ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 143

07
ALTERNATING CURRENT &
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

SCAN CODE
Alternating Current & Electromagnetic Waves
144 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Chapter 07

Alternating Current & Electromagnetic Waves

T I 2 I .T
1. The Alternating Current From (3) and (4), we get Im 
2
= 2 0 = 0 …(5)
 2
2
The magnitude of alternating current changes continuously or Im = I0 = 0.637 I0

with time and its direction is reversed periodically. It is
represented by Hence, mean or average value of alternating current
over positive half cycle is 0.637 times the peak value
I = I0 sin  t or I = I0 cos  t of alternating current, i.e., 63.7% of the peak value.

=
2
= 2v 2. A.C. Circuits
T
2.1 A.C. Circuits Containing
1.1. Average Value of Alternating Resistance Only
Current Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a pure
The mean or average value of alternating current over any resistance R, Figure. Suppose the alternating e.m.f. supplied
half cycle is defined as that value of steady current which is represented by E = E0 sin t ...(1)
would send the same amount of charge through a circuit in
Let I be the current in the circuit at any instant t. The potential
the time of half cycle (i.e. T/2) as is sent by the alternating
difference developed across R will be IR. This must be equal
current through the same circuit, in the same time.
to e.m.f. applied at that instant, i.e., IR = E = E0 sin t
To calculate the mean or average value, let an alternating
current be represented by
I = I0 sin  t ...(1)
If the strength of current is assumed to remain constant for a
small time, dt, then small amount of charge sent in a small
time dt is
dq = I dt ...(2)
Fig. 7.1
Let q be the total charge sent by alternating current in the first
half cycle (i.e. 0 → T/2).
T/2

 q=  I dt
0

T/2

Using (1), we get, q = I0 sin t.dt = I0 − cos t 

T/2

 0

 
0
I0  T 
=−  cos  − cos 0
 2 
10
=− cos  − cos 0 (  T = 2 ) Fig. 7.2


I0 2I
q=− −1 − 1 = 0 ...(3)
I=
E0
sin t = I 0 sin t
  or ...(2)
R
If Im represents the mean or average value of alternating
where I0 = E0/R, maximum value of current.
current over the 1st half cycle, then
T This is the form of alternating current developed.
q = Im  ...(4)
2

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ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 145

Comparing I0 = E0/R with Ohm’s law equation, viz. turned clockwise through 90° from the direction of .
current = voltage/resistance, we find that resistance to a.c. is   v
E 0 . I = I0 sin  t −  , I0 = 0 , XL =  L
represented by R–which is the value of resistance to  2 xL
d.c. A pure inductance offer zero resistance to dc. It
Hence behaviour of R in d.c. and a.c. circuit is the same, means a pure inductor cannot reduce dc. The units of
R can reduce a.c. as well as d.c. equally effectively. inductive reactance
Comparing (2) and (1), we find that E and I are in phase. 1
XL =  L  (henry) =
Therefore, in an a.c. circuit containing R only, the voltage sec
and current are in the same phase, as shown in figure. 1 1
= ohm
sec amp / sec
2.1.1 Phasor Diagram The dimensions of inductive reactance are the same as
In the a.c. circuit containing R only, current and those of resistance.
voltage are in the same phase. Therefore, in figure, 2.3 A.C. Circuit Containing
Capacitance Only
Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a capacitor
both phasors I0 an d E 0 ar e in th s e direc tio n only of capacitance C, figure. Suppose the alternating e.m.f.
making an angle (ωt) with OX. This eis soa for all times. It supplied is
m
means that the phase angle between alternating voltage E = E0 sin t ...(1)
and alternating current through R is zero.
The current flowing in the circuit transfers charge to the
I = I0 sin ωt and E = E0 sin ωt. plates of the capacitor. This produces a potential difference
2.2 A.C. Circuit Containing between the plates. The capacitor is alternately charged and
discharged as the current reverses each half cycle. At any
Inductance only instant t, suppose q is the charge on the capacitor. Therefore,
In an a.c. circuit containing L only alternating current I lags potential difference across the plates of capacitor V = q/C.
behind alternating voltage E by a phase angle of 90°, i.e., by
At every instant, the potential difference V must be equal to
one fourth of a period. Conversely, voltage across L leads the
the e.m.f. applied i.e.
current by a phase angle of 90°. This is shown in figure.
q
V= = E = E 0 sin t
C
or q = C0 sin t
If I is instantaneous value of current in the circuit at instant
t, then
dq d
I= = (C0 sin t)
dt dt
I = CE0 (cos t) 
E0
I= sin ( t + / 2 ) ...(2)
1/ C
The current will be maximum i.e.
I = I0, when sin (t + /2) = maximum = 1
E0
 From (2), I0 = 1 ...(3)
Fig. 7.3 1/ C
Put in (2), I = I0 sin (t + /2) ...(4)
Figure (b) represents the vector diagram or the phasor
diagram of a.c. circuit containing L only. The vector This is the form of alternating current developed.
representing makes an angle (t) with OX. As current lags Comparing (4) with (1), we find that in an a.c. circuit

behing the e.m.f. by 90°, therefore, phasor representing I0 is

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146 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

3. A.C. Circuit Containing

containing C only, alternating current I leads the alternating
e.m.f. by a phase angle of 90°. This is shown in figure (b) and
(c).
Resistance, Inductance
The phasor diagram or vector diagram of a.c. circuit
containing C only in shown in figure (b). The phasor is turned and Capacitance in Series
anticlockwise through 90° from the direction of phasor . Their
projections on YOY’ give the instantaneous values E and I as
3.1 Phasor Treatment
shown in figure (b). When E0 and I0 rotate with frequency , Let a pure resistance R, a pure inductance L and an ideal
capacitor of capacitance C be connected in series to a source
curves in figure (c). are generated.
of alternating e.m.f., figure. As R, L, C are in series, therefore,
current at any instant through the three elements has the same
amplitude and phase. Let it be represented by I = I 0 sin t

Fig. 7.5
However, voltage across each element bears a
Fig. 7.4 different phase relationship with the current. Now,

• The maximum voltage across R is VR = I0 R

Comparing (3) with Ohm’s law equation, viz current =
voltage/resistance, we find that (1/ C) represents effective
resistance offered by the capacitor. This is called capacitative In figure, current phasor I0 is represented along OX.
reactance and is denoted by XC.

1 1
Thus XC = =
C 2 vC
The capacitative reactance limits the amplitude of current in
a purely capacitative circuit in the same way as the resistance
limits the current in a purely resistive circuit. Clearly,
capacitative reactance varies inversely as the frequency of
a.c. and also inversely as the capacitance of the condenser.
In a d.c. circuit, v = 0,  XC = 

1 1 sec volt sec.

