2 07P02 PDF

7
Part 2
Design of Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles for
Railway Loading1
— 2017 —
FOREWORD
This specification covers the design of wood structures subject to railway loading, and it assumes each structural member to
carry its own load, competent design and fabrication, reliable stress grading of timber material, and adequate maintenance of
structures. 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article Description Page
2.1 Design of Public Works Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3 3

2.1.1 General (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3
2.2 General Features of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3

2.2.1 Materials (1988) R(2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3
2.2.2 Clearances (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-4
2.2.3 Stringers (2009) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-5
2.2.4 Ties (2010) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-5
2.2.5 Use of Tie Spacers, Guard Timbers and Guard Rails (2016). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-6
2.2.6 Bents (1998) R(2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-6
2.2.7 Piles and Post Footings (2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-7
2.2.8 Current and Historical Designs and Design Aids (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-7
2.2.9 Temporary Structures (2010) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-7
2.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-7

2.3.1 Loads and Forces (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-7
2.3.2 Dead Load (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-7
2.3.3 Live Load (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-8
2.3.4 Centrifugal Force (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-8
2.3.5 Other Lateral Forces (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-9
1
References, Vol. 44, 1943, pp. 362, 670, 691; Vol. 51, 1950, pp. 433, 866; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 428, 847; Vol. 58, 1957, pp. 676, 1169; Vol. 70, 1969, p. 219;
Vol. 76, 1973, p. 232; Vol. 84, 1983, p. 88; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106; Vol. 91, 1990, pp 57, 62.
© 2017, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 7-2-1

Timber Structures
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)
Section/Article Description Page
2.3.6 Longitudinal Force (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-10

2.3.7 Combined Stresses (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-11
2.3.8 Impact (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-11
2.3.9 Deflection (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-11
2.4 Designing for Engineered Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-11

2.4.1 Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-11
2.4.2 Design Equations (2006) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-18
2.5 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-21

2.5.1 Working Unit Stresses (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-21
2.5.2 Form Factor (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-21
2.5.3 Deflection, Permanent Set (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-21
2.5.4 Compression Parallel to Grain or Centrally Loaded Columns (2009) R(2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-21
2.5.5 Bearing (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-22
2.5.6 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-22
2.5.7 Bearing at Angle to Grain (1988) R(2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-30
2.5.8 Combined Axial and Bending Loads (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-30
2.5.9 Horizontal Shear (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-31
2.5.10 Notched Beams (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-31
2.5.11 Shearing Stress (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-32
2.5.12 Bearing on Bolts (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-32
2.5.13 Connectors (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-40
2.5.14 Round Sections (1988) R(2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-40
2.6 Details of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-40

2.6.1 General (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-40
2.6.2 Net Section (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-40
2.6.3 Other Design Considerations (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-40
2.6.4 Bolted Connections (1988) R(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-40
2.6.5 Design for Rehabilitations of Portions of Existing Timber Trestles (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-41
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Description Page
7-2-1 Tangent Track. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-4

7-2-2 Cooper E 80 Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-8
© 2017, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
7-2-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Design of Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles for Railway Loading
LIST OF TABLES
Table Description Page
7-2-1 Lateral Clearance for Curved Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-5

7-2-2 Centrifugal Force for Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-9
7-2-3 Applicability of Adjustment Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-13
7-2-4 Effective Column Length for Various End Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-15
7-2-5 Specific Gravity of Lumber for Design of Connectors in Timber Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-17
7-2-6 Applicable Adjustment Factors to Fasteners for Trestle Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-18
7-2-7 Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber - Railroad Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-19
7-2-8 Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber -- Railroad Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-20
7-2-9 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber – Railroad Loading (Visual Grading)1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-23
7-2-10 Unit Compression (Column) Stresses for Standard Stress Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-29
7-2-11 Basic Unit Stresses for Bearing on Bolts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-33
7-2-12 Percentage of Basic Stress for Various L/d Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-33
7-2-13 Bearing Value for Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-35
SECTION 2.1 DESIGN OF PUBLIC WORKS PROJECTS
2.1.1 GENERAL (1990) 1

a. The design, plans, special provisions and specifications for railroad bridges to be built as a public works project and
paid for with public funds administered by a public agency shall be prepared by the engineering staff of the railroad
involved or by a consulting engineer whose selection has been mutually approved by the railroad and the public
agency. The intention of this requirement is that if a consultant is selected, it shall be one who is familiar with the
design of railroad bridges, and particularly with the special requirements and operating conditions of the railroad
concerned so that the time involvement of the railroad’s engineering staff will be minimized.
3
b. If a consulting engineer is engaged, the contract for his services may be administered by the public agency or by the
railroad if it so desires. In either case, the technical aspects of the work of the consulting engineer shall be under the
direction of the railroad and the final plans and specifications must meet with the approval of the railroad.
c. Specifications and Recommended Practice for Overhead and Other Wood Highway Bridges (2009)
4
It is recommended that the current edition of Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges adopted by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation officials be used as a guide for overhead and other wood highway
bridges. Clearances, foundations, construction practices and details should be with approval and in accordance with
individual railroad practice.
SECTION 2.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2.2.1 MATERIALS (1988) R(2017)
a. Wood piles shall conform to AREMA specifications see, Part 1, Material Specifications for Lumber, Timber,
Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and Recommendations for Fire-Retardant
Coating for Creosoted Wood.
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 7-2-3

Timber Structures
b. Structural lumber shall be stress-grade and shall conform to AREMA specifications see, Part 1, Material Specifications
for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and Recommendations
for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood.
c. Where portions of the structure consists of structural steel, reinforced concrete or masonry, the current AREMA
specifications relating to structures of these materials shall apply, with the allowance for impact provided for in those
specifications.
2.2.2 CLEARANCES (1988) R(2017)
a. The clearances on straight track shall be not less than those shown in Figure 7-2-1. On curved track, the lateral
clearance each side of track centerline shall be increased 1-1/2 inches per degree of curvature. When the fixed
obstruction is on tangent track, but the track is curved within 80 feet of the obstruction, the lateral clearance each side
of track centerline shall be increased as shown in Table 7-2-1.
b. Where legal requirements specify greater clearances, such requirements shall govern.
c. The superelevation of the outer rail shall be specified by the Engineer. The distance from the top of rail to the top of tie
shall be assumed as 8 inches, unless otherwise specified by the Engineer.
Figure 7-2-1. Tangent Track
d. Where there are plans for electrification, the minimum vertical clearance shall be increased to that specified in Chapter
28, Clearances.

Table 7-2-1. Lateral Clearance for Curved Track
Distance from Obstruction to Increase per Degree of

Curved Track in Feet Curvature in Inches
0-21 1-1/2
21-40 1-1/8
41-60 3/4
61-80 3/8
e. The clearances shown are for new construction. Clearances for reconstruction work or for alterations are dependent on
existing physical conditions and, where reasonably possible, should be improved to meet the requirements for new
construction.
2.2.3 STRINGERS (2009) R(2017)1

a. The span length, for the purpose of computing bending stresses in the stringers, shall be assumed as the clear distance
face to face of bearings plus 6 inches; except that, if continuity is figured on, the intermediate support shall be taken at
the center of the support.
b. Stringers shall be selected to provide:
(1) Depth, preferably, not less than one-twelfth of the span.
(2) Width, not less than one-third of the depth. 1

c. Stringers shall comprise a group placed to effect, as nearly as practicable, equal distribution of track loads. On open
deck timber bridges, each stringer chord shall be centered as nearly as practicable beneath the rail it supports.
2.2.4 TIES (2010) R(2017)

a. Cross ties shall be of adequate size to distribute the track load to all stress-carrying stringers. 3
b. Each tie shall be designed to carry not less than one-third of the maximum axle load, as well as to provide sufficient
stiffness to properly distribute loads to the stringers. Ties shall be secured against bunching, and the maximum clear
space between them, on open deck timber bridges, shall be 8 inches.
c. On open deck timber bridges, timber bearing ties shall be selected to provide:
4
(1) Depth, nominal, not less than the following, rounded to the nearest half-inch:
The larger of:
8”
or
 b – N  3 – 6t (which can be approximated as 0.2887 (b - N) - t)

-------------------------------------
6
Where:
1
See Part 6 Commentary.

Timber Structures
b = total nominal width of a single stringer chord centered beneath a single rail, in inches.
N = width of rail base, in inches.
t = minimum thickness, in inches, of rail seat: i.e. the portion of the tie plate in direct contact with the rail base
(2) Width, not less than 8 inches.
(3) Length, not less than 10 feet.
2.2.5 USE OF TIE SPACERS, GUARD TIMBERS AND GUARD RAILS1 (2016)
2.2.5.1 Field Side Tie Spacers and Guard Timbers (2016)2
a. On all open deck railway bridges, the ties should be held securely in their proper spacing with metal or timber tie
spacers fastened to every tie on the field side of the rail far enough from the end of the tie to minimize end splitting. If
a continuous tie spacer is not placed, tie spacer blocks or other suitable fastenings should be used. On track where
speed or other circumstances so indicate, it may be advisable also to embed timber connectors between the timber tie
spacers and the ties.
b. Timber tie spacers of sufficient size may also function as guard timbers.
2.2.5.2 Inner (Gage Side) Guard Rails (2016)
a. Consideration should be given to the use of inner guard rails taking into account the bridge type, alignment, train
speed, deck type, density and type of traffic, as well as the height and length of the bridge.
b. Inner guard rails should be steel track rails not higher than the running rails and not lower than 2 inches below the
running rail surface. Normally, they will consist of two rails, spiked to every tie and spliced with fully bolted joint bars
and constrained from longitudinal movement as necessary. On open deck structures, the distance between the head of
the running rail and head of the guard rail should be 10 inches. On ballast deck structures the distance may be increased
to allow for mechanized tamping of track. This increase should not be so great as to permit a derailed car to strike the
structure. Tie plates may be used with inner guard rails when deemed advisable but they must not contact the plates of
the running rails carrying electric signal circuits. When the inner guard rail is intended to prevent contact on one side
only, a single line of rails may be used, adjacent to the running rail furthest from the hazard.
c. Where inner guard rails are used, they should extend at least 50 feet beyond the end of the bridge or other structure
being protected. This distance may be increased or decreased where train speed, curves or other factors warrant. The
ends should run to the center of the track and be beveled, bent down or otherwise protected against direct impact.
Where two inner guard rails are used, a filler block or plate should be provided at the meeting of the converging rails.
2.2.5.3 Combined Use of Tie Spacers and Inner Guard Rails (2016)
When inner guard rails are used in conjunction with continuous tie spacers fastened to the top of the tie, the tie spacers should
be located a sufficient distance from the inner guard rail to prevent a derailed wheel from making contact with the tie spacer.
2.2.6 BENTS (1998) R(2017)

a. Bents shall consist of a sufficient number of piles or posts, so that no member in any bent will be overstressed under
any condition of loading. For the purpose of computing stresses in the bents their spacing shall be considered as the
1
References, Vol. 14, 1913, pp. 652, 1136; Vol. 15, 1914, pp. 402, 1036; Vol. 21, 1920, pp. 1285, 1434; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 426, 847; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 514,
848; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 454, 684; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 106.
2 See Part 6 Commentary.

