22

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Aluminium is the most widely used metal in engineering apart from

iron. It has good electrical and thermal conductivities and high reflectivity to
both heat and light. It is highly corrosion resistant under a great many service
conditions and is nontoxic. Aluminium alloys offer a combination of
mechanical and tribological properties and low density that makes them
highly suitable for composite manufacturing.

2.2 MATRIX MATERIAL

Several metals and alloys have been used as matrix materials;

however, most Research and Development has been concentrated on
aluminium and its alloys. Aluminium has a unique combination of properties
among its class, i.e., light metals. It is not only less expensive than titanium
and magnesium but also easier to fabricate. To tailor its properties such as
strength, stiffness, hardness, wear resistance, thermal expansion etc., a
suitable alloy of aluminium can be paired with appropriate reinforcement. In
recent years, aluminium alloys have attracted attention of many researchers,
engineers and designers as a promising structural material in different
industries like aerospace and automotive. Special 2xxx series of Al alloys
have been studied extensively because of their high strength to weight ratio,
 23

good formability, age hardenablity and other appropriate properties. The

major characteristics of the 2xxx series are:

Heat treatable

High strength, at room and elevated temperatures

Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 190 to 430

Usually joined mechanically, but some alloys are weldable

The 2xxx series of alloys are heat treatable and possess good
combinations of high strength (especially at elevated temperatures),
toughness, and, in specific cases, weldability. Among Al alloys, 2024 Al has
the highest hardness (Hudaa et al 2009). The use of A2024, therefore, has
been growing gradually in industry as a material of aeroplane constructions,
automobiles, and pulling wheels (Malas et al 2004). AA 2024 alloy is the
most widely used aluminium–copper alloys in forging as well as rivets for
aircraft industry.

Cheng et al (2007) developed an effective approach in achieving

both high strength and high ductility in a 2024 Al alloy. The approach
involves solution-treatment to partially dissolve T-phase particles, cryo-
rolling to produce a fine-structure containing a high density of dislocations
and submicrometer subgrains and aging to generate highly dispersed nano-
precipitates. Such a high density of precipitates enabled effective dislocation
pinning and accumulation, leading to simultaneous increases in strength,
work-hardening ability and ductility.

Mazahery et al (2012) investigated the optimal solidification

conditions to manufacture AA 2024 alloy with minimum wear and maximum
strength. Mechanical and wear properties of unreinforced AA 2024 alloy and
 24

its composites with different vol. % of coated boron carbide particles were
also experimentally investigated. It was seen that the incorporation of hard
particles to 2024 aluminium alloy contributes to the improvement of the
mechanical properties and wear resistance of the base alloy to a great extent.

2.3 FABRICATIONS OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

A key challenge in the processing of composites is to

homogeneously distribute the reinforcement phases in the matrix to achieve a
defect-free microstructure. The reinforcing phases (powders/fibers/whiskers)
in aluminium matrix composites are incorporated into an aluminium alloy
mostly by conventional methods such as stir casting, squeeze casting, and
powder metallurgy. The main problem of hybrid composites is associated
with their fabrication processes. In addition, the mechanical properties of
MMCs are sensitive to the processing technique used to fabricate the
materials. However, powder metallurgy appears to be the preferred process in
view of its ability to give more uniform dispersions. Moreover, PM could be
remarked as a highly effective and economic method compared with other
alternatives.

Mahdavi et al (2011) investigated the applicability of in situ

powder metallurgy (IPM) method for processing the Al6061/SiC/Gr hybrid
composites, effect of SiC content on the tribological behavior of the hybrid
composites. The amount of porosity and hardness are decreased by increasing
of graphite content in the composites. However, for identical graphite
contents the porosity and hardness of Al/30SiC/Gr hybrid composites are
higher than those of Al/Gr composites.

Gui (2001) observed that Plasma spraying is a feasible route to

produce aluminium composite coatings reinforced with SiC particles. A
considerably uniform distribution of SiC particles can be found in the
 25

composite coatings. Good compatibility and strong bonding between the

sprayed layer and the substrate were obtained. Because of non-wetting nature
of graphite by molten aluminium, non-coated graphite particles exhibited an
inhomogeneous distribution in the coatings and had a certain loss during
plasma spraying. Al/SiC and Al/Gr had clear interfaces, and undesirable
reactions were not found.

Lin et al (2010) investigated the 10%SiCp/Al-Mg composites by

semi-solid mechanical stirring technique. The distribution of SiCp
reinforcement in matrix is improved by the superior wettability between
reinforcement and matrix, with increasing Mg content. The composites
exhibited superior tensile strength compared with Al-Mg alloys. In addition,
the mechanical properties of the composites increased with the addition of
Mg content.

