WEAR BEHAVIOUR OF HIGH CARBON CHROMIUM

STEEL

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

GOWSALYA K (210918114032)

JEYA JAISAN J (210918114041)

KIRAN PRASATH I (210918114052)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LOYOLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, CHENNAI

ANNA UNIVERSITY :: CHENNAI 600025

JUNE 2022
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “WEAR BEHAVIOUR OF HIGH

CARBON CHROMIUM STEEL (EN31)” is the bonafide work of

“GOWSALYA K (210918114032), JEYA JAISAN J(210918114041),

KIRAN PRASATH I (210918114052)” who carried out the project work under the

supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. V. BALAJI, M.E, Ph.D., Mrs. R.KUMUTHA, M. E., (Ph.D.,)

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISIOR

Professor Assistant professor

Dept. of Mechanical engineering Dept. of Mechanical engineering,

Loyola Institute of Technology Loyola Institute of Technology

Palanchur, Chennai-600 123 Palanchur, Chennai-600 123

Submitted for the University Examination held on……………………

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our sincere thanks to our beloved chairman

Rev. Fr. Dr. J. E. ARUL RAJ, DMI, for providing immense facilities in our
institution.

We also thank our correspondent Rev. Sr. TERESA having providing the
facilities to complete this project work. We also thank our Administrator
Rev. Sr. NAMBIKAI MARY having providing facilities to complete this project
work.

We are very proudly rendering our thanks to our respected Principal,

Dr. SUJATHA JAMUNA ANAND, ME., Ph.D., for the facilities and the
encouragement given by her to the progress and completion of our project work.

We proudly render our immense gratitude to the Head of the Department

Dr. V. BALAJI, M.E., Ph.D., for his effective leadership, encouraged and guidance
in the project work.

We are highly indebted to provide our heart full thanks to our guide
Mrs. R. KUMUTHA, M.E., (Ph.D.,) for her valuable ideas encouragement and
supportive guidance throughout the project work.

We wish to acknowledge the help received from lab assistants of our

department and various individuals during fabrication of the project work.
 ABSTRACT

The main aim of our project is to increase the lifetime of bearing

materials particularly EN31 steel which is used in manufacturing of Ball
bearings, Spinning tools, Beading Rolls, Punches and dies. EN31 is a
quality high carbon alloy steel. Increase in the lifetime of a material is
done either by alloying with appropriate materials before its producing.
This project makes an attempt to enhance the lifetime of EN31 steel by
modifying the surface through heat treatment and coating process. Wear
tests were performed on untreated and treated material with the help of pin
on disc equipment. The Coefficient of Friction, the wear rate and wear
coefficient were determined on pins. It has been obtained that the
coefficient of friction, wear coefficient and wear rate were decreases as the
sliding distance increases on the treated material.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE Page. No

NO.
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF SYMBOLS ix
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Wear 1

1.1.1 Types of Wear 2

1.1.2 Adhesive wear 2

1.1.3Abrasive wear 3

1.1.4 Surface fatigue 4

1.1.5 Fretting wear 5

1.1.6 Erosive Wear 6

1.2 Nitriding 7

1.2.1 Nitriding Process 8

1.2.2 Difference of Nitriding from other case 8

Hardening method
9
1.2.3 Benefits of Nitriding
10
1.3.Sputtering
10
1.3.1 Process of Sputtering
11
1.3.2 Basics of the Sputtering Process
11
1.3.3 Types of Sputtering
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 14

v
3 METHODOLOGY 19
4 MATERIAL SELECTION 20
4.1 Material Properties 20
4.2 EN31 Steel 20
4.3 Chemical Composition 21
4.4 Physical Properties 21
4.5 Thermal Properties 22
4.6 Mechanical Properties 22
4.7 Forming and Forging 23
4.8 Heat Treatment 23
4.9 Hardening 23
4.10 Applications 24
5 EXPERIMENTAL WORK 25
5.1 Material 25
5.2 Specimen 25
5.3 Nitriding 26
5.4 Sputtering 27
5.5 Wear Test 30
6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 32
6.1 Coefficient of friction 32
6.2 Wear Coefficient 33
6.3 Wear rate 34
6.4 SEM Analysis Result 35
6.4.1 SEM Analysis Application 35
7 CONCLUSION 36
8 COST OF ESTIMATION 37
9 REFERENCES 38
vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table.no TITLE PAGE.NO