Xc = = sec = = = ohm
C farad coulomb / volt amp.sec

Fig. 7.6
As is in phase with current, it is represented by the
vector OA , along OX.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 147

L [–q0  sin (t + )] + R q0  cos (t + )

2
• The maximum voltage across L is VL = I0 X L
As voltage across the inductor leads the current by q0
+ sin ( t + ) = E0 sin t
90°, it is represented by OB along OY, 90° ahead of C
VC = I0 XC . q0 [R cos ( t + )− Lsin ( t + )
• The maximum voltage across C is
1
As voltage across the capacitor lags behind the + sin ( t + )] = E0 sin t
C
alternating current by 90°, it is represented by OC
1
rotated clockwise through 90° from the direction of I0 As L = XL and = XC , therefore
C
. OC is along OY’.
q0  [R cos (t + ) + (XC – XL) sin (t + )] = E0
sin t
3.2 Analytical Treatment of RLC Series
Multiplying and dividing by
Circuit
Z = R 2 + ( X C − X L ) , we get
2

Let a pure resistance R, a pure inductance L and an ideal

condenser of capacity C be connected in series to a source of R XC − XL 
alternating e.m.f. Suppose the alterning e.m.f. supplied is q 0 Z  cos ( t + )+ sin ( t + )  = E0
Z Z 
E = E0 sin t ...(1)
sin t ...(4)
At any instant of time t, suppose
q = charge on capacitor R XC − XL
Let = cos and = sin ...(5)
I = current in the circuit Z Z
dI XC − XL
= rate of change of current in the circuit so that tan = ...(6)
dt R
q
potential difference across the condenser = q0  Z[cos (t + ) cos  + sin (t + ) sin ] = E0 sin
C
t
dI
potential difference across inductor = L or q0  Z cos (t +  – ) = E0 sin t = E0 cos (t – /2)
dt
potential difference across resistance = RI ...(7)
The voltage equation of the circuit is Comparing the two sides of this equation, we find that

dI q E0 = q0  Z = I0 Z, where I0 q0 ...(8)

L + RI + = E = E0 sin t ...(2)
dt C and t +  −  = t – /2
−
2
dq dI d q
As I = , therefore, =  − =
dt dt dt 2 2
The voltage equation becomes −
or = + ...(9)
dq 2
dq q 2
L 2 +R + = E 0 sin t ...(3)
dt dt C Current in the circuit is
dq d
= q0 sin ( t + ) = q0  cos (t + )
This is like the equation of a forced, damped oscillator. Let
I=
the solution of equation (3) be dt dt 
q = q0 sin (t + ) I = I0 cos (t + ) {using (8)}
dq Using (9), we get, I = I0 cos (t +  – /2)
= q 0 cos ( t + )
dt
I = I0 sin (t + ) ...(10)
d2q
= −q 0 2
sin ( t + ) ( XC − X L )
dt 2 From (6), = tan −1 ...(11)
R
Substituting these values in equation (3), we get

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As cos  + sin  = 1
2 2

 R   XC − X L 
2 2

   + = 1 or R2 + (XC – XL) = Z
2 2

Z  Z 

or Z = R 2 + (XC − XL )2 ...(12)

3.3 A.C. Circuit Containing

Resistance & Inductance
Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to an ohmic
resistance R and a coil of inductance L, in series as shown in
figure.

Fig. 7.8
Figure represents phasor diagram of RC circuit. We find that
in RC circuit, voltage lags behind the current by a phase angle
, where
AK OC VC I 0 X C
tan  = = = =
OA OA VR I0R

4. Average Power in RLC

Circuit or Inductive Circuit
Let the alternating e.m.f. applied to an RLC circuit be
Fig. 7.7
E = E0 sin t ...(1)
Z= R +X 2 2
L If alternating current developed lags behind the applied e.m.f.
by a phase angle , then
We find that in RL circuit, voltage leads the current I = I0 sin (t – ) ...(2)
by a phase angle , where
Power at instant t,
AK OL VL I0 X L
tan = = = =
dW
OA OA VR I0 R = E0 sin t  I0 sin ( t − )
XL
dt
tan =
R = E0 I0 sin t (sin t cos  – cos t sin )
3.4 A.C. Circuit Containing = E0I0 sin t cos  – E0I0 sin t cos t sin 
2

Resistance and Capacitance = E0I0 sin t cos  sin 2 t sin 

2

Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to an ohmic

If this instantaneous power is assumed to remain constant for
resistance R and a condenser of capacity C, in series as
a small time dt, then small amount of work done in this time
shown in figure.
is
Z = R 2 + XC2  E I 
dW =  E 0 I0 sin 2 t cos  − 0 0 sin 2 t sin   dt
 2 
Total work done over a complete cycle is

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ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 149

T T
E 0 I0 true power (P)
W =  E 0 I0 sin 2 t cos  dt −  sin 2t sin  dt Thus, Power factor =. = cos  ..(2)
0 0
2 apparent power ( E v I v )
T T
E 0 I0
W = E 0 I0 cos   sin 2 t dt − sin   sin 2 t dt =
R
[from impedance triangle]
2
R + ( XL − XC )
0 0 2 2

T T
T
 sin t dt = and  sin t dt = 0
2
As
2 Resistance
0 0 Power factor = cos  =
Impedance
T
 W = E 0 I 0 cos 
2 In a non-inductance circuit, XL = XC
 Average power in the inductive circuit over a
R R
complete cycle Power factor = cos  = = = 1,  = 0 ...(4)
R 2 R
W E0 I0 cos  T E 0 I0
P= = . = cos 
T T 2 2 2 This is the maximum value of power factor. In a pure inductor
or an ideal capacitor,  = 90°
P = Ev Iv cos  ...(3)
Power factor = cos  = cos 90° = 0
Hence average power over a complete cycle in an inductive
circuit is the product of virtual e.m.f., virtual current and Average power consumed in a pure inductor or ideal a
cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and current. capacitor, P = Ev Iv cos 90° = Zero. Therefore, current through
pure L or pure C, which consumes no power for its
NOTE: maintenance in the circuit is called Idle current or Wattless
The relation (3) is applicable to all a.c. circuits. cos  current.
and Z will have appropriate values for difference In actual practice, we do not have ideal inductor or
circuits. ideal capacitor. Therefore, there does occur some dissipation
For example: of energy. However, inductance and capacitance continue to
be most suitable for controlling current in a.c. circuits with
R minimum loss of power.
In RL circuit, Z = R + XL and cos  =
2 2
(i)
Z

R 5. Electric Resonance
In RC circuit, Z = R + XC and cos  =
2 2
(ii)
Z
5.1 Series Resonance Circuit
(iii) In LC circuit, Z = XL – XC and  = 90°
A circuit in which inductance L, capacitance C and resistance
(iv) In RLC circuit, Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C ) R are connected in series, and the circuit admits maximum
2
and
current corresponding to a given frequency of a.c., is called
R series resonance circuit.
cos  =
Z
The impedance (Z) of an RLC circuit is given by
Ev 2
In all a.c. circuits, I v =  1 
Z Z = R 2 +  L −  ...(1)
  C

At very low frequencies, inductive reactance XL = L is

4.1 Power Factor of an A.C. Circuit negligible, but capacitative reactance (XC = 1/C) is very
We have proved that average power/cycle in an inductive high.
circuit is
As frequency of alternating e.m.f. applied to the circuit is
P = EvIv cos  ...(1) increased, XL goes on increasing and XC goes on decreasing.
Here, P is called true power, (EvIv) is called apparent power For a particular value of  ( = r, say)
or virtual power and cos  is called power factor of the circuit. XL = X C

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1 1 The quantity is regarded as a measure of sharpness of

i.e. r L = , or r =
r C LC resonance, i.e., Q factor of resonance circuit is the ratio of
resonance angular frequency to band width of the circuit
1 1
2 v r = or vr = (which is difference in angular frequencies at which power is
LC 2 LC half the maximum power or current is .
At this particular frequency vr, as XL = XC, therefore, from (1)

Z = R 2 + 0 = R = minimum 6. Transformer
i.e. impedance of RLC circuit is minimum and hence the A transformer which increases the a.c. voltage is called a step
E E up transformer, A transformer which decreases the a.c.
current I 0 = 0 = 0 becomes maximum. This frequency is
Z R voltages is called a step down transformer.
called series resonance frequency.