Hassan et al (2008) studied the dry sliding wear behaviour of some

powder metallurgy (PM) Al–Mg–Cu alloys manufactured by powder
metallurgy with different weight percentage of Cu. The wear study of the
metal matrix composites reinforced with 5 or 10 vol. % silicon carbide
particles (SiC) have been carried using pin-on-disk apparatus. From the study,
they observed that both hardness and wear resistance were enhanced by the
addition of Cu and/or SiC to the Al-4 wt% Mg alloy. The formations of
mechanically mixed layer (MML) as a result of material transfer from counter
face disk to the samples and vice versa were observed in all tested specimens.

2.4 STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS IN METAL MATRIX

COMPOSITES

A composite is an artificially made multiphase material where the

constituent phases are chemically dissimilar and are separated by a distinct
interface. It has been described that the flow stresses of the composites are
 26

substantially higher than those of the unreinforced alloy. Load transfer from
matrix to reinforcement phase due to shear stresses at the fibre-matrix
interface were of greatest importance in the fibre reinforced composite,
whereas in the particle-reinforced composites small grain size plays a
predominant role. The increase in dislocation density as a result of thermal
and geometrical mismatch is also important while considering strengthening
of the matrix.

Karamis et al (2012) made an attempt to improve the strength of Al

6061 Al metal matrix composites by Reciprocating Extrusion (RE). The
billets were extruded under a pressure of 17.5 MPa at 573 K with a 10:1
extrusion ratio. The reciprocating extrusions were carried out by using up to
15 passes. A homogeneous dispersion of SiCp and refined grain structure of
the test materials were obtained by RE.

Kumar et al (2012) fabricated the aluminium hybrid composite by

powder metallurgy (PM) method with a combination of two reinforcements,
namely, Glass and Silicon carbide particles. The addition of higher Glass and
SiC content as reinforcement in the Aluminium matrix increases the strength
property, because of reduction in pore size or increase in relative density. In
general, the strain hardening index value increases with increasing addition of
Glass and SiC because the pore size decreases. This reduces the geometric
work hardening and increases the matrix work hardening. The strength
coefficient value increases with increasing addition of Glass and SiC because
of better densification. The coarser particle size (150 µm) of Glass and SiC
added in hybrid composites shows a higher strain hardening index and higher
strength coefficient values due to better load transfer rate of Glass and SiC to
the Aluminium matrix compared to fine particle size. The formability stress
index increases with increasing addition of Glass and SiC because of better
densification and decrease in pore size. The variation of the strength
 27

coefficient value (K) with respect to the percentage of SiC content in (Al–
Glass–SiC) hybrid composites are summarized as shown in Figure 2.1. Al–
4% Glass–various percentage of SiC hybrid composite shows better
formability stress index value compared to Al–4% SiC–various percentage of
Glass hybrid composite.

Figure 2.1 The variation of the strength coefficient value with respect
to the percentage of SiC content (Al–Glass–SiC) hybrid
composite.(Kumar et al 2012)

2.5 TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF Al COMPOSITES

The enhancement in tribological properties of AMCs has been

effectively attainable by introducing the ceramic particles. It has been
generally observed that the increasing the SiC or Al2O3 particle content
enhances the wear resistance of the base alloy. The wear resistance of the
composite was found to be considerably higher than that of the matrix alloy
and increased with increasing particle content. The hard particles resist
against destruction action of abrasive and protect the surface. This result is
 28

consistent with the rule that in general, materials with higher hardness have
better wear and abrasive resistance.

2.5.1 Al -SiC composites

Aluminium metal matrix composites reinforced with SiC

particulates are known for higher modulus, strength and wear resistance
compared to conventional alloys.

Narayan et al (1995) fabricated the AA 2024-15vol. % Al2O3

particulate (average size, 18 pm) composites using the liquid metallurgy
route. The step loading method has been adopted in a pin-on-disc machine to
generate wear data in the range 20-280 N. The AA 2024-15vol.%Al,O,
composite shows better seizure resistance than does the unreinforced alloy in
the peak-aged condition. In the as-extruded condition the wear resistance of
the unreinforced alloy is better than that of the composite.

Iwai et al (1995) studied the wear properties of SiC whisker-

reinforced 2024 aluminium alloys (designated as SiCw-Al) with volume
fraction of whiskers ranging from 0 to 16% manufactured by a PM technique.
The severe to mild wear transition occurred with sliding distance for the
SiCw-Al composites as well as the unreinforced Al 2024. The initial sliding
distance required to achieve mild wear decreased with increasing volume
fraction of whiskers, in severe wear, since whiskers prevented the wear crack
propagation, wear particles became small but their removal rate became high
for the Al-SiC composites. The formation of a hard worn surface due to
plastic flow, the uniform dispersion of the whiskers in the subsurface and the
presence of additional oxidation on the contact surfaces and wear particles
prevent adhesion.
 29

Rao et al (2011) investigated the effect of applied pressure on the

tribological behaviour of SiCp reinforced aluminium. The overall results
indicated that the dispersion of 10 wt% SiCp to the base alloy made the
seizure resistance to improve by 33%, similarly 25 wt% SiCp, the seizure
resistance enhanced by 50%. The wear rates in all the samples increase
marginally with applied load prior to reaching the transition load (Figure 2.2).
In seizure condition, the wear surface is characterized by the formation of
parallel lips, destruction of MML (wave like material flow) along the sliding
direction. The hard SiC particles may sometimes causes scratching action
over the MML and thus leading to cavities and grooves over the MML in
worn surface of composite.

