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 > | : ; "® >" )A y§mq
wl hs ul afl & | th, Ma! At, Nl call

A JOURNAL OF HIGHWAY RESEARCH

FEDERAL WORKS AGENCY
PUBLIC ROADS ADMINISTRATION

i eee i NO). -</ wy, JANUARY-FEBRUARY-MARCH 1943

SUBJECTING TAR SAMPLES TO ACCELERATED WEATHERING TEST

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Gov@rnment Printing Office

Washington, D.C. - See page 2 of covér for prices
PUBLIC ROADS irishes Researeh
FEDERAL WORKS AGENCY
PUBLIC ROADS ADMINISTRATION
D. M. BEACH, Editor
Volume 23, No. 7 January—February—March 1943

The reports of research published in this magazine are necessarily qualified by the conditions of the tests from which the data are obtained.
Whenever it is deemed possible to do so, generalizations are drawn from the results of the tests; and, unless this is done, the conclusions
formulated must be considered as specifically pertinent only to described conditions.

In This Issue
The Sulfonation Index Test for Road Tars
Traffic Growth and Composition, 1937-41
Design of Slab and Stringer Highway Bridges

THE. PUBLIC ROADS ADMINISTRATION - - - - - North Interior Building, Washington, D. C.

REGIONAL HEADQUARTERS - - - - - - - - -+ - - - - - - 720 Phelan Building, San Francisco, Calif.
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Jersey, New York, Rhode Is/and, 76andState
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254 New Customhouse, Denver, Colo. of Columbine

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copy, to the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

CERTIFICATE By direction of the Commissioner of Public Roads, the matter contained herein is published as administrative information
and is required for the proper transaction of the public business.
 THE SULFONATION INDEX TEST FOR
ROAD TARS'
BY THE DIVISION OF TESTS, PUBLIC ROADS ADMINISTRATION
Reported by R. H. LEWIS, Senior Chemist, and W. J. HALSTEAD, Associate Chemist

N RECENT YEARS 355° C. fraction from not

several States have more than 1.0 to not more
The erratic behavior of some tar products in localities
reported unsatisfactory where tars have given excellent service for many years
than 1.5. As is noted in
service behavior with cer- has led to specifications limiting the amount of paraf- tablet, the A. A-s; Hy 0;
tain road tars which in all finic and naphthenic hydrocarbons that they may now includes an optional re-
respects met the require- contain. The amount of these materials is controlled quirement for the sulfona-
by maximum requirements for the sulfonation indexes
ments of the controlling of two fractions of the tar distillate. The sulfonation
tion index in its Specifica-
specifications. Priming indexes are determined by treating portions of the tion M 52-42. This re-
material did not set up in 0—300° C. fraction and the 300°—355° C. fraction of the quirement applies to the
normal curing time, delay- distillate with 37 normal sulfuric acid under specified erades RT-1 through
test conditions. The volume of the unsulfonated RT-6 and the limits for
ing construction of the residue expressed in millimeters in each fraction per
finished surface. The re- 100 grams of tar is reported as the sulfonation index the 0° to 300° C. fraction
sidual tars became greasy, for that fraction. are the same as those pro-
showed evidence of separa- This report briefly discusses the types of hydro- posed by some producers
carbons present in asphaltic and tar products. It
tion or nonhomogeneity, suggests modification in the test method for determining
(Specification A, table 1)
and did not adequately the sulfonation index that will insure more reproducible while the limit for the 300°
hold the cover stone, ne- and more accurate results. It demonstrates that the to 355° C. fraction has
cessitating early replace- solubility of tar distillates in dimethyl sulfate and been increased to not more
diethyl sulfate can not be used as a quantitative test for than 1.5.
ment of the road surface. the paraffinic and naphthenic hydrocarbons.
A study of these unusual A study of the relationship between the sulfonation Although the sulfona-
conditions in areas where indexes and the weathering properties of tars was made tion test has been used in
tar products had given by exposing 14-inch films of the tar and compressed the analysis of tar distil-
sand-tar mixtures to the accelerated weathering con- lates for many years, it has
excellent service for many ditions of the weatherometer. These studies indicate
years indicated that high that tars with the higher sulfonation indexes show the not been employed exten-
percentages of paraffinic greater hardening which is caused by factors other sively in the routine ex-
hydrocarbons were present than loss of volatile material, and also that those ma- amination of road _ tars.
terials with a high sulfonation index on the 300°-355° C. This study of the sulfona-
in some of the tars that fraction develop a lower bonding strength than those
had not proved satisfac- which have low sulfonation indexes for this fraction. tion index test and the
tory. It was believed that However, the abnormal behavior of some of the tars effect of the unsulfonated
in most cases this condition during the laboratory tests and the wide differences in portion of the tar on its
the characteristics of tars meeting the same specifica- behavior under laboratory
resulted from the use of tion indicate that a definite correlation of the sulfonation
petroleum products as a index with actual road behavior will be difficult to accelerated weathering
flux in the manufacturing obtain. conditions may, therefore,
process. However, it has prove of interest to the
been indicated also that users of road tars.
some road tars derived
FOUR CLASSES OF HYDROCARBONS PRESENT IN BITUMINOUS
from water-gas tar contain sufficiently high amounts MATERIALS
of paraffinic material to affect adversely the quality,
binding characteristics, and weathering properties of The significance and limitations of the sulfonation
the tars. . index test cannot be readily understood without some
In order to improve the performance of these road knowledge of the types of hydrocarbons that are con-
tars, it was recommended that the percentage of dis- stituents of both petroleum and tar products and which
tillate at the various cutting temperatures used in the vary in quantity, depending on the source of the base
distillation test be more closely specified and that a material and the process used in refining. There are
maximum requirement for a sulfonation index of the generally four large classes or divisions of hydrocarbons
distillation fractions, 0° to 300° C. and 300° to 355° C., commonly present in petroleum and tars of all types.
be included in the specifications for road tars of the cold They are: (1) The paraffinic, which are the saturated,
application type. The requirements for grades RT-1 straight chain group; (2) the naphthenic, which are
to RT-6, inclusive, as proposed by some of the tar pro- cyclic saturated compounds; (3) the olefinic, which are
ducers to meet this situation, and the standard specifica- the unsaturated, straight-chain group; and (4) the
tions of the American Association of State Highway aromatics, which are the derivatives and homologues
Officials, are given in table 1. of benzene.
The specifications suggested by the producers were Crude petroleum contains all of these groups in
in use in some localities during 1940. Some users added various proportions but generally the greatest per-
the proposed limits for sulfonation index to the existing centage of hydrocarbons present is paraffinic or naph-
A. A.S. H. O. specifications; others changed the re- thenic. Products from the cracking of petroleum or
quirements for the sulfonation index on the 300° to petroleum distillates contain high percentages of the
1 Also known as the sulfonation factor.
unsaturated or olefinic group and the aromatics.
507062—43——_1
141

i
 Y

142 PU BARC ERO Als Vol.

23, No.7

Tanie 1.—Comparison of road tar specifications}

Grade RT~1 | Grade RT-2 trade RT-3 Grade RT-+4 Grade RT-5 irade RT-6

a bere | li (ic hey eae al Lae SS ae aye ua 7

| Specifica-| Specifica-| Specifica-| Specifica-| Specifica-| Specifica-| Specifica-| Specifica-| Specifica-| Specifica- Specifica-| Specifica-
tion A | tion B tion A tion B tion A | tion B tion A tion B tion A tion B tion A | tion B
ez “ 7 27 "eo “ets = i =a ex hae <a > ail = =a 2 i= | em ,= 3 | e = | <— <1 = i =| ¥

Engler specifie viscosity, at 40° C | 5-8 | 5-8 8-13 | 8-13 13-22 | 13-22 22-35 22-36. leone | eee he cee
Engler specific viscosity, at 50° C -__...__- pe ee SN ee Lie : eR e ale 17-26 17-26 | 26-40 | 26-40
Specific gravity at 25°/25° C eae 1,09-++ 1. 08+ Ls 10--| ai os-+ a 10-4} lL.09-4} ea U | 1.09-4 1.12 1. 10+] 1.13+ 1.10+
Total bitumen, Siuhiel in CS9.__.__percent_.| 88+) 88-+-| 88-++ 88--] 88+) 88+) 88+ 88+ 83+ 83+) 83+) 83+
Water, percent by weight- et Bes tah 2— 2-— 2— 2—| 2— 2—| 2- 2— 1.5— 1. 5— 15] 1.5—
DistiJation, per.ent by weight: | | | }
OTL70%. eee ct aa BOS See oe 38— 7-| 3—| 7— 2-— 7— 2— §— 2— 5—| 2-—| 5—
0°=200°. 2. ae e TaR AIS AFB) Gao Peles fs. 6— |See eee x! 5— ee D>|e ea eee 5—|__- eae a = ee
0°-235°. cule. OaBa ale Mca 6 B18 °(eee 4-16 fi i eri! DEBS n Cie 2-19: eae
0° e See ON BL eT 9 * ae! a) 16-32 35— 14-28 385— 11-27 30— 9-25 | 30— 8-22 25— 6-20 25—
0°-300° a. are a | 24-10 45— 21-37 45— 17-34 40 — 16-32 | 40— 15-31 35— 14-30 35—
Softening point (R& B) distillation residue 30-60 30-60 35-60 30-60 35-60 35-65 35-60 35-65 35-65 35-70 35-65 | 35-70
Sulfonation index:? | ta | |
Total distillate to 300° C___ at esd eae | Ge a (a Lae 5lemee ol Sip eres s
Distillate between 300° and 355° C_____- | eee ats) 1 |e [|e Te.= 1 eee 3 Lee ee
es oc | | oa" ee
I Specification A proposed by some producers; specification B, A. A. S. H. O. Specification M52-42.
2The A .A.'S: H. O. prov. ides optional requirements |for the Ry hatch index, the limits being the same as those recorded under specification A for the 0°-300° C. frae-
tion. The requirement for the 300°-355° C. fraction is 1.5— for all grades.

The composition of coal tar varies widely, depending
on the source of the coal, the method of manufacture,
and the temperature conditions at the time of manu-
facture. Crude tars of all types contain tar acids
and bases in various percentages but, since these
are generally removed by refining before the material
is marketed as a road tar, the hydrocarbons of the
neutral oil fraction are of primary concern.
High-temperature tars are manufactured at tempera-
tures of approximately 1,200° C. They contain chiefly
aromatic hydrocarbons in the neutral oil fraction.
When they are distilled from vertical retorts, they
contain considerable amounts of paraffinic and unsat-
urated substances not found in coke-oven or horizontal-
retort tars. The percentages of these classes of hydro-
carbons in vertical-retort tar, however, are not as large | factors involved as follows:
as in. the case of low-temperature tar.2. Low-tempera- | Temperature:
ture tars are manufactured at carbonization temper-
atures around 600° C. They contain about 20 to 40 appreciably lower than 1,300° I°., the oil will not be completely
percent aromatics, 18 to 40 percent
34 to 43 percent saturated
not generally manufactured in this country and are not
encountered in road-tar manufacture. A small amount
of vertical retcrt tar is used, but the major proportion
of coal tars used as the raw products for manufacturing
road tars are those obtained from other gas works and
coke ovens, equipped to recover byproducts, with the
latter representing about 78 percent of the total.’
Tn addition to the coal tars, large quantities of water-
gas tars are also used in manutacturing road materials.
These tars are the byproducts of the commercial proc-
esses for manufacturing water gas and are derived
from the gas oil or fuel oil used in carbureting or en-
riching the water gas.
in composition and may be chiefly aromatic or may
contain high percentages of paraffinic or naphthenic
materials, depending on the carbureting oil and the
manufacturing conditions.
TARS DIFFER WIDELY IN PHYSICAL
W. W. Odell,’ in discussing the chemical properties
of water-gas tar, makes the following statement:
* * * it may be composed entirely of substances formed by
the cracking of the oil or it may contain an appreciable amount
1 High Temperature Coal Tars, by W. G. Adams,
pp. 3118-3127. : mittee and the American Association of State Highway
+ Low-Temperature
3113-3117.
Tar Oils, by J. G. King.
4 Asphalt and Allied Substances, 4th ed., Abraham,p.344.
x § Technical Paper No. 304, Bureau of Mines, United States Department
nterior.
of the original constituents of the oil. It is not uniform in
character and quality, rather the product of one plant is fre-
quently altogether different from that of another plant, The
reasons for these differences are that the operating conditions,
oil used, gas standard, ete., are not the same in all plants.
In the same paper Odell gives the approximate limits
between which various properties of the tar may lie.
These are:
Specific gravity—from 1.00 to 1.18.
Fluidity—from thin fluid-like oil to viscous, heavy liquid.
Free carbon—from 1.0 percent or less to 6.0 percent or more.
Solids in distillate fractions—from 0 to more than 10 percent.
Distillation residue at 355° C. (vapor temp.)—from 40 to
70 percent.
Sulfonation residue—from 5 to 25 percent.
The same author also points out the effect of several
It is usually conceded that if the temperature is too low,
unsaturated, and Cracke Caan Likewise, it is generally known that ex-
cessively high temperatures are favorable to the formation of
hydrocarbons.’ They are naphthalene and carbon.
Rate of oil input:
* * * with a slow rate of input, the oil, if effectively
sprayed, will be more completely cracked and a higher gravity
tar produced than when the oil is injected more rapidly.
Distribution of oil:
That proper spraying of the oil, its distribution over the surface
of the carburetor brickwork, is essential for efficient cracking is
well known * * *,
Kind of oil used:
* * * the writer is led to believe that when some of the
heavy viscous oils are used, a higher temperature is required in
Water-gas tars vary widely the checker chambers to crack them DLO DCT kya eee
Condition of checker brick:
The tar formed when the brickwork is “‘dirty’’ contains more
uncracked oils—saturated hydrocarbons—less ‘‘solids’”’ in the
distillation fractions and has a lower specific gravity * * ¥*,
AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES From this brief discussion it is seen that many types
of crude tars are available to the road tar refiner and
that these tars may differ widely in their physical and
chemical properties. The standard specifications, RT
143 and M 52-42, for tars for use in road construction,
Science of Petroleum, vol. IV,
issued by the Federal Specifications Executive Com-
Science of Petroleum,
;
vol. IV, pp.
Officials, respectively, contain a general requirement
of the
that reads as follows: “Materials furnished under this
specification shall be prepared from suitable gas-house,
 C=
€
J anuary—February—March 1943 PeUD-L
1) CoROADS 143

coke-oven, and/or water-gas tars.”’ Road tars may filled to the top of the graduated stem with ordinary sul-
be, therefore, a product from one source or they may be furic acid, and then whirled for 5 minutes in the centrifuge.
The volume of unsulfonated residue shal) then be read
blends of several types from one or many sources; so off from the graduations. The graduated portion of the
that the problem of explaining the service behavior bottle measures 2.0 milliliters and is divided into 10 major
on the basis of the quantity and types of various hydro- divisions, further graduated in 5 or 10 smaller divisions.
carbons present becomes very complex and is one that The reading, in terms of the major divisions (0.2 milli-
liters) multiplied by 2, gives the results in terms of milli-
will require considerable study. liters of sulfonation residue per 100 grams of distillate.
The reactivity of each of the groups of hydrocarbons The swfonation factor is the milliliters of sulfonation residue
with sulfuric acid varies widely and this fact is used as from 100 grams of the distillate multiplied by percentage
the basis for the sulfonation test. The paraffinic of the distillate based on weight of the tar, divided by 100.
hydrocarbons are not attacked appreciably by H.SO, Notes.
except for a very slow reaction when 12 to 15 percent The purpose of the test is to determine the amount of par-
fuming sulfuric acid is used; the napthenic hydrocarbons affins present. These must be distinguished from resins or
other materials. (The paraffins are unchanged by the acid,
exhibit essentially the same behavior but are alittle less but the resins may be produced by the interaction of cer-
resistant. The olefinic or unsaturated group will react tain oils with the acid.) Generally, the sulfonation residue
readily with 75 percent acid; and the aromatic com- is a clear, transparent oil. Occasionally, some white or
even dark colored solid paraffin may be present. Also,
pounds require acid of about 95.6 percent strength for from some oils, a solid resin may be formed. The latter
complete reaction. The sulfonation test provides for is usually dark in color and does not melt at 100° C. The
the use of an excess of 98.61 percent acid at 100° GC. for paraffin will be liquid at that temperature. In case solid
1 hour. Thus, it is considered that all the aromatic material (apparently paraffin) appears, which cannot be
melted in the water bath without causing overflow from
and unsaturated hydrocarbons are oxidized or con- the bottle, a new test should be made. This is to be done
verted into sulfonic acids while the paraffins and in the same manner as previously except that when the
napthenes are essentially unaffected. bottle is removed from the hot bath it is not to be cooled
It should be noted that while paraffinic and napthenic before the addition of acid. Also, the addition of acid
should be to a point below the top of the graduations to
hydrocarbons are the classes usually found in uncracked allow room for expansion. The bottle may then be
petroleum, and the coal tars most generally used for whirled in the centrifuge for 3 minutes and again placed
road purposes in this country contain very little of in the water bath. Again it may be centrifuged for 2
these groups, the sulfonation test is not a direct test minutes. If material which appears as liquid in the bath
solidifies during centrifuging, the fina] reading should be
for petroleum products, but a test for certain groups of taken with the bottle still in or slightly raised from the
hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons may originate in bath.
either petroleum or coal tar and their absence or If a separate layer of sulfonation residue cannot readily be
presence in a road material is not a definite indication observed, one or more drops of water shall be carefully
added to the bottle. This sometimes calls attention to
of the parent substance of that material. “paraffin which, because of its color, might escape notice.
It also sometimes aids in the measurement.
VARIATIONS IN TEST PROCEDURE INFLUENCED RESULTS OF The addition of the acid should be regulated so that the
SULFONATION INDEX TEST mixture ceases to heat up on shaking, before another
portion is added. If acid is added too quickly, foaming
As shown in table 1, the sulfonation test is made on results.
two portions of the tar distillate; one, the fraction dis- Sometimes the contents of the bottle will start to foam on
tilling off up to 300° C., and the other, the fraction removal from the hot bath. Immersion in cold water will
usually stop the foaming.
distilling off between 300° to 355° C. The method Proper strength of sulfuric acid is essential.
proposed by the producers for making the test follows The 37N acid should contain 80.07 percent by weight of
essentially the same procedure as that used in the total SO3.. It is prepared by mixing analyzed ordinary
Barrett Company’s Method H-15.6 However, the re- concentrated sulfurie acid with analyzed fuming sulfuric
acid in proper proportions. (It is advisable to make a
sults are expressed as a sulfonation factor (or index), check test on the mixture to insure that the strength is
which is the volume of unsulfonated residue per 100 correct).
grams of tar. The method suggested is as follows: Example.
95 percent sulfuric acid contains 77.5 percent by weight SOs.
SULFONATION INDEX TEST FOR ROAD TARS 98 percent sulfuric acid contains 80.0 percent by weight SQ3.
15 percent fuming sulfuric acid contains 84.4 percent by
Apparatus. weight SOs.
Babcock test bottles. The graduated portion of the stem To prepare 37N acid (80.07 percent 5O;), 62 percent by
shall have a capacity of 2.0 milliliters divided into 10 weight (63 percent by volume) of 95 percent H.SO, is
major divisions. Each major division to have 5 or 10 mixed with 38 percent by weight (37 percent by volume)
subdivisions. . of 15 percent fuming H,SQ,.
Centrifuge, for Babcock test bottles. If the volume of unsulfonated residue exceeds the capacity
of the graduated stem (2.0 milliliters), the test may be
Method. made with 5 grams (5.0+0.1 gram) of the distillate to
Ten grams (10.040.1 gram) of the distillate or fraction of be tested, adjusting the computation of results accordingly.
distillate to be tested shall be weighed into a Babcock
test bottle. To this shall be added 30 milliliters of 37 In this investigation the method as outlined was
times normal sulfuric acid (80.07 percent total SOs), followed except that the samples were placed in the
10 milliliters at atime. The bottle with its contents shall bath after the addition of 20 milliliters of acid and
be shaken for 2 minutes after each addition of 10 milli- heated for 30 minutes with the required shaking at
liters of acid.. A thorough mixing of sample and acid is
essential. After 30 milliliters of acid has been added the
10-minute intervals. After this time the final 10
bottle shall be kept at a constant temperature of from milliliters of acid was added and the heating continued
98° GC. to 100° C. for 1 hour, during which time it shall be for the additional 30 minutes.
shaken vigorously every 10 minutes. At the end of an This modification of the procedure gave more favor-
hour the bottle.shall be removed from the hot bath, cooled,
able conditions for the escape of gases formed during
6 Methods of Testing Tar Products, Revised July 1931. The Barrett Company-
the reaction and thus eliminated much of the difficulty
 yn Qe; se ae he > ey. a
7