4.1 Chemical Composition 21

4.2 Physical Properties 21

4.3 Thermal Properties 21

4.4 Mechanical Properties 22

5.1 Chemical Composition of material 25

5.2 Pin & Disc Specimen Specification 26

5.3 Process Parameter and Values 28

8.1 Cost of estimation 37

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE.NO TITLE PAGE.NO

1.2 Adhesive Wear 3

1.2 Abrasive Wear 3

1.3 Surface Fatigue 4

1.4 Fretting Wear 5

1.5 Erosive Wear 6

4.1 EN31 Steel 20

5.1 Pin & Disc Specimen 25

5.2 Nitriding process chart 26

5.3 Salt bath Nitriding Process 27

5.4 Basic Sputtering Process 29

5.5 Schematic diagram of radio frequency 29

5.6 Pin on Disc Experimental Reading 30

5.6 Pin on Disc Reading 31

6.1 Coefficient of Friction 32

6.2 Wear Coefficient 33

6.3 Wear Rate 34

viii
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

S. No SYMBOL ABBREVATION

1 Pa Pascal

2 V Volumetric Loss

3 kHz Frequency

4 r/min Sliding Speed

5 W/mK Thermal Co-efficient

6 Torr Base pressure

7 H Brinell Hardness

8 C Rockwell Hardness

ix
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Tribology is the study of science and engineering of interacting surfaces in

relative motion. It includes the study and application of the principles of friction,
lubrication and wear. Tribology is a branch of mechanical engineering and materials
science.

1.1 WEAR

Wear is related to interactions between surfaces and specifically the removal

and deformation of material on a surface as a result of mechanical action of the
opposite surface.

In materials science, wear is erosion or sideways displacement of material from

its derivative and original position on a solid surface performed by the action of
another surface.

Wear of metals occurs by the plastic displacement of surface and by the

detachment of particles that form wear debris. The size of the generated particles may
vary from millimeter range down to an ion range.

Wear can also be defined as a process where interaction between two surfaces
or bounding faces of solids within the working environment results in dimensional
loss of one solid, with or without any actual decoupling and loss of material. Aspects
of the working environment which affect wear include loads and features such as
unidirectional sliding, reciprocating, rolling, and impact loads, speed, temperature,
but also different types of counter bodies such as solid, liquid or gas and type of
contact ranging between single phase or multiphase, in which the last multiphase may
combine liquid with solid particles and gas bubbles.
1
1.1.1 TYPES OF WEAR

The study of the processes of wear is part of the discipline of tribology. The
complex nature of wear has delayed its investigations and resulted in isolated studies
towards specific wear mechanisms or processes. Some commonly referred to wear
mechanisms include

 Adhesive wear
 Abrasive wear
 Surface fatigue
 Fretting wear
 Erosive wear
 Corrosion and oxidation wear

1.1.2 ADHESIVE WEAR

Adhesive wear occurs when two solids are in a sliding contact and the atomic
bonding forces occurring between the materials on the interface are stronger than the
strength of the surrounding area in either of the materials. In this case, shear starts in
the weakest material and the fragment of a surface is detached from one body and
transferred to another. Once the fragment is transferred to another surface due to high
bonding strength on the interface it may remain at the surface and form a ‘transfer
film’, or a loose wear particle may form. The formation of a latter is possible due to
variation of stress acting on a fragment. Inside of the contact, the fragment is under
mechanical influence: heavily stressed and elastically deformed. Once the fragment
leaves the contact zone, the stresses are relieved and if the relief in stress is stronger
than the adhesive bonds, then the loose particle forms. Adhesive wear coefficients of
metals are between depending on operational conditions and material properties.

2
 Fig 1.1. Adhesive Wear

1.1.3 ABRASIVE WEAR

Abrasive wear occurs when a hard surface or hard particles pass over a soft
surface, causing loss of material. However, the abrasive grooves can be found on the
wear tracks of the sliding friction between similar metals. It means that abrasive
particles may be formed during the wear process due to work hardening, phase
transformations and third body formation at the interface.

Fig 1.2. Abrasive Wear

3
 Abrasive wear can be divided into two groups: two-body and three-body
abrasive wear. In the three-body abrasion, the particles formed during the
operation or coming from outside the system cause the abrasive wear, whereas in
two body, one of the materials plays the role of the abrasive.
Abrasive wear has three different forms: microcuting, wedge forming and
ploughing. During operation of a system, transition from one mode to another may
happen and modes can act simultaneously. In the ploughing mode, a shallow
groove is formed and repeated loading is necessary to form a wear particle. In the
wedge forming, the wedge type of wear debris is formed. In the microcutting
mode, long, curled ribbon-like particles are generated. The shape of the abrasive
particle, the hardness, the load and the shear strength at the contact interface
determine the state of the abrasive wear.
1.1.4 SURFACE FATIGUE
Surface fatigue is a failure that occurs due to cyclic loading. Surface fatigue is
different from other types of fatigue failures because it is found solely on the top layer
of a material. Surface fatigue usually appears in the form of microcracks on a
material's surface. If left unchecked, the failure could spread past the surface of the
material.

Fig 1.3. Surface Fatigue

4
 1.1.5 FRETTING WEAR
Fretting refers to wear and sometimes corrosion damage at the asperities of
contact surfaces. This damage is induced under load and in the presence of repeated
relative surface motion, as induced for example by vibration. The ASM Handbook
on Fatigue and Fracture defines fretting as: "A special wear process that occurs at the
contact area between two materials under load and subject to minute relative motion
by vibration or some other force." Fretting tangibly degrades the surface layer quality
producing increased surface roughness and micro pits, which reduces the fatigue
strength of the components.

