of Test Criteria II certification given in Section 5.12, and, in addition, the effects
of instability and fatigue shall be investigated.

SECTION 5.7 MULTI-ROTATIONAL BEARING DESIGN
5.7.1 SCOPE (2007)1
a. This Section covers the materials for, and the design of, fixed and expansion disc type and spherical type multi-
rotational bearings capable of accommodating rotation in multiple directions, typically both transverse and
longitudinal directions. In addition, multi-rotational bearings are capable of accommodating or restraining translations
in multiple directions. Multi-rotational bearings include fixed, guided expansion, and non-guided expansion
configurations.
b. Proprietary multi-rotational bearings may be used if, in the opinion of the Engineer and substantiated either by tests or
experience, they meet these design requirements.
c. Unless approved by the Engineer, pot type multi-rotational bearings shall not be used for support of railroad bridges.
d. The fabrication and installation of multi-rotational bearings shall be in accordance with the requirements of
Section 5.13.
a. Steel components of multi-rotational bearings shall meet the requirements of Article 5.3.2.
b. Self-lubricating bronze or copper-alloy components providing flat or spherical sliding or rotating surfaces of multi-
rotational bearings, and the solid lubricant, shall meet the requirements of Article 5.4.2. 1
c. PTFE and mating stainless steel components providing flat or spherical sliding or rotating surfaces of multi-rotational
bearings shall meet the requirements of Article 5.5.2.
d. Elastomer for disc multi-rotational bearings shall be a polyether urethane formulation conforming to the following
requirements:
3
Material Properties ASTM Requirements

Standard
Hardness, Shore D Durometer D2240 60[min] 65[max]
Tensile stress, psi (MPa) [min] D412
4
@100% Elongation 2100 (14.5)
@200% Elongation 3700 (25.5)
Tensile strength, psi (MPa) [min] D412 5500 (38)
Ultimate Elongation, % [min] D412 253
Max. Compression Set, D395
22 hours @ 158°F, % 40
1

Steel Structures
5.7.3 DESIGN (2007)1 R(2008)
5.7.3.1 General
a. Multi-rotational bearings shall be considered for the support of bridges when the following conditions are present:
(1) Curved or skewed spans and other similar structures where complex designs are required.
(2) The direction of rotation of the bridge span will vary.
(3) The direction of rotation of the bridge span can not be precisely determined.
(4) Settlement of the substructure is anticipated.
(5) Self-aligning capabilities of the bearings are required.
(6) Load and rotation eccentricity would otherwise significantly alter the net distribution of stress through the bearing
and into the substructure and superstructure.
(7) Large rotational movements are anticipated.
b. Multi-rotational bearings shall be designed in accordance with the general requirements of Article 5.1.2, Article 5.1.3,
and Article 5.1.4.
c. Multi-rotational bearings shall be designed in accordance with the basic allowable stress requirements of Section 5.2.
d. Except as provided in Article 5.7.3.2 through Article 5.7.3.5 below, steel components of multi-rotational bearings shall
be designed in accordance with the requirements of Section 5.3.
e. Elastomer for disc type multi-rotational bearings shall be designed in accordance with Article 5.7.3.2 through
Article 5.7.3.5 and Article 5.7.4 below.
f. Except as provided in Article 5.7.3.2 through Article 5.7.3.5 and Article 5.7.5 below, self-lubricating bronze or copper-
alloy components providing flat or spherical sliding or rotating surfaces of multi-rotational bearings shall be designed
in accordance with the requirements of Article 5.4.3.
g. Except as provided in Article 5.7.3.2 through Article 5.7.3.5 and Article 5.7.5 below, PTFE and mating stainless steel
components providing flat or spherical sliding or rotating surfaces of multi-rotational bearings shall be designed in
accordance with the requirements of Article 5.5.3.
h. The types of multi-rotational bearings shall not be varied along the same bearing line.
5.7.3.2 Loads
a. Multi-rotational bearings shall be designed for a minimum horizontal load of 10% of the vertical load.
b. For the design of multi-rotational bearings, vertical and horizontal loads shall be assumed to occur simultaneously.
c. Frictional resistance of multi-rotational bearing sliding surfaces shall be neglected when determining horizontal load
capacity.
1

5.7.3.3 Nomenclature
C = Vertical clearance between rotating and non-rotating bearing parts of a spherical bearing - inch
(mm)
Dd = Outside diameter of elastomeric disc element - inch (mm)
Ds = Projected diameter of loaded spherical segment - inch (mm)
Lh max = Maximum horizontal loading on a spherical bearing - lbs (N)
Lv min = Minimum vertical loading on a spherical bearing - lbs (N)
OD = Outside diameter of round spherical bearing surface - inch (mm)
Rb = Rotation capacity to be accommodated by multi-rotational bearing - radians
Rc = Rotation induced in the multi-rotational bearing by construction tolerances - radians (0.005
radians maximum)
Rmax = Maximum radius of spherical element - inch (mm)
Rs = Anticipated rotation of the bridge superstructure in service (includes live load rotations, rotations
induced by construction procedures and erection sequences, etc.) - radians
Ru = Rotational allowance for uncertainties - radians (use 0.005 radians unless an approved quality
control plan justifies a smaller value)
S = Length of side of square spherical bearing surface - inch (mm)
t = Thickness of elastomeric disc - inch (mm)
1
Δ = Deflection of elastomeric disc due to all vertical dead, live and impact loads at zero rotation -
inch (mm)
ε max = Δ ⁄ t = Compressive strain of elastomeric disc due to all vertical dead, live and impact loads
at zero rotation, not including long term creep.
5.7.3.4 Rotational Capacity 3

Multi-rotational bearings shall be designed to have a rotational capacity of:
Rb = Rs + Rc + Ru
5.7.3.5 Translation Capacity

4
a. Fixed multi-rotational bearings shall allow rotation in any direction but shall restrain horizontal translation in the
longitudinal and transverse directions.
b. Guided expansion multi-rotational bearings shall allow rotation in any direction and shall allow horizontal translation
in the guided direction only. Horizontal translation in non-guided directions shall be restrained using either a guide bar
or keyway system designed in accordance with Article 5.3.8. Horizontal translation in the guided direction shall be
accommodated using a flat bronze or copper-alloy sliding surface designed in accordance with Section 5.4 or a PTFE
sliding surface designed in accordance with Section 5.5.
c. Non-guided expansion multi-rotational bearings shall allow rotation and horizontal translation in any direction.
Horizontal translation shall be accommodated using a flat bronze or copper-alloy sliding surface designed in
accordance with Section 5.4 or a PTFE sliding surface designed in accordance with Section 5.5.

Steel Structures
d. Spans supported on multi-rotational bearings shall be restrained from vertical movement or uplift at the bearing as
required by Article 5.1.2b. The hold down device shall not interfere with the rotation or horizontal translation of the
bearing.
5.7.3.6 Sole and Masonry Plates
a. In addition to the elements accommodating rotation and translation, multi-rotational bearings shall also incorporate a
sole plate and masonry plate designed in accordance with Article 5.3.5 and Article 5.3.6.
b. Sole plates shall be connected to steel spans by bolting or shop welding, to timber spans by bolting, or to concrete
spans by providing shear studs or other anchors and casting the concrete around the sole plate.
c. Masonry plates shall be anchored to the substructure in accordance with Article 5.3.7.
d. Masonry plates supporting multi-rotational bearings shall be bedded on a minimum 1/4 inch (6 mm) thick preformed
fabric or plain elastomeric pad designed in accordance with Section 5.6. The bedding pad shall rest directly on the
substructure and shall meet the requirements of Article 5.9.4.4b or Article 5.9.4.4e.
5.7.4 DISC BEARINGS (2007)
5.7.4.1 General
a. Disc bearings shall consist of a polyether urethane elastomeric structural element (disc) confined by upper and lower
external steel load plates.
b. Disc expansion bearings may also include a flat sliding surface to allow for horizontal movement.
c. The confining elements of the lower external steel load plate may be integrated into an appropriately designed masonry
plate or may be designed as separate elements with the lower load plate bolted or welded to the masonry plate.
d. For fixed disc bearings without a flat sliding surface, the confining elements of the upper external steel load plate may
be integrated into an appropriately designed sole plate or may be designed as separate elements with the upper load
plate bolted or welded to the sole plate. For expansion disc bearings with a flat sliding surface, the confining elements
of the upper external steel load plate may be integrated into an appropriately designed base plate that also supports the
sliding element.
e. Disc bearings shall be equipped with a shear restriction mechanism to prevent movement of the disc.
f. Disc bearings shall adequately provide for the thermal expansion and contraction, rotation, camber changes, and creep
and shrinkage of structural members where applicable.
5.7.4.2 Design of Rotational Element
a. The thickness of the polyether urethane disc shall not be less than:
( ( R s + R c + R u )D d ) ⁄ 2ε max
b. The disc shall be designed so that its instantaneous deflection under total load does not exceed 10% of the thickness of
the unstressed disc, and the additional deflection due to creep does not exceed 8% of the unstressed disc thickness.
c. The polyether urethane disc shall be designed so that the average compressive stress on the disc due to the maximum
compressive load considering all appropriate load combinations does not exceed the Basic Allowable Stress as

stipulated in Article 5.2.6. If, under design load, the outer surface of the disc is not vertical, the stress shall be
computed using the smallest plan area of the disc.
d. The design of the polyether urethane disc shall provide vertical clearance between rotating and non-rotating external
steel load plates or other bearing parts no less than 1/8 inch (3 mm) at maximum rotation.
e. The thickness of the external steel load plates shall not be less than 0.06Dd when integral with masonry plates bearing
directly on concrete, 0.045Dd when bearing directly on steel masonry plates, base plates or sole plates, and in no case
less than 3/4 inch (20 mm). External steel load plates shall meet the requirements of Part 1, Design, except as modified
by Section 5.3.
f. The shear restriction mechanism shall be designed to allow free rotation and shall withstand the applied horizontal
forces. The shear restriction mechanism may also serve as the hold-down device if designed to also withstand the
applied vertical forces.
g. The shear restriction mechanism shall be designed to withstand the applied shear, bending, bearing and vertical stresses
in accordance with Sections 5.2 and 5.3. The shear restriction mechanism shall be connected to the external steel load
plates by welding, machining out of the solid or threaded connection.
5.7.5 SPHERICAL BEARINGS (2007)
5.7.5.1 General
a. Spherical bearings shall consist of mated convex and concave spherical bearing surfaces that allow for rotation in any 1
direction. Expansion spherical bearings shall also include a flat sliding surface to allow for horizontal movement.
b. The convex spherical surface shall be the lower element, and shall be fixed to the top of the masonry plate. The
concave spherical surface shall face down and is usually the middle element, with the flat sliding surface at the top,
when provided for an expansion bearing.
c. Spherical bearings shall adequately provide for the thermal expansion and contraction, rotation, camber changes, and 3
creep and shrinkage of structural members where applicable.
d. When the horizontal component of any design load combination exceeds 25 percent of the simultaneous vertical
component, an external restrainer shall be provided. The external restrainer shall be designed to withstand the full
horizontal component of the design load.
5.7.5.2 Design of Rotational Element 4

a. The radius of the spherical concave element surface shall be determined such that the resulting geometry of the bearing
is capable of withstanding the greatest ratio of horizontal load to vertical load under all loading conditions to prevent
unseating of the concave element. Unseating of the curved surfaces relative to each other shall be prevented by
transferring horizontal forces through specifically designed restraints or by control of the radius. Radius control shall
satisfy the following requirement:
Rmax = Ds / ( 2 sin ( Φ + Rs + Rc + Ru ) ), where;
Φ = arctan (Lh max / Lv min) - radians
b. The minimum center thickness of the concave spherical element shall be 3/4 inch (20 mm).
c. The minimum edge thickness of the convex spherical element bearing directly on the steel masonry plate shall be 1
inch (25 mm).

Steel Structures
d. The design of the spherical bearing elements shall provide vertical clearance, “C,” between rotating and non-rotating
bearing parts no less than 1/8 inch (3 mm) at maximum rotation as follows:
Spherical bearings square in plan [inch]: C = [0.7RbS] + 0.12

(Spherical bearings square in plan [mm]: C = [0.7RbS] + 3)
Spherical bearings round in plan [inch]: C = [RbOD/2] + 0.12
(Spherical bearings round in plan [mm]: C = [RbOD/2] + 3)
SECTION 5.8 BEARING CONSTRUCTION
5.8.1 GENERAL (1999) R(2008)
a. The work covered by this Part consists of furnishing and installing bridge bearings and bridge bearing components
including shim plates, anchor bolts, lubricants, adhesives and the bedding materials used under masonry plates.
b. Bearings shall be constructed as specified and in accordance with the details shown on the plans. Whenever complete
details for bearings and their anchorages are not shown on the plans, bearings shall be furnished to conform with the
limited details shown on the plans and shall provide the design capacities for loads and movements shown or specified
and the performance characteristics specified.
5.8.2 SHOP DRAWINGS (1999) R(2008)
The Contractor shall prepare and submit shop drawings for bridge bearings in accordance with Section 1.1. Such shop
drawings shall show complete details of the bearings and of the materials proposed for use and must be reviewed by the
Engineer. The Engineer's written approval of shop drawings must be received before fabrication of the bearings is begun.
5.8.3 PACKAGING, HANDLING AND STORAGE (1999) R(2008)
a. Prior to shipment from the point of manufacture, bearings shall be packaged in such a manner that during shipment and
storage the bearings will be protected against damage from handling, weather, or any normal hazard. Each completed
bearing shall have its components clearly identified, be securely bolted, strapped or otherwise fastened to prevent any
relative movement, and marked on its top as to location and orientation in each structure in the project in conformity
with the plans and approved shop drawings. Dismantling at the site is not permitted unless absolutely necessary for
inspection or installation if directed by the Engineer.
b. Bearing devices and components shall be stored at the work site in an area that provides protection from environmental
and physical damage. When installed, bearings shall be clean and free of all foreign substances.
5.8.4 MANUFACTURE OR FABRICATION (1999) R(2008)
a. Bearing devices or assemblies shall consist of components meeting the material requirements of Sections 5.4 through
5.7.
b. Bearing assemblies shall be pre-assembled in the shop by the supplier and checked for completeness and geometry
before shipping to the site.

5.8.5 CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION (1999) R(2008)
a. Bearings shall be installed by qualified personnel in the positions shown on the plans. Bearings shall be set at time of
installation to the dimensions prescribed by the manufacturer, the Engineer, or as shown on the plans and adjusted as
necessary to take into account the temperature and future movements of the bridge.
b. Bearings shall be set level, to the alignment and elevations established by the Engineer, and must have full and even
bearing on all bearing planes.
c. Bearing surfaces located at improper elevations or set not level and true to plane shall require either grinding of the
surface, grouting of the bearing seats or modification of the bearing such that intended bearing placement is as
originally designed with the least amount of bearing modification.
d. Whenever bearings are designed by the Manufacturer and/or a Manufacturer's Warranty is required by the Contract,
installation shall be performed under the Manufacturer's supervision.
SECTION 5.9 STEEL BEARING COMPONENT CONSTRUCTION
5.9.1 GENERAL (2001) R(2008)
The surface finish roughness of bearing plates and base plates and other bearing surfaces that are to be in contact shall not 1
exceed 125 μin (3.2 μm) [ANSI/ASME B46.1, Surface Texture].
5.9.2 SHOES AND PEDESTALS (2001) R(2008)
5.9.2.1 Materials
3
Steel used in shoes or pedestals shall be of the types and grades shown on the plans or otherwise specified.
5.9.2.2 Fabrication
a. Bearing surfaces of cast pedestals that are to be in contact with steel or masonry shall be planed.
b. Structural members which are indicated in the contract drawings or specifications to be annealed or normalized shall 4
have finished machining, boring, and straightening done subsequent to heat treatment. Normalizing and annealing
(full annealing) shall be as specified in ASTM A941. The temperatures shall be maintained uniformly throughout the
furnace during the heating and cooling so that the temperature at no two points on the member will differ by more than
100°F (38°C) at any one time.
c. Members of Grades 100/100W (690/690W) or Grade 70W (485W) steels shall not be annealed or normalized and shall
be stress relieved only with the approval of the Engineer.
d. A record of each furnace charge shall identify the pieces in the charge and show the temperatures and schedule actually
used. Proper instruments, including recording pyrometers, shall be provided for determining at any time the
temperatures of members in the furnace. The records of the treatment operation shall be available to and meet the
approval of the Engineer. The holding temperature for stress relieving Grades 100/100W (690/690W) and Grade 70W
(485W) steels shall not exceed 1,125°F (610°C) and 1,075°F (580°C) respectively.

Steel Structures
e. When called for by the contract plans or specifications, members such as bridge shoes, pedestals, or other parts that are
built up by welding sections of plate together shall be stress relieved in accordance with the requirements of Section
4.4 of ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code D1.5.
5.9.3 ROCKERS, ROLLERS AND SLIDING BEARINGS (2001) R(2008)
5.9.3.1 Materials
Steel used in rocker, roller and sliding bearings or bearing components shall be of the types and grades shown on the plans or
otherwise specified.
5.9.3.2 Fabrication
a. Burrs, rough and sharp edges, and other flaws shall be removed.
b. Pins and rollers shall be accurately turned to the dimensions shown on the drawings and shall be straight, smooth, and
free from flaws. Pins and rollers more than 9 in. (230 mm) in diameter shall be forged and annealed. Pins and rollers
9 in. (230 mm) or less in diameter may be either forged and annealed or cold-finished carbon-steel shafting.
c. In pins larger than 9 in. (230 mm) in diameter, a hole not less than 2 in. (50 mm) in diameter shall be bored full length
along the axis after the forging has been allowed to cool to a temperature below the critical range, under suitable
conditions to prevent damage by too rapid cooling. The hole shall be bored before the pin is annealed.
d. Pin holes shall be bored true to the specified diameter, smooth and straight, at right angles with the axis of the member
and parallel with each other unless otherwise required. The final surface shall be produced by a finishing cut.
e. The diameter of the pin hole shall not exceed that of the pin by more than 1/50 in. (0.50 mm) for pins 5 in. (130 mm) or
less in diameter, or by 1/32 in. (0.80 mm) for larger pins. In addition, the diameter of the pin hole shall be a minimum
of 1/100 in. (0.25 mm) larger than the pin diameter.
f. The distance outside to outside of end holes in tension members and inside to inside of end holes in compression
members shall not vary from that specified by more than 1/32 in. (0.80 mm). Boring of pin holes in built-up members
shall be done after the member has been assembled.
5.9.3.3 Installation
a. Setting of rocker, roller and sliding bearings shall take into account any variation from mean temperature of the
supported span at time of setting and any other anticipated changes in length of the supported span. At mean
temperature, after release of falsework and any shortening due to prestressing forces, the rockers and rollers shall be
vertical or the sliding components shall be in proper alignment. Care shall be taken that full and free movement of the
superstructure at movable bearings is not restricted by improper settings or adjustment of bearings.
b. The Contractor shall coat contact surfaces thoroughly with oil and graphite just before placing roller bearings.
c. Cylindrical bearings shall be carefully positioned so that their axes of rotation are in alignment and coincide with the
axis of rotation of the superstructure.
5.9.4 SOLE, BASE AND MASONRY PLATES (2001) R(2008)
5.9.4.1 Materials
Steel plates used in or on masonry, sole plates, base plates and shim plates, unless otherwise specified, shall conform to ASTM
A36/A36M.

5.9.4.2 Fabrication
a. Holes in bearing plates may be formed by drilling, punching, or accurately controlled oxygen cutting. Burrs shall be
removed by grinding.
b. Sole plates of plate girders shall be in full contact with the girder flanges. Sole plates and masonry plates shall be
planed or straightened.
a. Bearing plates shall be accurately set in level position as shown on the plans and shall have a uniform bearing over the
whole area. They may be set on shims or on leveling screws, with non-shrink grout so placed as to fill completely the
space between the steel and the masonry.
b. When plates are to be embedded in concrete, provision shall be made to keep the plates in correct position as the
concrete is being placed.
5.9.4.4 Bedding of Masonry Plates
a. Filler, fabric, or elastomeric sheet materials shall be placed as bedding material under masonry plates when shown on
the plans or specified. Such material shall be of the type specified or as ordered or approved by the Engineer and shall
be installed to provide full bearing on contact areas. Immediately before placing the bedding material and installing
bearings or masonry plates, the contact surfaces of the concrete and steel shall be thoroughly cleaned.
b. Preformed fabric pads used as bedding shall be composed of multiple layers of 8-ounce (225 g) cotton duck
1
impregnated and bonded with high quality natural rubber or of equivalent and equally suitable materials compressed
into resilient pads of uniform thickness. The number of plies shall be such as to produce the specified thickness, after
compression and vulcanizing. The finished pads shall withstand compression loads perpendicular to the plane of the
laminations of not less than 10,000 psi (70 MPa) without detrimental reduction in thickness or extrusion.
c. Sheet lead used as bedding shall be common desilverized lead conforming to ASTM B29. The sheets shall be of 3
uniform thickness and shall be free from cracks, seams, slivers, scale, and other defects. Unless otherwise specified,
lead sheets shall be 1/8 in. (3 mm) in thickness with a permissible tolerance of 0.03 in. (0.80 mm) plus or minus.
d. Mortar used for filling under masonry plates shall conform to ASTM C270.
e. Elastomeric bearing pads used as bedding shall be plain elastomeric bearing pads (unreinforced) meeting the
requirements of Section 5.6 and Section 5.12. 4
5.9.5 ANCHOR BOLTS (1999) R(2008)
5.9.5.1 Materials
Anchor bolts shall meet the requirements of ASTM F1554 or as shown on the contract plans or specifications.
5.9.5.2 Fabrication
Anchor bolts shall be swedged or threaded to secure a satisfactory grip upon the material used to embed them in the holes.
a. The contractor shall drill holes for anchor bolts and set them in portland cement grout, or preset them as shown on the
plans or as specified or directed by the Engineer.

Steel Structures
b. Location of anchor bolts shall take into account any variation from mean temperature of the superstructure at time of
setting and anticipated lengthening of bottom chord or bottom flange due to dead load after setting, the intention being
that, as near as practicable, at mean temperature and under dead load, the anchor bolts at expansion bearings will be
centered in their slots. Care shall be taken that full and free movement of the superstructure at movable bearings is not
restricted by anchor bolts or nuts.
5.9.6 TOLERANCES (2001) R(2008)
a. Bearings and bearing components shall be straight, true to line, and free from twists and bends. In determining
acceptability under these general requirements, the tolerances stated hereinafter shall be applied as indicated. When
more accurate conformance to detailed dimensions is required for any bearing and/or its components, it shall be
specifically stated on the contract plans.
b. Surfaces intended to be in a common plane shall have no offset greater than 1/16 inch (1 mm).
c. For rolled shapes and plates, the tolerances for any dimension shall conform with the requirements of ASTM A6
(A6M) except as otherwise shown on the contract drawings.
d. The tolerances stated in Paragraph e below have been established to apply primarily to bearings or bearing components
fabricated by welding. Bolted components shall be within these specified tolerances, as shall rolled components to the
extent not excepted by Paragraph c above.
e. Allowable deviations:
(1) Detailed length or width: ±1/8 inch (3 mm)
(2) Detailed depth of bearing or bearing component: ±1/16 inch (1 mm)
(3) Detailed straightness, that is, sweep or deviation from camber: ±1/16 inch (1 mm)
(4) Detailed radius of curvature:
– Rockers or Rocker Plates: ±1/16 inch (1 mm)
– Mating Curved Surfaces: ±1/100 inch (250 μm)
(5) Out of flatness of seats or bases:
– To be set on grout: 1/8 inch (3 mm)
– To be set on elastomeric, lead, or similar yielding surface: 1/16 inch (1 mm)
– To be set on steel, masonry, or other hard surface: 1/100 inch (250 μm)
(6) Detailed position of parts and connections: ±1/8 inch (3 mm)
(7) Full surface contact:
(a) At least 70% of the surfaces specified to be in contact shall have the contact surfaces within 0.005 inch (120
μm) of each other. No remaining portion of the surface specified to be in contact shall have a separation
exceeding 0.03 inch (750 μm). Any element of the main material which is composed of multiple elements
shall have a minimum of 60% of its bearing area in contact.

(b) Contact surfaces specified to be prepared by milling, grinding, or planing, shall have a surface roughness
value not to exceed 250 μin (6.3 μm) [ANSI/ASME B46.1 Surface Texture].
SECTION 5.10 BRONZE OR COPPER-ALLOY SLIDING EXPANSION BEARING

CONSTRUCTION
5.10.1 GENERAL (2000)1 R(2008)
a. The work covered by this Section consists of furnishing and installing self-lubricating bronze or copper-alloy sliding
expansion bearing plates and the permanent solid lubricating material compressed into trepanned recesses in the upper
and/or lower sliding surfaces.
b. Self-lubricating bronze or copper-alloy sliding expansion bearing plates shall be furnished to the dimensions indicated
in the contract plans or accepted shop drawings. Either one or both surfaces, as indicated on the drawings, shall be
provided with trepanned recesses which shall be filled with a solid lubricant as specified in Article 5.4.2.3. The solid
lubricant shall be pressed into the recesses by hydraulic presses so as to form dense, non-plastic lubricating inserts.
The lubricating areas shall comprise approximately 25% of the total area. The static coefficient of friction shall not
exceed 0.10.
5.10.2 MATERIALS (2000) R(2008)

1
a. Self-lubricating bronze or copper-alloy sliding expansion bearing plates shall be composed of bronze or copper-alloy
conforming to the requirements for Section 5.4.2; shall be of the specified type and grade; shall be adequate for the
specified design load; and shall satisfy any special requirements of the contract.
b. Steel elements of bronze or copper-alloy sliding expansion bearings shall be of the types and grades shown on the plans
and shall conform to the requirements of Sections 5.3 and 5.9 of this Chapter. 3
c. Solid lubricant shall conform to the requirements of Article 5.4.2.3, shall consist of graphite and metallic substances
with a lubricating binder and shall be capable of providing a complete lubricating film between the adjoining sliding
surfaces under all expected load conditions.
5.10.3 FABRICATION (2001) R(2008)

4
a. Bronze plates shall be cast according to details shown on the plans. Sliding surfaces shall be planed and polished
parallel to the movement of the spans, unless detailed otherwise.
b. Copper-alloy plates shall be furnished according to details shown on the plans. Finishing of the rolled plates will not
be required provided they have a plane, true and smooth surface.
c. Mating surfaces of steel bearing elements, against which the bronze or copper-alloy expansion bearing plates slide,
shall be planed and polished parallel to the movement of the spans to the surface finish shown on the plans, unless
detailed otherwise.
d. The surface finish roughness of bronze or copper-alloy sliding plates and the mating sliding surfaces of steel bearing
elements shall not exceed 125 μin (3.2 μm) [ANSI/ASME B46.1 Surface Texture].
1

Steel Structures
e. Bearing assemblies shall be pre-assembled in the shop by the bronze or copper-alloy sliding expansion bearing plate
supplier and checked for completeness and geometry before shipping to the site or superstructure fabricator’s shop for
further assembly.
f. After fabrication and before shipment, exposed sliding surfaces of steel bearing elements which will be in contact with
lubricated bronze or copper-alloy sliding expansion bearing plates shall be coated with a protective coating material. If
this coating material is to be left in place after the bearing assemblies are erected at the bridge site, the coating material
shall also be a lubricant that is compatible with the solid lubricant pressed into the trepanned recesses.
5.10.4 ERECTION (2000) R(2008)
a. Any protective coating applied to exposed sliding surfaces of steel bearing elements, which is incompatible with the
solid lubricant pressed into the trepanned recesses of the bronze or copper-alloy bearing plates, shall be thoroughly
removed just before erection. Solvents shall not be used to clean the lubricant impregnated area of bronze or copper-
alloy bearing plates.
b. A special lubricant for contact surfaces shall be furnished by the manufacturer of the bronze or copper-alloy sliding
expansion bearing plates. The steel sliding surfaces to be in contact with the bronze or copper-alloy sliding expansion
bearing plates, after having been thoroughly cleaned in the field of all foreign matter, shall be given one heavy coat of
this special lubricant at the time the bronze or copper-alloy bearing plates are placed during erection.
SECTION 5.11 PTFE SLIDING BEARING SURFACE CONSTRUCTION
5.11.1 GENERAL (2002)1 R(2008)
a. The work covered by this Section consists of furnishing and installing self-lubricating polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
sliding expansion bearing surfaces and the mating stainless steel or other hard corrosion resistant polished surface
against which the PTFE expansion bearing material slides.
b. Self-lubricating PTFE sliding expansion bearing surfaces and mating stainless steel or other polished surfaces shall be
furnished to the dimensions indicated in the contract plans or accepted shop drawings and shall have the friction,
mechanical, physical and weathering properties specified or shown on the plans.
c. The static coefficient of friction shall not exceed the values listed below when measured under the corresponding
bearing pressure:
Bearing Pressure Maximum Coefficient of Friction

500 psi (4 MPa) 0.08
2,000 psi (14 MPa) 0.06
5.11.2 MATERIALS (2006) R(2012)
a. Self-lubricating PTFE sliding expansion bearings shall be composed of virgin PTFE resin, PTFE sheets, or woven
PTFE fabric and stainless steel elements conforming to the requirements of Article 5.5.2, shall be of the specified type
and grade, adequate for the specified design load, and satisfy any special requirements of the contract. Sheet PTFE
may contain dimples.
1

b. Interlocked bronze or filler material, such as milled glass fibers or carbon shall not be used in railroad bridge PTFE
bearing surfaces.
c. Standard steel elements of PTFE sliding expansion bearings (substrates, back-up materials, etc.) shall be of the types
and grades shown on the plans and shall conform to the requirements of Sections 5.3 and 5.9.
5.11.3 FABRICATION (2006) R(2012)
5.11.3.1 General
a. Unfilled PTFE resin sliding surfaces shall be cast against a backing substrate according to details shown on the plans.
b. PTFE sheet sliding surfaces shall be epoxy-bonded to the substrate and into a square-edged recess 1/16 in. (1.5 mm)
deep by the bearing manufacturer under controlled conditions in accordance with Article 5.5.3.2 and the requirements
of the manufacturer of the approved adhesive system. The PTFE sheets shall be factory etched prior to bonding using
the sodium naphthalene or sodium ammonia etching process or other etching process as recommended by the
manufacturer of the approved adhesive system. After completion of bonding, the PTFE surface shall be smooth and
free from bubbles.
c. PTFE fabric sliding surfaces shall be epoxy-bonded, or epoxy-bonded and mechanically fastened, to the substrate by
the bearing manufacturer under controlled conditions in accordance with Article 5.5.3.2 and the requirements of the
manufacturer of the approved adhesive system.
d. Tolerances for PTFE sliding surfaces shall be: 1

Plan dimensions - total design area -0%, +5%
Substrate surface flatness 1/100 inch (250 mm)
5.11.3.2 Testing and Acceptance

3
a. At the discretion of the Engineer, the manufacturer may be required to furnish facilities for testing and perform testing
and inspection of the completed bearings or representative samples of bearings with PTFE surfaces in the
manufacturer’s plant or at an independent test facility. Inspectors, if appointed, shall be allowed free access to the
necessary areas of the manufacturer’s plant and test facility. When testing is performed by the manufacturer, copies of
the test results shall be submitted to the Engineer.
b. If requested by the Engineer and available test facilities permit, complete bearings shall be tested. If the test facility 4
does not permit testing complete bearings, at the direction of the Engineer, extra bearings may be manufactured by the
Contractor and samples of at least 100-kips (445 kN) capacity at normal working stresses be prepared by sectioning the
bearings. As soon as all bearings have been manufactured for a given project, notification shall be given to the
Engineer who will select the prescribed test bearings at random from the lot. Manufacturer’s certification of the steel,
elastomeric pads, PTFE, and other materials used in the construction of the bearings shall be furnished along with
notification of fabrication completion.
c. The test method and equipment shall be approved by the Engineer and shall include the following requirements:
(1) The test must be arranged so that the coefficient of friction on the first movement of the manufactured bearing can
be determined.
(2) The bearing surface shall be cleaned prior to testing.
(3) The test shall be conducted at maximum working stress for the PTFE surface with the test load applied
continuously for 12 hours prior to measuring friction.

Steel Structures
(4) The first movement static and dynamic coefficient of friction of the test bearing shall be determined at a sliding
speed of less than 1 inch (25 mm) per minute and shall not exceed the coefficient of friction specified in
Section 5.11.1(c).
(5) The bearing specimen shall then be subjected to 100 movements of at least 1 inch (25 mm) of relative movement
and, if the test facility permits, the full design movement at a speed of less than 1 foot (300 mm) per minute.
Following this test the static and dynamic coefficient of friction shall be determined again and shall not exceed the
values measured in (4) above. The bearing or specimen shall show no appreciable sign of bond failure or other
defects.
d. Bearings with sheet PTFE primary sliding surfaces shall, at the option of the Engineer, have a 180-degree (3.14-radian)
peel test performed on the primary PTFE sliding surface using the ASTM D903 Test Method. Minimum peel strength
shall be 20 lbs. per inch (3.5 N per mm). One bearing from each production lot shall be tested.
e. Bearings with fabric PTFE primary sliding surfaces shall have the primary fabric PTFE tested in shear. One bearing
from each production lot shall be tested. The component carrying the fabric PTFE (or complete bearing at the option
of the manufacturer) shall be subjected to the maximum vertical design load of the bearing and simultaneously, but
transversely, a load equal to 13% of the maximum vertical design load for a period of one minute. Slip or creep shall
not exceed 1/8 inch (3 mm) during the test.
f. Bearings represented by test specimens passing the above requirements will be approved for use in the structure
subject to on-site inspection for visible defects.
5.11.3.3 Pre-assembly and Shipping
a. Bearing assemblies shall be pre-assembled in the shop by the PTFE sliding expansion bearing supplier and checked for
completeness and geometry before shipping to the site or superstructure fabricator’s shop for further assembly.
b. After fabrication and before shipment, exposed sliding surfaces of PTFE sliding expansion bearing elements, which
will be in contact with PTFE sliding surfaces, shall be coated with a protective coating material. If this coating
material is to be left in place after the bearing assemblies are erected at the bridge site, the coating material shall also be
a lubricant that is compatible with the PTFE sliding surface.
c. Packaging shall be accomplished in such a manner as to ensure that the bearings, during shipment and storage, will be
protected against damage from handling, weather, or any normal hazard. Each completed bearing shall be shipped
assembled and have its components clearly identified and shall be securely taped or otherwise fastened for shipment.
PTFE sliding surfaces and the mating stainless steel or other sliding surfaces shall not be shipped separately or exposed
to weather or ultraviolet (UV) light (sun light). Each completed bearing assembly shall be marked on its top as to
location and orientation in each structure in the project in conformity with the plans.
5.11.4 ERECTION (2002) R(2008)
a. Each completed bearing assembly shall be handled, stored and erected in the field in such a manner as to ensure that
the bearings will be protected against damage from handling, weather, or any other hazard. Each bearing shall be
erected as an assembled unit as shipped. PTFE sliding surfaces and the mating stainless steel or other polished surfaces
shall not be exposed to weather or ultraviolet (UV) light (sun light). Each completed bearing assembly shall be erected
at the location and orientation in each structure in the project as marked on its top and in conformity with the plans.
b. Any protective coating applied to exposed sliding surfaces of PTFE sliding expansion bearing elements, which is
incompatible with the PTFE sliding surfaces, shall be thoroughly removed just before erection.

SECTION 5.12 ELASTOMERIC BEARING CONSTRUCTION
5.12.1 GENERAL (2011)
a. Elastomeric bearings which are designed to act as a single unit with a given shape factor must be manufactured and
vulcanized as a single unit and shall not be revulcanized after manufacture.
b. Elastomeric bearings described herein shall include plain bearings (unreinforced pads consisting of elastomer only)
and reinforced bearings with elastomer and steel laminates.
c. The maximum allowable plain elastomeric bearing thickness varies with the material type as follows:
• natural rubber 1/2 in. (12 mm)
• neoprene 3/4 in. (19 mm)
• polyurethane 1 in. (25 mm)
For reinforced elastomeric bearings, the maximum elastomer thickness between steel laminates is as follows:
• natural rubber 1/2 in. (12 mm)
• neoprene 1/2 in. (12 mm)

1
• polyurethane reinforcing is not recommended
d. Bearings shall be furnished to the dimensions indicated in the contract plans or approved shop drawings. They shall be
composed of elastomer of the specified type, grade, and shear modulus (or hardness); shall be adequate for the
specified design load; shall meet the required test criteria; and shall satisfy any special requirements of the contract. In
the absence of more specific information, elastomer shall be 60-durometer, shall be adequate for 1,000 psi (7 MPa)
design compressive stress, and shall meet Test Criteria I. 3
5.12.2 MATERIALS (1999) R(2008)
The materials for elastomeric bearings shall conform to the requirements of Section 5.6.
5.12.3 PLAIN ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS (2001) R(2008) 4

a. Plain elastomeric bearings shall be cast in molds under pressure and heat, and may be molded individually, cut from
previously molded strips, or cut from slabs molded to the full thickness of the finished bearing. Plain rubber or
neoprene bearings shall be fully vulcanized. Plain elastomeric bearings shall be cast in uniform and integral units of
such construction that the bearing cannot be separated by any mechanical means into separate well-defined elastomer
layers. Evidence of layered construction shall be cause for rejection.
b. Cutting of plain bearings from previously molded strips or slabs shall be performed in a manner to avoid heating of the
material, and to produce an edge with no tears or other jagged areas. The surface roughness shall not exceed 250 μin
(6.3 μm) [ANSI/ASME B46.1, Surface Texture].
c. Molds shall have a finish that provides a smooth undamaged surface for the bearing.

Steel Structures
5.12.4 REINFORCED ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS (2001) R(2008)
a. The supplier shall submit detailed shop drawings as defined in Article 5.8.2 before any fabrication of reinforced
elastomeric bearings is started. The manufacturer shall note on the shop drawings the shape factor, effective elastomer
thickness, compressive area, shear area, width to height ratio, and length to height ratio.
b. Reinforced elastomeric bearings shall have alternate layers of elastomer and steel reinforcement as shown on the
design drawings, and shall be cast in individual molds under heat and pressure to form an integral unit of such
construction that the bearing cannot be separated by any mechanical means into separate well-defined elastomer layers.
Evidence of layered construction shall be cause for rejection.
c. Molds shall have a finish that provides a smooth undamaged surface for the bearing.
d. Steel reinforcement shall be abrasive blast cleaned to remove all rust, mill scale, and other contaminates, and shall be
free of sharp edges and burrs.
e. Steel reinforcement shall be covered by a minimum of 1/8 in. (3 mm) of elastomer on all faces. No surface of steel
reinforcement shall be left exposed.
5.12.5 EXTERNAL STEEL LOAD PLATES (1999) R(2008)
a. External steel load plates shall be abrasive blast cleaned to remove all rust, mill scale or other contaminates, and shall
be hot bonded to rubber or neoprene bearings during vulcanization or molded to polyurethane bearings during casting.
The steel bonding surface shall be primed to improve adhesion when using polyurethane.
b. The external load plates shall be protected in accordance with the contract documents. Unless otherwise specified,
they shall be given a shop coat of primer. No shop primer shall be used on external load plates which are to be field
welded.
5.12.6 TOLERANCES (2013)
a. Flash tolerance, finish, and appearance shall meet the requirements of the latest edition of the Rubber Handbook For
Molded Extruded, Lath Cut and Cellular Products as published by the Rubber Manufacturers Association Inc., RMA
Drawing Designation For Finish, F3, and RMA Drawing Designation For Flash Extension, T 0.063 inch (T 1.60 mm)
for molded bearings.
b. For both plain and reinforced bearings, the permissible variation from the dimensions and configuration required by
the plans and these recommended practices shall be as follows:
in. (mm)
(1) Overall vertical dimensions
Design thickness 1-1/4 in. (32 mm) or less -0,+3/32 (-0,+2)
Design thickness over 1-1/4 in. (32 mm) -0,+3/16 (-0,+4)

(2) Overall horizontal dimensions
36 in. (900 mm) and less -0,+1/4 (-0,+6)
over 36 in. (900 mm) -0,+1/2 (-0,+12)
(3) Thickness of individual layers of elastomer + 20% of design value

(laminated bearings only) at any point within
the bearing
(4) Variations from a plane parallel to the

theoretical surface (as determined by
measurements at the edge of the bearings)
Top slope relative to the bottom of
no more than 0.005 radians
Side 1/4 (6)
(5) Position of exposed connection members 1/8 (3)
(6) Edge cover of embedded steel laminates at -0, +1/8 (-0, +3)
1
laminate restraining devices and around holes
and slots
3
(7) Size of holes, slots, or inserts + 1/8 (+ 3)
(8) Position of holes, slots, or inserts + 1/8 (+ 3)

4
5.12.7 MARKING (1999) R(2008)
Each bearing shall be marked in indelible ink or flexible paint. The marking shall consist of the order number, lot number,
bearing identification number, elastomer type and grade number. Unless otherwise specified in the contract documents, or
impossible due to the pad thickness, the marking shall be on a face which is visible after erection of the bridge.
5.12.8 ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA (1999) R(2008)
a. The acceptance criteria for the bearing shall be specified by the Engineer and shall meet the requirements of Test
Criteria I or Test Criteria II. Test Criteria I acceptance shall be applied to all bearings. Test Criteria II acceptance shall,
at the discretion of the Engineer, be required for more critical or unusual bearings.
b. The supplier shall give written notice 30 days prior to the start of bearing fabrication. This notification shall include
number, quantity, size, manufacturer's name, location, and the name of the plant coordinator where the bearings are
being produced. The Engineer's representative shall choose, or direct to be chosen, the sample bearings for testing.

Steel Structures
Should the bearings chosen for testing have an integrally bonded tapered external steel load plate, the supplier shall
supply another tapered steel plate so that parallel top and bottom surfaces are provided for testing. The Engineer shall
decide if he wishes to be present during the testing.
c. All testing shall be performed by, and at the expense of the supplier, and shall be conducted according to the
requirements of this chapter.
5.12.9 TEST CRITERIA I (2001) R(2008)
a. The manufacturer shall test and report the verification of the location and parallelism requirements of Article 5.12.6(b)
by measurements under a proof load of 500 psi (3.4 MPa). Measurements shall be taken at angle intervals of 90
degrees and the largest and smallest measurement for each reinforcement layer shall be reported.
b. The manufacturer shall proof load each reinforced bearing with a compressive load of 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa), or 1.5
times the design load if this load is given. If bulging patterns indicate steel placement which does not satisfy design
criteria and manufacturing tolerances or if bulging suggests poor reinforcement bond, the bearing shall be rejected. If
there are 3 or more separate surface cracks which are greater than 0.08 in. (2 mm) wide and 0.08 in. (2 mm) deep, the
bearings shall be rejected.
c. The elastomer shall satisfy the minimum properties of Table 15-5-4. Other material tests shall be performed whenever
there is a change in the type or source of raw materials, elastomer formulation or production procedures, or as required
by the Engineer.
d. A Cold Temperature Shear test shall not be required unless indicated in the contract documents. If required, the test
shall be conducted in the manner listed in (1) through (4) below. One complete set of all performance tests shall be
performed and reported on each production run.
(1) Unless otherwise specified, a test temperature of -20 ± 1 Degrees F (-29 ± 0.5 Degrees C) is to be used for
determination of low temperature properties. Should a lower temperature test be required, the requirements of this
test shall be set forth in the contract documents with due consideration of the ability of the manufacturer to
perform the test at a lower temperature.
(2) The bearing shall be conditioned at the test temperature for 96 hours.
(3) The total time lapse between removal of the bearing from the -20±1 Degrees F (-29±0.5 Degrees C) environment
and completion of the cold weather test shall not exceed 30 minutes. Bearings shall be insulated from any heat
conducting surface of the testing apparatus with a suitable material, having a thermal conductivity of not more
than 0.1 BTU/hr/sq. ft. (0.3 W/m2). During removal of the bearing and positioning for the test, the bearing shall be
completely covered with a 2 in. (50 mm) minimum thickness insulating blanket having a thermal conductivity of
not more than 0.04 BTU/hr/sq. ft. (0.13 W/m2). During the actual testing, the exposed sides of the bearing shall be
covered by the blanket.
(4) After the bearing is conditioned at the test temperature and placed into position for the testing, the bearing shall be
subjected to a vertical load of 500 psi (3.4 MPa), and then sheared to a total strain equivalent to 25 percent of the
effective original rubber thickness. Shear stresses, based upon the plan area of the rubber, shall be recorded at 0
and 15 minutes after the total strain has been reached. The shear stress, measured 15 minutes after the ultimate
strain has been reached shall not exceed 50 psi (0.34 MPa) for bearings constructed of neoprene, 30 psi (0.21
MPa) for bearings constructed of natural rubber, nor 250 psi (1.7 MPa) for bearings constructed of polyurethane.
e. To establish conformance with the requirements of Table 15-5-4, one complete set of tests shall be conducted on each
production run.

5.12.10 TEST CRITERIA II (2001) R(2008)
a. Provisions of Test Criteria I shall be satisfied. The shear modulus of the material in the finished bearing shall be
evaluated by testing a specimen cut from it using the apparatus and procedure described in the Annex of ASTM D4014
or, at the discretion of the Engineer, a comparable nondestructive shear stiffness test may be conducted on a pair of
finished bearings. A test temperature for the shear modulus test shall be specified by the Engineer. More than one
temperature may be requested by the Engineer. The shear modulus shall not vary by more than ±15% from the
specified value in the contract documents, as determined by the requirements of ASTM D4014.
b. The compressive stiffness, as determined by the requirements of ASTM D4014, shall vary by no more than ± 10%
from the median value of all bearings, nor ±20% from the design value. The compressive stiffness test shall be
performed on a completed bearing.
5.12.11 CERTIFICATION (1999) R(2008)
The manufacturer shall certify that each bearing meets the requirements of this chapter, and shall supply a certified copy of the
test results. Where actual test values can be obtained, they shall be reported and not listed only as "Passed."
5.12.12 INSTALLATION (2001) R(2008)
a. Elastomeric bearings shall be installed in accordance with the design plans. Substructure bearing surfaces to receive
the bearings shall be level, smooth, and finished to the correct elevation. 1
b. Top and bottom elastomer surfaces shall be level under dead load only. Tapered steel load plates bonded to the bearing,
or tapered steel sole plates on the bridge span shall compensate for span grade, rotation, or camber.
c. Bearings which are to be attached to the bridge span and/or substructure shall use a positive attachment detail.
Adhesive bonding is not permitted. 3
d. Welding of bridge span members to the bearing load plates is not permitted unless there is more than 1-1/2 in. (40 mm)
of steel between the weld and the elastomer. The temperature of the steel plate in contact with the elastomer shall not
exceed 400 degrees F (200 degrees C) during the welding process.
4
SECTION 5.13 MULTI-ROTATIONAL BEARING CONSTRUCTION
5.13.1 GENERAL (2007)
a. The work covered by this Section consists of furnishing and installing disc type or spherical type multi-rotational
bridge bearings and/or disc type or spherical type multi-rotational bridge bearing components.
b. Multi-rotational bridge bearings shall be constructed as specified and in accordance with the details shown on the plans
or accepted shop drawings and shall provide the performance characteristics specified or shown on the plans.
5.13.2 MATERIALS (2007)
a. Steel components of multi-rotational bearings shall be of the types and grades shown on the plans and shall conform to
the requirements of Sections 5.3, 5.7 and 5.9.

Steel Structures
b. Polyether urethane elastomer for disc type multi-rotational bearings shall be of the types and grades shown on the plans
and shall conform to the requirements of Section 5.7 and this Section.
c. Self-lubricating bronze or copper-alloy components providing flat or spherical sliding or rotating surfaces of multi-
rotational bearings, and the solid lubricant, shall be of the types and grades shown on the plans and shall conform to the
requirements of Sections 5.4, 5.7 and 5.10.
d. PTFE and mating stainless steel components providing flat or spherical sliding or rotating surfaces of multi-rotational
bearings shall be of the types and grades shown on the plans and shall conform to the requirements of Sections 5.5, 5.7
and 5.11.
5.13.3 FABRICATION (2007) R(2008)
5.13.3.1 General
a. Steel components of multi-rotational bearings shall be fabricated in accordance with details shown on the plans and in
accordance with the requirements of Section 5.9.
b. Polyether urethane discs for multi-rotational bearings shall be fabricated in accordance with details shown on the plans
and in accordance with the requirments of this Section. Discs shall be made in one piece.
c. Except as provided in 5.13.3.2.b below, self-lubricating bronze or copper-alloy components providing flat or spherical
sliding or rotating surfaces of multi-rotational bearings shall be fabricated in accordance with details shown on the
plans and in accordance with the requirements of Article 5.10.3.
d. Except as provided in 5.13.3.2.b below, PTFE and mating stainless steel components providing flat or spherical sliding
or rotating surfaces of multi-rotational bearings shall be fabricated in accordance with details shown on the plans and
in accordance with the requirements of Article 5.11.3.
5.13.3.2 Tolerances
a. For disc bearings and their rotational elements, the permissible variation from the dimensions and configuration
required by the plans and the specifications shall be as follows:
(1) Overall Disc Bearing Dimensions
in. (mm)
Horizontal dimensions -0,+1/8 (-0,+3)
Vertical dimensions (thickness) -0,+1/4 (-0,+6)
(2) Elastomeric Disc
Diameter 20 in. (500 mm) or less ±1/16 (±2)

Diameter over 20 in. (500 mm) ±5/32 (±4)
Design thickness 1-1/4 in. (32 mm) or less -0,+3/32 (-0,+2)
Design thickness over 1-1/4 in. (32 mm) -0,+3/16 (-0,+4)
Out-of-roundness 0.002 times nominal dimension

(3) Recess in plates in disc
Depth ±0.030 (±1)

Flatness 0.002 times nominal dimension
(4) Shear Restriction Mechanism
Shear pin outside diameter -0.005,+0 (-0.1,+0)

Shear ring inside diameter -0,+0.005 (-0,+0.1)
Out-of-roundness 0.001 times nominal dimension
b. The surface finish roughness of disc bearing rotational elements shall not exceed the following [rms - ANSI/ASME
B46.1, Surface Texture]:
μin. (μm)
(1) Elastomeric Disc 63 (1.6)
(2) Recess in plates for disc or other mating surface 63 (1.6)
(3) Shear Restriction Mechanism 32 (0.8)
1
c. For spherical bearings and their rotational elements, the permissible variation from the dimensions and configuration
required by the plans and the specifications shall be as follows:
(1) Overall Spherical Bearing Dimensions
in. (mm) 3
Horizontal dimensions -0,+1/8 (-0,+3)
Vertical dimensions (thickness) -0,+1/4 (-0,+6)
(2) Spherical Bearing Elements (Machined Overall Dimensions)
Square side or diameter 20 in. (500 mm) or less ±1/16 (±2) 4

Square side or diameter over 20 in. (500 mm) ±1/8 (±3)
Convex element radius -0.010,+0 (-0.2,+0)
Concave element radius -0,+0.010 (-0,+0.2)
Convex or concave element out-of-roundness ±0.002 (±0.05)
Flat sliding surface flatness 0.001 times nominal dimension
Thickness PTFE and stainless steel -0,+1/16 (-0,+2)
Thickness bronze or copper-alloy elements -0,+1/8 (-0,+3)

Steel Structures
d. The surface finish roughness of spherical bearing sliding and rotational elements shall not exceed the following [rms -
ANSI/ASME B46.1, Surface Texture]:
μin. (μm)
(1) Bronze or copper-alloy sliding surfaces 32 (0.8)
(2) Stainless steel surfaces 20 (0.5)
5.13.4 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE (2007)
5.13.4.1 General
In addition to the complete multi-rotational bearing assembly testing stipulated in Article 5.13.4.2 through Article 5.13.4.3
below, PTFE and mating stainless steel components providing flat or spherical sliding or rotating surfaces of multi-rotational
bearings shall be tested and accepted in accordance with the requirements of Article 5.11.3.2.
5.13.4.2 Sampling and Testing Requirements
a. Sampling, testing and acceptance of complete multi-rotational bearing assemblies will be made on a lot basis. A lot
shall be defined as those bearings presented for inspection at a specific time or date. A lot shall be further defined as
the smallest number of bearings as determined by the following criteria:
(1) A lot shall not exceed a single contract or project quantity.
(2) A lot shall not exceed 25 bearings.
(3) A lot shall consist of those bearings of the same type regardless of load capacity.
(4) Bearing types shall be fixed or expansion types. Guided and non-guided expansion bearings will be considered to
be a single type.
b. At the discretion of the Engineer, the manufacturer may be required to furnish facilities for testing and perform testing
and inspection of the complete multi-rotational bearing assemblies in the manufacturer’s plant or at an independent test
facility. Inspectors, if appointed, shall be allowed free access to the necessary areas of the manufacturer’s plant and
test facility. When testing is performed by the manufacturer, certified copies of the test results shall be submitted to the
Engineer.
c. When all bearings have been manufactured for a given project, notification shall be given to the Engineer who will
select the prescribed test bearings at random from the completed lots of bearings. Manufacturer’s certification of the
steel, elastomeric pads, self-lubricating bronze or copper-alloy components, PTFE and stainless steel components, and
other materials used in the construction of the bearings shall be furnished to the Engineer along with notification of
fabrication completion.
d. Coefficient of Friction and Proof Load testing, as defined in Article 5.13.4.3 below, shall be performed on at least one
production bearing per lot.
5.13.4.3 Testing
a. All exterior surfaces of sampled production bearings shall be smooth and free from irregularities or protrusions that
might interfere with testing procedures. The bearing shall be cleaned prior to testing.

b. Bearings with tapered sole plates, which are selected for testing, shall be delivered to the test site accompanied by a
single unattached matching tapered plate. This plate shall be made of the same material and shall be the same size and
thickness as the tapered plate. Additionally, the single matching tapered plate shall be so constructed that, when placed
in contact with the tapered sole plate, the two shall form a single body, rectangular in shape and uniform in thickness.
c. The Contractor shall assume the cost of transporting all samples from the place of manufacture to the test site and back,
or if applicable, to the project site.
d. For expansion bearings of both disc and spherical types, the Coefficient of Friction test methods and equipment shall
be approved by the Engineer and shall include the following requirements:
(1) The test shall be arranged so that the static coefficient of friction on the first movement of each sliding surface of
the manufactured bearing can be determined.
(2) The test shall be conducted at the maximum working stress for the sliding surface with the test load applied for 12
hours prior to measuring the friction.
(3) The first movement static and dynamic coefficients of friction shall be determined at a sliding speed of one inch
per minute or less and shall not exceed the coefficient of friction stated on the contract drawings.
(4) The bearing specimen shall be subjected to a minimum of 100 movements of at least one inch of relative
movement at a speed of less than 12 inches per minute. After cycling, the static and dynamic coefficients of
friction shall be determined again at a speed of less than one inch per minute and shall not exceed the coefficient of
friction specified for the sliding surface in Section 5.10 or 5.11 as applicable. The bearing shall show no visible
sign of bond failure or other defects.
1
(5) The sliding coefficient of friction shall be calculated as the horizontal load required to maintain continuous sliding
of one bearing, divided by the bearing’s vertical design capacity.
e. One multi-rotational bearing from each production lot shall be subjected to a Proof Load Test. The Proof Load Test
methods and equipment shall be approved by the Engineer and shall include the following requirements: 3
(1) The test bearings shall be loaded to 150 percent of the bearing’s rated design capacity and simultaneously
subjected to a rotational range of 0.02 radians or the design rotational capacity, whichever is greater, for a period
of one hour.
(2) The bearings shall be visually examined both during the test and upon disassembly after the test. Any resultant
visual defects, such as deformed elastomer or PTFE, or cracked steel, shall be cause for rejection of the bearing 4
lot.
(3) During the test for disc bearings, continuous and uniform contact shall be maintained between the elastomeric
element and the bearing plates and between the sliding steel top plate and the upper bearing plate for the duration
of the test. Any observed lift-off shall be cause for rejection of the lot.
f. Bearings represented by test specimens passing the above requirements will be approved for use in the structure
subject to on-site inspection for visible defects. Test bearings not damaged during the testing may be used in the
structure.
5.13.5 PRE-ASSEMBLY AND SHIPPING (2007)
a. In addition to provisions provided in Article 5.13.5.c through Article 5.13.5.e below, multi-rotational bearings with
self-lubricating bronze or copper-alloy components shall be pre-assembled and shipped in accordance with the
requirements of Article 5.10.3.e and Article 5.10.3.f.

Steel Structures
b. In addition to provisions provided in Article 5.13.5.c through Article 5.13.5.e below, multi-rotational bearings with
PTFE elements shall be pre-assembled and shipped in accordance with the requirements of Article 5.11.3.3.
c. Multi-rotational bearings shall be securely pre-assembled as units by the bearing supplier so that they may be shipped
to the jobsite and stored without relative movement of the bearing components. Bearings shall be wrapped in moisture
resistant and dust resistant material to protect against shipping and jobsite conditions.
d. Care shall be taken to ensure that bearings at the jobsite are stored in a dry sheltered area free from dirt or dust until
installation.
e. When bearings are to be inspected on site they shall be inspected within one week of arrival and may not be
disassembled except with approval of the Engineer and under the supervision of the manufacturer or his representative.
Following inspection, the wrapping shall be reapplied and the bearings kept clean until installation.
5.13.6 ERECTION (2007)
a. In addition to provisions in Article 5.13.6.d through Article 5.13.6.i below, multi-rotational bearings with self-
lubricating bronze or copper-alloy components shall be erected in accordance with the requirements of Article 5.10.4.
b. In addition to provisions in Article 5.13.6.d through Article 5.13.6.i below, multi-rotational bearings with PTFE
elements shall be erected in accordance with the requirements of Article 5.11.4.
c. In addition to provisions provided in Article 5.13.6.d through Article 5.13.6.i below, multi-rotational bearings with
polyether urethane elastomeric disc elements shall be erected in accordance with the requirements of Article 5.12.12.
d. Multi-rotational bearings shall be evenly supported over their upper and lower surfaces under all erection and service
conditions.
e. Multi-rotational bearings shall be lifted by their undersides only, or by specially designed lifting lugs.
f. When installing multi-rotational bearings, care shall be taken to avoid damage to, and contamination of, bearing
surfaces.
g. Align the centerlines of the bearing assembly with those of the substructure as shown on the plans. On guided
bearings, special care shall be taken to properly align the guiding mechanism with the expansion direction of the
structure.
h. Bearing straps or retaining clamps shall be left in place as long as possible to ensure that parts of the bearings are not
inadvertently displaced relative to each other. Care must be taken to remove straps or clamps before any normal
structural movement takes place, such as post-tensioning, etc.
i. Set offsets of upper and lower bearing parts as required by contract drawings.

15
Part 6
Movable Bridges1
— 2013 —
FOREWORD
The purpose of this part is to supplement or modify preceding parts of this manual in order to formulate specific and detailed
rules as a guide for the design, fabrication and erection of movable railway bridges. Part 1, Design, Part 3, Fabrication and Part
4, Erection are applicable to movable railway bridges except as modified by this part. References used in this part are found at
the end of this chapter. See Reference 28, 61, 65, 66, 69, 71, 72, 83, 84, 122, 142, 143, and 147.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1
6.1 Proposals and General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-5

6.1.1 General (1986) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-5
6.1.2 Abbreviations (1996) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-5 3
6.1.3 Time of Opening (1986) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-6
6.1.4 Machinery and Hydraulic Drawings (1996) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-6
6.1.5 Machinery and Hydraulic Design (1997) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-6
6.1.6 Weight and Center of Gravity (1986) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-7
6.1.7 Houses (1986) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-7
6.1.8 Signals and Interlocking (2003) R(2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-7
6.1.9 Warning Lights (1986) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-7
6.1.10 Communication (1997) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-7
6.1.11 Wrenches (1986) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-8
6.1.12 Wiring Diagrams, Operator’s Instructions, Electrical, Hydraulic and Mechanical Data Manuals, and
Lubrication Charts (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-8
6.1.13 Classification of Bridge Work (2003) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-8
6.1.14 Parts Included in Classes (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-9
6.1.15 Optional Requirements (1986) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-12
1
1064; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 906, 1346; Vol. 57, 1956, pp. 555, 998; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 548, 876; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 383, 699; Vol. 65, 1964, pp. 383, 775; Vol.
66, 1965, pp. 292, 653; Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 342, 697; Vol. 70, 1969, p. 241; Vol. 75, 1974, p. 257; Vol. 78, 1977, p. 75; Vol. 79, 1978, p. 45; Vol. 81, 1980, p.
130; Vol. 84, 1983, p. 100; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 90; Vol. 87, 1986, p. 105; Vol. 88. 1987, p. 89; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 79; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 124; Vol. 94, p. 1; Vol. 97,
p. 172. Reapproved with revisions 1996.

Steel Structures
6.1.16 Guarantees (2003) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-12
6.2 General Features of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-13

6.2.1 Material (1997) R(2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-13
6.2.2 Types of Bridges (1997) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-13
6.2.3 Counterweights (1997) R(2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-14
6.2.4 Aligning and Locking (1986) R(2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-14
6.2.5 Emergency Operation (1986) R(2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-14
6.2.6 Standby Power (1986) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-14
6.2.7 Interlocking (1986) R(2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-15
6.2.8 Insulation of Track (1986) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-15
6.2.9 Houses for Operators, Machinery, Hydraulic Equipment, Electrical Equipment
and Signal Devices (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-15
6.2.10 Stairways, Walks, and Elevators (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-15
6.2.11 Materials for Machinery and Similar Parts (1993) R(2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-16
6.2.12 Rail Ends (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-17
6.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-17

6.3.1 Live Load (1993) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-17
6.3.2 Impact Load (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-17
6.3.3 End Ties (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-17
6.3.4 Fatigue (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-18
6.3.5 Wind Forces and Ice Load (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-18
6.3.6 Power Requirements and Machinery Design (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-18
6.3.7 Machinery Resistances (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-19
6.3.8 Machinery Losses (1983) R(2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-20
6.3.9 Brakes, and Machinery Design for Braking Forces (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-21
6.3.10 Machinery Design (1983). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-22
6.3.11 Machinery Supports (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-22
6.3.12 Anchorage (1983) R(2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-22
6.3.13 Special Provisions for Swing Bridges (1983) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-23
6.3.14 Special Provisions for Bascule Bridges (1984) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-24
6.3.15 Special Provisions for Vertical Lift Bridges (2004) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-25
6.4 Basic Allowable Stresses and Hydraulic Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-27

6.4.1 Structural Parts (1993) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-27
6.4.2 Machinery Parts (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-27
6.4.3 Bearing (1997) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-29
6.4.4 Heating and Seizing (1992) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-29
6.4.5 Line Bearing Load (1984) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-30
6.4.6 Shafts (1984) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-31
6.4.7 Bolts in Tension (1984) R(2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-31
6.4.8 Hydraulic Systems and Components (1984) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-32
6.5 General Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-33

6.5.1 Fits and Surface Finishes (1984) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-33
6.5.2 Rail End Connections (1984) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-33
6.5.3 Air Buffers (1997) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-34

Movable Bridges
6.5.5 Concrete (1984) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-34

6.5.6 Machinery in General (1984) R(2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-35
6.5.7 Journal Bearings (1984) R(2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-35
6.5.8 Linings (1984) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-35
6.5.9 Step Bearings (1984) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-36
6.5.10 Roller Bearings for Heavy Loads (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-36
6.5.11 Roller and Ball Bearings (1997) R(2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-36
6.5.12 Speed Reducers (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-36
6.5.13 Lubrication (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-37
6.5.14 Shafts (1983) R(2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-38
6.5.15 Shaft Couplings (1983) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-39
6.5.16 Longitudinal Thrust (1983) R(2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-39
6.5.17 Collars (1997) R(2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-39
6.5.18 Gear Teeth (1983) R(2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-39
6.5.19 Strength of Gear Teeth (1983) R(2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-40
6.5.20 Worm Gearing (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-42
6.5.21 Screw Gearing and Cams (1983) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-42
6.5.22 Hubs (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-42
6.5.23 Keys and Keyways for Machinery Parts (2003) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-42
6.5.24 Keys for Trunnions (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-43 1
6.5.25 Bolts and Nuts (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-43
6.5.26 Set Screws (1997) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-44
6.5.27 Tapped Holes (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-44
6.5.28 Springs (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-44
6.5.29 Equalizers (1983) R(2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-45
6.5.30 Covers (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-45
6.5.31 Safety Devices (1983) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-45 3
6.5.32 Drain Holes (1983) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-45
6.5.33 Compressed Air Devices (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-45
6.5.34 Special Provisions for Swing Bridges (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-45
6.5.35 Special Provisions for Bascule Bridges (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-47
6.5.36 Special Provisions for Vertical Lift Bridges (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-49
6.5.37 Hydraulic Systems (2000) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-52
4
6.6 Wire Ropes and Sockets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-68
6.6.1 Manufacturer (1984) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-68
6.6.2 Diameter of Rope (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-69
6.6.3 Construction (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-69
6.6.4 Lay (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-69
6.6.5 Lubrication During Fabrication (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-70
6.6.6 Splices (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-70
6.6.7 Wire – Physical Properties (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-70
6.6.8 Ultimate Strength (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-70
6.6.9 Rejection (1985) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-70
6.6.10 Prestretching (1985) R(2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-71
6.6.11 Sockets (1985) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-71
6.6.12 Facilities for Testing (1985) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-71
6.6.13 Rope Length (1985) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-71
6.6.14 Operating Ropes (1985) R(2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-72

Steel Structures
6.6.15 Shipping (1985) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-72
6.7 Power Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-72

6.7.1 Power Operation (1984) R(2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-72
6.7.2 Manpower Operation (1984) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-72
6.7.3 Machines (1984) R(2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-72
6.7.4 Internal Combustion (1997) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-72
6.7.5 Electric (1997) R(2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-74
6.7.6 Brakes for Span Operation (1983) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-94
6.7.7 Air Brakes (1997) R(2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-94
6.7.8 Hand Brakes and Foot Brakes (1983) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-94
6.7.9 Audible Navigation Signals (1983) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-94
6.8 Workmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-95

6.8.1 Machinery Manufacture in General (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-95
6.8.2 Racks (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-95
6.8.3 Shafts (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-95
6.8.4 Journals (1983) R(2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-96
6.8.5 Linings (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-96
6.8.6 Bearings (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-96
6.8.7 Couplings (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-96
6.8.8 Hubs (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-96
6.8.9 Gears and Pinions (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-96
6.8.10 Bevel Gears (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-96
6.8.11 Machine Molding (2003) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-96
6.8.12 Worms and Worm Wheels (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-96
6.8.13 Keys and Keyways (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-97
6.8.14 Bolts and Holes (1996) R(2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-97
6.8.15 Assembling Machinery in Frames (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-97
6.8.16 Balancing of Gears (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-97
6.8.17 Assembling Machinery on Structural Supports (2003) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-97
6.8.18 Grooves in Journals and Linings (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-97
6.8.19 Air Buffers (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-97
6.8.20 Special Provisions for Swing Bridges (2003) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-98
6.8.21 Special Provisions for Bascule Bridges (2003) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-98
6.8.22 Special Provisions for Vertical Lift Bridges (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-99
6.9 Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-100

6.9.1 Erection of Machinery (1996) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-100
6.9.2 Erection of Trunnion Bearings and Counterweight Sheave Bearings (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-100
6.9.3 Protection of Parts (1983) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-101
6.9.4 Lubrication (2008) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-101
6.9.5 Erection of Wire Ropes (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-101
6.9.6 Painting (1983) R(2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-101
6.9.8 End Lifting Devices for Swing Spans (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-102
6.9.9 Channel Lights (1983) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-102
6.9.10 Testing (1983) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-102
6.9.11 Bridge Operator (1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-103

Movable Bridges
LIST OF TABLES
15-6-1 Machinery Resistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-20

15-6-2 Allowable Machinery Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-27
15-6-3 Trunnion Bending Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-28
15-6-4 Roller Maximum Bearing Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-30
15-6-5 Preferred Fits and Surface Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-33
15-6-6 Torque Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6-73
SECTION 6.1 PROPOSALS AND GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
6.1.1 GENERAL (1986)1 R(2010)
a. The structural, mechanical, hydraulic and electrical design will be furnished by the Company, unless it is stated in the
invitation for bids that such designs, or specified portions of them, are to be furnished by the Contractor,
b. The Company will furnish, with its invitation for bids, a copy of the contract form together with site plans and a full
description of the requirements for the structure. These requirements will make clear the division of responsibility
between Company and Contractor for designing, furnishing and erecting or installing all components of the structure, 1
and will specify or describe all of such components which are the responsibility of or affect the work of the Contractor,
c. The Contractor shall furnish and erect the structure ready for operation and to receive trains, except for such
components as are specified to be furnished and/or installed by the Company.
d. All shop drawings, assembly drawings and other papers prepared for the purpose of meeting the governing conditions
and specifications of the contract shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer.
3
6.1.2 ABBREVIATIONS (1996) R(2010)
a. The following abbreviations are used herein:
AAR Association of American Railroads 4

ABMA American Bearing Manufacturers Association
AGMA American Gear Manufacturers Association
AISE Association of Iron and Steel Engineers
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AWG American Wire Gage
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IPCEA Insulated Power Cable Engineers Association
1

Steel Structures
NEC National Electrical Code

NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
NFPA National Fluid Power Association
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
b. The National Fire Protection Association shall be referenced herein by full name only.
6.1.3 TIME OF OPENING (1986) R(2010)
The time required for opening the bridge after the ends are released will be specified on the Plans for both normal and
emergency operations.
The times assumed for acceleration and deceleration will be given on the Plans with a cautionary note that shorter times,
particularly during braking, may seriously overstress elements in the drive train.
6.1.4 MACHINERY AND HYDRAULIC DRAWINGS (1996) R(2010)
a. The Contractor shall make an assembly drawing and detail drawings of the machinery. These drawings shall be
sufficiently complete that the machinery parts may be duplicated without reference to patterns, other drawings, or
individual shop practice.
b. The Contractor shall make hydraulic control circuit and piping diagrams, hydraulic power unit layouts, and all
assembly and detail drawings including the electrical schematic wiring diagrams and conduit diagrams that are needed
for the complete hydraulic system. The drawings shall be so complete that the hydraulic components can be replaced
without having the original stock numbers of the equipment. The drawings shall also conform to the requirements of
the ANSI (NFPA/JIC) T2.24.1 Section 6.3 Standards.
c. The Contractor shall make a drawing or chart showing all bearings, electrical equipment, and other elements of the
bridge which require lubrication, and designating the lubricants to be used and the frequency of lubrication. Framed,
sealed copies of the lubrication drawing shall be mounted in appropriate places on the bridge.
6.1.5 MACHINERY AND HYDRAULIC DESIGN (1997) R(2010)
a. Where the machinery design is prepared by the Contractor, he shall furnish complete calculations for all parts of the
machinery. The calculations shall include the operating shaft torques for all pump drive motors and drive engines,
hydraulic motors and rotary actuators and rod forces for hydraulic cylinders and intensifiers along with hydraulic
system pressures. Calculations shall be for the following conditions:
(1) Acceleration and for retardation.
(2) Frictional resistance.
(3) Any unbalanced condition of the bridge.
(4) Wind loads.
(5) The greatest resultant combinations of resistances acting at one time under the various design conditions herein
specified. The torque for starting friction shall not be combined with the torque for acceleration.
b. Where operation is by electric motor, these calculations shall consider the speed-torque characteristics of the system to
be provided. The rated full-load torque and the maximum starting torque of the motor, including the effect of its control

Movable Bridges
system, shall be considered. The overload relay setting shall be provided for operation of the span under Conditions A,
B and C of Article 6.3.6. The speed-torque curves shall be shown on the drawings.
6.1.6 WEIGHT AND CENTER OF GRAVITY (1986) R(2010)
The Contractor shall determine the weight and the location of the center of gravity of the moving span, including parts
attached thereto; also of the counter-weights, including their framework. These determinations shall be based on accurate
weights computed from shop plans. The computations, accompanied by the weight bills, shall be submitted to the Company in
form for review.
6.1.7 HOUSES (1986) R(2010)
The Contractor shall furnish and build the machinery house or houses. The house or houses for the operator, the hydraulic
equipment, the electrical equipment and the signal devices shall be built by the Contractor unless otherwise specified.
6.1.8 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING (2003)1 R(2013)
a. Unless otherwise specified, the Company will furnish and install the railway signal system, including the master
control and the devices necessary for interlocking the signal system with the moving span. The Contractor shall furnish
and install the devices necessary for interlocking the parts of the bridge machinery with each other and for connection
to the master control. The operating machinery and the hydraulic and electrical parts shall be so designed that the
signal system may readily be installed and attached.
b. Rail locks shall be used on movable bridges when specified by the Company or where required by law or safety
1
regulations. They shall be so designed that they cannot be locked closed with the rails more than 1/4 inch out of correct
alignment.
c. When rail locks are not used, rail detectors shall be provided. There shall be a rail detector for each running rail,
actuated directly by the rail, which will automatically set all signals to stop rail traffic whenever any rail is more than
1/4 inch out of correct alignment. 3
d. Shoes for aligning the rails shall be provided.
6.1.9 WARNING LIGHTS (1986) R(2010)
The Contractor shall furnish and install (including wiring) on the moving span and piers, navigation lights and other signals or
markings required by the United States Government or other authorities, and shall provide suitable means of access to such 4
lights and signals.
6.1.10 COMMUNICATION (1997) R(2010)
a. Telephones shall be provided for communication between all points where routine maintenance or adjustment of the
mechanical, hydraulic or electrical components is required. There shall be a permanent station at or near the control
console, each panelboard, and each set of span operating machinery. There shall also be jack boxes at or near each span
lock, rail lock, wedge drive, and submarine cable terminal cabinet, and at or near any other location where
communication would simplify maintenance and adjustment. Three headsets with plug-in jacks shall be furnished at
locations specified. A ringing system shall be provided at the permanent stations where specified by the Company.
1

Steel Structures
b. As an alternative to a telephone system, three sets of two-way radios may be provided. The sets shall be capable of
operating satisfactorily from all locations outlined in paragraph a above. The sets shall be the same as used by the
Company for railroad operations, but shall operate at a different frequency.
6.1.11 WRENCHES (1986) R(2010)
Two sets of wrenches to fit heads and nuts of all bolts for the machinery and hydraulic equipment shall be furnished by the
Contractor, together with a suitable work bench, machinist’s vise, pipe vise, and suitable wall racks for the storage of
equipment and spare parts.
6.1.12 WIRING DIAGRAMS, OPERATOR’S INSTRUCTIONS, ELECTRICAL, HYDRAULIC

AND MECHANICAL DATA MANUALS, AND LUBRICATION CHARTS (2010)
a. The Contractor shall furnish six bound copies of a manual containing descriptive leaflets and drawings covering all
items of the electrical equipment, with catalog numbers indicated; printed or typewritten statements prepared by the
manufacturers of the equipment covering the proper methods of adjusting, lubricating, and otherwise maintaining each
item; speed-torque-current curves for the span-operating motors for each point of control; a concise statement of the
necessary operating functions in proper sequence; a detailed description of the functions of each item in connection
with the various operating paragraphs; reduced reproduced copies of all wiring and conduit diagrams and of all
drawings of the control console and switchboards; and a list of spare parts furnished. The manual shall contain a table
of contents and shall designate each wire and item of equipment by means of numbers on the wiring diagrams.
b. The Contractor shall also furnish six bound copies of a similar manual for the mechanical equipment, which shall
include lubricating charts showing the locations of all lubricating fittings and other points of lubrication, in accordance
with Article 6.1.4c.
c. The Contractor shall also furnish six bound copies of a similar manual for the hydraulic equipment. The manual shall
provide the purchaser with maintenance data for all hydraulic equipment that clearly:
(1) Describes start-up and shut down procedures where improper procedures could cause damage to the equipment.
(2) Describes adjustment procedures.
(3) Indicates external lubrication points and the type of lubricant required.
(4) Identifies equipment parts by name and/or number.
(5) Identifies seals and packing by the component manufacturer’s part number.
(6) States service procedures for unique assemblies.
(7) Locates fluid level indicators, fillpoints, drains, filters, strainers, magnets, etc. that require regularly scheduled
maintenance.
(8) Lists the model and serial number of each special cylinder or rotary actuator. This information shall also appear
on the graphical (circuit) diagram.
Where parts in the hydraulic components are commerically available and manufactured to an established standard that
provides for uniform coding, further identification as provided by the standard’s code should be given.
6.1.13 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGE WORK (2003) R(2010)

a. Bridge work shall be classified as follows and, unless otherwise stipulated, paid for as indicated:

Movable Bridges
• Class 1. Structural steel, by the lb.

• Class 2. Machinery, lump sum.
• Class 3. Counterweight sheaves, shafts, and bearings, lump sum.
• Class 4. Trunnions and their bearings, lump sum.
• Class 5. Tread plates and castings, by the lb.
• Class 6. Wire ropes and sockets, by the lb.
• Class 7. Balancing chains, by the lb.
• Class 8. Metal in counterweights, by the lb.
• Class 9. Concrete in counterweights, by the cu. yd.
• Class 10. Reinforcing steel, by the lb.
• Class 11. Internal combustion engines and tanks, lump sum.
• Class 12. Electrical equipment, lump sum.
• Class 13. Hydraulic equipment, lump sum.
• Class 14. Houses for operators, machinery, electrical equipment, hydraulic equipment, and signal devices, lump sum.
• Class 15. Railway deck and track, by the linear foot of full-width deck. 1
• Class 16. Miscellaneous lumber, by the thousand foot board measure.
• Class 17. Communication facilities, lump sum.
• Class 18. Elevators, lump sum.
• Class 19. Removals, lump sum. 3

• Class 20. Salvage credits, lump sum.
• Class 21. Concrete-Structural, by the cubic yard.
• Class 22. Pier Protection System, lump sum.
• Class 23. Items not classified in the foregoing. 4

b. Payment quantities shall be determined as follows:
• Class 1, by the provisions of Part 3, Fabrication, Article 3.6.3.
• Classes 5 through 8, by scale weight; except that for Class 5, scale weight in excess of 5% above the computed
weight shall not be included.
• Class 10, by the computed weight of the plain or deformed bars of the specified sizes.
• Classes 9, 16 and 21 by the Engineer’s measurement.
6.1.14 PARTS INCLUDED IN CLASSES (2008)
Parts included in the various classes shall be as follows.

Steel Structures
6.1.14.1 Class 1, Structural Steel
a. In addition to the moving span, any parts of rolled, forged, or cast steel which can be fabricated by the common shop
methods of punching, reaming, drilling, boring, shearing, planing, bending, welding, etc., usual for stationary
structures, except structural steel parts which function as machinery parts which shall be classified under the
appropriate machinery items.
b. The following shall be classified as structural steel: rim girders in swing bridges, segmental girders in rolling bascule
bridges and the girders on which they roll, parts supporting the machinery, machinery housing, counterweight frames,
counterweight trusses, counterweight boxes, operating struts, rope attachment brackets or hangers, towers, steel
framing and plates in houses and in elevator hoistways, handrails, stairways and ladders, and steel ties.
6.1.14.2 Class 2, Machinery
Includes the following:
Axles Deflector castings and plates Shafts

Bars Disks Sheaves (except counterweight
Bearings Eccentrics sheaves)
Bells Gears Shims
Brakes (unless part of electrical Gear covers and guards Speed reducers
equipment) Hooks Spools
Bridge locks Indicators Toggles
Buffers Levers Wedges
Cables and wires (non-electrical) for Lockbars Wedge bases
push-pull devices Lubrication devices Wedge Guides
Cams Pipes Wheels
Capstans Pistons and their cylinders Whistles
Center-pivot stands Pivots Winding drums
Couplings Racks Worm gearings
Cranks Screws Wrenches
6.1.14.3 Class 3, Counterweight Sheaves, Shafts, and Bearings
Cast or fabricated sheaves, along with their shafts, bearings, shims and connecting bolts.
6.1.14.4 Class 4, Trunnions and their Bearings
Trunnions for moving leaves and counterweights of bascule bridges, together with their bearings, sleeves, supporting
pedestals, and connecting bolts.
6.1.14.5 Class 5, Tread Plates and Castings
Tread plates and castings for segmental girders, and track girders for rolling-lift bridges, along with their shims and connecting
bolts.
6.1.14.6 Class 6, Wire Ropes and Sockets
Wire ropes and their sockets, shims, attachments, and socket pins.

Movable Bridges
6.1.14.7 Class 7, Balancing Chains
Chains and their fastenings used for balancing the counterweight ropes.
6.1.14.8 Class 8, Metal in Counterweights
Cast iron used as counterweights; along with scrap metal or steel punchings used to increase the unit weight of counterweight
concrete.
6.1.14.9 Class 9, Concrete in Counterweights
Concrete or mortar used in counterweights, including concrete balance blocks, and concrete in pockets of column bases and
similar places. No deductions shall be made for embedded reinforcing steel, drain pipes, scrap metal, or steel punchings.
6.1.14.10 Class 10, Reinforcing Steel
All reinforcing bars and mesh for concrete. Unless otherwise provided, no direct payment will be made for clips, spacers, ties,
chairs, or other fastenings and supports for reinforcing steel, but their cost shall be included in the price per lb paid for
reinforcing steel.
6.1.14.11 Class 11, Internal Combustion Engines and Tanks
Internal combustion engines with tanks, compressors, starters, and interrelated piping to and including the clutch shaft, but not
the clutch for delivery of power, and to but not including the valve for delivery of air, and not including such engines used as
prime movers for standby electric power.
1
6.1.14.12 Class 12, Electrical Equipment
a. High-voltage equipment and transformers as specified, the switchboard and control console with their attachments, and
electrical parts beyond (whether on or off the moving span), such as motors, gearmotors, controllers, resistances,
electric brakes, solenoids, circuit breakers, fuses, relays, contactors, switches, electric indicators, synchronizing and 3
leveling equipment, limit switches, blow-outs, cut-offs, meters, trolley poles, trolley wheels and contact shoes, service
and indicating lights, navigation lights and signals, electric heaters, conductors, wiring, submarine, aerial and other
cables, and conduits and their fittings, as specified for the operation of the moving span and accessories, and the
lighting and comfort conditioning of the houses; and engine-generators for the purpose of standby electric power.
b. Unless otherwise noted in the invitation to bid, this item and this contract shall include no parts or appurtenances of the
signal interlocking system, except that the control panel and control console shall be of ample size to accommodate the 4
interlocking equipment as specified by the Engineer.
6.1.14.13 Class 13, Hydraulic Equipment
a. All hydraulic equipment, including hydraulic fluid and portable filtration units used during reservoir filling, necessary
to provide the operating system specified, whether directly or indirectly associated with the system, shall be considered
as a part of this work.
b. Hydraulic equipment shall also include mechanical and electrical equipment normally mounted on the power unit such
as electric motors, couplings, coupling guards, and accessories such as pressure, temperature and fluid level switches,
immersion heaters and gages.
c. All hydraulic hoses, piping, fittings, attachments, and their supports (not including structural steel paid elsewhere) are
included in this class.