144 PUBLIC ROADS Vol. 23, No.7

caused by foaming during the shaking. It also was cedures, values for the sulfonation index ranging from a
necessary to use less than 10 grams of distillate in minimum of 6.3 to a maximum of 8.5. The values of
some cases where the volume of unsulfonated residue the sulfonation index of this sample show that, in
was large and exceeded 2 milliliters for the standard general, procedure No. 1 gives slightly higher values
weight of sample. The use of a smaller sample for than does procedure No. 2 for the same weight of sample.
the 300° to 355° C. distillate was also found to be most
convenient for certain materials as it eliminated the TABLE 4.—Effect of various procedures on the results of the sulfona-
tion index test for tar distillation up to 300° C.
necessity of making two distillations to this higher
temperature in order to obtain 10 grams of distillate. DISTILLATE FROM SAMPLE A
Subsequent to the completion of tests to be reported
later (table 6), it was found that the producers’ method ADDEON ocaduyel| .VOlUmen |aaa
aile to give
failed ive reproducible
reproducible results
results in some cases,'S, especi-
espec Test No. ‘a of
weight ono.No. |.UnsUlfo-<|-Y
ete iaeeae
index
ally when the amount of unsulfonated residue was sample
large. Accordingly, a brief study was made of the aia ae
effect of variations in the test procedure on the value |; Tp 10a 1 23. 1 8.1
of the , sulfonation
aK a e ee
index. Np
SMeEe ke RSE Viak oe ROS
e. SST a 7.5
ee 1
i 22.8
50:7 8.0
is
ge ase Ps. Ser Te 10.0 2 22. 5 79
THREE TARS HAVING HIGH, MEDIUM, AND LOW SULFONATION | }------------------------------- fe 2 aoe re
INDEXES STUDIED Ten ee A at ie eee 10.0 3 21.7 7.6
; Saheim
Cee ORES HEE on 5.0 3 18.8 6.6
Three tars were used for this study, A, having Migh\ geese ae ae 3 ae ae
sulfonation indexes; B, having medium indexes; and eee 5.0 ae 18.4 6.5
C, having very little unsulfonated residue. Sufficient .| 1375 50 (2) 20.5 72
distillate for each tar was collected and combined so | 1!4------------------------------- 5.0 ) 241 8.6
that all the tests for each distillate were made on por-
tions of the same material. The properties of the dis- DISTILLATE FROM SAMPLE B
tillates are given in table 2. The method as shown
Laas, Peet eee eat ele Ui Mee sen gee ie oe oy 10.0 1 10.4 3.4
above was used With varlations Im the procedure as) ie 2) 8 10.0 2 9.9 3.2
.
listed . table 3.
in Air
ier Wl Esset 5 aoere eee
oo nN 7.5
a 25 8.4
Se 2.7
a
Ripert tok Vee aie ter een 5.0 3 6.7 2.2
TABLE 2.—Properties of distillates used for studying the effect of ES es eg erate a a : es a
various procedures on the results of sulfonation index test eee rt, i eee ee ae 5.0 (1) 6.8 29
ee en eet Oe ie 5.0 (4) 10.4 3:4
Distillate up to 300° C. Distillate between 300° and 355° ©,
:
Sample
| as DISTILLATE FROM SAMPLE C
identi-
a en. q .
Syaadite Index‘ of 4a .
Specific Index E of |
fication Snes gravity at | refraction mie: gravity at | refraction 24 SUP © We. fey ng rethe no 10.0 2 192 0.4
sey 25° C. at 38° C. Siren 25° C, at 38° C, Sb ieeiek
SOE Beet Ko 2 Hae 2 1.0 8
o Hig oF hee iit Pe ag ee Sew & Bee Oe! 5.0 2 ‘8 3
| DY Sa Eee, ©Nan dees tn, 5.0 3 8 3
A 33.3 0.949 1. 543 15.2 1,024 1. 597
B 31.5 973 | 1. 562 13.9 1.055 1.619
C 34. 6 1. 023 | 1. 589 It 8 galt (1) 1 Procedure 3 but with shaking at 5-minute intervals.
1 Procedure 3 but with shaking at 15-minute intervals.
2 Procedure 3 but with 10 seconds shaking at 10-minute intervals.
! Test not made; sample solid at 38° C. 4 Only 10 milliliters of 37N HaSO, used. :

Tapie 3.—Variations in test procedure for determining sulfonation

index TABLE : 5.—EHffect
2 of various procedures
ate: on the results of the: sulfona-
ae tion index test for the distillates between 3800 and 355° C.
Pieediare DISTILLATE FROM SAMPLE A R

No.1 | No.2 | No.3 A pproxi-

aN | S = == | ! an Test No. mee Beecedurs Ee Sulfon ation
Amount of 37N acid in each portion________- milliliters__ 10 10 10 Sane 4 nated a
Number of portions added immediately - -----._--_----_-- 3 2 2
‘otal numberof portions addedene se. ss
eee eee 3 3 2 per re
Time of heating before final addition of acid__.-minutes__ 0 30 0 Grams Percent
Total time of heating ___.............-......---- do....| 60 60 (re abs Ok a re 2A 10.0 1 15.4 2.3
Time of shaking after initial portion of acid ________do____ 2 2 2 DN eo Se Bt ee Oe he) 1 13.8 ao
Time of shaking after each other portion of acid__seconds__ 30 30 30 Efe een Ra i gesee Seta, atest 5.0 1 13.0 1.9
Time of shaking after each 10 minutes heating _____do___- 30 30 30 PEs 2 Ra Oa OS ossees Se a eee aE 10. 0 2 16.4 2.4
“og Weeta Fd Sane ie 7.5 2 15.4 2.3
(Set) MIT os Rake ON Ra 5.0 2 13.9 2.1
Procedure No. 1, with only a slight change in the
amount of shaking, is the same as in the producers’ DISTASTE eae eae
method; procedure No. 2 2 is that used for the tests ee
Tee -pae e 7.5 2 7.7 1.0
reported later (table 6); and procedure No. 3 is a further ene ee ae 5.0 2 7.4 10
modification that reduces the danger of the sample | {90-00-0070 ae : a =
foaming over. In addition to these modifications in | !----------------------------- 5.0 3 7.0 9
technique, the weights of samples were also varied.
The results of these tests. are shown in tables 4 and 5. DISTILLATE FROM SAMPLE C
Table 4 shows the results for the distillates up to 300° C.
and table 5 shows the results for the 300° to 355° ©. | Beevc2 tte 18 ae aes 8
fraction. Ras ke es Bee a 2 eens a
For ‘sample A, the results for: the distillate up to) ~~).
we. tee
300° C. show wide variations for the different pro- | 1 trace ,

iy
 q January—February—March 1948 Op LC
The results also vary in order of the weight of sample
a
of distillate, the 10-gram sample giving the highest
result and the 5-gram sample giving the lowest.
For tests made by procedure No. 3, test No. 7 using
10 grams of distillate gives a considerably higher result
than do any of the tests with this procedure in which
5 grams of distillate were used (tests Nos. 8-11). This
indicates that 20 milliliters of 37N acid are insufficient
for complete reaction of the 10-gram sample. Conse-
quently, procedure No. 3 was used only with a 5-gram
sample in all other determinations.
Procedure No. 3 with a 5-gram sample generally
gives lower results than either of the other methods and
the results check well. Tests Nos. 12, 13, and 14 illus-
{rate the importance of shaking. In test No. 12 the
sample was shaken at 5-minute intervals and gave a
value of 6.3 for the sulfonation index. In test No. 13
the sample was shaken at 15-minute intervals and gave
a value of 7.2. In test No. 14 the sample was shaken 10
seconds after each addition of the acid instead of 2
minutes after the first addition and 30 seconds after the
second, and during the heating period it was shaken at
10-minute intervals for 10 seconds. The value obtained
for the sulfonation index was 8.5. These values indicate
peat thorough shaking is necessary for complete sulfona-
ion.
The results on the distillate up to 300° C. for sample
B also show the same general variations as those for
sample A. Procedure No. 1 and procedure No. 2, using
larger samples, give higher results than those for the
5-gram sample for procedure No. 2 and procedure No. 3.
Test No. 23 was made using only 10 milliliters of 37N
H,SO, on a 5-gram sample and the result was high.
The tests on distillate up to 300° C. for sample C
show the same order of results, but the amount of un-
sulfonated residue is so small that the experimental
error in reading the volume is practically equal to the
differences obtained.
The results on the distillates between 300° and 355°C.
show less variation for the different methods than do
those for the distillates up to 300° C., indicating that
the reactions take place more easily for this fracton and
that the variations in test procedure are of less im-
portance.
Since it is known that some of the aromatic com-
pounds (benzene and its homologues) are difficult to
sulfonate and since the strength of the acid used in the
test is insufficient to produce an appreciable reaction
with the paraffinic and naphthenic hydrocarbons, it is
most likely that the test procedure which gives the
smallest amount of unsulfonated residue is the most
accurate. Therefore, it is indicated from these tests
that procedure No. 3 will give more accurate results
than either of the other two methods.
MODIFIED METHOD OF TEST PROPOSED
In view of these results, it is recommended that the
method of test be modified to provide for a 5-gram
sample of distillate and for manipulation as outlined in
procedure No. 3. It is believed that these modifications
will insure more complete sulfonation of the aromatic
hydrocarbons and give better reproducibility than
do the former practices. The proposed method is as
follows:
ROADS. 145
PROPOSED METHOD OF TEST FOR SULFONATION
INDEX OF ROAD TAR
A. SCOPE
1. This method of test is intended for use in determining the
sulfonation index of the total distillate to 300° C. or of the frac-
tion of the distillate from 300° C. to 355° C., obtained by means
of the A. A.S.H.O. Standard Method of Test for Distillation of
Tars and Tar Products, T 52-35.
B. SOLUTIONS REQUIRED
2. (a) Sulfuric acid (37N).—Prepare 37N H.SO, by blending
reagent-grade fuming and concentrated sulfurie acid to 98.61 + 0.2
percent H,SO,, as determined by titration.
(b) Sulfuric acid (specific gravity 1.84).
C. APPARATUS
3. The following apparatus is required:
(a) Test bottles—The test bottles shall be made of good
quality glass and shall be 6-inch, 18 grams, either 8 percent or
10 percent Babcock milk test bottles. The capacity to the
base of the neck shall be 45 to 50 milliliters. The graduated
portion of the bottle shall contain 1.60-+-0.025 milliliters for the
8 percent test bottle and 2.00+0.025 milliliters for the 10 per-
cent test bottle (at a temperature of 77° F. (25° C.)). The 8
percent test bottle shall be graduated in 8 major divisions, each
major division being further divided in 10 subdivisions, and the
10 percent test bottle shall be graduated in 10 major divisions,
each major division being further divided into 5 or 10 subdivi-
sions. Each line for the major divisions shall extend at least
three-fourths of the distance around the neck and be numbered
from the bottom 1, 2, 3, ete. Within the range from 0-8 for
the 8 percent test bottle and 0-10 for the 10 percent test bottle,
the maximum error in volume shall not be greater than 0.025
milliliter. The graduation marks shall be clear and fine, not
more than 0.8 millimeter in width. The bottom of the bottles
shall have a ground area of at least 2 square centimeters for
numbering.
(b) Water baths —Two water baths, as follows: A water batu
maintained at 77+0.5° F. (25+0.38° C.) and of such depth
that when a test bottle is immersed, the upper level of its con-
tents is below the surface of the water.
A water bath maintained at 208° to 212° F. (98° to 100° C.)
and of sufficient depth to permit complete immersion of the body
of the test bottle.
(c) Centrifuge-—A centrifuge capable of whirling two or more
test bottles filled with acid at a speed of 1,000 revolutions per
minute. The centrifuge shall be of good design and rugged
construction so that it may be operated without danger.
(d) Burette—One 50-milliliter burette graduated in 0.1-
milliliter divisions.
D. PROCEDURE
4. (a) 540.1 grams of the distillate, or fraction of distillate,
shall be weighed into the test bottle. If the distillate contains
solid matter, the distillate shall be warmed in a hot water bath,
with stirring, until the solid matter has melted before the sample
for testing is taken.
(b) Then 10 milliliters of 37N H.SO, shall be slowly added to
the test bottle from the burette in such a way as to wash down
any oil remaining in the neck of the bottle. The test bottle
shall then be shaken vigorously for 2 minutes. ‘The temperature
of this acid-distillate mixture shall not be allowed to approach
212° F. (100° C.) as indicated by the bottle becoming too warm
to touch, or by the contents foaming excessively. The test
bottle may be cooled in ice water, if necessary. However, if the
distillate contains solid matter that does not readily disperse in
the acid, it may be necessary to warm the distillate-acid mixture
in the hot water bath to liquefy the solid matter.
(c) An additional 10 milliliters of 37N H,SO, shall be added as
outlined in paragraph (b) and the bottle shaken vigorously for 30
seconds. The test bottle shall then be placed in the water bath
at 208° to 212° F. (98° to 100° C.).
(d) After the test bottle has been in the bath for 10 minutes,
it shall be removed, shaken vigorously for 80 seconds, and re-
placed immediately in the water bath at 208° to 212° IF. (98°
io 100° C.). If the sample boils or foams over at this stage, it
shall be discarded and the test repeated.
146 PUSBIREC*R
(e) The procedure outlined in paragraph (d) shall be repeated
for a total of six 10-minute immersions and shakings. After the
last shaking the test bottle shall be allowed to cool. -
(f) After cooling the test bottle to approximately room tem-
perature, sufficient H,SO, (specific gravity 1.84) shall be added
to the contents of the test bottle to raise the liquid level in the
neck to near the top of the graduation. The test bottle and its
contents shall then be placed in the centrifuge and whirled at a
speed of approximately 1,000 revolutions per minute for 5
minutes. The bottle shall then be removed from the centrifuge
and placed in the water bath at 77° F. (25° C.) so that the upper
level of its contents is below the surface of the water. After
10 minutes the test bottle shall be removed from the bath and
the volume of oil read to within one-tenth of a major division.
The centrifuging shall be repeated until the volume of oil is
constant.
(g) Generally the unsulfonated residue is a clear transparent
oil. Occasionally some white or even dark-colored solid may be
present. In case solid material appears, which cannot be
melted in the water bath without causing overflow in the bottle,
a new test should be made. This is to be done in the same man-
ner as previously described except that when the bottle is re-
moved from the hot bath it should be filled immediately with
H.SO, (specific gravity 1.84) to a point below the top of the
graduations to allow room for expansion. The bottle should
then be whirled in the centrifuge for 3 minutes and again placed
in the boiling water bath for 5 minutes. This cycle shall be
repeated until the volume of the oil is constant. The final read-
ing of the volume shall be made while the test bottle is immersed
in the hot water bath (98° to 100° C.) and any material which is
solid at this temperature (resins) shall not be included as
unsulfonated residue.
(h) After a constant oil volume has been obtained by centrifug-
ing, the reading of the bottom of the oil level shall be subtracted
from the reading of the top and the difference, in terms of the
major divisions, multiplied by 0.2. The value so obtained is the
milliliters of unsulfonated residue in the sample. The sulfona-
tion index is obtained by dividing the milliliters of unsulfonated
residue by the weight of the sample in grams and multiplying
this quotient by the percentage of distillate by weight in the tar.
Thus, the sulfonation index is the milliliters of unsulfonated
residue per 100 grams of tar. It shall be reported to the
nearest 0.1.
_E. PRECAUTIONS
5. (a) It is extremely important that all glassware used in this
test shall have been thoroughly cleaned and dried before use.
(6) The required amount of vigorous shaking is very important
and in no case should the designated number of shakings or the
time of shaking be decreased below the limits set. It is also
important that the shaking shall be such that the distillate will
be completely dispersed through the acid at the conclusion of
each shaking period. If excess foaming results from the shaking
after any heating interval, the bottle should be cooled for 15 or
20 seconds in a cold water bath, after which the shaking can
usually be continued without the contents foaming.
(c) The rate of whirling in the centrifuge may be decreased
to avoid breakage of the test bottles. In all cases, however, the
centrifuging shall be continued until a constant reading of the
volume of unsulfonated residue is obtained. < stored in a large tank and evidently was not agitated
(d) If a separate layer of sulfonation residue cannot readily
be observed a more definite line of demarkation may be estab-
lished by carefully adding one or two drops of water to the bottle.
This sometimes calls attention to solids which, because of their
color, might escape notice.
The strength of the 37N acid used in this investiga-
tion of the sulfonation index test was determined vol-
umetrically as follows:
Approxiately 2 grams of the acid were added from the
burette to a weighing bottle. This was done as quickly
as possible and the bottle stoppered immediately
prevent the absorption of water. The sample was
weighed to the nearest 0.1 milligram, and it was then
diluted with distilled water, the volume being made up
to 500 milliliters. Twenty-milliliter portions of this
solution were then titrated against approximately
0.1N NaOH which had been standardized against 0.1N
H.SO;. The strength of the dilute acid had been
determined gravimetrically by precipitation with bar-
ium chloride and weighing as barium sulfate.
OAD 5 23, No. 7
Vol.
For use in the producers’ method, acid which con-
tains 80.07 percent SOs; is specified and no tolerances
were given. However, it is considered that a repro-
ducibility of results better than +2 parts per thousand
with this method cannot be obtained since this repre-
sents a burette reading of approximately 0.05 milliliter
for the weights and strengths of solution mentioned.
In view of this fact no effort was made to control the
strength of the acid any closer than 80.1+0.2 percent
SO, (98.6+0.2 percent H,SO,). A refilling burette was
attached to the acid bottle so that it was unnecessary
to open it to the atmosphere at any time after the initial
standardization. The air entering the bottle was passed
through a drying tube of CaCl, to remove any moisture,
and these precautions insured a satisfactory degree of
constancy in the strength of the acid.
MAJORITY OF TARS TESTED OF COLD-APPLICATION TYPE
Table 6 shows the test characteristics of the tars
studied in this investigation. Samples 1 through 10
were submitted for routine tests prior to 1940 and were
not required to meet specifications for the sulfonation
index. Samples 11, 12, and 13 were submitted by one
producer for a special study, sample 11 being a “ bunker
C”’ water-gas tar, sample 12 an unrefined vertical retort
tar, and sample 13 a blend of these two which was
refined and marketed as RT-4. Samples 14 and 15
were submitted to meet specifications requiring a sul-
fonation index less than 7 on the distillate up to 300°
C. and less than 1.5 on the distillate between 300° and
355° C. These two materials are from thé same pro-
ducer but differ in their physical properties. With the
exception of sample 11, all these materials were of the
cold-application grades, eight being RT—2, one RT-3,
and five RT-4. Sample 11 had a consistency corre-
sponding to RT-8.
In addition to these materials, which were studied
more thoroughly, sulfonation tests were made on some
samples received during the 1940-41 construction sea-
sons. Samples 16, 18, 21, and 22 represent materials
from producers or from local plants of the producers for
which samples were not available in the original study.
Samples 23 through 30 represent materials supplied
by one producer for one large project. Samples 23 and h
24 were taken at the time of the initial delivery of the *
ae
material, and samples 25 through 30 were taken later
during the period of construction. The material was
during the period of use, which covered several months.
In addition to the test results on the samples studied
in this laboratory, data obtained by the Ohio Depart-
ment of Highways in an investigation of the sulfonation
index and presented to the Committee on Materials of
the A.A.S.H.O. are included in this report.’ The tars
tested in Ohio were from a majority of the producers
represented in the Public Roads Administration in-
vestigation, as well as other producers, and _ these
supplementary data provide a more general picture of
to the tars produced in the several localities. These data
also include interesting results on several types of
asphaltic products.
The results of the tests made by the Ohio Depart-
ment of Highways are shown in tables 7, 8, and 9.
Table 7 shows a summary of the tests on a number of
tars which were marketed in Ohio. Table 8 shows the
sulfonation indexes for several types of slow-curing
Verges: VI to Minutes of Meeting of Committee on Materials held March 3-4,
1941,
 yew yc ee \
t ’

