Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures

Analysis and Design of
Concrete Structures
John M. Robberts
Vernon Marshall
February 2008
i
Disclaimer
Although care has been taken to ensure that all data and information contained herein is
accurate to the extent that it relates to either matters of fact or accepted practice or matters
of opinion at the time of publication, the University of Pretoria and the author assume no
responsibility for any errors in or misinterpretations of such data and/or information, or
any loss or damage arising from or related to its use.
This book is intended as an aid to students in understanding the behaviour on concrete

structures. It therefore contains a summary of only the most important design equations
and does not replace the design code of practice SABS 0100 to which designers should re-
fer.
ii
Preface
This collection of notes is the result of more than 10 years of lectures in the analysis and
design of reinforced concrete structures at the University of Pretoria. The primary aim has
always been to explain the fundamental concepts and principles and to develop a solid un-
derstanding of the behaviour. The text goes further in presenting the relevant design code
recommendations as well as providing the background and assumptions where an empiri-
cal approach is used.
The book of Mosley and Bungey (1999), based on the British design code of practice
BS 8110, has many years been the prescribed textbook for the undergraduate courses. The
original purpose of these notes was to bridge the gap between the different design codes,
BS8110 and SABS 0100 and, where possible, to explain reasons for the differences in ap-
proaches taken by these codes. Many of the examples in Mosley and Bungey have been re-
worked in these notes to comply with SABS 0100. A copy of the textbook will not only
serve as a valuable reference work but will also assist those designers who need to design
to British Standards in the future.
This set of notes forms the first volume and is aimed at undergraduate students in Civil En-
gineering and Architecture. A second volume, dealing with more advanced topics is being
developed and will deal with more advanced topics aimed at postgraduate students spe-
cializing in Structural Engineering. Many students and colleagues have contributed during
lectures and in their research towards these notes and their efforts are greatly appreciated.
Comments and suggestions are welcome and can be forwarded to:

john.robberts@nucse.com.
We close with some advice Gustave Magnel (1889-1955), one of the pioneers in the field
of concrete structures, gave to his students:
Designing a beam is a question of proportion – engineering is not a science – it’s an

art. You must have some experience to draw upon; otherwise you’ll never do any-
thing. A man, who studies very thoroughly my book on prestressed concrete, can
make perhaps a design, but it will be a foolish design – not an economical design. You
must have done it over and over again, and have some practical experience before you
consider it. (Excerpts From the Lectures of Gustave Magnel, PCI Journal, Vol. 49,
No. 4, July/August, pp. 16-17.)
John Robberts
Vernon Marshall
February 2008
Contents iii
Contents
1. Introduction 1-1
1.1 Concrete structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
1.2 History of reinforced concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
1.3 Building regulations and design codes of practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
1.4 Cost of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
2. Properties of Reinforced Concrete 2-1
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.2 Concrete Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
2.2.1 Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
2.2.2 Stress-strain relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
2.2.3 Tensile strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
2.2.4 Modulus of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
2.2.5 Poisson’s ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
2.2.6 Shear modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
2.2.7 Unit weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
2.2.8 Time-dependent behaviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
2.2.9 Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
2.2.10 Concrete specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
2.3 Material Properties of Steel Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
2.3.1 Stress-strain relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
2.3.2 Modulus of elasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
2.3.3 Time-dependent behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
2.3.4 Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
2.3.5 Specification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
2.3.6 Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
3. Limit States Design 3-1
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2 Limit States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3.2.1 Ultimate limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3.2.2 Serviceability limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
3.2.3 Special limit states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
3.2.4 Limit states design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3.3 Characteristic Material Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
3.4 Nominal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.5 Partial Factors of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.5.1 Partial factors of safety for materials gm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.5.2 Partial factors of safety for loads gf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3.6 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3.7 Structural Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3.8 Partial Safety Factors Used by BS 8110 (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
3.9 ACI 318 Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
3.10 Demonstration Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17
4. Analysis of the Structure 4-1
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
4.2 Load combinations to consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
4.3 Simplification of the structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
iv Contents
4.3.1 Braced frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4

4.3.2 Unbraced frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4.4 Section properties of elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
4.5 Moment Redistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4.6 Requirements for Moment Redistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
5. Analysis and Design for Flexure 5-1
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5.2 Fundamental Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5.3 Stress-strain Relationship for Concrete in Bending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
5.4 Stress-strain Relationship for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
5.5 Distribution of Strain and Stress at a Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
5.6 Relationship Between Strains and Neutral Axis Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
5.7 Limits on Neutral Axis Depth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
5.8 Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
5.9 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11
5.9.1 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11
5.9.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
5.10 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
5.10.1 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
5.10.2 Non-yielding compression reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17
5.10.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19
5.11 Design Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20
5.12 Moment Redistribution and the Design Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21
5.13 Flanged Beams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
5.13.1 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
5.13.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27
5.13.3 Simplified design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
5.14 Elastic Analysis and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
5.14.1 Elastic analysis of a cracked section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
5.14.2 Elastic design of a cracked section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31
5.15 Elastic Analysis Using the Transformed Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32
5.15.1 Cracked rectangular section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32
5.15.2 Cracked T-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34
5.15.3 Compression reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35
5.15.4 Uncracked section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-36
6. Design of Beams for Shear 6-1
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.2 Beams Without Shear Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.2.1 Elastic behaviour of uncracked beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.2.2 Behaviour of cracked beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
6.2.3 The principal mechanisms of shear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
6.2.4 Influence of shear span/effective depth ratio on failure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
6.2.4 Mechanisms of shear transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
6.2.5 Factors influencing shear strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
6.3 Beams With Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14
6.3.1 Shear components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14
6.3.2 Truss analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
6.4 Design for Shear to BS 8110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-18
Contents v
6.5 Design for Shear to SABS 0100. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21

6.6 Shear in One-Way Spanning Solid Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-25
7. Analysis and Design for Torsion 7.1
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
7.1.1 Equilibrium torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
7.1.2 Compatibility torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
7.2 Unreinforced Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
7.2.1 Elastic behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
7.2.2 Plastic behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7
7.2.3 SABS 0100 approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10
7.3 Influence of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10
7.4 Torsion Combined with Bending and Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
7.5 Design For Torsion to SABS 0100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
7.6 Demonstration Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19
8. Bond and Anchorage 8-1
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.2 Design Ultimate Bond Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.3 Anchorage of Hooks and Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
8.4 Lapping of Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5
8.5 Bearing Stress Inside a Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7
8.6 Demonstration Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9
9. Design for Serviceability 9-1
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.1.1 Equivalent diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.2 Cover to Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.2.1 Nominal cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.2.2 Conditions of exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
9.3 Maximum Clear Spacing of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
9.3.1 Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3
9.3.2 Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
9.4 Minimum Spacing of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6
9.5 Minimum Area of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6
9.6 Maximum Area of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9
9.7 Reinforcement at Sides of Beams Exceeding 750 mm in Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9
9.8 Span-Effective Depth Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-10
9.8.1 Basic L/d ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-11
9.8.2 Influence of tension reinforcement and service stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-12
9.8.3 Influence of compression reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-13
9.8.4 Influence of creep and shrinkage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-14
10. Design of Beams 10-1
10.1 Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
10.2 Preliminary design and member dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
10.3 Effective Span Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
10.4 Analysis of Continuous Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
10.5 Flanged Beams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6
10.5.1 Effective flange width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6
10.5.2 Transverse reinforcement in the flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8
vi Contents
10.6 Beams With Compression Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8

10.7 Curtailment of Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10
10.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10
10.7.2 Curtailment anchorage length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-11
10.7.3 Simply supported ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-13
10.7.4 Simplified curtailment rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-14
10.8 Demonstration Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-15
11. Analysis and Design of Columns 11.1
11.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
11.2 Short columns subjected to axial loads only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
11.3 Combined bending moment and axial force at the ultimate limit state. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4
11.3.1 Basic theory - symmetrical rectangular section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4
11.3.2 Allowing for the concrete replaced by compression reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . 11-6
11.3.3 Development of design charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6
11.3.4 Characteristics of the interaction diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8
11.3.5 Alternative design charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10
11.3.6 Asymmetrical sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-11
11.4 Design of short columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13
11.5 Biaxial bending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13
11.5.1 Major and minor axes of bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13
11.5.2 Interaction surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-14
11.6 Definitions and conventions for slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-16
11.6.1 Braced and unbraced columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-16
11.6.2 Effective lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-17
11.6.3 Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-20
11.6.4 Short and slender columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-20
11.6.5 Slenderness limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-23
11.7 Moments and forces in columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-24
11.7.1 Column moments from subframes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-24
11.7.2 Minimum eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-26
11.7.3 Additional moments in slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-27
11.7.4 Braced slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-28
11.7.5 Unbraced slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-30
11.7.6 Additional moments in members supporting slender columns . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-32
11.7.7 Slender columns bent uniaxially . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-32
11.7.8 Slender columns bent about both axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-32
11.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-32
12. Foundations 12.1
12.1 Bearing Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1
12.2 Foundation types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4
12.3 Simple Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6
12.3.1 The case where the M = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6
12.3.2 For the case where e £ D/6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6
12.3.3 The case where e > D/6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7
12.3.4 Detailing of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8
12.3.5 Critical sections for design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.10
12.3.6 Design approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.12
12.3.7 Footing subjected to a combined axial force and moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.13
12.4 Combined footings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.14
Contents vii
12.4.1 Footing layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.14

12.4.2 Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.15
12.5 Strap footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.17
12.6 Strip footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.20
13. Design of Suspended Floors 13-1
13.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1
13.2 One-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
13.2.1 Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
13.2.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-6
13.2.3 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-9
13.2.4 Cracking control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-10
13.2.5 Concentrated loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-12
13.2.6 Examples of one-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-13
13.3 Two-way spanning edge supported slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-13
13.3.1 Behaviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-13
13.3.2 Analysis of simply supported slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-15
13.3.3 Analysis of slabs with restrained edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-17
13.3.4 Deflections in two-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-24
13.3.5 Example of a two-way spanning slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-25
13.4 Flat slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-25
13.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-25
13.4.2 Equivalent frame analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-25
13.4.3 Column heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-32
13.4.4 Moment transfer at slab-column connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-34
13.4.5 Simplified analysis method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-35
13.4.6 Slab thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-37
13.4.7 Effective depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-37
13.4.8 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-38
13.4.9 Openings in panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-38
13.4.10 Detailing of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-39
13.5 Punching shear in slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-40
13.5.1 Shear stresses in solid slabs under concentrated loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-40
13.5.2 Design of shear reinforcement for punching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-43
13.5.3 Effects of moment transfer on shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-44
13.5.4 Punching shear examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-46
13.6 Flat slab example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-46
13.7 Ribbed slabs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-47
13.7.1 Structural topping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-47
13.7.2 Non-structural topping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-47
13.7.3 Properties of blocks and formers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-48
13.7.4 Dimensional requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-48
13.7.5 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-50
14. Design of Stairs 14-1
14.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1
14.2 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1
14.3 Transverse spanning stairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5
14.4 Stairs spanning longitudinally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5
14.4.1 Determining span and loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5
14.4.2 Flights or landings built into a wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7
viii Contents
14.4.3 Landings spanning at right angles to the stair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-8

14.4.4 Stairs with quarter landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-8
15. Cracking and Deflections 15-1
15.1 Tension Stiffening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1
15.1.1 Strain reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1
15.1.2 Effective tensile stress in the concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6
15.1.3 Effective secant stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8
15.2 Cracking in Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-11
15.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-11
15.2.2 Maximum crack widths and probability of exceedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-11
15.2.3 Calculating crack widths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-12
15.3 Deflections in Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-15
15.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-15
15.3.2 Calculating instantaneous deflections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-15
15.3.3 Calculating long-term deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-18
16. Introduction to Prestressed Concrete
16.1 The Basic Idea of Prestressed Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1
16.2 Effects of Prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3
16.3 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-5
16.4 Basic Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-10
16.5 Prestressed Versus Reinforced Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-12
16.6 History of Prestressed Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-13
16.7 References to Prestressed Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-15
17. References
Appendix A: Design Charts for Beams

A.1 Design Charts for Flexure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
Appendix B: Design Charts for Columns

B.1 Rectangular Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Concrete structures
Concrete is one of the oldest building materials known and has over time developed into
one of the most economic and durable materials. It is made by mixing cement with water
and aggregate. The main part of concrete should ideally consist of the largest aggregate
(rock or gravel) with smaller aggregate (sand) to fill in the gaps and the cement paste (ce-
ment and water) to bind it all together.
Concrete is approximately ten times stronger in compression than in tension. This problem
is overcome by using steel reinforcement in regions where tensile forces are expected and
the product is known as reinforced concrete.
Alternatively, tensile stresses in the concrete can be reduced by applying a compression

force to the concrete. This can be accomplished by tensioning the steel reinforcement
against the concrete and the product is known as prestressed concrete.
1.2 History of reinforced concrete
The oldest concrete was discovered at Yiftah El, in southern Galilee and dates from around
7000 BC (BCA, 1999). This early form of concrete was made by mixing quicklime with
water and stone. To produce the quicklime, a kiln was needed to burn the limestone and
what is believed to be the remains of a kiln lining were found nearby.
Concrete dating from 5600 BC was also found on the banks of the Danube river at
Lepenski Vir in the Yugoslav Republic. Stone Age fishermen made hut floors from a mix-
ture of red lime, gravel and water.
It is believed that concrete was used by the Egyptians in the Great Pyramid at Giza in about
2500 BC. An illustration from a mural in Thebes, dating from 1950 BC, shows various
stages in the manufacture of mortar and concrete.
Around 500 BC concrete was also used in ancient Greece. A water storage tank on the is-
land of Rhodes was lined with a fine concrete to make it water-tight.
1-1
1-2 Introduction
The earliest use of concrete by the Romans date from about 300 BC and hence the origin of
the word ‘concrete’ from Latin ‘concretus’. In the second century the Romans mixed a
pink volcanic ash, from Pozzuoli (near Naples in Italy), into the concrete thinking that it
was sand. The result was a concrete much stronger than before since the silica and alumina
in the volcanic ash combined chemically with the lime to form what is today known as a
pozzolanic cement. The first large scale application was the theatre at Pompeii in 75 BC.
Vitruvius provided instructions to Roman architects in his handbook of 13 BC on how to
mix lime and pozzolana that would harden in air and under water.
One of the most impressive remaining Roman buildings is the Pantheon with a dome span-
ning 43 m. It was originally built by Caesar Agrippa but lightning destroyed it. It was re-
built by Caesar Hadrian during 115 to 125 AD. It took almost 2000 years before a dome
with a greater span than this was built. The Jahrhunderthalle dome was built in Breslau in
1912 and has a span 65 m. The romans used concrete for foundations of harbours and
bridges, and for linings in aqueducts, reservoirs and sewers. One of the famous Roman aq-
ueduct bridges remaining is the Pont du Gard near Nimes in southern France.
In 1756 John Smeaton was commissioned to build a lighthouse where previous attempts
failed. Existing cements were weak, slow setting and were washed away by the constant
wetting of the sea before hardening. He experimented with different mixtures to find a ce-
ment that would set under water. Clay, which contained silica and alumina, was mixed
with the limestone to produce the cement for the lighthouse. The original lighthouse was
moved, but the original foundations remain alongside the new lighthouse.
Experiments on creating stronger cements continued and in 1824 Joseph Aspdin took out
the first patent on cement. He called this cement Portland cement because the hardened
product looked very much like stone found in Portland which is often used in buildings.
It is believed the idea of reinforced concrete was first mentioned in 1830 in the
Encyclopaedia of cottage, farm and village architecture. It was proposed that a lattice of
iron tie rods could be embedded in the concrete to form a roof. The world’s first reinforced
concrete boat was built in 1848 by the Frenchman Jean-Louis Lambot. The first use of re-
inforced concrete as it is used today was in 1854 by William Wilkinson.
1.3 Building regulations and design codes of practice
The first set of building regulations for reinforced concrete were drafted under the leader-
ship of Prof. Mörsh of the University of Stuttgart and were issued in Prussia in 1904. Other
countries followed soon after and today most countries have their own building regula-
tions. The aim of these regulations is to protect the public health and safety. Although the
principles contained in them are generally the same, they differ significantly in detail.
Some of the more important codes are listed in Table 1-1.
South African codes of practice have in the past usually followed British practice. It is
therefore interesting to note development of British design codes of practice for concrete
Building regulations and design codes of practice 1-3
Table 1-1: International design codes of practice for concrete structures.
Country Design code

United Kingdom BS 8110
Europe Eurocode EC2
United States ACI 318
Canada CSA
South Africa SABS 0100
Table 1-2: Development of British codes of practice for concrete structures since
1934 (Allen, 1988).
Year Code Steel Load Deflection Cracking Comments

Stressa factorb
1934 DSIR 0.45 fy 2.2 – – Concrete: nomi-
(140 MPa) nal proportions.
Beams: straight
1948 CP 114 0.5 fy 2.0 Warning –
line theory
(189 MPa)
1957 CP 114 0.5 fy 1.0 Warning, – Concrete: nomi-
(210 MPa) L/d nal or strength
1965 CP 116 0.55 fy 1.8 Warning, Warning Concrete: statis-
CP 114 (230 MPa) expanded tical control for
L/d quality
1972 CP 110 0.58 fy 1.6c - 1.8 L/d Bar spac-
d
(267 MPa ) ing rules
Notes:
a
Stresses under working loads
b
The load factor is an indication of the safety factor
c
These values are given to show a trend. The specific values are not given in the code.
d
Without redistribution
L/d = Span/effective depth ratio
structures from 1934 as shown Table 1-2 (Allen, 1988). From this Table it can be seen how
working stresses have increased while safety factors have decreased. The CP 110 code of
1972 have since been replaced by BS 8110:1985. The current SABS 0100 (1992) closely
resembles BS 8110: 1985 with some minor differences.
1-4 Introduction
In the United states the design code for concrete structures is the ACI 318-08. This code
sees a major revision every 6 years and the number 08 refers to the current revision (2008).
Design codes of practice used in countries such as Australia, New Zealand and Canada are
based on ACI 318.
It should be noted that the design codes mentioned thus far only refer to the design of con-
crete structures. Different codes of practice are required for loadings (SABS 0160), foun-
dations (SABS 0161), steel structures (SABS 0162), masonry (SABS 0164), etc.
The use of different codes in different countries makes it very difficult for designers to
work internationally. This problem has been addressed in Europe by providing one design
code for Europe, namely the Eurocodes, which provide a consistent set of design codes
that cover all aspects of design and commonly used construction materials. The intention
is that from 2006 the Eurocodes will replace BS 8110 in the United Kingdom.
In the chapters to follow different aspects are explained by identifying and explaining the
underlying fundamental behaviour of reinforced concrete. Understanding these funda-
mentals enables the engineer to use any relevant design code. However, it is at times nec-
essary to explain the particular assumptions and simplifications made by design codes to
be of use to the designer.
1.4 Cost of concrete
The question regarding cost of concrete is often raised. Some figures for a typical structure
is presented in Table 1-3. It is extremely important to note that these costs relate to a spe-
5´6m
All columns 450 ´ 450 mm
Characteristic material strengths:

Concrete = 30 MPa
ab Reinforcement = 450 MPa
3´6m
lat sl
F
0 mm
25
Plan
250 mm
3.0 m
Elevaion
Figure 1-1: Slab layout for calculation of typical costs.

Cost of concrete 1-5
Table 1-3: Cost of a typical reinforced concrete floora.
Item Unit cost R/m2 R/m3

b
Concrete R 592 /m3 148 592
c
Formwork Hire R 40 /m2 /week 80 320
Erection R 10 /m2 10 40
d
Reinforcement: Material R 3800 /ton 99 396
Fixing R 500 /ton 13 52
Finishing Power float R 9 /m2 9 36
Total 359 1436
Notes:
a Costs were calculated in August 2003 for a typical office block located in Pretoria
(see Fig. 1-1). Costs are calculated for a floor slab and the supporting columns and
presented as a cost per surface area or volume of slab.
b Ready-mix concrete delivered to site and placed with minimal finishing. Character-
istic 28 day strength of 30 MPa, 75 mm slump, 26 mm aggregate. Typical rates sup-
plied by Alpha Ready-mix, Gauteng. A powerfloat finish is assumed for floors.
c Four days are allowed for erection of formwork and fixing of reinforcement.
Formwork is struck 10 days after casting. Typical rates supplied by Form-scaff, Pre-
toria : Slab = R 33 /m2 /week, ring beam = R 112 /m /week, columns = R40 /m2, slab
edge without ring beam = R 39 /m.
d Slab reinforcement estimated at 26 kg/m2 (= 104 kg/m3). Reinforcing bars delivered
to site, cut and bent. Typical rates supplied by Steeldale.ARC, Gauteng.
cific structure (see Fig. 1-1) and the conditions set out in Table 1-3. It is useful to note the
relevant importance of different components.
Chapter 2
Properties of Reinforced Concrete
2.1 Introduction
The versatility of reinforced concrete is achieved by combining the best features of con-
crete and steel. Some of the opposing properties of these two materials are listed in Ta-
ble 2-1 where it can be seen that the materials are more or less complimentary.
Table 2-1: Comparison between properties of concrete and steel.
Material property Concrete Steel

Strength in compression Good Good, but slender bars my buckle
Strength in tension Poor Good
Strength in shear Fair Good
Durability Good Corrodes if unprotected
Fire resistance Good Poor, rapid loss of strength at high
temperatures
Concrete is approximately ten times stronger in compression than in tension. The tensile
strength of concrete is therefore usually ignored in design and steel reinforcement is pro-
vided to resist the tensile stresses.
Consider the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 2-1. Compressive stresses in the top of
the beam are resisted by the concrete. Below the neutral axis the concrete is assumed to be
Load Compression Concrete stresses
Neutral axis
Small, evenly distributed cracks Tension Reinforcement stress
Cross- Average strain Stress distribution

Beam elevation section distribution at a crack
Figure 2-1: Composite action between concrete and reinforcement.
2-1
2-2 Properties of Reinforced Concrete
cracked and tensile stresses are to be resisted by reinforcement, placed near the bottom of
the beam.
For composite action to develop between the concrete and the reinforcement it is impor-
tant that shear stresses can be transmitted at the interface between the steel and concrete.
At a crack some slip will occur between the concrete and the reinforcement and composite
action is provided by the bond strength of the uncracked concrete, particularly at the beam
supports.
To enhance the bond strength the concrete should be well compacted around the reinforce-
ment during construction. Additional mechanical grip can be provided by ribs on the sur-
face of the bar and by placing hooks at the ends of the bar.
Differential expansion between the concrete and reinforcement can also influence the
bond strength. Fortunately the coefficients of thermal expansion ath for concrete and steel
are sufficiently close, so that problems are seldom encountered at normal temperatures
(see Table 2-2).
Table 2-2: Coefficients of thermal expansion ath for concrete and steel.
Range Typical design value

Concrete 6 to 12 ´ 10–6 ºC–1 (Illston, 1994) 10 ´ 10–6 ºC–1
Steel 11.5 ´ 10–6 ºC–1 10 ´ 10–6 ºC–1
Cracking in reinforced concrete is not necessarily detrimental to concrete. Provided good

bond exists between the concrete and the reinforcement and the bars are detailed correctly,
crack widths and spacing under service loads should be small. If crack widths are small
enough, corrosion of the reinforcement will not be compromised.
Steel reinforcement is also used to increase the load-bearing capacity of the concrete when
compressive or shearing stresses exceed the strength of the concrete.
2.2 Concrete Material Properties
2.2.1 Compressive strength
The compressive strength is defined as the maximum strength reached in a compression

test on a standard specimen. Examples of standard specimen are:
• 150 mm cube - BS 1881 : Sections 108 and 116 (Also SABS Standard Method 863)
• 300 mm high, 150 mm diameter cylinder - ASTM standard C39.
Concrete Material Properties 2-3
The compressive strength of concrete is primarily dependent on the following:
• Concrete mix proportions: water/cement ratio, properties of the aggregate, admixtures,

porosity
• Curing: duration, moisture content, temperature.
• Age at testing.
• Shape and size of specimen: cube or cylinder.
• Testing procedure: applied load rate, moisture condition.
The compressive strength of concrete increases with time, as illustrated in Fig. 2-2. Al-
though the strength continues to increase with time, SABS 0100 does not allow strengths
greater than the 28 day strength to be used.
40
Compressive strength (MPa)
30
20
10
0
1 day 7 days 28 days 3 months 1 year 5 years
Age of concrete (Log scale)
Figure 2-2: Increase of concrete strength with time. Typical curve for concrete made
with ordinary Portland cement.
The cylinder strength is generally between 70 and 90% of the cube strength, and an aver-
age value of 80% is widely accepted.
2.2.2 Stress-strain relationship
Concrete is a variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress-strain curves.
A set of curves for different concrete strengths are shown in Fig. 2-3. Considering a typical
curve, the following behaviour has been confirmed experimentally:
• Initially the curve is very close to linear

• At higher levels of loading the curve is no longer linear and the concrete behaves more
as a plastic material.
90
12
80
70 10
Compressive stress fc (MPa) 60

8
50
(ksi)
40 6
30
4
20
2
10
0 0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
Strain ec
Figure 2-3: Typical stress-strain curves for normal weight concrete cylinders in uni-
axial compression (Nilson, 1987).
• If the load is removed within the initial elastic range, most of the strain will be recov-
ered.
• If the load is removed within the plastic range, the recovery is no longer complete, and a
permanent deformation remains.
• The ultimate strain for most structural concretes tends to be constant at a value of ap-
proximately 0.0035.
2.2.3 Tensile strength
It is difficult to determine the direct tensile strength of concrete experimentally. Two alter-
native methods are often used:
Split cylinder test: A concrete cylinder 150 ´ 300 mm is loaded along its length as shown
in Fig. 2-5. Assuming the stresses to be elastic just before failure, the tensile splitting
strength fct is determined from the stresses over the central portion of the cylinder
2P
f ct = (2.2-1)
p LD
The test is described in BS 1881 Part 117 and ASTM standard C496.
Modulus of rupture: An unreinforced concrete beam is loaded at third points. The dimen-
sions of the beam in Fig. 2-4 is b = h = 100 mm (or 150 mm) and L = 300 mm (or 450 mm).
The modulus of rupture fr is the tensile stress at the bottom of the beam at failure, deter-
mined from linear elastic beam theory
D
L
fct
P
fct
Figure 2-5: Split cylinder (indirect tension) test.
PL
fr = (2.2-2)
b h2
The test is described in BS 1881 Part 118, ASTM standard C78 and SABS standard
method 864.
P/2 P/2
fr b
L/3 L/3 L/3

L=3h
Figure 2-4: Modulus of rupture test.
Tensile strengths determined from the different methods will differ because of differences
in stress distribution. A comparison is made in Fig. 2-7 which also shows that the tensile
strength increases for an increase in concrete strength, but not at the same rate.
2.2.4 Modulus of elasticity
It is apparent from the stress-strain curve for concrete (Fig. 2-3) that although elastic be-
haviour may be assumed for stresses up to about one third of the ultimate compressive
strength, this relationship is not truly linear. Young's Modulus must therefore be defined.
The modulus of elasticity commonly used for short term effects is the secant modulus,
also referred to as the static modulus. The secant modulus Ec is measured at 1/3 of the
compressive strength fcu (the slope of line OA in Fig. 2-6). The test method for determining
Ec is given in BS 1881: Section 121.
8
Modulus
of rupture fr
Tensile strength (MPa) 6
Split cylinder fct
Direct tension
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Compressive strength fcu (MPa)
Figure 2-7: Relationships between tensile and compressive strengths of concrete

(Illston, 1994).
The initial tangent modulus Eci is defined as the slope of the tangent to the stress-strain
curve at its origin, and is often used as a parameter for the mathematical description of the
stress-strain curve. Dynamic methods for determining the modulus of elasticity have been
developed in recent years. In these methods the magnitude of the stresses induced by the
dynamically applied loads are very small so that the dynamic modulus is often taken as an
approximation of the initial tangent modulus.
Compressive stress fc
fcu
Eci
fcu / 3 A
Ec
0
Strain ec
Figure 2-6: Modulus of elasticity for concrete.
The actual value Ec of depends on many factors, with the properties of the aggregate and
the concrete cube strength being the most important (see Fig 2-8).
SABS 0100 For normal weight concrete the secant modulus of elasticity at 28 days can be
BS 8110
determined from
E c,28 = K 0 + 0 .2 f cu ,28 (in GPa) (2.2-3)
where
55
Dolomite
(Olifantsfontein)
50
Dolerite
Static elastic modulus (GPa)
45 (Ngagane) (Newcastle)
Andesite (Eikenhof) (Jhb)
40 Greywacke
(Malmesbury shale) (Peninsula)
Wits Quartzite (Vlakfontein)
35
Granite (Jukskei) (Midrand)
30 Siltstone
(Leach & Brown)
(Ladysmith)
25
20
20 30 40 50 60 65
Cube strength (MPa)
Figure 2-8: Relationship between static modulus of elasticity and compressive

strength for ages from three days to 28 days (Alexander & Davis, 1992).
fcu,28 = characteristic cube strength at 28 days, in MPa

K0 = a constant closely related to the modulus of elasticity of the aggregate
If the properties of the aggregate is unknown, a value 20 GPa can be assumed

for K0. Typical values are given in Table 2-3.
The modulus of elasticity Ec,t at times other than 28 days can be estimated
from
æ f cu ,t ö
E c,t = E c,28ç
ç0.4 + 06
. ÷
÷ (2.2-4)
è f cu , 28 ø
where fcu,t is the characteristic cube strength at time t
2.2.5 Poisson’s ratio
The value of Poisson's ratio n for concrete varies between 0.15 and 0.25
SABS 0100 A value of n = 0.2 is recommended for design.
BS 8110
Table 2-3: Secant modulus of elasticity at 28 days Ec,28 (GPa)
Characteristic Average Typical range

cube strength
fcu,28 (MPa)
20 25 21 - 29
25 26 22 - 30
30 28 23 - 33
40 31 26 - 36
50 34 28 - 40
60 36 30 - 42
2.2.6 Shear modulus
The shear modulus for concrete is assumed to be
Ec
G= » 0.4E c (2.2-5)
2 (1+ n)
2.2.7 Unit weight
For the purpose of structural design, the unit weight of reinforced concrete is generally
3
taken as 24 kN/m . This value makes provision for a nominal amount of steel reinforce-
ment. More exact values are given in SABS 0160 as presented in Table 2-4. It should be
3 3
noted that the density can vary from 1500 kg/m for lightweight aggregates to 3200 kg/m
for heavy aggregates.
Table 2-4: Density and unit weight of concrete (SABS 0160, 1989).
Type of concrete Density (kg/m3) Unit weight

(kN/m3)
Plain unreinforced concrete 2300 22.6
Reinforced concrete: Nominal 2400 23.5
2% Reinforcement 2500 24.5
3% Reinforcement 2600 25.5
2.2.8 Time-dependent behaviour
The long-term behaviour is illustrated by considering an unloaded cylinder and a identical

loaded cylinder as shown in Fig. 2-9.
Unloaded cylinder: Over time the unloaded cylinder will become shorter as the concrete
dries out. This deformation is referred to as shrinkage esh(t) and is defined as the time de-
pendant strain in the absence of stress.
Loaded cylinder: During loading an instantaneous elastic strain eel develops, followed by
a time dependant component. This time-dependent deformation is now greater than that
caused by shrinkage in an identical unloaded cylinder. A time-dependent deformation,
which is referred to as creep, is therefore caused by the sustained load. Creep ecr(t) is de-
fined as the time dependant component of the concrete strain over and above the elastic
and shrinkage strain.
Total strain ec
ec
Taken out of water at t0
Shrinkage esh
t0 Time t
(a) Shrinkage in an unloaded specimen
Taken out of water and loaded at t0

sc
Total strain ec
Creep ecr
ec
Shrinkage esh
Elastic strain eel
t0 Time t
(b) Creep and shrinkage of a loaded specimen
Figure 2-9: Creep and shrinkage of concrete.
According to these definitions for shrinkage- and creep strain, the total long-term concrete
strain is given by
e c,tot ( t) = e el ( t ) + e cr ( t ) + e sh ( t ) + e th ( t ) (2.2-6)
where esh(t) is the thermal strain, caused by a change in temperature.

Shrinkage
Shrinkage takes place because of a reduction in volume caused:
• initially by absorption of the water by the cement and aggregate

• and, later, by evaporation of water in the capillary tubes.
The loss of thermal heat generated during the hydration process of the cement also contrib-
utes to a reduction in volume.
Shrinkage of concrete is dependant on:
• Cement type: A finer cement type tends to increase shrinkage.

• Cement content: Higher cement content increases shrinkage.
• Water/cement ratio: A higher water/cement ratio increases shrinkage.
• Aggregate/cement ratio: A higher aggregate/cement ratio decreases shrinkage.
• Aggregate: An aggregate with a higher porosity will increase shrinkage, while an in-
creased modulus of elasticity of the aggregate will decrease shrinkage.
• Curing: A longer curing period decreases shrinkage.
• Section dimensions: Thin sections shrink more than thick sections. The effective thick-
ness of a section is normally expressed as the ratio of its volume to its cross-sectional
area.
• Moisture content of environment: A high relative humidity of the environment will de-
crease shrinkage.
It seems that the development of shrinkage over time is such that approximately 60 % of
the final value is developed after 6 months, 75 % after one year and 90 % after 5 years. It
therefore appears that the greater part of shrinkage develops shortly after curing is discon-
tinued.
The development of shrinkage strain over time can be approximated as follows:
e sh ( t ) = e sh ,¥ (1- e-a t ) (2.2-7)
where esh,¥ = final shrinkage value

t = time (in days) since curing has been discontinued
a = an empirical coefficient
Typical values for esh,¥ are given in Table 2-5. Figure 2-10 gives values for the shrinkage
after 6 months and 30 years which, for all practical purposes, can be assumed to be equal to
esh,¥. In this figure the effective section thickness is defined as
Table 2-5: Values for final shrinkage esh,¥ (SABS 0100).
Environment Final shrinkage

esh,¥
In water 0
Very moist 100 ´ 10–6
Moderately moist 200 ´ 10–6
Dry 300 ´ 10–6
Airconditioned
30 Year shrinkage ´ 10–6 6 Month shrinkage ´ 10–6

area (offices)
for an effective Coastal area for an effective

section thickness section thickness
Inland
(mm) of (mm) of
150 300 600 150 300 600
200
300 100 45
400 350
175
40
87.5
350 300 250
150 35
300 75.0
250 200 30
125
250 62.5
200 25
100
200 150 50.0
20
150 75
150 37.5
100 15
100 50
100 25.0 10
50
50 50 25 12.5 5
Shrinkage
0 0 0 0 0 0
Swelling
–200 –200 –200 –100 –100 –100
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ambient relative humidity (%)
2 ´ Cross-sectional area
Effective section thickness =
exposed perimeter
Figure 2-10: Influence of humidity on shrinkage (SABS 0100).

2 ´ Cross - sectional Area

Effective section thickness = (2.2-8)
Exposed perimeter
Figure 2-10 applies to concrete of normal workability, without water-reducing admix-

3
tures, which will typically have a water content of 190 l/m . For a different water content,
3 3
the shrinkage may be assumed to be proportional in the range of 150 l/m to 230 l/m .
When concrete sections are restrained against movement caused by shrinkage, tension
stresses, which can induce cracks, are developed. The development of shrinkage cracks
can be limited by providing sufficient movement joints and by the sequence of construc-
tion. Shrinkage cracks are often controlled by providing sufficient shrinkage reinforce-
ment in sections.
Creep
Creep in concrete takes place in the presence of stress. Although the mechanism of creep
still is a point of some dispute, it seems that creep takes place because of:
• free water being forced from the voids by stress, and

• deformation of the gel mass.
Creep is influenced by the following factors:
• Compression stress: It seems that creep is proportional to stress for stresses smaller
than 33 % to 50 % of the cube strength.
• Age at loading: The older the concrete is at loading, the smaller the creep. This phe-
nomenon occurs because the strength of concrete increases with age and because creep
at a given stress level is inversely proportional to strength.
• Cement type: It seems that creep is decreased when a rapid hardening cement is used.
• Cement content: Increased cement content leads to increased creep.
• Water/cement ratio: An increased water/cement ratio leads to increased creep.
• Aggregate/cement ratio: A higher aggregate/cement ratio leads to lower creep.
• Aggregate: In general, a concrete with an aggregate that has a high modulus of elastic-
ity will show lower values of creep.
• Section dimension: Thin sections show greater creep than thick sections.
• Moisture content of environment: A high relative humidity of the environment will de-
crease creep.
The development of creep over time is such that approximately 60 % of the final value is
reached after 6 months, 75 % after one year and 90 % after 5 years. It thus seems that most
of the creep takes place shortly after application of the load.
Seeing that creep is almost proportional to the prevailing concrete stress, it follows that the
creep strain is
e cr ( t ) = f c C ( t ) (2.2-9)
where fc = applied stress (constant in time)

C(t) = specific creep strain (creep strain per unit stress)
The creep strain can also be defined as a ratio of the elastic strain:
e cr ( t ) = e el f( t ) (2.2-10)
where eel = instantaneous elastic strain (constant in time)

= fc / Ec
f(t) = creep coefficient (creep per unit elastic strain)
The relationship between C and f can be determined by equating Eqs. (2.2-9) and (2.2-10)
fc
e cr ( t ) = f c C ( t ) = f( t )
Ec (2.2-11)
f( t )
C( t ) =
Ec
The development of the creep coefficient with time can be approximated as follows:
f( t ) = f¥ (1- e-b t ) (2.2-12)
where f¥ = ultimate creep coefficient (ranges from approximately 1.5 to 4)

b = an empirical coefficient
Figure 2-11 gives values for the creep coefficient after 30 years which, for all practical
purposes, can be assumed to be equal to f¥. The figure also shows the influence of relative
humidity, age of concrete at loading and section thickness (defined in Eq. (2.2-8)) on the
creep coefficient.
Normally it is assumed that the creep behaviour of concrete in tension is the same as in
compression. When the concrete stress is removed, only partial recovery of the creep
strain is regained. If proper provision is not made for creep, it can lead to excessive deflec-
tions of members. Creep may also cause a redistribution of internal stresses and strains in
statically indeterminate sections.
Airconditioned
30 Year creep
area (offices)
Coastal area
coefficient for an
effective section
Inland
thickness (mm) of
150 300 600
Age of loading
4.0 (days)
3.0
3.5 2.5
1
2.5
3.0 3
2.0
2.5 2.0 7
1.5 28
2.0 1.5
1.5 90
1.0 1.0
365
1.0
0.5 0.5
0.5
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ambient relative humidity (%)*
* Relevant values for outdoor exposure may be determined through
the Weather Bureau, Department of Environmental Affairs
Figure 2-11: Influence of relative humidity, age of concrete at loading and section
thickness on the creep coefficient (SABS 0100).
Effective modulus of elasticity
The total concrete strain induced by the load is given by:
fc
e el + e cr ( t ) = e el [1+ f( t )]= [1+ f( t )]
Ec
(2.2-13)
fc
=
E eff ( t )
Ec
where E eff ( t ) = (2.2-14)
1+ f( t )
Equation (2.2-13) suggests that the effects of creep can be taken into account replacing the
modulus of elasticity Ec with an effective modulus of elasticity Eeff in a linear elastic anal-
ysis. This approach provides reliable results for normal cases where the concrete stress re-
mains more or less constant. With sharply varying concrete stresses, the results yielded by
this approach are unreliable and other methods must be used. Note that shrinkage strains
have to be added to obtain the total strain.
2.2.9 Durability
The durability of concrete is an indication of the extent to which it is resistant to the envi-
ronmental conditions to which it is exposed. Factors influencing the durability of concrete
are:
• The conditions of exposure.

• The quality of the concrete.
• The concrete cover to the steel reinforcement.
To ensure the durability of the concrete, the following factors must be considered:
• Sufficient curing of the concrete.

• Sufficient compaction of the concrete.
• A low water/cement ratio, to ensure a low permeability of the concrete.
2.2.10 Concrete specification
The grades of a concrete mix is an indication of its strength. For example: a grade 25 con-
crete has a 28 day cube strength of 25 MPa. This is also referred to as the characteristic
strength of the concrete. A list of the concrete grades, with the lowest grade applicable to
different types of construction, is shown in Table 2-6.
Table 2-6: Grades of concrete.
Grade Lowest class for use as described

7 Unreinforced concrete
10
15 Reinforced concrete using lightweight aggregate
20 Reinforced concrete using dense aggregate
25
30 Concrete with post-tensioned tendons
40 Concrete with pretensioned tendons
50
60
2.3 Material Properties of Steel Reinforcement
2.3.1 Stress-strain relationship
The stress-strain relationship for both high-yield reinforcing bars and high-tensile
prestressing steel is shown in Fig. 2-12. The following characteristics of the stress-strain
relationship for steel can be observed:
• Initially the behaviour of the high-yield reinforcing bars is linear elastic until the yield
stress is reached. After this point is reached, the behaviour is almost perfectly plastic:
the strain increases without any increase in stress.
• In contrast to this, high-tensile prestressing steel does not have a clearly defined yield
point, and the yield stress must be defined. Normally the yield stress of high-tensile
steel is defined as the 0.2 % proof stress, as indicated by the dashed line in Fig. 2-13a.
• If the load is removed in the plastic region, then unloading will follow line BC in Fig.
2-13b. The steel will then show a permanent residual deformation AC. If the steel is
subsequently loaded again, the stress-strain diagram will follow the unloading curve
until the original stress at B is reached, after which it will follow the monotonic
stress-strain relationship. The proportional limit (yield stress) for the second loading is
higher than for the first loading. This phenomenon is referred to as work hardening.
2000
Prestressing Strand (1860 MPa)
1500
Stress fs (MPa)
1000
Hot-rolled high yield reinforcing bars (450 MPa)
500
Assuming same elastic modulus
0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15
Strain es
Figure 2-12: Stress-strain curves for steel reinforcement (Naaman, 1982).

Material Properties of Steel Reinforcement 2-17
Stress fs Stress fs
B
0.2% Proof
stress
Es Es Es Es
1 1 1 1
0.002 Strain es A C Strain es
(a) Definition of proof stress (b) Work hardening
Figure 2-13: Definition of proof stress and work hardening.
It must be noted that mild steel and hot rolled high-yield bars both show a definitive yield
point followed by a plastic region. Cold worked high-yield bars do not have a clearly de-
fined yield point and yield gradually.
2.3.2 Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars can vary between 200 and 210 GPa.
SABS 0100 A modulus of elasticity of 200 GPa is recommended for reinforcing bars,
195 GPa for prestressing strands and 165 GPa high-tensile alloy bars.
2.3.3 Time-dependent behaviour
The deformation of steel is also time-dependent: Under a constant strain, stress decreases
gradually. This phenomenon is known as relaxation. Relaxation of steel is not significant
in reinforced concrete, but is of great importance in prestressed concrete, where the pre-
stressed reinforcement is initially tensioned to a high stress.
2.3.4 Corrosion
It was found that rust clinging tightly to the reinforcement surface does not influence the
bond characteristics of the steel negatively. However, loose rust scale must be brushed off
with a wire brush.
2.3.5 Specification
The types of reinforcing steel available in South Africa are shown in Table 2-7. Any other
reinforcement, not covered by R or Y, must be indicated with the symbol Z.
Table 2-7: Reinforcement types (SABS 0100).
Reinforcement type Symbol Minimum Identification

characteristic
yield strength
fy (MPa)
Hot rolled mild steel R 250 Smooth bars without any
marks
Hot rolled high-yield Y 450 Ribbed bars with pairs of lon-
steel gitudinal marks at 1.5 m cen-
tres
Cold worked Y 450 Ribbed bars without longitudi-
high-yield steel nal marks
Welded wire fabric FS or 485 Ribbed bars without longitudi-
FD nal marks welded together at
fabric junctions
FS = Fabric using standard spacing of wires
FD = Fabric using designed spacing of wires
2.3.6 Identification
The different types of steel are marked as indicated in Table 2-7 and Fig. 2-14.
(a) Hot-rolled high-yield strength bars
(b) Hot-rolled mild steel bar, before coldworking
(c) Coldworked high-yield strength steel bar
Figure 2-14: Identification of reinforcing bar types.

Chapter 3
Limit States Design
3.1 Introduction
In the design of a reinforced concrete structure the aim is to provide a safe, serviceable, du-
rable, economical and aesthetically pleasing structure. For the structure to be safe it must
be able to resist the worst loading conditions. Under normal working conditions the defor-
mations and cracking must not be excessive for the structure to remain serviceable, dura-
ble and aesthetically pleasing during its intended design life. Furthermore, the structure
should also be economical with regard to both construction and maintenance costs.
Safety factors are used to overcome the variations in material strengths and loadings.
Three basic methods have developed over time:
• Permissible stress method: The ultimate strength of the material is divided by a factor
of safety to give safe design stresses, which are usually within the elastic range.
Stresses caused by the working loads must not exceed the permissible stresses.
• Load factor method: The working loads are multiplied by a factor of safety to obtain
design loads. Stresses caused by the design loads must not exceed the ultimate strength
of the material.
• Limit states method: The nominal loads are multiplied by partial factors of safety to ob-
tain design loads and the characteristic strengths of the materials are divided by further
partial factors of safety to obtain design strengths.
The permissible stress method has proved to be a simple and useful method. However,
there are certain shortcomings: Because it is based on an elastic stress distribution, it is not
entirely applicable to concrete which is a semi-plastic material. Neither is it suitable when
deformations are not proportional to the load, as in the case of slender columns.
In the load factor method, the ultimate strengths of the materials are used in the calcula-
tions. Because this method does not apply factors of safety to the materials, the variability
of the materials cannot directly be taken into account. Furthermore, it cannot be used to
calculate deflections and cracking under working loads.
The limit states method overcomes most of the shortcomings of the previous two methods.
This is achieved by applying partial factors of safety to both the material strengths and the
working loads, and also by varying the magnitude of these factors, depending on whether
3-1
3-2 Limit States Design
plastic conditions at the ultimate limit state are being considered, or whether elastic condi-
tions under working loads are being considered. Limit state design principles have been
accepted internationally and is described in the International Standard ISO 2394 (SANS
2394, 2003).
3.2 Limit States
A limit state is defined as a condition at which a structure, or part of a structure, becomes

unfit for its intended use (SANS 2394, 2003). There are two categories of limit state:
• ultimate limit state (ULS) which corresponds to the maximum load-carrying capacity,
or in some cases, a maximum strain or deformation, and
• serviceability limit state (SLS) which concerns normal use of the structure.
A probabilistic design approach is now used by most design codes of practice. The aim of
the design is to reduce the probability of a limit state occurring during the design life of the
structure to an acceptable level. Since the ULS will lead to a collapse of the structure, loss
of life and major financial losses, the probability of occurrence should be small. A risk of 1
6
in 10 is typically accepted for the ULS (Clarke, 1983). The SLS disrupts the function of
2
the structure but does not cause collapse. A risk of 1 in 10 would typically be accepted for
the SLS.
3.2.1 Ultimate limit state
At the ultimate limit state the structure must be able to resist the design loads with a suit-
able factor of safety against collapse. The major ultimate limit states are (MacGregor,
1997):
(a) Loss of equilibrium of a part or all of the structure as a rigid body (for example over-
turning or sliding of the structure).
(b) Rupture. A part of the structure (member or connection) or the whole structure
reaches its ultimate strength (maximum resistance capacity), leading to partial or
complete collapse. Note that excessive deformations could also lead to rupture and an
ULS being reached.
(c) The structure or a part of it forms a mechanism. Yielding of reinforcement causes a
section to form a plastic mechanism that could lead to instability in a structure.
(d) Instability of the structure or a part of it (for example buckling of a column).
(e) Progressive collapse. A minor localized failure could cause adjacent members to be
overloaded and fail, until the entire structure collapses. Progressive collapse is pre-
vented by detailing of reinforcement (to tie the structure together) and to provide al-
ternate load paths if a particular member collapses. Knowledge of the construction
Limit States 3-3
loads and procedures are also necessary to avoid progressive collapse during con-
struction.
(f) Fatigue. Highly stressed materials can fail when subjected to repeated stress cycles.
However, unlike the preceding cases where ultimate loads are considered, service
loads should be considered for fatigue.
(g) A sudden change of the assumed structural system to a form a new system, for ex-
ample snap through. However, this seldom occurs in concrete structures.
3.2.2 Serviceability limit state
A structure reaches a serviceability limit state when the functional use of the structure is
disrupted. This may involve public concern and remedial action may also be required.
Generally, the following are the most important serviceability limit states:
(a) Excessive deformations, including deflections and rotations:
– may be visually unacceptable,
– may lead do damage of nonstructural elements,
– may cause machinery or equipment to malfunction, or
– could result in ponding on flexible roofs (which could eventually cause collapse).
(b) Local damage, such as cracking, splitting or spalling must not affect the appearance,
effectiveness or durability of the structure. Although reinforced concrete is in most
cases assumed to be cracked during design, reinforcement must be detailed to mini-
mize crack widths.
(c) The durability of the structure is to be considered in terms of the design life of the
structure and the exposure conditions.
(d) Excessive vibrations. Vertical vibrations in building floors and bridges and lateral
and torsional vibrations in tall buildings may cause discomfort to people, affect
nonstructural elements or functioning of equipment. A typical example is excessive
vibrations caused by rotating machinery operating at a frequency that corresponds to
the natural frequency of the supporting floor.
3.2.3 Special limit states
The following limit states involve damage or failure due to abnormal conditions or abnor-
mal loadings:
(a) Damage or collapse during extreme earthquakes, tornados or tsunamis.

(b) Structural damage caused by fire, explosions or vehicle impact.
(c) Structural damage caused by corrosion of the reinforcement or deterioration of the

concrete.
The normal procedure is to design for a critical limit state and then to check if the other
limit states are satisfied. The critical limit state for reinforced concrete structures is usually
the ultimate limit state. However, water-retaining structures and prestressed concrete
structures are usually designed at the serviceability limit state and then subsequently
checked for the ultimate limit state.
3.2.4 Limit states design
Consider a beam subjected to a set of loads. The load effects are the bending moments and
shear forces that develop in the beam (Fig. 3-1a). The strength of the beam is determined
by maximum values for bending moment and shear force that the beam can resist. A criti-
cal section of the beam is considered and it is assumed that the maximum stresses occur at
the section. Integrating over the cross-section yields the stress resultants, i.e. bending mo-
ment and a shear force, that respectively represent the bending and shear resistance at the
particular section (Fig. 3-1b). The design approach is to ensure that at each critical section
the bending resistance of the beam is greater than or equal to the bending moment caused
by the applied loads. A similar approach is followed by considering the shear forces.
fc,max
fs,max
Beam and loading
Bending stresses Stress resultant:
Bending moment
Bending moments
Shear stresses Stress resultant:

Shear force
Shear forces
(a) Load effects Q (b) Resistances R
Figure 3-1: Load effects and resistances.

Characteristic Material Strengths 3-5
The limit states design can be summarized as follows:
(Design load effects Qd ) £ (Design resistance Rd )

fk (3.2-1)
g f Qn £
gm
where Qd = design load effects = g f Qn

Qn = nominal load
gf = partial safety factor for loads
Rd = design resistance = f k / g m
fk = characteristic material strength
gm = partial safety factor for materials
Each of these terms are discussed in the following sections.
3.3 Characteristic Material Strengths
A characteristic strength is defined as a strength with a 95% chance of being exceeded.

For example: If a large number of specimen are tested, only 5% of the test results should be
less than the characteristic strength. If the test results follow a normal distribution (see
Fig. 3-2) the characteristic strength is given by:
f k = f m -1.64 s (3.3-1)
where fm = mean strength

s = standard deviation
(number of specimen)
Probability density
1.64 s
Area = 5%
fk fm Material strength
Characteristic strength Mean strength
Figure 3-2: Probability density function for material strengths.

The standard deviation reflect variations in method and control of manufacture, quality of
constituent materials and the nature of the material.
3.4 Nominal Loads
A characteristic load is defined as a load with a 5% chance of being exceeded (see

Fig. 3-3). If the loads follow a normal distribution, it should theoretically be possible to de-
termine a characteristic design load Qk from the following
Qk = Qm ±164
. s (3.4-2)
where Qm is the mean load. Unfortunately, statistical data for all the loads that may act on a
structure is usually insufficient. It is also known that many loads do not follow a normal
distribution. Nominal loads (Qn), where the values are often based on experience rather
than statistical data, are therefore used rather than characteristic loads.
(number of occurrences)
Probability density
Area = 5%
Qk Load
Nominal load
Figure 3-3: Probability density function for loads.
3.5 Partial Factors of Safety
Further variations are taken into account by applying safety factors to material strengths
and loads.
3.5.1 Partial factors of safety for materials gm
The design strength Rd is determined by reducing the characteristic strength fk by a partial

safety factor for materials gm
fk
Rd = (3.5-1)
gm
The following considerations are important for the choice of gm

Partial Factors of Safety 3-7
• The material strength in a structure may be less than the characteristic strength obtained
from a carefully prepared test specimen. This is particularly important for concrete
where placing, compaction and curing strongly influence strength. For steel, on the
other hand, these variations are small, and a smaller partial factor of safety is therefore
appropriate.
• The importance of the limit state under consideration. It follows that larger values will
be used for the ultimate limit state than for the serviceability limit state.
Values for gm recommended by SABS 0100 are given in Table 3-1.
Table 3-1: Partial factors of safety for materials gm (SABS 0100).
Limit state Concrete Steel

Ultimate: Flexure and axial load 1.5 1.15
Shear 1.4 1.15
Bond 1.4
Serviceability: 1.0 1.0
3.5.2 Partial factors of safety for loads gf
Errors and inaccuracies in estimating loads can also arise from the following:
• Design assumptions and inaccuracies in calculations. It should be clear that gross errors
in assumptions and/or calculations cannot be covered by gf.
• Unforeseen increase in loads. Major changes in loading on the structure can clearly not
be accounted for.
• Unforeseen redistribution of stresses. This can be caused by temperature and the
time-dependent behaviour of concrete, which is considered at the SLS but not the ULS.
• Inaccuracies that arise during construction. This does not mean that the specified toler-
ances may be exceeded during construction.
These inaccuracies in loads are taken into consideration by increasing the nominal load Qn
by a partial factor of safety for loads gf
Qd = g f Qn (3.5-2)
where Qd is the design load or design load effect.

The factor gf is also required to:
• Take into account the importance of the limit state under consideration. The gf factor for
the ULS is greater than that for the SLS.
• Indicate the accuracy in predicting the loads. Imposed loads are more difficult to pre-
dict than self-weight loads and will therefore require a larger gf factor.
• Take into account the probability of loads occurring in combination. For example: The
probability that the maximum imposed load will coincide with the maximum wind load
is very small so that smaller gf factors can be used for the combination of these loads.
Typical values for gf as recommended by SABS 0100 are given in Table 3-2. Note that this
Table is only an extract from SABS 0160 and appropriate values of gf for a particular im-
posed load and combination must be determined from SABS 0160.
Table 3-2: Typical* partial factors of safety for loads gf (SABS 0160).
Load Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state

combination
Self-weight Imposed Wind Self-weight Imposed Wind
load load load load load load
Self-weight load 1.5 - - 1.1 - -
(0.9) (1.0)
Self-weight load 1.2 1.6 - 1.1 1.0 -
+ imposed load (0.9) (0) (1.0) (0)
Self-weight load 1.2 0.5 1.3 1.1 0.3 0.6
+ imposed load (0.9) (0) (1.3) (1.0) (0) (0.6)
+ wind load
*
See SABS 0160 (1989) for a more complete discussion on loads and their com-
binations.
Values in brackets indicate minimum values to be used if minimum loads prove to be criti-
cal. Self-weight loads should include the weight of all materials and finishes permanently
fixed to the structure.
Movable partitions, domestic and sanitary appliances are considered to be imposed loads.
Loads caused by occupants, vehicles (including accidental loads), environment (wind,
temperature, snow, earthquake), etc. are all considered to be imposed loads.
While the terms self-weight and imposed load are preferred, the terms dead load and live
load are often used instead.
Examples 3-9
3.6 Examples
Example 3.1
See Mathcad document Lim_Ex1_SA.
Example 3.2
Example 3.3
3.7 Structural Reliability
The basic principles of structural reliability are introduced in this section. A more compre-
hensive discussion on the topic is given by Ang and Tang (1975 & 1984).
The following example was adopted from MacGregor (1983): Consider a large group of
similar floor beams subjected to the loads expected during the life of those beams. Using
statistical distributions for dead and live loads, load effects E – such as maximum bending
moments – are determined and plotted on the vertical axis of Fig. 3-4. The term action ef-
fect is also used to describe the load effect.
)
re
lu
ai
R
(F
=
R
E
>
E
e)
af
(S
R
Load Effects (E)
<
E1
E
E2
R2
R1
Resistance (R)
Figure 3-4: Load effects and resistances for a group of beams.

Each beam is designed for a maximum bending moment and the resistance will vary be-
cause of variations in actual material strengths, variations between assumed and actual di-
mensions, assumptions made in the design and random errors. The resistance R will have a
distribution as shown on the horizontal axis of Fig. 3-4.
The 45º line represents the condition where the resistance equals the load effect. The com-
bination of load effect E1 and resistance R1 fall above this line and will result in failure.
Similarly, the combination E2 and resistance R2 fall below this line and the structure will
be safe.
The safety margin G is defined as the difference between the load effect and the resistance
G= R– E
The resulting distribution is shown in Fig. 3-5. The safety margin is also referred to as a re-
liability margin.
As before, failure occurs if R < E, or G < 0. The probability of failure pf is then the shaded
area below the curve in Fig. 3-5, which can be expressed as
p f = Probabilty that [R < E]

= P[R < E] (3.7-1)
= P[G < 0]
Frequency
b sG
Probability of failure
pf = P[R < E] = P[G < 0]
Mean mG Safety margin

G=R–E
Figure 3-5: Safety margin, probability of failure and safety index.
If both E and R follow normal distributions, with means mR and mE and standard deviations
sR and sE respectively, the mean mG and standard deviation sG for G can be determined
from
mG = m R - m E (3.7-2)
Structural Reliability 3-11
s G = s R2 + s E2 (3.7-3)
A factor b is introduced and expresses the mean in terms of the standard deviation as fol-
lows (see also Fig. 3-5):
mG = b s G
mG
or b= (3.7-4)
sG
Increasing mG will shift the distribution to the right, resulting in a larger b and smaller
shaded area, and hence smaller probability of failure. It can also be shown that the shaded
area will decrease if sG decreases, resulting in a larger b and smaller probability of failure.
The factor b therefore relates both mG and sG to the probability of failure and is referred to
as a safety index or reliability index.
Since E and R follow normal distributions, G will also follow a normal distribution and it
–4
can be shown that b = 3.5 is related to a pf = 1.1 ´ 10 . This implies that approximately 1
in every 10 000 beams will fail during the lifetime considered.
The relationship between b and the probability of failure is given by
p f = F(-b ) (3.7-5)
or b =-F-1 ( p f ) (3.7-6)
where F is the cumulative distribution function of the standardized normal distribution.
All modern design codes of practice use structural reliability to determine the appropriate
safety factors to be used for loads and materials. The process is referred to as code calibra-
tion. Suitable distributions, means and standard deviations are selected for the load effects
and resistances and the b values are determined. The values given in Table 3-3 were deter-
mined assuming lognormal or Weibull distributions for the resistance, normal distribu-
tions for the permanent loads, and Gumble extreme value models for the time-varying
loads.
Table 3-3: Relationship between reliability index b and probability of failure pf

(SANS 2394, 2003; Gulvanessian & Holicky, 2005).
pf 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7

b 1.28 2.32 3.09 3.72 4.27 4.75 5.20
SANS 2394 (2003) gives target values for the life-time reliability index b (see Table 3-4)
and suggests the following:
• For serviceability limit state use b = 0 for reversible and b = 1.5 for irreversible limit
states.
• For fatigue limit state use b = 2.3 to 3.1, depending on the possibility of inspection.
• For ultimate limit states, use b = 3.1 to 4.3.
Table 3-4: Target values for the life-time reliability index b
Relative cost Consequence of failure

of safety
measures Small Some Moderate Great
High 0.0 1.5 2.3 3.1

Moderate 1.3 2.3 3.1 3.8
Low 2.3 3.1 3.8 4.3
For buildings having a 50-year design working life, the Eurocode recommends a mini-
mum target value of b = 3.8 for the ultimate limit state. This is equivalent to b = 4.7 for a
one-year design (Gulvanessian & Holicky, 2005).
Target b-values assumed in SABS 0160 are (Kemp, Milford & Laurie, 1987):
• b = 3.0 for ductile, gradual modes of failure,

• b = 4.0 for brittle, sudden modes of failure, and
• b = 4.5 for steel connections.
3.8 Partial Safety Factors Used by BS 8110 (1997)
For limit states design SABS 0100 follows an approach very similar to BS 8110 (1997).
For comparison purposes, Tables 3-5 and 3-6 are given below. In Table 3-5 it can be seen
that gm for steel have been reduced from 1.15, the value used in earlier editions, to 1.05.
Experience has shown that the characteristic yield strength of reinforcement seldom falls
below the specified value.
Partial Safety Factors Used by BS 8110 (1997) 3-13
Table 3-5: Partial factors of safety for materials gm (BS 8110).

Ultimate: Flexure and axial load 1.5 1.05
Shear 1.25 1.05
Bond 1.4
Table 3-6: Typicala partial factors of safety for loads gf (BS 8110).
Load combination Ultimate limit state
Self-weight Imposed Earth and Wind load

load load waterb
pressure
Self-weight + imposed load 1.4 1.6 1.2 -
(+ earth and water pressure) (1.0) (0)
Self-weight + wind load 1.4 - 1.2 1.4
(+ earth and water pressure) (1.0)
Self-weight + imposed load 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
+ wind load (1.2) (1.2)
(+ earth and water pressure)
a
Values in the table are for adverse conditions. If the load results in a beneficial
condition, values in brackets must be used.
b
The value of 1.2 may be used where the maximum credible level of the water
can be clearly defined. If this is not feasible, a factor of 1.4 should be used.
3.9 ACI 318 Approach
ACI 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (1995), also follows a limit
states approach although there are some differences in approach and terminology. Design
at the ULS is referred to as a strength design and can be summarized as follows:
Design strength ³ Factored load effect (i.e. required strength)

fPn ³ Pu (3.9-1)
fM n ³ M u
fV n ³ V u
Where P, M and V are axial compression, bending moment and shear force respectively.
The subscript n is used to indicate nominal strengths which is reduced by a strength reduc-
tion factor f to obtain design strengths. The subscript u is used for factored load effects at
ultimate.
The factored load effects are determined by applying factored loads U to the structure. If
wind and earthquake loads do not affect the structure, the factored loads according to
ACI 318-95 are
U = 1. 4 D +1. 7 L (3.9-2)
where D = dead loads

L = live loads.
Where wind loads affect the structure, Eq. (3.9-2) applies together with the worst of the
following:
Where the effect of wind load W is additional to dead and live loads
U = 0 .75 (1. 4 D +1. 7 L +1. 7W ) (3.9-3)
or U = 0 .75 (1. 4 D +1. 7W ) (3.9-4)
Where dead loads stabilize the structure against wind load W
U = 0 .9 D +1.3W (3.9-5)
Similar combinations exist for earthquake loadings, lateral earth pressures, fluid pres-
sures, impact loads, and loads created by differential settlement, creep, shrinkage and tem-
perature change.
ACI 318 Approach 3-15
The left-hand side of Eq. (3.9-1) is referred to as the design strength or the factored resis-
tance. A nominal resistance is determined and then reduced by a strength reduction factor
f to obtain the design strength (see Table 3-7).
Table 3-7: ACI 318-95 strength reduction factors.
Load effect Strength reduction

factor f
1. Flexure, with or without axial tension 0.90
2. Axial tension 0.90
3. Axial compression, with or without flexure:
(a) Members with spiral reinforcement conforming to 0.75
ACI 10.9.3
(b) Other reinforced members 0.70
4. Shear and torsion 0.85
5. Bearing on concrete 0.70
Note that nominal material strengths (for concrete and steel) are used to determine the
nominal section strength and herein lies the difference from the limit states approach de-
scribed earlier:
• The nominal strength is not reduced by a partial material safety factor. The reduction is
applied after the nominal strength of the section have been determined.
• The strength is referred to as a nominal value (not a characteristic value) since the
ACI 318 recommendations differ in the way the target mean concrete strength is deter-
mined.
The ACI 318 load and resistance factors were determined using structural reliability and
assuming the following reliability indices (MacGregor, 1983):
• b = 3.0 to 3.5 for ductile failure and average consequences of failure

• b = 3.5 to 4.0 for sudden failures or failures having serious consequences.
It is important to note that following the strength design, serviceability requirements

(cracking, deflections, etc.) also need to be checked. Load factors of unity are used for ser-
viceability.
Prior to 1995 steel and concrete structures were designed using different sets of load and
resistance factors. This created a problem when designing composite structures of con-
crete and steel. To overcome this problem, the ACI 318-95 placed alternative load and re-
sistance factors in an appendix to the code. In the 2002 edition of ACI 318 the revised load
and resistance factors were placed in the code with the old factors in an Appendix. When
using 2002 and later editions of ACI 318, loads are taken from ASCE-7, which is now ap-
plicable to all building materials. ACI 318-02 load factors are as follows:
U = 1.4(D + F ) (3.9-6)
U = 1.2(D + F +T ) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or S or R) (3.9-7)
U = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (1.0L or 0.8W) (3.9-8)
U = 1.2D + 1.6W + 1.0L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) (3.9-9)
U = 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L + 0.2S (3.9-10)
U = 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H (3.9-11)
U = 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H (3.9-12)
where D = dead load, L = live load, Lr = roof live load, S = snow load, R = rain load, W =
wind load, E = earthquake load, H = loads due to weight and pressure of soil, water in soil,
or other materials.
Using structural reliability, the strength reduction factors given in Table 3-8 were derived
by MacGregor (1983) to provide the same safety index as in previous editions of the
ACI 318 code.
Table 3-8: ACI 318-02 strength reduction factors.
Load effect Strength reduction

factor f
1. Tension-controlled sections 0.90
2. Compression-controlled sections:
(a) Members with spiral reinforcement conforming to 0.70
ACI 10.9.3
(b) Other reinforced members 0.65
3. Shear and torsion 0.75
4. Bearing on concrete 0.65
5. Plain concrete 0.55
Demonstration Problems 3-17
3.10 Demonstration Problems
Problem 3.1
A continuous two span beam is subjected to dead and live loads as shown in Fig. 3-7. Con-
sidering different load combinations, find the design bending moment and shear force en-
velopes for the beam.
Self-weight Gn = 25 kN/m
Live load Qn = 10 kN/m
6m 6m
Figure 3-7: Two-span beam for Problem 3-1.
Problem 3.2
The water tower shown in the figure consists of a container with self-weight Gn, supported
by a lightweight steel frame. All loads shown are nominal loads. According to
SABS 0160, the maximum load factor to be applied to wind load on a free-standing struc-
ture is 1.5 and the maximum load factor to be applied to the contained liquid is 1.3.
Liquid weight Container

Wind load Wn
Ln self-weight Gn
A C
Figure 3-6: Water tower for Problem 3-2.
Give the load combinations and load factors that you will consider to
(a) investigate uplift at support A

(b) find the maximum compression force in strut BC.
Project: Concrete Structures Job ref: SIN 413
Struct: Limit states: Ex 3.1 Calc sheet no: 1 of 1
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Lim_Ex1_SA.mcd
Calc by: JMR Checked by: ______
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Example 3.1
A mild steel cable with a yield characteristic stress of fy := 250⋅ MPa has to support a self-weight load of
Gn := 3.0⋅ kN and an imposed load of Qn := 2.0⋅ kN. Find the required cross-sectional area based on the
following methods:
(a) Load factor method using a load factor of 1.8.
(b) Allowable stress method with a safety factor of 1.8 applied to the yield stress.
(c) Limit state method using the following safety factors:

Mild steel cable
γ G := 1.2 for self-weight (dead) load
γ Q := 1.6 for imposed (live) load Imposed load
Self-weight load
γ m := 1.15 for steel
(a) Load factor method
Design load Qd := 1.8⋅ ( Gn + Qn) Qd = 9 kN
Design strength Rd := fy Rd = 250 MPa

Qd 2
Required cross-sectional area A := A = 36 mm
Rd
(b) Permissible stress method
Design load Qd := Gn + Qn Qd = 5 kN
fy
Permissible stress Rd := Rd = 138.9 MPa
1.8
Qd 2
Required cross-sectional area A := A = 36 mm
Rd
(c) Limit state method
Design load Qd := γ G⋅ Gn + γ Q⋅ Qn Qd = 6.8 kN
fy
Design strength Rd := Rd = 217.4 MPa
γm
Qd 2
Required cross-sectional area A := A = 31.28 mm
Rd
The purpose of this example is to illustrate the different design methods. In a practical design the load in the
cable should be increased to account for dynamic effects caused by the lifting device. Higher factors of safety
should also be used. Considering a single supporting cable and the consequence of failure, the load would
typically be multiplied with a consequence factor of γ c := 1.2.
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Example 3.2
A beam is supported by two foundations at A and B and subjected to a live load of Qn := 170⋅ kN at C.
The dimension of the beam is:
L1 := 6⋅ m
L2 := 2⋅ m
b := 0.6⋅ m
h := 1.4⋅ m
(a) Determine the required weight of the foundation at A that will prevent uplift.
b) The same foundation is to be provided at A and B. Each foundation is square in plan with B := 2⋅ m and
has a depth of H := 1⋅ m.. Determine the maximum bearing pressure below foundation B.
Live load Qn
b
B
A B C
Beam
Foundations h
H
L1 L2
(a) Elevation (b) Beam cross-section (c) Foundation cross-section
(a) Uplift at A
−3
Unit weight of concrete γ := 24⋅ kN⋅ m
Self-weight of beam g n := γ ⋅ b ⋅ h
0.9 Gn 0.9 Gn 1.6 Qn
−1
g n = 20.16 kN⋅ m
0.9 gn
1.2 gn
The worst load case for uplift at A is shown in the figure
alongside. Since the stability of the beam is influenced by the A B
loading, the 0.9 partial load factor is applied to the self-weight L1 L2
of the beam and the foundation. RA
RB
The reaction at A is determined by taking moments about B Load case for uplift at A
L1 L2
RA⋅ L1 − 0.9⋅ Gn⋅ L1 − 0.9⋅ g n⋅ L1⋅ + 1.2⋅ g n⋅ L2⋅ + 1.6⋅ Qn⋅ L2 = 0
2 2
⎛ L1
2
L2
2 ⎞
⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ Gn⋅ L1 + 0.9⋅ g n⋅
1
RA = − 1.2⋅ g n⋅ − 1.6⋅ Qn⋅ L2
L1 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
Setting the reaction at A equal to zero, the required weight of the foundation is
⎛ 2 2 ⎞
−1 L1 L2
Gn := ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ g n⋅ − 1.2⋅ g n⋅ − 1.6⋅ Qn⋅ L2 Gn = 49.22 kN
0.9⋅ L1 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
(b) Maximum bearing pressure at B

Load case 1: Self-weight only
2
Self-weight of foundation Gn := γ ⋅ B ⋅ H Gn = 96 kN
The stability of the beam is not in question now so that the 0.9 1.5 Gn 1.5 Gn
partial load factor is not applied. With only self-weight acting 1.5 gn
on the beam, the partial load factor is 1.5, applied to the entire
length of the beam.
A B
The reaction at B is determined by taking moments about A
L1 L2
RA
⎡ (L1 + L2) 2 ⎤⎥ RB
RB := ⎢
1
⋅ 1.5⋅ Gn⋅ L1 + 1.5⋅ g n⋅ Load case 1 for maximum bearing
L1 ⎣ 2 ⎦ pressure below foundation B
RB = 305.3 kN
Maximum bearing pressure for loadcase 1:
RB
σ 1 := σ 1 = 76.3 kPa
2
B
Load case 2: Self-weight and imposed load

1.2 Gn 1.2 Gn 1.6 Qn
Reaction at B
1.2 gn
⎡⎢ (L1 + L2) 2 ⎤⎥
1
RB := ⋅ 1.2⋅ Gn⋅ L1 + 1.2⋅ g n⋅ ... ⎥
L1 ⎢ 2
⎢ + 1.6⋅ Qn⋅ ( L1 + L2) ⎥ A B
⎣ ⎦
L1 L2
RA
RB = 606.9 kN Greater than load case 1 RB
Load case 2 for maximum bearing
pressure below foundation B
Maximum bearing pressure for loadcase 2:
RB
σ 2 := σ 2 = 151.7 kPa
2
B
Maximum bearing pressure follows from loadcase 2: σ 2 = 151.7 kPa

Struct: Limit States: Ex 3.3 SABS Calc sheet no: 1 of 4
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Lim_Ex3_SA.xmcd
Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
Example 3.3
Consider the cross-section of a 5-storey building shown below. The columns perpendicular to the section are
spaced at 5 m intervals, so that a 5 m width of the structure can be considered. The following is required:
(a) Calculate the maximum ultimate design load in the left-hand column.
(b) Check if tension can occur in the left-hand column at ultimate.
This example is adapted from Allen (1988), Example 1.1, p.9.
Parapet Parapet
A B C DL = 12 kN Roof LL = 7 kN/m DL = 12 kN
1.0 m Roof DL = 22 kN/m
Cladding Cladding
3.0 m DL = 15 kN Floor LL = 25 kN/m DL = 15 kN
Floor DL = 20 kN/m
Cladding Cladding
Floor DL = 20 kN/m
WL = 7 kN/m
Cladding Cladding
Floor DL = 20 kN/m
Cladding Cladding
Floor DL = 20 kN/m
5.0 m
7.5 m 2.5 m
(a) Structure (b) Loads
Input
The structure is subjected to the following loads, calculated for a 5 m width of the structure:
−1
Roof: Dead load DL roof := 22⋅ kN⋅ m
1 m High parapet DL parapet := 12⋅ kN

−1
Imposed load LL roof := 7 ⋅ kN⋅ m
−1
Floors: Dead load DL floor := 20⋅ kN⋅ m
−1
Imposed load LL floor := 25⋅ kN⋅ m
Cladding per floor DL cladding := 15⋅ kN
−1
Wind load: wWL := 7 ⋅ kN⋅ m
Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
Total height H := 18⋅ m
Number of floors n := 4
Spans LAB := 7.5⋅ m LBC := 2.5⋅ m
LAC := LAB + LBC LAC = 10 m
Analysis
Nominal loads on the structure
−1
Dead loads: Distributed wDL := DLroof + n ⋅ DL floor wDL = 102 kN⋅ m
Point loads PDL := DL parapet + n ⋅ DLcladding PDL = 72 kN
−1
Live loads: Distributed wLL := LL roof + n ⋅ LL floor wLL = 107 kN⋅ m
−1
Wind load: Distributed wWL = 7 kN⋅ m
A B C
PDL = 72 kN PDL = 72 kN
wWL = 7 kN/m
wLL = 107 kN/m

wDL = 102 kN/m 18.0 m
7.5 m 2.5
(c) Nominal loads
Load combination 1
⎡ LAB LBC ⎤
⋅ ⎢( 1.5⋅ wDL) ⋅ LAB⋅
1
RA.2.max := − 0.9⋅ wDL⋅ LBC⋅ + 1.5⋅ PDL⋅ LAB − 0.9⋅ PDL⋅ LBC⎥
LAB ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
RA.2.max = 622 kN
1 ⎛ LAB LBC ⎞
RA.2.min := ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ wDL⋅ LAB⋅ − 1.5⋅ wDL⋅ LBC⋅ + 0.9⋅ PDL⋅ LAB − 1.5⋅ PDL⋅ LBC
LAB ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
RA.2.min = 309 kN
Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
A B C A B C
1.5 PDL 0.9 PDL 0.9 PDL 1.5 PDL
1.5 wDL 0.9 wDL 0.9 wDL 1.5 wDL
LAB LBC LAB LBC
Maximum load at A Minimum load at A
(d) Load combination 1
Load combination 2
⎡ LAB LBC ⎤
⋅ ⎢( 1.2⋅ wDL + 1.6⋅ wLL) ⋅ LAB⋅
1
RA.1.max := − 0.9⋅ wDL⋅ LBC⋅ + 1.2⋅ PDL⋅ LAB − 0.9⋅ PDL⋅ LBC⎥
LAB ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
RA.1.max = 1128 kN
⎡ LAB LBC ⎤
− ( 1.2⋅ wDL + 1.6⋅ wLL) ⋅ LBC⋅
1
RA.1.min := ⋅ ⎢0.9⋅ wDL⋅ LAB⋅ + 0.9⋅ PDL⋅ LAB − 1.2⋅ PDL⋅ LBC⎥
LAB ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
RA.1.min = 258 kN
A B C A B C
1.2 PDL 0.9 PDL 0.9 PDL 1.2 PDL
1.6 wLL 1.6 wLL
1.2 wDL 0.9 wDL 0.9 wDL 1.2 wDL
LAB LBC LAB LBC
(e) Load combination 2

Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
Load combination 3
⎡ LAB LBC ⎤
⋅ ⎢( 1.2⋅ wDL + 0.5⋅ wLL) ⋅ LAB⋅ − ( 0.9⋅ wDL) ⋅ LBC⋅
1 H
RA.3.max := + 1.3⋅ wWL⋅ H⋅ ...⎥
LAB
⎢+ 1.2⋅ P ⋅ L − 0.9⋅ P ⋅ L 2 2 2
⎥
⎣ DL AB DL BC ⎦
RA.3.max = 883 kN
⎡ LAB LBC ⎤
⋅ ⎢( 0.9⋅ wDL) ⋅ LAB⋅ − ( 1.2⋅ wDL + 0.5⋅ wLL) ⋅ LBC⋅
1 H
RA.3.min := − 1.3⋅ wWL⋅ H⋅ ...⎥
LAB
⎢+ 0.9⋅ P ⋅ L − 21.2⋅ P ⋅ L 2 2
⎥
⎣ DL AB DL BC ⎦
RA.3.min = 110 kN
A B C A B C
1.2 PDL 0.9 PDL 0.9 PDL 1.2 PDL

1.3 wWL
1.3 wWL
0.5 wLL 0.5 wLL

H
1.2 wDL 0.9 wDL 0.9 wDL 1.2 wDL
LAB LBC LAB LBC
(f) Load combination 3
Maximum and minimum loads in column A
Maximum load in left-hand column RA.max := max( RA.1.max , RA.2.max , RA.3.max) RA.max = 1128 kN
Minimum load in left-hand column RA.min := min ( RA.1.min , RA.2.min , RA.3.min) RA.min = 110 kN
Chapter 4
Analysis of the Structure
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter a structure is simplified into a model that is subjected to loads and analysed
to determine the forces and moments in each structural member. Subsequent chapters dis-
cuss the design of members to resist these forces.
The aim of an analysis is to find the forces and moments within the structure that will be in
equilibrium with the applied loads for the particular loadcase under consideration. The
analysis subsequently continues by considering each element individually. Critical sec-
tions are selected for which reinforcement are designed. It may be necessary to change the
dimensions of certain elements, which could change the stiffnesses of those particular ele-
ments, requiring the analysis to be repeated. To find preliminary dimensions for beams
and slabs the span-effective depth ratio is a good starting point.
4.2 Load combinations to consider
As the number of spans and floors in the structure increases the number of possible load
combinations increase rapidly. However, it should be kept in mind that it is the worst ef-
fect that is required and not every possible effect. Design codes of practice therefore only
give a limited number of load arrangements to consider.
In reinforced concrete structures the design at the ultimate limit state usually governs. The
loadcases and subsequent discussion will therefore apply to conditions at the ultimate limit
state.
The loading arrangements as recommended by SABS 0100 are as follows (see Fig. 4-1):
SABS 0100 The following two loading arrangements should be considered:
(a) all spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load of
(1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn)
(b) all spans loaded with the ultimate self weight (1.2 Gn) and all alternate
spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load (1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn).
4-1
4-2 Analysis of the Structure
1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn
(a) All spans loaded with maximum design load
1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn 1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn 1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn

1.2 Gn 1.2 Gn
1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn 1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn

1.2 Gn 1.2 Gn 1.2 Gn
(b) All spans loaded with maximum self weight and alternate spans loaded with design live load
Figure 4-1: Loading arrangements to consider (SABS 0100).
BS 8110 The following two loading arrangements should be considered:
(a) all spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load of
(1.4 Gn + 1.6 Qn)
(b) alternate spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load (1.4 Gn +
1.6 Qn) and all other spans loaded with the minimum design ultimate load
(1.0 Gn)
The loading arrangements proposed here mean that there will always be three load combi-
nations to consider, regardless of the number of spans. This is a significant simplification
of the recommendations found in older codes that required an additional loadcase of adja-
cent spans to be loaded with live load. This meant an additional (n + 1) load combinations
to consider where n is the number of spans. The moments obtained from adjacent spans
loaded will be larger from those obtained from alternate spans loaded, but only by a few
percent (Rowe et al., 1987).
4.3 Simplification of the structure
It is seldom necessary or of any benefit to analyse a complete three-dimensional structure.

With the computing capabilities available today, complete structures can easily be ana-
lysed, but time will be spent setting up and checking the model, and then processing all the
output generated.
Simplification of the structure 4-3
5
4
3
2
1
A B C D
(a) Building frame
1 2 3 4 5 B
A
Floor 6
Floor 5
H5
Floor 4
H4
Floor 3
Floor 2
Floor 1
A
Ground floor
L1 L2 L3 L4 Section A-A
(b) Full frame
H5
H4
L1 L2 L3 L4
(c) Floor 4 with columns above and below
Half Beam under Half Half Beam under

stiffness consideration stiffness stiffness consideration
H5 H5
H4 H4
L1 L2 L3 L3 L4
(d) Internal span under consideration (e) End span under consideration
L1 L2 L3 L4
(f) Continuous beam simplification
Figure 4-2: Simplification of a braced structure.

The structure is usually subdivided into two-dimensional substructures which are ana-
lysed independently. Consider for example the concrete structure shown in Fig. 4-2a. The
structure is converted to a frame by cutting through the structure, along slab centre lines,
both sides of the columns on grid line C. This slice of the structure is then considered as a
plane frame acting on its own (Fig. 4-2b). The section properties of the horizontal beams in
the frame are calculating by considering the slabs as wide shallow beams as shown in the
cross-section in Fig. 4-2b.
The above process is repeated for different north-south sections of the structure where ge-
ometry or loads change until all parts of the structure in this direction have been analysed.
The entire process is then repeated in a similar manner for the east-west direction by
considering slices of the structure in this direction. Further simplifications can be made de-
pending on the lateral stability of the structure and is explained in the following sections.
4.3.1 Braced frames
If the lateral stability in a frame is provided by stiff elements such as shear walls or eleva-
tor shafts rather than the frame itself, it is defined as a braced frame. This means that hori-
zontal forces, caused by wind loads for example, are carried by the stiff elements provided
(referred to as the bracing), and not by the column-slab connections. The analysis will
therefore consist of two parts: Analysis of the frame for vertical loads and analysis of the
bracing for horizontal loads. In the analysis of the frame it is therefore not necessary to
consider the effects of sway.
The braced frame in Fig. 4-2b can be simplified further by considering a floor together
with its columns as shown in Fig. 4-2c. For a typical internal floor, the fourth floor in this
case, the columns are assumed to be fixed at ends furthest away from the floor. However,
when considering the first floor, it may be a more reasonable to assume that the column be-
low the slab are pinned at foundation level. When designing the frame it is conservative to
assume that the foundation is unable to develop any moment restraint.
If only an individual beam has to be considered, the particular beam together with all at-
tached members are isolated from the frame (Fig. 4-2d). Supports of attached members
furthest away from the beam under consideration are assumed to be fixed, unless it is more
appropriate to assume a pinned connection. If a fixed support is assumed for an attached
beam, half the actual stiffness of that beam is used in the analysis. The load arrangement as
given in section 4.2 is then applied to all beams. The simplified frame for an end span is
shown in Fig. 4-2e.
If the span under consideration in the simplified frame (Figs. 4-2d and e ) is longer than the
attached beams, the moments in the columns obtained from the analysis may be used for
design of the columns.
A further simplification can be made by considering each floor as a continuous beam. The
moments carried by the columns are ignored, making this approach conservative with re-
gard to beam moments. All supports are assumed to be simply supported.
Simplification of the structure 4-5
Although the continuous beam simplification does not provide column moments, the sup-
port reactions are the contribution of the particular floor to the forces in the columns below
the floor. The total axial load in a column is found by summing the effects of all floors
above the particular column.
4.3.2 Unbraced frames
In an unbraced frame the horizontal loads, such as wind loads, have to be included and
these loads have to be resisted by the frame itself. Sway is now possible and the eccentric-
ity of the axial force may generate additional moments in the columns. These eccentricity
moments will be transferred to the beams and have to be taken into account.
SABS 0100 The following load combinations should be considered (also refer to
SABS 0160):
(a) 1.2 Gn + 0.5 Qn + 1.3 Wn
(b) 0.9 Gn + 1.3 Wn

BS 8110 The following load combinations should be considered:
(a) 1.2 Gn + 1.2 Qn + 1.2 Wn
(b) 1.0 Gn + 1.4 Wn
Considering load combination (a) above, the vertical loads can be applied to a sub-frame
as shown in Fig. 4-3a. The horizontal loads are applied to a complete frame and the results
are added together to obtain the complete effect. These results should be compared to
those obtained by considering only vertical loads (1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn) and the worst forces
and moments should used in the design.
1.2 Gn + 0.5 Qn
1.2 Gn
(1)
1.2 Gn + 0.5 Qn
1.2 Gn
(2)
1.2 Gn + 0.5 Qn
1.3 Wn
(3)
(a) Vertical loads on subframe

+ (b) Horizontal loads on full frame
Figure 4-3: Load combinations for unbraced frames.

Load combination (b) considers stability of the structure against overturning and will be
applicable mainly to tall structures.
The analysis for horizontal loads on the complete frame can be simplified if points of
contraflexure are assumed at midspan of beams and mid-height of columns (see Fig. 4-4a
and b). The method is known as the portal method (Norris, Wilbur and Utku, 1991) and is
based on the following assumptions:
(a) There is a point of inflection at the centre of each horizontal beam.

(b) There is a point of inflection at centre of each column.
(c) The total shear in each story is divided between columns so that internal columns
carry twice as much shear as external columns.
P
H
V 2V V
MA MB
S Fhor = 0: P = 4 V
P
ÞV =
4
H
S M H / 2 = 0: M A = V
2
H
M B = 2V = V H
2
(a) (b) (c)
Bending moment diagram Assumed points Calculation of forces
for horizontal nodal loads of inflection and moments for top story
Figure 4-4: Frame subjected to horizontal loads.
Assumption (c) follows when each story is considered to be built up by a number of portals
as shown in Fig. 4-4c. This figure also demonstrates how to determine the horizontal
shears and moments by starting at the top story. Moments in beams are determined by con-
sidering moment equilibrium at a joint. Beam shears are found from vertical equilibrium
of a beam. Finally, vertical equilibrium at a node yields the axial forces in a column.
4.4 Section properties of elements
During the analysis the section properties of the elements in the structure are needed. Any
of the following alternatives may be used, provided the same method is used throughout
the structure:
(a) The concrete section (Fig. 4-5b): The entire concrete section is used ignoring the
presence of any reinforcement.
Section properties of elements 4-7
Neutral
axis
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Actual Concrete section, Gross section, Transformed section,
cross-section ignoring reinforcement including reinforcement concrete in compression
(uncracked transformed) including reinforcement
(cracked transformed)
Effective flange width

Slab CL Slab CL
Column
Slab Slab
Equivalent beam
Column
(e) Equivalent beam
A Centroidal axis
B B H
Section A-A
Section B-B
L L
(f) Member lengths for analysis
Figure 4-5: Section properties for analysis.
(b) The gross section (Fig. 4-5c): The entire concrete section is used and reinforcement is
included on the basis of a modular ratio. The section is also referred to as an “un-
cracked transformed section”.
(c) The transformed section (Fig. 4-5d): The area of concrete in compression is used to-
gether with reinforcement on the basis of a modular ratio. The section is also referred
to as a “cracked transformed section”.
Method (a) is used the most, firstly because of its simplicity and secondly, because the area
of reinforcement required in methods (b) and (c) is usually unknown at the design stage.
Once reinforcement has been determined at the ultimate limit state, the serviceability limit
state is checked using methods (b) or (c) depending on whether the section is cracked or
not (also see section 5.15).
If beams are present in the frame they will act together with the slab to form T-beams (see
Fig. 4-5e). The effective flange width is determined (also see section 10.5.1) and the sec-
tion properties of the effective beam are used in the analysis.
For purposes of analyses, the member lengths are determined by extending the centroidal
axes of all elements and finding their intersections. The distance between intersections de-
fine the length of a member to be used in the analysis. An example is given in Fig. 4-5f.
4.5 Moment Redistribution
Consider an internal span (Fig. 4-6a) of a continuous beam where there are several identi-
cal spans to either side of the span under consideration. To simplify the discussion we shall
assume that the same reinforcement is used at the supports (A and B) and at midspan (C).
The moment-curvature response of a reinforced concrete section at A (or C) is shown in
Fig. 4-6d from which it can be seen that the maximum moment a section can resist is Mu.
Given the section capacity, the aim is now to determine the ultimate load wu this beam can
resist before collapsing. Following a linear elastic analysis, the elastic bending moments
for a load we is shown in Fig. 4-6c. From the bending moment diagram it can be seen that
the maximum bending moments occur at A and B. We could now set the moment at A (or
B) equal to Mu
w e L2
Mu = (4.5-1)
12
and say that the maximum load the beam can resist is
12 M u
we = (4.5-2)
L2
However, the beam does not collapse at this loading. From the moment-curvature diagram
it can be seen that the section is able to maintain the moment Mu while it allows the curva-
ture to increase. For loads greater than we, the beam will rotate at the supports while main-
taining the support moment at Mu. In other words: A plastic hinge has developed at the
support.
The additional capacity of the beam is determined by inserting hinges in the beam at the
supports so that the beam becomes simply supported as shown in Fig. 4-6e. The maximum
moment occurs at midspan and is given by
Moment Redistribution 4-9
A Beam B
Moment M
C Mu
Support Support
(a) Reinforced concrete beam
we Curvature j
(d) Moment-curvature behaviour
L
(b) Structural model
we L2 we L2
= Mu
12 12
we L2
24
(c) Elastic bending moments
wadd
First plastic hinges

Madd
(e) Additional load and bending moment following

formation of first plastic hinges
wu = wadd + wel
Final plastic hinge

Mu Elastic Mu
Plastic
Mu
(f) Final load and bending moment at
formation of final plastic hinge
Figure 4-6: Moment redistribution in analysis.
w add L2
M add = (4.5-3)
8
where wadd is the load additional to the load we that caused the first plastic hinge to de-
velop.
From the bending moment distributions in Figs. 4-6c and e it can be seen that the next plas-
tic hinge will develop at midspan. At the formation of this plastic hinge the beam becomes
a mechanism and collapses. The total moment at midspan is set equal to the ultimate mo-
ment of resistance Mu
w e L2
Mu = + M add
24 (4.5-4)
w L2 w L2
= e + add
24 8
Considering the total bending moment diagram, the moment at the supports is the same as
for the elastic case. Replacing Mu in the above equation with Eq. (4.5-1), the additional
load can be determined
w e L2 w L2 w L2
= e + add
12 24 8 (4.5-5)
w
w add = e
3
The maximum load the beam can carry is therefore
4
w u = w e + w add = w = 1 . 333 w e (4.5-6)
3 e
Considering a plastic analysis, the beam is able to carry 33% more load than when com-
pared to an elastic analysis. If wu was applied to the beam in an elastic analysis, the mo-
ments at the support would be 33% larger than Mu. This example demonstrates that the
elastic moments, in excess of the section capacity at the supports, could be redistributed to
other sections in the beam, and therefore the process is referred to as moment redistribu-
tion. Although the method may seem complex at first, it does lead to more economic struc-
tures and is commonly used in the design of reinforced concrete structures. The following
example will illustrate the application of moment redistribution in design.
Example 4-1
The ultimate load to be resisted by a beam is given as 40 kN/m (see Fig. 4-7a). An elastic
analysis is conducted and it is found that the bending moment at the support is 120 kN.m
(see Fig. 4-7b). It is decided that a 20% redistribution of bending moments should be ap-
plied. The section at the support is therefore to be designed for a moment of
0.8 ´ 120 = 96 kN.m. Reinforcement at the support will therefore be provided so that the
section has a capacity of Mu = 96 kN.m (see Fig. 4-7c).
Moment Redistribution 4-11
wu = 40 kN/m
Moment M
C Mu = 96 kN.m Support
A B
Mu = 84 kN.m Midspan
L=6m
(a) Beam and ultimate loading

Curvature f
– 120 kN.m – 120 kN.m
(c) Moment-curvature behaviour
60 kN.m
(b) Elastic bending moment diagram for wu = 40 kN/m
– 96 kN.m Elastic, wu = 40 kN/m – 96 kN.m

wu = 40 kN/m
96 kN.m
Mx
Plastic, wu = 40 kN/m x Vx
120 kN
84 kN.m
(d) Free body for determining
(e) Redistributed bending moment
redistributed forces
– 96 kN.m Elastic, we = 32 kN/m – 96 kN.m
84 kN.m
(f) Combined elastic and plastic moments
– 96 kN.m – 96 kN.m
Extent of top reinforcement*
Extent of bottom reinforcement*
84 kN.m
*These distance need to be extended by a distance d as explained in Chapter 10
(g) Design bending moment envelope and reinforcement extents
Figure 4-7: Example 4-1: Moment redistribution in design.

The shear forces and bending moments in the rest of the beam can be determined by con-
sidering equilibrium and the free body diagram of Fig. 4-7d. The redistributed bending
moments are shown in Fig. 4-7e. For example: The moment at midspan will be
3
M C = -96 + 120 ´ 3 - 40 ´ 3 ´ = 84 kN. m
2
Reinforcement has to be provided at midspan to resist a moment of 84 kN.m (see

Fig. 4-7c). All that remains now is to determine the distances over which the reinforce-
ment must be placed. The extent of the required reinforcement along top and bottom faces
is determined from the bending moment diagram.
It is important to note that the beam experiences elastic bending moments up to the point
when the first plastic hinges form at the supports (indicated by the dashed line in Fig. 4-7f).
The range of bending moments the beam may experience is indicated by the bending mo-
ment envelope shown in Fig. 4-7g. Reinforcement must be provided at least up to the point
where the bending moment becomes zero. Curtailment of reinforcement is discussed fur-
ther in a section 10.7.
4.6 Requirements for Moment Redistribution
Design codes such as SABS 0100 allow moment redistribution provided the following
conditions are met:
1. Equilibrium must be maintained between external and internal forces. This means
that reducing moments at one point in a structure will cause internal forces (moments,
shears and axial forces) at other positions in the structure to change in order to remain
in equilibrium with the external loads.
2. The following limit is placed on the depth of the neutral axis x
x £ ( b b - 0.4) d (4.6-1)
æ Moment at the section following redistribution ö

where b b= ç ÷£ 1 (4.6-2)
è Moment at the section before redistribution ø
d = effective depth of the tensile reinforcement

The background to this requirement is explained in section 5.7.
3. The design moment at any section should not be less than 75% of the elastic moment.
If the cross-section varies along the member, this limit is 80%.
4. In structures exceeding 4 storeys the limit in point 3 above is 90%.
5. The linear elastic analysis should not be based on transformed section properties (see
section 5.15).
Example 4-2
The requirement stating that the design moment at any section should not be less than 75%
of the elastic moment is applied to Example 4-1 with the result shown in Fig. 4-9. The de-
sign bending moment envelope changes slightly in the negative moment region when
compared to Fig. 4-7g.

– 120 kN.m Elastic
– 96 kN.m Redistributed
Design bending – 90 kN.m 75% Elastic
moment envelope
75% Elastic 45 kN.m

Elastic 60 kN.m
Redistributed 84 kN.m
Figure 4-9: Example 4-2: Design bending moment envelope including, 75% of the
elastic moments.
Problem 4.1
Consider the continuous two span beam of Problem 3.1 (shown here in Fig. 4-8). Apply a
15% redistribution of bending moments at the internal support and find the design bending
moment and shear force envelopes for the beam.
Self-weight Gn = 25 kN/m
Live load Qn = 10 kN/m
6m 6m
Figure 4-8: Two-span beam for Problem 4-1.

Chapter 5
Analysis and Design for Flexure
5.1 Introduction
This chapter considers the analysis and design of reinforced concrete cross-sections sub-
jected to bending moments. Equations are derived for rectangular and T-sections with ten-
sion and compression reinforcement.
In reinforced concrete structures a distinction is made between analysis and design:
Analysis: The material properties, cross section and reinforcement details are known
and the strength of the section must be found.
Design: The forces acting on a section is known and the following must be deter-
mined: material properties for concrete and reinforcement, section dimensions, rein-
forcement areas, etc.
Design is more difficult than analysis because there are usually more unknowns than pos-
sible equations. The designer then has to assume certain variables, for example the mate-
rial properties and section dimensions, and then proceed to find the required
reinforcement. Based on the results of the analysis it may be necessary to adjust the mate-
rial properties or section dimensions and to repeat the calculation.
5.2 Fundamental Principles
Three fundamental principles are applied throughout this chapter for the analysis and de-
sign of reinforced concrete sections in flexure:
• The relationship between flexural stresses and strains is determined from the
stress-strain relationships for concrete and steel (see Chapter 1).
• The strain distribution through the depth of a section is determined by assuming that
plane sections remain plane during bending.
• At each section the flexural stresses must be in equilibrium with the applied loads.
Further assumptions may also be required and are discussed when they are made.
5-1
5-2 Analysis and Design for Flexure
5.3 Stress-strain Relationship for Concrete in Bending
It is expected that the stress-strain behaviour of a cylinder tested in uniaxial compression

will be different from a beam tested in bending. The cylinder is subjected to an almost uni-
form compressive strain while the strain in the beam is distributed triangularly. To deter-
mine the stress-strain relationship in bending, an experimental study was carried out by
Hognestad (1955) where concrete beams were tested to failure and the stress-strain behav-
iour was compared to that of cylinders. The following conclusions were made:
• The shape of the stress distribution in the compression zone of a beam is almost identi-
cal to that of a uniaxially loaded cylinder, except that the maximum stress in the beam is
less than the cylinder strength fc¢ (see Fig. 5-1c).
• The maximum strain in the beam at failure ecu can be significantly greater than the max-
imum strain measured in an axially loaded cylinder.
< fc¢ 0.85 fc¢

ecu
Fc
N.A.
As es Fs
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Cross-section Strain Actual concrete Resultant Approximated
stresses forces concrete stresses
Cube
Compressive stress fc
fcu
Cylinder
fc¢
0.85 fc¢ » 0.67 fcu
Beam
» 0.002 » 0.0035 Strain ec
(f) Stress-strain behaviour of different concrete test specimen
Figure 5-1: Stress-strain relationship for concrete in bending.