distance center to center of caps thereon. An approximate analysis to determine the division of load among the several
piles of a bent is given in Appendix 3 - Legacy Designs. See Table 7-A3-1 thru Table 7-A3-4. The application of this
analysis to bents of various typical dimensions is given in Appendix 3 - Legacy Designs. See Figure 7-A3-6 through
Figure 7-A3-30.
2.2.7 PILES AND POST FOOTINGS (2015)

Piles shall be driven to the required bearing capacity in accordance with AREMA specifications see, Part 4, Construction and
Maintenance of Timber Structures and Part 5, Inspection of Timber Structures. All piles in a given substructure unit should be
driven to the same capacity. Posts shall be provided with adequate foundation to support the loads superimposed upon them.
2.2.8 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DESIGNS AND DESIGN AIDS (2013)
See Appendix 1 - Contemporary Designs and Design Aids, Appendix 2 - Designs and Design Aids for Rehabilitation of
Existing Timber Trestles, and Appendix 3 - Legacy Designs.
2.2.9 TEMPORARY STRUCTURES (2010) R(2017)
See Appendix 4 - Temporary Structures.
SECTION 2.3 LOADS, FORCES AND STRESSES 1

2.3.1 LOADS AND FORCES (1988)
The following loads and forces should be considered:
(1) Dead load. 3

(2) Live load.
(3) Centrifugal force.
(4) Lateral force due to wind load and nosing of locomotives.

4
(5) Longitudinal force.
(6) Impact.
2.3.2 DEAD LOAD (1988) R(2017)
The dead load shall consist of the estimated weight of the structural member, plus that of the tracks, ballast and other portions
of the structure supported thereby. The weight of material shall be assumed to be as follows:
Track, rails, inside guard rails, and fastenings . . . . . . . . . . 200 lb per linear foot of track
Ballast, including track ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 lb per cubic foot
Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 lb per foot board measure
Protective coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Actual weight

Timber Structures
2.3.3 LIVE LOAD (2013)
a. The recommended live load is Cooper E-80 loading with axle loads and axle spacing as shown in Figure 7-2-2. The
Engineer shall specify the live load to be used, and such load shall be proportional to the recommended load, with the
same axle spacing.
Figure 7-2-2. Cooper E 80 Load
b. On bridges with ballasted deck the live load shall be assumed as distributed laterally over a width equal to the length of
track ties, plus twice the depth of ballast below the base of tie, unless deck planks are designed to effect greater
distribution of the load.
c. For members receiving load from more than one track all tracks contributing load shall be assumed fully loaded.
d. The design live load used for rehabilitation of portions of existing timber trestles shall be at a minimum equal to the
design capacity of the existing trestle assumed to be in good condition, but not less than the capacity needed to safely
carry all expected traffic.
2.3.4 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE (1988)
a. On curves, the centrifugal force in percentage of the live load is:
0.00117 S2 D
where:
S = Speed in miles per hour

D = Degree of curve
(Because of the limited duration of the loads, centrifugal force need not be considered in the design of stringers.)
b. It shall be assumed to act 6 feet above the rail. Table 7-2-2 gives the permissible speeds and the corresponding
centrifugal force percentages for curves with the amounts of superelevation shown. It is based on a maximum speed of
100 mph and a maximum superelevation of 7 inches, resulting in a maximum centrifugal force of 17.5 percent.

Table 7-2-2. Centrifugal Force for Curves
D E S C D E S C
0°-10 100 1.95 2°-30 7 77 17.5
0°-20 100 3.90 3°-0 7 71 17.5
0°-30 0.33 100 5.85 3°-30 7 65 17.5
0°-40 1.44 100 7.80 4°-0 7 61 17.5
0°-50 2.56 100 9.75 5°-0 7 55 17.5
1°-0 3.67 100 11.7 6°-0 7 50 17.5
1°-15 5.33 100 14.6 8°-0 7 43 17.5
1°-30 7 100 17.5 10°-0 7 39 17.5
1°-45 7 93 17.5 15°-0 7 32 17.5
2°-0 7 87 17.5 20°-0 7 27 17.5
2°-15 7 82 17.5
D = Degree of curve. C = .00117 S2 D = 1.755 (E+3)
E = Superelevation in inches. 2
1
2 S D C – 5.265
S = Permissible speed in miles per hour. E = --- ------------ – 3 = -----------------------
3 1000 1.755
1500
C = Centrifugal force in percentage of live load. S2 = ------------  E + 3 
D
c. If the conditions at the site restrict the speed to less than that shown in the table, the centrifugal force percentage shall 3
be taken for the greatest speed expected.
d. The effect of centrifugal force may be reduced by the compensating effect of the actual amount of superelevation
provided.
2.3.5 OTHER LATERAL FORCES (2009) 4

2.3.5.1 Wind on the Structure
The lateral force due to wind shall be assumed as 30 lb per square foot acting in any horizontal direction as a moving load:
a. on 1-1/2 times the vertical projection of the floor system for trestles.
b. for truss spans, on the vertical projection of the span, plus any portion of the leeward trusses not shielded by the floor
system.
c. on the vertical projection of all bracing, posts, and piles of trestles and towers.
2.3.5.2 Wind on the Train
The wind force on the train shall be taken as 300 lb per linear foot on the track applied 8 feet above the top of rail. This force
shall be considered as a moving load acting in any horizontal direction.

Timber Structures
2.3.5.3 Nosing of the Locomotive
a. The lateral force due to the nosing of the locomotive shall be a moving concentrated load of 20,000 lb applied at the top
of the rail in either horizontal direction at any point of the span. The resulting vertical forces shall be disregarded.
b. Because of the limited duration of the loads, the lateral forces from wind and nosing of the locomotive need not be
considered in the design of stringers.
c. In computing the stability of towers and trestle bents, the structure shall be considered as loaded on the leeward track
with a live load of 1200 lb per linear foot and subjected to a wind force of 300 lb per linear foot applied 8 feet above the
top of rail.
2.3.6 LONGITUDINAL FORCE1 (2014)
a. The longitudinal force for E-80 loading shall be taken as the larger of:
Force due to braking, as prescribed by the following equation, acting 8 feet above top of rail:
Longitudinal braking force (kips) = 45 + 1.2 L
Force due to traction, as prescribed by the following equation, acting 3 feet above top of rail:
Longitudinal traction force (kips) = 25 L
where:
L is length in feet of the portion of the bridge under consideration.
For design loads other than E-80, these forces shall be scaled proportionally. The points of force application shall
not be changed.
b. Design of bridges shall ensure the adequate transfer of longitudinal forces from the structure to ground.
c. For bridges where by reason of continuity or frictional resistance of rails and floor system, much (or all) of the
longitudinal force will be carried directly to the abutments or embankment, longitudinal force need not be considered
in the design of piles, posts or bracing of bents (such bracing is to be designed to give the necessary L/d stability to the
posts).
d. The longitudinal forces shall be considered as being carried by the stringers and deck of the bridge to the abutments or
embankment or other locations providing specifically designed restraint to transfer the longitudinal force from the
bridge to the ground. Intervals of such restraint shall not exceed 550 feet for material meeting the requirements of
Number 1 Douglas-fir or Number 1 Southern Yellow Pine or better. For other timber materials use 400-foot intervals
of restraint to ground unless an evaluation shows that a larger interval may be used. The design shall ensure the
adequacy of timber stringers and foundation materials to carry this load.
1

2.3.7 COMBINED STRESSES (2013)
For stresses produced by longitudinal force, wind or other lateral forces, or by a combination of these forces with dead and live
loads and centrifugal force, the allowable working stresses may be increased 50 percent, provided the resulting sections are not
less than those required for dead and live loads and centrifugal force.
2.3.8 IMPACT (2013)
The dynamic increment of load due to the effects of speed, roll and track irregularities is not well established for timber
structures. Its total effect is estimated to be less than the increased strength of timber for the short cumulative duration of
loading to which railroad bridges are subjected in service, and is taken into consideration in the derivation of allowable
working stresses for design.
2.3.9 DEFLECTION (2013)1
Vertical deflection for design purposes should not exceed L/500, where L is the span length. Note in cases where there is
excessive dead load or other long term sustained loads a permanent set (see Article 2.5.3) needs to be considered.
SECTION 2.4 DESIGNING FOR ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS

1
2.4.1 DESIGN VALUES FOR GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER (GLULAM) (2006)2
Design values for glulam are derived based on ASTM D3737, Standard Practice for Establishing Allowable Properties for
Structural Glued Laminated Timber, using data from ASTM D2555, Standard Test Methods for Establishing Clear Wood
Strength Values, and full-scale bending and shear tests.
2.4.1.1 Allowable Stresses3 3