Figure 2.2 Wear rate as a function of applied pressure ( Rao et al 2011)

Sahin et al (2011) studied the abrasive wear behaviour of SiCp/Al

composites prepared by liquid metallurgy method using pin-on-disc
 30

configuration. The experimental results demonstrated that the addition of the

20 wt. % SiC particle to the Al alloy led to a dramatic improvement in wear
resistance of the base alloy (Figure2.3). The wear resistance of the MMCs
increases with increase wt. % of SiC particles. Furthermore, SEM
examination indicated that a relatively small amount of wear craters,
combined with re-attachment of debris particles due to occurring the small
amount of fractured particles in MMCs. In general, smoothening mechanism
was observed for both types of materials under higher loads as well.
Moreover adhesion, chipping and abrasion were more obviously observed for
the alloy matrix.

Figure 2.3 Average volumetric wear rate as a function of applied load

for the alloy matrix and its SiCp reinforced composite,
tested against 70 µm size of abrasive( Sahin et al 2011)
 31

Al-Rubaie et al (1999) observed the effect of three-body abrasion

of aluminium matrix composites reinforced with silicon carbide particles
(SiCp). MMCs were fabricated by a powder metallurgy route involving a
final hot extrusion step. Using a wet monolayer tester, three-body abrasive
wear tests were conducted under a constant load against silicon carbide and
alumina abrasives with four different grits sizes. The reinforcement of
aluminium matrix with SiC improved the abrasion resistance of all
composites tested against all the abrasives used.

Rahimian et al (2011) observed the effect of production parameters

on wear resistance of Al–Al2O3 composites. Alumina powder with a particle
size of 12, 3 and 48 µm and pure aluminium powder with particle size of 30
µm were used. It was found that increasing sintering temperature resulted in
increasing density, hardness and wear resistance and homogenization of the
microstructure. However at certain sintering temperatures and time,
considerable grain growth and reduction of hardness value occurred, leading
to the degradation of wear resistance. However, after raising the particle size
of alumina, relative density initially increases and then drops to lower values.
Increasing weight percent of alumina powder leads to higher hardness and
consequently improves the wear resistance of Al–Al2O3 composite. The use of
fine alumina particles has a similar effect on hardness and the wear resistance.
Figure 2.4 shows the variation of the wear rate of the composites as a function
of (a) Al2O3 particle content and (b) Al2O3 particle size in different sliding
distance.
 32

Figure 2.4 Variation of the wear rate of the composites as a function of

(a) Al2O3 particle content and (b) Al2O3 particle size in
different sliding distance ( Mehdi Rahimian et al 2011)

Sameezadeh et al (2011) studied the nanocomposites of AA 2024

aluminium alloy matrix reinforced with different volume fractions of
nanometric MoS2 intermetallic particles ranging from 0 to 5% using
mechanical alloying technique. The prepared composite powders were
consolidated by cold and hot pressing and then heat treated to solution and
aged condition. The effects of MoSi2 particle size, volume fraction and also
heat treatment on the hardness and wear properties of the composites were
investigated using Brinell hardness and pin-on-disc wear tests. The results
indicated that although T6 heat treatment increases the hardness of all
samples compared to as hot pressed (HP) condition, the age-hardenability
 33

(aging induced hardness improvement) decreases after mechanical alloying

and with increasing MoSi2 volume fraction due to the high dislocation density
produced during mechanical alloying. With increasing the volume fraction of
nano-sized MoSi2 particles up to 3–4%, the hardness of the composites
continuously increases and then declines most probably due to the particle
agglomeration. The wear sliding test disclosed that the wear resistance of all
specimens in T6 condition is higher than that of HP condition and increases
with increasing MoSi2 content.

Kwok and Lim (1999) investigated the friction and wear behaviour
of four Al/SiCp composites over a wide range of sliding conditions by the use
of a specially adapted high-speed tester of the pin-on-disk configuration.
Generally, wear rate increased with increasing load, but it varied in a rather
complex manner with speed depending on which regime the sliding condition
fell into. Three regimes of tribological behaviour, demarcated by sliding
speed, were observed for these composites. In Regime I, lower rates of wear
are observed while in Regime II, catastrophic failures occur when a certain
critical load is exceeded, resulting in the rapid adhesion of a large amount of
specimen material to the counterface: it is no longer possible to continue with
the test when this happens. In Regime III, extensive melting of the composites
takes place, and under such a sliding condition, the size of reinforcement
particles appears to have an important influence on the rate of wear of these
composites.