The amplitude of the relative sliding motion is often in the order from
micrometers to millimeters, but can be as low as 3 nanometers The contact movement
causes mechanical wear and material transfer at the surface, often followed by
oxidation of both the metallic debris and the freshly exposed metallic surfaces.
Because the oxidized debris is usually much harder than the surfaces from which it
came, it often acts as an abrasive agent that increases the rate of fretting.

Fig 1.4. Fretting Wear

5
1.1.6 EROSIVE WEAR
Erosive wear occurs when many small particles impact a surface causing wear.
Erosive wear is defined more in terms of practical considerations than fundamental
principles, so many different wear mechanisms take place in this wear mode. Particles
causing erosive wear are generally between 5 and 500 microns in size.

Liquid droplets can cause erosive wear as well as solid particles although the
threshold velocity for wear to occur is higher for liquids. Droplets of water or steam
are the main liquid about which erosive wear has been studied. Wear from liquids
occurs because of the series of transient pressure pulses. There are a number of
factors which significantly affect the rate of erosive wear.

Fig.1.5 Erosive Wear

6
1.2 NITRIDING

The Nitriding process, first developed in the early 1900s, continues to play an
important role in many industrial applications. Along with the derivative nitro
carburizing process, nitriding often is used in the manufacture of aircraft, bearings,
automotive components, textile machinery, and turbine generation systems. Though
wrapped in a bit of “alchemical mystery,” it remains the simplest of the case
hardening techniques.

The secret of the nitriding process is that it does not require a phase change
from ferrite to austenite, nor does it require a further change from austenite to
martensite. In other words, the steel remains in the ferrite phase (or cementite,
depending on alloy composition) during the complete procedure. This means that the
molecular structure of the ferrite (body-centred cubic, or bcc, lattice) does not change
its configuration or grow into the face-centred cubic (fcc) lattice characteristic of
austenite, as occurs in more conventional methods such as carburizing. Furthermore,
because only free cooling takes place, rather than rapid cooling or quenching, no
subsequent transformation from austenite to martensite occurs. Again, there is no
molecular size change and, more importantly, no dimensional change, only slight
growth due to the volumetric change of the steel surface caused by the nitrogen
diffusion. What can (and does) produce distortion are the induced surface stresses
being released by the heat of the process, causing movement in the form of twisting
and Bending.

Nitriding is a chemical process used to harden metal—typically steel or iron. It

is often done to heat resistant steel used in high-temperature applications and steel
used to make tools, though titanium and aluminium can also be nitrided. The nitride
alloys created from the nitriding process create a layer with very high wear resistance.

7
1.2.1 NITRIDING PROCESS

Nitriding is a thermochemical process. There are several different Nitriding

methods including gas Nitriding, salt bath Nitriding, and plasma Nitriding. In all of
these cases, the case or outer layer of the steel is heated to 450–600 degrees Celsius
while nitrogen is diffused into the substrate. This creates nitrides, or nitrogen alloys.
The nitrogen itself is present at a level below six percentage to guarantee the creation
of gas Nitriding Ne or Fe4N, a brittle alloy that hurts part performance.

At higher levels, e-nitride would form. e-nitride or Fe3N is similar and may be
mixed in with the g'-nitride. The process may add other minerals to create additional,
strong alloys in the steel or iron’s substrate. For example, they may be alloyed with
molybdenum and chromium. This improves their suitability through quenching.
Aluminium and vanadium may be included as Nitriding agents. Nitriding depth
ranges from 0.1 to 0.7 millimetres. Nitriding time ranges from a few hours up to a
hundred hours.

1.2.2 DIFFERENCE OF NITRIDING FROM OTHER CASE HARDENING

METHODS

Nitriding differs from traditional case-hardening methods like carburizing. The

steel is held at the same high temperature as nitrogen is introduced. There is no
transformation phase during the cooling process. In contrast, carburizing results in a
phase transformation when the substrate is cooled. The carbon content of the steel
absorbs carbon and the chemical composition shifts from austenite to martensite.
Martensite has greater wear resistance thanks to its high hardness.

8
1.2.3 BENEFITS OF NITRIDING

One of the greatest benefits of Nitriding is that it minimizes the distortions that
occur during carburizing and quenching, the two most popular heat-treatment
processes. This creates a much smoother surface, which in turn reduces the need for
post-heat-treatment machining or finishing processes.

However, nitriding does not eliminate the need for further processing. Older
nitriding processes create a white layer of g’-nitride (Fe 4N) that needs to be removed,
though a few newer nitriding processes prevent the formation of this inferior steel
alloy. Below this is the diffusion zone, or substrate, where the grain boundaries are
altered by the formation of nitrides. Below this remains the unchanged core material.
These boundaries are obvious when studied under a microscope.

The hardened material has a reduced risk of galling. It has a greater resistance
to tempering, and it remains strong when exposed to high temperatures. That’s one
reason why nitrided steel is used in firearms, extruding dies, die-casting tools, plastic
mold tools, and forging dies.

Nitriding increases the fatigue strength of the metal, or the stress the material
can withstand without breaking. This dramatically increases the life expectancy of
tools.