Fig. 7.10

6.1 Principle
A transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction,
i.e., whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a coil
Fig. 7.9 changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the neighbouring coil.
The Q factor of series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio 6.2 Construction
of the voltage developed across the inductance or capacitance
at resonance to the impressed voltage, which is the voltage A transformer consists of a rectangular soft iron core made of
applied across R. laminated sheets, well insulated from one another, figure.
voltage across L or C Two coils P1P2 (the primary coil) and S1S2 (the secondary coil)
i.e. Q=
applied voltage (= voltage across R) are wound on the same core, but are well insulated from each
other. Note that both the coils are also insulated from the core.
( r L ) I r L
Q= = The source of alternating e.m.f. (to be transformed) is
RI R
connected to the primary coil P1P2 and a load resistance R is
connected to the secondary coil S1S2 through an open switch
(1 / r C ) I I
or Q= = S. Thus, there can be no current through the secondary coil so
RI RC r
long as the switch is open.
1
Using r = , we get For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistances of
LC
the primary and secondary windings are negligible. Further,
L 1 1 L the energy losses due to magnetic hysterisis in the iron core
Q= =
R LC R C is also negligible. Well designed high capacity transformers
may have energy losses as low as 1%.
1 LC 1 L
or Q= = 6.3 Theory and Working
RC R C
Let the alternating e.m.f. supplied by the a.c. source
1 L
Thus Q = ...(1) connected to primary be
R C
Ep = E0 sin t ...(1)

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As we have assumed the primary to be a pure inductance with np Ip

 Is = I p . = ...(3)
zero resistance, the sinusoidal primary current I p lags the ns K
primary voltage Ep by 90°. The primary’s power factor, cos 
For a step up transformer, Es > Ep ; K > 1 Is < Ip
= 90° = 0. Therefore, no power is dissipated in primary.
i.e. secondary current is weaker when secondary voltage is
The alternating primary current induces an alternating
higher, i.e., whatever we gain in voltage, we lose in current in
magnetic flux B in the iron core. Because the core extends
the same ratio.
through the secondary winding, the induced flux also extends
The reverse is true for a step down transformer.
through the turns of secondary.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the  n s  Es  n s 
From eqn. I p = Is  
=   (3)
 
induced e.m.f. per turn (Eturn) is same for both, the primary  np  R  np 
and secondary. Also, the voltage Ep across the primary is
equal to the e.m.f. induced in the primary, and the voltage E s 1 n  n 
Using equation (2), we get I p = .E p  s
   s 
across the secondary is equal to the e.m.f. induced in the R  np   np 
secondary. Thus,
2

dB 1n 
E turn = =
E
= s
Ep Ip =  s  E p ...(4)
dt n p ns R  n p 

Here, np ; ns represent total number of turns in primary and This equation, has the form where the equivalent resistance
2
secondary coils respectively.  np 
Req is R eq =   R ...(5)
n
Es = E p s ...(2)  ns 
np
Thus Req is the value of load resistance as seen by the
If ns > np ; Es > Ep, the transformer is a step up transformer. source/generator, i.e., the source/generator produces current
Similarly, when ns < np ; Es < Ep. The device is called a step Ip and voltage Ep as if it were connected to a resistance Req.
ns Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output to
down transformer. = K represents transformation ratio.
np the input power.
Note that this relation (2) is based on three assumptions Output power E s Is
i.e.,  = =
• the primary resistance and current are small, Input power E p Ip

• there is no leakage of magnetic flux. The same In an ideal transformer, where there is no power loss,  = 1
magnetic flux links both, the primary and secondary (i.e. 100%). However, practically there are many energy
coil, losses. Hence efficiency of a transformer in practice is less
• the secondary current is small. than one (i.e. less than 100%).

Now, the rate at which the generator/source transfer 6.4 Energy Losses in a Transformer
energy to the primary = IpEp. The rate at which the
Following are the major sources of energy loss in a
primary then transfers energy to the secondary (via
transformer :
the alternating magnetic field linking the two coils)
is IsEs. 1. Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in
the copper coils of a transformer. This is due to Joule
As we assume that no energy is lost along the way, heating of conducting wires. These are minimized
conservation of energy requires that using thick wires.
Ep 2. Iron loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the
I pE p = I s E s Is = I p
Es iron core of the transformer. This is due to formation
of eddy currents in iron core. It is minimised by taking
Ep np
From (2), = laminated cores.
Es ns
3. Leakage of magnetic flux occurs inspite of best
insulations. Therefore, rate of change of magnetic flux

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152 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

linked with each turn of S1S2 is less than the rate of
change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of P1P2.
It can be reduced by winding the primary and
secondary coils one over the other.
4. Hysteresis loss. This is the loss of energy due to
repeated magnetisation and demagnetisation of the
iron core when a.c. is fed to it. The loss is kept to a
minimum by using a magnetic material which has a
low hysteresis loss.
5. Magnetostriction, i.e., humming noise of a
transformer.
Therefore, output power in the best transformer may
be roughly 90% of the input power.
7. A.C. Generator or A.C.
Dynamo
An a.c. generator/dynamo is a machine which produces
alternating current energy from mechanical energy. It is one
of the most important applications of the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction. The generator was designed
originally by a Yugoslav scientist, Nikola Tesla. The word
generator is a misnomer, because nothing is generated by the
machine. In fact, it is an alternator converting one form of
energy into another.
4. Brushes: B1 and B2 are two flexible metal plates or
carbon rods. They are fixed and are kept in light
contact with R1 and R2 respectively. The purpose of
brushes is to pass on current from the armature coil to
the external load resistance R.
Theory and Working: As the armature coil is rotated
in the magnetic field, angle  between the field and
normal to the coil changes continuously. Therefore,
magnetic flux linked with the coil changes. An e.m.f.
is induced in the coil.
To start with, suppose the plane of the coil is
perpendicular to the plane of the paper in which
magnetic field is applied, with AB at front and CD at
the back, figure (a). The amount of magnetic flux
linked with the coil in this position is maximum. As
the coil is rotated anticlockwise (or clockwise), AB
moves inwards and CD moves outwards. The amount
of magnetic flux linked with the coil changes.
According to Fleming’s right hand rule, current
induced in AB is from A to B and in CD, it is from C
to D. In the external circuit, current flows from B2 to
B1, figure (a)

7.1 Principle
An a.c. generator/dynamo is based on the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction, i.e., whenever amount of
magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced
in the coil. It lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux
through the coil continues. The direction of current induced
is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

7.2 Construction
The essential parts of an a.c. dynamo are shown in figure.
1. Armature: ABCD is a rectangular armatrue coil. It
consists of a large number of turns of insulated copper
wire wound over a laminated soft iron core, I. The coil can
be rotated about the central axis.
2. Field Magnets: N and S are the pole pieces of a strong Fig. 7.11
electromagnet in which the armature coil is rotated.
Axis of rotation is perpendicular to the magnetic field
lines. The magnetic field is of the order of 1 to 2 tesla.
3. Slip Rings: R1 and R2 are two hollow metallic rings, to
which two ends of armature coil are connected. These
rings rotate with the rotation of the coil.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 153

−d d
e= = − ( NAB cos t )
dt dt
d
= − NAB ( cos t ) = − NAB ( − sin t ) 
dt
E = NAB  sin  t ...(2)
The induced e.m.f. will be maximum, when
sin  t = maximum = 1
 emax = e0 = NAB  × 1 ...(3)
Put in (2), e = e0 sin  t ...(4)
The variation of induced e.m.f. with time (i.e. with position
of the coil) is shown in figure.