Abarghouie and Reihani (2010) investigated the friction and wear

behaviours of artificially aged 2024 Al and 2024 Al/20 vol.% SiC composite
prepared by powder metallurgy method in the temperature range 20–250 °C.
Dry sliding wear tests were conducted at a constant sliding velocity of 0.5
m/s, an applied load of 20 N, and a sliding distance of 2500m using a pin-on-
 34

disc apparatus. All specimens showed a transition from mild-to-severe wear

above a critical temperature. In the mild wear regime, the wear rate and the
friction coefficient of the composite specimen were higher than those of the
unreinforced alloy as shown in Figure 2.5. The SiC particles led to an
increase in the critical transition temperature and in the severe wear regime,
they caused a considerable improvement in the wear resistance. Analysis of
worn surfaces and wear debris indicated that the dominant wear mechanisms
of the unreinforced alloy were micro ploughing and slight adhesion in the
mild wear regime, whereas the composite specimen showed microcutting and
oxidation mechanisms in the same regime.

Das et al (2006) have discussed the formation of mechanically

mixed layer (MML) In Al composites consisting of debris and smeared and
fragmented SiC particles. SiC needles in MML and in the subsurface region
were fragmented into finer particles thus demonstrating the occurrence of
subsurface damage during abrasive wear of LM13-SiC composites. The size
and volume fraction of SiC particle reinforcement do not have significant
effect on friction coefficient of A356-SiC composites with volume fraction of
6%, 12% and 34% and its value remained relatively constant at 0.4 under dry
sliding.

Rohatgi et al (1997) have reported that the aluminium matrix

composites reinforced with hard particles like SiC, exhibit higher coefficient
of friction than with soft particles like Gr. AMCs reinforced with soft
reinforcement particles of Gr have been reported to be possessing better wear
characteristics owing to the reduced wear because of the formation of a thin
layer of Gr particles, which prevents metal to metal contact of the sliding
surfaces.
 35

Figure 2.5 Variations of (a) friction coefficient, and (b) wear rate with
test temperatures for aged 2024 Al/20 vol. % SiC composite
and aged unreinforced 2024 Al, at the applied load of 20 N.
(Mousavi Abarghouie and Seyed Reihani 2010)

2.5.2 Al -Gr Composites

Yang et al (2004) studied the effect of Graphite particulates coated

with an electroless copper introduced into an aluminium alloy by
compocasting method to make A356.2 Al/2 wt. %, 4 wt. %, 6 wt. % and 8
wt.% graphite particulate composite. Variations in friction coefficient, wear
 36

rate, wear debris and electrical contact resistance were studied related to
variations in graphite particulate content under different normal loading and
sliding speeds. Composites containing the 4wt. % or 6 wt.% graphite
particulate exhibited the lowest wear rate and friction coefficient, and these
properties were insensitive to the variation in sliding speed and normal
loading. The wear debris become smaller as the graphite content increased,
this is reflected by the lower electric contact resistance. The rest of the tribo-
layer consisted of the lamellar graphite films structure, which were elongated
over long distances in the direction of sliding, thus, reducing shear stresses
transmitted to the sub-surface regions, the amount of graphite film released on
the worn surface increases with increasing the graphite particulate content.

Hsiao and Jen (2000) investigated the pure graphite particles and
graphite particles coated with an electroless nickel (EN) film introduced into
an aluminium alloy via powder metallurgy to form two kinds of 6061
aluminium alloys. Tribological performances exhibited in unlubricated
frictional contacts and in oil lubricated contacts were compared for both
alloys. Variations in seizure resistance, friction behavior, wear mechanism,
wear particle size, and wear loss were studied related to variations in graphite
content of the aluminium composite material. In dry contacts, the use of the
EN film was significantly beneficial in lowering the wear rate of the upper
specimen, although it did not produce a great reduction in the wear rate of the
lower specimen compared to that for pure graphite. Similarly, friction
coefficients were at relatively lower levels when EN-coated graphite was
used. In dry contacts, the average size of wear debris produced by the
aluminium alloys with pure graphite was relatively fine, irrespective of the
graphite content.
 37