Steel Structures
6.1.14.14 Class 14, Houses for Operators, Machinery, Hydraulic Equipment, Electrical Equipment and
Signal Devices
All parts of such houses, except steel framing and plating if any; all furniture, heaters other than electric, cranes, fire
extinguishers supplies and similar items, as specified in the invitation to bid.
6.1.14.15 Class 15, Railway Deck and Track
a. The complete timber deck, footwalks at deck level, and permanent track with all permanent fastenings in place, but not
specially fabricated track rails, special rail joints and rail locks; and sheet metal or other track coverings and fire stops.
b. Unless otherwise specified in the invitation to bid, the Company will furnish all of these materials and their fastenings
f.o.b. the bridge site, ready for installation, and the Contractor shall unload, place and fasten these materials and their
fastenings for the unit price per linear foot under this class.
c. When specified in the invitation to bid, the Contractor shall furnish to the Company the distribution of charges for
material and construction covered by this item in accordance with Interstate Commerce Commission requirements.
6.1.14.16 Class 16, Miscellaneous Lumber
Any lumber not allocated to another class by the foregoing definitions, along with nails, bolts and other fastenings.
Measurement of lumber shall be based on nominal sizes.
6.1.14.17 Class 17, Communication Facilities
Radio, telephone and any other communication facilities, including wiring therefor.
6.1.14.18 Class 18, Elevators
The complete elevator system including cars, gates, motors and other operating machinery, guide rails and shoes,
counterweights, buffers, hoisting cables, governors or other speed control devices and wiring.
6.1.14.19 Class 19, Removals
All parts of the existing structure required to be removed.
6.1.14.20 Class 20, Salvage Credits
The value of any components becoming the property of the contractor.
6.1.15 OPTIONAL REQUIREMENTS (1986) R(2010)
Wherever optional requirements are stated, the determination will be made by the Engineer, and will be indicated in the
invitation to bid if bidders are to prepare plans or on the plans prepared by the Company which accompany the invitation to
bid.
6.1.16 GUARANTEES (2003) R(2010)
6.1.16.1 Defects
If any defects due to faulty workmanship or erection, or defective material, or design for which the Contractor is responsible,
are found within one year after the date of final acceptance of the structure, the Contractor shall remedy such defects at his

Movable Bridges
own expense. The Company will notify the Contractor, in writing, of any defects. If the Contractor does not remedy such
defects within 15 days, the Company may remedy same at the Contractor’s expense.
6.1.16.2 Machinery, Etc.
Machinery, hydraulic and electrical or other similar equipment which are the usual manufactured types such as diesel engines,
electric motors, speed reducers, electrical apparatus, etc., shall be tested for the specified requirements to the satisfaction of the
Engineer, and shall be fully guaranteed by the Contractor to fulfill these requirements for one year from date of final
acceptance of the structure. If the manufacturer of any item normally provides a warranty in excess of one year, such warranty
shall be assigned to the Company.
SECTION 6.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
6.2.1 MATERIAL (1997) R(2013)

a. Structural materials used for machinery parts or assemblies shall meet the requirements of Part 1, Design, Article 1.2.1.
b. The materials used in machinery and similar parts, as described in Article 6.2.11, shall conform to the requirements of
the ASTM Specifications current at the time proposals for the work are received.
1
Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A36 or A709, Grade 36
Rolled Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A675, Grade 75
Cast Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A27, Grade 65-35
Forged Carbon Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A668, Class D
Forged Alloy Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A668, Class G
3
Forged Hardened Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A668, Class F
Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A48, Class 25
Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B22
Babbitt Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B23, Grade No. 2
Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A307, Grade A
4
High Strength Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A449
High Strength Studs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A449
c. The above specifications show the minimum quality that shall be used for stress-carrying machinery parts, and the
appropriate basic allowable stresses therefor are specified in Article 6.4.2. Any other material of the strength and
durability required for its intended use may be used by the Company.
d. Where the testing of materials, in addition to those tests required by the ASTM Specifications, is considered necessary
by the Engineer, such additional tests will be specified by the Company.
6.2.2 TYPES OF BRIDGES (1997) R(2013)

a. Movable bridges should be of the following types:
(1) Swing.

Steel Structures
(2) Single leaf bascule.
(3) Vertical lift.
b. Pin-connected trusses shall not be used.
6.2.3 COUNTERWEIGHTS (1997) R(2003)
a. As nearly as practicable the counterweights shall be sufficient to balance the movable span and its attachments in any
position, except that there shall be small positive reactions at the supports when the bridge is seated. For vertical lift
bridges having a vertical movement exceeding 40 feet, the counterweight ropes should be balanced by auxiliary
counterweights or other devices unless specified. Rope unbalance shall be considered when sizing the operating
machinery.
b. Provision shall be made for unbalanced conditions in the design of the machinery and the power equipment.
c. Provision shall be made for independent supports for the counterweights of vertical lift bridges, for the purpose of
replacing counterweight ropes.
6.2.4 ALIGNING AND LOCKING (1986) R(2004)
a. Movable bridges shall be equipped with suitable mechanisms to surface and align the bridge and track accurately and
to fasten them securely in position so that they cannot be displaced either horizontally or vertically under the action of
traffic. Effective end wedges shall be used for swing bridges, and span locks for bascule and vertical lift bridges.
b. Span locks on movable bridges shall be designed so that locking cannot be initiated unless the movable parts are within
1/2 inch of proper alignment.
c. The operating mechanisms of end lifts and rail locks shall be independent.
d. The installation shall meet the applicable requirements of the Office of Safety, the Federal Railroad Administration, the
U.S. Department of Transportation.
e. For swing, bascule and vertical lift bridges normally left in the open position, span locks shall be provided to hold the
span in the fully opened position.
6.2.5 EMERGENCY OPERATION (1986) R(2002)
a. Power-operated bridges shall be provided with a means of emergency operation in the event of failure of the normal
drive or its controls. The prime mover for emergency operation may be an electric motor, internal-combustion engine,
air motor, or manual drive, as specified by the Company. Where electric motors are used, emergency motors and their
associated motor control equipment shall be provided, independent of those components used for normal operation.
b. Emergency operation of auxiliary devices such as span locks, rail locks and derails should preferably be manual.
6.2.6 STANDBY POWER (1986) R(2002)
When the regular power source for electric operation of a movable bridge is not reliable, standby electric power shall be
provided either from an independent primary source or from an engine-generator set. Where emergency operation of the
movable span is by internal combustion engine, air motor, or manual drive, standby electric power need not be provided except
as necessary for the operation of navigation and other warning signals.

Movable Bridges
6.2.7 INTERLOCKING (1986) R(2002)

The bridge operating devices shall permit interlocking with the signal system and shall be so designed that Communication
and Signal Division, AAR, interlocking apparatus may be used. They shall be so interlocked with each other that the
operations, both for opening and closing the bridge, must be performed in the predetermined order, and so that the movable
span, tracks, and switches within interlocking limits are locked in proper position.
6.2.8 INSULATION OF TRACK (1986) R(2002)

The connections of parts in contact with the track shall be such as to prevent all possibility of short circuiting of signal or other
circuits.
6.2.9 HOUSES FOR OPERATORS, MACHINERY, HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT,

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT AND SIGNAL DEVICES (2003)
a. Where mechanical or hydraulic power is to be used for operating the bridge, houses shall be provided for the operators,
machinery, hydraulic equipment, electrical equipment including engine-generator sets, and signal devices. Houses
shall be large enough for easy access to all machinery and apparatus to facilitate inspection, maintenance and repair.
Houses shall be weather-tight and shall be constructed of non-combustible materials, Machinery rooms and rooms
containing electrical apparatus and hydraulic equipment shall preferably be heated to maintain the temperature above
50 degrees F. Where climatic conditions warrant, the operator’s room shall be heated to maintain winter temperature
above 70 degrees F and shall be air-conditioned to maintain summer temperature below 80 degrees F. Provision shall
be made for the comfort conditioning system to be installed in the operator’s house by the Company or by the
Contractor, as may be specified. All windows shall be glazed with safety glass and movable sash shall be screened. At 1
least one opening shall be provided to permit passage of the largest unit of machinery or apparatus. Housing floors
shall be of concrete, steel, or other non-combustible material, as specified. Floors shall be smoke-tight and have a non-
slip surface. Floors in operator’s houses shall be insulated if exposed to the weather. Floors in rooms containing
electrical equipment, such as control panels and control consoles, shall be covered with linoleum, asphalt tile, or rubber
mats on areas surrounding such electrical equipment. Houses shall be designed and constructed so as to prevent
undesirable vibration or deflection due to machinery loads or live loads.
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b. Where the bridge is hand-operated, or where the operator is not located in the machinery house, an operator’s house
shall be provided. The type of construction shall be the same as that specified for the machinery house, except that for
hand-operated bridges with the house located off the bridge structure, non-combustible construction will not be
required.
c. Where practicable, the operator’s house shall be located so as to afford a clear view of operations on the railway and on
the waterway. If such positioning is not practical, the system shall provide for closed-circuit television or other means 4
to visually monitor these operations.
d. Where specified, a hand-operated overhead traveling crane, of sufficient capacity for handling the heaviest piece of
machinery, shall be installed in the machinery house.
6.2.10 STAIRWAYS, WALKS, AND ELEVATORS (2003)

a. Stairways, platforms, and walks with railings shall be provided to give safe access to the operator’s house, machinery,
trunnions, counterweights, navigation lights, bridge seats, and all points requiring lubrication or electrical
maintenance. Ladders may be installed only where stairways are not feasible, and shall be provided with appropriate
fall protection. For vertical lift bridges, ladders and walks shall be installed to give access to the moving span in any
position from either tower. Hand railings shall be made of galvanized copper-bearing steel, or rust resistant metal pipe
not less than l-1/2 inches size, or of structural shapes. Stairways, platforms and walks shall be of metal or concrete.
Ladders shall be of metal. Stairway treads may be channels filled with concrete.

Steel Structures
b. An elevator shall be provided at each tower of vertical lift bridges for all tower drive bridges and for span drive bridges
where service platforms are 50 feet or more above track level. Elevators shall be capable of carrying personnel and
maintenance equipment from track level to the machinery level at the tops of the towers. The elevator cars shall be
fully enclosed with solid sides and roof. They shall have a net floor area of not less than 12 square feet and a capacity
of not less than 1,200 lb.
c. Elevators shall be power operated, with single automatic control permitting the car to be called from a station at any
landing and sent to any landing from the car station.
d. Elevators shall meet the requirements for passenger elevators of the ANSI Safety Code for Elevators, Escalators and
Dumbwaiters, and of the applicable local codes.
6.2.11 MATERIALS FOR MACHINERY AND SIMILAR PARTS (1993) R(2003)

Materials in machinery and similar parts shall be as follows;
6.2.11.1 Rolled Steel or Forged Steel
a. For trunnions, shafts, axles, bolts, nuts, keys, cotters, pins, screws, worms, piston rods, equalizing levers, and crane
hooks.
b. Trunnions, shafts and axles up to 6 inches diameter may be either rolled or forged; those of larger diameter shall be
forged. Shafts larger than 3-1/2 inches diameter shall not be cold finished.
6.2.11.2 Rolled Steel, Forged Steel, or Cast Steel
For rim, segmental, and track girder treads and rollers.
6.2.11.3 Forged Steel or Cast Steel
For levers, cranks, and connecting rods.
6.2.11.4 Forged Steel
For pinions and rope attachments.
6.2.11.5 Cast Steel
For pivot stands, couplings, wedges, wedge bearings, toggles, trailing wheels, end shoes, pedestals, pistons and their cylinders,
buffers, eccentrics, valves, spools, winding drums, racks, tracks, gears, brake wheels, clutches, lock castings, trunnion
bearings, shaft bearings and hangers, and sheaves for vertical lift bridges.
6.2.11.6 Hardened Steel
For parts which require hardening or oil tempering, such as pivots, friction rollers, ball and roller bearings, and springs.
6.2.11.7 Bronze
For pivot disks, worm wheels, linings of the trunnion bearings of bascule and vertical lift bridges, linings of other large
bearings carrying heavy loads, linings for wedges for swing spans and such gears and nuts as are required to be of bronze.
6.2.11.8 Bronze or Babbitt Metal
For the linings of journal bearings and of other rotating or sliding parts.
6.2.11.9 Weldments
Welded assemblies of structural steel or of structural steel and cast or forged steel may be employed instead of cast steel for
such parts as may be specified in the invitation or approved by the Engineer. Such weldments shall conform to the

Movable Bridges
requirements for welded construction included under Part 1, Design and Part 3, Fabrication of these recommended practices.
Where such weldments are used as components of the moving machinery, they shall be stress-relieved before machining.
6.2.11.10 Cast Iron
Cast iron may be used only for the parts of motors, engines and standard manufactured components that are usually made of
cast iron, for balance chains on vertical lift bridges, and for counterweights.
6.2.12 RAIL ENDS (2003)

a. Rails at the ends of movable spans shall be either mitered or cut square.
b. Where rail ends are cut square, they shall be connected by sliding sleeve or joint bars or by easer rails to carry the
wheels over the opening between the ends of the bridge and approach rails.
c. Where rail ends are mitered, they shall be provided with seats that will secure them against transverse displacement,
and with devices that will bring the mitered surfaces nearly into contact and hold them in such position. Mitered rails
shall retain the full thickness of the web to the points. The points shall be trailing to normal traffic where possible;
otherwise they shall be trailing to traffic entering the moving span.
6.3.1 LIVE LOAD (1993) R(2010) 1

The live load shall be as specified in Part 1, Design, Article 1.3.3, and for continuous spans as further specified in Part 1,
Design, Article 1.13.2c.
a. Except as modified in this Article, the impact load shall be as specified in Part 1, Design, Article 1.3.5, and for
3
continuous spans as further specified in Part 1, Design, Article 1.13.5.
b. Dead load stresses in structural parts which support dead loads during movement of the span shall be increased 20% to
allow for impact or vibratory effect. Such parts include, but may not be limited to, swing span trusses or girders,
vertical lift bridge trusses or girders, vertical lift bridge towers, bascule span trusses and girders, and supports for
bascule trunnions and rolling lift span track girders. This impact allowance shall not be combined with live load 4
stresses.
c. Stresses in structural parts caused by machinery or by loads applied for moving or stopping the span shall be increased
100% as an allowance for impact load.
d. The end floorbeams of the moving span and the adjacent floorbeams of the fixed spans shall be proportioned for a
concentrated load on each track of 1.25 times the maximum weight on one axle of the specified live load, without
impact load, in addition to the specified live load and impact load.
e. Allowance has been made for impact load in trunnions, wire ropes, wire rope attachments, and machinery parts in the
basic allowable stresses specified herein for such parts.
6.3.3 END TIES (2013)
The rail joint base plates at the ends of the moving span and at the adjacent ends of the fixed spans may be supported on timber
ties, steel ties or ties made from other suitable material. The ties shall be proportioned to meet loading and deflection criteria.

Steel Structures
The maximum deflection shall be limited to provide reliable operation of the rail joints. If the ties do not meet loading and
deflection criteria it may be necessary to support the ties with a beam between stringers. The ties or the supports for these ties,
if other than end floorbeams, shall be proportioned for a concentrated total live load plus impact load on each track of 2.75
times the heaviest axle load of the specified live load series.
6.3.4 FATIGUE (1983) R(2010)
Where the design stress in a structural part is affected by the movement of the span, the allowable stress range shall be
determined from Part 1, Design, Article 1.3.13 using the applicable number of stress cycles.
6.3.5 WIND FORCES AND ICE LOAD (2011)
a. In proportioning the members and determining the stability of swing, bascule, and vertical lift spans, and their towers,
wind forces shall be assumed acting either transversely, longitudinally, or diagonally at an angle of 45 degrees with the
bridge axis. Exposed areas for transverse wind forces on the spans shall be determined as provided in Part 1, Design,
Article 1.3.7b. Exposed areas for longitudinal wind forces on the spans shall be taken as one-half those for transverse
wind, except for bascule bridges for spans when open where they shall be modified as specified below for forces acting
normal to the floor. Exposed areas for transverse and longitudinal wind forces on houses and counterweights shall be
their vertical projections. Exposed areas for transverse and longitudinal wind forces on towers and their bracing shall
be the vertical projections of all columns and bracing not shielded by the counterweights and houses. For diagonal
wind, the equivalent simultaneous transverse and longitudinal wind forces shall be taken as 70% of the values for
winds acting transversely and longitudinally, respectively.
b. The following wind forces and stresses shall be used in proportioning and determining the stability of members:
(1) Movable span closed: Structure to be considered a fixed span insofar as lateral forces and increased allowable
stresses are concerned. (See Part 1, Design, Article 1.3.7, Article 1.3.8 and Article 1.3.14.3.)
(2) Movable span open: Where the movable span is normally left in the closed position, 30 lb per square foot on the
structure, combined with dead load, and 20% of dead load to allow for impact load, at 1.25 times normal allowable
stresses. For swing bridges provision shall also be made for 30 lb per square foot on one arm and 20 lb per square
foot on the other arm, applied simultaneously in the same direction.
Where the movable span is normally left in the open position, 50 lb per square foot on the structure, combined
with dead load, at 1.33 times normal allowable stresses. For swing bridges provision shall also be made for 50 lb
per square foot on one arm and 35 lb per square foot on the other arm, applied simultaneously in the same
direction.
c. For open-deck bridges, the area exposed to ice and to wind acting normal to the floor shall be taken at 85% of the area
of a quadrilateral whose width is the distance center-to-center of the trusses and whose length is that of the span. For
bridges with solid floors or footwalks, the actual exposed floor surface shall be used.
6.3.6 POWER REQUIREMENTS AND MACHINERY DESIGN (2003)

a. The machinery shall be proportioned and power provided to move the span under the following conditions:
(1) Condition A.
(a) Bascule bridges and vertical lift bridges – Frictional resistances, rope bending, unbalanced conditions
(Article 6.2.3), inertia, and a wind load of 2-1/2 lb per square foot on the area specified in Article 6.3.5, acting
normal to the floor. For vertical lift spans, this wind load shall be considered to include frictional resistances
from span and counterweight guides caused by horizontal wind on the moving span.

Movable Bridges
(b) Swing bridges – Frictional resistances, inertia, and a wind load of 2-1/2 lb per square foot on the vertical
projected area of one arm.
(2) Condition B. Bascule bridges and vertical lift bridges–Ice load of 2-1/2 lb per square foot on the area specified in
Article 6.3.5, in addition to the loads specified in A.
(3) Condition C. Bascule bridges and swing bridges against frictional resistances, unbalanced conditions
(Article 6.2.3), inertia, a wind load of 10 lb per square foot on any vertical projection of the open bridge, and an ice
load of 2-1/2 lb per square foot on the area specified in Article 6.3.5. For swing bridges provision shall also be
made for a wind load of 10 lb per square foot on the vertical projected area of one arm and 5 lb per square foot on
the other arm.
b. The normal operating time for opening or closing the moving span shall be computed under Condition A above. The
operating time under Condition B shall not be more than 1.5 times the normal operating time. The operating time under
Condition C shall not be more than 2.0 times the normal operating time.
c. The maximum bridge-starting torque shall be determined under Condition C using the friction coefficient for starting
and neglecting inertia.
d. Where the excess of starting torque from the prime mover over the torque of Condition C is not sufficient to accelerate
the span, the size of the prime mover shall be increased. This will usually be a factor only on swing bridges.
e. Where the movable span is normally left in the closed position, the machinery for bascule and swing bridges shall also
be proportioned to hold the span in the fully open position against a wind load of 20 lb per square foot on any vertical
projection of the open bridge. For swing bridges normally left in the closed position, provision shall be made for a 1
wind load of 20 lb per square foot on one arm and 25 lb per square foot on the other arm. In proportioning the
machinery for these conditions, 1.5 times the allowable stresses may be used.
f. Where the moving span is normally left in the open position, the machinery for bascule and swing bridges shall also be
proportioned to hold the span in the fully open position against the wind loads specified in Article 6.3.5b(2). If desired,
the machinery may be proportioned as specified in the preceding Article and the difference between the wind loads
specified in Article 6.3.5b(2), and those specified in the preceding Article, shall then be accommodated for by separate
3
holding devices. In proportioning the machinery for these conditions, 1.5 times the allowable stresses shall be used.
6.3.7 MACHINERY RESISTANCES (1983) R(2010)
a. When calculating the resistances to be overcome by the machinery, the resisting forces shall be reduced to a single
force acting between the pinion and the operating rack, or in the operating rope. In determining this force, the 4
coefficients shown in Table 15-6-1 shall be used.

Steel Structures
Table 15-6-1. Machinery Resistances
Coefficient Coefficient
Type For For
Starting Motion
For trunnion friction:
Sliding bearings, one or more complete rotations 0.135 0.090
Sliding bearing, less than one complete rotation 0.180 0.120
Roller bearings 0.004 0.003
NOTE: For manually operated bridges, the coefficients for motion given above shall be
increased 25%
For friction on center disks 0.150 0.100
For rolling friction of solid rollers without flanges 0.008 0.008
------------- -------------
where:
r r
r = radius of roller, inch
For rolling friction of bridges having rollers with flanges, or built-up 0.009 0.006
segmental girders
For collar friction at ends of conical rollers 0.150 0.100
For 180 degrees bending of wire ropes, on each sheave, the coefficient d d
0.3 ---- 0.3 ----
of direct tension in rope D D
where:
d = diameter of rope, inch
D = diameter of sheave, inch
b. In designing the machinery for holding the span against the wind pressure specified in Article 6.3.6, and for
determining the required capacity of the brakes both for holding the span against the wind pressure and for stopping the
span when in motion, 0.4 of the above mentioned coefficients for motion shall be used. Rope bending, solid roller
friction, and machinery friction shall be disregarded. In determining the effect of the brakes on the machinery while
stopping the span, full machinery friction shall be considered.
c. The coefficient of sliding friction between plane surfaces intermittently lubricated shall be taken as 0.08.
6.3.8 MACHINERY LOSSES (1983) R(2010)
The following coefficients shall be used in computing the machinery losses between the operating rack, or the operating rope,
or a similar point, and a prime mover:
For journal friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05

For efficiency of any pair of gears, bearing friction not included:
Spur gears and helical gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98
Bevel gears, collar friction included. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.90
Np
For efficiency of worm gearing, collar friction not included . . . . . . . . . . ------------------
Np + R
where:
N = number of threads of lead of worm

p = circular pitch of teeth on wheel

Movable Bridges
R = radius of worm
6.3.9 BRAKES, AND MACHINERY DESIGN FOR BRAKING FORCES (2012)

a. Manually operated bridges shall be provided with one set of brakes.
b. Mechanically operated bridges shall be provided with two sets of brakes, except as otherwise specified by the Engineer
(see Articles 6.7.5.14 and 6.7.5.15). The machinery brakes shall be as near the operating ropes or operating racks as
practicable.
c. Where only one set of brakes is provided, the brakes shall have sufficient capacity to stop the span in 10 sec when it is
moving under the influence of the unbalanced loads specified in Article 6.3.6a, and to hold the span against the wind
loads specified in Article 6.3.6e and Article 6.3.6f.
d. Where two sets of brakes are provided, they shall have the following capacities:
(1) The motor brakes shall have sufficient capacity to stop the span in 10 sec when it is moving under the influence of
the greatest unbalanced loads specified in Article 6.3.6a(1) for swing bridges, and Article 6.3.6a(2) for bascule and
vertical lift bridges.
(2) The machinery brakes for vertical lift bridges shall have a capacity, as measured at the shafts of the motor brakes,
equal to or greater than one-half that of the motor brakes. The machinery brakes for bascule bridges and swing
bridges shall be such that the combined motor and machinery brakes will have sufficient capacity to stop the span
in 10 sec when it is moving at Condition A speed under the influence of the greatest unbalanced loads specified in
Article 6.3.6a; and to hold the span against the wind loads specified in Article 6.3.6e and Article 6.3.6f.
1
e. Braking forces provided by friction, mechanical brakes and/or the deceleration torques, if any, from the motor control
system shall be adjusted so that the time for decelerating from full speed to full stop is not less than the deceleration
time given on the plans.
f. Where specified by the Engineer, three separate brakes, all of equal torque as measured at the motor output shaft, may
be used to prevent loss of more than one-third the braking force in case of failure of any one brake. The three brakes
3
shall be electrically operated, controlled, interlocked and set to be applied in delayed sequence. Combined retarding
torque for the No. 1 and No. 2 brakes shall be as specified in paragraph d(1). Retarding torque for No. 3 brake shall be
as specified in paragraph d(2). Two of the brakes shall be located as close to the final drive as practicable; such as on
the input shafts of the main reducer unit. The third brake shall be preferably so located as to permit utilization of the
brake with either the main or auxiliary motors removed.
4
g. The coefficient of friction for selecting brakes shall be taken as 0.3, but a coefficient of 0.45 shall be used for designing
all other machinery. Where practicable, the pressure on the rubbing surface of the brake shall not exceed 30 psi and the
product of the pressure on the rubbing surface times the velocity of the brake wheel rim in feet per minute shall not
exceed 90,000.
h. Machinery, including operating ropes, shall be designed at basic allowable stresses for the machinery brake on any two
brakes of the three brake system acting. When both motor and machinery brakes are applied simultaneously an
overload stress of 1.5 times the basic allowable stresses may be used.
i. For calculating the strength of the machinery parts under the action of manually operated brakes, the force applied at
the extreme end of a hand lever shall be assumed as 150 lb and the force applied on a foot pedal shall be assumed as
200 lb. Under this condition, 1.5 times the basic allowable stresses may be used.

Steel Structures
6.3.10 MACHINERY DESIGN (1983)
a. The machinery for moving the span shall be designed at basic allowable stresses for the following percentages of full-
load rated torque of the prime mover at the speed corresponding to normal operating time:
Electric motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150%

Internal combustion engines . . . . . . . . . . . . 100%
b. For manual operation, the machinery shall be designed as specified in Article 6.7.2.
c. The machinery shall also be designed for the braking loads, and at the stresses specified in Article 6.3.6 and
Article 6.3.9.
6.3.11 MACHINERY SUPPORTS (2013)1
Structural parts subject to stresses from machinery loads or from loads applied for moving or stopping the span shall be
proportioned for both stress and deflection.
a. Structural Supports:
The machinery designer shall determine the magnitudes and corresponding directions of the forces and moments
caused by machinery to which the machinery supports will be subjected. The machinery designer shall also determine
the amount of relative deflection that is acceptable at each support location for the proper operation of the mechanical
parts being supported.
The structural designer shall determine the framing arrangement and member properties for all primary and secondary
members that support the machinery. Beams, girders, and other members that support machinery shall be sufficiently
stiff so as to limit deflection to meet the machinery requirements.
b. Machinery Bases:
Machinery bases, generally fabricated of steel, are those units that directly support machinery such as motors, reducers,
brakes, bearings, and similar items and in turn are supported by structural members such as beams and girders.
At locations where machinery bolts are subject to tension, the supporting material shall be sufficiently thick or
stiffened so that local deflection is negligible. These connections shall be designed to meet the requirements of
Article 6.3.10.
Where adjacent mating machinery parts are supported in close proximity, such as bearings for open gearing, a common
machinery base is preferred.
Bearing surfaces of machinery bases shall be finished in accordance with Table 15-6-5 so that they are square, flat, and
true, top and bottom.
6.3.12 ANCHORAGE (1983) R(2010)
Anchor bolts or other anchorages that take uplift shall be designed at basic stresses to carry and engage a mass of masonry the
weight of which is at least 1.5 times the uplift. Anchor bolts shall be tightened to an initial tension equal to at least 1.5 times
the uplift force.
1

Movable Bridges
6.3.13 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SWING BRIDGES (1983) R(2002)
6.3.13.1 Stress Combinations
a. The stresses in trusses or girders of swing bridges continuous on three or four supports shall be calculated for the
bridge in the following conditions:
• Condition 1 – Bridge open, or closed with ends just touching.
• Condition 2 – Bridge closed with ends lifted.
b. The computation of stresses shall be divided into the following cases:
• Case I – Condition 1, dead load.
• Case II – Condition 2, dead load, ends lifted to give positive reaction equal to the maximum negative reaction of the
live load and impact load plus 50% of their sum.
• Case III – Condition 1, live load plus impact load on one arm as a simple span.
• Case IV – Condition 2, live load plus impact load on one arm, bridge as a continuous structure.
• Case V – Condition 2, live load plus impact load on both arms, bridge as a continuous structure.
1
c. The following combinations of these cases shall be used in determining the maximum stresses:
• Case I alone, plus 20%.
• Case I with Case III.
• Case I with Case V. 3

• Case II with Case IV.
• Case II with Case V.
d. The stress sheet shall show the stresses in the various members for each of the foregoing cases, together with the
combinations which give the greatest positive and negative stresses in each member. 4
6.3.13.2 End Wedge and Center Wedge Reactions
a. The end wedges, or equivalent devices, shall lift the ends of the swing bridge an amount sufficient to produce a positive
reaction at either end equal to 1.5 times the maximum negative reaction at that end due to live load and impact load.
b. The end lifting machinery shall be proportioned to exert a lifting force equal to the greater of:
(1) the lifting load stipulated in Article 6.3.13.2(a) plus the reaction due to a temperature difference of 20 degrees F
between the top and bottom chords of truss spans or of 15 degrees F between the top and bottom flanges of girder
spans, or,
(2) the lifting load required to raise the ends of the span 1/2 inch or 0.1% of the length of one arm, whichever is
greater.

Steel Structures
c. End wedges and their supports shall be designed for the maximum positive reaction including live load, impact load
and temperature differential.
d. Center wedges shall be designed for the maximum live load plus impact load.
6.3.13.3 Rollers
a. The rollers of rim bearing or combined rim and center bearing swing bridges shall be proportioned for the dead load
when the bridge is swinging, and for the dead, live, and impact loads when the bridge is closed.
b. In computing the load on the rollers, the rim girder shall be considered as distributing the load uniformly over a
distance equal to twice the depth of the girder out to out of flanges. This distance shall be taken as symmetrical about
the vertical through the point of application of the concentrated load.
6.3.13.4 End Wedge and Center Wedge Machinery
In designing the machinery for the end wedges and center wedges of swing bridges, the requirements specified for the
machinery for driving the moving span shall apply.
6.3.14 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BASCULE BRIDGES (1984) R(2010)
a. The stresses in trusses or girders of bascule bridges shall be calculated for the bridge in the following conditions:
• Condition 1 – Bridge open in any position.
• Condition 2 – Bridge closed.
• Condition 3 – Bridge closed, with counterweights independently supported.
• Case I – Condition l, dead load.
• Case II – Condition 2, dead load.
• Case III – Condition 3, dead load.
• Case IV – Condition 2 or 3, live load plus impact load.
• Case III with Case IV.
d. The stress sheet shall show the stresses in the different members for each of the foregoing cases, together with the
combinations which give the greatest positive and negative stresses in each member.

Movable Bridges
e. In the proportioning of members, stresses 25% greater than the basic allowable stresses may be used for the
combination of Case III with Case IV. Members subject to reversal of stress under this combination of cases or in
consideration of this combination with any other combination shall be proportioned for the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses without consideration of fatigue.
6.3.15 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR VERTICAL LIFT BRIDGES (2004) R(2010)
a. The stresses in trusses or girders of vertical lift bridges shall be calculated for the bridge in the following conditions:
• Condition 1 – Bridge open.
• Condition 2 – Bridge closed.
• Condition 3 – Bridge closed, with counterweights independently supported.
• Case I – Condition 1, dead load.
• Case II – Condition 2, dead load.
• Case III – Condition 3, dead load. 1

• Case IV – Condition 2 or 3, live load plus impact load.

3
• Case III with Case IV.
d. The stress sheet shall show the stresses in the different members for each of the foregoing cases, together with the
combinations which give the greatest positive and negative stresses in each member.
4
e. In the proportioning of members, stresses 25% greater than the basic allowable stresses may be used for the
combination of Case III with Case IV. Members subject to reversal of stress under this combination of cases or in
consideration of this combination with any other combination shall be proportioned for the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses without consideration of fatigue.
6.3.15.2 Wire Ropes
The maximum force in counterweight ropes shall not exceed 2/9 of the specified ultimate strength of the rope, nor shall the
force from the direct load only exceed 1/8 of the specified ultimate strength. For operating ropes, the respective maximum
forces shall be 3/10 and 1/6 of these values.
6.3.15.3 Bending Stress and Maximum Force Over Sheave
a. Where a wire rope is bent over a sheave, the bending stress and permissible force in the rope shall be calculated as
follows:

Steel Structures
where:
P = permissible force in rope, lb

K = bending stress in extreme fiber of largest individual wire
E = modulus of elasticity of the wire = 29,000,000 psi
a = metallic cross-sectional area of rope, inch2
d = diameter of outer wire, inch
D = diameter of sheave, center to center of rope, inch (See Article 6.3.15.4)
S = maximum tension allowable, psi
L = angle of helical wire with axis of strand, deg
B = angle of helical strand with axis of rope, deg
c = diameter of rope, inch
then:
2 2
0.8Edcos Lcos B
K = ---------------------------------------------
D
2 2
P=a ⎛ S – 0.8 Ed cos Lcos B-⎞ = a ⎛ S – 0.7Ed
------------------------------------- -------------- ⎞
⎝ D ⎠ ⎝ D ⎠
b. For rope having 6 strands of 19 main wires each (6 × 25 filler wire construction) and assuming:
c-
d = -----
16
1, 300, 000c- ⎞
P = a ⎛ S – -----------------------------
⎝ D ⎠
Values of P shall not exceed the values in Article 6.3.15.2.
6.3.15.4 Small Sheave Over Short Arc
a. Where a rope is in contact with a small sheave over a short arc (angle between the rope directions greater than 130
degrees), the actual radius of curvature of the rope may be greater than that of the sheave.
where:
R = the actual radius of curvature of the rope, inch

θ = the angle between the directions of the rope, deg; for 130 deg < θ < 180 deg
W = force in individual wire (equals P divided by the number of wires if all wires are of equal diameters), lb
then:

Movable Bridges
2
d E-
R = ---------------------------
- ----
θ W
4.25 cos ⎛ ---⎞
⎝ 2⎠
b. If R is greater than the radius of the sheave, 2R should be used in place of D in the formulas of Article 6.3.15.3.
1
SECTION 6.4 BASIC ALLOWABLE STRESSES AND HYDRAULIC PRESSURES
6.4.1 STRUCTURAL PARTS (1993) R(2010)
Structural parts shall be proportioned by the requirements of Part 1, Design.

3
6.4.2 MACHINERY PARTS (2013)1
a. Table 15-6-2 shows the allowable stresses, psi, which shall be used for machinery and similar parts, except as modified
by paragraph d.
b. Table 15-6-3 shows the allowable bending stresses, psi, which shall be used for trunnions.
4
Table 15-6-2. Allowable Machinery Stresses
Tension or Compression Fixed

Material Bending (Note 1) Bearing Shear
Structural carbon steel, ASTM A36 or A709 Grade 36 l
12,000 12, 000 – 55 - 16,000 6,000
r
Forged carbon steel, ASTM A668, Class D, except for l
15,000 15, 000 – 65 - 18,000 7,500
keys r
Forged carbon steel, ASTM A668, Class D, for keys – – 15,000 7,500
1

Steel Structures
Table 15-6-2. Allowable Machinery Stresses (Continued)
Tension or Compression Fixed

Material Bending (Note 1) Bearing Shear
Forged alloy steel, ASTM A668, Class G l
16,000 16, 000 – 70 - 21,000 8,000
r
Rolled steel l
15,000 15, 000 – 65 - 7,500
r
Cast steel, ASTM A27, Grade 65-35 l
9,000 10, 000 – 45 - 13,000 5,000
r
Cast iron, ASTM A48, Class 25 2,000 10,000 (Note 2)
Bronze, ASTM B22, Alloy 905 7,000 7,000
Note 1: Where l is the unsupported length of the member, inch and r is the least radius of gyration, inch
Note 2: For struts whose -l is 20 or less.
r
Table 15-6-3. Trunnion Bending Stresses
Rotation More Rotation 90 Fixed

Type
Than 90 Degrees Degrees or Less Trunnions
Forged carbon steel, ASTM A668, Class D 10,000 15,000 17,000
Forged alloy steel, ASTM A668, Class G 10,000 20,000 22,000
c. For rotating parts, and for frames, pedestals, and other components which support rotating parts, the computed stresses
shall be multiplied by the impact factor K.
where:
K = 1.0 for trunnions and for counterweight sheaves and their shafts.
K = 1.0 + 0.03 n for other parts
where:
n = rpm of rotating part.
d. The stresses specified in this article provide appropriate safety factors against static failure and against failure by
fatigue with and without reversal of stresses. In the determination of the safety factor against fatigue failure, provision
was made for stress-raisers which would produce local stress concentrations of 140% of the computed stress. For
trunnions and counterweight sheave shafts, the stress concentration factors shall be estimated for the actual geometry
of the trunions or sheave shafts and suitable adjustments in size or detail shall be made when the estimated factors
exceed 1.4; for gear arms this provides for the increase in stress near the hub; for integral shafts and pinions this
provides for the increase in stress at the faces of the pinion; and for key-ways this provides for one or two keys 120
degrees apart, each having a width not more than one-quarter and a depth not more than one-eighth the shaft diameter.
In the absence of keyways or other stress-raisers in a shaft, the allowable stress for torsion and flexure in a shaft may be
increased 20%.

Movable Bridges
6.4.3 BEARING (1997) R(2010)
a. The allowable bearing pressures on the diametral projected area, psi, for rotating and sliding surfaces shall be as
follows, except as modified by paragraph b and paragraph d
(1) For intermittent motion and for speeds not exceeding 50 feet per min:
Pivots of swing bridges, hardened steel on ASTM B22, Copper Alloy UNS
No. C9l300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000
Pivots of swing bridges, hardened steel on ASTM B22, Copper Alloy UNS
No. C91100. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,500
Trunnion bearings and counterweight sheave bearings, rolled or forged steel on ASTM
B22, Copper Alloy UNS No. C91100 bronze:
For loads while in motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500
For loads while at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
Shaft journals, rolled or forged steel on ASTM B22, Copper Alloy UNS No.
C93700 bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000
Wedges, cast steel on cast steel or structural steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500
Wedges, cast steel or structural steel on ASTM B22, Copper Alloy UNS No.
C86300 bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500
Acme screws which transmit motion, rolled or forged steel on ASTM B22,
Copper Alloy UNS No. C90500 bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500
1
(2) For speeds exceeding 50 feet per min:
Shaft journals, rolled or forged steel, on ASTM B22, Copper Alloy UNS No. C93700 bronze . . . . . 600
Shaft journals, rolled or forged steel on babbitt metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Shaft journals, rolled or forged steel on cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
3
Thrust, collars, rolled or forged steel on ASTM B22, Copper Alloy UNS No. C93700 bronze . . . . . 200
Cross-head slides (speed not exceeding 600 feet per min) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Step bearing for vertical shafts
Hardened steel shaft end on ASTM B22, Copper Alloy UNS No. C91100 bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,200
Hardened steel shaft end on ASTM B22, Copper Alloy UNS No. 93700 bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 4
b. The allowable bearing pressures for the various bearings named in paragraph a(2) above also shall not exceed those
specified in Article 6.4.4.
c. The slow-moving journals, as on trunnions, counterweight and deflector sheave bearings, and operating drum bearings,
the bearing area shall be taken as the net area with the effective areas of oil grooves being deducted from the gross
bearing area.
d. For crank pins and similar joints with alternating application and release of pressure, the bearing values given above
may be doubled.
6.4.4 HEATING AND SEIZING (1992) R(2010)

a. To avoid heating and seizing at high speeds, the bearing pressures, psi, on shaft journals, step bearings for vertical
shafts, thrust collars, and Acme thread power screws shall not exceed the following, except as modified by
paragraph b, paragraph c and paragraph d:

Steel Structures
250, 000
Shaft journals, rolled or forged steel on bronze . . . . . . . . . p = ---------------------
nd
60, 000
Step bearings, hardened steel on bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p = ------------------
nd
50, 000
Thrust collars, rolled or forged steel on bronze . . . . . . . . . p = ------------------
nd
220, 000
Acme screws, rolled or forged steel on bronze . . . . . . . . . p = ---------------------
nd
where:
p = pressure on projected area, psi

n = number of revolutions per min
d = diameter of journal or step bearing, or mean diameter of collar or screw, inch
b. For crank pins and similar joints with alternating application and release of pressure, the bearing values given by the
foregoing formulas may be doubled.
c. Where pressures given by the foregoing formulas exceed those specified for similar parts in Article 6.4.3 the values in
Article 6.4.3 shall be used.
d. The pressures given by the foregoing formulas shall not be exceeded under the provisions of Article 6.3.10.
6.4.5 LINE BEARING LOAD (1984) R(2013)

a. The maximum bearing load in lb per linear inch of rollers is found in Table 15-6-4.
Table 15-6-4. Roller Maximum Bearing Load
Diameters Diameters
Type Up to 25 From 25 inches to
inches 125 inches
For rollers in motion:
F y – 15, 000 400d 2, 000 d
----------------------------- multiplied by
20, 000
For rollers in rest:
F y – 15, 000 600d 3, 000 d
----------------------------- multiplied by
20, 000
where:
Fy = yield point of the material, psi
d = diameter of roller, inch

Movable Bridges
b. The foregoing values are for rollers and bearing surfaces of the same materials. If the rollers and bearing surfaces are of
different materials, the lower value of Fy shall be used.
c. For rollers of trunnion and counterweight sheave roller bearings, the maximum bearing stress in lb per linear inch of
roller shall be 3,000 d, where d is the diameter of the roller, inch. One-fifth of the rollers shall be taken as effective in
carrying the load.
6.4.6 SHAFTS (1984) R(2010)

a. Bending stresses in circular shafts, trunnions, and axles shall be determined by the following formulas:
16K
f = ---------- ⎛ M + M 2 + T 2 ⎞
3⎝ ⎠
πd
16K
S = ---------- M 2 + T 2
3
πd
where:
f= extreme fiber stress in tension or compression, psi

S= shear, psi
d= diameter of shaft at the section considered, inch
M= simple bending moment computed for the distance center to center of bearing, inch lb 1
T= simple torsional moment, inch lb
b. For values of K and allowable stresses with and without keyways, or other stress-raisers, see Article 6.4.2.
6.4.7 BOLTS IN TENSION (1984) R(2003)

3
a. Bolts in tension in machinery parts shall be designed by assuming the effective area of the threaded portion to be:
A = An – (a × 2D)
where:
4
A = effective area of threaded portion, square inch
An = net area at root of thread, square inch
a = net area of 1/2 inch bolt at root of thread, square inch
D = nominal diameter of threaded portion, inch
b. This formula takes account of the fact that the initial stress in a 1/2 inch bolt, produced by tightening the nut, frequently
equals or exceeds the yield point of the material.
c. For ANSI coarse threads, the formula reduces to:
A = A n – 1--- D
4

Steel Structures
6.4.8 HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS (1984)1 R(2010)
6.4.8.1 Allowable System Pressures
a. The hydraulic system shall be designed and hydraulic components proportioned such that the maximum allowable
system pressures shall not exceed the following, except as otherwise permitted by prior written approval of the
Company.
Normal operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 psi

Operation against maximum specified loads . . . . . . . . . . 2,000 psi
Holding against maximum specified wind loads . . . . . . . 3,000 psi
b. Normal operation shall be defined as operation against loads specified in Article 6.3.6a(1). Operation against
maximum specified loads shall be defined as operation against loads specified in Article 6.3.6a(2) and
Article 6.3.6a(3). Holding against maximum specified wind loads shall be defined as holding the movable span in the
fully open position, static condition, against the loads specified in Article 6.3.6e.
6.4.8.2 Pressure Ratings for Hydraulic Components
a. Minimum working pressure ratings for hydraulic components shall be as follows, except as otherwise permitted by
prior written approval of the Company.
Pipe, tubing and their fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000 psi

Flexible hose and hose fittings:
For pressure lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,000 psi
For drain lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000 psi
Cylinders, pumps, valves and all other components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000 psi
b. Working pressure rating shall be defined as the maximum allowable continuous operating pressure for the component.
For pipe, tubing, flexible hose and fittings the working pressure ratings are equal to the burst pressure rating divided by
a minimum factor of safety of 4. For cylinders the working pressure rating shall be equal to the NFPA theoretical static
failure pressure rating as required by Article 6.5.37.11 divided by a minimum factor of safety of 3.33. For pumps,
valves and other components the working pressure rating is equal to the maximum allowable peak (intermittent)
pressure rating divided by a minimum factor of safety of 1.5.
c. The minimum factors of safety designated in paragraph b apply to systems having light to moderate operating shock
loads during operation resulting in short duration peak system pressures no greater than two times the allowable
maximum operating pressure against Conditions B or C loads, whichever is greater. For systems having higher shock
load pressures, the factors of safety shall be increased proportionally.
1

Movable Bridges
SECTION 6.5 GENERAL DETAILS
6.5.1 FITS AND SURFACE FINISHES (1984) R(2013)
a. The fits and surface finishes for parts found in Table 15-6-5 shall be in accordance with ANSI B4.1, Preferred Limits
and Fits for Cylindrical Parts, and ANSI B46.1, Surface Texture.
b. Surface finishes are given as the roughness height in microinches; if additional limits are required for waviness and lay,
they shall be specified by the Engineer.
Table 15-6-5. Preferred Fits and Surface Finishes
Part Fit Finish

Machinery base on steel – 250
Machinery base on masonry – 500
Shaft journals RC6 8
Journal bushing RC6 16
Split bushing in base LC1 125
Solid bushing in base (to 1/4 inch wall) FN1 63
Solid bushing in base (over 1/4 inch wall) FN2 63
Hubs on shafts (to 2 inch bore) FN2 32 1
Hubs on shafts (over 2 inch bore) FN2 63
Hubs on main trunnions FN2 63
Turned bolts in finished holes * 63
Sliding bearings RC6 32
Key and keyways FN2 63 3
Machinery parts in fixed contact – 125
Teeth of open spur gears:
Under 1 inch circular pitch 32
1 inch to 1-3/4 inch circular pitch 63
Over 1-3/4 inch circular pitch 125 4
*As determined by the Engineer
c. The fits for cylindrical parts found in Table 15-6-5 shall also apply to the major dimensions of non- cylindrical parts.
6.5.2 RAIL END CONNECTIONS (1984) R(2012)

a. Designs for rail end connections will be furnished by the Engineer.
b. Where the connections are of the sliding rail lock type, the ends of the bridge rails shall be fixed, cut square, and
connected with the approach rails by sliding sleeves or joint bars, to carry the wheels over the openings between the
rail ends. The distance from the center of the track to the inside of the rail lock wheel tread shall be not less than 2′-6″,
and not more than 2′-6-1/2″ with the heads of the rails being planed off on the outside if necessary.
c. Where the connections are of the miter type, the two sections shall be held positively in a transverse direction by
guides, to prevent spreading at the miter joint.

Steel Structures
d. Provisions shall be made so that the rail locks can be closed only when the span is seated and the rail end sections
properly engaged.
e. The edges of all drilled holes in rail locks and in the rail ends adjacent thereto shall be chamfered approximately 1/16
inch. All reentrant angles in these appurtenances shall be filleted.
6.5.3 AIR BUFFERS (1997) R(2012)

a. Air buffers to aid in seating the movable span shall be provided as specified in Article 6.5.35.4, Article 6.5.36.4, and
Article 6.8.19.
b. The inside diameter of the cylinder of the air buffer shall not be less than 10 inches, and the travel of the piston not less
than 24 inches.
c. There shall be three cast iron packing rings for each piston.
d. Each air buffer shall be provided with a needle valve and a check valve, and these shall be suitable for sustaining for
short intervals air pressures of 1,000 psi and temperatures of 800 degrees F.
e. As an alternative to air buffers, industrial type shock absorbers may be provided, if specified by the Engineer in the
contract documents.
f. Air buffers or shock absorbers may be omitted if the control system is designed to seat the span smoothly at a slow
speed which will not create undue impact.
6.5.4 COUNTERWEIGHTS (2003) R(2012)
a. Counterweights normally shall be made of concrete, supported by a steel frame or, preferably, enclosed in a steel box.
Boxes shall be rigidly braced and stiffened to prevent warping or bulging. All surfaces of the boxes in contact with the
concrete shall be provided with open holes (about l square inch to each 10 square feet of surface) to permit escape of
water from the box as the concrete cures, or otherwise a low-slump concrete shall be used and any excess water drawn
off as the concrete is placed. In the design of counterweight attachments, details which may produce fatigue due to
vibration of the structure shall be avoided.
b. Concrete counterweights not enclosed in steel boxes shall be adequately reinforced.
c. Counterweights shall be made so as to be adjusted easily for variations in the weight of the span and in the unit weight
of the concrete. Usually this shall be done by adding or taking off properly located cast iron or concrete balance blocks.
Pockets shall be provided in the counterweights to house the balance blocks necessary to care for not less than 3.5%
underrun and 5% overrun in the weight of the span. Each completed counterweight shall contain not less than 1% of its
weight in balance blocks, arranged so as to be readily removable for future adjustment. Additional balance blocks for
future adjustment in the amount of 0.5% of the weight of the counterweight shall also be provided and shall be stored
at the site as directed by the Engineer. All balance blocks shall be firmly held in place so that they will not move during
the operation of the bridge. Balance blocks shall be provided with recessed handles or recesses on the underside of the
blocks for projecting handles and shall weigh not more than 100 lb each. Balance blocks shall be furnished only as
necessary to meet the specified requirements for future adjustment and to secure the required balance of the span and
counterweights.
d. Pockets in counterweights shall be provided with drain holes of not less than 2 inches diameter. The pockets shall be
covered. The cover, its fastenings and frame shall be of metal. The cover shall be weatherproof.
6.5.5 CONCRETE (1984) R(2012)
a. Concrete, unless otherwise stipulated, shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and
Foundations, shall be made with Type II cement, and shall be proportioned as directed by the Engineer, with not more

Movable Bridges
than 6 gal of water per sack of cement. Where heavy concrete is required for counterweights, the coarse aggregate shall
be trap rock, magnetic iron ore, or other heavy material, or the concrete may incorporate steel punchings or scrap
metal, and mortar composed of 1 part of cement and 2 parts of fine aggregate. The maximum weight of heavy concrete
shall be 315 lb per cubic foot but preferably not more than 275 lb per cubic foot. Heavy concrete shall be placed in
layers and consolidated with vibrators or tampers. Methods of mixing and placing shall be such as to give close control
of the unit weight of the concrete and uniformity of unit weight throughout the mass. Counterweights containing
punchings or scrap metal or iron ore aggregates shall be enclosed in steel boxes. Concrete for counterweights should
be non air-entrained to permit better control of density.
b. Concrete counterweights of the revolving type shall be poured continuously where practicable.
c. For ascertaining the weight of the concrete, test blocks having a volume of not less than 4 cubic feet for ordinary
concrete, and 1 cubic foot for heavy concrete, and 1 cubic foot for the mortar for heavy concrete, shall be cast at least
30 days before concreting is begun. Two test blocks of each kind shall be provided, and one weighed immediately after
casting and the other after it has seasoned.
6.5.6 MACHINERY IN GENERAL (1984) R(2013)
a. Machinery shall be simple, and of substantial construction. The configuration and arrangement of the components shall
permit easy erection, adjustment, inspection, lubrication, cleaning, painting, and replacement of worn or defective
parts.
b. Fastenings shall be adequate to hold the parts in place under all conditions of service. Mounting bolts shall be of such
size that they may be preloaded to not less than 150% of the maximum operating design load. 1
c. Where practicable, machinery units shall be assembled in enclosed rigid housings or castings, or shall be shop
assembled on rigid steel bases.
6.5.7 JOURNAL BEARINGS (1984) R(2013)
a. Bearings shall be placed close to the points of loading and located so that the bearing pressure shall be as nearly 3
uniform as possible.
b. Journal bearings shall be of the split type with one half recessed into the other half. The length of a bearing shall be not
less than its diameter. The base halves of bearings for gear trains and for mating gears and pinions shall be in one piece.
The caps of bearings shall be secured to the bases with turned bolts with square heads recessed into the base and with
double hexagonal nuts. The nuts shall bear on finished bosses or spot-faced seats. Fits and finishes for caps and bolts
shall be as specified in Article 6.5.1.
4
c. Provision shall be made for the aligning of bearings during erection by means of shims and for the adjustment of the
caps by means of laminated liners or other effective device.
d. Large bearings shall be provided with effective means for cleaning without dismantling the parts.
6.5.8 LININGS (1984) R(2013)
a. Journal bearings normally shall have bronze linings; other lightly loaded bearings may have bronze or babbitt metal
linings. For split bearings, the lining shall be in halves and shall be provided with an effective device to prevent its
rotation under load. The force tending to cause rotation shall be taken as 1/16 of the maximum load on the bearing and
as acting at the outer circumference of the lining. There shall be 1/4 inch clearance between the lining of the cap and
the lining of the base into which laminated liners shall be placed. The inside longitudinal corners of both halves shall
be rounded or chamfered, except for a distance of 3/8 inch from each end or shaft fillet tangent point.

Steel Structures
b. Linings for solid bearings shall be in one piece and shall be pressed into the bearing bore and effectively held against
rotation.
6.5.9 STEP BEARINGS (1984) R(2013)
The bearing ends of vertical shafts running in step bearings shall be of hardened steel, and shall bear on bronze disks.
6.5.10 ROLLER BEARINGS FOR HEAVY LOADS (2003)
a. Roller bearings may be used to support the trunnions of bascule bridges, the counterweight sheave shafts of vertical lift
bridges, and similar shafts carrying heavy loads. Roller bearings shall not be used on trunnions of bascule bridges that
are subject to uplift due to live load. Each roller bearing shall be of a type, or shall be so mounted, that the deflection of
the shaft will produce no overloading of any part of the bearing or housing. The bearing rollers shall be relatively short
for their diameter, shall be closely spaced in bronze cages, and shall run between hardened-steel races, mounted in the
housing and on the shaft. The bearing mountings on each shaft shall be such that the shaft shall be restrained from axial
movement by one mounting, and shall be free to move in the other mounting.
b. The ratio of length to diameter of any roller or roller segment shall not exceed 3.25. For segmented rollers the ratio of
total length of roller to diameter shall not exceed 6.5.
c. Cylindrical roller bearings shall be provided with anti-friction thrust bearings capable of restraining an axial thrust
equal to l5% of the total radial load on the shaft or trunnion. Spherical or tapered roller bearings shall be proportioned
for an axial load equal to 15% of the total radial load on the shaft or trunnion combined with the radial load on the
bearing.
d. Each roller bearing shall be mounted in an oil- and water-tight steel housing, which shall be provided with means for
replenishing the lubricant and arranged for convenient access for thorough cleaning of the operating parts.
e. Rollers and races shall be of special steel proposed by the manufacturer, which shall have Rockwell C hardness not less
than 58 for the rollers and not less than 56 for the races. Bearings shall be made by a manufacturer of established
reputation who has had bearings of comparable size of the same materials and type in successful service for at least 10
years.
6.5.11 ROLLER AND BALL BEARINGS (1997) R(2003)
a. Roller and ball bearings shall be so sized that under the loads and resistances specified in Section 6.3, Loads, Forces
and Stresses, and at the average running speed at which the bearing is applied, the B-10 life shall be at least 40,000
hours. (B-10 life shall be as defined by the ABMA and shall be the time for which 90% of a group of identical bearings
will survive under the given loading conditions).
b. Bearings separately mounted in pillow blocks shall be self-aligning. Housings shall be cast steel and may be one piece
or split on the center line. Where pillow blocks are exposed to dirt or moisture, seals shall be provided. Split housings
shall have positive means to align the cap with the base.
When loads are in a direction other than directly into the base, the housings, cap bolts, alignment devices for split
housings, and the base mounting bolts shall have adequate strength and stiffness to resist the lateral and uplift
components of the loads without adverse effects on the roller and ball bearing elements.
6.5.12 SPEED REDUCERS (2010)
a. Main drive train helical, herringbone and bevel gear speed reducers shall be designed and manufactured in accordance
with the requirements of AGMA Standard 6010.

Movable Bridges
b. Gears shall be finished to AGMA 2000 quality 10 or better.
c. Gear teeth shall be through hardened.
d. Anti-friction bearings shall be used on all shafts and shall have a minimum B-10 rating of 40,000 hours. They shall be
automatically and continuously lubricated. An independently driven lubrication system shall be provided when the
operating speed of the reducer is too slow for normal integral lubrication.
e. Housings shall have provisions for filling, draining and ventilation.
f. Provision shall be made for indicating the oil level by means of a sight gage. The recommended oil level shall be
permanently marked on the housing, adjacent to the sight gage.
g. A gasketed inspection cover, preferably located above the static oil level, shall be provided.
h. The reducer shall be able to withstand a momentary overload equal to three times the normal full load torque of the
driving motor(s) without any component reaching yield. To achieve this, the minimum service factors shall be 1.0 for
durability and 1.5 for strength (bending) based on the full load torque/horsepower of the electric motor(s).
i. Reducers driven by internal combustion engines or hydraulic motors shall be selected considering the speed-torque
characteristics of the engine or motor.
j. Pinions shall be proportioned so that the root diameter of the pinion is not smaller in diameter than the diameter of the
journals for the pinion shaft.
1
k. Base plates for the reducers shall be large enough to give unobstructed access for drilling and reaming the mounting
holes.
6.5.13 LUBRICATION (2008)1
a. Provision shall be made for effective lubrication of sliding surfaces and of roller and ball bearings. Lubricating devices 3
shall be readily accessible.
b. Each sliding bearing requiring lubrication shall have a high pressure grease fitting, containing a small receiving ball or
cone check valve, made of steel, that will receive the grease and close against back pressure. These fittings shall be
connected to the linings of bearings by means of corrosion resisting pipe, which shall be screwed into the lining
through a hole in the cap. Where the bearings are not readily accessible, the fittings shall be placed where they will be
accessible, and shall be connected to the bearings by means of corrosion resisting pipe. 4
c. Grease ducts shall be so located that the lubricant will tend to flow, by gravity, toward the bearing surface. Grooves
shall be provided, wherever necessary, for the proper distribution of the lubricant.
d. Grooves for trunnion bearings may be cut in either the shaft or the lining. Such grooves shall be straight, parallel to the
axis of the shaft, and for large bearings no fewer than three shall be provided. Grooves shall be so located that the entire
bearing surface will be swept by lubricant in one movement of opening or closing the bridge, or in 90 degree rotation
of the shaft, whichever is less. Each such groove shall be served with lubricant by a separate pressure fitting. The
grooves shall be of such size that a 5/16 inch diameter wire will lie wholly within the groove and their bottoms shall be
rounded to a 1/4 inch radius. The grooves shall be accessible for cleaning with a wire.
e. Grooves for counterweight sheave sleeve bearings may be in accordance with the requirements of the foregoing
paragraph but should be spiral grooves cut in the lining and served with pressure fittings. A cleanout hole shall be
1

Steel Structures
provided in the bearing base and connected to the lowest point of the spiral grooves so that the journal surface can be
cleaned and the grooves flushed out.
f. In disk bearings, straight grooves shall be cut in the upper of the two rubbing surfaces in contact. The grooves shall be
not less than 1/4 inch wide and deep, and the corners shall be rounded to a radius not less than half the width of the
groove. The corners at the bottom of the grooves shall be filleted to eliminate all sharp corners.
g. Small bearings with light bearing pressures and slow or intermittent motion, and not readily accessible, may be
lubricated with self-lubricating bushings. Such bushings shall be of a type which will not be injured by the application
of oil. The bearings shall be provided with oil holes for emergency lubrication, and the oil holes shall be fitted with
readily removable screw plugs.
h. Hand-operated grease guns having a capacity of 12 oz shall be provided to service all lubrication fittings. There shall
also be provided portable loaders of 25-lb capacity and a loader for use with 100-lb grease drums. All necessary
adapters shall be provided for the equipment.
i. Two guns shall be furnished for each swing and bascule span, and three guns for each lift span. One portable loader and
one drum loader shall be furnished for each movable bridge.
j. All lubricants for a given component shall be chemically compatible, including the lubricant used in manufacture and
the lubricant that will be field applied. For any component on which a new lubricant is to be applied that is not
chemically compatible with the existing lubricant, all traces of the existing lubricant shall be thoroughly cleaned and
flushed from the component before applying the new lubricant.
6.5.14 SHAFTS (1983) R(2003)
a. For shafts supporting their own weight only, the unsupported length of the shaft shall not exceed:
2⁄3
L = 80 ( d )
where:
L = length of shaft between bearings, inch

d = diameter of shaft, inch
b. Shafts likely to be thrown out of line by the deflection of the supporting structure shall be made in non-continuous
lengths. The arrangement should be such that only angular misalignment need be provided by the couplings with offset
misalignment provided for by a floating shaft. Each length of shaft should rest in not more than two bearings.
c. Shafts shall be proportioned so that the angular strain in degrees per foot of length under the maximum loads will not
exceed the following limits:
(1) For shafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6

-------
d
(2) For more rigid drives where less spring is desirable,
as in shafts driving end-lifting devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.08
where:
d = the shaft diameter, inch

Movable Bridges
NOTE: Where the diameter exceeds 7.5 inches, requirement 1 governs.
d. Line shafts connecting the machinery at the center of the bridge with that at the ends shall be designed to run at fairly
high speed, the speed reduction being made in the machinery at the end. The maximum speed of line shafts shall not
exceed 2/3 of the critical speed of any section of the shaft.
e. Shafts transmitting power for the operation of the bridge, and shafts 4 feet or more in length forming part of the
operating machinery of rail locks and bridge locks, shall not be less than 2-1/2 inches dia.
f. Journals on cold-rolled shafting shall not be turned down. Pinions may be forged integral with their shafts.
6.5.15 SHAFT COUPLINGS (1983) R(2013)
a. Where practicable, all couplings used in connection with the machinery shall be standard manufactured flexible
couplings placed close to the bearings.
b. Couplings between machinery units should be of the gear type, providing for angular misalignment or for both angular
and offset misalignment.
c. Couplings connecting machinery shafts to electric motor or internal combustion engine shafts shall be flexible
couplings, transmitting the torque through metal parts and providing for both misalignment and shock.
d. Machinery shafts supported and assembled so as to avoid any misalignment between the shafts may be connected by
flange couplings. The bolt heads and nuts shall be seated in recesses or protected by flanges. The couplings shall be 1
cylindrical.
e. Couplings used to connect instrument drives or other small units to large units shall preferably have short floating
shafts between the units to minimize participation stresses in the small units.
f. All coupling and shaft fits and finishes shall meet the requirements of Article 6.5.1 for hubs on shafts. Couplings shall
be keyed to the shafts. The couplings shall in all cases be fitted to their shafts in the shop. 3
6.5.16 LONGITUDINAL THRUST (1983) R(2003)
Wheels and similar parts shall be securely fastened, to prevent longitudinal movement, by set screws through the hub, or by
clamps around the shaft. Provision shall be made to hold bevel gears and worm wheels against movement along the shaft. The
axial thrust from bevel gears shall be taken by the shaft bearing by means of a loose bronze washer between the gear hub and
the face of the bearing, or by an equivalent means.
4
6.5.17 COLLARS (1997) R(2003)
Collars shall be provided wherever necessary to prevent the shaft from moving axially. There shall be at least two set screws,
120 degrees apart, in each collar. The set screws shall have dog points, and the shafts shall be counterbored for the set screws.
The edges of the holes shall be peened over the set screws after the collars are adjusted. Where a shaft or trunnion receives an
axial force, a thrust bearing shall be provided to prevent axial movement.
6.5.18 GEAR TEETH (1983) R(2003)
a. Gear teeth, unless specifically specified otherwise, shall be machine cut, shall be of the involute type, and shall have a
pressure angle of 20 degrees. Gears in general shall have straight spur teeth of full depth. For special applications, stub
teeth may be used. For tooth speeds over 1200 feet per min, and for tooth speeds over 500 feet per min, where quiet
operation is desired, helical gears shall preferably be used. Helical gears shall be assembled in a common frame, shall

Steel Structures
be fully enclosed in a metal housing, and shall run in oil; they shall be assembled so that one gear of each pair of
mating gears may have a slight axial movement to permit operation at the correct location relative to the other gear.
Unless otherwise specified, all gear teeth shall be cut from solid rims.
b. For full-depth spur gear teeth, the addendum shall be not more than 0.3183 of the circular pitch and the tooth thickness
measured on the pitch circle shall be 0.495 of the circular pitch. For stub teeth, the addendum shall be not more than
0.2546 of the circular pitch.
c. The face width of a spur gear shall be not less than 1.5 times the circular pitch. The face width of a bevel gear shall be
not more than one-third of the slant height of the pitch cone, nor more than 3 times the circular pitch at the middle
section of the tooth.
d. The circular pitch of spur gears, other than motor pinions, transmitting power for moving the span, shall be not less
than 1 inch, and for motor pinions not less than 3/4 inch. The circular pitch for main rack teeth shall be not less than
1-1/2 inches.
e. Pinions shall have not less than 15 teeth. Rack pinions should have not less than 17 teeth. Motor pinions should have
not less than 19 teeth.
f. Helical gear teeth shall be cut to the same normal profile as spur gear teeth. The helical angle shall be not less than 23
degrees and not more than 30 degrees. The net width of face, measured parallel to the axis of the bore, shall be not less
than 3 times the circular pitch nor more than 1.5 times the pitch diameter of the pinion.
6.5.19 STRENGTH OF GEAR TEETH (1983) R(2003)
a. In the design of spur gears, bevel gears, and helical gears, the load shall be taken as applied to only one tooth.
b. The tooth profile for spur, bevel and helical gears shall be the 20 degrees, full depth or stub, involute and shall be of the
proportions stated in Article 6.5.18.
c. The allowable load on gear teeth shall conform to the following formulas:
(1) Spur gears and bevel gears:
(a) For full-depth involute teeth:
0.912 600
W = psf ⎛ 0.154 – -------------⎞ -------------------
⎝ n ⎠ 600 + V
(b) For stub involute teeth:
W = psf ⎛ 0.178 – 1.033 600 -

-------------⎞ ------------------
⎝ n ⎠ 600 + V
(2) Helical teeth, full depth:
0.912 1200
W = 0.7psf ⎛ 0.154 – -------------⎞ ----------------------
⎝ n ⎠ 1200 + V

Movable Bridges
where:
W = allowable tooth load, lb

p = circular pitch, inch
s = permissible unit stress, psi
f = effective face width, inch
n = number of teeth in gear
V = velocity of pitch circle, feet per min.
d. The effective face width for spur and bevel gears shall be the full face width up to 3 times the circular pitch; for greater
face widths, the effective width shall be 3 times the circular pitch but not less than one-half the full width.
e. The effective face width for helical gears shall be the net active width of face measured parallel to the axis of the bore.
f. For calculating the strength of bevel gear teeth, the middle section of the tooth shall be taken. The number of teeth “n”
in the above formulas for bevel gear teeth shall be the formative number which, for the pinion, is determined as
follows:
np 2
n = np 1 + ⎛ ------⎞
⎝ ng⎠
where: 1
np = actual number of teeth in pinion

ng = actual number of teeth in gear
g. The basic allowable stresses, psi, for cut gear teeth of all types shall be:
3
Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,000
Cast steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,000
Class C forged carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . 20,000
Class D forged carbon steel. . . . . . . . . . . 22,500
Forged alloy steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60% of tensile yield point, but not more than 4
1/3 of ultimate tensile strength.
h. The basic allowable stress, psi, for machine molded teeth shall be:
Cast steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,000
i. For racks and their pinions and for all other mating gears and pinions which are not supported in and shop-assembled
in a common frame, the basic allowable stresses shall be decreased 20%.

Steel Structures
6.5.20 WORM GEARING (2003)
a. Except for the end and center wedges of swing bridges, worm gearing should not be used for transmitting power. In
calculating the strength of worm gear teeth, the load transmitted shall be taken as equally distributed between two
teeth. If used for span operating machinery, worm gearing shall be designed to be back driven without damage.
b. Worm gear reducers for transmitting power should be commercial units selected on the basis of their rating under the
American Gear Manufacturers Association recommended practice. The helix angle of the worm shall be not less than
20 degrees. The worms shall be heat-treated alloy steel forgings and the gear shall be bronze. The thread of the worm
shall be ground and polished, and the teeth of the gear shall be accurately cut to the correct profile. The worm and gear-
thrust loads shall be taken by anti-friction bearings, mounted in water and oil tight housings. The unit shall be mounted
in a steel or cast iron housing and the lubrication shall be continuous while in operation.
c. Worm gear units used for end and center wedges of swing bridges shall be self-locking.
6.5.21 SCREW GEARING AND CAMS (1983) R(2013)
a. Except for end lifts and center wedges of swing bridges, screw gearing should not be used for transmitting power.
b. Screws and nuts for transmitting power shall be cut with 29 degree general purpose Acme thread. Anti-friction
bearings shall be provided to carry all thrust loads. The unit shall be mounted in an oil and watertight housing and
provided with continuous lubrication. The screw and nut shall be made of dissimilar metals, preferably steel and
bronze.
c. Cams and similar devices transmitting power by line or point contact shall not be used.
6.5.22 HUBS (1983) R(2010)
a. Where practicable, the length of all hubs shall be not less than the diameter of the bore, and for gears also not less than
1.25 times the width of the teeth. The thickness of the hub should not be less than 0.4 of the diameter of the bore.
b. Unless otherwise specified, all hub and shaft fits and finishes shall meet the requirements of Article 6.5.1. Hubs shall
be provided with keys designed to carry the total torque.
c. Bascule trunnion hubs that are to fit tightly into structural parts shall have an ANSI Class FN2 fit therein, and shall be
secured against rotation by keys or bolts.
6.5.23 KEYS AND KEYWAYS FOR MACHINERY PARTS (2003) R(2010)
a. Keys for securing machinery parts to shafts shall be parallel-faced, square or flat, except that tapered keys may be used
to meet special requirements. All keys shall be fitted into keyways sunk into the hub and shaft. Preferably, the keyways
in the shaft shall have closed ends, which shall be milled to a semi-circle equal to the width of the key. Keyways shall
not extend into any bearing.
b. Keys that are not set into closed-end keyways shall be held by safety set screws, or other effective means; in vertical
shafts, collars clamped about the shafts, or similar devices, shall be used.
c. In hubs of spoked wheels, the keyways shall be located in the centers of the spokes. If two keys are required, they shall
be placed 120 degrees apart.
d. All keys shall have a width not greater than one-quarter of the shaft diameter and the thickness of flat keys shall be
approximately three-quarters of their width.

Movable Bridges
e. Details of keys and keyways shall conform to ANSI B17.1 except for the fit of keys which is covered in Table 15-6-5.
6.5.24 KEYS FOR TRUNNIONS (1983) R(2010)
a. The foregoing requirements for keys and keyways are for machinery parts, whose use is intended to develop the full
torsional strength of the shaft.
b. For trunnions and similar parts which are designed chiefly for bending and bearing, the keys and keyways shall be
proportioned simply to hold the trunnion from rotating. The force tending to cause rotation shall be taken as one-fifth
of the load on the trunnion acting at the circumference of the trunnion.
6.5.25 BOLTS AND NUTS (2003)
a. Bolts for connecting machinery parts to each other or to steel supporting members shall conform to one of the
following types:
(1) Finished, high-strength bolts.
(2) Turned bolts, turned cap screws, and turned studs.
(3) High-strength turned bolts, turned cap screws, and turned studs.
b. Finished high-strength bolts shall meet the requirements of ASTM A449. High-strength bolts shall have finished
bodies and regular hexagonal heads. Holes for high-strength bolts shall be not more than 0.01 inch larger than the 1
actual diameter of individual bolts and will require drilling holes to match the tolerances for each bolt. The clearance
shall be checked with 0.011 inch wire. The hole shall be considered too large if the wire can be inserted in the hole
together with the bolt.
c. Turned bolts, turned cap screws, and turned studs shall have turned shanks and cut threads. Turned bolts shall have
semi-finished, washer-faced, hexagonal heads and nuts. Turned cap screws shall have finished, washer-faced,
hexagonal heads. Finished shanks of turned fasteners shall be 1/16 inch larger in diameter than the diameter of the 3
thread, which shall determine the head and nut dimensions. The shanks of turned fasteners shall have Class LT1 fit in
the finished holes in accordance with ANSI Standard B4.1. The material for the turned shank fasteners shall meet the
requirements of ASTM A307, Grade A.
d. High-strength turned bolts, turned cap screws, and turned stud details shall be as specified in paragraph c, except that
the material shall meet the requirements of ASTM A449.
4
e. Elements connected by bolts shall be drilled or reamed assembled to assure accurate alignment of the hole and accurate
fit over the entire length of the bolt within the specified limit.
f. The dimensions of bolt heads, nuts, castle nuts, and hexagonal head cap screws shall be in accordance with ANSI
Standard B18.2, Square and Hexagon Bolts and Nuts.
g. Heads and nuts for turned bolts, screws, and studs shall be heavy series.
h. The dimensions of socket-head cap screws and socket flathead cap screws shall conform to ANSI Standard B18.3. The
screws shall be made of heat-treated alloy steel, cadmium-plated, and furnished with a self-locking nylon pellet
embedded in the threaded section.
i. Threads for bolts, nuts, and cap screws shall conform to the coarse thread series and shall have a Class 2 tolerance for
bolts and nuts or Class 2A tolerance for bolts and Class 2B tolerance for nuts in accordance with ANSI Standard B1.1,
Unified Inch Screw Threads.

Steel Structures
j. Bolt holes through unfinished surfaces shall be spotfaced for the head, nut, and washer, square with the axis of the hole.
k. Unless otherwise called for, bolt holes in machinery parts or connecting these parts to the supporting steel work shall
be subdrilled at least 1/32 inch smaller in diameter than the bolt diameter. They shall be reamed for the proper fit at
assembly or at erection with the steel work after the parts are correctly and finally assembled and aligned and the
supporting steel work subdrilled.
l. Holes in shims and fills for machinery parts shall be reamed or drilled to the same tolerances as the connected parts at
final assembly.
m. Positive locks of an approved type shall be furnished for nuts, except those of ASTM A449 bolts which are tensioned
at installation to at least 70% of their required minimum tensile strength. If double nuts are used, they shall be used for
connections requiring occasional opening or adjustment. If lock washers are used for securing, they shall be made of
tempered steel and shall conform to the SAE regular dimensions. The material shall meet the SAE tests for temper and
toughness.
n. High-strength bolts shall be installed with a hardened plain washer meeting ASTM F436 at each end.
o. Wherever possible, high-strength bolts connecting machinery parts to structural parts or other machinery parts shall be
inserted through the thinner element into the thicker element.
p. Cotters shall conform to the SAE standard dimensions and shall be made of half-round stainless steel wire, ASTM
A276, Type 316.
q. Anchor bolts connecting machinery parts to masonry shall be ASTM A307, Grade A or Grade C material, hot-dipped
galvanized per ASTM A153. Bolts shall be as shown on the masonry drawings. Anchor bolts for new construction
should be cast-in-place and not drilled. The Engineer shall specify the material and loading requirements for the given
design condition. When these fasteners connect a mechanical component directly to the concrete, filler material must
be put in the annular space between the bolt and the bolt hole in the machinery component. The filler material may be
a non-shrink grout, tin based babbitt metal, or zinc.
r. Nuts shall be of material and grade to match or exceed the strength of the bolts on which they are used.
s. Fasteners shall be of North American manufacture and shall be clearly marked with the manufacturer’s designation.
6.5.26 SET SCREWS (1997) R(2010)

Set screws shall not be used for transmitting torsion; they may be used for holding keys or light parts in place. They shall be
safety-type headless set screws with dog points, set in counterbored seats. Unless otherwise ordered, they shall be secured in
position by peening over the holes, or by welding.
6.5.27 TAPPED HOLES (1983) R(2010)

Machinery parts shall not be joined together or mounted on structural supports by means of bolts or studs in tapped holes,
except by special permission of the Engineer. This does not apply to joints in component parts of standard manufactured items.
6.5.28 SPRINGS (1983) R(2010)

Springs should not be used to actuate any moving part. For electric parts, preference will be given to those having the fewest
springs.

Movable Bridges
6.5.29 EQUALIZERS (1983) R(2002)

The net section back of the pinhole in equalizing levers shall be not less than the net section in tension required to carry the
load on the pin. The net section through the pinhole shall be not less than 140% of the required net section in tension.
6.5.30 COVERS (2003)

a. Dust covers shall be provided where necessary to protect sliding and rotating surfaces and prevent dust from mixing
with lubricants.
b. Gear safety guards shall be provided for gears in machinery houses.
c. Shaft safety guards shall be provided for shafts in machinery houses.
d. Where gears or sheaves are located where falling objects may foul them, they shall be protected by easily removed
metal covers.
e. Counterweight sheave rims shall be covered to protect them from the weather.
6.5.31 SAFETY DEVICES (1983) R(2002)
Safety devices such as hand rails, chains and cages shall be installed where needed. Applicable safety regulations shall be
observed.
1
6.5.32 DRAIN HOLES (1983) R(2002)
Drain holes not less than 1 inch diameter shall be provided at places where water is likely to collect.
6.5.33 COMPRESSED AIR DEVICES (2003)

3
Mechanical devices powered by compressed air may be used for the operation of center wedges, end lifts, centering devices,
and sliding rail locks. Air motors may be used for emergency power for span operating machinery. Means shall be provided
to keep compressed air systems free of condensed moisture and ice.
6.5.34 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SWING BRIDGES (2003)1
6.5.34.1 Center Bearing 4

Center-bearing swing bridges shall be so designed that when the bridge is swinging, the entire weight of the moving span is
carried on a center pivot, and when the bridge is closed, the trusses or girders rest at the center on wedges. Adjustment for
height shall be provided.
6.5.34.2 Rim Bearing
a. The load on the rim girder of a rim-bearing or combined rim- and center-bearing swing bridge shall be distributed
equally among the bearing points, which shall be spaced equally around the rim girder.
b. Rigid struts firmly anchored to the rim girder shall connect the rim girder to a center pivot. A strut shall be attached to
the rim girder at each bearing point, and at intermediate points where required. No fewer than eight struts shall be used
in any case.
1

Steel Structures
c. The rim girder shall be designed so that the load will be properly distributed over the rollers. For designing the girder,
the loads shall be assumed to be distributed equally to all rollers. The span length shall be taken as the developed length
of the girder between adjacent bearing points, and this length shall be considered fixed at both ends. The girder shall be
designed in accordance with the requirements for plate girders.
d. The lower track shall be designed to distribute the roller load uniformly over the masonry.
6.5.34.3 Combined Bearing
In a combined rim and center-bearing swing bridge, a definite portion of the load, not less than 15%, shall be carried to the
center pivot by radial girders attached rigidly to the center pivot and to the rim.
6.5.34.4 Shear Over Center
In swing bridges having a center truss panel, this panel shall be so designed that shear will not be carried past the center. The
web members of such a panel shall be strong enough to secure the bridge against longitudinal wind pressure when it is open.
6.5.34.5 End Wedges and Center Wedges
End wedges of swing bridges shall be arranged to center the closed bridge accurately, unless a separate device is used to center
the bridge. The end and center wedges shall be so designed that the action of the moving load cannot cause displacement of the
end supports and wedges in case of failure or disconnection of the mechanism which actuates the end lift. The end and center
wedges shall be so designed as to permit adjustment, and may be operated by the same mechanism. (See Commentary)
6.5.34.6 Rim Girders
a. Rim girders shall be provided with stiffeners on both sides of the web at points of concentrated loading. These
stiffeners shall be milled or ground to fit tightly against both flanges. The distance between adjacent intermediate
stiffeners shall not exceed 2 feet. On rim girders exceeding 5 feet depth, alternate intermediate stiffeners may extend
only one-half the depth of the girder, unless required to be of full depth to stiffen the web. The thickness of the
stiffeners shall be not less than one-eighth of their width. The tread plate for the rollers shall be securely fastened to the
rim girder and shall be from 2 inches to 3 inches thick, depending on the weight of the bridge. The rim girder flange
angles shall be not smaller than 6″×4″×3/4″. For welded construction, the flange plates shall not be less than 1 inch
thick.
b. Provisions shall be made for jacking the entire span.
6.5.34.7 Center Pivots
a. Center pivots shall consist of disk bearings, upon which the span revolves, and supporting pedestals. Disk bearings
shall consist of two disks, one of phosphor bronze and one of hardened steel.
b. Center pivots shall be so designed that the disks may be taken out and replaced while the bridge is closed, without
interfering with the operation of trains over the bridge. The disks shall be so anchored that sliding will take place only
at the surface of contact.
6.5.34.8 Balance Wheels
a. For power operated center bearing bridges, no fewer than eight wheels, running on a circular track, shall be provided to
limit the tilting of the bridge and to carry the wind load to the track while the bridge is swinging. The balance wheel
bearings shall be adjustable for height, preferably by shims between the superstructure and the seats of the bearings.
For short, single track, hand operated bridges, four wheels may be used.
b. Fits and finishes for wheel hubs on shafts shall meet the requirements of Article 6.5.1. The axles shall rotate in bronze
lined bearings, with means for lubrication.

