1 Alternating Current

Until now, we have studied only circuits with direct (1) Peak value (i0 or V0): The maximum value
current (dc) which flows only in one direction. The of alternating quantity (i or V) is defined as peak
primary source of emf in such circuit is a battery. value or amplitude.
When a resistance is connected across the terminals of (2) Mean square value ( V 2 or i 2 ) : The average
the battery, a current is established in the circuits,
of square of instantaneous values in one cycle is
which flows in a unique direction from the positive
called mean square value. It is always positive for
terminal to the negative terminal via the external
one complete cycle.
resistance. But most of the electric power generated &
used in the world is in the form of alternating (i or V) 1 T V2 i2
e.g. V 2 =  V 2 dt = 0 or i 2 = 0
ALTERNATING QUANTITIES (i OR V) T 0 2 2
(1) An alternating quantity (current i or voltage (3) Root mean square (r.m.s.) value: Root of
V) is one whose magnitude changes continuously mean of square of voltage or current in an ac circuit
with time between zero and a maximum value and for one complete cycle is called r.m.s. value. It is
whose direction reverses periodically. denoted by Vrms or irms
(2) Some graphical representation for alternating T
 i dt =
2
2 2
i + i + ... i0
quantities irms = 1
= i2 =
2 0
T
i or V
+
i or V
+
n
 dt0
2

t t = 0.707 i0 = 70.7% i0
– – V
Sinusoidal Triangular
Similarly Vrms = 0 = 0.707 V0 = 70.7% of V0
2
i or V i or V
+ + Integration Function
Full cycle 2π T
sinθd =  sin  ωt dt = 0
–
t t
θ  0,2π 
 0 0
T
cosθd =  cos  ωt dt = 0
2π
Rectangular Ac super imposed on Dc  0 0
(3) Equation for i and V: Alternating current or or
2π T
ωt  0,T 
T
&  sin2  ωt dt =
2π
voltage varying as sine function can be written as
2π
0
sin2θdθ =
2 0 2
i(t) = i0 sint = i0 sin 2 t = i0sin t 2π T T
0 cos θdθ = 2 & 0 cos  ωt dt = 2
2π
2 2
T
2π
V(t)= V0 sint = V0 sin 2 t = V0sin t half cycle
T  T T
θ  0,π 
π T

 sinθdθ = = 2 &  2 sin  ωt dt = =

Where, i(t) and V(t) i or V
   
V or i
0 0 Positive
half cycle
0 π 0
2 π π
are Instantaneous values + or 2 2
 2
of current & voltage,  T π  T T T
ωt  0,  0 cosθdθ = = 2 &  2 cos  ωt dt = =
   
0 t or 
i0 and V0 are peak T/4
–  2 π 0
2 π π
T/2 Negative 2 2
values of current and half cycle
voltage T
 T

 = Angular frequency in rad/sec,  sin2 (ω t) T
=
 0
sin2 (ω t)dt 1 T 1
= × = = cos 2 (ω t)
T

 = Frequency in Hz and T = time period  T 0 
 T 2 2
0
dt
(i) The time taken to complete one cycle of  0 
variations is called the periodic time or time period.  T

 sin2 (ω t)dt
2
 
T T
2 T 2
(ii) Alternating quantity is positive for half the
0
 sin(ω t) = = × = = cos 2 (ω t) 2

2
T
T π π

0 0
 
2
cycle and negative for the rest half. Hence average  0
dt

value of alternating quantity (i or V) over a complete (i) The r.m.s. value of alternating current is also
cycle is zero. called virtual value or effective value.
(iii) The value of alternating quantity is zero or (ii) In general when values of voltage or current
maximum 2 times every second. The direction also for alternating circuits are given, these are r.m.s.
changes 2 times every second. value.
(iv) Generally sinusoidal waveform is used as (iii) ac ammeter and voltmeter are always
alternating current/voltage. measure r.m.s. value. Values printed on ac circuits
(v) At t = T from the beginning, i or V reaches to are r.m.s. values.
4
(iv) In our houses ac is supplied at 220 V, which
their maximum value.
is the r.m.s. value of voltage.
Important Values of Alternating Quantities
It's peak value is V0  2 × 200 = 311V.
2 Alternating Current
(v) The significance of r.m.s. current and r.m.s. T
 i dt =  1 a + bsinωt
2
voltage may be shown by considering a resistance R 
 T   
0 T 2
irms = ieff = dt 
carrying a current i(t) = i0 sint 
T