Fig. 7.12
After half the rotation of the coil, AB is at the back and CD is
at the front, figure. Therefore, on rotating further, AB moves
outwards and CD moves outwards and CD moves inwards.
The current induced in AB is from B to A and in CD, it is
from D to C. Through external circuit, current flows from B 1
to B2; figure (b). This is repeated. Induced current in the Fig. 7.14
external circuit changes direction after every half rotation of The current supplied by the a.c. generator is also sinusoidal.
the coil. Hence the current induced is alternating in nature. It is given by
To calculate the magnitude of e.m.f. induced, suppose e e0
i= = sin t = i 0 win t
N = number of turns in the coil, R R
A = area enclosed by each turn of the coil e0
where i 0 = = maximum value of current.
R
B = strength of magnetic field
NOTE:
 = angle which normal to the coil makes with B at any
instant t, figure. Suppose to start with, the plane of the coil is not
perpendicular to the magnetic field. Therefore, at t = 0,
Let  = , the phase angle. This is the angle which normal
to the coil makes with the direction of The equation (4)
of e.m.f. induced in that case can be rewritten as e = e0 sin
(t + ).
Fig. 7.13
Magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position
8. Displacement Current
( )
 = N B . A = NBA cos  = NBA cos t ...(1)
According to Ampere circuital law :
where  is angular velocity of the coil.
the line integral of magnetic field around any closed path is
As the coil is rotated,  changes; therefore, magnetic flux  equal to 0 times the total current threading the closed path,
linked with the coil changes and hence an e.m.f. is induced in
i.e.,
the coil.
At the instant t, if e is the e.m.f. induced in the coil, then

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154 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

 B.d
C
= 0 I ...(1)

Consider a parallel plate capacitor having plates P and Q

connected to a battery B, through a tapping key K. When key
K is pressed, the conduction current flows through the
connecting wires. The capacitor starts storing charge. As the
charge on the capacitor grows, the conduction current in the
wires decreases. When the capacitor is fully charged, the
conduction current stops flowing in the wires. During
charging of capacitor, there is no conduction current between
Fig. 7.16
the plates of capacitor. During charging, let at an instant, I be
the conduction current in the wires. This current will produce
magnetic field around the wires which can be detected by
 B.d
C
= B 2r = 0 × 0 = 0 or B = 0 ...(3)

using a compass needle.
Let us find the magnetic field at point R which is at a
perpendicular distance r from connecting wire in a region
outside the parallel plate capacitor. For this we consider a
plane circular loop C1, of radius r, whose centre lies on wire
and its plane is perpendicular to the direction of current
carrying wire (figure a). The magnitude of the magnetic field
is same at all points on the loop and is acting tangentially
along the circumference of the loop. If B is the magnitude of
magnetic field at R, then using Ampere’s circuital law, for
loop C1, we have
 B.d =
C1
 B d cos 0 = B 2 r = 0 I or
C1
...(2)
From (2) and (3), we note that there is a magnetic field at R
calculated through one way and no magnetic field at R,
calculated through another way. Since this contradiction
arises from the use of Ampere’s circuital law, hence
Ampere’s circuital law is logically inconsistent.
If at the given instant of time, q is the charge on the plate of
capacitor and A is the plate area of capacitor, the magnitude
of the electric field between the plates of capacitor is
q
E=
0 A
This field is perpendicular to surface S. It has the same
magnitude over the area A of the capacitor plates and
becomes zero outside the capacitor. The electric flux through
surface S is,
1 q q
E = E.A = EA cos 0 = A = ...(4)
0 A 0

dq
If is the rate of change of charge with time on the plate of
dt
the capacitor, then

dE d  q  1 dq
=  =
Fig. 7.15 dt dt  0  0 dt

Now, we consider a different surface, i.e., a tiffin box shaped dq dE

or =0
surface without lid with its circular rim, which has the same dt dt
boundary as that of loop C1. The box does not touch to the
dq
connecting wire and plate P of capacitor. The flat circular Here, = current through surface S corresponding to
dt
bottom S of the tiffin box lies in between the capacitor plates.
changing electric field = ID, called Maxwell’s displacement
Figure (b). No conduction current is passing through the tiffin
current. Thus, displacement current is that current which
box surface S, therefore I = 0. On applying Ampere’s circuital
comes into play in the region in which the electric field and
law to loop C1 of this tiffin box surface, we have
the electric flux is changing with time.
dE
ID =0 ...(5)
dt

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ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 155

Maxwell modified Ampere’s circuital law in order to make dE

I + ID = I+ 0 = I+ 0 ( 0 ) = I ...(7)
the same logically consistent. He stated Ampere’s circuital dt
law to the form,
For loop C2, there is no conduction current, i.e., I = 0
 d E 
 B.d = 0 ( I + ID ) = 0  I + 0 dt  ...(6)
I + ID = 0 + ID = ID = 0
dE
...(8)
dt
This is called Ampere Maxwell’s Law. At the given instant if q is the magnitude of charge on the
plates of the capacitor of area A, then electric field E in the
8.1 Continuity of Current gap between the two plates of this capacitor is given by
Maxwell’s modification of Ampere’s circuital law gives that
q   q 
E=  E= = 
 B.d = 0 ( I + ID )
C
0 A  0 0 A

q q
dE Electric flux, E = EA = A=
where ID =0 , called displacement current, I is the 0 A 0
dt
conduction current and E is the electric flux across the loop Thus from (8), we have
C. d dq
I + ID = 0 ( q/ 0 ) = = I ...(9)
The sum of the conduction current and displacement current dt dt
(i.e., I + ID) has the important property of continuity along any From (7) and (9), we conclude that the sum (I + I D) has the
closed path although individually they may not be same value on the left and right side of plate P of the parallel
continuous. plate capacitor. Hence (I + ID) has the property of continuity
To prove it, consider a parallel plate capacitor although individually they may not be continuous.
having plates P and Q, being charged with battery B. During 8.2 Maxwell’s Equations
the time, charging is taking place, let at an instant, I be the
In the absence of any dielectric or magnetic material,
conduction current flowing through the wires. Let C1 and C2
the four Maxwell’s equations are given below ?
be the two loops, which have exactly the same boundary as
that of the plates of capacitor. C1 is little towards left and C2 •  E.ds = q/  .This
S
0 equation is Gauss’s Law in
is a little towards right of the plate P of parallel plate
capacitor, figure. electrostatics.
The electric lines of force do not form continuous
closed path.

