VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICALUNIVERSITY

BELAGAVI, KARNATAKA – 590014

PROJECT REPORT ON

“A STUDY OF TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF HYBRID

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE”

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted By :

DHANALAKSHMI K S (4GE16ME005)
MADANRAJ S (4GE17ME410)
SANGANNA BASAPPA (4GE17ME419)
SHIVANNA LINGAPPAGOUDA (4GE17ME422)

Under The Guidance of

Prof. Revanna K
Assistant professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Government of Karnataka
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Government Engineering College, Bedarapura, Chamarajanagar-571313

2019-2020
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Bedarapura, Chamarajanagara-571313

CERTIFICATE
This is certify that DHANALAKSHMI K S (4GE16ME005), MADANRAJ S (4GE17ME410),
SANGANNA BASAPPA (4GE17ME419), SHIVANNA LINGAPPAGOUDA (4GE17ME422),
bonafide students of VIII semester has successfully completed the project work entitled “A
STUDY OF TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF HYBRID METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE”,
for the partial fulfillment of bachelor Degree in mechanical engineering of visveshraya
Technolgical university, Belgavi. During the academic year 2019-2020. The Project report has
been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements with respect to the project work
prescribed for bachelor of engineering degree.

Signature of the guide Signature Of HOD

External viva

Name of examiners: signature and date:

1.

2.
 ABSTRACT
Materials play a major role in industrial applications. An advance in the development of
material has a high influence on the industrial growth cum a nation's economy. Hence,
continuous efforts are being made to enhance the properties of materials and this is resulting in
effective and efficient utilization of components made from the concerned materials.

One of the major developments in the field of materials is that of composite materials.
Composites are new generation of engineering materials and they offer several outstanding
properties as compared with conventional monolithic materials. Their properties are enhanced by
controlled distribution of the second phase in the matrix of the first one.

The matrix material in a composite serves two very important functions. It holds the
reinforcement phase in place and under an applied force it deforms and distributes the stress to
the reinforced constituents. The transfer of load from the matrix to the reinforcement depends on
the bonding interface between the matrix and reinforcement, and the bonding depends on the
type of matrix and the reinforcement.

The matrix sometimes may have to act as the chief strengthening element as in certain
metal matrix composites where it is called upon to stand up to heat or cold, conduct or resist
electricity, keep out moisture, or protect against corrosion. It may al so be chosen from its
weight, ease of handling, or any of the many other properties.

Reinforcement is generally a high strength material, which is combined with the matrix,
so as to carry the load acting on the composite. The reinforcing materials much more than
strength can conduct heat or resist chemical corrosion, resist or conduct electricity, and they may
be chosen for their stiffness (modulus of elasticity) or for many other properties. In
reinforcement selection, properties such as mechanical and physical properties, microstructure,
morphology and cost are considered. Reinforcements increase the strength, stiffness, and
temperature resistance capacity but lower the density of the composites. If reinforcement is to
improve the strength of a given matrix, it must be both stronger and stiffer than the matrix, and it
must significantly modify the failure mechanisms in an advantageous way. The requirement of
high strength and high stiffness implies little or no ductility and thus relatively brittle behavior.

The prime function of reinforcement is to carry the load. The reinforcement can be
divided into two major groups namely continuous and discontinuous. The reinforcements are
generally ceramics, these typically being oxides, carbides and nitrides. These are used because of
their combination of high strength and stiffness both at room and elevated temperature. Common
reinforcement materials are silicon carbide, graphite, alumina, boron, etc.

Among the various metal the aluminium family has been used increasingly during the
past few years. Considerable industrial applications have been found, mainly due to their good
mechanical properties, excellent fluidity, and castabality. aluminium-based alloys, especially
high strength with a low casting temperature. Studies on aluminium-based matrix composites
reinforced with graphite powders exhibited excellent wear resistance, superior hardness and
modulus compared with the parent matrix metal.

The investigations have been carried out on the mechanical properties of Al 2024 alloy
composites containing graphite particles and boron carbide with different weight percentages.
The composites were fabricated by stir casting method and study tribological behavior such as
friction lubrication, wear properties at different condition of the composites.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is a great pleasure to acknowledge Dr. Muniraju M, Head. Mechanical Engineering

Department, Government Engineering College, Chamarajanagar. With profound gratitude for
his moral inspiration, encouragement, valuable guidance and suggestions throughout the course
of my research work and preparation of this report. This research work would not have been
possible without his valuable guidance, support and association at every stage during the study.
I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Muniraju M, Head of the
Mechanical Engineering Department. Government Engineering College, Chamarajanagar for
providing assistance to pursue this research work and constant encouragement throughout this
work.
I sincerely thank Dr. K I Parashivamurthy, Principal .Government Engineering
College Chamarajanagar, and my Colleagues both teaching, non-teaching, and administrative
staff of Sri Siddhartha Institute of Technology, for their kind co-operation throughout my
research work.
I sincerely thank Prof. Revanna K, project coordinator Mechanical Engineering
Department, Government Engineering College Chamarajanagar for providing required research
materials.
My special and sincere thanks to my family and friends for providing me all the
unstinted support throughout this work.

DHANALAKSHMI K S
MADANRAJ S
SANGANNABASAPPA
SHIVANNA LINGAPPAGOUDA
 TABLE OF CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to Composites
1.2 Overview of composite materials
1.3 Composite Materials
1.4 Why Composites?
1.5 Definition of Composite
1.6 Classification of Composites
1.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Composites
1.8 Applications
1.9 Metal Matrix Composites
1.10 Matrix
1.10.1 Properties of some MMC
1.10.2 Stirr casting
1.10.3 Infiltration
1.10.4 Gas pressure Infiltration
1.10.5 Squeeze casting Infiltration
1.10.6 Pressure dies Infiltration
1.10.7 Solid state Infiltration
1.10.8 Diffusion Bonding
1.10.9 Sintering

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Several literature review
3. SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK
4. MATERIALS METHODOLOGY
4.1 Materials procurement
4.2 Aluminium 2024 Alloy

4.2.1 Introduction to 2024 Aluminium Alloy

4.3 GRAPHITE

4.3.1 Introduction to Graphite

4.4 BORON CARBIDE

4.5
4.6 STIRR CASTING EXPLINATION
4.5.1. Statement of the problem
4.5.2 Objectives
4.5.3 Casting process simulation

4.7 Powder metallurgy

4.7.1 Overview

5. WEAR PROPERTIES
5.1 Introduction
6. SCOPE FOR FUTURE
WORK CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to Composites

With the continued technological advancement in aeronautics, demand for advanced

pneumatic components for ultra-high end applications is on the rise. Apart from aeronautics, the
demand for such materials are also coming from automobiles and electronics sector in which
presently used materials such as plastics are likely desired to be replaced by efficient alternates
.The Al(aluminium) metal matrix alloy structural materials ushered in a revolution in the last
decade into the field of automobile engineering by enabling manufacture of light weight body
parts and components which significantly reduced fuel consumption in addition to improving
the strength of the components and also addressing various concerns on environmental safety
and security grounds.

Improvising the advantageous abilities of Al matrix alloy by fine tuning the properties of
strength and hardness of the alloy is the need of the hour since global demand for high efficiency
Al matrix alloy material is rising exponential. comprehensive research into the fabrication of the
alloy is being carried out in order to address the shortfalls in it’s mechanical properties which
imposes an adverse effect in automobile and aeronautical applications and products .An
exploration into the contemporary research indicates that extensive research is being carried out
to overcome the limitations of Al alloy based metal matrix composites(MMC’s) such as to
overcome the greater coefficient of friction values resulting due to the abrasive act of the
disperoids in the long run thereby significantly increasing the wear on the contact surface.

However it is observed that little effort has been made into studying the characteristic
behaviour of an Al alloy based MMC reinforced with ZrO2 particulate dispersion.. This research
primarily aims to synthesise an Al alloy based composite reinforced with ZrO 2 using Stir
Casting technique with crayogenic treatment.
 Nowadays in the current domain, manufacturing industries are competing to reduce the
cost and fuel consumption rates. Especially, in automobile and aerospace applications because of
the improvement of lightweight metal advantages. Magnesium, aluminum and other few
materials are considered as lightweight materials to use in required applications due to their
inherent properties. However it is observed that little effort has been made into studying the
characteristic behavior of an LM13 Aluminum alloy based MMC, reinforced with ZrO2
particulate dispersion. The final solidified structure using mechanical modification process
parameters such as an LM13 Aluminum alloy based composite reinforced with ZrO 2 using Stir
Casting technique with cryogenic treatment.