0
dt
The voltage across the resistor will be
0
1
VR (t) = iR = i0 Rsin  ωt  1 T 
=    a 2 + b 2 sin2 ωt + 2absinωt  dt 
2
 ieff
The thermal energy developed in the resistor T 0

during the time t to t + dt is  1  2
1

dH R = i 2 Rdt = i 02 Rsin2  ωt  dt  ieff = a 2 + b 2 

 2 
The thermal energy developed in one time Ex.2 The electric current in a circuit is given by
H R =  dH R =  i 2 Rdt  R i 02 sin2  ωt  dt
T T T
period is i = i0 (t/T) for some time. Calculate the r.m.s. current
0 0 0
for the period t = 0 to t = T.
1 T  1 T 
 H R = RT   i 2 dt  = RT   i 02 sin2  ωt  dt  PHASE
T 0  T 0 
Physical quantity which represents both the
 H R = irms
2
RT
instantaneous value and direction of alternating
It means the root mean square value of ac is that quantity at any instant is called it's phase. It's a
value of steady current (Dc), which would generate dimensionless quantity and it's unit is radian.
the same amount of heat in a given resistance in a If an alternating quantity is expressed as
given time. So in ac circuits, current and ac voltage X = X 0 sin(ωt ± φ) then the argument of sin(ωt  φ)
are measured in terms of their r.m.s. values.
i.e. (ωt  φ) is called it's phase.
(4) Mean or Average value (iav or Vav): Since
ac is positive during the first half cycle and negative Where  t = instantaneous phase (changes with
during the other half cycle so iavg wil be zero for long time) and  = initial phase (constant w.r.t. time)
time also. Hence the dc instrument will indicate zero
deflection when connected to a branch carrying ac
current. So it is defined for either positive half cycle
or negative half cycle.
The average value of ac over half cycle (t = 0 to
V  t  = V0 sin(ωt + φ) i  t  = i0 sin(ωt + φ)
T/2)
T/2 (1) Phase difference (Phase constant): The
iav =
0
i dt2i
= 0 = 0.637i0 = 63.7% of i0, difference between the phases of currents and
π voltage is called phase difference. If alternating
T/2
 0
dt
voltage and current are given by V = V0 sin(ωt + φ1 )
2V0
Similarly Vav = = 0.637V0 = 63.7% of V0. and i = i0 sin(ωt + φ2 ) then phase difference
π
(5) Peak to peak value: φ = φ1 - φ2 (relative to current) or φ = φ2 - φ1 (relative
It is equal to the sum of the magnitudes of to voltage)
positive and negative peak values (2) Time difference: If phase difference between
 Peak to peak value = V0 + V0 = 2V0 alternating current and voltage is  then time
T
= 2 2 Vrms = 2.828Vrms difference between them is given as T.D. = ×φ
(6) Form factor (Rf ) and peak factor(RP ): 2π
(3) Phasor diagram: A diagram representing
The ratio of r.m.s. value of ac to it's average
alternating current and alternating voltage (of same
during half cycle is defined as form factor. The ratio
frequency) as vectors (phasors) with the phase angle
of peak value and r.m.s. value is called peak factor.
between them is called a phasor diagram.
Ex.1 If a direct current of value a ampere is While drawing phasor diagram for a pure element
superimposed on an alternating current i = bsint (e.g. R, L or C) either of the current or voltage can be
flowing through a wire, what is the effective value of plotted along X-axis.
But when phasor diagram for a combination of
the resulting current in the circuit?
elements is drawn then quantity which remains
Sol. As current at constant for the combination must be plotted along X-
any instant in the axis so we observe that
circuit will be (i) In series circuits current has to be plotted along X-axis.
(ii) In parallel circuits voltage has to be plotted along X-
i(t) = idc + iac  t  = a + bsin  ωt  axis.
3 Alternating Current
Some important values
Form factor Peak factor
Nature of r.m.s. average r.m.s. value Peak value
Wave form Rf  Rp 
wave form value value
Average value r.m.s. value
i or V
+
 2 i0 2 π
Sinusoidal 0 i0 = 1.11 2 = 1.41
– 2 π 2 2