•  B.ds = 0 .
S
This equation is Gauss’s Law in

magnetostatics.
The magnetic lines of force always form closed paths.
d
•  E.d =−
dt s
B.ds . This equation is Faraday’s law

of electromagnetic induction.
Fig. 7.17 The line integral of electric field around any closed
path (i.e., the emf) is equal to the time rate of change
Due to battery B, let the conduction current I be flowing
of magnetic flux through the surface bounded by the
through the lead wires at any instant, but there is no
closed path.
conduction current across the capacitor gap, as no charge is
transported across this gap. d
•  B.d = 0 I + 0 0
dt s
E.ds . This equation is
For loop C1, there is no electric flux, i.e., E = 0 and
dE generalised form of Ampere’s law as Modified by
=0 Maxwell and is also known as Ampere-Maxwell
dt
law.

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156 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The electromagnetic waves are those wave in which field B be acting along Y–axis and magnetic field along Z–
there are sinusoidal variation of electric and magnetic axis.
field vectors at right angles to each other as well as at
At any instant, the electric and magnetic fields varying
right angles to the direction of wave propagation.
sinusoidally with x and t can be represented by the equations.
1
c= ...(10) E = Ey = E0 sin  (t – x/c) ...(1)
0 0
B = Bz = B0 sin  (t – x/c) ...(2)
Here E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of electric and magnetic
fields along Y–axis and Z–axis respectively. Consider a
rectangular path PQRS in X–Y plane as shown in figure.

Fig. 7.18

where 0 and 0 are permeability and permittivity of

the free space respectively.
–7 –1 –1
We know, 0 = 4 × 10 Wb A m ; Fig. 7.19
–2 –1 –2
0 = 8.85 × 10 C N m
2

8
The line integral of E over the closed path PQRS will be
Putting these values in (10), we have c = 3.00 × 10 Q R S P
–1
ms 
PQRS
E.d =  E , d +  E , d +  E , d +  E , d
P Q R S
where 0 are the absolute permeability and absolute
permittivity of the medium. We also know that  = = 0 + E( x2 ) + 0 + E( x1 ) ( − )
0r and  = 0r where 0, r are the relative
  x   x 
permeability and relative permittivity of the medium. = E 0 sin   t − 2  − sin   t − 1   ...(3)
  c   c 
1 c
Therefore, v= =
0r 0r r r Magnetic flux linked with surface surrounded by rectangular
path PQRS will be
 1 
 c=  x2

x2
 x 
 0 0  B =  B ( x ) dx =  B0 sin   t −   dx
x1 x1   c 
Maxwell also concluded that electromagnetic wave is
transverse in nature and light is electromagnetic wave. B0 c   x   x 
= cos   t − 2  − cos   t − 1  
   c   c 
9. Velocity of Electromagnetic
d B B 0 c   x   x1  
= − sin   t − 2  +  sin   t − c  
 
Waves dt  c   

Consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along   x   x1  

= − B0 c sin   t − 2  − sin   t − c   ...(4)
positive direction of X–axis in space with speed c. Since in   c   
electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic fields are Using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we have
transverse to the direction of wave propagation, therefore, the
dB
electric and magnetic fields are in Y–Z plane. Let the electric
 E.d =−
dt
Putting the values from (3) and (4), we get

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ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 157

E0 = cB0 ...(5) 1
and = 9 109 Nm 2 C−2
Since E and B are in phase, we can write. 4  0

E = c B at any point in space. 1

or 0 = N−1m−2 C2
4 9 109
Putting the value in (8), we get
1
c= = 3 108 m / s
410 1/ ( 4 9 10
−7 9
)
which is exactly the speed of light in vacuum.
This shows that light is an electromagnetic wave.

10. Electromagnetic
Fig. 7.20
Consider a rectangular path PUTQ in the X–Z plane as shown Spectrum
in figure. The line integral of over the closed path PUTQ, we
have After the experimental discovery of electromagnetic waves
U T Q P by Hertz, many other electromagntic waves were discovered

PUTQ
B.d =  B.d +  B.d +  B.d +  B.d
P U T Q
by different ways of excitation.
The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations
= B( x1 ) + 0 − B( x2 ) + 0
according to their wavelength or frequency is called the
  x   x  electromagnetic spectrum.
= B0 sin   t − 1  − sin   t − 2   ... (6)
  c   c  The electromagnetic spectrum has much wider range with
–14 2
wavelength variation ~ 10 m to 6 × 10 m. The whole
The electric flux linked with the surface surrounded by
electromagnetic spectrum has been classified into different
rectangular path PUTQ is
parts and subparts in order of increasing wavelength,
x2 x2 x2
 x according to their type of excitation. There is overlapping in
E =  E.ds =  E ( x ) dx = E 0  sin   t − c  dx certain parts of the spectrum, showing that the
x1 x1 x1
corresponding radiations can be produced by two methods.
c   x   x  It may be noted that the physical properties of
=− E 0  − cos   t − 2  + cos   t − 1  
   c   c  electromagnetic waves are decided by their wavelengths and
not by the method of their excitation.
dE   x   x1  
or = −cE 0 sin   t − 2  − sin   t − c   A table given below shows the various parts of the
dt   c    electromagnetic spectrum with approximate wavelength
.. (7) range, frequency range, their sources of production and
In space, there is no conduction current. According to detections.
Ampere Maxwell law in space 10.1 Main Parts of Electromagnetic
dE Spectrum

PUTQ
B.d =  0 0
dt The electromagnetic spectrum has been broadly classified
into following main parts; mentioned below in the order of
Putting values from (6) and (7), we get
increasing frequency.
B0 = 0 0 cE0 = 0 0 c ( cB0 )
10.1.1 Radiowaves
1
or 1 = 0 0 c2 or c = ... (8)
0 0 Theses are the electromagnetic wave of frequency range from
5 9
5 × 10 Hz to 10 Hz. These waves are produced by oscillating
Which is the speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum. electric circuits having an inductor and capacitor.
–7 –1
For vacuum, 0 = 4 × 10 T mA