Selected Douglas-fir and Southern pine layup combinations intended specifically for railroad stringer applications -- members
to be stressed primarily in bending -- as balanced combinations, are provided in Table 7-2-7 (see Part 6 Commentary,
Article 6.2.4.1.2). Properties for the selected Stress Groups are listed in Table 7-2-7 based on the loading direction as well as
the specific gravity for connection design. Stresses are listed based on Bending about the X-X Axis, Bending about the Y-Y
Axis, for Axially Loaded, and for Fasteners.
4
1
2

Timber Structures
Bending About X-X Axis – The design values to be used when loads are applied perpendicular to the wide faces of
laminations, causing bending about the X-X axis, are designated in Table 7-2-7 by the subscript X. For example the "Fbx"
column in Table 7-2-7, lists allowable bending stresses when members are stressed primarily in bending with loads applied
perpendicular to the wide faces of the laminations.
For balanced layups, the allowable bending stress values with "Tension Zone Stressed in Tension (positive bending)” and
“Compression Zone Stressed in Tension (negative bending)” are the same.
Bending About Y-Y Axis – The design values to used when loads are applied parallel to the wide faces of laminations,
causing bending about the Y-Y axis, are designated in Table 7-2-7 by the subscript Y. Glulam members stressed in the Y-Y
orientation, such as for ballast deck panels, shall be designed using values with the Y subscript.
Axial Loading – Glulam members to be designed as columns or truss members shall be designed using values Ft for tension
loading, and Fc for compression loading, under the Axially Loaded heading. For lateral or eccentric loads on columns, either
Fbx or Fby values may be applicable, depending on the loading direction.
Layup combinations made up from all one grade of laminations are listed in Table 7-2-8.
Fasteners -- For specialized applications including trestle designs, the specific gravity values shall be used in conjunction with
the information in Sections 2.4.1.5 and 2.5.12.
2.4.1.2 Tabular Design Values1
[See Tables 7-2-7 & 7-2-8]
2.4.1.3 Adjustment Factors2
Design values tabulated in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 shall be adjusted based on the adjustment factors defined below. Table 7-2-
3 indicates the applicability of the various factors to specific design properties.
Railroad Application Adjustment Factors
1
2

Table 7-2-3. Applicability of Adjustment Factors
Note: Railroad Use and Wet-Use adjustments are included in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8.
Design Properties Temperature CT Beam Volume CV Column Chemical

Stability CL Stability (fire-
CP retardants)
------------- CR
Fb’ = Fb x 1.0 1.0 CV none none
Ft’ = Ft x 1.0 none none none none
Fv’ = Fv x 1.0 none none none none
Fc’ = F x 1.0 none none none none
Fc’ = Fc x 1.0 none none CP none
E’ = E x 1.0 none none none none
CRR: Railroad Use Factor
Tabular design values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8, except for Fv, E and Fc perp, include a 0.9 RR Use Factor. The shear 1
values shown include adjustments that are not cumulative with the RR Use Factor.
Note: The appropriate Railroad Use adjustment factor has been applied to the values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 with
the exceptions noted in this section and in footnotes to the tables.
CM: Wet Service Factor

3
Wet-use adjustment factors are applicable when glulam members are subject to in-service equilibrium moisture content of 16
percent or higher.
Note: The appropriate Wet-Use adjustment factors have been applied to the values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8.
CT: Temperature Factor 4

Design values listed in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 need not be adjusted in railroad use for temperature effects unless glulam
members are subject to sustained exposure to temperatures greater than 100oF (without cycling intermittently to lower values).
Engineers must use judgment when considering the applicability of temperature adjustment factors (See Commentary).
Cv: Volume Factor
Allowable bending stresses of glulam are affected by geometry and size. Generally, larger sizes have a correspondingly lower
allowable bending stress than smaller members. To account for this behavior, a volume factor, Cv, shall be applied. Cv shall
not exceed 1.0 and is computed as follows:
where:

Timber Structures
b = width of bending member in inches. For multiple piece width layups, b = width of widest piece in the layup. For
practical purposes, b  10.75 in.
d = depth of bending member in inches
 = length of bending member between points of zero moment in feet
p = 1/20 for Southern pine and 1/10 for other species
Cp: Column Stability Factor
Tabulated compressive stresses parallel to grain (Fc) shall be multiplied by the column stability factor, Cp.
CP
where:
Fc* = tabulated compression design value multiplied by all applicable adjustment factors except CP
FcE = KcE E’/(e/d)2
KcE = 0.418 for glulam
E’ = tabulated E value multiplied by all applicable adjustment factors
e = effective column length in inches, which shall be determined in accordance with principles of engineering
mechanics or using the unsupported column length multiplied by an appropriate buckling length coefficient as shown
in Table 7-2-4
c = 0.90 for glulam

Table 7-2-4. Effective Column Length for Various End Conditions
1
When a compression member is supported throughout the length to prevent lateral displacement in all directions, Cp = 1.0. In
addition, the slenderness ratio, e/d, shall be based on the larger ratio in both directions, and shall not exceed 50 except that
during construction e/d shall not exceed 75.
CL: Beam Stability Factor

3
The beam stability factor is not applicable when the compression edge of a bending member is supported throughout its length
to prevent lateral displacement, and the end points of bearing have been laterally supported to prevent rotation. CL = 1.0 under
these conditions. This condition is typical for stringer applications. The beam stability factor shall not apply simultaneously
with the volume factor. Beam stability considerations for other conditions are beyond the scope of this document. The
National Design Specification (NDS) includes information on special cases.
CR: Chemical Treatment Factor 4

Glulam industry standards do not specify reductions in "dry" design values for glulam preservative treated in accordance with
AWPA Standard C28. Use of adjustments to account for wet-use in service conditions (moisture content of 16 percent or
higher) are considered adequate to include possible effect from the treating process, including incising. Fire-retardant coatings
that may be specified in accordance with Section 1.8 require no additional adjustment in design properties. Adjustment for the
tabulated design values, including connection design values, may be necessary with some fire-retardant treatments. Values for
these adjustments may be obtained from the company providing the treatment and redrying services.
2.4.1.4 Other Design Considerations
Notches and Holes
Field modifications of glulam members such as notching, tapering or drilling not shown on the design or shop drawings shall
be avoided and never done without a thorough understanding of their effects on the structural integrity of the members

Timber Structures
involved. This understanding shall include knowledge of how affected members are expected to perform in the design
application.
Notches: Notching of bending members shall be avoided whenever possible, especially on the tension faces, for both simple
span and continuous span applications. Notching of bending members on the tension face results in stress concentrations that
can induce tension perpendicular-to-grain stresses that can propagate into splits. Normal adjustments used to account for
notching in building structures are not applicable to railway bridge applications.
Horizontal Holes: Holes drilled through width of bending members should be limited to locations away from shear and
moment critical zones as determined by the design engineer. Field-drilled horizontal holes shall not be used as attachment
points for brackets or other load bearing hardware unless specifically designated in the design. Any horizontal holes required
for support of significant weight, such as water mains, must be located above the neutral axis of the member in zones stressed
to less than 50 percent of the design flexural stresses.
Vertical Holes: Vertical holes drilled through the depth of a glulam beam cause a reduction in the capacity at that location
directly proportional to the ratio of 1-1/2 times the diameter of the hole to the width of the beam. For example, a 2-inch
vertical hole drilled in a 8-3/4 inch wide beam may be assumed to reduce the allowable capacity of the beam by approximately
(2 x 1.5)/8.75 = 34%. For this reason when it is necessary to drill vertical holes in glulam bending members, the holes should
be positioned in areas of the member stressed to less than 50 percent of design stress in bending.
Holes for Support of Suspended Equipment: Heavy equipment or piping suspended from glulam beams shall be attached
such that loads are applied to the top to the member to avoid introducing tension perpendicular-to-grain stresses.
Storage & Handling: Glulam members should be stored on evenly spaced blocks to minimize ground contact and to prevent
warping or permanent-set in bending (Y-Y axis). Physical damage such as gouges and splits should be reviewed for possible
structural significance by the Engineer of Record prior to installation. Also see Article 1.3.1.10.
2.4.1.5 Connections and Fasteners
Glulam Simple or Continuous Span Bridges and Bridge Decks Panels:
Timber railway bridge components are generally designed to take high rail loads in full bearing as loads are transferred
through bridge ties to stringers, pile caps and pile ends. Where connections are used to maintain alignment and resist lateral
loads, stresses developed at the connections can be amplified by dimension changes inherent in structural components subject
to in-service cyclic wetting and drying conditions. Structural performance and serviceability of any glulam or solid sawn
timber structure is dependent on proper design of connections. Larger sizes and longer spans made possible with glulam
components make the proper detailing of connections critical. Careful consideration of moisture related expansion and
contraction characteristics of wood is essential in detailing glulam connections to prevent introducing tension perpendicular-
to-grain stresses.
Wood expands and contracts as a result of changes in its internal moisture content. While expansion in the direction parallel to
the grain in a wood member may be slight, dimensional changes in the direction perpendicular to the grain can be significant
and must be accounted for in connection design detailing. A 24 inch deep beam can decrease in depth through shrinkage by
approximately 1/4 inch as it changes from 12 to 8 percent in equilibrium moisture content. Connections should be detailed to
allow for such changes by over sizing or slotting bolt holes in steel connectors.
In addition to moisture-induced tension perpendicular-to-grain stresses, similar failures can result from a number of factors
associated with poor connection detailing. Improper beam notching, application of eccentric (out of plane) loads, and loading
beams in tension perpendicular to the wide face of the laminations can induce internal moments and tension perpendicular-to-
grain stresses.
The following seven basic principles will provide guidance for efficient, durable and structurally sound connections:
a. Transfer loads in compression/bearing whenever possible.

b. Allow for dimensional changes in the glulam due to potential in-service moisture cycling.
c. Avoid the use of details that induce tension-perpendicular-to-grain stresses.
d. Avoid moisture entrapment in connections.
e. Do not place glulam in direct contact with masonry or concrete (use steel plates at the interface).
f. Avoid eccentricity in joint details.
g. Minimize exposure of end grain.
Table 7-2-5 contains a partial list of specific gravity that may be used for connector design in accordance with the National
Design Specification (NDS) published by the American Forest and Paper Association. Also tabulated in Table 7-2-5 are
species groups for split ring and shear plate connectors.
Table 7-2-5. Specific Gravity of Lumber for Design of Connectors in Timber Structures
Species Specific Gravity Species Group for Split Ring and

