An Overview of Fracture Analysis in Functionally Graded Materials

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An overview of fracture analysis in Functionally Graded Materials
Article in European Journal of Scientific Research · January 2012
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European Journal of Scientific Research
ISSN 1450-216X Vol.68 No.3 (2012), pp. 412-439
© EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2012
http://www.europeanjournalofscientificresearch.com
An Overview of Fracture Analysis in Functionally

Graded Materials
P. Shanmugavel
Corresponding Author, Department of Mechanical Engineering
K.C.G. College of Technology, Chennai, Tamilnadu, 600097, India
E-mail: pshanmugavel66@gmail.com
Tel: +91-9444167048
G. B. Bhaskar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Tagore Engineering College, Chennai
Tamilnadu, 600048, India
M. Chandrasekaran
Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Chennai
P. S. Mani
S. P. Srinivasan
Abstract
Recent trends in fracture behavior studies on Functionally Graded Materials

(FGMs) in specific areas are reviewed. The effect of thermal and mechanical property
gradients and microstructure variations on the fracture toughness indicators viz. stress
intensity factors, energy release rates, residual stresses, R-curves and J-integrals are
summarized. Studies on the fracture behavior of functionally graded piezoelectric materials
(FGPMs) are also reviewed. Effect of the crack parameters, crack orientations and loading
conditions on the crack propagation direction and crack growth rates and altogether on the
fracture toughness are discussed.
Keywords: Functionally Graded Materials, Stress Intensity Factors, J-integral, R-curves,

Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics.
An Overview of Fracture Analysis in Functionally Graded Materials 413
1. Introduction
Advances in material synthesis technologies have spurred the development of a new class of materials,
called Functionally Graded Materials (FGMs), with promising applications in aerospace,
transportation, energy, electronics and bio-medical engineering. An FGM comprises a multi-phase
material with volume fractions of the constituents varying gradually in a pre-determined and designed
profile, thus yielding a non-uniform microstructure in the material with continuously graded properties.
Most of the applications involve severe thermal gradients, like thermal protection systems. FGMs
exploit the heat, oxidation and corrosion resistance of ceramics and the strength, ductility and
toughness of metals [1-2]. Marin [3] list out the fields of applications of the FGMs as thermal barrier
coatings for space applications, nuclear fast breeder reactors etc. Review articles available on FGMs
include articles on research and development [4], property modeling [5,6], manufacturing [7,8],
fracture mechanics [9,10] and crack propagation [11].
Damage tolerance and defect assessment for structural integrity of FGM components require
knowledge of the fracture behaviors of FGMs. For ceramic/metal FGMs, cracks generally nucleate
near the ceramic surface exposed to the environment and grow towards the metal side. When a crack
extends into the metal rich region, the substantial plastic deformation in the background of FGM
invalidates simple crack growth models based on linear-elastic crack tip analysis.
1.1. Manufacturing of FGMs

Literature is abundant with materials dealing with the manufacturability and characterization of the
FGMs. Various powder processing technologies, viz. backward extrusion of Al-Al3-Ti platelet particles
by a centrifugal solid-particle method [12], a new solid free form fabrication technology, namely laser
rapid forming (LRF) to fabricate bulk near-net-shape metallic based components [13], centrifugal
casting technique to obtain materials with higher density on the outer regions of a casting due to
applied centrifugal forces [14], Laser Cladding (LC)-based free-form fabrication technology which
forms strongly bonded layers of fully dense and possibly homogeneous structures [15], the high
velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) combustion spray process combined with a computer controlled dual
powder feed system and a powder injection arrangement allowing the simultaneous internal and
external feeding of the constituent materials [16], multi-directional laser-based direct metal deposition,
an additive manufacturing process to get the desired shape and orientation of the volume fraction of the
constituent materials [17] are in use to produce the FGMs with the desired shape and orientation of the
volume fraction of the constituent materials.
1.2. Characterization of FGMs

The process capability to produce the FGMs with the tailored property variations in the chosen
directions by smoothly varying the volume fraction of the constituent materials has enabled researchers
with the option to define the variations in the properties in a particular direction by the mathematical
models the researchers assume.
Patel et al [18] chose the property variation model of a non-circular cylindrical shell,
functionally graded in the radial direction. Sofiyev [19] chose the effective material properties varying
in axial direction according to rule of mixtures. Eslami et al [20] assume the sphere’s material and was
assumed to be described with a power law function of the radial co-ordinate variable in their study of
thermal and mechanical stresses in a functionally graded thick sphere. Ferreira et al [21] use the
homogenization techniques to find the effective property at a point according to rule of mixtures.
Octao and Tanigawa [22] assume the material properties vary in the radial direction using the
power law functions and studied thermo-elastic analysis of the functionally graded cylindrical panel.
414 P. Shanmugavel, G. B. Bhaskar, M. Chandrasekaran, P. S. Mani and S. P. Srinivasan
2. Analytical Models for Fracture Analysis