-January—February—March 1943 Pe BE: ee. OADS 147

TABLE 6.—Physical and chemical properties of the tars examined

; Specific Index of |Volume un-

Distillate Softening point | gravity of | refraction | Sulfonation | sulfonated
Engler | gecific Residue! f residue distillate | of distillate index residue in
z Sam- | Pro- |specific Speck hs. ff at 38° C. at 38° C. distillate
PS : :
ple | ducer | viscos- |gravity}
°'a+ Bitu-
Pion = A : a irom
————| distilla- | _____
- No. No. ity at 25° C | tion to _ {Pe ote or ol Si
»: AO 1To 170° ° to | 200° Saal:
to | 235° to |He270° Si to | 200° to 300° C *| Above | Above Tomtereyto anno
sem (| 200s Wheto) 800° | at
ay | 900
S, 170° C. |200° C. |235° C. |270° C. | 300° GC. |355° C. 300° C. |355° C, |300°‘ |g550 |800° | gsmto
|300°one| s5ro
GO
|300° to
| gree
be Ge C C. C Cc, C ICe C
ee . Ye An | a
_— Sie : ~ - —|———|—- =
| Per- | Per-
Percent |Percent |Percent |Percent |Percent |Percent |Percent |Percent | ° C. aX. cent | cent
.' 1 1 9.7 1.103 91, 89 120 eed ae ee 14.8 8.0 16, 7) 65, 4 35.3 76.1) 0.958} 1.010} 1. 558} 1. 596 Razin 2:2 19.8] 13.4
2 1 10.0 1. 100 90. 77 WSS ee Ot ee is 4 13, 2) 7.3) 15, 2} 66.7 34.6 73.7} .939} 1.013) 1.537] 1.595 8.9} 2.8] 25.8) 18.8
3 uf 9.1 1. 126 92. 56 1.8 POC Ms 11.0 Gad 13.9) 68. 5 40.3 73.5) .963) 1.046) 1.561) 1.619 3.8) 1.4] 12.1) 10.6
: 4 2A idee 1.148 93. 89 Wi BL 24 |e es 13.0 6.3 D3 65, 4 45.6 69.5} 1.012} 1.092) 1. 586|?1.644 aie (8) yA ee(3)
3 5 2B 7 1, 125 96. 48 .6 TAO fe oe 2 witha 6.8 13.9 71.8 37,2 60.8) .960) 1.074) 1. 548)21. 628 4.4 .3 15:5 2.3
b 6 2B 23.2 1. 135 96. 52} nes B71 |See Se 11.9 6, 2 14, 5] 73. 5 37.6 64.4) .969| 1.074] 1.551] 1.630 4.4 3 16.3 2.2
7 1 12.4 Labbe: 95. 32 1.4 LS 2 eee OT, 7.0 17.9 69.8 49.2 83.0] .963] 1.040) 1.564] 1.615 1.6 Ses 6.9) 4.1
8 1 21.6 1,116 90.15 eal aL 4.3 14.5 13, 2! 14, 7| 70.6 32. 4 .949| 1.019] 1.548) 1. 598 10, 4| 250 1) 29) Si ges
9 3A 24.7 1.142 93. 69 .3 nil 10.2 11,4 15.2 13. 6| 72.1 40. 4|_- -| .950} 1.090) 1. 554/?
1. 640 9.8 .3 24.8 2.4
bed 10 2C 29.9} 1.174) 93.07 6 1.9 8.0 10.6 6.4 13.9 72.1 25, Tye efi O27 Pelee O2)|eae oe See (8) 9Ne ee
Z 11 4 (4) 1.177 92) 55
(3) seo
eal .8 3.1 6.6 6. 2) 15.1 82.5 51.8 83.5} .995) 1.057) 1.589) 1. 634 4
a 06} 2.4 ;
12 4 8.5 1.091 95. 01 Ate} 1,4 6.8 Maal 8.9 18. 4 69.0 31.5 61.8} .960) 1.035) 1. 542) 1. 598 4.91 2.0] 16.4) 11.3
13 4 35: 1 1112 95.21 ae 1.0 3.8 10.8 ore 17.4 74.7 33, 4| 64.0/ .966) 1.036] 1.551] 1.603) 3.9) 1.6 15.0 9.6
2 14 1 10.4 1.126 92. 02. ler i} 7.6 13. 9| 8.1 14,2 66. 2 44.1 79.8 ‘975 1,046} 1.570) 1.621 3.6} .9 RE 6.7
15 1 10.8 1,118 91.70 3, 2 4.6 lis? 8. 2) 6.2 15.9 67.4 51.0 91.0) .947| 1.037) 1.551) 1.615} -3.3] 1.4 10.7 9.2
16 5A 11.3; 1.150) 95,27 3.4 UG)Ea ee 9.7} 3.41 18.2 71.8 307 | eee Bale eg ea Gee Gl ieOS Name r: Si eceie
' 17 4 L7=5 1.108 93. 91 ne 12 5.5 Tes 8.4 15; 1: 70.1 Bh Nl peo ee pee OS) pe aya ~ = 35 S| ed Oh ees ee
18 3B 18.2 1,143 95, 23 .6 ASK epee 12.4 LONG ieee 70.6 pintah) a ae a el ne a e eal eeeSeal a) Ri Pe se Se
19 1 25.0; 1.102) 95.16 2 .4 4.8 18.6 9.4 17.4 64.6 42,2 9275) e980 020/01 537 T6131 10) 5) Jesh eee)
ee ee
‘ 20 1 (5) 1.164 89. 60 0 0 Za3 10.5 8.0 15. 8} 78.8 49.3 84.7| .961] 1.034)-____- sanee 402)" UAC. -\|eee
, 21 6 10.0 1.168 91. 47 1.6 4.4 8.3 6.5 3.2 14, 4} 72.9 43.6 6355/6 O80 len(Oi miees (ee eee 4, 0 Ee 0
22 5B 12.1 1. 120 95. 78 15 1 6.3 10.9 8.0 15.3 (aint 43.8 80.0) .968} 1.037] 1.565) 1.613 Zuol pee 7.9 4.9
‘ 23 1 12,2 1,121 91. 84 2.3 3.4 7.6 9.0) eaieseee 69.9 44, 4)--____ see O48 eer ee Mee ee ea 3.2} 1.4 =i 2
24 1 1¥,9; 1.122) 95.85 2.0 2.3 8.0 11.3 6.2 14,4 67.7 47.8 alae eee |ee | ee See Eas Bhd lags
25 1 10.5 1,122 92, 28 1.0 .9 9.3 eZ 9.2 14.6 68.0 42.4 posse ees | ere ee Sve a 3.8} 1.1 2
26 1 DO LO86i) 91.13 3,2 47 10,1 14,2 7.4 9. 3| =e AAG)2 Oe eee ae ce ae Seg BUSAN Tt sees eee
27 1 11.6; 1.116) 91.76 4.1 4.4 8.2 Tad 6.9 11,1 68.0 ASOl oe See eee me e s E SOT 3 lee S|ee
; 28 1 13.9} 1.119) 92.33 252 3.4 8.8] 9.4 6.7 15.1 70. 2 43: 91ok es (eae
| AS eS) SoSinG Hie 2 eee
29 1 9.6} 1.110} 91.45 2.2 3.7 10.5 10.2 5.8} 15.1 iyfal) eae | | APS |Bade
| ee 8 Oh A.) ees|Reema
30 1 13. 4 1,113} 91.85 2.8 3.6 7.6 9.2 6.4 12.1} 69.8 by iy| i a ee VE ae 8 | a MS Mle Se] eaey ahSey22 eS
i i

F 1 Percentage of distillate from 170° to 235° C, 5 Float test at 32° C., 103 seconds.
? Liquid only. 6 Fraction solid at 38° C.
’ 3 Trace. 7 Sample contains 12.6 percent water.
4 Float test at 32° C., 85 seconds.

TABLE 7.——Test characteristics of road tars tested by Ohio Depart- | TaniE 8.—Sulfonation indexes of various types of slow-curing
ment of Highways liquid asphaltic road materials
{Tests made by Ohio Department of Highways]
See Ae ne epee :

Specifi-| Pro- | Specific} Total | Soften-

to 0° C. to 355° C. Pot
UE.
istillate : to | Distillate355°from C. 300° to
Shere
cation | ducer | gravity | bitu- ing Sample | Specific Xylene
grade | No. |at25°C.| men point | Percent-| Sulfo- | Percent-| Sulfo- identi- | gravity | aquivalent ;
age of | nation | ageof | nation fication | at 25° C. Percentage |Sulfonation| Percentage |Sulfonation
sample | index | sample | index of sample index of sample | index

Percent | °C. 7 83-85 15.2 6.4 | 21.9 | 6.7

RT-2 5C 1.165 | 92. 10 39. 2 24.7 0.7 13.0 0 7 Rae 100+ 20.8 3°9 23.2 | nee
RT-2 5C 1.164 | 88. 56 41.6 23.4 .8 13. 2 0 Y 1.006 100+ 17.8 7 ie | 19.1 | 6.1
RT-6 5C 1.174 95. 69 37. 6 21.5 .3 15.7 za 7, 917 0 12.7 11.4 36. 1 27.7
RT-2 1 1. 1386 92. 41 43.8 34.8 6.0 16. 6 ing! | |
RT-2 1 1. 123 92. 2 rth0 34.8 6.3 15.7 1.4 =
RT-8 a 1. 208
RT-6 ; 1168 | 90.
91.3756 43.8
53.5 21.5
O17 bi
ee 28.3
16. 2 .3
‘| | Taste 7 9.—Effect
Tt aps
of blending an asphaltic; product
; * we
with a tar i on ;
RT-6 7 1.185 | 88.91 52.2 24. 2 5 13.7 0 its test characteristics
ee : ‘ pe a a tee aS “3 ne t3 [Tests made by Ohio Department of Highways] ‘
RT-6 7 1. 184 89. 45 47.2 24. 0 me 15.0 0 *
RT-6 i 1. 167 91.19 48.5 2651 otk 16.6 0 Test RT-2 Sc-O Blend !
RT-6 rs 1, 166 91. 37 45.0 25. 3 9 19.1 .4 i.
RT-6 7 1, 180 89. 92 49.0 25. 1 Ghee ERE SS a eet et |
RT-2 2D 1. 135 96. 36 42.8 29. 5 3 4 13.3 ma Specliicnraviby al 20> Cae a eee een 1.165 1.052 | 1.118
RT-6 2D 1, 189 94. 78 53. 6 22.0 aa 17.3 0 Total bitumen soluble in CS)..___________- percent 92.10 99. 68 | 97.02
RT- 2D 1, 193 93. 60 40.0 23. 6 12 17.2 all Solubilitvaim (©Olen ose: oe percent |---.------ 98. 68 eS
RT-6 20 1.187 | ~ 92. 22 48. 6 25. 2 OG erate
ee! Soe ae Amount of 100 penetration residue________- MCNCENE 2 see eas aos 64.9 |----=----~
RT-6 8 1. 199 90. 32 45. 6 18.9 a2 16, 4 0 Botalidistillatesto 360° G7). 22a MET CENT eee ae 310))|_.. ae
RT-6 3C ib PAYS 89.15 39. 2 18.7 +2 13.6 su Rloat.of residue at 50° C22 = SECONAS NSE ee aes 1433...
RT-6 3C 1. 201 92. 75 39. 8 19.9 aa eG “1 | otal distillate to 300° ©.3___)-
1 sesess percent. 24.7 20.8 | 26.
RT-2 38D 1. 144 95. 27 35. 0 32. 5 2.9 14.1 8} Softening point Of Tesiduese ae KO 39. 2 : = 35. 0
RT-6 3E 1, 207 88. 84 48. 4 19, 4 0 10.9 0 Distillate from 300-355° C__________________ percent__| 1343 23. 2 13. 4
RT-5 3C 1, 201 93. 83 41.4 19. 4 0 13. 0 0 Sulfonation index, distillate to 300° C____.__________ ay 3.9 | 3.3
RT-6 3D 1, 200 90. 49 39.0 20. 6 os 13. 6 al Sulfonation index, distillate 300-355° C_____________- 0 4.4 1.4
RT-6 3E 1. 205 91. 29 41.0 19.3 US Meee Soe een San |
RT-4 9 1. 163 96. 84 33. 2 27.0 sil 16. 4 0
RT-4 9 1, 164 95.06 | 35. 0 28.9 2 19.3 0 1 Blend contains 65 percent of the RT-2 and 35 percent of the SC-O.
RT-2 10 1. 161 95. 63 32.0 25.8 URS Se BS ee 2 Method A. 8. T. M. D402-36.
# Method A. 8. T. M. D20-30.
 PUBL TCL ROAIDSS Vol. 23, No. 7

liquid asphaltic road materials and table 9 shows test 14

results obtained with a tar of the RT-2 grade, one of O-DISTILLATES TO 300°C.
the slow-curing asphaltic materials, and a blend of X-DISTILLATES FROM 300° TO 355°C.

these two. ft

An examination of tables 6 and 7 will show that

almost all of the tars having high sulfonation indexes
were received from producer No. 1, while samples from
plants A, B, and D of producer No. 3 had considerable
(o}

unsulfonated residue in the portion of the distillate up

to 300° C. but very little in the portion between 300° INDEX
—

and 355° C. Some samples from producer No. 4, which

contained vertical retort tar also had an appreciable
amount of unsulfonated residue. The unsulfonated
residues from the 300° to 355° C. fractions of these
samples were peculiar in that they were solid at room
temperature.
Table 8 serves to illustrate the amount of unsulfo-
nated residue in various types of slow-curing liquid DIMETHYL
SULFATE
DISTILLATE
INSOLUBLE
PER
TAR
OF
GRAMS
100
asphaltic road materials, and the effect of cracking on
the sulfonation index. Those samples having high
xylene equivalents have much lower indexes than do the
materials which react negatively in the spot. test.
Table 9 is very interesting since it shows that tars MILLILITERS
having low sulfonation indexes can be blended with
appreciable percentages of certain cracked petroleum 6 8 10 12
products without exceeding the proposed limits for the SULFONATION INDEX - MILLILITERS UNSULFONATED
sulfonation index. RESIDUE PER 100 GRAMS OF TAR

Fiaure 1.—RELATION BETWEEN DIMETHYL SULFATE INSOLUBLE

SUBSTITUTE TESTS FOUND UNSATISFACTORY AND SULFONATION INDEX.