9
1.3 SPUTTERING

Sputtering is a physical process in which atoms in a solid state are released and
pass into the gas phase by bombardment with energetic ions (mainly noble gas ions).
Sputtering is usually understood as the sputter deposition, a high vacuum-based
coating technique. Furthermore, Sputtering in surface physics is used as a cleaning
method for the preparation of high purity surfaces and as a method for analysing the
chemical composition of surfaces.

1.3.1 PROCESS OF SPUTTERING

The principle of Sputtering is to use the energy of a plasma (partially ionized

gas) on the surface of a target (cathode), to pull the atoms of the material one by one
and deposit them on the substrate.

To do this, a plasma is created by ionization of a pure gas (usually Argon) by

means of a potential difference (pulsed DC), or electromagnetic excitation (MF, RF);
this plasma is composed of Ar+ ions which are accelerated and confined around the
target due to the presence of a magnetic field. Each ionized atom, by striking the
target, transfers its energy and rips an atom, having enough energy to be projected to
the substrate.

The plasma is created at relatively high pressures (10 -1 - 10-3 Pa.), but it is
necessary to start from a lower pressure before the introduction of Argon, to avoid
contamination due to the residual gases.

The diversity of sputtering target shapes (circular, rectangular, Delta, tubular...)

and the materials used allows creating all types of thin layers, including alloys during
a single run.

10
1.3.2 BASICS OF THE SPUTTERING PROCESS

When bombarding a surface with ions, various effects may occur, depending
on the ions used and their kinetic energy:

1. Material is removed from the bombarded target (cathode). This is the

sputtering described here.

2. The ions are incorporated into the target material and enter there,
possibly a chemical compound. This effect is then called (reactive) ion
implantation.

3. The ions condense on the bombarded substrate, where they form a

layer ion beam deposition.

1.3.3 TYPES OF SPUTTERING

The main types of Sputtering are discussed below:

3. DC diode sputtering

With a DC voltage = 500 – 1000 V, an argon low-pressure plasma is ignited

between a target and a substrate. Positive argon ions precipitate atoms out of the
target, which then migrates to the substrate and condenses there.

Limitations

Only electrical conductors can be sputtered, as otherwise an opposing field

builds up and the sputtering process stops. The other limitation is that only low
sputtering rates are achieved since only a few argon ions are formed.

11
2. RF sputtering

In radio frequency sputtering, a high-frequency alternating field is applied

instead of the DC electric field. The necessary high-frequency voltage source is
connected in series with a capacitor and the plasma. The capacitor serves to separate
the DC component and to keep the plasma electrically neutral.

The alternating field accelerates the ions and the electrons alternately in both
directions. From a frequency of approximately 50 kHz, the ions can no longer follow
the alternating field due to their much smaller charge-to-mass ratio.

The electrons oscillate in the area of the plasma and there are more and more
collisions with argon atoms. This results in a high plasma rate, a consequence of
which is the possible pressure reduction to about 10-1 – 10-2 Pa with the same
sputtering rate. This allows the production of thin layers with a different
microstructure than would be possible at higher pressures.

The positive ions move through a superimposed negative offset voltage on the
target in the direction of the target and solve as in DC sputtering by collision atoms
from the target material. The subsequent sputter deposition corresponds to that of
other sputtering methods.

12
Benefits

1. Insulators (e.g. aluminium oxide or boron nitride) and semiconductors can also be
sputtered

2. The substrate heats up less

3. Due to the oscillating electrons, the sputtering rate at the same chamber pressure is
about 10 times higher than with DC sputtering.

Limitations

1. Relatively low coating rates

2. The RF generation is more expensive than a DC voltage source

3. For large rectangular cathodes (> 1m), unevenness in the plasma density (layer
thickness distribution) may occur.

13
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

R. Kumutha, S. Ilaiyavel, “Study of Tribological nalysed of conversion

coated High Carbon High Chromium Steel”[1], Increase in the lifetime of a
component is done either by alloying with numerous appropriate materials before its
producing or by appropriate coating on that once produced. So as to extend the
lifetime of an element, the wear should be reduced. This study makes an attempt to
enhance the service lifetime of AISI D2 Tool and dies by modifying the surface
through Manganese Phosphate and Molybdenum disulphide coating. The wear tests
were performed during a pin on disc equipment as per ASTM G-99 standard. The
wear resistance of coated and uncoated steel was e valuated through a pin on disc take
a look at employing a velocity of 0.3 m/s. The coefficient of friction, the wear rate
and wear coefficient were determined on pins. Oil lubricated Manganese Phosphate
coated with MoS gives less coefficient of friction and less wear rate.

M. R. HILTON, R. BAUER AND P. D. FLEISCHAUER “Tribiological

Performance and Deformation of Sputter-Deposited MoSz Solid Lubricant films
during sliding wear and indentation contact [2]” In a thorough assessment of the
lubrication ability of sputter-deposited MoSz, one must consider the nature of both
film debris formation and film debris retention in the sliding-wear contact region. If
sliding-wear debris is generally’ retained within the contact region, such as in a
telescoping mechanism, the film density and the ability to provide crystalline
MoSe .,O, of the proper orientation (as a result of either stress-induced reorientation
or crystallization) are the important film properties that determine component
lifetime.