Stress-strain Relationship for Concrete in Bending 5-3
Integrating the actual concrete stresses (Fig. 5-1c) over the cross-section, yields the resul-
tant compression force in the concrete (Fig. 5-1d). For design purposes, it is useful to
assume a simpler stress distribution as shown in Fig. 5-1e. There are two important condi-
tions that the approximate distribution must meet:
• Integrating the approximated stresses over the cross-section must yield the same mag-
nitude for the resultant force obtained from the actual stress distribution.
• The line of action for the resultant force from the approximated distribution must be the
same as for the actual stress distribution.
SABS 0100 The short-term stress-strain relationship for concrete in flexure, as recom-
BS 8110
mended by SABS 0100, is shown in Fig. 5-2. The curve is parabolic up to a
strain of ec0. For strains larger than ec0 but less than ecu a constant stress is as-
sumed. Both ec0 and the initial tangent modulus Eci are specified in terms of
the characteristic concrete strength fcu. The ultimate strain of 0.0035 is used
for all grades of concrete.
0 . 67 f cu
gm
Eci f cu
E ci = 5 . 5 GPa
Parabolic gm
Stress curve
f cu
e c0 = 2 . 4 ´ 10 -4
gm
fcu in MPa
ec0 ecu = 0.0035

Strain
Figure 5-2: Parabolic-rectangular stress-strain relationship for concrete in flexure rec-

ommended by BS 8110 and SABS 0100.
The ultimate design strength in flexure, expressed in terms of the cube stress,
is
0 .85 f c¢ = 0 .85 (0 .8 f cu ) = 0 .68 f cu » 0 .67 f cu (5.3-1)
where it was assumed that
f c¢ = 0 .8 f cu (5.3-2)
Substituting the material safety factor for concrete in flexure, the following
value for the ultimate design stress in flexure is often used:
0 .67 f cu 0 .67 f cu
= = 0 . 447 f cu » 0 . 45 f cu (5.3-3)
gm 1.5
Note that the material safety factor gm = 1.5 applies to concrete cast in situ.
5.4 Stress-strain Relationship for Reinforcement

SABS 0100 The stress-strain relationship for the steel reinforcement, as given by
SABS 0100, is shown in Fig. 5-3.
Take note of the following:
• The behaviour in compression differs from that in tension.

• The behaviour is taken as linear elastic for stresses less than fy / gm and
greater than fyc. Assuming tensile stresses and strains as positive, the
stress-strain relationship can be expressed as
ìf / g if e s ³ e y
ï y m
f s = íe s E s if e yc < e s < e y (5.4-1)
ï
î f yc if e s £ e yc
where
gm = material safety factor for reinforcement = 1.15

fy
= design yield strength in tension
gm
Stress fs
fy Tension
gm
f yc Es = 200 GPa
e yc = 1
Es
fy Strain es
ey =
g m Es
fy
f yc =
Compression g m + f y / 2000
fy = Characteristic yield strength (in MPa)
Figure 5-3: Short-term stress-strain relationship for reinforcement (SABS 0100).

Stress-strain Relationship for Reinforcement 5-5
fy
ey = yield strain in tension =
g m Es
fy
fyc = design yield strength in compression =
g m + f y / 2000
f yc
eyc = yield strain in compression =
Es
• Typical values for yield stresses and strains are given in Table 5-1 for rein-
forcement commonly used in South Africa.
Table 5-1: Yield stress and strain for reinforcement.
Reinforcement Symbol Charac- Design values

type teristic
yield Tension Compression
strength
Yield Yield Yield Yield
fy
strength strain strength strain
(MPa)
fy ey fyc eyc
(MPa) (´10–3) (MPa) (´10–3)
Mild steel R 250 217.4 1.087 196.1 0.980
High yield Y 450 391.3 1.957 327.3 1.636
Welded wire FS or 485 421.7 2.109 348.3 1.741
fabric FD
BS 8110 The stress-strain relationship for the steel reinforcement, as given by BS 8110,
is shown in Fig. 5-4.
Stress fs
fy Tension and compression
gm
Es = 200 GPa fy = Characteristic yield strength

1 (in MPa)
fy Strain es
ey =
Es g m
Figure 5-4: Short-term stress-strain relationship for reinforcement (BS 8110).

Take note of the following:
• The behaviour in compression is the same as in tension.

• High yield strength reinforcement in the United Kingdom has a characteris-
tic yield strength of 460 MPa. However, when using BS 8110 for design in
South Africa, a yield strength of 450 MPa must be used.
5.5 Distribution of Strain and Stress at a Section
Once the concrete has cracked in flexure it is assumed that it no longer provides any resis-
tance in tension and that all tensile stresses are resisted by the reinforcement. This assump-
tion is generally conservative and has little influence when determining the ultimate
moment of resistance of a section. However, ignoring the tensile stresses in the uncracked
concrete will cause deflections to be overestimated.
It is also assumed that plane sections before bending remain plane after bending so that the
strain distribution at a section must be linear. Experimental studies have showed that this
assumption holds, even for members close to failure, provided the strains are measured
over a number of cracks.
The plane sections assumption does not hold for deep beams where shear deformations be-
come important. A simply supported beam, with a span to depth ratio of less than 2, is de-
fined as a deep beam by SABS 0100.
Consider the beam in Fig. 5-5 where the bending moment is increased until the beam fails.
Four ranges can be identified:
1. For small moments the section is uncracked and the concrete and reinforcement be-
haviour is linear elastic.
2. As the bending moment is increased the concrete will crack, and all tensile stresses
are assumed to be carried by the reinforcement. To ensure linear elastic behaviour, the
section is designed so that stresses caused by service loads fall within the elastic
ranges of both concrete and reinforcement (see section 5.14). At the serviceability
limit state the concrete stress block will therefore be triangular.
3. Further increases in bending moment will cause the concrete stresses to become
nonlinear and the reinforcement starts to yield. The behaviour is now plastic and if the
moment is removed, permanent deformations will remain. Note that the beam does
not collapse when the reinforcement starts to yield. The ductile nature of the rein-
forcement allows it to deform while maintaining the tensile force, and therefore,
maintaining the moment of resistance.
4. The concrete fails in compression when the strain at the top fibres reaches ecu =
0.0035, followed by a loss of resistance in the concrete. A this point the section fails,
and this is what we consider to be the ultimate limit state of flexure. The concrete
Distribution of Strain and Stress at a Section 5-7
1 23 4 1 2 3 4
j fc
M M N.A.
As Fs
4 3 21
(a) Cross-section (b) Strain (c) Concrete stresses and steel forces
M Concrete fails
Reinforcement yield
3 4 1 = Concrete is uncracked (linear elastic)
2 = Concrete is cracked (approximately linear elastic)
2 Concrete becomes nonlinear
3 = Concrete stresses are nonlinear (plastic)
4 = Concrete fails in compression
Concrete cracks
1
j
(d) Moment-curvature response
Figure 5-5: Distribution of strains and stresses.
stress block has the parabolic-rectangular shape shown in Fig. 5-2. To ensure ade-
quate warning, a beam will be designed so that the reinforcement yields before the
concrete fails in compression.
The moment-curvature response in Fig. 5-5d displays a ductile behaviour that is highly de-
sirable. Large deformations serve as warning that the structure is approaching failure. This
behaviour is only possible when the reinforcement yields before the concrete fails (con-
crete strain reaches ecu). If the concrete had to fail before the steel yielded, the failure
would be brittle with little or no warning.
Note how the neutral-axis moves upward as the beam approaches failure. One method of
ensuring the reinforcement yields before the concrete fails is to place a limit on the neutral
axis depth at failure. This method is used by SABS 0100 and is described in the next
section.
The ductile behaviour of reinforced concrete also makes it possible for plastic hinges to
form within the structure. In a statically indeterminate structure the moments can be redis-
tributed within the structure which will lead to a more economical design.
5.6 Relationship Between Strains and Neutral Axis Depth
The relationship between the strain in the reinforcement and the strain in the concrete at
the top of the section is determined by considering equivalent triangles in the strain distri-
bution (see Fig. 5-6)
e st e æd-x ö
= c so that e st = e cç ÷ (5.6-1)
d-x x è x ø
b ec
d¢
A¢s esc x
d N.A.
As
est
Cross-section Strain
Figure 5-6: Relationship between strain and neutral axis depth.
In a similar manner the strain in the compression reinforcement is given by
æ x - d¢ ö
e sc = e cç ÷ (5.6-2)
è x ø
A further useful relationship exists between the neutral axis depth and the strains
x ec æ ec ö
= so that x = dç
ç ÷
÷ (5.6-3)
d e st + e c e
è st + e cø
5.7 Limits on Neutral Axis Depth
Consider the case where the concrete at the top fibres fail by crushing and the tensile rein-
forcement reaches its yield strength at the same time. The concrete fibres fail when the
strain reaches ecu = 0.0035 while, for fy = 450 MPa, the reinforcement yields at a strain of ey
= 0.001957. From the above equation the neutral axis depth at failure will then be
Limits on Neutral Axis Depth 5-9
æ e ö æ 0 .0035 ö
x = dç cu ÷=ç ÷
ç e + e ÷ ç 0 .001957 + 0 .0035 ÷d (5.7-1)
è y cu ø è ø
= 0 .6414 d
However, this failure remains brittle in nature and is therefore undesirable. A reinforced
concrete section should be designed so that the reinforcement yields before the concrete
crushes.
SABS 0100 To ensure the reinforcement yields before the concrete crushes, SABS 0100
places a limit on the depth of the neutral axis
x £ 0 .5 d (5.7-2)
Taking moment redistribution (see section 4.2) into account, the limit on x is
x £ ( b b - 0 . 4) d (5.7-3)
where

bb = ç ÷£1 (5.7-4)
d = effective depth of the tensile reinforcement
The greater the degree of redistribution required, the smaller the depth allowed for the neu-
tral axis (see Table 5-2). This is to ensure a greater rotation capacity at failure. From
. . Note that lower limits on bb are given
Eqs. (5.7-2) and (5.7-3) it can be seen that b b £ 09
in section 4.1.
Table 5-2: Moment redistribution and limits on neutral axis depth (SABS 0100).
Redistribution bb x/d z/d K¢

(%)
£ 10 0.90 0.50 0.775 0.156
15 0.85 0.45 0.797 0.144
20 0.80 0.40 0.820 0.132
25 0.75 0.35 0.842 0.119
0.67 f cu / g m
ecu = 0.0035 » 0.45 f cu 0.45 fcu
b
Fcc Fcc s/2

x s = 0.9 x
d N.A. s
z=d-
2
As Fst Fst
est
(a) Cross-section (b) Strain (c) Parabolic-rectangular (d) Equivalent rectangular

concrete stress block concrete stress block
Figure 5-7: Equivalent rectangular stress block for concrete.
5.8 Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block
The design of reinforced concrete is usually governed by the ultimate limit state. An ele-
ment is designed to resist conditions at failure followed by checks at the serviceability
limit state to ensure criteria for deflection and cracking are met.
Figure 5-7 shows a beam section failing in bending. The strain in the top fibre has reached
the ultimate strain ecu = 0.0035 with a stress distribution in concrete as shown in Fig. 5-7c.
The resultant of the concrete compression stresses Fcc is determined by integrating the
concrete stresses over the compression zone. The line of action is determined by equating
the moment of the stress distribution to that of the resultant force about a point. This pro-
cess can be simplified for sections of constant width by replacing the para-
bolic-rectangular stress distribution with an equivalent rectangular stress-block. Two
requirements must be met:
• The magnitude of the stress resultant Fcc must be the same for the two distributions. The
area of the equivalent rectangular stress block must therefore be equal to that of the par-
abolic-rectangular stress block.
• The line of action of Fcc must coincide for the two distributions. The centroid of the
rectangular stress block must therefore be at the same height as that of the para-
bolic-rectangular stress block.
It was found that these two requirements can be met, in an approximate but conservative
manner, if the equivalent rectangular stress block has an intensity of 0.45 fcu and a depth s
of 0.9 x. It should be clear that the simplification of an equivalent stress block greatly
simplifies design and analysis.
Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections 5-11
5.9 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections
5.9.1 Design
Consider a beam in bending at the ultimate limit state as shown in Fig. 5-7. The ultimate
moment at the section, caused by the design loads acting on the structure, is known and the
area of reinforcement must be determined.
The stresses in the concrete and reinforcement at ultimate will have internal resultants Fcc
and Fst respectively. Making use of equilibrium, the moment caused by the internal stress
resultants is set equal to ultimate moment caused by the design loads
M = Fcc z = Fst z (5.9-1)
0 .67
Fcc = Stress ´ Area = f ´bs
where 1.5 cu (5.9-2)
» 0 . 45 f cu b s
s
The internal lever-arm z is given by z = d- (5.9-3)
2
so that s = 2 ( d - z) (5.9-4)
Substituting Eq. (5.9-2) into (5.9-1) yields
M = 0 . 45 f cu b s z (5.9-5)
Substituting Eq. (5.9-4) into the above yields
M = 0 .9 f cu b ( d - z) z (5.9-6)
The only unknown in this equation is z which can be solved by finding the roots to the qua-
dratic equation. However, for design purposes it is useful to have z in a dimensionless from
2
and the above equation is divided by d
M
z2 -d z+ =0
0 .9 b f cu
æ z ö2 z M
ç ÷ - + =0
è d ø d 0 .9 b d 2 f cu
æ z ö2 z K
The third term is simplified to ç ÷ - + =0 (5.9-7)
è d ø d 0 .9
M
where K= (5.9-8)
b d 2 f cu
The roots to Eq. (5.9-7) are
K K
1± 1- 4 ´1´ 1± 2 0 .25 -
z 0 .9 0 .9 K
= = = 0 .5 ± 0 .25 -
d 2 2 0 .9
Since z must be greater than 0.5 d, the correct root for the lever-arm ratio la is
z K
la = = 0 .5 + 0 .25 - (5.9-9)
d 0 .9
The required area of reinforcement As is determined by assuming the stress in the

reinforcement to be equal to the yield stress fy (this assumption is checked later). The resul-
tant force in the reinforcement is then
fy fy
Fst = f s As = As = As » 0 .87 f y As (5.9-10)
gm 1.15
Substituting the above into Eq. (5.9-1) and solving the steel area
M = Fst z = (0 .87 f y As ) z
M
As = (5.9-11)
0 .87 f y z
SABS 0100 The above equation, together with Eqs. (5.9-8) and (5.9-9), are given by
SABS 0100 for the design of singly reinforced sections.
The behaviour of Eq. (5.9-9) is illustrated graphically in Fig. 5-8. From the graph it can be
seen that the lever-arm z reduces as the moment increases. This behaviour can be ex-
plained as follows: As the moment M increases, a greater force in the concrete is required,
and therefore the depth of the stress block s increases. From Eq. (5.9-3) it can be seen that
as s increases, z decreases, and hence the observed behaviour.
SABS 0100 The following limits are placed on the lever-arm ratio:
0 . 775 d £ z £ 0. 95 d (5.9-12)
Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections 5-13
0.95
0.90 Compression reinforcement

is required for values of K
greater than this. Percentages
z 25%
la = indicate limits for moment
d 0.85 redistribution
20%
15%
£10%
0.80
0.775
0 0.05 0.10 0.15
0.156
M
K=
b d 2 f cu
Figure 5-8: Lever-arm ratio as a function of applied moment M.
Lower limit: z ³ 0.775 d
To ensure the reinforcement yields before the concrete crushes, SABS 0100 places a limit
on the depth of the neutral axis (see Eq. (5.7-2))
x £ 0 .5 d
or s = 0 .9 x (5.9-13)
£ 0 . 45 d
From Eq. (5.9-4) s = 2 ( d - z) £ 0 . 45 d
( d - z) £ 0 .225 d
z ³ d - 0 .225 d
z ³ 0 . 775 d (5.9-14)
For this given limit in lever-arm, the limit maximum moment can be determined by substi-
tuting the above into Eq. (5.9-5)
0 .67
M= f bs z
1.5 cu
0 .67
= f b (0.45 d)(0 . 775 d) (5.9-15)
1.5 cu
= 0 .156 b d 2 f cu
Alternatively, the limit in terms of K, Eq. (5.9-8), is

M
K= = 0 .156 (5.9-16)
b d 2 f cu
In conclusion: If for a given moment K > 0.156, then x > d/2 which exceeds the limit set by
the code. In this case the tension reinforcement may not yield at failure, resulting in brittle
failure. If the section dimensions cannot be increased, compression reinforcement must
provided.
Upper limit: z £ 0.95 d
From Fig. 5-8 it can be seen that the lever-arm z increases as the moment decreases. From
Eq. (5.9-4) it can be seen that the depth of the stress block s will decrease as z increases.
This means that for very small moments the strength depends on the strength of a thin layer
of concrete in the very top of the beam. Bleed water migrating to the top causes this con-
crete to have a higher water/cement ratio than the rest of the concrete in the beam. This
concrete is also not as well compacted as the concrete lower down in the beam. A limit of
0.1d is therefore placed on the depth the stress block s. From Eq. (5.9-4)
s = 2 ( d - z) ³ 0 .1 d
( d - z) ³ 0 .05 d
z £ d - 0 .05 d
z £ 0 .95 d (5.9-17)
Example 5.1
See Mathcad document Flx_Ex1_SA.
5.9.2 Analysis
Consider the singly reinforced concrete section shown in Fig. 5-9. The area of reinforce-
ment As is known and the moment of resistance of the section must be determined. Hori-
zontal equilibrium yields:
Fcc = Fst
0 . 45 f cu b s = 0 .87 f y As
0 .87 f y As
so that s= (5.9-18)
0 . 45 f cu b
s
and x= (5.9-19)
0 .9
The moment of resistance of the section is determined by taking moments about the com-
pressive force in the concrete Fcc
Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Sections 5-15
b ecu = 0.0035 0.45 fcu
Fcc s/2
s = 0.9 x
d N.A. s
z=d-
2
As Fst
est
(c) Concrete stresses and
(a) Cross-section (b) Strain resultant forces
Figure 5-9: Singly reinforced concrete section.
æ sö
M = Fst z = 0 .87 f y Asç d - ÷
è 2ø
so that (5.9-20)
æ 0 .87 f y As ö
= 0 .87 f y Asç
çd - ÷
÷
è 0 .9 f cu b ø
In this analysis it was assumed that the reinforcement yields at ultimate. A test must be car-
ried out to determine if this is the case. If the reinforcement does not yield at ultimate the
force in the reinforcement in Eqs. (5.9-18) and (5.9-20) must be replaced with
Fst = f s As = e s E s As (5.9-21)
Example 5.2
5.10 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Sections
5.10.1 Design
In section 5.9.1 it was shown that the depth of the neutral-axis increases as the applied ulti-
mate moment increases. A limit of x £ 0.5 d was imposed to ensure a ductile failure. If the
magnitude of the applied moment shows that x > 0.5 d, it may be possible to withstand this
moment by adding compression reinforcement. The role of the compression reinforce-
ment is to assist the concrete in compression, so that a smaller area of concrete in compres-
sion is required, therefore reducing the depth of the stress block s and the hence x.
Consider the doubly reinforced beam shown in Fig. 5-10. It would be economical to use
the greatest possible depth for concrete in compression and hence we select
0 . 67
f cu » 0 . 45 f cu
b ecu = 0.0035 1. 5
d¢
Fsc
s/2
A¢s x esc s = 0.9 x
Fcc
d N.A.
z
As Fst
est
Figure 5-10: Doubly reinforced concrete section.
x=d /2 (5.10-1)
so that s = 0 .9 x = 0 . 45 d (5.10-2)
æ sö æ 0 . 45 d ö
and z =ç d - ÷=ç d - ÷= 0 . 775 d (5.10-3)
è 2ø è 2 ø
From the selection of the neutral axis depth x in Eq. (5.10-1) it should be clear that the ten-
sile reinforcement will be yielding at failure. In the derivation of the subsequent equations
it is assumed that the compression reinforcement is also yielding at failure.
The forces acting on the section are
Fst = 0 .87 f y As (5.10-4)
0 .67 0 .67
Fcc = f cu b s = f b (0 . 45 d)
1.5 1.5 cu (5.10-5)
= 0 .201 f cu b d
Fsc = f yc A¢s (5.10-6)
Taking moments about the tension reinforcement As
M = Fcc z + Fsc ( d - d¢)

= 0 .201 b d f cu (0 . 775 d) + f yc A¢s ( d - d¢) (5.10-7)
= 0 .156 b d 2 f cu + f yc A¢s ( d - d¢)
M - 0 .156 b d 2 f cu
from which it follows that A¢s = (5.10-8)
f yc ( d - d¢)
Consider horizontal equilibrium of forces
Fst = Fcc + Fsc

(5.10-9)
0 .87 f y As = 0 .201 f cu b d + f yc A¢s
0 .201 b d f cu f yc
As = + A¢
0 .87 f y 0 .87 f y s
so that
0 .201 b d f cu 0 . 775 d f yc
= ´ + A¢
0 .87 f y z 0 .87 f y
0 .156 b d 2 f cu f yc
As = + A¢ (5.10-10)
0 .87 f y z 0 .87 f y s
Making the following substitutions K ¢ = 0 .156 (5.10-11)
M
and K= (5.10-12)
b d 2 f cu
Equations (5.10-8) and (5.10-10) become
( K - K ¢) b d 2 f cu
A¢s = (5.10-13)
f yc ( d - d¢)
K ¢ b d 2 f cu f yc
As = + A¢ (5.10-14)
0 .87 f y z 0 .87 f y s
SABS 0100 Equations (5.10-13) and (5.10-14) are provided by SABS for doubly rein-
forced concrete sections. It is important to note that these equations only apply
if the compression reinforcement yields at ultimate. When this is not the case
the design equations must be adjusted as discussed in the next section.
5.10.2 Non-yielding compression reinforcement
The most economical use of compression reinforcement results if it yields at ultimate.

However, circumstances may prevent this from happening. Fortunately, non-yielding
compression reinforcement will not lead to the brittle behaviour associated with
non-yielding tensile reinforcement.
The strain in the compression reinforcement is determined by considering equivalent tri-

angles in the strain distribution (see Fig. 5-11b)
e sc e
= cu
x - d¢ x
e sc x - d¢ d¢
= = 1-
e cu x x
d¢ e
= 1- sc (5.10-15)
x e cu
b ecu = 0.0035
d¢
A¢s x esc
d N.A.
As
est
(a) Cross-section (b) Strain
Figure 5-11: Strain in compression reinforcement.
By replacing the compression strain with the yield strain e yc = f yc / E s in the above
d¢ f yc
= 1- (5.10-16)
x E s e cu
A more useful relationship can be obtained by replacing x = d / 2 in the above
d¢ 1æ f yc ö
= ç
ç1 - ÷
÷ (5.10-17)
d 2è E s e cu ø
The depth of the compression reinforcement relative to the depth of the tension reinforce-
ment determines whether the compression reinforcement will be yielding at ultimate.
Placing the compression reinforcement shallower than the limit set by this equation will
ensure that the reinforcement yields at ultimate and the equations in the preceding section
apply. Values from Eqs. (5.10-15) and (5.10-17) are given in Table 5-3 for typical rein-
forcement yield strengths.
For conditions where the compression reinforcement is not yielding at ultimate, the strain
and stress in the compression reinforcement are respectively determined from
æ x - d¢ ö
e sc =ç ÷e £ e yc (5.10-18)
è x ø cu
Table 5-3: Conditions whereby compression reinforcement yield.
Yield strength Yield strain Compression reinforcement

in yields when
compression
Tension Compression d¢ / x £ d¢ / d £ *
(´10–6)
fy (MPa) fyc (MPa)
250 196.1 0.980 0.7199 0.3599
450 327.3 1.636 0.5325 0.2662
485 348.3 1.741 0.5024 0.2512
* Only for £ 10% moment redistribution, i.e. x = d / 2
f sc = E s e sc (5.10-19)
Equations (5.10-13) and (5.10-14) are then adjusted by replacing fyc by fsc from above
( K - K ¢) b d 2 f cu
A¢s = (5.10-20)
f sc ( d - d¢)
K ¢ b d 2 f cu f sc
As = + A¢ (5.10-21)
0 .87 f y z 0 .87 f y s
Example 5.3
5.10.3 Analysis
When conducting an analysis to determine the moment of resistance for given reinforce-
ment areas, the depth of the neutral axis cannot be fixed beforehand as with a design. There
is therefore no guarantee that the tensile or compression reinforcement is yielding at fail-
ure and any such assumptions must be checked.
Example 5.4

5.11 Design Charts
Design charts can be very useful to check a design or to obtain preliminary dimensions for
a design. However, it is of the utmost importance that the user should firstly be familiar
with the theory and assumptions used to generate the chart, and secondly, know how to use
the chart correctly.
A design chart for flexure is generated by considering the doubly reinforced concrete sec-
tion shown in Fig. 5-12. Moments of the internal forces about the neutral axis are set equal
to the externally applied load M
0 .67
M= f (0 .9 x) b (x - 0 . 45 x) + f sc A¢s ( x - d¢) + f st As ( d - x)
1.5 cu
M æ x ö2 A¢ æ x d¢ ö A æ xö
= 0 . 2211 f ç ÷ + f sc s ç - ÷+ f st s ç1- ÷ (5.11-1)
bd 2 cu
èdø b dè d d ø b dè d ø
0 . 67
f cu » 0 . 45 f cu
b ecu = 0.0035 1. 5
d¢ s/2 = 0.45 x
Fsc
A¢s x esc s = 0.9 x
Fcc (x – 0.45 x) (x – d ¢ )
d N.A.
(d – x)
As Fst
est
Figure 5-12: Doubly reinforced concrete section taking moments about neutral axis.
Horizontal equilibrium of the internal forces yields
0 .67
f st As = f (0 .9 x) b+ f sc A¢s
1.5 cu
As x A¢
f st = 0 . 402 f cu + f sc s (5.11-2)
bd d bd
The process of generating the design chart is as follows:
d¢
1. Values are selected for fcu, fy and that apply to the particular chart.
d
Moment Redistribution and the Design Equations 5-21
A¢s
2. A value is selected for
bd
As x
3. A value is selected for and is solved from Eq. (5.11-2).
bd d
M
4. Calculate from Eq. (5.11-1).
bd2
5. Steps 3 and 4 yield one ordinate on the chart. Repeat steps 3 and 4 to
A¢
obtain a line for the selected value of s
bd
A¢s
6. Repeat steps 2-5 to obtain different lines for different
bd
M x
A typical design chart for flexure is shown in Fig. 5-13. For given values of 2
and the
bd d
As A¢
user can find values for and s , from which the required areas of reinforcement can be
bd bd
determined. The following should be noted from the chart:
• The relationship between moment M and area of reinforcement (As and As¢) is nonlin-
ear. For example: Doubling the moment may require more than double the amount of
reinforcement.
• The required area of reinforcement falls within a diagonal band (shaded area in
x
Fig. 5-13) where the right-hand boundary is determined by the value for . Using rein-
d
forcement to right of this area will not yield a ductile failure and is not permitted by
SABS 0100.
Example 5.5
5.12 Moment Redistribution and the Design Equations
The design equations derived in section 5.10.1 were based on the assumption that x = d/2.
In this section the general design equations, as presented by SABS 0100, are derived in-
corporating the limits set on x to allow for moment redistribution. Selecting the maximum
value for x from Eq. (5.7-3)
x = ( b b - 0 . 4) d (5.12-1)
A¢s
15 bd
14 SABS 0100: 1992 0.040
.3 0.030
13 b
d¢ f cu = 30 MPa d = 0 0.4
x/
12 f y = 450 MPa 0.5
A¢s
11 d d¢ 0.020
= 0 .1
d
10 As 0.015
x/d = 0.3
9 0.4
0.5 0.010
M 8
(MPa)
bd 2 7 0.005
6
0
5
4
Suitable for design
3
2
1
0
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
As
bd
Figure 5-13: Design chart for flexure.
The depth of the stress block and internal lever-arm are then respectively
s = 0 .9 x = 0 .9 ( b b - 0 . 4) d (5.12-2)
æ sö 0 .9
and z =ç d - ÷= d - ( b b - 0 . 4) d (5.12-3)
è 2ø 2
The moment of resistance of the concrete section (without compression reinforcement) is

given by (see Fig. 5-14)
æ 0 .67 ö
M c = Fcc z =ç
ç f cu b s ÷
÷z
è 1.5 ø (5.12-4)
0 .67 é 0 .9 ù
= f cu b[0 .9 ( b b - 0 . 4) d]ê d - ( b b - 0 . 4) d ú
1.5 ë 2 û
Mc
so that 2
= 0 . 402 ( b b - 0 . 4) - 0 .18 ( b b - 0 . 4) 2 (5.12-5)
b d f cu
The above equation is set equal to K¢, so that

Moment Redistribution and the Design Equations 5-23
0 . 67
f cu » 0 . 45 f cu
b ecu = 0.0035 1. 5
d¢
Fsc
s/2
A¢s x= esc s = 0.9 x
(bb – 0.4)d Fcc
d N.A.
z
As Fst
est
Figure 5-14: Doubly reinforced concrete section.
Mc
K¢ = 2
= 0 . 402 ( b b - 0 . 4) - 0 .18 ( b b - 0 . 4) 2 (5.12-6)
b d f cu
Rearranging the above yields Mc
M c = K ¢ b d 2 f cu (5.12-7)
This is the maximum moment the concrete section can resist without exceeding the neu-
tral-axis limit. For moments larger than Mc a greater depth of stress block is required, and
hence a greater neutral-axis depth. However, by providing reinforcement in the compres-
sion zone, the steel can carry larger stresses than the concrete without having to increase
the depth of the concrete stress block. Therefore, the compressive stresses caused by mo-
ments in excess of Mc will be carried by the compression reinforcement
M = M c + f yc A¢s ( d - d¢) (5.12-8)
The required area of compression reinforcement is then
M -M c
A¢s = (5.12-9)
f yc ( d - d¢)
M
Recalling from Eq. (5.9-16) that K= (5.12-10)
b d 2 f cu
Substituting the above and Eq. (5.12-7) into (5.12-9) yields
( K - K ¢) b d 2 f cu
A¢s = (5.12-11)
f yc ( d - d¢)
From the above equation (and Eq. (5.12-9)) it can be seen that when K > K ¢ (or M > Mc),
compression reinforcement is required.
The required area of tension reinforcement is determined by considering horizontal equi-

librium of forces
Mc
Fst = Fcc + Fsc = + Fsc
z
K ¢ b d 2 f cu
0 .87 f y As = + f yc A¢s
z
K ¢ b d 2 f cu f yc
As = + A¢ (5.12-12)
0 .87 f y z 0 .87 f y s
SABS 0100 Equations (5.12-11) and (5.12-12) are given by SABS 0100 for the design of
rectangular beams. In both these equations it is assumed the compression rein-
forcement yields at ultimate. If this is not the case, fyc should be replaced by fsc
where
f sc = E s e sc < f yc (5.12-13)
æ x - d¢ ö
where e sc =ç ÷e < e yc (5.12-14)
è x ø cu
As alternative to calculating esc, Eq. (5.10-16) can be used to determine if the compression
reenforcement is yielding:
d¢ f yc
= 1- (5.12-15)
x E s e cu
Substituting Eq. (5.12-1) into the above
d¢ æ f yc ö
=ç
ç1- ÷
÷( b - 0 . 4) (5.12-16)
d è E s e cu ø b
Results from this equation are presented in Table 5-4 for different degrees of moment re-
distribution.
The internal lever-arm can be determined from Eq. (5.12-3), or by solving z from
æ 0 .67 ö æ 0 .67 ö
M c = Fcc z =ç
ç f cu b s ÷
÷ ç
z =ç f cu b [2 ( d - z )]÷
÷z
è 1.5 ø è 1.5 ø
é K¢ ù
z = dê0 .5 + 0 .25 - ú (5.12-9)
ë 0 .9 û
Flanged Beams 5-25
Table 5-4: Conditions whereby compression reinforcement yield, allowing for redis-
tribution of moments.
Yield strength Yield strain Compression reinforcement yields

in when d¢ / d £
compression
Tension Compression bb = bb = bb = bb =
eyc (´10–3)
fy fyc 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75
(MPa) (MPa)
250 196.1 0.980 0.3599 0.3239 0.2880 0.2520
450 327.3 1.636 0.2662 0.2396 0.2130 0.1864
485 348.3 1.741 0.2512 0.2261 0.2010 0.1759
The above equation can also be obtained from Eq. (5.9-9) by replacing K with K¢.
Example 5.6
5.13 Flanged Beams
When considering flanged beams, such as T- and L-beams, the depth of the neutral axis
plays an important role in analysis and design. If the neutral axis falls entirely within the
flange (see Fig. 5-15), the beam is effectively a rectangular section for which the preced-
ing equations apply if the width b is replaced by bf. This is because all concrete below the
neutral axis is considered cracked so that the shape of this area is therefore irrelevant.
bf ecu 0.45 fcu
Fcc = 0.45 fcu bf s

hf x s = 0.9 x
N.A.
d Flange z
Web
As
Fst = fs As
est
Cross-section Strain Stresses and forces
Figure 5-15: T-section with stress block in flange.

5.13.1 Analysis
Neutral axis within the flange
The following example illustrates the analysis if the neutral axis falls within the flange.
Example 5.7
Neutral axis within the web
When the neutral axis falls within the web (see Fig. 5-16) the stress block is likely to fall
partly within the web. Strictly speaking, the simplified rectangular stress block cannot be
used for the stresses in the flanges, however, the error made by doing so is usually small.
The depth of the stress block is determined as before from s = 0.9 x. Resultant forces are
determined by subdividing the stresses into areas for which the cross-section width is con-
stant.
bf ecu 0.45 fcu
Fcf = 0.45 fcu bf hf

hf
x s = 0.9 x Fcw = 0.45 fcu bw sw
N.A.
d sw z1
z2
As
Fst = fs As
bw est
Figure 5-16: T-section with neutral axis within the web.
The forces in the flange and web is then respectively
Fcf = 0 . 45 f cu b f h f (5.13-1)
Fcw = 0 . 45 f cu bw s w (5.13-2)
where sw is the portion of the web that is in compression and is the unknown to be deter-
mined. Horizontal equilibrium of the internal forces yields an equation from which sw can
be solved.
Flanged Beams 5-27
Fcf + Fcw = Fst

0 . 45 f cu b f h f + 0 . 45 f cu bw s w = 0 .87 f y As
0 .87 f y As - 0 . 45 f cu b f h f
sw = (5.13-3)
0 . 45 f cu bw
The internal lever-arm for each force is
z1 = d - h f / 2 (5.13-4)
z2 = d - h f - sw / 2 (5.13-5)
Taking moments about the tension reinforcement
M = Fcf z1 + Fcw z 2
æ hf ö æ sw ö (5.13-6)
= 0 . 45 f cu b f h f ç
çd - ÷
÷+ 0 . 45 f cu bw s wç d - h f - ÷
è 2 ø è 2ø
Example 5.8
5.13.2 Design
The design of a T-section where the neutral axis falls within the web is based on the same
approach as in the preceding analysis. Equation (5.13-6) yields a quadratic equation from
which sw can be solved. The required area of reinforcement is then determined from hori-
zontal equilibrium
Fst = Fcf + Fcw

0 .87 f y As = 0 . 45 f cu b f h f + 0 . 45 f cu bw s w
0 . 45 f cu b f h f + 0 . 45 f cu bw s w
As = (5.13-7)
0 .87 f y
Example 5.9

5.13.3 Simplified design
During an analysis the depth of the neutral axis cannot be controlled and is determined by
the existing reinforcement. In design, however, the designer could select a neutral axis
depth x and then find the reinforcement required to yield the selected x. This approach is
conservative but not necessarily economical.
The compression zone in the concrete is divided as shown in Fig. 5-17 to yield the same
equations as given by SABS 0100. A value is selected for x, in this case
d
x= (5.13-8)
2
d
so that s = 0 .9 x = 0 .9 = 0 . 45 d (5.13-9)
2
bf ecu 0.45 fcu

Fc2 = 0.45 fcu (bf – bw) hf
hf s /2 hf /2
2 1 2 s = 0.9 x
x
N.A.
d Fc1 = 0.45 fcu bw s (d – hf /2)
As
Fst = fs As
bw est
Figure 5-17: Approximate design for T-section.
The compression force in the web is
Fc1 = 0 . 45 f cu bw s = 0 . 45 f cu bw (0 . 45 d) (5.13-10)
= 0 .20 f cu bw d
The required area of tension reinforcement is determined by taking moments about Fc2
æ hf ö æs hf ö
M = Fst ç
çd - ÷ ÷- Fc1ç
ç - ÷ ÷
è 2 ø è2 2 ø (5.13-11)
æ hf ö æs hf ö
= 0 .87 f y Asç
çd - ÷ ÷- 0 .2 f cu bw dç
ç - ÷
÷
è 2 ø è2 2 ø
Elastic Analysis and Design 5-29
M + 0 .1 f cu bw d (0 . 45 d - h f )
so that As = (5.13-12)
0 .87 f y ( d - 0 .5 h f )
Example 5.10
5.14 Elastic Analysis and Design
From Fig. 5-5 it can be seen that for small moments the section behaves elastically with the
stresses linearly distributed through the depth of the section. Section dimensions and rein-
forcement ratios are typically designed so that stresses remain within the elastic range
when service loads are applied. An elastic analysis is therefore carried out at the service-
ability limit state. It is important to note that the section can be either cracked or uncracked
in the elastic analysis. Once a section has cracked its subsequent behaviour during loading
or unloading is determined by the cracked section properties. The discussion will com-
mence with the cracked section and later return to the uncracked section.
5.14.1 Elastic analysis of a cracked section
Consider the cracked section shown in Fig. 5-18. It is important to note the following:
• During an analysis the section dimensions and reinforcement ratios are known and it is
usually the stresses resulting from service loads that are required. Alternatively, limits
may be placed on the stresses and it is required to determine maximum service loads.
• Stresses and strains in the concrete are distributed linearly.
• The concrete strain in the top of the section ecc is not equal to the ultimate strain ecu.
b ecc fcc
Fcc
x 2
x
d N.A. 3
As Fst
est fst
(a) Cross-section (b) Strain (c) Stresses (d) Resultant forces
Figure 5-18: Elastic analysis of a cracked section.

• Equations relating forces and stresses derived from elastic theory
s=M y / I (5.14-1)
do not apply here because the section is not of a uniform material but made up of
concrete and steel. The analysis is therefore carried out by applying first principles.
The neutral axis depth is found by considering horizontal equilibrium of forces:
S F = 0: Fcc = Fst (5.14-2)

1
f b x = f st As
2 cc
For all materials within their elastic ranges it follows from the stress-strain relationship
that
f cc = e cc E c (5.14-3)
f st = e st E s (5.14-4)
Substitution of the above into Eq. (5.14-2)
1
e E b x = e st E s As (5.14-5)
2 cc c
From the plane sections assumption the following relationship exists between the strain in
the reinforcement and the strain in the concrete at the top of the section
æ x ö
e cc =ç ÷e (5.14-6)
è d - x ø st
Substitution of the above into Eq. (5.14-5) yields
1æ x ö
ç ÷e E b x = e st E s As
2è d - x ø st c
æ E s öæ As ö
x 2 = 2ç
ç ÷ ÷ç
ç ÷ ÷d ( d - x) (5.14-7)
è E c øè b d ø
Es
Set n = modular ratio = (5.14-8)
Ec
As
r = reinforcement ratio = (5.14-9)
bd
Elastic Analysis and Design 5-31
From Eq. (5.14-7) x 2 = 2 n r d ( d - x) (5.14-10)

x +2 n r d x -2 n r d = 0
2 2
æ x ö2 æxö
ç ÷ + 2 n rç ÷- 2 n r =0 (5.14-11)
èdø èdø
x -2 n r ± (2 n r) 2 + 4´ 2 n r
of which the roots are = (5.14-12)
d 2
x
Selecting the positive root = (n r) 2 + 2 n r - n r (5.14-13)
d
All terms on the right-hand side of the above equation are known so that x can be deter-
mined. The stresses are subsequently determined by taking moments about the compres-
sion and tension forces respectively
S M Fcc = 0: M = Fst z = f st As ( d - x / 3)
M
f st = (5.14-14)
As ( d - x / 3)
1
S M Fst = 0: M = Fcc z = f x b ( d - x / 3)
2 cc
2M
f cc = (5.14-15)
x b ( d - x / 3)
If either of the stresses fst or fcc are known, the other can be determined from horizontal
equilibrium with Eq. (5.14-2).
Example 5.11
5.14.2 Elastic design of a cracked section
If limits are specified for the material stresses, the reinforcement can be designed so that
these limits will not be exceeded for a given moment. The relationship between strains are
obtained from Fig. 5-18b
x e cc
= (5.14-16)
d e cc + e st
Applying the linear stress-strain relationship for materials
x 1 1 1
= = = (5.14-17)
d e f E f
1+ st 1+ st c 1+ st
e cc E st f cc n f cc
Taking moments about the compression force
S M Fcc = 0: M = Fst z = f st As ( d - x / 3)
M
As = (5.14-18)
f st ( d - x / 3)
It is important to also check the compression stress in the concrete. Considering horizontal
equilibrium
1
S F = 0: f b x = f s As
2 cc
2 f s As
f cc = (5.14-19)
bx
5.15 Elastic Analysis Using the Transformed Section
The method presented in the preceding section is difficult to apply to composite sections
with complex section shapes. The transformed section method changes the cross section to
account for differences in material properties, in this case, modulus of elasticity. The
transformed section then consists of one material for which standard elastic theory, such as
Eq. (5.14-1), can be used.
5.15.1 Cracked rectangular section
Consider the cracked concrete section in Fig. 5-19. The aim is to replace the steel rein-
forcement As with an equivalent area of concrete Aec so that a linear elastic analysis will
produce the same results as the method in section 5.14. In other words: The composite sec-
tion in Fig. 5-19a is to be replaced by a section consisting of concrete only, shown in
Fig. 5-19b.
To satisfy compatibility, the strain in the reinforcement must be equal to the strain in the
surrounding concrete at the level of the reinforcement (measured over a substantial gauge
length)
e st = e ec (5.15-1)
Elastic Analysis Using the Transformed Section 5-33
b b ecc fcc
Fcc
2
x x
3
d N.A.
As Fst = Fec
Aec fec
est = eec
(d) Concrete stresses and
(a) Cross-section (b) Transformed section (c) Strain resultant forces
Figure 5-19: Cracked transformed rectangular section.
To satisfy equilibrium, the force in the equivalent concrete must be equal to the force in the
reinforcement
Fst = Fec (5.15-2)

As f st = Aec f ec
Assuming all materials are within their elastic ranges the stress-strain relationships are
f st = e st E s (5.15-3, 4)
f ec = e ec E c
The above equations together with Eq. (5.15-1) are substituted into Eq. (5.15-2)
As (e st E s ) = Aec (e ec E c )
E
Aec = s As = n As (5.15-5)
Ec
The above equation implies that the equivalent area of concrete Aec to replace As is simply
As multiplied by the modular ratio n. Considering horizontal equilibrium of forces (Eq.
(5.15-2)) the following relationship exist between stresses
Aec n As
f st = f ec = f = n f ec (5.15-6)
As As ec
This equation implies that the stress in the reinforcement is equal to the stress in the equiv-
alent concrete multiplied by the modular ratio.
The advantage of the transformed section is that the position of the neutral axis can be now
be determined as in a conventional elastic analysis. Equating the first moment of area
about the neutral axis to zero
x
( b x) = n As ( d - x )
2 (5.15-7)
A
x 2 = 2 n s d (d - x) = 2 n r d (d - x)
bd
This equation is the same as Eq. (5.14-10) for which the solution is given by Eq. (5.14-13)
x
= (n r) 2 + 2 n r - n r (5.15-8)
d
The cracked transformed second moment of area is given by
1
I cr = b x 3 + n As ( d - x ) 2 (5.15-9)
3
The stresses are determined from Eq. (5.14-1)
M y
f cc = (5.15-10)
I cr
M (d - x)
f ec = (5.15-11)
I cr
é M (d - x)ù
f st = n f ec = nê ú (5.15-12)
ë I cr û
Example 5.12
5.15.2 Cracked T-section
The transformed section can also be applied to T-sections as in Fig. 5-20.
The neutral axis depth x is determined by considering the first moment of area about the
neutral axis (see Fig. 5-20c)
æ hf ö
( b f - bw ) h f ççx - ÷ x
÷+ bw x = n As ( d - x) (5.15-13)
è 2 ø 2
The cracked transformed second moment of area is given by (see Fig. 5-20d)
Elastic Analysis Using the Transformed Section 5-35
bf bf
hf hf
x
d N.A.
bw
As
n As
(a) Cross-section (b) Transformed section
bf bf
hf hf
x x
bw bw
(c) Division of compression area (d) Division of compression area

for determining x for determining Icr
Figure 5-20: Cracked transformed T-section.
æ hf ö2 1
÷ + bw ( x - h f ) + n As ( d - x ) (5.15-14)
1 3
I cr = b f h 3f + b f h f ç
çx - ÷ 2
12 è 2 ø 3
As before, the stresses are determined from Eqs. (5.15-10) to (5.15-12).
5.15.3 Compression reinforcement
The compression reinforcement is surrounded by uncracked concrete in compression. The

transformed section is shown in Fig. 5-21 where the area of concrete replaced by rein-
b b (n – 1) A¢s
d¢
– A¢s n A¢s
A¢s x
d
+ N.A.
=
b
As n As n As
Figure 5-21: Cracked transformed rectangular section with compression

reinforcement.
forcement has been taken into account. The neutral axis depth x is determined by consider-
ing the first moment of area about the neutral axis
x
b x + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) = n As ( d - x) (5.15-15)
2
The cracked transformed second moment of area is given by
1
I cr = b x 3 + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) + n As ( d - x ) 2
2
(5.15-16)
3
The stresses fcc and fst are determined from Eqs. (5.15-10) to (5.15-12) with the stress in the
compression reinforcement
M ( x - d¢)
f sc = n (5.15-17)
I cr
Equation (5.15-15) can be approximated by assuming the term (n – 1) » n
x2
b + n A¢s ( x - d¢) = n As ( d - x)
2 (5.15-18)
x2
b +( A¢s + As ) n x - ( A¢s d¢+ As d) n= 0
2
Dividing by b d2 yields
1æ x ö æ A¢s As ö æ x ö é A¢ æ d¢ ö A ù
2
ç ÷ +ç ç + ÷ ÷nç ÷-ê s ç ÷+ s ún= 0
2è d ø è b d b d ø è d ø ë b dè d ø b d û
(5.15-19)
1æ x ö æ x ö æ d¢ ö
2
ç ÷ +( r¢+ r) nç ÷-ç r¢ + r÷n= 0
2è d ø èdø è d ø
where r = As / ( b d )
r¢ = A¢s / ( b d )
The solution to Eq. (5.15-19) is then as follows
x æ d¢ ö
=-( r¢+ r) n + ( r¢+ r) 2 n 2 + 2ç r¢ + r÷n (5.15-20)
d è d ø
5.15.4 Uncracked section
Figure 5-22 shows an uncracked transformed section where the area of concrete replaced
by tension reinforcement has been taken into account by multiplying the area of reinforce-
b b (n – 1) A¢s
d¢
– A¢s n A¢s
A¢s x
d
+ N.A.
=
As n As
– As
(n – 1) As
Figure 5-22: Uncracked transformed rectangular section with compression reinforce-

ment.
ment by (n – 1). The neutral axis depth x is determined by considering the first moment of
area about the neutral axis
x ( h - x)
b x + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) = b ( h - x) + ( n -1) As ( d - x) (5.15-21)
2 2
The uncracked transformed second moment of area is given by
1 1
I co = b x 3 + b ( h - x) + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) + ( n -1) As ( d - x ) 2
3 2
3 3
(5.15-22)
The stresses fcc and fst are determined from Eqs. (5.15-10) to (5.15-12) with fsc from
Eq. (5.15-17).
Examples 5.13, 5.14 and 5.15
See Mathcad documents Flx_Ex13_SA, Flx_Ex14_SA and Flx_Ex15_SA.
Problem 5.1
Determine for each of the cross-sections shown in Fig. 5-23 the required area of reinforce-
ment for the given design moments. The characteristic material strengths are
Concrete: fcu = 30 MPa

Steel: fy = 450 MPa
250 250
40 500
A¢s 150
670 670 450

As
As As
250
(a) (b) (c)

M = 400 kN.m M = 600 kN.m M = 200 kN.m
Figure 5-23: Cross-sections and moments for Problem 5.1.
Provide suitable reinforcement (bar size and quantity) and conduct an analysis to ensure
that the provided reinforcement will be adequate.
Problem 5.2
Consider the cross-section in Fig. 5-23c and determine the required area of reinforcement
if the moment increases to 400 kN.m, by using
(a) the design equations provided by SABS 0100 (i.e. assuming x = d/2).
(b) basic principles.
Problem 5.3
(a) The section shown in Fig. 5-24 is to be designed for a moment of 400 kN.m. Find val-
ues for b and As so that the strain in the reinforcement at ultimate is 0.004. The charac-
teristic material strengths are
Steel: fy = 450 MPa
670
As
Figure 5-24: Cross-section for Problem 5.3.

(b) Repeat (a) of this problem for a reinforcement strain of 0.008 and compare the results
to those obtained in (a).
Problem 5.4
Find the ultimate moment of resistance as well as the strain in the reinforcement at ulti-
mate for each of the sections shown in Fig. 5-25. The characteristic material strengths are

Steel: fy = 450 MPa
400 400
50
As = 5 Y32 = 4020 mm2
A¢s A¢s = 3 Y25 = 1470 mm2
600 600
As As
(a) (b)
Figure 5-25: Cross-sections and reinforcement for Problem 5.4.
Problem 5.5
Find the ultimate moment of resistance for the section shown in Fig. 5-26. The characteris-
tic material strengths are

Steel: fy = 450 MPa
350
45
150 1 2 Y20
2 2 Y16
500
600
3 2 Y32
4 2 Y32
Figure 5-26: Cross-section and reinforcement for Problem 5.5.

Problem 5.6
The section shown in Fig. 5-27 is subjected to a moment of 150 kN.m at the serviceability
limit state. Find the steel stresses and the maximum concrete stresses by using:
(a) cracked transformed section properties,

(b) basic principles (elastic).
400
50
Reinforcement:
A¢s = 943 mm2
A¢s
As = 3220 mm2
600
Modulus of elasticity:
concrete (short-term) Ec = 26 GPa
As
reinforcement Es = 200 GPa
Figure 5-27: Cross-section and reinforcement for Problem 5.6.

Struct: Flexure: Ex 5.1 Calc sheet no: 1 of 1
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Flx_Ex01_SA.mcd
Date: 2005-08-15 Date: ______
Example 5.1
The design ultimate moment acting on a rectangular section is M := 185⋅ kN⋅ m. Find the required area of tensile
reinforcement As for the section with characteristic material strengths and section dimensions given below.
(Note that the term 'design' implies that the partial safety factors have already been applied in determining the
moment.)
b
Input
concrete fcu := 30⋅ MPa
reinforcement fy := 450⋅ MPa d
Width of section: b := 260⋅ mm
Reinforcement depth: d := 440⋅ mm
As
Design
Applying the design equations given by SABS 0100 (par. 4.3.3.4)
⎛ 185 × 106 ⎞
K :=
M
= ⎜
2 ⎜ 260 × 440 2 × 30
b ⋅ d ⋅ fcu ⎝ ⎠
K = 0.1225
Mathcad's ability to incorporate units eliminate the need for the user to check units. However, for hand
calculations it is essential that units are entered correctly. Units of N and mm2 are used here but any other
consistent set of units can also be used. The numbers shown in brackets on the right-hand side of the
equations here serve to illustrate the use of units and do not automatically update when input variables are
changed.
Since K < 0.156, no compression reinforcement is required
⎛ K ⎞ ⋅d ⎛ 0.5 + 0.25 − 0.1225 ⎞ ⋅ 440

z := ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − = ⎜
⎝ 0.9 ⎠ ⎝ 0.9 ⎠
z = 368.5 mm
z
= 0.8375 ≥ 0.775, OK
d ≤ 0.95, OK
Required area of reinforcement
M ⎛ 185 × 10
6 ⎞
As := = ⎜
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z ⎝ 0.87 × 450 × 368.5 ⎠
2
As = 1282 mm
Date: 2005-08-15 Date: ______
Example 5.2
Find the ultimate moment of resistance for the rectangular section with reinforcement as shown below.
Input
b
reinforcement fy := 450⋅ MPa
Reinforcement: d
depth d := 520⋅ mm
2
area As := 1470⋅ mm As
Analysis
The equations given by SABS 0100 are intended for design and cannot directly be applied here. Therefore the
analysis below is carried out from first principles.
b εcu 0.45 fcu
s= Fcc = 0.45 fcu b s

x 0.9 x
d N.A.
z
As
Fst = fs As
εst
It is assumed that the reinforcement will yield when the ultimate moment is applied, so that fs = 0.87⋅ fy
Horizontal equilibrium of the internal forces acting on the section is considered:
Fcc = Fst
0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s = 0.87⋅ fy⋅ As
Solving s from the above equation:
0.87⋅ fy⋅ As
s := s = 142.1 mm
0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b
s
The neutral axis depth is x := x = 157.9 mm
0.9
x
= 0.304 < 0.641, therefore the assumption that the reinforcement yields was correct.
d
Date: 2005-08-15 Date: ______
Alternatively, yielding of the reinforcement can be confirmed from first principles. The following additional
input is required:
Reinforcement modulus of elasticity Es := 200 ⋅ GPa

Ultimate strain in concrete ε cu := 0.0035
Yield strain in reinforcement
0.87⋅ fy −3
ε y := ε y = 1.957 × 10
Es
Considering equivalent triangles in the strain distribution:
d−x −3
ε st := ⋅ ε cu ε st = 8.027 × 10
x
Since ε st > ε y , the assumption that the reinforcement yields was correct.
Moment of resistance of the section is
M = Fst ⋅ z
s
z := d − z = 448.9 mm
2
−6
M := ( 0.87⋅ fy⋅ As) ⋅ z = ( 0.87 × 450 × 1470 × 448.9 ) × 10
M = 258.4 kN⋅ m
Struct: Flexure Ex 5.3 Calc sheet no: 1 of 1
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Example 5.3
The section shown below is subjected to a design ultimate moment of M := 285⋅ kN⋅ m. Find the required area of
reinforcement.
Input b
d′
concrete fcu := 30⋅ MPa A′s
reinforcement fy := 450⋅ MPa
d
As
Reinforcement depths: d := 440⋅ mm
d' := 50⋅ mm
Design
M
K :=
2
b ⋅ d ⋅ fcu
K = 0.1887 > K' := 0.156, compression reinforcement is required
d'
= 0.114 < 0.266, compression reinforcement will yield at ultimate
d
fy
Yield stress for compression reinforcement fyc := fyc = 327.3 MPa
fy
1.15 +
2000⋅ MPa
Internal lever-arm z := 0.775 ⋅ d z = 341 mm
Required area of compression reinforcement

2
( K − K' ) ⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ d 2
A's := A's = 387.3 mm
fyc⋅ ( d − d')
Required area of tension reinforcement

2
K' ⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ d fyc 2
As := + ⋅ A's As = 2088 mm
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z 0.87⋅ fy
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Flx_Ex04_SA.xmcd
Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
Example 5.4
Find the ultimate moment of resistance for the rectangular section reinforced as shown below.
Input b
d′

A′s
d
reinforcement fy := 450 ⋅ MPa
Width of section: b := 280 ⋅ mm As

2
Reinforcement: d := 510 ⋅ mm As := 2410⋅ mm
2
d' := 50⋅ mm A's := 628 ⋅ mm
Analysis
b εcu = 0.0035 0.45 fcu
d′
Fsc
s/2
A′s x εsc s = 0.9 x
Fcc
d N.A.
z
As Fst
εst
Assume both tension and compression reinforcement are yielding at ultimate.
fy
fy
1.15 +
2000⋅ MPa
Horizontal equilibrium of forces
Fst = Fcc + Fsc
0.87⋅ fy⋅ As = 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s + fyc⋅ A's
0.87⋅ fy⋅ As − fyc⋅ A's

s := s = 195.2 mm
0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b
s
x := x = 216.9 mm
0.9
Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
Test to see if the assumptions regarding yielding of reinforcement were valid:
x
= 0.425 < 0.641, tension reinforcement is yielding
d
d'
= 0.23 < 0.533, compression reinforcement is yielding
x
Alternatively, the strains in the reinforcement can be calculated and compared to the yield strains:
Modulus of elasticity for reinforcement Es := 200 ⋅ GPa
0.87⋅ fy −3
Yield strain in tension ε y := ε y = 1.957 × 10
Es
fyc −3
Yield strain in compression ε yc := ε yc = 1.636 × 10
Es
Strain in tension reinforcement
ε st := ⎛⎜
d − x⎞ −3 −3
⋅ ε cu ε st = 4.729 × 10 > ε y = 1.957 × 10
⎝ x ⎠
Strain in compression reinforcement
ε sc := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞ −3 −3
⋅ ε cu ε sc = 2.693 × 10 > ε yc = 1.636 × 10
⎝ x ⎠
The moment of resistance of the section is determined by taking moments about As
Mu := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜ d −
s⎞
+ fyc⋅ A's⋅ ( d − d')
⎝ 2⎠
Mu = 399 kN⋅ m
Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
Example 5.5 b
d′
The section shown alongside is subjected to a design ultimate moment of
M := 285 ⋅ kN⋅ m. Find the required area of reinforcement. A′s
Input d
concrete fcu := 30⋅ MPa As
Width of section: b := 260 ⋅ mm
Reinforcement depths: d := 440 ⋅ mm and d' := 50⋅ mm
Design
d'
Since fcu = 30 MPa , fy = 450 MPa and = 0.114 ≈ 0.1, the design chart below can be used.
d
A′s
15 bd
14 SABS 0100: 1992 0.040
13 b = 0.3.4 0.030
d′ f cu = 30 MPa 0
x/d
12 f y = 450 MPa 0.5
A′s
11 d d′ 0.020
= 01
.
d
10 As 0.015
x/d = 0.3
9 0.4
0.5 0.010
M 8
(MPa)
bd 2 7 0.005
6 0.0035
5.662 0
5
4
Suitable for design
3
2
1
0
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
0.0184 As
bd
M
For = 5.662 MPa and x/d = 0.5, the following is read from the chart:
2
b⋅ d
As 2
= 0.0184 ⇒ As := 0.0184⋅ b ⋅ d As = 2105 mm
b⋅ d
A's 2
= 0.0035 ⇒ A's := 0.0035⋅ b ⋅ d A's = 400 mm
b⋅ d
These values are sufficiently close to the calculated values in Example 5.3.
Project: Reinforced Concrete Job ref: SIN 324
Structures Calc sheet no: 1 of 2
Struct: Flexure: Example 5.6 Filename: Flx_Ex06_SA.xmcd
Drawing ref: ______ Checked by: ______
Calc by: JMR Date: ______
Date: 2007-05-20
Example 5.6
The section shown below is subjected to a design ultimate moment of M := 228 ⋅ kN⋅ m. Find the required area of
reinforcement given that a 20% redistribution of moments ( β b := 0.8 ) was applied in determining the moment.
Input b
d′
concrete fcu := 30⋅ MPa A′s
d
As
Reinforcement depths: d := 440 ⋅ mm
d' := 50⋅ mm
Design to SABS 0100
K :=
M
2
( )
K' := 0.402 ⋅ β b − 0.4 − 0.18⋅ β b − 0.4 ( )2
b ⋅ d ⋅ fcu
K = 0.151 > K' = 0.132 , compression reinforcement is required
Determine if compression reinforcement will be yielding at ultimate
fy
fy
1.15 +
2000⋅ MPa
)⎛ ⎞
fyc
d'
(
= 0.114 < β b − 0.4 ⋅ ⎜ 1 − = 0.213 compression reinforcement will yield at ultimate
d ⎝ Es⋅ ε cu ⎠
⎛ K' ⎞
Internal lever-arm z := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − z = 361.44 mm
⎝ 0.9 ⎠

2
( K − K' ) ⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ d 2
A's := A's = 224.6 mm
fyc⋅ ( d − d')

2
K' ⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ d fyc 2
As := + ⋅ A's As = 1596 mm
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z 0.87⋅ fy
Struct: Flexure: Example 5.6 Filename: Flx_Ex06_SA.xmcd
Date: 2007-05-20
Design from first principles

Neutral axis depth (
x := β b − 0.4 ⋅ d ) x = 176 mm
Depth of stress block s := 0.9⋅ x s = 158.4 mm

s
Internal lever-arm z := d − z = 360.8 mm
2
Capacity of concrete without compression reinforcement
Mc := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ z
Mc = 200.6 kN⋅ m < M = 228 kN⋅ m , compression reinforcement required
Determine if compression reinforcement will be yielding at ultimate

fyc −3
ε yc := ε yc = 1.636 × 10
Es
ε sc := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞ −3 −3
⋅ ε cu ε sc = 2.506 × 10 > ε yc = 1.636 × 10
⎝ x ⎠
compression reinforcement will yield at ultimate
M = Mc + fyc⋅ A's⋅ ( d − d')
M − Mc
A's := 2
fyc⋅ ( d − d') A's = 214.7 mm
Horizontal equilibrium of forces
0.87⋅ fy⋅ As = 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s + fyc⋅ A's
0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s fyc 2

As := + ⋅ A's As = 1600 mm
0.87⋅ fy 0.87⋅ fy
These answers differ slightly from those given by the design equations because of rounding of the K'
coefficients.
Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
Example 5.7
Find the ultimate moment of resistance for the T-section with reinforcement as shown below.
Input
concrete fcu := 30⋅ MPa bf
Width of flange: b f := 800 ⋅ mm hf
Height of flange h f := 150 ⋅ mm
Reinforcement: d
depth d := 420 ⋅ mm
2 As
area As := 1470⋅ mm
Analysis
The following assumptions are made and will be confirmed later:
• The reinforcement yield when the ultimate moment is applied, so that fs = 0.87⋅ fy
• The neutral axis falls within the flange.
bf εcu 0.45 fcu
Fcc = 0.45 fcu bf s

hf x s = 0.9 x
N.A.
d Flange z
Web
As
Fst = fs As
εst
Horizontal equilibrium of the internal forces acting on the section is considered: 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s = 0.87⋅ fy⋅ As
0.87⋅ fy⋅ As
Solving s from the above equation: s := s = 53.3 mm
0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b f
s
The neutral axis depth is x := x = 59.2 mm < h f = 150 mm , assumption correct
0.9
x
= 0.141 < 0.641, assumption that reinforcement yields was correct.
d
s
Internal lever-arm z := d − z = 393.4 mm
2
Moment of resistance of the section is M = Fst⋅ z M := ( 0.87⋅ fy⋅ As) ⋅ z M = 226.4 kN⋅ m
Date: 2005-08-15 Date: ______
Example 5.8
Find the ultimate moment of resistance for the T-section with reinforcement as shown below.
Input
fcu := 30⋅ MPa bf
concrete
fy := 450 ⋅ MPa
reinforcement
hf
Width of flange: b f := 450 ⋅ mm
d
Width of web b w := 300 ⋅ mm As
Reinforcement: bw
2
Analysis
Force in the flange Fcf := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b f ⋅ h f Fcf = 911.3 kN
Force in reinforcement Fst := 0.87⋅ fy⋅ As Fst = 943.5 kN
Since Fcf = 911.3kN < Fst = 943.5kN , the stress block must fall partly in the web.
bf εcu 0.45 fcu

hf
x s = 0.9 x
N.A. Fcw = 0.45 fcu bw sw
d sw
As
Fst = fs As
bw εst
Assume that the reinforcement yields at ultimate.
Horizontal equilibrium of the internal forces is considered:
Fcf + Fcw = Fst

Fcf + 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b w⋅ sw = 0.87⋅ fy⋅ As
0.87⋅ fy⋅ As − Fcf

Solve depth of stress block in web from above sw := sw = 7.97 mm
0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b w
Date: 2005-08-15 Date: ______
Total depth of stress block
s := h f + sw s = 158.0 mm
The neutral axis depth is

s
x := x = 175.5 mm
0.9
x
= 0.399 < 0.641, assumption that reinforcement yields was correct.
d
Moment of resistance of the section is determined by taking moments about the reinforcement
Fcw := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b w⋅ sw Fcw = 32.3 kN
⎛ hf⎞ ⎛ sw ⎞
M := Fcf ⋅ ⎜ d − + Fcw⋅ ⎜ d − h f −
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
M = 341.8 kN⋅ m
Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
Example 5.9
The T-section shown below is subjected to a design ultimate moment of M := 180 ⋅ kN⋅ m . Find the required area
of reinforcement given that a 10% redistribution of moments ( β b := 0.9 ) was applied in determining the moment.
Input
d
Width of web b w := 200 ⋅ mm
Reinforcement:
depth d := 350 ⋅ mm As
bw
Design
Force in the flange Fcf := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b f⋅ h f Fcf = 540 kN
⎛ hf ⎞
lever-arm z1 := ⎜ d − z1 = 300 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
Moment of resistance of the flange Mcf := Fcf ⋅ z1 Mcf = 162 kN⋅ m
Since M = 180 kN⋅ m > Mcf = 162 kN⋅ m the stress block must fall partly in the web
bf εcu 0.45 fcu

hf
N.A.
d sw z1
z2
As
Fst = fs As
bw εst

Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______

M = Mcf + Fcw⋅ z2
⎛ sw ⎞
M = Mcf + 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b w⋅ sw⋅ ⎜ d − h f −
⎝ 2 ⎠
M − Mcf
= sw⋅ ( d − h f) −
1 2
⋅ sw
0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b w 2
2 ⋅ ( M − Mcf )
sw − 2 ⋅ ( d − h f) ⋅ sw +
2
=0
0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b w
B := −2 ⋅ ( d − h f)
2
sw + B⋅ sw + C = 0 where B = −500 mm
2 ⋅ ( M − Mcf ) 4 2
C := C = 1.333 × 10 mm
0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b w
Roots to the quadratic equation are
2
−B + B − 4⋅ C
sw := sw = 471.7 mm
2
2
−B − B − 4⋅ C
or sw := sw = 28.26 mm
2
The second root is the correct answer since the first root falls outside the section
Total depth of stress block
s := h f + sw s = 128.3 mm
The neutral axis depth is

s
x := x = 142.5 mm
0.9
x
= 0.407 < 0.641, reinforcement will yield, and
d < 0.5 as required by SABS 0100
Required area of reinforcement is determined by considering horizontal equilibrium

Fcf + Fcw = Fst
Fcw := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b w⋅ sw Fcw = 76.31 kN
Fst = 0.87⋅ fy⋅ As
Fcf + Fcw 2
As := As = 1574 mm
0.87⋅ fy
Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
Example 5.10
The T-section shown below is subjected to a design ultimate moment of M := 180 ⋅ kN⋅ m. Find the required area
of reinforcement given that a 10% redistribution of moments ( β b := 0.9 ) was applied in determining the moment.
Input
d
Reinforcement:
depth d := 350 ⋅ mm As
bw
Simplified design
Force in the flange Fcf := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b f⋅ h f Fcf = 540 kN
⎛ hf ⎞
lever-arm z1 := ⎜ d − z1 = 300 mm
⎝ 2 ⎠
Moment of resistance of the flange Mcf := Fcf ⋅ z1 Mcf = 162 kN⋅ m
Since M = 180 kN⋅ m > Mcf = 162 kN⋅ m the stress block must fall partly in the web
bf εcu 0.45 fcu

Fc2 = 0.45 fcu (bf – bw) hf
hf s /2 hf /2
2 1 2 s = 0.9 x
x
N.A.
d Fc1 = 0.45 fcu bw s (d – hf /2)
As
Fst = fs As
bw εst
Select the depth of the neutral axis (

x := β b − 0.4 ⋅ d ) x = 175 mm
x
= 0.5 < 0.641, reinforcement will yield.
d

Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
Force in the web Fc1 := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b w⋅ s Fc1 = 425.3 kN
⎛ hf ⎞ ⎛ s hf ⎞
Moments about force M = Fst⋅ ⎜ d − − Fc1⋅ ⎜ −
in the web Fc1 : ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 2 ⎠
⎛ hf ⎞ ⎛ s hf ⎞
M = ( 0.87⋅ fy⋅ As) ⋅ ⎜ d − − Fc1⋅ ⎜ −
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 2 ⎠
−1
⎡ ⎛ h f ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ s hf ⎞⎤
As := ⎢0.87⋅ fy⋅ ⎜ d − ⎥ ⋅ ⎢M + Fc1⋅ ⎜ − ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎦
2
As = 1637 mm
This can be compared to the simplified equation provided by SABS 0100:
M + 0.1⋅ fcu⋅ b w⋅ d ⋅ ( 0.45⋅ d − h f)

As :=
0.87⋅ fy⋅ ( d − 0.5⋅ h f)
2
As = 1635 mm
Date: 2005-08-15 Date: ______
Example 5.11
The rectangular section shown below is subjected to a serviceability limit state moment of M := 120⋅ kN⋅ m.
Find the maximum long-term stresses in the concrete and reinforcement for a cracked section. Assume an
ultimate creep coefficient of φ∞ := 1.5 .
Input
b
concrete Ec := 33.333GPa
⋅
reinforcement Es := 200⋅ GPa
Reinforcement: d
depth d := 460⋅ mm
2
area As := 1470⋅ mm As
Analysis
Effective modulus of elasticity for concrete (allowing for the effects of creep)
Ec
Ec.eff := Ec.eff = 13.33 GPa
1 + φ∞
Es
Modular ratio n := n = 15
Ec.eff
As −3 −3
Reinforcement ratio ρ := ρ = 10.65 × 10 n ⋅ ρ = 159.8 × 10
b⋅ d
Neutral axis depth

x
= (n ⋅ ρ )2 + 2⋅ n⋅ ρ − n ⋅ ρ = 0.428
d
⎡ ⎤
x := d ⋅ ⎣ ( n ⋅ ρ ) + 2 ⋅ n ⋅ ρ − n ⋅ ρ⎦
2
x = 196.7 mm
Stress in reinforcement
M
fst := fst = 207 MPa
As⋅ ⎛⎜ d − ⎞
x
⎝ 3⎠
Stress in concrete at top of section

2⋅ M
fcc := fcc = 10.3 MPa
b ⋅ x⋅ ⎛⎜ d − ⎞
x
⎝ 3⎠
Date: 2007-05-20 Date: ______
Example 5.12
The rectangular section shown below is subjected to a serviceability limit state moment of M := 120 ⋅ kN⋅ m.
Find the maximum long-term stresses in the concrete and reinforcement for a cracked section. Assume an
long-term creep coefficient of φ∞ := 1.5 .
Input
b
concrete Ec := 33.333⋅ GPa
reinforcement Es := 200 ⋅ GPa
d
Reinforcement:
As
2
b
Analysis
Effective modulus of elasticity for concrete (allowing for the effects of creep) x
Ec
N.A.
1 + φ∞
n As
Es
Modular ratio n := n = 15
Ec.eff Transformed section
The neutral axis depth is determined by equating the first moment of area about the neutral axis to zero
x 2 2 ⋅ n ⋅ As 2 ⋅ n ⋅ As ⋅ d
b ⋅ x⋅ = n ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x ) ⇒ x + ⋅x − =0
2 b b
2 2 ⋅ n ⋅ As
x + B⋅ x + C = 0 where B := B = 147.0 mm
b
2 ⋅ n ⋅ As ⋅ d 3 2
C := − C = −67.62 × 10 mm
b
2
−B + B − 4⋅ C
x := x = 196.7 mm
2
1 3 2 9 4
Cracked transformed second Icr := ⋅ b ⋅ x + n ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x ) Icr = 2.290 × 10 mm
moment of area 3
M⋅ x
fcc := fcc = 10.3 MPa These results
Stress in concrete at top of section Icr are the same as
in Example 5.11
M⋅ ( d − x)
Stress in equivalent concrete at fec := fec = 13.8 MPa
level of reinforcement Icr
Stress in reinforcement fst := n ⋅ fec fst = 207 MPa

Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Example 5.13
For the rectangular section shown below the maximum allowable tensile stress in the concrete is fct := 3⋅ MPa .
Assume an uncracked section and find the maximum short-term moment the section can resist as well as the
stress in the reinforcement for this moment.
Input
concrete Ec := 30⋅ GPa b
reinforcement Es := 200⋅ GPa
Cross-section:
width b := 300⋅ mm
height h := 520⋅ mm h d b
Reinforcement:
depth d := 460⋅ mm As
2
area As := 1470⋅ mm x
N.A.
Analysis
Es
Modular ratio n := n = 6.667
Ec
(n – 1) As
Find neutral axis depth from first moment of area about the neutral axis Transformed section
(2 ) + 2 ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x )
2 2
x ( h − x) 2 2
b⋅ = b⋅ + ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x ) ⇒ x = h − 2 ⋅ x⋅ h + x
2 2 b
(2
0 = h − 2 ⋅ x⋅ h + ) 2
⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x ) ⇒ 2 ⋅ x⋅ h +
2 2
⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ x = h +
2
⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ d
b b b
2 2
h + ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ d
b
x := x = 270.1 mm
2
2⋅ h + ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As
b
Uncracked transformed second moment of area

1 3 1 3 2 9 4
Ico := ⋅ b⋅ x + ⋅ b ⋅ ( h − x ) + ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x ) Ico = 3.832 × 10 mm
3 3
M ⋅ ( h − x)
Tensile stress in concrete at bottom of section fct =
Ico
Ico
M := ⋅ fct M = 46.00 kN⋅ m
( h − x)
M ⋅ ( d − x)
Stress in equivalent concrete at fec := fec = 2.28 MPa
level of reinforcement Ico
Stress in reinforcement fst := n ⋅ fec fst = 15.2 MPa

Struct: Flexure: Example 5.14 Calc sheet no: 1 of 2
Date: 2007-05-21 Date: ______
Example 5.14
The rectangular section shown below is subjected to a moment of M := 257 ⋅ kN⋅ m
Assume a cracked section and calculate the elastic stresses in the concrete and reinforcement:
(a) at loading
(b) after a long time when the creep coeficient φ := 1.0
Input
Cross-section:
b
width b := 406 ⋅ mm d′
height h := 793 ⋅ mm
A′s
Modulus of elasticity: d
h
concrete Ec := 26.6⋅ GPa
As
Reinforcement:
depth d := 721 ⋅ mm d' := 72⋅ mm
2 2
area As := 3039⋅ mm A's := 1548⋅ mm
Analysis
(a) At loading
As −3
Reinforcment ratios ρ := ρ = 10.38 × 10
b⋅ d
A's −3
ρ' := ρ' = 5.288 × 10
b⋅ d
Es
Ec
⎡ ( ρ' + ρ )2⋅ n2 + 2⋅ ⎛⎜ ρ'⋅ d' ⎤

Neutral axis depth x := d ⋅ ⎢−( ρ' + ρ ) ⋅ n + + ρ ⎞ ⋅ n⎥ x = 219.2 mm
⎣ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎦
Cracked transformed second moment of area
b 3 2 2 9 4
Icr := ⋅ x + n ⋅ A's⋅ ( x − d') + n ⋅ As⋅ ( d − x) Icr = 7.431 × 10 mm
3
Stress in concrete in the top of the beam

M⋅ x
fc := fc = 7.58 MPa
Icr
Stress in compression reinforcement

n ⋅ M⋅ ( x − d')
fsc := fsc = 38.27 MPa
Icr
Date: 2007-05-21 Date: ______
Stress in tension reinforcement

n ⋅ M⋅ ( d − x )
fst := fst = 130.5 MPa
Icr
(b) After a long time

Effective modulus of elasticity (taking into account the effects of creep)
Ec
1+φ
Es
Ec.eff
⎡ ( ρ' + ρ )2⋅ n2 + 2⋅ ⎛⎜ ρ'⋅ d' ⎤

Neutral axis depth x∞ := d ⋅ ⎢−( ρ' + ρ ) ⋅ n + + ρ ⎞ ⋅ n⎥ x∞ = 276.7 mm
⎣ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎦
⋅ x∞ + n ⋅ A's⋅ ( x∞ − d') + n ⋅ As⋅ ( d − x∞ )

b 3 2 2 9 4
Icr := Icr = 12.86 × 10 mm
3
Stress in concrete in the top of the beam

M⋅ x ∞
fc.∞ := fc.∞ = 5.528 MPa
Icr
Stress in compression reinforcement

n ⋅ M⋅ ( x∞ − d')
fsc.∞ := fsc.∞ = 61.49 MPa
Icr
Stress in tension reinforcement

n ⋅ M⋅ ( d − x∞ )
fst.∞ := fst.∞ = 133.5 MPa
Icr
Summary
x∞ − x
Increase in neutral axis depth = 26.2 %
x
fsc.∞ − fsc
Increase in stress in compresion reinforcement = 60.7 %
fsc
fst.∞ − fst
Increase in stress in tension reinforcement = 2.3 %
fst
fc.∞ − fc
Decrease in concrete stress = −27.1 %
fc
Creep has the greatest effect on the compression reinforcement and caused a transfer of stesses from the
concrete to compression reinforcement.
Date: 2005-08-15 Date: ______
Example 5.15
Find the short-term stresses in the concrete and the reinforcement for the following applied moments:
(a) M1 := 35⋅ kN⋅ m
(b) M2 := 120 ⋅ kN⋅ m
Input
Cross-section:
width b := 300 ⋅ mm b
height h := 520 ⋅ mm
concrete Ec := 30⋅ GPa
h d
Reinforcement: As
depth d := 460 ⋅ mm b
2
Modulus of rupture fr := 3 ⋅ MPa x

N.A.
Analysis
(a) Uncracked section
Es
Modular ratio n := n = 6.667 (n – 1) As
Ec Transformed section
Find neutral axis depth from first moment of area about the neutral axis
(2 ) + 2 ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x )
2 2
x ( h − x) 2 2
b⋅ = b⋅ + ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x ) ⇒ x = h − 2 ⋅ x⋅ h + x
2 2 b
(2
0 = h − 2 ⋅ x⋅ h + ) 2
⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x ) ⇒ 2 ⋅ x⋅ h +
2 2
⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ x = h +
2
⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ d
b b b
2 2
h + ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ d
b
x := x = 270.1 mm
2
2⋅ h + ⋅ ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As
b
Untracked transformed second moment of area
1 3 1 3 2 9 4
Ico := ⋅ b⋅ x + ⋅ b ⋅ ( h − x ) + ( n − 1 ) ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x ) Ico = 3.832 × 10 mm
3 3
Date: 2005-08-15 Date: ______
Tensile stress in concrete at bottom of section

M ⋅ ( h − x)
fct =
Ico
Set the stress at the bottom of the section equal to the modulus of rupture and determine the cracking moment
Ico⋅ fr
Mcr := Mcr = 46.00 kN⋅ m
h−x
Since M1 = 35 kN⋅ m < Mcr = 46.00 kN⋅ m the section is uncracked.
M 1⋅ ( x )
Stress in concrete fc := fc = 2.47 MPa
Ico
n ⋅ M1⋅ ( d − x)
Stress in the reinforcement fst := fst = 11.56 MPa
Ico
(b) Cracked section

Since M2 = 120 kN⋅ m > Mcr = 46.00 kN⋅ m the section is cracked.
Find neutral axis depth from first moment of area about the neutral axis
x 2 2 ⋅ n ⋅ As 2 ⋅ n ⋅ As ⋅ d
b ⋅ x⋅ = n ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x ) ⇒ x + ⋅x − =0
2 b b
2 2 ⋅ n ⋅ As
x + B⋅ x + C = 0 where B := B = 65.3 mm
b
2 ⋅ n ⋅ As ⋅ d 3 2
C := − C = −30.05 × 10 mm
b
2
−B + B − 4⋅ C
x := x = 143.7 mm
2

1 3 2 9 4
Icr := ⋅ b ⋅ x + n ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x ) Icr = 1.277 × 10 mm
3
M2⋅ x
Stress in concrete fcc := fcc = 13.5 MPa
Icr
M2⋅ ( d − x)
Stress in reinforcement fst := n ⋅ fst = 198 MPa
Icr
Chapter 6
Design of Beams for Shear
6.1 Introduction
There are some important differences between flexure and shear that influences the design
approach:
• From tests on beams in flexure we observe a close agreement between the experimental
results and numerical predictions. For shear, on the other hand, there is a much larger
gap between predictions and experimental results, indicating that the problem is not yet
fully understood.
• Shear is a brittle failure which usually occurs with little warning.
Based on these observations, beams are designed so that they fail in flexure before they fail
in shear. To understand the complex interaction that takes place between the cracked con-
crete and the reinforcement, beams with flexural reinforcement, but without shear rein-
forcement, will be considered first.
6.2 Beams Without Shear Reinforcement
6.2.1 Elastic behaviour of uncracked beams
Consider the simply supported beam, subjected to a uniformly distributed load, as shown
in Fig. 6-1a. The stress resultants V and M acting at a particular cross-section is found from
the shear force and bending moment diagrams respectively. Assuming an elastic un-
cracked beam, the flexural stresses f in Fig. 6-1f are calculated in the usual manner (see
Eq. (5.14-1))
M y
f= (6.2-1)
I
The shear stress v is given by
VQ
v= (6.2-2)
Ib
6-1
6-2 Design of Beams for Shear
P (a) Beam and loading
A
x
V
(b) Shear force diagram
M (c) Bending moment diagram
M
N.A. vmax
b y V
y f v
Av P
My V Q V Av y
f= v= =
I Ib Ib
x
(d) Section A-A (e) Elevation (f) Flexural stresses (g) Shear stresses
f1 f2
v
f f
v v
v q
f2 f1
(h) Stresses at point P
Figure 6-1: Elastic analysis of a beam.
where V = shear force

Q = first moment of the cross-hatched area Av about the neutral axis (see
Fig. 6-1d)
= Av y
I = second moment of area of the total section about the neutral axis
b = width of the section at the depth where the shear stress is calculated
The stresses at a point P in the beam is shown in Fig. 6-1h from which the principal
stresses can be calculated.
Beams Without Shear Reinforcement 6-3
Principal stresses:
f æ f ö2
Maximum (tension): f1 = + ç ÷ +v2 (6.2-3)
2 è2ø
f æ f ö2
Minimum (compression): f2 = - ç ÷ +v2 (6.2-4)
2 è2ø
The angle q between the horizontal and f1 can be determined from
2v
tan2 q = (6.2-5)
f
CL
(b) Cross-
(a) Beam and finite element model section
CL
(c) Minimum principal stress (compression)
CL
(d) Maximum principal stress (tension)
Figure 6-2: Principal stresses from a finite element analysis.

The concrete will crack when the stress f1 exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete.
From Eqs. (6.2-3) and (6.2-5) it can be seen both the magnitude and the direction of f1 are
influenced by the shear stress v.
The distribution of principal stresses can also be found from a finite element analysis as
shown in Fig. 6-2a. Such an analysis has many advantages, among others, to include the
stresses caused by the vertical loading acting on the beam. The left half of the beam is ana-
lysed assuming an elastic, homogeneous and isotropic material. The minimum and maxi-
mum principal stresses are shown in Figs. 6-2b and c respectively where the direction of an
arrow coincides with the stress direction while the length of an arrow represents the rela-
tive magnitude of the stress. From these stresses it can be seen that the maximum compres-
sive stress occurs at midspan, in the top of the beam, with the stress trajectories forming an
arch towards the supports. The maximum tensile stress occurs at midspan, bottom centre
of the beam and changes direction closer to the support.
The principal stress trajectories are shown in Fig. 6-3a. Vertical cracks are expected to
form at midspan, in the bottom of the beam, perpendicular to f1. Away from midspan, a po-
tential crack will initiate at the bottom of the beam, progress upward and change direction
as v increases and the direction of f1 changes. At the neutral axis f = 0 and the shear stresses
will tend to cause cracks at 45º to the horizontal (see Fig. 6-3b).
It should be noted that once the concrete has cracked, the assumption of a homogeneous
isotropic material does not apply. However, it will correctly predict the first crack and re-
mains useful to explain cracking observed in beams.
CL
f2
f1 45º
45º
f1 = Principal tensile stress

f2 = Principal compressive stress
(a) Principal stress trajectories
v v v
v v
v 45º
v v
(b) Stresses at neutral axis
Figure 6-3: Principal stress trajectories (Park and Paulay, 1975).

6.2.2 Behaviour of cracked beams
Consider the cracked beam shown in Fig. 6-4a. A free-body of differential length dx is
shown in Fig. 6-4b. Taking moments about the right-hand side, discarding products of dif-
ferentials, yields the familiar equation
dM
V= (6.2-6)
dx
w w
C C + dC
M V M + dM
N.A.
V
d V + dV V + dV z
=
T T + dT
As dx dx
(a) Cross-section (b) Equilibrium of a (c) Horizontal forces
differential element replacing moments
T T + dT b v V
v=
bz
dx
(d) Free-body of cracked (e) Shear stresses in

concrete below N.A. cracked concrete
Figure 6-4: Shear stresses in a cracked concrete section
In the free-body shown in Fig. 6-4c the moment has been replaced by the horizontal forces
acting on the section. These forces are the resultants of the stresses in the concrete and re-
inforcement. Two assumptions are made regarding the cracked concrete below the neutral
axis:
• there are no longitudinal tensile stresses

• vertical shear stresses can be transmitted across cracks.
Moments on the left-hand sides of Figs. 6-4b and c must be equal
M =T z (6.2-7)
and also on the right-hand side M + dM = (T + dT ) z (6.2-8)
From the above two equation it follows that
dM
dT = (6.2-9)
z
Figure 6-4d shows a free-body of cracked concrete below the neutral axis. Horizontal
equilibrium yields
T + v b dx = T + dT
dT (6.2-10)
v=
b dx
Substituting Eqs. (6.2-9) and (6.2-6) into the above
dT dM V
v= = = (6.2-11)
b dx b z dx b z
We conclude from this equation that shear stresses below the neutral axis remains constant
with depth for a constant width b. Note that shear stresses in the uncracked concrete above
the neutral axis is influenced by the flexural stresses, as in the elastic analysis, and can be
determined from Eq. (6.2-2).
Equations (6.2-10) and (6.2-11) can also be expressed in terms of shear flow q, which is
shear force per unit length of beam
dT V
q= v b= = (6.2-12)
dx z
Unfortunately Eq. (6.2-11) does not present an accurate estimate of the actual stresses in a
cracked reinforced concrete beam. This equation does however provide a useful index that
is used in many design codes of practice. Equation is (6.2-11) is often further simplified,
replacing z with d, giving the stress in a cracked reinforced concrete beam as
V
v= (6.2-13)
bw d
where bw is the width of the web.

6.2.3 The principal mechanisms of shear resistance
The internal shear resistance of a beam can be found by substituting Eqs. (6.2-7) into
(6.2-6)
dM d
V= = (T z)
dx dx (6.2-14)
dT dz
=z +T
dx dx
From this equation it can be seen that shear is resisted by the following combined effect:
• The first term (z dT / dx) represents perfect beam action where the internal lever arm z
remains constant and the magnitude of T changes along the length of the beam. Note
that this result can also be obtained from Eq. (6.2-11).
• The second term (T dz / dx) represents arch action where the force T remains constant
and z changes along the length of the beam.
Beam and arch action, derived from Eq. (6.2-14), are illustrated in Fig. 6-5.
CL CL
C C
N.A. z z z
T T
dT dz
Vbeam = z Varch = T
dx dx
(a) Beam action (b) Arch action
Figure 6-5: Principal mechanisms of shear resistance: beam and arch action.
Beam action
The force in the reinforcement changes as the shear in the concrete is transferred to the re-
inforcement by means of the bond between these materials. This can be seen when hori-
zontal equilibrium of a differential length of bar is considered (see Fig. 6-6c).
dT = n (p f) u dx (6.2-15)
where n = number of bars

f = bar diameter
u = bond stress
C C + dC
N.A. V
V + dV
z
T T + dT T u T + dT
As dx
(a) Cross-section (b) Free-body of (c) Free-body of reinforcement
cracked concrete between cracks
Figure 6-6: Relationship between bond stress and force in the reinforcement.
Comparison of the above equation with Eq. (6.2-12), where dT = q dx, shows that the
shear flow q is also equal to the bond force per unit length of beam
q= np fu (6.2-16)
The shear resistance provided by beam action is then given by
dT
V beam = z =qz (6.2-17)
dx
Cracking of the concrete will influence the bond between the concrete and the reinforce-
ment. If all bond between the concrete and reinforcement is destroyed for some reason, the
shear resistance in the above equation will be zero. This also means that dT / dx will be
zero so that the force in the reinforcement remains constant. The resistance must now be
provided by arch action.
Arch action
Arch action is represented by the second term in Eq. (6.2-14). Replacing T with the hori-
zontal compression force in the concrete C, it can be seen (Fig. 6-7) that the shear resis-
tance is provided by the vertical component
dz dz
V arch = T = C = CV (6.2-18)
dx dx
C
CD =
cosq CV = C D sin q = C tan q
dz
=C dz
q dx q
C dx
Figure 6-7: Components of arch action.

Arch action strongly depends on the anchorage of the reinforcement at the ends and will
become more effective as the height of the arch increases.
6.2.4 Influence of shear span/effective depth ratio on failure mode
Research has shown that the shear span/effective depth ratio (av/d) plays an important role
in the failure mode of a beam. Based on experimental results, Kong and Evans (1987)
identified the following failure modes as illustrated in Fig. 6-8:
av/d > 6
For av/d > 6 beams fail in bending rather than shear (see Fig. 6-8b). Beams are designed so
that the flexural reinforcement yields before the concrete crushes, ensuring a ductile fail-
ure.
6 > av/d > 2.5
Beams with av/d < 6 tend to fail in shear before their bending capacity is reached. Two fail-
ure modes are identified for the range 6 > av/d > 2.5:
High av/d ratio: As the load on the beam increases, the flexural crack a-b closest to
the support changes direction and propagates toward the loading point (see Fig. 6-8c).
This type of crack a-b-c is referred to as a flexure-shear crack, or simply a diagonal
crack. With an increase in load the crack rapidly extends to e causing the beam to
break in two (see Fig. 6-8d). This type of failure is referred to as a diagonal-tension
failure. The important characteristic of this type of failure is that the failure load is ap-
proximately the same as the load at which the diagonal crack forms.
Low av/d ratio: The diagonal crack ceases its upward progression (at j) and further
cracks develop around the tension reinforcement (see Fig. 6-8e). As the load in-
creases, the diagonal crack opens further while a crack develops along the tension re-
inforcement (g-h). The reinforcement to the left of the crack is forced down, further
reducing the bond between the concrete and reinforcement. If hooks are not provided
at the ends of the reinforcement, collapse follows almost immediately. With hooks
provided, the beam behaves like a tied arch and fails when the concrete around the
hook fails. This mode of collapse is called a shear-tension failure. The failure load is
only slightly greater than the diagonal cracking load.
2.5 > av/d > 1
The diagonal crack often forms independently from a flexural crack. Once developed, the
crack will be stable under sustained load . As the load increases, the crack progresses into
the compression zone, eventually causing the compression zone to fail explosively. This
type of failure is referred to as a shear-compression failure. The failure load can be twice
the load at diagonal cracking.
av av
V CL V
V (a) Beam and loading V
V CL
Concrete crushing after
av yielding of reinforcement
>6
d
(b) Flexural failure

V CL
e
c
High av /d b
Flexure-shear crack V CL a
av c (d) Diagonal-tension failure

6> > 2 .5 b
d CL
a V
(c) Diagonal cracking j
Low av /d h g
a
(e) Shear-tension failure

V CL
av
2 .5 > >1
d
(f) Shear-compression failure
V CL
av
<1
d
(g) Deep beam failure
Figure 6-8: Shear failure modes (Kong and Evans, 1987).
av/d < 1
Beams with av/d < 1 are generally referred to as deep beams. The diagonal crack initiates
approximately d/3 from the bottom of the beam and simultaneously propagates towards
the support and the loading point. Failure occurs by crushing of the concrete, either at the
loading point or at the support. This mode of collapse is called a deep beam failure. The
failure load is usually several times the diagonal cracking load.
The failure loads of some experimental beams tested by Leonhardt (1965) are shown in
Fig. 6-9. Each beam had the same area of reinforcement and cross-section, only av was
varied. The two graphs represents the same data but these are plotted using different vari-
ables on the vertical axis.
av 400
V Shear force corresponding
M to the theoretical flexural
d 350
capacity Vu = Mu / av
300
V
Shear force (kN)

250
(a) Beam and loading
200
Observed ultimate shear Ve
150
b = 190
100
320 d = 270
50
Shear corresponding to
beam action (Vc)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(b) Cross-section
av M
=
d Vd
(c) Influence of shear span on shear resistance
160
140
Theoretical flexural strength
120 of section Mu
Moment (kN.m)
100
80
60
Observed ultimate
moment Me = Ve av
40
Flexural capacity corresponding
20 to beam action in the shear
span
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
av M
=
d Vd
(d) Influence of shear span on moment resistance
Figure 6-9: Shear failure loads for beams (Leonhardt, 1965)

These graphs were generated as follows:
• In Fig. 6-9a the experimental shear force at failure Ve is indicated by circles. The theo-
retical flexural shear strength is calculated from Vu = Mu / av where Mu is the theoretical
flexural strength of the beam.
• In Fig. 6-9b the experimental moment at failure is indicated by circles and calculated
from Me = Ve av where Ve is the experimental shear force at failure. The theoretical flex-
ural strength Mu is indicated by the horizontal solid line.
The two graphs in Figs. 6-9a and b convey the same message: The shaded area (1.5 < av/d
< 7) indicates a range where the beam fails in shear before it fails in bending. These limits
differ slightly from the preceding results of Kong and Evans (1987) because of differences
in specimens. However, the observed failure modes and conclusions were similar.
The moment can also be expressed as M = V av so that
av V av M
= = (6.2-19)
d Vd Vd
Using this relationship, the observations made for simply supported beams subjected to
third point loading can then be applied to beams with general support conditions and load-
ings.
Figure 6-9a shows a dashed line representing the shear strength for beams in the range 6 >
av/d > 2.5. This strength results mainly from beam action and also represents the load Vc at
which diagonal cracking occurs. Equations are presented in subsequent sections to predict
Vc.
Within the range 6 > av/d > 2.5 the strength Vc is not influenced by the av/d ratio. This can
be explained as follows from Eqs. (6.2-15) to (6.2-17): The bond stress u will reach a max-
imum value which will be the same at all positions within the shear span. The force in the
reinforcement will reach a constant value (dT = constant), so that the shear flow q will be
constant and hence the resistance provided by beam action Vbeam will be constant.
From Fig. 6-9 it can be seen that the minimum shear resistance will be at av/d » 2.5. For
av/d < 2.5 arch action significantly increases the shear strength as shown in Fig. 6-9. De-
sign codes such as SABS allows the strength Vc to be increased by a factor 2d/av < 2 for
av/d < 2.
6.2.4 Mechanisms of shear transfer
Consider the free-body diagram of the cracked concrete beam shown in Fig. 6-10. Vertical
equilibrium yields the shear resistance at a crack to be
V c = V cz +V d +V a (6.2-20)
where the contributing components are
Vcz = the uncracked concrete in the compression zone (20-40% of Vc)

Vd = the dowel force produced by the longitudinal flexural reinforcement
(15-25% of Vc)
Va = the vertical component of the aggregate interlock (35-50% of Vc)
Diagonal crack Vcz

Va
Vd
Vc
Figure 6-10: Mechanisms of shear transfer.
Also shown in parenthesis is the contribution of each component to the total shear resis-
tance, determined experimentally by Taylor (1974). From these tests it was concluded that
the dowel force reaches its capacity first, transferring the shear to the aggregate interlock.
It is believed that the aggregate interlock is next to fail, transmitting all shear to the con-
crete in the compression zone which then fails explosively.
6.2.5 Factors influencing shear strength
From the preceding sections it can be seen that several factors influence the shear capacity
of a reinforced concrete beam. Some of the important aspects are summarized here:
• An increase in concrete strength increases capacities of dowel-action, aggregate inter-

lock and the compression zone.
æ As ö
• An increase in reinforcement ratioç ç r= ÷
÷increases capacities of dowel-action and
è bdø
aggregate interlock. As r increases, the crack widths decrease, therefore increasing ag-
gregate interlock.
• An increase in the strength of the longitudinal reinforcement has little effect on the
shear capacity.
• The aggregate type influences the capacity of the aggregate interlock. For this reason,
the shear strength light weight concrete will be less than that of normal weight concrete
although their compressive strengths may be the same.
• The beam size, in particular beam depth, plays an important role in shear capacity.
Larger beams are proportionally weaker than smaller beams. This is probably caused
by the aggregate interlock that does not increase proportionally with beam size.
æ av M ö
• The effective-shear-span/depth ratioçç = ÷
÷plays an important role in the shear
è d V dø
failure mode and the shear resistance of the beam.
– For beams in the range 1.5 < av/d < 7 the beam is likely to fail in shear before it fails
in bending.
– The minimum shear resistance is at av/d » 2.5.
– For av/d < 2.5 arch action significantly increases the shear strength.
6.3 Beams With Shear Reinforcement
6.3.1 Shear components
Shear reinforcement normally consists of links, also referred to as stirrups. Bent-up bars
may also be used in combination with links as shown in Fig. 6-12. Shear reinforcement not
only increases the shear resistance of the beam, but also the ductility because it reduces the
probability of a brittle failure.
Before diagonal cracking the shear reinforcement is almost stress free. Once the diagonal
crack has formed, the shear reinforcement crossing the crack carries a portion of the shear
as illustrated in Fig. 6-11. Combined with the other components of Eq. (6.2-20) the total
shear resistance is
V = V c +V s (6.3-1)
= V cz +V d +V a +V s
where Vs is the shear resisted by the shear reinforcement. Shear reinforcement not inter-
cepted by a crack remains practically stress free.
As the applied shear force increases beyond the force that causes diagonal cracking, the
shear reinforcement will yield at some point, reaching a constant value. Any increase in
shear force has to be carried by Vcz, Va and Vd. An increase in crack width reduces Va, rap-
idly increasing Vcz and Vd. Failure is caused by splitting of the concrete along the longitu-
dinal reinforcement or crushing of the concrete in the compression zone.
Beams With Shear Reinforcement 6-15
A Bent-up bars B
Links
(stirrups)
B
A
Links
Section A-A Section B-B
Figure 6-12: Shear reinforcement.

C
Vcz
Vs
Va
Vd
V
Figure 6-11: Shear components including shear reinforcement.
6.3.2 Truss analogy
General shear reinforcement
The stresses in the shear reinforcement are determined by using a truss analogy. Consider
the general case shown in Fig. 6-13a where the shear reinforcement is spaced at a distance
sv and placed at an angle a to the horizontal. The shear reinforcement can be bent-up bars
or inclined links as shown here. It is assumed that compressive struts develop in the con-
crete at an angle b to the horizontal. The truss is completed by a top chord, consisting of
concrete in compression and a bottom chord made up of the tensile reinforcement. It is as-
V b
A CL d¢
b a
sv
V A
(a) (b)
A A
C
d – d¢
a
A
Vs b sv
T s1 s2
Vs A
(c) (d)
Figure 6-13: Truss analogy to determine Vs.
sumed that the top chord is centred around the position of the top longitudinal reinforce-
ment.
The vertical component of the force in the shear reinforcement is determined by consider-
ing a section parallel to the diagonal compressive struts (line A-A in Fig. 6-13a). The free
body of Fig. 6-13c shows that the vertical component of the shear resistance of all the links
that intersect line A-A is given by
V s = ns Asv f yv sin a (6.3-2)
where Asv = cross-section area of shear reinforcement

fyv = yield strength of shear reinforcement
ns = number of bars intersected by A-A
The number of bars intersected by A-A is determined from Fig. 6-13d
s1 + s 2 ( d - d¢) cot b + ( d - d¢) cot a

ns = =
sv sv
(6.3-3)
æ d - d¢ ö
= [cot a +cot b]ç
ç ÷
÷
è sv ø
Substituting the above into Eq. (6.3-2)

Beams With Shear Reinforcement 6-17
æ d - d¢ ö
V s = Asv f yv sin a[cot a +cot b]çç ÷
÷
è sv ø (6.3-4)
æ d - d¢ ö
= Asv f yv [cos a + sin a cot b]ç
ç ÷
÷
è sv ø
The above equation applies to bent-up bars or inclined links.
Vertical links
For vertical links the angle between the horizontal and the links a = 90º so that
æ d - d¢ ö ædö
V s = Asv f yv cot bç
ç ÷
÷» Asv f yvç
ç ÷ ÷cot b (6.3-5)
è sv ø è sv ø
Experimental results indicate that b » 45º so that
ædö
V s = Asv f yvç
ç ÷ ÷ (6.3-6)
è sv ø
The total shear resistance can be determined from
ædö
V = V c +V s = V c + Asv f yvçç ÷ ÷ (6.3-7)
è sv ø
V V A 1
= c + sv f yv
b d b d sv b
Asv b æ çV -V c ö
÷
(v - v c ) b
= ç ÷= (6.3-8)
sv f yv è b d ø f yv
V
where v = nominal shear stress in the concrete =
bd
vc = shear strength of the reinforced concrete without shear reinforcement

Vc
=
bd
The following comments on Eq. (6.3-4) follow from experimental results:
• The angle a should not be less than 45º.