i or V
Half wave + + i0 i0 π
= 1.57 2
rectified  2 2 π 2

Full wave i or V
+ + i0 2 π
= 1.11
i0 2
rectified 2 π 2 2
 2

i or V
+
Square or
 i0 i0 1 1
Rectangular –
2

Ex.3 If the voltage in an ac circuit is represented (i) Inductive reactance (XL): Offered by
by the equation, V = 220 2 sin  314t - φ , calculate inductive circuit X L = ωL = 2πνL
(a) peak and r.m.s value of the voltage, (b) average νdc = 0 So for dc, XL = 0.
voltage, (c) frequency of ac. (ii) Capacitive reactance (XC): Offered by
Measurement of Alternating Quantities capacitive circuit X C =
1
=
1
for dc XC = .
Alternating current shows heating effect only, ωC 2πνC
hence meters used for measuring ac are based on (3) Admittance (Y): Reciprocal of impedance is
heating effect and are called hot wire meters (Hot known as admittance  1
 Y =  . It’s unit is mho
wire ammeter and hot wire voltmeter)  Z
Measurement of ac and dc (4) Susceptance (S): the reciprocal of reactance
ac measurement dc measurement is defined as susceptance  S = 1  . It is of two type
(1) All ac meters read (1) All dc meters read  X
r.m.s. value. average value 1 1
(2) All ac meters are (2) All dc meters are (i) Inductive susceptance S L = = and
X L 2πν L
based on heating effect based on magnetic effect
of current. of current 1
(ii) Capacitive susceptance, SC = = ωC = 2πν C .
(3) Deflection in hot (3) Deflection in dc XC
wire meters θ  irms2
meters θi POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
In dc circuits power is given by P = Vi. But in ac
circuits, since there is some phase angle between
(non-linear scale) (Linear scale) voltage and current, therefore power is defined as
the product of voltage and that component of the
Impedance, Reactance, Admittance & Susceptance
current which is in phase with the voltage.
(1) Impedance (Z): The opposition offered by ac
circuits to the flow of ac through it is defined it's Thus, P = V i cosφ ;
impedance. It’s unit is ohm(). where V and i are r.m.s. value of voltage & current.
V V In an alternating circuit, current and voltage both
Z = 0 = rms
i0 irms vary with time, so the work done by the source in
(2) Reactance (X): The opposition offered by time interval dt is given by dW = V i dt .......(i)
inductor or capacitor or both to the flow of ac Suppose in an Ac, the current is leading the
through it is defined as reactance. It is of following voltage by an angle . Then we can write,
two types V = V0 sinωt and i = i0 sin(ωt + φ)
4 Alternating Current
(1) Instantaneous power: The product of SERIES AC CIRCUIT
instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current in Resistive Circuit (R-Circuit)
an electric circuit is called instantaneous power. When only Resistance is in an AC circuit
thus, Pinstantaneous = Vi = V0 i0 sinωtsin(ωt + φ) Consider a simple ac circuit consisting of a resistor
of resistance R and an Ac generator, as shown in the
(2) Average power (True power): The average
figure.
of instantaneous power in an Ac circuit over a full
According to Kirchhoff’s loop law [KVL] at any
cycle is called average power. It's unit is watt i.e.
instant, the algebraic sum of the potential difference
From equN (i) dW = V0 i0 sinωt.sin(ωt + φ)dt around a closed loop in a circuit must be zero.
T i.e. V -VR = 0
Total work done in a complete cycle is W = 0 dW   V - iR R = 0
R

W = V0 i0 cosφ sin2 ωtdt + sinφ sinωtcosωtdt   V0 sinωt - iR R = 0

T T
i
 0 0 
V
 T sinφ T   iR = 0 sinωt = i0 sinωt .....(i)
W = V0 i0 cosφ sin ωtdt +
2 0
2
sin2ωt  R
 0
 V
Where, i0 = 0 is the maximum current.
T  R
 W = V0 i0 cos ×  
2 From above equations, we see that the
The average power delivered by the source is, instantaneous voltage drop across the resistor
W V0 i0  V  i  VR  i0 Rsinωt = V0 sinωt .....(ii)
Thus, P= = cosφ =  0  0  cosφ We see in equation (i) & iR ,VR
T 2  2  2 
(ii), iR and VR both vary as V0
 R sint and reach their i0 iR
= Vrms irms cosφ  where, cosφ = 
 Z maximum values at the same 0  2
2 time as shown in figure (a), t
Vrms R
i.e. Pav = P one cycle  Vrms irms cosφ = irms R =
2
they are said to be in phase. i 0
Z2 V0 VR
(3) Apparent or virtual power: The product of A phasor diagram is
Wave Diagram
apparent voltage and apparent current in an electric used to represent phase
Fig. (a)
circuit is called apparent power. This is always relationships. The lengths of
Vi the arrows correspond to V0 V
positive. Papp = Vrms irms = 0 0 R Vo
2 and i0. The projections of the
POWER FACTOR arrows onto the vertical axis R o
t
(1) It may be defined as cosine of the lagging give VR and iR. In case of the
single-loop resistive circuit, Phasor Diagram
or leading angle of current. (i.e. cos )
the current and voltage Fig. (b)
(2) It is also defined as the ratio of resistance
R phasors lie along the same line, as shown in fig.(b),
and impedance (i.e. cosφ = ) because iR and VR are in phase.
Z
True power W kW (1) Current: i = i R = i0 sinωt
(3) The ratio = = = cosφ
Apparent power VA kVA V
(2) Peak current: i0 = 0
R
 True power = Apparent power × Power Factor
(3) Phase difference betW voltage & current:  = 0o
(4) Power factor: cosφ = 1
Note:  Power factor is said to be leading if
Vi
current leads voltage, lagging if current lags voltage. (5) Power: P = Vrms irms = 0 0
2
Thus, a power factor of 0.5 lagging means current
(6) Time difference: T.D. = 0
lags the voltage by 60° (as cos-1 0.5=600 ).
(7) Phasor diagram: Both are in same phase
 For  = 0°, the current and voltage are
Inductive Circuit (L-Circuit)
in phase. The power is thus, maximum. Such a case
when only Inductor is in An AC circuit
will arise when circuit is purely resistive.
Now consider an Ac circuit consisting only of an
 For  = 90°, the power is zero. The Inductor of inductance L connected to an Ac
current is then stated as wattles. Such a case will generator, as shown in the fig. The induced emf
arise when resistance in the circuit is zero. The circuit across the inductor is given by L(di/dt).
is purely inductive or capacitive.
5 Alternating Current
On applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule  π
(1) Current: i = i0 sin  ω t - 
 Q di   2
V +  E +  C =  Ri +  L dt 
L