Movable Bridges
6.5.34.9 Rack and Track
The rack and track of swing bridges shall be made in sections, preferably not less than 6 feet long. The track shall be deep
enough to ensure good distribution of the balance wheel or roller loads to the masonry, and not less than 4 inches for rim-
bearing bridges. If a cast track is used and the loads are light, as in center bearing bridges, the rack and track segments should
be cast in one piece. In rim bearing bridges, the rack shall be cast separately from the track, so that the parts may be easily
removed for repairs. The joints in the rack and track shall be staggered. The track shall be anchored to the masonry by bolts not
less than 1-1/2 inches diameter, extending at least 12 inches into the masonry, and set in non-shrink grout. The track of hand
operated, center bearing bridges shall have an ample number of anchor bolts so that the mortar or grout in which they are set
will not be crushed by the tractive force developed when turning the bridge. Where center bearing bridges are operated by
mechanical power, the track shall be anchored down by bolts, and the tractive force developed when turning the bridge shall be
taken by lugs extending down into the masonry and set in non-shrink grout or concrete.
6.5.34.10 Main Pinion Shaft Bearings
a. Where two main pinions are used they shall be placed diametrically opposite, and where four pinions are used, they
shall be placed in pairs which shall be diametrically opposite.
b. Each main pinion shaft shall be supported in a double bearing, which shall be provided with bolted caps, split linings,
and liners, to permit easy removal of the pinion shaft and to provide adjustment for wear. A bronze thrust collar shall
be provided at the top bearing to carry the weight of the pinion, shaft and gear. The double bearing and its supports
shall have ample strength and stiffness for the maximum pinion load, including effects of maximum acceleration and
deceleration forces, and shall be rigidly attached to the rim girder or superstructure.
c. Sufficient shims shall be provided between the bearing base and the steelwork to provide for any necessary adjustment 1
in position of the bearing. Where practicable, the bearings shall be shipped assembled to the steelwork, with the shims
in place.
6.5.34.11 Equalizing Devices
Power operated swing spans shall have no fewer than two main pinions. These pinions shall be connected by mechanical
devices which will equalize the torques at the pinions, unless such equalization is provided by other means acceptable to the 3
Engineer.
6.5.35 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BASCULE BRIDGES (2013)
6.5.35.1 Rail End Connections
Where rail end connections are of the sliding-lock type, the sliding locks at the heel end of the bridge shall be on the approach.
4
6.5.35.2 Centering Devices
Bascule bridges shall be equipped with self centering devices at the toe end. Transverse centering shall be accomplished by a
device preferably located on the centerline of the bridge as near the track level as practicable, with a clearance not to exceed
1/16 inch.
6.5.35.3 Locking Devices
There shall be a locking device at the end for each girder or truss to force down and hold down the toe end to its seats.
6.5.35.4 Air Buffers
Power operated bridges shall be equipped with air buffers, except as permitted in Article 6.5.3, to aid in stopping the span
smoothly in either the open or closed positions. Single track bridges having girders or trusses not more than 10 feet (3 m)

Steel Structures
center to center shall have one air buffer at the toe end of the bridge. All other bridges shall have two air buffers at the toe end
of the bridge.
6.5.35.5 Segmental Girders and Track Girders
a. The flanges of segmental and track girders of rolling lift bridges shall be symmetrical about the central planes of the
webs. Central planes of webs of segmental girders shall coincide with the central planes of webs of the track girders.
The treads attached to the segmental girders and track girders shall be steel castings, steel forgings or rolled steel
plates, and shall not be considered as part of the flanges of these girders.
b. The allowable line bearing load per linear inch between treads for segments having a diameter of 120 inches or more
shall not exceed:
( F y – 15, 000 )
( 12 , 000 + 80D ) ----------------------------------
20, 000
where:
D = the diameter of the segment, inch

Fy = the yield point of the material, psi
c. The thickness of solid tread plates shall not be less than 3 inches plus 0.004 D. The effective length of line bearing for
solid tread plates shall not exceed the thickness of the web of the segmental or track girder, plus the thickness of the
side plates, plus 1.6 times the thickness of the tread plate. The edges of the webs and side plates, and the backs of the
flange angles, shall be machined so as to bear continuously on the tread plate.
d. The bearing stress of the tread plates on the web plate shall not exceed one-half the yield point of the material. The
length of the area in bearing shall be taken as 2.0 times the least thickness of the tread and the width as the thickness of
the web plus the effective thickness of the side plates for calculation purposes. Flange angles shall not be considered as
transmitting any load from the web to the treads, and the bearing value of side plates shall not exceed the strength of
those fasteners or welds connecting them to the web which are included between diverging lines in the plane of the web
that intersect in the line contact between the treads and that make an angle with the normal to the rolling surfaces at that
point whose tangent is 0.8. The load, as used in this paragraph, shall be the dead weight of the structure alone.
e. Tread plates may be flange and web castings. The edge thickness of the rolling flange shall be not less than 3 inches
and the flange thickness at the face of the web of the casting shall be such that the bearing stress on the web of the
casting shall not exceed one-half the yield point of the material, the length of bearing being taken as 2.0 times the depth
from the rolling face to the plane under consideration.
f. Solid tread plates on segmental girders shall have a radius slightly smaller than the segmental girders in order to secure
tight contact with the girders throughout their length when drawn up with the attaching bolts.
g. Where not otherwise specified on the plans, all tread plates shall be made as long as practicable. Where tread plates are
made in segments, the faces of the tread plates at the joints between the segments shall be in planes at right angles to
the rolling surface and preferably at an angle of 45 degrees to 60 degrees with the longitudinal centerline of the tread
plate.
h. Those portions of the segmental and track girders, which are in contact when the bridge is closed, shall be designed for
the sum of the dead load, the live load, and an impact load equal to the live load. Under this loading, the allowable line
bearing shall be 150% of that given in paragraph b above.
i. The segmental and track girders shall be reinforced with stiffeners and diaphragms.

Movable Bridges
6.5.35.6 Location of Machinery
The machinery should be located on the stationary part of the bridge.
There shall be mechanical devices on bascule bridges to equalize the torques at the two main pinions, unless such equalization
is provided by other means acceptable to the Engineer.
6.5.36 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR VERTICAL LIFT BRIDGES (1997)1
6.5.36.1 Centering Devices
Bridges shall be equipped with self centering devices at each end. Transverse centering shall be accomplished by devices
located on the center line of bridge, as near the track level as practicable, with a clearance not to exceed 1/16 inch. For truss
bridges these centering devices shall be supplemented by close transverse centering of the unloaded chords, accomplished by
special centering devices or by the span guides.
6.5.36.2 Locking Devices
Vertical lift bridges shall be equipped with locking devices to prevent the span from rising after it has been seated by the
operating machinery. At each end there shall be a locking device on the center line of bridge for single track bridges, and a
locking device at each outside girder or truss for multiple track bridges.
1
6.5.36.3 Span Guides
The lift span and its counterweights shall be held in position transversely and longitudinally during movement by means of
guides engaging guide flanges on the towers. Truss spans shall have transverse guides at both top and bottom chords. Guides
may be of either the sliding or the rolling type. The ends of guide flanges shall be planed smooth. The guides shall be
adjustable, and shall preferably be set to provide a normal running clearance of 3/8 inch. For the seated position of the span,
the clearance may be reduced to 1/8 inch. 3
6.5.36.4 Air Buffers
a. Power operated vertical lift bridges shall be equipped with air buffers, except as permitted in Article 6.5.3, to aid in
seating the span smoothly. Single track bridges having girders or trusses not more than 10 feet center to center, shall
have an air buffer at each end of the bridge. All other bridges shall have two air buffers at each end of the bridge.
4
b. Power-operated bridges shall be equipped with air buffers, except as permitted in Article 6.5.3, to aid in stopping both
the moving span and counterweights without damage to the structure, in the event that the span is raised above the
prescribed limit.
6.5.36.5 Counterweight Pockets
The balance-block pockets shall be placed as near the ends of the counterweights as practicable, in order to aid in securing the
required balance between the lift span and the counterweights at each of the four corners of the span.
6.5.36.6 Clearance Below Counterweights
The counterweights shall clear the track rails by not less than 5 feet when the span is fully open. In computing this clearance
the counterweight ropes shall be assumed to stretch 1% of their length in addition to the elastic elongation.
1

Steel Structures
Vertical lift spans operated through pinions engaging racks on the counterweight sheaves shall have devices to equalize the
torques at the rack pinions when two counterweight sheaves and two pinions are used at each corner of the span. Equalizing
devices shall not be used between pinions on opposite sides of the span, but adjusting devices shall be provided between such
pinions, to permit transverse leveling of each end of the span.
6.5.36.8 Counterweight Sheaves
a. For main counterweight ropes, the pitch diameter of the sheave, center to center of ropes, shall be not less than 72 times
the rope diameter, and preferably not less than 80 times. For auxiliary counterweight ropes, the pitch diameter of the
sheave shall be not less than 60 times the rope diameter.
b. Counterweight sheaves shall have shrink fits on their shafts, and shall be secured by driving-fit dowels set in holes
drilled after the sheave is shrunk onto the shaft.
c. The shape of the grooves shall conform as closely as feasible to the rope cross-section so that the ropes run freely in the
grooves without flattening. The distance center to center of grooves shall not be less than 1/4 inch more than the
diameter of the rope.
6.5.36.9 Operating Drums and Deflector Sheaves
a. For operating ropes, the diameter of the drums and deflector sheaves shall be not less than 45 times the rope diameter,
and preferably not less than 48 times, except for deflector sheaves with small angles of contact between rope and
sheave.
b. Operating drums shall have pressed fits on their shafts, and in addition shall have keys designed to carry the total
torque to be transmitted to the shafts.
c. The shape of the grooves shall conform as closely as feasible to the rope cross section. The distance center to center of
grooves shall not be less than 1/8 inch more than the diameter of the rope.
d. Deflector sheaves shall generally have the same diameter as the drums. Intermediate deflector sheaves shall be
provided as necessary to prevent rubbing of the ropes on other parts and to avoid excessive rope sag. When operating
ropes have small angles of contact with deflector sheaves, the sheaves shall be supported on roller or ball bearings and
shall be designed as light as practicable to ensure easy turning and minimum rope slippage in starting and stopping.
e. All deflector sheaves shall have deep grooves to prevent displacement of the ropes.
6.5.36.10 Welded Sheaves
a. Sheaves fabricated by welding shall be made of structural steel, ASTM A36 or A709 Grade 36 or of forged carbon
steel, ASTM A668, Class D. The rim shall be fabricated from not more than three pieces of plate. It shall be welded
into a complete ring and the welds ground flush on all four sides before being welded into the sheave assembly. Each
web shall be fabricated from not more than two pieces of plate. Web welds, if used, shall be ground flush on both sides.
The hub shall be made from a one-piece forging.
b. In addition to the strength requirements of Section 6.4, Basic Allowable Stresses and Hydraulic Pressures, the
calculated fatigue stress range, SRfat, of welds and base metal, under conditions of impact load, shall not exceed the
allowable values given in Part 1, Design, Table 15-1-10.

Movable Bridges
c. All welds shall be full-penetration groove welds and made with low hydrogen procedures. Automatic submerged arc
welding shall be used to the greatest extent practicable. After completion of the weldment and before final machining,
the sheave shall be stress relieved.
6.5.36.11 Counterweight Ropes
a. The connections of the counterweight ropes to the lift span and counterweights shall be so made as to permit ready
replacement of any one rope without disturbing the other ropes. Provision shall also be made for replacement of all the
ropes simultaneously, preferably by supporting the counterweights from the towers.
b. On the lift span side, the counterweight ropes shall be separated sufficiently to prevent objectionable slapping of the
ropes against each other while the span is in the closed position. This may be accomplished either by use of widely
spaced grooves on the sheaves, by using deviations of the ropes from a vertical plane, or by other approved means.
c. The transverse deviation of a counterweight rope from a vertical plane through the center of the groove on the sheaves,
should not exceed one-half the spacing of the grooves, shall be the same for all the ropes on a sheave, and shall not
exceed 1 in 40. The longitudinal deviation of a counterweight rope leading from the sheave, measured from a vertical
plane tangent to the pitch diameter of the sheave, shall not exceed l in 30, and shall be the same for all the ropes on a
sheave. These deviations shall not be exceeded on the span side for the lift span in its highest possible position, and on
the counterweight side for the span in the closed position.
d. The several ropes of a group shall have equal loads, accomplished either by adjustment during erection, by fabrication
of the ropes in the shop to the exact required lengths without tolerance with provision for future adjustment if required,
or by use of equalizers.
1
e. The connections of ropes shall be so made that the centerline of the rope adjacent to the socket is at all times at right
angles to the socket pin axis for pin sockets and to the socket bearing face for block sockets. Rope deflector castings or
plates, or equivalent devices, shall be provided near the sockets, where necessary, to accomplish this result.
6.5.36.12 Operating Ropes

3
a. The transverse rope deviation from a plane through the groove of a drum or sheave at right angles to the axis of its shaft
of the drum or sheave shall not exceed 1 in 30, and should not exceed 1 in 40.
b. There shall be at least two full turns of the rope on the operating drum when the span is in the closed or fully open
position and the end of the rope shall be securely clamped to the drum in such a way as to avoid sharp bends in the
wires.
4
c. Turnbuckles or other devices shall be provided for taking up slack in the ropes. The take-ups shall not permit any
rotation of a rope about its axis. Take-ups shall be readily accessible for operation by one man.
6.5.36.13 Balance Chains
Chains for balancing counterweight ropes shall be made of cast iron links, connected by rust-resistant steel pins, placed in
bored or reamed holes. The holes shall be of uniform size, carefully located, and at right angles to the length of the links. The
chains shall hang freely in vertical planes without twists. The pins shall be fitted with washers and round cotter pins.

Steel Structures
6.5.37 HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS (2000) R(2002)
6.5.37.1 Drawings
a. Design drawings and specifications shall conform to ANSI(NFPA/JIC) T2.24.2-1990 System Standard, hereinafter
referred to as the “ANSI System Standard”, Section 6.3, and will be furnished by the Company or, if stated in the
invitation for bids, by the Contractor.
b. Design drawing originals shall be on reproducible material, preferably Mylar.
c. As-built changes made by the Contractor shall be recorded by the Contractor in accordance with ANSI System
Standard, Section 6.4.3.
6.5.37.2 Identification
All hydraulic components shall be identified in accordance with ANSI System Standard, Section 6.5, including those located
within manifolds, mounting plates, pads or fittings.
6.5.37.3 Accessibility
a. All hydraulic components shall be mounted, located and arranged to be readily accessible for adjustment and
maintenance.
b. Hydraulic components shall be located such that the adjustment and maintenance of one component does not disturb
the adjustment or maintenance of another.
c. Connections of flexible lines, fabricated pipe, and tubing runs shall be accessible. Where flexible lines and/or piping
runs terminate in a fitting cluster, clearances should permit securing each threaded joint without disturbing adjacent
piping or equipment. Flexible lines, fabricated pipe, and tubing runs shall be removable without disturbing the
terminal components.
6.5.37.4 Safety
Included are the safety-related requirements from other articles of this section, which have been repeated below primarily for
those interested in this important phase of hydraulic application.
6.5.37.4.1 Safe Circuitry
Hydraulic circuits shall be designed and components selected, applied, mounted, and adjusted to safely provide uninterrupted
operation, extended life, and shall be fail-safe. Circuits shall:
(1) Operate within the component maufacturer’s specifications.
(2) Be protected against overpressure.
(3) Be so designed and applied that surge pressure, overpressure, and loss of pressure do not cause hazard or damage
to the equipment.
(4) Be so designed and constructed that components attached to the equipment are located where they can be safely
serviced.

Movable Bridges
6.5.37.4.2 Control Station Nameplates
A nameplate shall be provided for each control station component and shall be located where it can be easily read by the
equipment operator. The nameplate information shall be pertinent and easily interpreted, providing positive identification of
the control component and its function.
6.5.37.4.3 Emergency Stop and Return Controls
All equipment shall incorporate an emergency stop or return control. Duplicate emergency controls shall be provided at each
operator station. Emergency stops and return controls:
(1) Shall be readily accessible from the operator’s working position.
(2) Shall not release any locating pin, index drive engagement, latch, lock, or clamping device.
(3) Shall operate immediately.
(4) Shall be independent and unaffected by the adjustments of other controls or flow restrictions.
(5) Shall provide a blocking valve upstream in the supply line of the servo valve(s) for emergency stop.
(6) Shall not require energizing any control element.
(7) Shall not require operation of more than one manual control for all emergency functions.
1
(8) Shall not create an additional hazard.
6.5.37.4.4 Two Hand Control
Where pinch points and other movement hazards are exposed to the operating personnel, two-hand manual controls shall be
provided each operator, which: 3
(1) Require maintained actuation of each control throughout the equipment cycle or until the point in the cycle is
reached where the hazard ceases.
(2) Are so located and guarded that operation by means other than both hands is prevented.
(3) Are so designed that the equipment cannot be operated unless both manual controls at each control stations are 4
released between cycles.
6.5.37.4.5 Location of Manual Controls
The location and mounting of manual controls shall:
(1) Place the controls within reach of the equipment operator from the operator’s normal working position(s).
(2) Not require the operator to reach past rotating or moving equipment elements or work in the process to operate the
controls.
(3) Not interfere with the equipment operator’s required working movements.
6.5.37.4.6 Manual Control Levers
Manually activated levers shall move in the same direction as the resulting motion of the related equipment element.

Steel Structures
6.5.37.4.7 Control Media Failure
Hydraulic devices controlled electrically, pneumatically, and/or hydraulically shall be selected and so applied that failure of
the control media does not cause a hazard or damage to the equipment.
6.5.37.4.8 Uncontrolled Movement
The circuits shall be designed to prevent uncontrolled movement and improper sequencing of the hydraulic acuators during all
phases of the equipment cycle, including pump idling, starting, and stopping.
6.5.37.4.9 Counterbalancing
On vertical and inclined equipment slides, rams, and other similar equipment elements, means shall be provided to prevent
their rapid drop.
6.5.37.4.10 Accumulator Safety
6.5.37.4.10.1 Automatic Vent
Hydraulic circuits incorporating accumulators shall automatically vent the accumulator when equipment is shut off. Isolation
shall prevent uncontrolled movement of the actuators in case manual overrides on associated equipment are operated.
6.5.37.4.10.2 Pressure Isolation
Where deviation is agreed to or a circuit application utilizes accumulator liquid pressure isolation only (not vented) when the
equipment is shut off, complete information for proper servicing shall be given on or near the accumulator in a visible location.
The information shall include the statement: CAUTION - PRESSURIZED VESSEL. Duplicate information shall be provided
on the graphical diagram.
6.5.37.4.10.3 Discharge Rate
Accumulator discharge rates shall be restricted to the demands of the intended service.
6.5.37.4.10.4 Charging Medium
Gas accumulators shall be charged with nitrogen or an inert gas.
6.5.37.4.11 Flexible Hose Failure
Flexible hose shall be restrained or confined where its failure would constitute a hazard.
6.5.37.5 Hydraulic System Controls
6.5.37.5.1 Methods of Operator Control
a. Hydraulic system controls shall be designed to permit the bridge operator to control, from the control station, the rate
and direction of fluid flow for span movement and the operation of auxiliary equipment such as rail locks, span locks,
wedges, barriers and other devices associated with the movement of the span. Controls shall be of the type that will
automatically maintain constant fluid flow, within 5% of maximum flow during full load change, without operator
assistance regardless of normal operating pressure fluctuations, except during periods of acceleration and deceleration.
Requirements for hydraulic system controls shall conform with the ANSI System Standard, Section 7.
b. Methods of operating the hydraulic system shall be classified as manual, semiautomatic or automatic control, as
follows:

Movable Bridges
(1) Manual control shall be defined as any system in which the operator must manually control the rate of fluid flow
for span acceleration and deceleration in addition to the initiation of each of the several major interlocked
functions in sequence.
(2) Semi-automatic control shall be defined as any system where the fluid flow automatically increases from zero to
normal volume and back to zero again for span acceleration and deceleration by the single operation of a push-
button or hand lever. However, the operator must initiate each of the several major interlocked functions in
sequence.
(3) Automatic control shall be defined as any system where the operator can actuate the several major interlocked
functions in sequence and the hydraulic system fluid flow automatically increases from zero to normal volume and
back to zero again for span acceleration and deceleration, all by the operation of a single pushbutton or hand lever.
Requirements for the sequencing of bridge functions, span speed control and interlocking shall be in conformance
with Article 6.7.5.
c. Flows produced by fixed displacement pumps shall preferably be controlled by varying the speed of the pump drive
motors. If pressure compensated flow controls are provided to control fixed displacement pump flow, the hydraulic
system shall be designed to minimize heat build-up.
d. Variable displacement pump flows shall be directly controlled by manual stroking, or if remotely controlled, preferably
by closed loop servo control systems.
e. Closed loop servo control systems shall be analyzed by the manufacturer of the servo control components to verify that
the control system will perform as required. The servo component manufacturer shall furnish all necessary instructions
1
on how to trim (adjust) and maintain the servo control system.
6.5.37.5.2 Control Stations
6.5.37.5.2.1 Location and General Requirements

3
a. The Operator’s control station shall be located for either direct (valve station) or remote (control console) operation of
the hydraulic system. Direct operation shall be defined as hydraulic system control from the power unit or separate
valve stand, by the use of manually operated directional or flow control valves, or the manual stroking of variable
displacement pumps. Remote control shall be defined as hydraulic system control from a control console. Remote
control shall be accomplished with push-buttons or hand levers (joysticks) to operate solenoid controlled directional
and flow control valves for fixed displacement pumps, or electrically operated servo valves or gear-motors for the
stroking of variable displacement pumps. 4
b. Indicating lights, gages and other warning devices shall be provided at the control stations to monitor and protect the
hydraulic system from damage due to low pressure, high pressure, low fluid level, high fluid level, low temperature,
high temperature and pump servo valve malfunction. Requirements for pressure gages shall conform to
Article 6.5.37.20.
6.5.37.5.2.2 Valve Stations
a. Nameplates shall be provided for each control in accordance with Article 6.5.37.4.2.
b. Control valves for manual control shall be located as shown on the drawings or, if not shown, at a comfortable working
height and oriented in such a way that water and railroad traffic can be readily observed by the operator.
c. Control valve handles for manual span operation shall be located for right handed operation by the operator. If separate
control valves are provided for manual brake, lock or wedge operation, they shall be located for left handed operation
by the operator.

Steel Structures
d. When valves are to be controlled by the operator’s right and left hands simultaneously they shall preferably be located
no more than 3 feet apart and in no case more than 4 feet apart.
e. Pressure gages shall be provided to monitor hydraulic system pressures and shall be located where they can be easily
observed by the operator during bridge operation.
6.5.37.5.2.3 Control Consoles
Requirements for control consoles, instruments, position indicators and indicating lights shall conform with Article 6.7.5.
6.5.37.5.3 Pressure Controls
Adjustable pressure control valves shall be provided in the hydraulic system to maintain desired pressure levels and to protect
equipment from damage due to excessive operating and static pressures.
6.5.37.5.4 Shock and Surge Suppression
a. The hydraulic system and its controls shall be designed to minimize shock loads from pressure surges during system
operation.
b. Automatic or pre-programmed acceleration and deceleration shall preferably be provided for span operation. Span
movement controls shall preferably be designed such that if the operator tries to change direction of the span while it is
moving, the span will decelerate smoothly to standstill and then smoothly accelerate to the same set speed in reverse.
c. Directional control valves and blocking valves shall be equipped with adjustable pilot control chokes for shock and
surge pressure control if the velocity of the hydraulic fluid in the piping exceeds 20 feet per second.
d. Flexible hose may be used between fixed components to help control shock and surge pressures. When used for this
purpose flexible hose and hose fittings shall have a minimum factor of safety as defined in Article 6.4.8.2.
e. Deceleration valves and/or accumulators shall be used in hydraulic systems with moderate to severe shock and surge
pressures.
f. Piping clamps shall have cushioned inserts to reduce vibration and noise and help to absorb shock in the piping system.
6.5.37.5.5 Temperature Control
a. Any unusual high or low temperature that affects hydraulic equipment operation shall be noted in the Special
Provisions.
b. Reservoir hydraulic fluid temperature shall not be permitted to fall below 45 degrees F during periods of hydraulic
system inactivity. Immersion and/or unit heaters controlled by automatic thermostats shall be provided where ambient
temperatures fall below 45 degrees F.
c. Reservoir hydraulic fluid temperature shall not be permitted to rise above 140 degrees F during periods of hydraulic
system operation. Reservoirs shall be sized large enough to dissipate heat and be located to have an adequate amount of
free air circulation. If reservoir sizing and free air circulation will not control heat build-up, then heat exchangers shall
be provided. Requirements for heat exchanges shall conform with ANSI System, Section 15.
d. Hydraulic systems originally not requiring heat exchangers but using fixed displacement pumps and relief valves, or
pressure compensated flow control valves, for purposes of pump unloading, shall have provisions at the power units
for the addition of heat exchangers at a later time, after the system has been installed at the bridge, if heat build-up
during operation becomes excessive.

Movable Bridges
6.5.37.5.6 Synchronization of Actuators
Flow dividing devices or other means shall be provided in the hydraulic-system for the synchronous operation of end lifting
devices or other equipment which is not mechanically connected but which must be synchronized for proper operation.
6.5.37.6 Hydraulic Power Units
6.5.37.6.1 General Requirements
a. Hydraulic power units shall conform to NFPA Standard T3.16.3M Requirements for Non-Integral Industrial Fluid
Power Hydraulic Power Units.
b. The Contractor shall make assembly drawings, drawn to scale, of the hydraulic power unit. Each component of the
hydraulic power unit, including piping, shall be identified. Nameplates shall preferably be shown on the assembly
drawings at their actual locations on the hydraulic power unit. If nameplates cannot be shown on their actual locations
a keyed nameplate list shall be provided on the power unit drawing. The Contractor shall submit the assembly
drawings to the Company for approval.
c. Work shall not begin on the power unit until the shop drawings have been approved. Shipment of the hydraulic power
unit to the bridge site for installation will not be permitted until it has been demonstrated to the Company that the unit
has the ability to perform as specified. Power units shall be tested in conformance with Article 6.5.37.25.2.
d. Where the bridge operator is to operate the hydraulic system directly at the power unit, the overall height and location
of the power unit shall not interfere with visibility of navigation or trains.
1
e. Requirements for piping, fittings and manifolds for power units shall conform with Article 6.5.37.10.
f. Requirements for couplings to connect pumps to drive motors shall conform with Article 6.5.37.16.
g. Hydraulic fluid shall be filtered as it is placed into the reservoirs, both during original reservoir filling and during the
addition of make-up fluid. The fluid shall be filtered while being pumped from its original containers using portable 3
filtration units. The degree of filtration shall be equal to 10 microns or the same as that used during normal hydraulic
system operation, whichever is finer.
6.5.37.6.2 Pumps
a. Requirements for pumps shall conform with the ANSI System, Section 10.
4
b. Pumps shall be positive displacement of either the variable or fixed displacement type. Pumps shall be equipped with
integral or add-on relief valves to prevent damage to pump and hydraulic system from high pressure. Relief valves
shall not discharge into pump intake ports.
c. Piston type or gear type pumps shall be used in hydraulic systems where maximum operating pressures, as defined in
Article 6.4.8, exceed 2000 psi.
d. Where noise control is an important consideration, such as when the hydraulic power unit is to be located in the bridge
house, piston pumps shall be used.
6.5.37.6.3 Pump Actuators
a. Servo valve pump actuators shall be of the type which automatically return the pump to the neutral or zero pumping
position in the event of pump control system malfunction, loss of electrical power or loss of hydraulic control pressure.
Valves capable of by-passing 100% of pump volume shall be provided in the hydraulic circuit to by-pass fluid flow in
the event of loss of servo control and the servo actuator does not return to neutral.

Steel Structures
b. Pump actuators shall have provisions for manual operation of the pump.
c. The use of pneumatically operated actuators for pump control shall not be permitted.
6.5.37.6.4 Fluid Reservoirs
a. Fluid reservoirs shall conform to ANSI System Standard Section 11, Nonintegral Industrial Fluid Power Hydraulic
Reservoirs, except where noted herein.
b. Reservoirs shall be of heavy-duty welded steel construction. They shall be structurally rigid to resist warpage and
damage from the mounting of equipment on the reservoir top, handling during shipping and erection at the bridge site.
c. Reservoirs interior and exterior surfaces shall not be galvanized. Painting of interior surfaces shall not be permitted.
Interior surfaces shall be coated with a vapor-phase rust inhibitor specially formulated to prevent rust. Rust inhibitor
shall be added to the hydraulic fluid by the hydraulic power unit manufacturer prior to testing and shipment from the
factory.
d. Bladder-type breathers to prevent the mixing of outside air and reservoir air shall be provided for fluid reservoirs
located in environments having airborne contaminants such as dust, chemicals and condensing water vapor which can
damage the hydraulic system.
e. Reservoirs shall have drains which permit a complete fluid change without disconnecting any hydraulic components.
f. Reservoirs equipped with large removable covers shall have separate filler openings to permit the adding of fluid to the
reservoir without removal of the cover.
g. Reservoirs shall either be equipped with accessories as specified in Article 6.5.37.6.6 or shall have provisions for
future installation of these accessories. The reservoirs shall be constructed to permit the addition of accessories,
without disturbing existing equipment, after the hydraulic system has been put into operation.
6.5.37.6.5 Electric Motors
a. The general requirements for electric motors, control and overload components shall conform with Article 6.7.5 except
where noted herein.
b. Electric motors used for driving of hydraulic pumps, except as required in paragraph d, shall preferably be squirrel
cage induction types. Motors shall be 1,800 or 1,200 rpm, TEFC or TENV, types with embedded winding temperature-
sensitive devices, as specified in the contract documents. Motors shall have grease-lubricated antifriction shaft
bearings and shall be equipped with lubrication fittings.
c. Electric motors for the driving of variable displacement pumps or fixed displacement pumps utilizing pressure
compensated flow control valves shall be squirrel cage type, NEMA design B and shall have manual across-the-line or
simple reversing starters.
d. Electric motors for the driving of fixed displacement pumps, where there is no provision for controlling the rate of fluid
flow, shall be AC wound rotor induction motors or direct current motors. Speed controls for these motors shall be
provided in conformance with Article 6.7.5.
6.5.37.6.6 Accessories
a. Hydraulic power units shall be equipped with the required accessories to protect the hydraulic equipment from damage
and ensure the safety of maintenance and operating personnel. Accessories shall include but not be limited to such
items as gages and transmitters for pressure, temperature and fluid level monitoring, immersion heaters, fluid
conditioning filters and magnets, heat exchangers and air dryers or coalescing filters for reservoir vents.

Movable Bridges
b. Requirements for pressure gages shall conform to Article 6.5.37.20.
c. Requirements for filters shall conform to Article 6.5.37.18.
d. Requirements for heat exchangers shall conform with ANSI System Standard, Section 15.
e. Immersion heaters shall be electric resistance type and controlled so as not to cause deterioration of the hydraulic fluid
from overheating. Preferably dry-well type immersion heaters shall be used. Steam or hot-water coils shall not be used
for immersion heating.
f. Cold-water coils shall not be used for reservoir oil cooling.
6.5.37.7 Internal Combustion Engine Pump Drives
a. Internal combustion engines, for the driving of pumps, shall be permitted only for emergency operation, or at locations
where suitable electric power cannot be provided.
b. Requirements for internal combustion engines shall conform to Article 6.7.4.
c. Manual or electrically operated clutches shall be provided for the coupling of engines to pumps. Clutches shall be of
the type that engage gradually and smoothly, and will slip during equipment overloads, to prevent damage to pumps or
engines.
d. Electrically operated clutches shall be normally disengaged and shall have electric power applied to engage and remain
engaged. Electric clutches shall have provisions for manual operation. 1
e. Requirements for pumps, reservoirs, pump actuators, accessories and piping shall conform to Article 6.5.37.6 and
Article 6.5.37.10.
6.5.37.8 Valve Stands
a. Valve stands for the mounting of manifolds, valves and gages may be either integral parts of the hydraulic power units, 3
or separate floor-mounted units. Separate floor-mounted valve stands shall be provided when the overall size or weight
of the hydraulic power units with integral valve stands is so great that shipping, erection or maintenance may be
difficult.
b. Valve stands shall be of heavy duty construction, rigidly constructed to resist deflection and warpage during shipping,
erection or operation of the system.
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c. Where the bridge operator’s control station is located at the valve stand, the overall height and location of the valve
stand shall not interfere with visibility of navigation or trains.
6.5.37.9 Valves
a. Requirements for valves shall conform with the ANSI System Standard, Section 13.
b. Adjustable valves shall be equipped either with protective caps, or with locking nuts on the adjusting screws, to
prevent unintentional misadjustment.
c. Directional control valves and blocking valves shall be provided with adjustable pilot control chokes to increase valve
opening and closing time, for shock and surge pressure control.
d. Flow dividing valves used for actuator synchronization shall be of the type that will always permit flow to all actuators
simultaneously, regardless of the magnitude of pressure differential between the actuators being loaded.

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6.5.37.10 Piping, Fittings and Manifolds
6.5.37.10.1 General Requirement
a. Piping shall include all pipe, tubing and flexible hose. Requirements for piping, fittings, manifolds and the piping
system in general shall conform with the ANSI Standard, Section 17, except as otherwise noted herein.
b. Piping, fittings and manifolds shall be made of carbon steel or stainless steel. The materials used shall be consistent
with the pressures and environmental conditions to which the hydraulic system will be subjected. Steel fittings shall be
used with steel piping, and stainless steel fittings shall be used with stainless steel piping. Use of flutings which are
softer than the piping shall not be permitted. Piping, fittings and manifolds shall not be galvanized.
c. Fittings used for piping connections shall be of the type to permit rapid assembly and disassembly of all components.
Fittings shall also permit repeated disassembly and reassembly of a connection without loss of sealing quality or
strength.
d. Pipe shall preferably have welded flange fittings. Use of threaded pipe fittings in pressure lines above 200 psi shall not
be permitted without prior written approval of the Company.
e. Tubing shall have flared, flareless or welded flange fittings. Use of flared fittings shall be limited to tubing of 1-1/2
inch nominal outside diameter or smaller. Flareless fittings may be used for tubing sizes up through 2 inches nominal
outside diameter. Welded flange fittings shall be used for tubing of greater than 2 inches nominal outside diameter.
f. Fluid velocity in pressure and return line piping shall not exceed 15 feet per second and pump suction line velocity
shall not exceed 5 feet per second unless approved in writing by the Company by the time shop drawings are reviewed.
g. The Contractor shall make piping layouts and assembly drawings for the hydraulic system. These drawings shall
clearly indicate the type and spacing of piping supports. The Contractor shall submit the drawings, and they must be
approved by the Company, before field erection will be permitted. Support spacing and type shall conform to ANSI
System Standard, Section 17.5.
h. Test ports shall be provided to bleed the system of air, and to check system pressure at control valves as well as other
locations where a pressure governing component is not so equipped.
i. Flexible hose shall be provided to connect the hydraulic power unit to the rigid piping system. Where separate valve
stands are provided, flexible hose shall be used to connect the valve stands to the hydraulic power unit and to the rigid
piping system.
j. Piping shall be connected to hydraulic component ports by means of SAE Straight Thread o-ring fittings for piping
sizes up to 7/8 inch nominal outside diameter, and by means of SAE split flange fittings for larger size piping. The use
of tapered pipe thread fittings to connect piping to components will not be permitted.
6.5.37.10.2 Pipe
a. Pipe shall be seamless with plain ends. Use of threaded pipe ends will not be permitted, without prior written approval
of the Company.
b. Carbon steel pipe shall conform to the following ASTM specifications:
• A53 – Type S, Grade B.
• A106 – Grade B.
• A714 – Type S.

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c. Stainless steel pipe shall conform to ASTM specification A312–Grades TP304 or TP316.
NOTE: The foregoing materials are of the minimum quality that shall be used for pipe. Other materials of greater
strength and durability may be specified by the Company.
6.5.37.10.3 Pipe Fittings
a. Welded flange fittings shall be SAE 4-bolt minimum flanges; utilizing a captive o-ring pressure sealing system. Socket
weld flanges shall preferably be used. Use of threaded flanges will not be permitted without prior written approval of
the Company. Carbon steel flanges shall be manufactured from low carbon steel to facilitate welding. Stainless steel
flanges shall be type 304 or 316 and be suitable for welding. Flange connecting bolts shall be hardened and have
sufficient strength for the working pressure rating of the flanges. Stainless steel bolts shall be used with stainless steel
flanges. A lockwasher shall be used at every bolt.
b. Threaded fittings and threaded flange fittings, used for field connections and field erected piping systems, when
approved for use above 200 psi, by the Company, shall have Dryseal Pipe Threads to permit pressure-tight joints
without the use of pipe sealing compound, or PTFE sealant tape.
6.5.37.10.4 Tubing
a. Tubing shall be seamless, have a low carbon content and be annealed to facilitate bending and flaring. Tubing to be
used with flareless fittings shall have a maximum hardness of 65 Rockwell B.
b. Carbon steel tubing shall conform to the following ASTM specifications:

1
• A519 – Grades 1010, 1020 and 4130.
• A423 – Grades 1 and 2.
c. Stainless steel tubing shall conform to the following ASTM specifications:

3
• A269 – Grade TP304 or TP316.
• A789.
NOTE: The foregoing materials are of the minimum quality that shall be used for tubing. Other materials of the
strength and durability required may be specified by the Company.
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6.5.37.10.5 Tube Fittings
a. Flared fittings shall have a 37 degree angle of flare and conform to SAE specifications.
b. Flareless fittings shall conform to SAE specifications and be of the type that bites into the outside surface of the tubing
when the fitting assembly is tightened.
c. Welded flange fittings shall be SAE 4-bolt flanges utilizing a captive o-ring pressure sealing system. Socket weld
flanges shall preferably be used. Use of threaded flanges will not be permitted without prior written approval of the
Company. Carbon steel flanges shall be manufactured from low carbon steel to facilitate welding. Stainless steel
flanges shall be grade 304 or 316 and be suitable for welding. Flange connecting bolts shall be hardened and have
sufficient strength for the working pressure rating of the flanges. Stainless steel bolts shall be used with stainless steel
flanges. A lockwasher shall be used at every bolt.
Threaded flange fittings, when approved for use by the Company, shall have Dryseal Pipe Threads to permit pressure-
tight joints without the use of pipe sealing compound or sealant tape.

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6.5.37.10.6 Flexible Hose and Fittings
a. Only extra-high or high pressure hose conforming to SAE specifications and having the working pressure ratings
specified in Article 6.4.8.2a shall be used. Hose shall be seamless, oil and weather resistant and have steel wire
reinforcement.
b. Hose fittings shall be made of steel and be of the pressed-on (non-reusable) type conforming to SAE specifications.
Hose fittings shall have either 37 degree SAE flare or flange style ends for connection to other hydraulic components.
Flange head style fittings shall use SAE split flanges with hardened bolts and 0-ring sealing. Threaded fittings may
only be used for connection to threaded drain ports.
6.5.37.10.7 Special Fittings
a. Special fittings of the swivel, rotating or self-sealing type shall not be used without prior written approval of the
Company.
b. Quick-disconnect type fittings shall not be used except for the temporary connection of portable gages to test ports and
the temporary connection of hand or air operated hydraulic pumps for emergency or maintenance operation of the
hydraulic system.
6.5.37.10.8 Manifolds
Requirements for manifolds shall conform with the ANSI System Standard, Section 17.4.
6.5.37.11 Cylinders and Linear Actuators
a. Requirements for cylinders and linear actuators shall conform to the ANSI System Standard, Section 8. Cylinders and
Linear Actuators shall have a minimum theoretical failure pressure rating of 11 (10,000 psi), as defined by NFPA
Standare T3.6.5M.
b. Cylinders shall have engraved permanent nameplates which are securely attached to the head of the cylinder. The
nameplates shall clearly indicate the manufacturer, model number, cylinder bore, rod diameter, stroke length,
theoretical static failure pressure rating symbol, and all features which are non-standard.
c. Protective flexible rod boots shall be provided for all cylinders that are oriented such that the rods are normally
extended.
d. Piston rod seal assemblies shall be replaceable without cylinder disassembly.
e. The use of rotating type or telescoping cylinders shall not be permitted without prior written approval of the Company.
6.5.37.12 Intensifiers
a. The use of intensifiers or pressure boosters shall not be permitted without prior written approval of the Company.
Intensifiers shall only be used to assist in the operation of auxiliary equipment such as locks, lifting devices, wedges,
brakes and barriers. Intensifiers shall only be used for holding or clamping purposes and shall not be operated
continuously as a pump.
b. The maximum output pressure from an intensifier shall be 3,000 psi and components subjected to the boosted
operating pressure shall be designed to withstand the pressure with a factor of safety as defined in Article 6.4.8. Relief
valves shall be provided in the boosted circuits to protect equipment and personnel.
c. The use of air-air or air-oil intensifiers shall not be permitted.

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6.5.37.13 Fluid Motors and Rotary Actuators
a. Requirements for fluid motors shall conform with the ANSI System Standard, Section 9, except as otherwise noted
herein.
b. Fluid motors shall be of the fixed displacement type. Speed control of the motors shall be accomplished by controlling
the volume of fluid to the motors.
c. Gear type fluid motors shall be of the hydraulically balanced type.
d. Where hydraulic systems use fluid motors in which the operating pressure, as defined in Article 6.4.8, exceeds 2,000
psi, only piston type fluid motors shall be used.
e. High speed fluid motors shall be coupled to driven equipment in a manner that eliminates overhung loads on the fluid
motor’s shaft bearings. The magnitude of overhung loads on low speed, high torque (LSHT) fluid motor shafts shall
preferably be limited to provide a minimum shaft bearing B-10 life rating of 20,000 hours. (B-10 life shall be as
defined by the AFBMA and shall be the time for which 90% of a group of identical bearings will survive under the
given loading condition).
f. Requirements for couplings to connect fluid motors to other equipment, for purposes of transmitting fluid motor
operating torques, shall comply with Article 6.5.37.16.
6.5.37.14 Rotary Actuators
a. Rotary actuators are devices which produce output torque over a limited range of rotation, usually less than 360
1
degrees. Actuators shall self-lock when the flow of pressurized fluid to the actuator is stopped or operating pressure is
lost due to line leakage or breakage. Provision for manual operation of actuators shall be provided. Vane type rotary
actuators shall be hydraulically pressure balanced.
b. Actuators shall have keyed output shafts and be connected to driven equipment with couplings conforming to
Article 6.5.37.16. 3
c. Cylinder type rotary actuators having internal chain and sprocket mechanisms shall have automatic chain tensioning
devices incorporated into the actuators.
d. Actuators shall be coupled to driven equipment in a manner that eliminates overhung and thrust loads on the actuator
shaft bearings.
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6.5.37.15 Self-Contained Hydraulic Actuators
a. A self-contained hydraulic actuator unit shall consist of a heavy duty cylinder or other type of actuator, electric motor,
pump, reservoir and control valving. Units shall be completely closed systems, requiring no external piping to supply
or remove hydraulic fluid.
b. Self-contained hydraulic actuators shall not be used for span operation. Such actuators may be used only to operate
auxiliary equipment such as locks, lifting devices, wedges and barriers.
c. Cylinders shall conform to NFPA standards.
d. Electric motors shall conform to the general requirements of Article 6.7.5.
e. Protective rod boots shall be provided for cylinder rods which are normally extended.

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6.5.37.16 Couplings
a. Requirements for couplings, connecting pumps to drive motors and connecting fluid motors or rotary actuators to
speed reducers or other equipment, shall conform to ANSI System Standard 10.1.3.
b. Coupling guards shall be provided that conform to the requirements of NFPA Standard T3.l6.3M.
c. The use of belts for coupling purposes will not be permitted.
d. Rigid coupling of equipment will not be permitted without prior written approval of the Company.
e. Chain casings shall be provided for chain-type couplings. Casings shall be designed to seal in lubrication, and protect
sprocket teeth and chains from abrasives.
f. The use of shock resistant couplings, with non-metal torque transmitting components, will be permitted only where the
coupling design is such that normal operating torques can be transmitted by the coupling in the event of non-metal
component failure.
6.5.37.17 Brakes
a. Machinery brakes or counterbalance valving, for span driving cylinders, shall be provided to hold the span stationary
against unbalanced loads and the wind pressures specified in Article 6.3.6e and Article 6.3.6f.
b. If the hydraulic system does not provide sufficient braking to stop the span in 10 seconds or less, dynamic brakes shall
be provided.
c. Machinery brakes shall have the capacities as specified in Article 6.3.9. Dynamic brake capacity shall be the same as
specified for motor brakes in Article 6.3.9. Electrically operated brakes shall conform to the requirements of
Article 6.7.5.
d. Spans normally left in the open position shall also be provided with locking devices to hold the span stationary at the
fully open position, against the wind loads specified in Article 6.3.5b(2).
6.5.37.18 Filtration and Fluid Conditioning
a. Requirements for filtration of hydraulic fluid shall conform with the ANSI System Standard, Section 12.
b. Full flow filtration shall be provided.
c. Filters, including pump intake strainers, shall be equipped with an indicator to show when the filter needs servicing.
d. The degree and quality of filtration shall be as recommended by the manufacturer of the hydraulic components. The
Beta 10 rating system as defined by ANSI standard B93.3l shall be used to determine filter performance. Filtration
performance shall never be allowed to deteriorate, at time of filter change, below a Beta 10 rating of 15 for servo
controlled hydraulic systems, and a Beta 10 rating of 5 for non-servo controlled hydraulic systems.
e. Filter flow capacity ratings shall be as recommended by the pump manufacturer. As a general guide, such capacity
shall be equal to at least 10% of high pressure pump capacity for hydrostatic (non-differential) drives, at least 30% of
high pressure pump capacity for a normal industrial type differential system, and 100% of high pressure pump capacity
for differential system operating in a contaminated atmosphere.
f. Bypass valves shall be provided on filters to limit the differential pressure across the filter elements. Bypass valves
shall be sized for the maximum flow that can be expected through the filter without excessive differential pressure.
Non-bypass type filtration shall be used only where required by the hydraulic equipment manufacturer, and shall be

Movable Bridges
equipped with warning devices to provide remote indication at the operator’s station of an impending clogged
condition.
6.5.37.19 Accumulators
a. Requirements for accumulators shall conform with the ANSI System Standard, Section 14, and the NFPA standards.
b. Gas accumulators shall be charged with an inert gas such as dry nitrogen or helium. The use of oxygen, air or other
active gases will not be permitted for accumulator charging.
c. Clamps or straps used for accumulator mounting shall not restrict thermal expansions, or distort the shell of the
accumulator.
6.5.37.20 Pressure Gages
a. Gages shall be of durable construction. Dial faces shall be clearly calibrated for pressure ranges 50% and beyond the
maximum design operating pressures of the hydraulic system. Gages shall be accurate and permit continuous
monitoring. They shall have a minimum diameter of 4 inches, and preferably 6 inches. Shutoff valves shall be provided
at each gage.
b. Portable gages shall be provided for maintenance and adjustment of the hydraulic system. The pressure ranges shall
cover all possible values that will be needed for the system.
c. One gage shall be provided for each pressure range such that the test pressure will be within the mid-half of the total
pressure range of the gage.
1
d. Connections for portable gages shall be of the quick-disconnect type. Test ports in the hydraulic system shall be
equipped with removable, protective caps, secured by chains to the component. Shutoff valves shall be provided at
each test port.
6.5.37.21 Hydraulic Fluids 3

a. Hydraulic fluid shall be suitable for the operating pressure, temperature and lubrication requirements of the system.
The selection of the hydraulic fluid shall be based on performance data or actual experience in other heavy duty
hydraulic systems subjected to similar operating pressures and temperatures and having similar hydraulic equipment.
The fluid shall be that recommended by the pump manufacturer and shall be compatible with all hydraulic components
and seals.
4
b. Hydraulic fluid shall be either petroleum based oil type, or oil-water emulsion type fire resistant fluid which is
compatible with the same type of seals used with petroleum based oils. Straight synthetic, high water content fluids,
synthetic blends or water-glycol mixtures shall not be permitted without prior written approval of the Company.
c. Hydraulic fluid shall have the correct viscosity range for the operating requirements of the hydraulic system; shall have
a high enough viscosity index to resist changes in viscosity due to anticipated temperature ranges, prevent wear on
working parts, resist foaming, oxidation and the formation of sludges; shall retain original properties in use; and shall
have a long service life and protect parts against rust.
6.5.37.22 Seals and Sealing Devices
6.5.37.22.1 Sealing Principles
Sealing devices for hydraulic circuts shall be of the pressure sealing type.

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6.5.37.22.2 Sealing Materials
Sealing device materials shall;
(1) Not be adversely affected by the hydraulic fluid.
(2) Be of compatible materials where adjacent contact materials are metals.
(3) Be of an elastomeric material where no leakage other than that required for lubrication can be tolerated, e.g., for
reciprocating and rotating elements.
6.5.37.22.3 Seal Quality
Seals shall be adequate in size and in number for the service intended.
6.5.37.22.4 Availability
Packings, seals, and sealing devices used in hydraulic circuits shall be commercially available.
6.5.37.22.5 Seal Replacement
Where continuous ring packages and seals are used, the component and the actuated equipment designs shall facilitate
servicing and replacement of seals and packings.
6.5.37.22.6 Seal Gland Clearance
Clearances in seal glands shall prevent extrusion of the sealing material(s).
6.5.37.22.7 Adjustable Seal Glands
Where seal glands are adjustable, seal and packing gland chambers shall be so designed that they cannot be adjusted beyond
thier functional limits.
6.5.37.23 Workmanship
6.5.37.23.1 Piping Systems
a. Piping runs shall be as short and free of bends as possible. At least one bend shall be provided in pipe runs where
thermal expansion and contraction may be a problem.
b. Piping bends shall be of good quality without excessive flattening or creasing. Minimum bend radius shall be 3 times
the inside diameter of the pipe. Each leg of a piping bend shall have a length of not less than 10 pipe outside diameters.
c. Tubing flares shall preferably be formed with roller type flaring tools.
d. Bending and flaring shall be done with suitable portable equipment at the bridge site.
e. Bolted flange connections shall be evenly assembled by the use of feeler gages and torque wrenches to ensure equal
bolt tightening. 0-rings shall be lubricated before flanged connections are assembled.
f. The use of pipe compound or sealant tape to facilitate the assembly of threaded fittings will not be permitted.

Movable Bridges
6.5.37.24 Field Painting
a. Nameplates on all hydraulic components shall not be painted. Protective tape shall be placed over all nameplates prior
to field painting, and subsequently removed.
b. The final coat of paint, for field erected piping systems, shall preferably have a color such that hydraulic fluid leakage
will be easily observed.
c. Flexible hoses and hose guards shall not be painted.
6.5.37.25 Testing
6.5.37.25.1 Components
a. Pumps and fluid motors shall be tested by the manufacturer before hydraulic power units are assembled, and catalog
rating certification shall be provided to the Company. Tests for pumps and fluid motors shall be conducted for 15
minutes continuously, at a minimum test pressure equal to the maximum peak or intermittent pressure rating of the
component.
b. Pumps shall be checked during testing for external leakage, charge pump pressure and flow (where charge pumps are
provided), and main pump pressure and flow. Integral relief valves shall be set at 3,000 psi maximum, and checked for
proper operation.
c. Fluid motors shall be checked during testing for external leakage, pressure and flow.
1
d. Cylinders shall be tested by the manufacturer before shipment to the bridge site. Testing shall include a 30 minute static
pressure test at a minimum pressure of 4,000 psi. The leakage rate past the piston during the static pressure test shall be
no greater than 5 cubic inches per minute for span driving cylinders. Certified test data for span driving cylinders and
catalog rating certification for all other cylinders shall be provided to the Company.
6.5.37.25.2 Power Units 3

a. Assembled power units shall be shop tested for proper operation, and certified test data submitted to the Company for
approval before shipment to the bridge site.
b. Power units shall be shop tested at full drive motor speed under conditions of maximum design pressure at minimum
fluid flow, and reduced pressure at maximum fluid flow. The maximum pressure test shall be conducted for one hour
continuously. 4
c. During all tests, the power units shall be checked for fluid leakage, excessive fluid temperature, proper relief valve
operation and proper operation of charge pumps.
d. Pump controls shall be tested for correct speed regulation, response time and direction of rotation.
6.5.37.25.3 Shipment
a. Power units, valve stands and cylinder assemblies shall be shipped fully assembled to the bridge site and installed at
their final positions. Pumps, motors and couplings shall be checked for proper alignment and realigned if necessary.
Disassembly of power units, valve stands and cylinder assemblies will not be permitted for shipment, storage or during
installation.
b. Hydraulic equipment fluid ports shall be securely sealed prior to shipment and shall remain sealed until final assembly
of the hydraulic system. Seals shall not be removed until just before the connection of components.

Steel Structures
6.5.37.25.4 Final Tests at Bridge
a. After final installation, but before connection to the piping system or valve stands, power units shall be checked for
correct rotation of drive motors and pumps.
b. Reservoirs shall be filled with fluid to the correct level. Portable filtration units shall be used during reservoir filling in
conformance with Article 6.5.37.6.1g.
c. When the entire installation is completed, the span, including all accessories, shall be operated by the Contractor
through not less than three complete cycles using normal power, prime movers, and controls; and through at least two
cycles using auxiliary or emergency power, prime movers, and controls. These tests shall be repeated for alternate
operating modes if provided.
d. During these tests, equipment shall be inspected for external fluid leakage, and to determine whether all features are in
proper working order and adjustment, and whether they meet the requirements of the drawings and specifications.
e. Portable pressure gages shall be used at all test stations of the hydraulic system, including the power unit.
f. During all tests, the level of the hydraulic fluid in the reservoir shall be closely monitored. Proper fluid level shall be
maintained at all times to prevent pump cavitation. Air shall be bled from the hydraulic system and make-up fluid
added to the reservoir as required, using portable filtration units in conformance with Article 6.5.37.6.1g.
g. In the event tests show that any features are defective or inadequate, or function improperly, the Contractor shall make
all necessary corrections, adjustments, or replacements at his own expense.
h. When all the components are in proper working order and adjustment, the pressure readings taken at each test station
shall be recorded, and provided to the Company.
i. After completion of final tests hydraulic fluid shall be removed, properly discarded, replaced with new fluid, and air
bled from the entire hydraulic system. New fluid shall be added using portable filtration units in conformance with
Article 6.5.37.6.1g.
In lieu of fluid replacement, the Contractor may take fluid samples from each reservoir for analysis by the fluid
supplier. The fluid shall be changed if sample contamination levels are greater than Class 3, as defined by specification
SAE ARP-598. New fluid, where required, shall be added using portable filtration units in conformance with
Article 6.5.37.6.1g.
j. After completion of final hydraulic testing, and either fluid replacement or the continued use of fluid which has passed
contamination level testing, filter elements shall be replaced and strainers and magnets cleaned.
SECTION 6.6 WIRE ROPES AND SOCKETS
6.6.1 MANUFACTURER (1984) R(2010)
Wire rope shall be made by a manufacturer whose facilities and experience are approved by the Engineer.

Movable Bridges
6.6.2 DIAMETER OF ROPE (2010)1
a. The nominal diameter of counterweight ropes shall not be less than l inch. For counterweight ropes with a nominal
diameter larger than 2-3/8 inch, a wire rope manufacturer shall be consulted during the design phase of the project,
before the construction contract is awarded. Operating ropes shall not be less than 3/4 inch in diameter.
b. The actual diameter of a wire rope (the diameter of the circumscribed circle) shall be measured when the rope is
unstressed.
6.6.3 CONSTRUCTION (2010)2
a. Wire rope shall be improved plow steel (IPS) grade or extra improved plow steel (EIP) grade. All ropes shall be of
preformed construction. The wire rope may be manufactured from uncoated (bright), drawn-galvanized, or drawn-zinc
aluminum mischmetal alloy (Zn5Al-MM) wire. On any structure, the use of different types of wire rope construction
shall not be permitted for the same type of component. The type of wire rope construction shall be stated on the shop
drawings.
b. Counterweight ropes of 2-3/8 inch diameter or less shall conform to ASTM A1023 and shall be of either Class 6x19 or
Class 6x36 construction. They may be made of only circular wires with either fiber or independent wire rope cores
(IWRC), as listed in Tables 12, 13, 14, and 15 of ASTM A1023. Fiber cores shall be of natural or synthetic fibers as
defined in Article 5.2.1 of ASTM A1023, except that jute shall not be used. The ropes may be of compacted strand
construction (CS) as listed in Tables 28 and 29 of ASTM A1023.
Counterweight ropes greater than 2-3/8 inch diameter shall be Class 6x61 per Federal Specification RR-W-410F with 1
either fiber core or IWRC as listed in Tables XVII through XIX. Wire strand core shall not be permitted. They shall be
of Construction 4, 5, or 6. Fiber cores shall be of natural or synthetic fibers as defined in Article 3.2.1 of Federal
Specification RR-W-410F except that jute shall not be used.
c. Ropes shall be laid in accordance with the best practice. Every effort shall be made to obtain ropes of uniform physical
properties. The ropes shall be fabricated in the greatest lengths practicable, and all similar ropes for any one bridge
shall be cut from ropes manufactured with one setting of one stranding machine and one setting of one closing 3
machine.
6.6.4 LAY (2010)
a. All wire ropes, unless otherwise specified, shall be right regular lay. Where required by the design, counterweight wire
ropes may be right or left lay, with all other construction, and lay length, identical. The maximum length of lay shall be 4
as follows:
(1) Operating ropes – 6.75 times nominal rope diameter.
(2) Counterweight ropes – 7.25 times nominal rope diameter.
b. The lay of the wires in the strands shall be such as to make the wires approximately parallel to the axis of the rope
where they would come in contact with a circular cylinder circumscribed on the rope.
1
2

Steel Structures
6.6.5 LUBRICATION DURING FABRICATION (1983) R(2010)

Manila and sisal fiber cores shall be thoroughly impregnated by the cordage manufacturer with a suitable lubricating
compound free from acid. All portions of wire rope core, wires and strands shall be lubricated during manufacture with a
lubricant containing a rust inhibitor approved by the Engineer.
6.6.6 SPLICES (1983) R(2010)

No splicing of the ropes or individual strands will be permitted. Wire splices shall be securely and properly made by electric
welding, and no two joints in any one strand shall be closer than 25 feet apart, except for filler wires.
6.6.7 WIRE – PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (2010)1

The wire from which wire ropes are made shall be tested in the presence of an inspector designated by the Engineer. Excepting
that filler wires may be made to the manufacturer’s standards, the physical properties of the bright (uncoated) individual wires
before manufacture into rope shall be as follows:
a. The tensile strength of the wires shall meet the requirements of Table 1 - Wire Tensile Strength Grades or Levels for
Wire Rope Grades, of ASTM A1023. Wire tensile strength is related to wire level in Articles 8.1.3 and Table 3 of
ASTM A1007.
b. The wire ductility shall be evaluated per Article 3.13.1 of ASTM A1023, which refers to Article 9.2 and Table 3 of
ASTM A1007.
c. All of the tests specified above shall be made upon fair samples which may be taken from either end of any coil of
wire, and such samples shall be taken from not less than 10 percent of the number of coils.
d. Wire rope for operating ropes obtained from stock may be accepted upon certification by the manufacturer that all
provisions of the specifications are met; tensile strength and torsion tests may be waived, where test data are not
available, but the tension test on the rope as specified in Article 6.6.8 is required.
6.6.8 ULTIMATE STRENGTH (2010)2
In order to demonstrate the strength of the rope and its socket, test pieces with a length between the sockets of not less than 25
rope diameters, and preferably not less than 50 rope diameters, shall be cut, and shall have sockets, selected at random from
the job lot, attached to their ends. The sockets used for these tests shall not be used in the structure. The number of test pieces
shall be not less than two from each manufactured length of rope, but not more than 10 percent of the total number of finished
assemblies of rope to be fabricated. The test pieces shall be taken from both ends of the manufactured lengths of rope. A
suitable mark shall be placed around the rope near the base of the socket, so that any relative movement of the latter can be
readily detected. These test pieces are to be tested to destruction per ASTM A931 Test Methods for Tension Testing of Wire
Rope and Strand, in the presence of an inspector designated by the Engineer. Wire ropes 2-3/8 inch diameter or less shall
develop the minimum breaking force given in ASTM A1023 for the particular size, construction, grade and coating (if any).
Wire ropes larger than 2-3/8 inch diameter shall develop the minimum breaking force given in Federal specification RR-W-
410F for the particular size, grade and coating (if any).
6.6.9 REJECTION (1985) R(2010)
Where the physical properties of the rope or of its individual wires do not meet those specified, the manufacturer shall replace
the entire manufactured length with a new length, the physical properties of which conform to those specified.
1
2

Movable Bridges
6.6.10 PRESTRETCHING (1985) R(2010)
Each counterweight rope shall be prestretched using the following procedure:
a. Tension the rope to 40% of its ultimate strength as given in Article 6.6.8 and hold that load for 5 minutes.
b. Reduce the load to 5% of the ultimate strength.
c. Repeat this load-unload cycle two more times.
d. Release the load.
6.6.11 SOCKETS (1985) R(2010)
a. Sockets for wire ropes shall conform to the requirements of Federal Specification RR-S-550, latest revision, except that
sockets for 2-1/2-inch diameter ropes may be cast steel conforming to ASTM A148, Grade 80-50. Sockets shall be
attached to the ropes by using zinc of a quality not less than that defined in the current Specifications for Slab Zinc
(Spelter), ASTM B6 High Grade. Maximum socket slip or seating of the zinc cone, with the rope, when tensioned to
80% of its specified ultimate strength under the test specified in Article 6.6.8, shall be 1/6 the nominal diameter of the
rope. If a greater slip should occur, the socketing method shall be changed until satisfactory results are obtained.
b. Variations or substitute designs of sockets will be considered acceptable if they meet or exceed the functional
requirements for strength, materials, and other applicable provisions of the Federal Specification.
1
c. Sockets shall be stronger than their ropes. If a socket should break during the test specified in Article 6.6.8, two other
job sockets shall be selected at random and attached to another piece of rope, and the test repeated, and this process
shall be continued until the Inspector is satisfied of socket reliability, whereupon the lot shall be accepted. However, if
10% or more of the tested sockets fail at a load less than the specified minimum ultimate strength of the rope, the entire
lot of sockets shall be rejected, and new ones shall be furnished which meet specification requirements.
d. Pin and socket fits different from those specified by the Federal Specification may be specified by the Engineer. 3
e. Sockets shall be shop painted as specified for structural steel.
6.6.12 FACILITIES FOR TESTING (1985) R(2010)
The manufacturer shall provide proper test facilities, and shall make, at his own expense, the required tests. Tests shall be 4
made in the presence of an inspector representing the Engineer.
6.6.13 ROPE LENGTH (1985) R(2010)
a. The Contractor shall verify the exact lengths to which the counterweight ropes shall be fabricated.
b. The fabricated length, after prestretching, of each counterweight rope bearing-to-bearing of sockets shall be
determined, and stamped on a metal tag securely attached to the rope. While being measured, each rope shall be
twisted to the correct lay, supported throughout its length at points not more than 25 feet apart, and tensioned 12% of
its ultimate strength. Variation from the required length shall be not more than 1/4 inch in 100 feet. For ropes having
bearing sockets, this permissible length variation shall be corrected in the shop by permanently fastening, by a method
approved by the Engineer, the appropriate thickness of steel shims to the bearing face of one socket. No shim shall be
less than 3/8 inch thick.
c. Each rope shall have a stripe painted along its entire length at the time of length measurement, to facilitate its correct
alignment upon installation in the bridge.

Steel Structures
d. Ropes shall be suitably marked or tagged for identification prior to shipment.
6.6.14 OPERATING ROPES (1985) R(2010)
Ends of non-socketed operating ropes shall be seized and shall have the end wires composing the ropes welded together.
Seizing shall be removed prior to rope installation. Lengths of operating ropes shall be verified by the Contractor.
6.6.15 SHIPPING (1985) R(2010)
Ropes shall be shipped on reels, the drum diameter of which is not less than 25 times the rope diameter, unless coil shipment is
specified in the order.
SECTION 6.7 POWER EQUIPMENT
6.7.1 POWER OPERATION (1984) R(2002)
If the bridge is to be operated by mechanical power, the type of power will be specified by the Company. The internal
combustion engine, electric motor, or other type of power specified shall be of ample capacity to move the bridge at the
required speed. Where the design is made by the Contractor, the type of prime mover and the name of the manufacturer shall
be given in the proposal.
6.7.2 MANPOWER OPERATION (1984) R(2002)
a. Where the bridge or parts thereof are to be hand-operated, the required number of men and the time of operation shall
be calculated on the following basis:
(1) One man can exert continuously on a capstan lever a force of 40 lb while walking at a speed of 160 feet per min.
(2) One man can exert continuously on a crank a force of 30 lb at a radius of 15 inches with rotation at 15 rpm.
b. For calculating the strength of the machinery parts, the design load per man applied to a lever shall be taken as 150 lb,
and to a crank as 50 lb. Under these loads, the allowable stresses may be increased 50%.
6.7.3 MACHINES (1984) R(2003)
Machines of the usual manufactured types, such as internal combustion engines, electric motors, pumps, and air compressors,
shall be factory-tested for the specified requirements to the satisfaction of the Engineer, and shall be guaranteed by the
Contractor to fulfill operating requirements for one year.
6.7.4 INTERNAL COMBUSTION (1997) R(2002)
6.7.4.1 Engine Torque for Span Operation
a. The ratio of rated engine torque to the maximum bridge starting torque shall not be less than the found in
Table 15-6-6.
b. The rated engine torque, as referred to above, shall be measured at the flywheel at the operating speed with all metal
housings, radiator, fan, and all other power consuming accessories in place, and shall be taken as not more than 85% of
the rated torque of the stripped engine.

Movable Bridges
Table 15-6-6. Torque Ratio
No. of Cylinders Minimum Ratio

Less than 4 1.50
4 or more 1.33
6.7.4.2 Engines
a. These requirements apply to separately mounted engines and to engines forming part of an engine-generator set (see
Article 6.7.5.12 for generators). Internal combustion engines shall be of the truck or marine type and of the most
substantial kind. The engines shall operate at a speed of not more than 2200 rpm but preferably not more than 2000
rpm unless a higher speed is recommended by the manufacturer, and shall be equipped with a governor to limit the
maximum speed to the designated value. Unless otherwise specified, the engine shall have not less than 4 cylinders.
The engines shall be tested by the manufacturer at his plant to demonstrate that they will develop the rated torque as
defined in Article 6.7.4.1, where used for span operation.
b. The engine shall be equipped with reversing gears, preferably of the helical type, and preferably in a separate gear unit,
having a gear ratio of not less than 2 to 1. Reversing shall be controlled by an approved friction clutch or clutches on
the countershaft operated by a lever or other approved device. The machinery shall be operable in either direction
without stopping the engine.
c. Engines having a rating of 20 hp or more shall be equipped with an electric starter with generator and storage battery.
Where electric current is available at the bridge, a battery charging unit shall also be provided. Engines having a rating 1
of 60 hp or less shall also be provided with a hand cranking device, where feasible.
d. Engines shall be cooled by means of a radiator and fan. A corrosion-resisting metallic exhaust pipe shall be provided,
discharging outside the engine room and fitted with an effective muffler. Air inlets, including louvers, shall be arranged
to ensure an adequate air supply to the engines.
e. The fuel tank shall be located outside the engine room, below the level of the intake. The tank shall be made of 3
corrosion resisting metal and shall be large enough to hold fuel for 30 days of normal operation where the engine is
used for span operation, and at least one day where used for standby service. The tank shall be protected from the sun.
It shall be equipped with an automatic gage to show the quantity of fuel in the tank. The fuel pipe and fittings shall be
of copper or brass, arranged and supported to provide for temperature and vibration movements tending to produce
fracture and leakage. Protective fill and vent seal units shall be included to prevent accidental vapor ignition. A day
tank, including pumps, shall be provided for engines over 60 hp. The installation shall be in accordance with the
requirements of the National Fire Protection Association. 4
f. A small control board containing throttle and choke controls, ignition switch, starter button, and oil and temperature
gages shall be provided at the engine, in addition to other controls that may be required for remote starting.
g. Where suitable, the ignition shall be of the jump-spark kind, so that a low voltage primary current of not more than 24
v will be sufficient for the secondary coil. For other fuel, the best device available shall be used.
h. The engine shall either be enclosed in a readily removable metal housing or located in a protected space, and, together
with reversing gears and all other engine accessories, shall be mounted in the shop on a rigid steel frame so as to form
a complete unit ready for installation.
i. The room containing span operating engines shall have indicators to show the position of the moving span and, if
specified, of the lifting and locking apparatus.

Steel Structures
j. Where low ambient temperatures may affect starting reliability, a water jacket heater or other suitable means shall be
provided having such protective features as low oil pressure cut-out, high water temperature cut-out, and engine
overspeed shut-down; and overcranking protection, if applicable.
6.7.5 ELECTRIC (1997) R(2003)
6.7.5.1 Basis of Specification Requirements
a. The specification requirements given herein are based on the use of either direct current or 60-Hz alternating current
motors. Where specified, the bridge shall be operated by direct current motors using variable-voltage control or
adjustable voltage control or with alternating current motors with control by semiconductor elements; in such cases the
specification requirements shall be modified as specified by the Company.
b. For the operation of a vertical lift bridge, these requirements are based on the use of one hoisting machine to operate
the bridge, or on the use of two hoisting machines mechanically connected. Provisions are also given for tower drive
vertical lift bridges using independent hoisting machines at the ends of the span operated by synchronized alternating-
current motors. Where specified, such independent hoisting machines shall maintain the span in level position during
operation by means of synchronizing controls; in such cases the specification requirements shall be modified as
specified by the Company.
6.7.5.2 General Requirements for Electrical Installation
a. The Company will state the electric power service which is available and will give the location of the point at which
such service shall be obtained. The Contractor shall provide the electrical installation complete from this service point,
including all equipment, wiring, and cables, except as otherwise specified by the Company.
b. The electrical equipment shall conform to the standardization rules of IEEE and NEMA.
c. The NEC and local ordinances shall apply to the electrical material, construction, and installation, except as otherwise
provided herein. In general, total voltage drops shall not exceed 5% at rated load for all electrical equipment.
d. Insofar as practicable, all major items of electric equipment shall be products of the same manufacturer in order to
secure single responsibility and the most satisfactory service. All electrical equipment shall be equal to the best grade
of that particular type of equipment made by the leading manufacturers.
e. The Contractor shall provide all grounds required for the electrical equipment and service.
f. In order to prevent deterioration due to corrosion of parts of the electrical installation other than electrical apparatus, all
bolts, nuts, studs, pins, screws, terminals, springs, and similar fastenings and fittings shall be, where practicable, of an
approved corrosion resisting material, such as brass, bronze or stainless steel, or of a material treated in an approved
manner to render it adequately resistant to corrosion. Hot-dip galvanizing of materials in compliance with ASTM
Specifications for such materials shall be considered such approved treatment. Corrosion preventive treatment of
electrical apparatus shall be as specified by the Company to suit the conditions of exposure.
g. Except as otherwise approved by the Company, all metal parts of the electrical equipment, including all conduits not
furnished with a fused coating of polyvinylchloride, shall be painted as specified for structural steel. For conduits and
similar parts where it is not practicable or convenient to apply paint in the shop, the shop coat may be applied in the
field, and followed by the required field coats.
h. The Contractor shall take insulation resistance readings on all circuits installed, with electronic equipment
disconnected, and shall furnish a complete record of the results. These circuits shall preferably include connected
motors when tested. Conductors rated 600 v or more shall be tested with a 500 volt instrument, and shall register at
least one megohm. Defective circuits shall be replaced at the Contractor’s expense.

Movable Bridges
i. Provisions for emergency operation of power operated bridges, and for standby power for electrically operated bridges,
shall be as specified in Article 6.2.5 and Article 6.2.6, respectively.
6.7.5.3 Working Drawings
a. In addition to furnishing the data required in Article 6.1.12, the Contractor shall provide complete working drawings
for the electrical equipment. The tracings, or translucent copies thereof on cloth or polyester film, shall be corrected to
show the work as constructed and shall then become the property of the Company. These drawings shall include the
following:
(1) Wiring interconnection diagrams, giving termination identification of wires and cables, sizes and numbers of wires
and cables, and the make and capacity of all apparatus, including the ratings of impedances. Schematic diagrams
shall include three-line power diagrams showing the connection schemes including detailed apparatus and control
schematic diagrams, which shall include the control panels and console. The number of each wire and designation
for each electrical device or piece of apparatus shall be shown on the control schematic diagram. This device
designation shall be used to identify each piece of apparatus on the assembly and installation drawings, which
shall show locations to scale of all external and internal components including terminal blocks for the control
panels, terminal boxes, and control console.
(2) Conduit drawings showing the routing and size of each conduit, the number and size of each wire therein, and the
location and method of support of all conduits, ducts, boxes and expansion fittings. Each conduit shall be given an
individual conduit designation.
(3) The requirements of paragraph (1) and paragraph (2) may be partially fulfilled by use of a suitably coordinated
conduit and cable schedule.
1
(4) Installation drawings giving the location of all cables, conduits, control panels, control consoles, resistances,
lamps, switches, and other apparatus.
(5) Sectional drawings of all cables showing component parts, their dimensions, and the material used.
3
(6) Drawings showing the general construction and dimensions of the control console and all control panels and the
arrangement of all apparatus thereon.
(7) Certified dimension prints of all electrical apparatus.
(8) Detailed construction drawings of all boxes, troughs, ducts, and raceways other than conduit.
4
(9) Curves for each span driving motor showing the variation in motor speed and motor currents with output torque,
and within the torque intervals determined by test (as specified in Article 6.7.5.4), for each power point on the
controller.
b. Special apparatus shall be designated by the manufacturer’s name and catalog reference.
6.7.5.4 Motor and Generator Tests
a. One span driving motor of each size or type used shall be subjected to a complete test in accordance with the latest
requirements of NEMA Standards for Motors and Generators. At the option of the Company, certified test data of a
motor of identical design may be accepted in lieu of tests of the actual motors.
b. For alternating current motors the tests shall also include the determination of the variation in speed and motor currents
with motor torques from zero to the maximum designed torque for the drive system. Where stipulated by the Company,
the speed-current-torque curve shall also be determined for overhauling torque and including the effects of the motor

Steel Structures
control equipment. In addition, for wound rotor motors the speed-current-torque relationship shall be determined with
a rotor shorted condition. At the option of the Company, some of these curves may be developed by computation.
c. Direct current motors shall also be tested to determine the speed-current-torque relationship for each power point on
the controller, from an overhauling torque of 100% of full load to a driving torque of 200% of full load.
d. Unless otherwise specified by the Company, all other span driving motors shall be subjected to a short commercial test.
Should the results indicate characteristics differing materially from those of the motor completely tested, the
Contractor shall be required, at his own expense, to make the necessary alterations, and to run complete tests to
demonstrate the final characteristics.
e. For tower drive vertical lift bridges with synchronizing motors, these motors shall be subject to the test requirements
for span-driving motors; except that where the synchronizing motors are of the same size and type as the span-driving
motors, only the short commercial test is required.
f. Each electric motor other than the span driving motors shall be subjected to a short commercial test.
g. Each generator shall be subjected to a short commercial test.
h. Except as otherwise approved by the Company, all motor and generator tests shall be made in the presence of the
Company’s Inspector.
i. The Contractor shall furnish six certified copies of reports of motor tests and of all other required tests.
6.7.5.5 Motor Torque for Span Operation
a. The required locked rotor and breakdown torques for a-c motors shall be those specified by NEMA.
b. Motor torques shall be as follows:
(1) One-motor installation. The rated full load motor torque shall be not less than 80% of the maximum bridge
starting torque, and the maximum torque peaks that occur when the bridge is accelerated to the required speed,
using the specified bridge control, shall preferably not exceed 180% of the rated full load motor torque.
(2) Two-motor installation with no provision for operating of the bridge with a single motor. The two motors jointly
shall meet the requirements given in paragraph a for one motor.
(3) Two-motor installation with provision for operating the bridge with a single motor in not more than 1.5 times the
opening times specified in Article 6.3.6.
c. Where specified or approved by the Company, the power requirements of motors may be less than specified in
Article 6.3.6.
d. The maximum bridge-starting torque shall be determined in accordance with the requirements of Article 6.3.6.
6.7.5.6 Number of Motors
a. Where the total power necessary at the motor shaft to move the bridge according to Article 6.3.6a(1) at the required
speed exceeds 50 hp, the use of two similar span driving motors, with provision for operation of the bridge by one
motor shall be considered.
b. Except as otherwise specified by the Company, the rail locks, the span locks, and the end and center wedges of swing
spans, shall be operated by one or more motors separate from and independent of the span-driving motors.

Movable Bridges
6.7.5.7 Synchronizing Motors for Tower Drive Vertical Lift Bridges
Where synchronizing motors are used on tower drive vertical lift bridges to maintain the bridge in level position during
operation, the total full load rated torque of these motors on each tower shall not be less than 50% of the total full load rated
torque of the span driving motors on each tower.
6.7.5.8 Speed of Motors
The speed of span driving motors shall not exceed 900 rpm. The speed of integral horsepower motors that operate rail locks,
bridge locks and wedges shall not exceed 1,200 rpm. The speed of gear motors of 10 hp or less, fractional horsepower motors,
and motor generator sets shall not exceed 1,800 rpm.
6.7.5.9 Motors – General Requirements
a. Motors shall be of the totally enclosed crane, hoist or mill type, except where the size specified cannot be obtained, or
unless authorized by the Company. Motors shall be as nearly waterproof as practicable. Motors subjected to
atmospheric conditions shall be totally enclosed and waterproof; and non-ventilated if subjected to reduced-speed duty.
Motors installed in weather-protected houses may be either drip proof or protected type. Unless otherwise specified by
the Company, motor windings shall be impregnated with a moisture resisting compound to increase the resistance to
excessive moisture, and span drive motors shall have embedded winding temperature sensitive devices. A drain hole
shall be provided in the bottom of the motor frame and, where feasible, heaters shall be built in. Motors whose frames
tilt during the operation of the bridge shall have ball or roller bearings arranged with provisions for flushing. Span
motors shall be capable of stalled operation for two minutes with the motor control equipment functioning normally for
seating torque. Primary and secondary conduit boxes for span drive motors shall be split cast and fully gasketed, with a
lead bushing and a threaded conduit hole sized 2 inches or more in diameter. 1
b. Direct current motors shall be series, compound, or shunt wound, as determined by the performance specified, and
shall have commutating poles. Motors to be used for dynamic or regenerative braking shall perform that function
without injurious sparking or temperature rise. Span driving motors shall conform to the requirements of AISE
standards for mill motors.
c. Alternating current motors shall be induction motors, suitable for the service characteristics specified, and conforming 3
to the requirements of NEMA. Span driving motors shall be of the wound rotor crane type when AC variable voltage
control or secondary resistance control is utilized. All other motors shall be of the squirrel cage type.
6.7.5.10 Heating Requirements for Motors
a. All alternating current span driving motors and motors used directly or indirectly in conjunction with the span driving
motors shall be capable of delivering their rated output continuously for at least 30 min. without exceeding 80 degrees 4
C rise in temperature for Class B insulation measured by resistance, or 70 degrees C rise if specified by the Company.
b. All direct current motors shall be capable of delivering their rated output continuously for at least 30 min without
exceeding 80 degrees C rise in temperature measured by resistance, or 70 degrees C rise if specified by the Company.
c. Motors other than span driving motors shall be rated on the basis of 15 minutes, provided that their running time during
a single opening of the bridge does not exceed 30 seconds.
d. Where the maximum one hour ambient temperature exceeds 40 degrees C, the temperature rise requirements of this
Article shall be adjusted accordingly.
6.7.5.11 Gear Motors
Gear motors shall preferably be provided with an extension of the high speed shaft to allow hand operation. Electrical
operation of the gear motor shall be prevented by a suitably wired limit switch when the hand crank is inserted. Gears shall be
lubricated by immersion in the lubricant, and effective seals shall be provided to prevent the lubricant from reaching the motor

Steel Structures
windings. Gear motors shall have not less than a Class II rating as defined by the AGMA and shall carry an AGMA nameplate
stating the horsepower, service rating and service factor.
6.7.5.12 Engine-generators
a. Engine-generators sets, either for primary or emergency power, shall consist of an internal combustion engine and an
electric generator, direct connected and mounted on a common base. Separate units may be provided for supplying
power for span operation and for auxiliary services such as lights and signals. Where used as emergency power source,
the lighting generator unit shall start automatically and transfer the load automatically upon failure of the normal
power. The span operating power unit shall be started manually by a remote control switch.
b. Engines shall, in general, conform to the applicable requirements of Article 6.7.4.2 with additional controls as
specified in paragraph c. The engines shall develop adequate power to supply the maximum load, including motor
starting load, while maintaining speed within the specified range.
c. Engine instruments and controls shall be mounted in a cabinet on the unit and shall include gages indicating water
temperature, oil pressure and temperature, vacuum for diesel engines, throttle control, start/stop switch for manual
control, manual emergency shut-down and indicating lights for low oil pressure, high water temperature, overspeed
and overcrank, and an alarm contact for sounding a remote alarm in case of high water temperature, low lubricating oil
pressure or failure to start after four cranking cycles.
d. Engine governor shall be of the centrifugal type providing 3% to 5% regulation from no load to maximum load.
e. The generator shall be capable of supplying the maximum load, including motor starting load, with regulated voltage
drop within limits specified. It shall have a continuous rating of 70 degrees C rise in temperature for Class B insulation
over 40 degrees C ambient, shall have drip-proof construction, and shall conform to ANSI and IEEE standards.
f. The exciter shall be the direct connected, brushless type sized to furnish 10% excess excitation required at full
generator operating load.
g. The generator control panel shall be suitable for wall mounting and shall contain the following devices: Three-position
control switch “Off-Auto-Manual” for automatic starting units; air circuit breaker; Voltmeter, Ammeter, and their
switches; Frequency Meter; Elapsed time meter; Automatic voltage regulator, Voltage adjustment rheostat; alarm
contacts for remote indication; and automatic starting device when in “Auto” position for automatic power transfer
switch, if required.
6.7.5.13 Automatic Electric Power Transfer
a. Where two sources of electric power are available, power for continuous services, such as lights, and navigation
signals, shall be transferred automatically from the normal feeder to the standby or emergency source upon failure of
the normal supply. Upon return of the normal power to at least 90% of rated voltage, the load shall be retransferred
after an adjustable time delay of not less than five minutes. Should the emergency source fail, the retransfer shall be
instantaneous upon return of normal power. The automatic transfer switch shall be electrically operated and
mechanically held, with a single solenoid or motor mechanism and separate arcing contacts, and shall be enclosed in a
wall-mounted cabinet, with circuit diagram on inside of door.
b. Where both power sources are external, one designated “Normal,” the other “Stand-by,” an auxiliary switch shall be
provided to permit using either of the two as the preference source.
c. Where the standby source is an engine-generator set, the automatic transfer switch shall be equipped with a pilot
contact for remote automatic starting of the engine 3 sec after normal source failure or after drop of any phase to 70%
or less of the rated voltage. The normal load circuits should remain connected during this 3 sec delay. When the
standby generator delivers not less than 90% rated voltage and frequency, the load shall be automatically transferred.