Analytical models yield exact or closer to exact solutions though they require complicated solution
techniques to be applied, compared with numerical methods and finite element methods which give
only approximated solutions.
Fourier transform techniques which yield the singular integral equations have been used by
many investigators [23-26]. Zhong and Cheng [23] analyzed the plane elasticity problem for a crack in
a functionally graded strip by arbitrarily varying the elastic modulus and found that the fracture
toughness of materials can be improved by graded variation of elastic modulus. In this paper an FGM
strip is assumed to be infinite along x-axis and with finite thickness h containing a though crack of
length 2c.
Jinju Ma et al [24] used Fourier transform techniques to study the crack problem by varying the
shear modulus as a power law function. Lee [25] has varied the shear modulus linearly to study the
transient elastodynamic problem of crack-tip propagation in FGMs. Shbeeb and Binienda [26] studied
the interface crack problem for a sandwiched functionally graded strip. The SIFs and energy release
rates for the mixed mode were calculated and comparable with published results.
Figure 1: (a) Schematic of a FGM strip containing crack and (b) The multi-layered model for a FGM strip
(from Zhong and Cheng [23]).
(a) (b)

Figure 2: Variations of the normalized stress intensity factors K1 /  0 c   
and K II /  0 c with c/h under
uniform normal loading at the crack-face σ(x) = σ0(-c<x<c) for different multi-layered models: (a)

K1 /  0 c  and (b) K / 
II 0 
c (from Zhong and Cheng [23]).
(a) (b)
Guo and Noda [27] used the integral transform equation methods to study the problem of
cracks crossing the interface and found that the SIFs reaching the maximum values as crack tips
approaching the interface. Multi-layered model is used for defining the elastic properties of the
materials and also Fourier integral transform techniques for obtaining the stress intensity factors.
Huang [28] on a multi-layered model for FGMs under plane-stress condition with arbitrarily varying
material properties; Wang et al [29] on the multilayered model for FGMs under plane deformation
conditions with arbitrarily varying elastic properties of coatings.
Zhang and Kim [30] used the complex variables conversion to solve the governing second-
order partial differential equations to obtain the crack-tip field solution for an anti-plane (mode III)
crack. Chalivendra [31] used the asymptotic analysis by replacing the engineering constants with
effective stiffness and orthotropic stiffness ratio to obtain the crack-tip stress fields for mode I crack in
an orthotropic FGM.
Other analytical models include concurrent multi-scale model by Chakraborty and Rahman [32]
to study the crack in a two-phase, particle matrix functionally graded composite, piecewise-exponential
model by Guo and Noda [33] to study the crack problem of FGMs with arbitrary properties, non-local
theory by Zhou and Wang [34] to -study the interaction of two collinear cracks in FGMs under uniform
anti-plane shear loading, local approach model by Benzensek and Benerjee [35] to estimate the
direction of crack propagation, equivalent eigenstrains by Afsar and Anisuzzaman [36] to study two
diametrically-opposed edge cracks initiating from the inner surface of thick-walled cylinder to evaluate
stress intensity factors (SIFs), boundary integral equation method by Zhang et al [37] to study antiplane
crack in a FGM to evaluate SIFs and boundary element method by Xiao et al [38] to study the SIFs for
cracks perpendicular to graded interfacial zone, and also by Xiao et al [39] to study the elliptical cracks
parallel to graded interfacial zone of bonded bi-materials.
Figure 3: DIC technique used in deformation measurements of a SENT specimen: (a) undeformed state, (b)
deformed state, (c) vector plot of the measured in-plane displacement field for the instant shown in
(b), and (d) contours of the dominant displacement component (from Bueno and Lambros [40]).
c d
x (mm) vector length magnification = 0.3 x (mm)
Digital image correlation (DIC) is used by Bueno and Lambros [40-41] to evaluate T-stress and
to evaluate R-curve on fracture behavior of FGMs under mode-I loading. Optical caustics was used by
Yao et al [42] on crack tip evolution to obtain the stress intensity factors.
Solutions obtained from certain analytical models have been compared with the solutions
obtained from finite element models [43-47]. Jegan et al [43] have applied the beam theory to study the
energy release rate for interlaminar cracks in a graded laminate beam, and found that the energy release
rate is sensitive to both the strength and type of gradation. Carpinteri and Pugno [44] evaluated the
strength of FGM structures byincorporating re-entrant corners. Rao and Rahman [45-46] used
Galerkin-based mesh-free analysis and interaction integrals to obtain the stress intensity factors in case
of isotropic FGMs and also used the M-integral and direct differentiation approaches to calculate the
first order derivatives of the stress intensity factors. Becker Jr. et al [47] used Weibull statistics to
estimate the fracture toughness and average fracture initiation angle under mixed mode loading.
The coupled problem of crack/contact mechanics was analysed by Dag and Erdogan [48] on
SIFs for surface crack in a graded medium and Choi [49] on a crack in a substrate subjected to
frictional Hertzian contact are available in literature.
2.1. Dynamic Fracture Mechanics