V V V
i.e. V = VL i
(2) Peak current: i0 = 0 = 0 = 0
X L ωL 2πνL
di (3) Phase difference betW voltage & current: φ = 90 o
 V0 sinωt = L
dt (4) Power factor: cosφ = 0
Integration of this expression gives the current as a
(5) Power: P = 0
function of time
(6) Time difference: T.D. = T
V V 4
 iL = 0  sinωt .dt = - 0 cosωt + C
L ωL (7) Phasor diagram: Voltage leads the current by π
2
For average value of current over one time period to Ex.4 An inductor of inductance L = 5H is
be zero, C = 0 connected to an AC source having voltage
V
 iL = - 0 cosωt .....(i)  π
ωL V = 10sin  10t +  Find (i) Inductive Reactance
 6
When we use the trigonometric identity we can
(xL) (ii) Peak & rms voltage (V0 & Vrms) (iii) Peak &
express above equation as
rms current (I0 & Irms ) (iv) Instantaneous current I(t)
V0  π  π
iL = sin  ωt -  = i0 sin  ωt -  .....(ii) Capacitive Circuit (C-Circuit)
ωL  2  2
when only Capacitor is in An AC circuit
V V
Where, i0 = 0 = 0 .....(iii) Figure shows an Ac circuit consisting of a
ωL X L capacitor of capacitance C connected across the
= is the maximum current. terminals of an Ac generator. On applying
Where, the quantity X L  ωL , called the inductive Kirchhoff’s loop rule to this circuit, we get
reactance. The SI unit of XC is also ohm. i.e. V = VC + -
The expression for the r.m.s current is similar to Q i
C
equation (iii), with V0 replaced by Vrms .Inductive  V0 sinωt =
C
reactance, like resistance, has unit of ohm.  Q  CV0 sinωt ......(i)
V V Where, VC is the instantaneous voltage drop
i.e. irms = rms = rms .....(iv)
ωL XL across the capacitor.
We can think of equN (iii) & (iv) as Ohm’s law for Since i=dQ/dt, on differentiating above equation
an inductive circuit. gives the instantaneous current in the circuit.
Now the instantaneous voltage drop across the dQ d
i.e. iC = =  CV0 sinωt  = CV0 ω.cosωt
di dt dt
inductor VL = L = V0 sinω t = i0 X L sinω t .....(v)
dt When we use the trigonometric identity we can
i ,V
On comparing result of R R express above equation as
equation (iv) with equation V0  π   π 
i0 iC = CV0 ωsin  ωt +  = i0 sin  ωt +  ......(ii)
(v), we can see that the  2   2 
 2
current and voltage are out of 0 V
VR Where, i0 = CV0 ω = 0 .....(iii)
phase with each other by /2 i iR
XC
0
rad, or 90º. A plot of voltage V = is the maximum current.
0
and current versus time is Wave Diagram 1
given in fig (a). Fig. (a) Where, the quantity X C = , called the capacitive
ωC
The voltage reaches its maximum value one reactance. The SI unit of XC is also ohm.
quarter of an oscillation The expression for the r.m.s current is similar to
VL Vo
period before the current equation (iii), with V0 replaced by Vrms .
reaches its maximum value. V
t i.e. irms = Vrms ωC = rms .....(iv)
The corresponding phasor XC
π/2
diagram for this circuit is
Combining equation (i) & (iii), we can express
shown in fig (b). Thus, we see L o
the instantaneous voltage drop across the capacitor
that for a sinusoidal applied Phasor Diagram
Q
voltage, the current in an Fig. (b) as VC = = V0 sinω t = i0 X C sinω t .....(v)
C
inductor always lags behind the voltage across the
Comparing the result of equation (v) with equation
inductor by 90º.
(ii), we see that the current is 2 rad or 90º out of
6 Alternating Current
phase with the voltage across the capacitor. A plot Z = R + X is known as impedance (Z) of the circuit.
2 2
L
of current and voltage versus time, shows that the
and tanβ = 0 L = L  β = tan-1  L 
i X X
current reaches its maximum iR ,VR
X
value one quarter of a cycle V0 i0 R R  R 
i iR
sooner than the voltage 0  cosβ =
R

R
 2
reaches its maximum value. 0 R 2 + X L2 Z
The corresponding VL0 V0
i0 Phasor Diagram
phasor diagram is shown VR
V0
in the figure (b).Thus we Wave Diagram (1) Voltage: V = V0 sin  ωt + β 
VR0 i
see that for a sinusoidal Fig. (a)
applied emf, the current always (2) Peak voltage: V0 = V +V 2
R0
2
L0
VL Vo
leads the voltage across a o L (3) Impedance: Z = R2 + X L2 = R2 + ω2 L2 = R2 + 4π 2 ν 2 L2
capacitor by 90º. π/2
t V0 V0 V0
(1) Current: i = i0 sin  ω t + 
π (4) Peak current i0 = = =
Phasor Diagram
 2 Fig. (b)
Z R 2 + X L2 R 2 + 4π 2 ν 2 L2
(2) Peak current: i0 = V0
= V0 ωC = V0 (2πν C) -1 X L ωL
XC (5) Phase difference: β = tan = tan-1
R R
(3) Phase difference betW voltage & current: φ = -90 o R R
(6) Power factor: cosβ = =
(4) Power factor: cosφ = 0 R +X 2 2
L
Z
(5) Power: P = 0 (7) Leading quantity: Voltage
(6) Time difference: TD = T Ex.6 When 100 volt dc is applied across a coil, a
4
(7) Phasor diagram: Current leads the voltage by /2 current of 1 amp flows through it; when 100V ac of 50
Ex.5 A capacitor of capacitive reactance 5 is Hz is applied to the same coil, only 0.5 amp flows.
connected with A.C. source having voltage V = 3sin Calculate the resistance of inductance of the coil.
(t + /6). Find rms voltage, peak current and Ex.7 A 12 ohm resistance and an inductance of
instantaneous current? 0.05/ henry with negligible resistance are connected
Resistive, Inductive Circuit(SERIES L-R CIRCUIT) in series. Across the end of this circuit is connected a
Now consider an Ac circuit R L
130 volt alternating voltage of frequency 50
consisting of a resistor of cycles/second. Calculate the alternating current in the
resistance R and an inductor VR VL circuit and potential difference across the resistance
of inductance L in series with and that across the inductance.
an Ac source generator. As we Resistive, Capacitive Circuit(SERIES C-R CIRCUIT)
V
know that potential difference Now consider an Ac circuit
R C
across a resistance in Ac is in phase with current and consisting of a resistor of
it leads in phase by 90º with current across the resistance R and a capacitor VC
VR
inductor, and as we know VR0 = i0R & VL0 = i0XL of capacitance C in series with
Therefore, if i(t) = i0 sinωt is the current in the circuit. an Ac source generator. As
Potential difference across resistor we know that potential V