Movable Bridges
After transfer, the engine shall run five min and then automatically shut down. The transfer switch shall have a test
button so that normal source failure can be simulated.
6.7.5.14 Electrically Operated Motor Brakes
a. “Motor” brakes (Article 6.3.9) for the span driving motors, shall be base mounted shoe brakes which are held in the set
position by springs with such force as to provide the required retarding torques (Article 6.3.9). Brake wheels for the
motor brakes shall be mounted on the motor pinion shaft, or on a motor shaft extension.
b. Brakes shall be designed for intermittent duty for the required retarding torques. The brakes shall be designed to
release when the current is on, and to apply automatically when the current is cut off. Brakes for the span operation
shall be provided with hydraulic, mechanical or electrical escapements, such that the brakes will not be applied at the
same time.
c. The brakes shall be equipped with a means for adjusting the torque and shall be set in the shop for the specified torque.
Each brake shall be provided with a nameplate which shall state the torque rating of the brake, and the actual torque
setting where it differs from the torque rating. Shoe type brakes shall be so designed that it is possible to adjust the
brakes or replace the shoe linings without changing the torque settings.
d. Direct current brakes shall be released by thruster units or shunt-coil solenoids. Shunt coils shall have discharge
resistors or surge suppressors so that opening the shunt-coil circuit does not cause high transient voltage.
e. Alternating current brakes shall be released by thruster units, or motor operators if so specified. Thruster motors
exposed to the atmosphere shall be totally enclosed and non- ventilated with weatherproof insulation of both the motor
and conduit box.
1
f. For shoe type brakes the releasing mechanism shall be capable of exerting a force of not less than 130% of the force
actually required to release the brake when set at the specified torque setting and at the minimum expected ambient
temperature.
g. Brakes for other motors shall be solenoid released shoe type brakes or dry type disk brakes, and shall have an 3
intermittent rating not less than the full load torque of the motors.
h. Brakes shall be of a construction which ensures uniform wear, and shall have independent provisions for adjusting
lining wear, equalizing clearance between friction surfaces, and adjusting the retarding torque. The brake linings shall
not be affected by moisture. Solenoids, thruster units, and motor operators shall be moisture proof. Fittings shall be
corrosion resisting. Thrusters for shoe type brakes shall be provided with year around oil.
4
i. Shoe type brakes shall be provided with a permanent manual release lever suitable for one man operation. Means shall
be provided for latching the lever in the set and released positions. Disk type brakes shall be provided with a manual
release which can be latched in the released position; the manual release shall automatically reset when the brake is
energized.
j. Where brakes are located outside the machinery house, they shall be of weatherproof construction or shall be provided
with a weatherproof housing. The housing shall be arranged to permit operation of the hand release lever from outside
the housing.
k. Brakes installed on the moving span, shall operate satisfactorily with the span in any position.
l. Where specified by the Company, brakes shall be provided with heating elements to prevent the accumulation of
moisture and frost, and shall have provision for the addition of limit switches for control, and of lights to indicate the
position of the brakes and their hand release levers.

Steel Structures
6.7.5.15 Electrically Operated Machinery Brakes
a. Machinery brakes (Article 6.3.9) for the span-operating machinery shall meet the requirements for the “motor” brakes,
except as otherwise herein provided.
b. Brake wheels shall be shipped to the manufacturer of the machinery who shall press them onto the shafts.
6.7.5.16 Design of Electrical Parts
a. For lift bridges electrical parts, including wiring, switches, circuit breakers, controllers, and contactors, shall be
designed for operation of the bridge using either normal or emergency power for the span loads (as specified in
Article 6.3.6) and for the operating cycles and durations (as specified in Article 6.9.10). For bascule and swing bridges
these parts shall be similarly designed for bridge operation for the specified span loads (Article 6.3.6) and for 30-
minutes continuous operating cycles of Condition B load for bascule bridges and 30-minutes continuous operating
cycles of Condition A load for swing bridges.
b. The temperature rise of electrical parts under such operation shall not exceed that for which the part is normally rated
including those of Article 6.7.5.10 and Article 6.7.5.38.
6.7.5.17 Electrical Control
a. Methods of span electrical control may be classified as either “Master Switch Control” and “Automatic Sequenced
Control.” Except for these differences, the following general features shall apply:
(1) Separate controllers shall be provided for the span driving motors, the rail lock motors, the span lock motors and
the wedge motors.
(2) Where there are two main direct current motors powering one output, the control shall be series, parallel, or series
parallel as required, except that where the current is furnished by a storage battery, the control shall be of the series
parallel type.
b. The following features shall apply to master switch control:
(1) Where each span driving motor is rated at more than 75 HP, the control shall be of the full magnetic type. Where
the rated horsepower of each span driving motor rated at is 75 HP or less, the control shall be of the full magnetic,
or semi-magnetic type, as stipulated by the Company.
(2) For full magnetic control, all span driving and span brake circuits shall be energized by magnetic contactors
opened and closed by control circuits wired through and operated by the master switch. Speed of span shall be
controlled by accelerating contactors.
(3) Semi-magnetic controls shall be as specified for full magnetic controls except that the speed of span operation
shall be controlled in whole or in part by opening and closing the motor circuits directly by means of the master
switch.
(4) Motor brakes shall be controlled through contacts on the master switches so arranged that all motor brakes shall be
held released when power is applied to the span driving motors.
(5) Where two motor brakes are used on a hoisting machine, a control point for each motor brake shall be provided for
each direction of travel so that the motor brakes may be applied separately.
(6) For tower drive vertical lift bridges, two points of motor brake control shall be provided for each direction of
travel where two motor brakes are used for the hoisting machine in each tower.

Movable Bridges
(7) Electrically operated machinery brakes may be controlled either through contacts on the master switch, or by a
separate switch.
(8) Where the machinery brakes are controlled by the master switch, the contacts shall be so arranged that all
machinery brakes are held released when power is applied to the span driving motors, except when the seating
switch is used, as hereinafter described. The sequence of the master switch contacts shall be so arranged that the
machinery brakes may be applied by the operator whenever the span is coasting. One point of machinery brake
control shall be provided for each direction of travel for all machinery brakes on a hoisting machine.
(9) Where the machinery brakes are controlled by a separate switch, they shall normally be set, and shall be so
arranged, that they must be released by the operator before starting the bridge. They shall be held in release during
the entire operation unless the operator desires to use them while coasting, or unless an emergency condition arises
requiring brake power in excess of that offered by the motor brakes, when they may be applied instantly by the
operator. This portion of the equipment shall be designed so that it will not be injured if left in release indefinitely.
Where so specified, the brakes shall be provided with not less than three steps of retarding torque to permit partial
application of the brakes. The machinery brake circuits shall be independent of the general interlocking system,
and may be an electrically operated interlocking device which will prevent the use of the span driving motors and
the machinery brakes one against the other, except by the use of the seating switch hereinafter described.
(10) A seating switch shall be provided for applying the machinery brakes while power is still on the motors, in order
that the span may be drawn tightly to its seat and held in that position. The seating switch shall be convenient to
the operator and shall be hand or foot operated.
(11) For tower drive vertical lift bridges, one control point for each direction of travel shall be provided for all
machinery brakes. In addition, all machinery brakes shall be applied automatically if the span should exceed a
1
predetermined skew.
(12) Motors for rail locks, span locks, wedges, and other devices associated with the movement of the span shall be
controlled through magnetic contactors energized by control switches independent of the master switch.
c. The following features pertaining primarily to span operation shall apply to automatic sequenced control: 3
(1) The normally required action by the operator consists of the initiation, by one movement of a single pushbutton or
hand lever, each of the several major interlocked functions in sequence. Examples of sequenced steps include:
• actuate railroad signals.
• pull rail locks. 4

• pull span locks.
• raise span.
(2) Emergency actions by the operator could include operation of bypass switches, selection of emergency mode of
span operation, and skew correction following skew limit switch operation.
(3) Span motor controls shall include all components required to protect the motor against abnormal conditions,
automatically controlled acceleration and deceleration, modulated speed control where applicable (such as for
tower drives without power synchronizing motors), adequate controlled speed regulation to accommodate
overhauling loads (negative torque or regenerative braking loads), and other features as required to ensure
satisfactory performance following a single movement of the initiating control switch.
(4) Selection of motor and machinery brake types, and control arrangements shall ensure time sequenced brake
application under all conditions.

Steel Structures
(5) Two modes of stopping span movement shall be provided:
(a) normal stop, with controlled electrical deceleration followed by brake application, and
(b) emergency stop, with immediate power cutoff and application of brakes, initiated by an emergency stop
button.
(6) Limit switch actions shall initiate deceleration prior to the “nearly open” and “nearly closed” span positions. The
control system shall be designed to accomplish reduction to slow speed when those positions are passed. Speed
limit switches shall be provided to detect span speed at the “nearly open” and “nearly closed” positions. Where
span speed is within the normal limit of the span, movement shall continue to completion; where not, power shall
be cut off and brakes applied, and a reset operation of the overspeed circuit shall be required before span
movement can be resumed.
(7) During final seating, the motor torque shall be reduced and the brakes shall remain in released position until the
span is tightly seated, after which the brakes shall set and the motors disconnected.
(8) Tower drive lift bridges arranged for automatic sequenced control shall have two independent skew limit switches,
in effect for each span mode of operation, connected in series.
(9) As specified by the Company, the drive system may include alternating current or direct current motors controlled
by semiconductor devices.
6.7.5.18 Speed Control for Span Driving Motors
a. Master switch control for span driving motors shall provide for speed control. In general, not less than six steps of
acceleration shall be provided, such that the motor torque will differ as little as practicable from the average torque
required for uniform acceleration from zero speed to full speed. The acceleration steps shall be such that the bridge will
start slowly and will accelerate and decelerate smoothly and without excess torque when under the smoothest friction
conditions and without wind or other unbalanced load; and such that the bridge will accelerate and decelerate similarly
when the motors are carrying their maximum loads. Separate resistors shall be provided for each motor.
b. Solid state variable speed drives for control of AC or DC span driving motors shall provide for smooth, stepless speed
control over a speed range of at least 10 to 1. Speed regulation shall be 2 percent or better up to rated motor speed. A
closed-loop feedback type speed control system with overspeed detection shall be used. Speed and torque control shall
be four-quadrant regenerative, with static (contactorless) reversing. Dynamic braking may be utilized as a supplement
to regeneration, but shall not be the primary means of controlling overhauling loads. Acceleration and deceleration
ramping shall be field adjustable from 2 to 20 seconds. A minimum of two adjustable speed settings shall be provided,
one covering a range of approximately 50% to 100%, and one covering a range of approximately 5% to 25% of rated
speed. Two independent adjustable settings of torque limiting shall be provided, each covering the minimum range of
50% to 150% rated motor full load torque. Automatic drive shutdown with fault indication, shall be provided for loss
of feedback signal. Each variable speed drive shall be provided with a disconnect circuit breaker and an isolation
contactor mounted in the drive cabinet to remove power from the solid state switching components and/or the
connected motors when the span driving motors are not being operated. The solid state speed control shall be a
standard product of the manufacturer. For two motor installations, drives shall be arranged to provide equal torque
from each of the motors.
6.7.5.19 Magnetic Control For Span Driving Motors
a. The following features shall apply to full magnetic control with master switch:
(1) Master switches

Movable Bridges
Master switches for the span driving motors shall be cam operated reversing switches with a single handle, and
provided with necessary contacts and contact fingers for operating the magnetic contactors. Contacts and wearing
parts shall be easily removable and replaceable. The controller shall provide for speed control of the motors.
(2) Parallel or series-parallel operation
For parallel operation for alternating current motors, and for constant potential parallel or series-parallel operation
for direct current motors, there shall be separate reversing contactors and separate resistors for each motor. Where
two motors are connected to one hoisting machine, accelerating contactors shall be common to both motors, unless
otherwise specified by the Company. For three-phase alternating current motors, each phase shall have its own
resistors, so designed as to give balanced current in all three phases. Certain of the acceleration contactors shall be
controlled by acceleration relays, such that the specified torques in Article 6.7.5.5 are not exceeded. Where
common accelerating contactors are not used, the acceleration contactors shall be so designed, or electrically or
mechanically connected, that corresponding circuits in each motor control will be made simultaneously, and that
in the event one motor is cut out, the control for the motor in service will operate satisfactorily.
(3) Acceleration relays
Adjusting plugs, screws, and nuts, including time limit adjustments, shall be easily accessible to allow for
adjustment of relays to the proper timing intervals between acceleration steps. The contacts shall be removable
without disturbing the setting of the relays.
(4) Reversing of motors
Magnetic shunt type contactors for reversing the motors shall be installed with a forward and a reverse pole for
1
each motor conductor.
b. The following features shall apply to semi-magnetic control:
(1) For semi-magnetic control, a drum type master switch shall be provided for reversing the motors by contactors
controlled by contacts on the master switch. The master switch accelerating contacts shall carry the secondary 3
current at the step applied without exceeding a 30° C temperature rise, and when the motors are operating a full
load torque, or at stalled torque if it is less. Reversing contactors, and accelerating contactors used in conjunction
with the accelerating contacts of the master switch, shall meet the requirements of Article 6.7.5.27.
(2) For control of motors in parallel the switches shall be interconnected so that all switches will be operated
simultaneously by one handle. The controllers shall be so arranged that the operation of one motor may be cut out
without affecting the operation of any other motor. 4
6.7.5.20 Programmable Logic Controllers
a. Programmable logic controllers (PLC) may be used for the sequential control and continuous monitoring of bridge
operations. The PLC’s shall be manufactured and tested in accordance with applicable IEEE and NEMA standards.
The PLC’s shall be installed and grounded in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations and the
requirements of NEC.
b. The following features shall apply to bridge control with programmable logic controllers:
(1) Cold Backup PLC.
Cold backup shall generally be the preferred backup method. For cold backup, two identical PLC’s (CPU’s only)
shall be provided, and shall be wired in place. One PLC shall normally be de-energized and electrically isolated
from power source and input/output (I/O) racks via transfer switches or relays until selected for operation.

Steel Structures
Separate, dedicated power supplies shall be provided for each PLC. Common I/O modules and racks shall be
shared by both PLC’s, but only electrically connected to the active one.
(2) Hot Backup PLC.
In certain situations, where momentary interruption to the PLC system cannot be tolerated, hot backup may be
utilized. For hot backup, two identical PLC’s shall be connected so as to be operating simultaneously, with PLC
processor error and fault checking, memory and register updating.
(3) Power Conditioning.
All PLC’s and I/O racks shall be protected against power source surge and noise problems by the use of a power
conditioning system, including surge suppression, in the power line ahead of all power supplies and ahead of all
power connections to I/O modules and any other devices, connected to the PLC’s. Consideration shall also be
given to the use of surge suppression terminal blocks for all conductors connecting to PLC inputs.
(4) System De-energizing.
The PLC system shall be provided with a master control power switch on the control console which directly
interrupts all power feeds to I/O modules when control power is turned off. A standby mode may be utilized with
such switch in which input modules remain energized.
(5) Emergency Stop.
A maintained-contact Emergency Stop pushbutton shall be provided which interrupts the PLC logic sequence, and
simultaneously and immediately directly interrupts all output module power feeds associated with all bridge
operating machinery and all other bridge-related moving equipment including roadway gates and barriers if
present.
c. A PLC programming terminal shall be furnished with each PLC system. The PLC programming terminal shall be a
compact, portable computer with all necessary PLC programming software, hardware, and communications link cables
and adapters specific to the PLC installed. All software registrations and product warranties shall be in the Company’s
name.
6.7.5.21 Resistances and Reactors
a. Resistors for motor control shall, unless otherwise specified, be non-breakable, corrosion resistant, edgewise wound or
punched grid resistor units. The resistors for the span operating motors, unless otherwise specified, shall be of a
capacity equal to NEMA intermittent cycle rating providing for 15 sec on out of each 45 sec. The resistors shall be
mounted on a steel frame so as to be free from injurious vibration and to permit free circulation of air; and shall be
furnished so that any unit or part of a unit may be removed and replaced without disturbing the others. The units shall
be insulated from their supports.
b. For wound rotor motors with secondary resistance control, the controller shall be so arranged that a small amount of
resistance shall always be left in the rotor circuits of each motor. This permanent resistance section shall be adjustable
after installation, and shall be proportioned for continuous duty.
c. Reactors for secondary control of wound rotor motors shall be arranged to present the same reactance to each motor
phase, and they shall be mounted so as to be free from injurious vibration, to permit free circulation of cooling air, and
to be protected from any dripping liquids.

Movable Bridges
6.7.5.22 Switches for Limiting Travel and Speed
a. Limit switches which will stop the motors and set the brakes automatically at the end of travel shall be provided for the
span lock, rail lock, end wedge and wedge motors. The term limit switch includes all types of mechanical switches as
well as encoders, resolvers and proximity switches.
b. Limit switches shall be provided for the movable span with master switch control which will cut off the current from
the span driving motors and set the brakes so as to stop the span in the “nearly closed” and “nearly open” positions. It
shall then be necessary to return the controller handle to the “off” position to bypass the limit switch contacts and
regain control of the span to fully close or fully open the bridge. Where specified, relays shall be provided which will
prevent the bypass from functioning until a predetermined time after the brakes have set. Additional limit switch
contacts shall be provided to stop the span in the “fully open” position, and for swing bridges, where specified, in the
“fully closed” position. Unless otherwise specified, the “nearly closed” and “nearly open” positions shall be taken to be
6 feet from the “fully closed” and “fully open” positions, respectively.
c. Fully seated switches shall be provided for vertical lift and bascule bridges which shall indicate to the operator when
the bridge is fully closed.
d. “Skew” limit switches mechanically connected to the machinery on the two towers, or equally effective devices of
other type, shall be provided for tower drive vertical lift bridges which will cut off the current from the main motors
and set the brakes so as to stop the span whenever it is more than a prescribed amount out of level.
e. Limit switches exposed to the weather shall be watertight and all exposed parts shall be corrosion resisting. Where
plunger type limit switches are used for fully seated switches, they shall be weatherproof and shall be provided with
cast or malleable iron enclosures and stainless steel operating rods.
1
f. Electrically operated bridges, shall include an over-speed limit switch to stop the span whenever normal span speed is
exceeded by 10 percent or more.
6.7.5.23 Interlocking
3
a. The operating mechanisms of all movable bridges shall be so interlocked that the operation of all devices can be
performed only in the prescribed sequence.
b. Emergency bypass switches shall be provided which will free the various motors from the prescribed interlocking in
case of emergency. These switches shall be conveniently mounted on the control desk or on the main switchboard.
Each such emergency switch shall be sealed in the “off” position.
4
c. Auxiliary power units and main power units shall be interlocked to make each one inoperative while the other is in
service.
d. Motor and machinery brakes shall be provided with limit switches so arranged that the bridge shall be inoperable
whenever any brake or combination of brakes shall be released by hand, such that the available braking torque left in
service would be insufficient to meet the requirements in Article 6.3.9.
e. Motors equipped with a shaft extension for hand operation shall be provided with a suitably wired limit switch to
prevent electrical operation of the motors when the hand crank is inserted.
6.7.5.24 Switches
a. An enclosed switch or circuit breaker shall be provided as a disconnect for the supply feeder, with a pole for each
ungrounded conductor. A similar switch, or a circuit breaker capable of being operated as a switch, shall be provided as
a disconnect for each motor, light, signal or other circuit.

Steel Structures
b. Main disconnect switches shall not be less than 60 amp capacity.
c. Toggle and tumbler switches shall be of corrosion resistant construction and they shall not be less than 20 amp
capacity.
6.7.5.25 Circuit Breakers and Fuses
a. An automatic circuit breaker shall be placed in the supply line and be arranged with undervoltage release or trip coils to
permit provision of undervoltage, reversal, and loss of phase protection. Where the supply has very large short circuit
capability, suitably rated current limiting fuses may be provided in a disconnect switch ahead of the automatic circuit
breaker, or otherwise incorporated into its design to accomplish alternate suitability. Where practicable, circuit
breakers shall be used to provide short circuit protection for all wiring circuits. Molded case circuit breaker selection
shall include a comparison of either the short circuit interrupting ability of the I2t rating (the integral of the square of
the short circuit current, I, with respect to time, t, for the period of interrupting time duration), with the respective short
circuit capacity of the I2t rating of the supply source connection. They shall not be applied to circuits with possible
short circuit duty in excess of 60% of their rated interrupting ability or, if preceded by current limiting fuses, their
permissible I2t source rating shall be at least 125% of the rated I2t let-through of the preceding fuses for the particular
application. Such a protective device shall be provided in each motor, brake, light, signal, indicator or other circuit.
Where fuses are used, they shall generally be of the dual element or current limiting type.
b. All circuit breakers shall be air break type for 600 v and less. For circuits above 600 v, either air break, vacuum break,
or oil immersed circuit breakers shall be used as required by the service conditions. Breakers shall have a pole for each
phase wire feeding through the breaker, an overload device consisting of a thermal or magnetic element for each pole,
and a common trip.
c. Circuit breakers shall not be used for motor overload protection or for limiting the travel of any mechanism.
6.7.5.26 Contact Areas
For custom designed electrical equipment such as slip rings for swing bridges, line contacts shall be avoided where
practicable. The current per square inch of contact area shall not exceed 50 amp for spring held contact, or 100 amp for bolted
or clamped contact.
6.7.5.27 Magnetic Contactors
Magnetic contactors shall have an 8 hr rating not less than the current through the contactor when the connected apparatus is
operating at rated load. Magnetic contactors shall be of the shunt type, and shall be quick acting. Contacts shall be well
shielded to prevent arcing between them and other metal parts near and shall be designed so as to be readily accessible for
inspection and repair. Copper contacts shall have a wipe. Contactors shall have double-break features or shall have magnetic
blowouts or equivalent means for rapidly quenching the arc and shall have a minimum number of parts, and all steel parts shall
be corrosion resistant. Magnetic motor starters shall have no less than 25 amp rating.
6.7.5.28 Overload Relays
a. Overload relays, automatic or hand reset as specified, shall be used in each phase or d-c circuit for overload protection
of all motors.
b. Instantaneous magnetic overcurrent relays shall also be provided in motor circuits to de-energize all motors when the
safe torque is exceeded, unless other means are provided for limiting the maximum torque.
6.7.5.29 Shunt Coils
Where shunt coils are used, in particular with brakes and magnetic contactors, the insulation shall be capable of withstanding
the induced voltage caused by cutting off the current.

Movable Bridges
6.7.5.30 Instruments
A line voltmeter, ammeters for span driving motors, and a power bus wattmeter, shall be provided and mounted on the control
console. A voltmeter switch shall be provided for measuring the voltage between any two phases and between any phase and
ground. Instruments shall be of the rectangular illuminated type, and flush mounted and back connected.
6.7.5.31 Protection of Apparatus
Electrical apparatus shall be protected from the weather and from accumulations of dirt.
6.7.5.32 Cast Iron in Electrical Parts
Where cast iron is used in switches and small electrical parts, it shall be of the malleable type.
6.7.5.33 Position Indicators
Synchronous moving span position indicators of the high accuracy type guaranteed within ± 1 degree shall be provided.
Transmitters shall be geared to trunnion shafts, counterweight sheave shafts, or machinery shafts, whichever is most suitable
for the particular installation, and the receivers in the control console shall be geared to the indicators. Gearing shall be
arranged so as to give the greatest practicable accuracy.
6.7.5.34 Indicating Lights
a. Indicating lights of suitable colors shall be furnished and installed on the control console to show span positions,
especially the fully closed, fully open, nearly closed, and nearly open positions, and also the positions of the span
1
locks, rail locks, and end wedges. Indicating lights shall also be provided to show the released position of each span
brake, the overload or overheat tripping of span drive motors, and the status of other emergency functions.
b. Where specified, indicating lights may be oil-tight “push-to-test” type.
6.7.5.35 Control Console 3

a. The span control console shall contain switches for the span operating motors and for the lock, end lift and wedge
motors; seating switches; bypass switches, instruments; position indicators; indicating lights; and all other control
devices and apparatus necessary or pertinent to the proper operation and control of the span and its auxiliaries by the
operator.
b. The control console shall be located so as to afford the operator a clear view in all directions. The console shall be of 4
cabinet type construction with a horizontal front section about 36 inches above the floor and an inclined rear
instrument panel set at such a slope that the meters can be read from average eye level without parallax and without
reflection from the glass instrument cover. The console plan dimensions and the arrangement of equipment shall be
such that all control devices are within easy reach. The top of the console shall be a laminated phenolic compound not
less than 1 inch thick, with edges beveled and neatly finished. Where specified by the Company, the top of the console
may be of No. 10 U.S. Standard gage stainless steel with a non-reflecting finish. The horizontal and sloping sections of
the top shall be accurately cut to ensure a close fit.
c. The console frame shall be constructed of sheet steel of not less than No. 11 U.S. Standard gage. All corners and edges
of the console shall be rounded, and the sheet steel shall be reinforced by flanging the metal into angle and channel
sections. Connecting sections shall be properly joined by either continuous seam welding or spot welding to provide a
rigid free-standing structure. Outside surfaces shall be smooth and without visible joints, seams or laps. The bottom of
the console shall be left open. The supporting flange on the inside of the console frame at the bottom shall be provided
with suitable holes for bolting the console to the floor. Suitable brackets and angles shall be provided on the inside of
the console to support the top and the equipment mounted thereon.

Steel Structures
d. The control console shall be provided with hinged doors on the front, and with doors, removable panels, or fixed panels
on the back and sides, as specified by the Company, to suit the requirements of the installation. Doors shall have well-
rounded flanged edges, and shall be flush mounted on concealed hinges, and shall incorporate jambs to limit the swing.
Doors shall be fitted with sturdy, three point latches operated by flush type, chromium plated handles, and shall be
assembled accurately and shall have a clearance not exceeding 1/8 inch at any point.
e. The “off” position of master switch handles shall be toward the front of the console. For bascule and swing bridges, the
direction of rotation of each master switch shall be such that when it is moved from the “off” position, the span, as seen
by the operator, will move in the same direction as the master switch handle. For double leaf bascule bridges, the
switches shall rotate opposite. For vertical lift bridges, clockwise rotation shall raise the bridge.
f. Seating switches, where foot-operated, may be supported by the outside of the console or may be set in a suitable
recess at the bottom of the console. Foot recess shall be rounded at the top to a l-1/4 inch radius.
g. Outgoing control connections from the console shall be brought to suitably marked barrier type terminal boards
supported on straps securely attached to the console frame. Terminal boards shall be located so that they do not
interfere with door access to the inside of the console. Wires shall be copper and shall be brought from the terminal
boards to their respective terminals in a neat and orderly arrangement, properly bunched and tied.
h. The console when finished shall be given one coat of moisture-resisting primer and one coat of filler on all surfaces.
The outside surfaces shall be given a finished coat of dull lacquer of a color specified by the Company. The horizontal
console top shall not be painted.
i. The console interior shall be equipped with suitable lights controlled from a switch on the console.
j. Each piece of equipment and each indicating light on the control console shall have a properly engraved metal or
lamicoid nameplate showing white characters on a black background or black characters on a white background. The
designation on the nameplates shall correspond with that shown on the wiring diagrams.
6.7.5.36 Control Panels
a. Control panels shall be of enclosed, dead front, free standing construction, NEMA Type 1 or better. All disconnect
switches, circuit breakers, contactors, relays, rectifiers, instrument transformers, and other electrical equipment for the
control of the span and its auxiliaries shall be mounted on or in the control panels.
b. The control panels shall be constructed of sheet steel of not less than No. 11 U.S. Standard gage, generally as described
in Article 6.7.5.35 for the control console. Equipment mounted at the bottom of the panel boards shall clear the floor by
at least 6 inches. Except for front connected or wall mounted panels, there shall be a distance of at least 2-1/2 feet
between the wall and the back of the panelboard. Open control panels, where specified, shall be installed in a separate
room provided with a lockable door.
c. Control panels shall be designed and installed with a view to the safety of the operator. The equipment shall be so
arranged as to be easily reached and operated and to give a neat and attractive appearance.
d. Control panels shall be either back wired or front wired. Interconnections shall be made by either copper bus bars or
insulated cables of equivalent current-carrying capacity. Control panel wiring shall terminate in terminal strips
supported in a substantial manner, and all conductors shall be copper.
e. Each piece of equipment on the control panel shall have a properly engraved nameplate, as specified for the control
console.

Movable Bridges
6.7.5.37 Control Panel Enclosures
Enclosures for panels shall, unless otherwise specified by the Company, be general purpose enclosures conforming to the
NEMA requirements for Type 1 general purpose enclosures. The cabinet shall be provided with suitably arranged doors to
give access to the front of the control panels, and either doors or removable panels to give access to the back. The cabinet,
including doors and panels, shall be of sheet steel of not less than No. 11 U.S. Standard gage, welded and flanged in a manner
that will result in a rigid free standing structure, and shall be treated to resist corrosion, and finished in the manner specified for
the control console.
6.7.5.38 Electric Wires and Cables
a. The quality of the wires and cables, and their insulation and covering, shall conform to the IPCEA-NEMA Standards.
Where these requirements do not apply, wires and cables shall conform to ASTM requirements.
b. In general, unless otherwise specified, wires external to the control console and control panels, shall be protected by
conduit, armor, or be suitably jacketed. Wire shall be type RHW, use or XHHW with class XLP or EPR insulation,
rated for 75°C and 600 volts.
c. Insulated wire for connections made on terminal boards and completely inside control panels and control consoles shall
conform to the Underwriters’ Laboratories requirements for Type SIS or THWN Wire,
600 volts.
d. Insulated wires for connections to motor resistance grids shall be high temperature appliance or motor lead wire rated
250° C, 600 volts, Type TFE, TGGT, or TKGT. High temperature wires should be connected to the general purpose
type wires within approximately, but not less than, five feet, and they shall be run between this connection and the
1
resistors in separate conduits.
e. All wires shall be stranded copper. No wires smaller than No. 12 AWG shall be used except that No. 14 AWG will be
permitted for connection to internal control components where the use of No. 12 AWG would be impractical for
control console, control panel, or interlocking device wiring.
3
f. The ends of all wires No. 8 AWG gage and smaller shall have solderless high compression indent type terminals where
they terminate at control panels, control consoles, terminal strips, lighting panels, junction boxes, and similar locations.
The ends of larger wires shall be similar and shall terminate in pressure lugs or screw-type solderless connectors.
g. Vertical runs of metal-clad cable should be limited to 30 feet.
6.7.5.39 Tagging of Wires 4

Wires shall be numbered and the numbers permanently marked on durable fiber tags, or on metal or plastic bands with
protective heat-shrunk protective sleeving, so that any wire may be traced from terminal to terminal, or as specified. The
numbers used shall correspond with those shown on the wiring diagrams.
6.7.5.40 Wire Splices
Wires shall be continuous from terminal to terminal. Splices may be used only where the terminations specified in
Article 6.7.5.38f would be impractical; and shall be neatly and carefully made and mechanically and electrically secure before
soldering. They shall be wrapped with rubber tape and friction tape and painted with waterproof insulating varnish. Splices
shall not be used inside conduits.

Steel Structures
6.7.5.41 Raceways, Metal Conduits, Conduit Fittings and Boxes
a. Except as otherwise specified by the Company, conduits shall be hot-dip-galvanized, standard weight steel or alloy
steel pipe, with a factory-fused and bonded polyvinylchloride plastisol coating if specified, and shall be not less than
3/4 inch dia. All couplings, locknuts and bushings shall be standard screw type; setscrew type couplings, locknuts and
bushings shall not be used. Bushings shall be the insulating type. Conduit entrances to sheet metal enclosures shall
have sealing 0-rings or liquid tight hub fittings.
b. Conduit size shall be such that the total areas of the wires, including insulation, shall not exceed the percentage of the
area of the conduit specified by the NEC. Phase wires in alternating current motor circuits shall be placed close
together in one conduit to lessen the inductive effects. The circuits for not more than three alternating current motors
may be in one conduit.
c. Suitable conduit outlet boxes, junction and pull boxes, ells, and other fittings shall be used with conduits except as
otherwise provided herein. Boxes, outlets and other fittings shall be of cast iron or malleable iron of sufficient
thickness to permit the conduit to be threaded into the fitting, and shall be hot-dip-galvanized. Boxes and other fittings
must be weather-proof throughout, in particular at conduit connections, be free from rough edges and rough surfaces,
and unless otherwise specified shall be of NEMA Type 4 construction unless housed in a room. Large boxes, for which
cast iron or malleable iron is not practicable, may be built of steel plates and angles not less than 3/16 inch thick, with
all joints continuously welded and shall be provided with drain holes.
d. Bends in conduits shall be used sparingly. The total angle of all bends in one conduit run shall not exceed 270 degrees
and preferably 180 degrees. Where the conduit is bent, the radius of the bend to the center of the conduit shall be not
less than 8 times the inside diameter of the conduit except for factory ells. Conduits shall have drain holes placed in
tee-connections located at the low points. So far as possible, conduits shall be run in lines parallel and perpendicular to
the principal lines of the house and structure. Embedded conduits shall be carefully rodded after placing, with a device
that will ensure that the whole interior surface of the conduit is free and clear of obstruction. The conduit shall be
temporarily protected by conduit closures or pipe caps until wires are pulled and conduit is permanently closed.
e. Conduits shall be so placed that dirt will not accumulate around them, and shall be firmly clamped to the structure to
prevent rattling, by means of supports on not more than 6 foot centers. There shall be at least 1 inch clearance between
conduits, and at least 4 inches clearance between conduits and the supporting structure. Adequate provision for the
conduit movement shall be made wherever conduits cross expansion joints in the supporting structure, and conduit
runs between the bridge and solidly based structures, such as piers and operator’s houses, shall include at least 1 foot of
liquid tight flexible metal conduit at the interface.
f. Conduit connections to motors, generators, limit switches, brakes, and other devices as otherwise specified, shall
include a minimum of 18 inches of liquid tight flexible metal conduit.
g. Where bridges have a relatively large amount of equipment and an extensive control system, consideration shall be
given to the use of wireways or continuous rigid cable supports instead of exclusive use of conduits above the control
panels and connecting with the control console. Where wireways are used, they shall be full lay in type of at least
8″×8″ cross-section and preferably 12″×12″ to adequately accommodate recommended bending radii of all cables.
Where continuous rigid cable supports are used, all cables so supported shall meet the NEC requirements. Wireways
and trays shall not be used outside the operator’s house.
6.7.5.42 Electrical Connections Between Fixed and Moving Parts
Electrical connections for carrying current between fixed and moving parts shall be made as specified or approved by the
Company for each particular installation, and may be by means of flexible cables, collector rings, sliding or rolling trolleys, as
generally indicated below, or by other suitable methods.

Movable Bridges
6.7.5.42.1 Flexible Cables
Conductors in flexible cables shall have extra-flexible stranding. In general, the cables shall be connected to terminal strips in
junction boxes at which the wiring in conduits terminate. Short cables with relatively small movement of the moving part with
reference to the fixed part, such as cables extending from a fixed pier to a fender not rigidly attached to the pier, shall be extra
flexible round portable cable covered with a neoprene jacket or protected with corrosion resistant metal armor. Long cables
with relatively large movement of the moving part with reference to the fixed part, such as vertical cables hanging in a loop
between the end of a vertical lift span and a tower, shall be special, rubber insulated flexible cables covered with a special
neoprene jacket internally reinforced with cotton twine. Such cables shall be suspended from segmental supports arranged to
ensure against any sharp bends in the cables as the span moves.
6.7.5.42.2 Collector Rings
On swing bridges the connection between the fixed part and the swing span may be made through shoes sliding on circular
collector rings attached to the center pivot. The collector rings shall be protected by a removable metal casing.
6.7.5.42.3 Sliding and Rolling Trolleys
On vertical lift bridges, the connection between the lift span and the towers may be made through trolleys with sliding or
rolling shoes moving along vertical tracks supported on the towers. For sliding shoes, the track for each conductor shall consist
of a flat copper contact strip not less than 1/4 inch thick supported continuously on a rolled steel section of adequate size and
so supported from the tower as to secure a rigid track during operation. For rolling shoes, the track for each conductor shall
consist of a grooved copper trolley wire supported at close intervals on a continuous wood strip attached to a steel section.
Means shall be provided to put the trolley wire in tension so as to secure a rigid track during operation. The rolling shoes shall
be standard trolley wheels. Twin sliding or rolling shoes shall be provided for each conductor in order to secure good contact
1
under conditions of ice or sleet. Twin shoes shall be supported on a trolley arm so designed as to hold the shoes against the
track by a spring or by gravity and to provide full contact between the shoes and the track under extreme lateral and
longitudinal movements of the span.
6.7.5.43 Electrical Connections Across the Navigable Channel

3
Electrical connections for carrying current across the navigable channel shall be made as specified or approved by the
Company for each particular installation. They shall preferably be made by means of submarine cables but may be made by
overhead cables, particularly for vertical lift bridges. The voltage, the number of conductors in each cable, the size and number
of strands in each conductor, the construction of the cable, and other such data shall be as specified by the Company. In
general, each cable shall provide a number of spare conductors. Installations shall conform to the following general
requirements.
4
6.7.5.43.1 Submarine Cables
Submarine cables shall be armored with spiral wound galvanized steel wire armor and, if specified, covered with a neoprene
jacket. Individual wires shall meet the requirements of Article 6.7.5.38. Submarine cables may be lead-covered but should be
provided with conductor insulation suitable for submarine use without the use of a lead sheath. Unless otherwise specified,
submarine cables shall be placed at least 5 feet below the bed of the channel. Cables shall be long enough to provide ample
slack.
6.7.5.43.2 Overhead Cables
a. Overhead cables shall be jacketed with neoprene or other superior jacketing compounds resistant to weather and aging.
Individual wires shall meet the requirements of Article 6.7.5.38.
b. Each cable shall be suspended from a messenger strand at intervals of not more than 18 inches. Messenger strands shall
be strung with such a sag as required to safely support the entire construction under various conditions of ice, wind,
and temperature, appropriate for the location of the bridge and shall be of high strength material and shall be

Steel Structures
adequately anchored to steel framework at their ends. Messenger strands, cable hangers, and all accessories shall be
protected against corrosion in such manner as to ensure a service life not less than that of the overhead cable.
6.7.5.44 Service Lights
a. A complete electric lighting system shall be installed for the operator’s house, machinery house, stairways, vertical lift
span tower tops, signals, machinery, the end lifting and locking apparatus, and at all other points where periodic
inspection or maintenance of equipment is required. Lighting systems shall be designed to produce at least the
following intensities: operator’s house, 30 fc; machinery house, 20 fc; unhoused machinery, 15 fc; and walkways and
stairways, 20 fc.
b. Lighting may be fluorescent, incandescent, or mercury vapor type. All fixtures fitted with incandescent lamps smaller
than 100 w shall be so equipped that lamps up to 100 w can be used, and the sizes of conductors shall be based on a
minimum of 100 w per fixture.
c. The lights in the control house shall preferably have dimming adjustment from the control console. In machinery
houses, there shall be fixed pendants of suitable length with enclosed fixtures or fire-enameled steel dome reflectors.
Vapor-tight, fire-enameled steel dome reflectors or enclosed mercury vapor fixtures shall be provided for exterior
lighting. Lampholders generally shall have shock-absorbing porcelain sockets.
d. Convenience outlets shall be provided in each room of the operator’s house; in machinery houses; at bridge lock, rail
lock, and wedge machinery; at submarine cable terminal cabinets; and at all locations where occasional inspection or
maintenance of equipment is required. They shall be of the twin-receptacle, 3-wire, grounding type. Exposed outlets to
the weather shall be weatherproof, and all exposed parts shall be corrosion resisting. Two extension cords shall be
furnished, each about 30 feet long of heavy rubber-jacketed cord, incorporating hand lamps and guards fitted with a
100 w lamp and with a plug to fit the receptacles specified heretofore.
6.7.5.45 Navigation Lights
a. Navigation lights shall be provided in compliance with the requirements of Article 6.1.9.
b. All navigation light units on the movable span and on fenders shall be capable of withstanding shocks and rough
treatment, and shall be completely weatherproof. Unless otherwise specified, light bodies shall be bronze, aluminum or
fiberglass and the lenses shall be fully gasketed. Lights shall be provided with shock-absorbing porcelain sockets and
should have lamps rated below 15 v.
6.7.5.46 Circuits
a. Circuits shall be classified as follows:
(1) Power circuits:
– Motors.
– Other.
(2) Control circuits:
– Span.
– Rail locks.
– Bridge locks.
– Wedges.

Movable Bridges
– Other.
(3) Lighting circuits:
– Navigation lights.
– Service lights.
– Convenience outlets.
– Other.
b. An independent circuit shall be provided for each motor, each control circuit, the navigation lights, each group of
service lights, and each group of convenience outlets. Common return wires will not be allowed. Each circuit shall be
protected and controlled by its own circuit breakers, fuses, and switches, located on the panelboards or at an equally
convenient point.
6.7.5.47 Grounding and Lightning Protection
a. Grounding and lightning protection systems shall be provided to meet or exceed the NEC requirements. The power
supply shall preferably be solidly grounded, but otherwise may be resistance grounded or ungrounded. Where either of
the latter types are used, a solidly grounded system, ground indicating lights shall be provided.
b. The bridge metallic structure shall have grounding conductors connected to low resistance grounding electrodes. An
electrical system ground bus, and connections to all major electrical equipment including each motor, brake, and land- 1
based navigation light shall be provided.
6.7.5.48 Spare Parts
The Contractor shall furnish the following spare parts as a part of the electrical equipment:
a. Six fuses of each size and kind. 3

b. One complete set of stationary and moving contacts for each size of each master switch and limit switch.
c. One indicating light unit, complete with lamp, fitted with colored cap for each size, type, and color.
d. One complete navigation pier light for each size and color of lens used; and six lamps for each type and size of
navigation light. 4
e. One control relay and two extra sets of contacts for each type.
f. One complete set of contacts and one operating coil for each size and type of magnetic contactor and motor starter.
g. One brake coil or thruster motor for each size of brake, or one complete brake.
h. One spare motor of each size and type, including gearmotors, and one set of brushes for each size and type of motor.
i. Spare parts shall be furnished as specified by the Company for engines, engine-generator sets, skew and positioning
indicating devices, electronic control components, tachometers, motor secondary impedance elements, and other parts.
j. One complete set of replacement solid state power modules and one replacement circuit board of each type used for
each size and type of solid state variable speed drive.
k. One input and one output module of each type installed, and one spare resolver and encoder of each type installed.

Steel Structures
6.7.6 BRAKES FOR SPAN OPERATION (1983) R(2002)
a. Brakes shall be provided in accordance with the requirements of Article 6.3.9. For electrically operated bridges, one or
more electrically operated brakes shall be provided for each main motor; and the machinery brakes shall also be
operated electrically or, when so specified, by air, by hand, or by foot. Where specified, electrically operated
machinery brakes shall be provided with three steps of retarding torques.
b. Brakes for bridges operated by power other than electricity shall be operated by air, by hand, or by foot, or, where so
specified by an auxiliary electric generator.
6.7.7 AIR BRAKES (1997) R(2002)
a. Where air brakes are used, they shall be controlled from the operator’s house. The air compressor shall be electrically
operated, and shall have a capacity of 11 cubic feet of free air per minute at a tank pressure of 90 psi. The pressure lost
through the compressor valves of the compressor shall be not more than 1-1/2 psi in 10 min. The tank pressure shall be
maintained automatically between 60 and 90 psi.
b. The air tank shall be cylindrical with a minimum capacity of 10 cubic feet. It shall be built up of steel plate sides
welded to pressure vessel heads, and shall be capable of withstanding without rupture a pressure of 250 psi. It shall
have an adjustable safety valve and blowout plug. The tank shall show no leaks when tested to a pressure of 160 psi.
c. The brake cylinder shall be not less than 6 inches diameter with a stroke of not more than 6 inches, and shall have a
spring release capable of placing the brake in the released position automatically as soon as the air is exhausted.
d. The line carrying air to the brake cylinder shall have, at a convenient place, a union with a choke which will introduce
a period of at least 5 sec for establishing the tank pressure in the cylinder.
e. Where the air in the brake cylinder is controlled electrically, the brake shall be applied automatically in case of any
power failure.
6.7.8 HAND BRAKES AND FOOT BRAKES (1983) R(2002)
Hand brakes and foot brakes shall preferably be arranged so that the brake is applied by means of a weight or spring, and
released manually.
6.7.9 AUDIBLE NAVIGATION SIGNALS (1983) R(2002)
a. An audible navigation signal, such as an air whistle, electric horn or, electric sirens, or other devices, shall be provided,
as specified.
b. Audible navigation signals shall conform to all legal requirements for the waterway.
c. Electrically operated bridges, except as otherwise specified, shall have two electric compressor-type air trumpets of
weatherproof construction and protected from sleet and snow, with minimum rating of 120 db at 10 feet reference
0.0002 microbar, and two smaller auxiliary electric trumpets or sirens having approximately 100 db output. Trumpets
or sirens shall be installed in approved locations, and pointing upstream and downstream. Pushbuttons for their control
shall be provided on the control console.
d. Where so specified a whistle shall also be provided. The whistle bell shall be not less than 3 inches dia and 9 inches
long. Where the whistle is air operated, the compressor shall be power driven with the motor and compressor mounted
on one frame. The working parts shall be enclosed and self-lubricating. The compressor shall have a capacity of from
25 cubic feet to 30 cubic feet a min when working against a tank pressure of 90 psi, and shall have an automatic
governor and switch to start and stop the compressor automatically at any predetermined tank pressure.

Movable Bridges
e. The air receiving tank shall be 36 inches dia and 8 feet long, or of equivalent capacity, and shall sustain a working
pressure of 125 psi. It shall be provided with pressure gage, pop valve, and drain cock, and shall have standard flanges
bushed for 1-1/2 inch pipe. The Contractor shall furnish and install pipe, pipe fittings and valves, all adequate for a
working pressure of 125 psi.
f. Where the bridge is electrically operated, whistle may be controlled by an electrically operated solenoid valve,
operated from the control console.
SECTION 6.8 WORKMANSHIP
6.8.1 MACHINERY MANUFACTURE IN GENERAL (1983) R(2010)
a. Machinery shall be manufactured, finished, assembled, and adjusted in an approved manner and according to the best
machine shop practice. The tolerances for machining the work and the allowances for all metal fits shall be placed on
the Contractor’s working drawings, which shall show the working allowances for the journals and their bearings.
Differences between journal and bearing diameters shall be within the prescribed limits. Measurements for roller
bearing assemblies, as specified in Article 6.8.21.4b and Article 6.8.22.2b shall be taken and recorded.
b. Machinery parts in contact with other parts or with supports shall be machined so as to provide even true bearings, and
surfaces in sliding or rotating contact with other surfaces shall be finished true to dimensions and finished in
accordance with the requirements of Article 6.5.1a. 1
c. Castings shall have fins and other irregularities removed so that they will have suitable clean, smooth surfaces.
Unfinished edges of flanges and ribs shall be neatly made with rounded corners. Inside angles shall have suitable
fillets. Suitable drainage holes shall be provided in all places where water might collect.
d. Finished rubbing surfaces shall be coated as soon as possible after being accepted with an approved rust inhibitive
grease before removal from the shop. Other surfaces shall be cleaned and painted in the shop as specified for structural 3
metal. Finished rubbing surfaces which are not assembled in the shop for shipment shall be adequately protected
during shipment by burlap or canvas wrapping secured by wooden bats securely wired together. All grease holes shall
be adequately plugged for shipment.
e. Careful attention shall be given to the protection of all machinery parts during shipment. Inlet and exhaust ports in air
buffers shall be plugged at assembly and protected until installed.
4
6.8.2 RACKS (1983) R(2010)
a. Where racks are built in segments, the segments shall be accurately fitted together and match marked. Particular care
shall be taken to have the pitch of the teeth at the joints accurate. The periphery of rack teeth shall be planed. The pitch
line shall be scribed on both ends of the teeth.
b. The backs of racks which bear on metal surfaces and the surfaces in contact with them shall be planed.
6.8.3 SHAFTS (1983) R(2010)
a. Shafts shall be straight, true to gage, and turned or otherwise well finished throughout their lengths. Shafts shall be
filleted where abrupt changes in section occur.
b. Shafts more than 8 inches dia shall have a hole bored lengthwise through the center. The hole diameter shall be about
one-fifth of the shaft diameter.

Steel Structures
6.8.4 JOURNALS (1983) R(2010)
a. Shaft journals, including their shoulders, shall be accurately machined and polished. Particular care shall be taken to
secure a high polish on the journals of trunnion and counterweight sheave shafts.
b. Unless otherwise specified, machinery journals and those of trunnion and counterweight sheave shafts shall have the
corners at their ends rounded and, except for cold-rolled shafts, their ends shall be of slightly less diameter than the
remainder of the shaft.
6.8.5 LININGS (1983) R(2010)
a. Linings shall be bored, finished smooth, and scraped to a true fit so that the journals will run without excess friction or
heating.
b. Edges of oil grooves and the edges of linings shall be rounded.
6.8.6 BEARINGS (1983) R(2010)
Rubbing and bearing surfaces and the joints between bearing caps and bases shall be finished. Holes in caps and bases shall be
drilled. Holes in bearings for bolts fastening them to their supports shall be drilled.
6.8.7 COUPLINGS (1983) R(2010)
Faces of flange couplings shall be machined to fit.
6.8.8 HUBS (1983) R(2010)
Holes in hubs, including those of sheaves, drums, gears, and pinions, shall be bored concentric with the pitch circle or rolling
surface and, unless otherwise specified, so as to give a press or shrink fit to the shaft. Such hubs shall be properly keyed to the
shafts. Where the hub performs the function of a collar, the end next to the bearing shall be machined and polished.
6.8.9 GEARS AND PINIONS (1983) R(2010)
Teeth of gears and pinions, unless specified otherwise, shall be machine cut. The periphery and the ends of teeth and gears
shall be finished and the pitch circle scribed on both ends of the teeth.
6.8.10 BEVEL GEARS (1983) R(2010)
Teeth of bevel gears shall be cut by a planer having a rectilinear motion in lines through the apex of the cone. Rotating milling
cutters shall not be used for making bevel gears.
6.8.11 MACHINE MOLDING (2003) R(2010)
All gear teeth shall be machine cut. Machine molded teeth shall not be permitted.
6.8.12 WORMS AND WORM WHEELS (1983) R(2010)
Threads on worms shall be machine cut and the teeth of worm wheels shall fit the worm accurately with surface on line
contact.

Movable Bridges
6.8.13 KEYS AND KEYWAYS (1983) R(2010)
Keys shall be planed and keyways machine cut. The finish of the keys and keyways shall be such as to give the key a driving
fit on the sides. Tapered keys shall bear on the top, bottom and sides; parallel-faced keys on the sides only.
6.8.14 BOLTS AND HOLES (1996) R(2010)
a. Bolts for minor machinery parts may be unfinished and shall have drilled or reamed holes not more than 1/16 inch
larger diameter than the bolts if approved by the Engineer.
b. All fasteners and their mounting holes not included in paragraph a shall conform to the requirements of Article 6.5.25.
6.8.15 ASSEMBLING MACHINERY IN FRAMES (1983) R(2010)
Shafts, gears, pinions, and other parts supported by machinery frames shall be assembled in the shop in their several frames,
tested by operation, and shipped to the field ready to be set in place. Each assembly shall be operated continuously for a period
of not less than 4 hr in the shop before shipment at a speed of operation not less than that of the assembly under normal bridge
operation.
6.8.16 BALANCING OF GEARS (1983) R(2010)
In order to reduce running noise to the minimum, gears shall be shop assembled on their shafts with keys in place, and each
shaft assembly balanced for any position of rotation of the shaft. Gears shall be cast so that compensation can be obtained after 1
assembling.
6.8.17 ASSEMBLING MACHINERY ON STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS (2003) R(2010)
a. Where specified on the plans, machinery parts shall be assembled on supporting members in the shop, and holes shall
be drilled with components in correct alignment and relative position. Members shall be match marked, both to the
supports and to each other, and erected in the field in the same relative positions. 3
b. Where the foregoing assembly is not specified, holes in machinery parts shall be shop drilled and holes in supports
shall be left blank and drilled in the field after the machinery parts are assembled and aligned. Where undersize holes
are permitted to aid in field alignment of the machinery, they shall be reamed to fit the permanent bolts after all other
holes have been drilled and their bolts placed.
4
6.8.18 GROOVES IN JOURNALS AND LININGS (1983) R(2010)
Lubrication grooves in the surfaces of shaft journals and bearing linings shall be machine cut. Small inequalities may be
removed by chipping and filing. Grooves and rounded corners shall be smooth.
6.8.19 AIR BUFFERS (1983) R(2010)
Workmanship on air buffers shall be so accurate that the weight of the cylinder and its attachments will be sustained by the
confined air for 6 min, with a piston travel not more than that which occurs during the closure of the bridge. Valves must be
closed and the buffers balanced so that the whole weight is carried by the piston rod.

Steel Structures
6.8.20 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SWING BRIDGES (2003) R(2010)
6.8.20.1 Rim Girders
The edges of the webs and side plates and the backs of the flange angles in the bottom flanges of riveted rim girders of rim-
bearing swing spans, shall be so planed as to secure full bearing on the tread plates. Bottom flanges of welded rim girders
shall have complete penetration welds connecting the webs to the flanges.
6.8.20.2 Rack and Track
a. Track segments shall be planed on the top and bottom and at the ends. Surfaces on which conical rollers bear shall be
planed to the true bevel and centerline shall be scribed on the surface.
b. The rack and track shall be completely assembled in the shop to their correct centerlines, fitted, drilled, and the parts
match marked.
6.8.20.3 Bearings for Rack Pinion Shafts
Bearings for rack pinion shafts shall be bolted to the bracket supporting them and bored while so fastened to ensure perfect
alignment.
6.8.20.4 Rollers
The faces and sides of rollers and balance wheels shall be finished, the corners rounded, and the centerline of the rollers and
balance wheels scribed on the faces. Hubs shall be bored accurately and faced on both ends.
6.8.20.5 Pivots
Pivot stands and center castings of swing bridges shall be finished and fitted accurately. The base shall be truly faced at right
angles to the axis, and shall be turned on the circumference concentric with the axis.
6.8.20.6 Disks
Steel disks shall be fitted accurately, finished to gage, and ground accurately to the final finish. Disk centers shall be
assembled, fitted accurately and match marked. Sliding surfaces of steel and phosphor-bronze disks shall be polished.
6.8.20.7 Assembling Centers
For rim bearing swing spans, the complete center, including rim girders, center pivot, radial members, rack, track and rollers,
shall be shop-assembled, aligned, fitted, drilled and tested, and the parts match marked.
6.8.21 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BASCULE BRIDGES (2003) R(2010)
6.8.21.1 Segmental Girders and Track Girders
For rolling lift bridges, the bottom flanges of riveted segmental girders and top flanges of riveted track girders shall have the
edges of the web and side plates and the backs of the flange angles so planed as to secure full bearing on the tread plates.
Flanges of the segmental girders shall be so accurately bent to the required radius so that planing will reduce their thickness by
no more than 1/8 inch. Bottom flanges or welded segmental girders and top flanges of welded track girders shall have
complete penetration welds connecting the webs and flanges.

Movable Bridges
6.8.21.2 Racks
Where specified on the plans, all circular racks shall be shop-assembled on their supporting members, including all parts up to
and including the trunnion shaft or its supporting member, the parts then aligned and adjusted so that the pitch of the rack
throughout its length is at the prescribed radius from the center of the trunnion shaft, the holes drilled, and the parts match
marked. Where any temporary radial members are required to properly align the rack, they shall be furnished and match
marked.
6.8.21.3 Tread Plates
a. For rolling lift bridges, the top and bottom surfaces of the tread plates shall be planed. Where tread plates are built in
segments, their ends shall be faced.
b. Tread plates shall be shop-assembled with their segmental girders and track girders, aligned, fitted, drilled, and the
parts match marked.
6.8.21.4 Assembly of Trunnion Shafts and Bearings
a. In journal bearing installations, each trunnion shaft shall be shop-assembled with its bearings, and the linings shall be
scraped to a true fit with the journals.
b. For roller bearing installations, two sets of exact diameter measurements shall be taken at 90 degree angles on the
contact faces between the trunnion shaft and the inner race. Each component shall be permanently marked and the
measurements taken at locations near the ends and at the corner of the inner race. Measurements shall be recorded and
included in the maintenance manual.
1
6.8.22 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR VERTICAL LIFT BRIDGES (1983) R(2010)
6.8.22.1 Sheaves and Drums
a. Grooves in sheaves and drums shall be turned. Particular care shall be taken to secure uniformity of pitch diameter for 3
all grooves of a counterweight sheave. The variation from the required diameter shall not exceed 0.01 inch.
b. Built sheaves shall be assembled and permanently riveted, or welded and stress-relieved, before the grooves are turned.
6.8.22.2 Assembly of Counterweight Sheave Shafts and Bearings
a. For journal bearing installations, each sheave shaft shall be shop-assembled with its bearings, and the linings scraped 4
to a true fit with the journals.
b. For roller bearing installations, two sets of exact diameter measurements shall be taken at 90 degree angles on the
contact faces between the sheave shaft and the inner race. Each component shall be permanently marked and the
measurements taken at locations near the ends and at the center of the inner race. Measurements shall be recorded and
included in the maintenance manual.

Steel Structures
SECTION 6.9 ERECTION
6.9.1 ERECTION OF MACHINERY (1996)1 R(2002)
a. The installation and adjustment of all machinery shall be by competent mechanics experienced in this class of work.
They shall be provided with all necessary gages, straightedges, and other precision instruments required to ensure
accurate installation.
b. The final alignment and adjustment of machinery parts, whose relative position is affected by the deflection or
movement of the supports under full dead load, or of the span under full dead load, shall not be made until such
deflection or movement has taken place.
c. Machinery parts shop-assembled on their supporting members, with connection holes shop drilled, shall be erected
according to the match marking diagrams. Frames carrying machinery assemblies, individual bearings, and other
machinery parts, which have not been assembled with their supports in the shop, shall be assembled in the field and
adjusted to proper elevation and alignment on the supporting steel parts, by means of full length shims, the holes
through the supporting steel parts for the connecting bolts shall be drilled while the parts are so assembled. Where any
small placement holes are provided to aid in field alignment of machinery, they shall be reamed to fit the permanent
bolts after all other holes have been drilled and their bolts placed.
d. Open gearing shall be aligned such that backlash is within tolerance so that at least the center 50% of the face width of
each pair of meshing teeth is in contact. The cross mesh shall not exceed 0.01 inch per 6 inches face width. Open gear
measurements shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval. The measurements shall include backlash, cross mesh
alignment, tooth valley gap and face contact. The type of bluing or lubricant used for face contact measurements shall
be submitted to the Engineer for approval prior to any measurements. These measurements shall be performed at a
minimum of eight (8) equally spaced span positions ranging from fully open to fully closed.
e. Careful attention shall be given to the protection of all machinery parts during unloading and while stored before
erection. Before erection, all finished surfaces which were shop coated with a protective rust inhibitive grease shall
have such grease removed with an appropriate solvent.
6.9.2 ERECTION OF TRUNNION BEARINGS AND COUNTERWEIGHT SHEAVE

BEARINGS (1983) R(2010)
a. Trunnion bearings and counterweight sheave bearings shall be aligned with the utmost accuracy. After they have been
adjusted by the use of full length shims, to proper elevation, and position on the supporting steel parts, with due
allowance for movement of the bearings which may result from the dead load to be placed on the bearings, the holes
through the supporting steel parts for the connecting bolts shall be drilled through the previously drilled holes in the
bearings.
b. The exact methods to be used in securing the required alignment of trunnion and counterweight sheave bearings shall
be shown on the Contractor’s working drawings.
c. Installation of roller-type sheave bearings shall be supervised by a qualified and experienced technician furnished by
the bearing manufacturer.
d. Before ropes are placed over counterweight sheaves, the bearings shall be lubricated and the sheave shall be turned to
verify that the shaft turns freely in the bearings. If the shaft does not turn freely, the alignment of the bearings shall be
corrected as necessary.
1

Movable Bridges
6.9.3 PROTECTION OF PARTS (1983) R(2002)
a. Parts, particularly electrical parts, which are protected from the weather in the finished structure shall be protected in
the field during erection, by housing or equivalent means.
b. Wire ropes shall be housed and stored at least 18 inches above the ground, and shall be kept free from dirt, cinders, and
sand.
6.9.4 LUBRICATION (2008)1 R(2010)
a. The Contractor shall furnish at his own expense, grease, oil, fuel and all other lubricants and supplies as necessary for
satisfactory operation of the movable span until it has been accepted by the Company, excepting only that for electric-
motor-operated spans the Company will pay for electric current obtained from the power line. Greases and oils must be
suitable for the operating service and pressures and shall meet the approval of the Engineer.
b. When the movable span is in operating condition, the Contractor shall thoroughly clean all counterweight ropes and
operating ropes of foreign material and, when weather conditions become suitably dry and the atmospheric
temperature above 40 degrees F, shall furnish and apply hot, one coat of approved wire rope dressing.
c. All lubricants for a given component shall be chemically compatible, including the lubricant used in manufacture and
the lubricant that will be field applied. For any component on which a new lubricant is to be applied that is not
chemically compatible with the existing lubricant, all traces of the existing lubricant shall be thoroughly cleaned and
flushed from the component before applying the new lubricant.
1
6.9.5 ERECTION OF WIRE ROPES (1983) R(2010)
a. Wire ropes shall be carefully removed from reels and coils by revolving them, and shall be erected so as to avoid any
sharp kinks or bends. The ropes shall be kept clean during erection.
b. Operating ropes for vertical lift spans shall be adjusted to equal tensions at the four corners of the span, and in such
manner as to give only slight tension in the slack side of the rope.
3
c. Counterweight ropes, where not fabricated to exact lengths, and when not connected by equalizers, shall be adjusted in
the field so as to secure equal loads on all of the ropes at a corner of the span. The stripe shop painted on each rope shall
be straight after the rope is erected.
6.9.6 PAINTING (1983) R(2010) 4

a. Surfaces of machinery parts, except rubbing surfaces, shall be cleaned and painted in the field as specified for
structural metal.
b. Exposed concrete surfaces of counterweights shall be coated with approved waterproofing material.
c. Care shall be taken to prevent the painting of nameplates of electrical and mechanical equipment. Any painted
nameplates shall be replaced with new plates.
1

Steel Structures
6.9.7 COUNTERWEIGHTS (1983)1 R(2003)
a. The Contractor shall prepare calculations showing the required dimensions and weights of counterweights based on
weights computed from the shop drawings of structural steel and machinery, and on estimated unit weights of concrete,
timber, and all other parts of the span. These calculations shall be submitted to the Engineer, in suitable form, for
verification. These calculations shall include summarized tabulations showing, for each kind of material, the total
quantity of the material, its estimated unit weight, and its total estimated weight. Before pouring the counterweights,
the Contractor shall verify these estimated and computed weights by comparison with shipping weights of steel, and by
weighing suitable portions of non-metal parts, and shall submit to the Engineer for approval, supplemental summarized
tabulations based on actual weights.
b. The Contractor shall adjust and correct the counterweights, shall provide the required balance blocks, and shall secure
the required balance of the counterweights and span. Approval by the Engineer of any balance tabulations or of any
materials or processes shall not relieve the contractor of the entire responsibility for securing such balance.
6.9.8 END LIFTING DEVICES FOR SWING SPANS (1983) R(2010)
End lifting devices shall be adjusted, when the span is at uniform temperature, to produce a lift equal to the greatest of the
following:
a. 1.5 times the computed deflection which would result from the negative end reaction of the live load plus impact load,
b. 0.10% of the length of one arm, or
c. One-half inch.
6.9.9 CHANNEL LIGHTS (1983) R(2002)
During construction of a new span and/or removal of and old span, the Contractor shall place and maintain navigation lights
and signals, in accordance with government requirements for navigation and for the protection of the falsework.
6.9.10 TESTING (1983) R(2010)
a. Before the main operating machinery is connected for transmitting power, it shall be given an idle run for four hours.
b. When the entire installation is completed, the span, including all accessories, shall be operated through not less than
three complete cycles using normal power, prime movers, and control and through at least two cycles using auxiliary or
emergency power, prime movers, and control. These tests shall be repeated for the auxiliary drive system and alternate
operating modes where provided. During these runs, the entire equipment shall be inspected to determine whether all
features are in proper working order and adjustment, and meet fully the requirements of the plans and specifications.
Electrically powered bridges shall be completely checked with recording type electrical instruments, and the
temperature rise of electrical parts, during the specified duration of continuous testing, shall not exceed design ratings.
Should tests show that any features are defective or inadequate, or function improperly, the Contractor shall make any
corrections, adjustments, or replacements required at his own expense.
c. Lift bridges shall be tested per Article 6.3.6a(1) and Article 6.3.6a(2) loads, simulated by placing equal weights at each
end of the span. Unless otherwise specified, the total continuous duration of the operating cycles under
Article 6.3.6a(2) load shall be at least 30 minutes for the main drive system. Where there is an auxiliary drive system,
it shall be similarly tested.
1

Movable Bridges
d. Bascule and swing bridges shall be tested without any additional load to simulate ice or wind. Unless otherwise
specified, the total continuous duration of the operating cycles shall be taken as 30 min for the main drive system.
Where there is an auxiliary drive system, it shall be similarly tested.
6.9.11 BRIDGE OPERATOR (1983)
For a power-operated bridge, the Contractor shall provide, at his own expense, competent persons to supervise the operation of
the bridge for a period of 14 calendar days after the span is completely operable; and for an additional 14-day period, he shall
provide one person. These persons shall be competent to operate the bridge, to supervise its operation, and to make any
adjustments or corrections that may be required in the mechanical or electrical equipment of the bridge. They shall instruct and
qualify the employees of the Company in the operation of the bridge. Any adjustments or corrections required during the two
14-day periods shall be at the expense of the Contractor.

Steel Structures

15
Part 7
Existing Bridges1
— 2013 —
FOREWORD
Part 1, Design; Part 3, Fabrication; Part 4, Erection; and Part 6, Movable Bridges are applicable to the strengthening, rating
and inspection of existing bridges, except as modified by this part. As information, Title 49 Code of Federal Regulations, Part
214 Railroad Workplace Safety, is applicable to personnel engaged in inspection, repair or maintenance of most railroad
bridges in the USA. Similar regulations also exist in other jurisdictions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-2

7.1.1 Classification (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-2
7.1.2 Division of Subject (1994) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-2 3
7.1.3 Rating of Bridges (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-3
7.1.4 Rating of Equipment (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-3
7.1.5 Form of Presentation (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-4
7.2 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-4

7.2.1 General (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-4
7.2.2 Bridge Inspection Procedure (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-5
7.2.3 Periodic Inspections (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-5
7.2.4 Special Inspections (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-5
7.2.5 Emergency Inspections (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-6
7.2.6 Conditions to Report (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-6
7.2.7 Rating Inspection (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-8
7.2.8 Inspection Sketches for Identification of Members (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-9
7.3 Rating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-13

7.3.1 General (1998) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-13
7.3.2 Loads and Forces (2007) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-13
7.3.3 Stresses (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-16
7.3.4 Action to Be Taken (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-22
1
References, Vol. 25, 1924, pp. 228, 1262; Vol. 49, 1948, pp. 206, 666; Vol. 60, 1959, pp. 507, 1098; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 367, 699; Vol. 70, 1969, p. 241; Vol.
84, 1983, p. 100; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 79; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 124; Vol. 94, 1994, pp. 1, 143; Vol. 96, p. 73; Vol. 97, p. 175. Reapproved with revisions 1996.

Steel Structures
7.4 Repair, Strengthening and Retrofitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-23

7.4.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-23
7.4.2 Plate Girders or Rolled Beams (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-26
7.4.3 Floor Systems (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-28
7.4.4 Trusses (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-28
7.4.5 Other Structures (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-30
7.5 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-30

7.5.1 General (1984) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-30
7.5.2 Maintenance of Structural Elements (1984) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-31
7.5.3 Maintenance Painting (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-31
LIST OF FIGURES
15-7-1 Typical Through Truss Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-10

15-7-2 Typical Through Girder Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-11
15-7-3 Typical Deck Girder Bridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-12
LIST OF TABLES
15-7-1 Allowable Stresses for Maximum Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7-20
SECTION 7.1 GENERAL
7.1.1 CLASSIFICATION (1995) R(2008)
a. The classification of a bridge with regard to carrying capacity is based on the heaviest moving load of specification
type which may be operated over it in regular service without subjecting it to such severe stresses, vibration or wear of
parts as to impair its safety or serviceability. Loads in excess of design loads will, if continuously operated, shorten the
useful life of the bridge.
b. Iron and steel bridges shall be classified according to their rated carrying capacity as determined by Section 7.3,
Rating.
7.1.2 DIVISION OF SUBJECT (1994) R(2008)
The work of classifying bridges consists of three steps:
a. The determination of the capacity and rating of the bridges.

Existing Bridges
b. The determination in corresponding terms of the effect and rating of each type and size of equipment used, in order that
the territorial operating limits of each class of equipment may be assigned.
c. The presentation of such data in a format convenient for the operating personnel.
7.1.3 RATING OF BRIDGES (1994) R(2008)
7.1.3.1 Plans and Records
Complete plans and records of each bridge, including design live load, impact load and material specifications shall be made.
Record plans shall be prepared and maintained.
7.1.3.2 Bridge Sketches
For ready reference, a sketch, or line diagram, of each bridge shall be prepared.
7.1.3.3 Record of Bridge Material
The records shall show the materials of which each bridge is constructed. If necessary, the character of the material shall be
determined from small specimens obtained in the field.
7.1.3.4 Assignment of Ratings
Each bridge shall be analyzed on the basis of the rating rules and specification loading in effect. Significant loss in section 1
shall be recorded and accounted for in the rating of a member. The strength of each member, including connections and other
details, shall be determined and the capacity of the bridge ascertained. The bridge shall then be given a rating corresponding to
the lowest rated member.
7.1.3.5 Filing of Calculations
The calculations shall be made in permanent form and filed for future reference. 3
7.1.3.6 Bridge Rating Lists
Lists of all bridges shall be prepared and arranged in territorial groups, showing for each bridge the identifying number or
name, location, lengths and number of spans, type, number of tracks carried, material of which constructed, date built, capacity
and rating.
4
7.1.4 RATING OF EQUIPMENT (1994) R(2008)
7.1.4.1 Definition of Equipment
Equipment, as used in this section, is defined as one or more engines and/or cars which can be operated on their own wheels in
a train.
7.1.4.2 Line Diagrams of Equipment
A line diagram of equipment shall be obtained and filed for reference. This diagram shall show the axle loads, axle spacings
and coupled length.

Steel Structures
7.1.4.3 Loading Effects
The effect of equipment loading shall be ascertained by calculating the associated bending moments, shears and pier reactions.
The calculations shall be such that the maximum loading effect on each member may be determined or estimated.
7.1.4.4 Equipment Rating
The rating of equipment for operating purposes shall be expressed in terms of equipment for which the bridges are rated, and
for that span length on which it produces its maximum effect.
7.1.4.5 List of Equipment Ratings
A list of equipment shall be prepared, giving its number, class, type, total weight, rating for operating purposes and rating for
each span length.
7.1.4.6 Relation of Loads to Specification Loading
For each bridge span length for which moments, shears and pier reactions are determined, the effect of the load in terms of
specification loading shall be ascertained.
7.1.5 FORM OF PRESENTATION (2002) R(2008)
7.1.5.1 Common Standard for Rating
By following the procedure outlined, each bridge and all equipment will be assigned a rating based on a common standard.
7.1.5.2 Cooper Series
The Cooper series is used as a standard of railroad bridge loading.
7.1.5.3 Format for Use of Operating Department
The capacities of the various lines shall either be shown by means of a diagrammatic map, or arranged geographically in a
table, or both.
7.1.5.4 Special Cases
Special conditions involving particular bridges on a line, or the operation of special loads in certain territories, may be covered
by means of notes calling attention to exceptions to a general rule.
SECTION 7.2 INSPECTION
7.2.1 GENERAL (2011)1
a. The inspection of steel bridges may be classified as periodic inspections, special inspections and emergency
inspections. All steel bridge inspections should be performed in accordance with the Company established bridge
inspection procedure to ensure that every steel bridge is inspected at the prescribed frequency.
1

Existing Bridges
b. Periodic inspections are regular, scheduled inspections. Their purpose is to ensure the integrity of the bridge and to
note any condition or change that requires investigation or attention. Periodic inspection of all steel bridges should be
performed at least once each year.
c. Special inspections are detailed inspections made for the purpose of obtaining accurate information for determining the
capacity rating and/or for determining required repairs. Special inspections may also be performed on bridges with
unique requirements, such as movable bridges, bridges with fracture critical members or those with fatigue susceptible
details which require special inspection procedures. (Reference 5)
d. Emergency inspections are inspections performed on bridges that have sustained an unusual occurrence potentially
affecting the ability of the bridge to support the loads imposed upon it.
e. Formulation of and general oversight for the bridge inspection procedure should be performed by a competent railroad
bridge engineer who should prescribe the minimum frequency and levels of inspection and resolve exceptions.
7.2.2 BRIDGE INSPECTION PROCEDURE (2002) R(2008)
The bridge inspection procedure shall establish the method(s) and format(s) to be used to record observations and document
each inspection. An accurate inventory of bridges shall be established and maintained to ensure that inspections occur as
required by the procedure. The procedure should include the title and a description of the responsibilities of each employee or
contract agent in the inspection process. Additionally, the frequency and level of inspection for each bridge shall be
prescribed. The frequency and level of inspection should be based on the condition and age of the bridge, any other unique
characteristics of the bridge, the type of traffic and the tonnage.
1
7.2.3 PERIODIC INSPECTIONS (2002) R(2008)
a. Periodic inspections should be performed by a competent Inspector whose training and experience enable the Inspector
to identify and record defects, deterioration and indications of distress.
b. The Inspector should maintain an accurate record of the observed physical condition of the bridge and prepare an
inspection report for each bridge inspected. This inspection report should provide a description of the structure, the 3
date of inspection, the Inspector’s name and changes noted in the condition of the superstructure, substructure and
surrounding conditions since the last inspection. The inspection report should state the condition of all bridge
components; note defects, deterioration and conditions of distress; and identify items in need of maintenance or repair.
The Inspector should review prior inspection reports and should examine previously noted defects in the field.
c. The Inspector should identify those bridges that need to be further evaluated by the Engineer.
4
d. If a condition is noted during inspection which may impair operating over the bridge, the Inspector should immediately
take action to protect traffic as prescribed by the Railroad’s rules and should notify the Engineer. The Engineer should
evaluate the condition and, as warranted, take immediate action to modify the traffic protection and/or order any
required emergency repairs. Other reported deficiencies should be evaluated by the Engineer to determine appropriate
action.
7.2.4 SPECIAL INSPECTIONS (2013)
Special inspections provide additional detailed information not contained in the periodic inspection report. This information
may be needed to rate an existing bridge or to design a repair plan. Special inspections should be performed and reported as
requested by the Engineer.

Steel Structures
7.2.4.1 Movable Bridges
Movable bridges require inspection procedures for items such as cables, electrical and hydraulic equipment, machinery, or
movable bridge rail joint assemblies. (Reference 43)
7.2.4.2 Fracture Critical Members
Bridges with fracture critical members (FCM) may require inspection that includes procedures outlined to address detailed
evaluation of these members. (Reference 93)
a. In advance of field inspection, the Engineer may review archival materials (as-built plans, shop drawings, etc.) to
identify all FCMs and the fatigue prone details of all FCMs.
b. The Engineer may establish the inspection protocol to be used by the inspection team including hands-on inspection
and employment of non-destructive testing (NDT) procedures such as dye-penetrant, ultrasonic, acoustic emission, or
magnetic particle testing. NDT technicians shall possess proper certification for the type of testing they will perform.
c. The Engineer may develop an inspection plan and frequency for individual bridges which possess FCMs.
7.2.4.3 Bridge Instrumentation
Bridge instrumentation may be used to determine or monitor actual strains, temperature and deflections to evaluate specific
locations on bridge components. It might be difficult to conduct inspections on certain bridge components due to limited
access, frequency of rail traffic or other factors. Reasons for such enhanced evaluation include but are not limited to rating,
repair, research, thermal effects, and load distribution. Movable bridge machinery can be instrumented to determine span
balance or changes in machinery behavior.
Instrumentation equipment may include strain gages, accelerometers, tilt meters, displacement transducers, etc.
If used, bridge instrumentation should be considered limited in scope and supplemental to inspections performed by qualified
personnel, and not a substitute for them.
7.2.5 EMERGENCY INSPECTIONS (2002) R(2008)
Unusual occurrences, such as floods, derailments, collisions, fires, or earthquakes, may damage the structure and affect its
ability to support the loads imposed upon it. Emergency inspections are initiated after such unusual occurrences to evaluate
the structure for any changes. Immediate actions, such as operating restrictions or emergency repairs, may be required.
Operating restrictions may be needed until the emergency inspection is performed.
7.2.6 CONDITIONS TO REPORT (2002) R(2008)
Of primary importance in all structures is evidence of distress, misalignment, excessive deflection, settlement, cracks,
corrosion and general deterioration. The Inspector should report indications of overload or failure in any part of the bridge.
The general behavior of the bridge should be observed during passage of live load, where practical, noting unusual vibration,
deflection, side sway, opening of cracks or movements at piers and/or abutments. Evidence of deterioration of steel
components such as location, length and growth of cracks, amount and location of section loss, and the location and extent of
impact damage should be recorded. Reference points should be established for monitoring misalignment, deflection,
settlement, and cracks. The amount of tilt, separation between components, length of cracks, and other measurements
necessary for future monitoring should be recorded. The following items should be covered in detail:
a. Track:
• Surface of track on bridges and approaches.

Existing Bridges
• Alignment of track and its location with reference to the steel structure, at ends and center of each span.
• Location, amount, and probable causes of any track out of line or surface.
b. Deck:
• Size, spacing and minimum depth of ties.
• Size and condition of guard timbers and guard rails.
• Condition of walks and railings.
• Condition of ballasted deck, and depth of ballast measured from base of rail at each end of bridge.
• Condition of waterproofing.
c. Anchors, bearings and bridge seats:
• Whether superstructure is securely anchored to masonry.
• Whether expansion bearings are functioning properly.
• Whether bed plates, rollers, rockers, and pedestals are clean, in correct position and have full bearing.
• Whether bed plates are wearing into masonry and if so, how much.
d. Expansion:
1
• Clearance between expansion ends and masonry or adjoining spans. Temperature at time of measurement.
• Whether there is any apparent movement of masonry during train passage.
e. Straightness and alignment of members: Condition of individual members as to bends and kinks. Alignment of trusses,
girders, floor members and towers. Slackness of eyebars and adjustment of counters.
• Parts damaged by blows from equipment, lading, or floating objects.

3
f. Cracks and breaks:
• Stringer connection angles, stringer and girder flange angles under the bearings, hangers, pin plates, fillets of angles
of flanges and posts, end sections of lower chords or flanges over or near bearings, and ends of cut-off cover plates.
• Webs of floorbeams where bottom flange angles do not extend under end connection angles. 4
• Lateral bracing and cross frames, especially those of spans on curves.
• Welds on lateral bracing and cross frames, stiffeners and other welded details.
• Where parts or welds to be examined for cracks or breaks are in dark or poorly lighted places, examination should be
made with flashlight or other artificial light and with the aid of a mirror, if necessary.
g. Rivets, bolts, pin holes and nuts:
• Location and number of rivets and bolts that are loose and of rivets that have badly corroded heads, particularly for
floor connections.
• Movement and wear of pins and pin holes.
• Pins should be observed under traffic if practicable, especially those at or near center panels of trusses where
counters are slack and at hip vertical connections.