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158 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Uses: The various frequency ranges are used for different
types of wireless communication systems as mentioned
below
• The electromagnetic waves of frequency range from
530 kHz to 1710 kHz form amplitude modulated
(AM) band. It is used in ground wave propagation.
• The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 1710
kHz to 54 Mhz are used for short wave bands. It is
used in sky wave propagation.
• The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 54
Mhz to 890 MHz are used in television waves.
• The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 88
MHz to 108 MHz from frequency modulated (FM)
radio band. It is used for commercial FM radio.
• The electromagnetic waves of frequency range 300
MHz to 3000 MHz form ultrahigh frequency
(UHF) band. It is used in cellular phones
communication.
10.1.2 Microwaves
Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves of frequency
range 1 GHz to 300 GHz. They are produced by special
vacuum tubes. namely; klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn
diodes etc.
Uses :
• Microwaves are used in Radar systems for air craft
navigation.
• A radar using microwave can help in detecting the
speed of tennis ball, cricket ball, automobile while in
motion.
• Microwave ovens are used for cooking purposes.
• Microwaves are used for observing the movement of
trains on rails while sitting in microwave operated
control rooms.
10.1.3 Infrared waves
Infrared waves were discovered by Herschell. These are the
11
electromagnetic waves of frequency range 3 × 10 Hz to 4 ×
14
10 Hz. Infrared waves sometimes are called as heat
waves. Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and
molecules. These wave are not detected by human eye but
snake can detect them.
Uses :
Infrared waves are used :
• in physical therapy, i.e., to treat muscular strain.
• to provide electrical energy to satellite by using solar
cells
• for producing dehydrated fruits
Alternating Current & Electromagnetic Waves
• for taking photographs during the condition of fog,
smoke etc.
• in green houses to keep the plants warm
• in revealing the secret writings on the ancient walls
• in solar water heaters and cookers
• in weather forecasting through infra red photography
• in checking the purity of chemcials and in the study of
molecular structure by taking infrared absorption
spectrum.
10.1.4 Visible light
It is the narrow region of electromagnetic spectrum, which is
detected by the human eye. Its frequency is ranging from
14 14
4×10 Hz to 8×10 Hz. It is produced due to atomic
excitation.
The visible light emitted or reflected from objects around us
provides the information about the world surrounding us.
10.1.5 Ultraviolet rays
The ultraviolet rays were discovered by Ritter in 1801. The
14 16
frequency range of ultraviolet rays is 8 × 10 Hz to 5 × 10
Hz. The ultraviolet rays are produced by sun, special lamps
and very hot bodies. Most of the ultraviolet rays coming from
sun are absorbed by the ozone layer in the earth’s atmosphere.
The ultraviolet rays in large quantity produce harmful effect
on human eyes.
Uses : Ultraviolet rays are used :
• for checking the mineral samples through the property
of ultraviolet rays causing flourescence.
• in the study of molecular structure and arrangement of
electrons in the external shell through ultraviolet
absorption spectra.
• to destroy the bacteria and for sterilizing the surgical
instruments.
• in burglar alarm.
• in the detection of forged documents, finger prints in
forensic laboratory.
• to preserve the food stuff.
10.1.6 X–Rays
The X–rays were discovered by German Physicst W.
16 21
Roentgen. Their frequency range is 10 Hz to 3 × 10 Hz.
These are produced when high energy electrons are stopped
suddenly on a metal of high atomic number. X–rays have high
penetrating power.
Uses : X–rays are used :
ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 159

• In surgery for the detection of fractures, foreign

bodies like bullets, diseased organs and stones in the
human body.
• In Engineering (i) for detecting faults, cracks, flaws
and holes in final metal products (ii) for the testing of
weldings, casting and moulds.
• In Radio therapy, to cure untracable skin diseases Fig. 7.21
and malignant growth. The energy of electromagnetic wave (U) crossing the area of
• In detective departments, for detection of cross-section at P normally in time  t is the energy of wave
explosives, opium, gold and silver in the body of contained in a cylinder of length c  t and area of cross-
smugglers. section A. It is given by U = uav (c  t) A

• In Industry (i) for the detection of pearls in oysters The intensity of electromagnetic wave at P is,
and defects in rubber tyres, gold and tennis balls etc. U u ct A
I= = av = u av c
(ii) for testing the uniformity of insulating material. A t A t
• In Scientific Research for the investigation of In terms of maximum electric field,
structure of crystal, arrangement of atoms and 1
so, I = 0 E 02 c =0 E rms
2
c
molecules in the complex substances. 2
1 B02
10.1.7  -Rays In terms of maximum magnetic field, u av = ,
2 0
–rays are the electromagnetic waves of frequency range 3 1 B02 1 2
so I = c= Brms c
× 10 Hz to 5 × 10 Hz. –rays have nuclear origin. These
18 22
2 0 0
rays are highly energetic and are produced by the nucleus of
the radioactive substances.
Uses : –rays are used :
• in the treatment of cancer and tumours.
• to preserve the food stuffs for a long time as the soft
–rays can kill microorganisms easily.
• to produce nuclear reactions.
• to provide valuable information about the structure
of atomic nucleus.

11. Intensity of
Electromagnetic Wave
Intensity of electromagnetic wave at a point is defined as the
energy crossing per second per unit area normally around that
point during the propagation of electromagnetic wave.
Consider the propagation of electromagnetic wave with speed
c along the X–axis. Take an imaginary cylinder of area of
cross-section A and length c  t, so that the wave crosses the
area A normally. Figure. Let uav be the average energy density
of electromagnetic wave.

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160 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Xc − XL
and  = tan-1 tan −1
NCERT Corner R

Important Points to Remember Z = R 2 + ( X c − X L ) is called the impedance of

2

the circuit.
1. An alternating voltage  = m sin t applied to a
resistor R drives a current i = im sin ωt in the 6. In a purely inductive or capacitive circuit, cos = 0
 and no power is dissipated even though a current is
resistor, i m = m . The current is in phase with the
R flowing in the circuit. In such cases, current is
applied voltage. referred to as a wattless current.

2. For an alternating current i = im sin ωt passing 7. An interesting characteristic of a series RLC circuit
through a resistor R, the average power loss P is the phenomenon of resonance. The circuit
(averaged over a cycle) due to joule heating is exhibits resonance, i.e., the amplitude of the current
1 is maximum at the resonant frequency,
(i m ) 2 R . To express it in the same form as the dc
2 1
0 = . The quality factor Q defined by
power (P = I2R), a special value of current is used. LC
It is called root mean square (rms) current and is L 1
denoted by I: Q= 0 = is an indicator of the sharpness
R 0 CR
im of the resonance, the higher value of Q indicating
I= = 0.707i m sharper peak in the current.
2
8. A circuit containing an inductor L and a capacitor
Similarly, the rms voltage is defined by
C (initially charged) with no ac source and no
m resistors exhibits free oscillations. The charge q of
V= = 0.707m the capacitor satisfies the equation of simple
2
harmonic motion:
We have P = IV = I2 R
d2q 1
+ q=0
3. An ac voltage  = m sin ωt applied to a pure dt 2 LC
inductor L, drives a current in the inductor i = i m sin
(ωt – π/2), where im = m/XL. XL = ωL is called and therefore, the frequency  of free oscillation is
inductive reactance. The current in the inductor 1
0 = . The energy in the system oscillates
lags the voltage by π/2. The average power LC
supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is between the capacitor and the inductor but their
zero. sum or the total energy is constant in time.
4. An ac voltage  = m sin t applied to a capacitor 9. A transformer consists of an iron core on which are
drives a current in the capacitor: i = im sin (t + bound a primary coil of Np turns and a secondary
/2). Here, coil of Ns turns. If the primary coil is connected to
an ac source, the primary and secondary voltages
m 1
im = , XC = is called capacitive reactance. are related by
XC C
N 
Vs =  s
 p
The current through the capacitor is π/2 ahead of V
N
the applied voltage. As in the case of inductor, the  p 
average power supplied to a capacitor over one
and the currents are related by
complete cycle is zero.
 Np 
5. For a series RLC circuit driven by voltage  = m Is   p
sin t, the current is given by i = im sin (t + )  Ns 

m If the secondary coil has a greater number of turns

where i m =
than the primary, the voltage is stepped-up (Vs >
R 2 + (X L ) 2 .