VR (t) = VR0 sinωt = i0 Rsinωt difference across a resistance in Ac is in phase with

current potential difference across a capacitor in Ac
Potential difference across inductor
lags in phase by 90º with the current in the circuit.
 π So we can write,
VL (t) = VL0 sinωt = i0 X L sin  ωt + 
 2 Potential difference across resistor
As we know V(t) = VR (t)+VL (t) VR (t) = VR0 sinωt = i0 Rsinωt
 π Potential difference across capacitor
 V(t) = i0 Rsinωt + i0 X L sin  ωt + 
 2  π
= i0 Rsinωt + i0 X Lcosωt VC (t) = VC0 sinωt = i0 X C sin  ωt - 
 2
 V(t) = V0 sin  ωt + β  As we know V(t) = VR (t)+VC (t)

Where V0 =  i0 R  +  i0 X L 
2 2
= i0 R 2 + X L2 = i0 Z  π
 V(t) = i0 Rsinωt + i0 X C sin  ωt - 
 2
7 Alternating Current
 π π As we know V(t) = VL (t)+VC (t)
= i0 Rsinωt + i0 X C  sinωtcos - cosωtsin 
 2 2  π  π
 V(t) = i0 X L sin  ωt +  + i0 X C sin  ωt - 
= i0 Rsinωt - i0 X C cosωt  2  2
 V(t) = V0 sin  ωt - β  = i0 X Lcosωt - i0 X C cosωt = i0  X L - X C  cosωt
 π
Where V0 =  i0 R  +  i0 X C 
2 2
= i0 R 2 + X C2 = i0 Z  V(t) = V0 sin  ωt  
 2
Z = R 2 + X C2 is known as impedance (z) of the circuit. Where V0 = i0  X L - X C  = i0 Z
i0 X C X C X  Z =  X L - X C  is known as impedance (z) of the circuit.
and tanβ = =  β = tan-1  C  VL0
i0 R R  R   π
VR0 (1) Voltage: V = V0 sin  ω t ±  V0=(VL0 – VC0 )
 cosβ =
R

R  2
i 90o
R 2 + X C2 Z (2) Peak Voltage: V0 = VL0 -VC0
VC0 i
(1) Voltage: V = V0 sin  ωt - β  V0 VC0
 i0  X L - X C  Phasor Diagram
(2) Peak Voltage: V0 = V +V 2 2 Phasor Diagram
1
(3) Impedance: Z =  X L - X C  = ω L -
R0 C0
 X(say)
 1 
2
ωC
(3) Impedance: Z = R 2 + X C2 = R 2 +  
 ωC  (4) Peak current: i0 =
V0
=
V0 V0
=
V V0 V0 Z X L - XC 1
(4) Peak current: i0 = 0 = = ωL-
Z ωC
R 2 + X C2 1
R2 + 2 2 2
4π ν C (5) Phase difference:  = ± 90o
X 1 (6) Power factor: cosφ = 0
(5) Phase difference: β = tan-1 C = tan-1
R ωCR (7) Leading quantity: Either voltage or current
R
(6) Power factor: cosβ = Series RLC-Circuit R L C
R 2 + X C2
Now consider an Ac VR VL VC
(7) Leading quantity: Current circuit consisting of a i i
i = i0 sint
Ex.8 an A.C. source of angular frequency  is fed resistor of resistance R, a
across a resistor R and a capacitor C in series. The capacitor of capacitance V
VR = iR, VL = iXL, VC = iXC
current registered is i. If now the frequency of the C and an inductor of
source is changed to /3 (but maintaining the same inductance L are in series with an Ac source
generator. As we know that potential difference
voltage), the current in the circuit is found to be halved.
across an inductor leads the current by 90° in phase
Calculate the ratio of reactance to resistance at the
while that across a capacitor, lags by 90°.
original frequency.
Let i = i0sint current flowing through the circuit.
Ex.9 A 50 W, 100 V lamp is to be connected to an Potential difference across resistor
Ac mains of 200 V, 50 Hz. What capacitance is
VR (t) = VR0 sinωt = i0 Rsinωt
essential to be put in series with the lamp?
Potential difference across inductor
Inductive, Capacitive Circuit (SERIES LC-Circuit)  π
As shown in figure a capacitor VL (t) = VL0 sinωt = i0 X L sin  ωt + 
L C  2
and inductance are connected
Potential difference across capacitor
in series method and VL VC
 π
alternating voltage is applied VC (t) = VC0 sinωt = i0 X C sin  ωt - 
across the circuit. Let XC is  2
capacitance reactance, XL is V As we know V(t) = VR (t)  VL (t)+VC (t)
Inductance reactance,  π  π
 V(t) = i0 Rsinωt  i0 X L sin  ωt +  + i0 X C sin  ωt - 
Let i = i0sint current flowing through the circuit.  2  2
Potential difference across inductor = i0 Rsinωt + i0  X L - X C  cosωt
 π
VL (t) = VL0 sinωt = i0 X L sin  ωt +   V(t) = V0 sin  ωt + β 
 2
Potential difference across capacitor Where V0 =  i0 R  + i0  X L - X C 
2 2