OVERVIEW ON ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Materials can generally be further divided into two classes: crystalline and non-crystalline.
The traditional examples of materials are metals, semiconductors, ceramics and polymers. New
and advanced materials that are being developed include nanomaterials, biomaterials, and energy
materials.
Materials that are used as raw materials for any sort of construction or manufacturing in an
organized way of engineering application are known as engineering materials.Everything we use
in our daily life can be tailored to use of specific cases. Hence, materials have been extensively
tested for their properties and classified into broad groups. From this grouping on can known
about the gross property of any group of material.
Engineering materials available for design and manufacturing of products for
severalhundred years have been mainly metals and alloys like copper, cast iron,brass with have
in wide spread use since the advent of civilization. Engineers will select a particular grade of
material based on its properties such as malleability or tensile strength. Composites comprise two
materials, such as a metallic mesh and resin, the combination of which also depends on the
properties required.
The weight of metal is the most important drawback, whose impact was felt in the aircraft
industry, especially during the second world war. In ship building, metals were the abvious
choice, but here again loaded with a certain prohibitive factors, mainly their tendency to rust,
reruiring constant maintenance, which in turn lead to ship availability. Heavy weights once again
placed limits on their speed and increased fuel consumption.
All these lead to the drawn of the plastics which was boosted during the second world war
period by the fast growing polymer industries. Plastics proved to be a low cost, light weight and
corrosion resistant alternatives to metals, but were lacking severely on the mechanical properties
and were not able to withstand high temperatures.

1.2 OVERVIEW ON COMPOSITE MATERIALS

In present scenario, composite materials have successfully substituted the traditional
materials in several light weight and high strength applications. Composites are having high
strength-to-weight ratio, high tensile strength at elevated temperatures, high creep resistance and
high toughness. Composites can be defined as the materials consisting of two or more chemically
distinct constituents on a macro scale having a distinct interface separating them and having bulk
behavior which is considerably different from those of any of the constituents.
Materials are selected for a given application is mainly based on the material’s
properties.Most engineering structure are required to carry loads, so the materials property of
greatest interest is its strength. Strength alone is not always enough. Some engineering structure
are required light weight as in aircraft. It is abious an aircraft must be as light as possible, since it
must be able to fly. So in conclusion, materials for engineering structures should have strength
and low weight. Metal alloys or steel and other metals have hig strength but heavy weight. The
materials which has high strength and low weight in composite material.

1.3 COMPOSITE MATERIALS

A composite material is a material consists of two or more constituents. The constituents are
combined at microscopic level and not soluble each other. Generally, a composite material is
composed of reinforcement such as fibers, particles/particulates, flakes embedded in a matrix
(metals, polymers). The matrix holds the reinforcement to form the desired shape while the
reinforcement improves the overall mechanical properties of the matrix. When designed
properly, the new combined material exhibits the better strength than would each individual
material.
1.4 WHY COMPOSITES?
The primary reason composite materials are chosen for components is because of weight
saving for its relative stiffness and strength. For example, carbon-fiber reinforced composite can
be five times stronger than 1020 grade steel while having only one fifth of the weight.

Aluminium (6061 grade) is much nearer in weight to carbon-fiber composite, though still
somewhat heavier,but the composite can have twice the modulus and up to seven times the
strength.

WHY SHOULD WE USE COMPOSITES?

As with all engineering materials, composites have particular strengths and
weaknesses,which should be considered at the specifying stage. Composites are by no means the
right material for every job.
However, a major driving force behind the development of composites has been that the
combination of the reinforcement and the matrix can be changed to meet the required final
properties of a component. For example, if the final component needs to be fire-resistant, a fire-
retardant matrix can be used in the development stage so that it has this property.

➢ Weight reduction
▪ The primary reason composites are chosen is improved specific strength / stiffness
(strength / stiffness specific per unit weight).
▪ This helps to reduce fuel use, or increase acceleration or range in transport.
▪ It allows for easier, faster installation or faster movement of robot arms and reduces
supporting structures or foundations.
▪ It improves topside stability in vessels and offshore structures and applications.
➢ Durability and maintenance
▪ Composites don’t rust, which is crucial, especially in marine and chemical environments.
The need for maintenance and painting is reduced or eliminated.
▪ Composite bearings for marine engines and bridges need no lubrication and don’t corode.
 ▪ Combine the excellent fatigue resistance, and composites can increase product lifespan
by several times in many applications.

1.5 Definition of Composite Material

Definition: - A composite material is a structural material created synthetically or artificially,

by combining two or more materials having dissimilar characteristics. The constituents are
combined at microscopic level and are not soluble in each other. One constituent is called
matrix phase and the other is called reinforcing phase. Reinforcing phase is embedded in the
matrix phase to give the desired characteristics.

A composite material is defined as ―A material which consists of two or more

physically and/or chemically distinct, suitably arranged or distributed phases, with an interface
separating them. It has characteristics that are not depicted by any of the components in
isolation.‖

A composite material is a heterogeneous solid consisting of two or more different

materials that are mechanically or metallurgically bonded together. Composite materials in this
regard represent nothing but a giant step in the ever constant endeavor of optimization in the
materials. Composite material offer flexibility in design i.e., one can make material as per
specification of an optimum design.

A composite is a system that is created by the synthetic assembly of two or more

materials; namely, selected filler or reinforcing element and a compatible resin binder to obtain
specific characteristics and properties. They differ in composition or form on a macro scale.
Components do not dissolve or merge completely into each other although they act in concert.
The strength of the bond between resin and fiber is not solely dependent on the adhesive
properties of the resin system but is also affected by the surface coating on the reinforcement
fibers.
1.6 Classifications of Composites
There are two classification systems of composite materials. One of them is based on
the matrix material (metal, ceramic, and polymer) and the second is based on the material
structure.

Based on the matrix material

• Metal Matrix Composites (MMC): Metal matrix composites are composed of a metallic
matrix (aluminum, magnesium, iron, and cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides,
carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.
• Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC): Ceramic matrix composites are composed of a
ceramic matrix and embedded fibers of other ceramic material (dispersed or reinforcing phase).
• Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC): Polymer matrix composites are composed of matrix
from thermoset (unsaturated polyester, epoxy) or thermoplastic (polycarbonate, polyvinyl
chloride, nylon, polystyrene) polymers and embedded glass, carbon, aramid fibers (dispersed
phase)

Based on nature of reinforcements:

Three types of composites are:
• Particle-reinforced composites
• Fiber-reinforced composites
• Structural Composites

➢ Particle-reinforced composites
Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles,
metal particles such as aluminum, and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon
black. Particles are used to:
• Increase the modulus of the matrix,
• Decrease the permeability of the matrix
• Decrease the ductility of the matrix.
 Particles are also used to produce inexpensive composites. Reinforcers and matrices can
be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed. An example of particle reinforced
composites is an automobile tyre which has carbon black particles in a matrix of
polyisobutylene elastomeric polymer. Another example is spheroidized steel where cementite
is transformed into a spherical shape which improves the machinability of the material.
Another example for particle-reinforced composite is concrete where the aggregates (sand and
gravel) are the particles and cement is the matrix. Particle reinforced composites support higher
tensile, compressive and shear stresses.

➢ Fiber-reinforced composites
Reinforcing fibers can be made of metals, ceramics, glasses, or polymers that have been turned
into graphite and known as carbon fibers. Fibers increase the modulus of the matrix material.
The strong covalent bonds along the fiber’s length give them a very high modulus

in this direction because to break or extend the fiber the bonds must also be broken or moved.
Fibers are difficult to process into composites which makes fiber reinforced composites
relatively expensive. Fiber-reinforced composites are used in some of the most advanced, and
therefore most expensive, sports equipment, such as a time-trial racing bicycle frame which
consists of carbon fibers in a thermoset polymer matrix. Body parts of race cars and some
automobiles are composites made of glass fibers (or fiberglass) in a thermoset matrix.