Riahi and Alpas (2001) studied a systematic investigation of the

role played by the tribo-layers that form on the contact surfaces during the
sliding wear of graphitic cast aluminium matrix composites. The graphitic
composites include A356 Al–10% SiC–4% Gr and A356 Al–5% Al2O3–3%
Gr that are being developed for cylinder liner applications in cast aluminium
engine blocks. Three main wear regimes, namely, ultra-mild, mild and severe
wear were observed. At nearly all sliding speeds and loads in the mild wear
regime a protective tribo-layer was formed. By increasing the speed and load
the tribo-layer covered a larger proportion of the contact surface and became
more compact and smoother. The hardness of the tribo-layers increased with
the applied load and speed and reached values as high as 800 kg/mm2. The
tribo-layers were removed by extrusion process at the onset of severe wear.
The topmost part of the tribo-layer consisted of iron-rich layers. The rest of
the tribo-layer consisted of fractured SiC and Al3Ni particles and thin graphite
films, which were elongated over long distances in the direction of sliding,
thus, reducing shear stresses transmitted to the subsurface regions. It was
shown that because of the thicker and more stable tribo-layers on the contact
surfaces of graphitic composites, than that of non-graphitic composites and
the A356 Al alloy, the graphitic composites displayed a transition from mild-
to-severe wear for all load and sliding speed combinations, which were
considerably higher than those of the A356 aluminium alloy and the non-
graphitic A356 Al–20% SiC composite (Figure3.6).
 38

Figure 2.6 Comparison of the mild-to-severe wear transition

boundaries of the graphitic A356 Al–10% SiC–4% Gr and
A356 Al–5% Al2O3–3% Gr composites with those of the
non-graphitic composite A356 Al–20% SiC and the
unreinforced matrix A356 Al alloy. (Riahi and Alpas 2001)

Akhlaghi and Zare-Bidaki (2009) assessed the influence of graphite

content on the dry sliding and oil impregnated sliding wear characteristics of
sintered aluminium 2024 alloy–graphite (Al/Gr) composite materials using a
pin-on disc wear test. The composites with 5–20 wt. % flake graphite
particles were processed by in situ powder metallurgy technique. For
comparison, compacts of the base alloy were made under the same
consolidation processing applied for Al/Gr composites. It was found that an
increase in graphite content reduced the coefficient of friction for both dry
and oil impregnated sliding, but this effect was more pronounced in dry
sliding (Figure 2.8). Hardness and fracture toughness of composites decreased
with increasing graphite content. In dry sliding, a marked transition from mild
 39

to severe wear was identified for the base alloy and composites. The
transition load increased with graphite content due to the increased amount of
released graphite detected on the wear surfaces. The wear rates for both dry
and oil impregnated sliding were dependent upon graphite content in the
alloy. In both cases, Al/Gr composites containing 5 wt.% graphite exhibited
superior wear properties over the base alloy, whereas at higher graphite
addition levels a complete reversal in the wear behavior was observed. The
wear rate of the oil impregnated Al/Gr composites containing 10 wt. % or
more graphite particles was higher than that of the base alloy (Figure 2.7).
These observations were rationalized in terms of the graphite content in the
Al/Gr composites which resulted in the variations of the mechanical
properties together with formation and retention of the solid lubricating film
on the dry and/or oil impregnated sliding surfaces.

Figure 2.7 The variation in the measured wear rate with the weight
percent of graphite in the composites for both dry sliding
and oil impregnated sliding. (Akhlaghi and Zare-Bidaki
2009)
 40

Figure 2.8 The variation in the measured coefficient of friction with the
weight percent of graphite in the composites for both dry
sliding and oil impregnated sliding. (Akhlaghi and Zare-
Bidaki 2009)

Hassan et al (2008) have reported decrease in hardness with

increase in % reinforcement of Gr due to increased porosity. The implication
of these observations is that the % reinforcement of Gr in Al–Gr composites
is bounded by certain limit beyond which it is not beneficial to add Gr as
reinforcement. Hard ceramic particulates of SiC when added as a second
reinforcement is a panacea towards the difficulties encountered with high %
reinforcement of Gr in Al–Gr composites.

2.5.3 Hybrid Composites

Aluminium matrix composites with multiple reinforcements

(hybrid AMCs) are finding increased applications because of improved
mechanical and tribological properties. Hence hybrid composites are better
substitutes for single reinforced composites. Al–Gr composites containing
SiC are referred as Al–SiC–Gr hybrid composites. The salient observations of
 41

some of the studies on Al–SiC–Gr hybrid composites are highlighted in the

following few lines.

Ted et al (2000) studied the tribological behavior of self-

lubricated aluminium/SiC/graphite hybrid composites with various amount of
graphite addition synthesized by the semi-solid powder densification (SSPD)
method. As the amount of graphite increases, the hardness and coefficients of
thermal expansion of the composites decreases. Fracture toughness decreases
monotonically as the graphite content increases. It was found that the seizure
phenomenon which occurred with a monolithic aluminium alloy did not occur
with the hybrid composites. The amount of graphite released on the wear
surface increases as the graphite content increases, which reduces the friction
coefficient (Figure 2.10). Graphite released from the composites bonded onto
the wear surfaces of the counter faces. However, the amount bonded is small,
and X-ray mappings showed no significant difference in the amounts bonded
for different graphite additions. Wear becomes more stable, and wear debris
particles become smaller as the graphite content increases, which is reflected
by the lower electric contact resistance. More fracturing is shown on the wear
surface of the composite with high graphite addition as a consequence of poor
fracture toughness by comparison with composites with low graphite. There
seems to be less abrasive wear on the composites than on the counter faces.
The wear rate of the composite increases as the amount of graphite content
increases up to 5% then falls to a lower value for an 8% addition (Figure 2.9).
However, the wear rate of the counter face increases as the amount of
graphite in the composites increases up to 8%.
 42