 π
VC (t) = VC0 sinωt = i0 X C sin  ωt -  = i0 R 2 +  X L - X C  = i0 Z
2
 2
8 Alternating Current
frequency of 500 radian/s. Does the current lead or lag
Z = R 2 +  X L - X C  is known as impedance (Z)
2

the applied voltage and by what angle?

i0  X L - X C  X L - X C
and tanβ = = Ex.11 Figure shows a series LCR circuit connected
i0 R R to a variable voltage
source V=10sin (t + /4)
; XL = 10  XC = 6  R =
R R 3  Calculate Z, i0, irms,
 cosβ = 
R2 +  X L - X C 
2 Z VL0
Vrms, VLO, VCO, VRO, , VL
(VL0 – VC0 ) V0
Rms,, VC Rms,VR Rms, i(t),

(1) Voltage: V = V0 sin  ωt  β  VL(t), VC(t),and VR(t).

VR i Ex.12 A resistor of resistance R, an inductor of
(2) Peak Voltage: VC0
Phasor diagram
inductance L and a capacitor of capacitance C all are
V0 = VR02 + VL0 -VC0   i0  X L - X C 
2
connected in series with an a.c. supply. The resistance
of R is 16 ohm and for a given frequency the inductive
(3) Impedance: Z = R 2 + (X L - X C )2
reactance of L is 24 ohm and capacitive reactance of C
2
 1  is 12 ohm. If the current in the circuit is 5 amp, find
= R2 +  ω L - 
 ωC  (a) The potential difference across R, L and C
V V0 (b) The impedance of the circuit
(4) Peak current: i0 = 0 = (c) The voltage of a.c. supply
Z R 2 + (X L - X C )2
(d) Phase angle
(5) Phase difference:
Ex.13 A current of 4 A flows in a coil when
1 1
ωL- 2πν L - connected to a 12 V d.c. source. If the same coil is
VL0 -VC0 X L - X C ωC 2πν C connected to a 12 V, 50 rad/s, a.c. source, a current of
tanβ = = = =
VR0 R R R 2.4 A flows in the circuit. Determine the inductance of
R R the coil. Also find the power developed in the circuit if
(6) Power factor: cosβ = 
R +  X L - XC  Z a 2500 F condenser is connected in series with the
2 2

coil.
(7) Leading quantity: Either voltage or current
Sol. When the coil is connected to a d.c. source,
Special Case: its resistance R is given by
(1) When XL > XC or VL > VC then emf is ahead V 12
R= = = 3Ω
of current by phase  which is given by i 4
V -V X - XC R When it is connected to a.c. source, the
tanβ = L0 C0 = L & cosβ = impedance Z of the coil is given by
VR0 R R2 +  X L - X C 
2
V 12
Z = rms = = 5Ω
The series LCR circuit is said to be inductive i.e. irms 4
Circuit behaves as LR circuit.
 
2
(2) When XL < XC or VL < VC then current is For a coil, Z = R 2
+ ωL
ahead of emf by phase angle  which is given by 5 = 3 2 +  50L   25 = 3 2 +  50L 
2 2

V -V X - XL R
tanβ = C0 L0 = C & cosβ = Solving we get L = 0.08 henry
VR0 R R2 +  X - X 
2
C L When the coil is connected with a condenser in
The series LCR circuit is said to be capacitive i.e. series, the impedance Z is given by
2
Circuit behave as CR circuit. 
Z  = R2 +  ω L -
1 

(3) When XL = XC or VL0 = VC0   = 0, the  ωC 
emf and current will be in the same phase. The 2
 1 
series LCR circuit is said to be purely resistive i.e.  3 +  50  0.08 -
2
 = 5Ω
 50  25  10 -4 
circuit behaves as resistive circuit.
Power developed P = Vrms × irms × cosβ
Ex.10 A series circuit consists of a resistance of 15
R 3
ohm, an inductance of 0.08 Henry and a condenser of Where, power factor cosβ = = = 0.6
Z 5
capacity 30 micro-farad. The applied voltage has a
 P = 12× 2.4 ×0.6 = 17.28 watt
9 Alternating Current
Ex.14 A 20 volts 5 watt lamp is used in ac main of V0 V0 V0
given by i0 = = =
 