• The spacing sv should not be greater than 1.5 d because the angle b then tends to be less
than 45º so that the system becomes ineffective.
• If bent-up bars are used, only 50 % of Vs should come from bent-up bars. The remaining
50 % of the resistance should be provided by links.
The truss analogy is a simple approximation that has the following limitations:
• The truss analogy ignores the beneficial influence shear reinforcement will have on ag-
gregate interlock and dowel action. The total resistance of a beam in shearV = V c +V s ,
as given by Eq. (6.3-1), is therefore conservative. The conservatism reduces as the
amount of shear reinforcement increases.
• It is assumed that failure of a beam with shear reinforcement will be initiated by yield-
ing or large deformation of the shear reinforcement. However, in T- or I-beams with
thin webs, the compression strut in the concrete may fail by crushing before the shear
reinforcement yield.
6.4 Design for Shear to BS 8110
The following summarizes the shear behaviour of beams and shows how the behaviour is
incorporated into a design code such as BS 8110:
(a) For beams without shear reinforcement a conservative estimate of the shear resis-
tance Vc can be found (for example: the dashed lines in Fig. 6-9 and Eq. (6.5-3)). This
value of Vc depends on the reinforcement ratio r = As/(bd)), the concrete strength fcu
and the depth of the reinforcement d. The shear resistance of a beam without shear re-
inforcement is expressed as a nominal shear stress
Vc
vc = (6.4-1)
bd
(b) Before diagonal cracking, the shear reinforcement is almost stress free. Following
cracking, the stress in the shear reinforcement increases rapidly. If only a small
amount of shear reinforcement is provided, this reinforcement will yield instantly at
cracking with little or no increase in shear resistance. Experimental evidence suggests
that this behaviour can be avoided if a minimum amount of shear reinforcement is
provided so that
æ Asv ö
ç
ç ÷
÷ f yv > 0 .38 MPa (6.4-2)
è vø
b s
For design purposes the limit is increased to 0.4 MPa yielding the following equation
used in BS 8110
æ Asv ö
ç
ç ÷
÷ f yv > 0 . 4 MPa (6.4-3)
è b sv ø
Design for Shear to BS 8110 6-19
(c) Shear reinforcement can only be effective if each diagonal crack is intercepted by at
least one bar. From Eq. (6.3-3)
æ d - d¢ ö
1= [cot a +cot b]ç
ç ÷
÷
è sv ø (6.4-4)
s v = [cot a +cot b]( d - d¢)
so that for bent-up bars
s v,max » [cot a +cot b] d (6.4-5)
For vertical links a = 90º and b = 45º so that
s v,max = d (6.4-6)
Experimental results showed that:

– links intersected close to the top by a diagonal crack are relatively ineffective
– a link, close to one that is intersected by a crack, will further increase the shear ca-
pacity of the beam.
It therefore seems good practice to limit the maximum spacings to 75% of the above
values. For bent-up bars both a and b should be greater than 45º so that
s v,max = 0 . 75[cot 45°+cot 45°] d = 0 . 75 ´ 2´ d (6.4-7)

= 1.5 d
For vertical links s v,max =0 . 75 d (6.4-8)

(d) If the conditions regarding minimum areas of shear reinforcement and maximum
spacing are met, the truss analogy can be applied. It is important to note that the truss
analogy assumes the shear reinforcement will yield before other failure mechanisms,
such as crushing of the web, occurs. Experimental studies have shown that a prema-
ture failure can be avoided if the shear stress is limited to a value vu. Irrespective of the
amount of shear reinforcement supplied, the design ultimate shear force must be less
than
Vu = vu b d (6.4-9)
A typical limit set by design codes such as BS 8110 is
ì08
. f cu
vu £ í whichever is less (6.4-10)
î5 MPa
(e) The shear resistance of a beam with shear reinforcement is given by
V = V c +V s (6.4-11)
Since nominal shear stresses are calculated on the same cross-sectional area bd, the
above can also be expressed as
v = vc + vs (6.4-12)
This approach is conservative since it does not account for the beneficial influence of
the shear reinforcement on aggregate interlock and dowel action. The shear capacity
of the beam vc, without shear reinforcement, is given by
0 . 79æ f cu ö æ 100 As ö
1/ 3
1/ 3
ç ÷ æ 400 ö1/ 4
vc = ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ (6.4-13)
g m è 25 ø è bv d ø è d ø
where
gm = partial material safety factor = 1.25
fcu = characteristic concrete cube strength £ 40 MPa
100 As
= reinforcement ratio £ 3
bv d
As = area of effectively anchored tension reinforcement.

æ 400 ö1/ 4
ç ÷ ³ 0.67 for members without shear reinforcement
è d ø
æ 400 ö1/ 4
ç ÷ ³ 1 for members with shear reinforcement (more than nominal)
è d ø
Reinforcement that extends a distance d beyond the section under consideration can
generally be considered effectively anchored. This requirement results because the
shear crack develops diagonally as shown in Figs. 6-10 and 6-11.
(f) The truss analogy does not distinguish between bent-up bars and links and their indi-
vidual capacities are simply added, while the combined effect seems to be greater
than the sum of the parts:
– Bent-up bars are more effective in limiting the width of a diagonal crack than links.
– Links prevent the longitudinal bars from being pushed down and increases dowel
action.
Design for Shear to SABS 0100 6-21
6.5 Design for Shear to SABS 0100
The design for shear can be subdivided into the following steps:
Step 1
Calculate the ultimate design shear stress from
V
v= (6.5-1)
bv d
where V = design shear stress at the ultimate limit state

bv = width of the beam
= b for a rectangular beam
= average width of the web below the flange for a T-section
d = effective depth of tensile reinforcement
Step 2
ì0.75 f
Check that v < vu were v u = í cu
whichever is the smallest (6.5-2)
î4 . 75 MPa
This equation is similar to Eq. (6.4-9) and originates from CP110. If v > vu, a larger section
should be used.
Step 3
Determine the shear capacity of the beam, without shear reinforcement, from
0 . 75æ f cu ö æ 100 As ö
1/ 3
1/ 3
ç ÷ æ 400 ö1/ 4
vc = ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ (6.5-3)
where gm = partial material safety factor = 1.4

fcu = characteristic concrete cube strength £ 40 MPa
100 As
= reinforcement ratio £ 3
bv d
As = area of effectively anchored tension reinforcement
Typical values from Eq. (6.5-3) for fcu = 30 MPa is given in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1: Shear capacity vc (in MPa) for beams without shear reinforcement for
fcu = 30 MPa.
100As Effective depth d (mm)
bv d
125 150 175 200 225 250 300 400 500 800
£0.15 0.4046 0.3865 0.3719 0.3597 0.3493 0.3402 0.325 0.3025 0.2861 0.2544
0.25 0.4797 0.4583 0.441 0.4265 0.4141 0.4033 0.3854 0.3586 0.3392 0.3016
0.50 0.6043 0.5774 0.5556 0.5373 0.5217 0.5082 0.4855 0.4518 0.4273 0.3799
0.75 0.6918 0.661 0.6360 0.6151 0.5972 0.5817 0.5558 0.5172 0.4892 0.4349
1.00 0.7614 0.7275 0.7000 0.677 0.6573 0.6403 0.6117 0.5693 0.5384 0.4787
1.50 0.8716 0.8328 0.8013 0.775 0.7525 0.7329 0.7003 0.6517 0.6163 0.548
2.00 0.9593 0.9166 0.8819 0.853 0.8282 0.8067 0.7707 0.7172 0.6783 0.6031
³3.00 1.0981 1.0492 1.0095 0.9764 0.9481 0.9234 0.8823 0.821 0.7765 0.6904
Reinforcement that extends a distance d beyond the section under consideration can gener-
ally be considered effectively anchored. This requirement results because the shear crack
develops diagonally as shown in Figs. 6-10 and 6-11.
100 As
Note that for £ 015
. the shear capacity takes on a constant value.
bv d
Step 4
Determine the minimum area of shear reinforcement from Eq. (6-4-2). SABS 0100 fol-
lows the requirements from the CP110 design code where a design limit of 0.5 MPa was
originally used together with a yield strength of 425 MPa for high yield reinforcement:
æ Asv ö ì0 .0020 b for f yv = 250 MPa

ç
ç ÷
÷> í (6.5-4)
è s v ø î0 .0012 b for f yv = 450 MPa
Step 5
If v > vc, shear reinforcement must be provided from Eqs. (6.3-4) or (6.3-8).
æ d - d¢ ö
For bent-up bars: V s = Asb (0 .87 f yv )[cos a + sin a cot b]ç
ç ÷
÷ (6.5-5)
è sb ø
Asb (v - v c ) bv
or ³ (6.5-6)
sb (0 .87 f yv )[cos a +sin a cot b]
Design for Shear to SABS 0100 6-23
where Asb = area of a bent-up bar

sb = spacing of bent-up bars
Asv (v - v c ) b
For vertical links: ³ (6.5-7)
sv 0 .87 f yv
The following should be noted:
• The above equations include a partial material safety factor for reinforcement of
gm = 1.15.
• The yield strength of the shear reinforcement fyv should not be taken as greater than
450 MPa.
• If bent-up bars are used, they may only account for 50% of the resistance provided by
the shear reinforcement. The remaining capacity must be provided by vertical links.
• Bent-up bars must be placed so that a and b are ³ 45º and sb £ 1.5 d. By selecting
a ³ 45º, sb £ 1.5 d, b can be solved from Eq. (6.4-3):
s b = [cot a +cot b]( d - d¢) (6.5-8)
Step 6
Check maximum spacing of links:
• In the direction of the span the spacing may not exceed 0.75 d (See Eq. (6.4-7)).
• Perpendicular to the span links should be placed so that no longitudinal bar is more than
0.75 d from a vertical leg. This means that the maximum spacing of legs perpendicular
to the span is 0.75 d (see Fig. 6-14a). It is also required that links should enclose all ten-
sion reinforcement (see Fig. 6-14b).
Step 7
Links should be anchored as follows (see Fig. 6-14c):
• It should pass around a bar of at least its own diameter, through an angle of 90º, and
continue for a distance of at least eight times its own diameter; or
• It should pass around a bar of at least its own diameter, through an angle of 180º, and
continue for a distance of at least four times its own diameter.
Further comments
Close to supports beams have a higher shear resistance vc than predicted by Eq. (6.5-3).
This can be seen from the experimental results (Fig. 6-9) for av/d < 2.5. SABS 0100 recom-
Clip
d Required for
fixing links
£ 0.75 d Main tension reinforcement

(a) Spacing of links in wide beams (b) Links should enclose all
tension reinforcement
8f
³f
³f 4f
Diameter f Diameter f
(c) Anchorage of links
Figure 6-14: Detailing of links.
mends the following: Within a distance 2 d from a support, or concentrated load, the shear
resistance vc may be increased to
æ2 d ö
v cç
ç ÷ ÷ (6.5-9)
è av ø
provided that the shear stress at the face of the support v is less than the lesser of 0 . 7 f cu
and 4 Mpa. The reason why these limits are less than those in Eq. (6.5-2) is unclear.
For beams carrying mainly uniformly distributed loads, or where the principal load is ap-
plied further than 2d from the face of the support, the following simplified approach is fol-
lowed:
The shear stress v is calculated at the critical section, a distance d, from the face of the
support. The shear resistance vc at the critical section is determined from Eq. (6.5-3)
and, if necessary, shear reinforcement vs is calculated. If this reinforcement is placed
between the critical section and the support, no further checks at these sections are re-
quired. Note that vc is not increased as in Eq. (6.5-9).
Shear in One-Way Spanning Solid Slabs 6-25
It should be noted that Eq. (6.5-3) is similar to one proposed by BS 8110 in Eq. (6.4-13) but
has the following differences:
• SABS 0100 uses gm = 1.4 rather than 1.25 as in BS 8110.

• SABS 0100 replaces the coefficient 0.79 in BS 8110 with 0.75.
• SABS 0100 have removed the limits BS 8110 places on the final factor ( 400 / d)
1/ 4
.
The first two points above is to allow for the reduction in partial load factor for self-weight
from 1.4 to 1.2. It is interesting to note that no such reduction was applied in the design for
flexure. The last point will yield smaller shear capacities for beams with d > 400 mm and is
therefore conservative.
Example 6.1
See Mathcad document She_Ex1_SA.
Example 6.2
See Mathcad document She_Ex2_SA.
6.6 Shear in One-Way Spanning Solid Slabs
Slabs spanning in one direction are usually designed by considering a unit width of slab
and designing it as beam. No shear reinforcement is required if v < vc. For economic and
practical reasons, shear reinforcement is often avoided by increasing the slab thickness or
increasing the amount of tension reinforcement.
The following restrictions apply to solid slabs:
• The maximum shear stress should not exceed 0 . 75 f cu and 4.75 MPa.
• Shear reinforcement is not recommended for slabs less than 200 mm thick because of
the practical difficulties in placing such reinforcement.
• The effectiveness of shear reinforcement reduces for slabs thinner than 200 mm.
SABS 0100 recommends that the resistance of shear reinforcement should be reduced
by 10 % for every 10 mm reduction of slab thickness below 200 mm.
Problem 6.1
The end span of a continuous beam is shown in Fig. 6-15 together with the design bending
moment and shear force envelopes. Flexural reinforcement has been determined and is
also given. Find suitable shear reinforcement for the beam using:
(a) Mild steel shear reinforcement (fy = 250 MPa).
(b) High yield shear reinforcement (fy = 450 MPa).
A C B
1500
2 Y20 3 Y25 + 2 Y20
300 2 Y25 3 Y25 2 Y25

500 900 300
6000 Nominal loads:
Self-weight gn = 25 kN/m
500 3 Y25 (beam included)
50 + 2 Y20 Live load qn = 20 kN/m
150 Concrete: fcu = 30 MPa

2 Y20
Cover = 25 mm
450 400
388
3 Y25 2 Y25 50
250
Section at midspan C Section at support B
3.700 m 2.300 m
-237.2 (bb = 0.85)
173.0 (bb = 0.935)

4.887 m 1.113 m
Redistributed design bending moment envelope (kN.m)
225.5
146.5
225.5
Redistributed design shear force envelope (kN)
Figure 6-15: Design details for Problem 6-1.

Struct: Shear: Ex 6.1 Calc sheet no: 1 of 2
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: She_Ex1_SA.mcd
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Example 6.1
Make use of the SABS 0100 recommendations and determine the shear resistance of the beam shown below.
R12 stirrups @ 100 mm c/c
Y25 bent up bars @ 45º

(Asb = 491 mm2 each) A b = 350
d′ = 50
R12 d = 650
45º
4-Y25
sb = d – d′
2-Y25 A Section A-A
(As = 982 mm2)
Input
Material strengths:
stirrups fyv := 250 ⋅ MPa
Beam width b := 350 ⋅ mm
Reinforcement depths d := 650 ⋅ mm d' := 50⋅ mm
Partial material safety factor for shear γ mv := 1.4
Analysis
Shear resistance of concrete
2
Note that only 2 Y25 bars can be used for shear resistance As := 982 ⋅ mm
The following checks should be made before calculating the shear resistance of the concrete
100 ⋅ As
= 0.432 < 3, OK
b⋅ d
fcu = 30 MPa < 40 MPa, OK
Shear resistance of the concrete

1 1
3 4
⎡⎛ 100 ⋅ As ⎞ ⎛ fcu ⎞⎤
⋅ ⎛⎜
0.75⋅ MPa 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
vc := ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⋅⎜ ⎥ vc = 0.3811 MPa
γ mv ⎣⎝ b ⋅ d ⎠ ⎝ 25⋅ MPa ⎠⎦ ⎝ d ⎠
Vc := vc⋅ b ⋅ d Vc = 86.7 kN
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Shear resistance of stirrups

2 2
Area of two legs of a stirrup Asv := 2 × 113 ⋅ mm Asv = 226 mm
Asv 2
mm
Spacing of stirrups sv := 100 ⋅ mm = 2.26
sv mm
Asv.min
Minimum stirrups to be provided = 0.002 ⋅ b = 0.700 mm OK
sv.min
Maximum spacing is 0.75⋅ d = 487.5 mm OK
Asv
Shear resistance of the stirrups Vs := ⋅ 0.87⋅ fyv⋅ d Vs = 319.5 kN
sv
Shear resistance of bent up bars

Angle of bent up bars α := 45⋅ deg
Assume an angle for the concrete compression strut β := 45⋅ deg
Distance between bent up bars sb := ( d − d') sb = 600 mm

2
Area of bent up bars Asb := 491 ⋅ mm
Shear resistance of the bent-up bars

d − d'
Vsb := 0.87⋅ fy⋅ Asb⋅ ( cos( α ) + sin( α ) ⋅ cot( β ) ) ⋅ Vsb = 271.8 kN
sb
SABS 0100 requires that only 50 % of the resistance of the shear reinforcement should be provided by bent-up
bars.
Vsb = 271.8 kN < Vs = 319.5 kN OK
Maximum shear
fcu
vu := 0.75⋅ MPa ⋅ vu = 4.108 MPa < 4.75 MPa, OK
MPa
Vu := vu⋅ b ⋅ d Vu = 934.6 kN
Total shear resistance
Vc + Vs + Vsb = 678 kN < Vu = 935 kN OK

Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Example 6.2
Make use of the SABS 0100 recommendations and design shear reinforcement for the beam shown below.
0.08 L 0.08 L
A
(2) (4) (2)

bsup A bsup
L
Input
Material strengths: b

d
links fyv := 250 ⋅ MPa
4-Y25
Span L := 6 ⋅ m
Width of beam b := 300 ⋅ mm

Section A-A
Support width b sup := 300 ⋅ mm
Reinforcement at midspan
2
area (4 Y25) As := 1963⋅ mm
Partial material safety factor for shear γ mv := 1.4
Nominal loads
−1
dead load g k := 40⋅ kN⋅ m
−1
live load q k := 12⋅ kN⋅ m
Design
Check maximum shear

−1
Design load at ultimate w := 1.2⋅ g k + 1.6⋅ q k w = 67.2 kN⋅ m
w⋅ L
Reaction at centre of support R := R = 201.6 kN
2
b sup
Shear at face of support Vsup := R − w⋅ Vsup = 191.5 kN
2
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Vsup
Maximum shear vmax := vmax = 1.161 MPa
b⋅ d
fcu
Maximum allowable shear stress vu := 0.75⋅ MPa ⋅ vu = 4.108 MPa < 4.75 MPa, OK
MPa
vmax = 1.161 MPa < vu = 4.108 MPa OK
Shear at critical section

Consider a critical section at a distance d = 550 mm from the Critical section
face of the support for shear
V := Vsup − w⋅ d V = 154.6 kN
0.08 L = d=
V 480 mm 220* 550 mm
v := v = 0.937 MPa
b⋅ d 2 Y25 4 Y25
Shear capacity of concrete 150 d = 550 mm
Only two of the Y25 bars extend a distance d = 550 mm past * Less than d
the critical section, therefore only half of the reinforcement
may be used to calculate the shear resistance
100 ⋅ ( 0.5⋅ As)

= 0.595 < 3, OK
b⋅ d

1 1
⎡⎡ 100 ⋅ ( 0.5⋅ As)⎤ ⎛ fcu ⎞⎤

3 4
⋅ ⎛⎜
0.75⋅ MPa 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
vc := ⋅ ⎢⎢ ⎥ ⋅⎜ ⎥ vc = 0.442 MPa
γ mv ⎣⎣ b⋅ d ⎦ ⎝ 25⋅ MPa ⎠⎦ ⎝ d ⎠
Since v = 0.937 MPa > vc = 0.442 MPa , shear reinforcement must be provided
Design shear reinforcement

Asv ( v − vc) ⋅ b
Required = = 0.682 mm
sv 0.87⋅ fyv
2
If we use R10 stirrups, the area of two legs is Asv := 157 ⋅ mm
0.87⋅ fyv⋅ Asv

sv := sv = 230.1 mm say sv := 200 ⋅ mm
(v − vc)⋅ b
Asv
Provide R10 stirrups at 200 mm c/c = 0.785 mm
sv
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Asv.min
Minimum reinforcement to be provided = 0.002 ⋅ b = 0.600 mm OK
sv.min
Maximum spacing is 0.75⋅ d = 412.5 mm OK
Asv 0.87⋅ fyv

Resistance of shear reinforcement vs := ⋅ vs = 0.569 MPa
sv b
Vs := vs⋅ b ⋅ d Vs = 93.91 kN
Resistance of concrete Vc := vc⋅ b ⋅ d Vc = 72.95 kN
Total resistance at critical section Vs + Vc = 166.9 kN > V = 154.6 kN OK
Nominal shear reinforcement

A minimum quantity of shear reinofrcement should be provided throughout the beam.
2
Using R10 stirrups with Asv.min := 157 ⋅ mm , (for 2 legs) the spacing should not exceed
Asv.min
sv.min := sv.min = 261.667 mm say sv.min := 250 ⋅ mm
0.002 ⋅ b
Asv.min
Provide R10 stirrups at 250 mm c/c = 0.628 mm
sv.min
Maximum spacing of reinforcement

Maximum spacing is 0.75⋅ d = 412.5 mm All shear reinforcement should be spaced closer than this
Placing of designed shear reinforcement

The resistance given by the nominal shear reinforcement is
Asv.min 0.87⋅ fyv

vs.min := ⋅ vs.min = 0.455 MPa
sv.min b
The resistance of the nominal shear reinforcement together with the concrete is
vn := vs.min + vc vn = 0.897 MPa
Vn := vn⋅ b ⋅ d Vn = 148.1 kN
The value assumed here for vc is conservative and it should be greater around midspan.
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
From the shear force diagram it can be seen that the shear force is equal to the resistance Vn at a distance s
from the face of the support, so that s can be determined from
Vn = Vsup − s⋅ w
Vsup − Vn
s := s = 646.5 mm from the face of the support
w
s
Number of stirrups required n := 1 + n = 4.232 say 5
sv
Nominal links to be placed over a distance of L − b sup − 2 × ( 5 − 1 ) × sv = 4.1 m
4.1⋅ m
= 16.4 provide 16
sv.min
5 R10 @ 200 5 R10 @ 200

150 175 16 R10 @ 250 175 150
2 R10 hanger bars
6m
647
550
R = 201.6 kN
Vsup = 191.5 kN
Vn = 148.1 kN 166.9 kN
V = 154.6 kN Resistance of Resistance of
at critical section concrete and designed links
nominal links and concrete
Shear force diagram and beam capacity

Chapter 7
Analysis and Design for Torsion
7.1 Introduction
To appreciate the importance of torsion in reinforced concrete structures it is necessary to

distinguish between two types of torsion: Equilibrium torsion and compatibility torsion
(Nilson and Winter, 1991).
7.1.1 Equilibrium torsion
Equilibrium torsion, also known as primary torsion or statically determinate torsion, ex-
ists when the applied load acting on the member can only be resisted by torsion within the
member with no alternative resisting actions.
The cantilevered slab in Fig. 7-1a serves as a typical example. The load w applied to the
slab causes twisting moments mt within the edge beam A-B. The beam twisting moments
are resisted by end moments T provided by the columns. Both mt and T can be determined
from equilibrium. If the applied load causes mt or T to exceed the capacity provided by the
structure, the structure will collapse.
7.1.2 Compatibility torsion
Compatibility torsion, also referred to as secondary torsion or statically indeterminate tor-

sion, develops in statically indeterminate structures. Continuity of the structure requires
the development of torsional moments in order to maintain compatibility of deformations
between adjoining members. The torsional moments cannot be determined by considering
equilibrium alone. If compatibility torsion is ignored in the design, or the torsional capac-
ity of a member is exceeded, extensive cracking may result that would not necessarily lead
to collapse of the structure. The internal forces will attempt to redistribute themselves and
the structure will remain stable if a state of equilibrium can be found.
Consider for example the edge beam A-B in Fig. 7-1b that is cast monolithically with the
slab. If the beam is torsionally stiff, with suitable reinforcement to resist the twisting mo-
ments and the columns are able to resist the end moments, the slab moments will approach
those for a fixed support along A-B (solid line in Fig. 7-1b). However, if the edge beam is
torsionally flexible, or insufficient torsional reinforcement has been provided, the slab
moments will approach those for a hinged support along A-B.
7-1
7-2 Analysis and Design for Torsion
B w
1
A, B
Section 1-1
A 1 T
Cantilever slab mt
T
Free-body of edge beam A-B
(a) Equilibrium torsion
B A, B C, D
1
Section 1-1
C 1
A, B C, D
Torsionally stiff
Continuous one-way spanning
edge beam
slab supported by beams
Torsionally flexible edge beam
Slab bending moments

(b) Compatibility torsion
Figure 7-1: Equilibrium and compatibility torsion.

Unreinforced Concrete 7-3
7.2 Unreinforced Concrete
7.2.1 Elastic behaviour
If a torsional moment is applied to a beam with a rectangular cross-section (see Fig. 7-2a),
the shear stresses are distributed as shown in Fig. 7-2b. The largest shear stress vt,max oc-
curs at the centre of the longest side and is given by (Park and Paulay, 1980):
T
v t ,max = y t (7.2-1)
x2 y
where T = applied torsional moment

x = length of the shorter side
y = length of the longer side
yt = stress factor being a function of x and y (see Fig. 7-3 and Table 7-1)
x
Short side
T
Long
side
y
T vt,max
(a) Beam and applied

torsional moments
(b) Elastic shear stresses for a
rectangular cross-section
Figure 7-2: Shear stresses caused by torsion in a rectangular beam.
Table 7-1: Torsional stress factors and moment of inertia coefficients.
y/x 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 10.0 ¥

yt 4.81 4.34 4.07 3.74 3.55 3.43 3.36 3.20 3.00
bt 0.141 0.196 0.229 0.263 0.281 0.291 0.298 0.312 0.333
5
4.811 é x æ x ö2 æ x ö3 æ x ö4 ù
y t = 3ê1+ 0 . 6095 + 0 . 8865 ç
ç ÷ ÷ - 1 . 8023ç
ç ÷ ÷ + 0 . 9100ç
ç ÷ ÷ú
ê
ë y è y ø è y ø èyø ú û
4.5 Adapted from Young (1989)
x
Stress factor yt
Maximum shear stress:

T
4 vt ,max = y t 2 vt,max y
x y
3.5
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ¥
y
x
0.35
0.333
Torsional moment of inertia
0.3
Load-displacement relationship:
coefficient bt
0.25 GC G bt x3 y
T= q= q
L L
0.2 é 4 ùù
1 ê 16 xé 1 æxö
bt = - 3 . 36 ê1- ç ç ÷ úú
÷
0.15 16êë 3 y ê
ë 12 èyø úûú
û
0.141 Adapted from Young (1989)
0.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ¥
y
x
Figure 7-3: Stiffness and stress factors for rectangular sections subjected to torsion.
The elastic load-displacement relationship for a member in torsion is given by
dq t T
= (7.2-2)
dz GC
where qt = angle of twist

T = applied torque (which may be a function of the distance along the
member)
G = shear modulus (see below)

C = torsional moment of inertia, also referred to as the torsional constant or
equivalent polar moment of inertia (often denoted by J)
z = distance along the member
The shear modulus is given by
Ec
G= (7.2-3)
2 (1+ n )
where Ec = modulus of elasticity for concrete

n = Poisson's ratio (approximately equal to 0.2 for concrete)
For a rectangular section the torsional moment of inertia can be expressed as
C = bt x3 y (7.2-4)
where bt is a coefficient that depends on the aspect ratio y/x (see Fig. 7-3 and Table 7-1).
The torsional stiffness of a member is defined as the torque required to cause a unit angle
of twist over its length and is given by
G C G bt x3 y
Kt = = (7.2-5)
L L
The torsional stiffness is analogous to the flexural stiffness E I / L.
Prandtl developed a membrane analogy that is very useful in describing the shear stresses
that develop in torsion: If a membrane is fixed along the outer boundaries of the
cross-section and a uniform pressure is applied to the membrane, the following can be
shown (see Fig. 7-4):
• The shear stress vt at any point on the cross-section is proportional to the slope of the
membrane at that point.
• The direction of the shear stress at any point is at parallel to the slope of the membrane
(parallel to the membrane contour line) at that point.
• The volume enclosed by the membrane is proportional to the torque carried by the
cross-section.
The membrane analogy is useful for visualizing the torsional stresses that develop on a
cross-section. Compare for example the stresses shown in Fig. 7-2b to those in Fig. 7-4. It
is also useful in determining the proportions of stresses resisted by the different compo-
nents of a compound section, such as T and L sections.
vt
(b) Plan view of

membrane
(a) Isometric view of membrane
Slope of membrane
(c) Elevation of membrane
Figure 7-4: Prandtl's membrane analogy.
It is custom to assume that the different components in a compound section resists a por-
tion of the applied torque in proportion to the relative torsional rigidity of the component.
The torque resisted by component i of the cross-section is given by
K t ,i
Ti = T (7.2-6)
S K t ,i
where T = total torque applied to the compound section

Ti = torque resisted by component i
Kt,i = torsional stiffness of component i
Substituting Eq. (7.2-5) into the above yields
b t ,i x i3 y i
Ti = T (7.2-7)
S b t ,i x i3 y i
Subdivision of typical compound cross-sections are shown in Fig. 7-5 where it can be seen
that more than one possible subdivision of a section is possible. The subdivision that maxi-
mizes total torsional stiffness SKt,i is selected. This is usually achieved by making the wid-
est rectangle as long as possible. This approach is conservative since it ignores the
contributions at junctions of components.
1 1 3 1 1
OR 2 OR 2
2 2
(a) T section (b) L section
1 1 2 1 2
2 OR 3 OR 3
3 4 4 5
(c) I section
Figure 7-5: Subdivision of compound sections for torsional analysis.
The maximum shear stress for a particular component is then determined from Eq. (7.2-1)
( v t ,max )i = y t ,i Ti
(7.2-8)
x i2 y i
7.2.2 Plastic behaviour
In reinforced concrete the design is usually performed at the ultimate limit state where
elastic conditions do not apply. In a ductile material it is possible to reach the yield stress in
shear vty over the complete section. Consider the square section shown in Fig. 7-6. The to-
tal shear force acting in one quadrant is given by
æ1 bö b2
V t =ç ´ b ´ ÷v ty = v (7.2-9)
è2 2ø 4 ty
b b/3
vty
vty vty b Vt b
vty
b/2
Figure 7-6: Torsional yielding of a square section.

The total torque resisted by the section is
é b ù b3
T = 4êV t ´ ú= v (7.2-10)
ë 3 û 3 ty
A sand-heap analogy for plastic behaviour, similar to the membrane analogy for elastic
behaviour, has been developed by Nadai (1950). Sand is poured on a horizontal surface
with the same shape as the cross-section. The surface of the sand heap is assumed to have a
constant slope at all positions. For example: a cone will form on a circular disc and a pyra-
mid will form on a square base. Figure 7-7 shows the sand-heap analogy for a rectangular
section.
x
y
Isometric view of sand-heap

y
Plastic (sand-heap analogy)

vty x Elastic (membrane analogy)
Plan view of sand-heap x
Short side elevation
Figure 7-7: Nadai's sand-heap analogy.
Similar to the membrane analogy, the following applies to the sand-heap analogy:
• The slope of the sand-heap is proportional the yield stress in shear vty.
• If the height of the sand-heap is vty x, the volume of the sand heap is equal to the plastic
torque T resisted by the section.
For the square section shown in Fig. 7-6, the volume of the sand-heap yields:
é1 ù b3
T =ê b ´ b ´ ( v ty b)ú= v (7.2-11)
ë3 û 3 ty
which is the same as Eq. (7.2-10).

vty x
x/2
= +
x/2
y x y–x
vty
x/2
vty vty x
x/2 vty
x/2 y–x x/2
Figure 7-8: Torsional yielding of a rectangular section.
Applying the sand-heap analogy to the rectangular section shown in Fig. 7-8 yields
T = Volume of the sand-heap

æ1 ö æ1 ö
=ç x 2 ´ v ty x ÷+ç ( y - x )´ x ´ v ty x ÷
è3 ø è2 ø
é1 3 1 3 ù
éx3 x2 x3 ù é x2 x3 ù
=ê x + ( y x - x ) úv ty =ê + y -
2
úv =ê y - úv ty
ë3 2 û ë3 2 2 û ty ë 2 6 û
x2é x ù
so that T= ê y - úv ty (7.2-12)
2ë 3 û
2T
Hence v ty = (7.2-13)
x ( y - x / 3)
2
This expression can also be written as
T
v ty = y ty (7.2-14)
x2 y
2
where y ty = (7.2-15)
x
1-
3y
Equation (7.2-14) is similar to Eq. (7.2-1) for elastic stresses. Equation (7.2-15) shows that
yty = 3 when x/y = 1 and yty approaches 2 when x/y approaches 0.
Concrete does not posses sufficient ductility, particularly in tension, to permit a perfect
plastic shear stress distribution. The ultimate torsional resistance of a unreinforced con-
crete section will lie somewhere between the values predicted from the elastic procedure
(Eq. (7.2-1)) and fully plastic procedure (Eq. (7.2-13)). Shear stresses cause diagonal prin-
cipal tensile stresses which initiate cracking, and hence, failure.
7.2.3 SABS 0100 approach
SABS 0100 uses Eq. (7.2-13) to determine if torsional reinforcement is required. If the
shear stress vt determined by Eq. (7.2-13) exceeds the shear capacity of the concrete vt,min,
torsional reinforcement must be provided.
The resistance of the concrete is given by the following experimentally determined equa-
tion, which includes a partial material safety factor gm = 1.4:
v t ,min = 0 .06 f cu £ 0 .36 MPa (7.2-16)
For compound sections a simplified version of Eq. (7.2-7) is used
x i3 y i
Ti = T (7.2-17)
S x i3 y i
A comparison between of Eq. (7.2-7) and the above shows that the bt,i terms have been
omitted. It is believed that Eq. (7.2-17) is conservative and that shear stresses may be over-
estimated by as much as 20%.
7.3 Influence of Reinforcement
A torque applied to a concrete member causes shear stresses which in turn lead to principle
tensile stresses that develop. When the tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded, cracks
develop following a spiral pattern around the beam. For an unreinforced beam, failure
would follow immediately after cracking.
If suitable torsional reinforcement is provided, a large number of closely spaced spiral

cracks will develop. Torsional reinforcement consists of both closed links and longitudi-
nal bars, with the longitudinal bars distributed evenly around the inside perimeter of the
links (see Fig. 7-9a). One such spiral crack is shown in Fig. 7-9b. The torque Tcr causing
cracking in the reinforced concrete member will be equal to, or slightly larger, than the
torque causing cracking in a similar unreinforced member.
Following cracking, the torsional resistance of the concrete in a reinforced concrete beam
reduces to approximately half the uncracked resistance. The reinforcement must now re-
sist the remainder of the torque. This behaviour is illustrated in the torque-twist relation-
ship for a reinforced concrete beam as shown in Fig. 7-10. There is a sudden increase in
Influence of Reinforcement 7-11
B T
f
45°
ut
(a)
str
Torsional
n
sio
ck
reinforcement
es
Cra
pr
m
Co
45°
A
f
T
(b)
Single crack in a reinforced concrete
beam subjected to torsion
Figure 7-9: Torsional crack in a reinforced concrete member.
Torque T
Tcr
Angle of twist qt
Figure 7-10: Torque-twist relationship for a reinforced concrete member.
twist following cracking. A new mechanism, involving the web and longitudinal rein-
forcement, must now be found to resist the torque. The resistance provided by the rein-
forcement is reflected in the curved part of the torque-twist relationship. Failure of the
beam occurs when the reinforcement yields, causing cracks open along three faces of the
beam with the concrete failing in compression along the fourth face (for example along the
line AB shown in Fig. 7-9b).
Lampert and Collins (1972) have proposed a space truss analogy to determine the load re-
sisting mechanism after cracking. The concept is similar to that used for designing shear
reinforcement for beams subjected to shear (see Section 6.3.2). Links and longitudinal
bars form the tension members while concrete strips between spiral cracks form the com-
pression members.
Consider the volume-strength product (steel volume) ´ (yield strength) for a length of
beam equal to the link spacing:
fy
Longitudinal reinforcement: As s v = 0 .87 As f y s v (7.3-1)
gm
f yv
Links: Asv (x1 + y1 ) = 0 .87 Asv f yv (x1 + y1 ) (7.3-2)
gm
where As = total area of longitudinal reinforcement

Asv = area of two legs of a link
fy = yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement
fyv = yield strength of links
sv = spacing of links
x1 = smaller centre to centre dimension of a link (see Fig. 7-11)
y1 = larger centre to centre dimension of a link (see Fig. 7-11)
x1 sv
y1 F As (fy) F 45°
Asv (fyv)
(a) Cross-section (b) Beam elevation
Figure 7-11: Space truss analogy.
For the longitudinal reinforcement and links to yield simultaneously, it can be shown that
their volume-strength products must be equal, so that
As f y s v = Asv f yv (x1 + y1 ) (7.3-3)

Influence of Reinforcement 7-13
Lampert and Collins (1972) have shown that if Eq. (7.3-3) is satisfied, the cracks will oc-
cur at 45°. For cracks that develop at 45°:
é Number of vertical legs of a link intersected ù y1

ê ú= (7.3-4)
ë by a crack on a vertical face û sv
é Number of horizontal legs of a link intersected ù x1

ê ú= (7.3-5)
ë by a crack on a horizontal face û sv
The tensile force in one leg of a link is
Asv f yv A
F= ´ = 0 .87 f yv sv (7.3-6)
2 gm 2
Taking moments about the member axis, the moment of the force in a vertical leg is
x1
TV = F (7.3-7)
2
while the moment of the force in a horizontal leg is
y1
TH = F (7.3-8)
2
The total resistance provided by the reinforcement is the sum of the contribution of each
leg intersected by a crack:
é y ù é x ù
T =ê2 ´ TV ´ 1 ú+ê2 ´ T H ´ 1 ú
ë sv û ë sv û
é x y ù é y x ù
=ê2 ´ F 1 ´ 1 ú+ê2 ´ F 1 ´ 1 ú (7.3-9)
ë 2 sv û ë 2 sv û
x1 y1
=2F
sv
Substituting Eq. (7.3-6) into the above
æ A öx y
T = 2ç0 .87 f yv sv ÷ 1 1
è 2 ø sv (7.3-10)
A
= 0 .87 f yv sv x1 y1
sv
For design, a factor of 0.8 is applied Eq. (7.3-10) to allow for inaccuracies regarding the
space truss analogy
Asv
T = 0 .87 f yv x y ´ 0 .8 (7.3-11)
sv 1 1
from which it follows that
Asv T
= (7.3-12)
sv 0 .8 x1 y1 (0 .87 f yv )
The following is important to note regarding the use of Eq. (7.3-12):
• Equation (7.3-12) is only valid if Eq. (7.3-3) is satisfied, i.e. the longitudinal reinforce-
ment and links yield simultaneously.
• Equation (7.3-12) does not consider the capacity of the concrete in compression. The
shear stress caused by torsion is usually limited to ensure that the capacity of the con-
crete is not exceeded.
7.4 Torsion Combined with Bending and Shear
The following approach is recommended by SABS 0100 when a member is subjected tor-
sion as well bending and shear:
• Torsion combined with shear: Reinforcement are determined by considering torsion

and shear separately and the reinforcement is then added together.
• Torsion combined with bending: Reinforcement are determined by considering tor-
sion and bending separately and the reinforcement is then added together.
• Torsion combined with bending and shear: The interaction for this combination
forces is not yet fully understood. However, it appears that if the approaches mentioned
in the above two cases are followed, the design would be conservative.
7.5 Design For Torsion to SABS 0100
Step 1
Determine As for bending and Asv for shear in the normal manner.
Step 2
Determine the shear stress caused by torsion from Eq. (7.2-13):

Design For Torsion to SABS 0100 7-15
2T
vt = (7.5-1)
2
hmin ( hmax - hmin / 3)
where T = design torque at the ultimate limit state

hmin = smaller dimension of the cross-section
hmax = larger dimension of the cross-section
Step 3
For compound sections (T, L and I sections), divide the cross-section into component rect-
angles that will maximize the function S hmin
3
hmax (see Fig. 7-12). Each component is con-
sidered independently as a rectangle subjected to a torque (see Eq. (7.2-17))
(hmin
3
hmax )
i
Ti = T (7.5-2)
S (hmin hmax )
3
i
The shear stress (vt)i for component i is determined from Step 2 replacing T with Ti and us-
ing the component's dimensions (hmin)i and (hmax)i.
OR OR
(a) T section (b) L section
OR OR
(c) I section
Figure 7-12: Subdivision of compound sections for design.
Step 4
Carry out the following check:
v t + v £ v tu (7.5-3)
where vt = shear stress caused by torsion from Step 2

V
v = shear stress caused by the shear force =
bd
vtu = maximum shear capacity of the concrete (see equation below and also
Table 7-2)
v tu = 0.71 f cu £ 4 . 75 MPa (7.5-4)
This check will ensure that at ultimate the reinforcement will yield before the capacity of
the concrete in compression is exceeded. Values for vtu include a partial material safety
factor gm = 1.4.
Table 7-2: Minimum and maximum concrete shear capacities for torsion.
fcu (MPa)
20 25 30 ³ 40
vt,min (MPa) 0.27 0.30 0.33 0.36
vtu (MPa) 3.18 3.56 4.00 4.50 < vtu < 4.75
For small sections (y1 < 550 mm) there is an additional requirement:
y1
v t £ v tu (7.5-5)
550 mm
This requirement follows from experimental observations that corners of small sections
tend to spall prematurely.
If the requirements of Eqs. (7.5-4) and (7.5-5) cannot be met, a larger section should be se-
lected.
Step 5
Torsional reinforcement is required if vt > vt,min, where vt,min is given by the following (see
also Table 7-2):
v t ,min = 0 .06 f cu £0.36 MPa (7.5-6)
This empirical expression for vt,min follows from experimental studies where the torque Tcr
that caused cracking was used to determine vt from Eq. (7.5-1). These values for vt are then
divided by a partial material safety factor gm = 1.4 to yield the values for vt,min. The values
given for vt,min are considered to be very conservative.
Design For Torsion to SABS 0100 7-17
The requirements for combined shear and torsion are summarized in Table 7-3 below.
Table 7-3: Reinforcement for combined shear and torsion.
v t £ v t ,min v t > v t ,min

v £ ( v c + 0 . 4) Minimum shear reinforcement; Designed torsion reinforcement,
no torsion reinforcement but not less than minimum shear
reinforcement
v > ( v c + 0 . 4) Designed shear reinforcement; Designed shear and torsion rein-
no torsion reinforcement forcement
Step 6
Torsional reinforcement consists of closed links and longitudinal reinforcement. The re-
quired area of links is determined from Eq. (7.3-12):
Asv T
³ (7.5-7)
sv 0 .8 x1 y1 (0 .87 f yv )
where Asv = area of two legs of a link

sv = spacing of links
fyv = yield strength of links
x1 = smaller centre to centre dimension of link (see Fig. 7-11)
y1 = larger centre to centre dimension of link (see Fig. 7-11)
This reinforcement is additional to any reinforcement required for shear and must be
added to Asv/sv from Step 1.
The required area of longitudinal reinforcement is determined from Eq. (7.3-3):
Asv f yv
As ³ ( x + y1 ) (7.5-8)
sv f y 1
where As = total area of longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion

fy = yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement
Asv/sv = required area of links from Eq. (7.5-7).
Note that As is additional to the reinforcement required for flexure as determined in Step 1.
When Eq. (7.3-3) is satisfied, the longitudinal reinforcement and links will yield simulta-
neously. Equation (7.5-8) implies that the longitudinal reinforcement may be greater than
required by this condition, so that the links will yield before the longitudinal reinforce-
ment.
Step 7
The following detailing requirements are recommended:
• Only closed links should be used for torsion. This implies the use of shape code 74 and
not shape code 60.
• The maximum spacing for links is the lesser of: x1, y1/2 and 200 mm.
• The longitudinal torsional reinforcement must be distributed evenly around the inside
perimeter of the links so that the maximum clear distance between bars is less than
300 mm.
• Each corner of a link should contain at least one longitudinal bar.
• Longitudinal torsional reinforcement may be included at levels of existing flexural re-
inforcement (tension or compression) by increasing the diameters of the flexural rein-
forcement appropriately.
• Torsion reinforcement should extend for at least a distance equal to the largest section
dimension beyond the point where it is theoretically required.
• For T, L and I sections the reinforcement should be detailed so that they interlock and
tie the component rectangles together (see Fig. 7-13). If v t < v t ,min for a smaller com-
ponent rectangle, torsion reinforcement may be omitted for that component.
Figure 7-13: Detailing of torsional reinforcement.
Example 7-1
See Mathcad document Tor_Ex01_SA.

Problem 7.1
The L section shown in Fig. 7-14 is subjected to the following ultimate design forces:
Bending moment M = 1000 kN.m

Shear V = 300 kN.m
Torque T = 105 kN.m
700
150
750 Concrete:
830 Characteristic strength fcu = 40 MPa
Cover = 30 mm
Reinforcement:
Yield strength for all reinforcement fy = fyv = 450 MPa
Assume that links with a diameter of 12 mm will be used
350
Figure 7-14: Problem 7.1.
Consider the following two cases and comment on the results:
(a) Consider the contribution of the flange in resisting the applied torque.
(b) Ignore the contribution of the flange so that the entire torque is resisted by the web.
Struct: Torsion: Ex 7.1 Calc sheet no: 1 of 3
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Tor_Ex01_SA.mcd
Date: 2005-11-04 Date: ______
Example 7.1
The section shown below must resist the following ultimate limit state forces:
Bending moment M := 170 ⋅ kN⋅ m 300
Shear force V := 160 ⋅ kN
Torque T := 10⋅ kN⋅ m
Input
400
Material strengths:
R10
links fyv := 250 ⋅ MPa Y25 Y12 Y25
Beam width b := 300 ⋅ mm
Beam height h := 500 ⋅ mm
Cover to outside of all reinforcement Cover := 25⋅ mm

Assume diameter of links to be used φv := 10⋅ mm
π 2 2
Area of links (with two legs) Asv := 2 × ⋅ φv Asv = 157.1 mm
4
Partial material safety factor for shear and torsion γ mv := 1.4
Calculations for bending and shear will show that the following required areas of reinforcement are required:
2 2
As.req := 1086⋅ mm As.prov := 1095⋅ mm (2 Y25 + 1 Y12)
Asv 2
mm
= 0.9427
sv.req mm
Design
Reinforcement locations
25⋅ mm
d := h − Cover − φv − d = 452.5 mm
2
25⋅ mm
d' := Cover + φv + d' = 47.5 mm
2
x1 := b − 2 ⋅ Cover − φv x1 = 240 mm
y1 := h − 2 ⋅ Cover − φv y1 = 440 mm
Date: 2005-11-04 Date: ______
Shear stress caused by torsion
h min := b h max := h
2⋅ T
vt := vt = 0.5556 MPa
2 ⎛ h min ⎞
h min ⋅ ⎜ h max −
⎝ 3 ⎠
Shear stress caused by shear force

V
v := v = 1.179 MPa
b⋅ d
From Table 7-2, for fcu = 30 MPa
vtu := 4 ⋅ MPa
vt.min := 0.33⋅ MPa
Check: vt + v = 1.734 MPa < vtu = 4 MPa OK
Since y1 = 440 mm < 550 mm, also check that
y1
vt = 0.5556 MPa < vtu⋅ = 3.2 MPa OK
550 ⋅ mm
Since vt = 0.5556 MPa > vt.min = 0.33 MPa torsional reinforcement is required
Asv Asv 2
T mm
= = 0.5442
sv 0.8⋅ x1⋅ y1⋅ ( 0.87⋅ fyv) sv mm
Total required area for links for torsion and shear
Asv Asv Asv

= + = ( 0.9427 + 0.5442)
sv.tot sv.req sv
Asv 2
mm
= 1.487
sv.tot mm
Provide R10 links @ 100 mm c/c sv.prov := 100 ⋅ mm
Asv 2
mm
= 1.571 OK
sv.prov mm
Date: 2005-11-04 Date: ______
Check maximum spacing, to be lesser of x1 = 240 mm
y1 = 440 mm
or 200 mm sv.max := 200 ⋅ mm
sv.prov = 100 mm < sv.max = 200 mm OK
Longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion
Asv ⎛ fyv ⎞
⋅ ( x1 + y1)
2
As := ⋅⎜ As = 205.6 mm
sv ⎝ fy ⎠
As 2
If 6 bars are placed, the required area per bar is = 34.27 mm
6
As 2
Required area of reinforcement in bottom of beam As.req + 2 × = 1155 mm
6
2
Provide 2 Y25 and 1 Y20 in bottom of beam As.prov := 1296⋅ mm
Provide 4 Y12 for rest of beam
4 Y12
R10 @ 100
Y25 Y20 Y25

Chapter 8
Bond and Anchorage
8.1 Introduction
In the design of concrete structures we assume that the concrete and reinforcement act to-
gether to form a composite structure. This is only possible if stresses can be transmitted
from the concrete to the reinforcement without causing the bond to fail.
8.2 Design Ultimate Bond Stress
Consider the case where a reinforcing bar is anchored into concrete as shown in Fig. 8-1.
The aim here is to determine the anchorage length L required to prevent the bar from being
pulled from the concrete. The force in the bar is given by the product of the cross-section
area of the bar and the stress in the bar
p f2
T = As f s = fs (8.2-1)
4
where f = nominal bar diameter

fs = stress in the bar
The anchorage force in the concrete is the product of the contact area and the average bond
stress
T = (p f La ) f bu (8.2-2)
La
f fbu
T
Figure 8-1: Anchorage of a bar in tension.
8-1
8-2 Bond and Anchorage
where fbu is the ultimate anchorage bond stress.
Equating the force in the bar and the force in the concrete from Eqs. (8.2-1) and (8.2-2)
p f2
f s = (p f La ) f bu
4
f
Lua = s f (8.2-3)
4 f bu
Values for fbu as recommended by SABS 0100 are given in Table 8-1 for bars in tension
and compression. Bars in compression have a higher values for fbu because of the addi-
tional resistance provided by the concrete at the end of the bar. If bars are bundled, f is the
diameter of an equivalent bar with the same cross-sectional area as the bundle (see
section 9.1.1).
Table 8-1: Design ultimate bond stress fbu in MPa (SABS 0100).
Bar type Concrete grade
20 25 30 ³ 40
Plain bar in tension 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.9
Plain bar in compression 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.3
Deformed bar in tension 2.2 2.5 2.9 3.4
Deformed bar in com- 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.2
pression
Reduce these values by 30% for deformed top bars and by 50% for plain top bars
in elements where the depth exceeds 300 mm.
The bond strength is influenced by factors such as:
• the ratio of cover to bar diameter

• amount of transverse steel
• concrete strength
• bar type (smooth of deformed)
• presence of transverse compression stresses (for example: bottom bars anchored at sup-
ports)
• depth of bar in section.
Design Ultimate Bond Stress 8-3
The bond strength increases with the square root of the characteristic cube strength fcu. De-
sign codes such as BS8110 give the bond strength as
f bu = b f cu (8.2-4)
where b is given in Table 8-2. These values include a partial material safety factor gm = 1.4.
Substituting different values for fcu into the above, approximately produces the values in
Table 8-1.
Table 8-2: Values for bond coefficient b (BS 8110).
Bar Type Bars in tension Bars in compression

Plain bars 0.28 0.35
Type 1: deformed bars 0.40 0.50
Type 2: deformed bars* 0.50 0.63
Fabric 0.65 0.81
*
Type 2 bars correspond to the deformed bars used in South Africa
Transverse steel will significantly improve the bond strength. Links have the further ad-
vantage that it prevents longitudinal splitting on the concrete along the bar (see Fig. 6-8e).
For the values in Tables 8-1 and 8-2 it is assumed that minimum links (section 6.5) are
present. In the unlikely event where minimum links are not provided, plain bars should be
assumed when using these tables, irrespective of the actual bar type. However, this only
applies to beams and not to slabs.
In members more than 300 mm deep, settlement of the plastic concrete around a bar could
cause a void to develop below the bar and cracking above the bar (see Fig. 8-2). In the top
of a section the concrete is less compacted and contains a higher water-cement ratio, lead-
ing to lower strengths there. Values for fbu are therefore reduced by the amounts given in
the note below Table 8-1.
Reinforcement
Void
Figure 8-2: Plastic settlement of concrete.

In design it is often required to determine anchorage length required for a bar to develop its
full design strength, i.e. fs = 0.87 fy. By making use of Table 8-1 and Eq. (8.2-3) by substi-
tuting fy = 250 MPa for plain bars and fy = 450 MPa for deformed bars, the values in Ta-
ble 8-3 can be generated. The anchorage length is expressed as a multiple of the bar size
Lua = K f (8.2-5)
where K is given in Table 8-3 for different bar types and concrete strengths.
Table 8-3: Ultimate anchorage bond length as a multiples of the bar size.
20 25 30 ³ 40
Plain bar1 in tension 46 39 37 29
Plain bar1 in compression 37 32 29 24
Deformed bar2 in tension 45 40 34 29
Deformed bar2 in com- 37 32 28 24
pression
1
Mild steel fy = 250 MPa
2
High yield steel fy = 450 MPa
Increase these values by 30% for deformed top bars and by 50% for plain top
bars in elements where the depth exceeds 300 mm.
8.3 Anchorage of Hooks and Bends
If the full anchorage length required by Eq. (2-3) cannot be provided because of limited
space, a hook or a bend can be provided. The effective anchorage provided by a hook or a
bend is measured from the start of the bend to a distance 4 diameters beyond the bend as
shown in Fig. 8-3b and c. The actual length of the bar, including any length of bar extend-
ing beyond the bend or hook at B, may be used as the anchorage length if this is greater
than the effective anchorage length given in the Figure, provided that the bearing stress
within the bend is not exceeded (see section 8.5). If the bar does not extend beyond B, the
bearing stress within the bend need not be checked.
The minimum radius rmin for mild steel bars is 2 f and for high yield stress bars is 3 f. If
the radius is not specified in the bending schedule, the minimum radius will be used.
Note that anchorage of links have been discussed in section 6.5.

Lapping of Bars 8-5
Straight anchorage length L
(a) Straight bar

B
4f
r
f
L–B Effective anchorage B

= lesser of 4 r and 12 f
(b) Bend
4f
r
f
L–H Effective anchorage H

(c) Hook
Minimum radius: Mild steel (fy = 250 MPa) rmin = 2 f

High yield strength (fy = 450 MPa) rmin = 3 f
Figure 8-3: Equivalent anchorage of a hook and a bend.
8.4 Lapping of Bars
Suppliers of reinforcement will usually stock bars up to 13 m in length. Longer lengths can
be obtained by special arrangement but should not exceed 18 m for handling and transpor-
tation (SABS 82, 1997). The shorter dimension of a bent bar should not exceed 2.2 m for
packing and transportation purposes. The maximum volume of concrete that can be placed
at one time requires construction to take place in phases. This means that bars have to
lapped to achieve continuity in a structure.
The following points should be kept in mind when lapping bars:
• Laps should not occur where bars are highly stressed (see Fig. 8-4a).
• Laps should not all occur at the same position. Stagger laps where possible.
• Minimum lap length must be the greater of 15 f or 300 mm for bars and 250 mm for
fabric.
• Lap lengths for bars of different diameters can be based on the smaller diameter.
• Tension laps must at least be as great as the design anchorage length in tension.
Incorrect Correct
Plan Plan
Elevation Elevation
(a) Lapping of bars
´ 1.4 ´2 Cover < 2 f
f = Diameter of main
reinforcement
Cover < 2 f
´ 1.0 ´ 1.4
(b) Increasing lap lengths
Figure 8-4: Details for lapping bars.
• Anchorage in the top of the section is reduced by the lower concrete strength. A bar in
the corner of a section will be less confined, hence, reduced anchorage. Tension laps are
therefore increased in the following cases (also see Fig. 8-4b):
(a) When the cover in the top of a section as cast is less than 2 f
lap length = lap length ´ 1.4
(b) When the cover in a corner of a section is less than 2 f to either face, or the clear
distance between adjacent laps is less than 75 mm or 6 f, whichever is the greater
lap length = lap length ´ 1.4
(c) When both (a) and (b) occur
lap length = lap length ´ 2
• Compression laps must be 25% greater than design anchorage length in compression.
Bearing Stress Inside a Bend 8-7
• When both bars in a lap are 25 mm or greater in size, and the cover is less than 1.5 times
the smaller bar size, then transverse links of at least 1/4 of the smaller bar size should be
provided at a maximum spacing of 200 mm.
• The sum of the reinforcement diameters in a particular layer should not be greater than
40 % of the section width at that level.
• If bars are placed in a bundle, only one bar at a time may be lapped. The maximum
number of bars in a bundle, including laps, should not be more than 4.
8.5 Bearing Stress Inside a Bend
The bearing stress inside a bend need not be checked if:
(a) the bar does not extend beyond 4 bar diameters past the end of the bend (see Fig. 8-3b
and c)
(b) it is assumed that the bar is not stressed beyond 4 bar diameters past the end of the
bend.
Consider a bar with diameter f, bent through an angle q, with an inside radius of r (see
Fig. 8-5a). A relationship between the force in the bar Fbt, due to ultimate loads, and the
bearing stresses inside the bend fb is determined in the following.
q
2 r sin
2
Bar diameter = f
fb
q/2
r q/2 q/2 r
Fbt Fbt
(a) Equilibrium of a bend in a reinforcing bar
fb dy
fb f ds
ds dx
dx
f b f ds
ds ds dy
= f b f dx dx
fby
(b) Concrete stresses inside a bend
Figure 8-5: Bearing stress inside a bend.

The force in the bar is conservatively assumed here to be the same at both ends of the bend.
It is also assumed that the bearing stresses acting on the concrete inside the bend will be
uniformly distributed.
By considering a free-body of concrete, with the same width f as the reinforcing bar, it can
be shown (see Fig. 8-5b) that the stresses fby acting on the bottom of the free-body will be
equal to fb.
Returning to the free-body in Fig. 8-5a, the bearing surface is given by
é qù
fê2 r sin ú (8.5-1)
ë 2û
so that the resultant of the bearing stresses is given by
é qù
R = f b fê2 r sin ú (8.5-2)
ë 2û
The vertical component of the forces in the bar is given by
é qù
R = 2ê Fbt sin ú (8.5-3)
ë 2û
Equating the above two equations, the bearing stress on the inside the bend is given by
é qù
2ê Fbt sin ú
ë 2 û Fbt
fb = = (8.5-4)
é qù r f
fê2 r sin ú
ë 2û
The maximum allowable stress inside the bend is given by
2 f cu
f b ,max = (8.5-5)
æfö
1+ 2ç
ç ÷ ÷
è ab ø
where ab is the centre-to-centre distance between bars perpendicular to the bend, or, for a
bar adjacent to the face of the member it is the cover plus f (see also Fig. 8-7).
Fbt 2 f cu
To summarize: £ (8.5-6)
rf æfö
1+ 2ç
ç ÷ ÷
è ab ø
ab ab
Figure 8-7: Definition of ab.
If bars are bundled, f is the diameter of an equivalent bar with the same cross-sectional
area as the bundle (see section 9.1.1).
Problem 8.1
Figure 8-6a shows a beam-column connection where the beam reinforcement have to be
anchored in the column (column reinforcement are not shown). Find the required cutting
A
R10 links 2 Y25 Llap
Lcut 2 Y25 @ 200 mm
600 Lap length
2 Y16
A
450 450
Section A-A
(a) 2 Y25 bars for main reinforcement (b) Lap length
A Cover to all reinforcement = 25 mm

5 Y16 R10 links 5 Y16 Concrete strength fcu = 30 MPa
Lcut @ 200 mm
600
2 Y16
A
450 450
Section A-A
(c) 5 Y16 bars for main reinforcement
Figure 8-6: Design details for Problem 8-1.

length Lcut if 2 Y25 bars are used as main reinforcement for the beam (Fig 8-6a). Note that
the minimum radius cannot be used for these bars because of the high bearing stresses in-
side the bend. Also determine the required lap length for these bars as shown in Fig 8-6b.
Problem 8.2
Repeat Problem 8.1 using 5 Y16 bars as main reinforcement for the beam (see Fig 8-6c).
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the two options shown in Fig 8-6a and c.
Chapter 9
Design for Serviceability
9.1 Introduction
Design of reinforced concrete is in most cases conducted at the ultimate limit state while
requirements for serviceability are met by complying with detailing rules. However, there
are certain cases where the behaviour under service loads must be determined.
9.1.1 Equivalent diameter
To improve compaction of the concrete, the spacing between bars can be increased by
placing bars side by side. Bars can be placed in pairs or bundles of 3 to a maximum of 4
bars. The disadvantage of bundling bars is that longer anchorage and lap lengths are re-
quired (see Chapter 7). For group of bars an equivalent diameter feq is used where
ìæ n ö1/ 2
ïç
ï å f 2i ÷ for bars with different diameters
f eq = íç ÷ (9.1-1)
ïè i =1 ø
ï
î nf for bars with the same diameter
where n is the number of bars. The equivalent diameter feq represents a single bar with the
same cross-sectional area as the group of bars.
9.2 Cover to Concrete
The quality of the concrete cover to the reinforcement is of utmost importance in protect-
ing the reinforcement against corrosion. In this respect the permeability of the concrete
plays an important role. The concrete cover also serves as fire protection for the reinforce-
ment and influences the anchorage and lap lengths for reinforcement.
9.2.1 Nominal cover
Nominal cover is defined as the design depth of concrete cover to all steel reinforcement,
including links. Values for nominal cover used in calculations are indicated on all draw-
ings. When referring to cover in general, nominal cover is implied. It should be noted that
minimum cover for fire protection is usually given as the cover to the main reinforcement.
9-1
9-2 Design for Serviceability
9.2.2 Conditions of exposure
The cover required to protect the reinforcement against corrosion is give in Table 9-1 for
different exposure conditions as defined in Table 9-2.
Table 9-1: Minimum cover (in mm) for various exposure conditions (SABS 0100).
Concrete Conditions of exposure
Mild Moderate Severe Very Extreme

severe
Normal density 20 30 40 50 60
concrete1
Low-density 20 40 50 60 70
concrete2
1
Concrete with a density in the range 2 200 to 2 500 kg/m3.
2
Concrete with a density < 2 000 kg/m3 made with low density aggregate.
• The cover should not be less than the diameter of the bar, or the equivalent diameter feq
for a group of bars.
• The cover should be at least equal to the maximum size of the course aggregate hagg.
• Where the surface treatment cuts into the concrete surface (for example: brush ham-
mering), the depth of the treatment should be added to the cover.
• Take into account tolerances in reinforcement and formwork.
• The fire resistance specified for the structure will also influence the minimum cover re-
quired (see Table 10-1).
9.3 Maximum Clear Spacing of Reinforcement
Cracking in concrete structures can be controlled by limiting the stress in the reinforce-
ment and the maximum spacing of the bars. Where practically possible, the aim is to pro-
vide a large number of small diameter bars rather than a few large diameter bars.
Maximum Clear Spacing of Reinforcement 9-3
Table 9-2: Definition of exposure conditions (SABS 0100-2).
Condition Exposure Examples
Mild • indoors (but not including indus-

Unpolluted air trial areas); or
• outdoors in arid rural area
(Karoo).
Moderate (a) sheltered from severe rain; • indoors in industrial areas; or

(b) buried in non-aggressive soil; or • outdoors in rural Highveld area.
(c) subjected to polluted air (but not
corrosive fumes)
Severe (a) wet conditions where the water • outdoors in industrial areas;
is mildly to fairly aggressive; • outdoors in marine atmospheric
(b) corrosive fumes; or conditions (i.e. up to 15 km from
(c) salt-laden air. the sea); or
• outdoors in the Cape win-
ter-rainfall area.
Very (a) wet conditions where the water

severe is mildly to fairly aggressive;
(b) abrasive action under any wet
conditions
(c) highly corrosive fumes.
Extreme wet conditions in which the wa-

ter is highly aggressive.
Wet conditions should be assumed if the concrete is exposed to water intermittently.

Highly aggressive water can have a serious detrimental effect on the concrete even if the
period of exposure concrete is short.
The aggressiveness of water is defined in Appendix A of SABS 0100 part 2.
9.3.1 Beams
The maximum clear spacing between bars at the tension face of a beam is given by
SABS 0100 is presented in Table 9-3. These values apply to normal internal or external ex-
posure conditions and a maximum crack width of 0.3 mm. The values in this table does not
apply to beams in aggressive environments unless fy has been limited to 300 MPa in the
calculation of the ultimate moment of resistance.
Table 9-3: Maximum clear spacing (in mm) between bars (SABS 0100).
Characteristic Percentage redistribution to or from section considered

strength of
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 0 +10 +15 +20 +25 +30
reinforcement
fy (MPa)
250 215 230 245 260 275 300 300 300 300 300 300
450 120 130 135 145 155 170 185 195 205 210 220
485 110 120 125 135 140 155 170 180 190 195 205
The values in Table 9-3 were derived using the following expression
47000
clear spacing (in mm) = but £ 300 mm (9.3-1)
fs
where fs is the stress in the reinforcement (in MPa) under service loads and is given by
é g + g 2 ù As,req 1
f s = 0 .87 f y ´ê 1 ú´ ´ (9.3-2)
ë g 3 + g 4 û As, prov b b
with g1 = partial safety factor for self-weight loads at SLS (typically = 1.1)
g2 = partial safety factor for imposed loads at SLS (typically = 1.0 or 0)
g3 = partial safety factor for self-weight loads at ULS (typically = 1.2 or 1.5)
g4 = partial safety factor for imposed loads at ULS (typically = 1.6 or 0)
As,req = required area of tension reinforcement
As,prov = area of tension reinforcement provided
bb = ç ÷
If bb is unknown, as in the case when a simplified method has been used to determine the
design moments, and it is clear that the design ultimate moment at midspan is greater or
equal to the elastic ultimate moment, bb = 1 should be used in the above equation. The fol-
lowing should also be noted:
• The spacing depends on the amount of redistribution to or from the section under con-
sideration.
• When bars of different sizes are used, bars with a diameter less than 0.45 of the largest
bar should be ignored when determining the maximum clear spacing.
Maximum Clear Spacing of Reinforcement 9-5
• Note that the columns for percentages of –30 % and +30 % redistribution apply to
BS 8110 and not to SABS 0100 since the latter requires that the design moments should
nowhere be less than 75 % of the elastic moments, i.e. a maximum redistribution of
25 %.
• The values in Table 9-3 can be obtained from Eq. (9.3-1) by assuming a value for
As,req/As,prov of 1.042 in Eq (9.3-2) and ranging bb from 0.7 to 1.3.
• The clear distance between the corner of a beam and the nearest longitudinal bar should
not be more than half the value in Table 9-3.
9.3.2 Slabs
The maximum clear spacing of reinforcement for a slab can be greater than that for beams
provided one of the following conditions apply:
(a) For high yield strength steel (fy = 450 MPa) the slab depth h £ 200 mm.
(b) For mild steel (fy = 250 MPa) the slab depth h £ 250 mm.
(c) r£ 0 .3 % where
100 As
r= (9.3-3)
bd
with As = required area of tension reinforcement within b

b = the width under consideration (typically 1 m for a slab)
d = the effective depth
If any one of the above conditions apply, the maximum clear spacing is the lesser of 3 d
and 750 mm. If neither of the above conditions apply, the maximum clear spacings given
in Table 9-3 are adjusted as follows:
• If r ³ 1 %, maximum clear spacing is taken Table 9-3.

• If r < 1 %, maximum clear spacing is the value from Table 9-3 divided by r. For this
purpose the value of r should be expressed in per cent (%).
If bending moments in slabs have been determined from tables where the percentage re-
distribution is unknown, the following values should be assumed:
• 0 % for span moments

• – 15 % for support moments
9.4 Minimum Spacing of Reinforcement
There should be enough space between bars so that the concrete can be properly com-
pacted during construction. Minimum clear spacing between bars are given in Table 9-4
where hagg the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
Table 9-4: Minimum clear spacing between bars.
Configuration Orientation Minimum clear spacing

of bars
Single bars Horizontal (hagg + 5 mm)
Vertical 2
h
3 agg
Bars in pairs Horizontal (hagg + 5 mm)

Vertical 2
h for bars in the pair on top of each other
3 agg
(hagg + 5 mm) for bars in the pair side by side
Bundled bars Horizontal and (hagg + 15 mm)
vertical
The following should also be noted
• If bars are placed in more than one layer, the clear spaces between bars should verti-
cally be in line.
• If the bar diameter is greater than (hagg + 5 mm) the clear spacing should not be less than
the bar diameter. For bars in pairs or bundles the equivalent diameter from Eq. (9.1-1)
should be used.
• If a vibrator is to be used to compact the concrete, a 100 mm gap should be left in the top
of a beam as shown in Fig. 9-1a. In T-sections the concrete can also be vibrated from the
side and a gap of 150 mm should be provided as shown in Fig. 9-1b.
9.5 Minimum Area of Reinforcement
To ensure a ductile behaviour, the ultimate resistance of a section must be greater than the
force that causes cracking (see Fig. 9-3). This is achieved by specifying a minimum area of
tension reinforcement as given in Table 9-5. According to Rowe et al. (1987) a maximum
tensile strength of 3 MPa was assumed for the concrete. Since cracking of the concrete at
Minimum Area of Reinforcement 9-7
hagg + 5 mm
hagg + 5 mm
2
hagg
3
(a) Single bars
hagg + 5 mm
hagg + 5 mm
hagg + 5 mm
2
hagg hagg +
3 5 mm
hagg + 5 mm
(b) Bars in pairs
hagg + 15 mm
hagg + 15 mm
hagg +
15 mm
(c) Bundled bars
Figure 9-2: Minimum spacing for reinforcement.
100 mm (min)
150 mm (min)
(a) (b)
Figure 9-1: Minimum clear space required for vibrator.
the tension face is of importance here, the reinforcement percentages are expressed in
terms of the overall section height h rather than d as in Eq. (9.3-3).
The minimum area of reinforcement also assists in controlling thermal and shrinkage
cracks which develop under normal conditions. However, Table 9-5 does not apply to wa-
ter-retaining structures which require larger percentages of reinforcement. Note that mini-
Table 9-5: Minimum percentages of reinforcement (SABS 0100).
Situation Definition fy (MPa)
250 450
Tension reinforcement
Sections subjected mainly to pure tension 100As/Ac 0.8 0.45
Sections subjected to flexure
(a) Flanged beams, web in tension
(1) bw/b < 0.4 100As/bwh 0.32 0.18
(2) bw/b ³ 0.4 100As/bwh 0.24 0.13
(b) Flanged beams, flange in tension over a
continuous support
(1) T-beam 100As/bwh 0.48 0.26
(2) L-beam 100As/bwh 0.36 0.20
(c) Rectangular section (in solid slabs this rein- 100As/Ac 0.24 0.13
forcement should be provided in both direc-
tions)
Compression reinforcement (where such rein-
forcement is required for the ultimate limit state)
General rule 100Asc/Acc 0.4 0.4
Simplified rule for particular cases:
(a) Rectangular column or wall 100Asc/Ac 0.4 0.4
(b) Flanged beam:
(1) Flange in compression 100Asc/bhf 0.4 0.4
(2) Web in compression 100Asc/bwh 0.2 0.2
(c) Rectangular beam 100Asc/Ac 0.2 0.2
Transverse reinforcement in flanges of flanged 100Ast/hfl 0.15 0.15
beams (provided over the full effective flange
width near top surface to resist horizontal shear)
Ac = total area of concrete b = width of section
Acc = total area of concrete in compression bw = width, or effective
width of the rib*
Asc = minimum area of compression reinf. h = total depth of section
As = minimum area of tension reinf. hf = depth of flange
Ast = minimum area of transverse reinf. in the flange l = span of beam
*
For a box, T-, or I-section, bw is taken as the average width below the flange.
Maximum Area of Reinforcement 9-9
Compression failure (Mu > Mcr) û

Moment M
Increase in area of
tension reinforcement
Tension failure (Mu > Mcr) ü
As
Mcr Tension failure (Mu < Mcr) û
Curvature f
Figure 9-3: Moment curvature response as influenced by the area of tension reinforce-
ment As.
mum areas for shear reinforcement are discussed in Chapter 6 while requirements for links
in columns are discussed in Chapter 11.
9.6 Maximum Area of Reinforcement
A limit is placed on the maximum percentage of reinforcement mainly to improve com-

paction of the concrete. For beams and slabs the following apply:
100 As 100 Asc

or £ 4% (9.6-1)
bh bh
Where bars are being lapped the sum of the reinforcement diameters in a particular layer
should not be greater than 40 % of the section width at that level. For columns the follow-
ing limits apply
ì6 % for columns cast vertically

100 Asc ï
£ í8 % for columns cast horizontally (9.6-1)
bh ï
î10% at laps for both of the cases above
9.7 Reinforcement at Sides of Beams Exceeding 750 mm in

Depth
To control cracking in the sides of beams, reinforcement should be provided if beams ex-
ceed 750 mm in depth (see Fig. 9-4). The diameter of these bars are determined from
s b bw
f1 ³ (9.7-1)
fy
f1
h > 750 mm
2 sb
h
3
bw
Figure 9-4: Reinforcement at sides of beams exceeding 750 mm in depth.
where sb = spacing of the bars and should not be greater than 250 mm
bw = width of the web
If the actual width of the web is less than 500 mm, bw = 500 mm should be used in the
above equation. These bars should be placed over a depth 2h/3, measured from the tension
face.
9.8 Span-Effective Depth Ratio
Under normal conditions it is not necessary to calculate deflections in concrete structures

and deflections can be controlled by limiting the span-effective depth (L/d) ratio. How-
ever, for unusual conditions it may be necessary to calculate deflections under service
loads.
Consider a simply supported beam with a rectangular cross-section. It is assumed that all
materials remain within their elastic ranges. If the stress is limited to a value s, the allow-
able moment acting on the section will be given by
w L2 s I s b h 2
M= = = (9.8-1)
8 y 6
The deflection at midspan is given by
5 w L4
d= (9.8-2)
384 E I
Eliminating w from Eqs. (9.8-1) and (9.8-2) yields
d æ 5s ö æLö
=ç
ç ÷
÷ç ÷ (9.8-3)
L è 24 E øè h ø
Span-Effective Depth Ratio 9-11
For a given elastic material s and E will be constant. Therefore the deflection, as a ratio of
the span, depends only on the span-depth ratio. Placing a limit on the span-depth ratio
limits the deflection. This method is applied by SABS 0100 to control deflections.
Unfortunately the behaviour of reinforced concrete is not perfectly linear elastic. The stiff-
ness of a beam is influenced by the amount of reinforcement and the degree of cracking.
Two modifications are applied to the above theory to account for the inelastic behaviour:
• The effective depth of the tension reinforcement is used.

• A basic span-effective depth (L/d) ratio is used to which modification factors are ap-
plied to take into account the amount of reinforcement and stress state at a section.
9.8.1 Basic L/d ratios
Basic L/d ratios as recommended by SABS 0100 are presented in Table 9-6 and are mainly
derived from experience (Rowe et al., 1987). The following should be noted:
• For beams with these L/d ratios the deflection should be less than L/250, a limit nor-
mally set for beams up to 10 m to prevent damage to finishes and partitions. If a differ-
ent limit is required, say L/X, the L/d ratio should be multiplied by 250/X.
• If the basic L/d ratio is applied to a beam with span longer than 10 m, the basic L/d ratio
should be multiplied by 10/L to prevent damages to finishes and partitions. It is
recommended that deflections should be calculated for cantilevers longer than 10 m.
• Not all the concrete in the tension zone of a reinforced concrete beam will be cracked.
The uncracked concrete between cracks has a stiffening effect on the beam. For a rect-
angular beam there is more uncracked concrete in the tension zone than for a T-beam,
so that rectangular beams will be stiffer than T-beams of equal flange width, hence the
smaller L/d ratio. For flanged sections with bw £ 0.3 b the L/d ratios are taken as 0.8 of
the L/d ratios for rectangular beams. For 0.3 < bw £ b the L/d ratios may be linearly in-
terpolated.
Table 9-6: Basic span-effective depth (L/d) ratios for beams.
Support conditions Rectangular Flanged section

section bw £ 0.3b
Truly simply supported 16 12.8
Simply supported with nominally re- 20 16.0
strained ends
One end continuous 24 19.2
Both ends continuous 28 22.4
Cantilevers 7 5.6
9.8.2 Influence of tension reinforcement and service stress
The influence of the area of tension reinforcement and the service stress is taken into ac-
count by multiplying the basic L/d ratio with the modification factor given in Table 9-7.
2
The amount of tension reinforcement is reflected in the M / bd ratio where M is the design
moment of resistance at the ultimate limit state. For beams supported at both ends M is the
moment at midspan while it is the support moment for cantilevers. For a flanged section b
is the effective width of the flange.
Table 9-7: L/d modification factors for tension reinforcement.
Steel M / bd2
service
stress 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
fs
(MPa)
300 1.60 1.33 1.16 1.06 0.98 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76
290 1.66 1.37 1.20 1.09 1.01 0.95 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.81 0.79 0.78
280 1.72 1.41 1.23 1.12 1.03 0.97 0.92 0.89 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79
270 1.78 1.46 1.27 1.14 1.06 0.99 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.80
260 1.84 1.50 1.30 1.17 1.08 1.01 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.86 0.83 0.81
250 1.90 1.55 1.34 1.20 1.11 1.04 0.98 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.82
240 1.96 1.59 1.37 1.23 1.13 1.06 1.00 0.95 0.92 0.88 0.86 0.84
230 2.00 1.63 1.41 1.26 1.16 1.08 1.02 0.97 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.85
220 2.00 1.68 1.44 1.29 1.18 1.10 1.04 0.99 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.86
210 2.00 1.72 1.48 1.32 1.20 1.12 1.06 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.90 0.87
200 2.00 1.76 1.51 1.35 1.23 1.14 1.07 1.02 0.98 0.94 0.91 0.88
190 2.00 1.81 1.55 1.37 1.25 1.16 1.09 1.04 0.99 0.96 0.92 0.90
180 2.00 1.85 1.58 1.40 1.28 1.18 1.11 1.06 1.01 0.97 0.94 0.91
170 2.00 1.90 1.62 1.43 1.30 1.21 1.13 1.07 1.02 0.98 0.95 0.92
160 2.00 1.94 1.65 1.46 1.33 1.23 1.15 1.09 1.04 1.00 0.96 0.93
150 2.00 1.98 1.69 1.49 1.35 1.25 1.17 1.11 1.05 1.01 0.98 0.94
140 2.00 2.00 1.72 1.52 1.38 1.27 1.19 1.12 1.07 1.03 0.99 0.96
130 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.55 1.40 1.29 1.21 1.14 1.09 1.04 1.00 0.97
120 2.00 2.00 1.79 1.58 1.43 1.31 1.23 1.16 1.10 1.05 1.01 0.98
Span-Effective Depth Ratio 9-13
For a section with a given reinforcement strength, the strain at the end of the elastic range
is a fixed value. As the moment increases, the area of tension reinforcement must be in-
creased and the neutral-axis depth increases. With the strain in the reinforcement fixed,
this leads to greater curvatures, and hence, greater deflections. Therefore the modification
factor decreases as the moment increases. It is also interesting to note that the strength of
the beam increases more than the stiffness for an increase in tension reinforcement.
The values in Table 9-7 are based on the following equation
477 - f s
MFAs = 0 .55 + £ 2 .0 (9.8-4)
æ M ö
ç . + 2÷
120ç09 ÷
è bd ø
where fs is the steel service stress given by Eq. (9.3-2). Values for As,req and As,prov in this
equation apply to midspan for beams supported at both ends and the support for cantile-
vers.
The magnitude of fs depends on the following:
• If more reinforcement is provided than required, the stress in the steel will be reduced.
• If moment redistribution has been applied, the steel service stress will be greater.
Higher service stresses in the tension reinforcement leads to greater reinforcement strains,
greater curvatures, and hence, greater deflections. The modification factor in Table 9-7
therefore reduces for an increase in steel stress.
9.8.3 Influence of compression reinforcement
The presence of compression reinforcement As¢ has the following influence on deflec-
tions:
• The depth of the neutral axis is reduced, reducing curvatures and deflections.
• Creep and shrinkage is significantly reduced and compression reinforcement therefore
has a substantial effect on the long-term deformations.
• It is also interesting to note that for an increase in compression reinforcement the in-
crease in stiffness is greater than the increase in strength.
The L/d ratio therefore increases for an increase in compression reinforcement. Modifica-
tion factors for compression reinforcement are given in Table 9-8 and were derived from
the following equation
æ r¢ ö
MFA¢s =ç
ç1+ ÷
÷£ 1.5 (9.8-5)
è 3+ r¢ ø
Table 9-8: L/d modification factors for compression reinforcement.
100 A¢s, prov Modification factor

bd
0.00 1.00
0.15 1.05
0.25 1.08
0.35 1.10
0.50 1.14
0.75 1.20
1.00 1.25
1.25 1.29
1.50 1.33
1.75 1.37
2.00 1.40
2.5 1.45
³ 3.0 1.50
100 A¢s, prov

where r¢ = (9.8-6)
bd
• A¢s, prov includes all bars in the compression zone, including those not effectively tied
with links.
• A¢s, prov should be taken at midspan for beams supported at both ends and the support for
cantilevers.
• For a flanged section b is the effective width of the flange.
9.8.4 Influence of creep and shrinkage
The procedure described here includes normal creep and shrinkage. If it is expected that
the free shrinkage is more than 0.00075, or the creep coefficient will exceed 4, the L/d ratio
should be reduced. It is expected that a reduction of more than 15 % is unlikely.
Example 9.1
See Mathcad document Ser_Ex1_SA.
Problem 9.1
Consider the beam in Problem 6.1 and check the L/d ratio using the recommendations
given by SABS 0100.
Struct: Serviceability: Ex 9.1 Calc sheet no: 1 of 2
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Ser_Ex1_SA.xmcd
Date: 2007-05-21 Date: ______
Example 9.1
Consider the end span of a continuous beam shown below. The design ultimate moment at midspan is
M := 448 ⋅ kN⋅ m . A typical section at midspan is also shown. Assume the input values given below and check
the L/d ratio using SABS 0100.
A C B
bf
Input
A′s hf
Material strengths:
h
reinforcement fy := 450 ⋅ MPa As
Section dimensions b f := 1000⋅ mm bw

h f := 180 ⋅ mm Section at midspan C
b w := 300 ⋅ mm
Span length L := 5 ⋅ m
2
Tension reinforcement As.req := 2069⋅ mm
2
As.prov := 2101⋅ mm (2 Y32 & 1 Y25)
d := 600 ⋅ mm
2
Compression reinforcement A's.prov := 982 ⋅ mm (2 Y25)
No redistribution of moments β b := 1
Analysis
Basic L/d ratio
The basic L/d ratio is determined from Table 8-6 for a beam with one end continuous
bw
For = 0.3 (L/d)basic := 19.2
bf
Since the span is less than 10 m, the L/d ratio need not to be adjusted
Struct: Serviceability: Ex 9.1 Calc sheet no: 2 of 2
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Ser_Ex1_SA.xmcd
Date: 2007-05-21 Date: ______
Modification factor for tension reinforcement

The service steel stress is determine at midspan
1.1 + 1
fs := 0.87⋅ fy⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞ ⋅ As.req ⋅ 1 fs = 289.2 MPa
⎝ 1.2 + 1.6 ⎠ As.prov β b
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
MFAs := 0.55 + MFAs = 1.280
120 ⋅ ⎛ 0.9⋅ MPa +
M ⎞
⎜ 2
⎝ b f⋅ d ⎠
Modification factor for compression reinforcement
100 ⋅ A's.prov
For a section at midspan ρ' := ρ' = 0.164
b f⋅ d
ρ'
MFA's := 1 + MFA's = 1.052
3 + ρ'
Check L/d ratio

Maximum allowable L/d ratio
(L/d)allow := MFAs × MFA's × (L/d)basic (L/d)allow = 25.85
Provided L/d
L
(L/d)prov := (L/d)prov = 8.33 < (L/d)allow = 25.85 OK
d
Chapter 10
Design of Beams
10.1 Design Process
The aim of this Chapter is to show how the elements discussed in the previous Chapters are
brought together in the design of beams. A typical design can roughly be divided into a
preliminary and a final design as illustrated in Fig. 10-1. To find the many unknowns the
designer is faced with, certain variables, such as material properties and section dimen-
sions, are selected at the start of the design. The remaining unknowns are then determined
by ensuring the design satisfies all limit states requirements. The design process is an itera-
tive process by nature, but the number of repetitions is reduced by experience or by follow-
ing a process such as that shown in Fig. 10-1.
10.2 Preliminary design and member dimensions
In selecting the section width b and effective depth of reinforcement d, the following
should be kept in mind:
d d
• As a general rule b » to but b should not be less than 200 mm. However, to pro-
3 2
vide the necessary headroom, a wide beam may by used.
• Economically it is usually best to avoid the need for compression reinforcement:
M
£ 0 .156
b d 2 f cu
M 10
• To avoid the need for excessive amount of compression reinforcement: 2
£
b d f cu f cu
vu
• To avoid congestion of shear reinforcement: v < (vu = lesser of 0 . 75 f cu and
2
4.75 MPa)
• The basic span-effective depth ratio L/d should at least be met for the preliminary de-
sign. The influence of fs and M/bd2 is accounted for in the final design.
• The overall depth of the beam is given by h = d + cover + t where t is the distance from
the outside of the link to the centroid of the tension reinforcement. For a beam with a
single layer of tension reinforcement the overall depth is given by (see Fig. 10-2a):
10-1
10-2 Design of Beams
Determine imposed loads qn from Considering requirements for

SABS 0160 durability and fire, select:
- concrete strength fcu
Estimate self weight and - cover to reinforcement
superimposed dead loads (gn) - minimum section dimensions bmin
Preliminary analysis: find bending

moments and shear forces at critical
sections
Preliminary design
Estimate section width b
Estimate effective depth d:

M
· For singly reinforced section 2
£ 0 .156
(preferred) b d f cu
M 10
· Doubly reinforced section 0 .156 £ 2
£
b d f cu f cu
R|
· Shear
V
£ lesser of S|
0 . 75 f cu
bd T
4 . 75 MPa
· Deflections: Check span/effective depth ratio
Select h
Detailed analysis: determine bending moment and

shear force envelopes
Design bending reinforcement As (and A¢s if necessary)
Design anchorage
Final design
Check minimum and maximum reinforcement areas
Check minimum and maximum spacing of bars
Select bending reinforcement details
Check span/effective depth ratio
Design shear reinforcement
Calculate crack widths (if necessary)
Calculate deflections (if necessary)
Figure 10-1: Beam design flow chart.

Preliminary design and member dimensions 10-3
fv d d
h
Centroid of tension
reinforcement
f
t t
cover
(a) Single layer of reinforcement (b) Bundled reinforcement
Figure 10-2: Beam dimensions.
Table 10-1: Minimum dimension required for fire resistance of reinforced concrete
(SABS 0100).
Description Dimen- Fire resistance (h)

sion
4 3 2 1.5 1 0.5
(mm)
(a) Siliceous aggregate con- Cover

1
65* 55* 45* 35 25 15
crete: Width2 280 240 180 140 110 80
(b) As in (a) with cement gyp- Cover

1
50* 40 30 20 15 15
sum, 15 mm thick, with Width2 250 210 150 110 85 70
light fabric reinforcement
(c) As in (a) with vermicu- Cover 25* 15 15 15 15 15

lite/gypsum plaster** or Width 170 145 115 85 60 60
sprayed asbestos, 15 mm
thick, on light fabric rein-
forcement securely fixed
to the beam
(d) Low density aggregate Cover 50 45 35 30 20 15

concrete Width 250 200 160 130 100 80
1
Average concrete cover to main reinforcing bars.
2
Minimum beam width.
*
Supplementary reinforcement may be necessary to hold the concrete cover in
position.
**
Vermiculite/gypsum plaster should have a mix ratio in the range 1.5:1 to 2:1 by
volume.
f
h = d + cover + f v + (10.2-1)
2
where fv is the diameter of the link and f is the diameter of the tension reinforcement.
Where there is more than one layer of reinforcement (see Fig. 10-2b), or different bar
diameters, t is measured to the centroid of the tension reinforcement.
• Cover to reinforcement was discussed in section 9.2. Requirements for fire resistance
influence both the cover and the minimum beam width and are summarized in Table
10-1. It is important to note that the cover given in this Table applies to the main rein-
forcement only. The nominal cover, normally used in design and given on drawings,
applies to all reinforcement including links.
10.3 Effective Span Length
The span of a beam is often taken as the distance between centre lines of supports. This is
in most cases conservative when calculating bending moments and deflections. A more
exact approach is to determine the effective span. For different beams types the effective
lengths are given in Table 10-2 and illustrated in Fig. 10-3.
Table 10-2: Effective lengths in beams.
Beam Effective span length

Simply sup- The lesser of:
ported • distance between centres of bearings, and
• clear distance between supports plus an effective depth.
Continuous Distance between centres of supports. For an embedded end the

beam centre of support should be taken as half an effective depth from the
face of the support.
Cantilever The length to the face of the support plus half an effective depth. If
the cantilever forms part of a continuous beam the effective length
should be taken as the clear length plus the distance to the centre of
the support.
10.4 Analysis of Continuous Beams
A continuous beam can be analysed using the procedures as set out in Chapter 4, i.e. apply
combinations of ultimate loads to determine elastic moment and shear force envelopes,
then redistribute moments to find design moment and shear force envelopes. However, it
is noted that under certain conditions the design moments and shears at critical sections
tend towards certain values, such as those given in Table 10-3 (SABS 0100). It is impor-
tant to note that the values in this table only applies under following conditions:
Analysis of Continuous Beams 10-5
CL Support L1 CL Support
d L1
Leff lesser of
L0 d
d/2 L0 d/2
Leff
(a) Simply supported beam
CL Support L1 CL Support L2 CL Support
d/2 L0 bs /2
Leff Leff = L2
Built-in end L1
Leff lesser of d bs
L0
2 2
(b) Continuous beam
CL Support CL Support
d/2 L0 Leff
Leff Continuous beam
Built-in end d
Leff = L0 +
2
(c) Cantilever
Figure 10-3: Effective span lengths for beams.
(a) The ratio of nominal imposed load Qn to nominal self-weight load Gn must not exceed
1.25, i.e.
Qn £1.25 G n (10.4-1)
(b) The loads on the beam must be substantially uniformly distributed loads.
(c) There must be 3 or more spans.
(d) The spans must be approximately equal, i.e. the spans may not vary by more than 15%
in length with regard to the longest span.
It is important to note that redistribution of moments has already been applied to obtain the
values in the table and no further redistribution is allowed. The redistribution used to ob-
tain the values in the table is not given and Rowe et al. (1987) recommend that 10% should
be assumed (bb = 0.9).
Table 10-3: Ultimate bending moments and shear forces for continuous beams.
Position Moment Shear

Outer support 0 0.45F
Near centre of end span F Leff -
11
First internal support F Leff 0.6F
-
9
Centre of interior span F Leff -
14
Interior support F Leff 0.55F
-
12
These moments may not be redistributed.
F = Total load on span (in kN) = 1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn
Leff = Effective span
For continuous beams to which the above conditions apply, the use of Table 10-3 is recom-
mended since it simplifies the analysis considerably. The simplified rules for curtailment
(section 10.7.4) should be used with Table 10-3.
10.5 Flanged Beams
10.5.1 Effective flange width
Figure 10-4 shows a simply supported T-beam in bending. The longitudinal compressive
stresses in the flange are generally nonuniformly distributed, with higher stresses close to
the web. This is caused by an effect known as shear-lag.
For design purposes the stresses are assumed to be uniformly distributed over an effective
width beff. The effective width for a flanged section is as follows (see Fig. 10-5a and b):
ì L
ïbw + z
For a T-section: beff = lesser of í 5 (10.5-1)
ï
îactual flange width
ì L
ïbw + z
For an L-section: beff = lesser of í 10 (10.5-2)
ï
Flanged Beams 10-7
Bending moments
(a) Simply supported beam (b) Distribution of longitudinal compressive stresses
Figure 10-4: Effective flange width of a simply supported T-beam.

sb
beff Equivalent longitudinal
stress distribution Lz
bw
beff lesser of 5
Actual longitudinal
sb
stress distribution
bw
sb
(a) Effective width of a T-section
bw /2 sb /2
beff
bw
sb
(b) Effective width of an L-section
Leff Leff
Lz » 0.70 Leff Lz » 0.70 Leff
(c) Distance between points of zero moment for a continuous beam
Figure 10-5: Effective flange width of a continuous beam.

where Lz is the distance between zero moments. As a simplified approach for continuous
beams, Lz can be assumed to be 0.7 of the effective span (see Fig. 10-5c).
It is important to note that beff only applies to sagging bending (midspan of beam) where
the flange is in compression. In hogging bending (at a continuous support) the flange is as-
sumed to be cracked so that the compressive forces are carried by the web, for which
beff = bw.
10.5.2 Transverse reinforcement in the flange
To assist in the transfer of shear forces between the web and the flange, transverse rein-
forcement must be placed in the flange of a T-section as shown in Fig. 10-6. This rein-
forcement must be at least 0.15 % of the longitudinal cross-sectional area of the flange
(shaded area in Fig. 10-6):
0 .15
As,trans = Bhf (10.5-3)
100
hf
beff 0 .15
As,trans = B hf
B 100
Figure 10-6: Reinforcement required in the flange of a T-beam.
This reinforcement must be placed over the full effective flange width beff and may form
part of the reinforcement required by the slab spanning transversely to the beam. Curtail-
ment requirements for slabs must be met and cutoff points must be staggered.
10.6 Beams With Compression Reinforcement
The reinforcement provided is usually more than required because of the fixed bar sizes.
Providing more tension reinforcement than required will decrease the ductility of the sec-
tion. However, providing more compression reinforcement than required, will increase
ductility. The following requirement should therefore be met to ensure a ductile section
Beams With Compression Reinforcement 10-9
( A¢s, prov - A¢s,req ) ³( As, prov - As,req ) (10.6-1)
where A¢s, prov = provided area of compression reinforcement

A¢s,req = required area of compression reinforcement
As, prov = provided area of tension reinforcement
As,req = required area of tension reinforcement
The outer layer of compression reinforcement must be prevented from buckling, both be-
fore and after yielding of the reinforcement. The concrete cover alone is usually insuffi-
cient in providing lateral restraint and links are required to tie in the compression
reinforcement. Links will also help to control longitudinal cracking of the concrete in
compression.
Experimental work has not yet provided a clear definition of the required lateral support to
be provided by the links and the following is based mainly on what is considered to be
good practice:
• Links should pass around outer bars and each alternate bar (see Fig. 10-7a).
• The link should be at least 1/4 the size of the largest compression bar (see Fig. 10-7b).
£ 150 mm
Compression face
f1 f 2 diameter of links
f
fv ³ 1
4
fv
longitudinal spacing
of links
sv £12 f 2
(a) Support corner and alternate bars (b) Link size and spacing
£ 135º
(c) Maximum angle
(d) Provide a clip for open links
Figure 10-7: Containment of compression reinforcement.

• The maximum longitudinal spacing of links is 12 times the diameter of the smallest
compression bar (see Fig. 10-7b).
• For the containment to be effective, the link should pass around the bar with an inside
angle less than 135º (see Fig. 10-7c).
• No compression bar should be located more than 150 mm from a contained bar (see
Fig. 10-7a).
• Open links ease the placing of longitudinal bars but a clip must be provided to contain
the compression reinforcement.
10.7 Curtailment of Reinforcement
10.7.1 Introduction
The required area of reinforcement is usually calculated at a critical section where the
bending moment is a maximum. Since the bending moment changes along the span, the re-
quired area of reinforcement also changes along the span. By curtailing certain bars, con-
siderable savings can be made in reinforcement.
The point where a reinforcing can be curtailed is determined by comparing the resistance
of the remaining bars with the bending moment diagram. Consider for example the simply
supported beam in Fig. 10-8. At midspan 5 reinforcing bars are required, producing a mo-
ment of resistance Mr5. It is decided that 2 of these bars are to be curtailed. The three re-
maining bars have a moment of resistance Mr3. The point where Mr3 is equal to the applied
moment is defined as the theoretical cut-off point (TCP). Allowing for the ultimate an-
chorage bond length Lua at the end bar, it can be seen that for all sections along the beam
the moment of resistance is greater than the bending moment from the applied loads.
1 2
TCP TCP
3 bars 5 bars 3 bars (5) (3)
1 2 Section 1-1 Section 2-2
Lua = Ultimate anchorage bond length

Mr3 Mr3 = Moment of resistance for 3 bars
Lua Mr5 Mr5 = Moment of resistance for 5 bars
Lua BM applied loads TCP = Theoretical cut-off point
Figure 10-8: Curtailment of reinforcement–simply supported beam.

Curtailment of Reinforcement 10-11
However, bars should extend beyond the TCP for the following reasons:
• Inaccuracies in the analysis: The actual loading may be different from the assumed
loading, in which case the bending moment diagram will be different.
• Construction tolerances: The bars may not be placed exactly as indicated on the draw-
ing.
• Shear: Diagonal cracking will cause the tension force in the reinforcement to be greater
than indicated by the bending moment diagram.
• Cracking may occur at the position where the bar is stopped which will reduce the shear
strength.
Curtailment can be carried out from basic principles, as shown in the next section, or by
following the simplified rules given in section 10.7.4. Simply supported ends are treated
separately in section 10.7.3.
10.7.2 Curtailment anchorage length
According to SABS 0100 the physical cut-off point (PCP) should extend beyond the TCP
for a distance equal to the greater of:
1. the effective depth d of a member, or

2. twelve times the bar size (12 f).
This requirement applies to both tension and compression reinforcement, but not for rein-
forcement at simple supports (see section 10.7.3). For bars in tension, the smallest distance
from one of the following conditions must also apply:
3. The bars must extend the ultimate anchorage bond length Lua beyond the TCP. For the
ultimate anchorage bond the stress in the bar is taken as 0.87 fy (see Table 8-3).
4. At the PCP the shear capacity is twice the actual shear force.
5. At the PCP the flexural capacity of remaining bars is twice the actual bending mo-
ment.
The above requirements are demonstrated for the continuous beam shown in Fig. 10-9.
Only the tension reinforcement and sagging moments in the span are shown. As in the pre-
vious example, it is assumed that 2 bars are curtailed and the TCP (point A) is found. The
aim is now to find the PCP, i.e the curtailment anchorage length Lca. The following proce-
dure can be followed:
• Set Lca equal to the distance AB, the maximum of d and 12 f (conditions 1 and 2)
• Find point C where the bending moment is equal to Mr3/2.
• If C falls within AB, Lca is used as it is (condition 5).
1 2
TCP PCP
5 bars 3 bars (5) (3)
1 Lca 2 Section 1-1 Section 2-2
C
Mr3/2
Mr3
A B
BM applied loads Mr5 Lca = Curtailment anchorage length

TCP PCP Mr3 = Moment of resistance: 3 bars
Mr5 = Moment of resistance: 5 bars
TCP = Theoretical cut-off point
PCP = Physical cut-off point
Figure 10-9: Curtailment of reinforcement in the span of a continuous beam.
• If C falls to the right of AB, extend Lca to be the lesser of AC or a ultimate anchorage
bond length (condition 3 or 5).
The shear check (condition 4) is more difficult to check since it depends on the curtailment
of the reinforcement. However, since only one of conditions 3 to 5 need to apply, this
check can be ignored for now and carried out later, if necessary.
Reinforcement should always extend the ultimate anchorage bond length Lua beyond the
point of maximum moment. Consider for example the tension reinforcement at the sup-
port of a continuous beam as shown in Fig. 10-10. The PCP for the bar at A should be more
than Lua from the centre of the support. This means that in regions where steep changes in
bending moment occur, condition 3 is more likely to determine the curtailment anchorage.
2 1
B A
Section Section
2 > Lua 1
1-1 2-2
Mr4
Mr2 = Moment of resistance: 2 bars
Mr2 Mr4 = Moment of resistance: 4 bars
Lca BM applied loads
Figure 10-10: Curtailment of reinforcement at the support of a continuous beam.