Shear Plate Connectors
Alaska Cedar 0.42 C
Douglas-fir 0.50 B
Douglas-fir (North) 0.49 B 1
Engleman Spruce-Lodgepole Pine 0.38 D
Hem fir 0.43 C
Hem fir (North) 0.46 C
Mixed Oak 0.68 A
Mixed Maple 0.55 B
3
Redwood (open grain) 0.37 D
Redwood (close grain) 0.44 C
Southern Pine 0.55 B
Spruce-Pine-Fir 0.42 C
Spruce-Pine-Fir (South) 0.36 D
4
Western Hemlock 0.47 C
Western Woods 0.36 D
Glulam Trestles:
Details on connector and fastener design needed for glulam or timber trestle design require specialized application of
connection design principles. This information is covered in detail in the National Design Specification (NDS), for Wood
Construction available through the American Wood Council (www.awc.org). Details on design values for the use of bolts,
screws, nails, spikes, shear plates and split rings are provided in the NDS.
Consider the following items when determining design values for mechanically fastened joints in glulam or timber trestles:
a. Lumber species, specific gravity, dowel bearing strength
b. Critical section or net section

Timber Structures
c. Angle of load with respect to the grain
d. On center spacing and pitch spacing of fastening groups
e. Edge and end distances
f. Conditions of loading
g. Eccentricity, and
h. Adjustment factors applied to tabular design values.
Adjustment factors applicable to fasteners for trestle design may include:
Table 7-2-6. Applicable Adjustment Factors to Fasteners for Trestle Design
CD - Duration of load CS - Spacing

CM - Moisture content Cd - Depth of embedment
CT - Temperature Cg - Group action
Ce - Edge distance Cst - Steel sideplate
Cn - End distance
The tabulated design properties for connection designs in wood are tied directly to specific gravity. Species groups and
specific gravity values to be used in conjunction with the Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8 are given in Table 7-2-5.
2.4.2 DESIGN EQUATIONS (2006) R(2017)1
Equations from Articles 2.5.7, 2.5.8, and 2.5.9 are applicable to the design of glued laminated timbers. Use appropriate design
stresses from Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8.
1

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
1
Table 7-2-7. Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber - Railroad Applications
Wet-Use Allowable Design Values (6)

Bending About X-X Axis Bending About Y-Y Axis
Loaded Perpendicular to Wide Faces of Loaded Parallel to Wide Faces of Axially Loaded Fasteners
Laminations Laminations
Extreme Compression Shear Modulus Extreme Compression Shear Modulus of Tension Compression Modulus Specific Gravity for
Fiber in Perpendicular Parallel to of Fiber in Perpendicular Parallel to Elasticity Parallel to Parallel to of Dowel-Type
Bending to Grain Grain Elasticity Bending to Grain Grain Grain Grain Elasticity Fastener Design
(Horizontal) (Horizontal)

Fbx FcAAx Fvx(5) Ex F by FcAy Fvy(1)(5) Ey Ft Fc E axial
Stress Groups(4) 6 6
SG
(psi) (psi) (psi) (10 psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (10 psi) (psi) (psi) (106 psi)
16F-1.5E DF 1150 295 165 1.2 1050 295 145 1.2 650 950 1.3 0.5
16F-1.4E SP 1150 345 200 1.2 1050 345 180 1.2 675 875 1.2 0.55
20F-1.6E DF 1450 295 165 1.3 1050 295 145 1.2 700 1000 1.3 0.5
20F-1.6E SP 1450 345 200 1.2 1050 345 180 1.2 700 875 1.2 0.55
24F-1.8E DF 1750 345 200 1.5 1050 295 180 1.3 800 1100 1.4 0.5
24F-1.8E SP 1750 390 200 1.5 1250 345 180 1.3 825 1100 1.4 0.55
26F-2.0E DF (2) 1850 345 165 1.7 1250 295 145 1.5 1075 1200 1.6 0.5
26F-1.9E SP (2) 1850 390 200 1.5 1350 345 180 1.3 825 1050 1.4 0.55
30F-2.1E SP (2) (3) 2150 425 200 1.7 1250 345 180 1.4 900 1150 1.4 0.55
Recommended 0.72 0.529 0.63 0.833 0.72 0.53 0.63 0.833 0.72 0.72 0.833
Footnotes to Table 7-2-7:
(1) Design values are for timbers with laminations made from a single piece of lumber across the width or multiple pieces that have been edge bonded. For timbers manufactured from multiple piece
laminations (across width) that are not edge bonded, value shall be multiplied by 0.4 for members with 5, 7, or 9 laminations or by 0.5 for all other members.
(2) 26F and 30F beams are not produced by all manufacturers, therefore, availability may be limited. Contact supplier or manufacturer for details.
(3) 30F combinations are restricted to a maximum 6 in. nominal width.
(4) Other species combinations are available from the manufacturer. Lower strength properties may be applicable for other species mixes.
(5) The RR Use Factor is not cumulative with other shear adjustment factors applied to the listed shear values.
(6) Wane is not allowed in glued laminated timber in railway structures.
Design values in this table represent design values for groups of similar glued laminated timber combinations. Higher design values for some properties may
be obtained by specifying a particular combination listed in AITC 117-2001 Design or APA Y117. Design values are for members with 4 or more laminations.
For 2 and 3 lamination members, see Table 7-2-8 Some stress classes are not available in all species. Contact structural glued laminated timber manufacturer
for availability.

7-2-19
7-2-20
Timber Structures
Table 7-2-8. Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber -- Railroad Applications 1
(Members stressed primarily in axial tension or compression) (1) (Tabulated design values include a RR use factor of 0.9(5), in addition to factors for "WET" service conditions.
See 2.6.1.3 for a comprehensive description of design value adjustment factors.)
Wet-Use Allowable Design Values (6)
All Loading Bending about Y-Y Axis Bending About X-X Axis Fasteners
Loaded Parallel to Wide Loaded Perpendicular to Wide
Tension Compression Faces of Laminations Faces of Laminations
Parallel Parallel Shear Parallel Specific Gravity
Bending Shear Parallel to Grain(5) Bending
to Grain to Grain to Grain(5) for Dowel-Type
2 Lami- 4 or More Fastener Design
4 or More nations to Lami-
(3)
Laminations 15 in. Deep nations
for members without with

Modulus Compression 2 or More 4 or More 2 or 3 4 or More 3 2 with 4 or More 3 2 Special Special 2 or More
of Perpendicular Lami- Lami- Lami- Lami- Lami- Lami- multiple piece Lami- Lami- Lami- Tension Tension Lami-
(2)
Elasticity to Grain nations nations nations nations nations nations laminations nations nations nations Lams Lams(4) nations
E FcAA Ft Fc Fc Fby Fby Fby Fvy Fvy Fvy Fvy Fbx Fbx Fvx
SG
Stress Group Species Grade (106 psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi)
DF1 DF L3 1.2 295 650 1150 900 1050 900 725 70 145 140 125 900 1100 165 0.50
DF2 DF L2 1.3 295 900 1450 1200 1300 1150 925 70 145 140 125 1200 1450 165 0.50
DF3 DF L2D 1.5 345 1050 1700 1400 1500 1350 1100 70 145 140 125 1450 1650 165 0.50
DF5 DF L1 1.6 345 1150 1800 1550 1750 1500 1300 70 145 140 125 1600 1750 165 0.50
AC70 AC L2 1.1 250 700 1100 1100 1000 900 725 70 145 140 125 975 1100 165 0.46
SP47 SP N2M 1.1 345 875 1400 850 1250 1100 925 85 160 160 140 1000 1150 190 0.55
SP48 SP N2D 1.4 390 1000 1650 1000 1450 1300 1100 85 160 160 140 1150 1350 190 0.55
SP49 SP N1M 1.4 345 975 1550 1100 1400 1250 1100 85 160 160 140 1300 1500 190 0.55
SP50 SP N1D 1.5 390 1100 1700 1250 1650 1500 1250 85 160 160 140 1500 1750 190 0.55
Allowable Increases for Dry-Use 1.25 1.89 1.25 1.20 1.20 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.25 1.25 1.14
Footnotes to Table 7-2-8:

(1) Design values in this table are for combinations conforming to AITC 117-2001 Design or APA Y117 and manufactured in accordance with American National Standard ANSI/AITC A190.1-2002.
(2) Values apply to members manufactured using multiple piece laminations with unbonded edge joints. For members with 5, 7, or 9 laminations, value shall be reduced by 20%.
(3) For members greater than 15 in. deep, values shall be reduced by multiplying by a factor of 0.88.
(4) These design values require the use of special tension laminations. If these design values are used, the designer shall specify the required design value as well as the stress group.
(5) The RR Use Factor is not cumulative with other shear adjustment factors applied to the listed shear values.
(6) Wane is not allowed in glued laminated timber in railway structures.
Note: For RR tie applications, Combinations DF3, DF5, SP48 & SP50 are recommended.