Fig. 1.1 Fiber orientations in fiber reinforced composites

 The arrangement or orientation of the fibers relative to one another, the fiber
concentration, and the distribution all have a significant influence on the strength and other
properties of fiber-reinforced composites. Applications involving totally multidirectional
applied stresses normally use discontinuous fibers, which are randomly oriented in the matrix
material. Consideration of orientation and fiber length for particular composites depends on the
level and nature of the applied stress as well as fabrication cost. Production rates for short-fiber
composites (both aligned and randomly oriented) are rapid, and intricate shapes can be formed
which are not possible with continuous fiber reinforcement.

➢ Structural Composites
The properties of structural composites depend on:
• Constituents
• Geometrical design

Common structural composite types are:

• Laminar: Is composed of two-dimensional sheets or panels that have a preferred high

strength direction such as is found in wood and continuous and aligned fiber reinforced
plastics. The layers are stacked and cemented together such that the orientation of the high-
strength direction varies with each successive layer. One example of a relatively complex
structure is modern ski and another example is plywood.
• Sandwich Panels: Consist of two strong outer sheets which are called face sheets and
may be made of aluminum alloys, fiber reinforced plastics, titanium alloys, steel. Face sheets
carry most of the loading and stresses. Core may be a honeycomb structure which has less
density than the face sheets and resists perpendicular stresses and provides shear rigidity.
Sandwich panels can be used in variety of applications which include roofs, floors, walls of
buildings and in aircraft, for wings, fuselage and tail plane skins.
1.7 Advantages & Disadvantages of Composites
Composites have many merits over the conventional metals and metal alloys. Most of
today’s application requires high and often sophisticated performance, and parts are designed
to use the merits of composite properties.

➢ Advantages
1. Low energy costs per volume for manufacturing and long term energy savings from lighter
components and structures are important economic considerations.
2. Parts may be designed to be anisotropic to exploit directional properties with the specific
strength, stiffness and inherent damping.
3. Fabrication process allows the rapid manufacture of large, integrated, highperformance
components.
4. Many designs provide excellent fatigue resistance (Redundant load paths).
5. Military and civilian applications have shown that many critical components can withstand a
high degree of damage tolerance.
6. Corrosion resistance in a number of hostile environments is an asset in many applications
(Longer life).
7. The variety of materials, additives, blends, alloys, and process techniques allows for greater
flexibility in the design of most components or structures.
8. Weight reduction i.e. high strength or stiffness to weight ratio.

➢ Disadvantages
1. Analysis is difficult.
2. Matrix is weak, low toughness and difficult to attach.
3. Transverse properties may be weak.
4. Reuse and disposable may be difficult.
5. Cost of raw material may be high.
6. Matrix subjected to environment degradation.
1.8 Applications of Composites

a. Transport applications
i. Suspension systems: The Eureka 841 Eurobogie project where composites are used to
provide the train suspension system, either as a subcomponent spring element or as a complete
bogie.
ii. Regenerative braking flywheel energy storage system: It is development of a hybrid
electric vehicle incorporating a composite flywheel. It provides a power buffer to protect the
battery in a regenerative braking drive train.
b. Aerospace, where reduced weight means significant reduction in operating cost.
c. These lightweight materials used in bulkheads and decks in shipbuilding reduce weight
above the waterline, minimizing the tendency of the ship to roll in heavy seas.
d. Automotives application: Pistons, brakes, camshafts, rocket arm, carriage bar, bumper
systems, doors, moldings
e. Aerospace and space–craft applications: Truss structures, wings, fuselage Structures, landing
gear door, nose cone and leading edge of the space craft.
f. Sandwich materials can cover a large span without collapsing under their own weight
making composites ideal for industrial and commercial construction.

G.Marine applications: Tension leg platform of off-shoe platform for petroleum explorations,
pressure capsule and outer hull of deep sea operating vehicle.
1.9 Metal Matrix Composites
The demand for materials having high strength and high toughness and capable of
operating effectively under adverse conditions has led to the development of a new generation
of materials known as Metal matrix composites. Attractive physical and mechanical properties
that can be obtained with metal matrix composites (MMCs), such as high specific modulus
strength and thermal stability have made them the materials of the future and this fact has been
documented extensively. MMCs combine metallic properties (high strength and high modulus),
leading to the greatest strength in shear and compression and higher service temperature
capabilities.[8] Interests in MMCs for aerospace, automotive and other structural application
has increased in over last few years, as a result of availability of relatively inexpensive
reinforcements, and the development of various processing routes which results in reproducible
microstructures and properties. In aerospace applications reductions in structural weight can be
effected, not only by reducing the alloy density but also by increasing its modulus.
Metal matrix composites (MMCS) are metals that are reinforced with fibers or particles
that are usually stiff, strong and light in weight. The fibers and particles can be metal or
ceramic (e.g. Sic, Al2O3) One of the primary purpose for reinforcing metals with very stiff and
strong constituents is to increase their stiffness/density and strength/density ratios Metal matrix
composites have application wherever it is advantageous to employ light weight structural
materials, such as in the aerospace, automotive, medical and sports equipments industries.
Other properties also make MMCs attractive. The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of
some MMCs can be tailored by selecting the appropriate type and amount of reinforcement
constituent to be incorporated into the MMC. The reinforcement constituent can also improve
thermal conductivity, reduce the coefficient of friction and improve wear resistance. Metal
matrix composites can be used at higher temperatures than

organic matrix composites (OMCs). Many organic matrices will decompose at about 3000C
and thus metal matrices are required for applications at higher temperature.
Metal matrix composites also do not expel moisture as do some OMC, which can be
critical for space applications. Early study on MMCs addressed the development and behaviour
of continuous fiber reinforced high performance hybrid materials based on aluminum and
titanium matrices unfortunately, despite encouraging results, extensive industrial applications
of these composites has been hindered by high manufacturing cost associated with the high
costs of the reinforcement fibers and highly labour intensive manufacturing processes. As a
result utilization of these material has been limited, almost exclusively to military and other
highly specialized applications.
The family of discontinuously reinforced MMCs includes both particulate and short
whiskers and fibers. More recently, this class of MMCs has attracted, considerable attention as
a result of:
• Availability of various types of reinforcement at competitive costs.
• The successful development of manufacturing processes to produce MMCs with
reproducible structures and properties.
• The availability of standard or near standard metal working methods, which can be
utilized to form these MMCs.
Moreover, the problems associated with fabrication of continuously reinforced MMCs,
such as: fiber damage, micro structural non-uniformity, fiber to fiber contact and other
extensive interfacial reactions can be avoided with discontinuous reinforcement. In applications
not requiring extreme loading or enhanced thermal conditions such as automotive components,
discontinuously reinforcement MMCs have been demonstrated to offer essentially isotropic
properties with substantial improvements in strength and stiffness relative to those available
with unreinforced materials.

1.10 Matrix
The choice of a matrix alloy for an MMC is dictated by several considerations. Of
particular importance is whether the composite is to be continuously or discontinuously
reinforced. The use of continuous fibers as reinforcements may result in transfer of most of the
load to the reinforcing filaments and hence composite strength will be governed primarily

by the fiber strength. The primary roles of the matrix alloy then are to provide efficient transfer
of load to the fibers and to blunt cracks in the event that fiber failure occurs and so the matrix
alloy for a continuously reinforced MMC may be chosen more for toughness than for strength.
On this basis, lower strength, more ductile, and tougher matrix alloys may be utilized in
continuously reinforced MMCs. For discontinuously reinforced MMCs, the matrix may govern
composite strength. Then, the choice of matrix will be influenced by consideration of the
required composite strength and higher strength matrix alloys may be required
Matrix alloys are also classified according to melting temperature. Exceptionally high
melting temperatures such as found with Mo, Nb, and W are termed refractory, meaning
difficult to melt. Metals such as Fe, Ni, and Cu are considered to exhibit ordinary melting
behavior while Al and Mg are relatively lower temperature melting materials.
Compared to monolithic metals, MMCs have:
➢ Higher strength-to-density ratios
➢ Higher stiffness-to-density ratios
➢ Better fatigue resistance
➢ Better elevated temperature properties
➢ Lower coefficients of thermal expansion
➢ Better wear resistance
The advantages of MMCs over polymer matrix composites are:
➢ Higher temperature capability
➢ Higher transverse stiffness and strength
➢ No moisture absorption
➢ Higher electrical and thermal conductivities
➢ Better radiation resistance
➢ Fabric ability of whisker and particulate-reinforced MMCs with conventional
metalworking equipment.
Some of the disadvantages of MMCs compared to monolithic metals and polymer matrix
Composites are:
➢ Higher cost of some material systems
➢ Relatively immature technology
 ➢ Complex fabrication methods for fiber-reinforced systems (except for casting)
➢ Limited service experience
Numerous combinations of matrices and reinforcements have been tried since work on
MMC began in the late 1950s. However, MMC technology is still in the early stages of
development, and other important systems undoubtedly will emerge. Numerous metals have
been used as matrices. The most important have been aluminum, titanium, magnesium, and
copper alloys and super alloys. [18]