Curtailment of Reinforcement 10-13
Figure 10-10 also shows a tension bar (at B) being stopped in a compression zone, for
which Lca is the greater of d and 12 f. By staggering the bars, as shown in the figure, the
same length of bar is used throughout, which has a practical advantage.
The procedure can be simplified significantly by applying condition 3 throughout, taking

the distance Lca = Lua, provided it is greater than both d and 12 f. It is then not necessary to
check bending and shear capacities.
10.7.3 Simply supported ends
At a simply supported end the tension reinforcement should be anchored by one of the fol-
lowing methods:
1. An effective anchorage length of 12 times the bar diameter past the centre-line of the
support (Fig. 10-11a). If a hook or bend is provided, it should not start before the cen-
tre-line of the support (Fig. 10-11b).
2. An effective anchorage length of 12 times the bar diameter plus d/2 from the face of
the support (Fig. 10-11c). If a hook or bend is provided, it should not start closer than
d/2 from the face of the support (Fig. 10-11d).
³ 12 f Equivalent
f anchorage ³ 12 f f
(a) (b)
³ 12 f d/2 d Equivalent d/2 d

f anchorage ³ 12 f f
(c) (d)
CL Support
Solid slab
Greatest of bsup /3
and 30 mm v < vc/2
bsup
(e)
Figure 10-11: Curtailment of reinforcement–simply supported end.

3. For solid slabs: If the shear stress at the face of the support is less than vc/2, the an-
chorage beyond the centre-line of the support should be the greater of a third of the
support width and 30 mm.
For beams, the following general procedure can be used: If the beam depth is greater than
the support width, try method 1, otherwise, try method 2.
10.7.4 Simplified curtailment rules
If the conditions for the use of Table 10-3 applies, the simplified rules for curtailment as
summarized in Fig. 10-12 may be used. It is important to note that curtailment lengths are
CL Support
12 f d/2 + 12 f
d As1 d
0.5 As1
0.08 L
£ d/2
Condition 1: Condition 2:
A hook or bend may not A hook or bend may not L = Effective span
start before the centre start closer than d/2 from
line of a support the face of the support
(a) Simple support (b) Simply supported beam
Greater of
L/2 and 45f
As1 0.5 As1
d
£ d/2
L = Effective span
(c) Cantilever
0.25 L (³ 45f)
0.15 L (³ 45f)
0.2 As2 0.6 As2 As2
0.3 As1 As1 0.3 As1

0.1L 0.15 L
£ d/2
L = Effective span
(d) Continuous beam
Figure 10-12: Simplified curtailment rules for beams.

usually specified from the support centre line for bottom reinforcement and from the face
of the support for top reinforcement.
Example 10.1
See Mathcad document Beam_Ex1_SA.
Problem 10.1
Repeat the design in Example 10.1 changing the following properties:
• Span length L = 6 m
• Beam depth h = 800 mm.
Struct: Beam design: Ex 10.1 Calc sheet no: 1 of 10
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Beam_Ex1_SA.xmcd
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Example 10.1
Design the end span of the continuous beam shown below making use of SABS 0100.
A B C D
A
CL Support
E
bsup
L L L
A
(a) Elevation
sb
(b) Plan
Given Input
Effective span length L := 5.0⋅ m (Taken as distance between centres of supports: Table 9-2)
sb
Spacing of beams sb := 4.0⋅ m
beff
Width of supports b sup := 300 ⋅ mm
hf
Cross-section dimensions: bw h
Total height h := 660 ⋅ mm sb
Height of slab h f := 180 ⋅ mm (c) Section A-A
−2
Loads: Nominal live load q n := 12.5⋅ kN⋅ m
−2
Superimposed dead load g sdl := 19.57 ⋅ kN⋅ m (Includes finishes and services)
The use of the structure requires a fire resistance of 1 hour (Required by the Building Regulations)
Assume moderate exposure conditions
Concrete:
Characteristic cube strength fcu := 30⋅ MPa

−3
Unit weight of concrete γc := 24⋅ kN⋅ m
Maximum aggregate size h agg := 26.5⋅ mm

Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Reinforcing steel:
Yield strength in tension fy := 450 ⋅ MPa
Yield strength in shear fyv := 450 ⋅ MPa
Modulus of elasticity Es := 200 ⋅ GPa
Material safety factor for shear γmv := 1.4
Concrete Cover
Fire Resistance
For fire resistance (from Table 10-1, assuming siliceous aggregate):
Minimum width of the section is 110 mm b w = 300 mm OK

Minimum required cover to main reinforcing bars is 25 mm
For a minimum possible link size of 8 mm, cover should be greater than 25⋅ mm − 8 ⋅ mm = 17 mm
Exposure conditions
For moderate exposure conditions cover := 30⋅ mm > h agg = 26.5 mm OK
(Table 9-1: normal density concrete)
Design Loads: ULS

−1
Live load on beam Qn := q n⋅ sb Qn = 50 kN⋅ m
−1
Self-weight of beam and slab Gself := ⎡⎣( h − hf ) ⋅ b w + sb⋅ h f⎤⎦ ⋅ γc Gself = 20.74 kN⋅ m
−1
Superimposed dead load Gsdl := g sdl⋅ sb Gsdl = 78.28 kN⋅ m
−1
Total self weight Gn := Gself + Gsdl Gn = 99.02 kN⋅ m
−1
Design load wu := 1.2⋅ Gn + 1.6⋅ Qn wu = 198.8 kN⋅ m
Bending moments and shear forces

Check if simplified analysis method may be used:
Qn
(a) = 0.505 ≤ 1.25
Gn
(b) The loads are mainly uniformly distributed
(c) There are 3 spans
(d) The spans are equal
Therefore, the simplified analysis method (Table 10-3) given by SABS 0100 may be
used
Total load on span F := wu⋅ L F = 994.1 kN
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
F ⋅L
Bending moments ME := ME = 451.9 kN⋅ m
11
F ⋅L
MB := − MB = −552.3 kN⋅ m
9
Shear forces VA := 0.45⋅ F VA = 447.3 kN

VB := 0.6⋅ F VB = 596.5 kN
Design for Flexure

Midspan (at E)
Assume a tension bar size ϕ := 32⋅ mm
Assume a link size ϕv := 10⋅ mm

ϕ
Effective depth d E := h − cover − ϕv − d E = 604 mm
2
0.7⋅ L
Effective flange width b eff := b w + b eff = 1 m < sb = 4 m OK
5
Find reinforcement, assuming s < h f
For the simplified analysis method (Table 10-3) assume at midspan βb := 1.0
ME
K' := 0.402 ⋅ ( βb − 0.4) − 0.18⋅ ( βb − 0.4)
2
K := K' = 0.176 > 0.156, K' := 0.156
2
b eff ⋅ d E ⋅ fcu
K = 0.0413 < K' = 0.156 , compression reinforcement is not

required
⎛ K ⎞ z = 0.952 d
z := d E⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − ⎟ E > 0.95 d, so assume z := 0.95⋅ d E z = 573.8 mm
⎝ 0.9 ⎠
s := 2 ⋅ ( d E − z) s = 60.4 mm < h f = 180 mm as assumed,

OK
ME 2
As.req.E := As.req.E = 2011 mm
0.87⋅ fy ⋅ z
2
Provide 2 Y32 and 1 Y25 As.prov.E := 2099⋅ mm
The actual depth, calculated to the centroid of the reinforcement, will be slightly greater than assumed, OK
Minimum reinforcement (Table 9.5)

bw 100 ⋅ As.prov.E
= 0.3 < 0.4, therefore = 1.06 > 0.18, OK
b eff b w⋅ h
Maximum area of reinforcement (par 9.6) = 4%, OK
Minimum horizontal spacing of bars (Table 9-4)
⋅ ( b w − 2 ⋅ cover − 2 ⋅ ϕv − 2 × 32⋅ mm − 25⋅ mm) = 65.5 mm

1
> h agg + 5 ⋅ mm = 31.5 mm OK
2
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Maximum clear spacing between bars (conservatively assuming 0% redistribution in Table 9-3)
smax := 170 ⋅ mm OK
Support B
Assume a tension bar size ϕ := 32⋅ mm
Assume a link size ϕv := 10⋅ mm
At the support the tension bars will probably have to be placed in two layers to fit into the web
Effective depth d B := h − cover − ϕv − ϕ d B = 588 mm
Find reinforcement, noting that b = b w
For the simplified analysis method (Table 10-3) assume at the support βb := 0.9
MB
K :=
K' := 0.402 ⋅ ( βb − 0.4) − 0.18⋅ ( βb − 0.4)
2
2
b w⋅ d B ⋅ fcu
K = 0.1775 K' = 0.156 , compression reinforcement is

>
required
ϕ
d' := cover + ϕv + d' = 56 mm
2
fy
fy
1.15 +
2000⋅ MPa
⎛ fyc ⎞
= 0.095 < ( βb − 0.4) ⋅ ⎜ 1 −
d'
⎟ = 0.266 compression reinforcement will yield at
dB ⎝ Es⋅ ε cu ⎠
ultimate
⎛
Internal lever-arm z := d B⋅ ⎜ 0.5 +
K' ⎞ z
0.25 − ⎟ = 0.777 z = 456.8 mm
⎝ 0.9 ⎠ dB

2
( K − K' ) ⋅ fcu ⋅ b w⋅ d B 2
A's.req.B := A's.req.B = 384 mm
fyc ⋅ ( d B − d')

2
K' ⋅ fcu ⋅ b w⋅ d B fyc 2
As.req.B := + ⋅ A's.req.B As.req.B = 3035 mm
0.87⋅ fy ⋅ z 0.87⋅ fy
For compression reinforcement at the support the tension reinforcement at midspan is extended into the
support.
2
Provide 2 Y32 and 1 Y25 A's.prov.B := 2099⋅ mm
This approach is conservative since the provided compression reinforcement is significantly more
than required. Shear calculations will later show that three bars are required to support the links and
this approach provides a simple and practical solution.
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
2
Provide 2 Y32 and 3 Y25 As.prov.B := 3081⋅ mm
The actual depth to the tension reinforcement will be greater than assumed, OK
Minimum reinforcement (Table 9.5)
100 ⋅ As.prov.B
Tension = 1.556 > 0.26, OK
b w⋅ h
100 ⋅ A's.prov.B
Compression = 1.06 > 0.20, OK
b w⋅ h
Maximum area of reinforcement (par 9.6) = 4%, OK
For ductility ( A's.prov.B − A's.req.B ) = 1715 mm2 > ( As.prov.B − As.req.B ) = 46 mm2 OK
Minimum horizontal spacing of bars in top of beam (see Table 9-4)
⋅ ( b w − 2 ⋅ cover − 2 ⋅ ϕv − 2 × 32⋅ mm − 25⋅ mm) = 65.5 mm >

1
h agg + 5 ⋅ mm = 31.5 mm OK
2
Note that special care should be taken here to compact the concrete during placing. There is not enough space
in the top of the beam to allow for the standard 75 mm diameter vibrator to pass between the reinforcement.
Maximum clear spacing between bars (conservatively assuming –10% redistribution in Table 9-3)
smax := 155 ⋅ mm OK
The reinforcement at the support B can be curtailed as shown in Fig. 10-12.

Anchorage curtailment length the greatest of 0.25⋅ L = 1250 mm and 45⋅ ϕ = 1440 mm
Say Lac.B := 1450⋅ mm
2
20% of the reinforcement at the support must extend into the span 20⋅ %⋅ As.req.B = 607 mm
Extend 2 Y25 (= 982 mm2) of the top reinforcement into the span
Minimum transverse reinforcement in flange

0.15 2
To transfer shear in flange As.trans := ⋅ h f ⋅ ( 1 ⋅ m) As.trans = 270 mm
100
2
Provide Y10 @ 250 mm c/c As.trans.prov := 314 ⋅ mm over a length of b eff = 1000 mm
Design for Shear

Maximum shear
Maximum shear force will occur at the face of support B
b sup
Vsup.B := VB − wu⋅ Vsup.B = 566.6 kN
2
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Vsup.B fcu
vmax := vmax = 3.212 MPa < 0.75⋅ MPa ⋅ = 4.108 MPa and 4.75 MPa, OK
b w⋅ d B MPa
Nominal shear reinforcement

Nominal shear reinforcement to be provided for fyv = 450 MPa (par. 6.5)
2
⎛ Asv ⎞ mm
⎜ s ⎟ = 0.0012⋅ b w = 0.36
⎝ v ⎠ min mm
2
For two legs of an Y10 link Asv.min := 157 ⋅ mm
Maximum spacing is 0.75⋅ d E = 453 mm

Asv.min 2
mm
Select a spacing of sv.min := 400 ⋅ mm = 0.392 OK
sv.min mm
Provide Y10 links @ 400 mm c/c
Assuming that nominal links will always be placed in areas of sagging bending, reinforcement at midspan is
considered
100 ⋅ As.prov.E
ρE := ρE = 1.158 < 3, OK
b w⋅ d E

1 1
3 4
⎡ ⎛ fcu ⎞⎤
⋅ ⎛⎜
0.75⋅ MPa 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
vc.E := ⋅ ⎢ρE ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎟ vc.E = 0.539 MPa
γmv ⎣ ⎝ 25⋅ MPa ⎠⎦ ⎝ dE ⎠
The resistance given by the nominal shear reinforcement is
Asv.min 0.87⋅ fyv

vs.min := ⋅ vs.min = 0.512 MPa
sv.min bw
The resistance of the nominal shear reinforcement together with the concrete is
vn := vs.min + vc.E vn = 1.052 MPa
Vn := vn⋅ b w⋅ d E Vn = 190.5 kN
Shear reinforcement at support A

Consider a critical section at a distance d E = 604 mm from the face of the
support b sup
Vsup.A := VA − wu⋅ Vsup.A = 417.5 kN
2
V := Vsup.A − wu⋅ d E V = 297.4 kN
V
v := v = 1.641 MPa
bw⋅ dE
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
If tension reinforcement is not curtailed at support A, the full area of tension reinforcement can be used:
vc.E = 0.539 MPa
Asv ( v − vc.E) ⋅ bw mm
2
Required = = 0.845
sv 0.87⋅ fyv mm
2
For two legs of an Y10 link Asv := 157 ⋅ mm
0.87⋅ fyv ⋅ Asv

Required spacing sv := sv = 185.9 mm say sv := 175 ⋅ mm
( v − vc.E) ⋅ bw
Asv 2
mm
Provide Y10 links @ 175 mm c/c = 0.897 OK
sv mm
Maximum spacing is 0.75⋅ d E = 453 mm OK
Extend this reinforcement the following distance

Vsup.A − Vn
s := s = 1142 mm from the face of the support
wu
Shear reinforcement at support B

Consider a critical section at a distance d B = 588 mm from the face of the
support b sup
Vsup.B := VB − wu⋅ Vsup.B = 566.6 kN
2
V := Vsup.B − wu⋅ d B V = 449.7 kN
V
v := v = 2.549 MPa
bw⋅ dB
100 ⋅ As.prov.B
ρB := ρE = 1.158 < 3, OK Note that all reinforcement at this critical section
b w⋅ d B extend a distance d beyond the critical section.
1 1
3 4
⎡ ⎛ fcu ⎞⎤
⋅ ⎛⎜
0.75⋅ MPa 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
vc.B := ⋅ ⎢ρB ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎟ vc.B = 0.623 MPa
γmv ⎣ ⎝ 25⋅ MPa ⎠⎦ ⎝ dB ⎠
Asv ( v − vc.B) ⋅ bw mm
2
Required = = 1.477
sv 0.87⋅ fyv mm
2
For Y10 links in pairs (4 legs) Asv := 314.2 ⋅ mm
0.87⋅ fyv ⋅ Asv

( v − vc.B) ⋅ bw
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Asv 2
mm
Provide Y10 links in pairs @ 200 mm c/c = 1.571 OK
sv mm
Maximum spacing is 0.75⋅ d B = 441 mm OK
This reinforcement is extended over the following distance
Vsup.B − Vn
s := s = 1892 mm from the face of the support
wu
A more economic alternative would be to consider a further critical section (G) at a distance
Lac.B − d B = 862 mm from the face of the support. (This is also the position where only two Y25 bars provide
shear resistance for hogging bending at the support.)
V := Vsup.B − wu⋅ ( Lac.B − d B) V = 395.3 kN
V
v := v = 2.241 MPa
bw⋅ dB

2
As.G := 982 ⋅ mm (2 Y25 bars)
1 1
3 4
⎡⎛ 100 ⋅ As.G ⎞ ⎛ fcu ⎞⎤
⋅ ⎛⎜
0.75⋅ MPa 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
vc.G := ⋅ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⋅⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎟ vc.G = 0.425 MPa
γmv ⎣⎝ bw⋅ dB ⎠ ⎝ 25⋅ MPa ⎠⎦ ⎝ dB ⎠
Asv ( v − vc.G)⋅ bw mm
2
Required = = 1.391
sv 0.87⋅ fyv mm
2
For 2 legs of an Y10 link Asv := 157.1 ⋅ mm
0.87⋅ fyv ⋅ Asv

( v − vc.B) ⋅ bw
Provide Y10 links @ 125 mm c/cbetween s = 1.892 m and ( Lac.B − d B) = 0.862 m from the face of the support
Confinement of compression reinforcement

At support B:
Smallest compression bar is ϕmin := 25⋅ mm
Maximum spacing of links sv.max := 12 × ϕmin sv.max = 300 mm OK, all link spacings are less
Largest compression bar is ϕmax := 32⋅ mm

ϕmax
Minimum link size = 8 mm OK, all link diameters are greater than this
4
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Check Span-Effective Depth Ratio
Basic L/d ratio

The basic L/d ratio is determined from Table 9-6 for a beam with one end continuous
bw
= 0.3 ⎛ L⎞ = L_over_d_basic := 19.2
For ⎜ ⎟
b eff ⎝ d ⎠ basic
Since the span is less than 10 m, the L/d ratio need not be adjusted

Using the simplified method to obtain bending moments the degree of redistribution at midspan is unknown.
However, it can conservatively be assumed that βb := 1.0 (This is also considered good practice)
The service steel stress at midspan
fs := 0.87⋅ fy ⋅ ⎛⎜
1.1 + 1.0 ⎞ As.req.E 1
⎟⋅ ⋅ fs = 281.4 MPa
⎝ 1.2 + 1.6 ⎠ As.prov.E βb
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
MFAs := 0.55 + MFAs = 1.312
⎛ ME ⎞
120 ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ MPa + ⎟
⎜ ⋅
2⎟
⎝ b eff E ⎠
d
2
A's.prov.E := 981.7 ⋅ mm (2 Y25 bars)
100 ⋅ A's.prov.E
For a section at midspan ρ' := ρ' = 0.163
b eff ⋅ d E
ρ'
MFA's := 1 + MFA's = 1.051
3 + ρ'
Check L/d ratio

Maximum allowable L/d ratio
⎛ L⎞ L_over_d_allow := MFAs × MFA's × L_over_d_basic L_over_d_allow = 26.49

⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ d ⎠ allow
Provided L/d
⎛ L⎞ L
= 8.278 L_over_d_allow = 26.49
⎜ ⎟ = < OK
⎝ d ⎠ prov dE
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
A E Lac,B = 1450 B
2 Y25 2 Y32 + 3 Y25
300 2 Y32 + 1 Y25 db

G 300
5000
1142
VA = 447.3 kN
297.4 Vn = 190.5 kN
Vsup,A = 417.5 kN
Vn = 190.5 kN
395.3 Vsup,B = 566.6 kN
449.7
VB = 596.5 kN
862
1892
(a) Flexural reinforcement and shear force diagram
A B
4700
150 1225 150 1200 125 875 125 1000 150
8 Y10 @ 175 4 Y10 @ 400 8 Y10 6 Y10

@ 125 @ 200
in pairs
(b) Shear reinforcement
beff =1000 mm
Y10 @ 250 mm c/c
2 Y25
hf = 180
h = 660 mm d E= 604 mm
Y10 @ 400
2 Y32 + 1 Y25
bw = 300
(c) Section at midspan (E)

Y10 @ 250 mm c/c
2 Y32 + 3 Y25
hf = 180
h = 660 mm dB = 588 mm
Y10 @ 200
in pairs
2 Y32 + 1 Y25
bw = 300
(d) Section at support B

Design of short columns 11-13
11.4 Design of short columns
Short columns are usually designed using charts such as those developed in the previous
section. Selecting equal quantities of tension and compression reinforcement may not be
the most economic solution but it has an important practical advantage. In general, simpler
reinforcement layouts are preferred to reduce the possibility of errors during fixing of the
reinforcement on site. However, if the saving in reinforcement can be justified, a more rig-
orous approach can be followed by solving Eqs. (11.3-5) and (11.3-6). Both methods are
respectively illustrated in the following 2 examples:
Example 11-3
See Mathcad document Col_Ex03_SA.
Example 11-4
11.5 Biaxial bending
11.5.1 Major and minor axes of bending
This text will often refer to an axis about which bending is taking place. This is easier to
work with than bending in a plane as referred to in BS 8100 and SABS 0100. For example:
A moment Mx causes bending about an x-axis which takes place in the y-z plane (see
Fig. 11-8). When designing a column it is customary to define the major axis of bending,
with the larger second moment of area, as x-x. The minor axis of bending is then the y-y
axis. The dimensions h will generally refer to the larger, and b to the smaller of a rectangu-
lar column’s dimensions.
My
y
Mx
h>b x x
y
b
Figure 11-8: Definition of a axes for biaxial bending.

11-14 Analysis and Design of Columns
11.5.2 Interaction surface
Interaction diagrams for biaxial bending can be generated using the basic principles out-
lined in the previous sections. It should be noted that both the inclination and position of
the neutral axis will be unknown since it depends on the relative magnitudes of the applied
moments as well as the materials and section properties.
Nuz My
y
N3
Mx
h x x
N2 y
b
Muy
(a) Cross-section
N1
Mux
My
Mx
(b) Interaction surface
N1 Muy My N2 Muy My N3 Muy My
Mux Idealization
Idealization
Mx
Mux
Mux Mx
Mx
Planes through the interaction surface for a constant axial load of:
(c) N1 (d) N2 (e) N3
Figure 11-9: Interaction surface for a column in biaxial bending.

Biaxial bending 11-15
The simplest approach will be to select a constant inclination for the neutral axis. The neu-
tral axis depth is then incremented, using the procedure outlined in Table 11-1 to deter-
mine a M-N interaction diagram for the selected inclination of neutral axis. The process is
repeated for different inclinations with the interaction diagrams generating an interaction
surface as shown in Fig. 11-9b. The interaction surface is bounded by two vertical planes:
the interaction diagram N-Mux for My = 0 and at right angles to this plane the N-Muy dia-
gram for Mx = 0.
For a constant axial force a horizontal plane through the interaction surface will appear as
shown in Figs. 11-9c to e. Combinations of Mx and My (that occur with the selected N) that
fall inside the shaded area will be safe while those outside indicate failure of the column.
The following important observation should be made from considering a horizontal plane
for a selected axial force: If a section has uniaxial moment capacities of Mux and Muy it will
clearly fail if moments equal to these capacities are applied simultaneously. For biaxial
bending both Mx and My should at least be less than Mux and Muy respectively.
One approach often followed is to increase one of the moments and to then consider uniax-
ial bending for the increased moment (see Fig. 11-8 for definition of a axes)
SABS 0100 Mx M y
If > the moment about the x-axis is enhanced to yield
h b
h
M ¢x = M x + b b M (11.5-1)
b y
Mx M y
If < the moment about the y-axis is enhanced to yield
h b
b
M ¢y = M y + b b M (11.5-2)
h x
where bb is given in Table 11-2.
Note that Mx and My are the ultimate design moments including additional moments
caused by slenderness (see next section), if applicable.
Example 11.5

Table 11-2: Coefficient bb for biaxial bending (SABS 0100).
N bb
bhf cu
0.000 0.50
0.075 0.60
0.150 0.70
0.250 0.70
0.300 0.65
0.400 0.53
0.500 0.42
³ 0.600 0.30
11.6 Definitions and conventions for slender columns
11.6.1 Braced and unbraced columns
The horizontal bracing of a column will play an important role in the bending moments
that develop within the column. Bracing may take the form of stiff elements, such as shear
walls and elevator shafts, which are designed to resist the horizontal loads on the structure.
Bracing prevents the ends of a column to undergo horizontal displacements so that the po-
sition of the axial load at the top of the column remains unchanged (see Fig. 11-10a). With-
out bracing the structure will sway, causing the top of the column to displace relative to the
bottom (see Fig. 11-10b), resulting in a shift in position of the applied axial load. In gen-
eral, displacements in an unbraced column will be larger than in a braced column, result-
ing in larger eccentricity moments.
It is necessary to consider each direction independently for bracing. For example: The
structure in Fig. 11-10c is braced by shear walls in the north-south direction but the col-
umns will be unbraced in the east-west direction.
To determine if the bracing is effective in preventing sway, the following test can be car-
ried out:
SABS 0100 A structure can be consider braced if the ratio Sb/Su is greater than 5, where Sb
is the lateral stiffness of the braced structure and Su is the sway stiffness of the
unbraced structure.
The stiffness of the braced structure Sb can be determined as follows: Apply a horizontal
load to the braced structure and calculate the corresponding horizontal displacement at the
load application point. Dividing the applied load by the corresponding displacement
Definitions and conventions for slender columns 11-17
Du > Db
Db
(a) Braced frame (b) Unbraced frame
Shear wall
(c) Plan view of frame braced only in north-south direction
Figure 11-10: Bracing in a structure.
yields Sb. The stiffness of the unbraced structure is determined in a similar manner: The
bracing is removed and a horizontal load is applied at the same position as for the braced
structure. Dividing the load by the corresponding displacement yields Su.
11.6.2 Effective lengths
The support conditions play an important role in determining the magnitude of the lateral
deflections and hence secondary moments that develop in a column. The influence of
boundary conditions are taken into account by means of an effective length le. The effec-
tive length is the length of a pinned ended column that will have the same capacity as the
column with boundary conditions under consideration and is determined by the deflected
shape of the column at failure. It is important to distinguish between braced and unbraced
Point of
contraflexure
Sidesway
le > lo
Points of
lo le < lo
contraflexure
Point of
contraflexure
(a) Concrete frame (b) Deformed shape: (c) Deformed shape:

Braced frame Unbraced frame
Figure 11-11: Effective height of a column.

columns, as illustrated in Fig. 11-11 for a typical column. Two methods, differing in com-
plexity and accuracy, are available:
Simple method
SABS 0100 The effective length is determined from:
BS 8110
l e =b l o (11.6-1)
where
lo = clear height between end restraints

b = factor obtained from Table 11-3.
The b factors in Table 11-3 depend on the boundary conditions of a column and whether
the structure is braced or not. The different end conditions referred to in the table are illus-
trated in Fig. 11-12. The simple method is approximate and will not be very accurate in the
case where only one beam frames into a column, as in the case of an external column.
Rigorous method
SABS 0100 A more accurate method is also provided for calculation of the effective
BS 8110
length.
Braced columns:
ï o [
ìl 0 . 7 + 0 .05( a + a )
c,1 ]üï
c, 2
l e = lesser of í ý£ l o (11.6-2)
îl o [0 .85 + 0 .05 a c,min ]
ï ï
þ
Unbraced columns:
ï o [
ìl 1.0 + 0 .15( a + a )
c,1 c, 2 ]
l e = lesser of í (11.6-3)
îl o [2 .0 + 0 .3 a c,min ]
ï
where

ac,1 = ratio of the sum of the column stiffness to the sum of the beam
stiffnesses at the lower end of the column
stiffnesses at the upper end of the column
ac,min = lesser of ac,1 and ac,2
Table 11-3: b-Values for effective lengths (SABS 0100).
End b-Values for effective lengths

conditi
on top Braced column Unbraced column
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 0.75 0.80 0.90 1.2 1.3 1.6
2 0.80 0.85 0.95 1.3 1.5 1.8
3 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.6 1.8 -
4 - - - 2.2 - -
Definition of end condition:
1 The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams on either side
which are at least as deep as the overall dimension of the column in the plane
being considered.
2 The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs on either
side which are shallower than the overall dimension of the column in the
plane being considered.
3 The end of the column is connected to members which, while not designed to
provide restraint to rotation, will nevertheless, provide some restraint.
4 The end of the column is unrestrained against both lateral movement and
rotation.
hb > h Þ end condition 1 Beams designed and detailed Rotations and sideways
hb < h Þ end condition 2 as simply supported movement not restrained
Þ end condition 3 Þ end condition 4
hb
h
hb > h
Foundation not designed Foundation designed

to resist moment to resist moment
(a) End condition 1 and 2 (b) End condition 3: (c) End condition 1 and 4
Nominal restraint
Figure 11-12: End conditions for effective lengths (SABS 0100).

The stiffness of a member is the ratio of the second moment of area of the concrete section
divided by the member length, measured between centre-lines of restraints. For a flat slab
the stiffness of the equivalent beam framing into an internal column should be based on the
width and thickness of the column strip. For an edge column the width be used to calculate
to capacity of the slab-column connection (section 13.3.4) should be used for the width of
the equivalent beam.
If a base has been designed to resist the moment, ac can taken as 1. If the base has not been
designed to resist the moment (i.e. pinned), ac should be taken as 10. For a very large stiff
base, ac can be taken as 0, but this should be justified by analysis.
For simply supported beams framing into a column ac should be taken as 10. Only flexural
stiffnesses of members framing into a column are considered. Torsional stiffnesses of
members at right angles to the plane of bending should be ignored.
Example 11.6
11.6.3 Walls
A vertical load-bearing member is defined as a wall when
h> 4b (11.6-4)
h = larger cross-section dimension

b = smaller cross-section dimension
A reinforced wall has at least 0.4 % vertical reinforcement (see Table 9-5). A wall with
less reinforcement is considered as a unreinforced wall, i.e. the reinforcement is ignored
when determining the strength of the wall. In principle, the design of walls is similar to that
of columns and are not considered any further here.
11.6.4 Short and slender columns
A short column will fail in crushing, reaching its capacity without buckling. The capacity
can be determined from a moment-axial force interaction diagram by considering a
cross-section of the column. A slender column is likely to fail in buckling before it reaches
its full capacity. Short columns are also referred to as stocky columns.
Consider a pinned ended column with an eccentric axial load as shown in Fig. 11-13a
(MacGregor, 1986). The initial bending moment (= N e) in the column will cause the col-
umn to deflect laterally increasing the eccentricity of the axial force by eadd generating an
additional moment Madd = N eadd in the column.
N N
l/2
e eadd
l
M = N (e + eadd)
N
e eadd
(a) Additional column moments caused by slenderness

Axial force N
Material failure of
a short column
A
Material failure of
M = Ne Madd = N eadd
a slender column
B
D Stability failure (buckling)

of a slender column
C
Bending moment M
(b) Influence of slenderness on the failure mode
Figure 11-13: Influence of slenderness on capacity.
A short column will fail when the load in the column reaches point A on the interaction di-
agram shown in Fig. 11-13b. Recall that the interaction diagram represents combinations
of N and M where the concrete fails in compression. The additional moments in a typical
N crit 10
b
N N uz 9 fcu = 30 MPa, r = 2%
M 8 fcu = 30 MPa, r = 4%
eadd 7 fcu = 50 MPa, r = 4% h
6 fy = 450 MPa
N 5 100 Asc
r=
Madd 4 bh
h l = N eadd 3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
M l/h
N
N Crushing Crushing or buckling Buckling
(a) Deformed shape
of slender column (b) Influence of slenderness on column capacity
Figure 11-14: Influence of slenderness on capacity of a pinned ended column.
slender column will cause the column to fail at point B. This means a reduction in the load
carrying capacity with regard to the axial load. A very slender column could reach a maxi-
mum load at point D followed by a stability failure (buckling) where the load decreases for
an increase in deflection until it finally fails at C.
As a further example consider the pinned ended column shown in Fig. 11-14a. Imperfec-
tions or eccentricity of the applied load will cause it to deflect sideways, generating an ad-
ditional moment Madd = N eadd in the column. The column will either fail by crushing of the
concrete or by buckling, depending on its slenderness, as shown in Fig. 11-14b. For a
pinned ended column the critical buckling load, also referred to as the Euler load, will be
p2 E I
N crit = (11.6-5)
l2
while Nuz is given by Eq. 11.2-5.
A column with a concrete strength of 30 MPa and 2% reinforcement will fail in buckling if
the slenderness ratio l/h exceeds 30. Theoretically, the column should fail by crushing for
l/h < 30, but initial curvature of the column and eccentricity of the load may cause the col-
umn to buckle before the crushing capacity is reached. For slenderness ratios less than ap-
proximately 13, the buckling load is 5 times greater than the crushing load, so that the
column is much more likely to fail in crushing than in buckling. The above limits are
clearly influenced by material strengths and reinforcement ratios as shown in Fig. 11-14b.
11.6.5 Slenderness limits

SABS 0100 A column is considered slender when
ì M
l ex l ey ï17 - 7 1 for braced columns
or >í M2 (11.6-6)
h b ï
î10 for unbraced columns
where
lex and ley = effective height for bending about the major and minor axes, respec-
tively
h and b = larger and smaller cross-section dimensions, respectively
M1 = smaller initial end moment due to design ultimate moments (negative
for bending in double curvature)
M2 = larger initial end moment due to design ultimate moments (always pos-
itive)
For the case when M1 = M2 = 0, assume M1/M2 = 0.

BS 8110 A column is considered slender when
l ex l ey ì15 for braced columns

or >í (11.6-7)
h b î10 for unbraced columns
It is important to note that the effective length may be different for different axes of bend-
ing and generally lex ¹ ley. If biaxial bending is considered, the slenderness ratios will be
determined by considering bending about each individual axis. The right-hand side of
Eq. (11.6-6) is evaluated in Fig. 11-15 for different end moments.
Current research and experience requires certain limits to be set to slenderness ratios:
SABS 0100 Braced column:
lo < 60 b and b ³ 0.25h (11.6-8)
Cantilever column:
lo < 25 b and b ³ 0.25h (11.6-9)
These limits are high and a column with these dimensions will have to be designed for sig-
nificant additional slenderness moments. Note that minimum section dimensions are also
influenced by durability (Table 9-1) and fire resistance (Table 10-1).
Bending moment* M2
M1 = M 2 = 0 M1 = 0
M1/M2 = 0 M1/M2 = 0
17-7 M1/M2 = 17 17-7 M1/M2 = 17

M1 = 0
*Determined from afirst order analysis
M2 M2
M1 = M 2 M2 = 2 M1
M1/M2 = 1 M1/M2 = 0.5
17-7 M1/M2 = 10 17-7 M1/M2 = 13.5

M1 M1
M2 M2
-M1 = M2 M2 = -2 M1
M1/M2 = -1 M1/M2 = -0.5
17-7 M1/M2 = 24 17-7 M1/M2 = 20.5

M1 M1
Figure 11-15: Effects of end moments on slenderness.
11.7 Moments and forces in columns
The moments and forces in the column should be determined by considering ultimate limit
state loads as discussed in sections 4.2 and 4.3. If the structure is braced, subframes sub-
jected to vertical loads only can be considered provided the horizontal loads can be re-
sisted by the bracing alone. For an unbraced structure the full frame needs to be
considered.
11.7.1 Column moments from subframes
If the full frame have been considered, the column moments will be known. If a series of
subframes have been considered, the column moments at the remote ends of the column
will typically be half of the moment at the beam-column junction as shown in Fig. 11-16a
and b. The moment envelope determined by combining these subframe moments
(Fig. 11-16c) will not be the true column moments but will generally be satisfactory for de-
Chapter 11
Analysis and Design of Columns
11.1 Introduction
Columns are structural elements primarily required to resist axial forces. However, a col-
umn is seldom subjected to axial forces only and moments about one or two axes are usu-
ally also present. The case of pure axial load is considered first. Subsequently the theory is
expanded to include bending about one and then two axes.
Lateral deflection of a column can lead to an increase in eccentricity of the axial load and
therefore an increase in column moment. The magnitude of the deflection and hence the
increase in moment is determined by the slenderness of the column. A column is defined
as being slender if slenderness effects are significant and as being short if slenderness
causes little or no increase in the moments.
As with beams, a distinction is made between the analysis and design of columns. In an
analysis the section dimensions and the reinforcement is known and the aim is to deter-
mine the axial force and moment the section can resist. During a design the section dimen-
sions and reinforcement areas required to resist a given axial force and moment need to be
determined.
11.2 Short columns subjected to axial loads only
If a column is loaded to failure the reinforcement is likely to reach its yield strength before
the concrete fails in compression (see Fig. 11-1). This statement remains valid for the ma-
terial strengths generally used in buildings as well as for higher concrete strengths where
the strain coinciding with the maximum stress increases as the concrete strength increases
(see Fig. 2-3).
If high strength reinforcement is used the concrete may reach its maximum stress before
the reinforcement yields. However, the increase in deformation in the concrete at maxi-
mum stress will allow the reinforcement to reach its yield strength (Park & Paulay, 1975)
so that the total resistance of a reinforced concrete column can be expressed as the follow-
ing sum
N uz = K f c¢ ( Acg - Asc ) + f y Asc (11.2-1)
11-1
Ultimate
load
Concrete
Axial load N
0 . 85 f c¢( Acg - Asc ) = 0 . 67 f cu ( Acg - Asc )
Steel reinforcement
fy Asc
Axial strain e
Figure 11-1: Axial load-strain response for steel and concrete in an axially loaded col-
umn (Park & Paulay, 1984).
where f c¢ = cylinder strength

K = a factor (usually taken as 0.85 for design)
Acg = gross area of concrete (without allowing for the area of concrete re-
placed by reinforcement). For a rectangular column Acg = b h
Asc = total area of reinforcement
Experimental tests on a large number of columns (Richart and Brown, 1934; Hognestad,
1951) showed that the factor K, which is multiplied by f c¢, ranged from 0.55 to values
greater than 1.0 with an average of 0.83. A value of K = 0.85 is recommended by the ACI
code (ACI 318, 1989).
The following reasons may explain why K < 1 and the full cylinder strength, as expected,
is not reached in a column (Kong and Evans, 1987):
• A column’s height to width ratio is much greater than that of a cylinder so that the influ-
ence of end restraints will be much less in a column than in a cylinder.
• Columns are tested at a slower rate than cylinders and it is known that the measured
strength increases with an increase in loading rate.
• The concrete in a column will be less compacted than in a cylinder.
• In vertically cast columns bleed water in the top of the column will lead to a lower ce-
ment/water ratio and hence a lower strength.
It should be noted that it is coincidence that K is equal to a similar factor used in flexure
(see section 5.3) since they originate from different testing conditions.
BS 8110 Expressing Eq. (11.2-1) in terms of the cube strength fcu by assuming
f c¢ = 0 .8 f cu and introducing material safety factors
Short columns subjected to axial loads only 11-3
fy
f cu ( Acg - Asc ) +
0 .67
N uz = A (11.2-2)
g mc g ms sc
At the ultimate limit state with gmc = 1.5 and gms = 1.15 this equation re-
duces to
N uz = 0 . 45 f cu ( Acg - Asc ) + 0 .87 f y Asc (11.2-3)
The recommendations in SABS 0100 are based on the CP110 code, which preceded
BS8110, where it was assumed that the reinforcement buckles before the design yield
strength in compression of 0.87 fy is reached. It was also considered uneconomical to pro-
vide the large quantity of ties necessary to prevent the bars from buckling so that the de-
sign yield strength in compression is reduced as follows
æ fy ö
f cu ( Acg - Asc ) +ç
0 .67 ÷
N uz = ç g + f / 2000 ÷Asc (11.2-4)
g mc è ms y ø
For local reinforcement yield strengths, ranging between 250 and 450 MPa, the design
compression stress in the reinforcement ranges between 0.784 fy and 0.729 fy. It appears as
if an average value of 0.750 fy is recommended by SABS 0100.
N uz = 0 . 45 f cu ( Acg - Asc ) + 0 . 75 f y Asc (11.2-5)
The concrete in a reinforced concrete column creeps over time, thus reducing the stresses
in the concrete and increasing it in the reinforcement. However, neither creep nor the load
history has a significant effect on the ultimate capacity of a reinforced concrete column.
The above equations apply to a column with no imperfections and where the load is ap-
plied at the centroid of the cross-section. These condition are seldom encountered in prac-
tice and it is customary to allow for a small eccentricity (» 0 .05 h) of loading:
BS 8110 For BS 8110
N uz = 0 . 40 f cu ( Acg - Asc ) + 0 . 75 f y Asc (11.2-6)
SABS 0100 For SABS 0100
N uz = 0 . 40 f cu ( Acg - Asc ) + 0 .67 f y Asc (11.2-7)

11.3 Combined bending moment and axial force at the

ultimate limit state
11.3.1 Basic theory - symmetrical rectangular section
A rectangular section is subjected to a combined axial force N and bending moment M so

that the greater compressive stress occurs at the top of the section as shown in Fig. 11-2.
The relative magnitudes of N and M will influence the position of the neutral axis, which
may fall inside the section for a small N (Fig. 11-2a), or outside the section for a large N
(Fig. 11-2b). Note that the bottom reinforcement will be referred to as the tension rein-
forcement although it may very well be in compression.
b ecu = 0.0035 0.45 fcu

d¢
esc Fsc s
A¢s h
s = 0.9 x 2
x (< h) M 2
Fcc
d N
h N.A.
h
Fst
As 2
est
Cross-section Strain Stresses and Total stress resultants

stress resultants (= applied loads)
æ h ö
(a) Small axial force so that ç x < ÷
è 0.9 ø
b ecu = 0.0035 0.45 fcu

d¢
esc Fsc
A¢s h
Fcc 2
d s
h (= h)
x
est Fst
As
Cross-section Strain Stresses and

stress resultants
æ h ö
(b) Large axial force so that ç x ³ ÷
è 0.9 ø
Figure 11-2: Combined bending moment and axial force acting on a section at the ulti-
mate limit state.
Combined bending moment and axial force at the ultimate limit state 11-5
The fundamental principles regarding equilibrium of forces, compatibility of strains and

known stress-strain relationships (see section 5.2) are applied in the following to set up the
necessary equations for analysis and design. At the ultimate limit state crushing of the con-
crete occurs when the strain at the top of the section reaches ecu = 0.0035.
The applied forces N and M must respectively be equal to the total stress resultants acting
on a section in order to satisfy equilibrium. Horizontal equilibrium yields:
N = Fcc + Fsc + Fst (11.3-1)

= 0 . 45 f cu b s + f sc A¢s + f s As
Considering moment equilibrium and taking moments about N yields:
æh sö æh ö æ hö
M = Fccç - ÷+ Fscç - d¢÷- Fstç d - ÷
è2 2ø è2 ø è 2ø (11.3-2)
= 0 . 45 f cu b sç - ÷+ f sc A¢sç - d¢÷- f s Asç d - ÷
è2 2ø è2 ø è 2ø
The following points should be kept in mind regarding the above two equations:
• Careful attention should be given to the sign convention: Compressive forces and
stresses are considered to be positive and tensile forces and stresses are negative.
• The equations apply to the case shown in Fig. 11-2a where x < h/0.9. For the case shown
in Fig. 11-2b where x ³ h/0.9, the entire concrete section is in compression, i.e. s = h.
The concrete stresses do therefore not add to the moment of resistance in Eq. (11.3-2)
and the first term on the right-hand side of the equation disappears.
• The strain es and stress fs in the reinforcement at a depth d can respectively be
determined from:
æd-x ö
e s =-0 .0035 ç ÷ (11.3-3)
è x ø
ì0 .87 f for e s £ e y
ï y
f s ( e s ) = íE s e s for e y < e s < e yc (11.3-4)
ï
î f yc for e s ³ e yc
Stress fs Compression
fyc
ey Es
eyc Strain es
Tension
0.87 fy
Figure 11-3: Sign convention for reinforcement stresses.

Note that in the above equation the sign convention should be applied strictly so that the
yield stress fy should have a negative sign (see Fig. 11-3).
Equations (11.3-1) and (11.3-2) are not much use for an analysis at this stage since there
are three unknowns (N, M and x) and only two equations. A similar problem is encoun-
tered in design when attempting to solve As, As¢ and x, but this can be overcome by either
selecting values for x and then solving the required reinforcement areas, or using equal ar-
eas for As and As¢ (see section 11.3.3).
11.3.2 Allowing for the concrete replaced by compression

reinforcement
No allowance has been made for the area of concrete replaced by reinforcement in com-
pression in Eqs. (11.3-1) and (11.3-2). However, this can easily incorporated as follows:
N = 0 . 45 f cu (b s - A¢s ) + f sc A¢s + f s As
(11.3-5)
= 0 . 45 f cu b s + ( f sc - 0 . 45 f cu ) A¢s + f s As
æh sö æh ö æh ö æ hö
M = 0 . 45 f cu b sç - ÷- 0 . 45 f cu A¢sç - d¢÷+ f sc A¢sç - d¢÷- f s Asç d - ÷
è2 2ø è2 ø è2 ø è 2 ø (11.3-6)
= 0 . 45 f cu b sç - ÷+ ( f sc - 0 . 45 f cu ) A¢sç - d¢÷- f s Asç d - ÷
è2 2ø è2 ø è 2ø
These equations have been rearranged in a form that shows that the area of concrete re-
placed by compression reinforcement can also be taken into account by reducing the stress
in the compression reinforcement by 0.45 fcu. If this effect is not allowed for, the error
could be as much as 5 % on the unconservative side. The relative material strengths and the
area of reinforcement as a ratio of the cross-section will clearly play an important role in
determining the magnitude of the error. In all subsequent equations it will be assumed that
the compression stress in the reinforcement fsc has been reduced by 0.45 fcu to allow for the
reduced area of concrete.
It should also be noted that the reduction in stress only applies when A¢s is in compression.
For the combination of small N and large M it is possible that all the reinforcement could
be in tension. The above equations therefore only applies when x > d¢.
11.3.3 Development of design charts
In the case of a design, where the aim is to determine the required area of reinforcement,
the equations can firstly be simplified by setting As = A¢s = Asc / 2 so that Eqs. (11.3-1)
and (11.3-2) respectively become:
æA ö æA ö
N = 0 . 45 f cu b s + f scç sc ÷+ f sç sc ÷ (11.3-7)
è 2 ø è 2 ø
æh sö æ A öæ h ö æ A öæ hö
M = 0 . 45 f cu b sç - ÷+ f scç sc ÷ç - d¢÷- f sç sc ÷ç d - ÷ (11.3-8)
è2 2ø è 2 øè 2 ø è 2 øè 2ø
The above two equations become more useful if the section properties are eliminated.
Equation (11.3-7) is divided by (b h) and Eq. (11.3-8) is divided by (b h2) to yield
N æ 0 .9 x ö f sc æ Asc ö f s æ Asc ö
= 0 . 45 f cuç ÷+ ç ç ÷+ ç
÷ ç ÷
÷ (11.3-9)
bh è h ø 2 è bh ø 2 è bh ø
M æ 0 .9 x öæ 0 .9 x ö f sc æ Asc öæ 1 d¢ ö f s æ Asc öæ d 1 ö
= 0 . 225 f ç ÷ç1- ÷+ ç ç ÷ç - ÷- ç
÷ ç ÷
÷ç - ÷
bh 2 cu
è h øè h ø 2 è b h øè 2 h ø 2 è b h øè h 2 ø
(11.3-10)
Also note that s was replaced by 0.9 x. The above equations can now be used to determine
a M-N interaction diagram by following the procedure set out in Table 11-1.
Table 11-1: Calculation procedure for determining M-N interaction diagram
1. Select values for fcu, fy, d/h and d¢/h

2. Select a value for Asc/(b h)
3. Select a value for x/h
4. Calculate strains es and stresses fs in the reinforcement using Eqs. (11.3-3)
and (11.3-4) respectively
5. Calculate N/(bh) and M/(bh2) using Eqs. (11.3-9) and (11.3-10)
respectively
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 for different values of x/h. This produces one curve for a
given Asc,/(b h) on the interaction diagram
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 for different values of Asc,/(b h) to generate the complete M-N
interaction diagram
Figure 11-4 shows an interaction diagram that was determined using the above equations
and varying the reinforcement content for the selected variables shown in the diagram.
Also shown on the diagram are the x/h used in developing the curves. Allowance has been
made for the concrete replaced by reinforcement in this diagram. The K-values shown on
the diagram are explained in section 11.7.3.
50
.05 h
SABS 0100: 1992
e=0
x/h = Asc d¢
40
1.4 2
1.3 h d
1.2 Asc
1.1 10
0A 2
1.0 b h sc
30 b
8
7 x/h = 0.9 fy = 450 MPa
N
(MPa) 6 fcu = 30 MPa
bh 5 x/h = 0.8
4 d ¢ = 0.2 h
20 d = 0.8 h
3 x/h = 0.7
2
1
0.4
x/h = 0.6
10
x/h = 0.5
x/h = 0.4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
M
(MPa)
bh 2
Figure 11-4: Moment-axial force (M-N) design chart.
11.3.4 Characteristics of the interaction diagram
Consider one of the curves in Fig. 11-4 that represent the interaction diagram for a
particular area of reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 11-5. Each point on the interaction dia-
gram represents a combination of moment and axial force at which failure will occur. A
section is therefore safe against failure for all combinations of M and N that fall inside the
curve. A number of important points are identified on a typical interaction diagram as indi-
cated in Fig. 11-5:
(a) Pure bending
For pure bending N = 0 and the behaviour represents that of a beam in bending. For the re-
inforcement ranges normally used, the tension reinforcement yields when the ultimate
strain in the concrete is reached. It is interesting to note that the presence of a small axial
force generally increases the moment capacity of a beam (Fig. 11-5, between points a
and b).
(b) Balance point
The balance point is defined as the point where the concrete reaches its ultimate strain ecu
at the same time the tension reinforcement yields. The neutral axis at the balance point can
be determined from
(c)
Nuz 0.0035
0.002
Axial force N
esc > eyc
es = 0
(d)
es > eyc
0.0035
xbal
d
Compression failue (b)
Nbal es = ey
Tension failure
0.0035 0.0035
(e) esc = eyc
es > e y es > ey
(a) Mbal Bending moment M

Figure 11-5: Typical moment-axial force (M-N) interaction diagram.
æ ö
ç e cu ÷ d
x bal =ç ÷d = (11.3-11)
è e cu + e y ø 1+ e y / 00035
.
The moment and axial force at the balance point is determined from
N bal = Fcc + f sc A¢s + f s As (11.3-12)
æ h 0 .9 x bal ö æh ö æ hö
M bal = Fccç - ÷+ f sc A¢sç - d¢÷- f s Asç d - ÷ (11.3-13)
è2 2 ø è2 ø è 2ø
where fs =-0 .87 f y (Tension)

Fcc = 0 . 45 f cu b (0 .9 x bal )
The strain in the compression reinforcement should be calculated to determine if it has

yielded. Alternatively, the value of d¢ / x bal can be compared to Table 5-3.
For combinations of N and M that falls on the interaction diagram below the balance point,
the failure mode is ductile with the reinforcement yielding before the concrete fails in
compression. For combinations of N and M above the balance point the failure mode is
brittle where the concrete crushes without yielding of the tension reinforcement. Unfortu-
nately the failure mode in a column cannot be controlled by reinforcement quantities as in
beams.
(c) Pure axial compression
At point (c) the column is subjected to an axial force only with M = 0. The capacity of the
section is equal to Nuz given by Eq. (11.2-4). Note that the tension reinforcement yields in
compression for this case.
(d) Zero strain in the tension reinforcement
Moving from point (b) to point (c) on the interaction diagram it can be seen that the neutral
axis increases from xbal to infinity as N increases. The strain in the tension reinforcement
changes from yielding in tension to yielding in compression, passing through zero at point
(d). Moving from points (d) to (c) the neutral axis will, at some point, fall outside the sec-
tion and the strain distribution changes from triangular to uniform. While the theory does
not fully cover this condition, it is usually assumed that the concrete stresses are uniformly
distributed, yielding the dashed line in Fig. 11-5, which appears to be a reasonable
approximation.
It is also worth noting that between points (b) and (c) an increase in axial load N leads to a
smaller moment capacity M at failure. On the other hand, below the balance point an in-
crease in N increases increases the moment capacity of the section.
(e) Yielding of the compression reinforcement
As the axial force N increases and the neutral axis x increases, the strain in compression re-
inforcement often changes from elastic to yielding. This is clearly influenced by the
strength of the reinforcement and its position within the section. This point typically corre-
sponds to a change in slope of the interaction diagram as shown at point (e) in Fig. 11-5. It
should be noted that point (e) could fall either above or below the balance point.
Example 11-1
11.3.5 Alternative design charts
The design charts derived in section 11.3.3 are very useful but apply only to the variables
selected for fcu, fy, d/h and d¢/h. To reduce the number of charts required to cover all possi-
ble values for fcu, Eqs (11.3-12) and (11.3-13) can also be expressed as follows when di-
viding by fcu:
N æ 0 .9 x ö f sc æ Asc ö f s æ Asc ö
= 0 . 45ç ÷+ ç ç ÷
÷+ ç ç ÷
÷ (11.3-14)
b h f cu è h ø 2 è b h f cu ø 2 è b h f cu ø
M æ 0 .9 x öæ 0 .9 x ö f sc æ Asc öæ 1 d¢ ö f s æ Asc öæ d 1 ö
= 0 .225ç ÷ç1- ÷+ ç ç ÷ç - ÷- ç
÷ ç ÷
÷ç - ÷
b h 2 f cu è h øè h ø 2 è b h f cu øè 2 h ø 2 è b h f cu øè h 2 ø
(11.3-15)
The cube strength is fcu now included with the area of reinforcement and section dimen-
sions as the independent variable. The procedure outlined in Table 11-1 is followed with
exception that values are selected for Asc/(b h fcu) in step 2 while N/(b h fcu) and
2
M/(b h fcu) are calculated from the above two equations in step 5. A design chart gener-
ated using these equations is shown in Fig. 11-6.
1.4
e = 0.05 h SABS 0100: 1992
1.2 1000 Asc
( MPa )-1 Asc d¢
b h f cu
2
1.0 h d
3 Asc
2.5 2
0.8 2 b
N
1.5
b h f cu fy = 450 MPa
0.6 1 d ¢ = 0.2 h
0.5 d = 0.8 h
0.4
0
0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
M
b h 2 f cu
Figure 11-6: M-N design chart for general fcu.
11.3.6 Asymmetrical sections
For practical purposes column cross-sections are normally symmetrical about the axis of
bending. However, there are some cases where sections are asymmetric as shown in
Fig. 11-7a to d.
Consider the case of pure axial load at failure when all the reinforcement is yielding in
compression and the concrete is subjected to a uniform compression stress as shown in
Fig. 11-7d. Since the area of compression reinforcement is larger than the tension rein-
forcement, Fsc will be greater than Fst. Taking moments about Fcc at mid-depth therefore
xp
A¢s
As
(a) (b) (c)

b
d¢
Fsc = fyc A¢s h

A¢s M=0 xp
2 N
d Fcc = 0.45 fcu b h
h
As Fst = fyc As
(d)
Figure 11-7: Asymmetrical sections.
yields a moment. The resultant of the compression forces N is located at a position above
mid-depth, which is defined as the plastic centroid.
The plastic centroid xp can be found by taking moments about the top of the section
h
N x p = Fcc + Fsc d¢+ Fst d
2
h
Fcc + Fsc d¢+ Fst d
so that xp = 2
Fcc + Fsc + Fst
where Fcc = 0 . 45 f cu b h
Fsc = f yc A¢s
Fst = f yc As
Example 11-2

Design of short columns 11-13
11.4 Design of short columns
Short columns are usually designed using charts such as those developed in the previous
section. Selecting equal quantities of tension and compression reinforcement may not be
the most economic solution but it has an important practical advantage. In general, simpler
reinforcement layouts are preferred to reduce the possibility of errors during fixing of the
reinforcement on site. However, if the saving in reinforcement can be justified, a more rig-
orous approach can be followed by solving Eqs. (11.3-5) and (11.3-6). Both methods are
respectively illustrated in the following 2 examples:
Example 11-3
Example 11-4
11.5 Biaxial bending
11.5.1 Major and minor axes of bending
This text will often refer to an axis about which bending is taking place. This is easier to
work with than bending in a plane as referred to in BS 8100 and SABS 0100. For example:
A moment Mx causes bending about an x-axis which takes place in the y-z plane (see
Fig. 11-8). When designing a column it is customary to define the major axis of bending,
with the larger second moment of area, as x-x. The minor axis of bending is then the y-y
axis. The dimensions h will generally refer to the larger, and b to the smaller of a rectangu-
lar column’s dimensions.
My
y
Mx
h>b x x
y
b
Figure 11-8: Definition of a axes for biaxial bending.

11.5.2 Interaction surface
Interaction diagrams for biaxial bending can be generated using the basic principles out-
lined in the previous sections. It should be noted that both the inclination and position of
the neutral axis will be unknown since it depends on the relative magnitudes of the applied
moments as well as the materials and section properties.
Nuz My
y
N3
Mx
h x x
N2 y
b
Muy
(a) Cross-section
N1
Mux
My
Mx
(b) Interaction surface
N1 Muy My N2 Muy My N3 Muy My
Mux Idealization
Idealization
Mx
Mux
Mux Mx
Mx
Planes through the interaction surface for a constant axial load of:
(c) N1 (d) N2 (e) N3
Figure 11-9: Interaction surface for a column in biaxial bending.

Biaxial bending 11-15
The simplest approach will be to select a constant inclination for the neutral axis. The neu-
tral axis depth is then incremented, using the procedure outlined in Table 11-1 to deter-
mine a M-N interaction diagram for the selected inclination of neutral axis. The process is
repeated for different inclinations with the interaction diagrams generating an interaction
surface as shown in Fig. 11-9b. The interaction surface is bounded by two vertical planes:
the interaction diagram N-Mux for My = 0 and at right angles to this plane the N-Muy dia-
gram for Mx = 0.
For a constant axial force a horizontal plane through the interaction surface will appear as
shown in Figs. 11-9c to e. Combinations of Mx and My (that occur with the selected N) that
fall inside the shaded area will be safe while those outside indicate failure of the column.
The following important observation should be made from considering a horizontal plane
for a selected axial force: If a section has uniaxial moment capacities of Mux and Muy it will
clearly fail if moments equal to these capacities are applied simultaneously. For biaxial
bending both Mx and My should at least be less than Mux and Muy respectively.
One approach often followed is to increase one of the moments and to then consider uniax-
ial bending for the increased moment (see Fig. 11-8 for definition of a axes)
SABS 0100 Mx M y
If > the moment about the x-axis is enhanced to yield
h b
h
M ¢x = M x + b b M (11.5-1)
b y
Mx M y
If < the moment about the y-axis is enhanced to yield
h b
b
M ¢y = M y + b b M (11.5-2)
h x
where bb is given in Table 11-2.
Note that Mx and My are the ultimate design moments including additional moments
caused by slenderness (see next section), if applicable.
Example 11.5

Table 11-2: Coefficient bb for biaxial bending (SABS 0100).
N bb
bhf cu
0.000 0.50
0.075 0.60
0.150 0.70
0.250 0.70
0.300 0.65
0.400 0.53
0.500 0.42
³ 0.600 0.30
11.6 Definitions and conventions for slender columns
11.6.1 Braced and unbraced columns
The horizontal bracing of a column will play an important role in the bending moments
that develop within the column. Bracing may take the form of stiff elements, such as shear
walls and elevator shafts, which are designed to resist the horizontal loads on the structure.
Bracing prevents the ends of a column to undergo horizontal displacements so that the po-
sition of the axial load at the top of the column remains unchanged (see Fig. 11-10a). With-
out bracing the structure will sway, causing the top of the column to displace relative to the
bottom (see Fig. 11-10b), resulting in a shift in position of the applied axial load. In gen-
eral, displacements in an unbraced column will be larger than in a braced column, result-
ing in larger eccentricity moments.
It is necessary to consider each direction independently for bracing. For example: The
structure in Fig. 11-10c is braced by shear walls in the north-south direction but the col-
umns will be unbraced in the east-west direction.
To determine if the bracing is effective in preventing sway, the following test can be car-
ried out:
SABS 0100 A structure can be consider braced if the ratio Sb/Su is greater than 5, where Sb
is the lateral stiffness of the braced structure and Su is the sway stiffness of the
unbraced structure.
The stiffness of the braced structure Sb can be determined as follows: Apply a horizontal
load to the braced structure and calculate the corresponding horizontal displacement at the
load application point. Dividing the applied load by the corresponding displacement
Du > Db
Db
(a) Braced frame (b) Unbraced frame
Shear wall
(c) Plan view of frame braced only in north-south direction
Figure 11-10: Bracing in a structure.
yields Sb. The stiffness of the unbraced structure is determined in a similar manner: The
bracing is removed and a horizontal load is applied at the same position as for the braced
structure. Dividing the load by the corresponding displacement yields Su.
11.6.2 Effective lengths
The support conditions play an important role in determining the magnitude of the lateral
deflections and hence secondary moments that develop in a column. The influence of
boundary conditions are taken into account by means of an effective length le. The effec-
tive length is the length of a pinned ended column that will have the same capacity as the
column with boundary conditions under consideration and is determined by the deflected
shape of the column at failure. It is important to distinguish between braced and unbraced
Point of
contraflexure
Sidesway
le > lo
Points of
lo le < lo
contraflexure
Point of
contraflexure
(a) Concrete frame (b) Deformed shape: (c) Deformed shape:

Braced frame Unbraced frame
Figure 11-11: Effective height of a column.

columns, as illustrated in Fig. 11-11 for a typical column. Two methods, differing in com-
plexity and accuracy, are available:
Simple method
SABS 0100 The effective length is determined from:
BS 8110
l e =b l o (11.6-1)
where

b = factor obtained from Table 11-3.
The b factors in Table 11-3 depend on the boundary conditions of a column and whether
the structure is braced or not. The different end conditions referred to in the table are illus-
trated in Fig. 11-12. The simple method is approximate and will not be very accurate in the
case where only one beam frames into a column, as in the case of an external column.
Rigorous method
SABS 0100 A more accurate method is also provided for calculation of the effective
BS 8110
length.
Braced columns:
ï o [
ìl 0 . 7 + 0 .05( a + a )
c,1 ]üï
c, 2
l e = lesser of í ý£ l o (11.6-2)
îl o [0 .85 + 0 .05 a c,min ]
ï ï
þ
Unbraced columns:
ï o [
ìl 1.0 + 0 .15( a + a )
c,1 c, 2 ]
l e = lesser of í (11.6-3)
îl o [2 .0 + 0 .3 a c,min ]
ï
where

stiffnesses at the lower end of the column
stiffnesses at the upper end of the column
Table 11-3: b-Values for effective lengths (SABS 0100).

conditi
on top Braced column Unbraced column
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 0.75 0.80 0.90 1.2 1.3 1.6
2 0.80 0.85 0.95 1.3 1.5 1.8
3 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.6 1.8 -
4 - - - 2.2 - -
being considered.
4 The end of the column is unrestrained against both lateral movement and
rotation.
hb > h Þ end condition 1 Beams designed and detailed Rotations and sideways
hb < h Þ end condition 2 as simply supported movement not restrained
hb
h
hb > h
Foundation not designed Foundation designed

to resist moment to resist moment
(a) End condition 1 and 2 (b) End condition 3: (c) End condition 1 and 4
Nominal restraint
Figure 11-12: End conditions for effective lengths (SABS 0100).

The stiffness of a member is the ratio of the second moment of area of the concrete section
divided by the member length, measured between centre-lines of restraints. For a flat slab
the stiffness of the equivalent beam framing into an internal column should be based on the
width and thickness of the column strip. For an edge column the width be used to calculate
to capacity of the slab-column connection (section 13.3.4) should be used for the width of
the equivalent beam.
If a base has been designed to resist the moment, ac can taken as 1. If the base has not been
designed to resist the moment (i.e. pinned), ac should be taken as 10. For a very large stiff
base, ac can be taken as 0, but this should be justified by analysis.
For simply supported beams framing into a column ac should be taken as 10. Only flexural
stiffnesses of members framing into a column are considered. Torsional stiffnesses of
members at right angles to the plane of bending should be ignored.
Example 11.6
11.6.3 Walls
A vertical load-bearing member is defined as a wall when
h> 4b (11.6-4)
h = larger cross-section dimension

b = smaller cross-section dimension
A reinforced wall has at least 0.4 % vertical reinforcement (see Table 9-5). A wall with
less reinforcement is considered as a unreinforced wall, i.e. the reinforcement is ignored
when determining the strength of the wall. In principle, the design of walls is similar to that
of columns and are not considered any further here.
11.6.4 Short and slender columns
A short column will fail in crushing, reaching its capacity without buckling. The capacity
can be determined from a moment-axial force interaction diagram by considering a
cross-section of the column. A slender column is likely to fail in buckling before it reaches
its full capacity. Short columns are also referred to as stocky columns.
Consider a pinned ended column with an eccentric axial load as shown in Fig. 11-13a
(MacGregor, 1986). The initial bending moment (= N e) in the column will cause the col-
umn to deflect laterally increasing the eccentricity of the axial force by eadd generating an
additional moment Madd = N eadd in the column.
N N
l/2
e eadd
l
M = N (e + eadd)
N
e eadd
(a) Additional column moments caused by slenderness

Axial force N
Material failure of
a short column
A
Material failure of
M = Ne Madd = N eadd
a slender column
B
D Stability failure (buckling)

of a slender column
C
Bending moment M
(b) Influence of slenderness on the failure mode
Figure 11-13: Influence of slenderness on capacity.
A short column will fail when the load in the column reaches point A on the interaction di-
agram shown in Fig. 11-13b. Recall that the interaction diagram represents combinations
of N and M where the concrete fails in compression. The additional moments in a typical
N crit 10
b
N N uz 9 fcu = 30 MPa, r = 2%
M 8 fcu = 30 MPa, r = 4%
eadd 7 fcu = 50 MPa, r = 4% h
6 fy = 450 MPa
N 5 100 Asc
r=
Madd 4 bh
h l = N eadd 3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
M l/h
N
N Crushing Crushing or buckling Buckling
(a) Deformed shape
of slender column (b) Influence of slenderness on column capacity
Figure 11-14: Influence of slenderness on capacity of a pinned ended column.
slender column will cause the column to fail at point B. This means a reduction in the load
carrying capacity with regard to the axial load. A very slender column could reach a maxi-
mum load at point D followed by a stability failure (buckling) where the load decreases for
an increase in deflection until it finally fails at C.
As a further example consider the pinned ended column shown in Fig. 11-14a. Imperfec-
tions or eccentricity of the applied load will cause it to deflect sideways, generating an ad-
ditional moment Madd = N eadd in the column. The column will either fail by crushing of the
concrete or by buckling, depending on its slenderness, as shown in Fig. 11-14b. For a
pinned ended column the critical buckling load, also referred to as the Euler load, will be
p2 E I
N crit = (11.6-5)
l2
while Nuz is given by Eq. 11.2-5.
A column with a concrete strength of 30 MPa and 2% reinforcement will fail in buckling if
the slenderness ratio l/h exceeds 30. Theoretically, the column should fail by crushing for
l/h < 30, but initial curvature of the column and eccentricity of the load may cause the col-
umn to buckle before the crushing capacity is reached. For slenderness ratios less than ap-
proximately 13, the buckling load is 5 times greater than the crushing load, so that the
column is much more likely to fail in crushing than in buckling. The above limits are
clearly influenced by material strengths and reinforcement ratios as shown in Fig. 11-14b.
11.6.5 Slenderness limits

SABS 0100 A column is considered slender when
ì M
l ex l ey ï17 - 7 1 for braced columns
or > í M2 (11.6-6)
h b ï
î10 for unbraced columns
where
lex and ley = effective height for bending about the major and minor axes, respec-
tively
h and b = larger and smaller cross-section dimensions, respectively
itive)
For the case when M1 = M2 = 0, assume M1/M2 = 0.

BS 8110 A column is considered slender when
l ex l ey ì15 for braced columns

or >í (11.6-7)
h b î10 for unbraced columns
It is important to note that the effective length may be different for different axes of bend-
ing and generally lex ¹ ley. If biaxial bending is considered, the slenderness ratios will be
determined by considering bending about each individual axis. The right-hand side of
Eq. (11.6-6) is evaluated in Fig. 11-15 for different end moments.
Current research and experience requires certain limits to be set to slenderness ratios:
SABS 0100 Braced column:
lo < 60 b and b ³ 0.25h (11.6-8)
Cantilever column:
lo < 25 b and b ³ 0.25h (11.6-9)
These limits are high and a column with these dimensions will have to be designed for sig-
nificant additional slenderness moments. Note that minimum section dimensions are also
influenced by durability (Table 9-1) and fire resistance (Table 10-1).
Bending moment* M2
M1 = M 2 = 0 M1 = 0
M1/M2 = 0 M1/M2 = 0
17-7 M1/M2 = 17 17-7 M1/M2 = 17

M1 = 0
*Determined from afirst order analysis
M2 M2
M1 = M 2 M2 = 2 M1
M1/M2 = 1 M1/M2 = 0.5
17-7 M1/M2 = 10 17-7 M1/M2 = 13.5

M1 M1
M2 M2
-M1 = M2 M2 = -2 M1
M1/M2 = -1 M1/M2 = -0.5
17-7 M1/M2 = 24 17-7 M1/M2 = 20.5

M1 M1
Figure 11-15: Effects of end moments on slenderness.
The moments and forces in the column should be determined by considering ultimate limit
state loads as discussed in sections 4.2 and 4.3. If the structure is braced, subframes sub-
jected to vertical loads only can be considered provided the horizontal loads can be re-
sisted by the bracing alone. For an unbraced structure the full frame needs to be
considered.
11.7.1 Column moments from subframes
If the full frame have been considered, the column moments will be known. If a series of
subframes have been considered, the column moments at the remote ends of the column
will typically be half of the moment at the beam-column junction as shown in Fig. 11-16a
and b. The moment envelope determined by combining these subframe moments
(Fig. 11-16c) will not be the true column moments but will generally be satisfactory for de-
Moments and forces in columns 11-25
M1 M2/2 M1
A
+ =
B
M1/2 M2 M2
(a) Moments from (b) Moments from (c) Column design

top subframe bottom subframe moment envelope
Span under Span under

Half consideration Half Half consideration
stiffness stiffness stiffness
(d) Internal spans (e) End spans
(f) Continuous beam simplification
A æ Ku ö
M BA =ç
ç ÷
÷M 0b
Ku è Ku + Kl + 0 . 5 Kb1 + 0 . 5 Kb 2 ø
0.5 Kb1 B 0.5 Kb2 MBA æ Kl ö
MBC M BC =ç
ç ÷
÷M 0b
è Ku + Kl + 0 . 5 Kb1 + 0 . 5 Kb 2 ø
Kl
where M0b is the unbalanced beam fixed-end
C moments
(g) Column moments for an internal column
A æ Ku ö
Ku M BA =ç
ç ÷
÷M 0b
è Ku + Kl + 0 . 5 Kb ø
0.5 Kb MBA æ ö
Kl
B MBC M BC =ç
ç ÷
÷M 0b
è Ku + Kl + 0 . 5 Kb ø
Kl
where M0b is the beam fixed-end moment
C
(h) Column moments for an external column
Figure 11-16: Column moments from subframes.

sign. However, for braced slender columns, only the largest moments from a single
subframe should be used (Fig. 11-16a or b) since this corresponds to one of the combina-
tions to be considered in the design of these columns (Allen, 1988) and will be discussed
further in section 11.7.4.
If one of the subframes in Fig. 11-16d or e have been used for a braced structure, the col-
umn moments may be used for design provided that the span under consideration is longer
than the adjacent spans.
The continuous beam simplification shown in Fig. 11-16f is conservative for design of the
beam in a braced structure but provides no information regarding column moments. Allen
(1988) recommends that one of the subframes shown in Fig. 11-16g and h should be used
to find the column moments.
11.7.2 Minimum eccentricity
It is almost impossible to guarantee that the axial load will perfectly align with the longitu-
dinal axis of the column or that imperfections will not be present in the column. All col-
umns should therefore be designed for a minimum moment resulting from eccentric
loading.
SABS 0100 Minimum design moment resulting from eccentric loading
BS 8110
M min = N emin (11.7-1)
where
N = design ultimate load in the column

ì0 .05 h for bending about the x - axisü
emin = í ý £ 20 mm (11.7-2)
î0 .05 b for bending about the y - axisþ
The above equation implies that the minimum eccentricity will be 5 % of the dimension in
the plane of bending. If the dimension in the plane of bending exceeds 400 mm, the mini-
mum eccentricity will be 20 mm.
When biaxial bending is being considered, it is only necessary to ensure the design mo-
ments are greater or equal to the minimum moment for one axis at a time. If a column is
uniaxially bent, it is only necessary to ensure that the moment being considered is greater
than the minimum moment and it does not apply that biaxial bending should be considered
in this case.
11.7.3 Additional moments in slender columns

SABS 0100 Lateral deflection of a slender column will generate additional moments that
are determined from
M add = N au (11.7-3)
where
N = design ultimate load in the column

au = b a K h (11.7-4)
1 æle ö
2
ba = ç ÷ (11.7-5)
2000è h ø
é N uz - N ù
êN -N for N ³ N bal ú
K = ê uz bal ú£ 1 (11.7-6)
M
ê i for N < N bal ú
ë M bal û
Nuz = 0.45 fcu Ac + 0.75 fy Asc (11.7-7)
In Eqs (11.7-4) and (11.7-5) the symbols le and h relate to the axis about which
bending is taking place, so that either lex and h, or ley and b will be used here.
Equation (11.7-7) includes material safety factors gm for both concrete and
steel.
For symmetrically reinforced rectangular sections, the following approxima-

tions can be used
Mbal = 0.046 fcu b d 2 + 0.87 fyc Asc (d - d¢) (11.7-8)

Nbal = 0.25 fcu b d (11.7-9)
Note that the area of reinforcement Asc is required in Eqs. (11.7-7) and (11.7-8). Since Asc
will be unknown at the design stage, a value for K £1 is often guessed and checked later,
following an iterative process. N-M interaction diagrams with K included can also be con-
structed as shown in Appendix B.
The additional moment determined in Eq. (11.7-3) is added to the initial moments as de-
scribed in the following two sections.
The procedure given in BS 8110 to find additional moments in a column is similar to that
in SABS 0100, with the following differences:
BS 8110 The additional moments are determined from Eq. (11.7-3) and (11.7-4) with
the following replacing Eqs. (11.7-5) and (11.7-6):
1 æle ö
2
ba = ç ÷ (11.7-10)
2000è b¢ ø
where b¢ is the smaller column dimension. See also Fig. 11-21.
N uz - N
K= £1 (11.7-11)
N uz - N bal
11.7.4 Braced slender columns
In a braced frame the ends of the column cannot displace relative to each other, but rota-
tions at the ends of the column are possible. The combination of initial moments with addi-
tional moments, resulting from slenderness, is illustrated in Fig. 11-17.
Note that the final moments in Fig. 11-17e are moment envelopes, accounting for the case
where initial moments and slenderness moments can occur individually or simulta-
neously. It can also be seen from Fig. 11-17e that the maximum moment will not be ex-
actly at mid-height of the column.
SABS 0100 To find the maximum moment within the column, the initial moment will be
calculated at a distance approximately 0.4 H from the maximum moment (see
Fig. 11-18a)
M i = 0 . 4 M 1 + 0 .6 M 2 (11.7-12)
where

itive)
BS 8110 The following requirement is added to Eq. (11.7-12)
M i ³ 0.4 M 2 (11.7-13)
SABS 0100 The design moment is taken to be the greatest of
(a) M2
(b) Mi + Madd (11.7-14)
(c) N emin
BS 8110 The following requirement, in addition to those of Eq. (11.7-14), must also be
met
(d) |M1| + Madd /2 (11.7-15)

Madd
+ =
M2 – Madd / 2 M2
M2 Madd / 2
+ Madd =
Larger moment M2 – Madd / 2 M2

M2 Madd / 2
Mmax
Mi + Madd =
M1 Madd / 2
Smaller moment M1 + Madd / 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Braced frame End conditions Initial moments Additional moments Moment envelope
for column from analysis caused by slenderness
Figure 11-17: Moments in braced slender columns (BS 8110 and SABS 0100).
Larger moment = M2 Larger moment = M2
0.4 H
0.4 M1 0.6 M2
Mi = 0.4 M1 + 0.6 M2
H
0.6 H
Smaller moment = M1 Smaller moment = M1 (negative for double curvature)
(a) Single curvature (b) Double curvature
Figure 11-18: Initial moment to determine maximum moment in column.

11.7.5 Unbraced slender columns
In an unbraced frame the column ends may displace relative to each other so that the larg-
est displacements will occur at the column ends. Subsequently, the additional moments
caused by slenderness will develop at the ends of the column, with the largest moments at
the stiffest joint (see Fig. 11-19).
BS 8110 The design moment is taken to be the greatest of
(a) M2 + Madd (11.7-16)

(b) N emin
M2 Madd M2 + Madd
+ =
Madd may be reduced in

proportion to the
Less stiff Smaller moment stiffness ratio of the less
end joint M1 stiff to the stiffer joint
+ =
M2 Madd M2 + Madd
Stiffer end
Larger moment
joint
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Unbraced frame End conditions Initial moments Additional moments Moment envelope
Figure 11-19: Moments in unbraced slender columns (BS 8110).
It could be argued that the horizontal loads acting on the frame determines the sway and
hence the horizontal displacements at the column ends.
SABS 0100 The additional moments are determined as follows:
æ MV ö
M add = M add ,unbrç
ç ÷
÷ (11.7-17)
èM H +MV ø
Madd,unbr = additional moment from Eq. (11.7-3), but using the unbraced effective
length in Eq. (11.7-5)
MH = initial column end moment caused by horizontal loads
MV = initial column end moment caused by vertical loads
SABS 0100 The design moment is taken to be the greatest of (see Fig. 11-20)
æ M add ,unbr ö
(a) M 2 = M V + M Hç
ç1+ ÷
÷
è MV +M H ø
(b) 0 .6 M 2 + 0 . 4 M 1 + M add ,braced (11.7-18)

(c) N emin
where
Madd,braced = additional moment from Eq. (11.7-3), but using the braced effective
length in Eq. (11.7-5)
M1 = smaller end moment including the effects of sway (Fig. 11-20)
M2 = larger end moment including the effects of sway (Fig. 11-20)
M2 =
æ MH ö æ M add ,unbr ö
M add ,unbr ç
ç ÷
÷ MV + M Hç
ç1+ ÷
÷
MV + MH è M H + MV ø è M H + MV ø
+ =

proportion to the
Less stiff stiffness ratio of the less
end joint Smaller moment stiff to the stiffer joint M1
+ =
MV + MH æ MH ö M2 =
Stiffer end M add ,unbr ç
ç ÷
÷
joint Larger moment è M H + MV ø æ M add ,unbr ö
MV + M Hç
ç1+ ÷
÷
è M H + MV ø
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Unbraced End conditions Initial moments Additional moments Moment envelope
frame for column from analysis caused by slenderness
Figure 11-20: Moments in unbraced slender columns (SABS 0100).

11.7.6 Additional moments in members supporting slender columns

SABS 0100 If the column is slender, as defined by Eq. (11.7-1), the members supporting a
the column should be designed for the moments resulting from slenderness in
addition to the initial moments.
BS 8110 The members supporting a slender column should be design for the moments
resulting from slenderness in addition to the initial moments if the slenderness
ratio (lex/h or ley/b) exceeds 20.
11.7.7 Slender columns bent uniaxially

SABS 0100 A column which is slender about both axes but is bent uniaxially, must be de-
signed to resist the additional moment about both axes separately. If the col-
umn is slender about one axis only, the additional moment only have to be
considered in one plane. However, ensure that Mi ³ Mmin.
BS 8110 The requirements are summarized in Fig. 11-21.
11.7.8 Slender columns bent about both axes

BS 8110 If the bending moments about both axes are significant, additional moments
must be considered for both axes. (see also Fig. 11-21). While significant mo-
ments are not defined, it is assumed that these are moments larger than Mmin.
Uniaxial bending is considered if the moments about one of the axes are less
than Mmin.
Example 11.7
11.8 Conclusions
At first glance, columns appear to be much more complex to design than beams (Rowe et
al., 1987):
• Failure of a column section is defined by the moment-axial force (M-N) interaction dia-
gram which means that a range of M-N combinations exists which may cause a column
to fail.
• Load combinations to consider for columns should include combinations of maximum
and minimum axial forces and bending moments.
• It is often necessary to consider biaxial bending.
• Deflection of a slender column could lead to eccentric loads that increase the bending
moments in the column.
Conclusions 11-33
Slender column
Uniaxial bending (major or minor axis) Biaxial bending
h < 3b 3b£ h < 4b
Bending Bending Bending Bending

about major about minor about major about minor
axis (x-x) axis (y-y) axis (x-x) axis (y-y)
le/h < 20 le/h ³ 20
Calculate Madd Consider biaxial Calculate Madd If both Mx > Mmin and
using b in bending but with using b in My > Mmin consider
Eq. (11.7-10) M1 = M2 = 0 and Eq. (11.7-10) biaxial bending, other-
Mi = Mmin = 0 wise uniaxial bending.
about minor Madd is determined
(y-y) axis using dimensions b
and h relevant to the
axis of bending.
Figure 11-21: Additional moments in slender columns according to BS 8110.
However, several simplifications are often made to make the design of concrete columns
simpler:
• For practical reasons, columns are often rectangular and symmetrically reinforced.
• Many columns can be designed considering uniaxial bending.
• Designing for the maximum values of axial load and bending moment is usually con-
servative except for a column with a small axial load.
• Deflections in columns are relatively small so that moments developing form eccentric
axial loads are not excessive.
• Shear is usually not a concern.
• Serviceability related issues such as deflections and cracking does not generally require
consideration.
• For practical reasons, the reinforcement quantities and spacing throughout the column
are kept the same. It is therefore only necessary to consider maximum and minimum
moments within the column.
Problem 11-1 300 mm

fcu = 30 MPa
Determine the M-N interaction dia- 50
fy = 450 MPa
gram for the section shown. It is only 2 Y32
Es = 200 GPa
necessary to calculate values for the x x
300 mm
points listed in the Table below. Re-
sults are given on the right-hand side 2 Y32
50
of the table.
Condition M N
(kN.m) (kN)
(a) Neutral axis at level of compression reinforcement 86.2 –447.3
(esc = 0)
(b) Pure flexure (N = 0) 128.3 0
(c) At the point where the compression reinforcement yields 150.3 217.3
(esc = eyc)
(d) Balanced failure (est = ey) 158.9 459.4
(e) Neutral axis at level of tension reinforcement (x = d) 84.6 1416
(f) Tension reinforcement yielding in compression (est = eyc) 0 2224
Struct: Columns: Ex 11.1 Calc sheet no: 1 of 5
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Col_Ex01_SA.xmcd
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Example 11.1: Moment-axial force interaction diagram

Input
Determine the moment-axial force (M-N) interaction diagram for the section shown below:
Concrete material properties:

Characteristic strength fcu := 30⋅ MPa b
c c
Ultimate strain ε cu := 0.0035
Reinforcement material properties: c

Characteristic strength fy := 450 ⋅ MPa A′s
Modulus of elasticity Es := 200 ⋅ GPa x x
h
Section dimensions:
As
Height h := 450 ⋅ mm
Width b := 350 ⋅ mm
c
Reinforcement position c := 60⋅ mm
Reinforcement areas
2
Tension (bottom) As := 1608⋅ mm
2
Compression (top) A's := 1608⋅ mm
Reinforcement depths
Compression d' := c d' = 60 mm
Tension d := h − c d = 390 mm
Analysis
Reinforcement material properties

0.87⋅ fy −3
Yield strain in tension ε y := − ε y = −1.957 × 10
Es
Yield stress and strain in compression

fy
fyc := fyc = 327.3 MPa
fy
1.15 +
2000⋅ MPa
fyc −3
ε yc := ε yc = 1.636 × 10
Es
To allow for the area of concrete replaced by reinforcement (Note: only compression reinforcement)
fyc.mod := fyc − 0.45⋅ fcu fyc.mod = 313.8 MPa

Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
1. Neutral axis at level of compression reinforcement

The neutral axis depth is known and equal to x := d' x = 60 mm
Depth of stress block s := 0.9⋅ x s = 54 mm
Determine the strains and stresses in the reinforcement

d−x −3 −3
ε st := − ⋅ ε cu ε st = −19.25 10 < ε y = −1.957 × 10 Tension reinforcement
x has yielded
fst := −0.87⋅ fy fst = −391.5 MPa
ε sc := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞
⎟ ⋅ εcu ε sc = 0 fsc := 0 ⋅ MPa
⎝ x ⎠
Resultant axial force and bending moment
N := 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ b ⋅ s + fsc ⋅ A's + fst ⋅ As N = −374.4 kN (Tension)

1 1
M := 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜
h s⎞ ⎛h ⎞ ⎛ h⎞
− ⎟ + fsc ⋅ A's ⋅ ⎜ − d'⎟ − fst ⋅ As ⋅ ⎜ d − ⎟ M = 154.4 kN⋅ m
1 ⎝2 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 1
2. Pure flexure
The resultant axial force is known and equal to N := 0 ⋅ kN
2
Assume that both the tension and compression reinforcement have yielded
fst := −0.87⋅ fy fst = −391.5 MPa
fsc := fyc.mod fsc = 313.8 MPa
Guess x := 0.5⋅ h (A starting value is needed for the numerical solution method)
Given 0 ⋅ kN = 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ b ⋅ ( 0.9⋅ x) + fsc ⋅ A's + fst ⋅ As
Solving the above equation x := Find ( x) x = 29.4 mm
This value for x is less than d' = 60 mm meaning that the compression reinforcement should be in tension.
Although this is possible, it is unlikely for pure flexure. The assumption that the compression reinforcement
is yielding must therefore be incorrect.
ε sc( x) := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞
Strain in compression reinforcement ⎟ ⋅ εcu
⎝ x ⎠
Guess x := 0.5⋅ h
Given 0 ⋅ kN = 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ b ⋅ ( 0.9⋅ x) + ( ε sc( x) ⋅ Es − 0.45⋅ fcu ) ⋅ A's + fst ⋅ As
Solving the above equation x := Find ( x) x = 82 mm > d' = 60 mm OK

s := 0.9⋅ x s = 73.8 mm
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______

d−x −3 −3
x has yielded, as assumed
fst := −0.87⋅ fy fst = −391.5 MPa
ε sc := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞ −4 −3
⎟ ⋅ εcu ε sc = 9.402 × 10 < ε yc = 1.636 × 10 Compression reinforcement
⎝ x ⎠ is in elastic range,
as assumed
fsc := ε sc⋅ Es − 0.45⋅ fcu fsc = 174.5 MPa
Resultant bending moment
M := 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜
h s⎞ ⎛h ⎞ ⎛ h⎞
2 ⎝2 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 2
3. At the point where the compression reinforcement yields

−3
The strain in the compression reinforcement is known and equal to ε sc := ε yc ε sc = 1.636 × 10
x ε cu ⎛ εcu ⎞
Using similar triangles = x := ⎜ ε − ε ⎟ ⋅ d' x = 112.7 mm
d' ε cu − ε sc ⎝ cu sc ⎠
Strains and stresses in the reinforcement
d−x −3 −3
x has yielded
fst := −0.87⋅ fy fst = −391.5 MPa
fsc := fyc.mod fsc = 313.8 MPa Compression reinforcement

has yielded
N := 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ b ⋅ s + fsc ⋅ A's + fst ⋅ As N = 354.2 kN
3 3
M := 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜
h s⎞ ⎛h ⎞ ⎛ h⎞
3 ⎝2 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 3
4. Balanced failure
−3
ε st := ε y ε st = −1.957 10 Tension reinforcement yields
x ε cu ⎛ ε cu ⎞
Using similar triangles = xbal := ⎜ ε − ε ⎟ ⋅d xbal = 250.1 mm
d ε cu − ε st ⎝ cu st ⎠
Depth of stress block s := 0.9⋅ xbal s = 225.1 mm
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______

fst := −0.87⋅ fy fst = −391.5 MPa
⎛ xbal − d' ⎞ −3 −3
ε sc := ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ε cu ε sc = 2.66 × 10 > ε yc = 1.636 × 10 Compression reinforcement
⎝ xbal ⎠ has yielded
N := 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ b ⋅ s + fsc ⋅ A's + fst ⋅ As N = 939 kN

4 4
M := 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜
h s⎞ ⎛h ⎞ ⎛ h⎞
4 ⎝2 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 4
5. Neutral axis at level of tension reinforcement

Neutral axis depth is known and equal to x := d x = 390 mm
fst := 0 ⋅ MPa
ε sc := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞ −3 −3
⎟ ⋅ εcu ε sc = 2.962 × 10 > ε yc = 1.636 × 10 Compression reinforcement
⎝ x ⎠ has yielded

5 5
M := 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜
h s⎞ ⎛h ⎞ ⎛ h⎞
5 ⎝2 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 5
6. Tension reinforcement yielding in compression

Strain in the tension reinforcement is known and equal to
−3
ε st := ε yc ε st = 1.636 10 Tension reinforcement yields in compression
x ε cu ⎛ εcu ⎞
Using similar triangles = x := ⎜ ε − ε ⎟ ⋅d x = 732.4 mm
d ε cu − ε st ⎝ cu st ⎠
Since x falls outside the section, set s := h s = 450 mm

fst := fyc.mod fst = 313.8 MPa
ε sc := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞ −3 −3
⎟ ⋅ εcu ε sc = 3.213 × 10 > ε yc = 1.636 × 10 Compression reinforcement
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______

6 6
M := 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜
h s⎞ ⎛h ⎞ ⎛ h⎞
− ⎟ + fsc ⋅ A's ⋅ ⎜ − d'⎟ − fst ⋅ As ⋅ ⎜ d − ⎟ M = 0 kN⋅ m
6 ⎝2 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 6
Summary
1 1
1 154.4 1 -374.4
2 215.8 2 0
M N
= 3 270.6 = 3 354.2
kN⋅ m kN
4 306.7 4 938.6
5 165.3 5 2163
6 0 6 3135.3
3
3.5× 10
3
3× 10
3
2.5× 10
3
2× 10
Axial force N (kN)
3
1.5× 10
3
1× 10
500
− 500
3
− 1× 10
0 100 200 300
Moment (kN.m)
The crosses show the points calculated above while the solid line was generated by calculating intermediate
points. The dotted line was calculated without allowing for the concrete replaced by reinforcement where it
can be seen that the greatest relative error occurs around the balance point.
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Col_Ex02_SA.mcd
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Example 11.2: Moment-axial force interaction diagram,

asymmetrical section
Input
Determine the moment-axial force (M-N) interaction diagram for the section shown below:

Characteristic strength fcu := 30⋅ MPa b
Ultimate strain ε cu := 0.0035 c c
Reinforcement material properties: c

Characteristic strength fy := 450 ⋅ MPa xp
2 Y32
Modulus of elasticity Es := 200 ⋅ GPa x x
h
Section dimensions:
Height h := 450 ⋅ mm 2 Y25
Width b := 350 ⋅ mm c
Reinforcement areas
2
Tension (bottom) As := 982 ⋅ mm (2 Y25)
2
Compression (top) A's := 1608⋅ mm (2 Y32)
Analysis
Reinforcement material properties
0.87⋅ fy −3
Es

fy
fy
1.15 +
2000⋅ MPa
fyc −3
ε yc := ε yc = 1.636 × 10
Es

Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Plastic centroid
Taking moments about the top of the section
h
0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ h ⋅ + fyc.mod ⋅ A's⋅ d' + fyc.mod ⋅ As⋅ d
2
xp := xp = 214 mm
0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ h + fyc.mod ⋅ A's + fyc.mod ⋅ As
1. Neutral axis at level of compression reinforcement

The neutral axis depth is known and equal to x := d' x = 60 mm
d−x −3 −3
x has yielded
fst := −0.87⋅ fy fst = −391.5 MPa
ε sc := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞
⋅ ε cu ε sc = 0 fsc := 0 ⋅ MPa
⎝ x ⎠
N := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s + fsc⋅ A's + fst ⋅ As N = −129.3 kN (Tension)

1 1
M := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜ xp −
s⎞
+ fsc⋅ A's⋅ ( xp − d') − fst ⋅ As⋅ ( d − xp) M = 115.4 kN⋅ m
1 ⎝ 2⎠ 1
2. Pure flexure
The resultant axial force is known and equal to N := 0 ⋅ kN
2
Assume that both the tension and compression reinforcement have yielded
fst := −0.87⋅ fy fst = −391.5 MPa
Guess x := 0.5⋅ h (A starting value is needed for the numerical solution method)
Given 0 ⋅ kN = 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ ( 0.9⋅ x) + fsc⋅ A's + fst ⋅ As
Solving the above equation x := Find ( x) x = −28.2 mm
This value for x is unrealistic so that the assumption regarding yielding of the compression reinforcement
must be incorrect.
ε sc( x) := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞
Strain in compression reinforcement ⋅ ε cu
⎝ x ⎠
Guess x := 0.5⋅ h
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Given ( )
0 ⋅ kN = 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ ( 0.9⋅ x) + ε sc( x) ⋅ Es − 0.45⋅ fcu ⋅ A's + fst ⋅ As
Solving the above equation x := Find ( x) x = 67.2 mm > d' = 60 mm OK

s := 0.9⋅ x s = 60.5 mm
d−x −3 −3
x has yielded, as assumed
fst := −0.87⋅ fy fst = −391.5 MPa
ε sc := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞ −4 −3
⋅ ε cu ε sc = 3.745 × 10 < ε yc = 1.636 × 10 Compression reinforcement
⎝ x ⎠ is in elastic range,
as assumed
fsc := ε sc⋅ Es − 0.45⋅ fcu fsc = 61.4 MPa
Resultant bending moment
M := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜ xp −
s⎞
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2
3. At the point where the compression reinforcement yields

−3
The strain in the compression reinforcement is known and equal to ε sc := ε yc ε sc = 1.636 × 10
Using similar triangles = x := ⎜ ⋅ d' x = 112.7 mm
d' ε cu − ε sc ⎝ ε cu − ε sc ⎠
d−x −3 −3
x has yielded
fst := −0.87⋅ fy fst = −391.5 MPa
fsc := fyc.mod fsc = 313.8 MPa Compression reinforcement

has yielded
N := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s + fsc⋅ A's + fst ⋅ As N = 599.3 kN
3 3
M := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜ xp −
s⎞
3 ⎝ 2⎠ 3
4. Balanced failure
−3
ε st := ε y ε st = −1.957 10 Tension reinforcement yields
Using similar triangles = xbal := ⎜ ⋅d xbal = 250.1 mm
d ε cu − ε st ⎝ ε cu − ε st ⎠
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Depth of stress block s := 0.9⋅ xbal s = 225.1 mm

fst := −0.87⋅ fy fst = −391.5 MPa
⎛ xbal − d' ⎞ −3 −3
ε sc := ⎜ ⋅ ε cu ε sc = 2.66 × 10 > ε yc = 1.636 × 10 Compression reinforcement
⎝ xbal ⎠ has yielded
N := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s + fsc⋅ A's + fst ⋅ As N = 1184 kN

4 4
M := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜ xp −
s⎞
4 ⎝ 2⎠ 4
5. Neutral axis at level of tension reinforcement

Neutral axis depth is known and equal to x := d x = 390 mm
fst := 0 ⋅ MPa
ε sc := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞ −3 −3
⋅ ε cu ε sc = 2.962 × 10 > ε yc = 1.636 × 10 Compression reinforcement

5 5
M := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜ xp −
s⎞
5
⎝ 2⎠ 5
6. Tension reinforcement yielding in compression

Strain in the tension reinforcement is known and equal to
−3
ε st := ε yc ε st = 1.636 10 Tension reinforcement yields in compression
Using similar triangles = x := ⎜ ⋅d x = 732.4 mm
d ε cu − ε st ⎝ ε cu − ε st ⎠
Since x falls outside the section, set s := h s = 450 mm

fst := fyc.mod fst = 313.8 MPa
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
ε sc := ⎛⎜
x − d' ⎞ −3 −3
⋅ ε cu ε sc = 3.213 × 10 > ε yc = 1.636 × 10 Compression reinforcement

6 6
M := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜ xp −
s⎞
+ fsc⋅ A's⋅ ( xp − d') − fst ⋅ As⋅ ( d − xp) M = −0 kN⋅ m
6 ⎝ 2⎠ 6
Summary 1 1
1 115.4 1 -129.3
2 135.4 2 0
M N
= 3 223.6 = 3 599.3
kN⋅ m kN
4 253.2 4 1183.7
5 141.5 5 2163
6 -0 6 2938.9
3000
2500
2000
1500
N
kN
1000
Ne
kN
500
500
1000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
M Me
,
kN⋅ m kN⋅ m
The crosses show the points calculated above. The solid line was generated by calculating intermediate
points.
Date: 2007-05-21 Date: ______
Example 11.3: Design of a short column solving basic equations

Input
Find suitable reinforcement for the short column subjected to the following design ULS loads:
Axial force Nu := 1100⋅ kN
b
Moment about x-axis Mx := 230 ⋅ kN⋅ m c c
c
Characteristic strength fcu := 30⋅ MPa
A′s
Ultimate strain ε cu := 0.0035
x x
Reinforcement material properties: h
Characteristic strength fy := 450 ⋅ MPa As

Modulus of elasticity Es := 200 ⋅ GPa
c
Section dimensions:
Height h := 400 ⋅ mm
Width b := 300 ⋅ mm
Design
0.87⋅ fy −3
Es

fy
fy
1.15 +
2000⋅ MPa
fyc −3
ε yc := ε yc = 1.636 × 10
Es
Select a neutral axis depth x := 200 ⋅ mm

Date: 2007-05-21 Date: ______
d − x⎞
ε st := −ε cu⋅ ⎛⎜
−3 −3
ε st = −2.1 × 10 < ε y = −1.957 × 10 Tension reinforcement
x − d' ⎞
ε sc := ε cu⋅ ⎛⎜
−3 −3
ε sc = 2.1 × 10 > ε yc = 1.636 × 10 Compression
⎝ x ⎠ reinforcement has
yielded
Taking moments about the tension reinforcement yields
Mx + Nu⋅ ⎛⎜ d −
h⎞
= 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜ d −
s⎞
+ fyc.mod ⋅ A's⋅ ( d − d')
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
from which the required area of compression reinforcement can be determined
⋅ ⎡⎢Mx + Nu⋅ ⎛⎜ d −
h⎞
− 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s⋅ ⎛⎜ d −
1 s ⎞⎤
A's := ⎥
fyc.mod ⋅ ( d − d') ⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
2
A's = 2581 mm
Equilibrium of forces yields
Nu = 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s + fyc.mod ⋅ A's − 0.87⋅ fy⋅ As
from which the required area of tension reinforcement can be determined
⋅ ( −Nu + 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ s + fyc.mod ⋅ A's)

1
As :=
0.87⋅ fy
2
As = 1121 mm
2
Total reinforcement area As + A's = 3701 mm
General solution
The above equation are written in a more general format so that they will be valid for any value of x
Reinforcement strains
d − x⎞ x − d' ⎞
ε st( x) := −ε cu⋅ ⎛⎜ ε sc( x) := ε cu⋅ ⎛⎜
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠
Stress in reinforcement
( ) ( ) ( )( ) (
fs ε s := ε s ≤ ε y ⋅ ( −0.87⋅ fy) + ε s > ε y ⋅ ε s < ε yc ⋅ Es⋅ ε s + ε s ≥ ε yc ⋅ fyc.mod )
Date: 2007-05-21 Date: ______
Required reinforcement areas
⋅ ⎡⎢Mx + Nu⋅ ⎛⎜ d −
h⎞
− 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ ( 0.9⋅ x) ⋅ ⎛⎜ d −
1 0.9⋅ x ⎞⎤
A's( x) := ⎥
( )
fs ε sc( x) ⋅ ( d − d') ⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
As( x) :=
1
( )
⋅ ⎡⎣Nu − 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ ( 0.9⋅ x) − fs ε sc( x) ⋅ A's( x)⎤⎦
(
fs ε st( x) )
Calculate reinforcement areas at following values x := 100 ⋅ mm , 105 ⋅ mm .. 280 ⋅ mm
1 .10
4
8000
As( x) + A's( x)
2
mm
6000
A's( x)
2
mm
As( x) 4000
2
mm
2000
0
100 150 200 250 300
x
mm
From the graph it can be seen that the smallest area of total reinforcement corresponds to a neutral axis depth
of approximately 205 mm
Set x := 205 ⋅ mm
2 2
A's( x) = 2547 mm Provide 2Y32 + 2 ⋅ Y25 = 2590 mm
2 2
As( x) = 1140 mm 2Y25 + 1 ⋅ Y16 = 1183 mm
2 2
As( x) + A's( x) = 3688 mm Total 2Y32 + 4 ⋅ Y25 + 1Y16 = 3773 mm
2 Y32
+ 2 Y25
2 Y25
+ 1 Y16
Date: 2007-05-21 Date: ______
Example 11.4: Design of a short column using design charts