Figure 2.9 Weight loss of the composites and the counterparts in 5 min
of wear process for various graphite additions. (Ted Guo
et al 2000)

Figure 2.10 Variations of friction coefficient with the percentage of

graphite addition (Ted Guo et al 2000)

Jinfeng et al (2008) investigated the 40%SiC/5%Gr/Al composites

with various-sizes graphite particle addition by squeeze casting technology,
and their friction and wear properties. Results showed that after the addition
of graphite the friction coefficient of composites decreased and the wear
resistance increased by 170 to 340 times. In addition, wear resistance was
 43

improved with increasing of graphite particle size, which is attributed to the

enhancement of integrity of lubrication tribo-layer composed of a complex
mixture of iron oxides, graphite as well as fractured SiC particles and some
fine particles containing aluminium. Moreover, the wear loss of counter face
steel is decreased by a factor of about 2/3. Figure.2.11 shows the wear loss of
the composites and counter faces of wear process for SiC/Al and SiC/Gr/Al

Figure 2.11 Wear loss of the composites and counterfaces of wear

process for SiC/Al and SiC/Gr/Al (Leng Jinfeng et al 2009)

Mahdavi and Akhlaghi (2011) studied the effect of size of silicon

carbide particles on the dry sliding wear properties of composites. In this
study, wear behaviour of Al6061/10 vol % SiC and Al6061/10 vol % SiC/ 5
vol % graphite composites processed by in situ powder metallurgy technique
has been investigated using a pin-on-disk wear tester. The debris and wear
surfaces of samples were identified using SEM. The increased SiC particle
size reduced the porosity, hardness, volume loss, and coefficient of friction of
both types of composites. Moreover, the hybrid composites exhibited lower
 44

coefficient of friction (Figure 2.12) and wear rates (Figure 2.13). The wear
mechanisms are changed from mostly adhesive and micro-cutting in the
Al/10SiC composite containing fine SiC particles to the prominently abrasive
and delamination wear by increasing of SiC particle size. While the main
wear mechanism for the unreinforced alloy was adhesive wear, all the hybrid
composites were worn mainly by abrasion and delamination mechanisms.

Figure 2.12 Variation of the coefficient of friction in different

composites with SiC particle size. (Mahdavi and Akhlaghi
2011).
 45

Figure 2.13 Variation of the wear rates of Al/SiC and Al/SiC/Gr

composites containing different sized SiC particles at the
sliding distances of 500 and 1000 m (Mahdavi and Akhlaghi
2011).

Basavarajappa et al (2006) investigated the dry sliding wear

behavior of Al 2219 alloy and Al 2219/SiCp/Gr hybrid composites under
similar conditions. The composites are fabricated using the liquid metallurgy
technique. The dry sliding wear test is carried out for sliding speeds up to 6
m/s and normal loads up to 60 N using a pin on disc apparatus. It was found
that the addition of SiCp and graphite reinforcements increases the wear
resistance of the composites. The results of Variation of wear rate with
applied load at a sliding speed of 3 m/s for a sliding distance of 5000 m are
summarized in Figure 2.14. Abrasion is the principle wear mechanism for the
composites at low sliding speeds and loads. At higher loads, the wear
mechanism changes to delamination.
 46

Figure 2.14 Variation of wear rate with applied load at a sliding speed of
3 m/s for a sliding distance of 5000 m( Basavarajappa et al.
2006)

2.6 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF Al COMPOSITES

The experimental results are analyzed with the help of statistical

analysis software, which is widely used in many fields of engineering
research. Kumar et al (2010) developed a new mathematical model to predict
the abrasive wear rate of AA7075 aluminium alloy matrix composites
reinforced with SiC particles. Five factors, five levels, central composite,
rotatable design matrix was used to optimize the required number of
experiments. The model was developed by response surface method. Analysis
of variance technique was applied to check the validity of the model.
Composites with larger reinforcement size and high volume fraction showed
improved abrasive wear resistance as compared to other combinations. It is
inferred that the size of abrasive exerted the greatest effect on abrasive wear,
such that the higher the abrasive size, the higher the wear rate. When the size
 47

of reinforcement is smaller than the abrasive size, the fracture and micro-
cutting of the reinforcement are more dominant.