Dynamic fracture analysis is associated with the interfacial mechanics of bi-FGMs and sandwiched
structures. The estimation of dynamic stress intensity factors involves the interfacial mechanics and
mechanical modeling of interface.
Yao XF et al [50] used high speed photography to experimentally study the dynamic crack
initiation and propagation in FGMs and also used finite element modeling for comparison. Li Y.-D et
al [51] discusses on a mechanical model for the problem of two collinear cracks on two sides of a
weak-discontinuous interface of bi-FGM. The variations of the dynamic stress intensity factors with
respect to the thickness of the FGMs on the two sides are obtained using singular integral equations.
Cheng and Zhong [52] used Fourier transform and singular integral equations to study the
dynamic fracture behavior of crack in sandwiched functionally graded strip. The effect of the graded
parameters, thickness of the sandwiched strip, thickness of the homogeneous layers, the length and
speed of the crack on the dynamic stress intensity factors are established. Li Ma et al [53] used Fourier
transform and dual integral equations to study the effect of the material properties on the dynamic
stress intensity factors for a crack in an orthotropic medium.
Figure 4: (a) Collinear cracks perpendicular to a bi-FGM interface (from Li Y.-D et al.[62]); (b) Geometry of
a moving crack for a functionally graded strip sandwiched by two homogeneous layers (from Cheng
and Zhong [50]).
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Variations of P-DSIFs and S-DSIFs with the thickness of FGM. (a) β1a0 = 2.0 and (b) β1a0 =– 2.0
(from Li Y.-D et al.[51]).
(a) (b)
Cheng et al [54] used the multilayered model to model the material properties to study the crack
propagation in an FGM coating. Feng et al [55] used Fourier transform, Laplace transform and
dislocation density functions and singular integral equations to study the effect of the gradient of the
rigidity modulus on the peak value of the dynamic stress intensity factor. For a thin strip increase in the
width and reduction in maximum value of dynamic SIF were observed.
Guo and Noda [56] also have used the Laplace and Fourier Integral transformations to study the
influence of Young’s modulus ratio and crack length and location on the dynamic stress intensity
factors. The other investigations with the use of Laplace and Fourier Integral transformations include
Hongmin et al [57] to study the mode I and mode II crack behavior and Li and Fan [58] to study the
crack in a sandwiched FGM layer. Wang and Mai [59] used singular integral equations to calculate the
dynamic SIFs and showed that the array of cracks tend to decrease the mode I SIF and increase the
mode II SIF. The variations in SIFs with the crack periodicity were calculated and discussed.
Other investigators include Li Ma et al [60] who used the Schmidt method and dual integral
equations to study the crack propagation in orthotropic medium; Xia and Ma [61] used Schmidt
method and Fourier transformation to study the crack behavior under harmonic stress wave; Chen and
Liu [62] used integral transformations to study the dynamic response of a mode III crack; Huang and
Wang [63] used multilayered model to study the dynamic fracture behavior of a crack in graded
interface under anti-plane loading; Rousseau and Tippur [64] used optical interferometry to study the
effect of material properties on the crack initiations under dynamic loading conditions; Hyung Choi
[65] used Fourier and Laplace Integral equations for an elastodynamic analysis of crack in an
interfacial zone and Meguid et al [66] used Fourier transformations and singular integral equations to
study the dynamic fracture behavior of FGMs with varying properties under elastic deformation
conditions.
2.2. Numerical Methods in Fracture Analysis

Numerical methods give the approximate but easy to get solutions [67-70]. Pal et al [67] have done a
parametric study by systematically varying the material inhomogeneity length scale to study the mode
III crack propagation in symmetric FGMs.
Figure 6: (a) Snapshots of the crack sliding profiles recorded at regular time intervals of 0.4a0/cs apart, and (b)
Magnified view of the crack sliding profiles depicting the details of the cohesive damage for
different graded materials.
(a) (b)
It has been observed that the crack always reached a quasi-state steady velocity and remained
unaffected by the material inhomogeneity. Kubair et al [68] used the cohesive zone model to study the
mode III propagation characteristics. It has been observed that though the cohesive tractions and crack
opening displacements are affected by material inhomogeneity, the stress ahead of the cohesive zone
remained unaffected. Chen et al [69] have used the Fourier transform method and singular integral
equation to obtain the numerical solution for collinear crack in a FGM strip. Kirugulige et al [70] used
experimental and numerical simulations to model a sandwich structure by introducing compositional
gradients to the core and found that stress intensifications is reduced in case of compositional gradients
compared with conventional structures.
3. Finite Element Models for Fracture Analysis

Finite element methods have been extensively used by majority of the researchers especially in the case
of functionally graded materials. The arbitrary variations in material properties in chosen directions
make the finite element modeling an effective tool to deal with. Linear analysis was performed in case
of Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM). Brittle materials like diamond remain elastic even at the
crack tip where stresses are high. Even in case of brittle materials most of them have some anelastic
deformation close to the crack tip. The presence of plastic zone near crack tip in case of ductile
materials necessitates the use of Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM).
3.1. Finite Element Models for Linear Analysis

Tilbrook et al [71] used the finite element analysis to study the fracture behavior of FGMs under
flexural loading conditions. The energy release rates and propagation angles were calculated by
varying the elastic properties as continuous gradients.
Figure 7: (a) Comparison between continuous and stepped gradients, showing variations of composition and
composite Young’s Modulus, E*, across a graded component, where η is the normalized position,
given as a fraction of the distance across the gradient. For this example, Material 1 is epoxy (E = 3.4
GPa, υ = 0.35) and Material 2 is alumina (E = 390 GPa, υ = 0.27) and (b) Comparison of
computational results from the present study with those from the analytical model of Konda and
Erdogan for a vertical crack in an infinite plane with an exponential stiffness gradient in the
horizontal direction. Good agreement is observed (from Tilbrook et al. [71]).