Steel Structures
h. Corrosion:
• Loss of section from corrosion, noting exact location and extent of such action, with measurements of remaining
section if members are badly corroded, paying close attention to loss of metal in girder and beam flanges and webs,
and parts of lateral bracing systems.
• Distortion caused by rust between rivets and built-up members.
• Damage to overhead structures from engine blast in spans.
• Pockets at bearing locations and at bottom of bearing stiffeners.
i. Paint and cleanliness:
• Condition of paint, date of last painting, and number of coats and kinds of paint.
• Need for spot painting or repainting.
• Dirt collection on steel surfaces.
7.2.7 RATING INSPECTION (2011)
When the findings of the inspection are to be used for purposes of rating the bridge, the following items should be reported in
detail:
a. Whether the actual sections and details conform to the drawings.
b. Any additions to the dead load not shown on the plans, such as heavier deck or rail, walks, pipelines, conduits, signal
devices, and wire supports.
c. The position of the track with respect to the bridge centerline, and actual ballast depth.
d. Any loss of metal due to corrosion and wear. This determination should be made by measurement after removal of
scale.
e. The physical condition, noting, for example, such defects as loose tension members, loose or missing fasteners, worn
pins, crooked or damaged members, and cracked parts.
f. The condition of specific members and details, including:
• Braces intended to limit the slenderness ratio of compression members or flanges.
• Pin plates of tension members, especially those inside other members.
• Gusset and splice plates, particularly any reduced section, cracking, buckling or other distortion.
• Slender tension members, such as eyebars, with special reference to the effects of member vibration caused by
passing trains or by wind.
• Floorbeams and their connections, particularly where the connection has been shaped to clear eyebar heads, or the
bottom chord or flange.
• Stringer connections, especially for shallow stringers.

Existing Bridges
7.2.8 INSPECTION SKETCHES FOR IDENTIFICATION OF MEMBERS (2002) R(2008)
Typical sketches are shown of a through truss span (Figure 15-7-1), a through girder span (Figure 15-7-2), and a deck girder
span (Figure 15-7-3), for the guidance of the Inspector.

Steel Structures
Figure 15-7-1. Typical Through Truss Bridge

Existing Bridges
11
33
44
Figure 15-7-2. Typical Through Girder Bridge

Steel Structures
Figure 15-7-3. Typical Deck Girder Bridge

Existing Bridges
SECTION 7.3 RATING1
7.3.1 GENERAL (1998)2 R(2008)
a. Rating of existing bridges in terms of carrying capacity shall be determined by the computation of stresses based on
authentic records of the design, details, materials, workmanship and physical condition, including data obtained by
inspection (and tests if the records are not complete). If deemed advisable, field determination of stresses shall be made
and the results given due consideration in the final assignment of the structure carrying capacity. For a specific service,
the location of the bridge and its behavior under load shall be taken into account.
b. Bridges may be assigned two types of ratings; NORMAL and MAXIMUM. The rating or ratings to be assigned, with
any corresponding service limitations, shall be as directed by the Engineer.
7.3.1.1 Normal Rating
a. Normal Rating is the load level which can be carried by the existing structure for its expected service life. The rating is
dependent on a specified speed, as impact reductions are allowed for reduced speeds per Article 7.3.2.3. The speed or
speeds to be used shall be as directed by the Engineer. Allowable stresses for Normal Rating shall be those specified in
Part 1, Design; Section 1.4, Basic Allowable Stresses, supplemented by Part 1, Design, Article 1.3.14.3. The fatigue
requirements of Article 7.3.3.2 shall be included, unless a remaining fatigue service life calculation is made.
b. When the allowable stress in Part 1, Design; Section 1.4, Basic Allowable Stresses is expressed in terms of Fy , Fy =
yield strength of the material as explained in Article 7.3.3.3a.
1
c. If the Normal Rating is greater than the Maximum Rating, the lesser rating shall govern.
7.3.1.2 Maximum Rating
a. Maximum Rating is the load level, (see Article 7.3.2) which the structure can support at infrequent intervals, with any
applicable speed restrictions. Allowable stresses for Maximum Rating shall be those specified in Article 7.3.3.3. The
provisions of Article 7.3.3.2, Fatigue need not be considered when determining Maximum Rating. 3
b. The Engineer may authorize load levels up to Maximum Rating at more frequent intervals, recognizing that the
remaining useful life of the bridge may be significantly shortened. See Part 9, Commentary Article 9.7.3.1.2.
7.3.2 LOADS AND FORCES (2007)3 R(2008)

4
Bridges shall be analyzed for the following loads and resulting forces:
a. Dead load.
b. Live load.
c. Impact load.
d. Centrifugal force.
1
References, Vol. 22, 1921, pp. 379, 1006; Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 266, 729, 1024; Vol. 39, 1938, pp. 165, 891; Vol. 41, 1940, pp. 411, 858; Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 358,
874; Vol. 44, 1943, pp. 403, 670, 685; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 428, 749; Vol. 51, 1950, pp. 444, 904; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 446, 868; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 701, 1195;
Vol. 60, 1959, pp. 507, 1098; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 387, 699; Vol. 68, 1967, p. 351; Vol. 73, 1972, p. 176; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 79; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 144; Vol. 97,
p. 176.

Steel Structures
e. Wind forces.
f. Other lateral forces.
g. Longitudinal forces.
h. Forces from continuous welded rail (see Part 8, Miscellaneous; Section 8.3, Anchorage of Decks and Rails on Steel
Bridges).
7.3.2.1 Dead Load
The dead load shall be the weight of the bridge including the deck and track, together with any other fixed loads.
7.3.2.2 Live Load
a. The live load shall be one of the Cooper E series or a load of specific equipment, depending on the purpose for which
the rating is desired.
b. Where the live load is specific equipment, complete data shall be obtained, including the spacing of axles and the static
load on each axle.
7.3.2.3 Impact Load
a. Impact load shall be in accordance with the impact percentage equations and other provisions of Part 1, Design,
Article 1.3.5 except that under the following conditions, reductions may be made in the vertical effects of such
equations, as follows below. The rocking effect shall not be reduced.
(1) For train speeds below 60 mph, for all spans carrying equipment without hammer blow and for all spans other than
truss spans carrying equipment with hammer blow, the values of the vertical effects of the impact equations shall
be multiplied by the factor (Reference 22):
0.8 - ( 60 – S ) 2 ≥ 0.2 where S = speed in mph

1 – -----------
2500
(2) For all truss spans carrying equipment with hammer blow that is limited to speeds less than synchronous speed,
the values of the vertical effects of the impact percentage equations shall be multiplied by a factor which increases
in a straight line from 0.2 at 10 mph to 1.0 at synchronous speed. Synchronism occurs when the revolutions per
second of equipment drive wheels equals the natural frequency of the span, in cycles per second, which is given
approximately by the following equation:
12
-------------
d+D
where:
d and D = the central deflections, in inches, for dead load and for the static live load, respectively, placed in the
position for maximum moment.
b. Impact on steel or concrete decks with direct fixation of the rail is not covered by the formulas in this Chapter and
requires special evaluation. Measured attenuation properties need to be considered. (See Commentary Article 9.1.3.5)

Existing Bridges
7.3.2.4 Centrifugal Force
Centrifugal force shall be as specified by Part 1, Design, Article 1.3.6.
7.3.2.5 Wind Force
a. The wind force shall be considered as a moving load in any horizontal direction. Wind force on the train shall be taken
as 200 lb per linear foot on one track applied 8 feet above the top of rail. Wind force on the bridge shall be taken as 20
lb per square foot of the following surfaces:
(1) For girder spans, 1.5 times the vertical projection of the span.
(2) For truss spans, the vertical projection of the span plus any portion of the leeward trusses not shielded by the floor
system.
(3) For viaduct towers and bents, the vertical projections of all columns and tower bracing.
b. These loadings are based on the assumption that when the wind velocity exceeds 70 mph a train will operate at reduced
speed, if it operates at all.
c. Where considered justifiable by the Engineer, the wind forces on bridge and train may be reduced to not less than one-
half of those specified above.
7.3.2.6 Lateral Forces from Equipment

1
Lateral forces from equipment shall be as specified by Part 1, Design, Article 1.3.9.
7.3.2.7 Bracing Between Compression Members (2002)
a. For Normal Rating, use the requirements of Section 1.3.11 unless reduced by the Engineer.
b. For Maximum Rating where the sum of the total displacement and the out-of-straightness of the braced component is 3
not greater than L/320 (where L is the unbraced length), the lateral bracing of the compression chords or flanges of
trusses, deck girders, and through girders and between the posts of viaduct towers shall be analyzed for a transverse
shear force in any panel not less than 1.25% of the total axial force in both members in that panel, in addition to the
shear force from the specified lateral forces. For cases of out-of-straightness greater than L/320, see Commentary
Article 9.7.3.2.7.
7.3.2.8 Longitudinal Force 4

a. Longitudinal forces shall be as specified by Part 1, Design, Article 1.3.12. The E-80 loads may be scaled
proportionally to be consistent with the live load rating of the structure.
b. The longitudinal forces from Paragraph a shall be used where maximum locomotive tractive effort at speeds below 25
mph (40 km/h) is likely to occur. This includes locations where maximum braking effort is likely to be used to hold
train speed below 25 mph (40 km/h), or to bring trains to a stop.
c. For structures not covered by Paragraph b, the longitudinal force from Paragraph a due to locomotive traction may be
reduced by the ratio of the actual locomotive tractive effort used at that location to the maximum tractive effort rating
of locomotives used system-wide.
d. Members whose main function is to carry longitudinal force, wind force (7.3.2.5), lateral force from equipment
(7.3.2.6), and, where appropriate, bracing force between compression members (7.3.2.7) shall be checked for the
combination of these forces with allowable stresses equal to the allowable stresses for rating.

Steel Structures
e. Members whose main function is to carry vertical loads in combination with longitudinal forces shall be checked for
dead load (7.3.2.1), live load (7.3.2.2), impact load (7.3.2.3), and centrifugal force (7.3.2.4) in combination with the
forces listed in Paragraph d with allowable stresses equal to 1.25 times those otherwise recommended for rating.
f. At all locations, the bridge must be capable of sustaining the full design longitudinal force, proportioned to the live
load rating as indicated in Paragraph a, at 1.5 times the allowable stresses for rating.
7.3.3 STRESSES (2011)1

7.3.3.1 Computation of Stresses
Stresses shall be computed for the details as well as for the main members, giving particular attention to:
a. The increased load carried by any truss, girder, or floor member due to load eccentricity. (This will occur where bridges
are on tangent and the tracks are off center, and where bridges are on curves.)
b. Spacing of web stiffeners, lacing and forked ends of compression members, eccentricity of riveted joints and
connections, unequal stress in tension members, and secondary stresses. Where web stiffener spacing exceeds that
required by Part 1, Design, Article 1.7.8a, the Engineer may use a more detailed analysis in assessing the adequacy of
the girder.
c. Gusset plates
(1) showing signs of distress such as distortion, buckling, cracking, tearing or localized corrosion holes or perforations
or other unusual behavior and/or
(2) where an average thickness through the critical section has been reduced by more than 25 percent or
(3) with free edges that have ripples or buckles that deviate visibly and/or measurably from a flat surface or
(4) with a field measured unsupported length to average thickness ratio greater than
E
2.06 ----- .
Fy
d. Pin plates of tension members and eyebars. The following rules are given as a guide for those cases where the body of
the member is carrying the limiting stress;
(1) The net section through the pin hole transverse to the axis of the member should be 40% greater than the net
section of the member.
(2) The net section beyond the pin hole on any line parallel to the axis of the member should be not less than three-
fourths of the net section of the member.
(3) In the event that the net section at the pin does not conform to Paragraph (1) or Paragraph (2) above, the net
section of the member should be reduced proportionately for rating purposes.
7.3.3.2 Fatigue
NOTE: Also see Part 9, Commentary, 9.7.3.3.2.
a. Fatigue evaluation can be a multi-step process that becomes more involved for details that have marginal fatigue
capacity, and may require a remaining fatigue life estimation.
1

Existing Bridges
b. For a bridge carrying less than 5 million gross tons per annum of usual mixed traffic (see Commentary) throughout its
existing and projected life and without details with an allowable stress range lower than Detail Category D, a fatigue
evaluation is not necessary. If the bridge does contain details with an allowable stress range lower than Detail
Category D, a fatigue evaluation should be conducted unless adequate inspection procedures are in place for those
details.
c. Using the live load plus impact stress range calculated under Normal Rating (Article 7.3.1.1) as modified by the
reduction of impact for fatigue (Article 1.3.13d) and as modified by the reduction of impact for speed as per
Article 7.3.2.3, check the fatigue capacity as follows:
(1) For fatigue life evaluation of multiple track structures, consideration should be given to the frequency of
simultaneous loading of tracks, as well as types of loading on the tracks.
(2) Welded or rolled members and welded and high strength bolted connections subject to repeated fluctuations of
stress: fatigue requirements of Part 1, Design, Article 1.3.13 shall be considered.
(3) Members with riveted or bolted connections with low slip resistance, subject to repeated stress fluctuations: the
requirements of Detail Category D of Part 1, Design, Article 1.3.13 shall be considered with a variable amplitude
stress range fatigue limit of 6 ksi up to 100 million cycles. Where the Engineer can verify that the fasteners are
tight and have developed a normal level of clamping force, Detail Category C may be used provided the Normal
Rating Live Load plus Impact stress range does not exceed 9 ksi. If Detail Category C is used, the variable
amplitude stress range fatigue limit is 6 ksi, up to 100 million cycles (see Part 9, Commentary, Figure 15-9-8).
(4) Riveted and bolted connections and members that do not satisfy the requirements of Paragraph (3): These
requirements may be waived at the discretion of the Engineer if the Normal Rating Live Load plus Impact stress 1
range does not exceed 9 ksi and if the connections or members will retain their structural adequacy in the event
one of the elements cracks. The connection and/or member of the span must have adequate capacity to carry the
redistributed load, and a frequency of inspection which will permit timely discovery of any local failure and need
for corrective action. This paragraph shall not be applied if there is insufficient and/or inadequate lateral bracing
of the potentially cracked member.
(5) Wrought iron riveted connections shall be considered to have Detail Category D fatigue strength with a variable
3
amplitude stress range fatigue limit of 6 ksi, up to 100 million cycles (see Part 9, Commentary, Figure 15-9-8).
(6) Eyebars and pin plates subject to repeated fluctuations of stress: the requirements of Detail Category E of Part 1,
Design, Article 1.3.13, for the nominal stress range acting on the net section of the eyebar head or pin plate, shall
be considered, unless analysis or testing shows that a less restrictive Detail Category is appropriate.
4
Where a less restrictive Detail Category is determined using analysis or testing, the effect of bending stresses must
be included. When total dead load, live load plus impact bending stresses in main chord members are of the order
of secondary stresses, the resulting live load plus impact bending stress range may be ignored. (See Commentary)
(7) Where the thickness of any component has been reduced by corrosion to less than 50% of its original thickness
causing a local discontinuity, a Detail Category E detail shall be assumed to exist at that location.
d. If the detail being examined does not meet the requirements above, the remaining safe fatigue life needs to be
estimated based on past and future traffic. Use Paragraphs (1), (2) and (3) below in place of Article 7.3.3.2c(3) and
(4). (See Commentary for further suggestions.)
(1) Members with riveted or bolted connections with low slip resistance, subject to repeated stress fluctuations: the
requirements of Detail Category D of Part 1, Design, Article 1.3.13 shall be considered with a variable amplitude
stress range fatigue limit of 6 ksi up to 100 million cycles. Where the Engineer can verify that the fasteners are
tight and have developed a normal level of clamping force, Detail Category C may be used provided the Root-

Steel Structures
Mean-Cube (RMC) stress range (SRe) does not and will not exceed 9 ksi. If Detail Category C is used, the variable
amplitude stress range fatigue limit is 6 ksi, up to 100 million cycles (See Part 9, Commentary, Figure 15-9-8).
(2) Riveted and bolted connections and members that do not satisfy the requirements of Paragraph (1): These
requirements may be waived at the discretion of the Engineer if the Root-Mean-Cube (RMC) stress range (SRe)
does not and will not exceed 9 ksi and if the connections or members will retain their structural adequacy in the
event one of the elements cracks. The connection and/or member of the span must have adequate capacity to carry
the redistributed load, and a frequency of inspection which will permit timely discovery of any local failure and
need for corrective action. This paragraph shall not be applied if there is insufficient and/or inadequate lateral
bracing of the potentially cracked member.
(3) Riveted connections where the holes for these connections were drilled or reamed may be evaluated using the
criteria given in Part 9, Commentary, Figure 15-9-8.
e. Where the actual stress cycles can be estimated from traffic records and future estimated traffic, an effective stress
range can be determined for the total number of variable stress cycles, Nv, as
SRe = α (Σ γi SRi3) 1/3
The combination of SRe and Nv for the applicable fatigue detail must be less than the fatigue strength curves shown in
Part 9, Commentary, Figure 15-9-3 and/or Figure 15-9-8. The appropriate value of α shall be taken from Part 9,
Table 15-9-1, unless an appropriate analysis provides a more accurate estimate. The terms γi, SRi and α are defined in
Part 9, Commentary, Article 9.1.3.13l.
f. For Non-Welded Details:
For Detail Category D details and better: If the number of cycles with stress ranges above the Constant Amplitude
Fatigue Limit (CAFL) exceeds 0.1% of the spectrum considered, the CAFL is deemed not to exist and the detail line is
extended below the CAFL. (See Part 9, Commentary, Figure 15-9-8). Stress ranges that fall below a value of 0.5 of
the CAFL should be ignored.
For Detail Category E and E’ details: If the number of cycles with stress ranges above the CAFL exceeds 0.1% of the
spectrum considered, the CAFL is deemed not to exist and the detail line is extended below the CAFL. (See Part 9,
Commentary, Figure 15-9-8). Stress ranges that fall below a value of 0.25 of the CAFL should be ignored.
For Riveted Details: Stress ranges that cause the RMC stress range to fall below the Variable Amplitude Fatigue Limit
(VAFL) of 6 ksi should be ignored provided the total number of relevant cycles does not exceed 100 million.
g. For Welded and Heat Treated Details (Reference 53):
For Detail Category C details and better: If the number of cycles with stress ranges above CAFL exceeds 0.05% of the
For Detail Category D details: If the number of cycles with stress ranges above the CAFL exceeds 0.01% of the
For Detail Category E and E’ details: If the number of cycles with stress ranges above the CAFL exceeds 0.01% of the

Existing Bridges
h. Fracture Critical Members with Detail Category D, E and E’ details shall be given special attention. Inspection
procedures shall be adequate to identify Fracture Critical Members and to detect flaws or cracks before serious damage
occurs from uncontrolled propagation. The actual loads and load history shall be considered for computing stress
ranges and corresponding stress cycles as opposed to theoretical loads.
7.3.3.3 Allowable Stresses for Maximum Rating
a. Allowable Maximum Rating stress shall be based on either the minimum yield strength or the minimum ultimate
tensile strength of the material as determined from tests or records. In the absence thereof,
The yield strength shall be taken as 30,000 psi for open-hearth or Bessemer steel, 25,000 psi for wrought iron,
45,000 psi for silicon steel and 50,000 psi for nickel steel.
The ultimate tensile strength shall be taken as 60,000 psi for open-hearth, 50,000 psi for Bessemer steel, 45,000
psi for wrought iron, 62,000 psi for silicon steel and 90,000 psi for nickel steel.
b. Allowable unit stresses resulting from the loads and forces described in the preceding articles are shown in
Table 15-7-1.
Where:
E= modulus of elasticity of the material, psi

Fy = yield strength of the material, psi
Fu = ultimate tensile strength of the material, psi
1
For open-hearth steels (including A7, A36 and similar subsequent steels), High Performance Steels (HPS), and wrought iron:
K= 0.8 Fy
K1 = 0.67 Fu
3
For Bessemer, silicon and high strength steels other than High Performance Steels (HPS):
K= 0.7 Fy
K1 = 0.58 Fu
For nickel steel: 4

K= 0.65 Fy
K1 = 0.54 Fu
For weld steel:
K= 0.7 Fy
All other nomenclature is as defined in Part 1 Design, Article 1.4.1 and Article 1.3.14.1.

Steel Structures
Table 15-7-1. Allowable Stresses for Maximum Rating
Pounds Per
Type
Square Inch
Axial tension, structural steel, gross section K
Axial tension, structural steel, effective net area (See Article 1.6.5) K1
Axial tension, structural steel, effective net area at cross-section of pin hole of pin 0.82 K
connected members
Tension in floorbeam hangers, including bending, gross section:
Using rivets in end connection 0.75 K
Using high-strength bolts in end connection K
Tension in floorbeam hangers, including bending, effective net area at cross-section of 0.60 K
pin hole of pin connected members:
Tension in floorbeam hangers, including bending, on effective net section: K1
Tension in extreme fibers of rolled shapes, girders and built-up sections, subject to K
bending net section
Tension in A325 bolts including the tension resulting from prying action produced by 55,000
deformation of the connected parts, gross section
Tension in A490 bolts including the tension resulting from prying action produced by 67,500
deformation of the connected parts, gross section
Axial compression, gross section:
For stiffeners of beams and girders, and splice material K
For compression members centrally loaded,
where:
kl/r ≤ 3388 ⁄ Fy K
K F kl
3388 ⁄ F y < kl ⁄ r < 27111 ⁄ Fy 1.091 K – -----------------y- -----
37, 300 r
kl ⁄ r ≥ 27111 ⁄ Fy
K 147 , 000, 000-
---------------- --------------------------------
0.55F y ( kl ⁄ r )
2
Compression in extreme fibers of I-type members subjected to loading perpendicular to K

web
Compression in extreme fibers of welded built-up or rolled beam flexural members KF y 2
symmetrical about the principal axis in the plane of the web (other than box type - ( l ⁄ ry )
K – ---------------------
9
flexural members), and compression in extreme fibers of rolled channels, the larger of 1.8 × 10
the values computed by the following formulas (Note 1)
or
K ⎞ 10, 500, 000
⎛ ---------------- ------------------------------
⎝ 0.55F ⎠ ld ⁄ A
y f
but not to exceed:
K

Existing Bridges
Table 15-7-1. Allowable Stresses for Maximum Rating (Continued)
Pounds Per
Type
Square Inch
Compression in extreme fibers of riveted or bolted built-up flexural members KF y 2
symmetrical about the principal axis in the plane of the web (other than box type - ( l ⁄ ry )
K – ---------------------
9
flexural members) 1.8 × 10
Compression in extreme fibers of box type welded, riveted or bolted flexural members KF y ⎛ l ⎞ 2
symmetrical about principal axis midway between the webs and whose proportions K – ---------------------
- -
9⎝ r⎠ e
meet the provisions of Part 1, Design, Article 1.6.1 and Article 1.6.2 1.8 × 10
Diagonal tension in webs of girders and rolled beams at sections where maximum shear K
and bending occur simultaneously
Tension in extreme fibers of pins, assuming loads concentrated at centers of bearings:
Open hearth or bessmer steel, A7 or A36 steel, wrought iron, silicon 2K
steel and nickel steel
High strength steels 1.8K
NOTE: If the members are packed close together on the pin, the bending stress may be
disregarded unless the tension in the extreme fiber exceeds 60,000 psi for A7,
A36 or open hearth steel, 50,000 psi for wrought iron or Bessemer steel or the
ultimate strength for high strength steels.
Shear in webs of plate girders and rolled beams, gross section 0.75K 1
Shear in A325 bolts 25,200
Shear in A490 bolts 31,800
Shear in rivets:
Carbon Steel: Including A141 and A502 Grade 1 20,000
Carbon Manganese Steel: Including A502 Grade 2 28,800
Weathering Steel: Including A502 Grade 3 28,800 3
NOTE:The allowable values for shear shall be reduced 20% for countersunk
rivets and floor connection rivets.
Shear in pins 0.9K
Bearing:
Bearing on rivets, pins, outstanding legs of stiffeners, and other steel parts in contact, may be disregarded unless there is 4
visible deformation of parts in contact.
Stresses in welds, where material, details and procedures conform to good practice:
Tension or compression in groove welds K
Shear in groove welds 0.625K
Shear in fillet welds, regardless of direction of applied force 0.625K
where:
K = the value for base metal or for weld metal, whichever is smaller.
Note 1: Applicable only for members with solid rectangular flanges and standard I-beams.
c. Members subject to both axial compression and bending stresses shall satisfy the following requirements:
f
where ----a- ≤ 0.15 :
Fa

Steel Structures
f f b1 f b2
----a- + -------
- + -------- ≤ 1.0
F a F b1 F b2
f
where ----a- > 0.15 :
Fa
f f b1 f b2
----a- + ------------------------------------------------------------------ - ≤ 1.0
- + ------------------------------------------------------------------
Fa fa k l 2 f k l 2
F b1 1 – ----------------------- ⎛ ---------- ⎞ 1 1
F b2 1 – ----------------------- ⎛ ---------- ⎞
a 2 2
2 ⎝ ⎠ 2 ⎝ ⎠
0.741π E r 1 0.741π E r 2
and, in addition, at points braced in the planes of bending,
f f b1 f b2
----a + -------
- + -------- ≤ 1.0
K F b1 F b2
For nomenclature, see Paragraph (b) above.
d. For members subject to both axial tension and bending, the total of the axial tensile stress and the combined bending
tensile stresses about both axes shall not exceed K. However, the compression stresses, if any, in the extreme fibers of
flexural members resulting from the combined bending compressive stresses about both axes and the minimum
simultaneous axial tension stress shall not exceed the values allowed by the formulas of paragraph b above.
e. Secondary stresses due to truss distortion usually need not be considered in any member the width of which, measured
parallel to the plane of distortion, is less than 1/10 of its length. Where the secondary stress exceeds 4,000 psi for
tension members and 3,000 psi for compression members, the excess shall be treated as primary stress.
7.3.4 ACTION TO BE TAKEN (2002) R(2008)
a. When the stresses under load are found to exceed allowable values for the selected type of rating (see Article 7.3.1),
one or both of the following actions shall be taken:
(1) The train speed, load intensity, or load configuration, or a combination of these, shall be restricted to that which
does not develop stresses in excess of allowable.
(2) The bridge shall be strengthened or replaced.
b. When the stresses under load are found to closely approach allowable values for the selected type of rating (see
Article 7.3.1), or when the physical condition of main members or details is not satisfactory, the bridge shall be
inspected at an increased frequency prescribed by the Engineer, with particular attention given to the critical members
or details.

Existing Bridges
SECTION 7.4 REPAIR, STRENGTHENING AND RETROFITTING1
7.4.1 GENERAL (2009)
a. The repair, strengthening, or retrofitting of existing bridges is usually brought about by one or more of the following
conditions:
• Category 1 – Accidental Damage. Sudden unexpected damage resulting from vehicular collision, marine collision,
derailment, wide loads, fire, vandalism, seismic activity, or other emergency event.
• Category 2 – Deterioration Damage. Damage resulting from corrosion, fatigue, settlement, past improper repair of
the structure, etc.
• Category 3 – Capacity or Geometric Deficiency. Insufficient capacity to carry current loads, vertical or horizontal
clearance deficiency, non-compliance with current standards and practices, and/or poor structural details.
• Category 4 – Natural Hazard Deficiency. Potential damage resulting from future seismic events, increased flood
levels, or increased wind loads.
The methods used to accomplish the repair, strengthening, or retrofitting of steel structures for the four categories of
damage or deficiency may be different in terms of acceptable details, allowable stresses, and acceptable results. What
may be acceptable for the emergency repair of accidental damage to a structure to restore traffic may not be acceptable
for permanent repairs.
1
b. The decision to repair, strengthen, retrofit, or to replace a structure should take into account the condition of the
structure, the age of the structure, the material of which the various members are made, the fatigue effect of the live
loads that have been operated over the structure, the comparative estimated costs, the added length of life to be
obtained from the modified bridge, and the possible future increase in the live loading.
7.4.1.1 Physical Condition

3
a. The physical condition of the structure shall be determined by inspection.
b. The materials of which the members are made shall be determined together with their relevant properties. While this
information may be determined by examining the drawings, specifications, or test records, in some situations it may be
necessary to obtain test coupons from the structure or to employ appropriate field testing methods such as the emery
wheel/spark test and portable Brinell testing.
4
7.4.1.2 Stresses
a. The permissible stresses in repaired, strengthened, or retrofitted members shall be in compliance with the design
stresses specified in Part 1, Design, except that in certain circumstances, rating stresses as specified in Section 7.3,
Rating, or other stress levels, may be used as determined by the Engineer.
b. In adding metal to stringers, floorbeams or girders, or to members of trusses and viaducts, the new material shall be
considered effective in carrying its proportion of live loads only, unless the dead load stress can be removed
temporarily, or some other means is provided to introduce the proper dead load stress in the new metal when it is
applied. Connections of adequate strength shall be provided for the added metal.
1
References, Vol. 36, 1935, pp. 685, 1008; Vol. 39, 1938, pp. 165, 891; Vol. 53, 1952, pp. 511, 1063; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 387, 699; Vol. 64, 1963, pp. 367, 633;
Vol. 70, 1969, p. 241; Vol. 96, p. 73; Vol 97, p 175.

Steel Structures
c. Where the added material carries its proportion of the live load only, the stresses in the remaining portion of the
original members, which is carrying the total dead load as well as its portion of live load, shall be investigated for the
live load for which the bridge is being repaired or strengthened. The added material may be considered fully effective
in computing the radius of gyration for determination of allowable stress in axially loaded compression members.
d. Members to be repaired or strengthened shall be investigated for any decrease in strength or stability resulting from the
temporary removal of rivets, bolts, lacing, batten plates, cover plates or other parts. Bolts required for sealing only may
be omitted temporarily during the repair process. In some cases, falsework or temporary members may be required.
Where compression members are being reinforced, lacing bars, batten plates or tie plates, if removed, shall be restored
to an acceptable level before allowing traffic over the bridge.
7.4.1.3 Eccentricity
The added material shall be applied so as to produce a balanced section, eliminating or minimizing the effect of eccentricity on
the strengthened member. Where balanced section cannot be obtained economically the eccentricity of the member shall be
taken into account in determining the stresses.
7.4.1.4 Fasteners
a. Existing rivets that are removed to effect a repair or strengthening shall be replaced on a one for one basis with high
strength bolts of equal or greater diameter.
b. Where remaining safe fatigue life is a controlling limit state, existing rivet holes shall be reamed after removal of the
rivets, and the replacement high strength bolt shall be one size larger in nominal diameter than the replaced rivet or if
of the same diameter shall satisfy the requirements for an oversize hole unless the hole is examined and found to
contain no significant flaws or stress raisers.
c. Rivet heads may be removed by either mechanical means or careful use of oxygen-fuel gas cutting methods. If the
oxygen-fuel gas method is used, use of a rivet cutting tip is recommended. Where existing material is to be preserved
for reuse, rivet shanks shall be removed by mechanical means only, with coring permitted to assist the mechanical
removal; the coring process shall not penetrate the surface of the rivet shank. Where existing material is to be
discarded, rivets may be removed by any appropriate means acceptable to the Engineer.
d. If a rivet hole has been scored or otherwise damaged, the hole shall be reamed and the replacement high strength bolt
shall be one size larger in nominal diameter than the replaced rivet, or if of the same diameter shall satisfy the
requirements for an oversize hole.
e. Existing high strength bolts removed to effect a repair or strengthening may be reused only under conditions approved
by the Engineer. If unacceptable to the Engineer, they shall be replaced with new high strength bolts of equivalent
diameter.
f. The extent of contamination of the faying surfaces by damage, mill scale, paint, grease, etc. shall be considered by the
Engineer in assigning the allowable shear values for high strength bolts used in repair, strengthening or retrofitting
applications.
g. Type 3 high strength bolts shall be used with weathering steel. Galvanized bolts shall not be used with uncoated steel.
7.4.1.5 Welding
a. Electric arc welding may be employed subject to the approval of the Engineer.
b. In general, welds shall not be assumed to act together with rivets or bolts.

Existing Bridges
c. Where welds are added to existing riveted or bolted connections, the welds shall be designed to transmit the entire
force, except that in such members where the existing material carries the entire dead load force, the welds shall be
designed to carry the entire live load force in the member. Where some of the existing rivets in a member are loose or
defective, they shall be replaced with high-strength bolts properly installed, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer,
and such bolts may be considered to carry the dead load stress of the replaced rivets provided they are installed prior to
the welding. Loose rivet heads shall not be welded.
d. Welding shall be in accordance with the applicable sections of Part 1, Design, and may be used only where specifically
permitted by the Engineer.
e. When welding existing material where mill scale, rust, and dirt are present, and standard surface preparation cannot be
accomplished, low hydrogen electrodes shall be used.
f. When difficult-to-weld material must be welded to effect a repair, use of global pre-heats and post-heats shall be
considered. Refer to Alternative Pre-Heat Requirements of AWS.
7.4.1.6 Jacking and Temporary Support
a. Jacks shall be placed so that the line of action is as nearly as possible, concentric with the gravity axis of the existing
member(s). If jacks must be placed on an eccentric axis, an analysis of the effects of such eccentricity shall be made.
b. The rated capacity of a jack shall be a minimum of 50% greater than the computed required jacking force.
c. When choosing member sizes for jacking, strongbacks, or other temporary support, the allowable stress may be
increased by 50%. Attention shall be paid to slenderness ratios and buckling allowables.
1
d. Live loads of locomotives, cars or similar equipment shall not be supported hydraulically. Other live loads may not be
supported hydraulically without prior approval of the engineer.
7.4.1.7 Repair of Cracks and Defects

3
a. An actively propagating fatigue crack, either load-induced or distortion-induced, may be temporarily repaired by
drilling a hole in the member to encompass the crack tip, provided the remaining net section of the member has
sufficient stress-carrying capacity. The hole size shall be at least equal to the thickness of the material, but not less than
3/4 inch (19 mm) diameter. Permanent repairs shall consist of measures to reduce the stress range in the case of load-
induced fatigue cracking, and to eliminate the causes of the distortion in the case of distortion-induced fatigue
cracking.
4
b. Defects from Category 1 Damage, such as gouges, nicks, burrs, etc., on the surface of fracture critical members shall
be repaired by grinding smooth or peening. No weld repair of such surface defects shall be permitted.
7.4.1.8 Heat Straightening
a. Heat straightening may consist of either flame straightening used alone, flame straightening with an auxiliary force, or
hot mechanical straightening.
b. Heat straightening of damaged steel members shall not be undertaken by unskilled or inexperienced persons.
c. Heat straightening of damaged steel members shall be undertaken only after due consideration of the stability of the
individual member, the stability of the overall structure, and possible redistribution of stresses as a consequence of the
heat straightening process.

Steel Structures
d. The temperature of the heated steel shall not exceed 1200 degrees F for carbon and low alloy steels, nor 1050 degrees
F for quenched and tempered steels. No artificial means of cooling shall be applied until the steel has cooled to below
600 degrees F.
e. Mechanisms to apply auxiliary forces during heat straightening shall be of the type that reduce the magnitude of these
auxiliary forces as the member displaces.
7.4.1.9 Bearings
a. Where expansion bearings are frozen in position by accumulated corrosion, they shall not be freed without prior
investigation of the stability of the superstructure and substructure elements.
b. Where a bearing has been pounded into the bearing seat, the bearing may be restored to correct elevation by filling the
void under the bearing with a suitable grout. If the restoration of the bearing shoe to correct elevation requires an
extension above the seat, steel shim plates may be used.
7.4.2 PLATE GIRDERS OR ROLLED BEAMS (2012)1
7.4.2.1 Reinforcing
Reinforcing may be required in practically any part of plate girders or rolled beams. The purpose of such reinforcing is to re-
establish or to increase the load carrying capacity of the plate girder or rolled beam. Before implementing any reinforcement,
careful consideration should be given to the effects of fatigue on the member that may result from the implementation of such
reinforcement.
7.4.2.2 Stiffeners
a. The bearing stiffeners may be reinforced by adding angles or plates, grinding the bearing ends of the new parts to make
them fit closely, or welding them to the flanges.
b. Intermediate stiffeners may be added by high-strength bolting, or welding, but they shall not be welded to the tension
flange.
7.4.2.3 Flanges and Webs
a. The flange section may be increased by adding cover plates or by replacing an existing cover plate with a new cover
plate providing adequate section. Where the exposed surfaces of old cover plates are rough or uneven from the effects
of corrosion or tie wear, they shall be discarded and new plates provided. When more than one cover plate must be
renewed due to wear, etc., consideration should be given to replacing the defective plates with one plate providing
adequate section. Cover plates added to plate girders or rolled beams without existing cover plates shall be full length.
All cover plates shall be connected to the flanges with continuous fillet welds or high strength bolts. Intermittent welds
shall not be used. Welded cover plates shall be of sufficient thickness to prevent buckling without intermediate
fasteners.
b. In open deck bridges where ties rest directly on the flange angles, worn or inadequate size flange angles may be
renewed by bolting in place, new flange angles of sufficient size. Cover plates may be added, where required because
of inadequate size flange angles, only when the surface to which they are to be attached has not been severely reduced
by corrosion.
1

Existing Bridges
c. Where the cost of removal and replacement of the deck would be excessive, as in ballasted-deck bridges, flange
sections may be increased by adding full-length longitudinal angles, plates, or channels just below the flange angles,
first removing the stiffener angles and then finally replacing them with new stiffeners.
d. Where flange material is added, the existing flange fasteners may be insufficient. This may be corrected by replacing
the existing fasteners with high strength bolts of equal or larger diameter.
e. Holes in flange material may be drilled full size in the shop or in the field or subpunched in the shop and reamed in the
shop or in the field. See Articles 3.2.6, 3.2.7 and associated commentary.
f. Where fasteners are removed from two or more plies of material which are to remain in contact, holes shall be filled
with a bolt snug tightened before any adjacent fastener is removed, unless otherwise authorized by the Engineer.
g. Where the web was not originally spliced to resist moment, it may be so spliced by adding cover plates or side plates.
7.4.2.4 Initial Tension
Initial tension may be placed in a new bottom cover plate by welding one end of the plate to the flange angles and then heating
the plate until it has expanded to some predetermined length, welding the other end of the plate, and then allowing it to cool,
after which the welding can be completed.
7.4.2.5 Effective Span
Where the bridge seat is wide and in acceptable condition, the effective span may be shortened somewhat by moving the
bearings nearer to the edge of the seat and providing new end bearing stiffeners at the new bearing location. Shortening of the
1
effective span is allowed provided that a thorough analysis of the abutments is performed. Requirements of Chapter 9, Seismic
Design for Railway Structures, must be considered.
7.4.2.6 Laterals, Cross Frames and Connections
Inadequate lateral systems, especially those composed of rods or bars, should be replaced with lateral members of the required 3
strength and stiffness connected with high strength bolts.
Cross frame members, diaphragms and their connections shall be checked for adequacy to carry shear due to unequal
distribution of wheel loads and strengthened, if necessary.
7.4.2.7 Doubling Up Girders

4
In strengthening deck plate girder bridges where there are several identical spans, one method is to double up the spans, and
then provide additional spans to complete the bridge. Where girders are so arranged, the spacing should be such as to equalize
the load on the girders and to allow inspection, cleaning and painting of the interior surfaces. An adequate system of laterals
and cross frames shall be provided.
7.4.2.8 Substitution
Where extensive strengthening is to be done on a number of identical girder spans, one new span may be provided and
substituted for one of the spans which will then be removed and strengthened. Each span in turn can be replaced by a span that
has been removed and strengthened, until the entire bridge has been strengthened.

Steel Structures
7.4.3 FLOOR SYSTEMS (1993) R(2008)
7.4.3.1 Stringers and Floorbeams
a. Strengthening of riveted or high-strength-bolted plate girder sections shall be done in accordance with applicable
requirements of Part 1, Design.
b. Stringer systems may be strengthened by adding cover plates to existing stringers, by adding additional stringers, or by
stringer replacement with new sections of adequate strength. Where possible, additional or new stringers shall be
standard rolled sections without cover plates rather than built-up sections. Where additional stringers are used they
shall be connected to the existing stringers so that they will deflect together. Stringer spacing shall be such as to allow
inspection, cleaning and painting of interior surfaces.
c. The floorbeams webs are likely to be overstressed at the ends, especially in pin-connected truss spans where the ends
have been recessed to clear the pin-nuts and eyebars. Floorbeam details shall be analyzed for both flange and web
stresses and adequate reinforcement provided.
7.4.3.2 End Connections
The end connection of a stringer may sometimes be strengthened by using longer connecting angles and adding high strength
bolts, by reaming the holes and using larger high strength bolts, or by welding. Brackets may be placed under the ends of the
stringers to give additional support.
7.4.3.3 Lateral Connections
Lateral plates attached to the tension flange of short-span stringers and floorbeams decrease their fatigue strength, and the
addition of such plates should be avoided, particularly near points of maximum bending.
7.4.3.4 Substitution
The procedure of Article 7.4.2.8 may be followed where applicable.
7.4.4 TRUSSES (2009)
The strengthening of trusses is more difficult and requires considerably more analysis of the connections and their details than
is required for the strengthening of girders or floor systems. The connections often determine the strength of the truss span.
7.4.4.1 Tension Members
a. Tension members of pin-connected trusses may often be reinforced by the addition of adjustable bars. These may be of
several types, such as loop bars, or single bars attached to a loop or forging that fits over and bears on the pin. Care
must be taken to form the position of the bar or forging in contact with the pin so that full bearing will be secured. This
may be accomplished by providing sufficient metal in this portion for boring the pin holes. Where a bar of uniform
section is bent around a pin, the cross section is likely to be reduced by the stretching and narrowing of the outer edge
of the bar, for which allowance shall be made. Where space is limited, bars sometimes are placed over the heads of
existing eyebars, but this method gives doubtful results, because the edges of the eyebar heads are not finished to a true
surface.
b. Except where a single bar can be placed in the exact center of the pin, two additional bars or members equally spaced
from the center of the pin, shall be used to strengthen each panel. The resultant stresses in the pins under the revised
loading condition must be investigated.

Existing Bridges
c. After the new members have been installed, the entire panel shall be adjusted to properly distribute the dead load
tension to all members. Eyebars or rods that do not have adjustable provisions shall be adjusted in accordance with Part
8, Miscellaneous; Section 8.2, Method of Shortening Eyebars to Equalize the Stress.
d. Elongated eyebars may be adjusted in accordance with Part 8, Miscellaneous; Section 8.2, Method of Shortening
Eyebars to Equalize the Stress.
e. Rolled or built-up sections may be effectively reinforced by the addition of cover plates in the planes of the gusset
plates. These plates may be high strength bolted or welded to the flange of the member and butt welded to the gusset
plates, provided that the strength of the gusset plate and its connections is adequate. Care shall be taken to protect
against notches or other severe stress concentrations at the connections of the cover plates to the gussets. Unless the
dead load force in the original member is relieved, new metal so added shall be considered effective in carrying its
portion of the live load stress only.
f. Floorbeam hangers are frequently highly stressed from a combination of bending and direct axial tension. To reduce
the probability of fatigue cracking in these highly stressed hangers, sharp copes or re-entrant cuts should be eliminated
or modified. The replacement of all rivets with high strength bolts at the top connection of the floorbeam hangers to
improve the transfer of force to the gusset plates should also be considered.
7.4.4.2 Compression Members
a. The reinforcement of compression members requires careful investigation. The chord members of many old bridges
are unsymmetrical in section and are eccentrically loaded. This condition may be corrected by adding metal in the
proper location. A small amount of metal placed in this way will often increase the rating of the member considerably.
1
b. Where a substantial increase in the strength of a compression member is required, special analysis is needed. The
solution will depend on the type of section, the details at or near the pins, and other conditions. Metal sometimes may
be added to the cover plate, usually between the existing lines of rivets. This should be balanced by placing additional
metal on the lower flanges in the manner described in the preceding paragraph. Full length side plates may be added to
the web plates of the section, between the vertical legs of the upper and lower angles, provided that adequate means of
transferring this stress into the connection or adjacent member can be obtained. Where the cover plate in the original 3
design is so wide in proportion to its thickness that it has little resistance to buckling, this may be achieved by adding a
cover plate connected by fasteners along the center line in addition to the fasteners through the angles.
c. One of the problems encountered in reinforcing compression members is the introduction of the dead load stress into
the additional material. Where this is not done, full value cannot be obtained from the new material. For instance,
assuming that the new material gets no dead load stress, that the dead load stress in the old material is 10,000 psi, and
that the total allowable stress is 26,000 psi, then the new material will be carrying only 16,000 psi stress from live load 4
only. This is the maximum stress to which the new metal can be worked, since any higher stress would cause overstress
in the old metal. Several methods may be used to induce dead load stress in the new material. The new material may
be temporarily shortened by cooling or compressing before connecting to the old material or the old material may be
temporarily relieved of dead load while adding the new material.
d. The cover plates of large upper chords and end posts may be thin compared with their unsupported width and it may be
desired to bring all of the old metal into full use. The reinforcement, in this case, may be provided in the form of a new
central web with top and bottom flange angles; and is divided into two segments, each occupying one-half of the panel
length. The segments are designed to receive a wedge between their adjacent ends. The segments are placed inside the
member with ends bearing against the pins and the center wedge. To introduce compression into the segments, the new
material is first seated for proper bearing against the pins or connections; by pulling the wedge up tight by means of a
large bolt. The wedges are drawn up a predetermined amount to develop the desired dead load stress in the new metal.
The bolts holding the wedges are left in place permanently. The flanges of the new segments are then bolted to the top
cover plate and to the lower lacing bars, thus making the new center segment an integral part of the chord, carrying the
same stress per square inch as the old metal.

Steel Structures
7.4.4.3 Adding a Center Truss
a. The reinforcement of deck truss spans frequently is accomplished by the addition of a center truss. In a single track
bridge, this is comparatively simple, as ample bracing may be applied to make the three trusses deflect alike. The
center truss should not be too stiff but should have the same deflection under load as the old trusses. Otherwise
excessively heavy cross bracing will be required or else excessive stresses will be induced in the center truss before the
outer trusses have deflected enough to stress the members up to their safe carrying capacity.
b. In a double-track deck truss span that has only two trusses, the addition of a center truss creates difficult problems. The
tracks may be loaded either separately or simultaneously, and it may not be economical to introduce enough bracing
between the trusses to make them act together. The floorbeams will be continuous over the new truss. Where the center
truss is too stiff, the outer truss will have the greater deflection under a single-track load, and the outer rail will be low
under load. When both tracks are loaded, however, the center truss must be strong enough to carry its share of the load
from both tracks. Thus the truss deflections and the distribution of stresses through the floorbeams for various
conditions of loading must be determined and a design chosen in which the various members will be as stressed as
nearly equally as possible under equal stress without introducing objectionable deflections and poor-riding-track. The
reinforcement should be designed and erected in such a way that the new center truss may be swung under its own dead
load before making the final connections between the new and the old trusses.
7.4.4.4 Auxiliary Truss Supports
It is sometimes possible to shorten the effective length of a truss span by the installation of auxiliary piers or bents at the first
or second interior panel points. However, since this converts a simple span truss to a three-span continuous truss, changing its
stress characteristics, a thorough analysis of the altered span must be made. Members having insufficient capacity must be
strengthened to carry the revised loading prior to the installation of the new supports.
7.4.4.5 Auxiliary Truss Members
Girders, lattice trusses, floorbeams and stringers may sometimes be reinforced by adding auxiliary truss members underneath.
7.4.5 OTHER STRUCTURES (1983) R(2008)
Viaduct towers and structures of other types not specifically mentioned herein may be strengthened by methods similar to the
foregoing.
SECTION 7.5 MAINTENANCE1
7.5.1 GENERAL (1984) R(2008)
a. All steel structures are subject to gradual deterioration due to corrosion, mechanical wear, and impact and fatigue
damage from moving loads, and require periodic maintenance throughout their service life.
b. The class of maintenance to be used for each structure shall be determined by the Engineer, based upon the importance
of the structure to the operations of the railroad, the cost and difficulty of repair or replacement, and the probable
remaining service life required.
c. The extent of maintenance shall be classified as follows:
1
References: Vol. 75, 1974, p. 338.

Existing Bridges
(1) Class A. The structure is maintained in a condition comparable to new construction, except weathering and any
deterioration which affects appearance only.
(2) Class B. Main members are maintained to the extent that the rated capacity of the bridge will not be reduced, but
secondary members are maintained only as necessary to preclude extensive structural repairs.
(3) Class C. Main members are maintained to the extent necessary to carry the prevailing traffic, and secondary
members are maintained only as immediately necessary.
7.5.2 MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS (1984) R(2008)
a. Where inspection reveals that a structural element has been weakened, the Engineer shall determine whether the
element shall be replaced or reinforced, based on the extent of loss of strength and the class of the maintenance as
defined in Article 7.5.1c.
b. The procedures to be followed in replacing or reinforcing a structural element shall be the same as specified in Section
7.3, Rating.
7.5.3 MAINTENANCE PAINTING (2001) R(2008)
a. Except in those cases where appearance is an important consideration, the purpose of maintaining the paint or other
corrosion protection system on a structure is to protect the structure from deterioration which may affect its rated
capacity.
1
b. The extent of maintenance painting for each structure shall be determined by the Engineer as part of a system bridge
maintenance program and shall be consistent with the general class of maintenance as defined in Article 7.5.1c, with
consideration being given to the local environment and factors such as relative humidity and type of atmosphere.
c. Steel surfaces to be painted shall be prepared and painted in accordance with the applicable articles of Section 8.7,
Guide to the Preparation of a Specification for the Cleaning and Coating of Existing Steel Railway Bridges.
3

Steel Structures

15
Part 8
Miscellaneous
— 2013 —
FOREWORD
Part 1, Design, Part 3, Fabrication, Part 4, Erection and Part 6, Movable Bridges are applicable to turntables except as
modified by Section 8.1, Turntables.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
8.1 Turntables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-3

8.1.1 General Features of Design (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-3
8.1.2 Loads and Stresses (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-4 3
8.1.3 Basic Allowable Stresses and Deflections (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-7
8.1.4 General Details (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-7
8.2 Method of Shortening Eyebars to Equalize the Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-11

8.2.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-11
8.2.2 Procedure (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-12
8.3 Anchorage of Decks and Rails on Steel Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-15

8.3.1 Foreword (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-15
8.3.2 Anchorage of Decks to Bridge Spans (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-15
8.3.3 Anchorage of Rail (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-16
8.3.4 Rail Expansion Joints (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-17
8.3.5 Maintenance of Bridges with Continuous Welded Rail (1983) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-19
8.4 Unloading Pits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-19

8.4.1 Scope and Purpose (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-19
8.4.2 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-19
8.4.3 Operating Limitations (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-19
8.4.4 Loads (1993) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-19
8.4.5 Unsupported Running Rail (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-26
8.4.6 Structural Supporting Beams (1993) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-26
8.4.7 Concrete Pit (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-26

Steel Structures
8.4.8 Construction Drawings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-26

8.4.9 Industry Owner’s Responsibilities (1983) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-27
8.5 Walkways and Handrails on Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-27

8.5.1 Locations (1983) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-27
8.5.2 Clearances and Minimum Dimensions (1983) R(2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-27
8.5.3 Loads (1984) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-28
8.5.4 Materials (1984) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-28
8.6 Guidelines for Evaluating Fire Damaged Steel Railway Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-29
8.6.1 Introduction (1986) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-29
8.6.2 Types of Fires (1986) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-29
8.6.3 Temperature Effects (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-29
8.6.4 High Strength Steels (1985) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-30
8.6.5 Fasteners (1985) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-30
8.6.6 Evaluation of Bridge (1986) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-30
8.6.7 Conclusion (1986) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-31
8.6.8 References (1986) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-31
8.7 Guide to the Preparation of a Specification for the Cleaning and Coating of Existing Steel Railway Bridges15-8-32
8.7.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-32
8.7.2 Surface Preparation (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-39
8.7.3 Application (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-43
8.7.4 Coating Systems (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-49
8.7.5 Safety and Environmental Considerations (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-51
8.7.6 Quality Control and Quality Assurance (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-56
8.7.7 Final Inspection and Warranty (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-57
LIST OF FIGURES
15-8-1 Turntable Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-4

15-8-2a Recommended Live Load Turntable Design Case a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-6
15-8-2b Recommended Live Load Turntable Design Case b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-7
15-8-3a Typical Eyebar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-11
15-8-3b Clamp Plates, Rods, and Trammels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-12
15-8-4 Dead Load Eyebar Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-14
15-8-5 Unloading Pit – Three Foot Maximum Clear Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-21
15-8-6 Unloading Pit – Fifteen Foot Maximum Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-23

Miscellaneous
LIST OF TABLES
15-8-1 Properties of Structural Carbon Steel Related to Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-29

15-8-2 Color of Steel vs. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8-31
SECTION 8.1 TURNTABLES1
8.1.1 GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN (2005)
8.1.1.1 General
a. These provisions cover the following types of turntables:
(1) Balanced
(2) Continuous three-point support
b. Turntables shall preferably be of deck construction, but they may be made with through girders or trusses.
1
8.1.1.2 Length
a. The nominal length of the turntable is the overall length of the girders. The length shall preferably be a multiple of 5
feet.
b. The length shall be such that no part of the locomotive to be turned will project beyond the ends of the turntable.
3
8.1.1.3 Clearances
a. Turntable clearances shall preferably be in accordance with a diagram prepared by the purchaser and submitted with
information given to bidders. Otherwise, clearances shall not be less than those shown in Figure 15-8-1.
b. Clearances shall conform with legal requirements for turntables. 4

8.1.1.4 Power Operation
a. Turntables shall be power operated unless otherwise specified. Power equipment shall be the kind specified by the
purchaser and shall conform with the applicable requirements of Part 6, Movable Bridges.
b. For the calculation of power requirements and of forces for turning or braking, the position of the live load on three-
point-support tables shall be taken as the one most unfavorable.
c. The maximum speed at the circle rail shall be 200 feet per minute.
1
References, Vol. 25, 1924, pp. 225, 231, 1262; Vol. 44, 1943, pp. 406, 670, 685; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 907, 1347; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 386, 699; Vol. 70, 1969, p.
241. Reapproved with revisions 1993.

Steel Structures
Figure 15-8-1. Turntable Clearances
8.1.1.5 Locking Device
A locking device system shall be provided, preferably at each end of the turntable, which will hold it in line with any approach
track. The locking device shall engage the approach track rather than the pit wall. The locking device may or may not be
connected to a signal. The locking device shall be electrically interlocked with the driving system.
8.1.2 LOADS AND STRESSES (2009)
8.1.2.1 Loads
a. The turntable shall be designed for the live load and length as specified by the purchaser in information given to the
bidders. Recommended design live loads per axle for turntables of various lengths are shown in Figure 15-8-2a and
Figure 15-8-2b. For turntables designed for steam locomotives only, the recommended live loads shall be those shown
in Figure 15-8-2a multiplied by 72/80. For turntables designed for diesel locomotives, the recommended design live
loads shall be those shown in Figure 15-8-2a and Figure 15-8-2b. The live load specified shall be placed on either one
or both arms of the turntable in such position(s) as will produce maximum stresses in each component, maximum
reactions on the center pivot and end trucks, and maximum end uplift for continuous three-point-support turntables.
b. The stresses from these loads and forces shall be shown separately on the stress sheet.
8.1.2.2 Live Loads for Design
a. The turntable shall be designed for the live load and length as specified by the purchaser in information given to
bidders. Recommended design live loads for turntables of various lengths are shown in Figure 15-8-2a and
Figure 15-8-2b. The live load specified shall be placed on either one or both arms of the turntable in such positions as
will produce maximum stresses in each component, maximum reactions on the center pivot and end carriages, and
maximum end uplift for continuous three-point-support turntables.
b. In addition to the specified live loads, the end of the turntable, including main girders, end floorbeams, trucks, and
other components above the foundation similarly affected, shall be proportioned for an axle load of 150,000 lb placed
in the most unfavorable position.

Miscellaneous
c. The center pivot shall be proportioned for 125% of the specified live load and the center cross girder assembly with its
connections to the main girders, down to and including the bearing of the cross girder on the top of the center casting,
shall be proportioned for 175% of the specified live load.
d. In considering the loads to be turned on the table, the 150,000 lb load and the 25% and 75% additions to the live load
mentioned in the preceding two paragraphs shall not be included.

Steel Structures
Figure 15-8-2a. Recommended Live Load Turntable Design Case a

Miscellaneous
Figure 15-8-2b. Recommended Live Load Turntable Design Case b
8.1.3 BASIC ALLOWABLE STRESSES AND DEFLECTIONS (2008)1 1

8.1.3.1 Structural Components
a. Structural components shall be proportioned by applicable requirements of Part 1, Design, Part 3, Fabrication, Part 4,
Erection, and Part 6, Movable Bridges, except for components which determine the deflection of balanced turntables.
Such components shall be so proportioned that live load deflection at the ends will not exceed 1/2 inch for an 80 foot
turntable; and for longer turntables, 1/8 inch more for each 10 feet of length beyond 80 feet. 3
b. If a balanced turntable designed for Diesel locomotives is turned by separate tractors and has a length between 95 feet
and 110 feet, the calculated deflection from 2 four-axle units with 80 kip axle loads and a combined wheel base equal
to the length of the turntable shall not result in the turntable wheels contacting the circle rail.
c. Three-point-support turntables shall be designed for a variation of 1 inch either way in the relative elevations of the
circle rail and the center support. 4
d. In three-point-support turntables, vertical stiffness is not essential; rather a degree of flexibility is desirable. Such
turntables shall be proportioned to provide positive reactions at all three supports, i.e. to avoid uplift, regardless of the
position of the live load.
8.1.4 GENERAL DETAILS (2009)
8.1.4.1 Center Cross Girders
Center cross girders shall be as deep as practicable, and their webs shall be made to bear over the center, to minimize their
deflection and ensure uniform bearing over the full length of their center contact.
1

Steel Structures
8.1.4.2 Bracing
a. Horizontal bracing shall be provided to permit turning the table by means of power applied at either end. Both top and
bottom lateral bracing systems shall be provided where practicable. Balanced turntables shall be braced to prevent
warp. Bracing shall be of such pattern that the center cross girders cannot be stressed under torque loading.
b. The minimum thickness of bracing material shall be 1/2 inch.
8.1.4.3 Footwalks
There shall be footwalks along both sides of the track. Footwalks on deck tables shall be protected by railings.
8.1.4.4 Collector Ring Support
Where feed wires of an electrically operated turntable are over the pit, a structural steel frame shall be attached to the main
girders to support the wires and the collector ring over the center.
8.1.4.5 Protection and Components
a. The center, center cross girders, and machinery shall be protected (preferably by metal housing) against the entry of
water, cinders, dirt, etc.
b. The thickness of any full length top cover plate of deck girders, stringers, floorbeams, and center cross girders shall be
increased 1/8 inch over the computed thickness. The section of other components subject to excessive corrosion shall
be increased appropriately over the computed section.
8.1.4.6 Inspection
Turntables shall be so designed as to facilitate inspection and making repairs. Jacking brackets on the steel superstructure and
foundations in the pit paving, shall be provided for raising the turntable off the center and the circle rail. A pair of stiffeners
shall be provided on the outside of each main girder near one end. Their outstanding legs shall be 3 inches apart and shall
extend at least 1 inch beyond the girder flange to provide non-slip sling position for lifting the end of the turntable with a
crane.
8.1.4.7 Center
a. The center pivot shall be of the disk type.
b. The point of application of the load on the pivot shall be directly over the center of the pivot. The rotating portion of the
center pivot shall be equipped with a saddle or pin to allow longitudinal rocking of the main girders. The center cross
girder assembly shall be secured to the center in such a way as to prevent the turntable from being forced off-center by
a blow of locomotive wheels on the ends of the turntable rails, and where this force is resisted by a pin in a half-round
bearing, the pin shall be 4 inches dia or less. The whole center, including the foundation, shall be constructed to resist
any unbalanced lateral force resulting from turning the turntable.
c. The entire unit shall be as nearly dustproof and waterproof as practicable. It shall be equipped with substantial and
effective lubricating devices and be so designed that it may be readily removed, taken apart, inspected, cleaned,
repaired, lubricated and replaced. There shall be provision for height adjustment.
d. The disk pivot shall be one disk of phosphor bronze or be comprised of two disks, one of phosphor bronze and one of
hardened steel, set in oil-tight recesses. The disks shall be so secured that sliding will take place only at the surfaces of
a single disk or the contact surfaces between two disks.
e. Sliding surfaces shall be finished accurately and polished.

Miscellaneous
8.1.4.8 End Trucks
a. The end trucks shall be of substantial construction. They shall be braced to hold the wheel axles in lines radiating from
the center of rotation. The end trucks shall be completely assembled in correct alignment on the main girders and the
correct lengths of braces determined. The braces then shall be connected. The braces shall have provisions for small
length adjustments to be made, preferably by shims.
b. Bolts connecting trucks to balanced turntables shall be ASTM A325.
c. There shall be either two or four wheels at each end of the turntable. Where there are only two, they shall be placed
outside the main girders and mounted in a single truck frame connected rigidly to the main girders. Where there are
four wheels, they shall be mounted in pairs in separate trucks attached to the main girders so as to equalize loads
transmitted to the wheels.
d. Trucks having either traction equipment built in them or separate tractors connected to them shall be adequately
connected to the main girders to transmit the traction force.
e. Provisions for height adjustment shall be furnished.
f. For turntables that are turned by power to end trucks in an emergency, the truck at either end shall have sufficient
power to rotate the turntable with the design load.
8.1.4.9 Wheels and Axles
a. Wheels shall be AAR multiple-wear wrought steel wheels or equal, of as large diameter as practicable, and shall not be
1
conical. Treads shall not be flanged and the webs should be straight. Wheels shall be bored for tight fit and mounted on
steel axles under heavy pressure. In addition, wheels used as drivers shall be keyed to the axles.
b. Wheel material shall conform to ASTM A504, Class C. The rims only shall be heat treated. Axle material shall
conform to ASTM A236, Class G.
3
8.1.4.10 Bearings
a. These provisions cover the following types of axle bearings:
(1) Journal Bearings with Boxes (Old Construction)
(2) Roller Bearings (New, Rebuilt and Old Construction) 4

b. It is recommended that roller bearings be installed on newly constructed and rebuilt turntables.
c. It is recommended that balanced beam tables be converted during rebuilding to three-point bearing turntables using
redesigned trucks.
d. Bearing boxes for journal bearings shall be of cast or rolled steel with removable phosphor bronze bushings or
bearings. Other suitable types of bearing material may be specified.
e. Bearing boxes for journal bearings shall be compact, with lids which can be opened readily, and of such construction as
to facilitate effective lubrication and to exclude water and dirt.
f. Bearing boxes of continuous three-point-bearing turntables shall be preferably equipped with roller bearings.

Steel Structures
8.1.4.11 Brakes
A braking system shall be installed on the end trucks, with controls located in the operator’s house.
8.1.4.12 Circle Rail
a. The circle rail shall be of a section not less than the heaviest standard rail used by the purchaser and preferably not less
than 132 lb per yd.
b. Provisions shall be made for adjustment of the elevation and the radius of the circle rail and for drainage.
c. All or most of the joints in the circle rail shall preferably be butt welded. Where bolted rail joints are used, they shall
not interfere with rail anchorage. The top of the circle rail shall be in a horizontal plane.
d. The circle rail shall preferably be supported on steel beams embedded in the concrete foundation, or on bearing plates
not less than 2 inches thick set directly on the concrete foundation. Where timber ties are used for supporting circle
rails, they shall be treated hardwood, sized to the same dimensions, and held in position while the concrete is being
placed. The circle rail shall be securely anchored to its support to hold it in alignment and to prevent creeping.
e. Circle rail shall be set level within 1/16 inch, truly circular and concentric with the turntable center within +/- 1/8 inch.
8.1.4.13 Radial Tracks
a. A track layout with tangents extending from face of pit wall a distance at least equal to the locomotive wheel base is
desirable. (Anything less will result in side kick at the end of the table.)
b. Radial track rails ending at the circle wall shall not be less than 39 feet long. The radial tracks shall be box anchored
for a distance of 200 feet extended outward from the pit wall to prevent longitudinal movement.
c. The top of rails of radial tracks shall be at the same elevation as the top of rails on ends of turntable, with the end truck
wheels bearing. The ends of rails in radial tracks shall be held securely in line and elevation. Where wood supports are
used over the circle wall under ends of radial tracks, adequate steel bearing plates shall be provided.
d. There shall be 3/4 inch clearance between the ends of the radial track rails and rails on turntable.
8.1.4.14 Rails on the Turntable
a. The rails on turntable shall be anchored securely in line and elevation and anchored to prevent longitudinal movement.
The purchaser’s heaviest standard rail and steel tie plates may be used throughout, except at ends of table where there
should be larger steel bearing plates with sufficient depth to prevent bending.
b. Rails at ends of turntables shall preferably be full length.
8.1.4.15 Pads
Consideration shall be given to the use of pads at locations subject to impact loads, to improve rail bearing conditions for rails
on the turntable, approach track rails, and circle rail.
8.1.4.16 Pit
a. The bottom of turntable pit should be paved. Ample clearance for snow shall be provided between turntable steelwork
and paving. Suitable pit drainage shall be provided, and where conditions warrant there shall be an adequate drainage
system behind the circle wall. An inspection pit shall be provided in the circle wall, of sufficient size to permit removal
of a truck.
b. There shall be a clearance of not more than 3 inches between the circle wall and the ends of the turntable.

Miscellaneous
SECTION 8.2 METHOD OF SHORTENING EYEBARS TO EQUALIZE THE STRESS1
8.2.1 GENERAL (2013)2
Eyebars are pin-connected tension members of truss spans. They are made up of steel or wrought iron bars / plates with
enlarged heads at each end that are bored through to accommodate pins (Figure 15-8-3a). Generally, eyebars in trusses are
constructed in even numbered multiples. The number of eyebars is dependent upon the magnitude of forces imposed as
determined in the truss design.
In a multiple pin and eyebar set, wear at the pins is known to cause slackness in some bars creating differential stresses among
the bars in the set. The eyebars may or may not be redundant but nevertheless it is desirable that all eyebars in a group share
the loads equally as designed. One of the widely used methods of equalizing the stress in the eyebars is the shortening of the
loose eyebars by application of heat and compressive force known as flame shortening.
The development of the plan for shortening eyebars should be conducted under the supervision of a railroad bridge engineer.
For a comprehensive discussion of the flame shortening of eyebars, see Reference 19.
Figure 15-8-3a. Typical Eyebar
1
References, Vol. 49, 1948, pp. 231, 666; Vol. 60, 1959, pp. 507, 1098; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 548, 876; Vol. 70, 1969, p. 241.
2

Steel Structures
8.2.2 PROCEDURE (2013)1
Detail of the clamp plates, rods and trammel suitable for use in flame shortening to tighten loose eyebars is shown in
Figure 15-8-3b.
Figure 15-8-3b. Clamp Plates, Rods, and Trammels
The general procedure shall be as follows:
a. Remove paint from those eyebar areas where clamp plates are to be fastened and from the 12 inch length of eyebar to
be heated.
b. Bolt the clamp plates to the eyebar with the V-grooves on the centerline of the bar, allowing ample thread length on the
clamp rods so that nuts will have plenty of room to turn when the eyebar is upset. Keep the nuts on the clamp rods
loose (eyebar will expand during heating).
c. Attach block and falls to inclined eyebars about 6 feet above clamp plates to take possible sag out of the bar and to
insure that no sag results after the eyebar is heated. Do not put excessive uplift on the bar.
d. Provide a canvas shield to protect the heated area of the eyebar from wind.
e. Measure the decrease in length of the eyebar with trammel points by placing punch marks or scratches on the bar above
and below the clamp plates before the bar is heated.
1

Miscellaneous
f. Check the train traffic schedule and allow about 1 hr between trains for heating, upsetting and cooling of the eyebar.
g. Unless a lower temperature is specified by the Engineer, heat both sides of the bar to a temperature of 1,300 to 1,400
degrees F for a length of 12 inches midway between the upper and lower clamp plates with two torches using heating
tips. These temperatures are not recommended for use with quenched and tempered steels. Apply the heat uniformly
on both sides of the bar, which can be done by moving the torches in unison as the heating progresses.
h. Measure the temperature of the heated area with a non-contact thermometer or temperature sensing crayons.
i. When the 12 inches area is fully heated, tighten nuts on the clamp rods simultaneously and upsetting the heated area a
very small amount. Take considerable care, especially on large eyebars, that the interior of the bar is fully heated. It is
essential that nuts on both clamp rods are tightened the same amount. By a side push on the eyebar close to the head, it
can be determined whether the heads are tight against the pins.
j. Kinking of the heated portion of the eyebar can be held to a minimum if the reduction in length is kept below 1/4 inch
for each heating. A maximum of two heatings, or 1/2 inch total reduction, should be allowed at any one location on the
eyebar. If more reduction is needed, move to a different location on the eyebar, preferably several feet away from the
first location.
k. If the eyebar shows a tendency to buckle or delaminate, eyebar shortening shall stop. The buckling or delamination
may be caused by attempting too much reduction in one heating or by trying to upset the eyebar before the correct
temperature is reached. To straighten a buckled eyebar, place a 2 or 3 foot length of 8 inch steel channel on each side
of the bar and cinch with heavy C clamps, striking the channel with a maul if necessary.
l. Where it is desired to keep initial or dead load eyebar stress low, reduce the amount of heat applied and keep a 3 or 4
1
inch length of bar in the middle of the 12 inch heated area at a temperature specified in Article 8.2.1(g) for 3 or 4
minutes. This short section of heated bar allows elongation in this area while the remainder of the heated area is
cooling and contracting.
Where it is necessary to reduce initial or dead load stress in an eyebar after adjustment has been made and the eyebar
has fully cooled, heat a shorter length of the eyebar to the temperature specified in Article 8.2.1(g) with clamps still in 3
place and nuts on the clamp rods loose. The weight of lower portion of eyebar or pull on the pins when the eyebar is hot
will again lengthen it and then cooling will place a smaller initial tension in the bar.
m. The upset eyebar should cool to ambient temperature gradually and unassisted. If necessary for passage of trains, the
eyebar may be spray cooled with water after its temperature falls below 600 degrees F.
n. Traffic may be resumed over the bridge after the heated eyebar area has cooled to 300 degrees F. 4
o. Approximate dead load stress may be determined by measuring the fundamental flexural natural frequency of vibration
of the bar, about its minor axis, and using this to obtain the stress F from either the chart or the formula given in
Figure 15-8-4. Note that this figure is generally conservative. The approximated stress will be higher than the actual
stress especially if the eyebar length is taken to be the distance between pin centers, but it can also be very inaccurate
(see Commentary).
p. The natural frequency of vibration of the eyebar can be measured in the following manner:
(1) Remove clamp plates and bolts.
(2) Mount a sheet of paper or cardboard to a small piece of wood clamped to the edge of the eyebar.
(3) Place the bar in vibration about its weak axis.

(4) Hold a pencil on the paper or cardboard and then move the pencil slowly parallel to the eyebar for a definite interval of time, say
15-8-14
Steel Structures
10 sec. The pencil will then trace the number of cycles for this time interval.
Alternatively, various instrumentation techniques can be used to obtain more reliable natural frequency measurements.
EQUATION.....F = 0.00293 N2L2 - 24,700,000 (T / L)2
WHERE...........F = approximated stress, psi

N = frequency of vibration (number of complete oscillations per second)
L = length of eyebar, inches
T = thickness of eyebar inches
Figure 15-8-4. Dead Load Eyebar Stress

Miscellaneous
SECTION 8.3 ANCHORAGE OF DECKS AND RAILS ON STEEL BRIDGES1
8.3.1 FOREWORD (2010)2
a. In the absence of definitive data, there is no satisfactory way to predict behavior of rail on bridges under the influence
of temperature changes, braking and traction of trains, and creep. Recommendations which follow are based on
experience and research work done by the Transportation Technology Center, Inc. and the UIC (International Union of
Railways) (Reference 2, 3, 59, 62, and 79).
b. Effectiveness of deck and rail anchorage systems on bridges is dependent upon proper anchorage and maintenance of
track on the roadbed approaches.
8.3.2 ANCHORAGE OF DECKS TO BRIDGE SPANS (2012)3
8.3.2.1 Open Deck Bridges
a. Ties shall be anchored to bridge spans to control lateral, vertical and longitudinal movement. Each anchorage shall
consist of two fasteners, each equivalent to a 3/4 inch dia bolt.
(1) On spans where rivot or bolt heads protrude into the ties, or other spans where the ties are fixed in longitudinal
position, maximum longitudinal spacing of such anchorages shall be at every 4th tie, but not to exceed 4’-8”
centers.
(2) On spans with a smooth tie-to-structure interface, consideration should be given to reducing the spacing of 1
anchorages specified in paragraph (1) above.
b. Bolts fastening timber ties to open deck bridges shall preferably use a fastening system with a method to prevent bolt
loosening. Such methods might include the use of double nuts, threaded fastener adhesive, locking clips, locking nuts,
as well as combinations thereof. Consideration should be given to the possible need to adjust or tighten the fasteners to
account for settling or shrinkage of the deck ties.
3
c. For spans exceeding 300 feet see Articles 1.2.13 and 8.3.4.2.
d. Where hook bolts are used for anchorage of ties, the Engineer may also require that ties be dapped to fit top flanges of
girders or stringers or that other suitable lateral restraining devices be installed. Such tie daps shall not be less than 1/2
inch deep nor more than 1/2 inch wider than girder or stringer flange.
4
e. A spacer timber of section not less than 4″ × 8″ nominal or a metal spacer plate shall be placed on the deck outside of
each rail and secured to each tie with lag bolts or drive spikes of not less than 5/8 inch dia.
8.3.2.2 Ballasted Deck Bridges
a. Timber ballasted decks and precast concrete slab decks shall be anchored to bridge spans with fasteners having total
capacity equivalent to that specified for open decks.
b. Cast-in-place concrete decks shall be anchored to steel spans either by shear connectors or by making the bottom of the
concrete slab flush with the bottom surface of top flanges of girders or stringers.
1
References, Vol. 76, 1975, p. 338; Vol. 77, 1976, p. 250; Vol. 79, 1978, p. 49.
2

Steel Structures
8.3.3 ANCHORAGE OF RAIL (2011)1
8.3.3.1 Longitudinal Anchorage of Rail on Bridge Approaches
On roadbed approaches to bridges of length over 50 feet, rail shall be box anchored longitudinally at each tie a distance of 200
feet unless otherwise specified by the Engineer.
8.3.3.2 Lateral and Vertical Rail Anchorage
Tie plates and spikes manufactured and installed in accordance with the Company’s standard specifications shall be considered
adequate as lateral and vertical anchorage of rails to timber ties.
8.3.3.3 Anchorage of Rail to Concrete Slabs, Concrete Ties, or Directly to Steel Spans
Such fastening systems are special applications and shall be approved by the Engineer.
8.3.3.4 Longitudinal Anchorage of Conventional Jointed Rail
a. On open deck bridges, rail anchors shall be installed as specified by the Engineer.
b. On ballasted deck bridges, rail anchors shall be installed in accordance with the Company’s standard specifications for
track not on bridges unless otherwise specified by the Engineer.
8.3.3.5 Anchorage Requirements for Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) without Expansion Joints on Open
Deck Bridges
For bridges with CWR not longitudinally anchored, the provisions of 8.3.3.5.1 shall apply. For bridges with CWR
longitudinally anchored, the provisions of 8.3.3.5.2 shall apply (See Commentary).
8.3.3.5.1 Continuous Welded Rail without Expansion Joints on Open Deck Bridges, Rail Not Longitudinally
Anchored
Rail may be unanchored on bridges having a total length of 400 feet or less on tangent track and on curved track with curvature
less than 1 degree, or as directed by the Engineer, provided there is a rail flaw management program in place. Unanchored rail
shall not be placed on individual spans exceeding 300 feet unless rail expansion joints are installed (See Articles 1.2.13 and
8.3.4.2).
8.3.3.5.2 Continuous Welded Rail without Expansion Joints on Open Deck Bridges, Rail Longitudinally
Anchored
a. For individual spans of 100 feet or less, rail anchors shall be applied throughout the span at all ties anchored to bridge
spans (See Article 8.3.2.1 and Commentary).
b. For individual spans exceeding 100 feet, rail anchors shall be applied at ties anchored to the span in the first 100 feet
from the fixed end (See Article 8.3.2.1 and Commentary).
c. Rail anchors and hook bolts or similar fastening of the deck to spans should be placed in accordance with
Article 8.3.2.1 (See Commentary).
d. Bolted joints connecting strings of continuous welded rail shall not be located on bridges nor on roadbed approaches
within 200 feet of the ends of bridges.
1

Miscellaneous
e. Forces in continuous welded rail may be computed from the following equations:
I.F. = 38 WT
WDT
R.F. = -------------
150
where:
I.F. = internal force in 2 rails, lb; compression for temperature rise, tension for temperature fall
R.F. = radial force in 2 rails, lb per foot of bridge; acting toward outside of curve for temperature rise, toward
inside for temperature fall
W = weight of one rail, lb per yd
T = temperature change, degrees F
D = degree of curvature
8.3.3.6 Longitudinal Anchorage of Continuous Welded Rail without Expansion Joints on Ballasted Deck
Bridges
Rail anchors shall be installed in accordance with the Company’s standard specifications for track not on bridges unless
1
8.3.3.7 Longitudinal Anchorage of Continuous Welded Rail with Expansion Joints
a. Rail anchors shall be applied to secure fixed parts of rail expansion joints.
b. Rail anchors shall be applied at the center of rail strings having movable parts of rail expansion joints at the ends.
8.3.4 RAIL EXPANSION JOINTS (2012)1 3

Movement of rail due to changes in temperature or to train action sometimes produces adverse effects. The magnitudes of the
movement and of resulting forces are difficult to forecast. Rail expansion joints may be used in order to reduce the likelihood
of rail breakage, to relieve rail radial forces where they cannot feasibly be resisted, and to facilitate track maintenance where
track and fastenings must be disturbed.
8.3.4.1 Movable Bridge Spans

4
a. In addition to rail joints that provide for expansion and contraction of the movable span and its rails, consideration shall
be given to placing one pair of rail expansion joints immediately off each end of the span.
b. Deck and rails shall be anchored to the movable span as specified by the Engineer to prevent their displacement during
opening and closing of the span.
8.3.4.2 Long Individual Bridge Spans
For individual simple bridge spans of 300 feet or greater, rail expansion joints shall preferably be installed at or near the
expansion end of the span, as specified by the Engineer or, alternatively, rail expansion joints may be installed as specified in
Article 8.3.4.4. When rail expansion joints are used at the expansion end of long bridge spans, rail anchors may be installed
near the fixed bearings to control creep.
1

Steel Structures
8.3.4.3 Open Deck Bridges on Curves with Continuous Welded Rail
Rail expansion joints shall preferably be used for each bridge having total length greater than 50 feet located on curve
exceeding 2 degrees. Where feasible, joint location should be off the curve.
8.3.4.4 Number and Positioning of Rail Expansion Joints on Bridges with Continuous Welded Rail
a. Rail expansion joints shall be used in pairs, which shall be installed closely or directly opposite to each other,
depending on type of joint used.
b. Where a single pair of joints are used, the preferred location is at a minimum of 20 feet from the back of the abutment,
where possible.
c. Where two pairs of joints are used, they shall preferably be located near the center of the bridge.
d. Where an even number of pairs of expansion joints is used greater than two pairs, they shall preferably be placed in
groups of two pairs, with the fixed parts of one pair connected to fixed parts of the other pair.
e. Where an odd number of pairs of expansion joints is used, the odd pair shall preferably be at one end of bridge, and
either entirely on or off the bridge. In absence of other controlling conditions, the odd pair shall preferably be at the
lower end of a bridge on grade and the remaining pairs shall be placed as in paragraph d.
f. The spacing and design of joints shall be such that the maximum length L, in feet of rail, causing movement through
each joint shall be as follows, except that L shall not exceed 1,500 feet.
( J – K1 )
eLT = ---------------------
- EQ 1
12K 2
where:
e = coefficient of rail thermal expansion = 0.0000066

T = temperature range, deg F (140 degrees recommended in the absence of a substantiated value)
J = total permissible range of movement in joints, inch
K1 = creep allowance, inch (3 inches recommended in absence of a substantiated value)
K2 = safety factor (1.5 recommended)
For recommended values, formula EQ 1 reduces to
L = ( J – 3 )60 EQ 2
or
L
J = ------ + 3 EQ 3
60
g. Rail expansion joints shall be assembled in such a manner that they are at the approximate midpoint of the range of
movement at a temperature midway between expected extremes.
h. Design and details of rail expansion joints shall be such as to minimize resistance to expansion and contraction.

Miscellaneous
8.3.4.5 Rail Expansion Joints in Track with Bolted Rail Joints
Where rail expansion joints are used in track having bolted rail joints, consideration shall be given to the possibility and
consequences of bolted joint failure and excessive longitudinal movement of rail through the expansion joint. All such
installations shall require approval by the Engineer.
8.3.5 MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES WITH CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL (1983) R(2012)
a. Suitable measures shall be taken to prevent buckling of track or rails during maintenance operations. The most
favorable rail temperatures for such work are those below that of the rail when it was laid. The probability of rail
compression resulting from creep and other causes shall be considered.
b. On curved track, the effect of radial forces shall be considered and measures taken to hold the track in line during
maintenance operations. Work shall not be done during periods of extreme high or low temperatures.
c. Maintenance operations involving removal of fastenings of rail to ties, or ties to bridge steel shall be carried out in
short sections; and, where practicable, on alternate ties in a first phase and on the remaining ties in a second phase.
SECTION 8.4 UNLOADING PITS1
8.4.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE (2013) 1

This section gives recommended practice for the design of small undertrack structures for handling of materials unloaded
through the bottom of a railroad car. Representative details and data are included to assist the industry owner in preparing
plans for submittal to railroads operating on tracks involved and to facilitate a railroad’s consideration of such submissions.
8.4.2 GENERAL (2013)

3
a. Design of supporting beams for unloading pits shall conform to the requirements of Part 1, Design, Part 3, Fabrication
and Part 4, Erection, except as modified herein.
b. Design of the pit structure shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations.
c. Typical configurations are shown in Figure 15-8-5 and Figure 15-8-6 and design criteria are listed in Article 8.4.3 and
Article 8.4.4. 4
d. Track running rails shall be attached directly, without ties, to supporting beams except in the case of very short spans
where the running rails may be adequate to carry wheel loads without supporting beams.
8.4.3 OPERATING LIMITATIONS (2013)

a. This section applies to pits located on tracks where speed does not exceed 10 mph.
b. Where train speed exceeds 10 mph, the structure shall be designed as a bridge.
8.4.4 LOADS (1993) R(2012)

a. Supporting beams shall be proportioned for the sum of the following loads:
1

Steel Structures
(1) Dead load.
(2) Live load.
(3) Impact load.
b. The pit structure shall be proportioned for the sum of the following loads:
(1) Dead load.
(2) Live load, without impact load.
(3) Horizontal earth pressure.
(4) Horizontal live load surcharge.