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ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Vp). This type of arrangement is called a step- up
transformer. If the secondary coil has turns less
than the primary, we have a step-down transformer.
10. When a value is given for ac voltage or current, it
is ordinarily the rms value. The voltage across the
terminals of an outlet in your room is normally 240
V. This refers to the rms value of the voltage. The
amplitude of this voltage is
m = 2 = 2(240) = 340V
11. The power rating of an element used in ac circuits
refers to its average power rating.
12. The power consumed in an ac circuit is never
negative.
13. In an ac circuit, while adding voltages across
different elements, one should take care of their
phases properly. For example, if VR and VC are
voltages across R and C, respectively in an RC
161
circuit, then the total voltage across RC
combination is VRC = VR + VC and not VR + VC
2 2
since Vc is /2 out of phase of VR.
14. In a RLC circuit, resonance phenomenon occur
1
when XL = XC or 0 = . For resonance to
LC
occur, the presence of both L and C elements in the
circuit is a must. With only one of these (L or C)
elements, there is no possibility of voltage
cancellation and hence, no resonance is possible.
15. The power factor in a RLC circuit is a measure of
how close the circuit is to expending the maximum
power.
16. A transformer (step-up) changes a low-voltage into
a high-voltage. This does not violate the law of
conservation of energy. The current is reduced by
the same proportion.
Alternating Current & Electromagnetic Waves
162 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Solved Examples
Example - 1 220
Irms = 220 /13.82
A 100 Ω resistor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz ac 13.82
supply. Or Irms = 15.92 A
(a) What is the rms value of current in the circuit? Example - 4
(b) What is the net power consumed over a full A 60 µF capacitor is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz ac
cycle? [NCERT] supply. Determine the rms value of the current in the
Sol. Given: circuit. [NCERT]
R = 100 ohms Sol. Given:
V = 220 V C = 60 microfarads
Frequency (f) = 50 Hz V = 110 volts
(a) We know V
V Frequency(f) = 60 Hz Irms =
I rms = rms Xc
R
1
220 Now, X c =
Substituting the values Irms = = 2.20A (2  3.14  60  60  10?( −6) )
100
(b) Power = V.I Xc = 44.284 ohms
Or Power = 220  2.2 110
Hence, Irms = = 2.488A
Or Power = 484 W 44.284
Example - 2 Example - 5
(a) The peak voltage of an ac supply is 300 V. What Obtain the resonant frequency r of a series LCR
is the rms voltage? circuit with L = 2.0H, C = 32 F and R = 10 . What
(b) The rms value of current in an ac circuit is 10 A. is the Q-value of this circuit? [NCERT]
What is the peak current. [NCERT]
Sol. (a) Peak voltage of the ac supply, V0 = 300 V Sol. L = 2H
V 300 C = 32 F = 32  10-6 F
We know Vrms = 0 = = 212.1V
2 2 R = 10
(b) The rams value of current is given as I = 10 A Resonant frequency
Using above identify for current peak current is 1 1
r = = −3
= 125rad / s
given as: 2  32  10 −6 8  10
I0 = 1.414  Irms Now Q – value = L/R
Or I0 = 1.414  10 = 14.14 A 1 L
Example - 3 Q=
R C
A 44 mH inductor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz ac
1 2
supply. Determine the rms value of the current in the =
circuit. [NCERT] 10 32  10−6
1
Sol. Given : = = 25
L = 44 mH = 44  10-3 HV = 220 V 10  4  10−3
Frequency(f) = 50 Hz Hence, the Q – value is = 25
Angular frequency,  = 2ƒ Example - 6
Inductive reactance, XL = L = 2ƒL A charged 30 µF capacitor is connected to a 27 mH
inductor. What is the angular frequency of free
V
Irms is given by = oscillations of the circuit? [NCERT]
XL
Sol. Given:
Determining inductive reactance C = 30 F = 30  10-6 F
XL = 2  3.14  50  44  10-3  L = 27 mH 27  10-3
XL = 13.82 ohms
Therefore
ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 163

1 1
Angular frequency of free oscillations r =  C1 =
LC (2 800  10 )  200  10−6
3 2

1 = 1.9809  10-10 F = 198pf

27 10−3  30 10−6 1
C2 = 2
1 2 L
= = 1.11103 rad / s
9 10−4 1
Example - 7  C2 =
(2 1200  103 ) 2  200  10−6
A series LCR circuit with R = 20 , L = 1.5 H and
= 0.8804  10-10 F = 88pF
C = 35 F is connected to a variable-frequency 200
Hence, the range of the variable capacitor is from
V ac supply. When the frequency of the supply
88.04 pF to 198.1 Pf.
equals the natural frequency of the circuit, what is
Example - 9
the average power transferred to the circuit in one
Figure shows a series LCR circuit connected to a
complete cycle? [NCERT]
variable frequency 230 V source. L = 5.0 H, C =
Sol. Given:
80F, R = 40 .
R = 20
L = 1.5 H
C = 35 F = 30  10-6F
V = 200 volts
Impedance of the circuit is given by the relation,
Z = R 2 + ( XL − XC )
2

At resonance,
XL = X C (a) Determine the source frequency which drives
Z = R = 20 the circuit in resonance.
V 200 (b) Obtain the impedance of the circuit and the
So I = = = 10A Thus,
Z 20 amplitude of current at the resonating frequency.
The average power transferred t the circuit in one (c) Determine the rms potential drops across the
complete cycle. three elements of the circuit. Show that the
P = I2R potential drop across the LC combination is zero at
Or P = 10  10  20 = 2000 W the resonating frequency. [NCERT]
Example - 8 Sol. Given:
A radio can tune over the frequency range of a V = 230 V
portion of MW broadcast band: (800 kHz to 1200 L=5H
kHz). If its LC circuit has an effective inductance of C = 80 F
200 µH, what must be the range of its variable R = 40 
capacitor? (a) Source frequency at resonance
[Hint: For tuning, the natural frequency i.e., the 1 1
= = = 50 rad/s
frequency of free oscillations of the LC circuit LC 5  80  10 −6
should be equal to the frequency of the radio wave.]
(b) At resonance,
[NCERT]
Impedance, Z = Resistance, R
Sol. The range of frequency (f) of a radio is 800 KHZ to
So Z = R = 40 ohms
1200 kHZ
Now rms value of current,
Effective inductance of circuit L = 200 H = 200 
v
10-6 H I=
z
Capacitance of variable capacitor for f1 is given as :
230
1 Or I =
Ci = 2 Where, 1 = Angular frequency for 40
1 L
Hence I = 5.75 A
capacitor for f1 = 2ƒ1 Amplitude of this value of current = 1.414  I
2  800  103 rad/s
164 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

= 1.414  5.75 (current is maximum)