14
 WaldemarAlfredo Monteiro et al. “Nitriding Process Characterization of
Cold Worked AISI 304 and 316 Austenitic Stainless Steels [3]” In the studied
materials, two distinguished layers are observed in the microstructure, one formed by
the austenite due to the presence of N atoms followed by another layer formed by the
austenite due to the presence of C atoms.

Bo Wang a, Shicheng Wei a, *, Lei Guo a, Yujiang Wang a, Yi Liang a,

Wei Huang b,Fangjie Lu a, Xianhua Chen c, Fusheng Pan c, Binshi Xu a “Effect
of sputtering power on microstructure and corrosion properties of TiO2 films
deposited by reactive magnetron sputtering [4]” The effect of sputtering power on
the microstructure, anti-corrosion and anti-fouling properties of TiO2 films deposited
on 5083 aluminum (Al) alloy by reactive magnetron sputtering at room temperature
were investigated systematically. The results show that the TiO2 film mainly consists
of anatase, and it is composed of spherical shaped and dipyramidal particles. Both the
anti-corrosion and anti-bacterial properties first improve with increasing sputter
power.

Jonah Klemm-Toole , Amy J. Clarke , Kip O. Findley “Improving the

fatigue performance of vanadium and silicon alloyed medium carbon steels after
nitriding through increased core fatigue strength and compressive residual
stress[5]” The primary failure modes observed in nalyse fatigue specimens are
surface initiation by case overload and subsurface fatigue crack initiation in the core.
The combination of larger magnitudes of compressive residual stress and higher core
fatigue strengths in the present study, resulting from increases in V and Si content,
lead to improved fatigue performance after nitriding compared to other nalyse
medium carbon steels reported in literature.

15
 Wang J, Lin Y, Li M, Fan H, Zeng D, Xiong J. “Effects of the Treating
Time Microstructure and Erosion Corrosion Behavior of Salt-Bath-Nitrided 17-
4PH Stainless Steel”[6]. The salt-bath nitriding can effectively improve the surface
hardness. The maximum values measured from the treated surface are observed to be
approximate 1100 HV0.1 for 40 hours, which is about 3.5 times as hard as the
untreated material (309 HV0.1). Proper low-temperature nitriding can improve the
erosion-corrosion resistance of 17-4 PH martensite precipitation stainless steel against
the two-phase flow. After nalyse for 4 hours, the sample has better corrosion
resistance than others.
J.-E. Sundgren, B.-O. Johansson, S.-E. Karlsson, and H. T. G. Hentzell[7],
Thin Solid Films, the morphology of the films obtained determines the electrical and
mechanical properties of the coatings to a large extent. The large lattice parameter
that is normally observed for TiN coatings was explained using the grain boundary
relaxation model developed by Doljack and Hoffmann 4°’41. Evidence was presented
which indicates that the free energy of formation of a compound plays an important
role in the formation process of reactively sputtered carbide and nitride films. A high
free energy of formation leads to a high adatom mobility and thus a comparatively
large grain size.
Abdallah B, Kakhia M, Alssadat W, Rihawy MS. “Deposition of Ti6Al4V
thin films by DC magnetron sputtering”[8]: effect of the current on structural,
corrosion and mechanical properties.Ti6Al4V films have been prepared by DC
magnetron sputtering technique at different current values (power). The depositions
were carried out from Ti6Al4V targets. The current effects on the crystalline quality
and texture have been investigated by means of X-ray diffraction. Bphase has been
identified, and the grain size has been found to increase with current. The
composition of the films has been determined by proton-induced X-ray emission
technique. The effect of current on the composition and crystalline quality has been

16
investigated. The films composition is found to be getting to the standard Ti6Al4V
alloy. Increasing the current permitted to increase the Ti ratio and to enhance the
texture of the films. The microhardness of the films was found to decrease with the
current and to be slightly larger than literatures values. The Ti ratio was found to
increase with current. The microhardness measured by the Vickers indentation
method was found to decrease with current. EDX and PIXE were used to study the
chemical composition of the films. They indicate that prepared films prevent the
aggressive action of corrosion media. Therefore, the Ti6Al4V film is an effective
method to improve the corrosion resistance of SS304.