SECTION 2.5 ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES FOR STRESS-GRADED LUMBER
2.5.1 WORKING UNIT STRESSES (1988) R(2017)1
a. Working unit stresses to be used for design shall be those shown in Table 7-2-9 for the appropriate condition of use and
species.
b. In locations of more extreme exposure than “occasionally wet but quickly dried,” and where serious depreciation is
more apt to occur, a further reduction in the working stresses for extreme fiber and compression should be made.
c. Where timber is treated by creosoting or other process rendering it decay resistant, the working stresses for
continuously dry may be used except in compression perpendicular to the grain and for joists and planks continuously
submerged.
2.5.2 FORM FACTOR (1988) R(2017)
The size and shape of a beam affects the modulus of rupture. This effect is called the form factor. A factor of 0.90 has been
assumed in arriving at allowable stresses, so that for rectangular beams of ordinary size no form factor need be figured. The
form factor for beams of all sizes and for round and box or I-section are given in the Wood Handbook.
2.5.3 DEFLECTION, PERMANENT SET (1988) R(2017)
The modulus of elasticity given in Table 7-2-9 gives the deflection which will occur immediately on application of load. Under 1
long continued load there will be an additional sag or permanent set which will be approximately equal to the elastic
deflection.
2.5.4 COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN OR CENTRALLY LOADED COLUMNS (2009)

R(2017)
a. Stress values in Table 7-2-9 are to be used for posts and struts where the unsupported length is not greater than 11 times 3
the least dimension, and for end bearing of compression members.
L
b. For columns where --- is more than 11, the allowed working stresses are:
d
P 1 L 4
---- = c 1 – ---  ------- for L/d less than K
A 3  Kd 4
P 0.274E
---- = ----------------- for L/d greater than K
A L 2
 --- -
 D
E  E
K = 0.641 --- or K = --- ------
c 2 6c
where:
P = total load in pounds
1

Timber Structures
A = area in square inches

c = working unit stress in compression parallel to the grain for short columns
L = unsupported length in inches
d = least dimension in inches (also see Article 2.5.14)
E = modulus of elasticity (Table 7-2-10)
P
Table 7-2-10, gives values of allowed ----
A
L
Columns should be limited to --- = 50
d
2.5.5 BEARING (1988) R(2017)
a. The working stresses for compression perpendicular to grain apply to bearings 6 inches or more in length located
anywhere in the length of a timber and to bearings of any length at the ends of beams or other members. For bearings
shorter than 6 inches located 3 inches or more from the end of a timber the stresses may be increased in accordance
with the following factors:
Length of bearing, inches 1/2 1 1-1/2 2 3 4 6

Factor of increase 1.75 1.38 1.25 1.19 1.13 1.10 1.00
b. For stress under a washer or other round bearing area, the same factor may be taken as for a bearing whose length
equals the diameter of the washer.
2.5.6 ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES FOR STRESS-GRADED LUMBER (2012)
2.5.6.1 Working Stresses (2012)1
Recommended working unit stresses for most commercial stress-grades of lumber have been determined in accordance with
the principles set forth in the ASTM D245 for several conditions of use.
1

Table 7-2-9. Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber – Railroad Loading (Visual Grading)1
(See Notes)
Railroad values wet conditions (over 19% MC)

Grading
Size
Grade Fb Ft Fc Fc E Agency
Classification Fv psi
ksi Rules
psi psi psi psi
Eastern Spruce
Select Str. Beams and 945 565 115 235 615 1400
No. 1 Stringers 810 385 115 235 510 1400
Select Str. 880 610 120 235 635 1400
Posts and Timbers
No. 1 720 495 120 135 555 1400
Select Str. 995 520 120 200 865 1170
No. 1 670 360 120 200 755 1080 NELMA
2” to 4” thick
No. 2 by 2” and wider 595 315 120 200 720 990
No. 3 (use dimension 345 180 120 200 520 900
Construction lumber adjustment 670 360 120 200 865 900
factors)
Standard 385 205 120 200 720 810
Stud 460 250 120 200 565** 900
Hem-Fir
No. 1 Stringers 945 475 125 245 615 1300
Select Str. 1080 720 125 245 800 1300 1
Posts and Timbers
No. 1 880 585 125 245 695 1300
Select Str. 1070 835 130 245 1080 1440
No. 1 & better 840 655 130 245 970 1350 WCLIB
No. 1 2” to 4” thick 750 565 130 245 970 1350 WWPA
No. 2 by 2” and wider 650 475 130 245 935 1170
(use dimension
No. 3 lumber adjustment 385 270 130 245 655** 1080 3
Construction factors) 750 540 130 245 1115 1170
Standard 420 295 130 245 935 1080
Stud 520 360 130 245 720** 1080
1 See
Part 6 Commentary.

Timber Structures
(Continued)

Grading
Size
ksi Rules
psi psi psi psi
Douglas-fir (See Note 4)

Dense Select Structural 1710 990 150* 440 1065 1700
Select Struct. Beams and 1440 855 150* 380 900 1600
Dense No. 1 Stringers 1395 700 150* 440 900 1700
No. 1 1215 610 150* 380 760 1600
Select Struct. 1350 900 150* 565 1035 1600
Posts and Timbers
Dense No. 1 1260 855 150* 655 1080 1700
No. 1 1080 745 150* 565 900 1600 WCLIB
WWPA
Select Struct. 1150 900 155 380 1225 1710 NLGA
No. 1 & better 920 720 155 380 1115 1620
No. 1 2” to 4” thick 765 610 155 380 1080 1530
No. 2 by 2” and wider 690 520 155 380 970 1440
(use dimension
No. 3 lumber adjustment 405 295 155 380 700** 1260
Construction factors) 765 585 155 380 1190 1350
Standard 440 340 155 380 1010 1260
Stud 535 405 155 380 610 1260
1 See
Part 6 Commentary.

(Continued)

Grading
Size
ksi Rules
psi psi psi psi
Southern Pine
Select Struct. 1350 900 150* 340 855 1500
No. 1 Dense 1395 945 150* 395 880 1600
5” x 5” and larger
No. 1 1215 810 150* 340 745 1500
No. 2 Dense 880 585 150* 395 565 1300
No. 2 765 495 150* 340 475 1200
Dense Select Structural 2335 1485 135 400 1620 1710
Select Struct. 2180 1440 135 340 1510 1620
No. 1 Dense 1530 990 135 400 1440 1620
2” to 4” thick and
No. 1 1415 945 135 340 1330 1530
2” to 4” wide
No. 2 Dense 1300 790 135 400 1330 1530
No. 2 1150 745 135 340 1190 1440
Nol 3 & stud 765 430 135 340 700 1260
Select Struct. 1950 1260 135 340 1440 1620
No. 1 Dense 1340 855 135 400 1370 1620
1
No. 1 1260 810 135 340 1260 1530
5” to 6” wide
No. 2 Dense 1110 700 135 400 1260 1530
No. 2 955 655 135 340 1150 1440
Nol 3 & stud 675 385 135 340 665 1260
Dense Select Structural 1875 1215 135 400 1475 1710 SPIB
Select Struct. 1760 1170 135 340 1370 1620
3
No. 1 Dense 1260 790 135 400 1295 1620
No. 1 1150 745 135 340 1190 1530
8” wide
No. 2 Dense 1070 610 135 400 1225 1530
No. 2 920 585 135 340 1115 1440
Nol 3 & stud 630 360 135 340 630 1260
4
Select Struct. 1570 990 135 340 1330 1620
No. 1 Dense 1110 700 135 400 1260 1620
No. 1 995 655 135 340 1150 1530
10” wide
No. 2 Dense 920 565 135 400 1190 1530
No. 2 945 520 135 340 1080 1440
Nol 3 & stud 540 295 135 340 610 1260
Select Struct. 1455 945 135 340 1295 1620
No. 1 Dense 1035 655 135 400 1225 1620
No. 1 955 610 135 340 1150 1530
12” wide
No. 2 Dense 1035 520 135 400 1150 1530
No. 2 880 495 135 340 1045 1440
Nol 3 & stud 520 295 135 340 745** 1260
1 See
Part 6 Commentary.

Timber Structures
(Continued)

Grading
Size
ksi Rules
psi psi psi psi
Mixed Maple
No. 1 Stringers 710 485 145 375 530 1100
Select Str. 890 590 145 375 615 1100
Posts and Timbers
No. 1 710 485 145 375 530 1100
Select Str. 765 540 170 540 630 1170
No. 1 555 385 170 540 630** 1080 NELMA
No. 2 2” to 4” thick by 2” 535 385 170 540 495** 990
and wider (use
No. 3 305 225 170 540 295** 900
dimension lumber
Construction adjustment factors) 610 430 170 540 655** 990
Standard 345 250 170 540 520** 900
Stud 420 295 170 540 315** 900
Red Oak
No. 1 Stringers 1035 495 140 495 575 1200
Select Str. 1125 765 140 495 715 1200
Posts and Timbers
No. 1 900 610 140 495 635 1200
Select Str. 880 610 150 495 720 1260
No. 1 630 450 150 495 745** 1170 NELMA
No. 2 2” to 4” thick by 2” 610 430 150 495 565** 1080
and wider (use
No. 3 365 250 150 495 340** 990
dimension lumber
Construction adjustment factors) 710 495 150 495 610** 1080
Standard 400 270 150 495 585** 990
Stud 480 340 150 495 360** 990
1 See
Part 6 Commentary.

Table 7-2-9. Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber – Railroad
Loading (Visual Grading)11 (Continued)
* : 150 psi value was derived from AAR beam fatigue tests
Note 1: Abbreviations used in this table are as follows:

NELMA – Northeastern Lumber Manufacturers Association, Inc.
NLGA - National Lumber Grades Authority
SPIB – Southern Pine Inspection Bureau
WCLIB – West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau
WWPA – Western Wood Products Association
Fb – Unit Stress in Extreme Fiber in Bending
Ft – Unit Stress in Tension Parallel to the Grain
Fv – Unit Stress in Horizontal Shear
Fc – Unit Stress in Compression Perpendicular to the Grain
Fc – Unit Stress in Compression Parallel to the Grain
E – Modulus of Elasticity
Str. – Structural
MC – Moisture Content
Note 2: Conditions of use where the moisture content will not exceed 19%, the tabulated values above may be multiplied by
the following factors:
Dry use Factor: Cm

for 5” and Thicker Lumber for Nominal 2” to 4” Thick Lumber 1
Fb Ft Fv Fc Fc E Fb Ft Fv Fc Fc E
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.49 1.10 1.00 1.18 1.00 1.03 1.49 1.25 1.11
do not adjust values with ** next to them
Note 3: For Beams & Stringers, Posts & Timbers, and Southern Pine sections 5” and wider, when the depth of the member
3
exceeds 12” the tabulated bending design stresses, Fb, shall be multiplied by the following size factor: Cr = (12/d)1/9
Note 4: Douglas-fir South, Inland Douglas-fir and Douglas-fir-/Western Larch are not deemed appropriate for outdoor
Railway use.
Note 5: Southern Yellow Pine Grades Dense Structural 86, 72 and 65 are no longer recommended (see commentary).
1 See
Part 6 Commentary.