Miscellaneous
C Track
8’-0" Minimum
4’-8 1/2 " Gauge

Pit Cover (Typ.)
Min. 6"
SECTION NORMAL TO TRACK

1
Rail
Clear Span <-3’-0"
Timber Tie
3
Rail supported full width of wall
on tie pad anchored to the top (Typ.)
of pit wall per manufacturer
recommendation
Wall Height
Wall Thickness
4
6" Min.
Slab Thickness
SECTION ALONG TRACK
Figure 15-8-5. Unloading Pit – Three Foot Maximum Clear Span

(Sheet 1 of 2)

Steel Structures
Unsupported Running Rail
Minimum Weight of Rail*

Maximum Clear Span
(lbs/yd)
2′-0″ 115
2′-3″ 119
2′-6″ 132
133
136
3′-0″ 140
141
* Minimum allowable rail section shall be coordinated with the Engineer
Notes:
1. Design, material and workmanship for all excavation, shoring, backfill, reinforced concrete, and foundation shall
conform to the requirements of Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations.
2. Live Load: Superstructure - Alternate Live Load with 28% Impact in accordance with Chapter 15.
Substructure and surcharge as applicable in accordance with Chapter 8.
3. No rail joints will be permitted over the pit opening.
4. No loading will be permitted to be transferred to new pit until concrete has reached a compressive strength
acceptable to the Engineer.
5. Design speed for tracks with unloading pits shall be 10 mph.
6. If pit is to be constructed under traffic, include plans for temporary track support.
7. If pit is to be constructed adjacent to existing track, building, or other structures, include shoring plans to
support the adjacent facilties.
8. All design work and plans shall be prepared by a licensed professional engineer experienced in railway
structure design.
9. All designs and plans shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval.
Figure 15-8-5. Unloading Pit – Three Foot Maximum Clear Span

(Sheet 2 of 2)

Span Length In Feet

(Center To Center Of Bearing Stiffeners) C Track
See Hooked Bolt Rail
Fastenings Detail 4’-8 1/2 " Gage
Bearing Plate Width See Interior Diaphragm
Rail (Typ.)
+ 4" Minimum Connection Detail 5 Pit Cover (Typ.)
16"
Timber Tie
12"
Brg. Stiffeners
Encase end in (Typ.)
Welded (Typ.)
concrete or provide
backwall and end
diaphragm (Typ.)
C7x14.75 - 8" & 10" Beams

C8x18.75 - 14" Beams 1"o
lAnchor Bolts Set 12" Into Concrete
C10x20 - 16" Beams
Wall Height
C15x33.9 - 18" & 21" Beams

(Note: use same sizes for
end diaphragms)
Wall Thickness
6" Min. Min. 6"
Slab Thickness
SECTION ALONG TRACK SECTION NORMAL TO TRACK
Hooked Bolt Assembly Bearing Plate Width + 3" Min.

+
at -2’-0" ctrs. 6" Min.

Backwall
o L Shield (Optional) C Shape Diaphragm
7 "
8 lHook Bolt & Nut 1" Clear
With Lock Washer
Minimum
End Diaphragm
1
4" Radius
2 1/2"
7 o
8" lH.S. Bolts
(Typ.)
1"
1/2 " Minimum

1 1/2" 1 1/2" 1" Bearing Plate
3" W or HP Shape Beam Connection Angles

Use: 2 Bolts for C7 & C8
3 Bolts for C10 & C15
HOOKED BOLT RAIL FASTENINGS DETAIL INTERIOR DIAPHRAGM ALTERNATE BACKWALL

CONNECTION DETAIL WITH END DIAPHRAGM DETAIL
Miscellaneous
15-8-23
Figure 15-8-6. Unloading Pit – Fifteen Foot Maximum Span

(Sheet 1 of 3)
Steel Structures
Table of Beam Requirements
Required Required Size of 1 Inch Width of 1/2 Inch Number

Span
Web Area S Beam Bearing Plate Stiffeners Interior
Feet
Inches2 Inches3 Inches Inches Diaphram
5 W8 × 67 6 × 14 3.5
5.0 47.9 0
or less HP10 × 57 6 × 16 4
W10 × 88 6 × 16 4
6 5.9 57.6 0
HP12 × 63 6 × 18 4
W10 × 88 6 × 16 4
7 6.5 67.3 1
HP12 × 74 6 × 18 4
W12 × 96 6 × 18 3
8 6.9 77.0 1
HP12 × 74 6 × 18 4
W12 × 106 7 × 18 5
9 7.3 90.5 1
HP12 × 74 6 × 18 5
W12 × 106 7 × 18 5
10 7.6 108.4 1
HP14 × 89 6 × 21 5
W12 × 106 7 × 18 5
11 7.8 126.9 1
HP14 × 89 6 × 21 5
W12 × 120 7 × 18 5
12 8.4 145.5 1
HP14 × 102 6 × 21 5
W14 × 132 6 × 21 5
13 8.9 165.0 2
W16 × 100 7 × 18 5
W14 × 132 7 × 21 6
14 9.4 194.0 2
W18 × 106 8 × 18 5.25
W18 × 119 8 × 18 5.25
15 9.7 222.8 2
W21 × 101 9 × 15 5.25

(Sheet 2 of 3)

Miscellaneous
Notes:
1. Design, material and workmanship for all structural steel shall conform to the requirements of this chapter.
2. Design, material and workmanship for all excavation, shoring, backfill, reinforced concrete, and foundation shall
conform to the requirements of Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations.
3. Live Load: Superstructure - Alternate Live Load with 28% Impact in accordance with Chapter 15.
Substructure and surcharge as applicable in accordance with Chapter 8.
4. Structural steel shall have a minimum yield stress of 36,000 psi and conform to Table 15-1-1.
5. No loading will be permitted to be transferred to new pit until concrete has reached a compressive strength
acceptable to the Engineer.
6. Design speed for tracks with unloading pits shall be 10 mph.
7. If pit is to be constructed under traffic, include plans for temporary track support.
8. If pit is to be constructed adjacent to existing track, building, or other structures, include shoring plans to
support the adjacent facilties.
9. All design work and plans shall be prepared by a licensed professional engineer experienced in railway
structure design.
10. All designs and plans shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval.

(Sheet 3 of 3)

Steel Structures
8.4.5 UNSUPPORTED RUNNING RAIL (2013)
a. The maximum clear span length for unloading pits without supporting beams shall be as shown in Figure 15-8-5.
b. The design span shall be taken as clear span plus 6 inches.
c. No running rail joints shall be permitted over the pit.
d. The top of the concrete pit walls shall be true and level to provide full bearing for the running rails.
8.4.6 STRUCTURAL SUPPORTING BEAMS (1993) R(2012)
a. This article is applicable to a maximum span length of 15 feet. See Figure 15-8-6 for details. Spans longer than 15 feet
shall be designed as bridges in accordance with Part 1, Design, Part 3, Fabrication and Part 4, Erection.
b. Running rails shall normally be attached to the supporting beam with pairs of 7/8 inch hook bolts spaced at 2 feet.
However, where the width of flange is adequate, and provision is made for loss of section at the holes, rail clips at 2′-6″
centers may be used in lieu of hook bolts to attach the running rail to the supporting beam. Welding of rails to beams
shall not be permitted.
c. The supporting beam shall be provided with end bearing stiffener plates fillet welded to the web and ground to bear
against both top and bottom flanges or welded with full penetration groove welds at top and bottom flanges.
d. Beams shall be provided with masonry plates between beams and concrete pit walls. Beams shall be welded to the
masonry plates. Should the owner desire, sole plates can be provided between beam and masonry plate. The sole plate
shall be welded to the beam flange and may be beveled on the bottom surface from the inside edge to within 1 inch of
the center line of bearing. Elastomeric bearing pads 1/4 inch thick under masonry plates are recommended.
e. Two anchor bolts for each masonry plate shall be provided. Anchor bolts shall be 1 inch minimum diameter, swedged,
and shall extend 12 inches into the masonry. Anchor bolts may be preset, or drilled and grouted into place after steel is
erected.
f. Interior diaphragms shall be used at a maximum of 6 foot centers. Diaphragms shall be channel sections as deep as the
beam will allow.
g. End diaphragms of the same section as the interior diaphragms shall be connected to end stiffener plates at each end of
the beam. Where ends of the beam are to be encased in concrete, end diaphragms may be omitted.
8.4.7 CONCRETE PIT (2013)
a. A minimum of 2 inches shall be provided from edge of bearing plate to face of pit wall.
b. The design and details of the pit structure shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 8.
8.4.8 CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS (2013)
a. Figure 15-8-5 and Figure 15-8-6 are intended as a guide in preparing construction drawings and are not themselves
construction drawings. Where these details are not considered applicable, alternate details may be submitted. Note that
beams shown in table of beam requirements are applicable for details and allowable loads shown. Where additional
holes are made in the flange or web for bolted connections or rail clips, or where there is additional dead weight of
mechanical equipment or unloading devices, design of beams must be reviewed. A complete construction drawing
should show the following:

Miscellaneous
(1) Location of structure relative to existing tracks.
(2) Plan, elevation, and sections.
(3) Complete details including dimensions, reinforcing, beam details, and cover details.
(4) Where pit is to be constructed under traffic, provisions for temporary support of the track shall be included.
(5) Where pit is located adjacent to an operating track, provisions for sheeting to support the operating track during
construction shall be included.
b. Complete construction plans shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval prior to initiation of construction. Only
approved plans shall be used for construction.
8.4.9 INDUSTRY OWNER’S RESPONSIBILITIES (1983) R(2012)
a. The owner shall contact the Company in advance to determine the acceptability of the chosen location with respect to
movement of rail traffic and to determine requirements for construction, including but not limited to need for falsework
to maintain rail traffic, need for sheeting and shoring to protect rail traffic on adjacent tracks and variations in specified
loadings (and impact).
b. The owner shall make adequate provision for disposal of drainage water.
c. The owner shall obtain permits as required. 1
SECTION 8.5 WALKWAYS AND HANDRAILS ON BRIDGES
8.5.1 LOCATIONS (1983) R(2011) 3
Those bridges on which walkways and handrails are required will be designated by the Engineer.
8.5.2 CLEARANCES AND MINIMUM DIMENSIONS (1983) R(2011)
Clearances shall not be less than specified in Part 1, Design, Article 1.2.6. A guide to legal requirements in the various states 4
may be found in Chapter 28, Clearances, Section 3.6, Legal Clearance Requirements.
8.5.2.1 Handrails
a. In through structures, handrail need not provide more clearance than the structural members.
b. Top of handrail shall be not less than 3′-6″ above surface of walkways. An intermediate rail, or rails, shall be provided,
with clear space between rails, or between rail and top of walkways, not to exceed 1′-9″.
c. The ends of rails shall not overhang terminal posts except where such overhang does not constitute a projection hazard.
8.5.2.2 Walkways
a. In general, walkways shall not be less than 2′-0″ wide and shall extend to the inner face of the handrail. On ballasted
deck bridges the ballast may be used as the walkway, or a separate walkway may be provided. On open deck bridges,
not more than 2 inches gap shall be allowed between the line of the ends of ties and edge of walkways.

Steel Structures
b. On bridges with two or more tracks, walkway may be located between the tracks, without handrails.
c. Structural members (such as floorbeam brackets) shall not be considered an obstruction to the walkway.
d. Walkways on bridges over highways or other locations where spillage of ballast or lading is a consideration shall be
solid material (i.e. not grating) and shall be provided with a curb or toe board.
8.5.3 LOADS (1984) R(2011)

8.5.3.1 Handrails
a. Each railing and its fastening shall be designed for a single load of 200 lb, applied either laterally or vertically, and at
any point in the span.
b. Where steel cable is used for railing, sag at middle of any span shall not exceed 2 inches.
c. Posts shall be designed for a single load of 200 lb acting either laterally or vertically, applied at point of attachment of
top railing.
8.5.3.2 Walkways
a. Walkways shall be designed to support a uniformly distributed load of not less than 85 lb per square foot.
b. The walkway deflection under a single concentrated live load of 250 lb applied at midspan, shall not exceed 1/160 of
the span length.
c. Where off-track equipment may be driven across the bridge, walkways should be designed for the appropriate wheel
loads. Deflection may be disregarded.
8.5.4 MATERIALS (1984) R(2011)

8.5.4.1 Stresses
Walkways and handrails may be designed for higher stresses than allowed for members subject to railroad live loading, as
8.5.4.2 Handrails
a. Rails or posts of timber shall have minimum thickness of 2 inches nominal. Rail material shall be surfaced.
b. Rails or posts of structural steel shall have minimum thickness of 1/4 inch.
c. Cable rails shall be of minimum 3/8 inch diameter, 7-wire galvanized steel strand. Cut ends shall be suitably protected
to prevent injury to personnel.
d. Posts connected to a structural member and the connection shall be designed to fail under overload without damaging
the member.
8.5.4.3 Walkways
a. Walkways shall have a suitable walking surface.
b. Timber walkways material shall have a minimum nominal thickness of 2 inches, with the walking surface rough.
Walkway timbers shall be fastened to each support with the equivalent of 2–20d spikes.

Miscellaneous
c. Structural steel plate used for walkway material shall have a roughened tread surface (checker plate), with a minimum
thickness of 1/4 inch.
d. Metal grating used as walkway material shall be of galvanized steel or other corrosion resistant material. Fastenings
shall be adequate to prevent longitudinal movement (which may result in loss of bearing).
SECTION 8.6 GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATING FIRE DAMAGED STEEL

RAILWAY BRIDGES1
8.6.1 INTRODUCTION (1986) R(2008)

The evaluation of a railway bridge after a fire has one primary goal, and that is to determine the ability of the structure to
continue to carry railroad loading. To do this, an examination of what has happened to the steel during a fire must be made.
The reaction of steel to a fire can be broken down into two areas. The first area consists of temporary changes that occur while
the steel is at elevated temperatures, and the second area is made up of permanent changes. It is these permanent changes that
are of the most concern.
8.6.2 TYPES OF FIRES (1986) R(2008)

A railway bridge may be subject to three basic types of fires: a deck fire consisting of ties and timber guardrail; a brush fire or 1
fire from an adjacent structure; or a cargo fire. A deck fire or brush fire is usually of short duration, and is unlikely to cause
serious damage to the bridge except possibly for the stringers supporting the deck. A fire in an adjacent structure or a cargo fire
is potentially the most hazardous because of the possible high temperatures developed for a long period.
8.6.3 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS (2008)

3
a. The temporary changes in steel due to elevated temperatures include decreased strength, decreased modulus of
elasticity and increased coefficient of expansion. These temporary effects can, however, combine into the permanent
effect of distortion. Table 15-8-1 lists the properties of structural carbon steel relative to temperature. These effects,
while temporary, can cause the bridge to collapse during the fire.
Table 15-8-1. Properties of Structural Carbon Steel Related to Temperature
Yield Tensile Modulus of Coefficient

4
Temperature
Strength Strength Elasticity of Expansion
Atmospheric 100% 100% 100% 100%
400°F 90% 100% 95% 106%
800°F 75% 85% 85% 117%
1000°F 60% 60% 65% 123%
1200°F 35% 30% 55% 129%
1400°F 15% 15% – –
b. Included in the permanent effects on steel due to elevated temperatures are member distortion and decrease in strength.
1
References, Vol. 86, 1985, p. 90; Vol. 87, 1986, p. 105.

Steel Structures
(1) The strength lost by a member due to heating above approximately 1,100 degrees F is only that extra strength
imparted to it during rolling. The basic strength of the structural steel is not lost. Finally, if steel is heated to very
high temperatures for long enough periods, the surface of the steel will oxidize. This is evidenced by a heavy
scaling and pitting and indicates a loss of strength in the steel. The amount of time necessary to oxidize steel is
dependent on temperature, with less time being needed at the higher levels of temperature. At 1,200 degrees F, 6 to
7 hours are required. At 2,000 degrees F only approximately one half an hour is needed. While the temperature of
a fire may be quite high, it does not necessarily follow that the steel reached that temperature. It takes
approximately one hour per inch thickness of steel for thorough heating.
(2) Distortion occurs in two basic forms: buckling of small light members and warping or buckling of large heavy
members. A small light member such as bracing is constrained at both ends. Heating such a member produces
compressive stresses in the member. The associated loss of strength allows buckling to occur, and the decrease in
elasticity makes this buckling permanent. A large heavy member such as a girder cannot be uniformly heated. This
uneven heating causes warping or buckling. This same effect can cause distortion during welding and is also the
principle behind flame straightening or cambering. Distortion can occur after temperatures as low as 450 degrees F
and is, therefore, not a precise indication of the maximum temperature reached by the steel during a fire. When
steel is heated above its transformation temperature (1,300 to 1,550 degrees F) and quickly cooled, it will lose
some of its ductility. If steel is heated above approximately 1,100 degrees F and cooled slowly, it will lose part of
its as-rolled strength. It is these last two changes, which are not readily discernible, that cause the most concern.
However, the quick rate of cooling needed to harden steel is virtually impossible to achieve at a fire site. The use
of water from a fire hose is usually insufficient to cause hardening, but may increase the distortion experienced by
a member.
8.6.4 HIGH STRENGTH STEELS (1985) R(2008)

The comments of Article 8.6.3 on the effect of temperature do not necessarily apply to high strength steels which have
achieved their strength through heat treatment. Such steels must be given individual consideration and may require laboratory
study.
8.6.5 FASTENERS (1985) R(2008)

a. Fasteners, either rivets or bolts, will begin to lose their clamping force at approximately 600 degrees F. They should be
carefully inspected and if there is any indication that the fasteners have been affected by the fire, they should be
replaced. This is normally a simple routine, and one that should be followed to ensure long term reliability.
b. Fasteners in connections of distorted members may also be subjected to high tensile forces which can result in popped
rivet heads or broken bolts. This condition may occur away from the fire zone.
c. All welds should be visually inspected for signs of distress. In some cases more sophisticated inspection may be
warranted.
8.6.6 EVALUATION OF BRIDGE (1986) R(2008)
a. To evaluate a railway bridge after a fire the following data are useful:
(1) Maximum temperature reached by the steel.
(2) Length of time maximum temperature was maintained.
(3) Information on the physical condition of the steel.
(a) distortions.
(b) scaling, pitting, etc.

Miscellaneous
(c) hardness.
(4) Laboratory test results of specimens taken from structure.
b. Items 1 and 2 are usually not available, or if available are only estimates. The information in Item 3 can be obtained by
an examination of the steel in the field and is the most important. Item 4 is often impractical within the time frame to
restore service but may be conducted later to eliminate any doubts regarding long term service.
c. The most obvious physical change resulting from fire is distortion. While distortion may be grounds for rejection, it is
not necessarily an indication of a lessening of the strength of the steel. If a member can be straightened economically, it
usually can be reused. A member with only minor distortions may be usable without repair.
d. Scale will start to form on steel at approximately 900 degrees F. From approximately 900 to 1,000 degrees F the
resulting scale will be red in color. A black scale will form from approximately 1,200 degrees to 1,400 degrees F. If
oxidation has occurred a heavy dark gray scale will form. It is only this heavy scaling that indicates damage to the steel
and is cause for rejection. Such heavy scaling will be accompanied by pitting and loss of section, and is easily
identifiable.
e. The maximum temperature reached during the fire may be estimated by testimony of competent observers as to the
color of the steel during the height of the fire. Such temperature estimates would be accurate only within the range of a
few hundred degrees. Table 15-8-2 may be used to correlate color with temperature. An alternate guide is the Heat-
Color Poster available from the ASM International, formerly the American Society for Metals.
Table 15-8-2. Color of Steel vs. Temperature

1
Temperature Color
750°F Red heat, visible in the dark
900°F Red heat, visible in twilight
1000°F Red heat, visible in daylight
1300°F Dark red 3
1500°F Dull cherry red
1800°F Bright cherry red
8.6.7 CONCLUSION (1986) R(2008)

4
a. In conclusion, if the steel is undistorted, or can be economically straightened, it is generally safe for reuse. The only
exceptions are members showing evidence of heavy oxidation, which is usually recognizable, and fasteners. Fasteners
will start losing a substantial amount of their clamping force at approximately 600 degrees F and should be thoroughly
investigated. Generally speaking, it is advisable to replace any fasteners showing evidence of having been affected by
the fire.
b. This conclusion is drawn for the simpler types of railroad bridge structures. If a complex structure having interacting
framing, continuity, and/or indeterminate characteristics is involved, the possibility of high locked in tensile stress in
restrained elements that have yielded and cooled must be considered. This condition can result in brittle fracture when
subsequently exposed to cold weather conditions. It can also subject connections and fasteners to large forces.
8.6.8 REFERENCES (1986) R(2008)
References used in this part are found at the end of this chapter. See Reference 39, 85, 121, 123, 136 and 144.

Steel Structures
SECTION 8.7 GUIDE TO THE PREPARATION OF A SPECIFICATION FOR THE CLEANING

AND COATING OF EXISTING STEEL RAILWAY BRIDGES
8.7.1 GENERAL (2009)
8.7.1.1 Purpose
Generally coatings applied in the shop and field prior to the mid-1980’s contain lead which is now considered to be hazardous
material when removed. The methods and materials recommended in this guide meet the existing U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) requirements and are based on the current technology and research to produce a cost effective,
environmentally acceptable steel protection system. The user of this guide is advised to consult current regulatory agency
requirements governing any particular project based scope of work and project location.
This guide addresses the selection of the surface preparation and coating systems for both shop and field maintenance coating
of the structure by total removal and replacement of the existing coating or by spot repair, spot touch-up, or full overcoating.
This guide is intended for use in the selection of coating systems to provide atmospheric corrosion protection.
Enclosures required for cleaning and coating structures previously coated with lead based coatings are subject to damage from
coatings, transportation, erection, wind, etc. and the workers are at risk to lead exposure if proper ventilation and industrial
hygiene practices are not followed. Using current technology, the costs of procedures associated with coating removal may be
of such magnitude that bridge replacement would be a less expensive option. The best strategy may be to do the minimum
maintenance coating necessary to maintain structural integrity and cosmetic acceptability.
This guide is written using the Society for Protective Coating (SSPC) philosophy and the references listed therein. Reference
to the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) is only appropriate when SSPC and NACE requirements are
exactly the same.

Miscellaneous
8.7.1.2 Abbreviations
a. AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

b. ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
c. ATP Acceptance Testing Plan
d. CFR Code of Federal Regulations
e. DFT Dry Film Thickness
f. EPA Environmental Protection Agency
g. FRA Federal Railroad Administration
h. IH Industrial Hygienist
i. NACE The National Association of Corrosion Engineers
j. NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
k. OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Adminstration
l. PEL Permissible Exposure Limit for toxic metals
m. QCP Quality Control Plan
n. SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
o. SSPC The Society for Protective Coatings (Formerly Steel Structures Painting Council)
p. TLV Threshold Limit Value established for toxic metals
q. VOC Volatile Organic Compound 1
8.7.1.3 Definitions
a. The term “Company” refers to the railway company or railroad company party to the Contract.
b. The term “Engineer” refers to the chief engineering officer of the Company or his authorized representative.
3
c. The term “Contractor” refers to the coating contractor party to the Contract.
d. The term “Inspector” refers to the inspector or inspectors representing the Company.
e. Refer to Protective Coatings Glossary. Terms from Coating of Industrial Steel and Concrete Structures, Failure
Analysis, and Regulations SSPC 00-07 ISBN 1-889060-47-X
4
8.7.1.4 Reference Standards
a. General: The standards referenced in this guide are listed in the sections that follow. The latest issue, revision, or
amendment of the reference standards in effect on the date of invitation to bid shall govern unless otherwise specified.
b. SSPC Standards and NACE Joint Standards
Guide 6 Guide for Containing Debris Generated During Paint Removal Operations
Guide 7 Guide for the Disposal of Lead-Contaminated Surface Preparation Debris
AB 1 Specifications for Mineral and Slag Abrasives
AB 2 Cleanliness of Recycled Ferrous Metallic Abrasives
AB 3 Newly Manufactured or Re-Manufactured Steel Abrasives
PA 1 Shop, Field, and Maintenance Painting of Steel

Steel Structures
PA 2 Measurement of Dry Paint Thickness with Coating Gages

PA Guide 4 Guide to Maintenance Repainting with Oil Base or Alkyd Painting Systems
QP 1 Standard Procedure for Evaluating Painting Contractors (Field Application of Complex
Industrial Structures)
QP 2 Standard Procedure for the Qualification of Painting Contractors (Field Removal of
Hazardous Paint)
RP 87-02 (NACE) Recommended Practices
SSPC 00-07 Protective Coatings Glossary. Terms from Coating of Industrial Steel and Concrete
Structures, Failure Analysis, and Regulations
SP 1 Solvent Cleaning
SP 2 Hand Tool Cleaning
SP 3 Power Tool Cleaning
SP 5/NACE No. 1 White Metal Blast Cleaning
SP 6/NACE No. 3 Commercial Blast Cleaning
SP 7/NACE No. 4 Brush-Off Blast Cleaning
SP 10/NACE No. 2 Near-White Blast Cleaning
SP 11 Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal
SP 12/NACE No. 5 Surface Preparation and Cleaning of Metals by Waterjetting Prior to Recoating
SP 14/NACE No. 8 Industrial Blast Cleaning
TU 4 Field Methods for Retrieval and Analysis of Soluble Salts on Substrates
VIS 1 Guide and Reference Photographs for Steel Structures Prepared by Dry Abrasive Blast
Cleaning
VIS 2 Standard Method of Evaluating Degree of Rusting on Painted Steel Structures
VIS 3 Guide and Reference Photographs for Steel Surfaces Prepared by Hand and Power Tool
Cleaning
VIS 4/NACE VIS 7 Guide and Reference Photographs for Steel Structures Prepared by Waterjetting
c. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standards
D610 Standard Test Method for Evaluating Degree of Rusting on Painted Surfaces
D2621 Test Method for Infrared Indentification of Vehicle Solids from Solvent-Reducible Paints
D3359 Test Methods for Measuring Adhesion by Tape Test
D4138 Standard Test Methods for Measurement of Dry Film Thickness of Protective Coating
Systems by Destructive Means
D4214 Test Methods for Evaluating the Degree of Chalking of Exterior Paint Films
D4414 Standard Practice for Measurement of Wet Film Thickness by Notch Gages
D4417 Standard Test Method for Field Measurements of Surface Profile of Blast Cleaned Steel
D4541 Test Method for Pull-Off Strength of Coatings Using Portable Adhesion Testers
D5064 Practice for Conducting a Patch Test to Assess Coating Compatibility
D5065 Guide for Assessing the Condition of Aged Coatings on Steel Surfaces

Miscellaneous
d. Federal Standard (Code of Federal Regulations)
29 CFR 1920.55 Gases, Vapors, Fumes, Dusts and Mists Construction Industry Standard
29 CFR 1926.1118 Inorganic Arsenic (Construction Industry Standard)
29 CFR 1926.1127 Cadmium (Construction Industry Standard)
29 CFR 1926.51 Sanitation
29 CFR 1926.55 Gases, Vapors, Fumes, Dust, and Mists
29 CFR 1926.62 Lead (Construction Industry Standard)
8.7.1.5 Determine Requirements for Maintenance Coating Prior to Request for Proposals
a. General: A written description of the structure(s) requiring maintenance coating should be obtained or prepared. The
description should include location, dimensions, type of substrate, configuration, process (if applicable), coating
history (if known), life expectancy of the structure, and any other pertinent information. Examples of the latter would
include proximity to sensitive areas, planned new construction or other activities nearby, proposed time of application
for new coating system, and types of exposures (e.g., acid fallout). (See SSPC Publication 94-18, Project Design.) It is
usually most economical to consider all structures in a similar condition within a given area for maintenance at the
same general time.
b. Hazardous Substance Determination: Laboratory testing, unless previous coating history/specifications are known,
shall be performed to determine whether any hazardous elements are present. These elements include but are not
limited to lead, cadmium, chromium, and arsenic. OSHA requirements for worker exposure and local agency
requirements for disposal with its implied containment should be incorporated into the contract to protect workers and
1
the environment and lessen the potential for claims. SSPC-Guide 6, for containment of hazardous debris, and Guide 7,
for classification and disposal of hazardous wastes, provide details relevant to containment and disposal. OSHA
regulation 29 CFR 1926.62 details worker protection requirements for lead. (See SSPC publication 94-18, Project
Design.) In addition, regional, state, or local regulations may apply and should be identified.
c. Structural Inspection: Coating inspection should be included as part of a general inspection for loss of metal, broken 3
connections, or other structural defects.
(1) Degree of Corrosion: Evaluated in accordance with ASTM D610. The numerical scale ranges from 0 to 10. Rust
Grade 10 indicates no rust and Grade 1 represents 50 percent rust. Surfaces with 10 percent or more rust (Grades
4,3,2 and 1) are normally not considered candidates for overcoating, although with the cost of total removal being
so high, spot cleaning of structures with a high percentage of rust, with a focus on corroded areas, may be an
alternate to total removal. Budget comparisons should be done by the Engineer before a final decision is made. 4
(2) Any areas of severe corrosion, especially crevice corroded joints and connections, should be identified and their
dimensions recorded. The depth of corrosion pits should be measured with a pit gage.
(3) Replacement of components or the entire structure could be a more effective solution than cleaning, repairing,
strengthening, and coating existing components. (See Chapter 15, Section 7.2 for additional information
regarding structural inspections.)
d. Existing Coating Condition: A condition assessment should be planned and conducted on the existing coating systems.
The assessment may vary considerably in the extent and detail of information required. Among the types to be
considered are:
(1) General Overview Coating Survey: In this survey, usually only one or two parameters are rated, (e.g., general
condition or rusting). The structure is normally observed from the ground (i.e., without scaffolding). The survey
produces, at best, a qualitative rating of the condition (e.g., good, fair, poor). Only the major features of the

Steel Structures
structure are rated (e.g., a full span of a bridge). This type of survey is usually done in a few hours or less and is
suitable for distinguishing severe condition trends.
(2) Detailed Visual Inspection: This type of survey also relies exclusively on visual observations, but these are done
more systematically than for a general overview survey. Numerous structural elements (e.g., support beams,
connections, edges) are separately rated and combined to provide an overall structure coating rating. Often,
several condition parameters (e.g., loss of topcoat, cracking, rust staining) and several corrosion parameters (e.g.,
rusting, blistering, scaling, loss of metal) are recorded. With this survey one can obtain a semi-quantitative rating
of the percent of surface deteriorated. This type of survey may assist in the development of preliminary cost
estimates for the recoating or overcoating.
(3) Physical Coating Testing: Physical testing, visual inspection, and the general survey are often performed
simultaneously. Visual inspection gives no information on the film adhesion, thickness, brittleness, or underfilm
corrosion. Physical testing is necessary to determine whether the coating can be overcoated or repaired, or
whether it is too weak to accept another coating layer. This inspection should be performed prior to specifying the
corrective actions and requires direct access to the surface at several locations on the structure.
(a) Number of Coats: Tested in accordance with ASTM D4138. Using a Tooke gage each layer of coating and the
thickness of each layer can be observed.
(b) Dry Film Thickness: Tested in accordance with ASTM D5065. The dry film thickness (DFT) may be
measured nondestructively using a DFT gage, or destructively using a Tooke gage. The DFT should be
measured in a number of locations to obtain averages at each location in accordance with SSPC-PA2.
(c) Adhesion: Tested in accordance with ASTM D3359 (Method A, crosscut adhesion test). It requires some
simple tools such as a knife or an adhesion test kit. An “X” is scribed through the coating to the substrate. A
specific reinforced tape is applied to the scribe and then removed. The results of the area tested are classified
as follows:
5A No peeling or removal
4A Trace peeling or removal along incisions
3A Jagged removal along incisions up to 1/16 inch
2A Jagged removal along incisions up to 1/8 inch
1A Removal from most of the area of the “X”
0A Removal beyond the area of the “X”
Tensile adhesion testers (ASTM D4541) also provide semi-qualitative results. The adhesion rating should also
be taken at numerous locations with several readings taken at each location to provide a statistical average.
(d) Presence of Chlorides: When the presence of chloride or other soluble salts is suspected, the surface should be
tested for their presence in accordance with SSPC-TU 4.
(e) Existing Finish Coat: If the generic identity of the existing finish coat is unknown, it should be washed with
water to remove contamination, permitted to dry, and lightly sanded to obtain a sample for laboratory
identification.
e. Coating Options
(1) Shop Coating: Under certain situations, it may be advisable to remove components or groups of components and
transport them to a temporary or permanent shop facility for cleaning, repairing, and recoating the steel prior to
reinstallation. In some cases new steel will be fabricated for retrofitting in the existing structure. Under these
circumstances, the recommendations for coating of new steels in Chapter 15, Part 3 shall apply, except that the

Miscellaneous
coating system shall be compatible with the proposed coating system for the existing members that will be coated
in the field.
(2) Spot Coating: For this option, cleaning and coating are limited to those areas exhibiting coating deterioration or
steel corrosion. It is necessary to specify the degree of cleanliness for the corroded areas and areas adjacent to or
surrounding the corroded areas. Typically, all loose coating material shall be removed and all corroded areas shall
be cleaned to bare steel. The degree and method of cleaning will depend on the surface preparation requirements
of the coating system. All prepared areas shall be treated with penetrant or primed and finish coated to blend with
the existing coating.
(3) Spot Repair and Overcoating: For this option, special attention is required for areas exhibiting coating
deterioration or steel corrosion. Typically, all loose coating material shall be removed and all corroded areas shall
be cleaned to bare steel. The entire surface to be coated must then be cleaned to remove all contaminants. Where
salts from a marine environment or deicing chemicals are present, power washing is necessary and a soluble salt
remover may be required. Then all areas of coating removal or bare steel shall be treated with penetrant or primed.
Finally the total surface area shall be coated with the overcoat system.
(4) Total Removal and Recoat: This option involves complete removal of the existing coating, preparation of the steel
substrate to the surface condition specified, and application of a new coating system. When project conditions
permit (e.g., deck removal and replacement projects), any or all of the steel members may be removed and work
conducted in a permanent or temporary shop environment as noted in (1).
(5) Zone Coating: This option involves special treatment of highly vulnerable portions or zones of a structure that
may warrant topcoating at more frequent intervals, possibly before the existing coating has started to deteriorate.
Spot repairs, as noted in (3), may also be necessary. These zones should be considered for topcoating at intervals
1
of about five years. Typical vulnerable zones would include crevice corroded joints and connections, bearings and
up to 5 feet on each side of expansion joints and bottom chords of through trusses.
f. Demolition, Alteration, Repair or Renovation of Steel Coated With Hazardous Materials
(1) General: When it is necessary to either remove, retrofit or widen structures that involve working on steel surfaces 3
that are coated with materials containing hazardous substances (in particular lead based coatings), the following
provisions shall be satisfied.
(a) Cutting or Welding Steel: Prior to cutting or welding steel coated with hazardous materials, a width of at least
6 inches from the cut or weld, and on all sides of the subject work (cut or weld), shall be cleaned of the
hazardous coating to a condition equivalent to SSPC - SP2, Hand Tool Cleaning, or SP3, Power Tool
Cleaning. 4
(b) Removal and Handling of Hazardous Materials: During the removal of the hazardous material, and thereafter,
the provisions of Article 8.7.5.4 of this guide shall be satisfied.
(c) Worker Protection: This portion of the document will establish the purpose for worker protection (safety and
health hazards, including lead); “acceptance criteria” for pre-bid, pre-construction, and construction phase
submittals; and guidelines on the areas that must be addressed in the Contractor’s resulting program. This
section should be written in “performance” language so that goals and objectives are established while the
means of compliance are left to the Contractor.
8.7.1.6 Recommended Project Requirements
a. The Engineer shall arrange for project documents to contain a Project Location Map: The project documents should
contain a map that clearly defines the location and extent of the bridges that are to be coated and their relationships to
other site features. Potential bidders should be required to visit the project site as a condition of their bids.

Steel Structures
b. Project/Site Conditions
(1) Ordinarily, an actual visit to the structures to be coated should be required prior to bidding.
(2) Pre-Bid Meeting: All prospective or qualified bidders should be invited to attend a meeting with the owner’s
representative to review the bid package. This review would normally include an explanation of the surface
cleaning and the application requirements, the nature of the structure, its condition, access to the structure, special
restrictions (e.g., on blast cleaning safety requirements), and answers to any questions the Contractors might have.
For major and critical projects, pre-bid attendance is mandatory because it minimizes problems.
c. Protection of Surrounding Property and the Public
(1) Protect adjacent properties, landscaping, watercourses and the public from any damage due to operations.
(2) The Contractor shall provide flagmen to protect vehicular and pedestrian traffic during his operations at the time
when his forces or equipment could endanger such traffic.
(3) The Contractor shall be held responsible for any damage to vehicles and damage and injury to pedestrians and
occupants of vehicles resulting from his operations or the operating of equipment by others.
d. Maintenance of Traffic: The number and type of trains per day and the anticipated work windows should be
communicated to the prospective bidders. Passenger train movement usually require special attention.
All traffic controls, detours, protection, etc. required shall be determined by communication with the appropriate
authority, and complying with these requirements shall be the responsibility of the Contractor.
e. Lighting Equipment
The Contractor shall be required to:
(1) Maintain as fully operational throughout the project all existing navigational and anti-collision lighting systems
that are attached to the structure. If existing lighting will be concealed, install temporary lighting. A Navigational
Lighting Plan may need to be submitted for approval to the waterway authority.
(2) Make all efforts to maintain existing aerial, roadway, and parking lot lighting, or provide suitable substititions as
(3) Maintain light intensity inside containments, by natural or artificial means, at a minimum of 20 foot-candles on the
surface preparation and coating activities. Maintain a minimum of 50-foot candles at the surface for inspection
activities. Provide auxiliary lighting as necessary. Use explosive-proof lighting.
f. Protection of Drainage Systems
The Contractor shall be required to:
(1) Protect storm sewers and drains from debris from project activities. Keep all protective systems clean and
operational throughout the project. At the end of each shift, at a minimum, remove all visible debris from the
protective devices or from areas where rain water could carry the debris into drains or storm sewers. Conduct
more frequent cleaning as directed by the Engineer.
(2) Identify the methods that will be used to route run-off from the existing deck drains through the containment
enclosure prior to construction. Do not close any bridge deck drains without the explicit approval of the Engineer.

Miscellaneous
8.7.1.7 Special Safety and Environmental Requirements
a. Personal Protective Equipment and Hygiene Facilities
(1) At each site the Contractor shall provide all personal protective clothing and equipment needed to protect
Contractor workers, railway company employees and other agents that have permission or authority to visit the
site.
(2) Provide climate-controlled decontamination facilities.
(a) Supply the number of facilities as dictated by 29 CFR 1926.51, site conditions, the Contractor’s sequence of
operations, and as approved by the Contractor’s IH and the Engineer.
(b) Provide facilities which contain a “clean” area where workers can remove and store their street clothing when
they arrive on the site, a shower room with hot and cold running water, soap, and clean towels; and a “dirty”
area where workers can remove their work clothing at the end of their work shift. The “clean” area and the
“dirty” area shall each have a separate entrance.
(3) Provide all water required for drinking and hygiene purposes.
b. Enclosure Ventilation: Provide ventilation equipment for containment areas in accordance with the approved
containment drawings.
c. Personal Vehicles: Provide a parking area for employee cars where they will not be contaminated with lead. Relocate
the parking area as necessary throughout the course of the project.
1
d. Control Zones
(1) Establish zones (regulated areas) around project locations or activities that might generate airborne emissions of
lead, cadmium, chromium, inorganic arsenic, or other toxic metal in excess of the Regulatory Action Level (e.g.,
coating removal and cleanup locations, dust collector staging areas, waste storage areas). 3
(2) Use ropes, ribbons, tape, or other visible means to define the areas. Prohibit entrance into the regulated areas by
unprotected or untrained personnel to ensure that they are not exposed to toxic metals from project activities.
(3) Use signs that are a minimum of 8-1/2 inches by 11 inches in size with black block lettering on a white, yellow or
orange background. Do not use caution ribbons as a substitute for signs.
4
8.7.2.1 General
a. Introduction: Surface preparation is the most critical procedure for successful performance of a coating system.
Surface preparation consists of cleaning the bare steel or previously coated surface. It includes establishing an
appropriate profile of bare steel or an acceptable surface condition of the previously coated surface. Cleaning and
surface profile are both critical to the performance of the coating system.
Cleaning the surface includes removing by whatever means necessary all loose materials, soluble salts, oil, grease, dirt,
dust, and any other contaminants that will adversely affect the adhesion of the coating to the surface, coated or not, and
may include power washing the entire structure. Ensuring that recontamination does not occur, such as from airborne
dusts, is also critical to a successful project.
b. Preparation Methods and Specifications

Steel Structures
(1) Methods: Cleaning of surfaces to be coated may consist of use of hand or power tools, power washing, water
jetting, use of solvents, abrasive blasting or a combination thereof, to remove contaminants and establish an
acceptable profile.
(2) Surface Preparation Specifications
(a) Solvent Cleaning - SSPC-SP1
(b) Hand Tool Cleaning - SSPC-SP2
(c) Power Tool Cleaning - SSPC-SP3
(d) White Metal Blast Cleaning - SSPC-SP5
(e) Commercial Blast Cleaning - SSPC-SP6
(f) Brush-Off Blast Cleaning - SSPC-SP7
(g) Near-White Blast Cleaning - SSPC-SP10
(h) Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal - SSPC-SP11
(i) Surface Preparation and Cleaning of Metals by Waterjetting Prior to Recoating - SSPC-SP12/NACE No. 5
(j) Guide and Reference Photographs for Steel Structures Prepared by Dry Abrasive Blast Cleaning -
SSPC-VIS-1
(k) Guide and Reference Photographs for Steel Surfaces Prepared by Waterjetting - SSPC-VIS-4/NACE VIS-7
c. Abrasives
(1) Abrasives used shall be free of oil, moisture, hazardous substances (i.e., lead, chromium, mercury, etc.) and
corrosive constituents (i.e., chlorides, sulphates, salts, etc.). Non-steel abrasives shall be in accordance with
SSPC-AB1, “Specifications for Mineral and Slag Abrasives.” Abrasives with “free” silica contents in excess of 1
percent shall not be used.
(2) Surface profile, as defined in d(2) below, is critical to coating system performance. It must be controlled at the
time it is produced; i.e., when the blasting work is conducted. This can be accomplished by controlling the range
of particle size and shape of the abrasive used for blasting.
(3) When using automated recycling blasting equipment with steel shot or grit, it is important to consider that a
working mix is developed through use, then maintained by addition of suitable quantities of steel abrasive of the
correct size range. This mixture of sizes is commonly called the work mix. It is important to emphasize that this
is indeed a mixture of a range of particle sizes, shape and hardness that is necessary to produce the correct profile.
Larger particle sizes are suitable for removing heavy build-ups of mill scale or rust. Smaller size ranges increase
productivity of removal of corrosion products through an increased number of impacts.
(4) When using abrasives, the “right mix” can be obtained through consultation with the abrasive supplier.
(5) Steel shot/steel grit abrasives, with maximum recycling, are strongly recommended when blasting steel. When
recycled, the abrasives shall be visibly cleaned to meet SSPC AB 2 Cleanliness of Recycled Ferrous Metallic
Abrasives specifications.
d. Surface Profile

Miscellaneous
(1) Surface profile for steel surfaces shall be obtained using abrasives or equipment meeting the requirements herein.
Where repairs to previously applied coatings are required, the proper surface condition of the repair area shall be
obtained by power tool cleaning, spot-blasting or other acceptable means.
(2) Surface profile is measured as the difference between the average depth of the bottom of the pits to the average
tops of the highest peaks created by the blasting.
(3) The profile is dependent upon the size, type, and hardness of the abrasive, the angle of impact and hardness of the
surface.
(4) Durability of Bridge Coating Systems: Too great a profile can result in inadequate coverage of the peaks by the
initial application of the coating system leading to premature rust-through of the coating system. For most
coatings up to about 8 mils thickness, a surface profile of 1 mil minimum to 3 mils maximum is adequate for new
surfaces (note: all references to coating film thickness are based on Dry Film Thickness (DFT) measurements).
For maintenance coating, actual profiles may be substantially greater due to pitting caused by corrosion. Selection
of a coating system must consider the actual profile present. The user is advised to follow the recommendations of
the coating manufacturer for a particular product.
(5) Surface profile measurements shall be determined in accordance with ASTM Specification D4417, Standard Test
Method for Field Measurements of Surface Profile of Blast Cleaned Steel. Method A, B, or C may be used.
Method A is a visual comparison between the blasted surface and a standard. Method B entails actual
measurement of the depth of profile and determining the authentic mean. Method C involves use of a composite
plastic tape that is impressed on the surface to form a reverse image of the profile. The peak-to-valley height is
then measured with a micrometer.
1
8.7.2.2 Total Removal of the Existing Coating
a. General
(1) Surface preparation of coated surfaces may involve specific collection, containment and disposal requirements of
materials as detailed in Articles 8.7.5.4, 8.7.5.5, and 8.7.5.6. 3
(2) Where the surface is contaminated with marine salts, deicing chemicals or other contaminants, the surface to be
coated should be washed or, if necessary, power washed to remove all contaminants before any other cleaning
operations are begun. Surfaces should be tested to insure all salts have been removed.
(3) At the beginning of the surface cleaning and preparation stage of the project, the coating applicator shall clean and
prepare a minimum 2 foot by 2 foot area on the existing structure to demonstrate that the proposed methods will 4
obtain the specified surface preparation requirements. The test area shall include both portions of bare steel and
exposed portions of all existing coatings. This area shall be preserved during the preparation stage for reference
purposes.
(4) The surface of each coat to receive a subsequent coating shall be clean, dry and prepared in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
(5) At a minimum the surface preparation shall satisfy the coating manufacturer’s recommendations.
(6) Re-Cleaning: Prepared surfaces shall be coated before any visible rusting occurs and, preferably, within 24 hours
after preparation. The occurence of contamination from any source shall be cause for requiring re-cleaning of the
surface.
b. Cleanliness

Steel Structures
(1) Steel surfaces to be coated shall be free of oil, dirt, dust, soluble salts or any other contaminant that will affect the
adherence of the coating and shall conform to the required surface preparation specification. When blast cleaning
is used to prepare the surface, the compressed air used to propel the abrasive shall be tested periodically to insure
it is free of oil and moisture, and is a sufficient volume and pressure to clean the surface in a productive manner to
the required profile.
(2) For inorganic zinc prime coatings, surfaces shall be cleaned as specified by the coating manufacturer but not less
than SSPC-SP10. For other primer coats, the surface should be prepared as per the coating manufacturer’s
recommendations.
c. Surface Profile
Surfaces shall be prepared to have a profile as recommended by the manufacturer or specified herein, whichever is the
more stringent.
d. Abrasives
Abrasives shall be in accordance with the following specifications:
(1) Non-metallic - SSPC AB 1
(2) Metallic - SAE J27 or SSPC AB 3
e. Surface Defects
(1) Prior to applying coatings, surface defects of bare steel or previously coated surfaces shall be repaired to an
acceptable condition that will not affect adhesion of the coating. Surface defects, including weld spatter, burrs,
slivers, etc., shall be repaired.
(2) Repaired surfaces shall have a profile equal to the specifications or as required by the manufacturer, whichever is
the more stringent. No matter what method is used to reestablish the profile, the remaining surfaces shall be
cleaned as necessary to remove dust or other contaminants generated by the repair operation.
8.7.2.3 Maintenance of Existing Coating
a. Refer to Article 8.7.2.2a for existing structure surface preparation caveats and minimum requirements.
b. Spot Cleaning for Spot Coating
(1) Where only spot cleaning of corroded areas is specified, all areas of loose coating shall be removed and the bare
steel cleaned to the condition specified or required by the manufacturer and equivalent to the SSPC Standards
SSPC SP-1, Solvent Cleaning, SP-6 for abrasive cleaning, SP-2 for hand tool cleaning, SP-3 for conventional
power tool cleaning, and/or SP-11 for special power tool cleaning, SSPC SP-12 WJ4 - High Pressure Water
Cleaning or SSPC SP-12 WJ3 - Ultra-High Pressure Water Jetting.
(2) Primers requiring a bare metal profile may be cleaned by abrasive blast cleaning to SSPC-SP 6 or by needle guns
and rotary peening tools to SSPC SP-11. Care must be exercised when spot blasting to avoid damaging the intact
coating around the blasting areas. This may require use of low-angle blasting and small particle size abrasives.
Interfaces (edges) between the existing intact coating and the cleaned area must be feathered to provide a smooth
tightly adhered edge for spot priming. The bare steel areas shall have an ideal surface profile of 1 mil to 3 mils.
However, corroded areas will generally be rougher than this, which must be considered in selection of the coating
system to prevent early rust-through at the profile peaks.

Miscellaneous
(3) Coating that is to remain in place around the corroded areas shall be thoroughly cleaned by washing and
roughened, if necessary, by sandpaper or power tools to insure adhesion to the new coating.
c. Cleaning for Overcoating
Damaged or corroded areas of the existing coating shall be prepared in accordance with Paragraph a. The surface of
areas with intact coatings shall be thoroughly washed to remove all contaminants that will adversely affect coating
adhesion. Surface preparation procedures may need to be modified to prevent early rust breakthrough. Roughening of
the entire surface by sanding, brush-off blasting (SSPC-SP7), or power tools may be necessary to achieve proper
adhesion.
d. Zone Cleaning
Intact coatings in zones of the bridge specified to be coated shall be prepared in accordance with Paragraph c and the
manufacturer’s recommendations. Deteriorated areas shall be prepared in accordance with Paragraph b. Where total
removal of the existing coating system is specified, surface preparation shall be in accordance with Article 8.7.2.2.
8.7.3.1 General
a. Apply coatings in accordance with contract requirements, SSPC-PA 1, and the manufacturer’s instructions. In case of
conflict, the most stringent requirements will govern.
1
b. The applicator or a designated representative is required to conduct and document an on-going quality inspection of the
coating.
8.7.3.2 Delivery, Handling and Storage
a. Conformance certificates and product data sheets shall be obtained from the manufacturer or material supplier upon
receipt of materials. 3
b. Inventory control must be utilized to ensure that components are used within the shelf life prescribed by the
manufacturer. The coating batch numbers from the containers, the amount and type of thinner used, along with the
date applied shall be recorded in the application log.
c. Storage temperatures of coating materials are to be recorded daily and verified for conformance with the coating
manufacturer’s product data sheet. 4
8.7.3.3 Weather Limitations
a. Unless otherwise authorized by the Engineer, coating shall not be applied when:
(1) Surface and air temperatures are below 40 degrees F or when temperature is expected to drop to 40 degrees F (4
degrees C) before paint is dried. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations if more stringent.
(2) Temperature of the steel surface to be coated is less than 5 degrees F above the dew point temperature.
(3) Fog or mist occur at the site; it is raining or snowing; there is danger of snow or rain.
(4) Temperature of the steel surface is over 105 degrees F (40 degrees C).
(5) Relative humidity is above 85 percent.

Steel Structures
(6) Previous coats are not thoroughly dry.
(7) Sustained wind speeds of 30 mph or more that could cause the release of waste material to the surrounding
environment are forecast. All work activities should be stopped and the containment area immediately cleaned of
waste materials.
b. Any coating that is exposed to unacceptable conditions (e.g., rain or dew, freezing temperatures) prior to adequate
curing shall be removed and replaced.
8.7.3.4 Mixing
a. Verification shall be made to ensure that the coating to be mixed has not exceeded its shelf life.
b. Ingredients in the container are to be mechanically mixed before use to ensure breakup of lumps, complete dispersion
of settled pigment, and uniform composition.
c. Mix the coating often enough during application to keep the pigment in suspension and the composition uniform.
d. The mixing or keeping of coating in suspension by means of an air stream bubbling under the coating surface should
not be permitted.
e. Where a skin has formed in the container, the skin shall be cut loose from the sides of the container, removed and
discarded. If the volume of such skin is more than 2 percent of the remaining coating, the coating shall not be used.
f. Coatings shall not be thinned unless approved by the coating manufacturer and the Engineer. If thinning is required
and authorized, only those steps, brands, and amounts of thinner stipulated by the coating manufacturer shall be used.
Compliance with VOC limits shall be observed after thinning.
g. Coatings shall always be mixed in the original pail or clean pails.
8.7.3.5 Equipment
a. General: The coating shall be applied by brushing, rolling or spraying, or a combination of each. In places of difficult
access, sheepskins or daubers shall only be used when no other method is practical.
b. Spray Application
(1) Equipment shall be provided and maintained that is suitable for the intended purpose, capable of properly
atomizing coatings to be applied, and equipped with suitable pressure regulators and gages.
(2) Traps or separators shall be provided to remove oil and water from compressed air and shall be drained
periodically during operations.
(3) Coating ingredients shall be kept properly mixed in spray pots or containers during coating application either by
continuous mechanical agitation or by intermittent agitation as frequently as necessary.
(4) Coating shall be applied in a uniform layer, with overlapping at edge of spray pattern.
(5) Runs or sags shall be brushed out immediately.
(6) Brushes shall be used to work coating into crevices and blind spots which are not adequately coated by spray. In
areas not accessible to a spray gun, brushes, daubers or sheepskins shall be used.
(7) Air Spray

Miscellaneous
(a) The air caps, nozzles, and needles shall be those recommended by the manufacturer of the material being
sprayed and the equipment being used.
(b) Traps or separators shall be provided to remove oil and condensed water from the air. The traps or separators
shall be of adequate size and shall be drained periodically during operations. The air from the spray gun
impinging against a clean surface shall show no sign of condensed water or oil. The pressure on the material
in the pot, and of the air in the gun, shall be adjusted for optimum spraying effectiveness. The pressure on the
material in the pot shall be adjusted when necessary for changes in elevation of the gun above the pot. The
atomizing air pressure at the gun shall be high enough to properly atomize the coating, but not so high as to
cause excessive fogging of coating, excessive evaporation of solvent or loss by overspray.
(8) Airless Spray
(a) Fluid tip shall be of proper orifice size and fan angle, and the fluid control gun of proper construction, as
recommended by the manufacturers of the material being sprayed and the equipment being used. Fluid tips
shall be of the safety type with shields.
(b) The air pressure to the coating pump shall be adjusted so that the coating pressure to the gun is proper for
optimum spraying effectiveness. This pressure shall be sufficiently high to properly atomize the coating.
Pressures considerably higher than those necessary to properly atomize the coating should not be used.
(c) Spraying equipment shall be kept clean and shall utilize proper filters in the high pressure line so that dirt, dry
coating, and other foreign materials are not deposed in the coating film. Any solvents left in the equipment
shall be completely removed before applying coating.
1
(d) Airless coating spray equipment shall always be provided with an electric ground wire in the high pressure
line between the gun and the pumping equipment. Further, the pumping equipment shall be suitably grounded
to avoid the build-up of any electrostatic charge on the gun. The manufacturer’s instructions are to be
followed regarding the proper use of the equipment.
c. Roller Application 3
(1) Roller application may be used on flat or slightly curved surfaces and shall be in accordance with the
recommendations of the coating manufacturer and roller manufacturer. Paint rollers shall be of a style and quality
that will enable proper application of coating having the continuity and thickness required in Section 6.7 and 6.8 of
SSPC-PA 1.
(2) Roller application should not be used on irregular surfaces such as rivets, bolts, crevices, welds, corners, or edges, 4
unless otherwise specified. When permitted, however, the coating applied by roller on these surfaces shall be
subsequently brushed out to form a continuous and unbroken film.
d. Brush Application
(1) Coating shall be worked into all crevices and corners. Spray, daubers, or sheepskins shall be used on surfaces not
accessible to brushes.
(2) Runs or sags shall be brushed out.
(3) A minimum of brush marks shall be left in the applied coating.
8.7.3.6 Quality Assurance Inspection
a. The Company shall have the right, but without obligation, to inspect all phases of the work to determine that it is in
conformance with the requirements of the specifications. The inspection shall be coordinated and facilitated as

Steel Structures
required, including allowing ample time for the inspections and access to the work. Inspections may include, but are
not limited to, surface preparation, pre-coating cleanliness, coating application, dry film thickness, film appearance and
continuity, and adhesion. Subsequent phases of the work shall not proceed until the preceding phase has been
approved by the Company.
b. The inspection by the Company in no way relieves the Contractor of the responsibility to comply with all requirements
as specified in the contract and to provide comprehensive inspections of its own to assure compliance with the
approved quality control inspection plan.
c. Until final acceptance of the coating system, all equipment and instrumentation needed to inspect all phases of the
work shall be furnished by the Contractor.
8.7.3.7 Time for Application
a. No coating shall be applied until the preceding coat has dried. The coating shall be considered ready for recoating
when the first coat is firm and tack free and the coating is within the recoat window specified by the coating
manufacturer.
b. The maximum practical time shall be allowed for coating to dry before recoating. Some coatings may be too hard for
good adhesion of subsequent coats; these shall be recoated within the time period in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. If not recoated within the specified time, the previously applied coatings shall be
roughened prior to recoating.
c. No coating shall be force dried under conditions which will cause checking, wrinkling, blistering, or formation of
pores, or which will detrimentally affect the protective properties of the coating.
d. No drier shall be added to coatings on the job unless specifically called for in the manufacturer’s instructions.
e. The coating shall be protected from rain, condensation, contamination, snow, and freezing until dry to the fullest extent
possible.
f. No coating shall be subject to immersion before it is thoroughly dried and cured.
8.7.3.8 Thickness and Color
a. To the maximum extent possible, each coat shall be applied as a continuous film of uniform thickness, free of pores.
Any thin spots or areas missed in application shall be recoated and permitted to dry before the next coat is applied.
b. Each coat shall be provided in a contrasting color to distinguish it from previously applied or existing coats. Coating
shall be delivered ready mixed to approved tints and colors. Construction site tinting shall not be permitted.
c. Each coat shall be applied at the proper consistency in a workmanlike manner to assure thorough wetting of the
substrate or underlying coat to achieve a smooth, streamline surface relatively free of spray, overspray, and orange
peel. Shadow through, pinholes, bubbles, blisters, fish eyes, skips, misses, lap marks between applications, or other
visible discontinuities in any coat are unacceptable and must be repaired. Runs or sags may be brushed out while the
material remains wet.
d. All surfaces shall be thoroughly coated with special attention to hard-to-reach areas and irregular surfaces such as
lacing bars. When coating these complex configurations, the material shall be applied from multiple directions to
assure complete coverage.
e. If the coating system has an active penetrating sealer designed for crevice corroded joints and connections and for gaps
around rivets and bolt threads, it should be applied as per the manufacturer’s instructions or as specified by the
Engineer.

Miscellaneous
f. If the system has a rust penetrating sealer designed to bind up the rust before coating, a full stripe coat of the rust
penetrating sealer shall be applied to all edges, corners, welds, crevices, rivets, bolt heads, and other surface
irregularities before a full wet coat is applied. The stripe coat of the intermediate coating material shall be applied prior
to the application of the full intermediate coat. The stripe coat shall extend a minimum of one inch from surface edges
using a color that contrasts with previously applied primer layers.
g. Wet film gages shall be used in accordance with ASTM D4414 to verify the thickness of each film coat at the time of
application.
h. Special attention shall be given to assure that surfaces such as edges, corners, crevices, welds, and lacing bars receive a
dry film thickness equivalent to that of flat surfaces.
i. The thickness of each coat shall be measured using non-destructive dry film thickness gages compatible with the
coating system used. Comply with SSPC-PA2 for the calibration and use of magnetic gages and the frequency of
thickness measurements. Spot readings both 20 percent above and 20 percent below the specified thicknesses are
permitted, provided the average thicknesses are within the specified tolerances.
j. An additional coating of the same type shall be applied to areas of insufficient thickness. Care shall be used during
application to assure that all repairs blend in with the surrounding surfaces.
k. Unless directed otherwise by the Engineer in writing, excessive coating thicknesses shall be removed and the affected
coat(s) reapplied.
l. All coats shall be applied in such a manner as to assure that they are well adhered to each other and to the substrate. If
the application of any coat causes uplifting of an underlying coat or if there is poor adhesion between coats or the
1
substrate, the coating shall be removed in the affected area to the adjacent sound, adherent coating and the material
reapplied.
m. If adhesion is suspect, adhesion tests shall be conducted in accordance with ASTM D3359 or ASTM D4541 as directed
by the Company, and all test areas shall be repaired. The acceptance criteria for the testing will be established by the
Company and the coating manufacturer. All defective coating as identified by the herein specified testing shall be 3
replaced.
8.7.3.9 Damaged Areas
a. Surface Preparation of Localized Areas
(1) Localized damage, corrosion, and unacceptable coatings shall be repaired. 4

(2) The surface shall be prepared by solvent cleaning in accordance with SSPC-SP 1 followed by power tool cleaning.
A solvent that is acceptable to the manufacturer shall be used.
(3) In areas previously blast cleaned to SSPC-SP 6 or SP 7, if the damage exposes the substrate, all loose material
shall be removed and the steel prepared in accordance with SSPC-SP 11.
(4) In areas originally prepared by methods specified to remove loose material or if the substrate is not exposed in
those areas previously blasted, all loose material shall be removed and the surface prepared in accordance with
SSPC-SP 2 or SP 3.
b. Surface Preparation of Extensive Areas
(1) Extensive areas of damage or unacceptable coatings shall be repaired.

Steel Structures
(2) The surface shall be prepared by blast cleaning. The Company will stipulate the degree of blast cleaning required
based on the nature of the defect.
(3) Extreme care shall be used to avoid damage to the surrounding coating due to overblasting.
c. Feathering of Repair Areas
(1) When the bare substrate is exposed in the repair area, all coats of the system shall be applied to the specified
thickness.
(2) When the damage does not extend to the bare substrate, only the affected coats shall be applied.
(3) The thickness of the system in overlap areas shall be maintained within the specified total thickness tolerances.
8.7.3.10 Protection of the Public and Work
a. Unless approved by the Company in writing, all coats shall be applied within an enclosure. The enclosed environment
shall be maintained within the temperature limits specified by the coating manufacturer during application and drying.
b. Continuous ventilation shall be provided during all coating and drying activities to evacuate the solvent fumes, to
maintain a safe working environment, and to facilitate the evaporation of the solvents for proper curing of the coating.
c. When the coating enclosure is not weather-tight, the coating shall not be applied when the National Weather Bureau, or
other agency approved by the Engineer, forecasts precipitation which would commence prior to the drying of the
coating system.
8.7.3.11 Coating System Requirements Before and After Shutdowns
a. When the coating operations are to be concluded for shutdowns, all coated surfaces must have received the full
intermediate and finish coats.
b. The coating shall be terminated with “tie-in” areas consisting of a 6 inch step back of each successive coating layer
scheduled to be applied.
c. Prior to completing work for the shutdown, the area being coated shall be “squared up” so that the ending point is not
visually apparent. Individual members shall be complete or work stopped at a point such as the end of an individual
member or a gusset plate. Work shall be completed such that the squared areas are no farther apart than two panel
points (e.g., coating work above a bridge deck cannot finish more than two panel points ahead or behind deck coating
work).
d. Upon resumption of operations after shutdown, adjacent surfaces shall be sufficiently roughened and the 6 inch bands
of the exposed previously applied coating system prepared.
e. When coating the adjacent surface with the full coating system, the coating layer being applied shall be overlapped at
the tie-in area only at the corresponding step back layers established when coating was previously terminated.

Miscellaneous
8.7.4 COATING SYSTEMS (2009)1
8.7.4.1 General
a. Coatings include paints, penetrating sealers, galvanizing and metalizing. Coatings are used to protect steel structures
from deterioration due to environmental effects and for cosmetic appearance. Galvanizing is a shop applied procedure
and there are piece size limitations. Metalizing can be field applied but requires specialized equipment and procedures.
Although not required, galvanizing and metalizing can be overcoated with paints for enhanced appearance and added
protection.
b. Paint coatings basically consist of a pigment and a vehicle. Pigments generally contribute to the coating qualities such
as color, hiding and rust inhibition of the dried film, while the vehicle or resin provides the delivery system for the
pigment and the overall resistance characteristics of the film.
c. All coats of the coating system shall be compatible coatings of the same manufacturer.
8.7.4.2 Coating Selection
a. The Engineer defines the method of coating failure which exists on the project structure(s). The Engineer establishes a
minimum performance standard for the proposed systems with prequalification criteria. These criteria can be based on
existing standards, or the Engineer can develop criteria based on his specific requirements using the Company’s own
personnel or by contracting with a coatings research and consulting firm for assistance. The Engineer then makes this
information available to the coating manufacturers and Contractors. The Engineer may ask that any system which the
coating manufacturer/Contractor applicator proposes be backed by a performance warranty which particularly 1
addresses the failure modes present on the structure. The warranty should include both material and labor. A
minimum warranty period of 5 years is suggested.
b. The selection of the coating system often involves two phases: selection of the generic system (e.g., zinc-
rich/epoxy/polyurethane), followed by selection of proprietary materials for this generic system.
c. Selection of the system previously used should be considered for complete recoating strategies, if it performed well in 3
the past. However, environmental or health restrictions may prevent its use. Factors to consider when selecting a
coating system for complete recoating include:
(1) Service history under similar conditions
(2) Application under (potentially adverse) field conditions

4
(3) Application to structural configurations, often from locations that are difficult to access
(4) Complexity of requirements for field mixing
(5) Acceptable times for drying, overcoating, or exposure to rain or cold
(6) Documented durability and protection afforded in specific exposure environments
(7) Ease of repair and touch up
(8) Cost of materials and application
(9) Track record and reliability of supplier
1

Steel Structures
(10) Capabilities and qualifications of the Contractor
(11) Potential environment, safety, or health hazards of coating materials
8.7.4.3 Materials/Systems
a. Penetrants for treating crevice corrosion and pack rusted joints that cannot be cleaned are as follows:
(1) Low molecular weight epoxies
(2) Moisture cured urethanes
(3) High Ratio Co-Polymerized Calcium Sulfonates
b. Coatings used as primers for new steel or existing steel with coating totally removed are as follows:
(1) Alkyds
(2) Modified Alkyds
(a) Vinyl Alkyds
(b) Silicone Alkyds
(c) Calcium Sulfonate Modified Alkyds
(3) Zinc-Rich Coatings - 3 coat system
(4) Moisture-Cured Urethanes
(5) Epoxy Coatings
(6) Epoxy Mastic Coatings
(7) Waterborne Acrylic Coatings
(9) Galvanizing
(10) Metalizing
(11) Polyurea Coatings
c. Coatings for Overcoating Existing Coatings and Stable Substrates are as follows:
(1) Alkyd Coatings
(2) Modified Alkyds
(a) Vinyl Alkyds
(b) Silicone Alkyds

Miscellaneous
(c) Calcium Sulfonate Modified Alkyds
(3) Epoxy Mastic Coatings
(4) Moisture Cured Urethanes
(5) Epoxy Penetrating Sealer (total surface preprimers)
(6) Waterborne Acrylics
(8) Urethane Systems
8.7.4.4 Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Content
VOC refers to the transportation vehicle that the coating manufacturer uses to control the rheology of the coating material.
This material does not remain in the film and evaporates into the atmosphere. The VOC run the gamut of hazardous to non-
hazardous and various rules apply to them. The amount of VOC allowed into the air is controlled by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) in the USA (federal) and state and local governments who may have special requirements. The
specification should refer the Contractor to the specific rules that apply in the area that the coating is being applied or, if the
Engineer deems it necessary, the level the Engineer requires. The more restrictive level will govern. The level of VOC may
limit the types of coatings available for use on the structure.
8.7.4.5 Data Sheets

1
a. The coating manufacturer is responsible to supply the Engineer with current product data sheets, technical data sheets,
and material safety data sheets which supply a minimum of information required by law.
b. The data presented on all data sheets must be verifiable by the testing methods used to produce the information on the
data sheets as they are submitted to the Engineer. The Engineer, at his option, may pull samples from the site to verify 3
that the material on the site is equal to the material described on the data sheets.
8.7.5 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS (2009)
8.7.5.1 General
This portion of the specification shall address those submittals required from the Contractor at the time of bid, pre- 4
construction, and periodically throughout the performance of the contract. The required submittals shall be based upon the
performance guidelines established in each of the preceding sections of the specification. These submittals can be used to
determine the responsiveness of prospective bidders and form the final criteria for monitoring the project for effective
implementation of worker protection, environmental protection, waste management plans, and containment system
performance.
8.7.5.2 Worker Protection
a. General
(1) The work shall be conducted in strict accordance with the Federal FRA or OSHA, state, and local government
regulations governing worker protection. If the bridge carries a railroad track, or the bridge is located on an active
railroad right-of-way, applicable provisions of the Title 49 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 214, the FRA
Railroad Workplace Safety Rule, will govern for bridge workers safety and for protection against railroad traffic.

Steel Structures
(2) When disturbing coatings, institute engineering and work practice controls to reduce worker exposures to lead and
other toxic metals to as low a level as feasible and in accordance with legal requirements.
(3) The Contractor shall employ an Industrial Hygienist (IH) on staff or through subcontract to develop the Worker
Protection Plan, and review all exposure monitoring and medical surveillance results. The IH shall be required to
conduct a monthly site visit and issue a monthly summary of activities and monitoring results.
(4) The worker protection requirements shall apply to all personnel of the Contractor and subcontractors working for
the Contractor.
(5) The requirements identified in this section regarding exposure to toxic metals are based on CFR 1926.62, but the
Contractor must protect the employees from exposure to any of the toxic metals which may be present in the
coating and/or abrasive, as applicable, in addition to lead.
b. Bird Droppings
(1) In addition to controlling exposures to lead and other toxic metals, the Contractor shall be required to take special
precautions when working in areas where birds have nested.
(2) The Worker Protection Plan should, at a minimum, require the use of gloves, whole body protective clothing and a
respirator while inspecting or removing debris, followed by thorough washing of hands, face, and forearms before
eating, drinking or smoking.
c. Worker Protection Plan
(1) Develop a written Worker Protection Plan under the direction of the IH, if required by the contract, to establish and
implement practices and procedures for protecting the health and safety of employees from project hazards in
accordance with applicable requirements.
(2) The Worker Protection Plan must include provisions for protection of workers from exposures to toxic metals
when exposures to lead or other toxic metals are above the Action Level. The Worker Protection Plan must
address the protection of workers from all project hazards, such as those cited in Paragraph b.
(3) The Worker Protection Plan shall be updated at least every six months during the portion of the project which
involves the disturbance of toxic metals.
(4) The Worker Protection Plan shall establish methods for complying with the project specifications and any OSHA
standards published for the toxic metals present in the coating (e.g., 29 CFR 1926.62 for lead, 29 CFR 1926.1127
for cadmium, and 29 CFR 1926.1118 for inorganic arsenic). Toxic metals may be present in the coating for which
OSHA has not developed a comprehensive health and safety standard (e.g., chromium). In these cases, include
statements that appropriate measures will be taken to assure that the workers will not be exposed above the
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) or Threshold Limit Value (TLV) established for the metal as identified in 29
CFR 1926.55.
(5) The Worker Protection Plan shall identify methods of compliance that will be used to reduce worker exposure to
toxic metals. Respiratory protection should be relied on only after feasible engineering and work practice controls
have been first implemented to reduce airborne exposures.
d. Medical Surveillance
(1) Provide all employees with initial and periodic medical surveillance as required by published OSHA health and
safety standards for the metal of concern, except that the frequency of blood testing in the case of lead is increased.
Conduct blood lead and zinc protoporhyrin (ZPP) sampling and analysis prior to exposure to lead and at monthly
intervals thereafter. In addition, exit blood tests should be conducted for each worker within five working days

Miscellaneous
upon completion of their project activities that involve exposure to lead. The exit tests should be conducted even
if the departure of the employee occurs prior to the completion of the Contractor’s work on the project, and at any
time that project activities involving lead exposure will be halted for 30 days or more (e.g., winter shut down).
(2) Verify that all medical tests are completed by or conducted under the supervision of a licensed physician. Verify
that the blood analysis is conducted by qualified laboratories. Provide the specialized medical surveillance and X-
rays required by CFR 1926.1118 for employees exposed to inorganic arsenic.
(3) Do not use workers with initial blood lead levels of 40 μg/dl for any work activities involving exposure to lead
above the Action Level.
(4) Provide for intervention by the IH if a blood level >25 μg/dl occurs for two or more workers or if there is an
increase of 10 μg/dl or more between consecutive tests for any individual worker. Intervention consists of an on-
site investigation by the IH, implementation of corrective action, and notification of the Engineer in the next
monthly report.
(5) Provide all exam information and test results to employees in writing within 10 calendar days after the completion
of each month signed by the IH that summarizes all examination and biological monitoring results.
(6) For employees who are offered an examination and biological monitoring but choose not to participate or fail to
respond, the Contractor shall provide documentation that the examination and monitoring were offered. This shall
be in the form of a written declination signed by the employee or, for employees who are no longer on the payroll,
a registered letter to the employee’s last known address.
(7) The Contractor shall identify and address safety practices required by his operations. They include, but are not
1
limited to, confined space procedures, clothing and personal protection equipment, storage, breathing air and
respiratory requirements, grounding, ventilation, scaffolding, and training. He should be familiar with “right-to-
know” laws. The Contractor should be advised of all hazards specific to the structure and all safety procedures,
including work tag requirements. Projects removing lead-based coating will have increased safety requirements.
8.7.5.3 Environmental Surveillance 3

a. Environmental monitoring such as air, water, soil, and sediment sampling is to be conducted throughout the project as
appropriate to characterize and prevent releases outside of the containment area.
b. All environmental monitoring should be conducted by a third party consultant hired by, but independent of the
Contractor.
4
8.7.5.4 Hazardous Waste and Debris Containment
a. General
(1) Use a containment system that maintains the work area free of emissions of dust and debris in accordance with all
provisions of the specifications.
(2) Install and use a containment system for the project based on the coating removal methods that will be utilized and
in compliance with SSPC Guide 6.
b. Use Class 1A for abrasive blast cleaning of the bridge steel when the existing coating contains lead. All abrasive, dust,
coating chips, and debris must be contained and collected.
c. Use Class 3P for washing and vacuum-shrouded power tool cleaning for all other steel that will be overcoated when
the existing coating does not contain lead.

Steel Structures
d. The performance of the containment system should be inspected at least weekly for compliance with the approved
containment submittals, and a report of the observations prepared. The information should be maintained at the project
site and made available to the Engineer or environmental consultant for review at any time.
e. Containment Drawings and Submittals
(1) Provide containment drawings, calculations, and assumptions, including ventilation criteria, signed and sealed by
a Professional Engineer licensed in the locality where the work is performed.
(2) Do not conduct any work until the drawings, calculations, and containment submittals have been reviewed and
accepted by the Engineer.
f. Certification of Containment Installation
(1) After the containment system is installed, have the Professional Engineer, as described in Paragraph e(1), or a
designee working under his/her direction, conduct a site inspection to verify that the containment system has been
assembled as shown on the approved, signed and sealed drawings. Have the Professional Engineer described in
Paragraph e(1) submit a letter to the Engineer attesting to the above. The Engineer must receive the letter before
any coating removal work within the containment can begin.
(2) If the containment system is not installed in accordance with the design drawings, reinstall the containment, or
issue supplemental calculations for the new design for Engineer review and acceptance in accordance with the
original submittal requirements.
g. Containment Flooring System and Additional Collectors
(1) If the floor or ground beneath the structure being prepared serves as the base of the containment, cover it with air
and dust impenetrable materials such as solid panels of plywood or flexible materials such as tarpaulins. Maintain
the materials throughout the project to avoid loosing debris through rips, tears, or breaks in the coverings.
(2) If a suspended or elevated platform is constructed to serve as the base of the containment, use rigid and/or flexible
materials, and cover as needed to create an air and dust impenetrable enclosure. Verify that the platform and its
components are designed and constructed to support at least 4 times their maximum intended load without failure,
with cables capable of supporting 6 times their maximum intended load without failure. Strictly follow all
applicable regulations regarding scaffolding.
(3) When required by the contract or directed by the Engineer, ground covers around and beneath the containment
area shall be provided to capture inadvertent spills or leaks of debris. Extend the covers a minimum of 10 feet
beyond the area covered by the containment. Increase this distance based on the height of the work above the
ground as directed by the Engineer. The Contractor shall remove debris from the covers at least once per shift, or
as directed by the Engineer.
h. Containment and Ventilation System Components: The basic components that make up the containment systems are
defined below. The components shall be in accordance with SSPC Guide 6 to establish the requirements for each
method of removal.
(1) Rigidity of Containment Materials: Rigid containment materials consist of solid panels of plywood, aluminum,
rigid metal, plastic, fiberglass, composites, or similar materials.
(2) Permeability of Containment Materials: The containment materials are identified as air impenetrable if they are
impervious to dust or wind such as provided by rigid panels, coated solid tarps, or plastic sheeting. Air penetrable
materials are those that are formed or woven to allow air flow. Water impenetrable impermeable materials are
those that are capable of containing and controlling water when wet methods of preparation are used.

Miscellaneous
(3) Support Structure: Rigid support structures consist of scaffolding and framing to which the containment materials
are affixed to minimize movement of the containment cocoon. Flexible support structures are comprised of
cables, chains, or similar systems to which containment materials are affixed. Minimal support structures involve
the cables or connections necessary to attach the material to the structure being prepared and/or the ground.
(4) Containment Joints: Fully sealed joints require that mating surfaces between the containment materials and the
structure being prepared are completely sealed. Sealing measures include tape, Velcro, clamps, or similar material
capable of forming a continuous, impenetrable or impermeable seal.
(5) Entryway: An airlock entryway involves a minimum of one stage that is fully sealed to the containment and which
is maintained under negative pressure using the ventilation system of the containment. Resealable door entryways
involve the use of flexible or rigid doors capable of being repeatedly opened and resealed. Sealing methods
include the use of zippers, Velcro, clamps, or similar fasteners. Overlapping door tarpaulin entryways consist of
three overlapping door tarpaulins. Open seam entryways involve entrance into the containment through any open
seam.
(6) Mechanical Ventilation: The requirement for mechanical ventilation is to ensure that adequate air movement is
achieved to reduce worker exposure to toxic metals to as low a level feasible, and to enhance visibility. Design the
system with proper exhaust ports or plenums, adequately sized ductwork, adequately sized discharge fans and air
cleaning devices (dust collectors) and properly sized and distributed make-up air points. Natural ventilation does
not require the use of mechanical equipment for moving dust and debris through the work area. It relies on natural
air flow patterns, if any, through the containment.
(7) Negative Pressure: Negative pressure is specified for abrasive blast cleaning. Verify its performance through
instrument monitoring to achieve a minimum of 0.03 inch water column (WC) relative to ambient conditions. In
1
addition, verify through visual assessments for the concave appearance of the containment system.
(8) Exhaust Ventilation: Mechanical ventilation systems are required for abrasive blast cleaning. Provide filtration of
the exhaust air to prevent airborne particulate from the containment being exhausted directly into the surrounding
air. Provide a filter that is at least 99.9 percent efficient in removing a mono-dispersed aerosol at 0.5 micrometers
in diameter. 3
8.7.5.5 Hazardous Waste Collection
All coating debris containing hazardous substances, contaminated abrasives, unused coating, thinners, or any other materials
used on the project site shall be collected and properly stored prior to disposal in accordance with SSPC Guide 6, “Guide for
Containing Debris Generated During Paint Removal Operations.”
4
8.7.5.6 Hazardous Waste Disposal
a. Hazardous wastes collected in accordance with Article 8.7.5.5, shall be disposed of in accordance with SSPC Guide 7,
“Guide for Disposal of Lead Contaminated Surface Preparation Debris”. Where the contract documents provide for
shipment of hazardous wastes to another location for stabilization and reuse, such as in asphaltic concretes, the
Contractor is fully responsible for proper transport to the designated location. Transport of hazardous wastes shall be
done only by licensed hazardous waste transporters.
b. The Contractor shall institute procedures to prevent spilling of all coating materials. Spills that occur shall be cleaned
up immediately and all contaminated material, including soil, shall be disposed of as a hazardous material. All trash
generated during the Contractor’s operation that becomes contaminated in any way with hazardous substances shall be
disposed of as a hazardous material.
8.7.5.7 Air Quality
a. The Contractor must maintain temporary pollution control features installed under the contract.