Input
Find suitable reinforcement for the short column subjected to the following design ULS loads:
b
Moment about x-axis Mx := 230 ⋅ kN⋅ m c c
Characteristic material properties:
c
Concrete fcu := 30⋅ MPa
Asc
Reinforcement fy := 450 ⋅ MPa 2
Section dimensions: x x
h
Height h := 400 ⋅ mm Asc
Width b := 300 ⋅ mm 2
c
Design
For the following values the design chart shown below applies
d' d
fy = 450 MPa fcu = 30 MPa = 0.2 = 0.8
h h
Nu Mx
Find the intersection of lines at = 9.167 MPa and = 4.792 MPa
b⋅ h 2
b⋅ h
100 ⋅ Asc
The required area of reinforcement is = 3.9
b⋅ h
3.9 2
From which it follows that Asc.req := ⋅ b⋅ h Asc.req = 4680 mm
100
2
Provide 6 Y32 bars Asc := 4825⋅ mm
3 Y32
3 Y32
Date: 2007-05-21 Date: ______
50
.05 h
SABS 0100: 1992
e=0
x/h = Asc d′
40 1.4
2
1.3 h d
1.2 Asc
1.1 10
0A 2
1.0 b h sc
30 b
8
7 x/h = 0.9 fy = 450 MPa
N
bh 5 x/h = 0.8
4 d ′ = 0.2 h
20 d = 0.8 h
3 x/h = 0.7
2
1
0.4
x/h = 0.6
9.2 10
3.9
x/h = 0.5
x/h = 0.4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
4.8 M
(MPa)
bh 2
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Example 11.5: Short column, biaxial bending

Input
Find suitable reinforcement for the short braced column which is bent about two axes:
Ultimate loads:
b
Moment about x-axis Mx := 70⋅ kN⋅ m c c
Moment about y-axis My := 75⋅ kN⋅ m
c
Asc
Concrete fcu := 30⋅ MPa 2
Reinforcement fy := 450 ⋅ MPa x x
h
Section dimensions: Asc

Height (perpendicular to x-axis) b := 300 ⋅ mm 2
c
Width (parallel to x-axis) h := 350 ⋅ mm
Design
Nu
For = 0.356 it follows from interpolation in Table 3.24 of SABS 0100 that β b := 0.583
b ⋅ h ⋅ fcu
Mx My
Since = 200 kN < = 250 kN it is the moments about the y-axis that has to be increased.
h b
b
Single axis design moment M'y := My + β b⋅ ⋅ Mx M'y = 110 kN⋅ m
h
Reinforcement is determined from an appropriate design chart
For bending about the y-axis d y := b − c d y = 240 mm and d'y := c
The design chart must apply for the following values
dy d'y
= 0.8 = 0.2 fcu = 30 MPa fy = 450 MPa
b b
Nu M'y
For = 10.667 MPa and = 3.491 MPa it follows from the design chart (see next page) that the required
b⋅ h 2
h⋅ b
reinforcement is
100 ⋅ Asc 2.8 2

= 2.8 Asc.req := ⋅ b⋅ h Asc.req = 2940 mm
b⋅ h 100
2
100 ⋅ Asc
= 3.067 > 0.4 % (minimum reinforcement)
b⋅ h
< 6 % (maximum reinforcement, vertically cast)
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
50
.05 h
SABS 0100: 1992
e=0
x/h = Asc d′
40 1.4
2
1.3 h d
1.2 Asc
1.1 10
0A 2
1.0 b h sc
30 b
8
7 x/h = 0.9 fy = 450 MPa
N
bh 5 x/h = 0.8
d ′ = 0.2 h
4
20 d = 0.8 h
3 x/h = 0.7
2
1
2.8
0.4
10.67 x/h = 0.6
10
x/h = 0.5
x/h = 0.4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
3.49 M
(MPa)
bh 2
Links
32⋅ mm 2 Y32
Minimum diameter = 8 mm say 10 mm
4 Y10 @ 350
Minimum spacing 12⋅ 32⋅ mm = 384 mm say 350 mm
Provide Y10 links @ 350 over entire height of column 2 Y32

Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Example 11.6: Effective lengths for columns

The concrete frame shown below consists columns spaced at 6.5 m in the x-direction and 5.5 m in the y-direction
as shown in the figure below. Beams, supporting slabs, frame into the columns from two directions (The slabs
will not be considered in this analysis and are therefore not shown). Find the effective lengths for the columns
by using the rigorous method.
Example adapted to SABS 0100 from: Allen, A.H., (1988). Reinforced Concrete Design to BS8110: Simply
Explained, E & FN Spon, London, 239 pp.
E A
Beam 1 Beam 1
Beam 3 Beam 2 Beam 2
Col 2 Col 2 Col 2 3 500
F B
Beam 1 Beam 1
Col 2 Col 2 Col 2 3 500
G C
Beam 1 Beam 1
1 1
y
Col 1 Col 1 x x Col 1 5 500
y
Section 1-1
H D
Bases are designed to
z resist moments
x 6 500 6 500
Input variables
Member Height Width Length
Beam 1: h := 450 ⋅ mm b := 250 ⋅ mm L := 6500⋅ mm

1 1 1
Beam 2: h := 500 ⋅ mm b := 300 ⋅ mm L := 5500⋅ mm
2 2 2
Beam 3: h := 500 ⋅ mm b := 200 ⋅ mm L := 5500⋅ mm
3 3 3
Column 1 c := 300 ⋅ mm c = 300.000 mm H := 5500⋅ mm
1 1 1
Column 2 c := 300 ⋅ mm c = 300.000 mm H := 3500⋅ mm
2 2 2
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Columns bending about y-axis (internal frame in xz-plane)

Section properties
Beams: Counter i := 1 .. 3
⎛ 1.898 ⎞
( ) Ibeam = ⎜ 3.125 10 ⋅ mm
1 3 9 4
Second moment of area Ibeam := ⋅b ⋅ h
i 12 i i ⎜
⎝ 2.083 ⎠
Ibeam ⎛ 292.1 ⎞
α beam = ⎜ 568.2 10 ⋅ mm
i 3 3
Member stiffness α beam :=
i L i ⎜
i ⎝ 378.8 ⎠
Columns: Counter j := 1 .. 2
⎛ 0.675 ⎞ 109⋅ mm4
12 ( j)
1 4
Second moment of area Icol := ⋅ c Icol = ⎜
j ⎝ 0.675 ⎠
Icol
j ⎛ 122.7 ⎞ 103⋅ mm3
Member stiffness α col := α col = ⎜
j H
j
j ⎝ 192.9 ⎠
Stiffness ratios
Joint Stiffness ratio
α col
2
Internal column: A α c.A := α c.A = 0.3302
2 ⋅ α beam
1
2 ⋅ α col
2
B α c.B := α c.B = 0.6603
2 ⋅ α beam
1
α col + α col
1 2
C α c.C := α c.C = 0.5403
2 ⋅ α beam
1
D α c.D := 1
α col
2
Edge column: E α c.E := α c.E = 0.6603
α beam
1
2 ⋅ α col
2
F α c.F := α c.F = 1.3206
α beam
1
α col + α col
1 2
G α c.G := α c.G = 1.0805
α beam
1
H α c.H := 1
Effective height factors β: Braced frame

Effective height le = β ⋅ lo
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Column β-factor (use lesser of following two values)
AB ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.A + α c.B = 0.750 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.A , α c.B )) = 0.867
BC ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.B + α c.C = 0.760 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.B , α c.C )) = 0.877
CD ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.C + α c.D = 0.777 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.C , α c.D )) = 0.877
EF ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.E + α c.F = 0.799 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.E , α c.F )) = 0.883
FG ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.F + α c.G = 0.820 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.F , α c.G )) = 0.904
GH ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.G + α c.H = 0.804 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.G , α c.H )) = 0.900
Since the beams depths are greater than the column depth, end condition 1 apply to all connections. For these
end conditions, the simple method yields β = 0.75 for a braced frame, which should be compared to the values
in the first column above.
Effective height factors β: Unbraced frame
AB ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.A + α c.B = 1.149 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.A , α c.B )) = 2.099
BC ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.B + α c.C = 1.180 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.B , α c.C )) = 2.162
CD ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.C + α c.D = 1.231 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.C , α c.D )) = 2.162
EF ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.E + α c.F = 1.297 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.E , α c.F )) = 2.198
FG ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.F + α c.G = 1.360 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.F , α c.G )) = 2.324
GH ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.G + α c.H = 1.312 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.G , α c.H )) = 2.300
The simple method yields β = 1.20 for an unbraced frame, which should be compared to the values in the first
column above.
Columns bending about x-axis (internal frame in yz-plane)

Stiffness ratios
Joint Stiffness ratio
α col
2
Internal column: A α c.A := α c.A = 0.1697
2 ⋅ α beam
2
2 ⋅ α col
2
B α c.B := α c.B = 0.3394
2 ⋅ α beam
2
α col + α col
1 2
C α c.C := α c.C = 0.2777
2 ⋅ α beam
2
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
D α c.D := 1
α col
2
Edge column: E α c.E := α c.E = 0.2546
2 ⋅ α beam
3
2 ⋅ α col
2
F α c.F := α c.F = 0.5091
2 ⋅ α beam
3
α col + α col
1 2
G α c.G := α c.G = 0.4166
2 ⋅ α beam
3
H α c.H := 1
Effective height factors β: Braced frame

AB ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.A + α c.B = 0.725 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.A , α c.B )) = 0.858
BC ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.B + α c.C = 0.731 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.B , α c.C )) = 0.864
CD ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.C + α c.D = 0.764 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.C , α c.D )) = 0.864
EF ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.E + α c.F = 0.738 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.E , α c.F )) = 0.863
FG ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.F + α c.G = 0.746 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.F , α c.G )) = 0.871
GH ( )
0.7 + 0.05 α c.G + α c.H = 0.771 ( (
0.85 + 0.05⋅ min α c.G , α c.H )) = 0.871
The simple method yields β = 0.75 for a braced frame, which should be compared to the values in the first
column above.
Effective height factors β: Unbraced frame
AB ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.A + α c.B = 1.076 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.A , α c.B )) = 2.051
BC ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.B + α c.C = 1.093 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.B , α c.C )) = 2.083
CD ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.C + α c.D = 1.192 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.C , α c.D )) = 2.083
EF ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.E + α c.F = 1.115 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.E , α c.F )) = 2.076
FG ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.F + α c.G = 1.139 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.F , α c.G )) = 2.125
GH ( )
1.0 + 0.15 α c.G + α c.H = 1.212 ( (
2.0 + 0.3⋅ min α c.G , α c.H )) = 2.125
The simple method yields β = 1.20 for an unbraced frame, which should be compared to the values in the first
column above.
Date: 2006-06-19 Date: ______
Example 11.7: Design of a braced slender column

Input
Find suitable reinforcement for the braced column which is bent about the y-axis:
1590 kN
450
x 65 kN.m
60
y y
300
60
x 10 kN.m
Ultimate loads:
Nu := 1590⋅ kN
Axial force
M1.y := −10⋅ kN⋅ m (negative because column is bent in double curvature)
Smaller end moment
Larger end moment M2.y := 65⋅ kN⋅ m
For bending about the x-axis we assume M1.x := 0 ⋅ kN⋅ m M2.x := 0 ⋅ kN⋅ m

Concrete fcu := 30⋅ MPa
Reinforcement fy := 450 ⋅ MPa
Section dimensions:
Height (perpendicular to x-axis) h := 450 ⋅ mm
Width (parallel to x-axis) b := 300 ⋅ mm
Clear height between restraints

Effective height lo.x := 8 ⋅ m lo.y := 6.75⋅ m
Bending about x-axis β x := 1
Bending about y-axis β y := 1
Design
Minimum moments
Minimum eccentricities emin.x := 0.05⋅ h emin.x = 22.5 mm > 20 mm emin.x := 20⋅ mm
emin.y := 0.05⋅ b emin.y = 15 mm < 20 mm, OK
Minimum moments Mmin.x := Nu⋅ emin.x Mmin.x = 31.8 kN⋅ m

Mmin.y := Nu⋅ emin.y Mmin.y = 23.85 kN⋅ m
Date: 2006-06-19 Date: ______
Slenderness
Slenderness limits lo.x = 8 m < 60⋅ b = 18 m OK
lo.y = 6.75 m < 60⋅ b = 18 m OK
Effective heights lex := β x⋅ lo.x lex = 8 m
ley := β y⋅ lo.y ley = 6.75 m
Slenderness ratios
ley ⎡ ⎛ M1.y ⎞⎤
= 22.5 > ⎢17 − 7 ⋅ ⎜ ⎥ = 18.08 and therefore the column is slender for bending about the
b ⎣ ⎝ M2.y ⎠⎦
y-axis
M1.x
For bending about the x-axis we assume =0
M2.x
lex
= 17.778 > [ 17 − 7 ⋅ ( 0 ) ] = 17 and therefore the column is slender for bending about the x-axis
h
The column is slender about both axes so that additional moments must be determined for each axis. Since the
column is uniaxially bent, the additional moment is considered seperately about each axis. (It is not necessary to
consider biaxial bending.) However, ensure that Mi > Mmin for each axis.
2
1 ⎛ lex ⎞
For bending about the x-axis β a.x := ⋅⎜ β a.x = 0.158
2000 ⎝ h ⎠
2
1 ⎛ ley ⎞
For bending about the y-axis β a.y := ⋅⎜ β a.y = 0.253
2000 ⎝ b ⎠
Assume Kx := 0.75 Ky := 0.75

Nu
(by inspection from the M-N interaction diagram below for = 0.393
b ⋅ h ⋅ fcu
Additional deflections caused by slenderness a u.x := β a.x⋅ Kx⋅ h a u.x = 53.33 mm

a u.y := β a.y⋅ Ky⋅ b a u.y = 56.95 mm
Additional moments caused by slenderness Madd.x := Nu⋅ a u.x Madd.x = 84.8 kN⋅ m
Madd.y := Nu⋅ a u.y Madd.y = 90.6 kN⋅ m
Moments including slenderness

Maximum moment in column (before slenderness effects)
Mi.x := 0.4⋅ M1.x + 0.6⋅ M2.x Mi.x = 0 kN⋅ m ≥ 0.4⋅ M2.x = 0 kN⋅ m OK
Set Mi.x := Mmin.x Mi.x = 31.8 kN⋅ m
Mi.y := 0.4⋅ M1.y + 0.6⋅ M2.y Mi.y = 35 kN⋅ m ≥ 0.4⋅ M2.y = 26 kN⋅ m OK
Date: 2006-06-19 Date: ______
Design moment about x-axis is the greatest of

(a) M2.x = 0 kN⋅ m
(b) Mi.x + Madd.x = 116.6 kN⋅ m
(c) Mmin.x = 31.8 kN⋅ m
Madd.x
(d) M1.x + = 42.4 kN⋅ m
2
Therefore Mx := Mi.x + Madd.x Mx = 116.6 kN⋅ m
Design moment about y-axis is the greatest of

(a) M2.y = 65 kN⋅ m
(b) Mi.y + Madd.y = 125.6 kN⋅ m
(c) Mmin.y = 23.85 kN⋅ m
Madd.y
(d) M1.y + = 55.3 kN⋅ m
2
Therefore My := Mi.y + Madd.y My = 125.6 kN⋅ m
Design for uniaxial bending about the y-axis

Reinforcement is determined from an appropriate design chart
For bending about the y-axis d y := b − 60⋅ mm d y = 240 mm and d'y := 60⋅ mm
The design chart must apply for the following values
dy d'y
= 0.8 = 0.2 fcu = 30 MPa fy = 450 MPa
b b
Nu My
For = 0.393 and = 0.103 it follows from the design chart that the required reinforcement is
b ⋅ h ⋅ fcu 2
h ⋅ b ⋅ fcu
3
10 ⋅ Asc 0.85 fcu 2
= 0.85 Asc.req := ⋅ b⋅ h⋅ Asc.req = 3442 mm
b ⋅ h ⋅ fcu 3 MPa
10
From the design chart it can also be seen that Ky ≈ 0.6, which is less than the assumed value for Ky = 0.75 so
that no further adjustments to Ky is necessary.
2
Date: 2006-06-19 Date: ______
1.4
K=
0.1 e = 0.05 h SABS 0100: 1992
1.2
0.2 1000 Asc
( MPa)−1 Asc d′
b h f cu
2
1.0
0.3 h d
3 Asc
2.5 0.4 2
0.8 2 b
N 0.5
1.5
0.6
0.6 1 d ′ = 0.2 h
0.5 0.7 d = 0.8 h
0.8
5
0.4
0 0.8
0.393
0.9
0.2
K =1.0
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.064 0.103 M
b h 2 f cu
Check for bending about the x-axis

For bending about the x-axis d x := h − 60⋅ mm d x = 390 mm and d'x := 60⋅ mm
The above design chart will be conservative for the following values
dx d'x
= 0.867 = 0.133 fcu = 30 MPa fy = 450 MPa
h h
Nu Mx
For = 0.393 and = 0.064 it follows from the design chart that the required reinforcement is
b ⋅ h ⋅ fcu 2
b ⋅ h ⋅ fcu
3
10 ⋅ Asc 0.4 fcu 2
= 0.4 Asc.req := ⋅ b⋅ h⋅ Asc.req = 1620 mm
b ⋅ h ⋅ fcu 3 MPa
10
2
Ignoring the contribution of the central two bars, the outer 4 Y32 bars provide an area of 3217⋅ mm , OK
Reinforcement limits
100 ⋅ Asc
= 3.574 > 0.4 % (minimum reinforcement)
b⋅ h
< 6 % (maximum reinforcement, vertically cast)
Date: 2006-06-19 Date: ______
Detailing
32⋅ mm
Links: Minimum diameter = 8 mm say 10 mm
4
Maximum spacing 12⋅ 32⋅ mm = 384 mm say 350 mm
Provide Y10 links @ 350 over entire height of column
1 1 1
Y10 - 2 - 350
Y10 - 3 - 350
1 1 1
6 Y32 - 1
Rigourous method to determine K

Alternatively, the K-value can be also determined as follows:
3 2
Area of concrete Ac := b ⋅ h − Asc Ac = 130.2 × 10 mm
Yield strains in reinforcement

Es := 200 ⋅ GPa
0.87⋅ fy −3
ε y := ε y = 1.957 × 10
Es
fy
fy
1.15 +
2000⋅ MPa
fyc −3
ε yc := ε yc = 1.636 × 10
Es
Neutral axis depth at balanced failure

ε cu := 0.0035
ε cu
xbal := ⋅ dy xbal = 153.917 mm
ε cu + ε y
Strain in compression reinforcement
⎛ xbal − d'y ⎞ −3 −3
ε sc := ⎜ ⋅ ε cu ε sc = 2.136 × 10 > ε yc = 1.636 × 10
⎝ xbal ⎠
Compression reinforcement yields
Date: 2006-06-19 Date: ______
Axial force at balance failure

Asc Asc
Nbal := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ h ⋅ ( 0.9⋅ xbal) + fyc⋅ − 0.87⋅ fy⋅ Nbal = 686.6 kN
2 2
Maximum axial resistance of column
Nuz := 0.45⋅ fcu⋅ Ac + 0.75⋅ fy⋅ Asc Nuz = 3386 kN
Nuz − Nu
Ky := Ky = 0.665 OK
Nuz − Nbal
This can be compared to the simplified method
Nbal := 0.25⋅ fcu⋅ b ⋅ d y Nbal = 540 kN
Nuz − Nu
Ky := Ky = 0.631
Nuz − Nbal
Chapter 12
Foundations
12.1 Bearing Capacity
The purpose of the foundation is to transfer the loads from the structure to the ground with-
out causing the ground to fail in shear or to allow excessive settlement of the structure to
occur. These requirements are met by ensuring the bearing pressure below the foundation
does not exceed a specified permissible bearing pressure. The following terms will be
used in this chapter as defined by SABS 0161 (1980):
• Ultimate bearing capacity: The bearing pressure which causes the ground to fail in
shear.
• Safe bearing capacity: The maximum bearing pressure that the ground can resist by ap-
plying safety factors to the ultimate bearing capacity strength parameters. No consider-
ation is given to settlement in determining this capacity.
• Permissible bearing pressure: The maximum bearing pressure that the ground can re-
sist without causing excessive settlement or causing the ground to fail in shear.
Values for the safe and permissible bearing pressures should be determined from a de-
tailed site investigation including suitable soil tests. Typical values for the safe bearing ca-
pacity are presented in Table 12-1 (SABS 0161, 1980) for different soil and rock types.
The following notes apply to Table 12-1:
• The values in this Table are for loads applied vertically to the centre of the foundation.
Eccentrically applied loads, or loads inclined from the vertical, or both, will require
modification of values in the Table.
• The presumed safe bearing capacity should be taken at a depth of not less than 600 mm
below the top of the natural supporting ground.
• The bearing capacity of non-cohesive soils, in particular, is greatly influenced by the
effective density of the soil. Thus, when a soil occurs above the water-table, the full
density will act, but when the soil occurs below the water-table, only the submerged
density will be effective.
• The soil zone that provides the bearing capacity extends to a depth of 2 B where B is the
least dimension (width) of the foundation below the base of the footing. If the wa-
ter-table is at a level at least 2 B below the base of the footing, the safe bearing capacity
in the column titled “Dry” may be used. The footing should be considered to be “Sub-
12-1
12-2 Foundations
Table 12-1: Presumed safe bearing capacity for central vertical static loads on the
foundation (SABS 0161, 1980).
Supporting ground Description of rocks, soils, and fills Presumed bearing capacity
(kPa)
Type Class Dry Submerged
Rocks 1 Fresh rock, massively bedded, intact (igneous, meta- 5 000 5 000
morphic, or sedimentary) and requiring blasting for
excavation
2 Fresh rock, fractured or jointed, which can be exca- 1000 1000
vated with difficulty by pneumatic picks, but which
normally requires light blasting
3a,b Shale, of hard rock consistency 200 - 400 200 - 400
4 Decomposed rock, to be assessed as soil as below
Non-cohesive 5 Compact, well graded gravels, very dense silty sand, 400 - 600 200 - 300
soils gravel-sand mixtures
6 Compact but poorly graded gravels, gravel-sand, 200 - 400 100 - 200
dense sands, silty sands, sandy silt, silt mixtures
7c,d Medium dense sands, silty sands, sandy silts, and 100 - 150 50 - 75
silts, clayey sands, clayey silts
8c,d Loose and very loose sand, silty sands, sandy silts, By test only By test only
clayey sands, clayey silts
Cemented 9e Cemented gravel, hard “ouklip” (ferricrete), hard cal- 400 - 600 400 - 600
soils crete, and hard silcrete
10c Weakly cemented soils of medium and low (loose) 100 - 150 By test only
density
Cohesive 11b Very stiff sandy or silty clays 400 - 500 300 - 400
soils b
12 Stiff clays, sandy clays, silty clays 200 - 400 150 - 200
b,d
13 Firm clays, sandy clays, silty clays 100 - 200 75 - 150
d
14 Soft clays, sandy clays, silty clays 50 - 100 50 -100
d
15 Very sandy or silty clays 0 - 50 0 - 50
Compacted 16 Compacted fill or selected material By test only By test only
selected fill
d
Random fill 17 Made-up ground, waste dumps, and other uncom- By test only
pacted fills
a
Bedding planes can affect the stability of excavations in shales of this class.
b
Heaving may be a problem with shales or clays of this class.
c
Beware of collapse settlement on inundation of soils of this class.
d
Appreciable settlement may be expected for soils of this class.
e
If not underlain by any softer layer.
merged” if water-table is at the base of the footing or above. For a water-table between
2 B and the base an intermediate value between “Dry” and “Submerged” may be used.
Bearing Capacity 12-3
The size of the footing in contact with the soil is selected so that the bearing pressure acting
on the foundation does not exceed the permissible bearing pressure, thereby assuring
strength of the supporting ground and limiting the settlement of the structure to an accept-
able amount. Excessive settlement of the structure could cause damage to services con-
nected to the structure and the finishes on the structure.
The permissible bearing pressure should be determined from a detailed site investigation
including suitable soil tests. It should be pointed out that it is often the permissible bearing
pressure (thus settlement), rather than the safe bearing capacity, that determines the size of
a foundation. A safety factor between 2 and 3 is often applied to the ultimate bearing ca-
pacity in order to limit settlement.
Since settlement will occur over the life of the structure, the design loads and resulting
bearing pressure acting on the structure should be calculated using the applicable load fac-
tors at the serviceability limit state (see Chap. 2).
Ultimate limit state loads should be used to determine the bearing pressures acting on a
foundation when considering the safe bearing capacity. The calculations in determining
the structural strength of the foundation itself (e.g. determining the flexural reinforcement,
designing for shear, etc.) must be based on the loading and resulting soil pressure at the ul-
timate limit state. Eccentrically applied loads or loads inclined from the vertical could
cause overturning and sliding which should also be checked at the ultimate limit state.
It is seldom that bearing pressures below the structure will be uniform, or that the soil con-
ditions below the structure will be identical at all positions. This may lead to differential
settlement which should be eliminated as far as possible in the design.
It is usually assumed that the bearing pressures are uniformly distributed below a footing
(see Fig. 12-1). This assumption would be valid for an infinite stiff footing resting on an
elastic material. Firstly, it would be uneconomical to provide the thickness of footing nec-
essary to achieve the required stiffness, and secondly, soil is not truly elastic.
N
D p
Figure 12-1: Uniform soil pressure distribution below a footing

12-4 Foundations
The distribution of bearing pressure below a footing on sandy soil is shown in Fig.12-2a.
The sand particles near the edge of he footing tend to displace laterally when the footing is
loaded, thereby relieving the stress. A footing support by clay will have a distribution of
soil pressure as shown in Fig.12-2b. Shear stresses develop in the clay around the edge of
the footing, adding to the bearing pressure.
(a) Sandy soil (b) Cohesive soil
Figure 12-2: Non-uniform bearing pressure acting on a foundation.
It should be realised that the real distribution of bearing pressures below the footing not
only depends on the stiffness of the footing but also on the soil type and that it can vary
with time. However, the error made when calculating internal forces in the footing is usu-
ally relatively small and is accounted for in the loading safety factors.
12.2 Foundation types
A strip or wall footing (Fig. 12-3a) distributes the line load from the wall to the soil while
a spread footing distributes a single column load (Fig. 12-3b). Spread footings are also re-
ferred to as pad footings. To save material, a spread footing can be stepped or tapered
(Figs. 12-3c & d). If a column is close to the property boundary, a combined footing can be
used to prevent the footing from extending beyond the property boundary (Fig. 12-3f).
Where the bearing capacity of the soil is very low, a mat or raft footing can be used. All of
the above footings are generally referred to as shallow foundations.
If the size of the footing becomes impractical or uneconomical, the foundation can be
made deeper to support the structure on better material lower down. Piles are generally
used for buildings but if the loads are large (as in a bridge pier) caissons or piers can also
be used. If more than one pile is used to support a column, a pile cap is provided to transfer
load from the column to the piles (Fig. 12-3e). Piles, caissons and piers are referred as deep
foundations.
Foundation types 12-5
(a) Strip or wall footing (b) Spread or pad footing (c) Stepped footing
Property
boundary
(d) Tapered footing (f) Combined footing
(e) Pile cap
(g) Mat or raft footing
Figure 12-3: Types of footings (MacGregor, 1986)
Since the concrete in the footing is exposed to severe surroundings, a large concrete cover
is needed. The following values are proposed for the minimum cover to the reinforcement:
• Concrete directly cast on the ground: 75 mm

• Concrete cast on concrete blinding layer: 50 mm
12-6 Foundations
12.3 Simple Footings
The footing for a single column can be made square in plan, but it will be more economical
to make it rectangular when the footing is also subjected to a large moment about one axis.
The soil pressure is calculated as follows:
12.3.1 The case where the M = 0
For the case where the moment M = 0, the soil pressure p resulting from an applied load N
is uniform, so that
N
p= (12.3-1)
BD
where B and D are the plan dimension of the footing (see Fig. 12-1).
12.3.2 For the case where e £ D/6
If compressive stresses are present at all position below the footing, the soil pressures can
be calculated from (see Fig. 12-4)
N M y
p= ± (12.3-2)
BD I
where I = second moment of area of the footing about the axis of bending
1
= B D3
12
y = distance from axis of bending to the position the stress is being
calculated
The maximum and minimum pressures occur at y = D / 2 and-D / 2 respectively, so that
y Dæ 12 ö
÷= 6
= ç
ç 3÷
I 2è B D ø B D2
N 6M
pmax = +
A B D2
(12.3-3a, b)
N 6M
pmin = -
A B D2
Simple Footings 12-7
N
M
D
B
Ax
is o
f be
ndi D/2
ng
D/2
y N 6M
p max = +
A B D2
N My
N 6M p= +
p min = - A B D 3 / 12
A B D2
Figure 12-4: Nonuniform bearing pressures, e £ D/6.
To ensure that there is always contact between the footing and soil, p2 must be positive.
The limit is reached when p2 = 0
N 6M
p2 = 0 = -
B D B D2
M D
or = (12.3-4)
N 6
The moment M can be replaced by N acting at an eccentricity e, so that M = N e.

Substitution into the above yields
Ne D
= e= (12.3-5)
N 6
Thus, for e £ D / 6 , all pressures below he footing will be compressive. For the general
case where the moment may change sign, this implies that the eccentric load must fall
within the middle third of the footing.
12.3.3 The case where e > D/6
When e > D/6 only a portion of the footing with length Y will subjected to compressive
stresses (see Fig. 12-5). Assuming a triangular pressure distribution, the following equa-
tion follows from the geometry
12-8 Foundations
D/2
e
N
pmax
Centroid of
D bearing pressure
Y/3
N
Y
Figure 12-5: Nonuniform bearing pressures, e > D/6.
D Y
. = +e
2 3
æD ö
so that Y = 3ç - e÷ (12.3-6)
è2 ø
1
Form vertical equilibrium N= p YB
2 max
2N
so that pmax = (12.3-8)
YB
Substituting Y from Eq. (12.3-6) yields
2N
pmax = (12.3-9)
3 B ( D / 2 - e)
12.3.4 Detailing of reinforcement
Typical detailing of reinforcement for a simple footing is illustrated in Fig. 12-6. The flex-
ural reinforcement in the longer direction are distributed uniformly over the width of the
footing (see Fig. 12-6a).
If reinforcement is required in the shorter direction, a greater proportion of the reinforce-

ment should be placed centrally below the column (see Fig. 12-6b). The reason for this is
that the curvature of the footing is greatest directly below the column and reduces as the
distance from the column increases.
As,long
B
(a) Plan: Reinforcement in longer direction
Footing CL
B/2 B/2
2 D
As, short where b 1 =
b 1 +1 B
As, short æ b 1 -1ö As, short æ b 1 -1ö

ç
ç ÷
÷ ç
ç ÷
÷
2 è b 1 +1 ø 2 è b 1 +1 ø
(b) Plan: Reinforcement in shorter direction
Column
reinforcement
Lap length
Column starter bars
D
(c) Elevation
Figure 12-6: Detailing of reinforcement.
SABS0100 If reinforcement is required in the short direction, an amount of

2 As,short / (1+ b 1 ) should be placed centrally below the column over a width B
where
As,short = total area of reinforcement required in the short direction

b1 = D/B
H = longer plan dimension of the footing
B = shorter plan dimension of the footing
12-10 Foundations
The remaining reinforcement is spread uniformly on either side of the

band.
Starter bars must be provided to ensure continuity for the column reinforcement (see
Fig. 12-6c). The starter bars must extend a full lap length into the column. These bars are
also referred to as lapping bars or dowels.
12.3.5 Critical sections for design
Flexure
The critical section for the design for flexural reinforcement should be taken at the face of
the column or wall (see Fig. 12-7a). The bearing pressure p acting on the footing is the re-
sultant upward pressure having deducted any downward pressures, for example the foot-
ing self weight. As with the flexural design of beams and slabs, the loads and pressures are
those at the ultimate limit state.
D D
d
B B
Plan Plan
Critical section Critical section
for flexure for shear
C E
H d H d
pu pu
Elevation Elevation
(a) (b)
Critical section for the design Critical section for shear
of flexural reinforcement
Figure 12-7: Critical sections for flexure and shear.
The design moment, acting over the width B of the footing in Fig. 12-7a would be
C
M = pu BC (12.3-10)
2
where pu is bearing pressure at the ultimate limit state.
Shear
According to SABS 0100 the critical section for shear be considered at a distance 1.5 d
from the face of the column (see Fig. 12-7b). However, a value of d is recommended be-
cause it corresponds to shear requirements given by SABS 0100 for beams and slabs. This
is also the critical section recommended by other design codes such as ACI 318 (1989).
The design shear force acting on an area Bd of the footing in Fig. 12-7b would be
V = pu B E (12.3-11)
while the shear stress would be
V
v= (12.3-12)
Bd
Also shown in Fig. 12-7b is a typical crack associated with this type of shear failure. Note
that this crack will extend across the full width B of the footing, resulting in a failure simi-
lar to that of a reinforced concrete beam. To distinguish between this type of shear and
punching shear (see next section), it is also referred to as one-way shear or beam shear.
Punching shear
The critical perimeter for punching shear is considered at a distance 1.5 davg from the edge
of the column (see Fig. 12-8b). The shear force V acting on this perimeter is given by
[
V = qu B D -(3 d avg + cx )(3 d avg + c y ) ] (12.3-13)
or V = N - qu (3 d avg + cx )(3 d avg + c y ) (12.3-14)
The shear stress v along the critical perimeter would be
V
v= (12.3-15)
(2 cx +2 c y +8 ´1.5 d avg ) d avg
Note that the crack for this type of failure will encircle the column.
12-12 Foundations
1.5 davg
1.5 davg
cy B
cx
Plan
Critical section for

punching shear
N
H davg
pu
Elevation
Figure 12-8: Critical sections for punching shear.
12.3.6 Design approach
Since shear often governs the design of simple footings, the following steps could be fol-
lowed in the design:
1. Determine the plan dimensions of the footing by using the permissible bearing pres-
sure and loads at the serviceability limit state.
2. Calculate the bearing pressure for a footing subjected loads at the ultimate limit state.
3. Select values for the thickness h and the effective depth d. Ensure that the shear stress
at the column face is less then the smallest of 0 . 75 f cu and 4.75 MPa.
4. Select a reasonable value for vc and test the thickness h with regards to punching
shear.
5. Calculate the flexural reinforcement.
6. Test the punching shear by using the actual value of vc.
7. Check the shear stress at critical sections.
8. Check stability, where necessary.
Example 12.1
See Mathcad document Fnd_Ex01_SA.mcd.
12.3.7 Footing subjected to a combined axial force and moment
For the case where the footing is subjected to a moment such that the eccentricity
e = M / N £ D / 6, the design procedure will stay the same as for the case where no mo-
ment is applied, except that the bearing pressure is now no longer uniform but varies lin-
early as shown in Figure 12-9. Design for flexure and shear proceed in a similar manner as
before by determining the internal resultants at the relevant critical sections. However, it is
important to take into account the nonuniform bearing pressure acting on the footing.
D/2
a
N
M
B b
p1
p2 p3
D
p2 + p3
p¢=
2
Figure 12-9: Footing subjected to a combined axial force and moment.
When considering punching shear, it is the maximum shear rather than the average shear
on the critical perimeter that is required. The following conservative approach could be
followed:
1. The maximum average pressure p¢ to the outside of the critical circumference (see
Fig. 12-9) is determined.
2. This pressure is applied uniformly to the entire footing and the corresponding shear
stress on the critical perimeter would be approximately equal to the maximum shear
stress.
3. Using this approach, it can be shown the maximum shear stress can be obtained by
considering an increased axial force Neff given by
é 3M ù
N eff = N ê1+ ( D + a )ú (12.3-16)
ë N D2 û
12-14 Foundations
and calculating the shear stress on the critical perimeter without taking the moment
into account. The dimension a is the length of the critical perimeter in the direction of
bending (see Fig. 12-9).
Alternatively, the axial force can be increased in a similar manner as for flat slabs in braced
frames with approximately equal spans
N eff =1.15 N (12.3-17)
As before, the shear stress is calculated at the critical section without taking the moment
into account.
12.4 Combined footings
12.4.1 Footing layout
When two columns are located closed together, it is sometimes more convenient and eco-
nomical to combine their footings into one continuous footing. The dimensions of the
combined footing are selected so that the resultant of the column loads coincide with the
centroid of the footing. Therefore, the resultant of the bearing pressure acting on the foot-
ing will also coincide with the centroid of the footing. The result is a uniformly distributed
bearing pressure that will not contribute to differential settlement.
Centroid of footing and resultant

of column loads coincide
Rectangular Trapezoidal
Figure 12-10: Combined footings.
Service loads should be considered when determining the footing dimensions while the
footing itself will be designed for ultimate loads. If the ratio of ultimate loads to service
loads is not constant for each column, the line of action of the resultant column load will
not be the same for serviceability and ultimate loads. If the footing dimension where deter-
mined for service loads, the bearing pressures will not be uniform at ultimate, but this is
unavoidable.
While the footing can theoretically have any shape to meet the above requirement, rectan-
gular or trapezoidal in shape footings are preferred for practical reasons such as formwork
Combined footings 12-15
and detailing of reinforcement. The trapezoidal shape is usually only used when the differ-
ences in column loads are significant.
The dimensions of the footing are dependant on a number of factors. In a long footing,
large longitudinal moments will develop below the columns. In contrast, a short footing
will yield larger longitudinal span moments between the columns. On the other hand, a
wide footing could result in large transverse moments. Regardless of the plan dimensions,
the thickness of the footing should be selected so that shear stresses are not excessively
large.
Example 12.2
See Mathcad document Fnd_Ex02_SA.mcd.
12.4.2 Detailing
The guidelines given by SABS 0100 for detailing of reinforcements are not clear and the
following guidelines are adapted from Allen (1988):
Reinforcement in short direction
The footing is divided in two, halfway between the two columns (see Fig. 12-11a). Each
half is considered as an individual footing. Consider for example the area Lx1 ´ L y :
• Take Lc the greater of a1 and s/2.

1.5
• If Lc is greater than (c + 3 d), place two thirds of the reinforcement in a band of
2 x1
(cx1 + 3 d) centrally below the column. Otherwise, distribute the reinforcement uni-
formly (see Fig. 12-11b).
• If the column edge is closer than 1.5 d from the end of the footing, the bandwidth
should be taken from the edge of the footing to a distance 1.5 d from the column edge
furthest from the footing edge. For a column on the edge of the footing the bandwidth
would therefore be (cx1 +1.5 d).
Reinforcement in long direction
Top and bottom reinforcement are considered separately.
• The bottom reinforcement is placed according to the rules for an individual footing,
based on the division for the short direction (see above). Consider for example the area
Lx1 ´ L y : If Ly is greater than 1.5( c y1 + 3 d), place two thirds of the reinforcement in a
band of ( c y1 + 3 d) centrally below the column. Otherwise, distribute the reinforce-
ment uniformly.
12-16 Foundations
a1
cy1
Lx1 cx1
s
2
Lx s
s
cy2 2
cx2
Lx2
Ly
(a) Division of footing
2
As
3
1
As
3
1. 5
1 c (c + 3 d )
Bandwidth (c + 3 d ) 2
(c +3 d )
2 1. 5 (c + 3 d )
1
(c + 3 d ) 1. 5
2 (c + 3 d )
2
(b) Bottom reinforcement in the short direction

s 1. 5
for the case where max (a1 and ) > (c + 3 d )
2 2
Figure 12-11: Detailing reinforcement for combined footings.
• For the top reinforcement take cy as the lesser of cy1 and cy2. If Ly is greater than
1.5( c y + 3 d), place two thirds of the reinforcement in a band of ( c y +3 d) centrally
below the column. Otherwise, distribute the reinforcement uniformly.
It is important to note that maximum spacing of reinforcement applies to all regions of a

footing, including areas outside bands.
Strap footings 12-17
12.5 Strap footings
When building close to the property line it may be necessary to provide a footing that is ec-
centric below the column to prevent the footing from projecting beyond the property line.
If a simple footing is provided, a nonuniform bearing pressure would result which could
lead to tilting or even overturning. To prevent rotation of the footing, a strap beam is pro-
vided between the exterior footing and the nearest interior footing as shown in
Figs. 12-12a and b.
The areas of each footing are then selected in such a manner that the bearing pressures, re-
sulting from service loads, are equal and uniform below each footing. To achieve this, the
centroid of the combined footing must coincide with the resultant of the column loads.
Care must be taken to ensure that the beam connecting the footings do not bear against the
soil. This would result in a distribution of bearing pressures different from what is as-
sumed here so that the recommendations presented here would not apply.
The following steps can be followed in the design of strap footing:
1. Select a width D for the rectangular exterior footing and estimate weights W1 and W2
for the footings and Ws for the strap beam (see Fig. 12-12b).
2. Determine the reaction R1 below the exterior footing by taking moments about R2, the
reaction below the interior footing. Loads at the serviceability limit state should be
considered:
æ Dö L
(R1 -1.1W1 )ç L + f - ÷- N 1 L -1.1W s = 0 (12.5-1)
è 2ø 2
Solve for R1 from the above equation. The width B of the exterior footing is deter-
mined from
R1
B= (12.5-2)
pD
where p = the permissible bearing capacity.

3. Vertical equilibrium yields
R1 + R2 - ( N 1 + N 2 +1.1W1 +1.1W 2 +1.1W 3 ) = 0 (12.5-3)
Determine the reaction below the interior footing R2 from the equation above. The
size of the square interior footing follows from
R2
S= (12.5-4)
p
12-18 Foundations
Property Centroid of the footings

line coincide with the
resultant of N1 and N2
Strap beam
B S
Footings
S
D
f L
(a) Plan
N1 N2
Strap beam
1.1 Ws
1.1 W1 1.1 W2
p p
D/2
R1 R2
(b) Elevation and SLS loads
N 1 + 1. 2 W1 - R1
N2
N1
r
(c) ULS shear forces
Br2 æ Dö
N 1 (r - f )- pu +1. 2 W1çr - ÷
2 è 2ø
(N 2 +1. 2 W2 - R2 ) S
2
(d) ULS bending moments
Figure 12-12: Strap footing with shear forces and bending moments.
Strap footings 12-19
4. Test to see if the resultant of N1 and N2 pass through the centroid of the footings. Re-
peat steps 1 to 4 until this condition is sufficiently met.
5. Apply the ultimate limit state loads and determine the corresponding bearing pressure
pu. If the ratio of dead to live load is approximately the same for each column, it can be
assumed that the ULS bearing pressures will be uniformly distributed and equal for
both footings.
6. Design the interior footing as a square footing for bending in two directions.
7. Design the exterior footing for bending about the strap beam. (The design is similar to
that of a strip footing supporting a wall where bending occurs in one direction only.)
8. Design the beam for the ULS shear forces and bending moments are shown in
Figs. 12-12c and d, respectively. Links (stirrups) in the beam should be used tie foot-
ings to the beam in providing a monolithic construction.
An alternative approach to the design of the strap beam is presented by Nilson and Winter
(1991) and is based on the following considerations:
• Although the beam is monolithic with the interior footing, the influence of the bearing
pressures below this footing on the beam can be omitted since the footing is designed to
resist the full upward bearing pressure as if the strap beam was absent.
• Since the exterior footing is designed as a strip footing loaded by the strap beam, the up-
ward bearing pressure below the footing becomes the load to be resisted by the beam.
If these simplifications are made, the beam can be designed as a simply supported beam,
loaded by the upward bearing pressure below the outside footing and the unknown down-
ward reactions at the centerlines of the two column supports. This model is shown in
Fig. 12-13.
f L
Re
Ri
Strap beam
pu B
D
Figure 12-13: Simplified model for the design of the strap beam (Nilson & Win-
ter, 1991).
12-20 Foundations
12.6 Strip footings
A strip footing is generally used below walls or below a series of columns placed closely
together. Although it would be possible to provide an isolated footing for each column, it
is simpler and more economic to use a continuous footing. Strip footings are also often
used in the case of heavily loaded columns supported by weak soils.
For the design of this type of footing, it is important that realistic assumptions are made re-
garding the distribution of the bearing pressures acting on the footing. In the case of a very
stiff footing supported by a compressible soil, with the columns spaced at moderate dis-
tances, it is reasonable to assume a uniformly distributed bearing pressure. If the columns
are equally spaced and carry equal loads, the bearing pressure will be uniformly distrib-
uted as shown in Fig. 12-14a. However, if the columns are not equally spaced or are
unequally loaded, the bearing pressures will vary linearly (see Fig. 12-14b.).
N1 = N2 = N3 N1 ¹ N2 ¹ N3
(a) Uniformly distributed bearing pressure (b) Linearly varying bearing pressure
Figure 12-14: Bearing pressures on a stiff strip footing.
The bearing pressures in both the above cases are determined as for a simple footing sub-
jected to a combined axial load N and moment M. The load N is the sum of the column
loads while M is determined by taking moments about the centroid of the footing. With the
bearing pressures known, shear forces and bending moments in the footing are determined
by considering statics and sections at critical positions.
It is important to note that it would incorrect to consider the footing as a continuous beam
subjected to a given upward distributed load with the columns representing pinned sup-
ports. The support reactions calculated for such a beam will not be equal to the column
loads and therefore the analysis will not yield the correct shear forces and bending mo-
ments.
If the footing is relatively flexible with the columns spaced far apart, the settlements will
no longer be uniform or linear. A greater settlement, and hence greater bearing pressure
will occur below a heavily loaded column (such as N2 in Fig. 12-15) than below a lightly
loaded column. Between columns the relative deflection of the footing is upward, leading
to smaller settlements there, and hence, lower bearing pressures. The bearing pressure is
Strip footings 12-21
N1 < N2 > N3
(a) Footing and loading
s (b) Settlement s
(c) Bearing pressure q

q=ks
– –
(d) Bending moment M
+ + +
Figure 12-15: Bearing pressures on a flexible strip footing.
clearly no longer uniform and to determine the shears and bending moments in the footing,
it should be considered as a beam supported by an elastic foundation.
Struct: Foundations: Example 12.1 Calc sheet no: 1 of 5
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Fnd_Ex01_SA.xmcd
Date: 2008-02-08 Date: ______
Example 12.1
Design a simple footing to support a 400 x 400 mm column. The footing will be cast on a concrete blinding
layer.
Input variables
B
Height of footing h := 650 ⋅ mm
Column dimension c := 400 ⋅ mm
Column loads:
Nominal axial dead load Gn := 1100⋅ kN
B
Nominal axial live load Qn := 400 ⋅ kN
c
Self-weight of footing Gself.a := 150 ⋅ kN
(a value is assumed and will be checked later)
Concrete:
PLAN
−3
Unit weight of concrete γc := 25⋅ kN⋅ m
Flexural reinforcement:
Diameter ϕ := 20⋅ mm h
Yield strength in tension fy := 450 ⋅ MPa ELEVATION
Soil: Permissible bearing capacity p permiss := 220 ⋅ kPa
Partial material safety factor for shear γm.v := 1.4
Cover to concrete cover := 50⋅ mm (cast on a blinding layer)
Design
(a) Design Loads: SLS
Total dead load Gtot.s := Gself.a + Gn Gtot.s = 1250⋅ kN
Total design axial load Ns := 1.1⋅ Gtot.s + 1.0⋅ Qn Ns = 1775⋅ kN
Ns 2
Required footing area Areq := Areq = 8.068 m
p permiss
Breq := Areq Breq = 2.84 m
Provide square footing of width B := 2.9⋅ m

2 2
Area of footing A := B A = 8.41 m
Date: 2008-02-08 Date: ______
Self-weight of footing Gself := ( h ⋅ A ) ⋅ γc Gself = 136.7 ⋅ kN
This is less than the assumed self-weigh of Gself.a = 150 ⋅ kN ,

OK
(b) Design Loads: ULS

Total design axial load Nu := 1.2⋅ Gn + 1.6⋅ Qn Nu = 1960⋅ kN
Nu
Bearing pressure at ULS p u := p u = 233.1 ⋅ kPa
A
Note: The self weight of the footing is not included in determining the bearing pressure since it is only
used for calculating bending moments and shear forces in the footing. In these calculations the additional
bearing pressure, caused by the self-weight, will be cancelled out by the self-weight itself when considering
vertical equilibrium.
(c) Punching shear at the column edge

Average effective depth d avg := h − cover − ϕ d avg = 580 ⋅ mm
Perimeter of column u := 4 ⋅ c
Nu
vmax := vmax = 2.112 ⋅ MPa
Shear at edge u ⋅ d avg
fcu
This is less than 0.75⋅ MPa ⋅ = 4.437 ⋅ MPa and 4.75 MPa,
MPa
OK
(d) Punching shear at critical section
One side of perimeter ( c + 2 × 1.5⋅ davg) = 2.14⋅ m which is less than B = 2.9⋅ m
Punching shear need to be considered
Critical perimeter
u := 4 ⋅ ( c + 2 × 1.5⋅ d avg)
B
u = 8560⋅ mm
Area within critical perimeter

Ainside := ( c + 2 × 1.5⋅ d avg)
2 2
Ainside = 4.58⋅ m
1.5 davg
Punching shear force on perimeter 1.5 davg
c B
V := ⎛⎝ B − Ainside ⎞⎠ ⋅ p u
2
V = 892.697 ⋅ kN c
Punching shear stress on perimeter

V
v := v = 0.18⋅ MPa
u ⋅ d avg
This value for v is relatively small when compared to values in Table 6.1 of the notes. A value of
h = 650 ⋅ mm will therefore be sufficient.
Date: 2008-02-08 Date: ______
(e) Flexural reinforcement

B
Critical length for flexure
B−c
C := C = 1.25 m
2
Moment at the critical section
M := ( p u ⋅ B⋅ C) ⋅
C B
M = 528 ⋅ kN⋅ m
2 c
Minimum effective depth
ϕ
d := h − cover − ϕ − d = 570 ⋅ mm
2 C
Determine required area of reinforcement
M −3
K := K = 16.01 × 10 which is less than 0.156 so that no compression
2 reinforcement is required
B⋅ d ⋅ fcu
⎛ K ⎞
z := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − ⎟ z = 559.7 ⋅ mm
⎝ 0.9 ⎠
z
= 0.982 which is not less than 0.95, therefore
d
z := 0.95⋅ d z = 541.5 ⋅ mm
M 2
As := As = 2490.7⋅ mm
0.87⋅ fy ⋅ z
Using a bar diameter ϕ = 20⋅ mm , the area of one bar As.1 := ⎛ π ⋅ ϕ2⎞ 2
As.1 = 314.2 ⋅ mm
⎜4 ⎟
is ⎝ ⎠
As
Number of bars required = 7.928 Use n := 8
As.1
B
Spacing required = 414.3 ⋅ mm Say S := 400 ⋅ mm
n−1
Provide 8 x Y20 @ 400 mm c/c
As.prov := n ⋅ ⎛⎜
π 2⎞ 2
⋅ϕ ⎟ As.prov = 2513.3⋅ mm
⎝4 ⎠
Check for minimum reinforcement
100 ⋅ As.prov
= 0.133 which is greater than 0.13 required for minimum reinforcement, OK
B⋅ h
Date: 2008-02-08 Date: ______
Maximum spacing
100 ⋅ As.prov
= 0.152 which is less than 0.3 so that the maximum spacing is the lesser
B⋅ d of 3 ⋅ d = 1710⋅ mm and 750 mm, OK
S max := min ( 3 ⋅ d , 750 ⋅ mm) S max = 750 ⋅ mm
The reinforcement can be spaced uniformly in both directions due to the square shape of the footing.
(f) Check punching shear

Consider a unit width of b := 1 ⋅ m
⎛ π ⋅ ϕ2⎞ ⋅ b 2
Reinforcement in a unit width As := ⎜4 ⎟ As = 785.4 ⋅ mm
⎝ ⎠ S
Determine shear resistance
100 ⋅ As
= 0.138 < 3, OK
b⋅ d
fcu = 35⋅ MPa < 40 MPa, OK

1 1
3 4
0.75⋅ MPa ⎛ fcu 100 ⋅ As ⎞ 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
vc := ⋅⎜ ⋅ ⎟ ⎟ ⋅ ⎛⎜ vc = 0.28⋅ MPa
γm.v ⎝ 25⋅ MPa b ⋅ davg ⎠ ⎝ d avg ⎠
Punching shear stress v = 0.18⋅ MPa < vc = 0.28⋅ MPa , no shear reinforcement is
required.
(g) Check shear
Using the minimum effective depth d = 570 ⋅ mm
A critical section is considered at a distance d from the column face

B−c B
E := −d E = 680 ⋅ mm
2
At the critical section, distance d from column
V := p u ⋅ B⋅ E V = 459.586 ⋅ kN
d
V B
v := v = 0.278 ⋅ MPa
B⋅ d c
Since shear stress v = 0.278 ⋅ MPa < vc = 0.28⋅ MPa ,

no shear reinforcement is required.
E
Date: 2008-02-08 Date: ______
(h) Reinforcement layout
ELEVATION
8 Y20 - 2 - 400 B2
8 Y20 - 1 - 400 B1
PLAN
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Fnd_Ex02_SA.mcd
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Example 12.2
A footing supports a 300 x 300 mm and a 400 x 400 mm column. The nominal loadings are shown below. The
footing will be cast on a concrete blinding layer.
1 2
Qn,1 Qn,2
Gn,1 Gn,2
c1 c2
Gself
L
ELEVATION
Input variables
Column dimensions c1 := 300 ⋅ mm c2 := 400 ⋅ mm
Spacing of columns L := 3000⋅ mm
Column loads:
Nominal axial dead load Gn.1 := 1060⋅ kN Gn.2 := 1500⋅ kN
Nominal axial live load Qn.1 := 275 ⋅ kN Qn.2 := 400 ⋅ kN
Self-weight of footing Gself.a := 270 ⋅ kN (a value is assumed and will be checked later)
Concrete:
−3
Unit weight of concrete γ c := 25⋅ kN⋅ m
Flexural reinforcement:
Diameter φ := 20⋅ mm
Yield strength in tension fy := 450 ⋅ MPa
Soil: Permissible bearing capacity p permiss := 330 ⋅ kPa
Partial material safety factor for shear γ m.v := 1.4
Cover to concrete cover := 50⋅ mm (cast on a blinding layer)
No redistribution of moments will be allowed so that β b := 1.0

Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Design
(a) Size of footing
Consider the Serviceability Limit State
Resultant force on footing
Ns := 1.1⋅ ( Gself.a + Gn.1 + Gn.2) + Qn.1 + Qn.2 Ns = 3788 kN
Ns 2
Required footing area Areq := Areq = 11.479 m
p permiss
Provide footing of B := 2.5⋅ m D := 4.6⋅ m
2
Area of footing A := B⋅ D A = 11.5 m
(a) Placing of footing
Qn,1 Qn,2
Gn,1 Gn,2
c1 Gself c2
xs
Ns
The aim is to place the footing so that the resultant force Ns acting on the footing coincides with the centroid of
the footing. The self-weight for the footing, which acts at its centroid, will therefore also coincide with Ns
Taking moments about column 2: xs⋅ Ns = ( Qn.1 + 1.1⋅ Gn.1) ⋅ L + 1.1⋅ Gself.a⋅ xs
( Qn.1 + 1.1⋅ Gn.1)⋅ L

Centroid of the resultant force xs := xs = 1238 mm
Ns − 1.1⋅ Gself.a
The footing is placed symmetrically about this point. For practical purposes say x := 1240⋅ mm
D
C2 := −x C2 = 1060 mm
2
D
C1 := − ( L − x) C1 = 540 mm
2
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
L = 3000
Ns
300 × 300 mm 400 × 400 mm
column column
C1 = 540 1760 x = 1240 C2 = 1060

D/2 = 2300 D/2 = 2300
ELEVATION
300 × 300 mm 400 × 400 mm

column column
B= 2500
D = 4600
PLAN
(b) Design Loads: ULS

Consider the Ultimate Limit State
Nu.1 := 1.2⋅ Gn.1 + 1.6⋅ Qn.1 Nu.1 = 1712 kN
Nu.2 := 1.2⋅ Gn.2 + 1.6⋅ Qn.2 Nu.2 = 2440 kN
Resultant force on footing Nu := Nu.1 + Nu.2 Nu = 4152 kN
Note: The self weight of the footing is not included in determining the bearing pressure since it is only
used only for calculating bending moments and shear forces in the footing. In these calculations, the
additional bearing pressure caused by the self-weight will be cancelled the self-weight when considering
vertical equilibrium.
Find the position of the ULS resultant force on footing:

Taking moments about the 400 x 400 mm column:
Nu.1⋅ L
xu⋅ Nu = Nu.1⋅ L xu := xu = 1237 mm
Nu
This is very close to the position obtained for SLS of xs = 1238mm. It will therefore be safe to assume the
bearing pressures will be uniformly distributed at the ULS.
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Nu
Bearing pressure at ULS p u := p u = 361 kPa
A
(c) Punching shear at the column edge

Assume a footing thickness of h := 900 ⋅ mm
Self-weight of footing Gself := ( h ⋅ A) ⋅ γ c Gself = 258.8 kN
This is less than the assumed self-weigh of Gself.a = 270kN , OK
Average effective depth d avg := h − cover − φ d avg = 830 mm
Perimeter of columns u 1 := 4 ⋅ c1 u 1 = 1200 mm
u 2 := 4 ⋅ c2 u 2 = 1600 mm
Nu.1
vmax.1 := vmax.1 = 1.719 MPa
Shear at edge u 1⋅ d avg
Nu.2
vmax.2 := vmax.2 = 1.837 MPa
u 2⋅ d avg
fcu
This is less than 0.75⋅ MPa ⋅ = 4.437MPa and 4.75 MPa, OK
MPa
(d) Moments and shears in the long direction

−1
Distributed load acting on the full width of footing wu := p u⋅ B wu = 902.6 kN⋅ m
Shear forces at critical positions
V1L := −wu⋅ C1 V1L = −487.4 kN
V1R := −wu⋅ C1 + Nu.1 V1R = 1225 kN
V2L := −wu⋅ ( C1 + L) + Nu.1 V2L = −1483 kN
V2R := −wu⋅ ( C1 + L) + Nu.1 + Nu.2 V2R = 956.8 kN
Maximum moment between columns occur where shear is zero
Nu.1
−wu⋅ zmax + Nu.1 = 0 zmax := zmax = 1.897 m
wu
Bending moments at critical positions
2
C1
M1 := wu⋅ M1 = 131.6 kN⋅ m
2
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
2
zmax
Mmax := wu⋅ − Nu.1⋅ ( zmax − C1) Mmax = −699.1 kN⋅ m
2
(C1 + L) 2
M2 := wu⋅ − Nu.1⋅ L M2 = 519.6 kN⋅ m
2
1 2
C1 = 540 L = 3000 C2 = 1060
Nu,1 = 1712 kN Nu,2 = 2440 kN
wu = 902.6 kN/m
1225 kN
956.8 kN
–487.4 kN
zmax = 1.897 m
–1483 kN
Shear force diagram
–699.1 kN.m
131.6 kN.m
519.6 kN.m
Bending moment diagram
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
(e) Flexural reinforcement in the long direction

Determine reinforcement in the top of the footing between the columns
It is assumed that the reinforcement in the long direction will be placed in the outside layers (B1, T1)
Assume a bar diameter φ = 20 mm
φ
Effective depth d := h − cover − d = 840 mm
2
Mmax
K := K = 0.011 < 0.156, no compression reinforcement required
2
B⋅ d ⋅ fcu
⎛ K ⎞ z
Internal lever arm z := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − z = 829.3 mm = 0.987
⎝ 0.9 ⎠ d
z
Since = 0.987 is greater than 0.95, assume z := 0.95⋅ d z = 798 mm
d
Mmax 2
As.req := As.req = 2238 mm
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z
Minimum reinforcement
0.13 2
As.min := ⋅ B⋅ h As.min = 2925 mm Provide minimum reinforcement
100
Maximum spacing
S max := min ( 3 ⋅ d , 750 ⋅ mm) S max = 750 mm
Detailing of reinforcement
1.5⋅ ( c1 + 3 ⋅ d ) = 4230 mm
D
ly := ly = 2300 mm <
2
1.5⋅ ( c2 + 3 ⋅ d ) = 4380 mm
Distribute reinforcement evenly over the width of the footing.
π 2 2
Using a bar diameter φ = 20mm, the area of one bar is As.1 := ⋅φ As.1 = 314.2 mm
4
As.min
Number of bars required = 9.311 Use n := 10
As.1
B
Spacing required = 277.8 mm Say S := 250 ⋅ mm
n−1
2
Provide 10 Y20 at 250 mm c/c As.prov := n ⋅ As.1 As.prov = 3142 mm
Since minimum reinforcement governs, this reinforcement will be placed in the top and bottom in the long
direction.
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
(g) Shear in longitudinal direction

Largest shear force to left of column 2: V2L = 1483 kN
⎛ c2 ⎞
Shear force at a distance d from face of column 2: V := V2L − wu⋅ ⎜ +d V = 544.522 kN
⎝2 ⎠
V
Shear stress v := v = 0.259 MPa
B⋅ d
1 1
3 4
⎛ fcu 100 ⋅ As.prov ⎞
⋅ ⎛⎜
0.75⋅ MPa 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
Shear resistance vc := ⋅⎜ ⋅ vc = 0.264 MPa
γ m.v ⎝ 25⋅ MPa B⋅ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
Since shear stress v = 0.259MPa < vc = 0.264MPa , no shear reinforcement is required.
(h) Flexural reinforcement in the short direction
Moment at the face of the 300 x 300 mm column 300 × 300 mm

considering a unit width of column
b := 1 ⋅ m
h = 900
Length of cantilever
B − c1
C := C = 1100 mm
2 pu b = 361.0 kN/m
2
C ELEVATION
M := p u⋅ b ⋅ M = 218.4 kN⋅ m
2
Required reinforcement: B = 2500
Effective depth
φ
d := h − cover − φ − d = 820 mm b = 1000
2 300 × 300 mm
M column
K :=
2 C = 1100
b ⋅ d ⋅ fcu
K = 0.00928 < 0.156, no compression

reinforcement required
PLAN
⎛ K ⎞ z
Internal lever arm z := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − z = 811.5 mm = 0.99
⎝ 0.9 ⎠ d
z
d
M 2
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
0.13 2
As.min := ⋅ b⋅ h As.min = 1170 mm Provide minimum reinforcement
100
Maximum spacing
S max := min ( 3 ⋅ d , 750 ⋅ mm) S max = 750 mm
Provide 19 Y20 at 250 mm c/c

2
mm
As.prov := 1257⋅ 300 × 300 mm
m
column
h = 900
(i) Shear in the short direction

Consider a unit width of b = 1m pu b = 361.0 kN/m
ELEVATION
Shear force at a distance d = 820 mm
from column 1 where c1 = 300 mm
B = 2500
B − c1
Loaded length E := −d E = 280 mm
2 b = 1000
300 × 300 mm
Shear force V := E⋅ b ⋅ p u V = 101.092 kN column
V d = 820 E = 280
b⋅ d
Shear resistance
PLAN
1 1
3 4
⎛ fcu 100 ⋅ As.prov ⎞
⋅ ⎛⎜
0.75⋅ MPa 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
vc := ⋅⎜ ⋅ vc = 0.268 MPa
γ m.v ⎝ 25⋅ MPa d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
Since shear stress v = 0.123MPa < vc = 0.268MPa , no shear reinforcement is required.
(g) Punching shear

One side of puncing perimeter:
Column 1: 2 × 1.5⋅ d avg + c1 = 2.790 m which is less greater than B = 2.5 m
Column 2: 2 × 1.5⋅ d avg + c2 = 2.890 m which is less greater than B = 2.5 m
Punching perimeters fall outside footing so that punching need not be considered
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
300 × 300 mm 400 × 400 mm

column column
Y20 @ 250 EW
900 2 Y16
Y20 @ 250 EW
4600
Note: Stools required to support top reinforcement are not shown
ELEVATION
10 Y20 - 1 - 250 B1
2 × 19 Y16 -
4 - 250 EF
19 Y20 - 2 - 250 B2
2 × 10 Y16 - 3 - 250 EF
PLAN: Bottom reinforcement
10 Y20 - 5 - 250 T1
2500
19 Y20 - 6 - 250 T2
PLAN: Top reinforcement

Chapter 13
Design of Suspended Floors
13.1 Introduction
Floors form an essential part of a building frame with the aim to provide flat useable sur-
faces. Suspended floors are either supported by beams, which could in turn be supported
by columns, or directly by columns. Some floors are cast directly on the ground but will
not be considered in this chapter.
The support conditions of a floor are important from an analysis point of view since it de-
termines the distribution of bending moments and hence the structural behaviour of floor.
Floors are subdivided into two main categories: (i) Edge supported floors where stiff
beams or walls provide support along the edges, and (ii) Floors supported by columns.
Different floor types, commonly encountered in buildings, are illustrated in Fig. 13-1. The
floor in Fig. 13-1a transfers the load carried by the floor to beams on opposite sides of the
floor, and is therefore referred to as one-way spanning slab. If a floor is supported by
beams on all four sides, the load is transferred to the beams in two perpendicular directions
and the slab is referred to as a two-way spanning slab (Fig. 13-1c).
As the distance between the support beams increases, a greater depth of slab is required to
transfer the load to the beams. The self-weight can be reduced by creating a ribbed
(troughed) slab as shown in Fig. 13-1b. A slab with ribs in two directions (waffle slab) can
also be created for the two-way spanning slab shown in Fig. 13-1d.
Slabs can also be supported directly by columns without beams (Fig. 13-1e) and these
floors are then referred to as flat plates. If the forces at the column-slab junction exceed the
capacity of the connection, the slab could be thickened around the column by lowering the
formwork in that area to create what is known as a drop panel. If necessary, a column head
(capital) can be provided, either together with a drop panel (see Fig. 13-1e) or on its own.
A ribbed flat slab can also be created, as shown in Fig. 13-1f, by using coffers. However,
the coffers around a column is usually omitted for increased strength in that area.
Slabs are usually subjected to uniformly distributed loads. Small concentrated loads can
be transferred to the supporting beams or columns by means of bending action of the slab
but large concentrated forces should rather be transferred by making use of beams.
13-1
13-2 Design of Suspended Floors
Edge supported slabs
(a) One-way spanning slab (b) One-way spanning ribbed slab
(c) Two-way spanning slab (d) Two-way spanning ribbed slab

Slabs supported by columns
(e) Flat slab (f) Flat slab with drops
(g) Flat slab with drops and column heads (h) Ribbed flat slab
Figure 13-1: Types of floors.

One-way spanning slabs 13-3
13.2 One-way spanning slabs
13.2.1 Behaviour
Consider a slab supported by beams on two opposite edges as shown in Fig. 13-2a. Beams
are shown here but the behaviour would be the same if the edges were supported by walls.
The load-path for a vertical load applied to the centre of the slab is shown in Fig. 13-2b.
The load is transferred to the beams through bending moments that develop within the
slab. By considering a strip of the slab as a beam, the reactions and shear forces at the sup-
ports can be calculated using simple statics. In a similar manner the supporting beams
transfer loads to the columns. Since the slab transmits the load in only one direction, the
slab is referred to as one-way spanning slab.
(a) Slab supported by beams on opposite edges (b) Load-path through structure
Figure 13-2: Load-path in a one-way spanning slab.
A single one-way spanning slab subjected to a uniformly distributed load is shown in

Fig. 13-3a. Considering a stip of slab as simply supported, the forces transmitted to te sup-
porting beams can be calculated from statics. The continuous spanning slab in Fig. 13-3b
Elevation Elevation
Shear force diagram Shear force diagram
Plan Plan
(a) Single span slab (b) Continuous span slab
Figure 13-3: Load distribution in one-way spanning slabs.

can be treated in a similar manner. When calculating the reactions for a slab strip it will be
seen that the reaction at the internal beam is larger than at the outer beams.
An alternative method of finding the load acting on a supporting beam is to draw the shear
force diagram and noting positions where the shear force is zero. The resultant of the load
acting on the area bounded by a beam and the point of zero shear force is equal to the reac-
tion transmitted from the slab to the beam. If the beam supports more than one slab, the re-
actions are added. This is a useful approximate method to find the load distribution in a
slab and will now be applied to a slab spanning in two directions.
The slab shown in Fig. 13-4a is supported by beams on all four edges. Lines are drawn to
divide each corner equally into 45° angles. It is assumed that the load on the shaded areas
are supported by the short beams and the load on the hatched areas by the long beams.
Since load is distributed in two directions, the slab is referred to as a two-way spanning
slab.
<2L ³2L
L L
(a) Two-way spanning slab (b) One-way spanning slab

³2L
(c) One-way spanning slab
Figure 13-4: Influence of plan dimension on span direction.
It can also be seen that more load is transferred to the longer beams than to the shorter
beams. If one plan dimension of a slab is significantly larger than the other (Fig. 13-4a ) the
major portion of the load is transferred to the longer beams, in which case the slab will tend
to span mainly in short direction.
SABS 0100 The slab should be designed to span in one direction if the long span exceeds 3
times the short span.
BS 8110 A slab with a long span of more than twice the short span should be designed
to as if it spans in one direction.
Designing the slab and the longer beams, as if the slab spans in one direction only, will be
conservative. However, nominal reinforcement will clearly have to be provided in the long
direction of the slab and for the shorter beams since there will be moments present in these
elements.
One-way spanning slabs will also develop if intermediate beams are added as shown in
Fig. 13-4c. The slab is then designed as if it spans in one direction with a span length of L.
It is important to note that the supporting beams have to be stiff relative to the slab. If the
beams are shallow, the behaviour would approach that of a flat slab (see section 13.3).
An alternative approach to the investigate the behaviour of one-way spanning slab is to

consider the deformed shape. A slab simply supported on two opposite edges as shown in
Fig. 13-5a is subjected to a uniformly distributed load. From the cylindrical deformed
shape we conclude that any strip perpendicular to the supports will yield the same curva-
ture and will therefore have the same bending moment. Strips parallel to the supports have
no curvature and hence no moment. Note that this approach applies only to applied loads
and not to imposed deformations.
C
R B
A
B
Bending moment
A
(b) Section A-A
(a) Slab supported on opposite edges (c) Section B-B
(d) Section C-C
Figure 13-5: Deformations of one-way spanning slab
This simplification ignores the Poisson effect. Considering a cross-section B-B of a typi-
cal slab strip spanning between supports (Fig. 13-5c ). The top of the strip is longitudinally
in compression, causing transverse expansion while the bottom is in tension, causing
transverse contraction. For strips in the centre of the slab these deformations are restrained
by adjacent strips leading to the development of stresses. Along the edges of the slab,
where the deformations are not prevented, a slight curling could develop as shown in
Fig. 13-5d. It should be noted that since deflections are normally small, such deformations
will be very small and of little interest. However, the stresses that develop in the long di-
rection of the span could cause cracking and reinforcement will have to be provided to
control these cracks.
Stresses in the long directions of the slab is also caused by shrinkage of the concrete and
thermally induced movement. A suspended slab will therefore always contain at least a
minimum area of reinforcement in both directions.
13.2.2 Analysis
A slab spanning in one direction is usually designed by considering a slab strip of unit
width as a beam (Fig. 13-6). Depending on the support conditions the beam will be either
simply supported or continuous.
1m 1m
Plan Plan
Elevation Elevation
(a) Single span slab (b) Continuous span slab
Figure 13-6: Designing a unit width of slab as a beam.
In principle a slab should be designed for the worst possible loading (see section 4.2).
However, Beeby (1982) showed that, under certain conditions, a continuous beam can be
designed by considering only one load case consisting of the maximum design load acting
on all spans simultaneously. This simplified load arrangement agrees with our knowledge
of slab behaviour and appears reasonable for most structures but is difficult to prove. From
an analysis point of view there is clearly much benefit to be gained from considering this
simplified load arrangement.
SABS 0100 The single load case of maximum design load on all spans may be used when
BS 8110
the following conditions apply:
(a) For a slab spanning in one direction, the area of a bay must be greater than
2
30 m . A bay is defined as the full width of the structure supported on two
sides (See Fig. 13-7).
(b) The ratio of nominal imposed load Qn to nominal self-weight load Gn
must not exceed 1.25, i.e.
Qn £1.25 G n (13.2-1)
el
Pan
y
Width of the
Ba
structure
Direction
of span
(a) Plan
(b) Elevation
Figure 13-7: Defining panels and bays.
(c) The nominal imposed load Qn should not be greater than 5 kPa, excluding
partitions.
Qn £ 5 kPa (13.2-2)
SABS 0100 The following additional requirement should be met:
(d) Reinforcement must be curtailed according to the simplified rules (see

Fig. 13-9).
SABS 0100 When using this single load case in the analysis of a continuous slab, a redistri-
BS 8110
bution of moments should be applied by reducing the support moments by
20% and increasing the span moments accordingly (see Fig. 13-8).
BS 8110 Nowhere should the redistributed moments be less than 75% of the elastic mo-
ments.
SABS 0100 Nowhere should the redistributed moments be less than 70% of the elastic mo-
ments.
SABS 0100 Cantilever slabs require special attention. Firstly, the 20% redistribution of
BS 8110
moments cannot be applied to the support moment. Secondly, if the span adja-
cent to a cantilever is less than 3 times the length of the cantilever, the load
case where the cantilever carries the maximum load and the adjacent span car-
rying a minimum load should also be considered.
SABS 0100 The simplified method given in Table 13-1 may used to obtain the bending
BS 8110
moments and shear forces in a one-way spanning slab if
(a) The above conditions for the simplified load arrangement apply
(b) The spans are approximately equal.
= Design bending moment envelope

Elastic
75% Elastic
Redistributed
Figure 13-8: Redistribution of moments.
Table 13-1: Ultimate bending moments and shear forces in one-way spanning slabs
(SABS 0100).

Outer support: 0 0.4F
Near centre of end span 0.086 F Leff -
First interior support -0.086 F Leff 0.6F
Centre of interior span 0.063 F Leff -
Interior support -0.063 F Leff 0.5F
These values may not be redistributed.
F = 1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn,
The term “approximately equal” is not defined in either SABS 0100 or BS 8110 but it is
generally accepted that spans could be considered approximately equal if the span lengths
do not differ by more than 15% of the longest span. It is also assumed that this Table only
applies to a slab with 3 or more spans.
The following should also be noted about Table 13-1:
• A 20% redistribution has already been applied to these values so that no further redistri-
bution is allowed.
• The values in this table differ slightly from those in Table 9-3 for one-way spanning
beams.
• Reinforcement must be curtailed according to the simplified rules (see Fig. 13-9).
• The force F is the total ultimate load (in kN) acting on the strip for the span under con-
sideration.
13.2.3 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars
The simplified rules for curtailment of bars in solid slabs spanning one-way are given in
Fig. 13-9. It is important to note that these rules only apply if the requirements for the
bending moments and shears given in section 13.2.2 are met. It should also be noted that
these rules differ slightly from those given for continuous beams (Fig. 10-12).
For v < vc /2
CL
12f or equivalent anchorage Greatest of bs /3 and 30 mm
As1 d
0.5 As1
0.08 L
£ d/2 bs
L = Effective span
(a) Simply supported slab
0.3 L Greatest of Greater of

0.15 L and 45f L/2 en 45f
0.5 As2 As2 As1 0.5 As1
As1 d
0.4 As1
0.2 L £ d/2
L = Effective span
L = Effective span
(c) Cantilever slab
(b) Continuous slab
Greatest of 0.15 L and 45f

Tensile
anchorage *0.5 As1 * But more than minimum reinforcement *0.5 As1
length 0.4 As1 0.4 As1
0.1L As1 0.1L
L = Effective span
(d) Restrained ends where zero moments were assumed in the analysis
Figure 13-9: Simplified detailing rules for one-way spanning slabs (SABS 0100).
When conducting an analysis to determine shear forces and bending moments in a slab,
both the supports shown in Fig. 13-9d will be considered as simply supported. In other
words, it is assumed that there are no moments at these supports, which is conservative
when calculating the span moment. However, moments will develop at these supports and
reinforcement are detailed for crack control as shown in the figure.
If the reinforcement is detailed as in Fig. 13-9a the bottom reinforcement is used when de-
termining the shear resistance vc at the support. For reinforcement detailed as in
Fig. 13-9d, the top reinforcement should be used when determining vc.
13.2.4 Cracking control
Cracking is controlled by limiting the maximum spacing of reinforcing bars. When practi-
cally possible, a large number of small diameter bars should be used rather than a few large
diameter bars. A minimum area of reinforcement is also specified to prevent cracking
caused be restrained thermal movement or overload. If necessary, crack widths can be cal-
culated by considering a unit width of slab as a beam.
SABS 0100 The maximum clear spacing of reinforcement in slabs is determined as fol-
BS 8110
lows:
If any one of the following conditions apply, the maximum clear spacing be-
tween bars is the lesser of 3 d and 750 mm:
(a) fy = 250 MPa and h £ 250 mm (h = total depth of slab)
(b) fy = 450 MPa and h £ 200 mm
100 As
(c) reinforcement ratio r (= ) < 0.3%
bd
where d is the effective depth of the reinforcement in the direction under con-
sideration. This applies to both main and distribution reinforcement.
If neither of the above conditions (a) to (c) apply, the maximum clear spacings
given in Table 13-2 are adjusted as follows:
(d) If r ³ 1 %, the maximum clear spacing is taken from Table 13-2.

(e) If r < 1 %, the maximum clear spacing is the value from Table 13-2 di-
vided by r.
Note that these recommendations refer to the clear spacing between bars and
not the centre to centre spacing.
Table 13-2: Maximum clear spacing (in mm) between bars (SABS 0100).
Characteristic Percentage redistribution to or from section considered*

strength of
reinforcement -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 0 +10 +15 +20 +25 +30
fy (MPa)
250 215 230 245 260 275 300 300 300 300 300 300
450 120 130 135 145 155 170 185 195 205 210 220
485 110 120 125 135 140 155 170 180 190 195 205
*
If the percentage redistribution is unknown, a value of -15 should be assumed
for moments at supports and zero for span moments.
If reinforcement is required to control cracking caused by restrained shrinkage and tem-

perature deformations, the following recommendations (which is the same as for plain
walls) should be followed:
100 As
For f y = 250 MPa, ³ 0 .24 % (13.2-1)
bh
100 As
For f y = 450 MPa, ³ 0 .13 % (13.2-2)
bh
If the control of cracking caused by restrained shrinkage and temperature deformations be-
comes important (as in tiled floors), the minimum areas of reinforcement should be in-
creased to
100 As
For f y = 250 MPa, ³ 0 .30 % (13.2-3)
bh
100 As
For f y = 450 MPa, ³ 0 .25 % (13.2-4)
bh
When applying the minimum reinforcement area requirements to the distribution rein-
forcement, only transverse reinforcement placed with the main reinforcement should be
taken into account. Reinforcement at the opposite face cannot be used for this purpose.
The slab often forms the flange of the T- or L-beam supporting the slab (see section
10.5.2). A minimum area of reinforcement must be placed in the flange to assist in the
transfer of shear forces between the web and the flange as shown in Fig. 10-6. This rein-
forcement must be at least 0.15 % of the longitudinal cross-sectional area of the flange and
must be placed over the full effective flange width beff of the beam.
13.2.5 Concentrated loads
Concentrated loads can be caused by machinery, heavy partitions, safes, etc. Finding the
moments and shears caused by such loads is difficult and therefore simplified methods are
recommended.
SABS 0100 Consider the solid one-way spanning slab shown in Fig. 13-10. The width of
BS 8110
slab supporting the load is the sum of the load width and the following width
on each side of the load
æ xö
1.2 xç1- ÷ (13.2-5)
è Lø
where x is measured from the nearest support to the load. Where an edge is
closer than this distance, the width to the edge is used. The maximum possible
width that can be added on one side will be 0.3 L for a load acting at midspan.
Load
x
L
Unsupported edge
Load width Effective slab width

supporting the load
F
G xI
H L JK
1. 2 x 1- 0.3L
Effective slab width
x = L/2 as a function of x
Figure 13-10: Effective width of slab supporting a concentrated load.
• This method only applies to one-way simply supported slabs and no guidance is given
regarding continuous slabs.
• This method will only provide the bending moment and associated reinforcement in the
direction perpendicular to the supports. Bending moments will also develop in a direc-
tion parallel to the supports but no guidance is given regarding design of the reinforce-
ment in this direction.
Large concentrated loads, such as those originating from a discontinuous column, should
however transferred by beams rather than the slab.
Two-way spanning edge supported slabs 13-13
13.2.6 Examples of one-way spanning slabs
Example 13.1
See Mathcad document Slb_Ex01_SA.
Example 13.2
13.3 Two-way spanning edge supported slabs
13.3.1 Behaviour
A simply supported slab subjected to a uniformly distributed load is shown in Fig. 13-11.
The deflected form is now dish-shaped, with curvatures in two perpendicular directions.
Since bending moment is proportional to curvature, it means that bending moments de-
velop in two directions and the slab is referred to as two-way spanning. Reinforcement is
therefore required in two directions.
D B
A C
L2 L1
The slab is continuously simply

supported on all four sides
Figure 13-11: Simply supported two-way spanning slab.
Consider two perpendicular central strips AB and CD of unit width and spans L1 and L2,
respectively. Each strip is assumed to be a simply supported beam and carries a portion of
the total uniformly distributed load w. To maintain compatibility between strips the
midspan deflection for the two strips must be equal, hence
5 w1 L41 5 w 2 L42
d= = (13.3-1)
384 E I 384 E I
where w1 = portion of load carried by AB

w2 = portion of load carried by CD
w1 L42
Simplification yields = (13.3-2)
w 2 L41
The ratio of load carried in a particular direction is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of the ratios of the spans. Consider for example the case of a longer span twice the
length of a shorter span (i.e. L2 = 2 L1). It then follows that
(2 L1 ) 4
w1 = w 2 = 16 w 2 (13.3-3)
L41
For this case the load carried in the shorter direction w1 will be 16 times greater than the
load carried in the long direction w2 and therefore the same ratio can be expected for bend-
ing moments in the slab. This approach is approximate but provides a useful understand-
ing of the influence of slab dimensions on the behaviour.
To gain a further understanding of plate behaviour, consider a strip EF close to the slab
edge. As we move along the strip from E to F, the strip starts off as being horizontal but
then rotates, reaching a maximum angle when crossing strip CD, and then rotates back to
horizontal when reaching F. A strip such as EF will therefore not only be subjected to
bending moments but also torsional moments. These torsional moments are the greatest in
the corners of the slab.
The load applied to a slab is transmitted by means of bending moments and torsional mo-
ments. The contribution of the torsional moments becomes clear when comparing the strip
method used at the start of this section with a solution obtained from elastic theory. Con-
sider a rectangular slab (L1 = L2) for which w1 = w2 = w/2. The maximum moment midspan
of a strip will be
w /2 2
M max = L = 0 .0625 w L2 (13.3-4)
8
From elastic theory the maximum moment in a strip will be
M max = 0 .0480 w L2 (13.3-5)
In this case the torsional moments reduce the midspan bending moment by 25%.
Considering spans with lengths L1 in Fig. 13-12, the maximum moments will occur in the
centre of the slab, midspan of strip AB, as expected. For a strip closer to the edge, the cur-
vature will be less (see Fig. 13-11), and hence, the maximum moment should also be less.
At the edge, the curvature of span L1 is zero, and therefore the moments should also be
zero. Design codes of practice use an approximate method to take this variation of bending
moment into account.
F Mmax =
Variation of Mmax Maximum moment
D in span L1
B
Moments in AB
A C
L2 L1
Figure 13-12: Distribution of bending moments in simply supported two-way spanning

slab.
13.3.2 Analysis of simply supported slabs

SABS 0100 If a rectangular slab is simply supported along all four edges so that lifting of
BS 8110
the corners are not prevented, the maximum moments per unit width in the
centre of the slab is given by
m sx = a sx n l 2x
(13.3-6a, b)
m sy = a sy n l 2x
where lx = length of the shorter span

ly = length of the longer span
msx = maximum moment at midspan on a unit width of slab with span lx
msy = maximum moment at midspan on a unit width of slab with span ly
2
n = total design load (kN/m ) at ultimate = 1.2 gn + 1.6 qn
Table 13-3: Bending moment coefficients for simply supported two-way spanning
slabs (SABS 0100).
ly / l x asx asy
1.0 0.045 0.045
1.1 0.061 0.038
1.2 0.071 0.031
1.3 0.080 0.027
1.4 0.087 0.023
1.5 0.092 0.020
1.6 0.097 0.017
1.7 0.100 0.015
1.8 0.102 0.016
1.9 0.103 0.016
2.0 0.104 0.016
2.5 0.108 0.016
3.0 0.111 0.017
asx, asy = bending moment coefficients from Table 13-3.
SABS 0100 Simplified detailing rules are given in Fig. 13-13.
12f or equivalent anchorage
As1 d
0.5 As1
0.1 L
£ d/2
L = Effective span = lx or ly
Figure 13-13: Simplified detailing rules for two-way spanning simply supported slabs
(SABS 0100).
• The largest moment (msx) will occur in the direction of the shortest span (lx) and this re-
inforcement should be placed in the bottom of the slab.
• The moments in Eq. (13.3-6) have units of kN.m/m.
• In both Eqs. (13.3-6a and b) the short span lx is used.
Example 13.3
13.3.3 Analysis of slabs with restrained edges
The torsional moments that develop within the simply supported slab shown in Fig. 13-11
will cause the corners to lift up. It should be noted that the deformations shown in this fig-
ure are greatly exaggerated and that the real deformations will be much smaller, with the
uplift in corners barely noticeable. Concrete floors are usually cast monolithically with the
supporting beams which prevents this uplift from occurring. Columns or walls on the slab
edge will also prevent these corners from lifting up. This causes stresses in corners and re-
inforcement must be provided here to control cracking.
SABS 0100 A simplified method is provided to determine the design bending moments in
a slab with restrained edges that comply with the following conditions:
(a) The nominal dead and imposed loads on adjacent panels should be ap-
proximately the same as on the panel under consideration.
(b) In the direction of the span being considered, the adjacent span lengths
must be approximately equal to that of the span under consideration.
Provided these conditions apply, the maximum moments per unit width in the
centre of the slab is given by
m sx = b sx n l 2x
(13.3-7a, b)
m sy = b sy n l 2x
where lx, ly, msx, msy and n are the same as those given in Eq. (13.3-6) and
bsx and bsy are bending moment coefficients from Table 13-4. The 9 different
cases considered in Table 13-4 are depicted in Fig. 13-15.
The moments calculated with Eq. (13.3-7) are the maximum moments and ap-
ply only to the middle strips as defined in Fig. 13-14. The reinforcement in the
edge strips need not be more than the minimum area of reinforcement.
Table 13-4: Bending moment coefficients for rectangular panels supported on four
sides with provision for torsional reinforcement in corners (SABS 0100).
Type of panel and Short span coefficients bsx for ly/lx Long span
moments considered coefficients
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0 bsy for all
ly/lx
1. Interior panel
Negative moment at contin- 0.031 0.037 0.042 0.046 0.050 0.053 0.059 0.063 0.032
uous edge
Positive moment at midspan 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.039 0.041 0.045 0.049 0.024
2. One short edge discontin-

uous
uous edge
3. One long edge discontin-

uous
uous edge
4. Two adjacent edges dis-

continuous
uous edge
5. Two short edges discon-

tinuous
Negative moment at contin- 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.057 0.060 0.062 0.067 0.070 -
uous edge
6. Two long edges discontin-

uous
Negative moment at contin- - - - - - - - - 0.045
uous edge
7. Three edges discontinuous

(One long edge continuous)
Negative moment at contin- 0.057 0.065 0.071 0.076 0.080 0.084 0.092 0.098 -
uous edge

Negative moment at contin- - - - - - - - - 0.058
uous edge
9. Four edges discontinuous

4 3
2 1
5
6
7
8
9
Figure 13-15: Support conditions for slab panels in Table 13-4.
Reinforcement in lx-direction Reinforcement in ly-direction

ly ly
Edge strip lx /8
Edge strip
Edge strip
Middle strip
lx lx Middle strip 3/4 lx
Edge strip lx /8
ly /8 3/4 ly ly /8
Figure 13-14: Distribution of slab into middle and edge strips.
Torsional reinforcement should be provided in the corners as illustrated in

Fig. 13-16. This reinforcement should be placed in four layers (2 top, 2 bot-
tom) with the area of each layer a proportion of the short span maximum mo-
ment reinforcement as shown in Fig. 13-16. The reinforcement in each layer
should not be less than the minimum area of reinforcement. This reinforce-
ment should extend a distance of 0.2 lx from the edge.
Simplified detailing rules for the reinforcement in the middle strip are given in
Fig. 13-17. Note that there are small differences when compared to the recom-
mendations for continuous one-way spanning slabs. Reinforcement in the
edge strips are to be placed parallel to the edges.
A number of comments can be made regarding the procedure described here:
• A slab reinforced with the reinforcement as determined from the moments in

Eq. (13.3-7) will have sufficient capacity at the ultimate limit state. The torsional rein-
forcement is mainly required to ensure acceptable service behaviour. Therefore, any re-
ly
0.2 lx 0.2 lx
Edge beam
0.2 lx
3/4 Ax 3/8 Ax
lx
Ax
3/8 Ax
0.2 lx
None
Interior beams
Edge beam
Figure 13-16: Placing and quantities of torsional reinforcement.
0.3L
0.1L 0.15L
0.5 As2 As2
0.5 As1
0.5 As1 As1 0.5 As1
50 0.15L
0.15L 0.25L
Discontinuous edge Continuous edge
Figure 13-17: Simplified detailing rules for two-way spanning slabs with restrained
edges (SABS 0100).
inforcement already present in a corner may be considered as part of the required

torsion reinforcement.
• The placement of the maximum moment reinforcement in the middle strip and mini-
mum reinforcement in the edge strips is to account for the distribution of bending mo-
ments as shown in Fig. 13-12.
• The moments in the long span direction were kept constant regardless of the ly/lx ratio
to ensure acceptable behaviour in service.
• A requirement of the method is that the adjacent span lengths must be “approximately”
equal to that of the span under consideration but no definition is given to what is consid-
ered approximately equal.
• The behaviour assumed here is for slabs supported by stiff beams or walls. If the beams
are shallow, their behaviour would approach that of a flat slab so that bending moments
will be distributed differently than assumed here.
• The requirements for this method regarding loads and spans do not include a require-
ment for a live to dead load ratio. This follows probably because the moments were ob-
tained from a yield line analysis.
The bending moment coefficients given in Table 13-4 were originally derived by Taylor et
al. (1969) by using a yield line analysis. Yield lines for a typical slab with restrained edges
are shown in Fig. 13-18. The analysis requires some assumption regarding relative section
capacities of support moments to span moments need to be made and a ratio of 4/3 was se-
lected. Although other ratios could also be assumed, this ratio is close to the elastic ratio so
that behaviour in service will also be acceptable.
Negative yield-line Walls
A Positive yield line A
Plan
Section A-A
Figure 13-18: Yield lines for the analysis of a typical slab.
Taylor et al. (1969) assumed that the reinforcement is uniformly distributed throughout
the slab. To allow for the proposed placing of the designed reinforcement in middle 3/4 of
the slab, the moment coefficients are increased by 4/3 to yield the values in Table 13-4.
When calculating moments using Eq. 13.3-7 and Table 13-4 the moments calculated at a
mutual support to two adjacent slabs may differ. One option would be to simply design for
the largest moment but this could be uneconomical.
SABS 0100 Both SABS 0100 and BS 8110 propose the following method when moments
BS 8110
at the mutual support to two adjacent slabs differ:
(a) Calculate for each span under consideration the average of the support
moments and add it to the midspan moment without considering the signs
of the moments. See for example span 2 in Fig. 13-19b.
M A +M B2
SM 2 = +M 2 (13.3-8)
2
(b) Treat the support moments (calculated from Eq. 13.3-7) as fixed-end mo-
ments (FEMs).
(c) Distribute unbalanced moments according to the relative stiffness of the
spans adjacent to the support to obtain the new support moment MB (see
Fig. 13-19c).
(d) Make the necessary adjustment to the span moments by rewriting
Eq. (13.3-8) and solving for M2
M A +M B
M 2 = SM 2 - (13.3-9)
2
If the support moment for a given span is increased (such as MB for span 2 in
Fig. 13-19c) the tension reinforcement over the support must be extended as
follows:
(e) Assume that moments are distributed parabolically between the support
moment (determined in step c) and the midspan moment (determined in
step d).
(f) Find the inflection point C.
(g) Extend 50% of the support reinforcement up to a distance x, which is
12 diameters beyond the inflection point (see Fig. 13-19d).
(h) The full area of support reinforcement must extend up to a distance x/2
into the span.
The following should be noted regarding the above procedure:
• Finding the relative stiffnesses of panels can be difficult. Since the method is approxi-
mate in nature it seems as if an equivalent continuous beam of unit width may be used
for this purpose.
• The procedure has been criticised since the moment coefficients bsx and bsy result from
a yield line analysis while the distribution of moments follows from an elastic analysis.
• Alternative approximate methods based on moment distribution is given by Regan and
Yu (1973).
• More exact elastic methods, based on a Lévy solution for plates and using moment dis-
tribution is given by Szilard (1974) and Newmark (1938).
Span Support Span Support Span

1 A 2 B 3
(a) Slab
MB3
M A + M B2
SM 2 = + M2 MB2 MO = MB3 – MB2
2
MA
SM2
M2
(b) Bending moments from Eq. 3-3-7
MB MB = MB2 + DBA MO
or MB = MB3 – DBC MO
MA
SM2
C
M A + MB
M2 M 2 = SM 2 -
2
(c) Adjusted bending moments
12 f
As
0.5 As
0.5 x
x
(d) Anchorage of reinforcement
Figure 13-19: Adjustment to moments in edge supported slabs.
SABS 0100 For slabs subjected to uniformly distributed loads, the distribution of loads to
the supporting beams can be determined from Fig. 13-20a:
(a) If two edges, meeting in the corner of a slab, have the same support: di-
vide the corner into two 45° angles.
(b) If the slab is continuous (or fully restrained) at one edge and discontinu-
ous (or simply supported) at the other, the angle on the continuous edge
must be 60°.
Consider the slab shown in Fig. 13-20a which is supported by columns at the corner of
each panel. Figure 13-20b shown the load supported by beam ABC. If the uniformly dis-
ly Edge beam
A B C
45º
60º
x
lx
60º
D 45º
E
Edge beam
(a) Load distribution to supporting beams

qx
A B C
(b) Load on beam AB
Figure 13-20: Loads on supporting beams.
2
tributed load acting on the slab is q (in kN/m ), the maximum load on the beam will be q x.
The load supported by beam DE is determined in a similar manner, noting that two panels
now contribute to the load on this beam.
13.3.4 Deflections in two-way spanning slabs
Deflections are controlled by limiting the span-effective depth ratio (l/d) and this often de-
termines the thickness of the slab. Beeby (1971) showed that the additional stiffness in a
two-way spanning simply supported slab only led to a 10% increase in l/d when compared
to a similar one-way spanning slab. The l/d ratios for one-way spanning slabs are therefore
also used for two-way spanning slabs.
• Slabs supported by their edges tend to span in the shorter direction and l/d ratios should
apply to this direction as well as the reinforcement in this direction.
• In a two-way spanning slab a strip of unit width is selected and considered as a beam to
determine the relevant boundary conditions.
Flat slabs 13-25
• The modification factors for tension and compression reinforcement (if present) are de-
termined at midspan or at the support for a cantilever slab.
• The l/d ratios have been selected to ensure that the deflections in a beam or slab, rela-
tive to its supports, will not exceed a prescribed limit. However, such a limit could be
exceeded if both the slab and the supporting beams are at their respective maximum al-
lowable l/d ratios.
It is difficult to account for all variables that influence deflections in concrete slabs. Sev-
eral approximate methods exist and care should be exercised when using such methods.
The fundamental assumptions and limitations of such a method must be established. It
should also be kept in mind that the calculated deflections will be approximate and the or-
der may be of more importance than the actual value itself.
13.3.5 Example of a two-way spanning slab
Example 13.4
13.4 Flat slabs
13.4.1 Introduction
A flat slab is supported mainly by columns, instead of beams as in the previous sections.
Several examples are given in Fig. 13-21. The most commonly encountered type of flat
slab is shown in Fig. 13-21a. The slab may be thickened around a column and this is re-
ferred to as a drop (see Fig. 13-21b). To reduce shear stresses in the slab, a column head
can be provided with several options shown in Fig. 13-21c to e. Although an edge beam
could be provided in some cases (see Fig. 13-21f), the behaviour of the slab will neverthe-
less approach that of a flat slab and it should be analysed as such.
13.4.2 Equivalent frame analysis
The method most commonly used to determine bending moments and shear forces in a flat
slab is known as the equivalent frame method (also see section 4.3). Finite element,
grillage or yield line methods can also be used. Note that a yield line analysis will not pro-
vide the distribution of elastic moments under service loads that is required to check crack-
ing and deflection.
Consider the building frame in Fig. 13-22a consisting of flat slabs supported by columns.
The structure is braced so that horizontal loads are carried by the bracing and only vertical
loads have to be considered in the analysis of the frame. A floor, together with the columns
above and below the slab, is isolated from the building as shown in Fig. 13-22b. The next
(a) Flat plate (b) Flat slab with drop (c) Flat slab with square,
tapered column head
(d) Square constant (e) Round tapered (f) Flat slab with
column head column head edge beam
Figure 13-21: Support types for flat slabs.
step is to take a strip through the structure, for example along gridline B, and to consider it
independently as an equivalent frame as shown in Fig. 13-22c. The slab width on each side
of the column is equal to half the transverse span on that side of the column.
An analysis is now carried out on a frame consisting of vertical elements (the columns)
and a wide horizontal beam shown in Fig. 13-22c. The result is that a three-dimensional
problem has been reduced to a two-dimensional analysis. The loads acting on the beam are
the total floor loads that would have acted on the shaded strip in Fig. 13-22b.
SABS 0100 If only vertical loads are being considered, the full width of slab can be
BS 8110
used to calculate section properties of the beams in the frame. However, if
horizontal and vertical loads are being considered (unbraced frame), the
section properties should be based on half the width of the slab. Note that
the full frame in Fig. 4-2b should then be considered for the analysis (i.e.
a simplified equivalent frame cannot be used).
Analysis of the equivalent frame yields the total bending moments in a beam with the same
width as the slab (see Fig. 13-23a). Experimental and analytical studies have shown that
the bending moments are not uniformly distributed across the width of the slab but are
greater on a longitudinal line connecting the columns (see Fig. 13-23b), reducing in a
Flat slabs 13-27
5
CL CL
4
3
2
5
1 L4
A B C D
4
(a) Building frame L3
3
L2
2
L1
LA/2 LB/2
LA LB LC 1
A B C D
(b) Flat slab floor taken from building
Middle strip
LA/2
B Column strip
LB/2
Plan
1 2 3 4 5 B
A
LB LC LD Section A-A
A
Elevation
Total bending moments in slab
(c) Equivalent frame
Figure 13-22: Equivalent frame.