S. Paul Joshua & P. Dinesh Babu(2020),[9] Chrome steels are used in

bearings since they possess high strength and wear resistance. However, when those
parts are in service, failure happens due to sliding friction before the lifetime. To
improve the durability of the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) 52100
chromium steel, in this work, the effect of laser surface texturing (LST) was nalysed.
With the different patterns of circle and ellipse comparing with the untextured
samples, the wear nalysed was investigated using the pin-on-disc tribometer. The
lubricant used for wear analysis is semisolid lithium grease National Lubricating
Grease Institute lubricant (SKF NLGI-3). Sliding wear analysis was conducted at
different loads of 10 N, 30 N and 50 N for the sliding speed of 750 r/min and 1400
r/min. The wear morphology was nalysed using a scanning electron
microscope(SEM). The roughness of the samples was found using a white light
interferometer. The effect of different patterns like circle and ellipse, alter the friction
and wear properties of chromium alloy was observed compared with the untextured
samples. LST shows considerable reduction in friction and wear for ellipsoidal
pattern compared with the circular pattern because of wear debris and lubricant
getting trapped

17
 Wang Hong-mei*, Zhang Wei, Yu He-long, Liu Qing-liang “Tribological
properties of DLC films prepared by magnetron sputtering [10] Two kinds of
diamond-like carbon films containing Ti, C and Ti, Cr, C are prepared by magnetron
sputtering PVD. Gradient films are obtained by controlling the technology
parameters. Ti, C films have lower value of hardness and modulus, but higher ratio of
hardness to modulus and better wear resistance, the friction coefficient of which is in
the level of 0.1~0.2 at various loads, the wear rate is in the level of 10-7mm3/m.
Element Cr improves the hardness, the modulus and the roughness, but reduces the
wear resistance of Ti, Cr, C DLC films.

18
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

EN 31 Steel

Untreated Steel Treated

Salt Bath Nitriding Sputtering Nitriding

Sputturing

Testing

Wear Track

Conclusion

19
 CHAPTER 4

MATERIAL SELECTION

4.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

EN 31 bearing steel is a high carbon, chromium containing low alloy steel that
is through hardening and noted in particular for use as bearings. EN 31 bearing steel
is one kind of special steel with features of high wear resistance and rolling fatigue
strength.

Figure 4.1 EN31 Steel

4.2 EN 31 STEEL

Alloy steels contain different varieties of steels that exceed the composition
limits of Mn, C, Mo, Si, Ni, Va, and B set for carbon steels. They are designated by
AISI four-digit numbers. They respond more quickly to mechanical and heat
treatments than carbon steels.

20
 EN 31 alloy steel is known as a high carbon, chromium containing low alloy
steel. The following datasheet gives an overview of EN 31 alloy steel.

4.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

ELEMENT CONTENT(%)
Iron, Fe 96.5 – 97.32

Chromium, Cr 1.30 – 1.60

Carbon, C 0.980 – 1.10

Manganese, Mn 0.250 – 0.450

Silicon, Si 0.150 – 0.300

Sulfur, S ≤ 0.0250

Phosphorous, P ≤ 0.0250
Table 4.1 Chemical Composition

4.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

PROPERTIES METRIC

Density 7.81 g/cm3

Melting point 1424°C

Table 4.2 Physical Properties

21
4.5 THERMAL PROPERTIES

PROPERTIES METRIC

Thermal expansion co-efficient 11.9 µm/m°C

Thermal conductivity 46.6 W/mK

Table 4.3 Thermal Properties

4.6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

PROPERTIES METRIC
Bulk modulus 140GPa
Shear modulus 80GPa
Elastic modulus 190-210GPa
Poisson's ratio 0.27-0.30
Hardness, Brinell -
Hardness, Knoop 875
Hardness, Rockwell C (quenched in oil from 150°C
62
tempered)
Hardness, Rockwell C (quenched in water from
64
150°C tempered)
Hardness, Rockwell C (quenched in oil) 64
Hardness, Rockwell C (quenched in water) 66
Hardness, Vickers (converted from Rockwell C
848
hardness)
Machinability 40
Table 4.4 Mechanical Properties

22
Thermal conductivity (typical steel)

EN 31 alloy steel can be machined using conventional techniques. The

machinability of this steel can be improved by performing spheroidizing annealing
process at 649°C (1200°F) before machining.

4.7 FORMING AND FORGING

EN 31 alloy steel can be formed using all conventional techniques such as cold
forging or stamping and hot or cold upset forming techniques.

4.8 HEAT TREATMENT

EN 31 alloy steel is heated at 816°C (1500°F) followed by quenching in oil.

Before performing this process, it is subjected to normalizing heat treatment at 872°C
(1600°F) followed by slowly cooling in order to reduce the machining stress.

EN 31 alloy steel is forged at 927 to 1205°C (1700 to 2200°F).

4.9 HARDENING

EN 31 alloy steel is hardened by cold working, or heating and quenching. It can

be carburized at 913°C (1675°F) followed by quenching. It is again heated at 788°C
(1450°F) followed by quenching for the second time.

23
4.10 APPLICATIONS

EN 31 alloy steel is used in bearings in rotating machinery.

 Anti-friction bearings
 Mill rolls
 Punches, taps, dies
 Automotive and aircraft parts
 Fasteners

If EN 31 steel sounds like it could be useful to your project, contact your supplier
and see if they agree. They will always have the best information relevant to your
specifications and can advise you about suitable options and alternatives.

24
 CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

5.1.MATERIAL

The High carbon chromium steel was used as substrates.

The chemical composition of the materials is given in Table1.