(a) (b)
Stepped gradients with smoothing discontinuities were compared with the results obtained from
J-integral approach. The material gradient has been described by the magnitude of elastic property
mismatch, RE=E2/E1, the shape of the elastic property profile has been defined by the power law
exponent ‘n.’
Continuous gradients were defined by
E ( )  E1 1   RE  1 n  (1)
Stepped gradients were defined by

E ( )  E1 1   RE  1  Int  N S  / N S 
n
 (2)
Stepped gradients with smoothing discontinuities were defined by
E ( ) 
1 
     
E1 1   RE  1 Int  N S      / N S 
n
1    /   d
2
(3)
Li et al [72] have used the multiple isoparametric finite element method to obtain the mode I
SIFs for FGM solid cylinders and found that the material property distribution affects the stress
intensity factors to a great extent. The behaviours of embedded crack and external crack were different.
Zhang and Paulino [73] investigated the dynamics of mixed mode fracture using cohesive zone
modeling. It was found that the cohesive zone approach is effective in fracture evolution characteristics
in homogenous and graded materials. Kim [74] has developed a finite element method for analysis of
orthotropic FGMs with arbitrarily oriented cracks. The stress-intensity factors for mode I and mixed
mode were evaluated and compared using modified crack closure techniques.
Comi and Mariani [75] uses an extended finite element model to study the propagation of
cracks, and checked with the simulation of four points bending tests on notched beams. In this paper
[75] the variation of the generic property α in the graded region was given by the power law
 FGM  1   2  1   q (4)
Where, 1 ,  2 are the limit values of  , and q is the power index.

Rahman and Rao [76] uses the finite element method to obtain the numerical solutions for the
proposed new mode decoupling shape sensitivity method, to calculate the mixed mode SIFs and found
an excellent agreement between the proposed model and available reference solutions. Tilbrook et al
[77] used finite element method to estimate crack-tip stress fields and propagation paths and compared
with experimental results. Rao and Rahman [78] earlier also used the finite element method for the
continuum shape sensitivity analysis on orthotropic FGMs. Chi, and Chung [79] used finite element
method to obtain the SIFs of cracked sigmoid FGM coatings.
Figure 8: (a) Two dimensional functionally graded solid containing a side crack; (b) Effective cohesive law;
(c) Variation of the mechanical property α as per power law (8) (from Comi and Mariani [75]).
(a) (b) (c)
Pan et al [80] used finite element method to study the linear elastic and viscoelastic crack tip
fields in a FGM strip with periodical cracks and conclude that gradient index p does not affect stress
Intensity factors much. Zhigang and Chu [81] used the p-version of finite element method to identify
the structural crack in FGM beams.
Figure 9: Commonly used specimen types: (a) single-edged tension, SE(T); (b) single-edged bending SE(B);
(c) compact tension C(T). Material properties graded in x-direction (from Shim et al.[82]).
Three dimensional finite element models have been used for the analysis of three dimensional
cracks. Shim et al [82] used three dimensional finite element models to study the effect of material
gradation on SIFs and K-dominance.
Figure 10: (a) A functionally graded semi infinite strip containing an edge crack; (b) Schematic of a 20-noded
enriched finite element located at portion of an arbitrary oriented crack (from Ayhan [83]).
(a) (b)
In this paper [82] the Poisson’s ratio υ is assumed constant (=0.3) and Young’s modulus E is an
exponential function
E(x) = E1eλx (5)
Where λ is the material non-homogeneity parameter and 1/ λ defines the length scale of the
material. Material gradients ranged from E2/E1 = 1/20 to E2/E1 = 20.Ayhan [83] present a three-
dimensional enriched finite element method to calculate the stress intensity factors. Selecting the
exponential functions for material property gradients, the general purpose finite element code is
modified to suit the three dimensional variations in material properties. It has been observed that the
enriched elements can be applied to three-dimensional cracks accurately and efficiently.In this paper
[83] the elastic modulus ‘E’ and the coefficient of thermal expansion ‘α’ vary as
E(x) = E1eβx and α (x) = α 1ewx (6)
where
1 E  1  
  ln  2  and w  ln  2  (7)
W  E1  W  1 
E1 , 1 and E2 ,  2 are the values of elastic modulus and α at x = 0 and x = W respectively.
3.2. Finite Element Models for Non-Linear Analysis

Non-linear analysis is performed in cases of Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM). In case of
ductile materials the presence of plastic zone at the crack tip involves two types of stress-strain
behaviours, the plastic behaviour inside the plastic zone and the elastic behaviour outside the zone. The
material behaviour inside the plastic zone is complex to model and so EPFM problems are generally
solved using numerical analysis or finite element formulations. Non-linear analysis generally evaluates
the J-integral and is mostly acceptable to designers and researchers for solving EPFM problems.
Lee et al [84] used the finite element method based micromechanical analysis to study the
fracture behavior of functionally graded foams and found that the fracture toughness very much
depends on the relative density at the crack tip.
Figure 11: (a) Discrete elastic modulus for macro-model with 10 regions, and (b) J-integral for various
contours in a macro-model containing 100 x 50 elements. Contour numbers increase away from the
crack tip (from Lee et al [84]).
(a) (b)
Paulino and Kim [85] used the interaction integral method along with finite element method to
obtain the T-stress in FGMs. Jin et al [86] used a volume fraction based extended TTO model to
determine the flow properties of the background material yielding. Cohesive zone model assumed that
crack growth occurs when the cohesive surfaces separate completely. Crack growth resistance pattern
was observed when crack grows from the ceramic rich region into metal-rich region because of the
onset of plastic deformation of metal constituent which retards the crack growth. 3-D finite element
analysis has been done.
Figure 12: (a) Schematic of the power-law stress-strain curve of the extended TTO model and (b) local integral
in 3-D crack front (from Jin et al. [86]).
(a) (b)
Jin et al [87] proposed a cohesive zone model to study the elastic-plastic crack growth in
FGMs, which is an extended TTO model and analyzed the Ti  /Ti single-edge notch bend specimen.
The exponent defining the volume fraction profile of the metal strongly influences the crack growth
response. Shim et al [88] used the three dimensional non-linear finite element model for the
development and application of a modified boundary layer model for FGMs.
3.3. Finite Element Models for Thermal Fracture Analysis