Since the sulfonation index test requires the use of

extensive laboratory equipment and is a somewhat com-
plicated procedure requiring carefully controlled re-
agents, attention was given to the possibility of develop-
ing a substitute test that would give comparable results.
In 1913, Reeve and Lewis made a study of the dimethyl
sulfate test as a means for determining approximately
the amounts of petroleum products in the tar-oil or
tar-asphalt mixtures. This test depends on the
selective solubility of the various hydrocarbons in
dimethyl sulfate in which the aromatic and unsaturated,
or olefinic hydrocarbons, and their derivatives are con-
sidered to be completely soluble, and the paraffinic and
naphthenic essentially insoluble. The test is made by
shaking 6 milliliters of dimethy] sulfate with 4 milliliters
of distillate in a 10-muilliliter graduate and reading the
volume of insoluble distillate which settles out.
amount is considered to be the paraffinic and naph-
thenic hydrocarbons. Since dimethyl sulfate is very
poisonous some study has been made of the use of the
less poisonous diethyl sulfate as a substitute.
J. N. Taylor ® investigated the use of this material
and developed a method whereby he used 5 milliliters
methods for use as a substitute for the sulfonation index
test on tar distillates.
The dimethyl sulfate test was made on a number of
the samples for which the sulfonation index was de-
termined. The results of these tests are shown in
table 10. These tests were made at room temperature
as were those by Reeve and Lewis.’ It is seen that
there was not good agreement between the values
obtained by the two methods, nor was there a definite
relationship between the two values. This is illus-
trated in figure 1, in which the sulfonation index is
plotted against the dimethyl sulfate index. An attempt
was made to discover a relationship by varyimg the
proportions of dimethyl] sulfate to distillate and also by
varying the temperature. These tests were made on
This the distillate from sample 2, and the results are shown
in table 11.
TasiE 10.—Comparison of distillate insoluble in dimethyl sulfate
with amount of unsulfonated residue
Distillate to 300° C. Distillate from 300° to 355° C.

of a*petroleum oil (completely immiscible with diethyl

Sample Volume Volume
sulfate), 5 milliliters of distillate, and 16 milliliters of No. | Sulfona-) Dimeth- ve a insoluble} Sulfona-| Dimeth- wolune insoluble
diethyl sulfate. The petroleum oil was added to re- tion in- |ylsulfate ened
dex index
in di- | tion in- |ylsulfate fiNeer
asta @ |methyl | dex
in di-
index ect e |methyl
press the solubility of the distillate in the diethyl sulfate, : ust sulfate residue | sulfate
and by this method he found it possible to check closely
with the amount of unsulfonated material in a synthetic 1 6.7 8.6
Percent | Percent
19.8 25.0 me 4.7
Percent | Percent
13. 4 32.0
mixture of petroleum oil and benzenes. He also found 2 8.9 eZ 25.8 32.0 2.8 3.0 18.8 28.0
close agreement between this test and the sulfonation 3
4
3.8
Meh
2.4
0
eh
2.2
7.0
0
1.4
()
1.4
0
10.6
(1)
10.0
0
residue for the distillate obtained from “dips.” In 5
6
4.4
4.4
4.2
PASE
15.5
16.3
15.0
10.0
AB)
.3
0
0
2.3
2.2
0
0
view of the success of these methods for the purposes of A 1.6 = it 5.9 3.0 aa 9 4.1 5.0
these authors, it was decided to investigate both these 8
9
10. 4
9.8
14.0
10.0
29.8
24.8
40.0
25.0
2.5
#3
4.9
(1)
17.5
2.4
34.0
(1)
10 () 0 (1) 0 0 0 0 “AG.
§ Application of the Dimethyl Sulfate Test for Determining Small Amounts of 14 3.6 (1) ia () 9 .3 65. 2.0
petrol or Asphalt Products in Tars. Journal Industrial Chemistry, vol. 5, 15 3.38 3.1 10.7 10.0 1.4 187. 9.2 11.3
No. 4, 1913.
* Diethyl Sulfate in the Examination of Hydro-Carbon Oils, by J. N. Taylor.
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 19, June 1927. é 1 Trace.
 2 ow are —). we aS ay Dut a
ee e a hs 7

iG
January—lebruary—Marech 1943 -

70

72% DISTILLATE IN MIXTURE }

60 oe
60 + { +| ;
70% DISTILLATE IN MIXTURE
*

50 ALL SOLUBLE AT 38°C. vy

50 |

= ALL SOLUBLE
+ =) eae MS
(oy some eel
Oo
i >

ALL SOLUBLE >

Onc. a
—
SO t Z 30 S a
tu
1S)
x
— VOLUME
PERCENT
BY uJ
SULFATE
IN
INSOLUBLE
DIMETHYL IN a
—
INSOLUBLE
SULFATE
DIMETHYL

Waa ee 20 = regeuJ 2S is
xf PERCENTAGE OF 3 <
i = UNSULFONATED RESIDUE sal
= —— — —— — os Fae ——- coe Tee: ——|
E IN DISTILLATE
a iG [eereeniiee OF UNSULFONATED
(a) 10 t— + a tape RESIDUE IN DISTILLATE __ mii:
od
Nan
la

oO sot
ee eh 0) eey | oy te ee
fe) 10 20 30 40 50 60 10) 10 20 30 40 50 60
TEMPERATURE — DEGREES C. TEMPERATURE —- DEGREES C
£
—e
eee
ePree FicurE 2.—VARIATION OF PERCENTAGE OF DISTILLATE INSOL- Fraur® 3.—VARIATION OF PERCENTAGE OF DISTILLATE INSOL-
UBLE IN DIMETHYL SULFATE WirH TEMPERATURE AND PRo- UBLE IN DimprHyt SuLFraATeE Wire TEMPERATURE AND
47%
PORTIONS OF THE DISTILLATE IN THE Test SouuTion. Dis- PROPORTIONS OF THE DISTILLATE IN THE TEST SOLUTION.
TILLATE UP TO 300° C. From SAMPLE 2. DISTILLATE BETWEEN 300° AND 355° C. From SampieE 2.

Figures 2 and 3 show the temperature plotted against )| se 1 ———-

the percent insoluble for each proportion. Figure 2 as *-INDICATES PERCENTAGE

represents the data for the distillate up to 300° C. and

OF UNSULFONATED RESIDUE
ey
ee
ET
SULFAb °o
figure 3 represents that for the distillate between 300° 235°-270°C DISTILLATE
and 355° C. These results showed that variations in
either the temperature or the proportions of dimethyl Ww °
300°-355°C

sulfate and distillate made large differences in the re-

sults. Tests were then made with distillate fractions
from sample 2, as shown in table 12 and plotted in tw °
0 ,
figure 4. These results again showed no general o t !
*

relationship and the percent insoluble which was equal

VOLUME
BY
PERCENT
x in?)° 0
°1 °
th = eo (a)
10 = = = + —
to the amount of unsulfonated residue was obtained at
widely different temperatures.
INSOLUBLE
DISTILLATE
DIMETHYL
IN fo) i | x3 ES
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
TaBLE 11.—The effect of temperature and proportion of solvent on TEMPERATURE - DEGREES C

the solubility of tar distillates in dimethyl sulfate

Figure 4.—VARIATION OF PERCENTAGE OF DISTILLATE INSOL-
DISTILLATE TO 300° C. (21.5 PERCENT BY VOLUME UBLE IN. DimetTHyL SULFATE WitTH ‘TEMPERATURE FOR
UNSULFONATED) Various Fractions DisTiItLED FrRomM SAMPLE 2.

Volume of distillate insoluble in dimethyl] sulfate at— TasLE 12.—The effect of temperature on the solubility of the various
Volume of distillation fractions of a tar in dimethyl sulfate
cetiate ; reveravaal i |

:
mixture
152) Ge 25° C. | tempera-|
fired
38° C. 50° C. Volume of distillate insoluble in dimethyl] sulfate
Distilling) Volume | at—
tempera- | of unsul- | 3 See ta
Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent ture of fonated Roou
21 29 24 17 17 12 fraction | residue Wee cer, 25° ©. |tempera-| 38°C, 50° C
30 31 2a 20 24 15 ture ! |
41 38 35 26 28 23 —_ = bey ei | ee |—-
50 44 40) 34 34 24
60 5I 45 37 40 0 2d: Percent Percent | Percent | Percent Percent Percen!
72 64 OUid | Canes 0 0 170-200 11.4 19 13 & 3 | 0
200-235 18. 5 39 33 25 25 | 13
235-270 24:9 1 ae eee BD 33 Lo EY 9
DISTILLATE FROM 300° TO 355° C. (15.2 PERCENT BY 270-300 23.8 43 38 35 33 30
300-355 15. 2 *35 ' 30 30 28 23
VOLUME UNSULFONATED) be
on
Wi

20 25 20 15 17 17 1 Room temperature approximately 32° C,

29 31 26 24 22 17 They’
a+

40 35 30 30 28 23 When diethyl sulfate was substituted for the dimethyl]

51 41 39 36 33 | 26
60
70
57
60
48
54
43
45
39 |
44 |
31
0
sulfate, using the same procedure as used for the di-
methyl sulfate tests, no insoluble could be obtained
1! Room temperature approximately 32° C. even for distillates containing very high percentages
507062—48——2
* ¥
r
ue

fs: wig ‘ 7 Pm
Se aes a ee
150 PUBLIC ROADS Vol. 23, No.7

of unsulfonated residue. Accordingly, Taylor’s ® 12

|
= = Tt

method was tried. There was some difficulty in find- a A

ing a petroleum oil that was completely immiscible 10 — S — = _ + $$

with diethyl sulfate and at the same time had a low | | |

viscosity so that accurate volumetric measurements a
> g |} —— ale emt 3 |
|
{es} hee
|
ie
|
could be made. After experimentation, kerosene which z2 |
| |
had been sulfonated to remove all aromatic and un- 5
he =
|
——
site
t
Bes. al |
saturated compounds was chosen as being the best
<x

material easily available. It was discovered, however, 5a | es |

S 4

4——_}+—_+-_}—_ iyOS ee = a
that there was a slight mutual solubility of the kerosene i | °

and diethyl sulfate. Thus, in order to obtain more bs

|| ¢ ie = | t
é T + = +. =a ; i
accurate results, the kerosene was saturated with | | | | |

diethyl sulfate and the diethyl sulfate was saturated 0 1

es
|
J |
fo)
| 1
° bets |
i. Sa)
with kerosene. Using these precautions, tests similar to 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.01 1.02 1,03
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF DISTILLATE AT 38°/38°C
those with the dimethyl sulfate were made. The test
temperature and proportions of solute and solvent were Fiaure 5.—ReELATION BETWEEN THE SULFONATION INDEX AND
varied. The same general result was obtained and no THE SpEcIFIC GRAVITY OF THE 0°—300° C, FRACTIONS.
relationship could be established. 3:0 5
These results show clearly that neither of these tests iY |
can be correlated with the sulfonation index test, nor x
2.5 cates
4
O+——
|
——
|
can they be used as a test method for specification SF 2.0 .
requirements. They are at best qualitative tests and :
2G |
can be used only as an indication of the presence of = @ °

large amounts of paraffinic hydrocarbons. &5 1.0

5 +| ==|
z
on |
|

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF DISTILLATE AND 0.5 }

SULFONATION INDEX STUDIED | |
0 2 oO
OO = enka 1,02 103 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1,10
The relationship of the softening points of the dis- SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF DISTILLATE AT 38°/ 38°C.
tillation residues from both the distillation to 300° C. FiguRE 6.—RELATION BETWEEN THE SULFONATION INDEX AND
and the distillation to 355° C. to the amount of unsul- THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE 300°—355° C. FRacTIONS. “£

fonated residue in the distillate was examined and no

definite trend was found.
The specific gravity at 38° C. of the distillate was
also determined and compared to the sulfonation index.
No. straight-line relation was found but there is a
definite minimum value for the specific gravity above
which the sulfonation index is always lower than the
requirements in the proposed specifications. When
the specific gravity is below this minimum, the sulfona-
tion index is usually high. However, in some cases a
low sulfonation index was found in conjunction with a
low specific gravity.
These results are in accordance with the well-known
fact that, for the same boilmg point range, the specific
gravities of the aromatic hydrocarbons are higher than
those of the unsaturated compounds which, in turn,
have higher gravities than the paraffinic materials.
The specific gravities of the naphthenic group, however,
fall between those of the unsaturated and aromatic
groups. Thus, the specific gravity of a mixture con-
taining the maximum specified amount of unsulfonated
residue is greatest when this unsulfonated residue is
naphthenic and the sulfonated portion is aromatic.
This value of the specific gravity theoretically repre-
sents the minimum above which the sulfonation index
is always less than the specified maximum. The con-
verse is not true since the presence of the olefinic group
which is readily sulfonated may lead to combinations
of widely different percentages of unsulfonated hydro-
carbons having the same specific gravity. Thus, if
this ‘critical’ specific gravity can be determined, a
clause could be inserted in the specifications stating
that if the specific gravity of the distillate is greater
than this value the material is acceptable. However,
if the specific gravity is less than this value, the sulfona-
tion index must be determined.
§ Diethyl Sulfate in the Examination of Hydro-Carbon Oils,
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 19, June 1927.
Figures 5 and 6 show the sulfonation index plotted
against the specific gravity of the distillate at 38°/38°
C., figure 5 representing the data for the distillate up
to 300° C. and figure 6 representing the data for the
distillate between 300° and 355° C. These data were
recorded in table 6. It is seen from the figures that for
the materials tested, all samples of distillate to 300° C.
which had a specific gravity at 38°/38° C. of 0.960 or
more, had a sulfonation index less than 6. However,
two of the distillates to 300° C. reported in table 6 had
specific gravities lower than 0.960 and_ sulfonation
indexes less than 6. Likewise, all samples having a
specific gravity at 38°/38° C. of 0.955 or more, had
sulfonation indexes less than 7. For the distillate from
300° C. to 355° C. this critical specific gravity is 1.05
at 38° C. for a sulfonation index of 1.0, and 1.04 at
38° C. for a sulfonation index of 1.5. However, 4
samples of the distillate between 300° C. and 355° C.
which had specific gravities at 38° C. of less than 1.04
had sulfonation indexes less than 1.5, and 3 samples
which had specific gravities at 38° C. of less than 1.05
had sulfonation indexes less than 1.0.
TARS AND SAND-TAR MIXES EXPOSED IN WEATHEROMETER
It should be pointed out that these figures represent
the results for* the samples tested by this laboratory
and it is possible that tars from other sources, or those
having unusually large amounts of distillate, might
have shghtly higher specific gravities than these values
and still exceed the maximum values for the sulfonation
index by small amounts. Nevertheless, it is apparent
from the above discussion that under certain conditions
it should be possible to eliminate the necessity of making
a large number of sulfonation index determinations on
road tars by establishing suitable ‘critical’? values for
by J. N . Taylor. the specific gravities of the distillates.
In order to correlate, if possible, the weathering
 January—February—Marech 1943 PUB LIC. ROAes 151

properties of the tars with the amount of unsulfonated It is of interest to note two different types of behay-
residue, two series of accelerated exposure tests were ior with these samples. Samples of one type formed a
made in the weatherometer (see cover illustration) using dull surface skin in a comparatively short time, and
thin films of the tars and molded sand mixes containing samples of the other type remained glossy until very
the tar. near the end of the 400-hour test period. Samples 1,
The tars were exposed in seamless flat tins 515 inches 2, 3, 7, 8, 14, and 15 exhibited the first type of behav-
in diameter and %-inch deep which, when filled with 50 ior, and samples 4, 6, 9, and 10 exhibited the second
milliliters of tar, give the desired film thickness of type. Samples 11, 12, and 13 are of special interest
¥ inch. since they are from known sources. Sample 11, the
The mixes were made in the same proportions and “bunker C’’ water-gas tar, had developed a dull and
ite with
lii the same type of sand as in the work done by Lewis wrinkled skin by the end of 200 hours, while sample
and Welborn in their study of road tars..° The mixes 12, the vertical retort tar, hardened greatly and
ham
a contained 16.6 percent by volume of tar, and the sand developed a greasy black surface without any evi-
had a grading as shown in table 13. dence of a surface skin. Sample 18, the blend of the
Two sizes of cylinders were molded, one size 2 inches two, exhibited both types of surface. It had a dull
in diameter and 1 inch high for Hubbard-Field stability skin over most of the surface and wherever this skin
tests, and the other 1 inch in diameter and 1 inch high had parted the exposed portion was very similar in
for toughness tests with the Page impact machine. appearance to the surface of sample 12.
TaBLE 13.—Grading of sand in mixes on which accelerated exposure Taspie 14.—Fate of loss of volatile matter in thin-film exposures
tests were made of tar samples in the weatherometer

Passing sieve— Retained on sieve— Pereent

| Loss of sample after— yos O Vipera * | eas cae me
Sam-
UNG el) eabeirens 2 ee Ase ees IN O20 Bae ee
Se Sie ple |—- - | —----- - — | --
Nee COL
NOR OY oa
ea eS a ale
eee, Sal SR
es Soe
a
IN'0 3.90 ee
INO: 400 See ee kd
ae 10.3
18. 1
BP. | 200 400 200 400 | 200 400
ING) AG ene ee a 2 IN'O.:: 0! Ake poets Sens Set : 2h.
60 hours) pours | hours |°0 hours! pours | hours |82 Urs) hours | hours
ae
eee
ee
oe
ee
NG ee terete Mecca Sect.. ae. INioz 80: Sia os he gn 36. 6
| LP 2 seal |BE CRS:
EOS een ee ee bo eS IN O.. 100 Searels re 6.1 Percent| Percent) Percent) Percent) Percent| Percent) Percent) Percent) Percent
iO} 1O0Resene ee ee ty eS ING. 200 ae eee
ee a aS uw 1/2 28. 3 28.7 29.0 82 83 84 98 99 | 100
INO RNA! ON as oy oe ee ee Sols © ge a nif b 28.4 OOnON e 2 ees 82 Sa eases | 98 | 100) | 3
ofa 28. 2 28. 6 29. 1 85 | 86 87 | 97 | 98 | 100
“\b 28. 0 Po tl epee 84 S0u Bene= 96 98 | =
By g! 25. 0 25. 2 25. 6 79 80 | 81 98 | 98 | 100
The cylinders were molded at 3,000 pounds per “\b 205 0b Wee a. & ieee ee 79 Bl: aeeees 98 | 99 | sae
square inch, the load being released immediately (single fa |
LO) | 9) Pays
25.3 DBF4a
2ORIR aLaoe
2807 73
73
82
See See
83 88 |
88
99 |
103722 Sze
100
plunger method). The initial stability and impact gia 22.4 PEG 24, 1 85 89 91 93 98 | 100
b 22. 5 JU Piel EN IE 85 Od Gioot Se 93 100 ae
were determined for all mixes immediately aiter a 22.6 23. 2 23.6 75 iil 78 96 98 | 100
molding. "\b
fa
22.6
25.5
23.3
2029
pe
2622
ps 15
87
77 Josette
88 89
96
97
09
99
ie teceee
100
The weatherometer was controlled at 60° C. ~ Di e2beo 250 oi econ eee] 87 Soul) Fens 97 99 ee
afd Diets 24. 0 24. 4 72 81 82 | 87 98 | 100
and approximately 50 percent humidity, a dry cycle ib 2122 24.8 aoLee 71 ber dalee ae 87 102 ae
being used entirely. One group of samples, which 10/2
(b
20. 1
20. 4
22. 5
20:0
2250
kee
72
ii
81
{Paes So
81 | 89
9) |
99
88
100