C Cr Si Mn S P Mo Ni Fe

1.08 1.46 0.25 0.53 0.015 0.022 0.06 0.33 96.25

Table 5.1 Chemical composition of the material

5.2 SPECIMEN

The specification, initial hardness values and surface roughness for the pin and
disc measure listed in Table 5.2.

Fig 5.1. Pin and Disc Specimen

25
 Description Hardness HRC Surface Roughness (Ra microns)
Pin ( 8mm diameter, 20 0.1
32mm long)
Disc ( 60mm diameter, 60 0.1
Thickness 10mm)
Table 5.2 Pin and Disc Specimen Specification

5.3 NITRIDING
It is a process where nitrogen is added to the surface of steel parts using
dissociated ammonia as the source. A thermal diffusion process that produces metal
nitrides in the surface. Process is explained in the process flow chart.

Fig 5.2. Nitriding process chart

26
 In order to check crack damages and rust prevention pin is inspected. Salt bath
Nitriding process is done at 563˚ for 90 minutes. Pin is placed on the salt bath
nitriding process in fig.5.3..

Fig 5.3. Salt bath Nitriding process

5.4 SPUTTERING

Titanium nitride pH working-electrodes were prepared using an RF Magnetron

sputtering system on various substrates such as alumina (Al2O3), glass, silicon (Si),
and polyimide (PI) (plastic). Sputtered-deposition process parameters used for
fabrication of metal nitride thin-films under a controlled process to produce the solid-
state pH sensors with excellent performance are summarized below. Summary of the
process parameters and conditions used to prepare the TiN thin film layers on various
substrates.

27
Process Parameters Values and Comments

Process Parameters Values

Sputtering target stoichiometry Titanium Nitrate (TiN, 99.95%)
Base Pressure (Torr) 4-5x10-6
Argon (Ar) and Nitrogen (Ni) pressure (during 2m Torr
deposition)
Argon (Ar) and Nitrogen (Ni) gas flow ration Ar : 10 sccm and N2 :2 sccm
Substrate stage temperature (0C) Room temperature (21 – 230C)
RF power densities 300W
Substrate stage rotation rate (rpm) 10-11
Substrate to target distance 19.5-20mm
Table 5.3 Process parameters and values
The substrates were cleaned using acetone and isopropyl alcohol in an
ultrasonic bath for 15–30 min, after which they were completely dried on a hot plate
at 1200C. A titanium nitride layer of a thickness of 85 nm was sputtered from a 20mm
length titanium target (99.95% purity). Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of an RF
magnetron sputtering system where a Titanium (Ti) metallic target of 20mm length
has been installed inside the chamber. TiN thin films about 85 nm were deposited by
allowing nitrogen during the deposition process. The gold colored titanium nitride
coated films on glass substrate confirmed the presence of TiN layer on the substrates,
as can be seen in the insert.

28
 Fig 5.4. Basic Sputtering Process

Fig 5.5. Schematic diagram of radio frequency (RF)

29
5.6 WEAR TEST

Wear performance of materials are commonly obtained from testing

carried out in pin-on-disc equipment to ASTM G99 standard procedure. The
photographic view of the pin on the disc is shown in. It gives a laboratory standard
method to carry out sliding and abrasion wear tests. The tests were carried out under
10 N applied load and for sliding velocity of 0.3 m/s for a constant sliding radius of
10 mm. During testing the tangential force was measured by a set of the load cell and
monitored by Computerized data acquisition system. In all the cases coefficient of
friction, wear rate and wear coefficient of the pin were estimated by taking one pins
average value.

Fig 5.6 Pin on Disc Experimental Setup

30
Fig 5.7 Pin on disc reading

CHAPTER 6
31
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1. Coefficient of Friction

Test procedures were employed with the pin on disc tests at 0.3m/s. The wear,
Frictional Force and time were obtained at a load of 25N for every 15min sliding. The
Plot of friction coefficient versus Sliding distance for the uncoated, Nitrided,
Sputtering and Combination of Nitriding and Sputtering in Figure 6.1. This shows the
Characteristic feature of the diagrams is that the friction coefficient values decreases
as the Sliding distance increases at nitriding, In Sputtering, and Combination of
Nitriding and Sputtering the coefficient of friction decreases as the sliding distance
increases.

Coefficient of Friction
3.5

2.5

2
COF

1.5

0.5

0
0.2 50 100 150
Sliding Distance in m

Uncoated Nitriding
Sputtering Nitriding + Sputtering
Fig 6.1 Coefficient of Friction

6.2 WEAR COEFFICIENT

32
 Steady-state wear was proposed by Archard V=KsPL/3H where V is the
volumetric loss of material after sliding for a distance L and load P normal to the
wear surface. H is the Brinell hardness number of the pin while Ks a dimensionless
standard wear coefficient. For known values of V, P, L, and H the standard wear
coefficient can be calculated from the equation Ks=3HV/PL. Volumetric wear loss
can be calculated from the weight loss W and the density. L. J. Yang expressed that
the higher initial running – in wear rate, has a higher value initially in the transient
wear regime and will reach a steady – state value when the wear rate becomes
constant. In nitriding, wear coefficient decreased due to decrease sliding distance. In
sputtering, wear coefficient decrease due to increase sliding distance.