Sahin (2010) investigated the aluminium alloy matrix reinforced

with 15 wt% SiC particles by powder metallurgy (PM) method. Analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was also employed to investigate which design
parameters significantly affected the wear behaviour of the composite. The
results showed that abrasive grain size exerted the greatest effect on the
abrasive wear, followed by the hardness, but the percentage of contribution
was very different. The percentage contributions of the grain size and
hardness were about 81.57 and 11.09, respectively. This might be because of
production method of PM, particle size, model used by not considering the
interaction effects, and testing condition. Moreover, larger particle sizes of
the composites showed more wear resistance than those of others. As for the
case of earlier work the percentage contributions of the grain size and type of
material (hardness) were about 29.90, 17.90, respectively. However, the
percentage contribution of interaction of abrasive size and hardness was about
30.90 while interaction of other factors was pooled.

Devaraju et al (2013) studied the effect of reinforcement particles

such as Silicon carbide (SiC), Graphite (Gr) and rotational speed on wear and
mechanical properties of Aluminium alloy surface hybrid composites
fabricated via Friction stir processing (FSP). Taguchi method was employed
to optimize the rotational speed and volume percentage of reinforcement
particles for improving the wear and mechanical properties of the surface
hybrid composites. The fabricated surface hybrid composites have been
examined by optical microscope for dispersion of reinforcement particles and
revealed that the reinforcement particles (i.e. SiC and Gr) are uniformly
dispersed in the nugget zone. It is also observed that the microhardness at
optimum condition is increased due to the presence and pining effect of hard
 48

SiC particles. The wear resistance of the surface hybrid composite is

increased due to the mechanically mixed layer generated between the
composite pin and steel disk surfaces which contained fractured SiC and Gr.
Regression models were developed to predict the quality characteristics
(microhardness, UTS, YS, %EL and wear rate) within the selected range of
process parameters (SiC, Gr and rotational speed).

Basavarajappa et al (2007) investigated the Aluminium metal

matrix composites reinforced with SiC and graphite (Gr) particles by liquid
metallurgy route. Dry sliding wear behaviour of the composite was tested and
compared with Al/SiCp composite. A plan of experiments based on Taguchi
technique was used to acquire the data in a controlled way. The incorporation
of graphite particles in the aluminium matrix as a secondary reinforcement
increases the wear resistance of the material. The smearing of the graphite
and formation of protecting layer between the pin and the counter face
enables in reducing the wear volume loss. Sliding distance is the wear factor
that has the highest physical as well as statistical influence on the wear of
both composites. SiCp composite present a contribution of sliding distance
(57.57%), load (24.34%), and sliding speed (6.8%). SiCp–Gr reinforced
composites present a contribution of sliding distance (57.24%), the load
(22.58%) and sliding speed (9.66%). The interactions between the wear
parameters have statistical significance but do not have any physical
significance.

Suresha and Sridhara (2010) analyzed the influence of addition of

graphite (Gr) particulates as a second reinforcement on the tribological
behaviour of aluminium matrix composites reinforced with silicon carbide
(SiC) particulates under dry sliding condition. Experiments are also
conducted on composites with % reinforcement of SiC similar to hybrid
composites for the sake of comparison. Parametric studies based on design of
 49

experiments (DOE) techniques indicate that the wear of hybrid composites

decreases from 0.0234 g to 0.0221 g as the % reinforcement increases from
3% to 7.5%. But the wear has a tendency to increase beyond % reinforcement
of 7.5% as its value is 0.0225 g at.% reinforcement of 10%. This trend is
absent in case of composites reinforced with SiC alone. Load and sliding
distance show a positive influence on wear implying increase of wear with
increase of either load or sliding distance or both.

2.7 Al NANO COMPOSITES

Kollo et al (2009) studied the effect of High-energy planetary

milling in aluminium powders with 1 vol.% of silicon carbide (SiC)
nanoparticles. A number of milling parameters were modified for constituting
the relationship between the energy input from the balls and the hardness of
the bulk nanocomposite materials. It was shown that mixing characteristics
and reaction kinetics with stearic acid as process control agent can be
estimated by normalised input energy from the milling bodies. For this, the
additional parameter characterizing the vial filling was determined
experimentally. Depending on the ball size, a local minimum in filling
parameter was found, laying at 25 or 42% filling of the vial volume for the
balls with diameter of 10 and 20mm, respectively. These regions should be
avoided to achieve the highest milling efficiency. After a hot compaction,
difference of hardness for different milling conditions was detected.
Therewith the hardness of the Al–1 vol.% nanoSiC composite could be
increased from 47HV0.5 of pure aluminium to 163HV0.5 when milling at the
highest input energy levels.