consisted of one sample of tar and two of each size 1/8

\b
6.9
C2
10.8 |
1OnO0 ea Pa
10.8 39
41
62
62sec :
62 64
67
100
110) a ae
100
cylinder, was removed at the end of 60 hours exposure, ola 34.8 40. 8 43.3 112 132 140 | 80 94 100
the second aiter 200 hours, and the third after 400 “ip
13/8
28.9
22.0
BF OD ae eee
27.2 | 27.6
93
87
SS Pen
108 109
67
80 |
a
99
pepe
LOO
hours. The percentage of loss, specific gravity at 25° C. ~
afar fe 27.4
21.9 27.0) ee
81.24) Sustoe
87
80
AKIYel es se
92
|
92
79
87
03. PE aes
100 | 100
and kinematic viscosity at several temperatures were \b 26. 7 SOnii| eee 79 OL ee ees 86 98 3
15/2 23. 6 27.3 27.3 72 84 84 86 100 | 100
determined for each of the residues from the’ tar “\b 23.6 O72) er eee 72 S250: 86 100)|boe
samples, and the percentage of loss, stability at 25° C.,
and impact were determined for the sand-tar mixes. | Figures in line a are for 400-hour residues at the designated time interval.
In the first series, samples 1 through 10, with the Figures in line b are for the residues
designated time interval. ped
removed from the weatherometer at the

exception of sample 5, were tested, and in the second 2 As determined by A. S. T. M. distillation test to 300° C,

series samples 11 through 15 were tested. It should be

noted that for 20 hours between the 60- and 200-hour The results of all the tests on the tar residues from the
periods a blown fuse in the line operating the cooling weatherometer are shown in table 15. The kinematic
fan caused the overheating of the samples in series 2 to viscosity data were plotted on the A.S.T. M. viscosity-
approximately 95° C. For this reason these samples temperature chart (high range) in order to obtain the
generally show a greater loss and more hardening than viscosity—temperature susceptibility (V.T.S.) coeffi-
do those oi the first series. cient, which is the tangent of the angle that the plotted
Table 14 shows the rate of loss of volatile matter for line makes with the temperature axis. A difference of
the tar samples in both series. These data are com- 1 degree in the angle makes a difference of approxi-
puted in three different ways for comparison. The mately 0.07 in the V. T. 8S. coefficient. Thus it is seen
loss of the sample, the loss of the distillate (based on from the values reported that generally all of the lines
the total distillate to 300° C.), and the propor- for each sample were parallel or very nearly so, and in
tion of the total loss are shown for each exposure all cases where there was a difference the V. T. 5. co-
period. Two results are given for each sample—one, efficient was smaller for the longer exposure periods.
the value for the 400-hour sample at the end of each “HARDENING INDEX” OFFERS MEANS OF COMPARING DEGREE OF
period, and the other the value for the sample removed HARDENING
from the weatherometer at the end of each intermedi-
ate time interval. Since there is such a small difference in the suscepti-
bility of the various residues, the viscosity-temperature
10A Study of Road Tars, by R. H. Lewis and J. Y. Welborn. PUuBLIc ROADS,
vol. 17, No. 5, July 1936.
lines may be considered parallel, which means that the
152 fy ROADS Vol. 23, No. 7

difference between the double logarithms of the viscosi- instances, with the 60-hour residues from samples 2
ties of two residues is a constant at different tempera- and 7, there was a separation of a very small amount
tures. The magnitude of this difference is also a meas- of clear oil on the top of the rising column of tar during
ure of the amount of hardening in a sample. Thus, for the progress of the viscosity determination. This
comparing the viscosities of a group of samples, the occurred during the first determination on the residue
double logarithm of the kinematic viscosity at the from sample 2 at 50° C. and at 65° C. For sample
temperature desired, multiplied by 100 for convenience, 7 it occurred during the first determination at 50° C.
may be considered a ‘viscosity coefficient” for that This separation alw:ays resulted in an abnormally low
temperature, and the difference between the ‘‘viscosity viscosity value which had to be discarded.
coefficients” for any two residues from the same sample Generally these irregularities occurred with the
is a measure of the amount of hardening which has residues from samples having high sulfonation indexes,
taken place. This viscosity coefficient at "50° C., and while the residues fromsamples having low sulfonation
the difference between the coefficients for the 200- and indexes usually showed very little deviation from the
60-hour residues, and the difference between the 400- straight line. However, sample 7, which had a low
and 200-hour residues are also shown in table 15. sulfonation index, exhibited these irregularities. In
general appearance and test results this sample was
TABLE 15.—Results of tests on the residues after exposure in the very similar to those having high sulfonation indexes,
weatherometer
while on the other hand sample 9, which had a very
| | Spe- Kinematic viscosity at Viscos- high sulfonation index on the distillate up to 300° C,
Sam- | ‘Time cific aoe a TN AMS a =| V. I =) ity cca Change but a low index on the distillate from 300° to 355° C.,
exhibited properties similar to the tars having low sul-
| Nee 5a 5S. co- effi- in Vis-
ple | ex- | Loss | grav- ffi- | cient a
No. | posed ity at |oro C.}a 50° onC. | 65°
Sal C. |82°aecorailes: | atreno
50° |
| COSity
one G.| 85 C.) cient |
C,
coefti-
cient
fonation indexes in both cases. These exceptions to
|| | --—- Z pies os =| the general behavior show how difficult it is to correlate
Hours |Percent | Stokes | Stokes | Stokes | Stokes the behavior of the road tar with its content of paraf-
| 60 28.4 | 1.169 | 6,070 | 265 SESH | 0.93 | 64.6 © ses
1 |2 200 DOU OMAN745 |Past a OSOL mtr ey || GB || PRP 76 finic hydrocarbons, or to set up a requirement for the
‘| 400 PONY | a Af 6,660 | 274 APDfy1 ORY | Gs 4.3 sulfonation index that will definitely distinguish
If 60. | 28.0 | 1:179 | 9.680 |- 415 | 81.2 jes i977 66-45)| ee between tars that will be satisfactory in service and
2} 200 PAIN Th bse y SE MOEA SO |p alae) 92.4) .97| 73.5 71 those that will be unsatisfactory.
{ 400.| 20,1) 4,486 |...-.--]' 10,100 |. 491° -}-43:6.1° .97 | 77.8 43
{
60 25.0 | 1.192 } 2, 950 222 S40 Gn leet ee o06)") 63:8) ||Leaman Since tars lose their volatile constituents very rapidly
3 200 25.4 | 1.198 | e026) |OQe4a RLTeON terstule OON0r| 5.8 in the weatherometer, the results of the tests shown
'| 400 25.6 | 1. 201 2,440 | 226 | 32.9] .87] 73.1 | 35
in table 14 give no indication of the drying character-
{ 60 25.2 | 1.220 | 2,870 175 O30 aleee SSUES I GPa Fe
4 200 DORON E9208 gee ee 2,080 | 143 18.0 | 1.00] 72.6 | 9.8 istics of the tars. In order to gain some knowledge of
| 400} 28.7] 1.233) | 3,750] 253 | 30.0] .97| 746| 9:0 the changes in the physical properties of the tars
6
60 |
200
22.5 | 1.200 | 8,330
DAn Mois
207a oes
BYE NGO)
1,760 | 114
aus 2 Ute AON
1SNSu PeOSe |e 72:0 6.0
during the dr ying period, a special study of samples 2,
400 DAS 2001) eee 2,400 | 163 ieee | ay | yebat ae and 4 was made. As is shown in table 6, these
f 60 22.6 | 1.182 | 3, 050 241 BYOP |ett Pak #934 |( 0.64.2: 1:ae samples have almost the same viscosity, percentage of
71, 200
| 400]
23.3 | 1.188
23:6] 1.191 |__-___-
1,210]
2,650]
121
245
20.9 | .84]
|37.7|
70.6 |
.84|
6.4
735] 99
bitumen, and percentage of distillate to 300° C. The
sulfonation indexes, however, differ greatly. Sample 2
{ 60 25.5 | 1.187 |9,100] 547 7 OA eee ne 3 lien 7.16) | has indexes of 8.9 for the distillate up to 300° C. and
8 |% 200 Aap) | ie abst) || | 2,390] 195 29.9} .90]. 73.1 ino
| 400 SGN |ala1 GO eeeene 5,810 | 430 50.0}. .90] 76.1.| 3 0 2.8 for the distillate between 300° and 355° C., which
if 60 21.2 | 1.213 | 4,500 254 30b TT ceaea 1.02] 64.4 one exceed all the proposed specification limits. Sample 3
9 200 Dar 8h let2G eee eee e210) mlb 20.4) 95 | 72.5 81 has indexes of 3.8 for the 0°-800° C. fraction and 1.4
| 400} 24.4 | 1,231 2,750.) 233 TI 2zOleeOSehanas6.) | amar
f 60] 20.4 | 1.224 | 5, 620 [e32791)' "ai Oueeeae KOZ IIEG45S: |e an
for the 300° to 355° C. fraction, which are slightly lower
10 | 200 2070) ielke233 sees 10500) = 28cm meiSle men ODE mons 75 than the maximum values proposed in some specifica-
| 400) a 22 7d 233 sheer eral 2 310 1 155 pppss || OAR) fe eee) | Be
| | tions. Sample 4 has very low sulfonation indexes—0.7
il
{ 60
200
Tiel al--201g)) A Zen)
10.9 | 1.212 /_-.|
S21 Aes |eae
5,310 | 457 58.1}
OPA ieee
288 |) 75:8 10.4
on the distillate up to 300° C. and a trace on the dis-
| 400] 10.8] 1.214]..-_| 8 790| 707 | 70.9| .88| 77.4 16 tillate from 300° to 355° C.
{
60 | 28.9] 1.153 | 1,550 105 1316) |-oee 1209: |9 6054.5. Three distillations were made for each of these tars,
12 200 B42 Ogle 74 eae al ou7, (6400 346 36.8 | 1.09 | 77.0 16.6
| 400 43.3 | 1.186 |.....__/175, 000 |4,880 |258 1.04 | 86.0 9.0 one up to 240° C., one to 270° C., and the third up to
f 60 | 21.9 | 1.162) 6, 010 3524! 30 tease Oo eses | ae
300° C. In order further to compare the physical
13 4aue200.) | 2720 i 1st7ONlL se 91. 7, 800 |) 456 46.5 | 1.98 | 77.1 11.3 properties of these materials, the volume of the distillate
| 400 2726: Nit N78 janes Sal t7, 560%) a815 Sie eSNG 2.5
and the liquid temperature were recorded for each 10°
14
|{ 60]
200 je
26.7 | 1.188 | 2, 170 |
Osenhle 1961 eee
181] 2020) | eee
e l 62060 :| COT
OO netG2n0 Wie: ae
mI SON OM MeeSSaleerars 10.9
C. interval of vapor temperature. These distillations
| A00)|~ 3i..2.| 15200 |e 22224) ©6,420 1-536 65.3] .88 | 76.4 2.6 were made using the standard distillation apparatus.
60}
| |
23.6] 1.179 | 2,960
|
230! | 7930) Smee eo 2a (6440) |) eee The specific gravity and the weight of the distillate from
15 200 POX ||death) | 4,330 | 362 SOME Mee Son bal 11.1 each distillation were determined and each residue was
400 | 27.3 | 1.198 | 6,730 | 560 72. 6 . 82 76. 6 BUSds)
tested for pe viscosity at 50° C. and specific
gravity at 25° C. The distillation data are plotted in
In some cases greater deviations from a straight line figure 7 ne it is seen that these samples have com-
were obtained when the data were plotted on the parable volatility. The results of the tests on the
A.S. T. M. viscosity-temperature chart than could be distillates and the residues are shown in table 16. This
attributed to experimental error. This is believed to table also includes a “hardening index’? which is ex-
have been caused by a large amount of carbon particles plained in the following discussion.
in the residue which introduced plastic or nonuniform As stated previously, the viscosity coefficient may be
flow in the tube of the viscosimeter. The nonhomo- represented by the double logarithm of the kinematic
geneity of these residues was also indicated by their viscosity in centistokes multiplied by 100. This figure
dull or grainy appearance when stirred. In several is an index of the consistency of the material at any
January—February—March 1943 PUBLIC ROADS 153
380 TARS WITH HIGHEST SULFONATION INDEXES SHOW GREATEST
“INTERNAL HARDENING”
The distillation test is conducted under conditions
which should give the hardening caused by loss of
340. }—_
fi ——_— volatile portions alone. It was found that when the
naA viscosity coefficients at 50° C. were plotted as ordinates
and the percentage of loss by weight in obtaining the
Vv
wy
:
300
Ww
=
distillation residues were plotted as abscissae, a close
Ww i approximation to a straight line was obtained. The
slope of this line represents the average amount of
uJ
re. fo)
© >
ra) o hardening for 1 percent of loss in the distillation test.
1 260 3 It is a measure of hardening and is called the hardening
ul
a
7a
WwW
index. However, in order to obtain a definite numerical
=
f=
U
a value, the hardening indexes shown in tables 16 and
<q
a
ive
a 17 were calculated by the following equation:
© eee !
==
SAGES
SAMPLE Na Ai es
Ee <
= :
= where
o 180 a HI=hardening index,
a ra) V,=viscosity coefficient at 50° C. of the residue,
V)=viscosity coefficient at 50° C. of the sample,
and
140
W=percentage of loss by weight in obtaining the
residue.
|
It is noted that the values of the hardening index shown
(ey ae
Roar ay |
1 eee eee | ) in table 16 are very nearly constant except for the dis-
100 140 180 220 260 300 tillation to 240° C. for sample 3, and this difference is
VAPOR TEMPERATURE - DEGREES C.
probably due to experimental error.
FigurRE 7.—RELATIONS BETWEEN THE LIQUID AND VAPOR The hardening characteristics of the three samples in
TEMPERATURES, AND BETWEEN THE VOLUME OF DISTILLATE
AND VAPOR TEMPERATURE..
the weatherometer were determined by exposing the
tars in the usual %-inch films for periods of 2, 4, 8, 16,
particular time, but has no connection with the original 32, 64, and 128 hours. The residues from each of these
consistency of the material or the percentage of loss. periods were weighed to obtain the percentage of loss.
The hardening (increase in viscosity) of any material The kinematic viscosity at 50°C. and the specific
may be caused by evaporation losses or by chemical gravity at 25° C. were also determined. The hardening
and physical changes within the tar itself, such as index for each residue was calculated. All these results
oxidation or polymerization, or by a combination of are shown in table 17.
both factors. The first of these causes is a necessary TasuE 17.—Properties of the residues from selected tars exposed in
property of liquid road materials and for rapid setting the weatherometer
up should be as high as possible, while the hardening
from changes within the structure of the tar itself Sample| Time
Specific
gravity of | Loss in
re ee
eeaeedtre | SESS:
Te
| Hardening
,

should be as low as possible if the tar is to retain its No. exposed Ses at weight at 50° G. | at 50° OC. index
life for a long period of time. Thus it is very desirable
to establish the proportion of the hardening which Hours Percent Centistokes | |
should be attributed to evaporation losses and the 2 2 0 1. 100 0 55.8 | Bat |e
2 1.128 11.9 285 | 39.0 We25
proportion which should be attributed to other changes. 4 1.140 16.3 753 45.9 1,34
yi; Y. 161 20. 4 1, 930 Lf Aa | 135
16.5 1.164 24.5 6, 550 68.2" | 1.39
Tasie 16.—Properties of the residues and distillates from selected 32 1.172 27.0 22, 500 63.9 | 1.47
64 1.179 28.7 71, 800 68,6 1.55
tars distilled to various temperatures 128 1.181 28.6 220, 000 72.8 1,70
1200 1. 183 28.4 268, 000 73.5 1,74
! 400 1.186 29.1 |1, 010, 000 77.9 1. 85
Highest |Specific | Specific | Kine- es
Sam- | distilla- | gravity | gravity |Weight |Volume | matic vis- etki cietth Hard- 3. ee 0 1,126 0 44.5 2S Tate =. -*,eee
ple tion of resi- | of dis- | of dis- | of dis- | cosity Of | Of resi. | ening 2 1.152 11.5 264 38.4 | 1.45
No. | temper-| dueat | tillateat] tillate | tillate | residue ahatS Gi index 4 1.160 14,2 501 43.1 | 1. 51
ature 255.0, mass ©, at 50° C. ° 7 1.169 18. 2 1, 280 49.3 1. 51
50°C. 16.5 1.180 22.3 4, 940 56.7 | 1. 57
32 1. 187 24,4 12, 800 61.3 | 1. 62
64 1.192 25,2 28, 400 64.9 | if fal
Centi- 128 1.195 25.2 53, 200 67.5 1. 81
eG. Percent | Percent stokes 1 200 1.198 25.4 92, 700 69.6 1.89
items bene PesLOO) feeaeee... 0 0 53.8 Asis ee cea a 1 400 1. 201 25.6 244, 000 73.1 2.01
9 240 187 0.912 14.3 16.7 564 44.0 1.32
Ss 270 L172 . 930 26.5 31.0 6, 320 58.0 1. 28 4: Sa 0 1,148 0 46.5 22d |) see
300 1, 201 . 940 34.9 40.7 |105, 000 70.1 1.32 2 1.180 10.8 265 38. 4 1. 50
4 1.188 14.3 538 43.6 1. 50
{ae At se A226 Cees 0 0 44.5 FANCY | Sas 7 1, 197 17.6 1, 260 49.1 1, 53
3 240 1. 168 935 15.8 18.5 1, 360 49.6 ihez/fd 16.5 1. 207 21.5 4, 330 56. 1 1. 57
? | 270 1.193 - 952 25.2 29.5 | 14, 200 61.8 1.59 32 1, 214 24,2 13, 700 61.7 1. 68
300 1,217 . 965 33.1 38.5 |199, 000 72.4 1, 53 64 1. 220 26.5 36, 200 65.9 1.65
128 1. 224 28.4 133, 000 71.0 1. 72
eetes Db LLAB bee a} 0 0 46.5 PRO HYieeee Ser 1 200 1, 229 29. 2 208, 000 72.6 1% 73
4 240 1, 202 . 992 19.6 22.5 1, 770 61.2 1.49 1 400 1, 233 28.7 375, 000 74.6 1. 83
270 1, 228 1.004 29. 2 33.2 | 41,700 66.5 1,52
300 1, 245 1.013 35. 6 40.6 |831, 000 77.2 1,55 ———_——
——z—0——e0
— —

1 Results from tests made in series 1; also shown in table 15.

 PUB
DI CLROADS Vol. 23, No. 7 :

SAMPLE 2
—— ——
: |

?
a
‘

| |
~— INTERNAL

OS Po A RE Co
x °
HARDENING SAMPLE 47 aa
|
DISTILLATION
2
25
EAT
iN
ed | ra 4 Ne |

ety Pomme. Mt ste

oT SAMPLE IQ by
~

RESID
OF
GRAVIT.Y
SPECIFIC X-DISTILLATION TEST
| © -WEATHEROMETER
2 AG jf

co Re ae ss }

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
LOSS IN SAMPLE -PERCENT BY WEIGHT

|| “DISTILLATION |
| aRDENING
INTERNAL Ficurb 9.—VARIATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY WITH PERCENTAGE
oF Loss FoR SPECIAL TAR SAMPLES.