1.10.1 Properties of some Metal Matrix Composites

• Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC)
• Magnesium Matrix Composite
• Titanium Matrix Composite
• Copper Matrix Composites

Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC)

This is the widest group of Metal Matrix Composites. Matrices of Aluminum
Matrix Composites are usually based on aluminum-silicon (Al-Si) alloys and on the alloys of
2xxx and 6xxx series.
Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC) is reinforced by:
• Alumina (Al2O3) or silicon carbide (SiC) particles (particulate Composites) in amounts 15-70
vol%;
• Continuous fibers of alumina, silicon carbide, Graphite (long-fiber reinforced composites);
• Discontinuous fibers of alumina (short-fiber reinforced composites);
Aluminum Matrix Composites are manufactured by the following fabrication methods:
• Stir casting;
• Infiltration.
• Powder metallurgy (sintering);
The following properties are typical for Aluminum Matrix Composites:
• High strength even at elevated temperatures;
• High stiffness (modulus of elasticity);
 • Low density;
• High thermal conductivity;
• Excellent abrasion resistance.
Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC) are used for manufacturing automotive parts
(pistons, pushrods, brake components), brake rotors for high speed trains, bicycles, golf clubs,
electronic substrates, cores for high voltage electrical cables.

1.10.2 Stir casting

Stir Casting is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a
dispersed phase (ceramic particles, short fibers) is mixed with a molten matrix metal by means
of mechanical stirring. Stir Casting is the simplest and the most cost effective method of liquid
state fabrication.
The liquid composite material is then cast by conventional casting methods and may
also be processed by conventional Metal forming technologies
Stir Casting is characterized by the following features
• Content of dispersed phase is limited (usually not more than 30 vol.%).
• Distribution of dispersed phase throughout the matrix is not perfectly homogeneous:
• There are local clouds (clusters) of the dispersed particles (fibers);
• There may be gravity segregation of the dispersed phase due to a difference in the
densities of the dispersed and matrix phase.
• The technology is relatively simple and low cost.
Distribution of dispersed phase may be improved if the matrix is in semi-solid condition.
The method using stirring metal composite materials in semi-solid state is called Rheo casting.
High viscosity of the semi-solid matrix material enables better mixing of the dispersed phase.

Fig. 1.2 Stir casting

1.10.3 Infiltration
Infiltration is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a
preformed dispersed phase (ceramic particles, fibers, woven) is soaked in a molten matrix
metal, which fills the space between the dispersed phase inclusions. The motive force of an
infiltration process may be either capillary force of the ispersed phase (spontaneous

Infiltration) or an external pressure (gaseous, mechanical, lectromagnetic, centrifugal or

ultrasonic) applied to the liquid matrix phase forced infiltration). Infiltration is one of the
methods of preparation of tungsten-copper composites

1.10.4 Gas pressure infiltration

Gas Pressure Infiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of
Metal Matrix Composites, using a pressurized gas for applying pressure on the molten metal
and forcing it to penetrate into a preformed dispersed phase.

1.10.5 Squeeze casting infiltration

Squeeze Casting Infiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of
Metal Matrix Composites, using a movable mold part (ram) for applying pressure on the
molten metal and forcing it to penetrate into a performed dispersed phase, placed into the lower
fixed mold part. Squeeze Casting Infiltration method is similar to the Squeeze casting
technique used for metal alloys casting.

1.10.6 Pressure Die Infiltration

Pressure Die Infiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of
Metal Matrix Composites, using a Die casting technology, when a preformed dispersed phase
(particles, fibers) is placed into a die (mold) which is then filled with a molten metal entering
the die through a sprue and penetrating into the preform under the pressure of a movable piston
(plunger).
1.10.7 Solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites

Solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites is the process, in which Metal Matrix
Composites are formed as a result of bonding matrix metal and dispersed phase due to mutual
diffusion occurring between them in solid states at elevated temperature and under pressure.
Low temperature of solid state fabrication process (as compared to Liquid state
fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites) depresses undesirable reactions on the boundary
between the matrix and dispersed (reinforcing) phases. Metal Matrix Composites may be
deformed also after sintering operation by rolling, forging, pressing, drawing or extrusion.

The deformation operation may be either cold (below the recrystallization temperature) or hot
(above the recrystallization temperature). Deformation of sintered composite materials with
dispersed phase in form of short fibers results in a preferred orientation of the fibers and
anisotropy of the material properties (enhanced strength along the fibers orientation).
There are two principal groups of solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites:
• Diffusion bonding
• Sintering

1.10.8 Diffusion Bonding

Diffusion Bonding is a solid state fabrication method, in which a matrix in form of foils
and a dispersed phase in form of long fibers are stacked in a particular order and then pressed at
elevated temperature. The finished laminate composite material has a multilayer structure.
Diffusion Bonding is used for fabrication of simple shape parts (plates, tubes).

1.10.9 Sintering
Sintering fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites is a process, in which a Powder of a
matrix metal is mixed with a powder of dispersed phase in form of particles or short fibers for
subsequent compacting and sintering in solid state (sometimes with some presence of liquid).
Sintering is the method involving consolidation of powder grains by heating the ―green‖
compact part to a high temperature below the melting point, when the material of the separate
particles diffuse to the neighboring powder particles. In contrast to the liquid state fabrication
of Metal Matrix Composites, sintering method allows obtaining materials containing up to 50%
of dispersed
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The term ―composite‖ broadly refers to a material system which is composed of a discrete
constituent (the reinforcement) distributed in a continuous phase (the matrix), and which
derives its distinguishing characteristics from the properties of its constituents, from the
geometry and architecture of the constituents, and from the properties of the boundaries
(interfaces) between different constituents. Composite materials are usually classified on the
basis of the physical or chemical nature of the matrix phase, e.g., polymer matrix, metal-matrix
and ceramic composites. In addition there are some reports to indicate the emergence of Inter
metallic-matrix and carbon-matrix composites. This review is concerned with metal matrix
composites and more specifically on the aluminium matrix composites (AMCs). In AMCs one
of the constituent is aluminium/aluminium alloy, which forms percolating network and is
termed as matrix phase. The other constituent is embedded in this aluminium/aluminium alloy
matrix and serves as reinforcement, which is usually non-metallic and commonly ceramic such
as SiC and Al2O3. Properties of AMCs can be tailored by varying the nature of constituents
and their volume fraction.

The popular use of Aluminium and its alloys in the automobile and aerospace industries
gives a clear indication of the desirable properties processed by these materials. But as
technology has progressed there has been a need to fabricate materials with these properties
enhanced. The arena of advanced materials as made open to us limit less avenues of achieving
these desired characteristics in materials. Thus to achieve specific properties we can choose
from an array of composite materials, each tailor made to satisfy specific needs.

A lot of work has been carried out in the field of E-Glass fibers reinforced aluminium
matrix composites which makes it very clear that this combination is a very popular one.
2.2 There are several literatures available for aluminium metal matrix composites and
they are as follows:

G. B. Veeresh Kumar et.al [1]: This paper deals with the hardness, tensile strength and
wear resistance properties of Al6061-SiC and Al7075-Al2O3 composites. The composites are
prepared using the liquid metallurgy technique, in which 2-6 wt. % age of particulates were
dispersed in the base matrix in steps of 2.The SiC and Al2O3 resulted in improving the hardness
and density of their respective composites. Further, the increased age of these reinforcements
contributed in increased hardness and density of the composites. The microphotographs of the
composites studied revealed the uniform distribution of the particles in the matrix system. The
dispersed SiC composites. The wear factor K obtained using computerized pin on disc, wear
tester with counter surface as EN31 steel disc (HRC60) and the composite pin as specimens,
demonstrated the superior wear resistance property of the composites.
M.Sreenivasa Reddy et.al [2]: This paper deals with the Evaluation of
Hardness and Tensile Properties of Al 7075. Based Composite Al 7075 alloy reinforced with E-
glass and flyash particulates to form MMC using graphite die for casting. The MMC’S is
obtained for different composition of E-glass and flyash particulates (varying E-glass with
constant flyash and varying flyash with constant E-glass percentage) the test specimens are
prepared as per ASTM standard size by turning and facing operations to conduct hardness and
tensile tests. The specimens are tested for hardness as per ASTM standard E10 at different
loads by using Brinell hardness testing machine and tensile strength as per ASTM standard E8
by using universal testing machine. Through the results, it is concluded that the MMC’S
obtained has got better hardness and tensile strength properties when compared to Al 7075
alone.