Gajewska et al (2012) studied the effect of an AlN reinforcement

size on properties of aluminium alloy matrix composites produced via
mechanical alloying/uniaxial hot pressing. Composite samples were prepared
 50

using pre-alloyed AA7475 powder with 10 wt.% of AlN additions of differing

average particle sizes: <40 m, ~1 m or <1 m. Powders were milled in a
high energy ball mill for up to 40 hours and then hot pressed in vacuum at
380°C/600 MPa. Milled powder analysis revealed that addition of microsized
hard reinforcing phase allows to achieve a higher level of crystallite size
refinement as compared with submicron reinforcement, under the same
milling conditions. The SEM microstructures of compacted samples
confirmed uniform dispersion of the ceramic phases independent of the size.
All of the composites were characterized by fine matrix grain size (<200 nm)
and a high density of even finer intermetallic, Zn, Cu, Mg or Fe rich
precipitates. The obtained hardness results were highest for ~1 m AlN
addition - near 320 HV which is a 30% improvement over the matrix itself.
The best properties of composites reinforced with intermediate particles
suggest that the achievement of a compromise between the structure
refinement during MA and grain growth restraint during hot pressing is of a
particular importance in composite materials produced in this way.

Nemati et al (2011) investigated the wear behavior of aluminium

alloy matrix composites produced using powder metallurgy technique of ball
milled mixing in a high energy attritor and using a blend–press–sinter
methodology. Matrix of pre-mechanical alloyed Al–4.5 wt.% Cu was used to
which different fractions of nano and micron size TiC reinforcing particles
(ranging from 0 to 10 wt.%) were added. The powders were mixed using a
planetary ball mill. Consolidation was conducted by uniaxial pressing at 650
MPa. Sintering procedure was done at 400°C for 90 min. The results
indicated that as TiC particle size is reduced to nanometre scale and the TiC
content is increased up to optimum levels, the hardness and wear resistance of
the composite increase significantly, whereas relative density, grain size and
distribution homogeneity decrease. Using micron size reinforcing particulates
from 5% to 10 wt.%, results in a significant hardness reduction of the
 51

composite from 174 to 98 HVN. Microstructural characterization of the as-

pressed samples revealed reasonably uniform distribution of TiC reinforcing
particulates and presence of minimal porosity. The wear test disclosed that the
wear resistance of all specimens increases with the addition of nano and
micron size TiC particles (up to 5 wt.%).

2.8 LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING LITRATURE

Based on the above discussion, it can be found that the preform-

based powder metallurgy is an effective process to fabricate the metal matrix
composites. It offers advantages compared with stir-casting, and squeeze
casting because of its low manufacturing temperature, which avoids strong
interfacial reactions, minimising undesired reactions between the matrix and
the reinforcement. An additional advantage of powder metallurgy is the
uniformity in the reinforcement distribution. This uniformity improves not
only the structural properties but also the mechanical strength as well as
imparts high wear resistance. In general, PM aluminium matrix composites
exhibit good levels of mechanical properties compared with those from other
alternative manufacturing processes.

Reasonably fewer studies are found on the self lubricated wear

characteristics of lightweight aluminium-based composites. However, studies
on the self lubricated Al hybrid composites are scanty in the literature.
Moreover, no systematic attempt has been made to study the influence of the
hybridisation of SiC on the tribological properties of aluminium-based
composites prepared by conventional powder metallurgy route. Furthermore,
it is evident from these studies that the majority of the alloys chosen as
matrices have been the A356, 6xxx and 7xxx series alloys. Although some
studies have been reported on the 2xxx series alloys reinforced with both
silicon carbide and graphite particulates, much less attention has been given
 52

to the AA 2024 alloy matrix composites, which, has the highest hardness
among all Al alloys. Therefore, in the present study, aluminium hybrid
composites on the dry sliding friction and wear properties are investigated.

Some of the limitations identified based on the literature survey of

the topics are listed as below.

From the literature study, it is observed that silicon carbide/Gr

aluminium composites are synthesized using different routes,
such as stir- casting, squeeze casting, etc. However, the
powder metallurgy route is rarely found in the literature.

From the literature study, it was observed that the majority of

the alloys chosen as matrices have been the A356, 6xxx and
7xxx series alloys. Although some studies have been reported
on the 2xxx series alloys reinforced with both silicon carbide
and graphite particulates, much less attention has been given
to the AA 2024 alloy matrix composites, which, has the
highest hardness among all Al alloys. Therefore the present
investigation, both nano-sized and micro sized SiC and Gr
particles were used as reinforcement for a nano and micro -
aluminium alloy matrix (AA 2024).

Limited study has been made on aluminium hybrid

composites involving both hard and soft reinforcements even
though it is very interesting and provides scope to overcome
some of the challenges posed by use of single.

Most of the reported research focuses on the effect of either

one or two factors on the dry sliding wear behaviour of hybrid
composites. But no systematic attempt has been made to study
 53

the influence of the hybridisation of both SiC and Gr on the

tribological properties of aluminium-based composites

Factorial technique and Taquchi method has not been revealed

so far about mechanical and tribological behaviour of the
hybrid Al composites. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
used to investigate the influence of the parameters on both the
wear loss and the coefficient of friction.