Finite element models have been used for analysis of FGMs under thermal [89-92] and thermo-
mechanical [93] loading conditions. Dag [93] used a computational method based on equivalent
domain integral (EDI) to obtain the thermal stress intensity factor for mode I cracks.
Figure 13: A crack in an orthotropic functionally graded medium (from Dag [89]);
In this paper [89] the constitutive relations used to model the orthotropic FGMs under thermal
loads for plane stress and is given as
 11   1 E1  12 E1 0   11  1T 
   0   22    2 T 
  22     12 E1 1 E2 (8)
 212   0 0 1 G12   12   0 
where εij(i,j = 1,2) are total strain components, Ei, υij and Gij(i,j = 1,2) are engineering constants of
plane orthotropic elasticity, α1 and α2 are thermal expansion coefficients in the directions x1 and x2
respectively and ΔT is the change in temperature from a reference.
Amit and Kim [90] have used a new interaction integral combined with the finite element
method to obtain the mixed mode stress intensity factors and T-stress values.
Lee et al [91] used finite element program to calculate the thermal stresses of a polytypoidal
Si3N4-Al2O3. Han and Wang [92] used finite element model to solve the crack problem of multiple
cracking and found that multiple cracking improves the thermal shock resistance. Dag et al [93] studied
the fracture behavior of orthotropic FGMs subjected to thermal and mechanical loading conditions
separately. Enriched finite elements model is used to obtain the mixed mode stress intensity factors and
energy release rates.
4. Fracture Analysis under Externally Applied Loads

Externally applied loads include the thermal, mechanical and thermo-mechanical loading conditions.
Major applications for FGMs include aero-space and nuclear reactors which are subjected to heavy
thermal, mechanical or the combined thermo-mechanical loadings.
4.1. Thermal Fracture Analysis

The application of FGMs being mainly as thermal barrier coatings calls for extensive studies on the
thermal fracture behaviors. Jin and Feng [94] used the integral equation techniques to obtain the
thermal stress-intensity factors at the crack-tips, for the graded Al2O3/Si3N4 coating and found that the
graded coating has higher thermal fracture toughness than homogeneous Al2O3 coating.
Figure 14: An edge cracked FGC strip subjected to a thermal shock (from Jin and Luo [95]).
Jin and Luo [95] discusses an analytical model to obtain the thermal shock residual strength of
functionally graded ceramics, and presented numerical results for Al2O3/Si3N4 and TiC/SiC graded
systems.
In this paper the TSIF at the edge crack tip is computed from
1   K I  1   lim  2 x  a  x, 0,    1 a r ,
K*  xa 
  yy    r 1 (9)
E 0 T  b E 0 T  b 2 b
where K I denotes the TSIF, K * the nondimensional TSIF,  yy the normal stress and
T = T0  Ta and  0 =  ( x) x 0
Feng and Jin [96] have graded the thermal properties but kept Young’s modulus and Poisson’s
ratio constant in their study of FGM plate under thermal load and obtained the thermal stress intensity
factors (TSIFs).
Other investigators on thermal fracture analysis include Lee et al [91] who used finite element
program to calculate the thermal stresses of a polytypoidal Si3N4-Al2O3; Han and Wang [92] on the
effect of multiple cracking which improves the thermal shock resistance used finite element method to
obtain solutions; Carpinteri and Pugno [97] who studied the size effects on residual stresses and
delamination problems; Xiong et al [98] studied the effect of the thickness of the FGM coatings in
effecting the heat insulation characteristics; Pindera et al [99] studied the spallation mechanisms in
thermal barrier coatings using higher-order theory; Moon et al [100] studied the crack growth
resistance (R-curve) behavior and residual stresses in graded alumina-zirconia layers; Kawasaki and
Watanabe [101] studied the thermal fracture behavior of metal/ceramic graded coatings, and Noda and
Wang [102] compared metal-ceramic FGM plate and metal-ceramic bonded plate and found that with
FGM, thermal stress intensity factors are reduced.
4.2. Analysis on Mechanical Loadings