M K Surappa et.al[3]: In this paper deals with the tribological behavior of stir casting
of Al-Si composites against the automobile brake was studied in pin on disc tribo meter.Al
metal matrix composites material was used as disc whereas break pad material forms the pin .It
has been found that both coefficient and friction vary with applied load ,wear rate has observed
increase where coefficient of friction decreases. However both wear rate and coefficients were
observed to vary proportionality with the sliding speed. In this during the formation of a
tribolayers was observed in presence of which can affect the wear behavior, apart from acting
as a source of wear debries.Tribo layer formed over the work disc surfaces was found to be
heterogeneous in nature. It has also investigated the morphology and topology of worn surfaces
and debries were studied using scanning electron microscope (SEM)

Sanjeev Kumar et.al [4]: This paper deals with the effects of thermal cycling of cast
aluminium composites reinforced with SiC and flyash particles. During this investigation dry
flyash used with aluminium reinforced with SiC and composites was prepared using liquid
metal stir casting route with the reducing quantity of SiC during this research thermal cycling
was carried out on the samples before and after thermal cycling were observed.

R. L. Deuis et.al [5]: Studied the materials possessing high wear resistances (under dry
sliding conditions) are associated with a stable tribolayer on the wearing surface and the
formation of fine equiaxed wear debris. For adhesive wear, the influence of applied load,
sliding speed, wearing surface hardness, reinforcement fracture toughness and morphology are
critical parameters in relation to the wear regime encountered by the material. In this review
contemporary wear theories, issues related to counter face wear, and wear mechanisms are
discussed. Other areas of research relevant to adhesive wear of Al-5 alloys and aluminium
composites containing discontinuous reinforcement phases, such as the role of the
reinforcement phase, are also presented.

K. Ravi Kumar et.al [6]: This paper deals with the aluminium (A 380) composites
containing flyash, fabricated using stir casting technique. Aluminium was reinforced with
flyash particles of three different size ranges (50-75µm), (75-103µm) and (103-150µm) in 3, 6,
9 and 12 percentages by weight. Unlubricated pin-on disc tests were conducted to examine the
wear behavior of the aluminium alloy and its composites. Wear tests were conducted at loads of
20 N, 30 N and 40 N and sliding speeds of 2 m/s, 3 m/s and 4m/s for a constant time period of
10 minutes. Results showed that composites reinforced with coarse flyash particles exhibit
superior wear resistance than fine flyash particles. On the other hand, abrasive resistance
decreased with increase in load and speed. Wear rate of composites decreased with increase in
flyash particles for all size ranges. Worn surfaces of the pins were then analyzed using
Scanning Electron Microscope to study the wear mechanisms and to correlate them with the
wear test results

Vishal Sharma et.al [7]: This paper deals with the effect of Al%4.5wt%cu/zircon
sand/SiC hybrid composite by stir casting route by controlling various casting parameters the as
cast samples observed under optical and scanning electron microscope. Microstructural
observations as the cast hybrid composites shows that uniform distribution of reinforcement
particles and the matrix indenting the micro hardness tester is employed to evaluate the
interfacial bonding the particles and matrix by indenting of the micro hardness identor on the
particle with varying load(100gm,200gm &300gms)(10sec,15sec,20sec &25sec).It has been
concluded that by variation in hardness at constant load varying time (or) constant time varying
load, the bond strength to be compared.

W.Q Song P Krauklis, A P Mouritz et.al [8]: Reported changes of abrasive wear
resistance of aluminium based composites when subjected to different ageing conditions. The
composites studied were the age-hard enable aluminium alloys 2014 & 6061 Al reinforced with
3micro meter or 20 micro meter SiC Particles .The materials aged at temperature between 500C
and 2500C and changes to the wear resistance were measured using a pin on disc machine.
When aged at the lowest temperature, transmission electron microscopy revealed the presence
of the solute clusters and small coherent precipates in aluminium alloy matrices and these were
easily sheared by mobile dislocations. Hardness and abrasive wear resistance of these under
aged composites were measured to be relatively low.

Hemanth Kumar.T.R. et.al[9]. This paper was presented to simultaneously optimize

the tribo logical properties: wear rate and frictional force of aluminum metal matrix composite.
Al-Cu-Mg alloy reinforced with 6 Wt % of titanium dioxide was prepared using stir casting
method. Dry sliding wear test was conducted to understand the tribological behavior of
samples. The experiments were conducted as per the Taguchi design of experiment. The wear
parameters chosen for the experiment were: sliding speed, load and sliding distance. Each
parameter was assigned three levels. The experiment consists of 27 tests according to L27
orthogonal array. Signal to noise ratio analysis has been carried out to determine optimal
parametric condition, which yields minimum wear rate and frictional force. Harrington’s
desirability functional method is adopted for multifunctional optimization of tribological
parameters and the confirmation experiments were conducted to verify the predicted model.
 CHAPTER 3
SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK

Conventional monolithic materials have limitations in achieving good combination of

strength, stiffness, toughness and density. To overcome these shortcomings and to meet the
ever increasing demand of modern day technology, composites are most promising materials of
recent interest. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) possess significantly improved properties
including high specific strength; specific modulus, damping capacity and good wear resistance
compared to unreinforced alloys. There has been an increasing interest in composites
containing low density and low cost reinforcements. Among various discontinuous dispersoids
used, graphite is one of the most inexpensive and low density reinforcement Hence, composites
with graphite as reinforcement are likely to overcome the cost barrier for wide spread
applications in automotive and small engine applications. It is therefore expected that the
incorporation of graphite particles in aluminium alloy will promote yet another use of this low-
cost of aluminium products.

Now a days the particulate reinforced aluminium matrix composite are gaining
importance because of their low cost with advantages like isotropic properties and the
possibility of secondary processing facilitating fabrication of secondary components. Cast
aluminium matrix particle reinforced composites have higher specific strength, specific
modulus and good wear resistance as compared to unreinforced alloys .While investigating the
opportunity of using fly-ash as reinforcing element in the aluminium melt, R.Q.Guo and
P.K.Rohatagi observed that the high electrical resistivity, low thermal conductivity and low
density of graphite may be helpful for making a light weight insulating composite.

Objectives of Present Investigation

➢ To produce Composite by heating Al 2024, in electrical resistance furnace at a
temperature of 7000C separately. To get composites castings, by adding graphite to the
molten metal with varying weight fractions in Al 2024.
➢ To get ASTM standard specimens, machined from the Ascast specimens.
➢ To study the various Mechanical properties like Tension, Compression, Hardness, and
impact test etc.
➢ To analyze the results of various weight fractions of composites specimens.
➢ To study the microstructure of the tested specimens by analyzing the SEM pictures. To
compare the properties of Al 2024 composites.

Research Methodology Road Map

Start

Literature survey

Selection Of Material

Fabrication (casting) & preparation

of specimens according to ASTM
standard

SEM Analysis

Result and discussion

Conclusion
 CHAPTER4
MATERIALS METHODOLOGY

4.1 Materials procurement

Al 2024
GRAPHITE
BORON CARBIDE

4.2 Aluminium 2024 Alloy

4.2.1 Introduction to 2024 Aluminium Alloy

2024 aluminium alloy is an aluminium alloy, with copper as the primary alloying
element. It is used in applications requiring high strength to weight ratio, as well as good fatigue
resistance. It is weldable only through friction welding, and has average machinability. Due to
poor corrosion resistance, it is often clad with aluminium or Al-1Zn for protection, although this
may reduce the fatigue strength. In older systems of terminology, 2XXX series alloys were
known as duralumin, and this alloy was named 24ST.Al

2024 is commonly extruded, and also available in alclad sheet and plate forms. It is not
commonly forged (the related 2014 aluminium alloy is, though)

Aluminium alloy 2024 has a density of 2.78 g/cm³ (0.1 lb/in³), electrical conductivity of
30% IACS, Young's Modulus of 73 GPa (10.6 Msi) across all tempers, and begins to melt at
500 °C (932 °F).