Steel Structures
b. The Contractor must control emissions from equipment and plant to local authority’s emission requirements.
c. The Contractor must prevent extraneous materials from contaminating air beyond the application area by providing
temporary enclosures.
d. The Contractor must cover or wet down dry materials and rubbish to prevent blowing dust and debris. Provide dust
control for temporary roads and unprotected ground surfaces.
8.7.5.8 Volatile Organic Compounds
The contract documents shall specify the maximum allowable VOC limits for coatings used for the project.
8.7.5.9 Owner’s Responsibility
For projects involving wastes containing hazardous materials, the Company is considered to be the “generator” even if the
work is accomplished by contract. As such, the Company is responsible to insure that all regulations relating to removal,
containment, and disposal are met. The Company must obtain an EPA identification number and insure that the regulations
are being followed. The requirements are outlined in SSPC - Guide 7, “Guide for Disposal of Lead-Contaminated Surface
Preparation Debris.”
8.7.6 QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE (2009)
8.7.6.1 General
a. The goal of the contract is to ensure that a durable coating system, applied in accordance with all of the local and
national regulations and specifications included herein, is obtained. To achieve this there are responsibilities that the
Company, coating manufacturer, and Contractor must meet. The Company must insure that the contract documents
adequately cover the regulatory requirements that the bidders will be asked to cover by their proposal. The Company
must also insure that the coating system(s) specified is (are) compatible with the existing coatings, if applicable, and
that the Contractor is properly preparing the surface. The Contractor is responsible for supplying only acceptable
materials and trained workers, supplying properly maintained equipment whether the coating is applied in the shop or
the field, and full compliance with the regulatory requirements contained in the contract documents. The coating
manufacturer is responsible to supply only the level of quality of materials that meet the contract requirements,
including adequate instructions to the Contractor and Company of the environmental and application requirements to
safely obtain a long-lasting coating.
b. The Contractor shall submit, with the contract proposal, a Quality Control Plan (QCP), including manufacturer’s data
sheets, and indicating how the above responsibilities will be met. The Company reserves the right to reject any bids
not containing an adequate QCP.
c. The Company will institute an Acceptance Testing Plan (ATP) that will provide for verification of compliance with the
QCP and contract documents.
d. Prior to bidding, the Contractor shall be qualified in accordance with SSPC-QP 1, “Standard Procedure for the
Evaluation of Painting Contractors: Field Application to Complex Structures,” or approved equal. The SSPC Painting
Contractor Certification Program provides an industry sponsored certification program to pre-qualify contractors. If
potential Contractors are not certified under the SSPC program, a minimum of 5 years of successful experience in
applying coating systems to steel structures may, at the Company’s discretion, be considered a minimum acceptance
alternate level of pre-qualification.
e. For projects involving removal of coatings containing hazardous substances, the Contractor shall be qualified in
accordance with SSPC Qualification Procedure SSPC-QP 2, “Standard Procedure for Evaluating the Qualifications of
Contractors to Remove Hazardous Paint from Industrial Structures.” The SSPC Certification Program provides an

Miscellaneous
industry sponsored certification program for Contractors involved in lead based coating removal projects which the
Company may implement to insure a minimum acceptance level of Contractor qualifications.
f. Verification of a Contractor’s current status as it relates to the SSPC Certification Programs can be obtained by
contacting SSPC.
8.7.6.2 Quality Control Plan (QCP)
a. The QCP shall, as a minimum, contain the following:
(1) Coating manufacturer and type of coating proposed for each coat
(2) Manufacturer’s certification that the coating meets the project requirements, including VOC limitations
(3) Equipment maintenance procedures
(4) Worker safety procedures and equipment to be utilized
(5) Identification of site safety officer for projects involving lead based coating removal
(6) Procedures for containment and disposal of hazardous wastes
(7) Procedures to contain site generated dust if required by the contract documents
(8) Designated Quality Control Officer responsible for insuring the above procedures are maintained
1
(9) A plan for taking thickness measurements of the initial surface (if coated) and each coat in accordance with SSPC-
PA 2
(10) All required product data (material, safety and technical) sheets
3
8.7.6.3 Acceptance Testing Plan
a. The Company will assign properly trained Inspectors to the project to determine if the Contractor has met the contract
requirements.
b. The Company reserves the right to sample and test coatings supplied for the project at any time, before or during the
project, whether accepted by certification or not. 4
c. The Company will make random checks of surface preparation, surface profile and coating film thickness following
the procedures outlined in SSPC-PA 2 after the Contractor submits the QCP test measurements for acceptance.
d. The Company reserves the right to check any equipment for proper operation, including abrasives for particle size
distribution, cleanliness and other required properties.
8.7.7 FINAL INSPECTION AND WARRANTY (2009)
8.7.7.1 Final Acceptance
When the project is complete, the Contractor shall make arrangements for a joint final inspection.

Steel Structures
8.7.7.2 Warranty/Guarantee
a. The most common warranty for coating work is a two-year warranty against defective materials and workmanship.
Extended period performance warranties are becoming more common and, when utilized, should be formulated to
correlate with the specific coating systems selected. When warranties are utilized, they should clearly state who is to
be responsible for the warranty and what conditions will trigger the warranty work.
b. The Contractor shall provide with his performance bond, a maintenance bond to cover any or all defects/failures in
material and/or workmanship for a period of two years or as specified by the Engineer. This maintenance bond shall
cover the warranty period and will start on the date indicated on the Construction Completion Certificate issued by the
Company. The cost of the maintenance bond can be included as a separate bid item on the bid form.
c. The surety shall be licensed to conduct business in the state or province of jurisdiction.
d. If the surety on any bond furnished is declared bankrupt or becomes insolvent, its right to do business is terminated in
any state or province where any part of the project is located, or is revoked, the Contractor shall within five days
thereafter substitute another bond and surety, both of which shall be acceptable to the Company.
e. The warranty forms shall be jointly executed by the Contractor and the coating manufacturer and forwarded to the
Company as called for herein.
f. During the warranty period, the Company will inspect the coating system at least 60 days prior to warranty expiration.
The Contractor and coating manufacturer are required to attend this inspection. The Company will advise the
Contractor, coating manufacturer, and surety in writing of any defects/failures.

1515
156
Part 9
Commentary1
— 2013 —
FOREWORD
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 1, Design, Part 3, Fabrication, Part 4,
Erection, Part 5, Bearing Design and Construction, Part 6, Movable Bridges, Part 7, Existing Bridges, and Part 8,
Miscellaneous and to furnish supplemental recommendations for use in special conditions. In the numbering of articles of this
part, the second and succeeding digits in each article number represent the article being explained.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
Part 1 Design
9.1.1 Proposals and Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-6 3

9.1.1.8 Design of Public Works Projects (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-6
9.1.2 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-6

9.1.2.1 Materials (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-6
9.1.2.2 Welding (2003) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-9
9.1.2.5 Deflection (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-9
9.1.2.6 Clearances (1995) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-9
9.1.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-10

9.1.3.3 Live Load (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-10
9.1.3.4 Distribution of Live Load (1993) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-10
9.1.3.5 Impact Load (2007) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-11
9.1.3.6 Centrifugal Force (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-12
9.1.3.7 Wind Forces on Loaded Bridge (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-13
9.1.3.8 Wind Forces on Unloaded Bridge (2005) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-13
9.1.3.10 Stability Check (2005) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-13
9.1.3.12 Longitudinal Forces (2005) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-13
1
References, Vol. 71, 1970, p. 379; Vol. 72, 1971, p. 153; Vol. 73, 1972, p. 176; Vol. 75, 1974, p. 336; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 240; Vol. 77, 1976, p. 249; Vol. 78,
1977, p. 75; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 188; Vol. 81, 1980, p. 132; Vol. 82, 1981, pp. 78-87, incl; Vol. 84, 1983, p. 100; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 98; Vol. 91, 1990, p. 121;
Vol. 92, 1991, p. 80; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 124; Vol. 94, 1993, p. 1; Vol, 94, 1994, p. 145; Vol. 96, p. 74; Vol. 97, p. 177. Reapproved with revisions 1996.

Steel Structures
9.1.3.13 Fatigue (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-16

9.1.3.14 Combined Stresses (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-22
9.1.3.15 Secondary Stresses (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-23
9.1.3.16 Proportioning of Truss Web Members (2004) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-23
9.1.4 Basic Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-23

9.1.4.1 Structural Steel, Rivets, Bolts and Pins (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-23
9.1.4.2 Weld Metal (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-27
9.1.4.3 Cast Steel (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-27
9.1.5 General Rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-27

9.1.5.4 Thickness of Material (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-27
9.1.5.8 Net Section (2005) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-29
9.1.5.9 Connections and Splices (2003) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-29
9.1.5.10 Field Connections (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-29
9.1.5.12 Combinations of Dissimilar Types of Connections (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-29
9.1.5.13 Sealing (1993) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-29
9.1.5.14 Connections of Components of Built-up Members (1993) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-29
9.1.6 Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension or Compression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-29

9.1.6.1 Compression Members (2004) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-29
9.1.6.2 Outstanding Elements in Compression (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-30
9.1.6.4 Lacing and Perforated Cover Plates for Tension and Compression Members (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-30
9.1.6.5 Effective Net Area for Tension Members - Strength (2007) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-31
9.1.6.6 Effective Area for Tension Members - Fatigue (2007) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-32
9.1.7 Members Stressed Primarily in Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-32

9.1.7.1 Proportioning Girders and Beams (2004) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-32
9.1.7.2 Flange Sections (1994) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-33
9.1.7.3 Thickness of Web Plates (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-33
9.1.7.4 Flange-to-Web Connection of Plate Girders (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-33
9.1.7.8 Web Plate Stiffeners (Intermediate Transverse and Longitudinal) (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-34
9.1.7.9 Composite Steel and Concrete Spans (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-35
9.1.8 Floor Members and Floorbeam Hangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-36

9.1.8.3 End Connections of Floor Members (1993) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-36
9.1.9 Riveted and Bolted Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-36

9.1.9.4 Edge Distance of Fasteners (2005) R(2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-36
9.1.10 Welded Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-37

9.1.10.1 Transition of Thickness or Widths in Welded Butt Joints (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-37
9.1.10.2 Prohibited Types of Joints and Welds (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-37
9.1.10.4 Welded Attachments (2004) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-39
9.1.11 Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-39

9.1.11.2 Lateral Bracing (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-39
9.1.11.4 Cross Frames and Diaphragms for Deck Spans (1994) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-39
9.1.13 Continuous and Cantilever Steel Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-40

9.1.13.8 Longitudinal Stiffeners (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-40

Commentary
9.1.14 Fracture Critical Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-40

9.1.14.1 Scope (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-40
9.1.14.2 Definitions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-43
9.1.14.3 Design and Review Responsibilities (1997) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-44
9.1.14.5 Notch Toughness of Steel in Fracture Critical Members (2006) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-44
Part 3 Fabrication
9.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-46

9.3.1.6 Thermal Cutting, Copes, and Access Holes (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-46
9.3.1.8 Planing Sheared Edges (1994) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-46
9.3.1.18 Bent Plates (2000) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-46
9.3.1.19 Piece Marking (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-47
9.3.2 Riveted and Bolted Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-47

9.3.2.2 High Strength Bolts, Nuts, and Washers (2005) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-47
9.3.2.3 Installation of High Strength Bolts (2005) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-47
9.3.2.6 Preparation of Holes for Shop Fasteners (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-47
9.3.2.7 Preparation of Holes for Field Fasteners (1983) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-47
9.3.2.14 Testing and Documentation of ASTM A325 and A490 Bolts (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-48 1
9.3.3 Welded Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-48
9.3.3.3 Flange-to-Web Welds of Flexural Members (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-48
9.3.3.4 Tack Welds (1995) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-48
9.3.5 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-48

9.3.5.5 Inspection – Welded Work (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-48 3
9.3.6 Shipment and Pay Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-48
9.3.6.3 Pay Weight (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-48
Part 5 Bearing Design and Construction
9.5.1 Bearing Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-49 4

9.5.1.2 General Requirements (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-49
9.5.1.5 Bearing Selection Criteria (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-49
9.5.2 Basic Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-52

9.5.2.1 Structural Steel, Bolts and Pins (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-52
9.5.2.6 Polyether Urethane Disc Bearings (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-53
9.5.3 Steel Bearing Component Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-53

9.5.3.3 Shoes and Pedestals (1997) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-53
9.5.4 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-53

9.5.4.3 Design (2001) R(2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-53
9.5.5 PTFE Sliding Bearing Surface Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-53

9.5.5.3 Design (2006) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-53

Steel Structures
9.5.7 Multi-Rotational Bearing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-54

9.5.7.1 Scope (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-54
9.5.7.3 Design (2007) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-54
9.5.10 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearing Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-54

9.5.10.1 General (2001) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-54
9.5.11 PTFE Sliding Bearing Surface Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-54

9.5.11.1 General (2002) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-54
Part 6 Movable Bridges
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-54
9.6.1 Proposals and General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-54

9.6.1.1 General (1986) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-54
9.6.1.8 Signals and Interlocking (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-55
9.6.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-55

9.6.3.11 Machinery Supports (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-55
9.6.4 Basic Allowable Stresses and Hydraulic Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-56

9.6.4.2 Machinery Parts (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-56
9.6.4.8 Hydraulic Systems and Components (1984) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-56
9.6.5 General Details. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-56

9.6.5.13 Lubrication (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-56
9.6.5.34 Special Provisions for Swing Bridges (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-56
9.6.5.36 Special Provisions for Vertical Lift Bridges (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-56
9.6.6 Wire Ropes and Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-57

9.6.6.2 Diameter of Rope (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-57
9.6.6.3 Construction (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-57
9.6.6.7 Wire – Physical Properties (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-58
9.6.6.8 Ultimate Strength (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-58
9.6.9 Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-58

9.6.9.1 Erection of Machinery (1996) R(2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-58
9.6.9.4 Lubrication (2008) R(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-58
9.6.9.7 Counterweights (1983) R(2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-58
Part 7 Existing Bridges
9.7.2 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-59

9.7.2.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-59
9.7.3 Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-59

9.7.3.1 General (1998) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-59
9.7.3.2 Loads and Forces (2007) R(2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-60

Commentary
9.7.3.3 Stresses (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-61
9.7.4 Repair, Strengthening and Retrofitting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-66

9.7.4.2 Plate Girders or Rolled Beams (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-66
Part 8 Miscellaneous
9.8.1 Turntables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-66

9.8.1.3 Basic Allowable Stresses and Deflections (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-66
9.8.2 Method of Shortening Eyebars to Equalize the Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-66

9.8.2.1 General (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-66
9.8.2.2 Procedure (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-67
9.8.3 Anchorage of Decks and Rails on Steel Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-67

9.8.3.1 Foreword (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-67
9.8.3.2 Anchorage of Decks to Bridge Spans (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-69
9.8.3.3 Anchorage of Rail (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-69
9.8.3.4 Rail Expansion Joints (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-70
1
9.8.7 Guide to the Preparation of a Specification for the Cleaning and Coating of Existing Steel Railway Bridges
...................................................................................... 15-9-72
9.8.7.4 Coating Systems (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-72
Welding Index (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-79
References (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-81 3

LIST OF FIGURES
15-9-1 Isolines for First-Percentile Minimum Temperatures (USA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-7 4

15-9-2 January Design Temperature 1 Per Cent Basis (Canada). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-8
15-9-3 Stress Range vs. Number of Cycles for Various Detail Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-20
15-9-4 Bolted and Riveted Gusset Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-28
15-9-5 Examples of details at intersection of longitudinal stiffeners and transverse plates welded to web. . . . . . . 15-9-38
15-9-6 Examples of welded Fatigue Category E details at certain locations at the intersection of transverse connection plates
and gusset plates welded to web. Both of these fatigue resistant details are difficult to fabricate. Bolted gussets are
recommended. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-39
15-9-7 Schematic Showing Relation Between Static and Dynamic Fracture Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-45
15-9-8 Riveted Bridge Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-63

Steel Structures
LIST OF TABLES
15-9-1 Parameters Used to Develop Table 15-1-7 and Table 15-1-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-17
15-9-2 Constant A and Thresholds for Detail Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9-20
PART 1 DESIGN
9.1.1 PROPOSALS AND DRAWINGS
9.1.1.8 DESIGN OF PUBLIC WORKS PROJECTS (1993) R(2008)
a. The purpose of requiring consulting engineers to be familiar with the design of railroad bridges is to ensure compliance
with the Company’s standards and operating procedures with minimum time involvement of the Company’s
engineering staff.
9.1.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
The safety and reliability of a bridge is governed by material properties, design, fabrication, inspection, erection and usage.
The following are contributing factors in bridge failures: inadequate inspection and non-destructive testing; design details
resulting in notches or high stresses due to secondary effects; joints which are difficult to weld and inspect; hydrogen-induced
cracks; improper fabrication, welding and weld repair; lack of base metal and weld metal toughness. Excessive attention to a
single preceding item will not overcome the effects of a deficiency in any other item.
The fatigue provisions of the AREMA recommended practices are based on a design loading which minimizes the possibility
of fatigue crack growth under regular traffic (see Article 9.1.3.13).
9.1.2.1 MATERIALS (2009)
a. Prior to 1969, these recommended practices were based on the use of materials defined in a special section and
differing to some extent from ASTM specifications. Developments of materials and acceptance of these materials by
ASTM have made it unnecessary for AREMA to specify special requirements for materials additional to those of the
ASTM Specifications so that since 1969, most materials are specified in terms of such specifications.
Table 15-1-2 and Table 15-1-14 make provisions for materials with improved notch toughness. ASTM A709, Grade
HPS 70W and Grade HPS 50W steels have such high toughness that when they were included in the ASTM A709
Specification, the Zone 3 requirements, which are the most severe, were specified for all zones for both Non Fracture
Critical, Table 15-1-2, and for Fracture Critical, Table 15-1-14. Because of their high toughness it was decided to
eliminate the need to choose the appropriate zone when using HPS 50W or HPS 70W and treat all zones alike.
Refer to Table 15-1-2 and Table 15-1-14: “Service Temperature” shall be taken to be the lowest ambient temperature
expected for the area in which a structure is to be located or to which a structure is to be exposed while in service. The
testing zones correspond with those chosen by AASHTO and imply the service temperatures listed in the tables. Zone
1 implies a minimum service temperature of 0 degrees F; Zone 2 implies a minimum service temperature of –30
degrees F; Zone 3 implies a minimum service temperature of –60 degrees F.
For guidance in determining the Lowest Anticipated Service Temperature for a particular location in the United States
or Canada, Figure 15-9-1 and Figure 15-9-2 may be used. Both figures show temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit.
Figure 15-9-1 (U.S. and Alaska) shows isolines for which there is a 99% chance that the daily minimum temperature
will be no lower than shown. Figure 15-9-2 (Canada) shows isolines for which the temperature during January will be
no lower than shown for 99% of the time.

Commentary
Figure 15-9-1. Isolines for First-Percentile Minimum Temperatures (USA)

4

Steel Structures
Figure 15-9-2. January Design Temperature 1 Per Cent Basis (Canada)
Refer to Table 15-1-2: The recommended practice is silent on energy requirements for material thicker than 4 inches
even though some of the materials listed are available in greater thicknesses. Table 15-1-2 will normally apply to
welded main load carrying components subject to tensile stress and such applications will be rare for thicknesses
exceeding 4 inches. Nevertheless, if an engineer wishes to use a greater thickness, the notch toughness requirement for
these materials not listed in Table 15-1-2 should be specified.
Refer to Table 15-1-1, Note 2: There is a potential for atmospheric corrosion rates to increase in applications that
subject weathering grade steels to frequent alternating wet and dry or continuously moist conditions for prolonged
periods of time; or to corrosive chemicals, including deicing salts. Guidelines for proper application of unpainted
weathering steels in bridges may be found in FHWA Technical Advisory T5140.22 “Uncoated Weathering Steel in
Structures”, dated October 3, 1989.
b. Based on commonly accepted approximate values for E and μ obtained from test results, the approximate value for G
is derived using the following theoretical Equation:
G = E ⁄ (2(1 + μ)) .
f. Fracture Critical Members require additional consideration. This includes increased material toughness as specified in
Section 1.14, Fracture Critical Members.

Commentary
9.1.2.2 WELDING (2003) R(2008)
a. Prior to 1990, these recommended practices stipulated that welding of structural steel should conform to the American
Welding Society Structural Welding Code Steel ANSI/AWS D1.1. With the introduction of the Bridge Welding Code
ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 in 1988, under a joint development effort of the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and the American Welding Society (AWS), the AREMA had available a
welding specification that specifically addresses bridge construction. The development of the AWS D1.5 code
represents a landmark of cooperative industry action to address the proliferation of costly and sometimes contradictory
regulations. While some specifications of AWS D1.5 may appear unorthodox to members of the welding community,
AWS has agreed that AASHTO should play a deciding role in determining the specifics of the code.
b. Since AWS D1.5 is directed toward the construction of highway bridges constructed in accordance with standard State
Specifications, several terminology and definition substitutions must be made in order to render the bridge code
applicable to the construction of railroad bridges.
c. ASTM A709, Grade HPS 70W steel was developed starting in 1994. By 1997 the material was ready for use in bridge
structures. The “Guide Specification for Highway Bridge Fabrication with HPS 70W Steel” was developed by the
industry and subsequently adopted by AASHTO. This guide recommends procedures that will result in economical,
high-quality fabrication using A709 HPS 70W steel. The guide is intended to be used as a supplement to AWS D1.5.
9.1.2.5 DEFLECTION (2013)
b. Prior to 1969, the deflection limitation was covered by an article headed “Depth Ratios.” Structures built with depth
ratios meeting the requirements of that article were satisfactorily stiff for railroad operations since the stresses allowed 1
for A 36 (or A 7) steel were used in the design. Volume 60 (1959) page 535 stated that depth ratios gave 1/800 for
girders and trusses and 1/600 for rolled beams used as girders under E72 loading. The first reference to 1/640 is in
Volume 63 (1962) page 387 which stated to use 1/640 if shallower depth spans were required. Since the 1969 edition
of these recommended practices (Volume 69 (1968) page 459) introduced and permitted the use of a variety of higher
strength steels, it became necessary to define more accurately the degree of stiffness which is desirable in terms of the
deflection of the structure rather than in terms of the depth ratio. Relating deflection to live loading also gives a more
appropriate basis for ballasted deck bridges, for which the live load is generally a lesser percentage of total load than 3
for open deck bridges.
c. Waddell (1916) recommended a vibration load of 700 lb. per linear foot for loaded chords to ensure sufficient lateral
rigidity in members (Reference 143). Furthermore, observations and tests at CN determined that lateral forces on
bridges from equipment can exceed the forces given in Article 1.3.9. Nevertheless, experience indicates that the
provisions for lateral forces of this Chapter have generally resulted in satisfactory structures with sufficient lateral
rigidity when all the recommended loads and lateral forces are considered. 4
The lateral deflection limits recommended are 50% of the FRA allowable limits for alignment deviation for Class 5
Track (Reference 45). Therefore, at least 50% of the allowable limit remains for variations in track alignment, rail
wear and track fastener wear or movement. For higher Classes of track the allowable limit needs to be reduced
accordingly. The limit is applied over a 62 foot chord for tangent track and curved track and also on a 31 foot chord for
curved track.
9.1.2.6 CLEARANCES (1995) R(2008)
The requirements for clearances were changed in the 1983 edition to be slightly more severe than in previous editions
(previously changed in 1969). This was done to be consistent with the recommendations of AREMA Committee 28 to
accommodate the increased dimensions of cars and of higher and wider loads.

Steel Structures
9.1.3 LOADS, FORCES AND STRESSES
9.1.3.3 LIVE LOAD (1995) R(2008)
a. The recommended live load of Cooper E 80 for the design of steel structures was adopted in 1967 by Committee 15.
While locomotives with weights greater than Cooper E 72, the previously recommended design live load, are not likely
to be found on any railroad in the United States, there is a trend toward heavier locomotives, and some of the heavy
cars produce loads equivalent to Cooper E 80 or greater.
Heavy double stack cars with axle loads of 78,750 lb per axle and 4–axle 315,000 lb gross weight cars (both using the
so-called 120 or 125 ton truck) accepted in regular service on certain railroads produce the equivalent of nearly E 80
Loading on shorter spans. In 1995, an alternate loading was introduced with a spacing similar to coupled typical 4–axle
cars with an axle load 25% higher than the Cooper E 80 load to address problems associated with fatigue on shorter
span lengths.
d. For members receiving load from more than one track, the proportions of full live load on the tracks to be used for
design are determined by use of the theory of probability to determine the frequency with which stresses of various
magnitudes might occur. Consideration was given to the fact that most of the trains which pass over a bridge will
produce lower stresses than the recommended design live load on each track (Reference 131).
9.1.3.4 DISTRIBUTION OF LIVE LOAD (1993)1 R(2008)
9.1.3.4.2 Ballasted Deck Structures
The recommendation for distribution of load to ballasted deck structures is based on tests performed by the AAR and reported
in AREA Proceedings, Vol. 56, 1955, page 45, other prior tests, and Report No. ER-5 of Engineering Research Division of
AAR of February, 1961.
9.1.3.4.2.3 Transverse Steel Beams
a. The above noted studies show the beneficial effects of the concrete slab in distributing the applied load for decks
supported by transverse steel beams without stringers. This is now reflected in Article 1.3.4.2.3.
The equation for D shown for moment has been introduced to account for the load carrying and load distributing
effects of the concrete slab. The first term in parentheses,
⎛ ⎞
1 ⎟
⎜ ----------------
⎜ d ⎟⎠
⎝ 1 + ------ -
aH
indicates the amount of the total load that is carried by the beams. The remainder is assumed to be carried by the slab.
However, for this effect to be obtained, the slab must extend over at least the center 75% of the length of the floorbeam.
If there is no slab, or the slab is less than the center 75% of the length of the floorbeam (and thus essentially ineffective)
then, as designated in Article 1.3.4.2.3c, the effective beam spacing becomes d, the actual spacing, and the equation for
P is essentially the same as specified prior to the 1969 edition. The second term in the parentheses,
⎛ 0.4 + --l- + -------H

-⎞
⎝ d 12 ⎠
1
Reference 119

Commentary
accounts for the effect of the slab in distributing the load. The effect of beam spacing, and slab beam stiffness is shown
in this term.
In special situations, it may be necessary to design decks with transverse beams without ballast. Although the criteria
outlined in Article 1.3.4.2.3 are intended for use with ballasted deck structures, the criteria are acceptable for use with
decks without ballast.
9.1.3.4.2.4 Longitudinal Steel Beams or Girders
a. For ballasted deck structures with longitudinal beams or girders, the test data are limited. It is, therefore, inappropriate
at this time to attempt to refine significantly the criteria for distribution of live loads to these members.
The data indicate that lateral distribution of live load to longitudinal beams or girders is improved by increasing the
ballast thickness or increasing the floor stiffness, or both. The lateral distribution is also affected by the beam stiffness.
Widely spaced diaphragms consisting of beams or plates and angles are relatively ineffective in improving lateral load
distribution but improve stability and rigidity of the floor support system. For groups of beams, the live load carried by
beams more than approximately 7 feet from center line of track is of relatively low magnitude and difficult to predict
because of several factors involved in addition to those mentioned above. A primary objective of this article is to
ensure the placement of the main track supports where they are most effective.
For design purposes, it is assumed that all supports within a width defined by a line with a 1:1 slope down from the end
of tie through the ballast and deck, are equally loaded, even though the slope of such a line is usually limited to 1/2:1,
especially through ballast. Using the total depth and the flatter slope recognizes the additional distribution effect due to
bending and shear of the timber or concrete floor and is reasonably consistent with field test results. For floors of
timber or steel the supports generally will be spaced closer together which will reduce the required floor thickness and 1
result in concentrating the supports in a narrower width. It is undesirable to complicate the formula by introducing the
modulus of elasticity of the floor material, since the available test data do not justify this refinement at this time.
In design, all beams outside of the width defined above are assumed to carry only dead load, live load of off-track
equipment and similar loads. For simplicity of details and construction, and for possible future widening, such
additional beams should be of the same section as the main supports.
3
9.1.3.5 IMPACT LOAD (2007) R(2008)
a. The impact loads specified are based on investigations and tests of railroad bridges in service under passage of
locomotives and train loads. The early tests, prior to 1935, were made with mechanical instruments and included
measurements of deflections and strains. In general and particularly for shorter spans, the instruments were subject to
considerable error due to vibration. Later tests (Reference 116) were made with electrical instruments which permitted 4
more accurate measurements without disturbance from vibrations.
The impacts calculated by the formulas given in this article do not include the effect of impulsive loads that are not
substantially attenuated between the rail and the structure. For example, direct fixation of the rail to a steel deck
without some appropriately designed attentuation device is not covered. Such impacts have been measured to be as
high as 600%. (References 42, 74)
b. Tests (Reference 18) have shown that the impact load on ballasted deck bridges can be reduced to 90% of that specified
for open deck bridges because of the damping which results from the mass and resiliency of the ballast on a ballasted
deck bridge.
d. The impact load due to rocking effect, RE, is due to a couple created by 20% of the wheel load acting down on one rail
and up on the other rail, which effect was called roll prior to 1967. By service tests (Reference 22), it was established
that the roll effect was essentially the same for all speeds. In 1967, the term 100/S (S in feet) was introduced as a
downward load only (Reference 21), which approximates the effect of roll used in previous recommended practices. S
was defined as the distance between centers of single or groups of longitudinal beams, girders or trusses; or the length

Steel Structures
between supports of floorbeams or transverse girders. Because of inconsistent interpretations of the term 100/S (S in
feet) the term RE was introduced in 1991.
In accordance with Article 1.3.5a, impact load due to rocking effect, RE shall be determined as a percentage of live
load applied vertically at each rail. RE is then added to the impact load due to vertical effects (Article 1.3.5c) to
determine the total impact load expressed as a percentage of the specified live load.
The impact load due to rocking effect, RE, is created by a rocking load equal to the applied force couple of 20% of the
wheel load acting vertically at each rail. Vertical loads in members due to the rocking load can be calculated for steel
bridge span members based on the distribution of the rocking load to members supporting the track. RE can then be
expressed as a percentage of specified live load by determining the ratio of the vertical load due to rocking to the
vertical due to otherwise specified vertical live loads in each member supporting the track (for example, if the
distribution of rocking load to members supporting the track is assumed to be the same as the distribution of vertical
live load, RE expressed as a percentage of live load, will be equal for all members supporting the track).
For spans with one longitudinal beam, girder or truss per rail the impact load due to rocking effect, RE, is (100/S)% of
the vertical live load applied at each rail, where S, feet, is the distance between the centers of the longitudinal beams,
girders or trusses. The constant of 100 represents the effective rail spacing of 5 feet times the load factor of 20 percent.
For spans with more than one longitudinal beam, girder or truss per rail the impact load due to rocking effect, RE,
(expressed as a percentage of live load) depends on the distribution of rocking load and specified vertical loads to the
members supporting the track. Vertical loads shall be distributed to members supporting the track in accordance with
Article 1.3.4. The distribution of rocking loads to members supporting the track shall be based on the configuration
and spacing of members supporting the track.
For floorbeams and transverse girders the impact load due to rocking effect, RE, is (100/S)% of the vertical live load
applied at each rail, where S, feet, is the distance between the supports of floorbeams or transverse girders.
e. The requirements specified for members receiving load from more than one track are based on judgement. For a double
track span, the shortest span for which the impact load for only one track is to be used is 225 feet. For an open deck
through span of this length the use of the impact load for the second track would add approximately 5% to the total
design load of the truss. The probability that full impact load effects will occur simultaneously for both tracks is
remote, but should this happen, the resulting increase in total load is small.
9.1.3.6 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE (2002) R(2008)
a. The centrifugal force defined in Section 1.3.6 is a function of curvature and speed (Reference 21). The centrifugal
force contributes to the horizontal forces applied to the bridge through the outer rail of a curve, and affects the
proportion of the vertical force taken by each rail.
b. In cases where the maximum train speed for the expected life of the bridge on a curve is not limited by other
conditions, it is constrained by a practical maximum superelevation of 6 inches (150) and a maximum underbalance of
3 inches (75), which equates to equilibrium speed for a superelevation of 9 inches (225). At that point, regardless of
the actual curvature and corresponding speed, the proportion of centrifugal to vertical force is very close to 0.15.
Article 1.3.6(b) is based upon the assumptions that, at some time in the life of the bridge, a superelevation of 6 inches
(150) could be applied to the track, and trains could be operated at the corresponding maximum speed, with
superelevation underbalance of 3 inches (75).
c. In cases where the maximum train speed for the expected life of the bridge is limited by other factors, the design speed
may be reduced to that specified by the Engineer in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 5 of this Manual, with
the centrifugal force factor and superelevation adjusted accordingly.
d. On superelevated curves, the point of application of the vertical load will be offset horizontally toward the center of the
curvature. Article 1.3.6(d) accounts for this offset.

Commentary
e. Article 1.3.6(e) accounts for the application of the entire horizontal centrifugal force at the flange of the wheel on the
outer rail, combined with the proportion of vertical load, with full impact, taken by the outer rail. No horizontal force
is assumed at the inner rail, as any horizontal wheel forces applied at the inner rail are normally canceled by the other
wheels at the same side of that truck.
9.1.3.7 WIND FORCES ON LOADED BRIDGE (2009)
a. The recommended use of 300 lb per linear foot for wind force on a train on a bridge as contained in Article 1.3.7a is
adequate for use on lines where double stack equipment is not operated. The engineer should consider increasing this
force in areas where double stack equipment, or other equipment with a large vertical projection operates, and strong
wind gusts are known to occur.
b. The specified basic wind pressure of 30 lb per square foot on a structure carrying live load has a long historic
background in railroad recommended practices. It was assumed that the maximum wind velocity under which train
operations would be attempted would produce a load of 30 lb per square foot on a flat surface normal to the wind. The
provisions of Article 1.3.7b (1), (2), and (3) were selected to make provisions for the effect of the wind on the portions
of the structure which are behind, and partly shielded by, the portion of the structure directly exposed to the wind
pressure.
c. Article 1.3.7c promotes proper proportioning of affected members in order to attain rigidity for the structure as a
whole. It does not actually address wind loads, but rather a “notional” load which was once termed “vibration load” in
earlier bridge specifications (Reference 143). This load is included in the section on wind load because it is applied as
an alternative to wind load. The affected members are to be proportioned for the greater force of either the wind load
or this “notional” load. 1
9.1.3.8 WIND FORCES ON UNLOADED BRIDGE (2005) R(2008)
The specified basic wind force of 50 lb per square foot on an unloaded structure has a long historic background in railroad
specifications. It was assumed that a hurricane wind, during which train operations would not be attempted, could produce a
load of 50 lb per square foot on such surfaces.
3
9.1.3.10 STABILITY CHECK (2005) R(2008)
a. For wind, nosing, and centrifugal forces, the vertical weight of a train on a tower or pier usually improves the lateral
stability of the structure, so it is prudent to model the least weight train that would be present with the applicable lateral
overturning load. A uniform vertical loading of 1,200 lbs/ft applied to the leeward track represents a consist of empty
cars. 4
For multiple track structures supported by the same pier(s) only the leeward track is loaded.
b. This stability check is designed to ensure that a load equal to half the full design load on the verge of incipient roll will
not cause the span to roll over. It is not intended to prevent damage to the structure, nor is it intended for deck design.
9.1.3.12 LONGITUDINAL FORCES (2005) R(2008)
The longitudinal force used in previous editions of this Manual of recommended practice has changed over time. In the 1905
edition, the force was 20 percent of the specified total live load. By the 1920 edition reductions were permitted for ballast
deck spans and for short structures. In the 1932 edition, the additional force of 25 percent of the driving axles of the Cooper’s
series was introduced, and the braking force of 15 percent of the Cooper’s train was introduced.

Steel Structures
The AAR conducted a number of tests with the secondary objective of measuring longitudinal forces in the 1940’s and 1950’s.
None of these tests were conducted under conditions that would have approached the maximum possible longitudinal force
available at that time.
It became the practice of some railroads to use one half the specified force which by this time was 25 percent of the Cooper’s
driving axles or 15 percent of the Cooper’s train on the appropriate loaded length.
In the 1968 edition of the Manual, a factor L/1200 was introduced to be applied to the 15 percent of the Cooper’s train with an
exception for bridges with discontinuous rail (e.g.: movable bridges and those with sliding joints or switches). This resulted in
a vastly reduced longitudinal force requirement. The traction force of 25 percent of the weight on driving axles was
eliminated.
A similar change was made to Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations. Committee 7, Timber Structures, did not make
changes to the recommended practice in Chapter 7.
With the introduction of high-adhesion locomotives, load/empty brakes, and ECP brakes, concern was expressed that
recommended forces were not high enough. Several railroads have acknowledged component failures in bridges due to
longitudinal forces, and several structures have been replaced due to distress caused by high longitudinal forces.
In 1996, the AAR conducted a test specifically to investigate longitudinal forces under the newly developed AC diesel-electric
freight locomotives. The test demonstrated that a longitudinal force of about 100 kips (440 kN) on a 50-foot (15-meter) open-
deck span was more than 25 times the design force in the 1996 edition of the Manual.
Under direction from the Board of Directors, and with the concurrence of the chairmen of the structural committees (7, 8 and
15) who formed the nucleus of a quickly gathered ad-hoc committee, AREA revised its recommended practice for the 1997
edition to conform to this test result. Chapter 7 was thought to be appropriate and not warrant the emergency change.
The AAR followed this test with further tests, all of which confirmed the much higher longitudinal forces, and the far greater
percentage of those forces which went into the structure. On a four-span, 400-foot (122-meter) open-deck steel bridge,
longitudinal forces up to 330 kips (1470 kN) were measured in the entire structure, with up to 220 kips (980 kN) in a 210-foot
(64-meter) truss, and up to 110 kips (490 kN) in a 42-foot (13-meter) beam span. On a two-span, 121-foot (37-meter) open-
deck steel DPG bridge, forces up to 140 kips (620 kN) were measured in the entire structure, with up to 96 kips (430 kN) in a
55.5-foot (17-meter) span. On a single-span, 60-foot (18-meter) ballast-deck steel DPG bridge, forces up to 115 kips (510 kN)
were measured. All tests used sets of two or three AC locomotives, operated near their maximum tractive effort capabilities of
180 kips (800 kN) to 200 kips (890 kN) per locomotive. Further information about these tests can be found in Reference 58,
76, 86, 87, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 107, 129, 130, 132, 138, 139 and 140.
The results of these tests indicated the following:
(1) Ballast deck spans do not have lower longitudinal forces
(2) Short spans do not have significantly lower longitudinal forces
(3) Half the force is not always dissipated through the rails
(4) There has been considerable confusion over the difference between the force and its distribution and path
(5) High longitudinal forces are not necessarily grade related
(6) High longitudinal forces are related to lower speeds for tractive effort and dynamic braking situations. When a
train is maintaining a speed that exceeds 15 mph (25 km/h) it cannot exert the maximum tractive effort. To cover
future developments, the recommended practice has used 25 mph (40 km/h).

Commentary
(7) High longitudinal forces due to braking can occur at any location, particularly if an emergency brake application
occurs
(8) The ability of the approach embankments to resist longitudinal forces from the superstructure is reduced as
longitudinal forces are also applied to the approach embankments. This would be the case with several
locomotives passing over a short bridge, or a train braking.
Analytical confirmation of the above behaviors has been done by Foutch et al (Reference 57, 58, 101, 132 and 137), and is also
explained by Fryba (Reference 59). Unfortunately, these formulations are too cumbersome for routine work. The problem can
be envisioned as the rails being continuously supported in the longitudinal direction. The longitudinal stiffness of the
connection between the rails and the bridge is similar to the stiffness of the connection between the rails and fixed ground on
the approach embankments.
With regard to braking force, the maximum adhesion between wheel and rail is about 15 percent. This level of braking would
typically be reached with an emergency application of the train air brakes. The equation for train braking is derived using 15
percent of the Cooper live loading.
Longitudinal force due to braking acts at the center of gravity of the live load. Center of gravity height is taken as 8 feet (2500
mm) above the top of rail. This force is transferred from vehicle to rail as a horizontal force at the top of rail and a vertical
force couple transmitted through the wheels.
Longitudinal force due to locomotive traction acts at the drawbar. Drawbar height is taken as 3 feet (900 mm) above top of
rail. As with braking, this force is transferred from vehicle to rail as a horizontal force at the top of rail and a vertical force
couple transmitted through the wheels.
1
Longitudinal forces transmitted by tractive effort of locomotives or the braking action of trains will be distributed to bridge
members in accordance with their relative stiffness and orientation with respect to the force path between the applied
longitudinal force and the supporting substructure.
The length “L” in Article 1.3.12 is to be taken as the appropriate length for the structure or portion of the structure under
consideration. The length selected should be the one that produces the maximum force in the structure or portion of the 3
structure under consideraton.
In bridges with stringer and floorbeam floor systems, longitudinal forces are first applied to the stringers. The force must then
be transferred to the members to which stringers are connected, usually the floor beams. Traction bracing can be used to
directly transfer the longitudinal force from the stringers to truss or girder panel points.
In bridges with transverse floorbeam floor systems (such as through girder spans), traction bracing can be used to transfer the 4
longitudinal force to the bridge members supporting the floorbeams (typically girders).
It is generally considered good practice to design traction bracing to be the same depth as the member being braced. However,
when traction bracing isn’t used, the floorbeams should be designed for transverse bending and torsion where applicable. See
Reference 63. It is generally considered good practice to provide traction bracing rather than design floorbeams or transverse
members for lateral bending and torsion.
Fixed bearings and their anchorages should be designed to transfer the longitudinal force from superstructure to substructure.
In addition to designing the fixed bearings to take all the longitudinal forces, it is the practice of some engineers, given that
bearings tend to become frozen or stuck with time, to design the area around and below expansion bearings for a percentage of
the longitudinal forces going through those bearings as though the expansion bearings were partially fixed.
Longitudinal forces are of importance in railway trestle bridges and may govern the economic span length considering
requirements for longitudinal bracing and column sizes in towers.

Steel Structures
9.1.3.13 FATIGUE (2013)
a. Fatigue is now covered in a sufficient number of texts so a basic explanation is no longer needed in this Commentary.
It was removed in 2009.
Between 1910 and 1969, inclusive, this Manual required an increase of each stress by 50% of the smaller stress for
members subject to reversal of stress.
Fatigue damage prior to the introduction of 263,000 lb. cars (100 ton capacity) in the 1960’s was primarily the result of
the passage of heavier locomotives. With 20 trains a day for 60 years, the number of damaging cycles caused by
locomotives would be less than 500,000. Most freight cars were light enough to cause little if any damage due to
fatigue.
In 1969, methods were introduced based on the R ratio, the ratio of minimum to maximum stress, and a distinction was
made between cases of more than 500,000 cycles of load or less (Reference 92). Consideration of the methods used to
fabricate and connect members was included.
Fatigue problems accelerated in the 1970s, with the introduction of heavy and frequent unit train service where the
influence of each car produces a significant effect. With the same 20 trains a day with 60 cars per train causing
damage, 500,000 cycles could accumulate in one year for some members.
Fatigue design for this Chapter has been based entirely on the nominal stress range concept since the 1978 Edition.
Other factors, such as mean stress and steel strength have negligible effect in the types of fabricated structures used in
the railroad industry. The type of load distribution has been revised as new knowledge has been developed.
Structures designed to the fatigue criteria of Article 1.3.13 should be adequate for:
(1) continuous unit trains with axle loads not exceeding 80,000 lb for loaded lengths less than 100 feet,
(2) continuous unit trains with equivalent uniform load not exceeding 6,000 lb per foot of track and axle loads not
exceeding 80,000 lb, or other variations of higher load with fewer cycles on longer spans (see Article 9.1.3.13.c).
This should be adequate for mainlines of Class I railroads, and for most heavy haul lines.
The Chapter recommends special consideration for spans exceeding 300 feet (see Article 9.1.3.13j).
b. The major factors governing fatigue strength are the number of stress cycles covered in section c, the magnitude of the
stress range, section h, and the type of constructional detail, section g.
c. The derivation of the design criteria for fatigue did not consider Rail Transit or other Light Rail facilities. For such
cases, unless demonstrated otherwise, the Mean Impact Load shown in Article 1.3.13d should be 100% of the impact
load specified in Article 1.3.5 for all member span lengths, and in Table 15-1-7, the number of constant stress cycles,
N, should be > 2,000,000.
For typical North American freight railroads the number of cycles used for design were derived assuming 315,000 lb.
cars in 110 car trains at a frequency of 60 trains per day over an 80-year period. The number of cycles per train is the
result of extensive work done by G. Oommen, S. Beisler and R.A.P. Sweeney as reported to Committee 15 in 1987 and
1988 (See Table 15-9-1). This criterion will theoretically provide infinite life for all loaded lengths less than 100 feet
and will accommodate longer and more frequent trains.
Existing cars (1988) with gross weights of 315,000 lb and certain double stack cars are approaching E 80 loading
values on short spans. In order to provide sufficient fatigue capacity under solid, or “unit” trains of these types of
vehicles the number of design cycles shown in Table 15-1-7 was derived by prorating the fatigue curve formula,
N = Nv x (α x SE60/SE80)3

Commentary
to an equivalent number of cycles of E 80 loading. In this formula N is the number of cycles, α is a constant, and SE60
and SE80 are respectively the stress ranges characteristic of E 60 and E 80 loading. The total projected number of
variable stress cycles, Nv, shown in Column 5 of Table 15-9-1, is obtained by multiplying columns 2, 3 and 4. The
value of alpha is to be taken as one unless a test on the member being evaluated indicates that a lower value is
appropriate.
Table 15-9-1 is based on 110-vehicle train. Critical characteristic load is assumed to be ¾, i.e. 60/80, of design load E
80.
On spans exceeding 100 feet it may be necessary to increase the number of cycles per train if a consistent operating
pattern of loaded cars followed by empty cars is repeated throughout the design train, throughout the service life of the
bridge. It is theoretically possible to get 55 cycles on spans close to 100 feet if the pattern is 2 loaded cars followed by
2 empty cars. Nevertheless, the committee assumed 3 cycles of loaded-empty combinations in its design 110-car train
as a more likely maximum on spans exceeding 100 feet.
Table 15-9-1. Parameters Used to Develop Table 15-1-7 and Table 15-1-10
Classification I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Stress N N
Span Length Life No. of
Cycles per Projected Nv Alpha Col. 5 × used in
L in Days Daily
Train Million (α) (Alpha x 6/8)3 Table 15-1-7
Ft 80 Yr Trains
Crossing Million Million 1
L > 100 29,200 60 3 5.3 1.0 2.2 2
100 ≥ L > 75 29,200 60 6 10.5 1.0 4.4 >2
75 ≥ L > 50 29,200 60 55 96 1.0 41 >2
50 ≥ L 29,200 60 110 193 1.0 82 >2
3
Keep in mind that the number of variable cycles leading to the greater-than-2-million category in Table 15-1-10 is
different for each category of detail, varying from 3 to 31 cycles per 110-car train on spans exceeding 100 feet.
d. Impact values used in design are estimated to have a probability of occurrence of 1% or less. Considering that a
railroad bridge is normally designed for an 80-year period, this level of impact is quite likely to occur at least once
during the bridge life and probably more frequently. For fatigue design the mean value of impact is more appropriate.
4
Nevertheless, the note to Table 15-1-8 covers cases of consistent and continuous poor maintenance practice with regard
to wheel or track maintenance or places where there are joints in the rail due to switches or rail expansion or other
joints where higher impact is a frequent occurrence. This is likely to include but is not restricted to locations where
there is "FRA Excepted Track" or "FRA Class 1 Track."
In locations where a structural member supports or is influenced by a “Conley” or similar style joint or where there are
rail break castings, a rail end connection or similar style joint or switch, the reduction in impact shown in Table 15-1-8
should not be used.
For members supporting end ties on movable spans and at the adjacent ends of fixed spans, use the full impact outlined
in Article 6.3.3, unless test results show a lower permissible impact.
Observations on 37 spans with span lengths between 30 and 140 feet, summarized by W. G. Byers (Reference 31),
indicates that mean impact values fall below 65% of the values used for design. Tests included results obtained with
poor wheels and on poor track.

Steel Structures
Tests on 15 bridges on Canadian National Railways done between 1975 and 1988 (reported to Committee 15, May
1988, by R. A. P. Sweeney) indicated mean values of 34% on spans less than 80 feet, and 65% on longer spans. A
further presentation by Dr. Sweeney made to the committee in 2002 based on tests on over 100 bridges confirmed the
numbers in revised Table 15-1-8, and confirmed that alpha should be assumed to be 1 unless a particular structure was
tested and alpha proved to be lower for that structure.
The mean impact is a function of the geometry of the track and how well it is maintained up to and across the bridge,
along with the maintenance standards for out-of-roundness of wheels and for wheel flats. The more restrictive
limitations placed on short members without load sharing is based on the probability that a single wheel may cause
such values relatively frequently. This is based on a one-year sample of wheel impact data at 10 Wheel Impact Load
Detector (WILD) Sites on CN (Reference 35).
e. The fatigue criteria is based on continuous unit trains with equivalent uniform load not exceeding 6,000 lb per foot of
track and axle loads not exceeding 80,000 lb and has been adjusted so that the Standard Cooper load specified in
Article 1.3.3 may be used for design purposes.
f. For the usual design condition of members subjected to bending, only SR derived from bending needs to be considered
for details, such as transverse stiffeners, which are subjected to shear stresses as well. The design detail categories have
taken shear into account; therefore, principal stresses need not be considered in the usual design condition. For unusual
design conditions, the principal stresses may need to be considered.
Residual and/or locked-in stresses induced during welding, fabrication or erection shall not be considered in
investigating fatigue. Residual stresses due to welding are implicitly included through the specification of stress range
as the sole dominant stress parameter for fatigue design. This same concept of considering only stress range has been
applied to rolled, bolted, and riveted components or details where far different residual stress fields exist. The
application to nonwelded components or details is conservative.
It has been shown that the level of total applied stress is insignificant to fatigue design for a welded steel component or
detail in structures typically designed using this Manual.
A complete stress range cycle may include both a tensile and compressive component. Only the live load plus impact
stresses need be considered when computing a stress range cycle; dead load does not contribute to the stress range.
Tensile stresses propagate fatigue cracks. Material subjected to a cyclical loading at or near an initial flaw will be
subject to a fully effective stress cycle in tension, even in cases of stress reversal, because the superposition of the
tensile residual stress elevates the entire cycle into the tensile stress region.
These provisions shall be applied only to components or details subjected to a net applied tensile stress. In regions
where the permanent loads produce compression, fatigue shall be considered and these provisions applied only if the
tension component of the live load plus impact stress range cycle due to fatigue exceeds the permanent-load
compressive stress in the component or at the detail under consideration.
Fatigue design criteria need only be considered for components or details subject to effective stress cycles in tension
and/or stress reversal. If a component or detail is subject to stress reversal, fatigue is to be considered no matter how
small the tension component of the stress cycle is since a flaw in the tensile residual stress zone could still be
propagated by the small tensile component of stress. Hence, the entire stress range cycle (which may include
compression) is used in computing the stress range. In addition, for fatigue to be considered, the component or detail
must be subject to a net applied tensile stress under an appropriate combination of the permanent loads and the fatigue
live load. The tensile component of the stress range cycle resulting from live load and its appropriate impact
combination acting in conjunction with the compressive stress due to the permanent loads are used to establish the
presence of a net applied tensile stress in the component or at the detail under consideration.
Cross-frames and diaphragms connecting adjacent girders are stressed when one girder deflects with respect to the
adjacent girder. The sense of stress is reversed depending on which way roll is applied and this usually creates the
largest stress range in these members. To cause one cycle of the stress range so computed requires two vehicles to roll
in opposite direction. This has been observed in practice. For cases where the force effects in these members are
available from an analysis, such as in horizontally curved or sharply skewed bridges, it may be desirable in some

Commentary
instances to check fatigue-sensitive details on a bracing member subjected to a net applied tensile stress. In no case
should the calculated range of stress be less than the stress range caused by full live load and appropriate impact load.
g. Components and details susceptible to load-induced fatigue cracking have been grouped into nine categories, called
detail categories, of similar fatigue resistance established through full scale testing (Reference 10, 47, 80, 120, 150 and
153).
Table 15-1-9 illustrates many common details found in bridge construction and identifies potential crack initiation
points for each detail. In Table 15-1-9, “Longitudinal” signifies that the direction of applied stress is parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the detail. “Transverse” signifies that the direction of applied stress is perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the detail.
Where fasteners and connected material are proportioned in accordance with Article 1.3.13 and Section 1.4, Basic
Allowable Stresses, the fasteners will have greater fatigue life than the connected material (Reference 81). Thus, no
categories for bolts or rivets in shear or bearing are required to replace the 1969 formulas.
For information on Partial Penetration (PJP) joints see Article 1.7.4 and its commentary.
Research on end-bolted cover plates is discussed in Reference 145.
h. The requirement that the maximum stress range experienced by a detail be less than the constant-amplitude fatigue
threshold provides a theoretically infinite fatigue life for all loaded lengths less than 100 feet.
For longer spans see Article 9.1.3.13c.
For cases where different criteria are appropriate, the fatigue resistance above the constant amplitude fatigue threshold,
1
in terms of cycles, is inversely proportional to the cube of the stress range, e.g., if the stress range is reduced by a factor
of 2, the fatigue life increases by a factor of 23. This is reflected in the equation shown below and shown in
Figure 15-9-3.
(Sr) = (A/N)1/3
3

Steel Structures
Figure 15-9-3. Stress Range vs. Number of Cycles for Various Detail Categories
Sr-N curves in Figure 15-9-3 were developed (Reference 10, 46, 47, 49, and 50) by using 95% confidence limits for
97.5% survival applied to full-scale test data.
Table 15-9-2. Constant A and Thresholds for Detail Categories
DETAIL CONSTANT, A THRESHOLD

CATEGORY TIMES 108 (KSI3) (CAFL) ksi
A 250.0 24
B 120.0 16
B’ 61.0 12
C 44.0 10
C’ 44.0 12
D 22.0 7
E 11.0 4.5
E’ 3.9 2.6
F 9.0 8.0
A 325 Bolts
in Axial Tension 17.1 31
A 490 Bolts
in Axial Tension 31.5 38

Commentary
Detail Category F is for the allowable shear stress range on the throat of a fillet weld. When fillet welds are properly
sized for strength considerations, Detail Category F should not govern. Fatigue will be governed by cracking in the
base metal at the weld toe and not by shear on the throat of the weld.
i. Detail Category E and E’ details shall not be used on fracture critical members, and Detail Category D details shall be
discouraged and used only with caution. Such details are highly susceptible to fatigue damage.
Eye bars and pin plates are design details which are not recommended except for very long truss spans where live load
stress ranges are very low. In the event of their use, see Article 7.3.3.2 and the appropriate Commentary
Article 9.7.3.3.2.
j. For span lengths exceeding 300 feet an analysis is required for each bridge component using influence lines and the
preceding car types and load frequencies, accounting for the effect of lightly loaded vehicles interspaced within the
design train.
k. When proper detailing practices are not followed, fatigue cracking has been found to occur due to strains not normally
computed in the design process. This type of fatigue cracking is called distortion-induced fatigue. Distortion-induced
fatigue often occurs in the web near a flange at a welded connection plate for a cross-frame where a rigid load path has
not been provided to adequately transmit the force in the transverse member from the web to the flange. These rigid
load paths are required to preclude the development of significant secondary stresses that could induce fatigue crack
growth in either the longitudinal or the transverse member (Reference 51). It is emphasized that the stiffness of this
connection is critical to prevent relative displacement between the components.
l. List of symbols:
1
N = Number of occurrences of constant stress cycles which would cause fatigue damage equivalent to
the fatigue damage caused by a larger number, Nv, of variable stress cycles
ni = Number of stress cycles for each of the stress range values represented in the distribution being
considered
Nv or Σn = Total number of variable stress cycles in the distribution or life 3
SR = Stress range, the algebraic difference between the maximum stress and the minimum stress for a
stress cycle
SRact = Stress range actually created at a given location in the structure by a moving load
SRfat = Allowable fatigue stress range as listed in Table 15-1-10
SRi = Stress range of cyclic stress corresponding to the number of occurrences, ni 4
SRe = Effective cyclic stress range for the total number of variable stress cycles, Nv .
SRRMC = 3 3
Σ ( n i S Ri )
(Root Mean ------------------------
Cube Stress Σn i
Range)
α = SRact/SR or Eact/Eapplied ratio when SR is calculated by using the same load which was applied
when SRact was measured. Field measurements have shown the measured SR is equal to a factor,
α, times the calculated SR. This reduction reflects the beneficial effects of participation by the
bracing, floor system, or other three-dimensional response of the structure and, also, the fact that
full impact does not occur for every stress cycle. Since SR at a given location is directly
proportional to the loading used, Eact/Eapplied also equals this ratio.
γ i = The ratio of the number of occurrences of SRi to the total number of variable stress cycles, Nv

Steel Structures
SRmin = stress range or lower limit value for the starting point of the function being considered
SRN = Stress range which corresponds to N constant stress cycles for a given detail
9.1.3.13.1 High Strength Bolts Subjected to Tensile Fatigue Loading
Previous versions of this article were based on the 1969 edition of the Manual and distinguished between connections subject
to less than or more than 500,000 cycles and were based on maximum applied stress.
The current limits are based on applied stress range with a maximum set at the constant amplitude fatigue limit for these bolts.
Prying force was taken as 20% pending further testing.
The formula for the tensile stress area or effective bolt area is: 0.75 * cross-sectional area based on nominal bolt diameter
(Reference 134).
9.1.3.13.2 Anchor Bolts Subjected to Tensile Fatigue Loading
This article is intended for anchor bolts subjected to repeated tension cycles. Examples of anchor bolts with tensile fatigue
include hammerhead piers, outrigger bents, or continuous spans. Tension fatigue failures have been noted for anchor bolts on
hammerhead piers using concrete columns with steel caps. The same situation can control in piers using concrete columns and
steel pier caps such as in outrigger bents. This article is to ensure the assumed distribution of load to all anchor bolts on a pier
cap or abutment that are fastening base plates for bearings intended to resist fluctuating tensile loads. It is not intended for the
general situation of anchor bolts on a pier cap or abutment that are fastening base plates for bearings.
Experience with anchor bolt connections on hammerhead piers demonstrated that fatigue failures occur as a result of
inadequate and highly variable bolt pretension within a group of bolts. Cracked bolts had modest levels of bolt tension whereas
most of the other bolts in the group had little or no pretension, with the partially pretensioned bolt resisting more than the
intended share of live load. This resulted in fatigue crack development and fracture. To accomplish the appropriate pretension,
where leveling nuts are used to position a steel pier cap on the column, steel shims may be inserted and the leveling nuts
backed off before the grout pad is installed and anchor bolts are tensioned. Alternatively, the leveling nut anchor bolts can be
ignored in the design for resisting the applied loads.
If stainless steel is used for anchor bolts, AISI Stainless Steel 316 is the best choice for salt water exposure. This material
should be available in bar stock to fabricate anchor bolts. It is identified in the ASTM A193 Standard Specification for Alloy-
Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting Materials for High Temperature or High Pressure Service and Other Special Service
Applications. Other stainless steels in the A193 Specifications are not recommended.
9.1.3.14 COMBINED STRESSES (2005)
9.1.3.14.1 Axial Compression and Bending
f f f f
The straight line interaction formula ----a- + -----b ≤ 1.0 is acceptable for small values of ----a- , but for values of ----a- greater than
Fa Fb Fa Fa
0.15, the deflection of the column and the resulting increase in bending stresses caused by the axial load being made eccentric
1
must be taken into account. The formula accomplishes this by applying a magnification factor ----------------------------------------------------- to
fa ⎛ kl
2
1 – ----------------------- ----- ⎞
2 ⎝ r⎠
0.514π E
f 1 - (Reference 34) in which F′ is the elastic (Euler) buckling stress of
-----b . This factor is similar in form to the formula --------------- e
Fb f
1 – ------a-
F′ e

Commentary
2
0.514π E
the column loaded axially, divided by the applicable factor of safety, or ----------------------- in these recommended practices (see
2
⎛ kl
----- ⎞
⎝r⎠
Article 1.4.1).
When a member is braced in the plane of bending, at a panel point for example, there is no column deflection and, therefore,
the magnification factor does not apply. Furthermore, the allowable axial stress here may be based on kl ⁄ r = 0 . The
applicable formula then becomes f a ⁄ 0.55F y + f b ⁄ F b ≤ 1.0 . It should be noted that this formula does not apply at a
connection point which is coincident with the location of maximum curvature of the deflected column axis, because such a
point is not, in effect, braced.
The above remarks cover bending about one axis only. For bending about both axes, the three-term formulas obtained by
expansion are sufficiently accurate for use.
9.1.3.15 SECONDARY STRESSES (1994) R(2008)
This article provides that secondary stresses due to truss distortion usually need not be considered in any member of the width
of which, measured parallel to the plane of distortion, is less than 1/10 of its length. An exception to this general provision
should be the effects of secondary truss members, such as floorbeam hangers and subverticals; these may produce excessive
secondary stresses in the chord unless adjustment is made in lengths of the verticals.
9.1.3.16 PROPORTIONING OF TRUSS WEB MEMBERS (2004) R(2010)

1
In determining whether it is safe to keep an old structure in service, the rules of Part 7, Existing Bridges, Section 7.3 Rating,
govern. Experience with older structures designed for lighter live loads, shows that in such structures the web members of
trusses reach their capacity sooner than other portions. This situation can be remedied either by providing an initial design of
all members for an increased live load at higher stresses or by providing a truss design under which the web members reach
their safe live load capacity at substantially the same increased live load as the remainder of the truss. The latter method is
more economical and is provided by the recommended practices requirements (Reference 67). 3
9.1.4 BASIC ALLOWABLE STRESSES
9.1.4.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL, RIVETS, BOLTS AND PINS (2011)
In determining the allowable stresses, the value of 1.82, which is equal to 1/0.55, has been adopted as the usual factor of safety
in tension, based on the minimum yield point of the material. The same value has been used for such compression applications 4
as are not affected by axial combined with bending effects.
Yielding of the gross area and fracture of the effective net area are considered the failure limit states. Yielding of the gross
area can lead to excessive elongation of the member. This uncontrolled elongation can precipitate failure of the overall
structural system. Fracture of the effective net area was proposed by Munse and Chesson (Reference 33, and 91) and has been
long since adopted as a limit state by both the AISC (References 11, 12, and 13) and AASHTO (Reference 7). The allowable
stress of 0.47 Fu has been adopted by AREMA to align with AASHTO and to provide an additional factor of safety due to the
sudden nature of this failure state.
The more conservative design approach for pin connected members is based on the results of experimental research
(Reference 75).
Since there have been more failures in floor beam hangers with riveted connections than in other members, a greater apparent
factor of safety has been adopted for such members (Reference 25).

Steel Structures
From 1935 to 1969, the secant formula, and parabolic type formula approximating it, formed the basis for the column formula
of these recommended practices. It has been somewhat difficult to use and an assumed value of ec/r2 such that reasonable
values result for intermediate column lengths makes the allowable stress on short columns less than necessary. For these
reasons, and because long columns and eccentrically loaded columns can be provided for by Euler type formulas and
interaction formulas, respectively, without resort to the secant formula, the use of the secant formula was discontinued.
The column curve of the Column Research Council (now titled Structural Stability Research Council) (Reference 36) which
can be expressed in the symbols adopted in these recommended practices:
2
F y ⎛ kl ⎞ 2
f = F y – ------------
- -----
2 ⎝ r⎠
4π E
was selected as the basic curve for the development of the formulas used in these recommended practices. Studies were made
which included plots of this curve with variable factors of safety such as that used by AISC (Reference 9), and with constant
factors of safety 1.8, 1.9 and 2.0. Many varieties of column curves were plotted on the chart on which these Column Research
Council curves had been plotted, and it was decided that the most practical form to be used was one involving the three
formulas of the recommended practice.
The difficulty of evaluating k in railroad bridge compression members may lead to allowable stresses that are too high,
especially in the approximate range of kl/r between 40 and 100, where a slight variation in k will have a large effect on the
allowable stress. Some protection against this danger is provided by the adopted straight line formula as compared to the
Column Research Council curve.
The formula to be used in determining the allowable compressive stress in the extreme fibers of welded built-up or rolled
beam flexural members symmetrical about the principal axis in the plane of the web (other than box-type members) is based
on theoretical studies made by Professors George Winter and Bruno Thürliman. In Professor Winter’s discussion of a paper by
Karl de Vries, he developed formula (Reference 151) for fc, the critical stress for failure of the beam. This formula may be
written:
⎧ 2 2 ⎫1 ⁄ 2
⎪ Eπ 2 ⎛ I y ⎞ 2 Eπ
2 KI l -⎞ ⎪
2
y
- ⎛ -----
f c = ⎨ --------------- ------- + --------------- ---------------------------- ⎬
⎝ 2I x⎠ 2 πd ⎠ ⎪
⎝
⎪ ⎛ l⎞2 ⎛ l ⎞
2
2 ( 1 + μ )I
⎩ 2 ⎝ --- ⎠ 2 ---
⎝ d⎠
x ⎭
d
where:
K = torsional constant
μ = Poisson’s ratio
Professor Thürliman (Reference 23) has shown that this formula may be expressed in the form of
2 2
fc = σw + σv
where:
σw = extreme fiber stress resulting from warping torsion, where the compression flange bends and the beam
warps
σv = extreme fiber stress resulting from pure torsion.

Commentary
Thus, the critical extreme fiber stress may be considered to be represented by the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle,
whose sides are σw and σv , and to be equal to or greater than either of them. Under certain conditions, one or the other may be
negligible, so that the value of fc cannot be less than the greater value.
If σv , is assumed negligible (i.e. = 0), then the critical stress is
2 2 2
Eπ Iy ⎞ Eπ ⎛ r y ⎞
fc = σw = -------------- ⎛ ------- = -------------- ⎜ ---------
-⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ l ⎞ 2 2I x ⎛ l ⎞ 2 ⎝ 2r 2 ⎠
2 --- 2 --- x
⎝ d⎠ ⎝ d⎠
For I shaped members, rx = 0.4d (approx.), so that
2
1.56Eπ
f c = --------------------
2
( l ⁄ ry )
Based on a factor of safety of 1.8, the allowable stress becomes
2
0.87Eπ
--------------------
2
( l ⁄ ry )
This formula is of the Euler type, and the allowable stress so determined must be modified so that it will be limited by the yield 1
point of the material involved. A parabolic transition curve of the form Fb = A–B (l/ry)2 from the value Fb = 0.55 Fy at l/ry = 0,
and tangent to the Euler type formula curve, is the most acceptable form for this transition curve. This parabola intersects, and
is tangent to, the Euler curve at
E
l ⁄ r y = 5.55 ----- , and the values of A and B are such that
Fy
0.55F y ⎛ l ⎞ 2
2 3
0.55F y – ------------------
- ----
2 ⎝ ⎠
6.3π E r y
is the first expression applying to this case in Article 1.4.1. Since Article 1.7.1b limits flexural members to those with an l/ry
E , the Euler type formula is not part of the requirements.
not greater than 5.55 -----
Fy
4
The second compression formula in Article 1.4.1 applying to this case is based on the Winter formula with the assumption that
σw is negligible (i.e. = 0), so that the critical stress is
2 KI y
Eπ - ⎛ ---------------------------- ⎞ 1 ⁄ 2⎛ l ⎞
f c = -------------- ⎜ -⎟ ------
⎝ πd ⎠
l ⎞ 2 ⎝ 2 ( 1 + μ )I x ⎠
2
⎛
2 ---
⎝ d⎠
and, with only minor error.
2 3
K = --- bt
3

Steel Structures
3
tb
I y = 2 -------
12
2
I x = 2bt ( d ⁄ 2 )
μ = 0.3
Eπbt
so that f c = ----------------------------- = 0.207πE
---------------------
⎛ l ⎞ 2 ld ⁄ bt
2 --- 2.42d
⎝ d⎠
and the allowable stress, based on a factor of safety of 1.8 and with bt = Af, is 0.115πE
--------------------- which is the second of the formulas
ld ⁄ Af
in Article 1.4.1 applying to this case.
Since tests have shown that the pure torsional (σv) effect on a riveted member is modified considerably by slip in the riveted
connections, only the first type formula is considered suitable for use with riveted construction, and Article 1.4.1 so limits this
case.
For box type flexural members, the stiffness of the member is usually such that the full allowable stress (= 0.55 Fy) can be used
for both flexural tension and compression, without reduction. However, very slender and deep box type flexural members may
require reduction comparable to that of a single plane I type flexural member, and it is necessary to determine the effective
slenderness ratio (defined herein as (l/r)e) of such members by calculating the (l/r)e) value as defined in Article 1.4.1. This
effectiveness slenderness ratio is also the slenderness ratio determining the critical stress in the formula derived above
2
1.56π E
f c = --------------------
2
⎛ -l⎞
⎝ r⎠ e
for beams in which the pure torsion effect is negligible. This critical stress for box girders is calculated to be (Reference 36):
π
f c = ------- JGEl y
lS x
2
4A
where J = torsional constant = -----------
Σs ⁄ t
E
G = ---------------------
2(1 + μ )
I, Sx, A, Iy and s/t defined in Article 1.4.1.
Equating these two values for fc:

Commentary
2
1.56π E π
-------------------- = ------- JGEl y
2 lS
⎛ -l⎞ x
⎝ r⎠ e
and making the indicated substitutions, the value of the effective slenderness ratio shown in Article 1.4.1 is solved to be:
⎛ -l⎞ = 1.105πlS x Σs ⁄ t
-----------------------------------------
-
⎝ r⎠ e
Iy
A ---------------- -
(1 + μ)
The allowable stress in bearing between rockers and rocker pins was adapted from editions prior to the 1969 edition and the
low value of 0.375 Fy was retained to minimize pin wear. Pin wear had historically been a cause of trouble when higher values
for this condition were permitted. Refer to Part 5 for additional information.
The allowable shears in A325 and A490 bolts are based on recommendations of the Research Council on Structural
Connections of the Engineering Foundation. Also see Reference 81 and 110.
The allowable stress in bearing on expansion rollers and rockers was based on static and rolling tests on rollers and rockers
(Reference 17 and 81). The average vertical pressures over calculated contact areas for loads substantially less than allowable
design values are in excess of the yield point, causing a flow of the material. It was concluded that the resulting “spread” of the
roller and base, measured parallel to the axis of the roller at points near the surfaces in contact, was the most satisfactory
phenomenon to use in determining design values. Such “spreads” or deformations were measured in units of 0.001 to, per inch 1
per 1,000 strokes, each stroke corresponding to a roller movement of 4 inches and an equal movement back. Design values
according to the tests would give total deformations varying from about 3 units to less than 1.
9.1.4.2 WELD METAL (1994) R(2008)
The allowable stresses on weld metal specified in Article 1.4.2, Table 15-1-13 are close to those permitted by AWS D1.5. 3
9.1.4.3 CAST STEEL (1994) R(2008)
In the 1969 edition, because of better control over casting practices, the allowable unit stresses for cast steel in bearing or
compression were increased from 0.9 to 1.0 of those for rolled steel, and for all other types of stress, from 2/3 to 3/4 those for
rolled steel.
4
9.1.5 GENERAL RULES
9.1.5.4 THICKNESS OF MATERIAL (2011)
a. The 0.335 inch thickness limitation was introduced in 1969 to accommodate the use of certain wide flange beam
sections as timber stringer replacements given that the assumed life of a timber structure was less than the assumed life
of a typical steel structure. It is not the intention of this article to preclude this application on timber trestles.
b. The usual design checks for a gusset plate and each member framing into the gusset plate are:
• Normal Loads on a Section (t Lw), often referred to as the Whitmore Section as shown in Figure 15-9-4, where Lw is
the effective width and t is the thickness of the gusset plate.
• Block shear, for compression and tension loads.

Steel Structures
• Shear on critical shear planes.
• Buckling on the average of L1, L2, L3, as shown in Figure 15-9-4 with buckling factor of k to be evaluated for the
gusset plate (k might be greater than 1.0).
• All edge distance and end distance requirements for fasteners should be followed.
• Gusset plates should be as compact as possible.
• Check various critical sections using an acceptable method.
• Check fastener prying action.
• Each gusset plate is unique and must be designed based on specific forces, geometry and details.
Figure 15-9-4. Bolted and Riveted Gusset Plates
For further information on bolted and riveted gusset plates see Reference 73. Design of gusset plates using the
procedure in Section 13 of “Structural Steel Designers Handbook” Third Edition, edited by R L Brockenbrough and F S
Merritt, written by Prickett, Leroy and Kulicki, provides a reasonable approach.

Commentary
9.1.5.8 NET SECTION (2005) R(2008)
Net section is discussed by Chapin (Reference 32). He gives the history of this method of obtaining the net section of a riveted
tension member to take account of the weakening effect of staggered open holes. He gives the rather complicated formula
which represents the theoretically correct solution of the problem, and states that the simplified formula used in the
recommended practices gives approximately the same results. The application of the formula to bolted fabrication and the 85%
limit were based on later tests. A chart for use with the formula is included with his discussion.
9.1.5.9 CONNECTIONS AND SPLICES (2003) R(2008)
In 2003, provisions to evaluate block shear were added to the Manual. Tests indicate that it is reasonable to add the yield
strength on one plane(s) of a connection to the rupture strength on the other plane(s) of a connection to predict the block shear
strength of a connection (References 64, 111). The controlling equation is the one that produces the larger rupture force
(Reference 8).
9.1.5.10 FIELD CONNECTIONS (1994) R(2008)

Welding under field conditions cannot always be satisfactorily performed and inspected to ensure the high quality needed for
welds in railroad structures. Rivets or high strength bolts are therefore required for all main stress carrying connections made
under field conditions.
9.1.5.12 COMBINATIONS OF DISSIMILAR TYPES OF CONNECTIONS (1993) R(2008)
b. Welds are more rigid than rivets or bolts. Where used in combination, the welds will be overstressed before the rivets 1
or bolts become effective.
9.1.5.13 SEALING (1993) R(2008)
b. The requirements of Article 1.5.13b were adopted in 1943 and were based on experience and judgment. The maximum
gage at which a second line of fasteners is considered effective was arbitrarily made the same as the maximum edge
distance (See Article 1.9.4b) recognizing that the maximum gage should increase somewhat with the thickness of the
3
material.
9.1.5.14 CONNECTIONS OF COMPONENTS OF BUILT-UP MEMBERS (1993) R(2008)
b. The requirements for stitch fasteners in compression members, that the maximum pitch in a single line shall not exceed
12t nor the gage 24t, had been in force for many years prior to 1943 and were considered satisfactory. However, when 4
it was not practical to have a gage as large as 24t, because the material was not wide enough, or not so disposed as to
permit it, the requirements often led to an extravagant number of fasteners. The 1943 provisions with respect to
staggered pitch permit the use of a reasonable number of fasteners in such cases. A study of the possible fastener
patterns that might result from these provisions indicated that they would give greater security against buckling than
the permissible pattern without stagger, using pitch of 12t and gage of 24t.
9.1.6 MEMBERS STRESSED PRIMARILY IN AXIAL TENSION OR COMPRESSION
9.1.6.1 COMPRESSION MEMBERS (2004) R(2008)
b. The basic formula for determining the minimum permissible thickness of webs and cover plates of compression
members as stated in Article 1.6.1b was derived by Hovey (Reference 70). This basic formula for the determination of
the minimum thickness, t, of plate of width, b, at which buckling of the plate when the plate is simply supported at both
edges and is stressed to the yield point, Fy in compression is:

Steel Structures
Fy
t = b ----------------
-
3.616E
Hovey then reduced the constant 3.616 by 25% to provide for small initial buckles in the plate as rolled, and the
resulting formula is:
F
t = 0.61b -----y
E
In order to be conservative, the minimum permissible thickness values in these recommended practices have been
F F
established as 0.90b -----y for webs and 0.72b -----y for cover plates.
E E
Where the calculated stress, f, is less than the allowable, Pe, the denominator of the formula determining the
P
permissible minimum thickness may be increased by ---------e with an arbitrary maximum limit of 2 for the value of this
f
radical.
c. For commentary on Article 1.6.1c regarding the minimum thickness of perforated cover plates, see Article 9.1.6.4.
9.1.6.2 OUTSTANDING ELEMENTS IN COMPRESSION (2004)
a. The basic formula derived by Bleich for the thickness-width (t/b) ratio at which buckling of the angle leg will occur
when an equal legged angle is stressed to the yield point, Fy , is (Reference 29):
t Fy F
--- = - = 1.61 -----y
------------------
b 0.384 E E
For unequal legged angles, for plates supported on one edge, for stems of tees, and for flanges of beams, the Bleich
formula is conservative.
In determining the values specified in Article 1.6.2 conservative modifications in the denominator constant have been
made. These modifications were based on experience, judgement and values used currently in other specifications.
9.1.6.4 LACING AND PERFORATED COVER PLATES FOR TENSION AND COMPRESSION
MEMBERS (2009)
9.1.6.4.1 Shear Force
The probable maximum shears on column lacing were analyzed by Hardesty (Reference 68). He listed the causes producing
shear on column lacing as follows:
a. Transverse loads acting on the column.
b. Moments at the end of the column, or eccentric application of loads.
c. Initial curvature of the column.
d. The springing of the column as a result of Causes 2 and 3.

Commentary
e. Local defects in the column and initial stresses set up in the column during fabrication.
Analyses in 1935 of Causes 2, 3 and 4 by Hardesty (Reference 68) led to the adoption of a column shear formula that remained
in use until 1993. For derivation of this shear formula, the 1935 analyses used the secant formula which resulted in
unnecessarily reduced allowable axial stresses in short columns, as noted in Article 9.1.4. This use of the secant formula led to
unusually high shear forces for short columns. The subsequent abandonment of the secant formula in these recommended
practices (see Article 9.1.4) permits the use of a uniform percentage of axial load for shear load for Causes 2 through 5. The
AFy /150 expression for minimum shear force is included to keep the shear resisting elements from being too light for columns
of length approaching or in the Euler range. Without such a limit, long columns could be designed with very little relative
shear resisting steel since the column area is greatly increased on account of the L/R stress reduction applied for determination
of the column area for axial load, with no corresponding reduction in allowable stress for the shear steel. Furthermore, the
application of the limit to columns in the Euler range makes the shear resisting steel area requirement the same for steels of all
yield strengths, the same as applies to the axial steel area. The limit will not affect columns having customary L/R ratios unless
the yield strength is unusually high.
The formula represents average conditions. For end conditions not properly covered by the assumptions made in the analyses,
special investigation can be made by means of the appropriate formulas given. This design formula covers only shears due to
accidental eccentricities and usual column imperfections, and does not include shears caused by transverse loads (Cause l) or
by eccentricity of load.
Thürliman and White made a study and conducted tests of columns with perforated cover plates which demonstrated that the
formula given for shear on lacing is also adequate for shear on perforated cover plates of structural steels. (Reference 148)
Other specification requirements given for perforated plates are also based on this study and these tests.
9.1.6.4.3 Perforated Cover Plates

1
d. The formula given in Article 1.6.4.3d for the determination of the thickness of the perforated cover plate is based on
the calculation of the net area required along the center line of perforations to resist the longitudinal shear. Using the
nomenclature of that article, 3V/2ht is the maximum transverse shearing stress at the center line of the cover plate, and
is also the maximum longitudinal shearing stress at that location. The total longitudinal shear in a length equal to the
distance center to center of perforations which must be resisted by the cover plate is (3 V/2ht) ct = 3cV/2h. The net area 3
of the plate center to center of perforations is (c – a) t; so that the shearing stress, v, on this area is
v = 3cV 1 - or t = --------------------------
3cV -
---------- × -----------------
2h ( c – a )t 2vh ( c – a )
The shearing stress in the transverse section through the center of a perforation is usually not critical and can be
calculated according to accepted methods, taking account of all of the section of the member outside of the perforation. 4
9.1.6.5 EFFECTIVE NET AREA FOR TENSION MEMBERS - STRENGTH (2007) R(2008)
Research (Reference 91) has shown that failure by rupture through a tension member is a function of the effective net section
of the tension member. The effective net section of a member is a function of the geometry of the member and the
connection(s) transferring load into or out of that member.
In bolted and riveted connections, due to the presence of holes, the concept of effective net section is characterized by rupture
across the net section (Reference 81, and 82). It is important to note that when evaluating a bolted or riveted connection, the
shear lag reduction coefficient should only be used in conjunction with the net section rupture failure mode (Fa=0.50Fu) and
not the yielding of the net section failure mode (Fa=0.55Fy). In welded connections, due to the absence of holes, the concept
of effective net section is characterized by rupture across the gross section. In welded connections, both the rupture failure
mode and the yielding failure mode occur across the gross section. Again, the shear lag reduction factor should only be used
in conjunction with the allowable stress against rupture (0.50Fu) and not the allowable stress against yielding (0.55Fy).

Steel Structures
It should be noted that shear lag is present only when tension is being transferred into or out of a member. Some members,
such as lower chords of trusses, are incrementally loaded across the length of the member. In the case of a lower chord of a
truss, the loads are transferred into and out of the chord at panel points. Engineering judgement should be used in applying the
shear lag reduction coefficient in cases such as this. Depending on the details of the connections, the shear lag factor may or
may not need to be applied to that portion of the tension force transferred through the panel point from chord segment to chord
segment. The shear lag factor should be applied to that portion of the tension force transferred from the diagonal members to
the chord segment.
9.1.6.6 EFFECTIVE AREA FOR TENSION MEMBERS - FATIGUE (2007) R(2013)
For the purpose of calculating the stress range in a member, the effective area (gross or net) of a member that receives load
through a connection shall be the sum of the areas (gross or net) of its component parts which receive load directly through the
connection. An example of this would be an I-shaped member that receives load through a connection to gusset plates
fastened only to the flanges and not the web of the member. The effective area (gross or net) of this member, for fatigue
calculations, should be the sum of the areas (gross or net) of its flanges only. If the connection is made through the use of
rivets or bolts in a bearing type connection, the area of the holes shall be deducted in accordance with Article 1.5.8. If the
connection is made through the use of bolts in a slip-resistant connection or through the use of welds, no deduction for holes
shall be made and the gross section of the component parts shall be used.
The purpose of utilizing the effective area (gross or net) for the calculation of a fatigue stress range is to account for the shear
lag effect which occurs when load is transferred through a connection to a member where not all of the component parts of the
member are directly connected. The effective area that is used in the calculation of fatigue stress range is different than that
used in the calculation of stress for a strength evaluation. The shear lag reduction coefficient described in Article 1.6.5 is
based on a level of stress consistent with fracture of the member. Although limited information is available concerning the
magnitude of shear lag at stress levels less than that associated with fracture, researchers agree that the sum of the areas (gross
or net) of the directly connected parts is an appropriate estimate of the effective area that should be used in a fatigue
evaluation. (Reference 91, and 92)
9.1.7 MEMBERS STRESSED PRIMARILY IN BENDING
9.1.7.1 PROPORTIONING GIRDERS AND BEAMS (2004) R(2008)
a. These articles provide for proportioning flexural members, whether rolled or built up, by the moment of inertia
method, using a neutral axis along the center of gravity of the gross section, and using the moment of inertia of the
entire net section for the determination of the extreme fiber stress in tension, and the moment of inertia of the entire
gross section for the determination of the extreme fiber stress in compression.
This procedure is not subject to question in the case of welded built up or of rolled members. In the case of built up
members of riveted or bolted construction, the neutral axis for a section taken through rivet or bolt holes in the tension
area will not be along the neutral axis of the gross section, but will be somewhat nearer the compression flange. If such
a section is analyzed taking account of the lack of symmetry of the section and consequent differences in distances
from the neutral axis to the two flanges in determining the section moduli for the two flanges, the section moduli for
the two flanges will agree very closely with those prescribed in these articles.
b. The requirement that the ratio of the unsupported distance between points of lateral support and the radius of gyration
E
of the compression flange in paragraph b shall not exceed 5.55 ----- is based on the derivation of the parabolic
Fy
formula for the allowable stress in the compression flange as explained in Article 9.1.4. The parabolic formula
becomes tangent to the basic Euler type formula at that point.