Some papers deal with the aspect of mechanical testings alone. Gao [103] used the boundary element
method [BEM] to study the fracture behavior of FGMs by varying the mechanical properties linearly in
two dimensions.
Figure 15: (a) Relationship between distances and (b) An edge crack parallel to the material gradation in a
rectangular functionally graded plate subjected to tensile loading (from Gao et al.[103]).
(a) (b)
The calculated mode I and mode II stress intensity factors indicate the increase in SIFs with
increase in gradient parameter. It was concluded that the crack propagation direction may depend on
the mechanical properties gradient. Zhou et al [104] used the non-local theory to get the maximum
stress at the crack tip and used it as fracture criterion. Varying the shear modulus exponentially in the
direction parallel to crack, the effect of the material gradient properties and crack length on the crack
tip stress field was discussed. Tilbrook et al [71] used the finite element analysis to study the fracture
behavior of FGMs under flexural loading conditions.
Figure 16: (a) Normalised mode-I stress intensity factor versus the dimensionless gradient parameter βh and (b)
Normalised mode-II stress intensity factor versus the dimensionless gradient parameter βh (from
Gao et al.[103]).
(a) (b)
Other authors on mechanical analysis include Thomsen et al [105] who found that structurally
graded core junctions of the sandwich beams improve the fatigue life by 38% over ungraded junctions;
Tohgo et al [106] who evaluated the fracture toughness and R-curve behavior of rectangular specimens
subjected to three-point-bending test and also many others cited elsewhere.
4.3. Thermo-Mechanical Analysis

The FGMs are used mostly as thermal barrier coatings in high temperature applications also coupled
with very high mechanical loadings as in the cases of turbine blades and rotors, the thermo-mechanical
analysis of FGMs is vital for design of these critical components. Guo et al [107] uses the piecewise-
exponential model varying the thermo-mechanical properties exponentially along the gradient
direction. The calculated thermal stress intensity factors (TSIFs) show that the fracture behavior of the
functionally graded plate can be improved by properly choosing the variation profiles of the thermo-
mechanical properties.
Dag et al [93] studied the fracture behavior of orthotropic FGMs subjected to thermal and
mechanical loading conditions, separately. Enriched finite elements model was used to obtain the
mixed mode stress intensity factors and energy release rates, which are mainly influenced by the
variation profiles of thermo-mechanical properties.
Figure 17: (a) A FGP with arbitrary thermomechanical properties along the gradient direction, containing an
embedded or edge crack (from Guo et al.[107]) and (b) An embedded crack in an orthotropic FGM
layer with free boundaries (from Dag et al. [93]).
(a) (b)
Figure 18: Normalised mixed mode stress intensity factors versus the shear parameter k0 and h1 / a for the
crack problem shown in fig. 14. a. (a) mode I SIFs; (b) mode II SIFs.  a = 1,  0 = 0.3,  04 = 2,
h2 / a = 5, p( x1 )   0 , q ( x1 )  0 (from Dag et al.[93]).
Li et al [108] have used the methods of variable separation and singular integral equations to
study the response of a crack in the interface of functionally graded layer and the homogeneous
cylinder under mode I loading conditions.
Walters et al [109] used the FEM solutions and J-integral values to obtain the set of stress
intensity factors for varied crack sizes and aspect ratios in FGMs under mode I loading conditions.
Afsar et al [110] studied the problem of required material distribution to have the required fracture
characteristic for an FGM cylinder. Afsar and Anisuzzaman [111] used a generalized method to obtain
stress intensity factor of a thick-walled FGM cylinder. Kidane et al [112] have varied the thermal and
mechanical properties exponentially in their study of dynamic growth characteristics of a mixed mode
crack under thermo-mechanical loading conditions.
Hvizdos et al [113] experimentally studied the mechanical properties using indentation
methods. Shock resistance using indentation quench method for an alumina/Zirconia FGM referred
with the published literature. Wang and Mai [114] studied the response of array of cracks in FGMs
under thermo-mechanical loading conditions. Calculated stress intensity factors indicate the influence
of non-homogeneity parameters and also the loading conditions on the fracture behavior.
Other studies include the Finite element simulations by Tilbrook et al [115] to study the crack
propagation in homogenous and graded Alumina-epoxy composites; Simulation methods by
Steigemann et al [116] to study the effect of gradation on the crack growth, FEM-CAD modeling by
Kou and Fan [117] and post-buckling analysis of Functionally Graded Timoshenko beams by Ke [118]
et al.
5. Micromechanical Models
Micromechanics based models are used to predict the fracture behavior of functionally graded
composites. Zhang Li et al [119] discusses how the functionally graded WC-Co cemented carbide
exhibit the toughness variations based on the microstructure and found that the structure character and
so the stresses distribution state is a critical factor for fracture toughness. Lambers et al [120] have used
the digital image correction(DIC) measurements and microscopy to study the influence of stresses due
to bainitic phase transformations on the crack growth behavior.
Figure 19: (a) HV50 indent image in the core zone, with diagonal length of 281.32 μm and 278.02 μm
respectively; (b) Sketch of crack propagation in WC-Co DP cemented carbide (from Zhang Li et
al.[119]).
(a) (b)
Lee et al [84] used the finite element method based micromechanical analysis to study the
fracture behavior of functionally graded foams. Cannillo et al [121] used microstructure based
computational models for crack propagation in glass-alumina FGMs and also compared the results
with experimental results. Dolbow and Nadeau [122] discusses on the use of effective parameters such
as SIFs for the failure analysis of FGMs, the microstructured materials.
6. Analysis of Mixed Mode Cracks