2024 aluminium alloy's composition roughly includes 4.3-4.5% copper, 0.5-0.6%

manganese, 1.3-1.5% magnesium and less than a half a percent of silicon, zinc, nickel,
chromium, lead and bismuth.

Chemical composition

The alloy composition of 2024 is

• Silicon no minimum, maximum 0.5% by weight

• Iron no minimum, maximum 0.5%
• Copper minimum 3.8%, maximum 4.9%
• Manganese minimum 0.3, maximum 0.9%
• Magnesium minimum 1.2%, maximum 1.8%
• Chromium no minimum, maximum 0.1%
 • Zinc no minimum, maximum 0.25%
• Titanium no minimum, maximum 0.15%
• Other elements no more than 0.05% each, 0.15% total
• Remainder aluminum (90.7–94.7%)

4.3 GRAPHITE

4.3.1 Introduction to Graphite

The term graphite is derived from the Greek word ―graphein,‖ which means to write. The
material is typically grayish-black in color, opaque, and has a radiant black sheen. Graphite is a
distinct material as it displays the properties of both a metal and a non-metal.

Although graphite is flexible, it is not elastic and has high electrical and thermal
conductivity. It is also chemically inert and highly refractory. Since graphite displays low
adsorption of X-rays and neutrons, it is very valuable in nuclear applications.

This uncommon combination of properties is due to graphite’s crystalline structure. The

carbon atoms are set hexagonally in a planar condensed ring system. The layers are stacked
parallel to each other. The atoms within the rings are bonded covalently, while the layers are
loosely linked together by van der Waals forces. Graphite has a high degree of anisotropy, which
is caused by two types of bonding acting in different crystallographic directions.

For example, graphite’s ability to develop a solid film lubricant is the outcome of these
two contrasting chemical bonds. As weak Van der Waals forces control the bonding between
each layer, they can slide against one another, making graphite an ideal lubricant. In 2000,
worldwide graphite production was estimated to be about 602,000 tons, with China as the largest
producer followed by India, Mexico, Brazil, and the Czech Republic.

Graphite Classifications

Graphite can be divided into two main types—natural and synthetic.

Natural Graphite

Natural graphite is a mineral composed of graphitic carbon. It varies considerably in

crystallinity. Most of the commercial (natural) graphites are mined, and typically contain other
minerals. After graphite is mined, it usually requires a considerable amount of mineral
processing like froth flotation to concentrate the graphite.

Natural graphite is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity, stable over a broad
range of temperatures, and a highly refractory material with a high melting point of 3650 °C.

There are three types of natural graphite

• High crystalline
• Amorphous
• Flake

Crystalline Graphite

It is said that crystalline vein graphite came from crude oil deposits that have transformed into
graphite through time, temperature, and pressure. Vein graphite fissures typically measure
between 1 cm and 1 m in thickness and usually have a purity of more than 90%.

Although this type of graphite can be found globally, only Sri Lanka commercially mines it,
using conventional shaft or surface mining techniques.

Amorphous Graphite

Amorphous graphite is the least graphitic among the natural graphites. However, the term
―amorphous‖ is incorrect as the material is still crystalline. Amorphous graphite can be found as
minute particles in beds of mesomorphic rocks such as coal, slate, or shale deposits. The graphite
content varies from 25% to 85% according to the geological environment.

Conventional mining techniques are used to extract amorphous graphite, which occurs mainly in
Mexico, North Korea, South Korea, and Austria.
Flake Graphite

Flake graphite can be found in metamorphic rocks evenly spread through the body of the ore or
in concentrated lens-shaped pockets. The range of carbon concentrations varies from 5% to 40%.
Graphite flake can be found as a lamella or scaly form in specific metamorphic rocks such as
limestone, gneisses, and schists.

Froth flotation is used to extract flake graphite. ―Floated‖ graphite has 80%–90% graphite
content. Over 98% of flake graphite is made using chemical beneficiation processes. Flake
graphite can be found in numerous places worldwide.

Synthetic Graphite

Synthetic graphite can be produced from coke and pitch. Although this graphite is not as
crystalline as natural graphite, it is likely to have higher purity. There are basically two types of
synthetic graphite. One is electrographite, pure carbon produced from coal tar pitch and calcined
petroleum coke in an electric furnace. The second is synthetic graphite, produced by heating
calcined petroleum pitch to 2800 °C.

Essentially, synthetic graphite has higher electrical resistance and porosity, and lower density. Its
enhanced porosity makes it unsuitable for refractory applications.

Synthetic graphite contains mainly graphitic carbon that has been attained by graphitization, heat
treatment of non-graphitic carbon, or chemical vapor deposition from hydrocarbons at
temperatures over 2100 K.
Key Properties
Property Commercial graphite
3
Bulk Density (g/cm ) 1.3-1.95
Porosity (%) 0.7-53
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) 8-15
Compressive strength (MPa) 20-200
Flexural strength (MPa) 6.9-100
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (x10-6 °C) 1.2-8.2
Thermal conductivity (W/m.K) 25-470
Specific heat capacity (J/kg.K) 710-830
Electrical resistivity (Ω.m) 5x10-6-30x10-6

Related Stories

• Alabama Graphite Begins Production of Coated Spherical Graphite for Use in Lithium Ion
Batteries
• Replacing Graphite-Based Anodes with Li Metal Offers a New, Promising Approach
• Cast Irons – Specifications for Gray Iron and Ductile Irons

Applications

Refractory Materials

On account of its high-temperature stability and chemical inertness, graphite is the

perfect candidate for refractory material. It is used in the production of refractory bricks as well
as ―Mag-carbon‖ refractory bricks (Mg-C). In addition, graphite is used to produce crucibles,
ladles, and molds for holding molten metals. Moreover, graphite is one of the most basic
materials used in the production of functional refractories for the continuous casting of steel.
 Here, graphite flake is mixed with alumina and zirconia, and then isostatically pressed to
create components like stopper rods, subentry nozzles, and ladle shrouds used for regulating the
flow of molten steel and also for safeguarding against oxidation. This type of material could also
be used as protection for pyrometers.

In the production of iron, graphite blocks are used to produce a portion of the lining of
the blast furnace. Their structural strength at high temperature, thermal shock resistance, high
thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion, and good chemical resistance are highly important
in this application.

The electrodes used in many electrical metallurgical furnaces are mass-produced from
graphite, for instance, the electric arc furnaces used for processing steel.

Chemical Industry

In the chemical sector, graphite is employed in many high-temperature applications, like

in the production of phosphorus and calcium carbide in arc furnaces. Graphite is used as an
anode in specific aqueous electrolytic processes such as the production of halogens (chlorine and
fluorine).

Nuclear Industry

Large amounts of high-purity electrographite are used for producing moderator rods and
reflector components in nuclear reactors. The suitability of electrographite comes from its low
absorption of neutrons, high thermal conductivity, and high strength at higher temperatures.

Electrical Applications

Graphite is mainly used as an electrical material in the manufacture of carbon brushes in

electric motors. Here, the component’s service life and performance largely depend on grade and
structure.

Mechanical Applications

Graphite is widely used as an engineering material across a variety of applications such

as piston rings, thrust bearings, journal bearings, and vanes. Carbon-based seals are used in the
fuel pumps and shafts of several aircraft jet engines.
Other Applications

Amorphous graphite is used in:

• Metallurgy
• Coatings
• Lubricants
• Refractories
• Paint production
• Pencil production

Areas where crystalline graphite can be used include:

• Lubricants
• Powder metallurgy
• Grinding wheels
• Batteries

Flake graphite is used in refractory applications, typically in secondary steelmaking. Apart from
this, it may also be used in pencils, powder metallurgy, coatings, and lubricants.

Many of the sources of natural graphite are also used in the development of graphite foil.