Timber Structures
Table 7-2-9. Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber – Railroad Loading
(Visual Grading)11 (Continued)
Note 6: For all species except Southern Pine, the tabulated bending, tension, and compression parallel to grain design values
for dimension lumber 2” to 4” thick shall be multiplied by the following size factors:
Size Factors: Cf
Fb Ft Fc
Thickness
Grade Width 2” & 3” 4”
2”, 3” & 4” 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.15
5” 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.1
Select Structural
No. 1 & Btr. 6” 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1
No. 1, No. 2 8” 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.05
No. 3 10” 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.0
12” 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0
14” and up 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.90
2”, 3” & 4” 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.05
Stud 5” & 6” 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
8” and up Use No. 3 Grade design values and Cf
Construction, Standard 2”, 3” & 4” 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Note 7: The design values for dimension lumber 2” to 4” thick are based on edge-wise use. When such lumber is used flat-
wise, the design values for extreme fiber in bending for all species may be multiplied by the following factors:
Width Thickness
2” & 3” 4 inch
2” & 3” 1.0 ~
4” 1.1 1.0
5” 1.1 1.05
6” 1.15 1.05
8” 1.15 1.05
10” & up 1.2 1.1
Note 8: The design values for beams and stringers are based on edge-wise use. When such lumber is used flat-wise, the
design values for extreme fiber bending and modulus of elasticity for all species except Southern Pine shall be
multiplied by the following factors:
Grade Fb E
Select 0.86 1.00
Structural
No. 1 0.74 0.90
Note 9: Grading restrictions for beams and stringers shall apply over the entire length of each piece. This will make each
piece suitable for use in simple spans as well as over 2 or more continuous spans or under concentrated loads without
the necessity of making special shear or other special stress requirements.
Note 10: For normal conditions other than railroad loading, allowable unit stresses may be multiplied by 1.11 for Fb , Ft , Fv ,
Fc, and Fc. E shall remain unchanged.

Table 7-2-10. Unit Compression (Column) Stresses for Standard Stress Grades
Short Stress at Ratio of Length to Least Dimension (L/d)

Modulus of
Column K
Elasticity 11 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Stress
1,300,000 20.3 1300 1247 1203 1132 1032 892 570 396 291 223 176 142
1300
1,600,000 22.5 1300 1265 1235 1190 1123 1030 701 487 358 274 216 175
1,200,000 20.3 1200 1151 1110 1045 953 823 526 365 268 206 162 132
1,300,000 21.1 1200 1158 1122 1068 989 827 570 396 291 223 176 142
1200
1,500,000 22.7 1200 1169 1142 1102 1042 959 658 457 336 257 203 164
1,600,000 23.4 1200 1172 1148 1112 1060 986 701 487 358 274 216 175
1,200,000 21.2 1100 1063 1031 981 910 810 526 365 268 206 162 132
1,300,000 22.1 1100 1068 1041 999 938 854 570 396 291 223 176 142

1100
1,500,000 23.7 1100 1076 1055 1024 978 914 658 457 336 257 203 164
1,600,000 24.4 1100 1078 1060 1032 991 935 701 487 358 274 216 175
1,200,000 22.2 1000 972 947 910 856 780 526 365 268 206 162 132
1,300,000 23.1 1000 976 955 923 877 813 570 396 291 223 176 142
1000
1,500,000 24.8 1000 982 966 942 908 859 658 457 336 257 203 164
1,600,000 25.6 1000 984 970 948 918 876 697 487 358 274 216 175
1,000,000 21.4 900 870 845 806 750 674 438 304 224 171 135 110
900 1,200,000 23.4 900 879 861 834 795 740 526 365 268 206 162 132
1,600,000 27.0 900 888 878 863 841 810 680 487 358 274 216 175
800 1,000,000 22.7 800 779 762 734 694 639 438 304 224 171 135 110
7-2-29
Timber Structures
2.5.7 BEARING AT ANGLE TO GRAIN (1988) R(2017)
a. Allowed bearing stresses on surfaces at an angle to the direction of the grain, may be taken from the following formula:
PQ
N = --------------------------------------------
P sin 2  + Q cos 2 
where:
N = Unit compressive stress in a direction at inclination with the direction of the grain
P = Unit stress in compression parallel to the grain – Table 7-2-7
Q = Unit stress in compression perpendicular to the grain – Table 7-2-9
 = Angle between the grain and the normal to the inclined surface
b. The chart shown in Appendix 1 - Contemporary Designs and Design Aids, Figure 7-A1-24 gives a graphical solution.
2.5.8 COMBINED AXIAL AND BENDING LOADS (1988) R(2017)
a. The general formulas for safe eccentric or combined bending and end loadings of square or rectangular wood columns
are:
P 6e M zP P
----  ------ + ----- + ------ ----
  A- = 1
A d S A- + ---
---------------------------------------- for columns with L
--- of 11 or less, and
f C d
P-  15e P
--- --------- + M ----- + zP ------ ----
  A- = 1
A 2d S A- + ---
------------------------------------------- for columns with L
--- of 20 or more
P c d
f – ----
A
where:
P
---- = average compressive stress induced by axial load.
A
M
----- = flexural stress induced by side loads.
S
z = ratio of flexural to average compressive stress when both result from the same loading, so that the ratio
remains constant while the load varies.
e = eccentricity of axial load.
d = width of column, measured in the direction of side loads and eccentricity. This is the depth to use in
computing the flexural stress.
f = allowable working unit stress for extreme fiber in bending.
c = allowable unit stress for the member if used as a centrally loaded column.

L
b. Stresses for columns with --- between 11 and 20 are determined by straight-line interpolation between the formula for a
d
L
--- of 11 and the formula for a L
--- of 20.
d d
c. Where side loads are such that maximum deflection and flexural stress do not occur at mid-length of the column, it is
M
generally satisfactory to consider ----- as the maximum flexural stress due to the load or loads, regardless of its position
S
in the length of the column.
d. A more detailed discussion may be found in U.S. Forest Products Laboratory Report No. R 1782, Formulas for
Columns with Side Loads and Eccentricity.
2.5.9 HORIZONTAL SHEAR (2015)
a. The following procedure shall be used for horizontal shear at the neutral plane:
3V-
S = --------
2bh
where:
S = Maximum unit shear stress in pounds per square inch

1
V = Maxiumum shear in pounds
b = Breadth of beam in inches
h = Height of beam in inches
b. The results obtained must not exceed the allowable unit shear stress. An exception may be made for structural ties 3
where the clear overhang beyond the outer edge of the flange is greater than 1.5 the depth of the tie. In this case, the
allowable shear stress may be 4/3 that given in Tables 7-2-7, 7-2-8 and 7-2-9.
c. In calculating the maximum shear, V, use the following rules:
(1) V shall be calculated at a distance away from the face of support equal to the height of the beam.
4
(2) Neglect all loads within the height of the beam from the face of the support.
(3) Moving loads shall be placed such that they will produce the maximum value for V.
(4) When a beam spans continuously over one or more supports, continuity shall be considered when calculating V.
(5) Take into account any relief to the beam under consideration resulting from the loading being distributed to
adjacent parallel beams by flooring or other members of the construction.
2.5.10 NOTCHED BEAMS (2016)1
a. Notches should be avoided whenever practical.
1

Timber Structures
b. Notches on the compression face (top) of a simply supported beam/chord ply are allowed in the end 1/3 of the span if
the reactions are computed by the formula in “d” below.
c. Notches are not allowed in the top of continuous beams/chord plies at interior supports. Notches on the top face of
exterior supports (end bents) may be treated the same as simple spans in “b” above.
d. Notches on the tension face (bottom) are only allowed at bearing points when the allowable end reactions for
beams/chord plies are computed by the following formula:
2
2b cq-
R = --------------
3d
where:
b = Width
c = Depth of beam at the notched section
d = Total depth of beam
q = Working unit stress in horizontal shear
R = Allowable end reaction
e. For solid sawn timber the maximum depth of a tension face notch is the lesser of 25% of the member depth or 3”.
Notches are not allowed in both the top and bottom sides of a member at the same support.
2.5.11 SHEARING STRESS (1988) R(2017)
The allowable shearing stress for joint details shall be taken at 50 percent greater than the values for horizontal shear in
Table 7-2-9.
2.5.12 BEARING ON BOLTS (1988) R(2017)
a. Working unit stresses for timber bearing on bolts may be taken as the product of the following factors:
• Basic unit stress for bearing, Table 7-2-11.
• Factor based on L/d ratio of bolt, Table 7-2-12.
• For bearing perpendicular to the grain only, a factor as follows:
Diameter of bolt, inches 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 1-3/4 2 2-1/2 3
Diameter factor 1.95 1.68 1.52 1.41 1.33 1.27 1.19 1.14 1.10 1.07 1.03 1
b. Bolts acting at an angle with the grain shall be allowed bearing values by the formula in Article 2.5.7, where P and Q
are allowed bearing values computed for the L/d ratio of the bolt. Table 7-2-13 shows bearing values for bolts for the
most common condition of exposure occasionally wet but quickly dried. For locations continuously dry, use 4/3 the
values in the table, and for locations damp or wet most of the time, use 8/9 the values in the table.