A crack located asymmetrically in FGMs experiences a mixed mode state of stress even when loaded
under mode I conditions. Menouillard et al [123] have presented a method for calculation of the stress
intensity factors for FGMs with mixed mode crack. In this paper[123] analytical models for the
calculations of stress intensity factors, KI and KII were arrived at as follows:
E0 a U , uIh  E0 a U , uIIh 
KI  and K II  (10)
2 1  2  2 1  2 
Forth et al [124] have generated three dimensional mixed mode surface crack data in
functionally graded Ti-6Al-4V  -STOA titanium alloy.
Figure 20: (a) Coordinate system; (b) Crack-tip field (from menouillard et al.[123]).
(a) (b)
Figure 21: Crack growth trajectory for (a) 30° and (b) 60° mixed mode cases (from Forth et al.[124]).
(a) (b)
Ayhan [125] used enriched finite elements to obtain the mixed mode stress intensity factors. Jin
et al [126] have used the combination of extended finite elements, Digital Image Correlation (DIC)
along with experimental methods in their study of mixed-mode fracture response of FGMs.
Chalivendra [127] have varied the shear modulus and mass density to define the FGM’s property
gradation of mixed mode elastodynamic crack growth.
Cabrera et al [128] used the finite element techniques to study the effects of residual stress and
geometry on the SIFs of a mixed mode crack conditions caused by the elastic property gradients. The
cracks perpendicular to the property gradients are mixed mode cracks. It has been observed that a crack
in a simple graded system may kink towards the stiffer side of the gradient when residual stresses are
present.
Figure 22: Equivalent mode I stress intensity factor vs. applied load with and without residual stresses for the
graded (a) SENT, (b) 4PB and (c) CCT geometries. and the plot of angle of crack kinking vs.
equivalent stress intensity factor (from Cabrera et al.[128]).
In this paper [128] the equivalent mode I stress intensity factor K Ie is defined as follows:
  
K Ie  K I cos3 m  3K II cos 2 m sin m (11)
2 2 2
and fracture would occur when K I  K IC
e
(12)
where K IC is the toughness of the cracked layer.
7. Fracture Analysis of FGPMs and New Age Materials

New age materials like the functionally graded piezoelectric materials (FGPMs) and magneto-electro-
elastic and nanocrystalline materials have also attracted attention for fracture analysis by many
investigators. These smart materials find their applications in the intelligent systems as sensors and
actuators. These studies involve the formulations of thermo-elastic-magneto-electric property
variations of FGPMs and extensively use the integral transform techniques to obtain the solutions.
Figure 23: Penny-shaped crack in a functionally graded piezoelectric strip under transient thermal loading
(from Ueda [129]).
Ueda [129] studied the dynamic response of a crack in a FGPM plate under thermal loadings.
The author varied the thermo-elasto-electric material properties along the thickness and obtained the
transient stress and elastic displacement intensity factors for various crack conditions. In this paper
[129] material properties such as the elastic stiffness constants, piezoelectric constants, the dielectric
constants, the stress-temperature coefficients, the pyroelectric constant, the coefficients of heat
conduction and the heat capacity, specific heat and mass density were assumed to be one-
dimensionally dependent.
Zhou et al [130] studied the fracture behavior of a Griffith crack in FGPMs using non-local
theory and found that the crack tip stresses depend on the crack length and material properties. Ueda
[131] in another paper discussed on fracture behavior of a crack under thermal loading, and presented
the stress and elastic displacement intensity factors for various crack condition and also in another
paper [132] discusses on the electroelastic dynamic fracture behavior of crack in a FGP strip.
Many other authors studied the fracture behavior of cracks in FGPMs include Zhou and Wu
[133] on two collinear cracks using nonlocal theory; Zhou and Chen [134] on two parallel mode I
cracks using Almansi’s theorem; Ueda [135-138] on penny-shaped crack mixed mode thermo-electro-
elastic problem; under electromechanical loadings; on dynamic response of centre crack, and on impact
response of a vertical crack in FGP plate; Li Ma [139] on the electro-elastic fracture behavior of a
Griffith crack in FGP strip; Chen and Liu [140] on the periodic cracks vertical to the boundary; Chue
and Ych [141] on the angle cracks in bonded FGPMs; Yan and Jiang [142] on finite crack propagation
using dielectric model; Jun [143] on the dynamic behavior of a crack in a FGPM. Other smart materials
include the magneto-electro-elastic plates by Wenjie and Raykaileung [144-145]; magneto-electro-
elastic strip by Li Ma et al [146] and nanocrystalline alloys by Cavaliere [147] who used ABAQUS
simulations on nanocrystalline nickel-tungsten alloys and Cheng et al [148] on nickel undergoing from
nanocrystalline to ultrafine scale fracture.
8. Elastic-Plastic Crack Growth Analysis

Many investigators use the Tamura-Tomota-Ozawa (TTO) model [149] for elastic-plastic crack growth
analysis of ceramic/metal composites. TTO model assumes the uniaxial stress,  and strain,  of a
two-phase composite to be the average uniaxial stresses and strains of the constituent phases by the
rule of mixtures as
  V1  V2 2 ,   V11  V2 2 (13)
Where  i and  i (I = 1,2) are the average stresses and strains of the two phases present and V1
and V2 are volume fractions. TTO model defines an additional parameter q as
 2
q 1 , 0<q< (14)
 1   2 
The model assumes that the composite yield follows metal constituent yield. The Young’s
modulus, E and the yield stress,  y of the composite is obtained as follows.
 q  E1   q  E1 
E  V2 E2  1  V2  E1  V2  1  V2   (15)
 q  E2   q  E2 
 q  E2 E1 
 Y V2    0 V2 1  V2  (16)
 q  E1 E2 
where E1 and E2 are Young’s modulii of the constituent phases and  0 is the yield stress of the metal
phase 2. Poisson’s ratio v is taken as per rule of mixtures as
v  V1v1  V2 v2 (17)
where v1 and v2 are Poisson’s ratios of the two phases. The stress-strain curves of the metal and
composite beyond the yield points are of the form
n0
 