Areas where synthetic graphites are used include:

• Aerospace applications
• Carbon brushes
• Graphite electrodes for electric arc furnaces, for metallurgical processing
• Moderator rods in nuclear power plants
• Batteries

The higher level of porosity of synthetic graphite makes it unsuitable in refractory applications.
4.4 BORON CARBIDE
Boron carbide was discovered in the 19th century as a by-product of reactions involving
metal borides, but its chemical formula was unknown. It was not until the 1930s that the
chemical composition was estimated as B4C.[3] Controversy remained as to whether or not the
material had this exact 4:1 stoichiometry, as, in practice the material is always slightly carbon-
deficient with regard to this formula, and X-ray crystallography shows that its structure is highly
complex, with a mixture of C-B-C chains and B12 icosahedra.
These features argued against a very simple exact B4C empirical formula.[4] Because of
the B12 structural unit, the chemical formula of "ideal" boron carbide is often written not as B 4C,
but as B12C3, and the carbon deficiency of boron carbide described in terms of a combination of
the B12C3 and B12CBC units.

Applications
The ability of boron carbide to absorb neutrons without forming long-
lived radionuclides makes it attractive as an absorbent for neutron radiation arising in nuclear
power plants and from anti-personnel neutron bombs. Nuclear applications of boron carbide
include shielding, control rods, and shutdown pellets. Within control rods, boron carbide is often
powdered, to increase its surface area.

Crystal structure

Unit cell of B4C. Fragment of the B4C crystal structure.

The green sphere and icosahedra consist of boron atoms, and black spheres are carbon atoms.
 Boron carbide has a complex crystal structure typical of icosahedron-based borides.
There, B12 icosahedra form a rhombohedral lattice unit (space group: R3m (No. 166), lattice
constants: a = 0.56 nm and c = 1.212 nm) surrounding a C-B-C chain that resides at the center of
the unit cell, and both carbon atoms bridge the neighboring three icosahedra. This structure is
layered: the B12 icosahedra and bridging carbons form a network plane that spreads parallel to
the c-plane and stacks along the c-axis. The lattice has two basic structure units – the
B12 icosahedron and the B6 octahedron. Because of the small size of the B6 octahedra, they
cannot interconnect. Instead, they bond to the B12 icosahedra in the neighboring layer, and this
decreases bonding strength in the c-plane.
Because of the B12 structural unit, the chemical formula of "ideal" boron carbide is often written
not as B4C, but as B12C3, and the carbon deficiency of boron carbide described in terms of a
combination of the B12C3 and B12C2 units. Some studies indicate the possibility of incorporation
of one or more carbon atoms into the boron icosahedra, giving rise to formulas such as
(B11C)CBC = B4C at the carbon-heavy end of the stoichiometry, but formulas such as B12(CBB)
= B14C at the boron-rich end. "Boron carbide" is thus not a single compound, but a family of
compounds of different compositions. A common intermediate, which approximates a commonly
found ratio of elements, is B12(CBC) = B6.5C. Quantum mechanical calculations have
demonstrated that configurational disorder between boron and carbon atoms on the different
positions in the crystal determines several of the materials properties - in particular, the crystal
symmetry of the B4C composition[10] and the non-metallic electrical character of the
B13C2 composition.

Properties
Boron carbide is known as a robust material having extremely high hardness (about 9.5
up to 9.75 on Mohs hardness scale), high cross section for absorption of neutrons (i.e. good
shielding properties against neutrons), stability to ionizing radiation and most chemicals.
Its Vickers hardness (38 GPa), Elastic Modulus (460 GPa) and fracture toughness (3.5 MPa·m1/2)
approach the corresponding values for diamond (1150 GPa and 5.3 MPa·m1/2).
As of 2015, boron carbide is the third hardest substance known, after diamond and cubic
boron nitride, earning it the nickname "black diamond".

Semiconductor properties
Boron carbide is a semiconductor, with electronic properties dominated by hopping-type
transport. The energy band gap depends on composition as well as the degree of order. The band
gap is estimated at 2.09 eV, with multiple mid-bandgap states which complicate the
photoluminescence spectrum. The material is typically p-type.
Preparations
Boron carbide was first synthesized by Henri Moissan in 1899, by reduction of boron
trioxide either with carbon or magnesium in presence of carbon in an electric arc furnace. In the
case of carbon, the reaction occurs at temperatures above the melting point of B4C and is
accompanied by liberation of large amount of carbon monoxide
2 B2O3 + 7 C → B4C + 6 CO
If magnesium is used, the reaction can be carried out in a graphite crucible, and the
magnesium byproducts are removed by treatment with acid.

Applications
Boron carbide is used for inner plates of ballistic vests

• Padlocks
• Personal and vehicle anti-ballistic armor plating
• Grit blasting nozzles
• High-pressure water jet cutter nozzles
• Scratch and wear resistant coatings
• Cutting tools and dies
• Abrasives
• Neutron absorber in nuclear reactors
• Metal matrix composites
• High energy fuel for solid fuel Ramjets Zip fuel
• In brake linings of vehicles

4.5 STIRR CASTING EXPLINATION

4.5.1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

➢ The materials used in internal combustion engine parts such as piston, cylinder blocks
and cylinder heads are subjected to high wear and tear, corrosion and thermal stresses.
➢ Lump type of solidification causes dispersed porosity during mould casting.
➢ Lump zones and shrinkage problems in the sand moulds during solidification are
more.

4.5.2. OBJECTIVES
➢ Fabrication of metal matrix composites using stir casting technique
➢ Characterization of mechanical behaviors, like tensile test, compression test and hardness
test
➢ Micro structural analysis using scanning electron microscope
 ➢ Comparative study of the obtained results with reference value

4.5.3 Casting process simulation

Casting process simulation uses numerical methods to calculate cast component quality
considering mold filling, solidification and cooling, and provides a quantitative prediction of
casting mechanical properties, thermal stresses and distortion. Simulation accurately describes a
cast component's quality up-front before production starts. The casting rigging can be designed
with respect to the required component properties. This has benefits beyond a reduction in pre-
production sampling, as the precise layout of the complete casting system also leads to energy,
material, and tooling savings.

The software supports the user in component design, the determination of melting
practice and casting methoding through to pattern and mold making, heat treatment, and
finishing. This saves costs along the entire casting manufacturing route.

Casting process simulation was initially developed at universities starting from the early
'70s, mainly in Europe and in the U.S., and is regarded as the most important innovation in
casting technology over the last 50 years. Since the late '80s, commercial programs (such as Auto
CAST and MAGMA) are available which make it possible for foundries to gain new insight into
what is happening inside the mold or die during the casting process.

4.6 Powder metallurgy

Powder metallurgy (PM) is a term covering a wide range of ways in which materials or
components are made from metal powders. PM processes can avoid, or greatly reduce, the need
to use metal removal processes, thereby drastically reducing yield losses in manufacture and
often resulting in lower costs.
 Powder metallurgy is also used to make unique materials impossible to get from melting
or forming in other ways. A very important product of this type is tungsten carbide (WC). WC is
used to cut and form other metals and is made from WC particles bonded with cobalt. It is very
widely used in industry for tools of many types and globally ~50,000 tonnes/year (t/y) is made
by PM. Other products include sintered filters, porous oil-impregnated bearings, electrical
contacts and diamond tools.

Since the advent of industrial production–scale metal powder–based additive

manufacturing (AM) in the 2010s, selective laser sintering and other metal AM processes are a
new category of commercially important powder metallurgy applications.

4.6.1 Overview

The powder metallurgy press and sinter process generally consists of three basic steps:
powder blending (pulverisation), die compaction, and sintering. Compaction is generally
performed at room temperature, and the elevated-temperature process of sintering is usually
conducted at atmospheric pressure and under carefully controlled atmosphere composition.
Optional secondary processing such as coining or heat treatment often follows to obtain special
properties or enhanced precision.