(a) Total bending moment carried

over full width of slab
B/2 B/2
(b) Variation of moments

through width of slab
CL Column CL Column
Experimental results
Moment
Moment
Equivalent frame analysis
Equivalent Experimental
frame analysis results
0 0
B/2 B/2
(c) Moments at column (d) Moments at midspan
80
Column strip
Percentage of long span
70
negative moment
60
50
40
Middle strip
30
20
10
0
1.0 1.5 2.0
Aspect ratio
(e) Influence of aspect ratio on long-span negative moment (Regan, 1981)
Figure 13-23: Variation of bending moments through the width of the slab.
Flat slabs 13-29
transverse direction. The variation of bending moments is shown more clearly in

Fig. 13-23c for a transverse section at a column and in Fig. 13-23d for a transverse section
at midspan.
Design codes of practice allow for this variation by dividing the moment obtained from the
equivalent frame analysis into column and middle strips and assigning portions of this mo-
ment to each strip. Typical strips are shown in Fig 13-22c.
SABS 0100 The dimensions of the strips depend on the panel dimensions and are given in
Fig. 13-24. A panel is considered and the width of the column strip in the par-
ticular panel is given by lx/4 where lx is the shorter span. The process is re-
peated for each adjacent panel to obtain the total width of the column strip. If
drops are present, the width of the column strip is taken equal to the width of
the drop. Ignore the drop if the width is less than lx/3.
The proportions of the total moment from the equivalent frame analysis, to be
resisted by column and middle strips respectively, are given in Table 13-5. If
panel sizes differ, the column strips for two panels meeting at a column may
differ in width. In this case the largest column strip should be used at the
column.
Table 13-5: Division of moments in strips (SABS 0100).
Column strip Middle strip

Negative moment 75% 25%
Positive moment 55% 45%
For the case where the width of the column strip is taken as equal to that of the drop and
the width of the middle strip therefore increases, the design moments resisted by the
middle strip should be increased in proportion to its increase in width. The design
moments to be resisted by the column strip may then be decreased by an amount such
that the total negative and total positive moments resisted by the column and middle
strips together are unchanged.
It should be noted that the constant proportions given in Table 13-5 depends on the span
lengths in each direction. Figure 13-23e shows the influence of aspect ratio on the split of
the long-span negative moment at a column to the middle and column strips (Regan,
1981).
It is possible to simplify the analysis further by considering a continuous beam, consisting

of the equivalent frame, but with the columns replaced by simple supports (see
Fig. 13-26). This approach ignores moments carried by the columns and is conservative
with regards to the slab moments. The moments are divided into column and middle strips
as set out above.
= Column strip
lx /4
short span = lx
lx /2
lx /4
lx /4 ly – lx /2 lx /4
long span = ly
(a) Slab without drops
Note:
Ignore drops if < lx /3
ldrop
ldrop /2 lx – ldrop ldrop /2

short span = lx
ldrop
ldrop /2 ly – ldrop ldrop /2

long span = ly
ldrop ldrop
(b) Slab with drops
Figure 13-24: Division of panels into column and middle strips.

Flat slabs 13-31
Middle strip
LA/2
B Column strip
LB/2
Plan
LA LB LC LD Section A-A
1 2 3 4 A 5
Elevation
Total bending moments in slab
Figure 13-26: Simplified continuous beam
L L
(a) Ignore drop if £ 0.15 L (b) Allow for drop if > 0.15 L
Figure 13-25: Section properties to assume for analysis.
Following the analysis of the equivalent frame in one direction the entire process of isolat-
ing frames and conducting analyses is repeated in the other direction. It should be noted
that the total uniformly distributed load must be applied in each direction.
The gross uncracked concrete section is usually used to determine the section properties
for the analysis (also see section 4.4).
SABS 0100 The stiffening effects of the column heads and drops are ignored if they do not
extend more than 0.15 L into the slab (see Fig. 13-25).
13.4.3 Column heads
If column heads are present they act as wide supports that influence the behaviour of the
structure. The first step is to find the effective diameter of the column head hc, which de-
pends on the depth of column head.
SABS 0100 The angle a flared column head makes with the horizontal should not be less
BS 8110
than 45°. If the column head is shallow, a line is drawn at 45° from the base of
the column to determine the effective column head dimension lh which is
measured 40 mm below soffit of the slab (or drop, if present). If the column
head is deep, the actual dimension of the column head is used (see
Fig. 13-27a). Constant column heads are treated in a similar manner as shown
in Fig. 13-27b. These requirements can also be expressed as follows:
ì
ïl ho
l h = lesser of í (13.4-1)
îl h ,max = l c + 2 (d h - 40 mm)
ï
where
lh = effective dimension of a column head

lho = actual dimension of column head
lh,max lh,max
dh 45º 40 mm dh 45º 40 mm
lc lc
lho lho
lh = lh,max lh = lho
(a) Flared column head
lh,max lh,max
lc lc
lho lho
(b) Constant column head
Figure 13-27: Effective dimension of a column head.

Flat slabs 13-33
dh = depth of column head below soffit (or below drop, if present)

lc = dimension of the column (measured in the same direction)
If the column head is round, the effective diameter of the column head hc is
equal to lh. For a square column head, hc is determined from a circular area
that has the same area as the effective column head.
SABS 0100 The effective diameter hc of the column head is limited as follows:
1æ l + l 2 ö
hc £ ç 1 ÷ (13.4-2a)
4è 2 ø
where:
l1 = length of the panel, measured between column centre lines in the direc-
tion under consideration
l2 = width of the panel, measured between column centre lines perpendicu-
lar to the direction under consideration
BS 8110 The effective diameter of the column head hc is limited as follows:
lx
hc £ (13.4-2b)
4
where lx is the shorter span.

SABS 0100 These requirements can be expressed as:
ìl h for round column heads ü

ï ï
ï ï 1æ l 1 + l 2 ö
hc = í ý£ ç ÷ (13.4-3)
ï 4lh ï 4è 2 ø
2
ï for square column headsï

î p þ
SABS 0100 The maximum design moment at a support can be taken as the moment a dis-
BS 8110
tance hc/2 from the column centre line, provided the sum of the positive span
moment and the average of the support moments is greater than the following
nl 2æ 2 ö
2
ç l 1 - hc ÷ (13.4-4)
8 è 3 ø
If this condition is not met, the negative moments at the supports should be increased so
that this condition applies. This condition is also illustrated in Fig. 13-28. The term in pa-
renthesis in Eq. (13.4-4) is the effective span and is given by
Slab CL
l2
Slab CL
hc (a) Plan hc
2
l1 - hc
3
l1
(b) Elevation
= Design bending moments MB
MA
hc/2 hc/2
MP +
M A + MB
³
F
n l2
G 2
l1 - hc
I
2
J
MP
2 8 H 3 K
(c) Bending moments
Figure 13-28: Bending moments
æ 2 ö
l =ç l 1 - hc ÷ (13.4-5)
è 3 ø
Equation (13.4-4) is effectively an expression that presents the free bending moment
2
(wl /8) that develops from equilibrium for a total applied load on the span (w = nl2). As-
suming that the sum of the average support moments and the span moment must be equal
to the free bending moment, ignores the presence of torsional moments that must be trans-
ferred between the slab and the column (Nichols, 1914).
13.4.4 Moment transfer at slab-column connection
Analysis of the equivalent frame may yield moments at the slab-column connection that
cannot be transferred by the connection. Within limits, a redistribution of moments may be
carried out.
Flat slabs 13-35
SABS 0100 The maximum moment that can be transferred to a column is given by
BS 8110
M t ,max = 0 .15 be d 2 f cu (13.4-6)
where be = width of a strip depending on the distance between the column and the
free edge of the slab (see Fig. 13-29). For an internal column be should
not be greater than the width of the column strip.
d = effective depth of top reinforcement in the column strip
fcu = characteristic concrete strength
If the moment from the analysis at the slab-column connection must be re-
duced to equal the capacity of the connection, the midspan moment must be
increased accordingly. However, the following should be noted: Mt,max should
not be less than 50% of the moment obtained from an analysis of the equiva-
lent frame. If a grillage or finite element analysis has been conducted, Mt,max
should not be less than 70% of the design moment. If these requirements can-
not be met, the structural layout should be altered because excessive cracking
may influence the shear capacity (Rowe et al., 1987).
Cx
Cy y
be = Cx be = Cx + y be = C x + C y
y
y y
x
be = C x + y be = Cx + y/2 be = x + y/2
£ column strip
Figure 13-29: Width of strip be to transfer moment at slab-column connection.
13.4.5 Simplified analysis method

SABS 0100 If the conditions for the simplified load arrangement (see section 13.2.2) ap-
ply, the simplified method given in Table 13-6 may be used to obtain the bend-
ing moments and shear forces in the slab. The simplified load arrangement
consists of the maximum design load on all spans for which the conditions are
repeated here for convenience:
(a) For a slab spanning in one direction, the area of a bay must be greater than
2
30 m . A bay is defined as the full width of the structure supported on two
sides (See Fig. 13-7).
(b) The ratio of nominal imposed load Qn to nominal self-weight load Gn ra-
tio must not exceed 1.25, i.e.
Qn £1.25 G n (13.4-7)
(c) The nominal imposed load Qn should not be greater than 5 kPa, excluding
partitions:
Qn £ 5 kPa (13.4-8)
The following additional requirements must also be met before the simplified
method may be used:
(d) The structure is braced so that sideways stability of the frame does not de-
pend on the slab-column connection. (The structure is braced).
(e) There should be at least three spans in the direction under consideration.
(f) The span lengths should be approximately equal. (It is assumed here that
the spans will be approximately equal if they do not differ by more than
15% from the longest span).
(g) The curtailment rules for solid one-way spaning slabs (section 13.2.3)
should be used.
Table 13-6: Ultimate bending moments and shear flat slabs (SABS 0100).
Position Moment Shear Total column

moment
Outer support: Column – 0.04 F l 0.45 F 0.04 F l
Wall – 0.02 F l 0.4 F ¾
Near centre of end span + 0.083 F l ¾ ¾
First internal support – 0.063 F l 0.6 F 0.022 F l
Centre of interior span + 0.071 F l ¾ ¾
Interior support – 0.055 F l 0.5 F 0.022 F l
These moments may not be redistributed. Assume bb = 0.8.
æ 2 ö
l = Effective span in the direction under consideration =ç l 1 - hc ÷
è 3 ø
Flat slabs 13-37
The following should be noted regarding the use of Table 13-6:
• The total load F (= n l1 l2) is calculated using span dimensions measured between cen-
tre lines of columns. The moments are calculated using the effective length l (see
Eq. 13.4-5).
• Moments are given at an outside support for both a wall and a column, where it is as-
sumed that the wall acts as a simple support and does not provide rotational restraint.
• The values given in the Table are based on the single load case of the maximum design
load acting on all spans. The 20 % reduction in support moments and appropriate in-
crease in span moments have been applied so that no further redistribution of bending
moments are allowed.
• Moments in the Table are those at the centre-line of the column and no adjustments
have been made to take into account the dimensions of the column head. The test for the
total free moment (Eq. (13.4-4)) is therefore unnecessary.
• The moment that can be transferred between an edge column and the slab must be
checked as with the frame analysis (see section 13.4.4). It may be necessary to reduce
the moment at an edge column and increase the span moment in the end span
accordingly.
• The moments obtained from the Table 13-6 are divided into column and middle strips
as set out in Table 13-5.
13.4.6 Slab thickness
The thickness of the slab is mainly controlled by deflections but should not be less than
125 mm in slabs without drops. If shear reinforcement is to be included, the minimum
thickness should be 150 mm.
13.4.7 Effective depth
In flat slabs the use of the equivalent frame should make it clear that the largest bending
moments will occur in the longer spans. The largest effective depth d should therefore be
provided in the long span direction (see Fig. 13-30).
1
2 Long span: layers 1 and 4
3 Short span: layers 2 and 3
4
Figure 13-30: Reinforcement layout in flat slabs.

The effective depth d is required in the following cases:
(a) Flexural strength: It is recommended that the actual d is used for each direction.
(b) Punching shear: The average d is used.
(c) Deflection: The actual d is used for each direction.
13.4.8 Deflections
Slab without drops
For flat slabs without drops the basic allowable l/d-ratio for beams is used but multiplied
by a factor of 0.9. When calculating the modification factor for tension reinforcement F1,
2
the term M/(b d ) should be based on the total midspan moment over the width of the
frame (column and middle strips). In a similar manner, the stress in the reinforcement fs
should be calculated based on all the reinforcement over the width of the frame.
The l/d-ratio should always be considered in the critical direction, which is usually the
long-span direction in flat slabs. Note that the actual effective depth for each direction
must be used. Ribbed slabs are treated as flanged sections which could mean a further re-
duction of up to 0.8 in basic l/d-ratio.
Slab with drops
If the plan dimensions of the drops are at least a one-third of the respective span in each di-
rection, the basic allowable l/d-ratio for beams is used (without multiplying by a factor
of 0.9).
13.4.9 Openings in panels

SABS 0100 Openings in slabs should generally be framed on all sides by beams that trans-
BS 8110
fer loads to the columns, unless one of the conditions below apply:
(a) Openings common to two intersecting middle strips

The greatest dimension of the opening, in a direction parallel to the cen-
tre-line of the panel, must not exceed 0.4 l (see Fig. 13-31a).The total de-
sign moment must redistributed to the remaining slab sections.
(b) Openings common to two column strips
The length or width of the opening must not exceed one-tenth of the
width of the column strip. The reduced section must be able to resist the
design moments (see Fig. 13-31b).The perimeter used in the shear calcu-
lation must be reduced appropriately.
(c) Openings common to a column and middle strip
The length or width of the opening must not exceed one-quarter of the
Flat slabs 13-39
= Column strip
£ 0.4 lx
Bcol
lx
£ 0.1 Bcol
Bcol
£ 0.4 ly
£ 0.1 Bcol
ly
(b) Opening common to two
(a) Opening common to two intersecting middle strips column strips
Bcol
£ 0.25 Bcol
(c) Opening common to a column strip and a middle strip
Figure 13-31: Openings in panels.
width of the column strip (see Fig. 13-31a). The reduced section must be
able to resist the design moments.
Openings are not allowed to encroach on a column head.
Analysis of an equivalent frame will produce a bending moment envelope that can be used
to curtail reinforcement according to the normal rules (see section 10.7). If the simplified
method has been used to obtain the bending moments (section 13.4.5), the curtailment
rules for solid one-way spaning slabs (see section 13.2.3) should be used.
In the simplified detailing rules some dimensions are given relative to the face of the sup-
port. For slabs with column heads the edge of the column head should be used as the face
of the support. Since the column heads are classified as wide supports, the effective span
should be taken as the clear distance between column heads plus an effective depth.
Regardless of the method used to obtain the bending moments, the column strip reinforce-
ment that passes over the column must be placed so that two-thirds of this reinforcement is
placed within half the width of the column strip, centrally over the column.
13.5 Punching shear in slabs
13.5.1 Shear stresses in solid slabs under concentrated loads
A concentrated load acting on a slab may cause a punching shear failure as illustrated in
Fig. 13-32a. A crack develops around the column so that a cone of concrete is punched
through the slab. The slab may also fail in the way a beam would fail in shear (see
Fig. 13-32b). However, punching shear is usually the most likely failure in a flat slab.
A A B B
Plan Plan
Section A-A Section B-B

(a) Punching shear failure (b) Normal (beam) shear failure
Figure 13-32: Normal and punching shear failures.
When considering punching shear, the first critical section where the stresses should be
checked is a perimeter located a distance 1.5 d from the face of the loaded area (see
Fig. 13-33). The depth of the reinforcement d is taken as the average depth of the rein-
forcement passing through the perimeter in the two directions. The nominal shear stress
acting on this perimeter u is given by
N
v= (13.5-1)
ud
Punching shear in slabs 13-41
1.5 d 1.5 d
Critical
1.5 d
a section
Loaded
area b
1.5 d
Perimeter = u
Plan
Load:
Total = N
d = davg
h
Elevation
Figure 13-33: First critical section for punching.
where u = length of the critical perimeter

= 2 (a + 3 d + b + 3 d) = 2 a + 2 b +12 d
If v £ vc at the perimeter, shear reinforcement is not necessary and no further checks are
necessary. However, if v > vc, shear reinforcement must be provided within the perimeter
and a further check has to be made, on a new perimeter located 0.75 d from the first. The
process is repeated (see Fig. 13-35) until a perimeter is found where no shear reinforce-
ment is required. The following definitions are used in the analysis:
(a) A perimeter is the smallest rectangle that can be drawn around the loaded area that
will nowhere be closer to the edge of the loaded area than a specified distance lp (see
Fig. 13-34a). The distance lp will be some multiple of 0.75 d.
(b) The failure zone is a 1.5 d wide strip, inside the perimeter under consideration.
(c) The effective length of a perimeter u is a length which has been adjusted to allow for
openings and slab edges. Openings closer than 6 d from the loaded edge reduces the
effective length of the perimeter as shown in Fig. 13-34b. Radial projections are
drawn from the centroid of the loaded area to the outer edges of the opening and the
part of the perimeter intersected by the projections is to be considered ineffective.
= Failure zone
0.75 d 1.5 d
1.5 d 1.5 d 1.5 d 1.5 d 1.5 d 1.5 d
* * *
*At least 2 sets of reinforcement within a failure zone

(a) First failure zone (b) Second failure zone (c) Third failure zone
Figure 13-35: Considering successive failure zones for punching shear.
lp lp lp
lp lp lp lp lp lp lp is a multiple of 0.75 d
lp
lp lp
(a) Perimeter for a general shape of loaded area
Slab edge Slab edge
<6d Perimeter a Perimeter a

Perimeter b Perimeter b
(b) Effective perimeter (c) Effective perimeter (d) Effective perimeter

allowing for openings close to slab edge close to slab corner
Figure 13-34: Perimeter for punching shear.
Openings adjacent to the loaded edge, with a width less than one-quarter of the loaded
edge length, may be ignored.
For a loaded area close to a slab edge or corner (see Figs. 13-34c and d) the smallest of
perimeters a and b should be used as the effective perimeter.
(d) The effective steel area As,eff is required when calculating shear resistance vc and is the
total area of tension reinforcement passing through the failure zone. To be effective
this reinforcement must extend at least an effective depth d or 12 diameters beyond
the zone on either side. To calculate vc Eq. (6.5-3) for the shear capacity of beams is
used where the term 100 As/(b d) is replaced by
100 As,eff
(13.5-2)
ud
where d is the average effective depth and u is the outer perimeter of the failure zone.
13.5.2 Design of shear reinforcement for punching

SABS 0100 Regardless of the quantity of shear reinforcement provided, the maximum
shear stress at the edge of the loaded area should not exceed
ì0.75 f
v u = lesser of í cu
(13.5-3)
î4 . 75 MPa
The design process is summarized as follows:
(a) The first perimeter is considered at a distance 1.5 d from the loaded area.
If v £ vc no shear reinforcement is required and no further checks are nec-
essary.
(b) If v > vc the following shear reinforcement is required:
(v - v c ) u d
For (v c < v < 1.6 v c ) : SAsv ³
0 .87 f yv
with (v - v c ) ³ 0 . 4 MPa (13.5-4)
5 (0 . 7 v - v c ) u d
For (1.6 v c < v < 2 v c ) : SAsv ³
0 .87 f yv
where:
u = outside perimeter of the failure zone

Asv = area of shear reinforcement
fyv = characteristic strength of the shear reinforcement (not exceeding
450 MPa)
These equations apply only when:
• v < 2 vc
• Links are used as shear reinforcement.
• The slab is at least 200 mm thick. For every 10 mm less than 200 mm, a
10 % loss of efficiency should be assumed for the shear reinforcement.
(c) Shear reinforcement must be distributed over at least two perimeters
within the failure zone under consideration (see Fig. 13-35).
(d) Shear reinforcement placed for a previous failure zone may be included
in the failure zone under consideration where such zones overlap.
(e) The first perimeter of shear reinforcement should be approximately 0.5 d
from the face of the loaded area and should contain at least 40 % of the re-
quired area of shear reinforcement.
(f) Shear reinforcement must be anchored around at least one layer of ten-
sion reinforcement.
(g) Shear stresses are checked on the next perimeter a distance 0.75 d from
the current perimeter. If v £ vc no shear reinforcement is required and no
further checks are necessary, otherwise repeat the process from step (b)
above.
When checking punching shear in slabs with drops, punching should first be checked at a
critical perimeter 1.5 d1 from the face of the column where d1 is the depth of the
reinforcement in the drop (see Fig. 13-36a). If the critical perimeter falls outside the drop,
punching will not take place inside the drop but rather in the slab. The process continues
by checking punching shear at a critical perimeter 1.5 d2 from the edge of the drop, where
d2 is the depth of the reinforcement in the slab. Note that in the case of a step, the critical
section is as shown in Fig. 13-36b.
Critical sections:
In drop Critical section
In slab
d1 d2
d2
1.5 d 1
1.5 d 2 1.5 d 2
(a) Drop below the slab (b) Step in slab
Figure 13-36: Punching shear in a flat slab with a drop.
13.5.3 Effects of moment transfer on shear
The preceding design recommendations assume that the load on the slab only consists of a
transverse load so that the distribution of shear stress along a critical perimeter is uniform.
This is generally not the case in flat slabs where there are moments present in the columns.
To allow for the nonuniform distribution of shear stresses caused by these moments, the
total shear force, i.e. the column reaction, is increased. In the following discussion inter-
nal, edge and corner columns are treated differently. A summary of the requirements is
presented in Fig. 13-37.
Corner
column
Veff = 1.25 Vt
Veff = 1.25 Vt Internal column

Edge
column
e
Veff = Vt 1.25 + e
1.5 Mt e
Veff = Vt 1 + e
1.5 Mt
Vt x
or
Vt x or Veff = 1.15 Vt
Veff = 1.4 Vt
Figure 13-37: Effective shear forces.
Internal columns
The effective shear force, allowing for the effects of moment transfer, at an internal col-
umn is given by (also see Fig. 13-38):
æ 1.5 M t ö
V eff = V t ç
ç1+ ÷
÷ (13.5-5)
è V t x ø
where Vt = design shear force transferred from the slab to the column. This is also
the support reaction, i.e. the sum of the beam shears in the equivalent
frame.
Mt = the moment transferred from the slab to the column, i.e. the sum of the
moments above and below the slab in the in the equivalent frame.
x = side length of a critical shear perimeter, parallel to the axis of bending.
lp
Cx x
Cy lp
Perimeter being considered

Mt
Bending moments
Vt Shear forces
Figure 13-38: Definition of Vt and Mt.

If the single load case is considered, Vt is the value from the elastic distribution of shears
while Mt is determined after the 20% redistribution of moments has been applied. Equa-
tion (13.5-5) should be applied independently to each direction of analysis and the greatest
value should be used for design.
In the case where the simplified method of section 13.4.5 has been used to determine the
shears and moments, the following simplified equation may be used
V eff =1.15V t (13.5-6)
Corner columns
The effective shear force for a corner column is given by
V eff =1.25V t (13.5-7)
Edge columns
The effective shear force for an edge column with bending about an axis parallel to the
free edge is given by
V eff =1.25V t (13.5-8)
The effective shear force for an edge column with bending about an axis perpendicular to
the edge is given by
æ 1.5 M t ö
V eff = V t ç
ç1.25 + ÷
÷ (13.5-9)
è V t x ø
If the spans are approximately equal, the above equation may be reduced to
V eff =1. 4V t (13.5-10)
13.5.4 Punching shear examples
Example 13.5
13.6 Flat slab example
Example 13.6

Ribbed slabs 13-47
13.7 Ribbed slabs
13.7.1 Structural topping
In a ribbed slabs the topping may either contribute to the strength of the slab or not. If the
topping contributes to the strength it is referred to as a structural topping. Ribbed slabs
with structural toppings can be created as follows:
(a) A slab is cast over blocks, placed in rows and spaced apart, to form a slab with con-
crete ribs between blocks (see Fig. 13-39a). The blocks are permanent and may either
contribute to the strength of the slab or not. The concrete in the topping must be of the
same strength as the concrete in the ribs.
(b) The concrete is cast on formwork that, after the concrete has set, is removed to yield a
ribbed slab (see Fig. 13-39b). The formwork is usually tapered to assist in removing
the formwork.
(c) Void formers are used to produce a ribbed slab with continuous top and bottom sur-
faces (see Fig. 13-39c). The voids may have any shape and are usually permanent.
Specially designed formwork exist that can be removed after casting.
13.7.2 Non-structural topping
A slab can also be constructed of ribs cast in-situ between permanent blocks which is then
covered by a topping. (see Fig. 13-39d). No special effort is made to connect the ribs to the
topping. The topping is not considered to contribute to the strength although it may be of
the same strength as the ribs.
Topping
Topping contributes
Ribs
to strength
(a) Permanent blocks: (b) Forms removed after (c) Void formers in slab
voided or solid concrete has set
contribute to strength
Topping does not
(d) Strength of topping not the

same as that of the ribs
Figure 13-39: Types of ribbed slabs.

13.7.3 Properties of blocks and formers

SABS 0100 In the case of permanent void formers, they may contribute to the strength of
the slab, in which case they are referred to as structural blocks. The following
conditions apply:
• The blocks must be made of concrete or burnt clay.

• The blocks must have a strength of at least 14 MPa, measured on the
nett section axially loaded in the same direction in which the compres-
sive stresses in the slab occur.
• Blocks may also be made of fired briquettes, clay or shale.
13.7.4 Dimensional requirements
Structural topping with structural blocks

SABS 0100 The clear distance between ribs must not be greater than 500 mm (see
Fig. 13-40a). The width of the rib will be determined by cover, bar spacing and
fire resistance but should not be thinner than 65 mm nor deeper than 4 times
the width of the web. The minimum thickness of the topping is:
• 25 mm if the blocks are connected in a cement-sand mixture of a least

1:3 with a cube strength not less than 11 MPa.
• 30 mm if the blocks are not connected.
Structural topping with non-structural blocks

SABS 0100 The centerline spacing of ribs must not be greater than 1500 mm (see
Fig. 13-40b). The rib should not be thinner than 65 mm nor deeper than 4 times
the width of the web. The minimum thickness of the topping is the greatest of
40 mm and one-tenth of the open spacing (ao) of the ribs.
Non-structural topping with structural blocks

SABS 0100 If the topping does not contribute to the strength of the slab, the blocks must be
of the structural type (see Fig. 13-40c). It is not necessary for the blocks to be
connected in a cement-sand mixture. The minimum thickness of the block is
the greatest of 20 mm and one-tenth of the open spacing (a1) inside the blocks.
Slabs without blocks

SABS 0100 The centerline spacing of ribs must not be greater than 1500 mm (see
Fig. 13-40d). The rib should not be thinner than 65 mm nor deeper than 4 times
the width of the web. The minimum thickness of the topping is the greatest of
50 mm and one-tenth of the open spacing (ao) of the ribs.
Ribbed slabs 13-49
Structural topping ³ greater of

R
S25 mm if connected
T30 if unconnected
£ 4 bw bw,min = 65 mm
ao £ 500 mm bw Structural blocks
(a) Structural topping, structural blocks
Structural topping ³ greater of

R
S40 mm
Ta / 10
0
£ 4 bw bw,min = 65 mm
ao bw Non-structural blocks
£ 1500 mm
(b) Structural topping, non-structural blocks
greater of
R
S20 mm
Ta / 10
1 Non-structural topping
a0
³ a1
5
ao £ 500 mm Structural blocks
(c) Non-structural topping, structural blocks
greater of
R
S50 mm
Ta / 10
0
£ 4 bw ao ³ 65 mm
£ 1500 mm
(d) Slabs without blocks
Figure 13-40: Dimensional requirements for ribbed slabs.

Make this part solid
Figure 13-41: Supports to ribbed slabs.
Where ribs are parallel to a support, the rib should by made as wide as the support. It means
that a block or void should not be over a support (see Fig. 13-41).
13.7.5 Design
Flexure
The design of a ribbed slab where the topping contributes to the strength is carried out in
the same manner as for a T-section. If the web is in tension the effective width for a
T-section must be used.
If structural blocks are present, an ultimate design stress of 0.25 times the strength of the
block may be assumed. If the strength is a characteristic value (see section 3.3), 0.3 times
the strength may be used.
Shear
If the slab is designed as a flat slab, each rib intersected by the critical perimeter carries an
equal proportion of the applied shear force. If shear reinforcement is provided in a rib, it
should extend a distance d into the solid part of the slab.
The shear stress is determined from
V
v= (13.7-1)
bv d
where V = ultimate shear force acting on a width of slab measured between cen-
terline between ribs
d = effective depth of reinforcement
bv = average width of the rib.
If hollow structural blocks are used, the effective width of the web bv can be taken as the
width of the concrete rib plus one wall thickness of a block. For solid structural blocks bv
may be increased by one half of the rib depth on each side of the rib. No guidance is given
on bv for slabs with enclosed openings as in Fig. 13-39c. It is assumed that the recommen-
dations given for deflections will apply here (see below). No shear reinforcement is re-
quired if v < vc. Shear reinforcement is provided as for beams when v > vc.
Deflections
Span-effective depth ratios are determined as for flanged beams. If hollow blocks are pres-
ent the wall thickness on each side of the rib may be included.
For slabs with enclosed openings as shown in Fig. 13-42, the effective web width bw is cal-
culated by assuming a rectangular web with the same area of concrete below the flange.
b b
t1 t1
D h
t2 bw
p D2
a f
bw h - t1 = Ar
a f
Area concrete below flange Ar = b h - t1 -
4 p D2
bw = b -
a f
4 h - t1
Figure 13-42: Effective web width for deflection calculations.
Detailing of reinforcement
SABS 0100 In ribbed or hollow block slabs it is recommended that a layer of welded wire
fabric is placed in the topping. The area in each direction should be 0.12 % of
the topping. Bars should not be spaced further than half the spacing of the ribs.
When two or more bars are required in a rib, and v > vc/2, it is recommended
that shear links should be provided to keep the flexural reinforcement in place.
The general arrangement and design information for a 5 storey building is given in
Fig. 13-43. The following problems will investigate and compare costs for different floor
systems.
Problem 13.1
Beams are placed on the column grid lines in the north-south direction to support a
one-way spaning slab as shown in Fig. 13-44. The slab is continuous in the east-west di-
rection with 4 equal spans of 7.5 m.
Roof
3.9 m 3.9 m 3.9 m 3.9 m 3.9 m
Third floor
Second floor
First floor
Ground floor
Basement
ELEVATION
A B C D E
7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m
N
1
6m
2
7.5 m
3
6m
BASEMENT LAYOUT INDICATING PARKING BAYS

NOTES:
· Parking in basement, offices from first to third floors and an accessible flat roof.
· All elements should have a fire resistance of at least 1 hour
· Conditions of exposure: Mild inside, severe outside
· Nominal loads:
Live load = 2.5 kN/m2
Partitions = 1 kN/m2
Floor finishes and services = 1.5 kN/m2
· Concrete:
Strength fcu = 30 MPa
Cover = 25 mm
· All reinforcement
Strength fy = 450 MPa
· All columns are 450 ´ 450 mm
· Brick wall on outside edge = 230mm (assume 25% covered by glazing)
· Unit weight of brick and concrete = 24 kN/m3
Fig. 13-43: General arrangement and design details of building.

A B C D E
7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m
N
1
6m
600 ´ 450 beam

2
600 ´ 450 beam
600 ´ 450 beam
600 ´ 450 beam
600 ´ 450 beam

7.5 m
b
sla
m
0m
25
3
6m
Figure 13-44: Layout for Problem 13.1.
(a) Design a typical end-span assuming a slab thickness of 250 mm and determine the re-
quired area of reinforcement in kg/m2. It is not necessary to allow for curtailment in
determine the required area of reinforcement.
(b) Design the end span of a typical supporting beam spaning in the north-south direc-
tion. Assume a total beam depth (including the slab) of 600 mm and a width of
450 mm.
Problem 13.2
Beams are placed on all column grid lines to support a two-way spaning slab as shown in
Fig. 13-45.
(a) Design panel a (shown in the figure) assuming a slab thickness of 200 mm and deter-
mine the required area of reinforcement in kg/m2. It is not necessary to allow for cur-
tailment in determine the required area of reinforcement.
(b) Design beam b (shown in the figure) assuming a total beam depth (including the slab)
of 500 mm and a width of 450 mm.
Problem 13.3
Design the flat slab shown in Fig. 13-46 assuming there are no drops or column heads.
Consider an equivalent frame in the east-west direction, along gridline 2, and design the
A B C D E
7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m
500 ´ 450 beam N
1
500 ´ 450 beam

6m
500 ´ 450 beam

2 b
500 ´ 450 beam
500 ´ 450 beam
500 ´ 450 beam
500 ´ 450 beam

7.5 m
a
b
sla
m
0m
20 500 ´ 450 beam
3
6m
500 ´ 450 beam

4
A B C D E
7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m 7.5 m
N
1
6m
6.75 m
2 a
7.5 m
b
sla
m
75m
2
3
6m
end span a. Also determine punching reinforcement at column B2 (if necessary). Deter-
2
mine the required area of reinforcement in kg/m without allowing for curtailment.
Struct: Slabs: Example 13-1 Calc sheet no: 1 of 4
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Slb_Ex01_SA.xmcd
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Example 13-1: Single span one-way spanning slab

Input variables
The slab shown below is simply supported on two opposite sides.
CL CL
230 mm 230 mm
4500 mm
The nominal loads are

−2
superimposed dead load sdl := 1 ⋅ kN⋅ m (floor and ceiling finishes included)
−2
superimposed live load q n := 3 ⋅ kN⋅ m (partitions included)

Span length L := 4.5⋅ m
Width of supports b s := 230 ⋅ mm
Slab thickness
Assume a basic L/d ratio of 16 and a modification factor F1 := 1.4 , which is within the expected range for a
lightly reinforced slab.
L
d min := d min = 201 mm
16⋅ F1
Assume the following:
depth of reinforcement d := 200 ⋅ mm

moderate exposure conditions so that cover := 25⋅ mm
diameter of main reinforcement φ := 10⋅ mm
φ
Overall depth of slab h := d + + cover h = 230 mm
2
Effective span
Clear distance between spans lo := L − b s lo = 4.27 m
The effective span is the lesser of lo + d = 4.47 m and L = 4.5 m, so that leff := lo + d leff = 4.47 m
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Bending reinforcement
−3
Assume a unit weight for the concrete of γ := 24⋅ kN⋅ m
−2
Self-weight of slab h ⋅ γ = 5.52 kN⋅ m
−2
Total nominal dead load g n := h ⋅ γ + sdl g n = 6.52 kN⋅ m
−2
Ultimate load n := 1.2⋅ g n + 1.6⋅ q n n = 12.62 kN⋅ m
Consider a slab of unit width b := 1 ⋅ m

−1
Distributed load on a beam of unit width w := n ⋅ b w = 12.624 kN⋅ m
1 2
Maximum bending moment M := ⋅ w⋅ leff M = 31.53 kN⋅ m
8
Determine required reinforcement

M
2
b ⋅ d ⋅ fcu
⎛ K⎞ z
Internal lever arm z := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − z = 194 mm = 0.97
⎝ 0.9 ⎠ d
z
d
M 2
As.req := As.req = 423.9 mm per m width
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z
2
Provide Y10 bars @ 175 mm c/c As := 449 ⋅ mm per m width
Span-effective depth ratio

M
Stress in reinforcement = 0.788 MPa
2
b⋅ d
γ 1 := 1.1 γ 2 := 1.0 γ 3 := 1.2 γ 4 := 1.6 β b := 1.0
⎛ γ 1 + γ 2 ⎞ As.req 1
fs := 0.87⋅ fy⋅ ⎜ ⋅ ⋅ fs = 277.2 MPa
⎝ γ3 + γ4 ⎠ As βb
Modification factor for tensile reinforcement

477 ⋅ MPa − fs
F1 := 0.55 + F1 = 1.536 ≤ 2.0, OK
120 ⋅ ⎛ 0.9⋅ MPa +
M ⎞
⎜ 2
⎝ b⋅ d ⎠
Compare span-effective depth ratios

leff ⎛ l ⎞ = 16⋅ F = 24.58 , OK
= 22.35 < ⎜ 1
d ⎝ d ⎠ max
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Shear
w⋅ L
At the centre of the support V := V = 28.404 kN
2
V
v := v = 0.142 MPa
b⋅ d
−1
Maximum shear is the lesser of 0.75⋅ fcu⋅ MPa = 4.108 and 4.75 MPa
vmax := 4.108 ⋅ MPa
v < vmax OK
100 ⋅ ( 0.5⋅ As) Note that only half of the reinforcement is used at
= 0.112 < 3, OK the critical position (distance d from the face of the
b⋅ d < 0.15, use 0.15 support) because of the applied detailing.
fcu = 30 MPa ≤ 40 MPa, OK
γ mv := 1.4
1 1
1
3 4
⎛ fcu ⎞
⋅ 0.15 ⋅ ⎛⎜
0.75⋅ MPa 3 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
vc := ⋅⎜ vc = 0.36 MPa
γ mv ⎝ 25⋅ MPa ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
v < vc OK
Anchorage
vc
At the support v = 0.142 MPa which is less than = 0.18 MPa. The required anchorage is therefore the
2
bs
greater of = 77 mm or 30 mm, say 80 mm. Only 50 % of the main reinforcement need to be provided at the
3
support and 50 % may be curtailed at a distance of 0.1⋅ leff = 447 mm, say 400 mm.
Distribution steel
Using high-yield steel in the transverse direction, the required amount is
0.13 2
As.req := ⋅ b⋅ h As.req = 299 mm
100
2
Provide Y10 bars @ 250 mm c/c As.d := 314 ⋅ mm per m width
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______

fy = 450 MPa but h = 230 mm > 200 mm, so the first condition does not apply
100 ⋅ As
= 0.224 which is less than 0.3 %. Since this condition applies, the simplified rules can be
b⋅ d used
Maximum spacing is the lesser of 3 ⋅ d = 600 mm and 750 mm, therefore S max := 600 ⋅ mm OK
Reinforcement details
02
230
80 400 01
100
leff = 4470 mm
SECTION A-A
4730
19 Y10 - 02 - 250 B2
A A
12 Y10 - 01 - 175 B1 STG 2000
PLAN
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Example 13-2: Continuous one-way spanning slab

Input variables
The four-span slab shown below spans in one direction only.
A A 7m
B B
PLAN
A B C
P Q
4.5 m 4.5 m 4.5 m 4.5 m
SECTION A-A
180
460
230
SECTION B-B

−2
superimposed dead load sdl := 1 ⋅ kN⋅ m (floor and ceiling finishes included)
−2

Span length L := 4.5⋅ m

Width of slab B := 7 ⋅ m
Width of supporting beams b s := 230 ⋅ mm
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Slab thickness
Assume a basic L/d ratio of 24 and a modification factor F1 := 1.25, which is within the expected range for a
lightly reinforced slab.
L
d min := d min = 150 mm
24⋅ F1
Assume the following:
depth of reinforcement d := 150 ⋅ mm

moderate exposure conditions so that cover := 25⋅ mm
diameter of main reinforcement φ := 10⋅ mm
φ
Overall depth of slab h := d + + cover h = 180 mm
2
Effective span
Assume the effective span to be the distance between support centres leff := L leff = 4.5 m
Loadings
−3
Assume a unit weight for the concrete of γ := 24⋅ kN⋅ m
−2
Self-weight of slab h ⋅ γ = 4.32 kN⋅ m
−2
Total nominal dead load g n := h ⋅ γ + sdl g n = 5.32 kN⋅ m
−2
Since the following conditions aplpy:
2 2
• area of a bay B⋅ L = 31.5 m is greater than 30⋅ m
qn
• ratio = 0.564 is less than 1.25
gn
−2 −2
• live load q n = 3 kN⋅ m is less than 5 ⋅ kN⋅ m
it is only necessary to consider a single loadcase acting on the structure.
Furthermore,
• there are more than three spans
• the spans are equal
so that the moments and shear forces may be obtained from SABS 0100-1 Table 13.
Consider a slab of unit width b := 1 ⋅ m

Total load on span F := n ⋅ L⋅ b F = 50.33 kN
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Bending moments MP := 0.086 ⋅ F⋅ leff MP = 19.48 kN⋅ m
MB := −0.086 ⋅ F⋅ leff MB = −19.48 kN⋅ m
MQ := 0.063 ⋅ F⋅ leff MQ = 14.27 kN⋅ m
MC := −0.063 ⋅ F⋅ leff MC = −14.27 kN⋅ m
Shear forces VAB := 0.4⋅ F VAB = 20.13 kN
VBA := 0.6⋅ F VBA = 30.2 kN
VBC := 0.5⋅ F VBC = 25.16 kN
General design equations for bending

M
K( M) :=
2
b ⋅ d ⋅ fcu
⎛ K( M )⎞
Internal lever arm z( M) := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 −
⎝ 0.9 ⎠
z( M) := if ⎛⎜ > 0.95 , 0.95⋅ d , z( M) ⎞

z( M)
must be ≤ 0.95 d
⎝ d ⎠
M
Area steel required As( M) :=
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z( M)
Ratio of redistributed moments to elastic moments at supports β b := 0.8
( ) (
K' := 0.402 ⋅ β b − 0.4 − 0.18⋅ β b − 0.4 )2 K' = 0.132
At P MP = 19.48 kN⋅ m K( MP) = 0.029 < 0.156, OK
z( MP)
As.P.req := As( MP)
2
= 0.95 As.P.req = 349.1 mm
d
2
Provide Y10 @ 200 mm c/c As.P := 393 ⋅ mm per m width
At B MB = −19.48 kN⋅ m K ( MB ) = 0.029 < 0.132, OK

2
Provide Y10 @ 200 mm c/c As.B := 393 ⋅ mm per m width (Same reinforcement as for P)
At Q MQ = 14.27 kN⋅ m K( MQ) = 0.021 < 0.156 OK
z( MQ)
As.Q.req := As( MQ)
2
= 0.95 As.Q.req = 255.8 mm
d
2
Provide Y10 @ 300 mm c/c As.Q := 262 ⋅ mm per m width
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
At C MC = −14.27 kN⋅ m K ( MC ) = 0.021 < 0.132, OK

2
Provide Y10 @ 300 mm c/c As.C := 262 ⋅ mm per m width (Same reinforcement as for Q)
Note that the same depth was used for all reinforcement but this may not always be valid.

fy = 450 MPa and h = 180 mm < 200 mm, so that the simplified rules can be used
Maximum spacing is the lesser of 3 ⋅ d = 450 mm and 750 mm, therefore
S max := 450 ⋅ mm OK for all reinforcement
For high-yield steel the required amount is
0.13 2
As.min := ⋅ b⋅ h As.min = 234 mm per m width OK for all reinforcement
100
Transverse reinforcement
Using high-yield steel as distribution steel, the required amount is
2
As.min = 234 mm per m width
2
Provide Y10 bars @ 300 mm c/c As.d := 262 ⋅ mm per m width

The critical span for deflection is span AB.
MP
= 0.866 MPa
2
b⋅ d
γ 1 := 1.1 γ 2 := 1.0 γ 3 := 1.2 γ 4 := 1.6 β b := 1.0
⎛ γ 1 + γ 2 ⎞ As.P.req 1
fs := 0.87⋅ fy⋅ ⎜ ⋅ ⋅ fs = 260.8 MPa
⎝ γ3 + γ4 ⎠ As.P βb
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
F1 := 0.55 + F1 = 1.57 ≤ 2.0, OK
⎛ MP ⎞
120 ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ MPa +
2
⎝ b⋅ d ⎠
< ⎛⎜ ⎞
leff l
= 30 = 24⋅ F1 = 37.69 OK
d ⎝ d ⎠ max
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Shear
VBA
At B VBA = 30.2 kN v := v = 0.201 MPa
b⋅ d
−1
vmax := 4.108 ⋅ MPa v < vmax OK
100 ⋅ As.B
= 0.262 < 3, OK
b⋅ d > 0.15, OK
γ mv := 1.4
1 1 1
3 3
0.75⋅ MPa ⎛ fcu ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⋅ As.B ⎞ ⎛ 400 ⋅ mm ⎞ 4
vc := ⋅⎜ ⋅⎜ ⋅⎜ vc = 0.465 MPa
γ mv ⎝ 25⋅ MPa ⎠ ⎝ b⋅ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
v = 0.201 MPa < vc = 0.465 MPa OK
VAB
At A VAB = 20.13 kN v := v = 0.134 MPa
b⋅ d
Maximum shear v < vmax OK
100 ⋅ ( 0.5⋅ As.P)

= 0.131 < 3, OK Note that only half of the reinforcement is
b⋅ d < 0.15, use 0.15 used
1 1
1
3 4
⎛ fcu ⎞
⋅ ( 0.15) ⋅ ⎛⎜
0.75⋅ MPa 3 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
vc := ⋅⎜ vc = 0.387 MPa
γ mv ⎝ 25⋅ MPa ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
v = 0.134 MPa < vc = 0.387 MPa OK

Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Anchorage
At A Reinforcement required in top of slab

1 2 2
As.req := ⋅ As.P As.req = 196.5 mm but this is less than As.min, so provide As.min = 234 mm
2
Anchorage to be the greatest of 0.15⋅ leff = 675 mm and 45⋅ φ = 450 mm, measured from the face of
the beam.
This part of the slab is also the flange of a L-beam for which transverse reinforcement of 0.15% of
the flange area is required
0.15 2
As.req := ⋅ b⋅ h As.req = 270 mm
100
2
Provide Y10 bars @ 250 mm c/c As.A := 314 ⋅ mm per m width
This reinforcement must be provided over the full effective flange width.
Assume a column of 230 mm Lbeam := B − 230 ⋅ mm Lbeam = 6.77 m
Web of beam b s = 0.23 m

Lbeam
Effective flange wdth b eff := b s + b eff = 907 mm
10
Distance from beam face b eff − b s = 677 mm say 700 mm
At B and C
Required anchorages: Top: 0.15⋅ leff = 675 mm > 45⋅ φ = 450 mm, OK
0.3⋅ leff = 1350 mm
Bottom: 0.2⋅ leff = 900 mm
This part of the slab is also the flange of a T-beam for which transverse reinforcement of 0.15% of
the flange area is required. Provided reinforcement at B is OK but reinforcement at C needs to
increase.
2
Provide Y10 bars @ 250 mm c/c at C As.C := 314 ⋅ mm per m width
Lbeam
Effective flange width of beam b eff := b s + b eff = 1584 mm
5
⋅ ( b eff − b s) = 677 mm
1
Distance from beam face say 700 mm
2
The required reinforcement is summarized below:

A B C
Y10 @ 250 Y10 @ 200 Y10 @ 250
P Q
Y10 @ 200 Y10 @ 300
Y10 @ 300 for all transverse reinforcement

9 9 9 9 9
6 7 8 7 6
2 1, 2 1 4 3, 4 3 3 3, 4 4 1 1, 2 2
SECTION A-A
CL BEAM 4 500 CL BEAM 4 500 CL BEAM 4 500 CL BEAM 4 500 CL BEAM
7000
900 900
1 1
450 2 900 900 2 450

3 3
A A
61 Y10 - 5 - 300 B2
900 4 900
2 x 12 Y10 - 3 300 B1
12 Y10 - 4 ALT
2 x 18 Y10 - 1 200 B1
2 x 17 Y10 - 2 ALT
PLAN - BOTTOM REINFORCEMENT

REINFORCED CONCRETE SIN412
Example 13-2: Bottom reinforcement
JMR 12-02-2004
9 9 9 9 9
6 7 8 7 6
2 1, 2 1 4 3, 4 3 3 3, 4 4 1 1, 2 2
SECTION A-A
28 Y10 - 6 - 250 T1
2 ´ 35 Y10 - 7 - 200 T1 STG
CL BEAM CL BEAM 28 Y10 - 8 - 250 T1 CL BEAM CL BEAM
700 1350 700 1350 700 1350 700 700
700 1350 700 1350 700 1350
(4) (10) (10) (10) (4) 38 Y10 - 9

- 300 T2
A A
4 500 4 500 4 500 4 500

18 230
PLAN - TOP REINFORCEMENT

Example 13-2: Top reinforcement
JMR 12-02-2004
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Example 13-3: Simply supported two-way spanning slab

Input variables
The slab shown below is simply supported on all four sides and corners are not held down.
lx = 4.5 m
A A
PLAN
CL CL
230 mm
ly = 6.3 m
SECTION A-A
−2
Nominal live load q n := 10⋅ kN⋅ m
Span lengths (centrelines): lx := 4.5⋅ m ly := 6.3⋅ m

Slab thickness: h := 220 ⋅ mm
Width of supports b s := 230 ⋅ mm
Loadings
−3
Unit weight of concrete γ con := 24⋅ kN⋅ m
−2
Self weight of slab g n := γ con⋅ h g n = 5.28 kN⋅ m
−2
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Bending moments
ly
From Table 14 of SABS 0100 for = 1.4 α sx := 0.087 α sy := 0.023
lx
2 −1
Bending moments in lx direction msx := α sx⋅ n ⋅ lx msx = 39.35 kN⋅ m⋅ m
2 −1
Bending moments in ly direction msy := α sy⋅ n ⋅ lx msy = 10.4 kN⋅ m⋅ m
Consider a unit width in each direction b := 1 ⋅ m
Assume:
moderate exposure conditions cover := 25⋅ mm
diameter of main reinforcement φx := 12⋅ mm
diameter of transverse reinforcement φy := 10⋅ mm

φx
depth of reinforcement d x := h − cover − d x = 189 mm
2
φy
d y := h − cover − φx − d y = 178 mm
2
Short span reinforcement

Moment on a width of b = 1m Msx := msx⋅ b Msx = 39.35 kN⋅ m
Msx
2
b ⋅ d x ⋅ fcu
⎛ K ⎞ z
Internal lever arm z := d x⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − z = 180.9 mm = 0.957
⎝ 0.9 ⎠ dx
z
Since = 0.957 is greater than 0.95, assume z := 0.95⋅ d x z = 179.55 mm
dx
Msx 2
Asx.req := Asx.req = 559.8 mm per m width
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z
2
Provide Y12 bars @ 150 mm c/c Asx := 754 ⋅ mm per m width
Long span reinforcement

Moment on a width of b = 1m Msy := msy⋅ b Msy = 10.403 kN⋅ m
Msy
2
b ⋅ d y ⋅ fcu
⎛ K ⎞ z
Internal lever arm z := d y⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − z = 175.8 mm = 0.988
⎝ 0.9 ⎠ dy
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
z
Since = 0.988 is greater than 0.95, assume z := 0.95⋅ d y z = 169.1 mm
dy
Msy 2
Asy.req := Asy.req = 157.1 mm per m width
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z
2
Provide Y10 bars @ 250 mm c/c Asy := 314 ⋅ mm per m width
0.13 2
100

Conditions for simplified rules do not apply:
fy = 450 MPa but h = 220 mm > 200 mm
100 ⋅ Asx
ρ x := ρ x = 0.399 > 0.3
b⋅ dx
Since no redistribution of moments are applied here, the maximum spacing is the lesser of
170 ⋅ mm
= 426 mm
ρx
3 ⋅ d x = 567 mm
750 ⋅ mm therefore maximum spacing is 426 mm, OK

100 ⋅ Asy
Since = 0.176 < 0.3, the simplified rules can be applied.
b⋅ dy
Maximum spacing is the lesser of 3 ⋅ d y = 534 mm and 750 mm, therefore 534 mm, OK.

Considering the short span
Msx
= 1.102 MPa
2
b⋅ dx
γ 1 := 1.1 γ 2 := 1.0 γ 3 := 1.2 γ 4 := 1.6 β b := 1

Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
⎛ γ 1 + γ 2 ⎞ Asx.req 1
fs := 0.87⋅ fy⋅ ⎜ ⋅ ⋅ fs = 218 MPa
⎝ γ3 + γ4 ⎠ Asx βb
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
F1 := 0.55 + F1 = 1.628 ≤ 2.0, OK
⎛ Msx ⎞
120 ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ MPa +
⎜ 2
b⋅ dx ⎠
⎝
Basic span-effective depth ratio = 16
lx ⎛ l ⎞ = 16⋅ F = 26.05 , OK
= 23.81 < ⎜ 1
dx ⎝ d ⎠ max
Shear
Short span
Shear on a width of b = 1m
lx
V := n ⋅ ⋅ b V = 50.256 kN
2
V
vx := vx = 0.266 MPa
b⋅ dx
−1
vmax := 4.108 ⋅ MPa vx < vmax OK
100 ⋅ ( 0.5⋅ Asx)

= 0.199 < 3, OK
b⋅ dx > 0.15, OK
γ mv := 1.4
1 1 1
⎡ 100 ⋅ ( 0.5⋅ Asx)⎤

3 3 4
0.75⋅ MPa ⎛ fcu ⎞ 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
vc.x := ⋅⎜ ⋅⎢ ⎥ ⋅ ⎛⎜ vc.x = 0.401 MPa
γ mv ⎝ 25⋅ MPa ⎠ ⎣ b⋅ dx ⎦ ⎝ dx ⎠
vx = 0.266 MPa < vc.x = 0.401 MPa OK

Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Long span
Shear on a width of b = 1m
lx
V := n ⋅ ⋅ b V = 50.256 kN
2
V
vy := vy = 0.282 MPa vy < vmax OK
b⋅ dy
100 ⋅ ( 0.5⋅ Asy)

= 0.088 < 3, OK
b⋅ dy < 0.15, use 0.15
γ mv := 1.4
1 1
1
3 4
⎛ fcu ⎞
⋅ 0.15 ⋅ ⎛⎜
0.75⋅ MPa 3 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
vc.y := ⋅⎜
γ mv ⎝ 25⋅ MPa ⎠ ⎝ dy ⎠
vy = 0.282 MPa < vc.y = 0.37 MPa OK
Anchorage
Only 50% of the reinforcement will continue into the support while the rest will be curtailed at a distance from
the centre of the support of
0.1⋅ lx = 450 mm for the short span
0.1⋅ ly = 630 mm for the long span, say 600 mm
Anchorage to be provided
vc.x
vx = 0.266 MPa > = 0.201 MPa Short span anchorage = 12φx = 144 mm
2
vc.y
vy = 0.282 MPa > = 0.185 MPa Long span anchorage = 12φy = 120 mm
2
Bends are required for the bars continuing into the support in order to provide the required anchorage.
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
450
44 Y12 - 1 - 150 B1 ALT
4500
600
19 Y10 - 2 - 250 B2 ALT
600
B B
450
6300
A
PLAN
CL CL
4500
SECTION A-A
CL 2 CL
6300
SECTION B-B
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Example 13-4: Continuous two-way spanning slab

Input variables
The slab shown below is supported by beams on each gridline. The slab forms a monolithic joint with the
beams.
A B C D
7.2 m 7.2 m 7.2 m
N
1
6m a c
6m b
6m
−2
Nominal live load q n := 10⋅ kN⋅ m
Span lengths (centrelines): lx := 6 ⋅ m ly := 7.2⋅ m
Slab thickness: h := 220 ⋅ mm Beam width: b s := 400 ⋅ mm

−2 −2
Nominal load q n := 5 ⋅ kN⋅ m Surfacing g surf := 1 ⋅ kN⋅ m
Cover cover := 20⋅ mm
Loadings
−3
Unit weight of concrete γ con := 24⋅ kN⋅ m
−2
Self-weight of slab g n := γ con⋅ h + g surf g n = 6.28 kN⋅ m
−2
Bending moments
Since the following conditions apply:
• the nominal self-weight and live loading is the same on adjacent panels, and
• span of adjacent panels are the same,
the bending moments may be obtained from Table 15 in SABS 0100.
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Bending moments per unit width is given by ( )

ms β s := β s⋅ n ⋅ lx
2
Panel a
ly
From Table 15 of SABS 0100 for case 4 and = 1.2
lx
Bending moments in short span (lx) direction
Sagging (+) moment at midspan β sx := 0.047 ( )

msx.a := ms β sx msx.a = 26.29 kN⋅ m⋅ m
−1
Hogging (–) moment at support β sx := −0.063 ( )

msx.a.2 := ms β sx msx.a.2 = −35.24 kN⋅ m⋅ m
−1
Bending moments in long span (ly) direction

Sagging (+) moment at midspan β sy := 0.034 ( )
msy.a := ms β sy msy.a = 19.02 kN⋅ m⋅ m
−1
Hogging (–) moment at support β sy := −0.045 ( )

msy.a.B := ms β sy msy.a.B = −25.17 kN⋅ m⋅ m
−1
Panel b
ly
For case 2 and = 1.2
lx
Bending moments in short span (lx) direction
Hogging (–) moment at support β sx := −0.048 ( )
msx.b.2 := ms β sx msx.b.2 = −26.85 kN⋅ m⋅ m
−1
Panel c
ly
For case 3 and = 1.2
lx
Bending moments in long span (ly) direction
Hogging (–) moment at support β sy := −0.037 ( )
msy.c.B := ms β sy msy.c.B = −20.69 kN⋅ m⋅ m
−1
A B
ly = 7.2 m
1
a c
26.29
msx.a
msy.a.B msy.c.B
msy.a –25.17 –20.69
lx = 6 m
19.02
–26.85 –35.24
msx.b.2 msx.a.2
2
b
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Moments at the joint support to panels a and b show the greatest difference and are adjusted as follows.
(a) Find the sum of the moments at mid span and the support
msx.a.2 −1
Σma := msx.a + Σma = 43.9 kN⋅ m⋅ m
2
(b) Consider the moments at the support as fixed-end moments

−1
Panel a MIa := msx.a.2 MIa = −35.24 kN⋅ m⋅ m
−1
Panel b MIb := msx.b.2 MIb = −26.85 kN⋅ m⋅ m
(c) Redistribute the unbalanced moment at the support

3
Considering symmetry Da := Da = 0.6
3+2
2
Db := Db = 0.4
3+2
−1
Unbalanced moment Mo := MIa − MIb Mo = −8.39 kN⋅ m⋅ m
−1
Redistribute moments msx.a.2 := msx.a.2 − Da⋅ Mo msx.a.2 = −30.2 kN⋅ m⋅ m
−1
msx.b.2 := msx.b.2 + Db⋅ Mo msx.b.2 = −30.2 kN⋅ m⋅ m
(d) Adjust midspan moments (only span a shown here)

msx.a.2 −1
msx.a := Σma − msx.a = 28.8 kN⋅ m⋅ m
2
For the support between panels a and c the difference in moments is not considered to be significant and
the largest moment is selected as the design moment.
−1
msy.B := msy.a.B msy.B = −25.17 kN⋅ m⋅ m
Final moments for panel a is summarized below:
A B
ly = 7.2 m
1
a c
28.80
msx.a
msy.B
msy.a –25.17
lx = 6 m
19.02
–30.2
msx.2
2
b
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Consider a unit width in each direction b := 1 ⋅ m
Assume diameters: main reinforcement φx := 12⋅ mm transverse reinforcement φy := 10⋅ mm
φx
depth of reinforcement d x := h − cover − d x = 194 mm
2
φy
d y := h − cover − φx − d y = 183 mm
2
For the values in the Table 15, a redistribution of 20 % should be assumed for negative moments (K′ = 0.132)
and 0 % for positive moments (K′ = 0.156). However, it can be shown that no compression reinforcement will
be required at any of the critical section considered below.
General design equations for bending
M
K( M , d ) :=
2
b ⋅ d ⋅ fcu
⎛ K( M , d) ⎞
Internal lever arm z( M , d ) := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 −
⎝ 0.9 ⎠
z( M , d ) := if ⎛⎜ > 0.95 , 0.95⋅ d , z( M , d ) ⎞

z( M , d )
⎝ d ⎠
M
Area steel required As( M , d ) :=
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z( M , d )

At midspan Msx.a := b ⋅ msx.a Msx.a = 28.8 kN⋅ m
Asx.a.req := As( Msx.a , d x)

2
Asx.a.req = 399.2 mm
2
Provide Y12 @ 250 mm c/c Asx.a := 452 ⋅ mm per m width
At support 2 Msx.2 := b ⋅ msx.a.2 Msx.2 = −30.2 kN⋅ m
Asx.2.req := As( Msx.2 , d x)

2
Asx.2.req = 418.6 mm
2
Provide Y12 @ 250 mm c/c Asx.2 := 452 ⋅ mm per m width

At midspan Msy.a := b ⋅ msy.a Msy.a = 19.02 kN⋅ m
Asy.a.req := As( Msy.a , d y)

2
Asy.a.req = 279.4 mm
2
Provide Y10 @ 250 mm c/c Asy.a := 314 ⋅ mm per m width
At support B Msy.B := b ⋅ msy.B Msy.B = −25.17 kN⋅ m
Asy.B.req := As( Msy.B , d y)

2
Asy.B.req = 369.8 mm
2
Provide Y10 @ 200 mm c/c Asy.B := 393 ⋅ mm per m width
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
0.13 2
100
2
Provide Y10 @ 250 mm c/c yields 314 ⋅ mm per m
width

fy = 450 MPa but h = 220 mm > 200 mm
100 ⋅ Asx.a
= 0.233 < 0.3, simplified rules apply
b⋅ dx
Maximum spacing is the lesser of 3 ⋅ d x = 582 mm and 750 mm, therefore maximum spacing is 582 mm, OK

100 ⋅ Asy.a
b⋅ dy
Maximum spacing is the lesser of 3 ⋅ d y = 549 mm and 750 mm, therefore maximum spacing is 549 mm, OK.
Torsion reinforcement
3 2 2
In corner ⋅ Asx.a = 339 mm Provide Y10 @ 200 mm c/c Asy.B := 393 ⋅ mm per m width
4
3 2 2
Along edge ⋅ Asx.a = 169.5 mm < As.min = 286 mm , use
8
As.min
of ⋅ lx = 1.2 m
Place this reinforcement in each of four layers, in a square 0.2
Reinforcement at discontinuous ends

1 2 2
⋅ Asx.a = 226 mm < As.min = 286 mm , use
2
As.min
1 2 2
⋅ Asy.a = 157 mm < As.min = 286 mm , use
2
As.min
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______

Considering the short span
Msx.a
= 0.765 MPa
2
b⋅ dx
γ 1 := 1.1 γ 2 := 1.0 γ 3 := 1.2 γ 4 := 1.6 β b := 1.0
⎛ γ 1 + γ 2 ⎞ Asx.a.req 1
fs := 0.87⋅ fy⋅ ⎜ ⋅ ⋅ fs = 259.3 MPa
⎝ γ3 + γ4 ⎠ Asx.a βb
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
F1 := 0.55 + F1 = 1.639 ≤ 2.0, OK
⎛ Msx.a ⎞
120 ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ MPa +
⎜ 2
b⋅ dx ⎠
⎝
Basic span-effective depth ratio = 24
lx ⎛ l ⎞ = 24⋅ F = 39.34 ,
= 30.93 < ⎜ 1
dx ⎝ d ⎠ max
OK
Shear
General function for shear resistance of concrete
vc ( b w , d , fcu , As) := fcu ← 40⋅ MPa if fcu > 40⋅ MPa

100 ⋅ As
ρ←
bw⋅ d
ρ ← 3 if ρ > 3
ρ ← 0.15 if ρ < 0.15
1 1
1
3 4
⎛ fcu ⎞ 3 400 ⋅ mm ⎞
⋅ ρ ⋅ ⎛⎜
0.75
vc ← ⋅⎜ ⋅ MPa
1.4 ⎝ 25⋅ MPa ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
vc
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Assume that loads are distributed to beams as follows
ly = 7.2 m
A B
sy1 = 2.196 m sy2 = 3.804 m
1
la lb 60º
sx1 = 2.196 m 45º
105º 75º
lx = 6 m
sx2 = 3.804 m
60º 45º
2
Short span
la lx sin( 30⋅ deg)
= la := lx⋅ la = 3.106 m
sin( 30⋅ deg) sin( 105 ⋅ deg) sin( 105 ⋅ deg)
sx1 := la⋅ cos( 45⋅ deg) sx1 = 2.196 m
sx2 := lx − sx1 sx2 = 3.804 m
Shear at beam along gridline 1

−1
V1 := n ⋅ sx1 V1 = 34.12 kN⋅ m
V1 ⎛ Asx.a ⎞
v1 := v1 = 0.176 MPa < vc ⎜ b , d x , fcu , = 0.382 MPa OK
dx ⎝ 2 ⎠
Shear at beam along gridline 2
−1
V2 := n ⋅ sx2 V2 = 59.1 kN⋅ m
V2
v2 := v2 = 0.305 MPa < vc ( b , d x , fcu , Asx.2) = 0.442 MPa OK
dx
Long span
lb lx sin( 45⋅ deg)
= lb := lx⋅ lb = 4.392 m
sin( 45⋅ deg) sin( 75⋅ deg) sin( 75⋅ deg)
sy1 := la⋅ sin( 45⋅ deg) sy1 = 2.196 m
sy2 := lb⋅ sin( 60⋅ deg) sy2 = 3.804 m
Shear at beam along gridline A

−1
VA := n ⋅ sy1 VA = 34.12 kN⋅ m
VA ⎛ Asy.a ⎞
vA := vA = 0.186 MPa < vc ⎜ b , d y , fcu , = 0.387 MPa OK
dy ⎝ 2 ⎠
Date: 2007-05-22 Date: ______
Shear at beam along gridline B

−1
VB := n ⋅ sy2 VB = 59.1 kN⋅ m
VB
vB := vB = 0.323 MPa < vc ( b , d y , fcu , Asy.B) = 0.436 MPa OK
dy
−1
vmax := 4.437 ⋅ MPa OK
Required reinforcement is summarized below
T1
T2
B2
ly = 7.2 m B1
1200 1200
mm2
mm2/m
mm2/m
mm2/m
mm2/m
286
/m
1200
339
286
339
286
800
Y12 @ 250 (452 mm2/m)
900 900 900 900

Y10 @ 250 (314 mm2/m)
286 mm2/m
286 mm2/m
399 mm2/m
lx = 6 m
286 mm2/m
286 mm2/m
(452 mm2/m)
Y12 @ 250
mm2/m
2000
419
mm2/m
mm2/m
1200
286
286
lx BOTTOM (B1) lx TOP (T1)

750
750
286
339 286 mm2/m 286 339 286 mm2/m mm2/m
mm2/m mm2/m mm2/m
920 2360
286 mm 2/m 286
mm2 370 mm2/m
/m
Y10 @ 250 (314 mm2/m)
Y12 @ 250
(452 mm2/m)
750
750
286 286
mm2/m 286 mm 2/m mm2/m 286 mm2/m
ly BOTTOM (B2) ly TOP (T2)

200 7 200
1200 1200
30 Y10 - 9 - 250 - T1
900
1200
900
1200
2 Y10 - 4 - 250 - B1 2 Y10 - 4 - 250 - T1
800
(5) (4)
9 Y10 - 8 - 250 - T1
11 Y12 - 1
250 B1 ALT
11 Y12 - 2 1 2 1500
900
3 Y10 - 10
250 T1 ALT
900 900 10 11 3 Y10 - 11
(5) (4)
9 Y10 - 3 - 250 - B1
2000
1500
22 Y12 - 7 - 250 T1 STG
1100
900
BOTTOM - B1 (lx) TOP - T1 (lx)
13 Y10 - 5 2 Y10 - 4 - 250 - T2 7 Y10 - 13 - 250 - T2 18 Y12 - 12 - 250 T2 STG

1200 250 B2 ALT
12 Y10 - 6
1200
(4)
2 Y10 - 4
- 250 - B2
750
1200
2400
1100 1100 950 1300
6
16
5
1800
15
(3)

Example 13-4: Reinforcement layout
JMR 14-02-2004
750
24 Y10 - 14 - 250 - T2 3 Y10 - 15

BOTTOM - B2 (ly) 250 T2 ALT
3 Y10 - 16
TOP - T2 (ly)
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Example 13-5: Design of punching reinforcement

Input variables
A flat slab is supported by columns spaced on a grid of L := 6 ⋅ m . The proposed flexural reinforcement is
shown in the figure below. Find suitable shear reinforcement.
Y 12 @ 150 mm in both directions h
300 × 300 columns above and below
The following file contains standard functions used in the design of beams and slabs
Reference:C:\Users\John Robberts\CC\MCADLib\RCdesign\BeamDesSABS.mcd(R)

−2
superimposed dead load sdl := 1.5⋅ kN⋅ m (floor and ceiling finishes included)
−2
−3
Unit weight concrete γcon := 24⋅ kN⋅ m

flexural reinforcement fy := 450 ⋅ MPa
shear reinforcement fyv := 250 ⋅ MPa
Slab thickness: h := 255 ⋅ mm

Cover cover := 25⋅ mm
2
mm
Reinforcement in both directions As := Y12⋅ at( 150 ⋅ mm) As = 754
m
Diameter ϕ := 12⋅ mm
Spacing S r := 150 ⋅ mm
Single links are used for shear reinforcement

2
Area of one link Asv.1 := R8 Asv.1 = 50.27 mm
Column is square with sides of c := 300 ⋅ mm
Loadings
−2
Self-weight of slab g n := γcon⋅ h + sdl g n = 7.620 kN⋅ m
−2
Uniformly distributed design load n := 1.2⋅ g n + 1.6⋅ q n n = 15.54 kN⋅ m
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
2
Punching load for floor Vt := n ⋅ L Vt = 559.6 kN
Effective shear force Veff := 1.15Vt Veff = 643.5 kN
(The factor 1.15 is to allow for the effects of moment transfer.)
Effective depths
ϕ
In x-direction d x := h − cover − ϕ − d x = 212 mm
2
ϕ
In y-direction d y := h − cover − d y = 224 mm
2
⋅ ( d x + d y)
1
Average depth d := d = 218 mm
2
Punching shear
Maximum shear
−1
Maximum allowable shear stress is smallest of 0.75⋅ MPa ⋅ fcu ⋅ MPa = 4.108 MPa and 4.75
MPa
Check maximum shear at edge of loaded area
Veff
vmax := vmax = 2.46 MPa OK
4 ⋅ c⋅ d
First critical perimeter

First critical perimeter at 1.5⋅ d = 327 mm from edge of loaded
area
One side of punching perimeter x := c + 2 ⋅ ( 1.5⋅ d ) x = 954 mm
Punching shear perimeter u := 4 ⋅ x u = 3816 mm

2
Effective shear force on perimeter V1 := Veff − n ⋅ x V1 = 629.4 kN
V1
u⋅ d
Consider a unit width b := 1 ⋅ m γmv := 1.4
Shear resistance of concrete vc := vc ⎡⎣b , d , fcu , ( As ⋅ b ) , γmv⎤⎦ vc = 0.465 MPa
v = 0.757 MPa is greater than 1.6⋅ vc = 0.744 MPa
but less than 2 ⋅ vc = 0.930 MPa
Therefore the required shear reinforcement is
5 ⋅ ( 0.7⋅ v − vc) ⋅ u ⋅ d 2
ΣAsv := ΣAsv = 1234 mm
0.87⋅ fyv
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
ΣAsv
Number links required links := links = 24.54 say 25
Asv.1
• These links should be placed in two perimeters inside the first critical section.
• The first perimeter must be at approx. 0.5⋅ d = 109 mm from the edge of the loaded area.
• The perimeters must not be further apart than 0.75⋅ d = 164 mm.
• At least 40% of the stirrups must be placed on the first perimeter.
Assume a layout for the flexural reinforcement spaced at S r = 150 mm, as shown in the figure below. If a link
is placed at each intersection of the flexural reinforcement, two perimeters of shear reinforcement are formed
inside the critical shear perimeter that also meet the above requirements.
Reinforcement in both directions: Y12 @ 150 mm in both directions

Y12 @ 150 mm c/c
R8 @ 150
Fixing bars in the bottom of the section can be

954
R8 (or Y10) @ 150 mm in both directions.
12
20
From the drawing the following can be seen:

• There are two perimeters of links inside the failure zone.
• Links on first perimeter = 12, second perimeter = 20, total = 32 links, which is more than required
• First links are spaced approximately 75 mm from edge of loaded area.
• Perimeters of links are spaced at 150 mm.
Second critical perimeter

Second critical perimeter at ( 1.5 + 0.75) ⋅ d = 490.5 mm from edge of loaded
area
One side of punching perimeter x := c + 2 ⋅ ( 1.5 + 0.75) ⋅ d x = 1281 mm

2
Effective shear force on perimeter V2 := Veff − n ⋅ x V2 = 618 kN
V2
u⋅ d
which is greater than vc = 0.465 MPa so that shear reinforcement is required. However, ( v − vc) = 0.088 MPa
is less than 0.4 MPa, therefore provide minimum shear reinforcement
( 0.4⋅ MPa ) ⋅ u ⋅ d 2
0.87⋅ fyv
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
ΣAsv
links := links = 40.869 say links := 41
Asv.1
Since there are already 20 stirrups inside this failure zone, only 41 − 20 = 21 additional stirrups are
required. Provide 28 as shown below.
Reinforcement in both directions:

492
Y12 @ 150 mm c/c
900
1281
300
20
28
900
492
Third critical perimeter

Third critical perimeter at ( 1.5 + 1.5) ⋅ d = 654 mm from edge of loaded
area
One side of punching perimeter x := c + 2 ⋅ ( 1.5 + 1.5) ⋅ d x = 1608 mm

2
Effective shear force on perimeter V3 := Veff − n ⋅ x V3 = 603.3 kN
V3
u⋅ d
which is less than vc = 0.465 MPa so that no further perimeters of shear reinforcement are required
Note that the full area of reinforcement was used to calculate vc. Following the simplified detailing rules, the
reinforcement over the column has to extend at least 0.15⋅ L = 900 mm from the face of the support into the
[ 2 ⋅ ( 0.15⋅ L) + c] − x
span. From the edge of the failure zone to where the reinforcement ends is = 246 mm,
2
which is more than d = 218 mm required for the reinforcement to be effective.
Provide shear links: R8 @ 150 in three perimeters around the column

Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Example 13-6: Flat slab with drops and column heads

1. Input variables
The flat slab shown below has square drops and is supported by round columns with round column heads.
Find the reinforcement for a typical internal span.
Characteristic material properties: A F

B C D E
1
reinforcement fy := 450 ⋅ MPa lx
2
Span lengths (centrelines):
lx
short span lx := 6 ⋅ m
3
long span ly := 7.5⋅ m
lx
Slab thickness h := 340 ⋅ mm 4
lx
Column diameter c := 300 ⋅ mm
5
Shape of column head ("round" or "square") lx
head := "round" 6
Height of column head below soffit ly ly ly ly ly
d h := 600 ⋅ mm PLAN
Maximum diameter of column head
Square drop ldrop
lh.o := 1.4⋅ m
Round column head lh,o
Length of drop ldrop := 2.5⋅ m
Thickness of drop h drop := 200 ⋅ mm h

Cover cover := 25⋅ mm 40 hdrop
dh
−2
Nominal live load q n := 5 ⋅ kN⋅ m
Round column
−2
Surfacing g surf := 0 ⋅ kN⋅ m
c
−3
TYPICAL INTERNAL COLUMN
Partial material safety factors
Concrete in bending γmc := 1.5
Reinforcement γms := 1.15
Shear γmv := 1.4
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
2. Loadings
Self-weight of slab Gn.slab := ( γcon⋅ h + g surf ) ⋅ lx⋅ ly Gn.slab = 367.2 kN
2
Self-weight of drop Gn.drop := γcon⋅ h drop⋅ ldrop Gn.drop = 30 kN
Total self-weight Gn := Gn.slab + Gn.drop Gn = 397.2 kN
Live load Qn := q n⋅ lx⋅ ly Qn = 225 kN
Loading on a panel F := 1.2⋅ Gn + 1.6⋅ Qn F = 836.64 kN

F −2
Uniformly distributed load n := n = 18.59 kN⋅ m
lx⋅ ly
3. Column head
Maximum dimension of column head lh.max := c + 2 ⋅ ( d h − 40⋅ mm) lh.max = 1420 mm
Effective diameter of column head is the lesser of lh.max = 1420 mm and lh.o = 1400 mm , therefore
lh := min ( lh.max , lh.o ) lh = 1400 mm
⎛⎜ ⎟2⎞
4 ⋅ lh
Equivalent diameter of column head h c := if ⎜ head = "round" , lh , ⎟ h c = 1400 mm
⎝ π ⎠
⋅ ( lx + ly)
1
Average span length lm := lm = 6.75 m
2
⎛ lm ⎞
Check size of column head Check ⎜ h c < ⎟ = "OK"
⎝ 4 ⎠
4. Bending moments
Since the following conditions apply, bending moments may be obtained from Table 16 in SABS 0100:
Check ⎡⎣( 5 ⋅ lx) ⋅ ly ≥ 30⋅ m ⎤⎦ = "OK"

2
1. Size of bay greater than 30 m2
⎛ Qn ⎞
2. Ratio of live to dead load < 1.25 Check ⎜ ≤ 1.25⎟ = "OK"
⎝ Gn ⎠
3. Live load is less than 5 kPa Check ( q n ≤ 5 ⋅ kPa) = "OK"
4. There are more than three spans
5. The the spans are approximately equal
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
5. Long span direction (ly)

Effective span
Considering the long span l1 := ly l1 = 7.5 m
l2 := lx l2 = 6 m
2
Effective span L := l1 − ⋅ hc L = 6.567 m
3
Effective depth
Depth of reinforcement (assuming 12 mm bars and that no shear reinforcement will be required)
12⋅ mm
d y := h − cover − d y = 309 mm
2
12⋅ mm
If compression reinforcement is required d'y := cover + d'y = 31 mm
2
Division of strips
lx
Width of drop ldrop = 2.5 m > = 2 m therefore the width of the column strip is selected to be equal to the
3
width of the drop
⎡⎛ lx ⎞ lx⎤
Width of column strip Bcol := if ⎢⎜ ldrop > ⎟ , ldrop , ⎥ Bcol = 2.5 m
⎣⎝ 3⎠ 2⎦
Width of middle strip Bmid := l2 − Bcol Bmid = 3.5 m
lx
Conventional width of middle strip, ignoring drops Bmid.conv := l2 − Bmid.conv = 3 m
2
Since the width of the middle strip Bmid = 3.5 m is greater than the conventional width of Bmid.conv = 3 m , the
distribution of moments into middle and column strips must be adjusted as follows
Bmid
Midspan: Middle strip Kspan.mid := 0.45⋅ Kspan.mid = 0.525
Bmid.conv
Column strip Kspan.col := 1 − Kspan.mid Kspan.col = 0.475
Bmid
Support: Middle strip Ksup.mid := 0.25⋅ Ksup.mid = 0.292
Bmid.conv
Column strip Ksup.col := 1 − Ksup.mid Ksup.col = 0.708
Moments at midspan of an internal span

Total moment at midspan for a width of l2 = 6 m My.span := 0.071 ⋅ F ⋅ L My.span = 390.1 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by column strip My.span.col := Kspan.col ⋅ My.span My.span.col = 185.3 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by middle strip My.span.mid := Kspan.mid ⋅ My.span My.span.mid = 204.8 kN⋅ m
Assume (conservatively) no moment redistribution for the span moments in the Table βb := 1.0
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
For high-yield steel the required minimum reinforcement for b := 1 ⋅ m is
0.13 2
As.min := ⋅ b⋅ h As.min = 442 mm per m width
100
2
mm
Provide Y12 @ 250 mm c/c Y12⋅ at( 250 ⋅ mm) = 452.4
m
Maximum spacing for minimum reinforcement
For fy = 450 MPa Check ( h ≤ 200 ⋅ mm) = "Not OK"
100 ⋅ ( Y12⋅ at( 250 ⋅ mm) )

dy
Maximum spacing S max := min ( 3 ⋅ d y , 750 ⋅ mm) S max = 750 mm OK for minimum reinforcement
Column strip
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 1613 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( Bcol , dy , d'y , fcu , fy , fy , My.span.col , βb , γmc , γms , 0) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
Asy.span.col.req := As (This reinforcement is required later for deflection calculations)
2 Bcol
Asy.span.col := 15⋅ Y12 Asy.span.col = 1696 mm = 167 mm
15
Provide 15 Y12 @ 150 mm c/c
Maximum clear spacing of reinforcement

100 ⋅ Asy.span.col
= 0.22 < 0.3, simplified rules apply S max = 750 mm OK
Bcol⋅ d y
Middle strip
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 1783 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( Bmid , dy , d'y , fcu , fy , fy , My.span.mid , βb , γmc , γms , 0 ) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
Asy.span.mid.req := As (This reinforcement is later required for deflection calculations)
2 Bmid
Asy.span.mid := 16⋅ Y12 Asy.span.mid = 1810 mm = 219 mm
16

100 ⋅ Asy.span.mid
Bmid ⋅ d y
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Moments at an interior support

Total moment at support for a width of l2 = 6 m My.sup := 0.055 ⋅ F ⋅ L My.sup = 302.2 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by column strip My.sup.col := Ksup.col⋅ My.sup My.sup.col = 214 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by middle strip My.sup.mid := Ksup.mid ⋅ My.sup My.sup.mid = 88.1 kN⋅ m
Assume a moment redistribution of 20% for the support moments in the Table βb := 0.8
Reinforcement at support
Column strip
Allow for greater slab depth by including the drop d y.drop := d y + h drop d y.drop = 509 mm
h sup := h + h drop h sup = 540 mm
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 1131 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( Bcol , dy.drop , d'y , fcu , fy , fy , My.sup.col , βb , γmc , γms , 0 ) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
2 2 Bcol
⋅ As = 754 mm must be placed centrally over the column within a width of = 1.25 m
3 2
2 0.5⋅ Bcol
7 ⋅ Y12 = 792 mm = 178.6 mm
7
Provide 7 Y12 @ 175 mm c/c centrally over column
Minimum reinforcement at support

0.13 2
As.min.sup := ⋅ b ⋅ h sup As.min.sup = 702 mm per m width
100
2 0.5⋅ Bcol
mm
Y12⋅ at( 150 ⋅ mm) = 754 = 8.3
m 150 ⋅ mm

100 ⋅ ( 9 ⋅ Y12)
ρ := ρ = 0.16 < 0.3, simplified rules apply S max = 750 mm OK
0.5⋅ Bcol⋅ d y.drop
Reinforcement for remaining width of column strip

1 2 2 0.5⋅ Bcol
⋅ As = 377 mm 4 ⋅ Y12 = 452 mm = 312.5 mm
3 4
Spacing is larger than that required for minimum reinforcement
Provide 9 Y12 @ 150 mm c/c in rest of column strip
Maximum clear spacing of reinforcement will be OK

2
Total reinforcement in column strip Asy.sup.col := 9 ⋅ Y12 + 9Y12 Asy.sup.col = 2036 mm
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Middle strip
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 767 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( Bmid , dy , d'y , fcu , fy , fy , My.sup.mid , βb , γmc , γms , 0) ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
2 Bmid Bmid
7 ⋅ Y12 = 792 mm = 500 mm Provide minimum reinforcement = 14
7 250 ⋅ mm
2
Provide 14 Y12 @ 250 mm c/c Asy.sup.mid := 14⋅ Y12 Asy.sup.mid = 1583 mm
Detailing
The effective length is taken as the open distance between column heads plus an effective depth
leff := ly − h c + d y leff = 6.409 m
Curtailment lengths
Top reinforcement (measured from column head) 0.3⋅ leff = 1.923 m say 2000 m
greatest of 45 × 12⋅ mm = 540 mm and 0.15⋅ leff = 0.961 m say 1000 m
Bottom reinforcement (measured from column centre) 0.2⋅ leff = 1.282 m say 1200 m
6. Short span direction (lx)

Effective span
Consider short span direction l1 := lx l1 = 6 m
l2 := ly l2 = 7.5 m
2
3
Effective depth
Depth of reinforcement (assuming no shear reinforcement will be required and 12 mm bars)
12⋅ mm
d x := h − cover − 12⋅ mm − d x = 297 mm
2
12⋅ mm
If compression reinforcement is required d'x := cover + 12⋅ mm + d'x = 43 mm
2
Division of strips
Width of column strip Bcol = 2.5 m
Width of middle strip Bmid := l2 − Bcol Bmid = 5 m

lx
Conventional width of middle strip, ignoring drops Bmid.conv := l2 − Bmid.conv = 4.5 m
2
Since the width of the middle strip Bmid = 5 m is greater than the conventional width of Bmid.conv = 4.5 m ,
the distribution of moments into middle and column strips must be adjusted as follows
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Bmid
Midspan: Middle strip Kspan.mid := 0.45⋅ Kspan.mid = 0.5
Bmid.conv
Column strip Kspan.col := 1 − Kspan.mid Kspan.col = 0.5
Bmid
Support: Middle strip Ksup.mid := 0.25⋅ Ksup.mid = 0.278
Bmid.conv
Column strip Ksup.col := 1 − Ksup.mid Ksup.col = 0.722
Moments at midspan
Total moment at midspan for a width of l2 = 7.5 m Mx.span := 0.071 ⋅ F ⋅ L Mx.span = 301 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by column strip Mx.span.col := Kspan.col ⋅ Mx.span Mx.span.col = 150.5 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by middle strip Mx.span.mid := Kspan.mid ⋅ Mx.span Mx.span.mid = 150.5 kN⋅ m
Assume (conservatively) no moment redistribution for the span moments in the Table βb := 1.0
As for the ly-direction
2
mm
Provide Y12 @ 250 mm c/c Y12⋅ at( 250 ⋅ mm) = 452.4
m
Maximum spacing for minimum reinforcement

100 ⋅ ( Y12⋅ at( 250 ⋅ mm) )
dx
Maximum spacing S max := min ( 3 ⋅ d x , 750 ⋅ mm) S max = 750 mm OK
Column strip
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 1363 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( Bcol , dx , d'x , fcu , fy , fy , Mx.span.col , βb , γmc , γms , 0) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
Asx.span.col.req := As
2 Bcol
Asx.span.col := 13⋅ Y12 Asx.span.col = 1470 mm = 192 mm
13
100 ⋅ Asx.span.col
Bcol⋅ d x
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Middle strip
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 1363 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( Bmid , dx , d'x , fcu , fy , fy , Mx.span.mid , βb , γmc , γms , 0 ) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
Asx.span.mid.req := As
2 Bmid Bmid
13⋅ Y12 = 1470 mm = 385 mm Provide minimum reinforcement = 20
13 250 ⋅ mm
2
Asx.span.mid := 20⋅ Y12 Asx.span.mid = 2262 mm
Moments at support
Total moment at support for a width of l2 = 7.5 m Mx.sup := 0.055 ⋅ F ⋅ L Mx.sup = 233.1 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by column strip Mx.sup.col := Ksup.col⋅ Mx.sup Mx.sup.col = 168.4 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by middle strip Mx.sup.mid := Ksup.mid ⋅ Mx.sup Mx.sup.mid = 64.8 kN⋅ m
Assume a moment redistribution of 20% for the support moments in the Table βb := 0.8
Reinforcement at support
Column strip
Allow for greater slab depth by including the drop d x.drop := d x + h drop d x.drop = 497 mm
h sup = 540 mm
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 911 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( Bcol , dx.drop , d'x , fcu , fy , fy , Mx.sup.col , βb , γmc , γms , 0 ) ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
2 2 Bcol
⋅ As = 608 mm must be placed centrally over the column within a width of = 1.25 m
3 2
2 0.5⋅ Bcol
6 ⋅ Y12 = 679 mm = 208.3 mm
6
Provide 6 Y12 @ 200 mm c/c in centrally over column
Minimum reinforcement at support (same as at support in x-direction)

2
As.min.sup = 702 mm per m width
2 0.5⋅ Bcol
mm
Y12⋅ at( 150 ⋅ mm) = 754 = 8.3
m 150 ⋅ mm

Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______

100 ⋅ ( 9 ⋅ Y12)
ρ := ρ = 0.164 < 0.3, simplified rules apply S max = 750 mm OK
0.5⋅ Bcol⋅ d x.drop
Reinforcement for remaining width of column strip

1 2 2 0.5⋅ Bcol
⋅ As = 304 mm 3 ⋅ Y12 = 339 mm = 416.7 mm
3 3
Spacing is larger than that required for minimum reinforcement
Provide 9 Y12 @ 150 mm c/c in rest of column strip

2
Asx.sup.col := 9 ⋅ Y12 + 9 ⋅ Y12 Asx.sup.col = 2036 mm
Middle strip
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 587 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( Bmid , dx , d'x , fcu , fy , fy , Mx.sup.mid , βb , γmc , γms , 0) ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
2 Bmid Bmid
6 ⋅ Y12 = 679 mm = 833.3 mm Provide minimum reinforcement = 20
6 250 ⋅ mm
2
Provide 20 Y12 @ 250 mm c/c Asx.sup.mid := 20⋅ Y12 Asx.sup.mid = 2262 mm
Detailing
leff := lx − h c + d x leff = 4.897 m
Curtailment lengths
Top reinforcement (measured from column head) 0.3⋅ leff = 1.469 m say 1.500 m
greatest of 45 × 12⋅ mm = 540 mm and 0.15⋅ leff = 0.735 m say 0.750 m
Bottom reinforcement (measured from column centre) 0.2⋅ leff = 0.979 m say 0.950 m
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
7. Span-effective depth ratio

Note that end spans are usually more critical for deflection than centre spans and should be checked as well.
Long span
The long span is usually the critical span
My.span
= 0.681 MPa
2
lx⋅ d y
Asy.span.col.req + Asy.span.mid.req
= 0.969
Asy.span.col + Asy.span.mid
γ1 := 1.1 γ2 := 1.0 γ3 := 1.2 γ4 := 1.6 βb := 1
⎛ γ1 + γ2 ⎞ Asy.span.col.req + Asy.span.mid.req 1
fs := 0.87⋅ fy ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⋅ ⋅ fs = 284.4 MPa
⎝ γ3 + γ4 ⎠ Asy.span.col + Asy.span.mid βb
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
F1 := 0.55 + F1 = 1.565 Check ( F1 ≤ 2 ) = "OK"
⎛ My.span ⎞
120 ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ MPa + ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
lx⋅ d y ⎠
⎝
Basic span-effective depth ratio for an internal span = 28. (Note that since ldrop = 2.5 m is not less
ly
than = 2.5 m , it is not necessary to multiply the basic span-effective depth ratio by 0.9)
3
ly ⎛ l ⎞ = 28⋅ F = 43.83 , OK
= 24.27 < ⎜ ⎟ 1
dy ⎝ d ⎠ max
Short span
Check short span as well since the smaller depth in this direction may be critical
Mx.span
= 0.455 MPa
2
ly⋅ d x
Asx.span.col.req + Asx.span.mid.req
= 0.73
Asx.span.col + Asx.span.mid
⎛ γ1 + γ2 ⎞ Asx.span.col.req + Asx.span.mid.req 1
fs := 0.87⋅ fy ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⋅ ⋅ fs = 214.5 MPa
⎝ γ3 + γ4 ⎠ Asx.span.col + Asx.span.mid βb
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
F1 := 0.55 + F1 = 2.165 Check ( F1 ≤ 2 ) = "Not OK"
⎛ Mx.span ⎞
120 ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ MPa + ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟ set F1 := 2
⎝ ly⋅ d x ⎠
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Basic span-effective depth ratio for an internal span = 28. (Note that since ldrop = 2.5 m is greater
lx
than = 2 m , it is not necessary to multiply the basic span-effective depth ratio by 0.9)
3
lx ⎛ l ⎞ = 28⋅ F = 56 , OK
= 20.2 < ⎜ ⎟ 1
dx ⎝ d ⎠ max
8. Punching shear at an internal column

Shear in equivalent frame V := 0.5⋅ F V = 418.3 kN
Column reaction Vt := 2 ⋅ V Vt = 836.6 kN
To allow for the effects of moment transfer Veff := 1.15⋅ Vt Veff = 962.1 kN
Maximum shear
−1
Maximum allowable shear stress is smallest of 0.75⋅ MPa ⋅ fcu ⋅ MPa = 4.108 MPa and 4.75 MPa, therefore
4.108 MPa.
Check maximum shear at column head

u := π⋅ h c u = 4.398 m
⋅ ( d x + d y) + h drop
1
Average depth inside drop d := d = 503 mm
2
Veff
vmax := vmax = 0.435 MPa OK
u⋅ d
First critical perimeter at 1.5 d from edge of column head

1.5⋅ d = 0.755 m
Length of one side of punching perimeter

x := h c + 2 ⋅ ( 1.5⋅ d ) x = 2.909 m
This is greater than ldrop = 2.5 m which means that the punching perimeter falls outside the drop
and punching will not take place inside the drop
First critical perimeter at 1.5 d from edge of drop
⋅ ( d x + d y)
1
Average depth d := d = 303 mm
2
1.5⋅ d = 455 mm
Length of one side of punching perimeter

x := ldrop + 2 ⋅ ( 1.5⋅ d ) x = 3.409 m
Total length of shear perimeter

u := 4 ⋅ x u = 13.636 m
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Shear stress on perimeter

2
V2 := Veff − x ⋅ n V2 = 746.1 kN
V2
v := v = 0.181 MPa
u⋅ d
This is not a large shear stress and will be less than the smallest value for vc of approximately 0.25 MPa. The
following shear capacity is calculated for demonstration purposes
Note that at this perimeter only 50% of the top reinforcement extend a distance d beyond the critical section.
Number of bars crossing perimeter in x-direction
1 ⎡ (x − Bcol)⎤ 2
⋅ ⎢18 + ⎥ = 10.818 say Asx := 10⋅ Y12 Asx = 1131 mm
2 ⎣ 250 ⋅ mm ⎦
Number of bars crossing perimeter in y-direction
1 ⎡ (x − Bcol)⎤ 2
⋅ ⎢18 + ⎥ = 10.818 say Asy := 10⋅ Y12 Asy = 1131 mm
2 ⎣ 250 ⋅ mm ⎦
Average reinforcement crossing one side of critical perimeter
Asx + Asy 2
As.avg := As.avg = 1131 mm
2
Shear resistance of concrete vc := vc ( x , d , fcu , As.avg , γmv)
vc = 0.324 MPa > v = 0.181 MPa OK
No shear reinforcement required

15 Y12 - 1 - 150 B1 STG
C D
16 Y12 - 2 - 200 B1 STG
CL span
1200
(8)
Half middle strip
= 1750 mm
1200
3 Column strip
= 2500 mm
lx = 6000 mm
950
(8)
Half middle strip
= 1750 mm
CL span
13 Y12 - 3 - 175 B2 STG
20 Y12 - 4 - 250 B2 STG (10) (10)

950
BOTTOM REINFORCEMENT
(INTERNAL SPANS ONLY)
4
Half middle strip Column strip Half middle strip

= 2500 mm = 2500 mm = 2500 mm REINFORCED CONCRETE SIN413
ly = 7500 mm Example 13-6: Bottom reinforcement
JMR 02-11-2005
CL span CL span
18 Y12 - 5 - 150 T1 STG
14 Y12 - 6 - 250 T1 STG

CL span
Half middle strip

= 1750 m
Punching shear Punching shear
(7)
perimeter perimeter
1500
750
18 Y12 - 7 - 150 T2 STG
1000 2000
Column strip lx = 6000 mm

20 Y12 - 8 - 250 T2 STG (10) (10) = 2500 mm
2000 1000
750
1500
(7)
Half middle strip
= 1750 mm
= 2500 mm = 2500 mm = 2500 mm
CL span
ly = 7000 mm
CL span CL span
TOP REINFORCEMENT
(INTERNAL COLUMNS ONLY)

JMR 02-11-2005
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Example 13-7: Flat slab without drops or column heads

The flat slab shown below is supported by square columns without drops or column heads. Find the
reinforcement for a typical end span.
1. Input variables
Characteristic concrete strength fcu := 30⋅ MPa
Characteristic reinforcement strengths
A B C D E F
flexure fy := 450 ⋅ MPa
1
shear fyv := 450 ⋅ MPa
lx
Span lengths (centrelines):
2
short span lx := 6 ⋅ m
lx
long span ly := 7.5⋅ m
3
Slab thickness h := 340 ⋅ mm lx
Column dimensions cx := 450 ⋅ mm 4
cy := 450 ⋅ mm lx
Cover cover := 25⋅ mm 5
−2 lx
Nominal live load q n := 5 ⋅ kN⋅ m
6
−2 ly ly ly ly ly
Surfacing g surf := 0 ⋅ kN⋅ m
−3 PLAN
Partial material safety factors h

cy
Concrete in bending γmc := 1.5 cx
Reinforcement γms := 1.15 cx
Shear γmv := 1.4 PLAN: TYPICAL INTERNAL

COLUMN A1 COLUMN
Basic L/d ratio for an end span λbasic := 24
The function below calculates the required area of reinforcement, assuming a rectangular section
DesignRect( B , d , M , βb )
The following function carries out checks for minimum reinforcement and maximum spacing and returns a
practical spacing for the given area and diameter.
FindTensReinfSlab( B , As , d , ϕt , βb )
The following function return the reinforcement and spacing in a text string
SlabReinfN ( Num , ϕt , As , B , S )
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
2. Loadings
Self-weight of slab Gn := ( γcon⋅ h + g surf ) ⋅ lx⋅ ly Gn = 367.2 kN
Live load Qn := q n⋅ lx⋅ ly Qn = 225 kN
Loading on a panel F := 1.2⋅ Gn + 1.6⋅ Qn F = 800.64 kN

F −2
Uniformly distributed load n := n = 17.79 kN⋅ m
lx⋅ ly
3. Column head
4 ⋅ cx⋅ cy
Equivalent diameter of column h c := h c = 507.8 mm
π
⋅ ( lx + ly)
1
Average span length lm := lm = 6.75 m
2
⎛ lm ⎞
Check size of column head Check ⎜ h c < ⎟ = "OK"
⎝ 4 ⎠
4. Bending moments
Since the following conditions apply, bending moments may be obtained from Table 16 in SABS 0100:
Check ⎡⎣( 5 ⋅ lx) ⋅ ly ≥ 30⋅ m ⎤⎦ = "OK"

2
1. Size of bay greater than 30 m2
⎛ Qn ⎞
2. Ratio of live to dead load < 1.25 Check ⎜ ≤ 1.25⎟ = "OK"
⎝ Gn ⎠
3. Live load is less than 5 kPa Check ( q n ≤ 5 ⋅ kPa) = "OK"
4. There are more than three spans
5. The the spans are approximately equal
5. Long span direction (ly)

Effective span
Considering the long span l1 := ly l1 = 7.5 m
l2 := lx l2 = 6 m
2
3
Division of strips
lx
Width of column strip Bcol := Bcol = 3 m
2
lx
Width of middle strip Bmid := l2 − Bmid = 3 m
2
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
For high-yield steel the required amount for b := 1 ⋅ m
is
0.13 2
100
Depth of reinforcement (assuming a maximum bar diameter and that shear links will be placed around
secondary reinforcement)
Bar diameter ϕt.max := 16⋅ mm
ϕt.max
d y.min := h − cover − d y.min = 307 mm
2
Assuming no moment redistribution βb := 1.0
⎛ Spacing ⎞
⎜A ⎟ := FindTensReinfSlab( b , As.min , d y.min , ϕt.max , βb )
⎝ s.prov ⎠
Spacing := Spacing⋅ mm Spacing = 450 mm

2 2
As.min.prov := As.prov ⋅ mm As.min.prov = 447 mm
Spacing (change here if necessary) S := Spacing
SlabReinf ( ϕt.max , As.min.prov , b , S ) = "Provide Y16 at 450 mm c/c (As = 447 mm²/m)"
Moment at external support

Moment Mext := 0.04⋅ F ⋅ L Mext = 229.4 kN⋅ m (Assuming there is no wall)
Width of slab that transfers moment to column b e := cx + cy b e = 900 mm

2
Maximum moment that slab can transfer Mt.max := 0.15⋅ b e⋅ d y.min ⋅ fcu Mt.max = 381.708 kN⋅ m
Check ( Mt.max > Mext) = "OK"
Moments at midspan
Total moment at midspan for a width of l2 = 6 m My.span := 0.083 ⋅ F ⋅ L My.span = 475.9 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by column strip My.span.col := 0.55⋅ My.span My.span.col = 261.7 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by middle strip My.span.mid := 0.45⋅ My.span My.span.mid = 214.2 kN⋅ m
Assume no moment redistribution for the span moments in the Table βb := 1.0
Column strip
Width to consider B := Bcol B = 3m
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Bar diameter ϕt := 16⋅ mm
Depth of reinforcement d := h − cover − 0.5⋅ ϕt d = 307 mm
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 2294 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( B , d , My.span.col , βb ) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
Asy.span.col.req := As (This quantity is required later for deflection calculations)
⎛ Spacing ⎞
⎜ ⎟ := FindTensReinfSlab( B , As , d , ϕt , βb )
⎝ As.prov ⎠
2 2
As.prov := As.prov ⋅ mm As.prov = 2413 mm
Num := ceil⎛⎜
B⎞
⎟ Num = 12
⎝S⎠
Asy.span.col := Num ⋅ Abar ( ϕt)
2
Asy.span.col = 2413 mm
SlabReinfN ( Num , ϕt , Asy.span.col , B , S ) = "Provide 12 Y16 at 250 mm c/c (As = 2413 mm² for 3 m)"
Middle strip
Width to consider B := Bmid B = 3m
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 1877 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( B , d , My.span.mid , βb ) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
Asy.span.mid.req := As (This quantity is required later for deflection calculations)
⎛ Spacing ⎞
⎜A ⎟ := FindTensReinfSlab( B , As , d , ϕt , βb )
⎝ s.prov ⎠
2 2
Num := ceil⎛⎜
B⎞
⎟ Num = 10
⎝S⎠
Asy.span.mid := Num ⋅ Abar ( ϕt)
2
Asy.span.mid = 2011 mm
SlabReinfN ( Num , ϕt , Asy.span.mid , B , S ) = "Provide 10 Y16 at 300 mm c/c (As = 2011 mm² for 3 m)"
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Moments at first internal support