Table 7-2-11. Basic Unit Stresses for Bearing on Bolts
Basic Unit Stress

Group Species of Wood Parallel with Perpendicular
Grain to Grain
Softwoods (Conifers)
1 Hemlock, Eastern 800 150
Cedar, Port Orford and Western Red; Douglas-fir,
2 1000 200
Inland
Cypress, Southern; Douglas-fir, Coast; Pine, Southern;
3 1300 275
Redwood
Hardwoods (Broad Leaved)
1 Chestnut 925 175
2 Elm, soft; Gum, Black and Red; Tupelo 1200 250
Ash, white; Beech; Birch; Elm, Rock; Maple, hard;
3 1500 400
Oak, red, white
Note: Above values are for continuously dry location.
For occasionally wet but quickly dried, use 3/4 of values in table.
For damp or wet most of the time, use 2/3 of values in table.
1
Table 7-2-12. Percentage of Basic Stress for Various L/d Values
Parallel with Grain Perpendicular to Grain

Length Common Bolts High Strength Bolts Common Bolts
----------------------------
Diameter
Conifers 3
L Hard- High
--- Conifers Group 3
d Group Group Group Group Group Group Group woods Strength
Group Hard-
Ratio 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 Group Bolts All
2 woods
3 Groups
Group 2
1 to 2 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
3 100 100 99.0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 4
4 99.5 97.4 92.5 100 100 99.0 100 100 100 100 100
5 95.4 88.3 80.0 100 99.8 96.0 100 100 100 100 100
6 85.6 75.8 67.2 100 95.4 89.5 100 100 100 96.3 100
7 73.4 65.0 57.6 95.8 88.8 81.0 100 100 97.3 86.9 100
8 64.2 56.9 50.4 39.3 81.2 73.0 100 96.1 88.1 75.0 100
9 57.1 50.6 44.8 82.5 74.2 66.4 94.6 86.3 76.7 64.6 97.7
10 51.4 45 5 40.3 75.8 68.0 60.2 85.0 76.2 67.2 55.4 90.0
11 46.7 41.4 36.6 69.7 61.9 54.8 76.1 67.6 59.3 48.4 81.5
12 42.8 37.9 33.6 64.0 56.7 50.2 68.6 61.0 52.0 42.5 73.6
13 39.5 35.0 31.0 59.1 52.4 46.3 62.2 55.3 45.9 37.5 66.9

Timber Structures
Table 7-2-12. Percentage of Basic Stress for Various L/d Values
Parallel with Grain Perpendicular to Grain

Length Common Bolts High Strength Bolts Common Bolts
----------------------------
Diameter
Conifers
L Hard- High
--- Conifers Group 3
d Group Group Group Group Group Group Group woods Strength
Group Hard-
Ratio 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 Group Bolts All
2 woods
3 Groups
Group 2
Note: The above values are for joints with metal plates. (View a) Where wood splice plates
are used, each one-half of thickness of main timber, (View b) use 80 percent of tabular
value for bearing parallel with grain; no reduction for bearing perpendicular to grain.
Common bolts: yield point about 45,000 pounds per square inch.
High strength bolts: yield point about 125,000 pounds per square inch.
L = length of bolt in main timber in inches.
d = diameter of bolt in inches.

Table 7-2-13. Bearing Value for Bolts

Allowable Load per Bolt for Timber Bearing on Common Bolts with Wood Side Plates
(For timber occasionally wet but quickly dried.)
Softwoods (Conifers) Hardwoods (Broad Leaved)

Length of Bolt in Main Member L, inches
Projected Area of Bolt, square inches

Group 3
Group 2 Group 3
Ash, White;
Cedar, Port Cypress, Group 2
Diameter of Bolt, inches
Beech,
Group 1 Orford and Southern; Elm, Soft;
Group 1 Birch, Elm,
Hemlock, Western Douglas-fir, Gum, Black
Chestnut Rock;
Eastern Red; Coast; Pine, and Red;
Maple,
Douglas-fir, Southern; Tupelo
L/D
Hard; Oak,
Inland Redwood
Red, White
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
1/2 3.3 0.813 150 390 200 480 280 620 180 450 260 580 410 710
5/8 2.6 1.016 170 490 230 610 320 790 200 560 290 730 460 910
1-5/8 3/4 2.2 1.219 190 590 260 730 350 950 230 680 320 880 520 1090
1
7/8 1.9 1.422 210 680 280 850 390 1110 250 790 350 1020 570 1280
1 1.6 1.625 230 780 310 970 430 1270 270 900 390 1170 620 1460
1/2 4.0 1.000 190 480 250 580 350 720 220 550 310 700 500 830
5/8 3.2 1.250 210 600 280 750 390 950 250 690 360 900 570 1100
2 3/4 2.7 1.500 240 720 320 900 440 1160 280 830 400 1080 630 1340
3
7/8 2.3 1.750 260 840 350 1050 480 1360 310 970 440 1260 700 1570
1 2.0 2.000 290 960 380 1200 520 1560 330 1110 480 1440 760 1800
1/2 5.3 1.313 250 580 330 670 450 780 290 670 410 800 650 900
5/8 4.2 1.641 280 780 370 940 510 1150 330 900 470 1130 750 1320
2-5/8 3/4 3.5 1.969 310 940 420 1170 570 1470 360 1090 520 1400 830 1700 4
7/8 3.0 2.297 340 1100 460 1380 630 1770 400 1270 570 1650 920 2050
1 2.6 2.625 380 1260 500 1570 690 2040 440 1460 630 1890 1000 2350
1/2 6.0 1.500 280 610 380 680 520 790 330 710 470 820 730 910
5/8 4.8 1.875 320 870 430 1010 590 1210 370 1000 530 1220 860 1390
3 3/4 4.0 2.250 360 1070 480 1310 650 1620 420 1240 590 1580 950 1870
7/8 3.4 2.625 390 1260 520 1560 720 1970 460 1450 650 1870 1050 2280
1 3.0 3.000 430 1440 570 1800 790 2320 500 1660 710 2160 1140 2670
See Table 7-2-13 footnotes on Page 7-2-78

Timber Structures
Table 7-2-13. Bearing Value for Bolts (Continued)


Projected Area of Bolt, square inches Group 3

Group 2 Group 3
Ash, White;
Beech,
Group 1 Birch, Elm,
Chestnut Rock;
Maple,
L/D
Hard; Oak,
Inland Redwood
Red, White
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
1/2 7.3 1.813 340 610 450 680 590 790 400 710 540 820 760 910
5/8 5.8 2.266 390 950 520 1060 710 1230 450 1100 650 1280 1000 1420
3-5/8 3/4 4.8 2.719 430 1260 580 1470 790 1750 500 1450 720 1760 1150 2020
7/8 4.1 3.172 470 1510 630 1840 870 2260 550 1740 790 2200 1270 2610
1 3.6 3.625 520 1730 690 2140 950 2690 600 2010 860 2570 1380 3100
1/2 8.0 2.000 380 610 480 680 610 790 440 710 550 820 760 910
5/8 6.4 2.500 430 960 570 1070 780 1260 500 1120 700 1290 1060 1420
4 3/4 5.3 3.000 480 1330 630 1520 870 1770 560 1540 790 1830 1250 2060
7/8 4.6 3.500 520 1630 700 1930 960 2320 610 1890 870 2320 1400 2680
1 4.0 4.000 570 1910 760 2340 1050 2890 670 2210 950 2810 1520 3330
1/2 9.0 2.250 400 610 490 680 600 790 470 710 540 820 730 910
5/8 7.2 2.813 480 960 640 1070 840 1230 560 1120 770 1290 1080 1420
3/4 6.0 3.375 540 1390 710 1530 980 1770 620 1600 890 1840 1370 2060
4-1/2
7/8 5.1 3.938 590 1780 790 2060 1080 2440 690 2060 980 2470 1570 2790
1 4.5 4.500 640 2100 860 2510 1180 3040 750 2430 1070 3010 1710 3490
1-1/8 4.0 5.063 700 2420 930 2960 1280 3650 820 2800 1170 3550 1860 4220
1/2 10.0 2.500 400 610 480 680 580 790 470 710 530 820 700 910
5/8 8.0 3.125 530 960 670 1070 860 1230 620 1120 780 1290 1070 1420
3/4 6.7 3.750 590 1390 790 1540 1070 1770 690 1600 970 1840 1420 2060
5
7/8 5.7 4.375 650 1860 870 2090 1200 2400 760 2150 1090 2510 1700 2790
1 5.0 5.000 710 2290 950 2650 1310 3120 830 2650 1190 3180 1910 3600
1-1/8 4.4 5.625 780 2640 1040 3160 1430 3840 910 3060 1300 3800 2080 4430




Group 3
Group 2 Group 3
Ash, White;
Beech,
Group 1 Birch, Elm,
Chestnut Rock;
Maple,
L/D
Hard; Oak,
Inland Redwood
Red, White
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
5/8 8.8 3.438 560 960 690 1070 850 1230 650 1120 770 1290 1050 1420
3/4 7.3 4.125 650 1390 860 1540 1130 1770 760 1600 1030 1840 1450 2060
5-1/2 7/8 6.3 4.813 720 1880 960 2090 1310 2400 840 2190 1190 2510 1800 2790
1
1 5.5 5.500 790 2390 1050 2710 1440 3150 920 2760 1310 3250 2060 3640
1-1/8 4.9 6.188 860 2850 1140 3310 1570 3920 1000 3290 1430 3980 2280 4520
5/8 9.6 3.750 570 960 690 1070 830 1230 660 1120 760 1290 1010 1420
3/4 8.0 4.500 710 1390 910 1540 1150 1770 830 1600 1050 1840 1430 2060
6 7/8 6.9 5.250 790 1880 1050 2090 1410 2400 920 2190 1280 2510 1840 2790
3
1 6.0 6.000 860 2470 1140 2730 1570 3150 1000 2860 1430 3270 2200 3640
1-1/8 5.3 6.750 930 3000 1250 3420 1710 3980 1090 3460 1560 4110 2460 4630
5/8 10.4 4.063 570 960 670 1070 820 1230 660 1120 740 1290 970 1420
3/4 8.7 4.875 740 1390 920 1540 1140 1770 860 1600 1030 1840 1400 2060
6-1/2 7/8 7.4 5.688 850 1880 1120 2090 1460 2400 990 2190 1330 2510 1860 2790 4
1 6.5 6.500 930 2470 1240 2730 1680 3150 1080 2860 1530 3270 2270 3640
1-1/8 5.8 7.313 1010 3070 1350 3440 1860 3980 1180 3550 1690 4120 2620 4630
5/8 11.2 4.375 560 960 660 1070 790 1230 650 1120 720 1290 940 1420
3/4 9.3 5.250 760 1390 920 1540 1130 1770 890 1600 1020 1840 1370 2060
7 7/8 8.0 6.125 920 1880 1170 2090 1480 2400 1070 2190 1350 2510 1830 2790
1 7.0 7.000 1000 2470 1330 2730 1780 3150 1170 2860 1620 3270 2320 3640
1-1/8 6.2 7.875 1090 3120 1450 3460 1990 3980 1270 3630 1810 4180 2740 4630