2  0  2  , 2  0 (18)
0 
and
n
 
  Y   ,    Y (19)
 Y 
The stress-strain relationship for the composite is given by
V E  2  q  V2 E1  E  0
n0
 2 
 1    (20)
 Y q  E1  Y  q  E1  E2  Y  0 
n
 V2 q  E1  2 V1qE1  0   2 
   
Y q  E1  Y  q  E1  E2  Y   0 
Batra and Love [150] studied the fracture behavior of FGMs by modeling the metal/metal
composite as composed of strain-hardening and thermally-softening constituents. The maximum speed
of a ductile crack in tungsten and in composite was estimated. Jin et al [86-87] used a volume fraction
based extended TTO model to determine the flow properties of the background material yielding and
also proposed a cohesive zone model to study the elastic-plastic crack growth in FGMs; which is an
extended TTO model.
Earlier investigators include Tvergaard [151] who used the cohesive zone model to study the
crack growth in a functionally graded layer joining dissimilar elastic-plastic solids; Jin and Paulino
[152] who studied the fracture behavior of a visco elastic strip of FGM under tensile loading conditions
and Paulino et al [153] who conducted the experiment and compared with non-linear finite element
model solutions of a pure titanium, a non-FGM, and found good agreement between the two.
9. Conclusions
The review covers recent trends in selected areas on the fracture analyses of FGMs. Analysis on
elastic-plastic crack growth and thermo-mechanical loading conditions is limited and there is scope for
considerable future work. Studies on mixed-mode crack propagations, sandwiched functionally graded
layers, ceramic/metal interfacial zones and metal/metal interfacial zones, fatigue crack initiation and
crack growths, time-based (transient) crack responses under fatigue loadings, creep behaviors are
potential areas for future studies. Future works on validation of existing theoretical and finite element
models with experimental studies will further strengthen the understanding of FGMs well.
In summary the material properties including elastic, geometry, thermal and mechanical
properties can be arbitrarily varied along chosen directions viz. thickness or radial directions. The
variation profile or the material properties gradient greatly influence the mode-I and mode-II stress
intensity factors, energy release rates, thermal stress intensity factors and R-curve behavior and so the
fracture toughness. Crack parameters including position and location of crack, crack length, array of
cracks, crack-tip stress fields have effect on the crack propagation rate and directions and also on
fracture toughness.
Crack orientations with respect to interface and propagation direction with respect to the
gradient profile also affect the crack growth rate. Perpendicular cracks result in mixed mode loading
conditions. Dynamic stress intensity factors associated with the interfacial zones also depend on the
magnitude and gradation of the material properties, interfacial zone parameters and the crack
parameters.
Functionally graded Piezoelectric materials (FGPMs) and other graded smart materials promise
a new era of intelligent systems and the associated thermo-elastic-magneto-electric property model
formulations and fracture behaviors need further attention as fracture analysis on these materials are
very much limited.
Elastic-plastic crack growth involving the elastic deformation and plastic yielding conditions
require special property models. Metal rich region offers resistance to crack growth due to the onset of
the plastic yielding conditions in the bulk metal. J-integral (J resistance curve) evaluation at the crack-
tip in the plastic region is a good measure of fracture toughness in this case.
Stress intensity factors, Dynamic stress intensity factors, Thermal stress intensity factors,
Energy release rates, R-curve and JR curve all indicate the fracture toughness and or fracture behavior
as the case may be. Studies on elastic-plastic crack growth and thermo-mechanical loading conditions
have been limited. Also the difficulties in manufacturing, limited the experimental works on FGMs and
only a very few studies are available. Micro structure based experimental works on FGMs is also
limited.
Elastic-plastic crack growth is an area for extensive future works, and more finite element
models could be developed and made use of. Considerable advances have been made in the fracture
analysis of FGMs recently, yet a lot more need to be done to have an effective understanding of the
fracture behavior of FGMs.
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An overview of fracture analysis in Functionally Graded Materials

Article in European Journal of Scientific Research · January 2012

Bhaskar G B Dr.M. Chandrasekaran

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An Overview of Fracture Analysis in Functionally

Recent trends in fracture behavior studies on Functionally Graded Materials

Keywords: Functionally Graded Materials, Stress Intensity Factors, J-integral, R-curves,

1.1. Manufacturing of FGMs

1.2. Characterization of FGMs

2. Analytical Models for Fracture Analysis

2.1. Dynamic Fracture Mechanics

2.2. Numerical Methods in Fracture Analysis

3. Finite Element Models for Fracture Analysis

3.1. Finite Element Models for Linear Analysis

Where, 1 ,  2 are the limit values of  , and q is the power index.

(a) (b) (c)

3.2. Finite Element Models for Non-Linear Analysis

3.3. Finite Element Models for Thermal Fracture Analysis

4. Fracture Analysis under Externally Applied Loads

4.1. Thermal Fracture Analysis

4.2. Analysis on Mechanical Loadings

4.3. Thermo-Mechanical Analysis

6. Analysis of Mixed Mode Cracks

7. Fracture Analysis of FGPMs and New Age Materials

8. Elastic-Plastic Crack Growth Analysis

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