Total moment at support for a width of My.sup := 0.063 ⋅ F ⋅ L My.sup = 361.2 kN⋅ m
l2 = 6 m
Moment resisted by column strip My.sup.col := 0.75⋅ My.sup My.sup.col = 270.9 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by middle strip My.sup.mid := 0.25⋅ My.sup My.sup.mid = 90.3 kN⋅ m
Assume a moment redistribution of 20% for the moments in the Table βb := 0.8
Reinforcement at first internal support

Column strip
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 2374 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( B , d , My.sup.col , βb ) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
2 2
⋅ As = 1583 mm must be placed centrally over the column within a width of
3
Bcol
⎛ Spacing
= 1.5⎞m
⎟ := FindTensReinfSlab⎡⎢ , ⎛⎜ ⋅ As ⎞⎟ , d , ϕt , βb⎤⎥
B 2
⎜ 2A
⎝ s.prov ⎠ ⎣2 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦

2 2
Num := ceil⎛⎜ ⎞
B
⎟ Num = 9
⎝ 2⋅ S ⎠
Asy.sup.col.1 := Num ⋅ Abar ( ϕt)
2
Asy.sup.col.1 = 1810 mm
SlabReinfN ⎛⎜ Num , ϕt , Asy.sup.col.1 , , S⎞⎟ = "Provide 9 Y16 at 175 mm c/c (As = 1810 mm² for 1.5 m)"
B
⎝ 2 ⎠
1 2
Reinforcement for remaining width of column strip ⋅ As = 791 mm
3
⎛ Spacing ⎞
B 1
⎜A
⎝ s.prov ⎠ ⎣2 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦

2 2

Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
B
⎟ Num = 5
⎝ 2⋅ S ⎠
Asy.sup.col.2 := Num ⋅ Abar ( ϕt)
2
Asy.sup.col.2 = 1005 mm
SlabReinfN ⎛⎜ Num , ϕt , Asy.sup.col.2 , , S⎞⎟ = "Provide 5 Y16 at 350 mm c/c (As = 1005 mm² for 1.5 m)"
B
⎝ 2 ⎠
Total reinforcement in column strip
2
Asy.sup.col := Asy.sup.col.1 + Asy.sup.col.2 Asy.sup.col = 2815 mm
Middle strip
Width to consider B := Bmid B = 3m
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 791 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( B , d , My.sup.mid , βb ) ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
⎛ Spacing ⎞
⎝ s.prov ⎠
2 2
Num := ceil⎛⎜
B⎞
⎟ Num = 7
⎝S⎠
Asy.sup.mid := Num ⋅ Abar ( ϕt)
2
Asy.sup.mid = 1407 mm
SlabReinfN ( Num , ϕt , Asy.sup.mid , B , S ) = "Provide 7 Y16 at 450 mm c/c (As = 1407 mm² for 3 m)"
Detailing
The effective length is taken as the open distance between columns plus an effective depth
leff := ly − h c + d y.min leff = 7.299 m
Curtailment lengths Rounded to nearest 50 mm

Top reinforcement (measured from column face) 0.3⋅ leff = 2.19 m Lcut( 0.3⋅ leff ) = 2.2 m
greatest of 45 × ϕt = 720 mm , 0.15⋅ leff = 1.095 m Lcut( 0.15⋅ leff ) = 1.1 m

and
Bottom reinforcement (measured from column centre) 0.2⋅ leff = 1.46 m Lcut.low( 0.2⋅ leff ) = 1.45 m
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
6. Short span direction (lx)
Effective span
Consider short span direction l1 := lx l1 = 6 m
l2 := ly l2 = 7.5 m
2
3
Division of strips
Width of column strip Bcol = 3 m
Width of middle strip Bmid := l2 − Bcol Bmid = 4.5 m
For high-yield steel the required amount for b := 1 ⋅ m
is
0.13 2
100
Depth of reinforcement (assuming a maximum bar diameter and that shear links will be placed around
secondary reinforcement)
ϕt
d x.min := h − cover − ϕt.max − d x.min = 291 mm
2
⎛ Spacing ⎞
⎜A ⎟ := FindTensReinfSlab( b , As.min , d x.min , ϕt , βb )
⎝ s.prov ⎠

2 2
As.min.prov := As.prov ⋅ mm As.min.prov = 447 mm
SlabReinf ( ϕt , As.min.prov , b , S ) = "Provide Y16 at 450 mm c/c (As = 447 mm²/m)"
Moment at external support

Moment Mext := 0.04⋅ F ⋅ L Mext = 181.3 kN⋅ m (Assuming there is no wall)
Width of slab that transfers moment to column b e := cx + cy b e = 900 mm

2
Maximum moment that slab can transfer Mt.max := 0.15⋅ b e⋅ d x.min ⋅ fcu Mt.max = 342.958 kN⋅ m
Check ( Mt.max > Mext) = "OK"

Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Moments at midspan
Total moment at midspan for a width of Mx.span := 0.083 ⋅ F ⋅ L Mx.span = 376.2 kN⋅ m
l2 = 7.5 m
Moment resisted by column strip Mx.span.col := 0.55⋅ Mx.span Mx.span.col = 206.9 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by middle strip Mx.span.mid := 0.45⋅ Mx.span Mx.span.mid = 169.3 kN⋅ m
Assume no moment redistribution for the span moments in the Table βb := 1.0
Column strip
Depth of reinforcement d := h − cover − ϕt.max − 0.5⋅ ϕt d = 291 mm
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 1913 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( B , d , Mx.span.col , βb ) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
Asx.span.col.req := As (This quantity is required later for deflection calculations)
⎛ Spacing ⎞
⎝ s.prov ⎠
2 2
Num := ceil⎛⎜
B⎞
⎟ Num = 10
⎝S⎠
Asx.span.col := Num ⋅ Abar ( ϕt)
2
Asx.span.col = 2011 mm
SlabReinfN ( Num , ϕt , Asx.span.col , B , S ) = "Provide 10 Y16 at 300 mm c/c (As = 2011 mm² for 3 m)"
Middle strip
Width to consider B := Bmid B = 4.5 m
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 1565 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( B , d , Mx.span.mid , βb ) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
Asx.span.mid.req := As (This quantity is required later for deflection calculations)
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
⎛ Spacing ⎞
⎝ s.prov ⎠
2 2
Num := ceil⎛⎜
B⎞
⎟ Num = 10
⎝S⎠
Asx.span.mid := Num ⋅ Abar ( ϕt)
2
Asx.span.mid = 2011 mm
SlabReinfN ( Num , ϕt , Asx.span.mid , B , S ) = "Provide 10 Y16 at 450 mm c/c (As = 2011 mm² for 4.5 m)"
Moments at first internal support

Total moment at support for a width of Mx.sup := 0.063 ⋅ F ⋅ L Mx.sup = 285.6 kN⋅ m
l2 = 7.5 m
Moment resisted by column strip Mx.sup.col := 0.75⋅ Mx.sup Mx.sup.col = 214.2 kN⋅ m
Moment resisted by middle strip Mx.sup.mid := 0.25⋅ Mx.sup Mx.sup.mid = 71.4 kN⋅ m
Assume a moment redistribution of 20% for the moments in the Table βb := 0.8
Reinforcement at first internal support

Column strip
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 1980 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( B , d , Mx.sup.col , βb ) ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
2 2
⋅ As = 1320 mm must be placed centrally over the column within a width of
3
Bcol
⎛ Spacing
= 1.5⎞m
B 2
⎜ 2A
⎝ s.prov ⎠ ⎣2 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦

2 2
B
⎟ Num = 7
⎝ 2⋅ S ⎠
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Asx.sup.col.1 := Num ⋅ Abar ( ϕt)

2
Asx.sup.col.1 = 1407 mm
SlabReinfN ⎛⎜ Num , ϕt , Asx.sup.col.1 , , S⎞⎟ = "Provide 7 Y16 at 225 mm c/c (As = 1407 mm² for 1.5 m)"
B
⎝ 2 ⎠
1 2
Reinforcement for remaining width of column strip ⋅ As = 660 mm
3
⎛ Spacing ⎞
B 1
⎜A
⎝ s.prov ⎠ ⎣2 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦

2 2
B
⎟ Num = 4
⎝ 2⋅ S ⎠
Asx.sup.col.2 := Num ⋅ Abar ( ϕt)
2
Asx.sup.col.2 = 804 mm
SlabReinfN ⎛⎜ Num , ϕt , Asx.sup.col.2 , , S⎞⎟ = "Provide 4 Y16 at 450 mm c/c (As = 804 mm² for 1.5 m)"
B
⎝ 2 ⎠
Total reinforcement in column strip
2
Asx.sup.col := Asx.sup.col.1 + Asx.sup.col.2 Asx.sup.col = 2212 mm
Middle strip
Width to consider B := Bmid B = 4.5 m
⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ As ⎞ ⎛ 660 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ := DesignRect( B , d , Mx.sup.mid , βb ) ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ mm
⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ A's ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
⎛ Spacing ⎞
⎝ s.prov ⎠
2 2
Num := ceil⎛⎜
B⎞
⎟ Num = 10
⎝S⎠
Asx.sup.mid := Num ⋅ Abar ( ϕt)
2
Asx.sup.mid = 2011 mm
SlabReinfN ( Num , ϕt , Asx.sup.mid , B , S ) = "Provide 10 Y16 at 450 mm c/c (As = 2011 mm² for 4.5 m)"
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Detailing
leff := lx − h c + d x.min leff = 5.783 m
Curtailment lengths Rounded to nearest 50 mm

Top reinforcement (measured from column head) 0.3⋅ leff = 1.735 m Lcut( 0.3⋅ leff ) = 1.75 m
greatest of 45 × ϕt = 720 mm , 0.15⋅ leff = 0.867 m Lcut( 0.15⋅ leff ) = 0.9 m

and
Bottom reinforcement (measured from column centre) 0.2⋅ leff = 1.157 m Lcut.low( 0.2⋅ leff ) = 1.15 m
7. Span-effective depth ratio

Note that end spans are usually more critical for deflection than centre spans and should be checked as well.
Long span
The long span is usually the critical span
Consider the full width of frame b := lx
⎛⎜ 1.1 ⎞⎟
γf := ⎜ ⎟
1.0
Partial load safety factors
⎜ 1.2 ⎟
⎜ 1.6 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Service stresses in the tension reinforcement
Moment redistribution at midspan βb := 1

2
As.req := Asy.span.col.req + Asy.span.mid.req As.req = 4170 mm
2
As.prov := Asy.span.col + Asy.span.mid As.prov = 4423 mm
fs.serv ( fy , As.req , As.prov , βb , γms , γf ) = 276.7 MPa
MFAs := MF_As( b , d y.min , My.span , fy , As.req , As.prov , βb , γms , γf ) MFAs = 1.509
ly ⎛ ly ⎞
= 24.43 0.9⋅ MFAs⋅ λbasic = 32.58 Check ⎜ < 0.9⋅ MFAs⋅ λbasic⎟ = "OK"
d y.min ⎝ d y.min ⎠
Note that the span-effective depth ratio is multiplied by 0.9 since there are no drops present
Short span
Check short span since the smaller depth may cause this direction to be critical
Consider the full width of frame b := ly
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Service stresses in the tension reinforcement
Moment redistribution at midspan βb := 1

2
As.req := Asx.span.col.req + Asx.span.mid.req As.req = 3478 mm
2
As.prov := Asx.span.col + Asx.span.mid As.prov = 4021 mm
fs.serv ( fy , As.req , As.prov , βb , γms , γf ) = 253.8 MPa
MFAs := MF_As( b , d x.min , Mx.span , fy , As.req , As.prov , βb , γms , γf ) MFAs = 1.796
lx ⎛ lx ⎞
= 20.62 0.9⋅ MFAs⋅ λbasic = 38.8 Check ⎜ < 0.9⋅ MFAs⋅ λbasic⎟ = "OK"
d x.min ⎝ d x.min ⎠
8. Punching shear at first internal column
Punching force
Column reaction at first internal support Vt := ( 0.5 + 0.6) ⋅ F Vt = 880.7 kN
To allow for the effects of moment transfer Veff := 1.15⋅ Vt Veff = 1013 kN
Maximum shear
Check maximum shear at column
u := 2 ⋅ ( cx + cy)
cy y
u = 1.8 m
cx
⋅ ( d x.min + d y.min)
1
Average depth d avg := d avg = 299 mm
2
x
Veff
vmax := vmax = 1.882 MPa
u ⋅ d avg
Maximum allowable shear stress
vmax ( fcu ) = 4.108 MPa Check ( vmax < vmax ( fcu ) ) = "OK"
First critical perimeter at 1.5 d from edge of column

Distance to outside edge of failure surface 1.5⋅ d avg = 448.5 mm
Length of punching perimeter sides
Bcol
x := cx + 2 × ( 1.5⋅ d avg) x = 1.347 m < = 1.5 m falls inside the central half
2 of the column strip
y := cy + 2 × ( 1.5⋅ d avg) y = 1.347 m
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______

u := 2 ⋅ x + 2 ⋅ y u = 5.388 m
Shear on perimeter
V1 := Veff − x⋅ y ⋅ n V1 = 980.5 kN
V1
v := v = 0.609 MPa
u ⋅ d avg
Asx.sup.col.1 + Asy.sup.col.1 2
⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
2 mm
As.avg := ⎟ As.avg = 1072
2 ⎝ Bcol ⎠ m
Shear resistance of concrete vc := vc ( x , d avg , fcu , x⋅ As.avg , γmv)
vc = 0.435 MPa < v = 0.609 MPa < 1.6⋅ vc = 0.696 MPa
Provide punching reinforcement
(v − vc) ⋅ u⋅ d 2
0.87⋅ fyv
Single links are used for shear reinforcement
Diameter ϕv := 10⋅ mm
π 2 2
Area of one link Asv.1 := ⋅ ϕv Asv.1 = 78.54 mm
4
ΣAsv
Number links required links := links = 8.85
Asv.1
Maximum spacing 0.75⋅ d avg = 224.3 mm Say 200 mm
Shear reinforcement:
Y16 @ 225
40 Y10 links in two perimeters
Y10 @ 225 or 175

to align with
intersections of
top reinforcement
Y16 @ 175 16 24
Fixing bars in bottom:

Y10 @ 225 or 175 to align
with top reinforcement
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Alternatively, the area of reinforcement passing over the column can be increased in order to increase vc until
no shear reinforcement is required. For example, providing Y25 @ 150 in both directions
2
mm
Y25⋅ at( 150 ⋅ mm) = 3272
m
vc ⎡⎣x , d avg , fcu , ( x⋅ Y25⋅ at( 150 ⋅ mm) ) , γmv⎤⎦ = 0.631 MPa > v = 0.609 MPa
No shear reinforcement required if the reinforcement over the column is increased.
9. Punching shear at external column
Punching force
Column reaction at external support Vt := V Vt = 360.3 kN
To allow for the effects of moment transfer Veff := 1.4⋅ Vt Veff = 504 kN
Maximum shear
Check maximum shear at column
cy
cx y
u := cx + 2 ⋅ cy u = 1.35 m
Average depth d avg = 299 mm x
Veff
vmax := vmax = 1.25 MPa
u ⋅ d avg
Maximum allowable shear stress Check ( vmax < vmax ( fcu ) ) = "OK"
First critical perimeter at 1.5 d from edge of column

Distance to outside edge of failure surface 1.5⋅ d avg = 448.5 mm
Length of punching perimeter sides
Bcol
x := cx + 2 × ( 1.5⋅ d avg) x = 1.347 m < = 1.5 m falls inside the central half
2 of the column strip
y := cy + ( 1.5⋅ d avg) y = 0.899 m

u := x + 2 ⋅ y u = 3.144 m
Shear on perimeter
V3 := Veff − x⋅ y ⋅ n V3 = 482.9 kN
V3
v := v = 0.514 MPa
u ⋅ d avg
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
It is assumed that the same flexural reinforcement as for the first internal column will be provided above an
external columns
Asx.sup.col.1 + Asy.sup.col.1 2
⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞
2 mm
As.avg := ⎟ As.avg = 1072
2 ⎝ Bcol ⎠ m
Shear resistance of concrete vc := vc ( x , d avg , fcu , x⋅ As.avg , γmv)
vc = 0.435 MPa < v = 0.514 MPa < 1.6⋅ vc = 0.696 MPa
Increase flexural reinforcement

2
mm
Y25⋅ at( 200 ⋅ mm) = 2454
m
vc ⎡⎣x , d avg , fcu , ( x⋅ Y25⋅ at( 250 ⋅ mm) ) , γmv⎤⎦ = 0.532 MPa > v = 0.514 MPa OK
12 Y16 - 1 - 250 B1 STG
A 10 Y16 - 2 - 300 B1 STG

B NOTE:
Only bottom reinforcement
for an end span along
internal grid lines are shown
1150
1150
10 Y16 - 3 - 300 B2 STG
(5) (5) 10 Y16 - 4 - 450 B2 STG
CL span
1450
Half middle strip
(5)
= 1500 mm
1450
1150
1150
1450
2 Column strip
= 3000 mm
lx = 6000 mm
1450
Half middle strip

(5)
= 1500 mm
CL span

= 2250 mm = 3000 mm = 2250 mm
ly = 7500 mm
REINFORCED CONCRETE
CL span CL span Example 13-7: Bottom reinforcement
JMR 02-11-2005
NOTE:
Only top reinforcement for
the first internal column along
internal grid lines are shown.
10 Y25 - 5 - 150 T1 STG
6 Y16 - 6 - 350 T1 STG
8 Y16 - 7 - 450 T1 STG

B
B
CL span
Half middle strip
= 1500 mm
(4)
(3)
10 Y25 - 8 - 150 T2 STG
14 Y16 - 9 - 450 T2 STG (7) (7)
lx = 6000 mm
Column strip
= 3000 mm
2 2
900
1100
1750
(3)
2200
Half middle strip

= 1500 mm
(4)
CL span
= 2250 mm = 3000 mm = 2250 mm
ly = 7500 mm
CL span CL span
REINFORCED CONCRETE
JMR 02-11-2005
Chapter 14
Design of Stairs
14.1 Introduction
Stairs are made up of flights and landings and many combinations are possible. The stair-
case in Fig. 14-1a has two flights and one landing between floors while the staircase in
Fig. 14-1b has three flights and two landings between floors. The open well layout in
Fig. 14-1b can also be used to house a lift shaft.
Stairs are usually designed as inclined slabs. It is important to correctly identify the sup-
port conditions which will determine the direction in which the stair is spanning. Based on
the span direction, stairs can broadly be divided into stairs spanning transversely and stairs
spanning longitudinally (see Fig. 14-2).
Two types of transverse spanning stairs are encountered:
• Stair spanning transversely between supports on two sides of the stair (Fig. 14-2a).
• Cantilever stair which is built into a wall at one end (Fig. 14-2b).
• Cantilever stair supported by a beam along its centre line (Fig. 14-2c).
A typical stair spanning in the longitudinal direction is shown in Fig. 14-2d.
14.2 General Requirements
Practical Dimensions
The terminology that applies to stairs is defined in Fig. 14-3. Practical dimensions for
stairs are given in Table 14-1. Another rule of thumb often used is
500 mm < (2 R + G ) < 700 mm (14.2-1)
It is important to keep dimensions such as the rise, tread and nosing of a staircase constant.
Also note that the given dimensions apply to the finished stair and not the concrete stair.
SABS 0400 limit the variation in rise and going for stairs in a flight to 6 mm.
14-1
14-2 Design of Stairs
Landing
Flight Floor
slab Up
Floor slab
Landing
Up
Plan
(a) Stair with two flights and a landing between floors
Landing
Landing Floor Quarter Up

Flight slab landing
Floor slab
Open
Up
well
Quarter Up
landing
Plan
(b) Stair with three flights and two landings between floors
Figure 14-1: Typical stair layouts.

General Requirements 14-3
Cross-section Cross-section
(a) Stair spanning transversely between supports (b) Cantilever stair built into a wall at one end.
Cross-section
(c) Cantilever stair supported along its centre line by a beam
Transverse
spanning
beam
(d) Stair spanning longitudinally
Figure 14-2: Transverse and longitudinal spanning stairs

Tread (T)
Going (G) Nosing (N)
Rise (R)
Headroom (H)
> 2.1 m (SABS 0400)
)
t (W
ais
W
q ine
L
tch
Pi
(a) Definition of symbols (b) Minimum headroom
Figure 14-3: Terminology used for stairs.
Table 14-1: Practical dimensions for stairs.
Building Maximum Minimum Maximum

Type Rise Going 2R +G Angle q
R (mm) G (mm) (mm) (degrees)
Residential 220 220 660 42
Factories 190 250 630
Public 180 280 640
Flats 190 240 620 38
SABS 0400 200 250 650
If a stairway does not have solid risers, each tread must overlap the lower tread
by at least 25 mm (SABS 0400).
Transverse spanning stairs 14-5
Headroom of a stair is measured vertically from the pitch line, where the pitch line is a no-
tional line connecting the nosings of all treads in a flight.
Stair width
In general, the following minimum stair widths should be provided:
• 0.9 m for buildings with 2 to 4 storeys,

• 1.0 m for buildings with more than 4 storeys.
The following minimum stair widths are recommenced for public buildings:
• 1.0 m for less than 200 people per floor,

• 1.5 m for 200 to 400 people per floor,
• up to a maximum of 3 m for more than 400 people per floor.
The minimum recommended width for a stair, not forming part of an emergency route, is
0.75 m, according to SABS 0400.
For a stair width of more than 1.8 m, a centre handrail should be provided. Also refer to
SABS 0400 for requirements regarding handrails to stairs.
Stair length
The maximum number of risers in a flight should not exceed 16. A landing should be pro-
vided before continuing with the next flight of stairs. The maximum rise of a flight of
stairs, according to SABS 0400, is 3 m.
Landings
A landing serving two flights of stairs in the same straight line shall have a dimension in
line with the stair of a least 900 mm, and be at least as wide as the stair.
14.3 Transverse spanning stairs
For stairs spanning transversely between supports (Fig. 14-2a) and cantilever stairs built
into a wall at one end (Fig. 14-2b), the waist only needs to be thick enough to accommo-
date the distribution reinforcement with sufficient cover. A thickness between 50 and
75 mm is usually adequate. The loading considered in these cases is a uniformly distrib-
uted load. In the case of cantilever stair, supported by a beam along its centre line
(Fig. 14-2c), the treads act independently so that each tread must be designed for a point
load. (Allen, 1988). It is important to consider torsion when designing the supporting
beam.
Example 14.1
See Mathcad document Str_Ex01_SA.
14.4 Stairs spanning longitudinally
14.4.1 Determining span and loading
Stairs that are mainly supported at the top and bottom of a flight, span in the longitudinal
direction. There is usually little or no support along the length of the stair. The main sup-
ports can be:
• Beams cast monolithic with the stair (Fig. 14-4a).

• Beams or walls at the outside edges of the landing (Fig. 14-4b).
• Landings which themselves span at right angles to the stair (Fig. 14-4c).
These stairs are designed as slabs spanning horizontally with a span L as defined in
Fig. 14-4. The thickness of the slab is taken as the thickness of the waist W.
L L
(a) Stair supported by beams cast (b) Stair supported by beams or walls
monolithic with stair on the outside edges of landings
(c) Stair supported by landings which

span at right angles to the stair
Figure 14-4: Types of longitudinally spanning stairs.

Stairs spanning longitudinally 14-7
The self-weight of the waist wh, measured horizontally, can be obtained by multiplying the
self-weight along the slope of the stair ws by a factor as follows (also see Fig. 14-5):
R 2 +G 2
wh = ws (14.4-1)
G
T
G
(a) Stair (b) Notation for a typical stair
ws R2 + G2
R
(c) Self-weight loading of waist on the slope of the stair ws
wh
R2 + G2
wh = ws
G
(d) Self-weight loading of waist on an equivalent horizontally spanning slab wh
Figure 14-5: Finding the self-weight of the waist on an equivalent horizontally

spanning slab.
The self-weight of the steps acting on an equivalent horizontally spanning slab can be
found by considering a horizontal slab with thickness R/2 (see Fig. 14-6).
Note that the live load always applies to the plan dimension of the stair and no adjustment
to this load is required.
A stair with waist W has a higher stiffness than a slab with the same thickness W.
SABS 0100 therefore allows the span-effective depth ratio to be increased by 15% pro-
vided that the stairs occupy at least 60% of the span.
In the case where the stair is continuous over a supporting beam (see Fig. 14-5a), a
2
midspan bending moment of w L /10 is usually assumed for the stair. Detailing of the rein-
forcement at the support must then also allow for continuity.
Thickness of
equivalent slab
= R/2
R R
=
L L
(a) Stair (b) Self-weight loading of the steps on an

equivalent horizontally spanning slab
Figure 14-6: Finding the self-weight of the steps on an equivalent horizontally span-
ning slab.
Example 14.2
14.4.2 Flights or landings built into a wall
If a stair or landing, spanning longitudinally in the direction of the flight, is built-in at least
110 mm into a wall along the length, a width of 150 mm adjacent to the wall may be de-
ducted from the loaded area (SABS 0100). The effective width of the stair supporting the
load, may then include 2/3 of the embedded width, up to a maximum of 80 mm as shown
in Fig. 14-7 (Allen, 1988).
a0 > 110 mm
150 Loaded width
2
a0 but < 80 mm
3
Effective stair width
Figure 14-7: Longitudinally spanning stair built into a wall.
Example 14.3

Stairs spanning longitudinally 14-9
Example 14.4
14.4.3 Landings spanning at right angles to the stair
For all the stairs considered up to now, the landing spanned in the same direction as the
stair, but in many cases the landing could span at right angles to the stair as shown in
Fig. 14-4c.
If a stair is supported by elements spanning at right angles to the span of the stair, the effec-
tive span of the stair may be taken as the clear distance between supporting elements plus
half the width of the supporting elements, up to a maximum distance of 900 mm at both
ends.
Example 14.5
14.4.4 Stairs with quarter landings
Another stair layout often encountered is that surrounding an open well, or lift shaft (see
Fig. 14-1b). Consider for example the staircase shown in Fig. 14-8a below. Between floors
there are two landings with three flights of stairs. A large beam supports the stairs at each
floor while each landing is supported by two walls at right angles. According to SABS
0100 the loads on each landing may be divided between the two spans. Two directions
need to be considered (see Figs. 14-8b and c) where the following are the loads per unit
area: n1/2 on the landings and n2 on the stairs.
Span = 3.550 m
1.4 m 8 ´ 250 = 2.0 m 300 ´ 300 mm
column
1.4 m Quarter Up
landing
Beam 300 mm wide

6 ´ 250 = 1.5 m
Span = 4.3 m
Floor
Up
level
Lift
shaft
1.4 m
Quarter Up
landing
300 ´ 300 mm
column
(a) Layout of stairs surrounding a lift shaft.
n2
n1/2
1.4 m 2.150 m
3.550 m
(b) Loading on 3.550 m span
n2
n1/2 n1/2
1.4 m 1.5 m 1.4 m

4.300 m
(c) Loading on 4.3 m span
Figure 14-8: Stairs with quarter landings.

Problem 14.1
Consider staircase A in the drawing shown below. Note that the landing is supported by
walls only on the western and southern edges.
(a) Design suitable main and secondary reinforcement for the staircase. Clearly show the
detail you would use to ensure continuity between the landing, stair and slab.
(b) Check the span-effective depth ratio for staircase A.
· Nominal loads:
300 ´ 300 Live load = 5 kN/m2
Column N
Finishes = 0.36 kN/m2
230 Brick wall (Not shown on drawing
but applies to all surfaces)
· Concrete:
25
5
25
Up Staircase Strength fcu = 30 MPa

m
1500
5m
A
Sl
Cover = 25 mm
m
ab
La
150
· Flexural reinforcement:
nd
Up
ing
1500 Use Y12

Staircase B
A A fy = 450 MPa
230 ´ 450 Column
6000 · Unit weight of concrete
= 24 kN/m3
PLAN
Staircase
230 Brick wall B 255 mm Slab
Staircase 25 275
A 12 ´ 170 = 2040 mm 255
255 mm 170
Landing
Staircase
B 300 ´ 300
Column
1800 11 ´ 275 = 3025
SECTION A-A TYPICAL STAIR DETAIL
Figure 14-9: Problem 14-1.

Struct: Stairs: Example 14-1 Calc sheet no: 1 of 2
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Str_Ex01_SA.mcd
Date: 2005-10-16 Date: ______
Example 14-1: Transverse spanning stair

Input variables
The stair shown below spans transversely, being supported by a wall at one end and a beam at the other.
N G
W
R θ
L
b
Cross-section
D
Typical stair detail
−2
Nominal live load q LL := 3 ⋅ kN⋅ m (Note that the live load applies to the plan area of the stair)

Cover c := 20⋅ mm
Span of stair L := 2 ⋅ m
−3
Stair dimensions
Rise R := 175 ⋅ mm
Tread T := 275 ⋅ mm
Nosing N := 25⋅ mm
Going G := T − N G = 250 mm
Waist: W := 75⋅ mm
Design
Determining remaining stair dimensions defined in figure above
θ := atan⎛⎜ ⎞
R
θ = 34.99 deg
⎝ G⎠
2 2
b := G +R b = 305.2 mm
D := W + T⋅ sin( θ ) D = 232.7 mm
Date: 2005-10-16 Date: ______
Considering a single stair

1 −1
Self weight: Stair: wstair := ⋅ T⋅ R⋅ γ c wstair = 0.5775 kN⋅ m
2
−1
Waist: wwaist := b ⋅ W⋅ γ c wwaist = 0.5493 kN⋅ m
−1
Total self weight: wDL := wstair + wwaist wDL = 1.127 kN⋅ m
−1
Live load: wLL := q LL⋅ G wLL = 0.75 kN⋅ m
−1
Design load wu := 1.2⋅ wDL + 1.6⋅ wLL wu = 2.552 kN⋅ m
1 2
Design moment Mu := ⋅ wu⋅ L Mu = 1.276 kN⋅ m
8
There is no general agreement in literature on how a single step should be designed. The problem is that the
reinforcement is not at the same depth across the width of the step. One approach is to assume a lever arm of
half the maximum thickness (D), which is the distance from the nose to the soffit, measured normal to the soffit.
D
Lever arm z := z = 116.4 mm
2
Mu 2
Required area of reinforcement As.req := As.req = 28.01 mm
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z
2
Provide 1 Y 10 bar per step As.prov := 78.5⋅ mm
0.13 2
Use minimum reinforcement for distribution ⋅ ( 1000⋅ mm) ⋅ W = 97.5 mm
100
2
mm
Provide Y 8 bars at 300 mm c/c for distribution As.dist := 168 ⋅
m
Y8 @ 300 c/c
Cross-section 1 Y10 per stair
Date: 2005-10-16 Date: ______
Example 14-2: Longitudinally spanning stair

Input variables
The stair shown below spans longitudinally between beams cast monolithic with the stair. The treads have a
15 mm granolithic finish.
N G
H
R θ W
−2
Nominal live load wLL := 5 ⋅ kN⋅ m

Cover c := 20⋅ mm
Span of stair L := 3350⋅ mm
Thickness of finish h finish := 15⋅ mm

−3
Stair dimensions
Rise R := 175 ⋅ mm
Waist: W := 130 ⋅ mm
2 2
R +G
= 1.221
G
Date: 2005-10-16 Date: ______
Design
Loadings
⎛ R2 + G2 ⎞ −2
Self weight: Waist: wwaist := W⋅ ⎜ ⋅γc wwaist = 3.808 kN⋅ m
⎝ G ⎠
R −2
Stairs: wstair := ⋅γc wstair = 2.1 kN⋅ m
2
Finishes: wfinish := h finish⋅ ⎛⎜

T⎞ −2
⋅γc wfinish = 0.396 kN⋅ m
⎝ G⎠
−2
Total self weight: wDL := wwaist + wstair + wfinish wDL = 6.304 kN⋅ m
−2
Live load: wLL = 5 kN⋅ m
Consider a unit width of the stair b := 1 ⋅ m

−1
Design load wu := ( 1.2⋅ wDL + 1.6⋅ wLL) ⋅ b wu = 15.57 kN⋅ m
1 2
Design moment Mu := ⋅ wu⋅ L (allowing for continuity at the supports)
10
Mu = 17.47 kN⋅ m
Design reinforcement
Assume Y 12 reinforcement φ := 12⋅ mm
φ
Effective depth of reinforcement d := W − c − d = 104 mm
2
Required reinforcement
Mu
K := K = 0.046 < 0.156, OK
2
b ⋅ d ⋅ fcu
⎛ K ⎞
z := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − z = 98.36 mm
⎝ 0.9 ⎠
z
= 0.946 < 0.95, OK
d
Mu 2
As.req := As.req = 453.6 mm
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z
2
Provide Y12 @ 225 mm c/c As.prov := 503 ⋅ mm per meter width of stair.
Date: 2005-10-16 Date: ______
⎛ L⎞
Assume ⎜ = 28
⎝ d ⎠ basic
For span-effective depth ratio, assume conservatively that β b := 1.0
Service stresses in the reinforcement
fs := 0.87⋅ fy⋅ ⎛⎜
1.1 + 1.0 ⎞ As.req 1
⋅ ⋅ fs = 264.797 MPa
⎝ 1.2 + 1.6 ⎠ As.prov β b
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
F1 := 0.55 + F1 = 1.253
⎛ Mu ⎞
120 ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ MPa +
2
⎝ b⋅ d ⎠
⎛ L⎞ 28⋅ F1⋅ 1.15 = 40.35

⎜ = Since the stairs occupy more than 60% of the span, the L/d
⎝ d ⎠ allow ratio may be increased by 15%.
L
Actual = 32.212 OK
d
Distribution reinforcement
0.13 2
⋅ b ⋅ W = 169 mm
100
2
Provide Y10 @ 300 mm c/c As.dist := 262 ⋅ mm per meter length of stair.
Additional Y12 - 225 over support
Y10 - 300
Y12 - 225
Y12 - 225
Date: 2005-10-16 Date: ______
Example 14-3: Longitudinally spanning stair, built into a wall

along one side
Input variables
The stair shown is the same as in Example14-2 except that one side of the stair is now built into a wall as
shown below.
N G
H
R θ W
a0 > 110 mm B
150 Loaded width = bload
2
a0 but < 80 mm
3
Effective stair width = bstair
−2

Cover c := 20⋅ mm
Span of stair L := 3350⋅ mm

Date: 2005-10-16 Date: ______

−3
Stair dimensions
Built-in width a 0 := 110 ⋅ mm
Width of stair B := 1500⋅ mm
Rise R := 175 ⋅ mm
2 2
R +G
= 1.221
G
Design
Loadings
⎛ R2 + G2 ⎞ −2
⎝ G ⎠
R −2
2

T⎞ −2
⎝ G⎠
−2
−2
Loaded width b load := B − 150 ⋅ mm b load = 1350 mm

−1
Design load wu := ( 1.2⋅ wDL + 1.6⋅ wLL) ⋅ b load wu = 21.01 kN⋅ m
1 2
Design moment Mu := ⋅ wu⋅ L (allowing for continuity at the supports)
10
Mu = 23.58 kN⋅ m
φ
2
Date: 2005-10-16 Date: ______
Effective stair width

2
⋅ a 0 = 73.33 mm < 80 mm, OK
3
2
b stair := B + ⋅ a0 b stair = 1573 mm
3
Mu
K := K = 0.04 < 0.156, OK
2
b stair⋅ d ⋅ fcu
⎛ K ⎞
z := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − z = 99.2 mm
⎝ 0.9 ⎠
z
= 0.954 > 0.95, set z := 0.95⋅ d z = 98.8 mm
d
Mu 2
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z
2
Provide 6 Y12 bars As.prov := 679 ⋅ mm distributed over a width B = 1500 mm
(i.e. Y12 @ 250 mm c/c)
⎛ L⎞
Assume ⎜ = 28
⎝ d ⎠ basic
fs := 0.87⋅ fy⋅ ⎛⎜
1.1 + 1.0 ⎞ As.req 1
⋅ ⋅ fs = 263.643 MPa
⎝ 1.2 + 1.6 ⎠ As.prov β b
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
F1 := 0.55 + F1 = 1.328
⎛ Mu ⎞
120 ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ MPa +
⎜ 2
b stair⋅ d ⎠
⎝
⎛ L⎞ 28⋅ F1⋅ 1.15 = 42.756
⎜ = Since the stairs occupy more than 60% of the span, the L/d
⎝ d ⎠ allow ratio may be increased with 15%.
L
Actual = 32.212 OK
d
Date: 2005-10-16 Date: ______
0.13 2
⋅ ( 1000⋅ mm) ⋅ W = 169 mm
100
2
Additional 6 Y12 - 250 over support
Y10 - 300
6 Y12 - 250
6 Y12 - 250
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______

Input variables
The stair shown below spans longitudinally and is supported by walls at the outer edges of the landings.
L
Llanding Lstair Llanding
Hlanding
N G
R θ W
Hlanding
−2

Cover c := 20⋅ mm

−3
Stair dimensions
Rise R := 175 ⋅ mm
2 2
R +G
= 1.221
G
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Length of stair Lstair := 12⋅ G Lstair = 3000 mm
Length of landing Llanding := 1500⋅ mm
Span of stair L := Lstair + 2 ⋅ Llanding L = 6000 mm
Thickness of landing Hlanding := 300 ⋅ mm
Design
Load on stair
⎛ R2 + G2 ⎞ −2
⎝ G ⎠
R −2
2

T⎞ −2
⎝ G⎠
−2
−2

−1
Design load on stair wu.stair := ( 1.2⋅ wDL + 1.6⋅ wLL) ⋅ b wu.stair = 21.54 kN⋅ m
Load on landing
−2
Self weight: Landing: wlanding := Hlanding⋅ γ c wlanding = 7.2 kN⋅ m
−2
Finishes: wfinish := h finish⋅ γ c wfinish = 0.36 kN⋅ m
−2
Total self weight: wDL := wlanding + wfinish wDL = 7.56 kN⋅ m
−2
−1
Design load on landing wu.landing := ( 1.2⋅ wDL + 1.6⋅ wLL) ⋅ b wu.landing = 17.07 kN⋅ m
wu,landing = wu,stair = 21.54 kN/m wu,landing =

17.07 kN/m 17.07 kN/m
RA
1.5 m 3m 1.5 m
6m
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
Design moment
Support reaction
Lstair
RA := wu.landing⋅ Llanding + wu.stair⋅ RA = 57.92 kN
2
Design moment at midspan

L ⎛ L Llanding ⎞ ⎛ Lstair ⎞ ⎛ Lstair ⎞
Mu := RA⋅ − wu.landing⋅ Llanding⋅ ⎜ − − wu.stair⋅ ⎜ ⋅⎜
2 ⎝2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 4 ⎠
Mu = 91.91 kN⋅ m
φ
2
Mu
K := K = 0.035 < 0.156, OK
2
b ⋅ d ⋅ fcu
⎛ K ⎞
z := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − z = 260.81 mm
⎝ 0.9 ⎠
z
= 0.959 > 0.95, set z := 0.95⋅ d z = 258.4 mm
d
Mu 2
0.87⋅ fy⋅ z
2
Provide Y16 @ 200 mm c/c As.prov := 1010⋅ mm per meter width of stair.
⎛ L⎞
Assume ⎜ = 20 since the walls will provide some restraint.
⎝ d ⎠ basic
fs := 0.87⋅ fy⋅ ⎛⎜
1.1 + 1.0 ⎞ As.req 1
⋅ ⋅ fs = 264.1 MPa
⎝ 1.2 + 1.6 ⎠ As.prov β b
Date: 2005-10-30 Date: ______
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
F1 := 0.55 + F1 = 1.378
⎛ Mu ⎞
120 ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ MPa +
2
⎝ b⋅ d ⎠
Lstair
Percentage of span occupied by stairs = 50 % < 60%, L/d ratio may not be increased
L
⎛ L⎞ 20⋅ F1 = 27.56
⎜ =
⎝ d ⎠ allow
L
Actual = 22.06 OK
d
0.13 2
⋅ b ⋅ W = 390 mm
100
2
Provide Y12 @ 250 c/c As.dist := 452 ⋅ mm per meter length of stair.
Y16 - 200
Y12 - 250
Y16 - 200
Drawing ref: ______ Filename: Str_Ex05_SA.xmcd
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______

Input variables
The stairs shown below span between landings, which span a right angles to the stairs. The stairs and
landings have a 25 mm tile finish and a 15 mm plaster on the soffit.
1.5 m 8 × 250 = 2.0 m 2.2 m
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Landing A Landing B
= 160 mm Span = 160 mm
1.5 m
3.25 m Span 0.25 m Span
Span
1.5 m
N G
R θ W

−2
Characteristic material properties: Stair dimensions:

concrete fcu := 35⋅ MPa Rise R := 175 ⋅ mm
reinforcement fy := 450 ⋅ MPa Tread T := 275 ⋅ mm
Cover c := 20⋅ mm
Thickness of plaster h plaster := 15⋅ mm
Thickness of tiles h tiles := 25⋅ mm
2 2
R +G
−3 = 1.221
Unit weight of concrete γc := 24⋅ kN⋅ m G
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Width of landing 1: Blanding.A := 1.5⋅ m
Width of landing 2: Blanding.B := 2.2⋅ m
Thickness of landings h landing := 160 ⋅ mm
Length of landing Llanding := 3.25⋅ m
Length of stair Lstair := 8 ⋅ G Lstair = 2 m
Design of stair
Loadings
⎛ R2 + G2 ⎞ −2
Self weight: Waist: wwaist := W ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ γc wwaist = 4.394 kN⋅ m
⎝ G ⎠
R −2
Stairs: wstair := ⋅ γc wstair = 2.1 kN⋅ m
2
Finishes: wtiles := h tiles⋅ ⎛⎜

T⎞ −2
⎟ ⋅ γc wtiles = 0.66 kN⋅ m
⎝ G⎠
⎛ R2 + G2 ⎞ −2
wplaster := h plaster⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ γc wplaster = 0.439 kN⋅ m
⎝ G ⎠
−2
Total self weight: wDL := wwaist + wstair + wtiles + wplaster wDL = 7.594 kN⋅ m
−2

−1
Design load wu.stair := ( 1.2⋅ wDL + 1.6⋅ wLL) ⋅ b wu.stair = 13.91 kN⋅ m
Span length
Blanding.A Blanding.B
= 0.75 m = 1.1 m > 0.9 m, use 0.9 m
2 2
Blanding.A
L := + Lstair + 0.9⋅ m L = 3.65 m
2
Consider the stair as simply supported wu,stair = 13.91 kN/m
RA RB
0.75 m Lstair = 2 m 0.9 m
L = 3.65 m
1 ⎡ ⎛ Lstair ⎞⎤
RA := ⋅ ⎢wu.stair⋅ Lstair⋅ ⎜ + 0.9⋅ m⎟⎥ RA = 14.484 kN
L ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
1 ⎡ ⎛ Lstair ⎞⎤
RB := ⋅ ⎢wu.stair⋅ Lstair⋅ ⎜ + 0.75⋅ m⎟⎥ RB = 13.341 kN
L ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
RA + RB = 27.83 kN wu.stair⋅ Lstair = 27.83 kN OK
Set shear force equal to zero RA − wu.stair⋅ ( x − 0.75⋅ m) = 0
RA
Position where shear force is zero x := + 0.75⋅ m x = 1.791 m measured from A
wu.stair
Design moment
2
( x − 0.75⋅ m)
Mu := RA⋅ x − wu.stair⋅ Mu = 18.40 kN⋅ m
2
Assume Y 12 reinforcement ϕ := 12⋅ mm
ϕ
2
Mu
K := K = 0.034 < 0.156, OK
2
b ⋅ d ⋅ fcu
⎛ K ⎞
z := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − ⎟ z = 119.09 mm
⎝ 0.9 ⎠
z
= 0.96 > 0.95, set z := 0.95⋅ d z = 117.8 mm
d
Mu 2
0.87⋅ fy ⋅ z
2
Provide Y12 @ 225 mm c/c As.prov := 503 ⋅ mm per meter width of stair.
⎛ L⎞
Assume ⎜ ⎟ = 20
⎝ d ⎠ basic
For span-effective depth ratio, assume conservatively that βb := 1.0
fs := 0.87⋅ fy ⋅ ⎛⎜
1.1 + 1.0 ⎞ As.req 1
⎟⋅ ⋅ fs = 232.9 MPa
⎝ 1.2 + 1.6 ⎠ As.prov βb
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
F1 := 0.55 + F1 = 1.52
⎛ Mu ⎞
120 ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ MPa +
2⎟
⎝ b⋅ d ⎠
Lstair
Percentage of span occupied by stairs = 54.79 % < 60%, L/d ratio may not be increased
L
⎛ L⎞ 20⋅ F1 = 30.4
⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ d ⎠ allow
L
Actual = 29.44 OK
d
0.13 2
⋅ b ⋅ W = 195 mm
100
2
Design of landing A
Loadings
Assume that the load from the stairs are uniformly distributed along the length of the landing.
RA −1
Load from stairs Wstair := Wstair = 14.48 kN ⋅ m
b
−2
Self weight: Slab: wslab := h landing ⋅ γc wslab = 3.84 kN⋅ m
−2
Finishes: wtiles := h tiles⋅ γc wtiles = 0.6 kN⋅ m
−2
wplaster := h plaster⋅ γc wplaster = 0.36 kN⋅ m
−2
Total self weight: wDL := wslab + wtiles + wplaster wDL = 4.8 kN⋅ m
−2
−2
Design load wu.landing := 1.2⋅ wDL + 1.6⋅ wLL wu.landing = 10.56 kN⋅ m
Total load along length of landing

−1
Wu.landing := Wstair + wu.landing⋅ Blanding.A Wu.landing = 30.32 kN⋅ m
2
Llanding
Design moment Mu := Wu.landing⋅ Mu = 40.04 kN⋅ m
8
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
Assume Y 12 reinforcement ϕ := 12⋅ mm
ϕ
Effective depth of reinforcement d := h landing − c − d = 134 mm
2
Mu
K := K = 0.042 < 0.156, OK
2
Blanding.A⋅ d ⋅ fcu
⎛ K ⎞
z := d ⋅ ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − ⎟ z = 127.35 mm
⎝ 0.9 ⎠
z
= 0.950 < 0.95, OK
d
Mu 2
0.87⋅ fy ⋅ z
2
Provide 8 Y12 bars As.prov := 905 ⋅ mm distributed over a width Blanding.A = 1500 mm
(i.e. Y12 @ 175 mm c/c)
⎛ L⎞
Assume ⎜ ⎟ = 20
⎝ d ⎠ basic
For span-effective depth ratio, assume conservatively that βb := 1.0
fs := 0.87⋅ fy ⋅ ⎛⎜
1.1 + 1.0 ⎞ As.req 1
⎟⋅ ⋅ fs = 260.6 MPa
⎝ 1.2 + 1.6 ⎠ As.prov βb
477 ⋅ MPa − fs
F1 := 0.55 + F1 = 1.306
⎛ Mu ⎞⎟
120 ⋅ ⎜ 0.9⋅ MPa +
⎜ Blanding.A⋅ d ⎟⎠
2
⎝
⎛ L⎞ 20⋅ F1 = 26.12
⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ d ⎠ allow
Llanding
Actual: = 24.25 OK
d
Date: 2008-02-07 Date: ______
0.13 2
⋅ b ⋅ h landing = 208 mm
100
2
Design of landing B
It can be assumed that the effective width that supports the stairs is 2 × 0.9⋅ m = 1.8 m
The remaining calculations are the same as for landing A. It is recommended that the reinforcement required for
the effective width is also placed in the rest of the landing, of which the width is
( Blanding.B − 1.8⋅ m) = 0.4 m

Chapter 15
Cracking and Deflections
15.1 Tension stiffening
Several methods have been proposed to include the effects of tension stiffening in calcu-
lating crack widths and deflections. Three methods that best explain the concept are dis-
cussed here (Cope & Clark, 1984):
• Strain reduction
• Effective tensile stress in the concrete
• Effective secant stiffness.
15.1.1 Strain reduction
Axially loaded member
Consider the axially reinforced concrete member in Fig. 15-1a which is subjected to an ax-
ial tension force N (Clark, 1983). The cross-sectional areas of concrete and reinforcement
are respectively Ac and As. The actual load-strain response of the member is shown by the
solid line OAB in Fig. 15-1b. The dashed line OC in Fig. 15-1b represents the load-strain
response of the reinforcement only, ignoring the presence of the concrete. Also shown in
the Figure, in parentheses, are the stresses associated with given strains.
For loads less than the cracking load Ncr, an uncracked section can be assumed and elastic
theory (using a transformed section if necessary) can be used to estimate the stresses in the
concrete and the reinforcement.
Figure 15-1c shows the stresses in the concrete, which are zero at a crack and increase to
maximum values between cracks. These stresses will be less than the tensile strength of
the concrete fct. As soon as the stress at a point in the concrete reach fct, a new crack will de-
velop at that location.
Stresses in the reinforcement are shown in Fig. 15-1d. The stress is a maximum at the posi-
tion of a crack and reduces to a minimum between cracks.
15-1
15-2 Cracking and Deflections
Axial Load N
B
C
N
Nc
A
Cracking load Ncr
Ns
As ets (fts)
Ac
N em e1
O Strain e
(fcm) (0) (Concrete stress)
(fsm) (fs1) (Steel stress)
(a) Axially loaded reinforced
concrete member (b) Axial load - strain response
N N
Cracks
(a) Beam Elevation
fc = ec Ec fct
fcm = em Ec
(c) Tensile stresses in the concrete
fsm = em Es fs1 = e1 Es
fs = es Es
(d) Tensile stresses in the reinforcement
(EA) eff
(e) Effective axial stiffness of beam
Figure 15-1: Load response of a axially loaded reinforced concrete member.

Tension stiffening 15-3
Estimating the response of a cracked member subjected to the load N – assuming fully
cracked transformed section properties – would yield a strain e1, while the actual strain
would be em (average strain). Therefore, ignoring the stiffness contribution of the un-
cracked concrete between cracks would clearly overestimate the actual strain. To deter-
mine the actual strain em in the member, the effect of tension stiffening ets should be
deducted from the strain determined by considering a fully cracked section e1 (see
Fig. 15-1b):
e m = e1 - e ts (15.1-1)
The aim is now to determine the strain em. At a crack the reinforcement carries the full ax-
ial force, so that
N = N s = f s1 As = E s e1 As (15.1-2)
The average steel and concrete forces are respectively given by
N s = f sm As = E s e m As (15.1-3)
N c = f cm Ac (15.1-4)
where fcm is the average tensile stress in the concrete between cracks and Ac = b h. From
equilibrium it follows that
N = N s +N c (15.1-5)
Substituting Eqs. (15.1-2) to (15.1-4) into the above yields
E s e1 As = E s e m As + Ac f cm
A f (15.1-6)
e m = e1 - c cm
E s As
Comparison of the above to Eq. (15.1-1) shows that the tension stiffening is given by
Ac f cm
e ts = (15.1-7)
E s As
Note that fcm remains unknown at this stage. However, experimental evidence (Clark,
1978) suggests that the following can be used to approximate fcm (also see Fig. 15-2)
f scr
f cm = f (15.1-8)
f s1 ct
where fscr = stress in the reinforcement at a crack when subjected to the cracking
load Ncr
Axial Load N
Cracking load Ncr
ets (fts)
em e1 Strain e
(fcm = fct) (fs1 = fscr) (Stress)
Figure 15-2: Stresses and strains at cracking.
fct = tensile strength of the concrete

fs1 = stress in the reinforcement for an applied load N, assuming a fully
cracked section (ignoring the concrete contribution).
From the above it can be seen that fcm will be a maximum when N = Ncr, for which fs1 = fscr
and fcm = fct. The effect of tension stiffening ets from Eq. (15.1-7) will also be a maximum
just after cracking. As N increases above Ncr, the effect of tension stiffening decreases.
This is because further cracks develop and the bond between the concrete and the rein-
forcement breaks down, so that the contribution of the concrete to tension stiffening be-
comes less important.
Substituting (15.1-8) into (15.1-7) yields
Ac f scr f ct
e ts = (15.1-9)
E s As f s1
Flexural members
In the case of an axially loaded member, the area of concrete over which fcm acts is easily
determined (Ac = b h). For a member in flexure, the area is assumed to be K b h where the
coefficient K needs to be determined. Replacing Ac in Eq. (15.1-9) with K b h yields
( K b h) f scr f ct
e ts = (15.1-10)
E s As f s1
The above expression applies to concrete cracking at the bottom of the section, but can be
modified to allow for strains at other levels. Consider flexural strains as shown in
Fig. 15-3. Using similar triangles, the relationship between ets at a depth a¢ and ets at a
depth h can be determined:
x
a¢ N.A.
h
(a¢ – x)
(h – x)
ets(a¢)
ets(h)
Figure 15-3: Strain distribution through the depth of a section.
( a¢- x )
e ts ( a¢) = e ( h) (15.1-11)
( h - x ) ts
where a¢ = depth at which the stress is being determined, measured from the com-
pression face
x = neutral axis depth for a fully cracked section.
Equation (15.1-10) is then adjusted using Eq. (15.1-11)
K b h f scr f ct ( a¢- x )
e ts = (15.1-12)
E s As ( h - x ) f s1
Experimental studies by Stevens (1972) has shown that the following may be assumed:
K f scr f ct
» 0 .0007 MPa (15.1-13a)
Es
or, for Es = 200 GPa
K f scr f ct » 140 MPa 2 (15.1-13b)
so that Eq. (15.1-12) becomes
0 .0007 b h ( a¢- x )
e ts = (15.1-14a)
As ( h - x ) f s1
140 b h ( a¢- x )
or e ts = (15.1-14b)
E s As ( h - x ) f s1
The relationship between the reinforcement stresses in service and at ultimate can be de-
termined as follows: Assuming that the average load factor for self-weight and live load is
(1.4 + 1.6)/2 = 1.5, the stress in the reinforcement in service (load factors gf = 1) is
0 .87 f y
f s1 = = 0 .58 f y (15.1-15)
1.5
Substituting the above into Eq. (15.1-14) yields
0 .00121 b h ( a¢- x )
e ts = (15.1-16a)
As ( h - x ) f y
ì0.964 b h ( a¢- x )
ï for f y = 250 MPa
241 b h ( a¢- x ) ï E s As ( h - x )
or e ts = =í (15.1-16b)
E s As ( h - x ) f y ï0 .536 b h ( a¢- x )
for f y = 450 MPa
ï
î E s As ( h - x )
15.1.2 Effective tensile stress in the concrete
The concrete stresses in a cracked concrete beam are shown in Fig. 15-4. At a crack there is
a small area of concrete below the neutral axis that carries tensile stresses (Fig. 15-4b). The
concrete stresses between cracks are shown in Fig. 15-4c where the neutral axis will be
lower than at a crack and the entire concrete section below the neutral axis carries tensile
stresses. An "average" triangular distribution is assumed for the tensile stresses as shown
in Fig. 15-4d. A value for the effective stress fce is then specified at the centroid of the ten-
sion reinforcement. Values specified by BS 8110 (and SABS 0100) are based on tests car-
ried out by Stevens (1972) and are as follows:
fce = 1 MPa for short-term loading (15.1-17)

= 0.55 MPa for long-term loading
A reduced value is specified for long-term loading to include the effects of creep on the
tensile stresses in the concrete.
Neutral axis
Crack height
fce
Concrete flexural stresses:

(a) Cross-section (b) At a crack (c) Between cracks (d) “Average”
Figure 15-4: Tensile stresses in a cracked concrete beam.

The tensile force in the concrete (see Fig. 15-5):
1
Fct = f ( h - x ) bt (15.1-18)
2 t
where fct = the tensile stress in the concrete at the bottom of the beam (fct > fce)
bt = width of the section at the level of the tension reinforcement
x
Neutral axis
h d
Fct
As fce
Fs = fs As
bt fct
(a) Cross-section (b) Effective concrete stresses

and forces
Figure 15-5: Effective tensile stresses in the concrete and associated forces.
The fact that the concrete is carrying some of the tensile stresses will reduce the force in
the reinforcement, and hence the stress. The reduction in reinforcement stress can be ex-
pressed as
DFs = Fct (15.1-19)
DFs Fct
Df s = = (15.1-20)
As As
The reduction in reinforcement strain is then
Df s F f b ( h - x)
De s = = ct = ct t (15.1-21)
Es E s As 2 E s As
Theoretically the neutral axis depth x should be determined on a trial and error basis for the
stress distribution shown in Fig. 15-5b. However, the error made by assuming a fully
cracked section (ignoring tensile stresses in the concrete) is small and this simplification
has therefore become standard practice.
Considering long-term stresses (fce = 0.55 MPa) it can be seen from Fig. 15-5 that fct > fce
and BS 8110 assumes a value of fct = 2/3 MPa. Equation (15.1-21) then becomes
2
bt ( h - x ) ( h - x ) b
De s = 3 = t
(15.1-22)
2 E s As 3 E s As
where it should be noted that the number 3 in the denominator has units of MPa–1. It is as-
sumed that the strain difference Des also applies to the strain in the concrete at the level of
the reinforcement, so that the tension stiffening is given by
bt ( h - x)
e ts = De s = (15.1-23)
3 E s As
Assuming that the strains vary linearly through the depth, the strains at other depths can be
determined in a similar manner as illustrated in Fig. 15-3, so that Eq. (15.1-23) becomes
bt ( h - x)( a¢- x )
e ts = De s = (15.1-24)
3 E s As ( d - x )
Comparison of the above with Eq. (15.1-16), based on the strain reduction approach,
shows that the equations derived for tension stiffening are similar but not exactly the same.
Different results should therefore be expected when using the different approaches.
Combining (15.1-1) and (15.1-24) produces the equation recommended by SABS 0100:
SABS 0100 Average strain in the reinforcement, allowing for tension stiffening
bt ( h - x)( a¢- x )
e m = e1 - (15.1-25)
3 E s As ( d - x )
When the entire section is in tension, a value for (h – x) is determined by

interpolation between:
• ( h - x ) = h when the neutral axis is at the least compressed face (x = 0)
• ( h - x ) = 2 h for axial tension.
A negative value for em implies that the section is uncracked.
15.1.3 Effective secant stiffness
Branson (1963, 1977) has proposed an effective secant stiffness Ieff from experimental
studies on short-term deflections:
æ M ö3 æ M ö3
I eff =ç cr ÷ I co +ç1- cr ÷ I cr £ I co (15.1-26)
è M ø è M ø
where M = applied moment

Mcr = moment at first cracking

Ico = second moment of area of uncracked transformed section
Icr = second moment of area of the cracked transformed section
The cracking moment is given by
f r I co
M cr = (15.1-27)
yt
where fr = tensile strength of the concrete (modulus of rupture)

yt = distance from centroidal axis to the extreme tension fibre
It is important to note that Eq. (15.1-26) is an empirical expression that was developed to
fit experimental data. It effectively interpolates between two stiffness Ico and Icr (see
Fig. 15-6a). When the applied moment is less than Mcr, the condition on the right-hand
side of Eq. (15.1-26) will ensure that the uncracked stiffness Ico is used. For moments only
slightly larger than Mcr (small degree of cracking), a stiffness slightly less than Ico will be
obtained. As the applied moment increases and the degree of cracking increases, the stiff-
ness will approach the stiffness of a fully cracked section Icr. Clearly the applied moment
cannot exceed the ultimate moment Mu.
If Ico is replaced by the second moment of area of uncracked untransformed section Ig (i.e.
ignoring the contribution of the reinforcement), the error is small and Eqs. (15.1-26) and
(15.1-27) become
SABS 0100 Effective second moment of area:
æ M ö3 æ M ö3
I eff =ç cr ÷ I g +ç1- cr ÷ I cr £ I g (15.1-28)
è M ø è M ø
SABS 0100 Cracking moment
fr Ig
M cr = (15.1-29)
yt
In the above equation the distance yt will also be determined using the uncracked untrans-
formed section properties. This approach has been adopted by the ACI 318 code as well as
SABS 0100.
SABS 0100 The modulus of rupture is determined from
Moment
Ultimate moment Mu
Cracking moment Mcr

E Ig E Ieff
E Icr
Curvature j
(a) Moment - curvature response
N.A.
M M
Cracks
(b) Beam Elevation
fc
(c) Tensile stresses in the concrete at the level of the reinforcement
fs
(d) Tensile stresses in the reinforcement
E Ig
E Icr E Ieff
(e) Flexural stiffness of beam
Figure 15-6: Effective secant stiffness for beams in flexure.

Cracking in Concrete Structures 15-11
ì0 .65 f
cu for unrestrained beams and slabs
ï
ï
f r = í0 .30 f cu for restrained beams and slabs where (15.1-30)
ï
ï
î cracking prior to loading is likely
For simply supported members M and Ieff are determined at midspan while the support is
considered for a cantilever. For continuous beams with both ends continuous an average
value for Ieff can be determined from
I eff ,avg = 0 . 70 I eff ,m + 0 .15 ( I eff ,1 + I eff ,2 ) (15.1-31)
where Ieff,m = Ieff at midspan

Ieff,1 and Ieff,2 = Ieff at the respective supports
For continuous beams with one end continuous
I eff ,avg = 0 .85 I eff ,m + 0 .15 I eff ,sup (15.1-32)
where Ieff,sup = Ieff at the continuous support.
15.2 Cracking in Concrete Structures
15.2.1 Introduction
Under normal conditions it is usually not be necessary to calculate crack widths since the
detailing rules regarding minimum reinforcement and maximum spacing provided by
SABS 0100 are intended to control cracking. However, there are cases where cracking re-
quires special attention and an estimate of expected crack widths provide additional infor-
mation regarding the adequacy of a particular design.
Crack widths are calculated for service loads (using the appropriate partial load factors gf),
and using characteristic material strengths (all partial material factors gm = 1.0). To include
the effects of creep, SABS 0100 recommends that the effective long-term modulus of elas-
ticity should by taken as half of the short-term value.
15.2.2 Maximum crack widths and probability of exceedence
It is important to note that the exact crack width to be expected in a structure cannot be de-
termined. This is because crack widths typically vary between wide limits. The approach
followed here is to limit the probability of a crack being larger than a given maximum
value.
The maximum crack width prescribed by BS 8110 (and SABS 0100) is 0.3 mm for normal
conditions. In particularly aggressive environments the crack width is limited to 0.004
times the nominal cover to the reinforcement. Limiting crack widths of 0.1 or 0.2 mm usu-
ally apply to water-retaining structures.
The probability of a crack exceeding the maximum crack width, as adopted in BS 8110,
are as follows (Beeby, 1971):
• 1% for a structure (1 in every 100 cracks will be larger than the maximum crack width),
• 20% for a long member, subjected to a uniform bending moment, as in a typical labora-
tory test (1 in every 5 cracks will be larger than the maximum crack width).
The 20% probability may seem excessive but the following should be kept in mind:
• the probability of a member in a structure being subjected to its design load for a signifi-
cant length of time is low.
• In a laboratory test the exact strength and stiffness (average values) are used while char-
acteristic values are used in a structure.
• Structural members are seldom subjected to uniform bending over any great length and
the largest cracks are expected to be close to the critical sections.
15.2.3 Calculating crack widths
The theory presented here regarding cracking in reinforced concrete members have been
developed by Beeby (1971, 1979). From experimental studies on one-way spanning slabs
it was concluded that there are two fundamental crack patterns that develop (see
Fig. 15-7):
Reinforcement
Crack Pattern 2
Crack Pattern 1
Crack Pattern 1
Crack Pattern 1 Crack Pattern 1 and 2
Figure 15-7: Crack patterns on slab soffit.

Cracking in Concrete Structures 15-13
• The spacing of the cracks in crack pattern 1 is controlled by the curvature and the
height of the initial crack hi (see Fig. 15-8b). The reinforcement influences hi, and
hence, the crack spacing.
• Crack pattern 2 is determined by the proximity of the reinforcement. Surface crack
widths are proportional to the concrete cover.
x
Neutral axis
d
h
f
acr
acr cmin
s/2 s/2 s
(a) Cross-section of slab
hi
(b) Crack remote from bar (c) Crack at a bar
Figure 15-8: Definition of symbols for crack prediction.
Close to the reinforcing bars crack pattern 2 dominate. As the distance from the reinforc-
ing bar acr increases, the crack pattern approaches pattern 1 asymptotically. Close to a re-
inforcing bar the cracks are generally closely spaced, with smaller crack widths. Further
away from a reinforcing bar the crack spacing and crack width increases (also see
Fig. 15-8).
Beeby proposed the following equation to predict the maximum crack width, which is ef-
fectively an interpolation between the two crack patterns based on acr:
K 1 acr e m
w max = (15.2-1)
æ a - cmin ö
1+ K 2ç cr ÷
è h- x ø
where em = average strain in the reinforcement, allowing for tension stiffening,

from Eq. (15.1-25)
acr = distance from the point at which the crack width is calculated to the
nearest reinforcing bar
cmin = minimum cover to tension reinforcement

x = neutral axis depth of a cracked transformed section
K1 and K2 = constants depending on the probability of exceeding the maximum
crack width.
As with the calculation of em, the cracked transformed section should be based on Ec/2 to
account for the effects of creep in the concrete. For the 20% probability of exceedence as-
sumed in BS 8110, K1 = 3 and K 2 = 2. For water-retaining structures the values would be
K1 = 4.5 and K 2 = 2.5.
SABS 0100 The maximum crack width can be determined from
3 acr e m
w max = (15.2-2)
æ a - cmin ö
1+ 2ç cr ÷
è h- x ø
Critical crack locations are shown in Fig. 15-9:
• At positions 1 and 2 the strain em will be a maximum. The largest acr will determine
whether position 1 or 2 has the largest crack width.
• Position 3 is approximately midway between the reinforcing bar and the neutral axis .
While the strain em is smaller, acr is larger and this point may be critical.
Neutral axis
»
3 3
»
2 1 1 2
Figure 15-9: Critical crack locations.
Example 15.1
See Mathcad document Crck_Ex01_SA.
Example 15.2
See Mathcad document Crck_Ex02_SA.

Deflections in Concrete Structures 15-15
15.3 Deflections in Concrete Structures
15.3.1 Introduction
Deflections would normally be controlled by ensuring that the span to depth ratio of a
member fall well within the specified limits (see section 9.8). However, there may be cases
where it is necessary to calculate deflections:
• When the limiting span to depth ratio is exceeded.

• To prevent damage to non-structural components of the structure because of excessive
deflections.
• The use of stronger materials leads to smaller cross-sections that will generally result in
greater deformations.
In calculating deflections it is usually necessary to consider the short- and long-term. The
analysis is complicated by cracking of the concrete for the short-term and creep and
shrinkage for the long-term. Deflections caused by creep and shrinkage will often be of the
same order or larger than the instantaneous short-term deflections.
Numerous procedures and methods have been proposed for calculating deflections and
range widely on complexity and the assumptions made. Due to the uncertainties in mate-
rial properties, loading etc., the results will be approximate and it is highly unlikely that the
actual and calculated deflections will be same. However, the calculated deflection does
provide a useful indication of the adequacy of the design. The method proposed here is ap-
proximate but suitable for day-to-day design.
15.3.2 Deflection limits

SABS 0100 The final deflection, including temperature, creep and shrinkage, should not
exceed L/250 where L is the span. Partitions and finishes are only affected by
the additional deflection that occurs after construction of the partition or ap-
plication of the finishes. In the case of flexible partitions (dry-walls), the addi-
tional deflection should be limited to the lesser of L/350 or 20 mm. For rigid
brick walls or other brittle partitions, the additional deflection should be lim-
ited to the lesser of L/500 or 10 mm.
15.3.3 Calculating instantaneous deflections
Expressing deflections in terms of curvatures
Consider a simply supported beam of span L subjected to a uniformly distributed load q.

The midspan deflection is given by
5 q L4
D max = (15.3-1)
384 E I
The maximum midspan bending moment for a simply supported beam is
1
M max = q L2 (15.3-2)
8
Substituting the above into Eq. (15.3-1)
5 M max 2
D max = L (15.3-3)
48 E I
An alternative way of expressing the deflection is in terms of curvature, usually the maxi-
mum curvature jmax which coincides with the maximum moment
M max
j max = (15.3-4)
EI
Substituting the above into Eq. (15.3-3) yields an expression for deflection in terms of cur-
vature
5
D max = j L2 = 0 .104 j max L2 (15.3-5)
48 max
M max q L2
where j max = = (15.3-6)
EI 8E I
It can be shown that deflections can generally be expressed in the form of Eq. (15.3-5):
M max 2
D max = K j max L2 = K L (15.3-7)
EI
where K is a coefficient determined by the loading and boundary conditions of a member.

Figure 15-10 presents typical K-values for a range of cases. Comparison of Fig. 15-10 and
Eq. (15.3-5) will confirm that K = 0.104 for the example considered above. Equation
(15.3-7) together with Fig. 15-10 therefore presents an alternative to Eq. (15.3-1) for cal-
culating deflections.
Deflections of cracked and uncracked members
For moments smaller than the cracking moment Mcr, the beam can be considered un-
cracked and elastic theory can be used to calculate deflections. If the moment is greater
Loading Bending moment diagram K

M M
M 0.125
al W
3- 4 a 2 1 1
If a = , K =
l M = Wa(1- a )l 48 (1- a ) 2 12
M M 0.0625
W/2 W/2
al al
a2
Wal . -
0125
l M= 6
2
q ql 2
0.104
8
q ql 2
0.102
15.6
q MA MB æ bö M + MB
. ç1- ÷ and b = A
K = 0104
è 10 ø MC
MC
al W End deflection
Wal a ( 3- a )
l K= If a = 1, K = 0.333
6
al End deflection
qa 2 l 2
q a (4 - a )
2 K= If a = 1, K = 0.25
12
MA MB
æ bö M + MB
K = 0.083ç1- ÷ b = A
è 4ø MC
MC
al al
1 ( 5 - 4a 2 ) 2
Wl 2
(3- 4a 2 ) 80 3- 4a 2
24
Figure 15-10: Deflection coefficients for different loadings and boundary conditions.
than Mcr, the section is cracked. Elastic theory can still be used by including tension stiff-
ening through the use of Ieff (see section 15.1.3).
SABS 0100 The instantaneous short-term deflection Di follows from Eq. (15.3-7)
M max 2
Di = K L (15.3-8)
E c I eff
where Mmax = maximum short-term serviceability limit state moment

Ec = concrete modulus of elasticity at time of loading
Ieff = effective second moment of area of the concrete section from

Eq. (15.1-28)
K = coefficient determined by the loading and boundary conditions of a
member (Fig. 15-10)
15.3.4 Calculating long-term deflections
The prediction of the long-term deflection of cracked concrete members is complicated by

a number of factors, of which the following are the most important (Neville et al., 1983):
• The time-dependent increase in the neutral axis depth induced by the effects of creep.
• The time-dependent redistribution of stress which takes place within the compression
zone of the concrete.
• The widening of existing cracks and the development of new ones.
• The time-dependent change in the properties of bond between the concrete and steel.
Procedures which attempt to model all these factors and their interaction accurately are ex-
tremely complex. Consequently, various approximate procedures have been developed
for estimating the deflections of reinforced concrete members.
Creep deflections
SABS 0100 SABS 0100 recommends that the long-term creep deflection can be de-
termined by multiplying the instantaneous short-term deflection Di with a
factor l where
l = 1+ c i f (15.3-9)
xi
where ci =
d
xi = neutral axis depth, determined from a cracked transformed section and
short-term conditions
d = effective depth of the reinforcement
f = creep coefficient (see section 2.2.8)
The instantaneous plus creep deflection is then given by
D¥ = l D i (15.3-10)
Since it is only the permanent load that will cause creep, Di in the above equation should be
determined using permanent loads only.
This approach was originally proposed by Pretorius (1985) and later refined by Clarke et
al. (1988). It should be noted that f from section 2.2.8 applies to specimen subjected to
uniform compression and that the compression stresses in a beam is likely to be triangular.
Assuming a uniform compression stress is conservative when using f from section 2.2.8.
SABS 0100 When compression reinforcement is present, f should be replaced by
æ rö
f¢ = fç1- ÷ (15.3-10)
è 2ø
where r = the ratio of compression reinforcement area to tension reinforcement

area.
= As¢/As
It is interesting to compare the ACI 318 approach to that of SABS 0100:

ACI 318 The modulus of rupture for normal weight concrete is given by
f r = 0 .63 f c¢ = 0 .563 f cu (15.3-11)
assuming f c¢ = 0 .8 f cu . The additional deflection caused by creep and

shrinkage Dt is given by
Dt = l Di (15.3-12)
x
with l=
1+ 50 r¢
where x = a coefficient that depends on the load duration:

= 1.0 after 3 months
= 2.0 after 5 years and longer
r¢ = ratio of compression reinforcement
A¢s
=
bd
The term (1+ 50 r¢) takes into account the beneficial effect compression reinforcement has
on reducing deflections while x accounts for creep. The total instantaneous and
time-dependent deflection is then given by
D ¥ = D i + D t = D i + l D i = (1+ l ) D i (15.3-13)
Note that shrinkage deflection is included in the above equation, but not in Eq. (15.3-10).
Shrinkage deflections
Reinforcement provides restraint against shrinkage of the concrete. Consider for example
a simply supported slab, where the reinforcement is in the bottom of the section. The con-
crete in the top of the slab is free to shrink while shrinkage is restrained at the bottom of the
slab. This causes curvatures, and hence deflections, that must be added to those caused by
the applied loads. The approach proposed here by SABS 0100 is the same as in BS 8110.
SABS 0100 Curvature caused by shrinkage can be determined from
e cs neff S s
j sh = (15.3-14)
I
where ecs = free shrinkage strain (see section 2.2.8)

neff = modular ratio
= Es / Eeff
Eeff = effective modulus of elasticity of the concrete, allowing for creep (see
section 2.2.8)
= E c / (1+ f )
Ec = short-term modulus of elasticity of the concrete
Ss = first moment of area of the reinforcement about the centroid of the
cracked or uncracked section, whichever is appropriate
I = second moment of area of the cracked transformed or uncracked sec-
tion, whichever is appropriate
The curvature caused by shrinkage is assumed to be constant along the member. For a sim-
ply supported beam the curvature corresponds to the first case in Fig. 15-10 and K = 0.125
when calculating the deflection caused by curvature. Other coefficients are to be used for
different boundary conditions.
Example 15.3
See Mathcad document Defl_Ex01_SA.

Struct: Cracking Example 15-1 Filename: Crck_Ex01.xmcd
Date: 2008-02-07
Example 15-1: Calculating crack widths

Determine the maximum crack width according to SABS 0100 for the beam shown below.
(Adapted from: Mosley and Bungey, 1991)
Input b
Height of beam h := 1000⋅ mm

x
Cover cmin := 50⋅ mm
N.A.
Spacing of reinforcement s := 130 ⋅ mm d
h y=
(d – x)/2
Diameter of reinforcement ϕ := 40⋅ mm
3
y=
Long-term service moment M := 650 ⋅ kN⋅ m
(d – x)/2
3 Y40 bars
Characteristic compressive cube strength (28 days)
fcu := 30⋅ MPa 2 1
Width of the section at the centroid of the tension steel b t := b b t = 400 mm
Analysis
Modulus of elasticity for concrete (to SABS 0100)
For normal weight concrete Ko := 20⋅ GPa
⎛ fcu ⎞
Ec := Ko + 0.2⋅ GPa⋅ ⎜ ⎟ Ec = 26 GPa
⎝ MPa ⎠
ϕ
Depth of reinforcement d := h − cmin − d = 930 mm
2
To take into account the effects of creep, the effective modulus of elasticity is assumed to be
Ec
Eeff := Eeff = 13 GPa
2
Es
Modular ratio n e := n e = 15.385
Eeff
Reinforcement
As := 3 ⋅ ⎛⎜
π 2⎞ 3 2
⋅ϕ ⎟ As = 3.8 × 10 mm
⎝4 ⎠
Date: 2008-02-07
Cracked transformed section neutral axis depth

b
2
n e⋅ As = 57999 mm
d
Guess x :=
2 x
x
Given b ⋅ x⋅ = n e⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x)
2 N.A. d
x := Find ( x) x = 394.19 mm
(d – x)
ne As
1 3 2
Icr := ⋅ b ⋅ x + n e⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x)
3
9 4
Icr = 24.8 × 10 mm
Position 1 and 2
Strain at the soffit, ignoring tension stiffening
⋅ ⎡⎢
1 M ⋅ ( h − x) ⎤ −3
ε 1 := ⎥ ε 1 = 1.221 × 10
Eeff ⎣ Icr ⎦
Average soffit strain
At the soffit a' := h a' = 1000 mm
b t⋅ ( h − x) ⋅ ( a' − x) −4
ε ts := ε ts = 1.211 × 10
(3⋅MPa− 1)⋅E ⋅A ⋅(d − x) s s
−3
ε m := ε 1 − ε ts ε m = 1.099 × 10
The maximum crack width would occur for maximum a cr
2
2 ⋅ ⎛⎜ cmin +
ϕ⎞ ϕ
a cr.1 := ⎟ − 3
⎝ 2⎠ 2
a cr.1 = 78.99 mm
acr,3 y=
(d – x)/2
2 2
a cr.2 := ⎛ s ⎞ + ⎛c + ϕ ⎞ − ϕ
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ min 2 ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 2
φ
acr,2
a cr.2 = 75.52 mm acr,1 cmin
2 1
Set a cr := a cr.1 s s/2 s/2
Date: 2008-02-07
Maximum crack width
3 ⋅ a cr⋅ ε m
wmax :=
⎛ a cr − cmin ⎞
1 + 2⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ h−x ⎠
wmax = 0.238 mm
Position 3
Distance from neutral axis
d−x
y := y = 267.9 mm
2
⋅ ⎛⎜
1 M ⋅y ⎞ −6
ε 1 := ⎟ ε 1 = 539.7 × 10
Eeff ⎝ Icr ⎠
Average strain
a' := x + y a' = 662.1 mm
b t⋅ ( h − x) ⋅ ( a' − x) −5
ε ts := ε ts = 5.357 × 10
(3⋅MPa− 1)⋅E ⋅A ⋅(d − x)s s
−4
ε m := ε 1 − ε ts ε m = 4.862 × 10
Midway between reinforcement and neutral axis
2
a cr := ⎛c + ϕ ⎞ + y 2 − ϕ a cr = 256.9 mm
⎜ min 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 2
Maximum crack width
3 ⋅ a cr⋅ ε m
wmax := wmax = 0.223 mm
1 + 2⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ h−x ⎠
Date: 2007-05-22
Example 15-2: Calculating crack widths

Determine the maximum crack width according to SABS 0100 for the slab shown below.
(Adapted from: Cope & Clark, 1984)
Input h
Height of slab h := 200 ⋅ mm Y12 bars φ c
Cover cmin := 15⋅ mm
s
Spacing of reinforcement s := 150 ⋅ mm
Diameter of reinforcement φ := 12⋅ mm
Consider a unit width of slab b := 1 ⋅ m
Long-term moment in service (for a unit width) M := 30⋅ kN⋅ m
Characteristic compressive cube strength (28 days) fcu := 30⋅ MPa
Width of the section at the centroid of the tension steel b t := b b t = 1000 mm
Analysis
Modulus of elasticity for concrete (to SABS 0100)
For normal weight concrete Ko := 20⋅ GPa
⎛ fcu ⎞
Ec := Ko + 0.2⋅ GPa⋅ ⎜ Ec = 26 GPa
⎝ MPa ⎠
φ
Depth of reinforcement d := h − cmin − d = 179 mm
2
To take into account the effects of creep, the effective modulus of elasticity is assumed to be
Ec
Eeff := Eeff = 13 GPa
2
Es
Modular ratio n e := n e = 15.385
Eeff
Reinforcement per meter width
⎛ π ⋅ φ2⎞ × 1000⋅ mm 2
As := ⎜ As = 754.0 mm
⎝4 ⎠ s
Date: 2007-05-22

2
n e⋅ As = 11600 mm
b
d
Guess x :=
2 x
x
Given b ⋅ x⋅ = n e⋅ As⋅ ( d − x) (d – x)
d
2
ne As
x := Find ( x) x = 53.88 mm

1 3 2
Icr := ⋅ b ⋅ x + n e⋅ As⋅ ( d − x)
3
6 4
Icr = 233.7 × 10 mm
M⋅ ( h − x) ⎤
⋅ ⎡⎢
1 −3
ε 1 := ⎥ ε 1 = 1.443 × 10
Eeff ⎣ Icr ⎦
Average soffit strain
At the soffit a' := h a' = 200 mm
b t⋅ ( h − x) ⋅ ( a' − x) −4
ε ts := ε ts = 3.772 × 10
(3⋅MPa )⋅E ⋅ A ⋅(d − x)
−1
s s
−3
ε m := ε 1 − ε ts ε m = 1.065 × 10
The maximum crack width would occur midway between two bars:
2 2 φ
⎛
a cr := ⎜
s⎞ ⎛
+ ⎜ cmin +
φ⎞
−
φ
acr acr
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 2 cmin
a cr = 71.88 mm s/2 s/2
Maximum crack width
3 ⋅ a cr⋅ ε m
wmax := wmax = 0.129 mm
1 + 2⋅ ⎜
⎝ h−x ⎠
Struct: Deflections Example 15-3 Filename: Defl_Ex01.xmcd
Date: 2007-05-22
Example 15-3: Calculating deflections

Determine the short- and long-term deflections, according to SABS 0100, for a simply supported beam
subjected to uniformly distributed loads .
Input
b
Height of beam h := 400 ⋅ mm
Depth of reinforcement d := 330 ⋅ mm

d
2 h
Area of reinforcement As := 855 ⋅ mm (2 Y20 + 2 Y12)
Characteristic compressive cube strength (28 days) fcu := 43⋅ MPa As
Short-term modulus of elasticity for concrete Ec := 30⋅ GPa
Props are removed at 28 days after casting

−6
30 year shrinkage strain ε cs := 430 ⋅ 10
Span L := 8.5⋅ m
Loadings (nominal):
−1
Self-weight wDL := 2.8⋅ kN⋅ m
−1
Live load wLL := 3 ⋅ kN⋅ m
Permanent load wperm := wDL + 0.6⋅ wLL It is assumed that 60% of the live load will be permanent
−1
wperm = 4.6 kN⋅ m
Analysis
Design moments
2
MDL := ( wDL) ⋅
L
Self-weight MDL = 25.29 kN⋅ m
8
2
MLL := ( wLL) ⋅
L
Live loads MLL = 27.09 kN⋅ m
8
2
Mperm := ( wperm ) ⋅
L
Permanent loads Mperm = 41.54 kN⋅ m
8
Total load Mtot := MDL + MLL Mtot = 52.38 kN⋅ m

Date: 2007-05-22
Cracking moment
−1
Modulus of rupture fr := 0.65⋅ MPa ⋅ fcu⋅ MPa fr = 4.262 MPa (Assuming an unrestrained beam)
1 3 9 4
Second moment of area of uncracked section Ig := ⋅ b⋅ h Ig = 1.333 × 10 mm
12
h
Distance from centroid to extreme fibre in tension yt := yt = 200 mm
2
fr⋅ Ig
Cracking moment Mcr := Mcr = 28.42 kN⋅ m
yt
Cracked section properties

Es
Modular ratio n := n = 6.667 Note that the effects of creep, i.e. effective modulus of elasticity,
Ec is not included here

3 2
n ⋅ As = 5.700 × 10 mm b
d
Guess xi :=
2
xi
b ⋅ x i ⋅ = n ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x i )
xi
Given
2
d
xi := Find ( xi) xi = 102.0 mm N.A.
(d – xi)
Cracked transformed second moment of area n As
⋅ b ⋅ x i + n ⋅ As ⋅ ( d − x i )
1 3 2
Icr :=
3
6 4
Icr = 384.7 × 10 mm
Short-term deflections
For uniformly distributed loads, the deflection coefficient (Fig. 15-10) K := 0.104
For self-weight, the beam is uncracked since MDL = 25.29 kN⋅ m < Mcr = 28.42 kN⋅ m
Ie := Ig
⎛ MDL ⎞ 2
∆ i.DL := K⋅ ⎜ ⋅L ∆ i.DL = 4.75 mm
⎝ Ec⋅ Ie ⎠
For permanent load, the section is cracked since Mperm = 41.54 kN⋅ m > Mcr = 28.42 kN⋅ m
3 ⎡⎢ 3⎤
⎛ Mcr ⎞ ⎛ Mcr ⎞ ⎥ 6 4
Ie := ⎜ ⋅ Ig + ⎜M
⎢1 − ⎥ ⋅ Icr Ie = 688.3 × 10 mm
⎝ Mperm ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ perm ⎠ ⎦
Date: 2007-05-22
⎛ Mperm ⎞ 2
∆ i.perm := K⋅ ⎜ ⋅L ∆ i.perm = 15.12 mm
⎝ Ec⋅ Ie ⎠
For total load, the section is cracked since Mtot = 52.38 kN⋅ m > Mcr = 28.42 kN⋅ m
3 ⎡⎢ 3⎤
⎛ Mcr ⎞ ⎛ Mcr ⎞ ⎥ 6 4
Ie := ⋅ Ig +
⎜M ⎢1 − ⎜M ⎥ ⋅ Icr Ie = 536.2 × 10 mm
⎝ tot ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ tot ⎠ ⎦
⎛ Mtot ⎞ 2
∆ i.tot := K⋅ ⎜ ⋅L ∆ i.tot = 24.47 mm
⎝ Ec⋅ Ie ⎠
Long-term creep deflections

Creep coefficient
2⋅ b⋅ h
Effective section thickness h 0 := h 0 = 153.8 mm (assuming the entire beam will
2⋅ ( b + h) be exposed)
From Fig. 2-11: φ := 3.4 Loaded at 28 days, assuming inland conditions
Creep deflection
xi
Neutral-axis depth ratio χ := χ = 0.309
d
λ := 1 + χ ⋅ φ λ = 2.051
Creep will take place under permanent load:
∆ ∞ := λ ⋅ ∆ i.perm ∆ ∞ = 31 mm This includes instantaneous under permanent load and

creep deflection
Long-term shrinkage deflections

Effective modulus of elasticity (allowing for creep)
Ec
Eeff := Eeff = 6.818 GPa
1+φ
Es
Modular ratio n eff := n eff = 29.33
Eeff
b

3 2
n eff ⋅ As = 25.08 × 10 mm x
d
Guess x := d
2 N.A.
x
Given b ⋅ x⋅ = n eff ⋅ As⋅ ( d − x) (d – x)
2 neff As
x := Find ( x) x = 175.9 mm
Date: 2007-05-22

1 3 2 9 4
Icr := ⋅ b ⋅ x + n eff ⋅ As⋅ ( d − x) Icr = 1.049 × 10 mm
3
First moment of area of reinforcement about centroid

3 3
S s := As⋅ ( d − x) S s = 131.8 × 10 mm
Shrinkage curvature
ε cs⋅ n eff ⋅ S s −3 −1
ϕ := ϕ = 1.584 × 10 m
Icr
Shrinkage deflection
Constant curvature K := 0.125

2
∆ sh := K⋅ ϕ ⋅ L ∆ sh = 14.31 mm
Summary of deflections
Short-term deflections
Self-weight ∆ i.DL = 4.75 mm
Permanent load ∆ i.perm = 15.12 mm
Self-weight and live load ∆ i.tot = 24.47 mm
Non-permanent loads ∆ i.add := ∆ i.tot − ∆ i.perm ∆ i.add = 9.35 mm
Long-term deflections
Permanent and creep ∆ ∞ = 31 mm
Creep only ∆ ∞ − ∆ i.perm = 15.88 mm
Shrinkage ∆ sh = 14.31 mm
Maximum ∆ ∞.max := ∆ ∞ + ∆ i.add + ∆ sh ∆ ∞.max = 54.66 mm
Comparison with ACI 318

Cylinder strength f'c := 0.8⋅ fcu f'c = 34.4 MPa
−1
Modulus of rupture fr := 0.63⋅ MPa ⋅ f'c⋅ MPa fr = 3.695 MPa
For long-term deflections (> 5 years) ξ := 2
For no compression reinforcement ρ' := 0

Date: 2007-05-22
Additional deflection caused by creep and shrinkage

ξ
λ := λ=2
1 + 50⋅ ρ'
∆ t := λ ⋅ ∆ i.perm ∆ t = 30.24 mm
Long-term deflections
Permanent load ∆ i.perm = 15.12 mm
Creep and shrinkage ∆ t = 30.24 mm
Maximum ∆ ∞.max := ∆ i.perm + ∆ i.add + ∆ t ∆ ∞.max = 54.70 mm

16 INTRODUCTION TO PRESTRESSED CON-
CRETE
This chapter introduces some of the fundamental concepts related to the analysis and design of
prestressed concrete structures. It is an extract from a book by Marshall and Robberts (2000),
which treats this topic in much greater depth than what is presented here.
16.1 THE BASIC IDEA OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
In its general form, the term prestressing means the deliberate creation of permanent stresses in
a structure before it is subjected to any imposed load. Because the object of prestressing a struc-
ture is to improve its performance, the stresses resulting from prestressing are designed to coun-
teract those induced by the acting loads.
As an example, consider the case of a simply supported beam made from an elastic material
which is equally strong in compression and in tension. The deflected shape of the beam and the
stress distribution over the depth of the midspan section, which result from the application of a
uniformly distributed load w, are shown in Fig. 16-1a. The principle of prestressing can subse-
quently be used to counteract this response by applying an eccentric compression force P to
each end of the beam. The prestressing forces are shown in Fig. 16-1b together with the resultant
deflected shape of the beam and the stress distribution over the midspan section. Figure 16-1c
shows the response to the combined application of the load w and the prestressing forces P,
which is obtained by the superposition of the response to the load w (Fig. 16-1a) and the re-
sponse to the prestressing forces P (Fig. 16-1b).
A comparison of the deflected shapes and mid-span stresses shown in Figs. 16-1a and 16-1c il-
lustrates the effects of prestressing on the structural behaviour of the beam: Not only can both
the compressive and tensile stresses (and hence, the corresponding strains) in the top and bottom
fibres of the mid-span section be reduced, but the beam deflection can also be reduced. It should
be noted that although the stress in the bottom fibre (f wb – f pb ) resulting from the combined ac-
tion of the load w and the prestressing forces P is shown to be compressive in Fig. 16-1c, it
could be tensile depending on the relative magnitudes of f wb and f pb . Similarly, the resultant de-
flection (d w - d p ) shown in Fig. 16-1c to be upward, could be downward.
Given the fact that concrete is strong in compression and weak in tension, it seems natural that
one of the most successful applications of the principle of prestressing has been the develop-
ment of prestressed concrete. A simply supported plain, unreinforced concrete beam subjected
to an increasing load will fail immediately after the development of cracks when the induced
flexural tensile stress f wb (Fig. 16-1a) exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete. In the case of
a reinforced concrete beam, suitable steel reinforcement is provided in the tension zone of the
section to carry the tensile forces required for equilibrium of the cracked section. For this rea-
son, a reinforced concrete beam can carry loads which exceed the cracking load by a consider-
able margin.
As opposed to reinforced concrete, where the concrete is allowed to crack under service loads,
the original development of prestressed concrete was based on the prevention of flexural cracks
forming under service loads. This was achieved by applying the criterion of no tensile stress, be-
cause it is generally accepted that if there are no tensile stresses present in the concrete it will
not crack. However, this criterion has been relaxed with the subsequent development of pre-
stressed concrete and it is currently common practice to allow some tension to develop in the
concrete. As shown in Fig. 16-1, the tensile stresses induced by the load can be neutralised to
any desired degree by providing suitable prestressing.
16-1
16-2 THE BASIC IDEA OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
w
fwt (compression)
dw
fwb (tension)
Section Stresses at midspan
section
(a) Response to uniformly distributed load
fpt (tension)
dp
e P P e
fpb (compression)
section
(b) Response to prestressing forces
fwt – fpt
dw - dp
e P P e
fwb – fpb

section
(c) Response to uniformly distributed load and prestressing forces
Figure 16-1: General effects of prestressing.
With the subsequent development of the concept of partial prestressing significant tension and
controlled cracking are allowed to develop at service load levels, in much the same way as in re-
inforced concrete. The latest schools of thought on prestressed concrete embodies the view that
partially prestressed concrete occupies the range between reinforced concrete and fully pre-
stressed concrete (i.e. no tension is allowed to develop at service load levels). From this view-
point reinforced concrete and fully prestressed concrete represent the two boundaries of the
complete range of possibilities which exist for partially prestressed concrete and, as such, are
two special cases of partially prestressed concrete.
INTRODUCTION TO PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 16-3
In prestressed concrete, the most commonly used method of applying the prestressing force to
the concrete is by tensioning high-strength reinforcement, commonly referred to as tendons,
against the concrete prior to the application of imposed loads. Two different processes can be
distinguished in this regard:
· Pretensioning: In these prestressing methods, the prestressed reinforcement is tensioned be-

fore the concrete is placed.
· Post-tensioning: In these prestressing methods, the prestressed reinforcement is tensioned af-
ter the concrete has been placed and has developed sufficient strength to sustain the induced
stresses.
The definition of prestressed concrete as given by the ACI Committee on Prestressed Concrete
(taken from Ref. 16-1) is quoted here for completeness:
Prestressed concrete: Concrete in which there have been introduced internal stresses of such
magnitude and distribution that the stresses resulting from given external loadings are coun-
teracted to a desired degree. In reinforced-concrete members the prestress is commonly in-
troduced by tensioning the steel reinforcement.
It is apparent from Fig. 16-1 that the use of prestressing will enable a designer to provide a
structure of which the deflections at service load levels can be made much less than those of its
reinforced concrete counterpart. This benefit is obtained in addition to the bonus of being in a
position to provide a structure which is relatively crack-free at service load levels.
16.2 EFFECTS OF PRESTRESSING
The effects of prestressing are dictated by the fundamental reason for applying it in the first
place: Prestressing is simply a means by which a controllable set of forces are applied to a struc-
ture to counteract the stresses induced by loads (e.g. dead loads and live loads).
The effects of prestressing with regard to the development of stresses are illustrated by consid-
ering the rectangular beam section shown in Fig. 16-2a. If a moment M = 286 kN.m is applied to
the section, the resulting stresses at the top and bottom of the section can be calculated from
f = m M y / I , where y is the distance from the top (or bottom) fibre to the centroidal axis and I is
the second moment of area of the section about the centroidal axis. Taking tension positive and
compression negative, this calculation yields a stress of –5.94 MPa at the top and a stress of
+5.94 MPa at the bottom, as shown in Fig. 16-2b. The concrete can easily carry the compressive
stress at the top of the section, but will most probably crack under the tensile stress at the bottom
because it cracks at a much lower stress, which lies in the range of 50% to 75% of this value.
As a first attempt to neutralise the tensile stresses in the section, an axial compression force P =
2258 kN is taken to act at the same time as the moment of 286 kN.m (see Fig. 16-2c). This axial
force induces an additional uniform compressive stress of –5.94 over the section, which is calcu-
lated from f = –P/A, where A is the area of the section. The total stresses resulting from the si-
multaneous application of M and P are obtained by adding the stresses which are separately
produced by each of these actions. As shown in Fig. 16-2c, a total stress of –11.88 MPa is ob-
tained at the top and a zero stress is obtained at the bottom. The concrete will be able to carry
these stresses for the strengths normally used in prestressed concrete structures.
The fairly large force of 2258 kN may be reduced by applying it eccentrically. Therefore, as a
next step, a force P = 1127 kN is applied at an eccentricity of 127 mm, measured from the cen-
troid of the section, as shown in Fig. 16-2d. The additional stress which arises from the eccen-
tricity is calculated from f = ± Pe y / I , where e is the eccentricity as defined above. The stresses
at the top and bottom of the section as produced by the various components of load are summa-
16-4 EFFECTS OF PRESTRESSING
500
760
y= = 380 mm
2
y = 380
A = 500 ´ 760 = 380.0 ´ 103 mm2
760
y = 380
500 ´ 7603
I= = 182.9 ´ 108 mm4
12
(a) Section Properties
Loading Condition Stress
– My –
P + Pey – My – P + Pey
+ – + –
I A I I A I
(b)
–5.94 MPa –5.94 MPa
M = 286 kNm
+5.94 MPa +5.94 MPa
(c)
–5.94 MPa –5.94 MPa –11.88 MPa
M = 286 kNm
P = 2258 kN
+5.94 MPa –5.94 MPa 0
(d)
–5.94 MPa –2.97 MPa +2.97 MPa –5.94 MPa
M = 286 kNm
e = 127
P = 1127 kN
+5.94 MPa –2.97 MPa –2.97 MPa 0
(e)
–5.94 MPa –1.98 MPa +3.96 MPa –3.96 MPa
M = 286 kNm
e = 254
P = 751 kN
+5.94 MPa –1.98 MPa –3.96 MPa 0
Figure 16-2: Effects of prestressing on stresses.

rised in Fig. 16-2d, from which it may be seen that P causes a zero stress at the top and a com-
pression of –5.94 MPa at the bottom. The total stresses, which include those produced by M, are
seen to be –5.94 MPa at the top and zero at the bottom. When these results are compared to those
obtained in the previous case, the beneficial effect of applying P eccentrically becomes clear:
The tensile stresses in the section can still be completely neutralised even though the magnitude
of P has been reduced by half, and in the process the total compressive stress in the top fibre has
also been reduced by a half.
As a final example in this regard, consider the case where the compression force P is further re-
duced to 751 kN but its eccentricity is increased to 254 mm, as shown in Fig. 16-2e. Also shown
are the stresses produced in the top and bottom fibres of the section by the various components
of load. Once again, a total bottom fibre stress of zero is obtained while a total compression of
–3.96 MPa is obtained at the top, which is even smaller than before. This result is consistent
with the previous finding that an increased eccentricity has a beneficial effect as far as the total
stresses are concerned. However, it may be seen that the eccentric force acting on its own causes
a tension of (3.96 - 1.98) = 1.98 MPa at the top. Although this tension is probably not large
enough to cause the concrete to crack, it serves to illustrate that a larger eccentricity can be det-
rimental in the absence of external load (represented here by M), even though it is beneficial
when the external load is present. This finding is important for design because it clearly shows
that the critical stresses may arise either in the loaded or in the unloaded structure.
These examples are intended to illustrate the effects of prestressing on the development of stress
in the section, and are not intended to show that limiting the total tensile stress in the section to
zero is necessarily beneficial or not.
Another important effect of prestressing on structural behaviour is its impact on deflections at

service load levels. This effect can be qualitatively investigated with reference to Fig. 16-1. In
the case of the simply supported beam considered here, the externally applied load w will pro-
duce a downward deflection (see Fig. 16-1a) while the prestressing force P, which is applied at
an eccentricity e, will cause an upward deflection (see Fig. 16-1b). The total deflection of the
beam under the combined actions of the external load and the prestressing force is obtained by
adding the deflections yielded by each load acting separately (see Fig. 16-1c). Because the de-
flections caused by the two components of load are opposite, it is clear that the downward de-
flection produced by the external load is always reduced by the presence of prestressing and,
depending on the relative magnitudes of the two components of deflection, the resultant deflec-
tion can be upward. This observation, once again, points to the fact that the designer is working
between various limits, and that he may find that although the deflection of the loaded structure
is small, the upward deflection of the unloaded structure is unacceptably large. Such a situation
can arise in cases where the live load to dead load ratio is large.
16.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
There are three different concepts which can be used to approach the simulation of the behaviour
of a prestressed concrete member (Ref. 16-1). Each approach can be used for design provided
that it is properly understood by the designer, and provided that the limitations of each are real-
ized. In the following, each approach is briefly described.
First approach: Prestressing transforms concrete into an elastic material.
The fundamental idea behind this approach is that the pre-compression applied during
prestressing transforms the concrete into an elastic material. The brittle behaviour of concrete
arises from the fact that when its tensile strength, which is much less than its compressive
strength, is reached it cracks and subsequently cannot carry any tensile stress. If it is accepted
that concrete will not crack if there are no tensile stresses present, then it can be concluded that
16-6 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
the removal of tensile stresses by prestressing will remove the source of its brittle behaviour
and, in so doing, will transform it into an elastic material.
Using this approach, it is convenient to view the concrete as being subjected to two sets of
forces:
· The external load which induces tensile stresses.