distillation data at equal amounts of loss may be con-

sidered a measure of the amount of internal hardening
which has taken place. The relative magnitude of this
50°C.
COEFFICIENT
VISCOSITY
AT difference is shown on the right-hand side of each
graph in figure 8 and it is seen that for these samples the
internal hardening is in the order of the amount of
sulfonation residue. Sample 2, having high sulfonation
indexes, shows about two times as much internal
re eee hardening as sample 4, which had very low sulfonation
indexes, and sample 3 shows about 1.6 times as much
WE ATHEROMETER es eA INTERNAL |
as sample 4.
bU Ce | ht =. oo ae | 4
HARDENING
Figure 9 shows the specific gravities of the various
Ze |
| DISTILLATION residues plotted against the percentage of loss and the
50 = FL en aecehl Gaaiiia ail aa curves show the same trend as do those in figure 8. The
points were found to be close to a straight line for the
lower amounts of weatherometer loss and for all the
distillation points, but the points for the longer periods
30 |}
| of exposure showed an increase of specific gravity with
| A \
| very little additional loss. The agreement between the
ie
290 L__1_ | -
points obtained on the residues from the weatherometer
Q 4 8 le l6 20 24 28 3e 36 40 and those obtained on the residues from the distillation
LOSS IN SAMPLE -PERCENT BY WEIGHT
test was good for samples 2 and 4, but for sample 3 the
FIGURE 8.—RELATION BETWEEN THE VISCOSITY COEFFICIENT
OF THE ReEsipuEs at 50° C. AND THE PERCENTAGE oF Loss
points from the distillation were above those for the
FOR SELECTED TAR SAMPLES. weatherometer.
The results of the tests on the sand-tar mixes are
The values for the hardening index for the weather- shown in table 18. The sulfonation indexes and the
ometer residues show an increase for the longer periods amount of distillate in the tar up to 300° C. are also
of exposure, which indicates that some of the hardening repeated here to facilitate comparisons. It is seen
has been caused by other factors in addition to evapora- that the stability increases very rapidly at first, this
tion. However, in order to obtain a better indication increase continuing up to 200 hours and the 400-hour
of what occurs during the different methods of harden- residues show little further increase over the 200-hour
ing, the viscosity coefficients at 50° C., which are the specimens. The impact tests proved to be of little
double logarithms of the kinematic viscosities in centi- value since there was little difference in any of the re-
stokes multiplied by 100, were plotted against the sults, but in each case the value after 400 hours of
percentage of loss for each residue obtained in both the exposure was equal to or less than the value after 200
weatherometer and distillation tests. ‘These curves are hours, which indicates that the samples were becoming
shown in figure 8. It is seen from the figure that gener- more brittle with increased weathering.
ally the values obtained for the lower amounts of loss in It is also interesting to note that the percentage of
either the weatherometer or distillation test showed tar loss from these specimens after 400 hours of weather-
good agreement. However, the values for the distilla- ing was very nearly equal to the percentage of loss in the
tion residues continued on a straight line while for the distillation test up to 300°C. This was not true of the
longer periods of exposure in the weatherometer the ¥%-inch film exposures of the tar itself. There is on
viscosity of the residues continued to increase with very direct relationship between the sulfonation index of
little or no additional loss in weight, and thus the curves either portion of the distillate of the tar binder and the
for the weatherometer data bend upward sharply. stability of the sand mixes. However, the data shown
This difference between the values of the viscosity in table 18 indicate that the stabilities developed in the
coefficients for the weatherometer data and those for the (Continued on p. 164) Sy
BMet
 TRAFFIC GROWTH AND COMPOSITION
Ios 1941
BY THE DIVISION OF HIGHWAY TRANSPORT, PUBLIC ROADS ADMINISTRATION
Reported by L. E. PEABODY, Senior Highway Economist

ERMANENTLY installed automatic traffic adjusted for seasonal variation, and the trend of traffic
counters on the rural highways of 47 States were in from January 1939, to January 1942, inclusive. Ad-
operation at 657 locations in March 1942. Many of justment for seasonal variation includes the followi ing
these stations have been operated for 24 hours a day steps: The seasonal variation is determined for the 3
every day since January 1, 1937.1! They furnish the years 1939, 1940, and 1941, with the normal seasonal
most complete and accurate data available for the variation as the weighted average of these data, by
study of traffic characteristics and trénds and, from months. The adjusted traffic average, presented as a
these data, many valuable conclusions may be drawn. broken line in figure 1, results from dividing the traffic
Most of these stations are located on State highways; data for each month’ by the corresponding monthly
about 10 percent are on local roads. index of the normal seasonal variation.
At many of these points it is possible to separate the 4,000 is got er
total traffic (read from the machines) into its compo-
nents of passenger cars, various sizes and types of 3,500 aa
_ trucks, and busses as a result of manual classifications
of traffic made at frequent intervals throughout each of CORRECTED FOR
the years and usually taken on weekdays. All of this 3,000 SEASONAL im
Ke A
material has been brought together for analysis. TREND (1939-1941)

Traffic on State highways, measured at such stations, 2,500 et OER |

increased 19.3 percent from 1939 to 1941, inclusive.
Traffic of local passenger cars? increased much more 2,000 Ax TR N
iy
(20.9 percent) than did traffic of foreign passenger cars
(14.3 percent). Traffic of trucks and busses upon State
highways increased much more (31.9 percent) than did
total traffic.
The detailed composition of traffic at all stations
where traffic could be separated by type of vehicle is
ts
TRAFFIC
DAILY
AVERAGE
STATE
ON
HIGHWAYS

1,000

listed in table 1. >

=) PRIL
>
~
=)
%2
1939
JAN. APRIL =a OCTOBER
1940 APRIL JULY OCTOBER
JAN. 1941
JAN at > OCTOBER
1942
JAN APRIL > OCTOBER
Figure 1.—Averace Dairy Trarric By Monrus at Avuto-
TaBLE 1.—Composition of traffic on State highways, gees oe matic TraFFIc REcoRDERS ON StaTE Highways; AVERAGE
Datty TRAFFIC CORRECTED FOR ISEASONAL VARIATION; AND
Percentage of total traffic TREND or Trarric (1939-41).
Type of vehicle See
1939 1940 1941
When the adjusted traffic average by months is com-
pared with the monthly trend values, it is found that the
[PRSSS WR Ca ie a eee 77.9 77.3 76. 1 ratio varies from a low of 91.1 to a high of 110.4 percent
ULionin lie. Be So
NEOOCULITL TRUCK Sees
ae: 3 ee
es > ee Se
ee a
ae
11.8
3.8
12.7
4.0
1p} a
4,1
during 1939, 1940, and 1941. In February 1942, the
LEEWAV TEUG Be SUS RS os oe 1.0 8 ‘ee ratio first broke out of this range and dropped to 86.6
Tractor-truck semitrailer_.__..._.____-. be eS 4,2 4.0 Seal
MirdckawitiH trlletnsleree. eee f= .4 .4 nt) percent. For subsequent months in 1942 the ratios
Busses__ can 5. ae Re 38 9 .8 9 have been: March, 81.2; April, 70.2; May, 71.7; June,
IMCs
Se he ee .. ne 2 100. 0 100. 0 100.0 69.3; July, 64.1; August, 60.1; September, 65.6; and
INGAUDEOLSTALIONS#
=552.4 lsaeee. 22. -225--= 5 ry 292 200 preliminary data for October, 63.1 percent. Thus
traffic volume in the latest month available indicates a
decline of 36.9 percent from that normally to be ex-
TRAFFIC VOLUME DECLINED’ SHARPLY, IN“ 1942
pected. These data furnish a more realistic measure of
The increase in proportion of single-unit trucks was traffic decline than the simple comparison of traffic
from 16.6 percent in 1939 to 17.4 percent in 1941. volume by months with the volume for the same month
Tractor-truck semitrailers increased from 4.2 percent of a year previous.
the total in 1939 to 5.1 percent in 1941. Coupled with One thesis of traffic growth that is sometimes pre-
the increase in total traffic, this means an increase of 45 sented maintains that percentage rates of growth are
percent in the average number per day of tractor-truck ereatest at points of highest traffic volume; 1. e., that
semitrailers using the State highways during the period high rates of growth are associated with large traffic
from 1939 to 1941, inclusive. volumes. Figure 2 shows the results of an examination
Figure 1 presents traffic data by months at all stations of this thesis. All stations near, or in, defense areas
located on State highways for the period January 1939 were eliminated from this comparison so that no such
to October 1942, inclusive, together with the same data possible disturbing element could influence the con-
1 Applications of Automatic Traftic eee hes Data in on regs Planning, by
clusions. When it is recalled that these data represent
L. E, Peabody andO. K. Normann. PUBLIC ROADS, Januaryry 11941. traffic counted for 24 hours per day during 365 days per
; 2 ee vehicles are those carrying license plates of the State in hich the station is
oca year during 1937 to 1941, inclusive, at points scattered
155
 ROADS Vol. 23, No. 7

5|

10 is RLS cata + a ‘ percent) exceeds that upon tourist routes (14.7 percent). 7

In other words, judging from traffic increases upon all

ee te ones iss
|
|
routes subject to reasonably accurate classification ac-
cording to purpose of use, it would seem that tourists
took a sizeable “last fling’? in 1941. This may be con-
8 ;——-
|
t — 4 | sidered together with the far above normal sales of —
passenger cars in 1941, and with data on the number of
”
WwW
at
automobiles entering national parks during 1941 as _
eB
r
= =
i}
compared with those in previous years.
i |
> |
ie TABLE 2,—Increase in traffic during 1937-41 and 1937—40 accord-
Ge = oe
oO
2p at = = —— ing to type of traffic moving over the route
a
w
{
2
o Percent increase
Average
= S ie be brs pee aust | rite
Type of traffic Number
Pann tad Soph gsc |S
'
~
ie]
° via 1937-41 | 1937-40
ba]
rer aS Tourist eee 2 ee et ae 18 1, 953 38.5 14.7
2 { IMIMeS= one eo oe eee oe eon oe ee 6 1, 020 37.7 14.7
uJ . Industrial: 223 So ee eee 8 2, 102 31.3 ae
a OG
oO ee ie 2 IMeétropolitanics 2 cee ees Oe ee 12 3, 956 28.8 11.6
| Sas al Tourist and farm-to-market____-_________ 26 2, 041 24.6 ie
z 3
re Touristrand commercial Sse ee 20 1, 701 22.4 12.6
< .
a Farm-to-market or agricultural _________- 1 37 1, 182 YA rf 15.4
re cs by} of
2 ree Sass = = = = Motalhorseverage oe. 2-529
2 aaa 127 1, 861 27.5 12.8
fies Al |
| : 4 | |

Also significant is the fact that routes used mainly by

4 | . rt

{ { — ee a =—s
4 .

3 |
s

.
sn ay .

|
traffic to mines showed almost as great an increase in
ees 4 1941 as did those used mainly by tourists. However,
0

-60 -40 -20

! =

ie) 20
|

4.0 60 80
i

100
I
it should be noted that only six routes to mines were
CHANGE 1937 - 1941 - PERCENT
included.
The proportion of traffic carried during various peri-
Ficure 2.—Trarric VOLUME AND PERCENTAGE OF CHANGE IN
TraFric VoLUME, 1937-41. (Eacu Dor Is ONE STATION.) ods of the day has shown almost no change during the
years 1937 to 1941 inclusive. Data at 10 stations, with
one each in Pennsylvania, Michigan, South Carolina,
%

all over the United States, the indefensibility of this

thesis seems evident. From figure 2, it is seen that at Florida, Colorado, Washington, and two each in Cali-
traffic volumes of less than 1,000 vehicles per day, fornia and Texas, were used to develop this conclusion.
amounts of change vary from an increase of more than The data are presented in table 38.
90 percent to a decrease of more than 20 percent. For Taste 3.—Proportion of total trafic during designated periods
traffic volumes of from 4,000 to 5,000 per day, the for the month of July; data for 1937 to 1941, inclusive
amounts of increase vary from 1 percent to 58 percent.
6a. m. to 6 p. m. to 10 p. m. to
COMPARISON MADE OF VOLUME CHANGES ON ROUTES CARRYING 6p. m. 10 p. m. 6 a.m.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRAFFIC
Percent Percent Percent
One hundred and twenty-seven State highway routes 193722 2 Skee = ee a eee eee oe 64.7 2125 14.1
could be classified by the State highway departments 10385 2 ees nn ee ee oe eee
LOO eee ths eS 2 ant Se ae ee ee
65. 4
65.8
2172
21.3
13.4
12.9
according to the dominant purposes of the travelers who 1940 26 es eo eee ener ae 64.9 2128 13.8
LOADS ae oo eho. es ween eee 63. 9 21.2 14.9
used them as: Tourist, industrial, farm-to-market
traffic, etc. In table 2 a comparison is made of the
amount of traffic increase by general type of use during | MONTHLY VARIATIONS IN TRAFFIC REMAIN STABLE FROM YEAR

1937 to 1941, inclusive, and from 1937 to 1940, inclusive. TO YEAR

It must be realized that such route classifications ac- Changes in seasonal variation in traffic have also been
cording to use are not, and cannot be, truly refpresenta- small at the automatic traffic recorders during the
tive of all the traffic using the route. There will period from 1939 to 1941, inclusive, as indicated in
inevitably be some mixture in purpose of use upon all, | figure 3.
except possibly a few lightly traveled, routes. These The seasonal variation is derived by dividing each
classifications are based upon the purposes of the month’s traffic by the traffic in the average month of
majority and, in many instances, nearly all of the the year. In this manner the monthly variations in
users. several years may be compared, even though there may
When the rates of growth in the period from 1937-41 be considerable difference in the total traffic of these
are compared with those in the period 1937-40, some | years. Figure 3 indicates, not that there have been
interesting conclusions may be drawn. One is that, at no changes in traffic volume from 1939 to 1941 (actually
least for this group of 127 routes, the increase in 1941 ex- it is known that traffic increased nearly 20 percent in
ceeded the total increase during the three previous years. this period), but that the monthly variations in traffic
Another conclusion comes from a comparison of the remained quite stable from yearto year.
amounts of increase by purpose of use. When data for It is interesting to compare the seasonal variations
1941 are included the tourist routes show an increase in motor-vehicle traffic and railway passenger traffic
of 38.5 percent as against 21.7 percent for farm-to- (commutation traffic excluded) during the }year 1939.
market or agricultural routes. If the 1941 traffic is ex- This is presented in figure 4. When it is understood
cluded, the increase on farm-to-market routes (15.4 | {Continued on p. 165)
“DESIGN OF SLAB AND STRINGER HIGHWAY
BRIDGES
By N. M. NEWMARK, Research Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, and
University
A report of an investigation conducted by the University of Illinois Engineering Experiment Station, the Public Roads Administration,
and the Illinois Division of Highways
HE slab and stringer bridge is one of the simplest
and most conveniently constructed types of high-
way bridges. Three kinds of such bridges are consid-
ered in this paper:
1. The I-beam bridge, which consists of a concrete
slab continuous over steel beams, with the beams in the
direction of traffic;
2. The composite I-beam bridge, which has shea
developers or shear connectors between the beams and
the slab which make the structure act as a composite
T-beam; and
3. The concrete T-beam bridge, with conerete
beams running in the direction of traffic.
The terminology used in deseribing the ponent
parts of these bridges is illustrated by figures 1 and2
which are typical views of an I-beam ‘bridge and a
concrete T-beam bridge, respectively. The span of the
bridge is denoted by a, the spacing of the beams by 3,
and the thickness of the slab by h. The main reinforce-
ment in the slab is in the direction transverse to the
beams, and will be called the transverse reinforcement;
the secondary reinforcement in the ie is in the direc-
tion of traffic, and will be called the longitudinal
reinforcement.
Analyses of slab and stringer bridges are available in
Bulletin No. 336 of the U hiversity of ite Engineer-
ing Experiment Station.’ The bulletin contains “coeffi-
cients for moments in the beams and the slab for bridges
of various proportions. The moment coefficients were
determined by analyses taking into account the deflec-
tions of the supporting beams. Empirical relations for
maximum moments due to standard truck loadings
were determined, and are used as a basis for the pr esent
studies.
In this paper the comparatively simple formulas
which are given for the moments controlling the design
of slab and stringer bridges are applicable to a wide
range of sizes and proportions of bridges. The proce-
dures described herein are applicable generally to struc-
tures with span lengths from 20 to 80 feet, and beam
spacings from 5 to 8 feet, for both H-15 and H-20
standard truck loads and truck train loads. The work-
ing stresses considered are 18,000 pounds per square
inch for both reinforcing and structural steel, and
1,000 pounds per square inch for concrete. The mod-
ulus of elasticity of concrete is taken as 3,000,000
pounds per square inch. These values are in accord
with the requirements of the current Standard Speci-
fications for Highway Bridges, of the American Asso-
ciation of State Highway Officials, Third Edition, 1941.
For other conditions and working stresses, one may
derive approximate formulas of the same type as those
given herein from the original equations given
Bulletin No. 336.
FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS OUTLINED
The design of a simple span slab and stringer bridge,
after the span and beam spacing have been “chosen, is
! See notice on p. 166.
C. P. SIESS, Special Research Associate in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,
of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
primarily controlled by the maximum moment in the
slab at the center of the panel and by the maximum
moment in the beams. The former determines the
thickness of the slab and the latter the cross-section of
the beams. Both of these moments are dependent on
the relative stiffness of the beams and the slab. The
relative stiffness, a dimensionless quantity denoted by
the symbol /7/, is defined by the relation
fase ngipt,NRL Dae (1)
Where 7, and EF are the moduli of elasticity of the
materials in the beams and in the slab re-
spectively, in units of lb. per sq. in.,
I, is the moment of inertia of the cross-section
of the beam, in units of in.*
I is the moment of inertia per unit of width of
the cross-section of the slab in units of in.* per
; v3
in. In general, J is taken as io W here h is the
thickness of the slab.
a is the span of the bridge, in inches.
The effect of H upon the moments controlling the
design is small. This is fortunate, since the magnitude
of H is subject to some uncertainty, It is reasonable
to use as a modulus of elasticity of the concrete the
modulus applying t o short time loading, since the major
effect of H is on the live load moments. The depth of
the slab will have a large influence on the value of /7.
For the three types of bridges considered in this paper,
and for the working stresses used herein, the range in
values of H can be summarized reasonably well for
designs ordinarily encountered, and the formulas for
moments can thereby be made independent of H.
The standard truck loading for which the calcula-
tions are made is that specified as the H truck loading
in the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges,
previously cited. The standard truck has the wheels
of each axle spaced 6 feet apart, with front and rear
axles spaced 14 feet apart. Each of the rear wheels
"arTies a weight which is four-tenths of the total weight
of the truck, and each of the front wheels carries a
weight of one-tenth the total weight of the truck, or
one-fourth the rear wheel weight. The weight of the
truck in tons is designated by a numeral following //,
as H-20. The rear wheel load P, in terms of: which
moment coefficients are stated, is the weight on a rear
wheel in pounds increased by tbe impact factor.
Each truck is considered to occupy the central part
of a 10-foot traffic lane, and therefore the minimum
distance between the center of a wheel and the face of
a curb is taken as 2 feet; the minimum distance between
in centers of wheels of trucks in adjacent lanes is taken as
4 feet. The methods for design given in this paper
consider additional trucks in a lane by use of a truck
train loading? in which the standard truck may be
2 The truck train loadings are used herein rather than uniform lane loadings since
the former are more representative of actual loadings, and since, in general, the maxi-
mum moments in the beams due to lane loadings distributed uniformly are smaller
than those due to wheel loads distributed in accordance with the equations given in
this paper.
157
 Ne a LN ee
PUBLIC ROADS
—S

SECONDARY Of”
SECONDARY OF
LONGIT UOINAL
LONG/T VOINAL
REINFORCEMENT
REINFORCEMENT
Lex

MAIN OP TRANSVERSE SAIN OP TRANSVERSE

REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT

FIGURE 1.—Tyricat I-Bram BRIDGE.