220 volts 50 c.p.s. Calculate the (i)Capacitance of Z R 2 + (X L - X C )2 2
R 2 + ωL - 1
capacitor. (ii) Inductance of inductor, to be put in ωC
series to run the lamp, (ii) What pure resistance should Clearly I0 becomes zero both for   0 and    .

 
be included in place of the above device so that the 2
The value of i0 is maximum when ωL - 1 ωC =0
lamp can run on its voltage. (iv) Which of the above
1 1
arrangements will be more economical and why?  ωL =  i.e. X L = X C   ω=
Sol. The current required by the lamp ωC LC
wattage 5 1
i= = = 0.25 amps  ν=
voltage 20 2π LC
The resistance of the lamp (i) XL=XC  Zmin=R
 voltage 
2
20 2 i.e. circuit behaves as resistive circuit.
R= = = 80 ohm
(ii) VL0 = VC0  V0= VR0 V0 = VR02 + VL0 -VC0 
2
wattage 5
So for proper running of the lamp, the current i.e. whole applied voltage appeared across the
through the lamp should be 0.25 amps resistance.
(i) When the condenser C is placed in series with (iii) Phase difference:  = 0o  p.f.= cos  =1
 1 
2
The current and voltage are in the same phase.
lamp, then Z = R2 +  
 ωC  1
(iv) Power consumption: P = Vrms irms = V0 i0
The current through the circuit 2
V V V
i= = (v) Current in the circuit is maxiM and it is i0 = 0
Z
 ωC 
R
2
R2 + 1
(vi) At resonance the frequency of the supply
 0.25 =
220 power equals to natural frequency of LCR circuit.
 1   LCR circuits are used for voltage amplification
80 2 +  2 2 
 4π × 50 × C 
2
and as selector circuits in
Solving it for C, we get C= 4.0 × 10-6 F=4.0 F wireless telegraphy. 
(i) When inductor L henry is placed in series with 
the lamp, then current through the circuit The variance of i0 v/s 
V
i= =
V shown in following figure
Z R 2 +  ωL 
2

V0 V
220 i0  max  =  0
 0.25 = Z min R
80 2 +  4π 2 × 50 2 × L2  
Resonant Frequency:
Solving it for L, we get L = 2.53 henry 1

(i) When resistance r ohm is placed in series with At resonance X L = X C  ω0 L =
ω0 C
lamp of resistance R, then current through the circuit
1 rad 1
i=
V
 0.25 =
220  ω0 =  ν0 = Hz (or cps)
LC sec 2π LC
R+ r 80 + r
Solving it for r, we get r = 720 ohms (Resonant frequency doesn't depend upon the
resistance of the circuit)
(iv) It will be more economical to use inductance
or capacitance is series with the lamp to run it as it
consumes no power while there would be dissipation Ex.15 In following LCR
of power when resistance is inserted in series with circuit find Z, i(t), VOC , VOL
the lamp. at resonance frequency.
AT RESONANCE OR CONDITN OF
RESONANCE:
A series LCR circuit is said to be in the Ex.16 A series LCR with R = 20 , L = 1.5 H and
resonance condition when the current through it has C = 35 F is connected to a variable frequency 200 V
its maximum value. a.c. supply. When the frequency of the supply equals to
natural frequency of the circuit. What is the average
The current amplitude I0 for a series LCR circuit is
power transferred to the circuit in one complete cycle?
10 Alternating Current
HALF POWER FREQUENCIES & BAND WIDTH: (ii) It defines sharpness of i -  curve at resonance
The frequencies at which the power in the circuit when Q - factor is large, the sharpness of resonance
is half of the maximum power (The power at curve is more and vice-versa.
resonance), are called half power frequencies. (iii) Q - factor also defined as follows
(i) The current in the circuit Pmax Max. energy stored
Q - factor = 2π ×
at half power frequencies (HPF) Energy dissipation
is 1 2 or 0.707 or 70.7% of P
2π Max. energy stored
= ×
maximum current (current at T Mean power dissipated
1 0 2 
resonance). Resonant frequency ω0
(ii) There are two half power frequencies = =
Band width Δω
(a) ω1  called lower half power frequency. At ωL X V 1 L
this frequency the circuit is capacitive. (iv) Q - factor = 0 = L  L 
R R VR R C
(b) ω2  called upper half power frequency. It is 1 X V
greater than ω0 . At this frequency the circuit is =  C  C
ω0 CR R VR
inductive. R=0
i
(iii) Band width (): The difference of half power Q - factor = Infinity

frequencies ω1 and ω2 is called band width (). R = Very low

Q- factor = Large
i.e. Δω = ω2 - ω1 . R = low
Q- factor = Normal
 R
For series resonant circuit Δω =   R = High
 L Q- factor = Low
0 
Calculation of bandwidth for series LCR circuit: Resonance curve
Vrms Vrms Vrms
As we know irms =  Parallel RLC Circuits
Z R 2 + (X L - X C )2 R 2 + X 2 V
iR = 0 = V0G
At resonance, Z=R R i iR iL iC