· The internal prestress which sets up the compression required for neutralising any tension.
If the pre-compression induced by the prestress prevents the concrete from cracking, then the
stresses, strains and deflections caused by each of the sets of forces can be considered separately
and superimposed as required. The examples considered in Fig. 16-2 (see Section 16.2) serve as
an illustration of how this approach can be used to calculate stresses in a beam section.
This approach is credited to Freyssinet and is the source of the zero tensile stress criterion which
has been applied over many years.
Second approach: Prestressed concrete is a type of reinforced concrete.
Prestressed concrete can be viewed as a type of reinforced concrete in which high-strength rein-
forcement has been tensioned against the concrete before any imposed load is applied. Follow-
ing this approach, prestressed concrete is considered as a combination of concrete and steel, in
which a resisting internal couple must be developed to equilibrate an external moment. The in-
ternal couple arises from the compression supplied by the concrete and the tension supplied by
the steel, as is the case for reinforced concrete. From this point of view, the primary difference
between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and reinforced concrete lies in the increased
cracking load and the possibility of actively controlling the deformations of the structure. The
fundamental principle, however, remains the same.
To illustrate the use of this approach to analysing a prestressed concrete beam section, consider
the section shown in Fig. 16-3 subjected to a moment M = 286 kN.m. The prestressed reinforce-
ment is placed at an eccentricity e = 254 mm and carries a tension T = 751 kN. This example is
the same as that shown in Fig. 16-2e.
Horizontal equilibrium yields T = C = 751 kN. The internal couple provided by the compression
in the concrete C and the tension in the steel T must be equal to the external moment
M = 286 kN.m to satisfy moment equilibrium. The lever arm at which these forces are acting is
given by
la = æç
286 ö
÷ ´ 10 = 381 mm
3
è 751 ø
Therefore C is acting at an eccentricity e C = 381 - 254 = 127 mm. The stress distribution in the
concrete is obtained by considering the compression C = 751 kN acting on the concrete at an ec-
centricity of 127 mm. Using elastic theory
C C eC y
f = - -+
A I
751´ 103 751´ 103 ´ 127 ´ 380
= - -+
380 ´ 103 182.9 ´ 108
= - 198
. - + 198
.
So that f top = – 3.96 MPa (top fibre, compression)
f bot = 0 (bottom fibre)
500
380 A = 380.0 ´ 103 mm2
760
254 I = 182.9 ´ 108 mm4
380
Section Properties
-3.96 MPa
M = 286 kNm
C = 751 kN
ec = 127
la = 381
e = 254
T = 751 kN
0
Stress distribution
Figure 16-3: Prestressed concrete considered as a type of reinforced concrete.
These results are shown in Fig. 16-3 and are the same as obtained before in Fig. 16-2e.
Third approach: Prestressing balances a part of the applied load.
In this approach the view is adopted that the forces exerted by the prestressed reinforcement
(tendons) on the concrete balances the applied loads to some desired degree. Consider the sim-
ply supported beam shown in Fig. 16-4a which has a parabolically curved tendon. It can be seen
from Fig. 16-4b that the tendon applies the following forces to the concrete:
· The prestressing force P at each end of the beam where the tendon is anchored.
· An upward uniformly distributed load w b acting over the span of the beam. This load arises
because the concrete prevents the tendon from straightening under the action of the
prestressing force. It can be shown that for the tendon profile considered here
8P h
wb =
L2
where h = sag of the tendon
L = span of the beam
If the beam is subjected to a downward uniformly distributed load w, it is clear that the portion
of the load which is not balanced by the action of the prestress is given by (w – w b ). Using this
approach, the beam is subsequently analysed by considering it as being subjected to the
16-8 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
L/2 L/2
(a) Parabolic tendon profile
P P
wb
(b) Tendon forces acting on the concrete
Figure 16-4: Simply supported beam with parabolic tendon.
prestressing force P applied at the anchor positions at the ends of the beam and the unbalanced
load (w – w b ) acting over its span.
As an example of how this approach can be used to analyse a prestressed concrete beam, con-
sider the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 16-5a, which is subjected to a uniformly distrib-
uted load w = 42.9 kN/m. The prestressing force P = 751 kN and the tendon profile is parabolic,
with an eccentricity e = 254 mm at midspan and zero eccentricity at the ends. Since the bending
moment at midspan M = 42.9 ´ 7.3 2 /8 = 286 kN.m, it is clear that this example is the same as
that shown in Fig. 16-2e if the midspan section is considered.
The upward uniformly distributed load applied by the tendon is given by
8P h
wb =
L2
8 ´ 751´ 0.254
=
7.32
= 28.6 kN/m
The loads and forces acting on the concrete are shown in Fig. 16-5b, from which it is clear that
the unbalanced load is (42.9 – 28.6) = 14.3 kN/m acting downward. The midspan bending mo-
ment induced by this unbalanced load is
( w - w b ) L2
M =
8
w = 42.9 kN/m 500
380
760
h = 254 380 254
3650 3650 Section at midspan
7300 A = 380.0 ´ 103 mm2

I = 182.9 ´ 108 mm4
(a) Simply supported beam
w = 42.9 kN/m
P = 751 kN P = 751 kN
wb = 28.6 kN/m
7300
(b) Loads and forces acting on the concrete
500
–1.98 MPa –1.98 MPa –3.96 MPa
760
+1.98 MPa –1.98 MPa 0
Stress due to Stress due to Total stress

unbalanced load prestressing force
(= 14.3 kN/m) applied at ends of
beam
(c) Concrete stress in midspan section
Figure 16-5: Analysis using load balancing approach.

16-10 BASIC DEFINITIONS
14.3 ´ 7.32
=
8
= 95.3 kN.m
The stress produced by this moment in the extreme fibres of the midspan section is given by
M y
f =
I
95.3 ´ 106 ´ 380
=
182.9 ´ 108
= 1.98 MPa
So that f top = – 1.98 MPa (top fibre, compression)

f bot = + 1.98 MPa (bottom fibre, tension)
The stress induced by the prestressing force acting at the ends of the beam is, with negligible er-
ror, calculated from
P
f = -
A
751´ 103
= -
380 ´ 103
= – 1.98 MPa (compression)
Finally, the total stress in the top and bottom fibres of the midspan section are given by
f top = – 1.98 – 1.98 = – 3.96 MPa (top fibre, compression)

f bot = – 1.98 + 1.98 = 0 (bottom fibre)
These results are shown in Fig. 16-5c and are the same as obtained before in Fig. 16-2e.
16.4 BASIC DEFINITIONS
Some of the most commonly encountered prestressing techniques and features of construction of
prestressed concrete structures are introduced in the following (Ref. 16-1). The descriptions are
brief because the techniques and procedures covered here are more expansively dealt with in
subsequent Chapters.
The most commonly used prestressing method is to tension high-strength reinforcement against
the concrete. Hence the definition of tendon:
· Tendon: A tendon is the prestressed reinforcement used to apply the prestress to the concrete.
This steel reinforcement may either be high-strength wires, bars or strand.
Prestressing methods can be classified either as being a pretensioning method or as being a

post-tensioning method, depending on whether the concrete has not been placed or whether it
has been placed at the time of tensioning of the reinforcement. Although the terms
pretensioning and post-tensioning have been adequately defined in Section 16.1, their defini-
tions are repeated here for convenience:
· Pretensioning: In these prestressing methods, the prestressed reinforcement is tensioned be-

fore the concrete is placed.
· Post-tensioning: In these prestressing methods, the prestressed reinforcement is tensioned af-
ter the concrete has been placed and has developed sufficient strength to sustain the induced
stresses.
The definitions given in the following are all concerned with special features or attributes re-
lated to the construction of prestressed concrete structures.
Internal and External Prestressing
Internal prestressing refers to prestressed concrete structures in which the tendons are contained
within the concrete, while external prestressing implies that the prestressing force is applied ex-
ternally. External prestressing can be achieved either by placing the tendons outside the member
or by applying external prestressing forces using jacks. Internal prestressing is by far the most
commonly used method, although external prestressing by means of external tendons has re-
cently gained some popularity for use in bridge construction, particularly in Europe.
Jacks can be used to externally prestress a simply supported beam, as shown in Fig. 16-6. If the
jacks are properly placed, the pre-compression which they produce can neutralise any tension
caused by the applied load. However, this procedure is of little practical importance because the
time-dependent strains resulting from shrinkage and creep of the concrete soon reduce the
strains. Hence, the stresses induced by the prestressing force are reduced to levels at which the
prestressing becomes ineffective, unless the jacks can be readjusted. Shrinkage can be viewed
as the time-dependent strain which develops in the absence of load, while creep may be seen as
the time-dependent strain which develops in the presence of load. These phenomena are more
expansively dealt with in Section 2.1.5.
Jack Jack
Figure 16-6: External prestressing using jacks.
Linear and Circular Prestressing
Linear prestressing refers to elongated elements such as beams and slabs, even though the ten-
dons may be curved and not straight. Circular prestressing, on the other hand, refers to circular
structures such as silos, pressure vessels, tanks and pipes where the circular shape of the tendons
is dictated by the shape of the structural element.
16-12 PRESTRESSED VERSUS REINFORCED CONCRETE
Bonded and Unbonded Tendons
When tendons are bonded to the surrounding concrete, they are referred to as bonded tendons. A
pretensioned tendon is bonded to the concrete by virtue of the construction method, although it
can be debonded over a portion of its length by taking appropriate steps to accomplish this.
Post-tensioned tendons are encased in a duct so that they can be tensioned after the surrounding
concrete has hardened sufficiently. Bonding is subsequently accomplished by injecting grout
into the duct.
Tendons not bonded to the concrete over their entire length are referred to as unbonded tendons,
and can only be accomplished with post-tensioning. Unbonded tendons require corrosion protec-
tion, which is commonly provided by placing them in grease filled plastic tubes.
Stage Stressing
It sometimes happens that, by the nature of the construction procedure, the dead load is applied
in stages. In such cases the prestressing may also be applied in appropriate stages to avoid over-
stressing the concrete. This technique is referred to as stage stressing.
Partial and Full Prestressing
When a prestressed concrete member is designed in compliance with the zero tensile stress crite-
rion, i.e. not to develop any tensile stress under service loads, it is referred to as being fully pre-
stressed. On the other hand, tension and cracking are allowed to develop in partially prestressed
members at service load levels. Additional ordinary non-prestressed reinforcement is usually
provided in partially prestressed members to control the cracking and to ensure adequate ulti-
mate strength.
16.5 PRESTRESSED VERSUS REINFORCED CONCRETE
One of the major differences between prestressed concrete and reinforced concrete, with regard
to their physical attributes, is that higher strength materials (for both concrete and steel) are
used for prestressed concrete. In prestressed concrete the high-strength steel is tensioned and an-
chored against the concrete, which produces a number of desirable effects:
· The high strength of the steel can be properly used, even at service load levels.
· The prestressing tends to neutralise tensile stresses and strains induced by the load, so that
cracking of the section is eliminated and, as a result, the full concrete section becomes active
in resisting the load. This mechanism is much more effective than is the case for reinforced
concrete where only the uncracked part of the section in the compression zone participates in
resisting the load.
· The deformations induced by the prestressing serve to offset those produced by the load, and
can be used by the designer to control deflections.
· Higher strength concrete may be used to obtain more economic sections than with reinforced
concrete.
The following advantages of prestressed concrete are often put forward when compared to rein-
forced concrete (Ref. 16-2):
· Prestressed concrete requires smaller quantities of material than reinforced concrete because
high-strength materials are efficiently and effectively used and because it uses the entire sec-
tion to resist the load. This means that prestressed concrete members are lighter and more
slender than their reinforced concrete counterparts.
· The fact that members are lighter and more slender if prestressed concrete rather than rein-
forced concrete is used, leads to other advantages:
- Savings can be realised in the reduced cost of lighter supporting structures and, in the
case of precast elements, in the reduced handling and transportation costs.
- Aesthetically pleasing structures are more readily provided.
- Longer spans are possible because of the reduced self weight.
- Innovative construction methods are facilitated.
- Thinner slabs result in reduced building heights and consequent savings in the cost of fin-
ishes.
These advantages are particularly evident in the case of long span bridges and multi-storey
buildings.
· Prestressed concrete generally provides better corrosion protection to the reinforcement than
does reinforced concrete. This advantage is significant for structures subjected to aggressive
environments and for fluid-retaining structures.
· Improved deflection control is possible with prestressed concrete.
· Prestressed concrete members will require less shear reinforcement than reinforced concrete
members. This follows from the fact that the shear capacity of a prestressed member is in-
creased by curved tendons, which carry some of the shear, and by the pre-compression,
which reduces the principal tension.
· It often happens that the worst service load condition for a prestressed concrete structure oc-
curs during the prestressing operation. In such a case, it can be claimed that the safety of the
structure has been partially tested: If the structure successfully withstands the effects of the
prestressing operation, chances are good that it will perform well during its service life.
A comparison of the economic advantages or disadvantages of prestressed concrete with those

of reinforced concrete is complicated by the fact that each has a range of applicability, depend-
ing on the type of structure and the specific design requirements. However, if such a comparison
is made where the ranges of applicability overlap, care must be taken to include not only the cost
of the materials but also to include the additional costs associated with prestressed concrete,
such as the use of specialised equipment and hardware, greater design effort, more supervision
and the use of specialised personnel. Such a comparison should also reflect the relative perfor-
mance and cost advantages inherent in each type of structure. For example, since the decking for
post-tensioned slabs can be stripped after tensioning, shorter construction times are realized to-
gether with all the related savings in construction and financing costs.
If the view is taken that prestressed concrete and reinforced concrete represent the two bound-
aries of the range of possibilities which exist for partially prestressed concrete, they form part of
the same system and cannot be considered as being in competition with each other. A compari-
son, as given above, can therefore be seen to be inappropriate because a specific prestressing
level can always be found within the spectrum of possibilities to yield the best solution to a
given problem. From this viewpoint, it would seem much more appropriate to compare pre-
stressed reinforced concrete to structural steel.
16.6 HISTORY OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
A brief overview of the history of the development of prestressed concrete, as taken from
Refs. 16-1 to 16-7, is presented in the following. It is interesting to note that the development of
prestressed concrete is characterised by its individualistic nature, even though it took place si-
multaneously in several countries. A possible reason for this is the lack of communication which
existed between the countries during World War II.
16-14 HISTORY OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
The first application of the principle of prestressing to concrete is credited to P. H Jackson, of

San Francisco, who in 1886 applied for a patent for Constructions of Artificial Stone and Con-
crete Pavements in which steel tie rods, passed through concrete blocks and concrete arches,
were tightened by nuts. These structures served as slabs and roofs. An application for a patent,
which can also be related to prestressing, was made in 1888 by the German C. E. W. Doehring.
This patent covered the manufacture of mortar slabs containing tensioned wires.
The purpose of the work done by the Austrian engineer J. Mandl was aimed at using the strength
of the concrete in a beam as effectively as possible. To achieve this he, in 1896, became the first
person to clearly articulate the purpose of prestressing as the need to counteract the tension pro-
duced by the load with compression induced by an applied prestressing force. The German engi-
neer M. Koenen developed this idea and in 1907 derived an expression from which the required
prestressing force could be calculated. The loss of prestressing force resulting from elastic
shortening was accounted for in these proposals.
In 1907 the Norwegian J. G. F. Lund suggested the construction of prestressed vaults using pre-
fabricated concrete blocks jointed in mortar. The prestressing was applied by tensioned tie rods
which transmitted the compression to the blocks by bearing plates at the ends. Bond between the
tie rods and the mortar was destroyed at stretching. A similar prestressing procedure was sug-
gested by the American engineer G. R. Steiner in the following year. This procedure consisted
of initially tightening the reinforcing rods against the green concrete to destroy bond and to sub-
sequently complete the tensioning operation once the concrete has hardened. These two proce-
dures appear to be the first applications of post-tensioning.
In the procedures outlined above mild steel was tensioned to the permissible stress prescribed at
the time (i.e. approximately 110 MPa), which corresponds to a strain of 0.00055 in the steel. Be-
cause this strain is comparable to the magnitude of the strain induced by shrinkage and creep of
the concrete, most of the prestressing would have been lost with time. Therefore, these early at-
tempts were bound to give unsatisfactory results because shrinkage and creep of the concrete
were not accounted for.
The American engineer R. H. Dill appears to have been the first, in 1923-25, to suggest that full
prestressing can be provided by post-tensioning high-strength steel, instead of mild steel. Dill
coated the reinforcement with a plastic substance to prevent bond, and tensioned the reinforce-
ment after most of the shrinkage in the concrete had taken place. The effects of creep were ac-
counted for by occasionally tightening the nuts used for stretching the reinforcement. However,
it should be noted that Dill did not actually say that high-strength steel was required for main-
taining full prestress after losses. In 1922, W. H. Hewett, also of America, successfully applied
prestressing to circular concrete tanks using an idea similar to that used by Dill.
E. Freyssinet of France was the first engineer to fully grasp the importance of the effects of
shrinkage and creep of the concrete, and is credited with the development of prestressed con-
crete as we know it today. In 1928, he introduced the use of high-strength steel bonded to the
concrete, together with the requirement that a high tensioning stress be applied to the steel. The
significance of these proposals is demonstrated by the fact that shrinkage and creep can together
induce a strain of approximately 0.001 in the concrete, while a strain of approximately 0.007 can
be induced in high-strength steel reinforcement during the prestressing operation. This means
that, in this case, shrinkage and creep will reduce the prestressing force only by about 14%.
Thus, by using high-strength steel for prestressing, it is still possible to completely neutralise
any tension induced by the load in the concrete, even after losses. Freyssinet also demonstrated
that a considerable saving in the required quantity of steel may be achieved by using
high-strength reinforcement.
The large scale use of prestressed concrete only became possible after the development of reli-
able and economical methods of carrying out the tensioning operation. The first practical imple-
mentation of pretensioning was made by E. Hoyer of Germany who, in 1938, introduced a

procedure whereby piano wire was tensioned over a large distance, after which the concrete was
cast. The prestress was transferred to the concrete by cutting the wires after hardening of the
concrete. Although Hoyer was granted a patent for the long-line pretensioning method, it should
be pointed out that the idea did not originate with him, but rather with Freyssinet, whose pro-
posal for the long-line process he combined with Wettstein’s (1919) experience with the use of
piano wire. The large scale use of post-tensioning started with the introduction, in 1939, of
Freyssinet’s system whereby a double-acting jack was used to tension and to anchor 12 wire ca-
bles in conical wedges, which served as anchors.
Since this time prestressed concrete has been widely accepted and used, as revealed by the fact
that:
· Many prestressing systems and techniques have been developed.

· A large number of books covering the design and construction of prestressed concrete struc-
tures have been published.
· Numerous technical societies have been established who, through their activities and publi-
cations, have greatly contributed to the progress of prestressed concrete.
Some of the engineers and researchers who have made significant contributions to the subse-
quent development of prestressed concrete include: G. Magnel of Belgium (Ref. 16-8), Y.
Guyon of France (Ref. 16-9), P. W. Abeles of England (Ref. 16-4 and 16-5), F. Leonhardt of
Germany (Ref. 16-10), V. V. Mikhailov of Russia, and T. Y. Lin of America (Ref. 16-1 and
16-11).
F. V. Emperger is credited with being the first to use the concept of partial prestressing when, in
1939, he suggested that pretensioned wires be added to conventionally designed non-tensioned
reinforcement to reduce the extent of cracking. This idea was further developed by Abeles who,
in 1940, suggested the use of non-tensioned high-strength steel together with pretensioned or
post-tensioned tendons. Apart from the recommendation that solely high-strength steel be used,
this proposal also differed from Emperger’s in that a prestressing force of a definite designed
magnitude be applied. The acceptance of partial prestressing was at first retarded, perhaps by
the opposition to this concept by Freyssinet (Ref. 16-12), who stated (Ref. 16-13) “... there is no
half-way house between reinforced and prestressed concrete; any intermediate systems are
equally bad as reinforced or prestressed structures, and are of no interest.” However, partial
prestressing has made enormous progress through the efforts and contributions of many eminent
engineers and researchers, and is commonly used today.
16.7 REFERENCES TO PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
16-1 Lin, T. Y., and Burns, N. H., Design of Prestressed Concrete Structures, 3rd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981.
16-2 Naaman, A. E., Prestressed Concrete Analysis and Design: Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1982.
16-3 Abeles, P. W., The Principles and Practice of Prestressed Concrete, Crosby Lockwood
& Son, London, 1949.
16-4 Abeles, P. W., An Introduction to Prestressed Concrete, Volume I, Concrete Publica-
tions Ltd., London, 1964.
16-5 Abeles, P. W., An Introduction to Prestressed Concrete, Volume II, Concrete Publica-
tions Ltd., London, 1966.
16-16 REFERENCES TO PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
16-6 Collins, M. P., and Mitchell, D., Prestressed Concrete Structures, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1991.
16-7 Khachaturian, N., and Gurfinkel, G., Prestressed Concrete, McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, New York, 1969.
16-8 Magnel, G., Prestressed Concrete, Concrete Publications Ltd., London, 1948.
16-9 Guyon, Y., Prestressed Concrete, John Wiley & Sons, New York, Vol. 1, 1953, Vol. 2,
1960.
16-10 Leonhardt, F., Prestressed Concrete Design and Construction, English translation, Wil-
helm Ernst und Sohn, Berlin 1964, (1st ed., 1955, 2nd ed., 1962 in German).
16-11 Lin, T. Y., Design of Prestressed Concrete Structures, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1955.
16-12 Cohn, M. Z., “Some Problems of Partial Prestressing,” Partial Prestressing, from The-
ory to Practice. Volume I: Survey Reports, Edited by M. Z. Cohn, Chapter 2, NATO ASI
Series, Series E, No. 113a, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, 1986, pp. 15-63.
16-13 Freyssinet, E., “Prestressed Concrete, Principles and Applications,” ICE Proceedings,
Vol. 33, No. 4, February 1950, pp. 331-380.
17-1
Chapter 17
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17-3
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40. MacGregor, J.G. 1997. Reinforced Concrete: Mechanics and Design, 3rd ed.,
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41. MacGregor, J.G., Breen, J.E., and Pfrang, E.O. 1970. “Design of Slender Concrete
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17-5
45. Mosley, W.H., Hulse, R., and Bungey, J.H. 1999. Reinforced Concrete Design, 5th
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48. Navy, E.G. 1990. Reinforced Concrete: A Fundamental Approach, 2nd ed.,
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17-6 References
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48 pp.
17-8 References
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Book Company, New York, 763 pp.
Design Charts for Flexure A-1
Appendix A: Design Charts for Beams
A.1 Design Charts for Flexure
The following design charts for flexure are all for reinforcement of yield strength
fy = 450 MPa, concrete strength fcu = 30 MPa, and
d ¢/d = 0.05 Page A-1

d ¢/d = 0.01 Page A-2
d ¢/d = 0.15 Page A-3
d ¢/d = 0.20 Page A-4
A¢s
bd
15 0.040
14 SABS 0100: 1992
= 0.3.4 0.030
13 b
x/ d 0
d¢ f cu = 30 MPa
12 f y = 450 MPa 0.5
A¢s 0.020
11 d d¢
= 0 . 05
d 0.015
10 As
x/d = 0.3
9 0.4 0.010
M 8 0.5
(MPa) 0.005
bd 2 7
6 0
5
4
Suitable for design
3
2
1
0
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
As
bd
Figure A-1: Design chart for flexure, d ¢/d = 0.05.

A¢s
15 bd
14 SABS 0100: 1992 0.040
13 b = 0.3.4 0.030
d¢ f cu = 30 MPa d 0
x/
12 f y = 450 MPa 0.5
A¢s 0.020
11 d d¢
= 0 .1
d 0.015
10 As
x/d = 0.3
9 0.4 0.010
M 8 0.5
(MPa) 0.005
bd 2 7
6 0
5
4
Suitable for design
3
2
1
0
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
As
bd

15 A¢s
14 bd
SABS 0100: 1992
b 0.040
13 d¢ f cu = 30 MPa
= 0.3.4 0.030
12 f y = 450 MPa x/ d 0
A¢s 0.5
11 d¢ 0.020
d = 0 .15
d
10 As 0.015
x/d = 0.3
9 0.4 0.010
M 8 0.5
(MPa) 0.005
bd 2 7
6 0
5
4
Suitable for design
3
2
1
0
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
As
bd

15 A¢s
14 SABS 0100: 1992 bd
13 b
d¢ f cu = 30 MPa 0.040
= 0.3 0.030
12 f y = 450 MPa
x/d 0.4
A¢s
11 d¢ 0.5
d = 0 . 20 0.020
d
10 As
x/d = 0.3 0.015
9 0.4
0.010
M 8 0.5
(MPa)
bd 2 7 0.005
6 0
5
4
Suitable for design
3
2
1
0
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
As
bd

Rectangular columns B-1
Appendix B: Design Charts for Rectangular Columns
B.1 Rectangular columns
The following moment axial force (M-N) design charts are all for reinforcement of yield
strength fy = 450 MPa.
The first five charts are all for fcu = 30 MPa and
d/h = 0.75 Page B-1

d/h = 0.80 Page B-2
d/h = 0.85 Page B-3
d/h = 0.90 Page B-4
d/h = 0.95 Page B-5
The following five charts apply for any concrete strength normally used in construction
and
d/h = 0.75 Page B-6

d/h = 0.80 Page B-7
d/h = 0.85 Page B-8
d/h = 0.90 Page B-9
d/h = 0.95 Page B-10
50
SABS 0100: 1992
Asc d′
40
K= 2
h d
0.1 Asc
2
0.2
30 b
0.3
fy = 450 MPa
N
(MPa) 0.4 fcu = 30 MPa
bh
0.5 d ′ = 0.25 h
20 d = 0.75 h
0.6
0.7
0.8
10
0.9
K =1.0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
M
(MPa)
bh 2
Figure B-1: M-N design chart for fcu = 30 MPa and d/h = 0.75.
50
SABS 0100: 1992
Asc d′
40
K= 2
0.1 h d
Asc
0.2 2
30 b
0.3
fy = 450 MPa
N
bh
0.5 d ′ = 0.2 h
20 d = 0.8 h
0.6
0.7
0.8
10
0.9
K =1.0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
M
(MPa)
bh 2
50
SABS 0100: 1992
Asc d′
40
K= 2
0.1 h d
Asc
2
0.2
30 b
0.3
fy = 450 MPa
N
bh
0.5 d ′ = 0.15 h
20 d = 0.85 h
0.6
0.7
0.8
10
0.9
K =1.0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
M
(MPa)
bh 2
50
SABS 0100: 1992
Asc d′
40
K= 2
0.1 h d
Asc
0.2 2
30 b
0.3
fy = 450 MPa
N 0.4
(MPa) fcu = 30 MPa
bh
0.5 d ′ = 0.1 h
20 d = 0.9 h
0.6
0.7
0.8
10
0.9
K =1.0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
M
(MPa)
bh 2
50
SABS 0100: 1992
Asc d′
40
K= 2
0.1 h d
Asc
0.2 2
30 b
0.3
fy = 450 MPa
N 0.4
(MPa) fcu = 30 MPa
bh
0.5 d ′ = 0.05 h
20 d = 0.95 h
0.6
0.7
0.8
10
0.9
K =1.0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15
M
(MPa)
bh 2
1.4
K=
0.1 e = 0.05 h SABS 0100: 1992
1.2
0.2 1000 Asc
( MPa )-1 Asc d′
b h f cu 2
1.0
0.3 h d
Asc
0.4 2
0.8 b
N 0.5
0.6
0.6 d ′ = 0.25 h
0.7 d = 0.75 h
0.4
0.8
0.2 0.9
K =1.0
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
M
b h 2 f cu
Figure B-6: General M-N design chart for d/h = 0.75.

1.4
K=
0.1 e = 0.05 h SABS 0100: 1992
1.2
0.2 1000 Asc
( MPa )-1 Asc d′
b h f cu
2
1.0
0.3 h d
Asc
0.4 2
0.8 b
N 0.5
0.6
0.6 d ′ = 0.2 h
0.7 d = 0.8 h
0.4
0.8
0.9
0.2
K =1.0
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
M
b h 2 f cu

1.4
K=
0.1 e = 0.05 h SABS 0100: 1992
1.2 1000 Asc
0.2 ( MPa )-1 Asc d′
b h f cu
0.3 2
1.0 h d
Asc
0.4 2
0.8 b
N 0.5
0.6
0.6 d ′ = 0.15 h
0.7 d = 0.85 h
0.4
0.8
0.9
0.2
K =1.0
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
M
b h 2 f cu

1.4
0.1 e = 0.05 h SABS 0100: 1992
1.2 1000 Asc
K = 0.2 ( MPa)-1 Asc d′
b h f cu
0.3 2
1.0 h d
Asc
0.4 2
0.8 b
N 0.5
b h f cu 0.6 fy = 450 MPa
0.6 d ′ = 0.1 h
0.7 d = 0.9 h
0.4 0.8
0.9
0.2
K =1.0
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
M
b h 2 f cu

1.4
0.1 e = 0.05 h SABS 0100: 1992
1.2 1000 Asc
K = 0.2 ( MPa )-1 Asc d′
b h f cu
0.3 2
1.0 h d
Asc
0.4 2
0.8 0.5 b
N
b h f cu 0.6 fy = 450 MPa
0.6 d ′ = 0.05 h
0.7
d = 0.95 h
0.4 0.8
0.9
0.2
K =1.0
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
M
b h 2 f cu

Analysis and Design of
Concrete Structures
Formulas and Tables for SABS 0100:1992
John M. Robberts
November 2005
Although care has been taken to ensure that all data and information contained
herein is accurate to the extent that it relates to either matters of fact or accepted
practice or matters of opinion at the time of publication, the University of Pretoria
and the author assume no responsibility for any errors in or misinterpretations of
such data and/or information, or any loss or damage arising from or related to its
use.
This formula book is intended as an aid to students during tests and exams. It
therefore contains a summary of only the most important design equations and does
not replace the design code of practice SABS 0100 to which designers should refer.
Table of Contents
1. Material Properties 2
1.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Limit States Design 3
3. Analysis and Design for Flexure 3
3.1 Relationship between strains and neutral axis depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Singly reinforced rectangular sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Doubly reinforced rectangular sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4 Flanged beams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.5 Elastic analysis and design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4. Design of Beams for Shear 9
5. Design for Torsion 10
6. Bond and Anchorage 12
7. Design for Serviceability 14
7.1 Cover to concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.2 Maximum clear spacing of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.3 Minimum spacing of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.4 Minimum area of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.5 Maximum area of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.6 Reinforcement at sides of beams exceeding 750 mm in depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7.7 Span-effective depth ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
8. Design of Beams 19
8.1 Effective span length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.2 Analysis of continuous beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.3 Flanged beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8.4 Beams with compression reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8.5 Curtailment of reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
9. Design of Short Columns 22
9.1 Moment-axial force interaction diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 22
9.2 Axially loaded short column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... 23
10. Design of Suspended Floors 24
10.1 One-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
10.2 Two-way spanning edge supported slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
10.3 Flat slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
10.4 Punching shear in slabs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
11. Design of Slender Columns 37
11.1 Braced and unbraced columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
11.2 Effective lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
11.3 Slenderness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
11.4 Moments and forces in columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
11.5 Bi-axial bending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
12. Staircases 42
13. Deflections and Crack Widths 42
14. Prestressed Concrete 45
14.1 Sign convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
14.2 Material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
14.3 Elastic stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
14.4 Ultimate limit state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2 University of Pretoria
1 Material Properties
1.1 Concrete
Modulus of elasticity Table 1: Secant modulus of elasticity

æ at 28 days Ec,28 (GPa)
f cu ,t ö
E c,t = E c,28ç
ç0 . 4 + 0 .6 ÷ (1-1)
è f cu ,28 ÷
ø Characteristic Average Typical
cube strength range
Poisson’s ratio n = 0.2 (1-2)
fcu,28 (MPa)
Coefficients of thermal expansion
20 25 21 - 29
ath =10 ´ 10 –6
ºC –1
(1-3)
25 26 22 - 30
Unit weight gc = 24 kN/m3 (1-4) 30 28 23 - 33
Ec
Shear modulus G= » 0.4 Ec (1-5) 40 31 26 - 36
2 (1+ n)
50 34 28 - 40
Total long-term concrete strain
60 36 30 - 42
e c,tot ( t) = e el ( t ) + e cr ( t ) + e sh ( t ) + e th ( t ) (1-6)
Shrinkage strain e sh ( t ) = e sh ,¥ (1- e-a t ) where esh,¥ ranges from 0.10 to 0.30 ´ 10–3 (1-7)
fc
Creep strain e cr ( t ) = f c C ( t ) = f( t ) (1-8)
Ec
Creep coefficient f( t ) = f¥ (1- e-a t ) where f¥ ranges from 1.5 to 3.5. (1-9)
fc Ec
Elastic and creep strain e el + e cr ( t ) = where E eff ( t ) = (1-10)
E eff ( t ) 1+ f( t )
1.2 Reinforcement
Table 2: Reinforcement types.
Reinforcement type Symbol Minimum characteristic yield

strength fy (MPa)
Hot rolled mild steel R 250
Hot rolled high-yield steel Y 450
Cold worked high-yield steel Y 450
Welded wire fabric FS or FD 485
Modulus of elasticity: Es = 200 GPa For reinforcement areas see Tables 31 and 30.
Reinforced Concrete Structures - SABS 0100 3
2 Limit States Design

Table 3: Partial factors of safety for materials gm.

Ultimate Flexure, axial load 1.5 1.15
Shear 1.4 1.15
Bond 1.4
Design load effects £ Design load effects g f Qn £ f k / g m (2-1)

Characteristic strength f k = f m -1.64 s (2-2)
Table 4: Typical* partial factors of safety for loads gf.
Load combina- Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state

tion
Self-weight Imposed Wind Self-weight Imposed Wind
load load load load load load
Self-weight load 1.5 - - 1.1 - -
(0.9) (1.0)
Self-weight load 1.2 1.6 - 1.1 1.0 -
+ live load (0.9) (0) (1.0) (0)
Self-weight load 1.2 0.5 1.3 1.1 0.3 0.6
+ live load (0.9) (0) (1.3) (1.0) (0) (0.6)
+ wind load
*
See SABS 0160 (1989) for a complete discussion on loads and their combinations.
3 Analysis and Design for Flexure

0 . 67 f cu
gm
Eci f cu
E ci = 5 . 5 GPa
Parabolic gm
Stress curve
f cu
e c0 = 2 . 4 ´ 10 -4
gm
fcu in MPa
ec0 ecu = 0.0035

Strain
Figure 1: Parabolic-rectangular stress-strain relationship for concrete in flexure.

Stress fs
fy Tension
gm
f yc Es = 200 GPa
e yc = 1
Es
fy Strain es
ey =
g m Es
fy
f yc =
Compression g m + f y / 2000
fy = Characteristic yield strength (in MPa)
Figure 2: Stress-strain relationship for reinforcement.
Table 5: Yield stress and strain for reinforcement.
Reinforcement Symbol Tension Compression

type
Yield Yield Yield Yield
strength fy strain ey strength fyc strain eyc
(´10–3) (´10–3)
Mild steel R 250 1.087 196.1 0.980
High yield Y 450 1.957 327.3 1.636
Welded wire fabric FS or FD 485 2.109 348.3 1.741
The values in this table includes gm = 1.15.
3.1 Relationship between strains and neutral axis depth
Strain in tension reinforcement

b ec
æd-x ö d¢
e st = e cç ÷ (3-1)
è x ø
A¢s esc x
Strain in compression reinforcement d N.A.
æ x - d¢ ö
e sc = e cç ÷ (3-2)
è x ø As
Neutral axis/reinforcement depth est
x ec Cross-section Strain
= (3-3)
d e st + e c
Figure 3: Relationship between strains
and neutral axis depth.
3.2 Singly reinforced rectangular sections

0.67 f cu / g m
ecu = 0.0035 » 0.45 f cu 0.45 fcu
b
Fcc Fcc s/2

x s = 0.9 x
d N.A. s
z=d-
2
As Fst Fst
est
(a) Cross-section (b) Strain (c) Parabolic-rectangular (d) Equivalent rectangular

concrete stress block concrete stress block
Figure 4: Equivalent rectangular stress block for singly reinforced rectangular sections.
Neutral axis depth

Table 6: Moment redistribution and
x £ ( b b - 0 . 4 ) d £ 0 .5 (3-4) limits on neutral axis
depth.
where
bb = ç ÷(3-5) Redi bb x/d z/d K¢
strib.
with bb £ 1 (3-6) (%)
> 0.75 under normal conditions £ 10 0.90 0.50 0.775 0.156
> 0.8 if the cross-section varies 15 0.85 0.45 0.797 0.144
along the member
20 0.80 0.40 0.820 0.132
> 0.9 for structures exceeding
4 storeys 25 0.75 0.35 0.842 0.119
M
For tension reinforcement only K= £ K¢
f cu b d 2
(3-7)
ì0 .156 for b b ³ 0 .9
where K¢ =í (3-8)
î0 . 402 ( b b - 0 . 4) - 0 .18 ( b b - 0 . 4) for b b < 0 .9
2
é æ K ö ù
Internal lever-arm z = dê0 .5 + ç
ç0 .25 - ÷
÷ú £ 0 .95 d (3-9)
ê
ë è 0 .9 øú
û
M
Required area of reinforcement As = (3-10)
0 .87 f y z
3.3 Doubly reinforced rectangular sections
0 . 67
f cu » 0 . 45 f cu
b ecu = 0.0035 1. 5
d¢
Fsc
s/2
A¢s x= esc s = 0.9 x
(bb – 0.4)d Fcc
d N.A.
z
As Fst
est
Figure 5: Doubly reinforced rectangular concrete section.
Compression reinforcement must be provided if K > K ¢

( K - K ¢) b d 2 f cu
Required area of reinforcement A¢s = (3-11)
f yc ( d - d¢)
K ¢ f cu b d 2 f yc
As = + A¢ (3-12)
0 .87 f y z 0 .87 f y s
é K¢ ù 2
where z = dê0 .5 + 0 .25 - ú and x= ( d - z) (3-13, 14)
ë 0 .9 û 0 .9
Table 7: Conditions whereby reinforcement yield.
Yield Tension rein- Compression reinforcement yields when

strength forcement
d¢ / d £
fy (MPa) yields when
x/d £ d¢ / x £ bb = 0.90 bb = 0.85 bb = 0.80 bb = 0.75
250 0.7629 0.7199 0.3599 0.3239 0.2880 0.2520

450 0.6414 0.5325 0.2662 0.2396 0.2130 0.1864
485 0.6239 0.5024 0.2512 0.2261 0.2010 0.1759
d¢ æ f yc ö
Compression reinforcement yields when £ç
ç1- ÷
÷( b - 0 . 4)
d è E s e cu ø b
A¢s
15 bd
14 SABS 0100: 1992 0.040
.3 0.030
13 b
d¢ f cu = 30 MPa d = 0 0.4
x/
12 f y = 450 MPa 0.5
A¢s
11 d d¢ 0.020
= 01
.
d
10 As 0.015
x/d = 0.3
9 0.4
0.5 0.010
M 8
(MPa)
bd 2 7 0.005
6
0
5
4
Suitable for design
3
2
1
0
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
As
bd
Figure 6: Design chart for flexure.
3.4 Flanged beams
Neutral axis within the web (x > hf): Solve sw from

æ hf ö æ sw ö
M = 0 . 45 f cu b f h f ç
çd - ÷
÷+ 0 . 45 f cu bw s wç d - h f - ÷ (3-15)
è 2 ø è 2ø
0 . 45 f cu b f h f + 0 . 45 f cu bw s w
As = (3-16)
0 .87 f y
M + 0 .1 f cu bw d (0 . 45 d - h f )
Simplified design for x > hf with x = d/2: As = (3-17)
0 .87 f y ( d - 0 .5 h f )
bf ecu 0.45 fcu

hf
N.A.
d sw z1
z2
As
Fst = fs As
bw est
Figure 7: T-section with neutral axis within the web.

3.5 Elastic analysis and design
Cracked rectangular section

x E
Find x from b x + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) = n As ( d - x) where n = s (3-18)
2 Ec

1
I cr = b x 3 + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) + n As ( d - x ) 2
2
(3-19)
3
Mx é M (d - x)ù é M ( x - d¢) ù
Stresses f cc = , f st = n f ec = nê ú, f sc = nê ú (3-20)
I cr ë I cr û ë I cr û
b b (n – 1) A¢s
d¢
– A¢s n A¢s
A¢s x
d
+ N.A.
=
b
As n As n As
Figure 9: Cracked transformed rectangular section with compression reinforcement.

Uncracked section
x2 ( h - x) 2
Find x from b + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) = b + ( n -1) As ( d - x) (3-21)
2 2
Uncracked transformed second moment of area
1 1
I co = b x 3 + b ( h - x) + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) + ( n -1) As ( d - x ) 2
3 2
(3-22)
3 3
b b (n – 1) A¢s
d¢
– A¢s n A¢s
A¢s x
d
+ N.A.
=
As n As
– As
(n – 1) As
Figure 8: Uncracked transformed rectangular section with compression reinforcement.

4 Design of Beams for Shear

V
Step 1: Ultimate design shear stress v= (4-1)
bv d
where bv = width of the beam (average width of the web below the flange for a T-section)
ì
ï0.75 f cu
Step 2: Check that v < vu were v u = lesser of í (4-2)
ï
î4 . 75 MPa
Step 3: Shear capacity of the beam without shear reinforcement
0 . 75æ f cu ö æ 100 As ö
1/ 3
1/ 3
ç ÷ æ 400 ö1/ 4
vc = ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ (4-3)
100 As
where gm = 1.4 fcu £ 40 MPa £3
bv d
As = area of properly anchored tension reinforcement (distance d beyond the sec-

tion under consideration)
Table 8: Shear capacity vc (in MPa) for beams without shear reinforcement for
fcu = 30 MPa.
100As Effective depth d (mm)

bv d 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 400 500 800
£ 0.15 0.4046 0.3865 0.3719 0.3597 0.3493 0.3402 0.325 0.3025 0.2861 0.2544
0.25 0.4797 0.4583 0.441 0.4265 0.4141 0.4033 0.3854 0.3586 0.3392 0.3016
0.50 0.6043 0.5774 0.5556 0.5373 0.5217 0.5082 0.4855 0.4518 0.4273 0.3799
0.75 0.6918 0.661 0.6360 0.6151 0.5972 0.5817 0.5558 0.5172 0.4892 0.4349
1.00 0.7614 0.7275 0.7000 0.677 0.6573 0.6403 0.6117 0.5693 0.5384 0.4787
1.50 0.8716 0.8328 0.8013 0.775 0.7525 0.7329 0.7003 0.6517 0.6163 0.548
2.00 0.9593 0.9166 0.8819 0.853 0.8282 0.8067 0.7707 0.7172 0.6783 0.6031
³ 3.00 1.0981 1.0492 1.0095 0.9764 0.9481 0.9234 0.8823 0.821 0.7765 0.6904
Step 4:
æ Asv ö ì0 .0020 b for f yv = 250 MPa
Nominal shear reinforcement: ç
ç ÷
÷> í (4-4)
è s v ø î0 .0012 b for f yv = 450 MPa
Step 5: If v > vc, shear reinforcement must be provided

æ d - d¢ ö
For bent-up bars: V s = Asb (0 .87 f yv )[cos a + sin a cot b]ç
ç ÷
÷ (4-5)
è b ø
s
Asb (v - v c ) bv
or ³ (4-6)
sb (0 .87 f yv )[cos a +sin a cot b]
where Asb = area of a bent-up bar, sb = spacing of bent-up bars, a = angle between the horizontal
and the bar and b = angle between compressive struts in the concrete and the horizontal.
Asv (v - v c ) b
For vertical links: ³ with fyv £ 450 MPa. (4-7)
sv 0 .87 f yv
Table 9: Asv/sv (mm2/mm) for links with two legs
Diameter Link spacing (mm)

(mm) 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
8 1.340 1.005 0.804 0.670 0.503 0.402 0.335 0.287 0.251 0.223 0.201
10 2.094 1.571 1.257 1.047 0.785 0.628 0.524 0.449 0.393 0.349 0.314
12 3.016 2.262 1.810 1.508 1.131 0.905 0.754 0.646 0.565 0.503 0.452
16 5.362 4.021 3.217 2.681 2.011 1.608 1.340 1.149 1.005 0.894 0.804
ì£ 0 . 75 d for links
Step 6: Maximum spacing = í (4-8)
î£ 1.5 d for bent - up bars
Further comments:
• Within a distance 2d from a support, or concentrated load, the shear resistance vc may be
increased as follows
æ2 d ö ì
ï0.75 f cu
v cç
ç ÷ ÷ £ lesser of í (4-9)
è av ø ï
î4 . 75 MPa
• For beams carrying mainly uniformly distributed loads, or where the principal load is applied
further than 2d from the face of the support, a critical section at a distance d, from the face of
the support is considered.
• For slabs thinner than 200 mm the resistance of the shear reinforcement should be reduced by
10 % for every 10 mm reduction of slab thickness below 200 mm.
5 Design for Torsion

Step 1: Find As and Asv to resist bending and shear.
2T
Step 2: Find the torsional shear stress from vt = (5-1)
2 ç
æ h ö
hmin hmax - min ÷
è 3 ø
where hmin is the smaller and hmax is the larger section dimension.
Step 3: Divide T- L- and I-sections into components that maximises å(hmin
3
hmax ). Consider
each component individually, subjected to a moment
(hmin
3
hmax )
i
Ti = T (5-2)
å(hmin hmax ) i
3
Step 4: Check that v t + v £ v tu (5-3)

where v is the shear stress equal to V/(bd).
æ y1 ö
Also check for small sections that v t £ v tuç
ç ÷
÷ (5-4)
è 550 mm ø
Sep 5: Provide torsional reinforcement if v t > v t ,min with vt,min from Table 10. For combined
shear and torsion refer to Table 11.
Table 10: Minimum and maximum stresses for torsion (MPa).
fcu (MPa)
20 25 30 ³ 40
vt,min 0.27 0.30 0.33 0.36
vtu 3.18 3.56 4.00 4.50 < vtu < 4.75
where v tu = 0 . 71 f cu £ 4.75 MPa and v t ,min = 0 .06 f cu £ 0.36 MPa
These values includes gm = 1.4
Table 11: Reinforcement for combined shear and torsion.
v t £ v t ,min v t > v t ,min

v £ ( v c + 0 . 4) Minimum shear reinforcement; Designed torsion reinforcement
no torsion reinforcement but not less than minimum shear
reinforcement
v > ( v c + 0 . 4) Designed shear reinforcement; Designed shear and torsion rein-
no torsion reinforcement forcement
Step 6: Designed torsion reinforcement (additional to that required for shear in step 1)
Asv T
= (5-5)
sv 0 .8 x1 y1 (0 .87 f yv )
Asv æ ö
ç f yv ÷(x + y )
As ³ (5-6)
sv çè fy ø
÷ 1 1
Step 7: Detailing requirements:

• Only use closed links for torsion.
• Maximum spacing for links is the lesser of: x1, y1/2 or 200 mm.
• Longitudinal torsion reinforcement must be distributed evenly around the inside perimeter of
the links so that the maximum clear distance between bars is less than 300 mm.
• Each corner of a link should contain at least one longitudinal bar.
• Torsion reinforcement may be included at levels of existing flexural reinforcement by
increasing the diameters of the flexural reinforcement appropriately.
• Torsion reinforcement should extend for at least a distance equal to the largest section
dimension beyond the point where it is theoretically required.
• For T-, L- and I-sections the reinforcement should be detailed so that they interlock and tie the
component rectangles together. If v t < v t ,min for a smaller component rectangle, torsion
reinforcement may be omitted for that component.
6 Bond and Anchorage

fs
Anchorage bond length L= f (6-1)
4 f bu
Fbt 2 f cu
Bearing stress inside a bend £ (6-2)
r f 1+ 2 (f / ab )
Lapping of bars:
• Minimum lap length must be the greater of 15 f or 300 mm for bars and 250 mm for fabric.
• Lap lengths for bars of different diameters can be based on the smaller diameter.
• Compression laps must be 25% greater than design anchorage length in compression.
• When both bars in a lap are 25 mm or greater in size, and the cover is less than 1.5 times the
smaller bar size, then transverse links of at least 1/4 of the smaller bar size should be provided
at a maximum spacing of 200 mm.
• If bars are placed in a bundle, only one bar at a time may be lapped. The maximum number of
bars in a bundle, including laps, should not be more than 4.
Table 12: Design ultimate bond stress fbu in MPa (SABS 0100).

20 25 30 ³ 40
Plain bar in tension 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.9
Plain bar in compression 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.3
Deformed bar in tension 2.2 2.5 2.9 3.4
Deformed bar in com- 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.2
pression
Reduce these values by 30% for deformed top bars and by 50% for plain top bars in
elements where the depth exceeds 300 mm.
Table 13: Ultimate anchorage bond lengths as multiples of bar sizes.

20 25 30 ³ 40
Plain bar1 in tension 46 39 37 29
1
Plain bar in compression 37 32 29 24
Deformed bar2 in tension 45 40 34 29
Deformed bar2 in com- 37 32 28 24
pression
1
Mild steel fy = 250 MPa
2
High yield steel fy = 450 MPa
Increase these values by 30% for deformed top bars and by 50% for plain top bars in
elements where the depth exceeds 300 mm.
q
2 r sin ´ 1.4 ´2 Cover < 2 f
2
fb
f = Diameter
q/2 of main
r q/2 q/2 r reinforcement
Fbt Fbt
Bar diameter = f
ab ab
´ 1.0 ´ 1.4
(a) Equilibrium of forces (b) Definition of ab
Figure 10: Bearing stress inside a bend. Figure 11: Increasing lap lengths
Straight anchorage length L

(a) Straight bar
B
4f
r
f
L–B Effective anchorage B

(b) Bend
4f
Minimum radius:
B Mild steel (fy = 250 MPa) rmin = 2 f
r High yield strength (fy = 450 MPa) rmin = 3 f
f
L–H Effective anchorage H

(c) Hook
Figure 12: Equivalent anchorage of a hook and a bend.

7 Design for Serviceability

7.1 Cover to concrete
Table 14: Minimum cover (in mm) for various exposure conditions.
Concrete Conditions of exposure
Mild Moderate Severe Very severe Extreme
Normal density con- 20 30 40 50 60

crete1
Low-density concrete2 20 40 50 60 70
1 3
Concrete with a density in the range 2 200 to 2 500 kg/m .
2
Concrete with a density < 2 000 kg/m3 made with low density aggregate.
7.2 Maximum clear spacing of reinforcement
47000
clear spacing (in mm) = but £ 300 mm (7-1)
fs
where fs is the stress in the reinforcement (in MPa) under service loads and is given by
é g + g 2 ù As,req 1
f s = 0 .87 f y ´ê 1 ú´ ´ (7-2)
ë g 3 + g 4 û As, prov b b
with g1 = partial safety factor for self-weight loads at SLS (typically = 1.1)
g2 = partial safety factor for imposed loads at SLS (typically = 1.0 or 0)
g3 = partial safety factor for self-weight loads at ULS (typically = 1.2 or 1.5)
g4 = partial safety factor for imposed loads at ULS (typically = 1.6 or 0)
Slabs: If any one of the following three conditions apply, the maximum clear spacing is the
lesser of 3 d and 750 mm:
(a) For high yield strength steel (fy = 450 MPa) the slab depth h £ 200 mm.
(b) For mild steel (fy = 250 MPa) the slab depth h £ 250 mm.
100 As
(c) r£ 0 .3 % where r=
bd
If neither of the above conditions apply, the maximum clear spacings given in Table 15 are ad-
justed as follows:
• If r ³ 1 %, maximum clear spacing is taken from Table 15
• If r < 1 %, maximum clear spacing is the value from Table 15 divided by r.
Table 15: Maximum clear spacing (in mm) between bars (SABS 0100).
Characteristic Percentage redistribution to or from section considered*

strength of re-
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 0 +10 +15 +20 +25 +30
inforcement fy
(MPa)
250 215 230 245 260 275 300 300 300 300 300 300
450 120 130 135 145 155 170 185 195 205 210 220
485 110 120 125 135 140 155 170 180 190 195 205
*
If the percentage redistribution is unknown, a value of –15 should be assumed
for moments at supports and zero for span moments.
7.3 Minimum spacing of reinforcement
Table 16: Minimum clear spacing between bars.
Configuration Orientation Minimum clear spacing

of bars
Single bars Horizontal (hagg + 5 mm)
Vertical 2
h
3 agg
Bars in pairs Horizontal (hagg + 5 mm)
Vertical 2
h for bars in the pair on top of each other
3 agg
(hagg + 5 mm) for bars in the pair side by side
Bundled bars Horizontal and (hagg + 15 mm)
vertical
7.4 Minimum area of reinforcement (See Table 17.)
7.5 Maximum area of reinforcement
100 As 100 Asc

or £ 4% (7-3)
bh bh
Where bars are being lapped the sum of the reinforcement diameters in a particular layer should
not be greater than 40 % of the section width at that level. For columns the following limits ap-
ply:
ì6 % for columns cast vertically
100 Asc ï
£ í8 % for columns cast horizontally (7-4)
bh ï
î10% at laps for both of the cases above
Table 17: Minimum percentages of reinforcement (SABS 0100).
Situation Definition fy = fy =
250 MPa 450 MPa
Sections subjected mainly to pure tension 100As/Ac 0.8 0.45
Sections subjected to flexure
(a) Flanged beams, web in tension
(1) bw/b < 0.4 100As/bwh 0.32 0.18
(2) bw/b ³ 0.4 100As/bwh 0.24 0.13
(b) Flanged beams, flange in tension over a
continuous support
(1) T-beam 100As/bwh 0.48 0.26
(2) L-beam 100As/bwh 0.36 0.20
(c) Rectangular section (in solid slabs this rein- 100As/Ac 0.24 0.13
forcement should be provided in both direc-
tions)
Compression reinforcement (where such rein-
forcement is required for the ultimate limit state)
General rule 100Asc/Acc 0.4 0.4
Simplified rule for particular cases:
(a) Rectangular column or wall 100Asc/Ac 0.4 0.4
(b) Flanged beam:
(1) Flange in compression 100Asc/bhf 0.4 0.4
(2) Web in compression 100Asc/bwh 0.2 0.2
(c) Rectangular beam 100Asc/Ac 0.2 0.2
Transverse reinforcement in flanges of flanged 100Ast/hfl 0.15 0.15
beams (provided over the full effective flange
width near top surface to resist horizontal shear)
Ac = total area of concrete b= width of section
Acc = total area of concrete in compression bw = width, or effective
width of the rib*
Asc = minimum area of compression reinf. h= total depth of section
As = minimum area of tension reinf. hf = depth of flange
Ast = minimum area of transverse reinf. in the flange l= span of beam
*
For a box, T-, or I-section, bw is taken as the average width below the flange.
7.6 Reinforcement at sides of beams

exceeding 750 mm in depth
f1
h > 750 mm
s b bw 2
f1 ³ (7-5) h sb
fy 3
where sb £ 250 mm.

bw
Use bw ³ 500 mm in above equation.
Figure 13: Reinforcement at sides of
7.7 Span-effective depth ratio beams exceeding 750
mm in depth.
Table 19: Basic span-effective depth (L/d) ratios Table 18: L/d modification factors
for beams. for compression rein-
forcement.
Support conditions Rectangu- Flanged 100 A¢s, prov Modification

lar section section bd factor
bw £ 0.3b
0.00 1.00
Truly simply supported 16 12.8
0.15 1.05
Simply supported with 20 16.0
nominally restrained ends 0.25 1.08
One end continuous 24 19.2 0.35 1.10
Both ends continuous 28 22.4 0.50 1.14
Cantilevers 7 5.6 0.75 1.20
1.00 1.25
1.25 1.29
Modification factors for tension reinforcement:
1.50 1.33
477 - f s
MFAs = 0 .55 + £ 2 .0 (7-6) 1.75 1.37
æ M ö
120ç
ç0 .9 + 2 ÷
÷ 2.00 1.40
è b d ø
2.5 1.45
Modification factor for compression reinforcement:
³ 3.0 1.50
æ r¢ ö
MFA¢s =ç
ç1+ ÷
÷£ 1.5 (7-7) Intermediate values may be deter-
è 3+ r¢ ø mined by interpolation
100 A¢s, prov

where r¢ = (7-8)
bd
If the basic L/d ratio is applied to a beam with span longer than 10 m, the basic L/d ratio should be
multiplied by 10/L
Table 20: L/d modification factors for tension reinforcement.
Steel M / bd2
service
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
stress
fs (MPa)
300 1.60 1.33 1.16 1.06 0.98 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76
290 1.66 1.37 1.20 1.09 1.01 0.95 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.81 0.79 0.78
280 1.72 1.41 1.23 1.12 1.03 0.97 0.92 0.89 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79
270 1.78 1.46 1.27 1.14 1.06 0.99 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.80
260 1.84 1.50 1.30 1.17 1.08 1.01 0.96 0.92 0.88 0.86 0.83 0.81
250 1.90 1.55 1.34 1.20 1.11 1.04 0.98 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.82
240 1.96 1.59 1.37 1.23 1.13 1.06 1.00 0.95 0.92 0.88 0.86 0.84
230 2.00 1.63 1.41 1.26 1.16 1.08 1.02 0.97 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.85
220 2.00 1.68 1.44 1.29 1.18 1.10 1.04 0.99 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.86
210 2.00 1.72 1.48 1.32 1.20 1.12 1.06 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.90 0.87
200 2.00 1.76 1.51 1.35 1.23 1.14 1.07 1.02 0.98 0.94 0.91 0.88
190 2.00 1.81 1.55 1.37 1.25 1.16 1.09 1.04 0.99 0.96 0.92 0.90
180 2.00 1.85 1.58 1.40 1.28 1.18 1.11 1.06 1.01 0.97 0.94 0.91
170 2.00 1.90 1.62 1.43 1.30 1.21 1.13 1.07 1.02 0.98 0.95 0.92
160 2.00 1.94 1.65 1.46 1.33 1.23 1.15 1.09 1.04 1.00 0.96 0.93
150 2.00 1.98 1.69 1.49 1.35 1.25 1.17 1.11 1.05 1.01 0.98 0.94
140 2.00 2.00 1.72 1.52 1.38 1.27 1.19 1.12 1.07 1.03 0.99 0.96
130 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.55 1.40 1.29 1.21 1.14 1.09 1.04 1.00 0.97
120 2.00 2.00 1.79 1.58 1.43 1.31 1.23 1.16 1.10 1.05 1.01 0.98
8 Design of Beams
8.1 Effective span length
Table 21: Effective lengths in beams.
Beam Effective span length

Simply supported The lesser of:
• distance between centres of bearings, and
• clear distance between supports plus an effective depth.
Continuous beam Distance between centres of supports. For an embedded end the centre of
support should be taken as half an effective depth from the face of the
support.
Cantilever The length to the face of the support plus half an effective depth. If the
cantilever forms part of a continuous beam the effective length should be
taken as the clear length plus the distance to the centre of the support.
8.2 Analysis of continuous beams
Conditions for the use of the simplified method:

(a) Qn £125
. Gn
(b) The loads on the beam must be substantially uniformly distributed loads.
(c) There must be 3 or more spans.
(d) The spans may not vary by more than 15% in length with regard to the longest span.
Table 22: Ultimate bending moments and shear forces for continuous beams (simplified
method).

Outer support 0 0.45F
Near centre of end span F Leff /11 -
First internal support -F Leff / 9 0.6F
Centre of interior span F Leff /14 -
Interior support -F Leff /12 0.55F
8.3 Flanged beams
Effective flange width:

ì L
ïbw + z
T-section beff = lesser of í 5 (8-1)
ï
ì L
ïbw + z
L-section beff = lesser of í 10 (8-2)
ï
where Lz is the distance between zero moments. As a simplified approach for continuous beams,
Lz can be assumed to be 0.7 of the effective span.
8.4 Beams with compression reinforcement
( A¢s, prov - A¢s,req ) ³( As, prov - As,req ) (8-3)
Containment of compression reinforcement:

• Links should pass around outer bars and each alternate bar
• The link should be at least 1/4 the size of the largest compression bar
• The maximum longitudinal spacing of links is 12 times the diameter of the smallest
compression bar
• For the containment to be effective, the link should pass around the bar with an inside angle
not more than 135º
• No compression bar should not be more than 150 mm from a contained bar
8.5 Curtailment of reinforcement
The curtailment anchorage length must be the greater of:

1. the effective depth d of a member, or
2. twelve times the bar size (12 f).
For bars in tension, the smallest distance from one of the following conditions must also apply:
3. The bars must extend the ultimate anchorage bond length Lua beyond the theoretical cut-off
point (TCP). For the ultimate anchorage bond the stress in the bar is taken as 0.87 fy.
4. At the physical cut-off point (PCP) the shear capacity is twice the actual shear force.
5. At the PCP the flexural capacity of remaining bars is twice the actual bending moment.
If the conditions to the use of Table 22 applies, the simplified rules for curtailment may be used.
Equivalent
³ 12 f anchorage
f f CL Support
³ 12 f
Greatest of
bsup /3 and Solid slab
(a) (b) 30 mm
v < vc
³ 12 f Equivalent
d/2 d anchorage d/2 d
f f
³ 12 f bsup
(e)
(c) (d)
Figure 14: Curtailment of reinforcement–simply supported end.

CL Support
12 f d/2 + 12 f
d As1 d
0.5 As1
0.08 L
£ d/2
Condition 1: Condition 2:
A hook or bend may not A hook or bend may not L = Effective span
start before the centre start closer than d/2 from
line of a support the face of the support
(a) Simple support (b) Simply supported beam
Greater of L/2 en 45f

As1 0.5 As1
d
£ d/2
L = Effective span
(c) Cantilever
0.25 L (³ 45f)
0.15 L (³ 45f)
0.2 As2 0.6 As2 As2
0.3 As1 As1 0.3 As1

0.1L 0.15 L
£ d/2
L = Effective span
(d) Continuous beam
Figure 15: Simplified curtailment rules for beams.

9 Design of Short Columns

9.1 Moment-axial force interaction diagram
Stress fs Compression
Stress and strain in reinforcement
fyc
ì0 .87 ffor e s £ e y ey Es
ï y
eyc Strain es
í
f s ( e s ) = E se s for e y < e s < e yc (9-1) Tension
ï 0.87 fy
î f yc for e s ³ e yc
æd-x ö
e s =-0 .0035 ç ÷ (9-2) Figure 16: Sign convention
è x ø
From equilibrium:
N = 0 . 45 f cu b s + f sc A¢s + f s As (9-3)
æ sö
M = 0 . 45 f cu b sç x p - ÷+ f sc A¢s ( x p - d¢) - f s As( d - x p ) (9-4)
è 2ø
F ( h / 2) + Fsc d¢+ Fs d
Moments about top of section yields plastic centroid: x p = cc (9-5)
Fcc + Fsc + Fs
b ecu = 0.0035 0.45 fcu

d¢
esc Fsc s
xp A¢s s
M 2
N x (< h) Fcc
d
h N.A.
Fst
As est
(a) Small axial force

FG x < h IJ
H 0.9 K
b ecu = 0.0035 0.45 fcu
d¢
Fsc
esc
A¢s s
2
d s Fcc
x (= h)
est Fst
As
(b) Large axial force

FG x ³ h IJ
H 0.9 K
Figure 17: Moment and axial force acting on a section.
N (c) 0.0035
Defining points:
(a) Pure flexure, N = 0 0.002
esc > eyc es = 0
(b) Balance point es = ey (d)
es > eyc
0.0035
d xbal
x bal = (9-6)
ey Compression failure
(b)
1+ Nbal es = ey
00035
.
Tension failure 0.0035 0.0035
(c) Pure compression M = 0 (e) esc = eyc
(d) Fst = 0, es = 0, x = d
es < ey es < ey
(e) Compression reinforce- Mbal
(a) M
ment yields esc = eyc.
Point (e) can be above or
below (b). Figure 18: Points defining the MN-interaction diagram.
9.2 Axially loaded short column
Minimum eccentricity emin = 0.05 h £ 20 mm (h is measured perpendicular to axis of bending).

Nominal eccentricity moment Mmin = N emin (9-7)
For moments less than Mmin the axial capacity is N u = 0.40 f cu Ac + 067
. f y Asc (9-8)
50
SABS 0100: 1992
Asc d¢
40 1.4
1.3 2
1.2 h d
10 Asc
1.1 0A 2
1.0 b h sc
30 8 b
7 x/h = 0.9
fy = 450 MPa
N 6
(MPa) fcu = 30 MPa
bh 5 x/h = 0.8
4 d ¢ = 0.2 h
20 d = 0.8 h
3 x/h = 0.7
2
1
0.4 x/h = 0.6
10
x/h = 0.5
x/h = 0.4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
M
(MPa)
bh 2
Figure 19: Typical MN-interaction diagram.

10 Design of Suspended Floors

10.1 One-way spanning slabs
The slab should be designed to span in one direction if the long span exceeds 3 times the short
span. The single load case of maximum design load on all spans may be used when:
(a) area of a bay ³ 30 m2
(b) Qn £1.25 G n (10-1)
(c) Qn £ 5 kPa (10-2)
(d) Reinforcement must be curtailed according to the simplified rules (Fig. 20).
When using this single load case in the analysis of a continuous slab, a redistribution of moments
should be applied by reducing the support moments by 20% and increasing the span moments
accordingly. Nowhere should the redistributed moments be less than 70% of the elastic mo-
ments.
For v < vc /2
CL
12f or equivalent anchorage Greatest of bs /3 and 30 mm
As1 d
0.5 As1
0.08 L
£ d/2 bs
L = Effective span
(a) Simply supported slab
0.3 L Greatest of Greater of

0.15 L and 45f L/2 en 45f
0.5 As2 As2 As1 0.5 As1
As1 d
0.4 As1
0.2 L £ d/2
L = Effective span
L = Effective span
(c) Cantilever slab
(b) Continuous slab
Greatest of 0.15 L and 45f

Tensile
anchorage *0.5 As1 * But more than minimum reinforcement *0.5 As1
length 0.4 As1 0.4 As1
0.1L As1 0.1L
L = Effective span
(d) Restrained ends where zero moments were assumed in the analysis
Figure 20: Simplified detailing rules for one-way spanning slabs.

If the span adjacent to a cantilever is less than 3 times the length of the cantilever, the load case
where the cantilever carries the maximum load and the adjacent span carrying a minimum load
should also be considered.
The simplified method given in Table 23 may used if:
(a) The above conditions for the simplified load arrangement apply
(b) The spans are approximately equal
(c) There are 3 or more spans.
Table 23: Ultimate bending moments and shear forces in one-way spanning slabs.

Outer support: 0 0.4F
Near centre of end span 0.086 F Leff -
First interior support -0.086 F Leff 0.6F
Centre of interior span 0.063 F Leff -
Interior support -0.063 F Leff 0.5F
These values may not be redistributed.
F = 1.2 Gn + 1.6 Qn,
Concentrated loads
The width of beam supporting the load is the sum of the load width and the following width on
each side of the load
æ xö
1.2 xç1- ÷£ 0 .3 L (10-3)
è Lø Load
where x is measured from the x

nearest support to the load. L
Unsupported edge
Effective slab
Load width width supporting
the load
FG
1. 2 x 1-
x IJ 0.3L
H L K
Figure 21: Effective width of slab supporting a concen-

trated load.
10.2 Two-way spanning edge supported slabs
10.2.1 Simply supported slabs
For a rectangular slab, simply supported along all four edges so that lifting of the corners are not
prevented, the maximum moments per unit width in the centre of the slab is given by
m sx = a sx n l 2x
(10-4a, b)
m sy = a sy n l 2x
where lx = short span Table 24: Bending moment coefficients for

ly = long span simply supported two-way span-
ning slabs.
n = total design load (kN/m2)
= 1.2 gn + 1.6 qn ly / l x asx asy
Detailing rules are given below. 1.0 0.045 0.045
1.1 0.061 0.038
12f or equivalent anchorage
1.2 0.071 0.031
As1 d 1.3 0.080 0.027

0.5 As1
0.1 L 1.4 0.087 0.023
£ d/2 1.5 0.092 0.020
L = Effective span = lx or ly 1.6 0.097 0.017
1.7 0.100 0.015
Figure 22: Simplified detailing rules for
two-way spanning simply 1.8 0.102 0.016
supported slabs. 1.9 0.103 0.016
2.0 0.104 0.016
2.5 0.108 0.016
3.0 0.111 0.017
10.2.2 Slabs with restrained edges
The simplified method below may be used if:

(a) The nominal dead and imposed loads on adjacent panels should be approximately the same
as on the panel under consideration.
(b) In the direction of the span being considered, the adjacent span lengths must be approxi-
mately equal to that of the span under consideration.
m sx = b sx n l 2x
(10-5a, b)
m sy = b sy n l 2x
where bsx and bsy are bending moment coefficients from Table 25.
Table 25: Bending moment coefficients for rectangular panels supported on four sides with
provision for torsional reinforcement in corners.
Type of panel and moments con- Short span coefficients bsx for ly/lx Long span
sidered coefficients
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0 bsy for all
ly/lx
1. Interior panel
Negative moment at continuous 0.031 0.037 0.042 0.046 0.050 0.053 0.059 0.063 0.032
edge
2. One short edge discontinuous
edge
3. One long edge discontinuous
edge
4. Two adjacent edges discontin-
uous
edge
5. Two short edges discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous
edge 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.057 0.060 0.062 0.067 0.070 -
Positive moment at midspan
0.034 0.038 0.040 0.043 0.045 0.045 0.047 0.053 0.034
6. Two long edges discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous - - - - - - - - 0.045
edge
Negative moment at continuous 0.057 0.065 0.071 0.076 0.080 0.084 0.092 0.098 -
edge
Negative moment at continuous - - - - - - - - 0.058
edge
9. Four edges discontinuous
Reinforcement in lx-direction Reinforcement in ly-direction

ly ly
Edge strip lx /8
Edge strip
Edge strip
Middle strip
lx lx Middle strip 3/4 lx
Edge strip lx /8
ly /8 3/4 ly ly /8
Figure 23: Distribution of slab into middle and edge strips.
ly
4 3
0.2 lx 0.2 lx
Edge beam
2 1
0.2 lx
3/4 Ax 3/8 Ax
5
6
lx
Ax
7
8
9 3/8 Ax
0.2 lx
None
Figure 24: Support conditions Interior beams

for slab panels in Edge beam
Table 25.
Figure 25: Placing and quantities of torsional reinforce-

ment.
0.3L
0.1L 0.15L
0.5 As2 As2
0.5 As1
0.5 As1 As1 0.5 As1
50 0.15L
0.15L 0.25L
Discontinuous edge Continuous edge
Figure 26: Simplified detailing rules for two-way spanning slabs with restrained edges.
The method illustrated in Fig. 27 is proposed when moments at the mutual support to two adja-
cent slabs differ.
MB3
M A + M B2
SM 2 = + M2 MB2 MO = MB3 – MB2
2
MA
SM2
M2
(a) Bending moments from Eq. 9-5
MB MB = MB2 + DBA MO
or MB = MB3 – DBC MO
MA
SM2
C
M A + MB
M2 M 2 = SM 2 -
2
(b) Adjusted bending moments
12 f
As
0.5 As
0.5 x
x
(c) Anchorage of reinforcement
Figure 27: Adjustment to moments in edge supported slabs.

ly Edge beam
A B C
45º
60º
lx
60º
D 45º
E
Edge beam
Figure 28: Loads on supporting beams.

10.3 Flat slabs
10.3.1 Notation
l1 = length of the panel, measured between column centre lines in the direction
under consideration
l2 = width of the panel, measured between column centre lines perpendicular to
the direction under consideration
lx = shorter span
ly = longer span
æ 2 ö
l = effective span = ç l 1 - hc ÷ (10-1)
è 3 ø
hc = effective diameter of the column head
ìl h for round column heads ü
ï ï
ï ï 1æ l 1 + l 2 ö
=í ý£ ç ÷ (10-2)
ï 4lh
2
ï 4è 2 ø
ï for square column headsï
î p þ
lh = effective dimension of a column head

ì
ïl ho
= lesser of í (10-3)
îl h ,max = l c + 2 (d h - 40 mm)
ï
lho = actual dimension of column head

dh = depth of column head below soffit (or below drop, if present)
lc = dimension of the column (measured in the same direction)
10.3.2 Analysis
Following the analysis of an equivalent frame, the bending moments should be divided in col-
umn and middle strips (see Fig. 31) as shown in Table 26. The maximum design moment at a
support can be taken as the moment a distance hc/2 from the column centre line, provided the
sum of the positive span moment and the average of the support moments is greater than the fol-
lowing
nl 2æ 2 ö
2
ç l 1 - hc ÷ (10-4)
8 è 3 ø
The maximum moment that can be transferred to a column is given by
M t ,max = 0 .15 be d 2 f cu (10-5)
where be = width of a strip depending on the distance between the column and the free
Table 26: Division of moments in strips (SABS 0100).
Column strip Middle strip

Negative moment 75% 25%
Positive moment 55% 45%
For the case where the width of the column strip is taken as equal to that of the drop and the
width of the middle strip therefore increases, the design moments resisted by the middle strip
should be increased in proportion to its increase in width. The design moments to be resisted
by the column strip may then be decreased by an amount such that the total negative and total
positive moments resisted by the column and middle strips together are unchanged.
lh,max lh,max
lc lc
lho lho
(a) Flared column head
lh,max lh,max
lc lc
lho lho
(b) Constant column head
Figure 29: Effective dimension of a column head.

Cx
Cy y
be = Cx be = Cx + y be = Cx + Cy
y
y y
x
be = Cx + y be = Cx + y/2 be = x + y/2
£ column strip
Figure 30: Width of strip be to transfer moment at slab-column connection.

= Column strip
lx /4
short span = lx
lx /2
lx /4
lx /4 ly – lx /2 lx /4
long span = ly
(a) Slab without drops
Note:
Ignore drops if < lx /3
ldrop
ldrop /2 lx – ldrop ldrop /2

short span = lx
ldrop
ldrop /2 ly – ldrop ldrop /2

long span = ly
ldrop ldrop
(b) Slab with drops
Figure 31: Division of panels into column and middle strips.

Table 27: Ultimate bending moments and shear flat slabs.
Position Moment Shear Total column

moment
Outer support: Column – 0.04 F l 0.45 F 0.04 F l
Wall – 0.02 F l 0.4 F ¾
Near centre of end span + 0.083 F l ¾ ¾
First internal support – 0.063 F l 0.6 F 0.022 F l
Centre of interior span + 0.071 F l ¾ ¾
Interior support – 0.055 F l 0.5 F 0.022 F l
æ 2 ö
l = Effective span in the direction under consideration =ç l 1 - hc ÷
è 3 ø
edge of the slab (see Fig. 30). For an internal column be should not be greater
than the width of the column strip.
d = effective depth of top reinforcement in the column strip
fcu = characteristic concrete strength
If the conditions for the simplified load arrangement (see section 10.1) apply, the simplified
method given in Table 27 may be used to obtain the bending moments and shear forces in the
slab. The following additional requirements must also be met before the simplified method may
be used:
(d) The structure is braced so that sideways stability of the frame does not depend on the
slab-column connection. (The structure is braced).
(e) There should be at least three spans in the direction under consideration.
(f) The span lengths should be approximately equal. (It is assumed here that the spans will be
approximately equal if they do not differ by more than 15% from the longest span).
(g) The curtailment rules for solid one-way spaning slabs (Fig. 20, sec. 10.1) should be used.
10.3.3 Deflections
For flat slabs with drops the basic allowable l/d-ratio for beams is used but multiplied by a factor
of 0.9. If the plan dimensions of the drops are at least a one-third of the respective span in each
direction, the 0.9 factor can be omitted.
The l/d-ratio should always be considered in the critical direction, which is usually the
long-span direction in flat slabs.
= Column strip
£ 0.4 lx
Bcol
lx
£ 0.1 Bcol
Bcol
£ 0.4 ly
£ 0.1 Bcol
ly
(b) Opening common to two
(a) Opening common to two intersecting middle strips column strips
Bcol
£ 0.25 Bcol
(c) Opening common to a column strip and a middle strip
Figure 32: Openings in panels.
If the simplified method have been used to obtain the bending moments (section 10.1), the cur-
tailment rules for solid two-way spaning slabs (see section 10.1.2) should be used.
The column strip reinforcement that passes over the column must be placed so that two-thirds of
this reinforcement is placed within half the width of the column strip, centrally over the column.
10.4 Punching shear in slabs
The maximum shear stress at the edge of the loaded area should not exceed
ì
ï0.75 f cu
v u = lesser of í (10-6)
ï
î4 . 75 MPa
= Failure zone
0.75 d 1.5 d
1.5 d 1.5 d 1.5 d 1.5 d 1.5 d 1.5 d
* * *
*At least 2 sets of reinforcement within a failure zone

(a) First failure zone (b) Second failure zone (c) Third failure zone
Figure 33: Considering successive failure zones for punching shear.
The design process is summarized as follows:

(a) The first perimeter is considered at a distance 1.5 d from the loaded area. If v £ vc no shear
reinforcement is required and no further checks are necessary. Reinforcement used for vc
must extend at least an effective depth d or 12 diameters beyond the zone on either side.
(b) If v > vc the following shear reinforcement is required:
(v - v c ) u d
For (v c < v < 1.6 v c ) : SAsv ³
0 .87 f yv
with (v - v c ) ³ 0 . 4 MPa (10-4)
5 (0 . 7 v - v c ) u d
For (1.6 v c < v < 2 v c ) : SAsv ³
0 .87 f yv
where:
u = outside perimeter of the failure zone
Asv = area of shear reinforcement
fyv = characteristic strength of the shear reinforcement (not exceeding 450 MPa)
These equations apply only when:
• v < 2 vc
• Links are used as shear reinforcement.
• The slab is at least 200 mm thick. For every 10 mm less than 200 mm, a 10 % loss of
efficiency should be assumed for the shear reinforcement.
lp lp lp
lp lp lp lp lp lp lp is a multiple of 0.75 d
lp
lp lp
(a) Perimeter for a general shape of loaded area
Slab edge Slab edge
<6d Perimeter a Perimeter a

Perimeter b Perimeter b
(b) Effective perimeter (c) Effective perimeter (d) Effective perimeter

allowing for openings close to slab edge close to slab corner
Figure 34: Perimeter for punching shear.
(c) Shear reinforcement must be distributed into at least two perimeters within the failure zone
under consideration (see Fig. 3-33).
(d) Shear reinforcement placed for a previous failure zone may be included in the failure zone
under consideration where such zones overlap.
(e) The first perimeter of shear reinforcement should be approximately 0.5 d from the face of
the loaded area and should contain at least 40 % of the required area of shear reinforcement.
(f) Shear reinforcement must be anchored around at least one layer of tension reinforcement.
(g) Shear stresses are checked on the next perimeter a distance 0.75 d from the current perime-
ter. If v £ vc no shear reinforcement is required and no further checks are necessary, other-
wise repeat the process from step (b) above.
The effective shear forces in flat slabs can be calculated from Figs. 36 and 35. The simplified
equations (shown with *) may be used when the structure is braced, the ratio of spans does not
exceed 1.25 and the maximum design load is applied on all spans adjacent to the column under
consideration.
lp
Corner Cx x
column Cy lp
Veff = 1.25 Vt
Perimeter being
Veff = 1.25 Vt Internal column Mt considered
Edge
column Bending
1.5 Mt
e
Veff = Vt 1.25 +
1.5 Mt
e e
Veff = Vt 1 +
Vt x
or e moments
Vt x or Veff = 1.15 Vt *
Vt Shear
Veff = 1.4 Vt * forces
Figure 35: Effective shear forces. Figure 36: Definition of Vt and

Mt.
11 Design of Slender Columns

A vertical load-bearing member is defined as a column when h £ 4 b and a wall when
h > 4 b where h is the larger and b the smaller cross-section dimension, respectively.
11.1 Braced and unbraced columns
A structure can be consider braced if the ratio Sb/Su is greater than 5, where Sb is the lateral stiff-
ness of the braced structure and Su is the sway slimness of the unbraced structure.
11.2 Effective lengths
The effective length is determined from:

l e =b l o (11-1)
where lo = clear height between end restraints and b = factor obtained from Table 28.
Table 28: b-Values for effective lengths.

condi-
Braced column Unbraced column
tion
top 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 0.75 0.80 0.90 1.2 1.3 1.6
2 0.80 0.85 0.95 1.3 1.5 1.8
3 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.6 1.8 -
4 - - - 2.2 - -
being considered.
4 The end of the column is unrestrained against both lateral movement and ro-
tation.
Alternatively, the effective length can be determined from
[ ]
ïl o 0 . 7 + 0 .05( a c,1 + a c,2 ) ï
ì ü
Braced columns: l e = lesser of í ý£ l o (11-2)
ï l
î o [0 .85 + 0 .05 a c,min ] ï
þ
[ ]
ïl o 1.0 + 0 .15( a c,1 + a c,2 )
ì
Unbraced columns: l e = lesser of í (11-3)
îl o [2 .0 + 0 .3 a c,min ]
ï
where ac,1 = ratio of the sum of the column stiffness to the sum of the beam stiffnesses at
the lower end of the column
ac,2 = ratio of the sum of the column stiffness to the sum of the beam stiffnesses at
the upper end of the column
If a base have been designed to resist the moment, ac can taken as 1, otherwise ac should be taken
as 10. For a very large stiff base, ac can taken as 0. For simply supported beams framing into a
column ac should be taken as 10.
11.3 Slenderness
A column should be considered slender when

l e ì17 - 7M 1 / M 2 for braced columns
>í (11-4)
h î10 for unbraced columns
where le = effective height = b lo (b from Table 28)

M1 = smaller initial end moment due to ultimate design moments (negative for
bending in double curvature)
M2 = larger initial end moment due to ultimate design moments
Limits: Braced column: lo < 60b and b ³0.25h (11-5)
Unbraced column: lo < 25b and b ³0.25h (11-6)
11.4.1 Minimum eccentricity
All columns should therefore be designed for a minimum moment resulting from eccentric load-
ing
M min = N emin (11-7)
ì0 .05 h for bending about the x - axisü
where emin = í ý £ 20 mm (11-8)
î0 .05 b for bending about the y - axisþ
11.4.2 Additional moments in slender columns
Madd = N au (11-9)
au = ba K h (11-10)
1 æ le ö
2
ba = ç ÷ (11-11)
2000è h ø
é N uz - N ù
ê for N ³ N bal ú
N - N bal
K = ê uz ú£ 1 (11-12)
ê Mi for N < N bal ú
ê
ë M bal ú
û
Nuz = 0.45 fcu Ac + 0.75 fy Asc (gm included) (11-13)

For symmetrically reinforced rectangular sections
Mbal = 0.046 fcu b d 2 + 0.87 fyc Asc (d - d¢) (11-14)
Nbal = 0.25 fcu b d (11-15)
1
0.1
0.9 SABS 0100: 1992
103 Asc d¢
0.2
Asc
0.8 ( MPa )-1
b h f cu 2
h d
0.3
1.6 Asc
0.7
1.4 .4 2
1.2 0
0.6 1.0 b
0.8 0.5
fy = 450 MPa
0.6
N 0.5
0.4 0.6 d ¢ = 0.2 h
b h f cu 0.2 d = 0.8 h
0.4 0.7
0.05hN
0
0.8
0.3
Mmin =
0.9
0.2
K = 1.0
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
M
b h 2 f cu
Figure 37: Interaction diagram with K-values.

11.4.3 Braced slender columns
The design moment is the greater of

(a) M2
(b) Mi + Madd (11-16a b c)
(c) N emin
where Mi = 0.4 M1 + 0.6 M2 (11-17)
M2 – Madd / 2 M2
M2 Madd / 2
+ Madd =
Larger moment M2 – Madd / 2 M2

M2 Madd / 2
Mmax
Mi + Madd =
M1 Madd / 2
Smaller moment M1 + Madd / 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Braced frame End conditions Initial moments Additional moments Moment envelope
Figure 38: Moments in braced slender columns.
11.4.4 Unbraced slender columns
The design moment is the greater of

æ M add ,unbr ö
(a) M 2 = M V + M Hç
ç1+ ÷
÷
è MV +M H ø
(b) 0 .6 M 2 + 0 . 4 M 1 + M add ,braced (11-18a b c)

(c) N emin
where
Madd,braced = additional moment from Eq. (11-3), but using the braced effective length in
Eq. (11-5)
M1, M2 = smaller and larger end moment including the effects of sway
M2 =
M add ,unbr
FG M IJH FG
MV + M H 1+
M add ,unbr IJ
MV + MH H M +M K
H V H M H + MV K
+ =

proportion to the
Less stiff stiffness ratio of the less
end joint Smaller moment stiff to the stiffer joint M1
+ =
Stiffer end
MV + MH
M add ,unbr
FG M IJ
H M2 =
joint Larger moment H M +M K
H V FG
MV + M H 1+
M add ,unbr IJ
HM H + MV K
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Unbraced End conditions Initial moments Additional moments Moment envelope
frame for column from analysis caused by slenderness
Figure 39: Moments in unbraced slender columns (SABS 0100).
11.4.5 Slender columns bent uniaxially

Table 29: bb-Values for bi-
axial bending.
A column which is slender about both axes but is bent uniaxially,
must be designed to resist the additional moment about both axes N bb
separately. If the column is slender about one axis only, the addi- bhf cu
tional moment only have to be considered in one plane. Ensure
that Mi ³ Mmin. 0.000 0.50
0.075 0.60
11.5 Bi-axial bending 0.150 0.70
Mx M y h 0.250 0.70
For > then M ¢x = M x + b b M y
h b b (11-19a b) 0.300 0.65
Mx M y b 0.400 0.53
For < then M ¢y = M y + b b M x
h b h
0.500 0.42
where bb is given in Table 29.
³ 0.600 0.30
12 Staircases
T
The unit weight of the waist, measured horizontally, is deter-
mined by multiplying the unit weight measured along the N G
slope of the stair with
W
R
R +G
2 2
(12-1)
G q
G = Going
The unit weight of the stairs (without the waist), measured R = Rise
horizontally, is determined by approximating it as a slab with T = tread
N = Nosing
thickness R/2. W = Waist
If a stair spanning in the direction of the flight is built in at
least 110 mm into a wall along the length, a width of 150 mm Figure 40: Definition of terms
adjacent to the wall may be deducted from the loaded area.
The effective width of the stair may then include 2/3 of the
embedded width, up to a maximum of 80 mm.
If a stair is supported by elements spanning at right angels to the span of the stair, the effective
span of the stair may be taken as the clear distance between supports plus half the width of the
supporting elements, up to a maximum distance of 900 mm at both ends.
The allowable l/d may be increased by 15% if the stairs make out 60% or more of the span.
13 Deflections and Crack Widths

Deflections are calculated from
l2
D i = KM s (13-1)
EcI e
æ M cr ö3 é æ M ö3 ù
where ç
I e =ç ÷
÷ I g +ê1-ç
ç
cr ÷ ú
÷ I cr £ I g (13-2)
è Ma ø ê
ë è Ma ø úû
frIg
M cr = (13-3)
yt
ì
ï065
. f cu for unrestrained sections
fr = í (13-4)
ï
î030
. f cu for restrained sections where cracking can occur before loading
Values for K are given in Figure 41. The total deflection (elastic and creep) is given by
D¥ = l D i (13-5)
where l = 1+ x i f and x i = x / d (13-6)
If compression reinforcement is present, replace f with
f¢ = f (1- r / 2) (13-7)
where r= A¢s / As
Loading Bending moment diagram K

M M
M 0.125
al W
3- 4a 2 1 1
If a = , K =
l M = Wa(1- a )l 48(1- a ) 2 12
M M 0.0625
W/2 W/2
al al
a2
Wal . -
0125
l M= 6
2
q ql 2
0.104
8
q ql 2
0.102
15.6
q MA MB
K = 0104
.
FG
1-
b IJ and b =
M A + MB
MC
H 10 K MC
al W End deflection
Wal a(3- a )
l K= If a =1, K = 0.333
6
al End deflection
qa 2 l 2
q a( 4 - a )
2 K= If a =1, K = 0.25
12
MA MB
K = 0.083 1-
FG b IJ b=
M A + MB
MC
H 4 K MC
al al
1 ( 5 - 4a 2 ) 2
Wl 2
(3- 4a 2 ) 80 3- 4a 2
24
Figure 41: Values for K for different bending moment diagrams.
Deflections caused by shrinkage are determined from

e sl 2
D s = K s K cs (13-8)
h
ì 1 for cantilevers
ï 2
ï
ï 18 for simply supported members
where K s =í (13-9)
ï0086
. for one end continuous
ï
ï 1
î 16 for both ends continuous
ì æ r¢ ö
ï0.7 rç
ç1- ÷ ÷£ 1 en ³ 0 for uncracked members
ï è rø
K cs = í (13-10)
ï r¢
ï1-
r
[1-011
. (3 - r) 2 ] £ 1 en ³ 03
. for cracked members
î
100 As
r= £3
bd
100A¢s
r¢ =
bd
r¢
£1
r
The maximum crack width is determined from

3 acr e m
w max = (13-11)
æ a - cmin ö
1+ 2ç cr ÷
è h- x ø
bt ( h - x )( a¢- x )
where e m = e1 - (13-12)
3E s As ( d - x )
e1 = concrete strain at the level under consideration

a¢ = distance from the compression edge to the level under consideration
acr = distance from the point under consideration to the nearest longitudinal bar
bt = width of the section at the level of the tension reinforcement
cmin = minimum cover to tension reinforcement
To calculate x and e1 the cracked transformed section should be based on Ec/2 to account for the
effects of creep in the concrete.
14 Prestressed Concrete
14.1 Sign convention
• Tensile stresses and forces are positive.

• Hogging bending (concave curvature) is positive.
• The eccentricity e of the prestressing force is measured from the centroid of the section and is
taken positive below the centroidal axis.
• The sign of the section modulus Z = I/y with respect to a particular fibre is determined by the
distance y of the fibre measured from the centroidal axis. This distance is taken positive for
fibres located below the centroidal axis.
14.2 Material properties
Ep = 205 GPa for high tensile steel wire (14-1)
= 195 GPa for 7-wire strand
= 165 GPa for high tensile alloy bars.
Stress fps
fpy = fpu / gm
fp1 = 0.8 fpy f py - f p1

E p2 =
e py - e p1
d
f ps = f p1 + E p 2 e ps - e p1 i
Ep
ep1 0.005 epy Strain eps
Figure 42: Stress-strain relationship for prestressing steel.
14.3 Elastic stresses
P Pey M y P Pe M
Concrete stresses f= + + = + + (14-2)
A I I A Z Z
14.4 Ultimate limit state
Strain in prestressed reinforcement

e ps = e s - e ce + e se (14-2)
f se
where e se = (14-3)
Ep
é P P e2 ù 1
e ce =ê + ú (14-4)
ëA I ûE c
æd-x ö
e s =ç ÷e (14-5)
è x ø cu
Equilibrium (rectangular section)

Fcc = Fp
(14-6)
0 . 45 f cu b s = f ps A ps
M u = Fcc z = Fps z (14-7)
0 . 67
f cu » 0 . 45 f cu
b ecu 1. 5
Fcc s/2
x s = 0.9 x
N.A.
d Centroidal z
h
axis
e
Aps Fp= Aps fps
ece ese es ese

ece
eps = es - ece + ese
(a)
Strain induced by (b) (c)
effective prestress Strain distribution Concrete stresses and
only (i.e. zero moment) at ultimate conditions resultant forces
Figure 43: Prestressed concrete beam at ultimate.

Table 30: Reinforcement areas (mm2/m).
Spacing Bar diameter (mm)

(mm) 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40
1000 50 79 113 201 314 491 804 1257
975 52 81 116 206 322 503 825 1289
950 53 83 119 212 331 517 847 1323
925 54 85 122 217 340 531 869 1359
900 56 87 126 223 349 545 894 1396
875 57 90 129 230 359 561 919 1436
850 59 92 133 237 370 577 946 1478
825 61 95 137 244 381 595 975 1523
800 63 98 141 251 393 614 1005 1571
775 65 101 146 259 405 633 1038 1621
750 67 105 151 268 419 654 1072 1676
725 69 108 156 277 433 677 1109 1733
700 72 112 162 287 449 701 1149 1795
675 74 116 168 298 465 727 1191 1862
650 77 121 174 309 483 755 1237 1933
625 80 126 181 322 503 785 1287 2011
600 84 131 188 335 524 818 1340 2094
575 87 137 197 350 546 854 1399 2185
550 91 143 206 366 571 892 1462 2285
525 96 150 215 383 598 935 1532 2394
500 101 157 226 402 628 982 1608 2513
475 106 165 238 423 661 1033 1693 2646
450 112 175 251 447 698 1091 1787 2793
425 118 185 266 473 739 1155 1892 2957
400 126 196 283 503 785 1227 2011 3142
375 134 209 302 536 838 1309 2145 3351
350 144 224 323 574 898 1402 2298 3590
325 155 242 348 619 967 1510 2475 3867
300 168 262 377 670 1047 1636 2681 4189
275 183 286 411 731 1142 1785 2925 4570
250 201 314 452 804 1257 1963 3217 5027
225 223 349 503 894 1396 2182 3574 5585
200 251 393 565 1005 1571 2454 4021 6283
175 287 449 646 1149 1795 2805 4596 7181
150 335 524 754 1340 2094 3272 5362 8378
125 402 628 905 1608 2513 3927 6434 10053
100 503 785 1131 2011 3142 4909 8042 12566
75 670 1047 1508 2681 4189 6545 10723 16755
50 1005 1571 2262 4021 6283 9817 16085 25133
25 2011 3142 4524 8042 12566 19635 32170 50265
Table 31: Reinforcement areas (mm2).
No Bar diameter (mm)

8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40
1 50.3 78.5 113.1 201.1 314.2 490.9 804.2 1256.6
2 101 157 226 402 628 982 1608 2513
3 151 236 339 603 942 1473 2413 3770
4 201 314 452 804 1257 1963 3217 5027
5 251 393 565 1005 1571 2454 4021 6283
6 302 471 679 1206 1885 2945 4825 7540
7 352 550 792 1407 2199 3436 5630 8796
8 402 628 905 1608 2513 3927 6434 10053
9 452 707 1018 1810 2827 4418 7238 11310
10 503 785 1131 2011 3142 4909 8042 12566
11 553 864 1244 2212 3456 5400 8847 13823
12 603 942 1357 2413 3770 5890 9651 15080
13 653 1021 1470 2614 4084 6381 10455 16336
14 704 1100 1583 2815 4398 6872 11259 17593
15 754 1178 1696 3016 4712 7363 12064 18850
16 804 1257 1810 3217 5027 7854 12868 20106
17 855 1335 1923 3418 5341 8345 13672 21363
18 905 1414 2036 3619 5655 8836 14476 22619
19 955 1492 2149 3820 5969 9327 15281 23876
20 1005 1571 2262 4021 6283 9817 16085 25133
21 1056 1649 2375 4222 6597 10308 16889 26389
22 1106 1728 2488 4423 6912 10799 17693 27646
23 1156 1806 2601 4624 7226 11290 18498 28903
24 1206 1885 2714 4825 7540 11781 19302 30159
25 1257 1963 2827 5027 7854 12272 20106 31416
26 1307 2042 2941 5228 8168 12763 20910 32673
27 1357 2121 3054 5429 8482 13254 21715 33929
28 1407 2199 3167 5630 8796 13744 22519 35186
29 1458 2278 3280 5831 9111 14235 23323 36442
30 1508 2356 3393 6032 9425 14726 24127 37699
31 1558 2435 3506 6233 9739 15217 24932 38956
32 1608 2513 3619 6434 10053 15708 25736 40212
33 1659 2592 3732 6635 10367 16199 26540 41469
34 1709 2670 3845 6836 10681 16690 27344 42726
35 1759 2749 3958 7037 10996 17181 28149 43982
36 1810 2827 4072 7238 11310 17671 28953 45239
37 1860 2906 4185 7439 11624 18162 29757 46496
38 1910 2985 4298 7640 11938 18653 30561 47752
39 1960 3063 4411 7841 12252 19144 31366 49009
40 2011 3142 4524 8042 12566 19635 32170 50265

Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures

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Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures

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Analysis and Design of

This book is intended as an aid to students in understanding the behaviour on concrete

Comments and suggestions are welcome and can be forwarded to:

Designing a beam is a question of proportion – engineering is not a science – it’s an

4.3.1 Braced frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4

6.5 Design for Shear to SABS 0100. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21

10.6 Beams With Compression Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8

12.4.1 Footing layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.14

14.4.3 Landings spanning at right angles to the stair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-8

Appendix A: Design Charts for Beams

Appendix B: Design Charts for Columns

1.1 Concrete structures

Alternatively, tensile stresses in the concrete can be reduced by applying a compression

1.2 History of reinforced concrete

1.3 Building regulations and design codes of practice

Table 1-1: International design codes of practice for concrete structures.

Country Design code

Year Code Steel Load Deflection Cracking Comments

1.4 Cost of concrete

All columns 450 ´ 450 mm

Characteristic material strengths:

Figure 1-1: Slab layout for calculation of typical costs.

Table 1-3: Cost of a typical reinforced concrete floora.

Item Unit cost R/m2 R/m3

Properties of Reinforced Concrete

Table 2-1: Comparison between properties of concrete and steel.

Material property Concrete Steel

Load Compression Concrete stresses

Small, evenly distributed cracks Tension Reinforcement stress

Cross- Average strain Stress distribution

Figure 2-1: Composite action between concrete and reinforcement.

Range Typical design value

Cracking in reinforced concrete is not necessarily detrimental to concrete. Provided good

2.2 Concrete Material Properties

2.2.1 Compressive strength

The compressive strength is defined as the maximum strength reached in a compression

The compressive strength of concrete is primarily dependent on the following:

• Concrete mix proportions: water/cement ratio, properties of the aggregate, admixtures,

2.2.2 Stress-strain relationship

• Initially the curve is very close to linear

Compressive stress fc (MPa) 60

2.2.3 Tensile strength

Figure 2-5: Split cylinder (indirect tension) test.

L/3 L/3 L/3

Figure 2-4: Modulus of rupture test.

2.2.4 Modulus of elasticity

Figure 2-7: Relationships between tensile and compressive strengths of concrete

Figure 2-6: Modulus of elasticity for concrete.

E c,28 = K 0 + 0 .2 f cu ,28 (in GPa) (2.2-3)

Figure 2-8: Relationship between static modulus of elasticity and compressive

fcu,28 = characteristic cube strength at 28 days, in MPa

If the properties of the aggregate is unknown, a value 20 GPa can be assumed

where fcu,t is the characteristic cube strength at time t

2.2.5 Poisson’s ratio

Table 2-3: Secant modulus of elasticity at 28 days Ec,28 (GPa)

Characteristic Average Typical range

2.2.6 Shear modulus

The shear modulus for concrete is assumed to be

2.2.7 Unit weight

Type of concrete Density (kg/m3) Unit weight

2.2.8 Time-dependent behaviour

The long-term behaviour is illustrated by considering an unloaded cylinder and a identical

Taken out of water and loaded at t0

Elastic strain eel