Paty |i, a
FicurE 2.—Typican ConcrRETE T-BrEAmM BRIDGE.

followed or preceded at a distance of 30 feet by a It is shown in Bulletin No. 336 that the dead load —
similar truck weighing three-fourths as much. moments in the slab are affected by the method of con-
The maximum positive live load moment at the struction and are subject to considerable uncertainty —
center of a panel of the slab due to standard truck unless the construction procedure is very carefully—
loading is the transverse moment A/, and is given by controlled. The moment coefficients for dead load
equation 12 of Bulletin No. 336, as follows: given here are intended to apply to average conditions
and are generally on the safe side to allow for some of —
1.16 a the uncertainties. For I-beam bridges, whether com-_
Af 2.=fP| eae
Mi = 04020
: posite action is provided or not, the dead load moment
in the slab at centers of panels may be taken as % wb
a—28 feet where w is the magnitude of the dead load per unit of
010 —————_ > area measured in pounds per square foot. For con-
a 10 feet VH |} crete T-beam bridges, this moment may be taken as
4, wb? because of the greater stiffness of the concrete
In this equation, ¢ is the equivalent diameter of the T-beams. The live and dead load moments at other
circular area over which the wheel load is assumed to points in the slab may be obtained from Bulletin No.
be distributed, ordinarily taken as 1.25 feet. The 336, but are not necessary for designs made according —
quantities @ and 6 are measured in feet and P is meas- to the procedures given herein, whereby certain pro-
ured in pounds. Consequently, the moment will be portions of reinforcement are provided at other points. :
in units of foot-pounds per foot of width. The last The dead load moment in edge or interior beams may
term in the equation takes account of the front wheel be determined from the weight of one panel of the slab,
loads of the truck, and is to be dropped for spans of the weight of the beam, and whatever paving allowance —
less than 28 feet. is considered. The total dead load moment provided
The maximum live load moment in a beam, as given for in all the beams should not be less than the total
by equations 24 and 25 of Bulletin No. 336, is statical dead load bending moment due to the entire
weight of the bridge, including handrails, curbs, side-—
1 1 walks, and other such details. Similarly, the total —
M,=H 4PaT7¢P(a—28 feet)|
live load moment provided for should not be less than
the total statical live load bending moment.
COMPOSITE ACTION OBTAINED WITH SHEAR CONNECTORS
k= Aa)
a
4.40 feet +0.42 Composite action of the slab with steel beams may —
10-/H be considered if adequate provision is made for shear
connectors. Such shear connectors may be made up —
where the last term in the first equation takes account
of the front wheel loads and is to be dropped for spans of channels, plates, angles, or other structural elements, —
welded or riveted to the top flange of the beam, and |
of less than 28 feet. For spans greater than 60 feet,
the moment due to an additional truck in each lane embedded in the concrete of the slab. To prevent
may be approximated by the added term uplift there should be a mechanical anchorage of the —
connector in the concrete. The load to be carried by
the shear connector may be computed by the ordinary
H sph(a— 60 feet) | formulas of elementary mechanics from the shear on —
the composite T-beam section.
In these expressions, a and b are measured in feet, P is When the composite structure is constructed in the
measured in pounds, and the moments in the beam usual manner, without false work supporting the beams
will be in units of foot-pounds. during construction of the slab, the dead load from both
- January—February—March 1943
the slab and the beam is carried by the steel beam sec-
tion alone, but the live load is carried by the composite
T-beam section. Where the dead load shear is carried
by the steel beam section alone, it should be noted that
the shear connector does not have to provide for the
dead load action.
The dead load shear varies linearly from the reaction
at the end of a beam to zero at the center. It is recom-
mended that the live load shear in a beam be computed
from the shear for eitber truck or truck train loadings
by the use of the same proportion, k, of a wheel load
that is used in determining the moment in the beam.
The total force acting on any shear connector may
then be computed from the longitudinal shear per unit
of length between the beam and the slab, multiplied by
the spacing between the shear connectors.
For design purposes, the tentative recommendation
is made that the distribution of load over the face of
the shear connector be considered linear, from zero at
the top of the connector to a maximum at the junction
of the connector and the top flange of the beam. The
stress in bearing on the concrete may be taken equal to
the usual compressive working stress for concrete, and
the flexural stress in the shear connector may be taken
as the usual working stress for the steel. The spacing
of the shear connectors should be not more than 3 to 4
times the depth of the slab. The usual criteria should
cover the design of the connection between the shear
connector and the beam.
A limited number of tests indicate that when the
shear connector is a channel having one flange attached
to the beam, the above working stresses may safely be
doubled, or the load the shear connector must provide
for may be reduced by one-half. Tests of quarter-scale
models of I-beam bridges with such shear connectors
indicated that the strength of the slab and of the beams
may be developed without any evidence of failure of
the shear connectors, even with a somewhat less con-
servative design than that proposed. These recom-
mendations are subject to revision in the light of tests
that are now under way.
DESIGN OF SIMPLE SPAN I-BEAM BRIDGES
For simple span I-beam bridges, designs of structures
with the working stresses considered in the preceding
sections indicate values of /i falling in the range given
by the equation:
a where 6 is the beam spacing in feet.
H= (0.4 to 0.8) 79 ee (2
where «@ is measured in feet.
This relation applies both for H-15 and H-20 load-
ing, since the difference in slab thickness required for
these loadings has the effect of making the values of Fi
nearly the same. The effect of considering a paving
allowance of 25 pounds per square foot is to give only
slightly increased values of Fi.
Under ordinary conditions the slab may be designed
for a live load moment \V/; given by equation 3, which
is independent of [7:
¢ 1.16 “ee a
M,=P
c 1000 feet
3107
This is the transverse moment at the centers of the
panels of the slab (in the direction perpendicular to the
beams). The corresponding dead load moment in the
slab may be taken as { wb?. For a first approximation
PeOrpensdl:Co R:0°A Des 159
it will usually be adequate to assume that the dead
load moment is 10 percent of the live load moment.
The moment given by equation 3 will control the
amount of transverse reinforcement in the bottom of
the slab at the centers of panels. For ordinary designs,
the empirical equations given in Bulletin No. 336
indicate that approximately one-fourth as much steel
should be used at the top of the slab for transverse rein-
forcement at the centers of the panels as is used in the
bottom. Over the beams the transverse reinforcement
at the bottom of the slab should be about one-half, and
at the top of the slab about two-thirds to three-fourths,
of the transverse bottom steel at the centers of the
panels of the slab.
The longitudinal reinforcement required in the slab (in
the direction parallel to the beams) may be nearly as
much as the transverse reinforcement for short span
structures but will be considerably less for long span
structures. The following approximation is recom-
mended for the ratio of longitudinal to transverse
reinforcement at the bottom of the slab in the central
half of the panels:
Longitudinal reinforcement_ a
Transverse reinforcement 200 feet” ~~” (4)
where @ is measured in feet.
The longitudinal reinforcement in the bottom of the
slab over the beams depends on a number of factors,
the effects of which are difficult to estimate. However,
it seems desirable to provide from one-half to one-third
the amount of longitudinal reinforcement that is pro-
vided in the central half of the panel, the smaller
amount being used for the longer spans.
The live load moment in the beams is given by the
following approximate equation,
M,=H 4GPa+ygP(a—28
16
fee Praeab
20
feet) (6)
where the last term is to be dropped for spans of less
than 60 feet, and the second term is to be dropped for
spans of less than 28 feet. The quantity # may be con-
GIVEN sidered as the proportion of a wheel load which ecffec-
tively contributes to the moment in a beam, and is
given by the relation:
It will be noted that H does not enter into these rela-
tions, and it has been found that this approximation
for the moment in the beams is reasonably accurate
for designs falling within the range of proportions con-
sidered here.
The dead load moment in the interior beams is deter-
mined from the weight of one panel of the slab and the
weight of the beam, plus any paving allowance that
may be considered. All the beams, edge or interior,
should have the same section since the maximum dead
plus live load moments in all beams are very nearly
the same.
TYPICAL DESIGN COMPUTATIONS GIVEN FOR SIMPLE SPAN
COMPOSITE I-BEAM BRIDGE
A composite I-beam bridge will in general offer some
economy over a corresponding simple I-beam structure.
If composite action is provided for by adequate shear
connectors, designs of structures with the working
stresses considered here indicate values of H generally

about twice as great as for an I-beam bridge of the same
span and beam :spacing.
Under ordinary conditions the slab may be designed
for a live load moment M, given by the following
equation:
M— Re dL Oy, a For usual conditions the slab may be designed for a
3 +108 0 1000 feet|
The corresponding dead load moment may be taken as
1/8 wb?. The transverse reinforcement in
may be distributed in the same proportions as for an
I-beam bridge not designed for composite action. The
relative amount of longitudinal reinforcement at the
bottom of the slab in the central half of the various
panels may be computed irom equation 4. However,
over the beams the longitudinal steel in the slab can be
considerably less, or may even be omitted entirely.
The live load moment in the beams is given by equa-
tion 5 where the quantity k is determined by the relation:
b panels of the slab as is used in the bottom.
Ee fook ee
The dead load moment in the beams is determined from
the weight of one panel of the slab and the weight of
the beam, plus any paving allowance that may be
considered. Where the beams are not supported during
construction ot the slab, the dead load moment is
carried by the steel beam alone, whereas live load
moment is carried by the composite section.
The rave width of the slab, acting as the upper
flange of the composite beam, may be taken as 6, the
spacing of the beams. However, the slab is in addition
ah to local longitudinal flexure in the neighbor-
hood of concentrated loads. This flexure causes essen-
tially a local stress. Furthermore, the longitudinal
action of the slab in local flexure is not as significant as
the transverse action. Therefore, it is recommended
that the compressive stress in the slab, acting as the
ipper flange of the composite beam, be limited to the
isual working stress in concrete, neglecting the local
longitudinal flexure. However, in order to provide for
extreme cases, it 1s suggested that the sum of the actual
compressive stress due to the action as the upper flange
of the beam, plus 50 percent of the stress due to local
longitudinal flexure, be limited to an amount one-third
oreater than the usual working stress for concrete in
compression. For this purpose, the ratio of the com-
pressive stress in the slab due to local longitudinal
flexure, to the compressive stress due to
flexure, may be considered the same as the ratio of
longitudinal reinforcement to transverse reinforcement
as given in equation 4.
To illustrate the design procedure recommended
herein, typical design computations are given in figures
3,4, and 5. <A complete design is given of a composite
I-beam bridge of 56-foot 9-inch span, and 6-foot 6-inch
beam spacing, corresponding to a 26-foot roadway, for
H—-15 loading. The calculations are self-explanatory.
In general, a more efficient steel section for composite
action would be a beam having a heavier lower flange
than upper flange. Such a section may be built up by
riveting or welding a cover plate to the lower flange of a
rolled beam.
DESIGN OF SIMPLE-SPAN BRIDGES WITH CONCRETE T-BEAM
DESCRIBED
In a concrete T-beam bridge the moment of inertia
of the supporting beam will usually be very large.
PUBLIC ROADS . Vol. 23, Nov
The values of 7 computed for representative designs
are from 4 to 8 times the values given by equation 2,
The following rules for design are based on a structure
in which all the beams have the same section below the
slab.
(7) live load moment M/, given by the following equation:
M,=P
;
116g p5452000
3-+105
ad
feet
the slab
The corresponding dead load moment in the slab may
1
be taken as —— wb’.
10
The moment given by equation 9 will control the
amount of transverse reinforcement in the bottom of the
slab at centers of panels. For ordinary designs ap-
proximately one-fourth as much steel should be used
at the top in the transverse direction at the centers of
Over the
(8) beams the transverse reinforcement at the bottom of the
slab should be about one-fourth to one-third, and at
the top of the slab about three-fourths to seven-eighths
of the transverse steel at the center of the panel, at the
bottom of the slab.
The longitudinal reinforcement in the slab (in the
direction of the beams) will be considerably less than
the transverse reinforcement. The following approxi-
mation is recommended for the ratio of longitudinal to
transverse reinforcement at the bottom of the slab in
the central half of panels:
Longitudinal reinforcement
=0.75— site sols _(10)
Transverse reinforcement 400 feet
Over the beams the longitudinal steel may be a purely
nominal amount or may even be omitted entirely.
In the concrete T-beam bridge, the T-beam section
carries the beam moment for both live and dead loads.
The dead load moment in the beams is determined from
the weight of one panel of the slab and the weight of the
beam. The live load moment is given by equation 5
in which the value of k is as follows: .
b
i eran p ee oe (11)
The compressive stress in the concrete in the longi-
tudinal direction for the T-beam bridge should be sub-
transverse ject to the same limitations previously discussed for
the composite I-beam bridge, with the exception that
the ratio of the compressive stress in the slab due to_
local longitudinal flexure, to the compressive stress due
to transverse flexure, is the same as the ratio of longi-
tudinal reinforcement to the transverse reinforcement
as given in equation 10.
For the concrete T-beam structure, the design of
stirrups in the beam may be made with the assumptions
regarding vertical shear in the beams that were pre-
viously discussed in the section concerning design of
shear connectors for composite I-beam bridges.
BASES FOR DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS SLAB AND STRINGER BRIDGES
AND SKEW BRIDGES GIVEN
No analyses of continuous slab and stringer bridges
are available. It is felt, however, that the magnitudes
of the maximum moments in continuous bridges may
be approximately determined from the relations given
above for simple span bridges. The following princi-
January—February—March 1943 Pp UBL I G R OA D a 161

SPAN OF BEAMS,
' "

@ = 56-9 H-15 TRUCK LOADING

BEAM SPACING, B = 6-6 DIAMETER OF LOADED AREA, C€ = |~3"

A.AS.H.0. SPEGIFICATIONS (1941)

BEAMS SLAB
ie = 18,090 LB. PER SQ. IN. WEIGHT ONE REAR WHEEL = 12,000 LB. 12,000 LB.

f, = 1,000 LB. PER SQ. IN, IMPACT = 3,300 3,600

(ie a DESIGN LOAD, / = 15,300 LB. 15,600 LB.

FROM EQUATION
9 7, yp . Mf,he = 15600 desi Ean Talis
3 +(10 x )
0.025
me + shale)
1a00 = 4 J 170 FT. LB,
B PER FT,

" 1

DEAD LOAD MOMENT FOR 62 stap=1+ Whe = BX 84.4 x 6.552) 27Ks

TOTAL MOMENT = 4,615 FT. LB. PER FT.
REQUIRED EFFECTIVE DEPTH = 53
| COVER ae BAR DIAMETER = ie

TOTAL OEPTH iT o

TRANSVERSE BOTTOM STEEL AT CENTERS OF PANELS

4615 x t2 i
AoSs = ———*-——______
18000
x 0.885x 5.5
= 0.632
5@.
i
IN. PERaeFT. UStear. >Gb ATia> = Th
C..C.

LONGITUDINAL BOTTOM STEEL AT CENTERS OF PANELS

FROM EQUATION 4&

Astewx lta ) 0.632 == 0.453 SQ. IN. PER FT. USE: ah $$ AT 57Ab C.c.
56.75 “u "

ea pee RM

REINFORCING BAR LAYOUT

= 50 AT as C.c.

NOTE:
ALL BARS EXTEND THROUGH

CROSS SECTION OF SLAB

Figure 3.—I.LLusTRATIVE Dasian or Composite I-BrEAmM BripGE—DESIGN OF SLAB.
ike POBIANCER OADS Vol. 23, No.7 =

DESIGN OF BEAMS

FROM EQUATION 8 A 2 eee =m ao

5.5

FROM EQUATION 5S __ LIVELOAD Mp = Pallet E X 15300 x 56.75+ 2 % 15300(56.75 - -0)|

= 289,000 FT. L868. = 3,470 IN. KIPS

DEAD LoaD: WEIGHT OF SLAB = 0.0844 6.5 = 0.549 KIPS PER FT.

WEIGHT OF BEAM, ( ASSUMED) = 0.116

TOTAL DEAD LOAD = 0.665 KIPS PER FT.

DEAD LOAD MOMENT = § x 0.665x (S6.75)*x 12 © 3,215 IN. KIPS

(CARRIEO BY I-BEAM Atone)

A y |Ay Ay* ano I,

78 X 6.75
= 52.60/18.375] 966
10

"
ZL = 12119 1n4
30 WF at iié6é Le. PER FT.

4 FOR I-BEAM ALONE = 327.9 IN.

SEE USS LRESS

& = (een
32
+ 3470 x 26.13
an ) 1000 = 9800 + 7480 = 17,280 LB. PER $9.1N,

CONGRETE STRESS

poe ( 3470 x 10.6

sae <a = 304 LB. PER SQ. IN.
FicgurE 4.—ILLUSTRATIVE Design or ComposirE I-BrEam BripGgkE—DEsiGn or BEAmMs. ma
J January—February—March 1948 PO BE ore O-ATDES

DESIGN OF SHEAR CONNECTORS

TAKE VERTICAL SHEAR, V = 24,500 LB.AT ENDS OF BRIDGE,

i) 15,800 LB. AT QUARTER POINTS,

it 10,200 LB. AT MIDSPAN.

HORIZONTAL SHEAR = 9 = a = Vax ae = 0.0314 V

FOR SHEAR CONNECTORS: USE 4 x 13.8 LB. CAR CHANNELS 8 LONG

Sige NOTE THAT ALLOWABLE LOAD ON CONNECTOR COMPUTED FROM
| USUAL ALLOWABLE STRESSES MAY BE DOUBLED BECAUSE
Dey
CHANNEL IS USED,

ALLOWABLE LOAD = 2( sx Doee x 8 ) Ay 9,

IF CONCRETE STRESS GOVERNS: = es = |, OOOMLBSPER SO.IN:

ALLOWABLE LOAD = 32 x 1000 = 32000 LB.