Wear Coeffiecient
0.08
0.06
Wear COF

0.04
0.02
0
0.2 50 100 150
Sliding Distance in m

Uncoated Nitriding
Sputtering Nitriding + Sputtering

Fig 6.2 Wear Coefficient

6.3 WEAR RATE

33
The wear rate is calculated from the equation:

Wear Rate = Volumetric Wear Loss / Sliding Distance.

Wear rate of nitride, coated with oil is lesser than nitrided coated pins
because of Very less Wear loss. Nitrided, Sputtering, and Combination of Nitriding
and Sputtering coated pins exhibits the less Wear rate. Wear rate of titanium nitride
coated pin exhibits high wear rate when compared to uncoated pin.

Wear Rate
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0.2 50 100 150

Uncoated Nitriding
Sputtering Nitriding + Sputtering

Fig 6.2 Wear Rate

6.4 SEM ANALAYSIS RESLUTS

34
 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is a test process that scans a sample
with an electron beam to produce a magnified image for analysis. The method is also
known as SEM analysis and SEM microscopy, and is used very effectively in
microanalysis and failure analysis of solid inorganic materials. Electron microscopy
is performed at high magnifications, generates high-resolution images and precisely
measures very small features and objects.

Fig 6.3 SEM Analysis Results

6.4.1 SEM ANALYSIS APPLICATIONS

The signals generated during SEM analysis produce a two-dimensional image

and reveal information about the sample, including external morphology (texture),
chemical composition, when used with the EDS feature, and orientation of materials
making up the sample.

CHAPTER – 7
35
 CONCLUSION

The Wear coefficient of uncoated, nitriding, Sputtering and combination of

both pins were examined under 25 N loads at sliding velocity of 0.3 m/s using a pin
on disc apparatus and the results are summarized as follows.

Nitriding and Sputtering coated pin shows the very low coefficient of friction
compared with uncoated pin. The coefficient of friction is around 0.33 under 25N
loads with sliding velocity of 0.3 m/s. The reason is Nitriding and Sputtering has
improved its properties in terms of both friction and wear.

Nitriding and Sputtering coated pin shows very low Wear coefficient compared
with uncoated pin. The Wear coefficient of friction is around 5.0*10^-5 under 25 N
loads with sliding velocity of 0.3 m/s.

Thus the coefficient of friction, wear coefficient and wear rate decreases as the
sliding distance increases in coated pin. From that it has been concluded that the
material life has been increased.

CHAPTER – 8
36
 COST ESTIMATION

S.NO CONTENT AMOUNT

1 Material 1500
2 Nitriding 3000
3 Sputtering 600
5 Wear test 5000
6 SEM Analysis 7000
7 Total 17,100

Table 8.1 Cost Estimation

37
REFERENCES

1. R Kumutha, S Ilaiyavel(2018), ‘Study of tribological behavior of conversion

coated high carbon high chromium steel’ International Journal of Mechanical and
Production Engineering Research and Development. Vol. 8, Special Issue 8.

2. M. R. Hilton, R. Bauer and P. D. Fleischauer (1989) ‘Tribiological Performance

and Deformation of Sputter-Deposited MoSz Solid Lubricant films during sliding
wear and indentation contact’ .

3. WaldemarAlfredo Monteiro et al. ‘Nitriding Process Characterization of Cold

Worked AISI 304 and 316 Austenitic Stainless Steels’.

4 .Bo Wang a, Shicheng Wei a, Lei Guo a, Yujiang Wang a, Yi Liang a, Wei Huang
b,Fangjie Lu a, Xianhua Chen c, Fusheng Pan c, Binshi Xu a ‘Effect of sputtering
power on microstructure and corrosion properties of TiO2 films deposited by reactive
magnetron sputtering’.

5. Jonah Klemm-Toole , Amy J. Clarke , Kip O. Findley ‘Improving the fatigue

performance of vanadium and silicon alloyed medium carbon steels after nitriding
through increased core fatigue strength and compressive residual stress’.

6. Wang J, Lin Y, Fan H, Zeng D, Peng Q, Shen B. ‘Effects of Temperature on

Microstructure and Wear of Salt Bath Nitrided 17-4PH Stainless Steel’
012;21:1708–13.

7. J.-E. Sundgren, B.-O. Johansson, S.-E. Karlsson, and H. T. G. Hentzell, ‘Thin

Solid Films’, 105, 367 (1983).

8. Abdallah B, Kakhia M, Alssadat W, Rihawy MS. ‘ Deposition of Ti6Al4V thin

films by DC magnetron sputtering: effect of the current on structural, corrosion and
mechanical properties’. Iran J Sci Technol Trans a-Sci 2019;43(4):1957–65.

9. Wang Hong-mei, Zhang Wei, Yu He-long, Liu Qing-liang ‘Tribological properties

of DLC films prepared by magnetron sputtering’.

38