Commentary
9.1.7.2 FLANGE SECTIONS (1994) R(2013)
The 1969 edition of these recommended practices dropped the requirements for riveted and bolted construction which had
appeared in earlier editions specifying relative thicknesses for flange angles and cover plates, and specifying the maximum
percentage of the total flange area permitted in the cover plates. These requirements had no theoretical basis, but had been
included because of what had historically been considered good practice. Present requirements for the length of partial length
cover plates in riveted and bolted construction control the stress at the end of the cover plate, which is a critical section for
fatigue.
9.1.7.3 T HICKNESS OF WEB PLATES (2004)
a. The specified thickness of web plates for flexural members is based on work done by Hovey (Reference 70). Hovey
showed that the buckling of the web of a flexural member on the compression side of the neutral axis can be prevented
either by the use of horizontal (longitudinal) stiffeners or by making the web of such thickness that stability against
buckling is ensured. Vertical (intermediate transverse) stiffeners are not effective in resisting buckling caused by
bending. Assuming the actual extreme fiber stress in the compression flange is 0.55 Fy, and that the compression stress
in the web adjacent to the flange is less than this by an assumed percentage, the ratio of the thickness of the web to the
clear distance between flanges, for a web without horizontal stiffeners, to ensure the stability of the web against
F
flexural buckling may be expressed by the formula 0.18 -----y .
E
Where the extreme fiber stress in compression is less than the allowable, then the ratio may be modified as specified.
1
b. For web plates stiffened by a horizontal (longitudinal) stiffener located at 0.20 of the web depth from the compression
flange, work by Rockey and Leggett (Reference 112) has shown that, to ensure the stability of the web against flexural
buckling, the web plate thickness required is only 43% of that required without a horizontal stiffener. It is specified that
the web plate thickness shall not be less than 1/2 that determined for a web plate without a horizontal stiffener.
9.1.7.4 FLANGE-TO-WEB CONNECTION OF PLATE GIRDERS (2009)

3
b. The recommendation to use continuous, full penetration groove welds for the flange-to-web connection of open and
non-composite, non-ballasted decks is to prevent fatigue cracking in the top flange welds from the direct application of
cyclic wheel loads. Full penetration groove welds ensure complete fusion between flange and web. Fillet welds may
crack through their throat from the transfer of repetitive concentrated loads unless they have been designed for that
loading condition.
4
For ballasted, welded steel plate or composite concrete decks, and through plate girders, either continuous, partial joint
or complete joint penetration groove welds or fillet welds can be used as the concentrated loads are distributed such
that the loading on the flange and web plate is not as critical for fatigue. Any of these types of connections will provide
comparable performance. When webs less than 1/2 inch thick are used, fillet welded connections are preferable as they
result in less web out-of-plane distortion from weld shrinkage. Fillet welds on the bottom flange should never be
subjected to concentrated wheel loads.
Fatigue cracking has been known to originate from the lack-of-fusion plane which exists between the web and flange
joints where fillet welds were used in open and non-composite, non-ballasted decks. The driving force producing the
cracking is from the direct application of wheel loads which apply vertical cyclic stresses to the welded joint
perpendicular to the lack-of-fusion plane. Although the applied vertical cyclic stress ranges are compressive, the welds
actually undergo cyclic tensile stress ranges due to the residual tensile stresses from welding. Previous editions of the
manual required the flange-to-web joints be made using continuous, complete joint penetration (CJP) welds. Partial
joint penetration (PJP) groove welds were acceptable if permitted by the engineer, though no guidance on how to
design the PJP joint for fatigue was provided in manual. As a result, CJP were typically specified.

Steel Structures
The provisions to include PJP groove welds at the flange-to-web weld in Article 1.7.4b were added to allow the use of
the more economical weld details in lieu of the CJP welds previously required. When properly proportioned, PJP
groove welds will perform as well as CJP groove welds to resist such cracking if sufficient penetration is achieved
and/or if sufficient fillet reinforcement is provided. In such cases, the fatigue strength of the PJP weld subjected to
transverse or vertical loads is controlled by weld toe cracking and not throat cracking. Hence, the performance will be
the same as the CJP but with the lower cost PJP.
This can be achieved by using the equation in the provisions of detail description 5.4 in Table 15-1-9. The costs to
fabricate CJP are greater than PJP connections due to the increased requirements on inspection and increased overall
fabrication costs.
If a PJP weld is used for the flange-to-web connection, the connection shall be considered a Fatigue Detail Category B’
for checking the longitudinal bending stresses in the girder.
9.1.7.8 WEB PLATE STIFFENERS (INTERMEDIATE TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL)

(2012)
a. Hovey showed that the ratio of web clear depth to thickness for which stiffeners are not needed is determined by the
4.83E
formula -------------- , where Fys is the yield point in shear of the web material (Reference 70). With Fys = 0.636 Fy , the
F ys
E E
formula became 2.75 ----- . The formula 2.12 ----- , used in Article 1.7.8, makes allowance for lack of flatness in the
Fy Fy
web plate.
Where stiffeners are required, their spacing is dependent on the web thickness and the shearing stress in the web. The
development of the formula is based on work by Moisseiff and Leinhard and is based on a factor of safety of 1.5
against buckling of the web (Reference 90). This factor of safety is lower than the basic factor of safety generally used
throughout these recommended practices, but is considered adequate because elastic buckling of the web does not
cause failure. When elastic buckling of the web occurs, its share of additional diagonal compression is transferred to
the flange and vertical (intermediate transverse) stiffeners.
The 96 inches maximum spacing of the stiffeners is specified in order to provide stiffeners at reasonably close intervals
so as to aid in eliminating the effect of any small out of flatness that may exist in the web. The 96 inch maximum
spacing is based on work done by Basler indicating that for fabrication, handling and erection purposes the maximum
stiffener spacing should not exceed 260t, where t is the web thickness in inches (Reference 27). The distance between
vertical (intermediate transverse) stiffeners shall not exceed the distance between the flanges (web depth) because the
E
formula for stiffener spacing, 1.95t --- , is developed from the theory of elastic stability with this assumption (i.e.
S
critical buckling coefficient in shear always less than 9.35).
The equation for minimum required moment of inertia “I” of the transverse stiffener is a modification of that developed
by Bleich (Reference 29). In editions of the Manual prior to 2005 the term “da”, the actual clear distance between
intermediate transverse stiffeners, was used in the formula for “I” instead of the present “d”. The effect of using “da”
was that the stiffeners were sized to develop the elastic shear buckling capacity of the web for that “da”. For various
reasons, transverse stiffeners are sometimes spaced closer than the spacing required by Article 1.7.8a. This close
spacing results in a web shear buckling capacity (based on elastic behavior) much greater than the web shear yielding
capacity. Hence, for such cases of arbitrary stiffener spacing, the stiffener sizes computed from the formula for “I”
were excessive. The use of “d” in the equation for “I” results in more consistent stiffener sizes for girders having
stiffener spacings dependent on other factors in addition to shear.
When Bleich’s work was incorporated into the Manual the limits were omitted. Under certain circumstances where
stiffeners are required, and the shear stress is low, the value of “I” may be negative for values D/d < 1. The equation is

Commentary
valid only for D/d between 1 and 5, so these limits were added to the Manual in 2012. It is possible that the ratio of D/d
given the other constraints in the article will result in a value less than 1, in which case the limitation yields a minimum
stiffener.
E
f. The web plate depth criteria of ⎛ 4.18 ---⎞ t relates to the web plate depth required to preclude flexural elastic buckling
⎝ f⎠
of the web plate without horizontal (longitudinal) stiffeners.
g. The recommended practice for placing the centerline of the longitudinal stiffener at 1/5 the web depth from the
compression flange is from work by Rockey and Legett (Reference 112) showing this to be near optimum location to
resist flexural buckling of a simply supported plate. Where longitudinal and intermediate transverse stiffeners
intersect, the preferred detail is to interrupt the transverse stiffener since terminations in the longitudinal stiffener create
details that are more prone to fatigue. Article 9.1.10.2g provides additional guidance and preferred detailing practices
for intersecting stiffeners.
h. The recommended practice for longitudinal stiffener size is taken as a reasonable upper bound for girders of practical
proportions based on the work by Dubas (Reference 41).
i. The recommended practice for the thickness requirements for longitudinal stiffeners is based on the local buckling
behavior of the stem of a tee section.
9.1.7.9 COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE SPANS (2008)
The two types of shear connectors included, i.e. manually welded channels and automatically welded studs, are those most 1
commonly used (Reference 124). Other types may be satisfactory.
Recommended practice requirements are generally based on performance, allowing the manufacturer and fabricator
considerable leeway as to details and procedures.
9.1.7.9.2 Basic Design Assumptions (1986) R(2005)

3
and
9.1.7.9.3.1 Design Force for Shear Connectors
The calculations for the value of the horizontal shear between the steel beam and the concrete slab in Article 1.7.9.2 j involve
the determination of the values Sm of the maximum horizontal shear and the value of Sr of the range of the horizontal shear.
4
The effect of repeated stress variations was studied at Lehigh University by making fatigue tests on composite spans
(Reference 124). The results indicated that the range of horizontal shear resulting from live load and impact load, rather than
the maximum horizontal shear from dead load combined with live load and impact load, controls fatigue capacity. The
allowable design load per shear connector, based on maximum range as specified in Article 1.7.9.3.1, is therefore less than is
specified in that same article for maximum shear.
It is noted that the fatigue check Article 1.7.9.3.1(c) is different from that required in Articles 1.7.9.3.1(a) and 1.7.9.3.1(b).
The checks in Articles 1.7.9.3.1(a) and 1.7.9.3.1(b) are to ensure that fatigue cracking in the weld used to attach the shear
connector to the flange does not occur through the weld throat due to cyclic shear stresses.
The requirement to check fatigue in the base metal of the member to which the shear connectors are attached (Article 1.3.13)
is to ensure toe cracking does not develop at the weld and lead to cracking of the member due to primary bending stress range.
The shear connectors are considered a short attachment on the flange. It is unlikely this check will ever control, as live load
stress ranges will be very small due to the high location of the neutral axis.

Steel Structures
9.1.8 FLOOR MEMBERS AND FLOORBEAM HANGERS
9.1.8.3 END CONNECTIONS OF FLOOR MEMBERS (1993) R(2002)
The requirements for the connection angles of stringers were developed by Wilson after a study of the bending stresses in such
angles resulting from the lengthening of the bottom chords of through truss bridges under live and impact loads, and from the
deflection of the stringers themselves under such loadings (Reference 149, 154).
Although the flexural stresses in the stringer and connection angles resulting from the lengthening of the bottom chord of
through truss bridges are small, making these connection angles more flexible reduces the rather large bending stresses in the
floorbeams resulting from bottom chord elongation.
The flexural stress in the top portion of the leg of the stringer connection angles connected to the floorbeam may be high as a
result of the deflection of the stringer under load and in the case of thick angles may cause fatigue cracks. For a given
deflection in the top portion of the angle, the stress induced in the angle leg varies directly with the angle thickness, and
inversely as the square of the gage. This deflection is essentially proportional to the length of the stringer. These three factors
have been combined empirically in the requirements of this article.
9.1.9 RIVETED AND BOLTED CONSTRUCTION
9.1.9.4 EDGE DISTANCE OF FASTENERS (2005) R(2011)
a. Based on a review of various textbooks, specifications, and design guides it has been found that there is not a solid
“engineering” reason for the various limits on edge distance. The limits which have been set are more related to
detailing issues. The rationale for various edge conditions is as follows:
• Sheared edges
From the Cyclopedia of Civil Engineering, Vol 3, Steel Construction, 1920, a reason for a limit on edge distance is
given based on the tendency of the material to bulge between the edge of the hole and the edge of the plate due to the
punching process. To prevent this, it is stated that a minimum edge distance is required. The limit is decreased for
smaller size rolled shapes only to allow punching in the material rather than for any engineering reason. The third
edition of the AISC LRFD Manual of Steel Construction (2003) indicates similar reasoning in the Commentary
contained in Chapter J of that publication. (References 14, and 24)
• Rolled edges of plates, shapes, bars or thermally cut edges
Limitations on the clearance for making the hole, as well as the fact that the rolled and thermally cut edges have a
much better tolerance in terms of workmanship, justifies a lower limit for these type edges. The limit is reduced for
flanges of beams and channels to 1.25 times the diameter of the fastener, but only because there may be clearance
issues with the equipment used to make the hole in these sections with smaller flanges. Similar reductions are also
permitted by the AISC Manual. (Reference 14)
• Fatigue
The difference in the edge distance requirements is not related to fatigue. Although a sheared edge is almost always
a lower quality than a rolled or thermally cut edge, the fatigue strength of a plate that is sheared cannot be improved
by slightly increasing the edge distance. The micro cracks produced by the process are present regardless and under
large enough cyclic stresses will grow into fatigue cracks. For a base metal condition to apply at the gross section of
the element (i.e., Category A), there are specific surface quality standards that must be met as per AREMA
Table 15-1-9, AASHTO LRFD, and others. Rolled edges will typically meet these criteria. For thermally cut edges,
it may be necessary to grind the surface of the cut to meet the required surface quality. However, sheared edges will

Commentary
not meet the requirements due to the destructive nature of shearing the plate material, and some surface preparation
will be required. (References 4, and 81)
9.1.10 WELDED CONSTRUCTION
9.1.10.1 T RANSITION OF THICKNESS OR WIDTHS IN WELDED BUTT JOINTS (2012)
The requirements of Article 1.10.1 are similar to those in AWS D1.5 with additions to cover flexural conditions, and relocation
of the weld to be outside the end of transition on the radius of the wider plate.
9.1.10.2 PROHIBITED TYPES OF JOINTS AND WELDS (2008)
Because of fatigue considerations, several types of joints and welds are added to types prohibited by AWS D1.5.
g. Highly Constrained Joints:
Welded structures are to be detailed to avoid conditions that create highly constrained joints and crack-like geometric
discontinuities that are susceptible to Constraint-Induced-Fracture (CIF). Avoid intersecting welds by using a
preferred detail (see Figure 15-9-5) or by using high strength bolted connections. However, the avoidance of
intersecting welds is not intended to apply to the intersection of flange splice welds with flange-to-web welds.
Constraint-Induced-Fracture is a form of brittle fracture that can occur without any perceptible fatigue crack growth
and more importantly, without any apparent warning. This type of failure was documented during the Hoan Bridge 1
failure investigation (Reference 152) as well as in other bridges that have exhibited very similar fractures (References
37 & 38). Criteria have been developed to identify and retrofit bridges susceptible to this failure mode (References 37
& 88).
Although it is common to start and stop an attached element parallel to primary stress (e.g., gusset plate or longitudinal
stiffener) when intersecting a full-depth transverse member, the detail is more resistant to fracture (and fatigue) if the
attachment parallel to the primary stresses is continuous and the transverse connection is discontinuous. (See 3
Figure 15-9-5 and Figure 15-9-6)
High strength bolted connections are not susceptible to Constraint-Induced-Fracture and should be considered where
practical and economical.

Steel Structures
Figure 15-9-5a. Preferred detail

Figure 15-9-5b. Acceptable detail
Figure 15-9-5d. Very poor detail

Figure 15-9-5c. Less desirable detail
Figure 15-9-5. Examples of details at intersection of longitudinal stiffeners and transverse plates
welded to web

Commentary
Figure 15-9-6. Examples of welded Fatigue Category E details at certain locations at the intersection of
transverse connection plates and gusset plates welded to web. Both of these fatigue resistant details are
difficult to fabricate. Bolted gussets are recommended.
9.1.10.4 WELDED ATTACHMENTS (2004) R(2008) 1

The requirements of Article 1.10.4 are based on fatigue considerations.
9.1.11 BRACING
9.1.11.2 LATERAL BRACING (2012)

3
c. In 2012, the statement that “concrete decks are not to be used in through spans unless the deck is isolated from the
flexural stresses of the main girders or trusses” was added because Article 1.11.2a could be interpreted as a general
endorsement of the use of concrete slabs in all steel spans. An inexperienced engineer might not recognize
unintentional composite action which may occur between the slab and the main girders or trusses that has been known
to lead to failure of concrete decks in through spans.
4
Concrete slabs are generally much stiffer than the steel girders or trusses that support them and may attract a significant
portion of the flexural stresses. Concrete slabs work well in simple deck plate girder (DPG) or deck truss (DT) spans
because flexing from live loading of the main girders/trusses will cycle the slab through compressive stresses that are
safely within the capacity of the concrete. Composite design techniques intentionally transfer compressive loading to
the slab, reducing the quantity of steel required in the main girders or trusses. In through spans, the concrete deck slab
is below the neutral axis of the girder/truss and can attract live load tensile stresses which may exceed the modulus of
rupture of the concrete, resulting in full depth cracks through the deck slab which open and close with each live load
cycle of the main girders/trusses. Reference 135 documents strain gauging a TPG span to investigate the breakup of its
reinforced concrete deck. A subsequent paper (Reference 125) includes design details of a concrete deck slab to
provide lateral bracing for a TPG span while isolating it from the flexural stresses of the main girders.
9.1.11.4 CROSS FRAMES AND DIAPHRAGMS FOR DECK SPANS (1994) R(2002)
a. Paragraph a provides the means to accomplish the lateral distribution specified in Article 1.3.4.2.4 (Reference 94 and
146).

Steel Structures
Out of plane bending may result from restraint provided by cross frames or diaphragms where there is differential
deflection of adjacent beams or girders. This may be expected to occur in spans with curved alignment, skews or
multiple tracks and has also been observed in single track spans, without skew, on tangent alignment. Out-of-plane
bending may cause high stresses in non-stiffened web gaps, unless rigid type connections are provided to stabilize
these gaps.
b. Determination of whether a cross frame or diaphragm should be used is covered by paragraph b.
c. Requirements for diaphragms are specified in paragraph c to assure suitable lateral distribution of live load.
d-g. Paragraph d, paragraph e, paragraph f and paragraph g concern the spacing of cross frames and diaphragms for various
types of deck construction. Spacing of 18 feet for cross frames and diaphragms in open deck construction has been
specified since 1920; has been found to be satisfactory; and is used as a guide in specifying the spacing of these
members for spans where steel plate, timber or precast concrete decking is utilized in ballasted deck construction and
no top lateral bracing is used, as well as for spans with poured in place decking. The lack of lateral bracing requires
close spacing of these members, whereas poured in place concrete decking will allow greater spacing, as evidenced by
tests conducted at the University of Illinois on diaphragms for highway deck spans (Reference 94 and 146).
h. The diaphragms required in paragraph h are primarily for tying the transverse beams together and to some extent for
distributing loads longitudinally.
9.1.13 CONTINUOUS AND CANTILEVER STEEL STRUCTURES
9.1.13.8 LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS (2010)
The requirements of this article correspond to specifications of the American Association of State Highway Officials 1977
edition, with some modifications.
A continuously welded stiffener is best for design and performance, but at the intersection of two stiffeners continuity of one
must be sacrificed. In such cases, it is generally better to interrupt the transverse stiffener since terminations in the
longitudinal stiffener create details that are more prone to fatigue. For continuous or cantilever spans, however, the
intersection between longitudinal stiffeners and transverse bearing stiffeners are an exception since bearing stiffener continuity
is necessary for bearing loads and fatigue demand on the longitudinal stiffener termination detail is lower at bearing locations.
Article 9.1.10.2g provides additional guidance and preferred detailing practices for intersecting stiffeners.
9.1.14 FRACTURE CRITICAL MEMBERS
9.1.14.1 SCOPE (2013)
The implementation of the AWS D1.5 Fracture Control Plan for Fracture Critical Members will help to ensure that a steel
bridge with critical tension components will serve a useful and serviceable life over the period intended in the original design.
Some bridges do not have fracture critical members. However, it is most important to recognize them when they do exist. The
Fracture Control Plan should not be used indiscriminately by designers to circumvent good engineering practice.
Section 1.14, Fracture Critical Members should be used as an extension of and supplement to the current requirements for
welding as specified throughout Chapter 15, Steel Structures and the AWS Specifications. Where not specifically replaced by
Section 1.14, Fracture Critical Members, all provisions of Chapter 15, Steel Structures and AWS D1.5 still apply.
In 1995, AWS D1.5 Clause 12 was issued, specifically addressing additional requirements for FCM’s. The D1.5 code contains
the latest provisions to ensure reliable control of weld quality.

Commentary
The following commentary applies to the provisions of D1.5 Clause 12 FCP as applied to railroad bridges:
Fabricator Qualification Certification [AWS D1.5]
Quality workmanship requires fabrication capability, trained workmen and effective and knowledgeable supervision. The
AISC Quality Certification Program evaluates a plant on general management, engineering, drafting, procurement, operations
and quality. Each of these areas is divided into sub areas and evaluated for policy statement, organization and personnel,
procedures, facilities and equipment, and past record.
Welding Inspector Qualification and Certification [AWS D1.5]
Although requirements for welder qualification have long been established, little, if anything, was done to determine the
competence of welding inspectors. The AWS Standard for Qualification and Certification of Welding Inspectors, QC-1, was
developed to ensure that inspection personnel will have the ability to determine if welding is in compliance with requirements
of the contract specifications.
Non-Destructive Testing Personnel Qualification and Certification [AWS D1.5]
Personnel performing non-destructive testing shall be qualified as NDT Level II or Level III, in accordance with ASNT
Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A.
This practice has been upgraded for the non-destructive testing of FCM’s by only permitting the testing to be performed by
individuals qualified as NDT Level II and working under the supervision of an NDT Level III person or an NDT Level III
person to perform the testing. To ensure the capability of the Level III persons, they must be certified by the ASNT or
equivalent as determined by the Engineer. The term “under the supervision” is intended to mean that the NDT Level III person
1
will be available, as necessary, and will personally check the NDT Level II person's work on a periodic basis.
Preheat and Interpass Temperatures [AWS D1.5]
The minimum preheat and minimum interpass temperatures required in D1.5 are based upon the requirements of the 1978
AASHTO FCP, but modified to incorporate the effects of the heat input of welding, and different levels of diffusible hydrogen 3
in deposited weld metal. The actual minimum preheat and interpass temperature listed on the WPS is selected from the
applicable table in D1.5 based upon the grade of steel being welded, the thickness(es) of steel involved, the computed value of
welding heat input, and the maximum diffusible hydrogen content in deposited weld metal. While more complex than other
systems to determine preheat, this method is considered more accurate and appropriate for fabrication of FCM’s.
Welding Consumables [AWS D1.5]

4
All welding consumables used for fabrication of FCM’s must be of controlled quality. D1.5 accomplishes this by either
requiring lot testing of consumables, or requiring the manufacturer to have a quality assurance program audited and approved
by one of the independent agencies listed.
It is not essential that each heat and lot of welding consumables be pretested in the combination that will be actually used in
the work. Accepted heats and lots of welding consumables that conform to the same specification and that are made by the
same manufacturer may be interchanged without concern that the weld metal produced will be unacceptable.
Backing [AWS D1.5]
Steel backing for groove welds using rolled bar stock of limited cross sectional area is considered superior to backing
produced by stripping from plate. Bar stock is uniform in cross section and has light mill scale in most instances. Studies of the
effects of backing chemistry on weld metal properties indicates that A36 steel is suitable backing for all groove welds in steels
with a minimum specified yield stress of 50 ksi or less. The Charpy V-Notch toughness of backing bars of limited dimension
will not have a significant influence on the fracture resistance of the groove welds.

Steel Structures
It is absolutely essential that all weld backing be continuous and that welds used to join segments of backing be made before
the backing is applied to the weld. All joints in backings should be subject to the same weld quality standards and non-
destructive tests specified for similar groove welds in the structure.
Welding Procedures [AWS D1.5]
Current AWS filler metal specifications recognize the weld metal properties may vary widely, depending on electrode size,
flux used, amperage, voltage, plate thickness, joint geometry, preheat and interpass temperature, surface condition, base metal
composition and admixture with the deposited metal. Because of the profound effect of the variables, a test procedure is
included in these filler metal specifications intending to reproduce “good practice” welding conditions reasonably well and, at
the same time, minimize the effect of the more important variables on weld metal properties.
Although the above requirements are adequate for most applications, they are not considered sufficient for Fracture Critical
Members. Therefore, D1.5 requires all welding procedures to be qualified by test, except for SMAW performed with specific
electrodes. This is to help ensure that the weld metal deposited, using the procedure and base metal to be used in production,
provides the required toughness.
The deposited weld metal toughness of 25 ft-lb @ –20 degrees F is greater than the toughness of the base metal which it
connects. This recognizes the possibilities of discontinuities (porosity, slag inclusions, etc.,) as permitted by AWS D1.5 and
that the weld metal may have strength significantly greater than the base metal.
It is the intent of these recommended practices that a fabricator that has properly completed welding procedure qualification
tests within the last 3 years, not be required to repeat the tests for individual railroads unless the railroad has made it a Contract
requirement prior to bidding.
The A588 steel test plates and backing specified as an alternative to other steels have been subjected to a metallurgical
evaluation that revealed the strength, ductility, and toughness of weld metal produced using this test base metal can be relied
upon to indicate whether or not a Welding Procedure Specification will successfully join any of the approved steels with a
yield stress of 50 ksi or less. Approval of a single grade of steel will reduce unnecessary testing of base metals and
combinations of metals that have no significant effect on the acceptability of the Welding Procedure Specification.
Hydrogen Control [AWS D1.5]
D1.5 requires measurement of the SMAW coating moisture, and the diffusible hydrogen content of weld metal deposited by
SAW and FCAW. These measurements are made by the filler metal manufacturer. Testing of diffusible hydrogen must be done
in accordance with AWS A4.3 which recognizes the latest methods to measure diffusible hydrogen. The glycerine method,
previously required by the AREA FCP, is no longer permitted as the results obtained by this method were highly variable,
often resulting in artificially low values. The A4.3 methods are more consistent and more accurately represent actual hydrogen
values.
Welder Qualification [AWS D1.5]
It is intended that welders, welding operators, and tackers be qualified by test within six months prior to the start of fabrication
or regularly requalified on the annual basis. Once welders are qualified on the basis of mechanical and radiographic tests,
yearly examination of radiographs is considered an acceptable method of assuring that welders and welding operators remain
qualified.
Repair Welding [AWS D1.5]
Repair welding consists of deposition of additional weld metal to correct a surface condition, such as insufficient throat or
undercut, or procedures which require removal of weld or base metal preparatory to correcting defects in materials or
workmanship. The latter are divided into noncritical and critical repairs as determined by type and size of defect.
Because virtually all weld repairs are made under conditions of high restraint, the minimum preheat/interpass temperatures
requirements are generally higher than specified for the original welding. In addition, the minimum preheat for the repair area
must be continued after completion of the repair until a post weld heating of 400° to 500° degrees F has been completed. This
post weld heating is to enhance diffusion of any hydrogen that might be present.

Commentary
Again, because of the possible high restraint situation in repair welding, a longer time interval is required between completion
of the weld repair and final non-destructive testing than in original welding.
Documentation of both non-critical and critical repair welding is required. This is to enable these areas to be given special
attention when inspections are made after the bridge is in service.
Non-Destructive Testing of Fracture Critical Members [AWS D1.5]
The FCP recognizes that control of quality is the responsibility of the fabricator. However, it is the prerogative of the Engineer
to assure that the quality of the product is as specified. This latter includes Quality Assurance (QA), witnessing of Quality
Control (QC), testing, review of the fabricator’s documentation of visual and non-destructive testing and duplicating any such
work as is deemed necessary. For production schedules to be maintained, it is essential that all QA work be carried out in a
timely manner to minimize interference with production.
The effectiveness of radiographic testing and ultrasonic testing is determined by the size, shape and orientation of
discontinuity. The Plan requires that both methods of testing be used in determining the quality of all transverse tension-
groove welds. When the configuration of the material utilizing tension-groove welds is not in the same plane, only ultrasonic
testing is required.
The penetrating power and intensity of X-rays can be controlled by the user, but these same factors cannot be controlled by the
user of gamma rays. The penetrating power of cobalt 60, 1.2 and 1.3 MEV, is so much higher than required for material
thicknesses normally used in bridge construction that it is difficult to discern the small changes in thickness due to
discontinuities. Iridium 192, however, has a lower and broader equivalent voltage, 0.2 to 0.6 MEV, and more closely
approaches the operating characteristics of X-rays. Therefore, the use of cobalt is restricted to material thickness over 3 inches
and is permitted because available sources for the thicker material are limited.
1
9.1.14.2 DEFINITIONS (2013)
a. Fracture Critical Members (FCM) are defined as those tension members or tension components of members whose
failure would be expected to result in collapse of the bridge or inability of the bridge to perform its design function.
The identification of such components must, of necessity, be the responsibility of the bridge designer since virtually all
bridges are inherently complex and the categorization of every bridge and every bridge member is impossible. 3
However, to fall within the fracture critical category, the component must be in tension. Further, a fracture critical
member may be either a complete bridge member or it may be a part of a bridge member.
b. Some examples of critical complete bridge members are girders of two-girder bridges and tension chords in truss
bridges, provided a failure would cause loss of serviceability of the bridge. Some bridges do not depend on any single
member, be it in tension or in compression, for structural integrity. Critical tension components of structures usually
occur in flexural members. The tension flange of a flexural member is a critical component if a failure of the specific 4
flexural member would cause loss of serviceability of the bridge. The web of a flexural member, adjacent to the tension
flange, can be a critical component. Bearing sole plates welded to the tension flange are exempted because they are
located in regions of low tensile stress. By extension, bearing components welded to the sole plate are likewise
exempted from the requirements for FCMs.
Members or member components whose failure would not cause the bridge to be unserviceable are not considered
fracture critical. Compression members and member components in compression may, in themselves, be critical but do
not come under the provisions of this Plan. Compression components do not fail by crack formation and extension but
rather by yielding or buckling. Similarly, riveted and bolted members, even though in tension, may not come under the
provisions of this Plan. The Plan provides for additional quality of material and provides for increased care in the
fabrication and use of the materials to lessen the probability of fracture of tension components from crack formation
and extension under static and fatigue loading.

Steel Structures
9.1.14.3 DESIGN AND REVIEW RESPONSIBILITIES (1997) R(2008)
a. A critical part of any complete Fracture Control Plan must deal with design and detailing. These two sections are not
addressed in Section 1.14, Fracture Critical Members or in this commentary primarily because they are already
included in other parts of this chapter. Fatigue requirements are extensively covered in Article 1.3.13 and, where
necessary, are made more conservative for fracture critical members (see Article 1.3.13i). Fatigue categories for
various bridge details also are extensively covered. However, it remains a prime responsibility of the designer to
examine each detail in the bridge for compliance with the fatigue requirements and to ensure that the detailing will
allow effective joining techniques and non-destructive testing of all welded joints. It is emphasized that the Fracture
Control Plan must begin with the designer and that without proper design, details and specifications, the Plan will fail.
b. The designer is the only one with sufficient knowledge of the design to determine if fracture critical members are
present and to specifically delineate those members or member components. It is, therefore, his responsibility to
designate on the plans those members or member components which are fracture critical. Further, he also is responsible
for the review of the shop drawings to determine whether the plans and specifications have been properly interpreted
and that the fracture critical members are identified and properly fabricated.
9.1.14.5 NOTCH TOUGHNESS OF STEEL IN FRACTURE CRITICAL MEMBERS (2006)

R(2008)
For comments relating to Table 15-1-14 see Article 9.1.2.1.
The notch toughness requirements for steels in railroad bridges are similar to those used in steel highway bridges as specified
by AASHTO. The requirements developed by AASHTO were adopted after considerable research and deliberation between
representatives of the AASHTO Subcommittees on Bridges and on Materials, the Federal Highway Administration, the
American Iron and Steel Institute, the American Institute of Steel Construction and various consultants. These requirements
were based on numerous technical considerations that include the following:
a. An understanding of the effects of constraint and temperature on the fracture toughness behavior of steels that were
established by testing fracture mechanics specimens.
b. An understanding of the effects of rate of structural loading on the fracture toughness behavior of structural steels.
c. The development of a correlation between impact fracture toughness values (KId obtained by testing fracture toughness
type specimens under impact loading) and impact energy absorption for Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact specimens.
d. Specification of CVN impact toughness values that ensure elastic-plastic initiation behavior for fracture of fatigue
cracked specimens subjected to minimum operating temperatures and maximum in-service rates of loading.
e. A verification of the selected toughness values by the testing of fabricated bridge girders that were subjected to the
maximum design fatigue life, followed by testing at the minimum operating temperature and the maximum in-service
rate of loading.
f. An awareness of the extensive satisfactory service experience with steels in bridges and an understanding of the factors
that have occasionally led to brittle fractures in bridges.
The safety and reliability of steel bridges are governed by material properties, design, fabrication, inspection, erection and
usage. Both the AASHTO and AREMA Fracture Control Plans recognize that attention to all of these factors is essential and
that excessive attention to any single item will not necessarily overcome the effects of a deficiency in any other item.
Neither the AASHTO nor the AREMA fracture toughness requirements are sufficient to prevent brittle fracture propagation
under certain possible combinations of poor design, fabrication or loading conditions. To accomplish that fact would require

Commentary
intermediate or upper-shelf dynamic toughness levels (also called crack arrest) and these levels of fracture-toughness are not
needed to ensure the safety and reliability of the steel bridges.
The general difference in initiation and propagation behavior as related to fracture toughness test results is shown
schematically in Figure 15-9-7. The curve labeled “static” refers to the fracture toughness obtained in a KId test under
conditions of slow loading. (The curve for intermediate loading rate tests, which are extremely complex to run, would be
shifted slightly to the right of the static curve. The AASHTO material toughness requirements were developed using an
intermediate loading rate found applicable to actual bridge structures.) The impact curve is from KId or other dynamic test
under conditions of impact loading. The difference between these two is the temperature shift, which is a function of yield
strength for structural steels. In an actual structure loaded at temperature A, initiation may be static and propagation dynamic.
However, there is no apparent difference between the two because both initiation and propagation are by cleavage. If a similar
structure is loaded slowly to failure at temperature B, there will be some localized shear and a reasonable level of static
fracture toughness at the initiation of failure. However, for rate sensitive materials, such as structural steels used in bridges,
once the crack has initiated, the notch toughness is characterized by the dynamic toughness level on the impact curve and the
fracture appearance for the majority of the fracture surface is cleavage. If the structure is loaded slowly to fracture initiation at
temperature C, the initiation characteristics will be full shear initiation with a high level of plane stress, crack toughness Kc.
However, the fracture surface of the running crack may still be predominately cleavage, but with some amount of shear as
shown in the lower impact curve at temperature C in Figure 15-9-7.
Figure 15-9-7. Schematic Showing Relation Between Static and Dynamic Fracture Toughness
The use of impact or dynamic fracture tests in fracture control would predict no difference in actual resistance to fracture
between temperatures A and B and only a modest difference between B and C. In fact, however, there is a considerable
increase in resistance to fracture initiation between A and B and between B and C, as is indicated by slow loading tests such as
KIc or crack opening displacement tests. However, there is essentially no difference in the resistance to fracture propagation
(i.e., crack arrest behavior) between A and B, and the difference between B and C is modest. Thus, to prevent brittle fracture
propagation in a structure by using material toughness alone (i.e., without proper control of design, fabrication, inspection and
usage), the impact toughness must be quite high, e.g., approaching full shear propagation behavior temperature D. Even then,
there may be situations where crack growth still occurs.

Steel Structures
In summary, application of the AREMA material toughness requirements should provide a high level of elastic-plastic or
plastic initiation behavior for steels with fatigue cracks loaded to maximum in-service rates of loading at the minimum service
temperature. Because the AREMA Fracture Control Plan addresses all aspects that may lead to brittle fractures or fatigue
failure (i.e., material properties, design, fabrication, inspection, erection and usage), these material toughness requirements
should be satisfactory in the context of the total AREMA Fracture Control Plan.
The prime focus on Fracture Critical Members must be on quality of the material and fabrication. Using low fatigue resistant
details should be avoided. Category E and E’ details shall not be used on Fracture Critical Members, and Category D details
shall be discouraged and used only with caution.
PART 3 FABRICATION
9.3.1 GENERAL
9.3.1.6 THERMAL CUTTING, COPES, AND ACCESS HOLES (2009)
There are a number of thermal cutting techniques that are suitable for steel railroad bridge fabrication including, primarily,
oxyfuel cutting and plasma cutting. Plasma cutting is generally preferred by fabricators because it is faster and offers
improved quality (such as squarer corners, less hardness variability, and less distortion), but it is limited to thinner sections.
The thickness limit depends upon the equipment, but typically about two inches is the reasonable thickness limit for plasma
cutting. The provisions of this paragraph are similar to those in the AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.
9.3.1.8 PLANING SHEARED EDGES (1994) R(2008)
Any sheared edge may have incipient cracks resulting from the shearing operation, which literally tears the material apart.
Since such cracks might be harmful, the requirements for edge planing of sheared material have been included in these
recommended practices and other specifications for many years.
The planing requirements need not be applied to thin A 36 material because the shearing operation does not produce
structurally damaging defects therein.
9.3.1.18 BENT PLATES (2000) R(2008)
In fabrication, plates are often bent to a radius in a press brake or die. When conducted at room temperature, these processes
are known as “cold bending”. To avoid cracking the plate during bending, it is necessary to adopt a suitable minimum inside
bend radius, which typically varies with plate thickness and grade. Over the years, many new grades of steel have come into
existence. A concern in the steel industry was that current limits dealing with this subject may not have been developed on a
consistent basis. As a result, the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) initiated a project to develop rational limits for cold
bending plates.
Initially, AISI retained Concurrent Technologies Corporation (CTC) to conduct an experimental research program, augmented
by inelastic analysis, to investigate the forming characteristics of five plate steels. At the conclusion of that effort in January
1997, AISI then retained R. L. Brockenbrough & Associates to extend the CTC findings to all steel plate specifications
referenced in ASTM A6. That work was accomplished and reported in the document “Fabrication Guidelines for Cold
Bending” dated June 29, 1998.
ASTM A6 has adopted the recommendations of this work as well as some supplemental workmanship language for achieving
quality bent plates. Article 3.1.18 Bent Plates, is derived from both the “Fabrication Guidelines for Cold Bending” and the
ASTM A6 document.

Commentary
9.3.1.19 PIECE MARKING (2013)
Use of die stamps for steel marking has been customary since early days of fabrication. “Low stress” die stamps have been
desired and specified since the advent of fatigue awareness, but “low stress” has not been defined. To facilitate the low-stress
condition, die stamp marks should not be too deep but need to be deep enough such that the marks are readily legible under
typical paint systems.
There is no defined radius for a "low stress" die stamp, but accomplishing marks with stamps that have a radius instead of a
sharp point is suitable. Examples of stamps that are considered to be low-stress include dot, vibration, and rounded V stamps.
It is known that surface imperfections compromise fatigue performance of the otherwise smooth plate or rolled section.
However, experience demonstrates that die stamp marks are innocuous for steels in Table 15-1-14, particularly when
precautions are taken to ensure the marks are not sharp. Requirements for fracture critical members are more restrictive in
order to be more conservative, but such members also need effective marking for material control, so marking locations should
be chosen to minimize the effect on the member performance.
Modern computer controlled stamping equipment has demonstrated the capacity to provide markings with fatigue detail
categories no worse than Category B. Where the fatigue resistance for a particular marking technique has been documented
through the results of independent laboratory testing and verification, the technique may be used on non-fracture critical
members, and also on fracture critical members provided that the mark is in a location approved by the Engineer, so as to not
affect the fatigue performance of the structural member.
Acceptable locations are intended to not affect the fatigue performance of a member. Since nearly all members have a
connection detail such as a weld or bolt connection that is Category B or lower, placement of a second Category B detail near 1
this connection will not affect the fatigue resistance of the member. Placement of the piece-mark should be near a connection
which includes but is not limited to connections such as a web-to-flange weld, a bolted connection, or a stiffener at its welded
or bolted connection to the web or flange. Additionally, these marks should not be so close to existing details as to impart
additional residual stresses or sharp transitions, thus the requirement to maintain a minimum distance from a discontinuity.
9.3.2 RIVETED AND BOLTED CONSTRUCTION

3
9.3.2.2 HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS, NUTS, AND WASHERS (2005) R(2008)
AND
9.3.2.3 INSTALLATION OF HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS (2005) R(2008)
High strength bolts can be adequately installed by methods that control either the bolt deformation (strain) or the applied
torque. Previous editions of this recommended practice adopted turn-of-nut as the primary installation method because 4
deformation control procedures are typically more reliable and consistent than control by torque measurement. In addition to
turn-of-nut, the current provisions also permit the use of direct-tension indicators (strain-control), tension-control twist-off
bolts (torque-control) and the calibrated wrench (torque-control) methods of high strength bolt installation. Further details on
these methods can be found in the Specification of the Research Council on Structural Connections (Reference 26 and 117).
9.3.2.6 PREPARATION OF HOLES FOR SHOP FASTENERS (1995) R(2008)
Holes in members subject to live load stress are required to be drilled or reamed in order to avoid the incipient peripheral
cracking at holes punched full size through thick material and the resultant lower resistance against fatigue failures.
9.3.2.7 PREPARATION OF HOLES FOR FIELD FASTENERS (1983) R(2008)
The same comments as for Article 3.2.6 regarding cracks in the periphery of punched holes apply also to holes for field
connections, and, in addition, there must be provision for accurate alignment of field connection holes. This article calls for
field connection holes to be so located that they will register exactly when the structure is in its geometric configuration. This

Steel Structures
requires that truss members, as erected under a no stress (or practically so) condition, must be bent and forced to fit the end
connections, thus introducing an initial reverse secondary stress which will theoretically disappear when the structure assumes
the loading for which it is cambered.
9.3.2.14 TESTING AND DOCUMENTATION OF ASTM A325 AND A490 BOLTS (2012)
9.3.2.14.1 Bolt Testing
d. Assemblies:
Rotational capacity testing of all bolt, nut and washer assemblies is required by this manual. The testing is required for
all black and galvanized ASTM A325 bolts as well as ASTM A490 bolts. There is some confusion because the test
procedure is defined in the ASTM A325 specification where it is only required for galvanized A325 bolts and ASTM
does not require the test at all for A490 bolts. The requirements of this manual supersede the ASTM requirements to
assure the proper manufacture, fit and lubrication of the fastener assemblies used in railroad bridge construction.
Presently the rotational capacity test is not applicable for bolts longer than 12 diameters. In general, the required nut
rotation for the rotational capacity test is about twice the rotation required to pretension the bolts using the turn-of-the-
nut method. The “Specifications for Structural Joints Using High-Strength Bolts” does not have a required installation
rotation for bolts longer than 12 times the diameter. The required rotation for installation must be determined by actual
tests using a suitable tension device simulating actual conditions (See Table 15-3-3 Note 2). Since the rotational
capacity test rotation is a function of the installation rotation, ASTM and FHWA exempt bolt assemblies longer than 12
times the diameter because there is not an established standard for these assemblies.
9.3.3 WELDED CONSTRUCTION
9.3.3.3 FLANGE-TO-WEB WELDS OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1995) R(2008)
Only properly selected machine welding is considered to be acceptable for flange-to-web weld of flexural members. In order
to make such welds having the necessary uniformity and quality by any other method, elaborate and costly inspection
procedures would be required.
9.3.3.4 TACK WELDS (1995) R(2008)
The requirements of this Article are based on fatigue considerations.
9.3.5 INSPECTION
9.3.5.5 INSPECTION – WELDED WORK (2002) R(2008)
The requirements of paragraph b and paragraph c take into account the generally high shear to moment ratio in railway
flexural members and the common circumstance of heavy concentrated direct loading of flanges.
9.3.6 SHIPMENT AND PAY WEIGHT
9.3.6.3 PAY WEIGHT (2009)
Editions of the AREA Manual prior to that of 1969 permitted payment for pound-price contracts to be based on either scale
weight or computed weight. Consequently, it was necessary to specify a method of computing the weight which is compatible
with scale weight. Since it is practically impossible in many cases to determine an accurate scale weight, and since the
procedure of computing a weight compatible with a scale weight serves no practical purpose, the 1969 edition of the AREA

Commentary
Manual adopted the procedure reflected in the then current edition of the American Institute of Steel Construction Manual of
STEEL CONSTRUCTION for computing weight.
PART 5 BEARING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
9.5.1 BEARING DESIGN
9.5.1.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (2010)
b. Each bridge and span configuration induces unique loads and movements into the bearings and, in turn, each type of
bearing with their varying restraint characteristics return unique forces back into the span and/or into the substructure.
Movements include both translations and rotations. The sources of these movements include bridge skew and
curvature effects, initial camber or curvature, construction loads, misalignment or construction tolerances, settelement
of supports, thermal effects, and displacements due to live load deflections. Skewed bridges can have movements both
longitudinally and transversely. Curved bridges can have movements both radially and tangentially which could be at
differing angles at each substructure unit. A practical form for tabulating bearing load resistance and movement
requirements is presented in Section 14 of Reference 6 or in Appendix H of Reference 127.
c. Spans, of any length, with similar live load deflection to span length ratios will experience similar angular rotations at
the bearings. Short spans see many times more rotation cycles than longer spans (once per axle, truck, or car vs. once
per train).
Many, but not all, short spans (50 feet or less) have historically performed well using simple flat plate on flat plate
bearings. The practice has succeeded because: 1
• Short spans, particularly deck girder spans, often have small span to depth ratios, and are much stiffer than required
to meet deflection criteria contained in Article 1.2.5.b., reducing rotations at the bearings.
• Flat plate on flat plate bearings often permit adequate rotation to occur, usually through a combination of edge
bearing of the sole plate on the bed plate, use of elastomeric or malleable pads between the bed plate and the bearing
seat, and sometimes soft bearing seats absorb rotations of the bed plate (for example timber caps and/or blocking 3
beneath the bearings).
Unless extensive experience in similar circumstances has proven the success of flat plate on flat plate bearings in a
particular design, the designer should verify that rotation is adequately accommodated. Best practices for using flat
plate on flat plate bearings include:
• Keeping sole plates as small as possible, and setting them on larger bed plates so that edge bearing stresses from the
4
sole plate are reduced and are ideally applied within the middle third of the bed plate.
• Installation of elastomeric or malleable pads between the bed plate and the bridge seats.
• Flexible connection of the sole plate to the span (bolted rather than welded).
9.5.1.5 BEARING SELECTION CRITERIA (2010)
a. Table 15-5-1, Bearing Suitability, the bearing selection criteria, and insights into typical movement accommodation
characteristics of each bearing type delineated herein are a composite of that presented in Reference 6, Section 14;
Reference 113; and Reference 127, Appendix H; with appropriate adjustments made for usual railroad bridge bearing
practice. Specific bearing type suitability characteristics listed in the table and their application to railroad bridges are
based on the following:

Steel Structures
(1) Resistance to Vertical Loads: All bearing types listed in Table 15-5-1 were chosen for their suitable resistance to
downward vertical loads, except Plain Elastomeric Pad Bearings which have limited application as discussed
below. However, since uplift can occur at the bearings of railroad bridges due to the highly dynamic effect of
railroad live loading, Article 5.1.2.b requires that hold-down devices be provided at all bearings unless waived by
the Engineer. When calculated uplifts occur, additional, more substantial elements, such as link bars or other
heavy hold-down devices are to be designed and incorporated into the bridge bearings.
(2) Fixed Bearings: Fixed Bearings are intended to restrain translations in all directions while allowing rotation on at
least one axis. Since the primary movements in the typical railroad bridge are generally in the longitudinal direction,
all Fixed Bearings are indicated to be suitable for rotations about a transverse axis. Fixed Bearings that restrain
rotations in all directions are generally not practical for railroad bridge applications, thus are not included in Table 15-
5-1.
(3) Flat Steel Plate on Flat Steel Plate Bearings: Steel-on-steel sliding bearings are common in historical railroad
bridge practice for spans less than 50 feet (15 000 mm) in length particularly when utilizing rolled beams. Thus,
because of the span length limits, the usual limit on longitudinal translation is 0.5 inches (12 mm) and the usual
limit on rotation about the transverse axis is 0.01 radians. Steel-on-steel sliding surfaces develop a higher
frictional force than Bronze or Copper Alloy and PTFE sliding surfaces. This friction force acts on the
superstructure, substructure, and bearing and is an important design consideration.
Steel-on-steel sliding bearings are still used in modern railroad bridge practice when an economical bearing type is
desired and the span and substructure can accommodate the loads induced by the higher coefficient of friction
between the steel plates. Beam span lengths of 70 feet (21 000 mm) have been used with steel-on-steel sliding
bearings and with a plain elastomeric pad placed under the masonry plate to accommodate rotations.
(4) Rocker and Roller Bearings: Rocker Plate, Pin and Rocker, and Roller Bearings utilize a cylindrical surface which
is generally aligned on a transverse axis to the bridge to accommodate the primary longitudinal movements found
in most railroad bridges. Because of this, all bearings of these types are listed as suitable for rotations about a
transverse bridge axis and unsuitable for rotations about a longitudinal bridge axis.
To maintain stability of the rocker (prevent rocker tip-over), a 4 inch (100 mm) longitudinal translation limit is
commonly considered appropriate for Pin and Rocker Bearings in the typical railroad bridge designed in
accordance with AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 15 which has a limit of applicability to spans
of 400 feet or less. Larger bearings can be designed to accommodate larger translations from longer spans or long
continuous multi-span units, but the rocker becomes very tall so rocker stability must be specifically addressed in
the bearing design. Special restrainers may be required, particularly in high seismic zones.
(5) Bronze or Copper Alloy and PTFE Sliding Surfaces: Bronze or Copper Alloy and PTFE sliding surfaces are
commonly used as components of bridge bearings to accommodate the sliding and/or rotating movements.
Sliding surfaces develop a frictional force that acts on the superstructure, substructure, and the bearing. Friction,
thus, is an important design consideration. PTFE Sliding Surfaces generally will have the lowest friction
coefficient resulting in the transfer of the lowest friction forces into the bridge or its supports.
Flat Bronze or Copper Alloy or PTFE Sliding Surfaces can be designed to accommodate very large translations,
but cannot accommodate rotations by themselves. Other elements, such as pins, rocker plates, curved sliding
surfaces, elastomeric pads, etc. must be added to the complete bearing assembly if rotations are to be
accommodated. Restrainers, such as guide bars or other devices are frequently added to limit translations in
certain directions and to provide resistance to loads in those directions.
Cylindrical Bronze or Copper Alloy or PTFE Sliding Surfaces can be designed to accommodate very large
rotations, but only in one direction. Thus, as described above in Item 4 for Rocker Plate and Roller Bearings, the
cylindrical surface is generally aligned with the transverse axis of the bridge, which provides suitable
accommodation of the primary longitudinal rotations while preventing transverse rotations about a longitudinal

Commentary
bridge axis. A cylindrical surface alone thus aligned cannot accommodate longitudinal translations and can only
accommodate limited transverse translations.
Spherical Bronze or Copper Alloy or PTFE Sliding Surfaces can be designed to accommodate large rotations in
any direction; thus, they are classified as Multi-rotational Bearings. A spherical surface alone cannot
accommodate translations in any direction.
Combined flat and curved Bronze or Copper Alloy or PTFE Sliding Surfaces can be utilized to accommodate both
large translations and rotations. When this is required the flat surface should be placed at the bottom of the
Bronze or Copper Alloy or PTFE element with the curved surface at the top.
Double Cylindrical (Bi-radial) Bronze or Copper Alloy or PTFE Sliding Surfaces can, in general, be designed to
accommodate large rotations about any horizontal axis and limited translations in any horizontal direction. Even
though rotation about a vertical axis cannot be accommodated, this type of bearing is still classified as a Multi-
rotational Bearing. A 1 inch (25 mm) limit on translations should be used in the typical railroad bridge bearing
since this type of bearing can become unstable with larger translations in one or more directions, particularly when
combined with larger rotations. While adding a separate flat sliding surface would accommodate larger
translations, the complex configuration of having three sliding surfaces combined with the restrainers required to
prevent or limit translations along the axis of the cylindrical surfaces renders a very difficult and costly design.
Spherical Bearings combined with a flat sliding surface should be used to accommodate large translations and
rotations in multiple directions.
(6) Plain Elastomeric Pads: The three most important properties of Elastomeric Bearings that distinguish them from
other construction materials are: 1) flexibility in shear relative to their thickness; 2) stiffness in bulk or direct
compression relative to their shear flexibility; and 3) ability to undergo very large shear deformations without 1
damage relative to their thickness. However, a simple block of elastomer subjected to compression expands
laterally due to the Poisson effect and is much softer than other typical railroad bridge construction materials. If
the lateral expansion occurs freely, the resulting compressive deflection is unacceptable. For railroad bridges, the
total compressive deflection is limited by Article 5.6.3.5.e to 0.125 inches (3 mm) to provide acceptable ride
quality.
Plain Elastomeric Pads rely on friction at their top and bottom surfaces to restrain compressive bulging. Friction is 3
unreliable, however, and local slip results in a larger elastomer strain. The increased elastomer strain limits the
load capacity of the Plain Elastomeric Pad. The allowable stress depends upon the shape factor of the elastomeric
bearing pad. Plain Elastomeric Pads, therefore, must be relatively thin, which leads to the thickness limits of
Article 5.6.3.8 and Article 5.12.1.c.
Thin elastomeric bearing pads can tolerate only small translations; thus, a small 0.25 inch (6 mm) maximum
translation limit is recommended for Plain Elastomeric Pads used in the typical railroad bridge application. Since 4
rotation is accommodated in Elastomeric Bearings by an increase in compression on one side of the pad and a
reduction on the other side, thin elastomeric bearing pads can tolerate only small rotations also. This leads to the
recommendation that a small 0.01 radian maximum rotation limit be considered in the design of Plain Elastomeric
Pad bearings for railroad bridges.
(7) Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings: Many of the issues with total elastomer thickness, load capacity,
translation and rotation limits of Plain Elastomeric Pads can be addressed by increasing the number of elastomer
layers by adding thin steel reinforcing plates between the layers. The steel reinforcing plates prevent outward
movement of the elastomer at the interface between the two materials so that lateral expansion can take place only
by bulging. Thinner elastomer layers thus lead to less bulging and higher compression strength and stiffness,
which is desirable, but this also results in high rotational stiffness. Larger rotations can be accommodated by
adding more layers. A bearing that is too stiff in rotation leads to lift-off and high local stresses that could cause
damage. Thus, selection of the number and thickness of the elastomer layers is a compromise between the needs
for compressive stiffness and rotational flexibility.

Steel Structures
For railroad bridges, the total thickness of the bearing or thickness and number of individual layers is limited by
the total compressive deflection limit of 0.125 inches (3 mm) as defined in Article 5.6.3.5.e. Since
accommodating rotation is an important part of railroad bridge bearing design, being able to utilize the full
available rotation limit of 0.04 radians as listed for highway bridges in Reference 113 is typically considered
important. This recommended maximum rotation limit, however, when considered in relation to the compressive
deflection limit for railroad bridges, dictates a reduction in the maximum translation available for railroad bridges
compared to highway bridges. Thus, it is recommended that a translation limit of 2 inches (50 mm) be considered
unless other accommodation, such as a separate flat sliding surface, is provided.
(8) Disc Bearings: In a Disc Bearing, compressive load is carried by a hard elastomeric (polyether urethane) disc. As
with all elastomeric type bearings, rotations are accommodated by an increase or decrease in compressive
deformations on opposite sides of the disc. The hard elastomer used in Disc Bearings is not flexible in shear so it
cannot accommodate horizontal translations without the addition of a flat sliding surface or other device. To
prevent the disc being overstressed by horizontal loads, a metal pin is placed through a hole in the center of the
disc. Thus, Disc Bearings by themselves are listed in Table 15-5-1 as fixed bearings with no translation allowed.
Disc Bearings are classified as a multi-rotational bearing. At low loads, they work like an unreinforced plain
elastomeric pad as described above. The elastomer used in Disc Bearings, however, is very much stiffer than that
used in a typical elastomeric pad. Some slip and some lateral expansion occur. It has been shown that the rotation
and compression stiffness are both related to the square of the shape factor. The shape factor therefore cannot be
too small or the disc would deflect too much under compression, and it cannot be too big, or the bearing would be
too stiff in rotation. The choice of disc dimensions is therefore a compromise between these two design goals.
This need for compromise means that designing for a rotation much larger than 0.02 radians is difficult,
particularly for the typical railroad bridge application. See Reference 127, Appendix H.
The rotation may need to be further limited since, for high rotations under lighter loads, significant uplift can occur
creating potential for damage to the Bronze or Copper Alloy or PTFE Sliding Surfaces that may be used to
accommodate lateral translations. Even for fixed bearings, uplift conditions will cause abrasion of the disc and
raises the possibility of ingress of dirt. See Reference 127, Appendix H.
c. Pot-type bearings are not recommended for support of railroad bridges because of concerns over reduced bearing life
due to large cyclical live load deformations and rotations.
d. As described in Article 9.5.1.5a(6) and Article 9.5.1.5a(7), design of Plain Elastomeric Pads and Steel Reinforced
Elastomeric Bearings is a compromise between the need for compressive stiffness and rotational flexibility. To provide
the minimum rotational flexibility required by typical railroad bridge applications and stay within the rotational limits
recommended in Article 9.5.1.5a(6) and Article 9.5.1.5a(7) without lift-off, further limits on the width of elastomeric
pads or bearings are required.
9.5.2 BASIC ALLOWABLE STRESSES
9.5.2.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL, BOLTS AND PINS (2012)
c. The allowable stress in bearing between rockers and rocker pins was adapted from editions of AREMA Manual
Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Section 1.4, prior to the 1969 edition and the low value of 0.375 Fy was retained to
minimize pin wear. Pin wear had historically been a cause of trouble when higher values for this condition were
permitted.
The allowable stresses for anchor bolts match the 2005 AISC provisions for Allowable Strength Design (ASD) of
bearing-type connection bolts with threads included in the shear plane and are 1/2 of the 2005 AISC and 2007
AASHTO LRFD nominal capacities. The nominal capacities as listed in the 2005 AISC Steel Construction Manual,
Table J3.2, are divided by the ASD safety factor, Ω, of 2.00.

Commentary
The allowable stress in bearing on expansion rollers and rockers was based on static and rolling tests on rollers and
rockers (Reference 17). The average vertical pressures over calculated contact areas for loads substantially less than
allowable design values are in excess of the yield point, causing a flow of the material. It was concluded that the
resulting “spread” of the roller and base, measured parallel to the axis of the roller at points near the surfaces in contact,
was the most satisfactory phenomenon to use in determining design values. Such “spreads” or deformations were
measured in units of 0.001 per inch per 1,000 strokes, each stroke corresponding to a roller movement of 4 inches and
an equal movement back. Design values according to the tests would give total deformations varying from about 3
units to less than 1.
9.5.2.6 POLYETHER URETHANE DISC BEARINGS (2007)
The recommended average allowable compressive stress on polyether urethane discs in Disc Bearings of 5,000 psi matched
AASHTO’s average allowable compressive stress in 2005 when it was recommended by a special Subcommittee 7 Task Force
on Implementation of Higher Allowable Bearing Stresses. Even though there was limited test data in 2005 for disc bearings in
railroad bridges or for disc bearings subjected to high live load to dead load ratios, the Task Force believed that the existing
data and current testing indicate that an allowable average bearing pressure of 5,000 psi on polyether urethane discs is
conservative for the polymer compound recommended in Article 5.7.2.d.
9.5.3 STEEL BEARING COMPONENT DESIGN
9.5.3.3 SHOES AND PEDESTALS (1997) R(2008)
The requirements of Article 5.3.3 provide that the load is uniformly distributed over the entire bearing surface, and that, in the
case of welded bearings, the load is transmitted in bearing. 1
9.5.4 BRONZE OR COPPER-ALLOY SLIDING EXPANSION BEARING DESIGN
9.5.4.3 DESIGN (2001) R(2008)
b. For design, the static coefficient of friction is specified to be a minimum of 0.10 since it is to be applied when calculating 3
loads acting on bearing components or the bridge substructure or superstructure due to friction, thermal restraints or the
portion of other horizontal loads transferred through an expansion bearing with bronze or copper-alloy sliding plates. The
provision in Article 5.10.1 that limits the coefficient of friction of the bronze or copper-alloy sliding expansion bearing
plates to a maximum of 0.10 will theoretically assure that Article 5.4.3 produces conservative loads for designing other
elements of the bearing or bridge. At the discretion of the Engineer, when calculating loads acting on other bridge
elements, a higher coefficient of friction, such as 0.25 specified by some railroads, may be used to accommodate the
possibility of future partially frozen bearings. 4
9.5.5 PTFE SLIDING BEARING SURFACE DESIGN
9.5.5.3 DESIGN (2006) R(2012)
9.5.5.3.1 General
c. For design, the static coefficient of friction is specified to be a minimum, over the range listed, since it is to be applied
when calculating loads acting on bearing components or the bridge substructure or superstructure due to friction,
thermal restraints or the portion of other horizontal loads transferred through an expansion bearing with PTFE sliding
surfaces. The provison in Article 5.11.1(c) that limits the coefficient of friction of the PTFE sliding surfaces to a
maximum of the listed values will theoretically assure that Article 5.5.3.1(b) produces conservative loads for designing
other elements of the bearing or bridge. At the discretion of the Engineer, when calculating loads acting on other
bridge elements, some railroads specify a higher coefficient of friction, such as 0.25, to accommodate future partially
frozen bearings.

Steel Structures
9.5.7 MULTI-ROTATIONAL BEARING DESIGN
9.5.7.1 SCOPE (2007)
c. Pot type bearings are not recommended for railroad loading due to experiences with seal failures.
9.5.7.3 DESIGN (2007) R(2008)
9.5.7.3.1 General
h. Differing deflection and rotation characteristics of different types of multi-rotational bearings may result in damage to
the bearings and/or structure.
9.5.10 BRONZE OR COPPER-ALLOY SLIDING EXPANSION BEARING

CONSTRUCTION
9.5.10.1 GENERAL (2001) R(2008)
b. See Article 9.5.4.3b.
9.5.11 PTFE SLIDING BEARING SURFACE CONSTRUCTION
9.5.11.1 GENERAL (2002) R(2008)
c. See Article 9.5.5.3.1c.
PART 6 MOVABLE BRIDGES
FOREWORD
See the Foreword for References for Movable Bridges.
9.6.1 PROPOSALS AND GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
9.6.1.1 GENERAL (1986) R(2010)
The history of movable bridge design specifications can be traced back at least as far as 1901 to the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad Company specification for swing bridges. C.C. Schneider’s Paper No. 1071 in the June 1908 ASCE Transactions,
Volume LX, Page 258 appears to be the earliest specification giving allowable loads and stresses for individual components.
The basic content of the Schneider specification appears in the first edition (1922) of the AREA Movable Bridge
Specification. Many changes and additions have been made over the years to that specification and this recommended
practice.
Early movable bridges, designed using the requirements outlined inthe Schneider paper, have proved to be durable. In
contrast, certain proprietary movable bridge designs using less stringent requirements have not been as durable.
It thus appears that the Schneider specification and the succeeding editions of the AREA Movable Bridge Specification have
successfully defined adequate design standards for typical movable bridge machinery.

Commentary
Nevertheless, failures have occurred in bridges designed to these specifications. Some of these failures may have occurred
because of lack of good engineering judgment in the application of the specifications. Others may have occurred because of
lack of good engineering judgment in using components and/or details not covered in the specifications, as well as errors in
construction, faulty operation and inadequate maintenance.
These recommended practices contain no criteria for the anticipated number of openings expected over the life of the bridge.
Two basic categories of machinery components are covered in the recommended practices.
The first category includes components which always or nearly always operate under maximum design loads. These are the
components which support the dead load of the movable span. Examples of these are counterweight sheaves for vertical-lift
spans, trunnions for bascule spans, treads for rolling lift spans, center pivots, rim bearings and end wedges for swing spans.
The second category includes components whose loading consists of friction, inertia, wind, ice, and other transient loads,
during operation of the movable span.
Machinery in the first category carries maximum or near maximum loads at all times. Machinery in the second category
seldom carries maximum design loads and normally operates at a relatively small fraction of design load.
The basis of the recommended practice is textbook mechanical engineering methods and allowable stresses for the design of
heavy machinery developed prior to 1940.
The bridge machinery design philosophy should be simple and normally not be based on overly-sophisticated methodology for
several reasons. They include:
1
a. Bridge machinery is heavy, low-speed machinery intended to last 50-100 years.
b. The real loading conditions and number of cycles of operation are difficult to establish.
c. The level of maintenance over the life of the bridge is difficult to establish at the time of design.
3
d. Future replacement of sophisticated components can be difficult.
9.6.1.8 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING (2012)
b. A movable bridge rail joint may be of several different types or styles that provide the transfer of rail traffic from the
fixed spans on and off the movable span. Rail locks are present on some types of movable bridge rail joints. A rail
lock will provide a connection of these rails to each other or to the structure of the bridge. While not common on Class 4
I railroad properties, there are a number of these devices still in use on movable bridges.
c. There may be preferences desired by the Railroad as to the type, placement and mounting of the detectors. Movable
rail joints can be designed and constructed to provide space and mounting for these devices. The tolerance of ¼” in
Article 6.1.8c is intentionally tighter than the FRA requirement in order to allow the approximately 1/8” of future wear
and/or looseness during times between adjustment and repair of movable bridge rail joints.
9.6.3 LOADS, FORCES AND STRESSES
9.6.3.11 MACHINERY SUPPORTS (2013)
Excessive deflection of machinery supports may have a detrimental effect on the operation of the machinery. In the past, an
attempt was made to prevent these effects by limiting the depth-to-span ratios of support beams to 1/8, but that standard alone
allows for a wide range of stiffness for the same depth member. In addition, higher yield strengths of steel allow for a less stiff

Steel Structures
section for the same load demand. While depth-to-span criteria are useful as a starting point for beam depth, deflection criteria
are clearly necessary to limit the detrimental effects on machinery.
9.6.4 BASIC ALLOWABLE STRESSES AND HYDRAULIC PRESSURES
9.6.4.2 MACHINERY PARTS (1993)
Some allowance for stress concentration factors is included in the basic allowable design stresses. Stress concentration factors
for unusual configurations are not covered and must be recognized by the designer.
Some counterweight sheave trunnions have failed due to fatigue as the sheaves exceeded 500,000 revolutions. The combined
effects of high-cycle complete reversals, small fillet radii at changes in trunnion diameter and section discontinuities resulting
from termination of grease grooves close to the fillets have produced fatigue cracking in the area of the fillets. Journals with a
length to diameter ratio exceeding 1.2 may result in high bending stresses in the area of the fillets.
9.6.4.8 HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS (1984) R(2010)
Consideration should be given in the design of hydraulic systems for the effect of the large inertia of the moving span and the
compressability of the hydraulic fluid.
Provision should be made to contain any hydraulic fluid leakage to avoid contamination of the waterway or surrounding areas.
9.6.5 GENERAL DETAILS
9.6.5.13 LUBRICATION (2008)
j. Due to the variety of lubricants available, this article provides a warning to Designers, Owners, and Erectors to verify
that all lubricants are compatible. Experience has shown that serious damage can occur when lubricants are
incompatible.
9.6.5.34 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SWING BRIDGES (2003)
9.6.5.34.1 Center Bearing
Center bearing swing spans are generally preferable to rim bearing swing spans because of simpler fabrication and erection,
and more reliable operation.
9.6.5.34.2 Rim Bearing
See 9.6.5.34.1 Center Bearing.
9.6.5.34.5 End Wedges and Center Wedges
Wedges with sliding surfaces which must operate under load may be designed with steel against bronze to minimize galling.
9.6.5.36 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR VERTICAL LIFT BRIDGES (1997)
9.6.5.36.10 Welded Sheaves
b. Welded counterweight sheaves must be designed with special care to assure adequate fatigue life in both the sheaves
and the trunnions.

Commentary
9.6.5.36.12 Operating Ropes
c. The minimum tension in the slack rope should preferably be not less than 10% of the maximum operating tension and
can be determined by measuring the sag in the rope.
9.6.6 WIRE ROPES AND SOCKETS
9.6.6.2 DIAMETER OF ROPE (2010)
a. The diameter of counterweight ropes had been limited by the specification to 2-1/2 inches since 1922. Wire ropes of
larger diameter are now available for use on vertical lift bridges.
Prior editions of the Manual listed tolerances for rope diameters from 5/8 inch to 2-1/2 inches.
9.6.6.3 CONSTRUCTION (2010)
a. Improved plow steel (IPS) was the only grade of wire rope permitted by the Manual since 1922. Advances in wire rope
technology have led to the wide use, in other industries, of the higher strength grade ropes listed in ASTM A1023 and
Federal Specification RR-W-410F. The higher strength rope grades are; extra improved plow steel (EIP) and extra
extra improved plow steel (EEIP). Each step upward in grade represents an increase of approximately 10 percent of
minimum breaking force, compared with the next lower grade. Extra improved plow steel wire rope (EIPS) is now
permitted by the Manual, as well as the improved plow steel rope (IPS) that was formerly required. The specifier is
alerted to the fact that there is no known published data regarding the relative performance of extra improved plow
steel rope compared to improved plow steel rope over many years of service in a bridge application. 1
The Manual now requires that all wire rope for movable bridges be preformed in accordance with the strong
recommendation of the Wire Rope Technical Board (April 2007).
Prior editions of the Manual required wire rope to be made of bright (uncoated) carbon steel wires. The use of rope
made with drawn-galvanized or drawn-zinc mischmetal (Zn5/Al-MM) wire is now permitted. However, wires coated
with zinc or Zn5/Al-MM by hot-dipping are not permitted because the hot-dipping process relieves some of the 3
residual stresses in the wire from prior cold drawing, thereby reducing the strength of the wire.
Drawn-galvanized and drawn-(Zn5/Al-MM) ropes are used in other industries where long life under adverse
environmental conditions is required. Even if the zinc layer is “partly damaged”, the steel remains protected as the
electro-chemical process results in the zinc corroding first. Zinc is more resistant to wear than Zn5/Al-MM. For these
reasons, drawn-galvanized ropes are preferred over bright (uncoated).
4
b. Only one classification of counterweight wire rope had been permitted by the specification since 1922. It is 6x19 with
a fiber core. Since 1938, or earlier, only the subclass 6x25FW has been specified. This construction has generally
given acceptable service when the ropes are draped over counterweight sheaves with sheave diameter (D) to rope
diameter (d) ratios of approximately 80. The 6x25FW characteristics have been found to be an acceptable
compromise between flexibility and wear resistance for counterweight ropes of 2-1/2 inch diameter or less. For
situations where wear resistance is of importance, the subclass 6x26WS (Warrington Seale) is considered
advantageous. However, for specific situations consultation with a wire rope manufacturer may disclose that other
subclasses of 6x19 are more suitable.
Vertical lift bridges have recently been designed with larger diameter ropes and smaller D/d ratios. For these
situations 6x25FW and 6x26WS may be too stiff because the diameter of the wires in the outer layer are larger for the
larger diameter ropes. Hence, the Manual now permits the use of Class 6x36 and Class 6x61 wire rope, which have
greater flexibility. Only one subclass of 6x36 rope is manufactured for most rope sizes.
Counterweight ropes may be stationary for long periods under the design tension. They are subjected to lateral
compression along the length draped over the sheaves. These forces tend to deform the rope from a circular cross

Steel Structures
section. The deformation is resisted by the core, which supports the strands in the radial direction. Fiber cores
deteriorate if the ropes are not properly maintained and lose their effectiveness as strand supports. Independent wire
rope cores (IWRC) do not deteriorate in the same way as fiber cores and are considered better supports for the strand.
However, IWRC are generally stiffer than fiber cores and there is metal-to-metal contact between the strands and the
core.
In addition, the Manual now permits the use of compacted strand (CS) for wire ropes. The strands of these ropes are
subjected to mechanical work after they have been closed. The mechanical work changes the cross sectional shape of
the outer wires, thereby increasing the contact area between wires and increasing the external metallic surface area.
These ropes also have more metallic cross sectional area than ropes with only circular wires of the same diameter and
class. CS ropes are stronger than circular wire ropes of the same class, grade, and diameter and have much greater
resistance to wear and fatigue.
9.6.6.7 WIRE – PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (2010)
The prior versions of the Manual covered one grade and subclass of wire rope and listed the required properties of the wire and
described wire tests. Because of the expansion to other grades and classes, reference is now made to ASTM A1023 and
ASTM A1007, which are cross-referenced by Federal Specification RR-W-410F.
9.6.6.8 ULTIMATE STRENGTH (2010)
Prior versions of the Manual listed the required ultimate strengths of the 6x19 IPS ropes with fiber cores. Because of the
expansion to other grades and classes of rope, reference is made to ASTM A1023 for ropes 2-3/8 inch diameter or less. For
rope sizes larger than those listed in ASTM A1023, the designer is referred to Federal Specification RR-W-410F. Although
the term “ultimate strength” has been retained in the heading of this article, and elsewhere in Section 6.6, it should be noted
that the synonym in ASTM is “minimum breaking force” and in Federal Specification RR-W-410F “Minimum Breaking
Strength (force)”.
A new requirement is that rope tests to destruction be conducted per ASTM A931 Test Methods for Tension Tests of Wire
Rope and Strand, in the presence of an inspector designated by the Engineer.
9.6.9 ERECTION
9.6.9.1 ERECTION OF MACHINERY (1996) R(2002)
Bridge machinery erection generally should be started with alignment of the lower speed components and working back to the
prime mover. This gives the best flexibility to correct misalignments.
9.6.9.4 LUBRICATION (2008) R(2010)
c. Due to the variety of lubricants available, this article provides a warning to Designers, Owners, and Erectors to verify
that all lubricants are compatible. Experience has shown that serious damage can occur when lubricants are
incompatible.
9.6.9.7 COUNTERWEIGHTS (1983) R(2003)
b. For satisfactory balance, the movable span should have a slight closing force present when seated and either a neutral
or very slight opening force present when fully open. Balance can be checked in the field by the following procedures:
(1) Compare motor currents during opening and closing of the span.
(2) Compare power meter (kw) readings during opening and closing of the span.

Commentary
(3) Run a drift test in the mid range of travel in both the opening and closing direction. Compare the drift in each
direction with power off and the brakes released.
(4) Measure the torque in the drive train during opening and closing of the bridge.
(5) Compare the grease patterns on the main pinion teeth.
(6) For vertical lift bridges, weigh the imbalance between the span and the counterweights.
The above tests should be run under minimum wind velocity and with equal speed in the opening and closing direction.
Periodic retesting of the balance of the movable span can reveal changes in operational characteristics.
PART 7 EXISTING BRIDGES
9.7.2 INSPECTION
9.7.2.1 GENERAL (2010)
The Bridge Inspection Handbook published by AREMA in 2008 (Reference 15) provides additional information on the
inspection of steel railway bridges.
9.7.3 RATING
1
9.7.3.1 GENERAL (1998) R(2008)
9.7.3.1.1 Normal Rating (2011)
a. The intent of the Normal Rating is to limit the stresses in the structure to those for which it would be designed given the
yield strength of the steel in question and the design recommendations of Part 1, Design. The Normal Rating will 3
ensure a consistent factor of safety and prolong the useful life of the structure. For older structures which were
generally not designed for current fatigue criteria, rather than reduce the rating by requiring use of current fatigue
allowables, a remaining fatigue service life calculation may be made. It is then up to the Engineer to consider the trade-
off between the resulting higher Normal Rating and the consequent reduced remaining fatigue service life.
The correct section for tension yielding has always been the gross section. Nevertheless, it was the practice to use the
net section prior to 2006 to introduce an additional factor of safety and provide consistency with certain test practices 4
particularly in the area of fatigue.
For structures designed starting in 2006, an additional requirement of checking the effective net section against the
ultimate tensile stress was introduced to cover a concern with High Performance Steels (HPS). With the re-
introduction of this criterion (dropped many years ago) it is now possible to be consistent with the actual behavior of
structures in checking tension yielding on the gross section and ultimate tensile strength on the effective net section.
Traditionally, bridge structures that have been designed and rated in accordance with AREA and AREMA procedures
have used yielding of the net section for tension calculations. Given that there are thousands of bridges already rated
based on these assumptions and with a desire that there not be a sudden change in the calculated rating of railroad
bridges, the Committee felt that yielding of the net section for tension calculations may continue to be used for
structures designed before 2006. This will tend to give conservative results for traditional steels. Ratings should
indicate the rating criteria used (e.g. AREMA Rating 2005) so as to clarify comparisons between ratings based on
different methodologies.
The allowable rating stresses, when wind forces are included, can be increased to 25% greater than basic allowable
stresses, but in no case greater than the allowable stresses for Maximum Rating. The 25% increase is included so that,

Steel Structures
for members such as truss chords where wind forces may be significant, the Normal Rating will not be less than the
loading for which the member was designed.
9.7.3.1.2 Maximum Rating R(2008)
a. Maximum Rating recognizes that loads producing stresses higher than design values may be imposed on a structure.
However, to maintain a consistent factor of safety and to reduce the effects of fatigue, it is recommended that loads up
to the Maximum Rating be allowed only infrequently.
b. Paragraph b permits the Engineer to authorize more frequent Maximum Rating loads with the caution that the useful
life of the structure will be thereby reduced. If frequent Maximum Rating loads are contemplated, it is appropriate that
either a more detailed inspection be made of fracture critical members or a fatigue analysis be conducted per
Article 7.3.3.2 and Article 9.7.3.3.2 to predict the remaining useful life of the structure and preclude the continued
application of loads beyond the stage where the potential for member failure is high. Another alternative is to predict
the theoretical remaining useful life and when this predicted life has expired, continue using the structure by making
more detailed inspections of fracture critical members.
It should also be remembered that Maximum Rating stress results in a reduced factor of safety.
9.7.3.2 LOADS AND FORCES (2007) R(2008)
9.7.3.2.7 Bracing Between Compression Members (2002) R(2008)
b. A lateral bracing force of 1.25% of the total axial force is based on an initial out of straightness of L/500 plus a total
load displacement of L/900 or equivalent combination. These two, when combined, are approximately L/320.
For other cases of greater deviation from the straight, the following formula may be used:
Lateral Bracing Percentage = 400 (Initial Deviation + Total Maximum Deformation Under Load)/L.
9.7.3.2.8 Longitudinal Force R(2008)
a. Longitudinal forces due to train traffic on railway bridges are influenced by a number of factors including:
(1) the type of motive power used
(2) train tonnage
(3) grades and curves
(4) type of braking system
(5) likelihood of starting or stopping a train at or near a particular bridge
(6) individual railroad operating practices.
For further information, see AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 16 Economics of Railway
Engineering and Operations, and the commentary section on design for longitudinal forces (9.1.3.12). (References 57,
104, 129, 130, and 140)
The longitudinal force in Article 1.3.12 is based on E-80 loading. For structures with a live load rating different from
E-80, the longitudinal force used in rating is to be reduced or increased by the ratio of the rating for live load to E-80.

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2013

Manual for Railway Engineering 1

Chapter 7 Timber Structures

Chapter 8 Concrete Structures and Foundations

Chapter 9 Seismic Design for Railway Structures

Chapter 10 Structures, Maintenance and Construction

Chapter 15 Steel Structures

General Subject Index

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY ASSOCIATION

All rights reserved

ISSN 1542-8036 - Print Version

ISSN 1543-2254 - CD-ROM Version

• Standard Gage Track,

• Normal North American passenger and freight equipment, and 1

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 7-i

Part/Section Description Page

3 Rating Existing Wood Bridges and Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3-1

4 Construction and Maintenance of Timber Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-1

5 Inspection of Timber Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5-1

Chapter 7 Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-G-1

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

7-ii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Part/Section Description Page

Appendix 1 - Contemporary Designs and Design Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A1-1

Appendix 3 - Legacy Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A3-1

Appendix 4 - Temporary Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-A4-1

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 7-iii

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

7-iv AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Material Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engi-

neered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Tim-

ber Bridge Ties and Recommendations for Fire-

Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood

1.1 Structural Grades of Softwood Lumber and Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3

1.2 Grading Rules for Hardwood Structural Timbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3

1.3 Specifications for Engineered Wood Products (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-3

1.5 Specifications for Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-7

1.6 Specifications of Fasteners for Timber Trestles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-14

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 7-1-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)

1.7 Specifications for Timber Bridge Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-16

7-1-1 Measurement of Short Crook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-13

7-1-1 Typical Net Finished Glulam Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-4

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

7-1-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

SECTION 1.1 STRUCTURAL GRADES OF SOFTWOOD LUMBER AND TIMBER1

1.1.1 GRADING RULES (2010)

1.1.2 PRESERVATIVE TREATMENTS (2010)

SECTION 1.2 GRADING RULES FOR HARDWOOD STRUCTURAL TIMBERS3 1

1.2.1 GENERAL (2009)

SECTION 1.3 SPECIFICATIONS FOR ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS4 (2006)

1.3.1.1 General and Appearance

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 7-1-3

1.3.1.2 Layup Combinations1

1.3.1.6 Finished Sizes3

Table 7-1-1. Typical Net Finished Glulam Sizes

Nominal Width 3” 4” 6” 8” 10” 12”

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

7-1-4 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

1.3.1.7 Preservative Treatments1

1.3.1.8 Fire-retardant coatings