IF STEEL STRESS GOVERNS:

3.5 3.5 Sas 8 Ag

M om ENT ON LINE X-xX = ae
— ~P x Z 5 ts
cena = 4
14. Pp

ba* 8 x 0.5% %
af OF CHANNEL WEB = Se Oro SoalNE
C 6 6

eet OO UNE MONG

Br RS) Ay 18000
Ss i = 0.333 = . = ————. = 419 LB. PER SO.IN.
jee -P Bers # .
ALLOWABLE LOAD = 32 x 419 = 13,410 LB. es STEEL STRESS GOVERNS,

SPACING OF CONNECTORS
13,410
AT ENDS !} 4 = 0.0314 X 24,500 = 770OLB. PER IN,, 770. 7 '7:4 IN. SPACING

ATi+ POINTS: : G
J a8= 0.0314
49K 4 X 15.800
) == 496 L8. . PER IN ’ Usp496-7
cei 27.0 IN. . SPACING
AT MIDSPAN : J = 0.0314 x 10,200 = 320 LB. PER IN,, oes = 41.9 IN. SPACING
MAXIMUM SPACING? 4 X DEPTH OF SLAB = 4 XSGRS = 27 IN. SPACING

SHEAR GONNECTOR SPAGING DIAGRAM a

5 |
C [= [= Is E C E is C (es {as A ts iS i is i
|
" 1 w 4 ” ' wv : u -

85 LOTATEY=.Gme|
Zo22 6 AT 2-3 a
‘ pe ue he >, Senet

eee OPAN = Sober.

Ficurb 5.—ILLUSTRATIVE Design oF Compositb I-BeEAm BrinpGeE—DEsIGN OF SHEAR CONNECTORS.

 164 POOR EA Ca RO AD'S Vol. 23, No. 7

ples seem to offer a reasonable basis for the design of a vided for, longitudinal reinforcement for negative
continuous bridge: moments in the slab should be provided in the region —
1. The slab may be designed as for a simple-span where the beam moments are negative. For composite 7h
bridge having a span of the beams, a, equal to the dis- I-beam bridges or for concrete T-beam bridges the whole
tance between the ‘“‘points of inflection” for the partic- slab will be in tension, and may require additional Rats
ular span of the continuous bridge. reinforcement accordingly, in the regions of negative
2. The proportion of a single wheel load to be used in beam moments.
determining moments in the beams may be determined No analyses of skew bridges have been made and, in
from equations 6, 8, or 11, for bridges with steel beams, general, the formulas for momerts given herein are based
composite I-beams, or concrete beams, respectively. only on studies of right bridges. In the absence of other
The moments due to a wheel load should be determined information, however, it is suggested that a skew bridge eas
SOBs
2ee
ee
in the usual way for a continuous beam. may be designed as a right bridge having the same
3. For I-beam bridges with no composite action pro- length of beams.
aMe
PY

(Continued
from p. 154) a

laboratory tests are more affected by the unsulfonated tillate up to 300° C. and generally the mixes made
residue in the portion of the distillate between 300° and with tars having high sulfonation indexes for the
4

356° C. than by the unsulfonated residue in the dis- distillate between 300° C. and 355° C. developed lower
final stabilities than did those with low sulfonation
TABLE 18.—Results of tests on sand-tar mixes
indexes for this fraction.
| Sulfonation Loss of weight This conclusion may seem at variance with the con-
|
| el ae
index
ee Ae lwieiont
of tar
Hale
4 clusion that those tars having a high sulfonation index
Sample| Time | ; Distil:
hardened more than those with a low sulfonation index.
| ae Pe aae Field
No. |exposed eae cistae wiclateto Fa Tea 25° C. se It would seem that the harder residual binders should
| :cs
pes C,
from
300° to
| 300° C. | 2-inch 1-inch
cylinder |cylinder
at 26° C
aie A
produce specimens with high stability values, but it is
| 300° 355° CO
doo UY, | indicated from these stability tests that the inherent
—— |__| i —— toy |e bonding strength of the residues from tars with a large
| Hours
| 0 6.7
|
Eo:
| Percent | Percent | Percent
34. 6 0 (pee eee el
Pounds
80
amount of unsulfonated residue in the 300° to 355° C.
GOW desae 2, blaia sea eae 24 31 3 1, 550 distillation fraction is less than that of tars which have
~==-5- i 200 e e sc ||") Ser Seer ae 32 39 3 3, 750
400) RE RS [3 Sateen scare 35 43 | 2 3, 840 low sulfonation indexes for this fraction.
| Oil t8;Galiess Dea Mia) 1oane 0 ote e 190
ee | See Ne ae: 23 27 4 1, 825 CONCLUSIONS
ae 200 | eae eee iS ee ee 30 36 3 3, 750
400455.
|
2.05 | See ae Ls eae wae2
|
33 41 2|
|
4,050 This investigation is primarily a study of the sulfona-
;
I{ 0
GOs sere |
3.8 | Ae
ts eee i
| 31.5 |
eee
0 |
23 28
(i) see
4
170
2,145
tion index test and the effect of the unsulfonated mate-
ak | 200 |---------|---------} a 29 35 4 5, 050 rial present in tars on its various properties as shown
400j|ae ea 9 RENE ae 31 39 3 5,015
by laboratory tests. No correlation of this work with
| 0 | ol, Ch ths EBCeGE 0 Or eae | 185
4 60 |_ plas ene ji SE Rd 25 33 | 3 4,415 the behavior of the tars during construction or under
il
|
200) jl
400).
eee ln | SPE el 2 1a
oe eedeeer eae Fake
32
34
Be
37
3
2
8, 200
8, 200
actual service conditions has been made. Consequently,
( 0 |
|
4.4 |
|
3 26.5
|
0 Cy bo Ne Soe |
|
165 no conclusions can be drawn as to the maximum sul-
F el go wane aia aie | 21 27 5 3, 345 fonation index that is definitely detrimental to the
decease | 2003 es eee oS ee ¥ 25 26 5 7, 000
| 400 | Sete BORE ul) “are 28 29 3 8, 000 quality of the tar as a road-binding material. - It is
| 0 | 1.6
|
fi
|
30.2 |
|
0 On Sees A
|
175 believed, however, that this investigation justifies the
3
(Se oe eo
i] Dyers ARES Re esl Selene
200 §|ESS Sere eS Tee |
22
27
29
26
5
5
2, 210
5, 400
following conclusions:
| AO S| (seal 225)Ta Ba trl, wh OS 29 35 3 5, 450 1. The method of determining the sulfonation index
:
0
60)
LOR RE 205
ee ae
29.4
al
0
18
Oue es,
27 3
100
1, 810
should be modified by decreasing the weight of the
sae 200 |See ere gs ces 28 33 3) ase150 sample from 10 to 5 grams and the amount of 37N acid
A00H RE Cane AE Re 2g | 33 | 36 | 2] 4,050
from 30 to 20 milliliters. These modifications increase
i QUEM org ihe & gestae” 227.6 0 Quite edwe 150 the proportion of acid to distillate and make possible
9 SU ies UL ee ee 22 27 4 3, 850
SPE
|
200) ||ee
ZUM
| RES eeBer)
EEG 2 LelRe RS? toe ie
29
31
33
35
3]
2]
7,650
8,350
more vigorous shaking of the sample, which insures
| more complete sulfonation and more reproducible results.
| 0 (Ginea| OF al 27.9 | 0 Op|aeeeene.. 225
10
a Ros |
; CLUE ees Sa GN ee bee
7109 Ce 2 NS SO ee Se
en 19
25
22
29
4
4}
4, 730
9,000
2. The selective solubility of the distillation fractions
ALUN ek Site 2 RSE
Sae eo es 26 38 2/ 9,700 in either dimethyl or diethyl] sulfate cannot be used as
{ 0 4 | 06 17.5 0 0 | 580 a basis for a quantitative test of the unsulfonated resi-
iH 1] 60 |___ 3 es | eee 11 6 6] 5, 250
| | 200 Seer |Woe UL ST aes | 17 16 2] 11,400 due to replace the sulfonation index test.
A (C1) Se Se ame stRes ae aN Pe se. 18 20 21 e700
| | | 3. There is no direct relationship between the specific
| 0 4.9 | PN | 31.0 | 0 Ouleeeees| 150
12 1} 60s oeeee few tt eee ee 20 18 1 1, 360 gravity of the distillation fraction and the sulfonation ~T
wee
- “|| 2003.2 eed | So eS ee 30 21 2 4, 850 index of the tar for that fraction. However, for the
400 Meera ee kd eee 2k | 32 30 2) 4,850
| 0 3.04 Pie Gimite SO5IS4 0 (| eae | 190
tars studied in this investigation and for other tars
13 60: sae eos SA at 16 21 | 4 2, 000 tested in this laboratory, there are critical values for
| 200)| Sees ee acc = OS ea 25 25 | 3 5, 600
400 ne Fase ee Bae) 26 26 2| 6,150 the specific gravity at 38°/38° C. of the distillate above
| 0 |
|
£9) a eeBBE8 |
|
0 Oy eee | 100 which the sulfonation index for the particular fraction
rah IU Bene i, a banana 25 26 3 1, 450 is less than the maximum requirement usually specified. sry
p
: 200 |_ ; BOs 37 35 3| 5,600
PUTS ek Den WS Ree cai 38 39 | 25) 54600 4. The critical values for the 0° to 300° C. fraction
15
|
|
0
CO ir ae IP weirs
3.3 | je
=| a
32. 6 | 0
22 25
(Nesp 23a
4]
160
2, 650
seem to be about 0.955 at 38°/38° C. for a maximum
: “|| 200(| Seats ats RE Sa 30 26 3 5, 400 sulfonation index of 7 and 0.960 at 38°/38° C. for a
OU RAS Beaks osSa pal Ss a 30 28 2! 5.650
maximum sulfonation index of 6. For the 300° to
1 Trace. 355° C. fraction, the critical values for the specific
 January—February—March 1943 PUBLIC ROA Ds

_gravities at 38°/38° C. were found to be 1.04 for
-sulfonation index of 1.5 and 1.05 for a sulfonation nae
of aw
| . The viscosity coefficient can be used as a basis for
fomparing the consistency of various
given temperature. The difference
coefficient for two residues from the same tar is a
measure of the amount of hardening that has occurred.
6. The viscosity coefficient of the residue increases
with the amount of loss of distillate, and the average
amount of increase for 1 percent of loss is termed ‘the
hardening index.” ‘The hardening indexes for the resi-
dues from shorter periods of exposure are equal to those
for the distillation test but for longer exposures the
hardening indexes increase.
7. The difference between the viscosity coefficient
of the exposure residue and the viscosity coefficient
determined from distillation data for an equal loss is a
measure of the internal hardening of the sample. For
the samples tested in this laboratory this is in order of
the sulfonation indexes, the sample with the highest
indexes having undergone the largest amount of internal
hardening.
materials at a 8. The stability developed by weathered sand-tar
in the viscosity mixes is generally in inverse order to the amount of
sulfonation residue in the 300° to 355° C. fraction of
tar binder.
The presence of unsulfonated residue in the tar in
considerable percentages has an adverse effect on the
binding and weathering properties of the tar.
10. Since the present road tar specifications allow
wide variations in the percentage of distillate off at the
various cutting temperatures and iin the softening point
of the distillation residue, nonuniform curing and weath-
ering can be expected from road tars meeting the same
specification. For this reason the problem of correlat-
ing the amount of unsulfonated residue to the behavior
of the tars in service is likely to be difficult.

(Continued from p. 156)

that each series represents country-wide totals, that 140

railway travel of the commutation type (daily home-

to-business trips) is excluded, the seasonal changes are 130

very similar except for the “Jong trip” railway travelers

120
home for the Christmas holidays in December and
January, which has no counterpart in highway travel. 110
Of course the highway traffic includes trucks but, as
indicated in table 1, approximately 78 percent of it is
composed of passenger vehicles.
Early in 1942 it was decided to condense the size of
reports of traffic recorder operation issued by the
Public Roads Administration in order to produce the
information more promptly—in the period of greatest
value. As a part of the process of condensation and PERCENTAGE
AVERAGE
OF
MONTH
early release of the material it was decided to present a
summary which would include all data received from
the States within 3 weeks after the end of the period
during which the machines were operated. Thus a
summary of traffic data for March would be available
on April 21, and so on each month. These preliminary JUNE JULY <

figures would be subject to correction a month later FIGURE 3.—SEASONAL VARIATION IN TRAFFIC RECORDED AT
Automatic TRAFFIC COUNTERS, 1939, 1940, AND 1941.
when traffic information from nearly all States had been
received; and a complete summary for March would be
available on May 21. In table 4 1s shown a comparison
of the partial and complete data for March, April, and
May, 1942. Although data from less than half of the
States, and a little more than one-third of the traffic
recorders, were available within 3 weeks, the partial or
preliminary figures for percentages of change have
differed by not more than | percent from the complete
data received a month later.
RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAFFIC (EX- ——>
CLUDING COMMUTATION TRAVELERS )
TaBLe 4.—Comparison of percentage changes in traffic volume as
indicated in preliminary and final tabulations, 1942

Summary of preliminary data Summary of complete data PERCENTAGE

AVERAGE
OF
MONTH

Month ae
Number of |Number of Traffic Number of |Number of Traffic
States stations change States stations change
J
: io =
iva > wi > p bE :
Percent Percent zs oS < a< < ES 5 = an 53S = g
tre < ee 5 m= <
March __ 18 179 —11.5 40 452 —11.3 2 =)
April__- 20 183 —14.8 42 506 —15.8
BeMiay_-_- 20 200 —22.6 43 514 —21.7 FicurRE 4.—SEASONAL VARIATION IN TRAFFIC ON HIGHWAYS
AND Rattways, 1939.
 PUBETGCROADS
RECENTLY PUBLISHED
Two bulletins of interest to highway officials have
recently been published.
“Noments in I-Beam Bridges” has been issued as
Bulletin Series No. 336 of the University of Illinois
Engineering Experiment Station. The data reported
are based entirely on analytical considerations and
sive a better understanding of the behavior of the
I-beam bridge consisting of a concrete slab continuous
over steel beams, a type of structure that has found wide-
spread use for highway bridges. The Public Roads
Administration has a limited number of copies. of
Bulletin No. 336 available for free distribution. Re-
Vol. 23, No. 7
BULLETINS AVAILABLE
quests should be addressed to the Public Roads
Administration, Federal Works Agency, Washington,
eDaG
“Stresses in the Corner Region of Concrete Pave-
ments’’ has been issued as Bulletin No. 157 of the Iowa
Engineering Experiment Station. The bulletin reports
the results of laboratory stress measurements and field
observations, and presents a relatively simple working
formula for calculating corner load stresses. Single
copies of this 96-page bulletin may be obtained without
charge from the Iowa Engineering Experiment Station,
Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.
UNITED
STATES
U.S. GOVERNNENT PRINTING OFFICE; 1943
PUBLICATIONS of the PUBLIC ROADS ADMINISTRATION
epee
EE ee
Any of the following publications may be purchased from DEPARTMENT BULLETINS
the Superintendent of Decuments, Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C. As his office is not connected with the No. 1279D . . Rural Highway Mileage, Income, and Expendi-
Agency and as the Agency does not sell publications, please tures, 1921 and 1922. 15 cents.
send no remittance to the Federal Works Agency. No. 1486D . . Highway Bridge Location. 15 cents.

ANNUAL REPORTS TECHNICAL BULLETINS

Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 193]. No. 55T . . . Highway Bridge Surveys. 20 cents.
10 cents.
No. 265T. . . Electrical Equipment on Movable Bridges.
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1932. 35 cents.
5 cents.
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1933.
5 cents. Single copies of the following publications may be obtained
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1934. from the Public Roads Administration upon request. They can-
10 cents. not be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents.
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1935.
5 cents. MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1936.
10 cents. No. 296MP. . Bibliography on Highway Safety.
House Document No. 272 . . . Toll Roads and Free Roads.
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1937 Indexes to PUBLIC ROADS, volumes 6, 7, I1, 12, 15, and
10 cents. 17—22, inclusive.
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1938.
10 cents. SEPARATE REPRINT FROM THE YEARBOOK
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1939
10 cents. No. 1036Y . . Road Work on Farm Outlets Needs Skill and
Work of the Public Roads Administration, 1940, 10 cents. Right Equipment.
Work of the Public Roads Administration, 1941, 15 cents.
REPORTS IN COOPERATION WITH UNIVER-
HOUSE DOCUMENT NO. 462 SITY “OF MLEINOIS
Part 1 . . . Nonuniformity of State Motor-Vehicle Traffic No. 303. . Solutions for Certain Rectangular Slabs Con-
Laws. 15 cents. tinuous Over Flexible Support.
Part 2. . . Skilled Investigation at the Scene of the Acci- No. 304. . . A Distribution Procedure for the Analysis of
dent Needed to Develop Causes. 10 cents. Slabs Continuous Over Flexible Beams.
Part 3. . . Inadequacy of State Motor-Vehicle Accident No. 313. . . Tests of Plaster-Model Slabs Subjected to Con-
Reporting. 10 cents. centrated Loads.
Part 4. . . Official Inspection of Vehicles. 10 cents. No. 314. . . Tests of Reinforced Concrete Slabs Subjected to
Part5 . . . Case Histories of Fatal Highway Accidents. Concentrated Loads.
10 cents. No; 3ior . Moments in Simple Span Bridge Slabs With
Part 6... . The Accident-Prone Driver. 10 cents. Stiffened Edges.
No. 336. . Moments in I-Beam Bridges.
MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS
UNIFORM VEHICLE CODE
No. 76MP . . The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building
Rock. 25 cents. Act I.—Uniform Motor Vehicle Administration, Registration,
No. 191IMP. . Roadside Improvement. 10 cents. Certificate of Title, and Antitheft Act.
Act II.—Uniform Motor Vehicle Operators’ and Chauffeurs’
No. 272MP. . Construction of Private Driveways. 10 cents.
License Act.
No. 279MP. . Biblicgraphy on Highway Lighting. 5 cents.
Act II]].—Uniform Motcr Vehicle Civil Liability Act.
Highway Accidents. 10 cents.
Act 1V.—Uniform Motor Vehicle Safety Responsibility Act.
The Taxation of Motor Vehicles in 1932. 35 cents.
Act V.—Uniform Act Regulating Traffic on Highways.
Guides to Traffic Safety. 10 cents.
Model Traffic Ordinances.
An Economic and Statistical Analysis of Highway-Construction
Expenditures. 15 cents.
Highway Bond Calculations. 10 cents.
A complete list of the publications of the Public Roads Ad-
Transition Curves for Highways. 60 cents. ministration, classified according to subject and including the
Highways of History. 25 cents. more important articles in PUBLIC ROADS, may be obtained
Specifications for Construction of Roads and Bridges in National upon request addressed to Public Roads Administration, North
Forests and National Parks. 1 dollar. Interior Bldg., Washington, D. C.
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