Timber Structures


Projected Area of Bolt, square inches Group 3

Group 2 Group 3
Ash, White;
Beech,
Group 1 Birch, Elm,
Chestnut Rock;
Maple,
L/D
Hard; Oak,
Inland Redwood
Red, White
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
5/8 12.0 4.688 550 960 650 1070 760 1230 640 1120 690 1290 910 1420
3/4 10.0 5.625 760 1390 910 1540 1100 1770 880 1600 1000 1840 1320 2060
7-1/2 7/8 8.6 6.563 950 1880 1180 2090 1460 2400 1110 2190 1330 2510 1800 2790
1 7.5 7.500 1070 2470 1400 2730 1820 3150 1250 2860 1660 3270 2310 3640
1-1/8 6.7 8.438 1170 3120 1560 3460 2100 3980 1360 3630 1910 4180 2790 4630
5/8 12.8 5.000 540 960 640 1070 740 1230 630 1120 670 1290 880 1420
3/4 10.7 6.000 750 1390 890 1540 1080 1770 870 1600 980 1840 1280 2060
7/8 9.1 7.000 980 1880 1190 2090 1450 2400 1140 2190 1320 2510 1780 2790
8
1 8.0 8.000 1140 2470 1460 2730 1850 3150 1330 2860 1680 3270 2290 3640
1-1/8 7.1 9.000 1250 3120 1650 3460 2200 3980 1450 3630 2000 4180 2850 4630
1-1/4 6.4 10.000 1340 3850 1780 4270 2430 4920 1560 4480 2210 5130 3300 5700
3/4 12.7 7.125 720 1390 860 1540 990 1770 850 1600 900 1840 1180 2060
7/8 10.9 8.313 960 1880 1140 2090 1370 2400 1120 2190 1250 2510 1630 2790
9-1/2 1 9.5 9.500 1220 2470 1470 2730 1790 3150 1420 2860 1630 3270 2170 3640
1-1/8 8.4 10.688 1450 3120 1820 3460 2270 3980 1690 3630 2060 4180 2790 4630
1-1/4 7.6 11.875 1590 3850 2070 4270 2670 4920 1850 4480 2430 5130 3380 5700
7/8 11.4 8.750 960 1880 1130 2090 1350 2400 1120 2190 1230 2510 1610 2790
1 10.0 10.000 1210 2470 1450 2730 1760 3150 1410 2860 1600 3270 2110 3640
10
1-1/8 8.9 11.250 1480 3120 1810 3460 2220 3980 1720 3630 2020 4180 2720 4630
1-1/4 8.0 12.500 1670 3850 2140 4270 2700 4920 1950 4480 2460 5130 3350 5700
1 11 5 11.500 1190 2470 1410 2730 1680 3150 1390 2860 1520 3270 1990 3640
11-1/2 1-1/8 10.2 12.938 1490 3120 1780 3460 2150 3980 1740 3630 1960 4180 2580 4630
1-1/4 9.2 14.375 1780 3850 2160 4270 2640 4920 2080 4480 2400 5130 3220 5700




Group 3
Group 2 Group 3
Ash, White;
Beech,
Group 1 Birch, Elm,
Chestnut Rock;
Maple,
L/D
Hard; Oak,
Inland Redwood
Red, White
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Parallel to
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, Q
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
Grain, P
1 12.0 12.000 1180 2470 1390 2730 1630 3150 1370 2860 1490 3270 1940 3650
12 1-1/8 10.7 13.500 1470 3120 1750 3460 2110 3980 1710 3630 1920 4180 2520 4630
1-1/4 9.6 15.000 1780 3850 2150 4270 2610 4920 2080 4480 2380 5130 3160 5700
1
References, Vol. 51, 1950, p. 433; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 428, 847.
Table 7-2-13 tabulated values are for joints when two wood side plates are used, each side plate one-half the thickness of the
main member:
a. If either side plate is thicker than one-half the thickness of the main member, no increase in the tabulated value is
permissible.
b. When one or both side plates are thinner than one-half the thickness of the main member, use tabulated value indicated for
3
a main member twice as thick as the thinnest side plate.
c. When a joint consists of two members only (bolt in single shear) of equal thickness, use one-half the tabulated value for a
main member twice the thickness of one of the members.
d. When a joint consists of two members only of unequal thickness, use one-half the tabulated value for a main member
twice as thick as the thinnest member.
4

Timber Structures
2.5.13 CONNECTORS (1988) R(2017)
Where metal connectors are used, working values may be taken as those recommended in the National Design Specification.
2.5.14 ROUND SECTIONS (1988) R(2017)
a. The strength, stiffness, and horizontal shearing value in bending of round timbers of any species may be assumed to be
identical with that of square timbers of the same grade and cross-sectional area. Tapered timbers should be assumed as
of uniform diameter, the point of measurement being one-third the span from the small end, but the diameter should not
be assumed to be more than 1-1/2 times the small end diameter.
b. The strength of round columns may be considered the same as that of square columns of the same cross-sectional area.
In long tapered columns the strength may be assumed as identical with that of a square column of the same length, and
of cross-sectional area equal to that of the round timber measured at a point one-third its length from the small end. The
stress at the small end must not exceed the allowable stress for short columns.
SECTION 2.6 DETAILS OF DESIGN
2.6.1 GENERAL (1988) R(2017)
All members shall be framed, anchored, tied and braced to develop the strength and rigidity necessary for the purposes
intended.
2.6.2 NET SECTION (1988) R(2017)
All stress computations shall be based on actual size of timbers. Where members are dapped or otherwise framed to materially
reduce the effective size, the net section of the piece shall be used.
2.6.3 OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2016)
The requirements of Article 2.4.1.4 apply to stress graded lumber as well as engineered wood products.
2.6.4 BOLTED CONNECTIONS (1988) R(2017)
a. The center to center distance along the grain between bolts acting parallel with the grain shall be not less than four
times the bolt diameter.
b. The tension area remaining at the critical section should be at least 80 percent of the total area in bearing under all bolts
for coniferous woods; 100 percent for hardwoods.
c. In a tension joint, the distance from the end of the timber to the center of nearest bolt shall be not less than seven times
the bolt diameter for coniferous woods; five times for hardwoods. For compression stress, this end distance need be
only four times the bolt diameter.
d. For loads acting perpendicular to the grain, the distance between the edge toward which the bolt pressure is acting, and
the center of the bolt nearest this edge, should be not less than four times the bolt diameter.

2.6.5 DESIGN FOR REHABILITATIONS OF PORTIONS OF EXISTING TIMBER TRESTLES

(2013)
2.6.5.1 Upgrading and Rehabilitating Timber Structures
Replacement in kind must be adequate for current and anticipated traffic. (See Article 2.3.3.d)
a. Existing timber members may be replaced with timber of increased section or strength. Additional timber members
may be placed to increase capacity.
b. Timber Open Decks may be replaced by timber ballast decks, in accordance with Part 2, Design of Wood Railway
Bridges and Trestles for Railway Loading.
c. Timber bridges may be upgraded or rehabilitated by replacing caps, stringers or decking with concrete or steel in
accordance with Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations or Chapter 15, Steel Structures respectively of this
Manual while leaving existing timber piling in place for structure support.

Timber Structures
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.

2 07P02 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2 07P02 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

7

Design of Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles for

Section/Article Description Page

2.1 Design of Public Works Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3 3

2.2 General Features of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-3

2.3 Loads, Forces and Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-7

© 2017, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 7-2-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)

Section/Article Description Page

2.3.6 Longitudinal Force (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-10

2.4 Designing for Engineered Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-11

2.5 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-21

2.6 Details of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-40

Figure Description Page

7-2-1 Tangent Track. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-4

© 2017, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

7-2-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Table Description Page

7-2-1 Lateral Clearance for Curved Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2-5

SECTION 2.1 DESIGN OF PUBLIC WORKS PROJECTS

2.1.1 GENERAL (1990) 1

SECTION 2.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN

2.2.1 MATERIALS (1988) R(2017)

© 2017, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 7-2-3

2.2.2 CLEARANCES (1988) R(2017)

Figure 7-2-1. Tangent Track

© 2017, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

7-2-4 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Table 7-2-1. Lateral Clearance for Curved Track

Distance from Obstruction to Increase per Degree of

2.2.3 STRINGERS (2009) R(2017)1

b. Stringers shall be selected to provide:

(1) Depth, preferably, not less than one-twelfth of the span.

(2) Width, not less than one-third of the depth. 1

2.2.4 TIES (2010) R(2017)

The larger of:

 b – N  3 – 6t (which can be approximated as 0.2887 (b - N) - t)

© 2017, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 7-2-5

N = width of rail base, in inches.

(2) Width, not less than 8 inches.

(3) Length, not less than 10 feet.

2.2.5.1 Field Side Tie Spacers and Guard Timbers (2016)2

2.2.5.2 Inner (Gage Side) Guard Rails (2016)

2.2.6 BENTS (1998) R(2017)

© 2017, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

7-2-6 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

2.2.7 PILES AND POST FOOTINGS (2015)

2.2.8 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DESIGNS AND DESIGN AIDS (2013)

2.2.9 TEMPORARY STRUCTURES (2010) R(2017)

See Appendix 4 - Temporary Structures.

SECTION 2.3 LOADS, FORCES AND STRESSES 1

The following loads and forces should be considered:

(1) Dead load. 3

(3) Centrifugal force.

(4) Lateral force due to wind load and nosing of locomotives.

2.3.2 DEAD LOAD (1988) R(2017)

© 2017, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 7-2-7

2.3.3 LIVE LOAD (2013)

Figure 7-2-2. Cooper E 80 Load

2.3.4 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE (1988)