One of the older such methods, and still one used to make around 1 Mt/y of structural
components of iron-based alloys, is the process of blending fine (<180 microns) metal (normally
iron) powders with additives such as a lubricant wax, carbon, copper, and/or nickel, pressing
them into a die of the desired shape, and then heating the compressed material ("green part") in a
controlled atmosphere to bond the material by sintering. This produces precise parts, normally
very close to the die dimensions, but with 5–15% porosity, and thus sub-wrought steel
properties. There are several other PM processes which have been developed over the last fifty
years. These include:

• Powder forging: A "preform" made by the conventional "press and sinter" method is
heated and then hot forged to full density, resulting in practically as-wrought properties.
• Hot isostatic pressing (HIP): Here the powder (normally gas atomized, spherical type) is
filled into a mould, normally consisting of a metallic "can" of suitable shape. The can is
vibrated, then evacuated and sealed. It is then placed in a hot isostatic press, where it is
heated to a homologous temperature of around 0.7, and subjected to an external gas
pressure of ~100 MPa (1000 bar, 15,000 psi) for several hours. This results in a shaped
part of full density with as-wrought or better, properties. HIP was invented in the 1950-
60s and entered tonnage production in the 1970-80s.[citation needed] In 2015, it was used to
produce ~25,000 t/y of stainless and tool steels, as well as important parts of superalloys
for jet engines.
• Metal injection moulding (MIM): Here the powder, normally very fine (<25 microns) and
spherical, is mixed with plastic or wax binder to near the maximum solid loading,
typically around 65vol%, and injection moulded to form a "green" part of complex
geometry. This part is then heated or otherwise treated to remove the binder (debinding)
to give a "brown" part. This part is then sintered, and shrinks by ~18% to give a complex
and 95–99% dense finished part (surface roughness ~3 microns). [3] Invented in the 1970s,
production has increased since 2000 with an estimated global volume in 2014 of 12,000 t
worth €1265 million.
• Electric current assisted sintering (ECAS) technologies rely on electric currents to
densify powders, with the advantage of reducing production time dramatically (from 15
minutes of the slowest ECAS to a few microseconds of the fastest), not requiring a long
furnace heat and allowing near theoretical densities but with the drawback of simple
shapes. Powders employed in ECAS can avoid binders thanks to the possibility of direct
sintering, without the need of pre-pressing and a green compact. Molds are designed for
the final part shape since the powders densify while filling the cavity under an applied
pressure thus avoiding the problem of shape variations caused by non-isotropic sintering
and distortions caused by gravity at high temperatures. The most common of these
technologies is hot pressing, which has been under use for the production of the diamond
tools employed in the construction industry. Spark plasma sintering and electro sinter
forging are two modern, industrial commercial ECAS technologies.
• Additive manufacturing (AM) is a relatively novel family of techniques which use metal
powders (among other materials, such as plastics) to make parts by laser sintering or
melting. This is a process under rapid development as of 2015, and whether to classify it
as a PM process is perhaps uncertain at this stage. Processes include 3D printing,
selective laser sintering (SLS), selective laser melting (SLM), and electron beam melting
(EBM).
 CHAPTER 5
WEAR PROPERTIES
5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Effect of load

Fig. 2 shows the variation of wear loss with applied load and Fig. 3 shows the variation of
coefficient of friction with applied load. The tests have been carried out by taken a constant
applied load of 15 N and constant sliding velocity of 1m/s. It is observed that an increase in load
results in increased wear loss and coefficient of friction for the samples. However, Al– Al2O3
possesses the lower wear loss when compared with base alloy at all the loads studied. In this
study it is observed that the composite Al/ Al2O3/Gr were lowest wear loss compare to other
composites and base alloy, because of solid lubricant graphite.
5.1.2 Effect of sliding distance

Fig. 4 shows the variation of wear loss of Al2024, Al–Al2O3, Al/Al2O3/Gr hybrid composites
with varying sliding distance. It is observed that, the wear loss increases drastically up to a
sliding distance of 500m. With further increase in sliding distance there is a steady increase in
the wear loss. The enhancement in wear loss in the initial period can be ascribed to the higher
loss of material due to running condition during which a perfect contact between the pin and the
disc will be made. It is clearly observed that the base alloy materials have higher wear loss
compare to the composite. Fig. 5 shows the variation of co-efficient of friction against sliding
distance. The tests have been carried out by taken a constant applied load of 15 N and constant
sliding velocity of 1m/s. It is observed that with increased load the coefficient of friction increase
gradually up to a sliding distance 3000m. For the both the base alloy and composites, the
coefficient friction increases with increase in sliding distance because the increase sliding
distance.
 CHAPTER 6
SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK

The present investigation has been made to produce a cast Aluminium alloys of 2024,
composites with graphite fiber reinforcement and Effects of this with graphite fiber
reinforcement on the Mechanical properties, have been studied from the above it is possible to
alter several technological properties of Aluminium/ Al Alloys by more than 3-4 orders of
magnitude by incorporating appropriate reinforcement in suitable volume fraction.

The following points give guidance for the future researchers to frame the scope of their
investigations:

With reference to Mechanical properties, the Fracture toughness of the specimens may
be evaluated by future investigators. The investigators can also study the Mechanical, Wear and
Corrosion properties of Al 2024 with hybrid reinforcement and heat treated composites.

Same metal matrix composites can be manufactured by using other manufacturing

techniques like spray casting and sintering etc. and results can be compared with stir casting
technique.

Heat treatment of the MMCs at different temperature range and quenching media like
water, oil and brine solution etc. can be used to achieve better results.
 CONCLUSION

In the current study, the aluminium matrix hybrid composite was successfully fabricated
by the powder metallurgy process. The hardness, wear test and micro structural study of the
hybrid composite were evaluated. The hybrid composite displays higher hardness compared
with the base material, which is attributed to the presence of hard Al2O3. Furthermore, the
decrease in hardness for the hybrid composite when compared to Al/ Al2O composite may be
due to the presence of Gr particles.
The incorporation of Al2O3 reinforcement to Aluminium matrix increases the wear
resistance of the composites. The addition graphite reinforcement in Al/Al2O3 composite as
hybrid reinforcement further increases the wear resistance of the composite.
REFERENCES;
[1] J.L. Viesca, A. Hernández Battez, R. González, R. Chou, J.J. Cabello, Antiwear properties of
carbon-coated copper nanoparticles used as an additive to a poly-alpha-olefin, Tribol. Int. 44
(2011) 829–833.
[2] M. Zhang, X. Wang, X. Fu, Y. Xia, Performance and anti-wear mechanism of CaCO3
nanoparticles as a green additive in poly-alpha-olefin, Tribol. Int. 42 (2009) 1029–1039.
[3] J. Taha-Tijerina, L. Peña-Paras, T.N. Narayanan, L. Garza, C. Lapray, J. Gonzales, E.
Palacios, D. Molina, A. García, D. Maldonado, P.M. Ajayan, Multifunctional nanofluids with 2D
nanosheets for thermal and tribological management, Wear 302 (2013) 1241–1248.
[4] J.J. Taha-Tijerina, T.N. Narayanan, C.S. Tiwary, K. Lozano, M. Chipara, P.M. Ajayan,
Nanodiamond based thermal fluids, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 6 (2014) 4778–4785.
[5] L. Peña-Parás, J. Taha-Tijerina, A. García, D. Maldonado, J.A. González, D. Molina, E.
Palacios, P. Cantú, Anti-wear and extreme pressure properties of nanofluids for industrial
applications, Tribol. Trans. 57 (2014) 1072–1076.
[6] C. Choi, M. Jung, Extreme pressure properties of multi-component oil-based nanofluids, J.
Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 12 (2012) 3237–3241.
[7] M. Mosleh, N.D. Atnafu, J.H. Belk, O.M. Nobles, Modification of sheet metal forming
fluids with dispersed nanoparticles for improved lubrication, Wear 267 (2008) 1220–1225.
[8] L. Peña-Paras, Dispersion of Carbon Nanotubes in Vinyl Ester Polymer Composites Doctoral
Thesis, Rice University, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Houston,
Texas, United States, 2010.
[9] M. Szczerek, W. Tuszynski, A method for testing lubricants under conditions of scuffing.
Part I. Presentation of the method, Tribotest 8 (2002) 273–284.
[10] ASTM D5707-11, Standard test method for measuring friction and wear properties of
lubricating grease using a high-frequency, linear-oscillation (SRV) test machine, ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2011, www.astm.org.
[11] R.B. Dean, W.J. Dixon, Simplified statistics for small numbers of observations, Anal.
Chem. 23 (1951) 636–638.
[12] D.B. Rorabacher, Statistical Treatment for rejection of deviant values: critical values of
dixon q parameter and related subrange ratios at the 95 percent confidence level, Anal. Chem. 63
(1991) 139–146.
[13] K.D. Vázquez, D.S. Cantú, A.F. Segura, F. Araiz, L. Peña-Parás, D. Maldonado,
Application of Nanofluids to Improve Tool Life in Mach