V = V0 sint
imax
Vrms V0
 imax = iL = = V0 S L R L C
R XL
i
At half power frequency V
Pmax imax iC = 0 = V0 SC
P= & irms = 1 0 2  XC
2 2 (1) Current and phase difference:
Vrms Vrms From phasor diagram iC
From above equation(s) =  Z  2R
Z 2R i
current i = iR + (iC - i L )2 and
2

At half power frequency impedance Z = R2 + X 2  2R phase difference 

By solving above equN X   R (i - i ) (S - S L ) iR V


Now, X =  X L - X C  = ωL - ωC = ±R
1  φ = tan-1 C L = tan-1 C
iR G
iL

Let us consider ω2 and ω1 are the frequencies (2) Admittance (Y) of the circuit: From equation
2

of current V0 =  V0  +  V0 - V0 
2
corresponding to +R and -R respectively.
   
R  X L XC 
At ω1   0  At ω2   0 
Z

  = -R   = +R
2
 
2

ωL - 1 ωL - 1  1 = Y =  1  +  1 - 1  = G 2 + (S L - SC )2
ωC ωC Z  R   X L XC 
R R2 1 R R2 1 (3) Resonance: At resonance
 ω1 = - + +  ω = + +
(i) iC = iL  imin = iR
2 2 2
2L 4L LC 2L 4L LC
Thus bandwidth of series LCR ckt is given as V V
(ii) =  SC = S L  Σ S = 0
R XC X L
Δω = ω2 - ω1 =
L V
(iii) Z max = = R
QUALITY FACTOR (Q-FACTOR) OF SERIES iR
RESONANT CIRCUIT (iv) φ = 0  p.f. = cos = 1 = maximum
(i) The characteristic of a series resonant circuit is
1
determined by the quality factor (Q - factor) of the (v) Resonant frequency  ν =
circuit. 2π LC
11 Alternating Current
(4) Parallel L-C circuits: If inductor has CHOKE COIL
resistance (R) and it is connected in parallel with Choke coil (or ballast) is a device having high
R L
capacitor as shown inductance and negligible resistance. It is used to
(i) At resonance C control current in ac circuits and is used in fluorescent
1 L tubes. The power loss in a circuit containing choke coil
(a) Z max = = i
V = V0 is least.
Ymin CR sint
M V0 CR Iron
(b) Current through the circuit is mini imin = core Starter
L
1 1 Coil of Cu wire
(c) S L = SC  =  X = Choke
X L XC L, R
2 Choke coil Application of choke coil
1 R rad
(d) Resonant frequency ω0 = - (1) It consists of a Cu coil wound over a soft iron
LC L2 sec
laminated core.
1 1 R2 (2) Thick Cu wire is used to reduce the resistance (R)
 ν0 = - Hz
2π LC L2 of the circuit.
(Condition for parallel resonance is R < L ) (3) Soft iron is used to improve inductance (L) of
C the circuit.
(e) Quality factor of the circuit = 1
.
1 . (4) The inductive reactance or effective opposition
CR 1 R 2
of the choke coil is given by XL =  L = 2 L
- 2
LC L (5) For an ideal choke coil R = 0, no electric
In the state of resonance the quality factor of the energy is wasted i.e. average power P = 0.
circuit is equivalent to the current amplification of (6) In actual practice choke coil is equivalent to a R
the circuit. – L circuit.
(ii) If inductance has no resistance: If R = 0 (7) Choke coil for different frequencies are made
by using different substances in their core.
then circuit becomes parallel LC circuit as shown
L i
For low frequency L should be large thus iron core
iC choke coil is used. For high frequency ac circuit, L
C should be small, so air cored choke coil is used.

V
iR
iL
V = V0
sint V V
Condition of resonance: iC = iL  =
XC X L  If ac is produced by a generator having a large
 X C = X L . At resonance current i in the circuit number of poles then it's frequency
Number of poles × rotation per second P × n
is zero and impedance is infinite. ν= =
1 2 2
Resonant frequency: ν0 = Hz Where P is the number of poles; n is the
2π LC
rotational frequency (rps) of the coil.
WATTLESS CURRENT  Alternating current in electric wires, bulbs etc.
In an AC circuit R = 0  cos = 0 so, Pav = 0 flows 50 times in one direction and 50 times in the
i.e. in resistance less circuit the power consumed opposite direction in 1 second. Since in one cycle the
is zero. Such a circuit is called the wattless circuit and current becomes zero twice, hence a bulb lights up
the current flowing is called the wattless current. 100 times and is off 100 times in one second (50
or cycles) but due to persistence of vision [1/10 sec], it
The component of current which does not appears lighted continuously.
 AC is more dangerous than dc.
contribute to the average power dissipation is called
 The rate of change of ac is minimum at that
wattless current
instant when they are near their peak values.
(i) The average of wattless component over one
 AC equipments (such as electric motors) are
cycle is zero
more durable and convenient compared to dc
(ii) Amplitude of wattless current i0 sin equipments.
V
(iii) r.m.s. value of wattless current
i i cos
= irms sin = 0 sin .
2 
i
It is quadrature (90o) with voltage. i sin