= 8.13 A Hence, the time lag between maximum voltage
(c) Now taking into consideration the rms potential 
and maximum current is .
drops 
Across Resistance, L 2 50  0.5
VR = IR = 5.75  40 tan  = = = 1.57
R 100
= 230 V
57.5
Across Capacitance,  = 57.5o = rad
180
VC = IXC
57.5
= 1437.5 V t =
180  2  50
Across Inductance,
= 3.19  10 −3 s
VL = IXL
= 5.75  50  5 = 3.2ms
= 1437.5 V Now, phase angular  is given by the relation,
Across LC combination Hence the time lag between maximum voltage and
VLC = I(XL - XC) At resonance, maximum current is 3.2 ms.
XL = X C Example - 11
So, VLC = 0 A 100 µF capacitor in series with a 40 Ω resistance
Hence shown, that potential drop across LC is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz supply.
combination is zero at resonanting frequency (a) What is the maximum current in the circuit?
Example - 10 (b) What is the time lag between the current
A coil of inductance 0.50 H and resistance 100 Ω is maximum and the voltage maximum?
connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz ac supply. [NCERT]
(a) What is the maximum current in the coil? Sol. Capacitance of the capacitor, C = 100 F =
(b) What is the time lag between the voltage 100  10-6 F
maximum and the current maximum? Resistance of the resistor, R = 40
[NCERT] Supply voltage, V = 110 V
Sol. Inductance of the inductor, L = 0.50 H Frequency of oscillations, v = 60 Hz
Resistance of the resistor, R = 100  (b) Angular frequency  = 2v = 2  60 rad/s
Potential of the supply voltage, V = 240 V Cor a RC circuit, we have the relation for
Frequency of the supply, v = 50 Hz 1
(a) Peak voltage is given as : impedance as: Z = R2 +
 C2 2

Vo = 2V = 2  240 = 339.41V Peak Voltage Vo = V 2 = 110 2V

Angular frequency of the supply, Vo
 = 2v = 2  50 = 100  rad/s Maximum current is given as: I o =
Z
Maximum current in the circuit is given as: Vo
Vo =
Io = R2 +
1
R + 2 L2
2
 C22

339.41
= = 1.82A 110 2
=
(100) 2 + (100 ) (0.50) 2
2
1
(40) 2 +
(b) Equation for voltage is given as : V = V0 cos t (120) 2  (10−4 ) 2
Equation for current is given as : I = I0 cos 110 2
(t - ) Where, = = 3.24A
102
 = Phase difference between voltage and 1600 +
(120)
current At time, t = 0. V = V0 (voltage is
maximum). (b) In a capacitor circuit, the voltage lags behind
 the current by a phase angle of . This angle is
For t -  = 0 i.e., at t = , I = I0 given by relation:

ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 165

1 1
The negative sign appears because L <
 tan  = c = L
1
R CR Amplitude of maximum current, |I0| = 11.63A
1 I −11.63
= = 0.6635 I= 0 = = −8.22A
120 10 −4  40 2 2
 = tan −1 (0.6635) = 33.56o (b) Potential difference across the inductor,
33.56 VL =   L
= rad
180 = 8.22  100  80  10-3
 = 206.61 V
Time lag =
 Potential difference across the capacitor,
1
VC =  
33.56 C
= = 1.55 10−3 S = 1.55ms
180 120 1
= 8.22  = 436.3V
Hence, the time lag between maximum current and 100 60 10−6
maximum voltage is 1.55 ms. (c) Average power consumed by the inductor is
Example - 12 zero as actual voltage leads the current by
A circuit containing a 80 mH inductor and a 60 F (d) Average power consumed by the capacitor is
capacitor in series is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz 
supply. The resistance of the circuit is negligible. zero as voltage lags current by
2
(a) Obtain the current amplitude and rms values. (e) The total power absorbed (averaged over one
(b) Obtain the rms values of potential drops across cycle) is zero.
each element. Example - 13
(c) What is the average power transferred to the A power transmission line feeds input power at
inductor? 2300 V to a step- down transformer with its
(d) What is the average power transferred to the primary windings having 4000 turns. What should
capacitor? be the number of turns in the secondary in order to
(e) What is the total average power absorbed by the get output power at 230 V?
circuit? [‘Average’ implies ‘averaged over one [NCERT]
cycle’.] Sol. Input voltage, V1 = 2300
[NCERT] Number of turns in primary coil, n1 = 4000
Sol. Inductance, L = 80 mH = 80  10-3 H Output voltage V2 = 230 V
Capacitance, C = 60 F = 60  10-6 F Number of turns in secondary coil = n2 Voltage is
Supply voltage, V = 230 V V n
Frequency, v = 50 Hz related to the number of turns as: 1 = 1
V2 n 2
Angular frequency,  = 2v = 100 rad/s
2300 4000
Peak voltage, V0 = V 2 = 230 2 V =
230 n2
(a) Maximum current is given as: Hence, rms
4000  230
value of current, n2 = = 400
V0 2300
I0 = Hence, there are 400 turns in the second winding.
 1 
 L − 
  L Example - 14
230 3
= An ideal inductor when connected in a.c. circuit
 −3 1  does not produce heating effect though it reduces the
100 80 10 − −6 
 100  60  10  current in the circuit. Explain why ?
230 2 Sol. An ideal inductor is a coil having some
=
 1000  inductance (L) but no ohmic resistance R.
 8 −  = 11.63A 2
 6  Amount of heat produced in time t = I Rt. As R =
0, therefore, heat produced = 0. However, the
inductor offers inductive
166 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

reactance XL =  L = 2  v L to the a.c. Therefore, the Sol.

current is reduced.
Example - 15
A parallel plate capacitor made of circular plates
each of radius 10.0 cm has a capacitance 200 pE.
The capacitor is connected to a 200 V a.c. supply
–1
with an angular frequency of 200 rad s .
(i) in circuit (a), there will be no effect on the current
flowing. This is because, R is not affected by
frequency.
(ii) In circuit (b), current will decrease as inductive
reactance XL =  L = 2  v L will increases with
increasing frequency.

(a) What is the r.m.s. value of the conduction (iii) In circuit (c), current will increase as capacitative
current? reactance will decrease on increasing the
(b) Is the conduction current equal to displacement frequency.
current? Example - 17
(c) Peak value of displacement current.
An electric lamp which runs at 80-volt d.c. and
Sol. Here, R = 10 cm = 0.1 m; consumes 10 ampere is connected to 100-volt, 50 Hz
–12 –10
a.c. mains. Calculate the inductance of the choke
C = 200 pF = 200 × 10 F = 2 × 10 F; required.
–1 –2
Erms = 200 V;  = 200 rad s ; r = 2.0 × 10 m.
Sol. Here, V = 80 V, I = 10 A
E –10
(a) Irms = rms =  C E rms = 200 × (2 × 10 ) × R=
V 80
= =8
1/ C I 10
–6
200 = 8 × 10 A = 8 A
Ev = 100 V, v = 50 Hz, Iv = I = 10 A, L = ?
(b) Yes, because ID = I
If Z is impedance of lamp and choke coil,
−6
I0 = 2 Irms = 2  8 10 = 11.312 × 10 A
–6
(c) E v 100
then Z = = = 10 
Iv 10
Example - 16

Figure (a), (b), (c) show three alternating circuits As R 2 + X2L = Z2

with equal currents. If frequency of alt. emf be XL2 = Z2 − R 2 = 102 − 82 = 36
increased, what will be the effect on currents in the
three cases? Explain. XL = 6
Now XL = L = 2vL

XL 6 7 –2
L= = = 1.9 × 10 H.
2v 2  22  50

Example - 18

A 15.0 F capacitor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz

source. Find the peak current.
–6
Sol. Here, C = 15.0 F = 15.0 × 10 F,
Ev = 220 V; v = 50 Hz, XC = ?, I0 = ?

1 1 1
XC = = =
C 2vC 2   50 15.0 10−6
22
7
= 212.1 
ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 167

Ev 220 in series and placed across 200 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply.

Iv = = = 1.037 A
X C 212.1 Calculate (i) current in the circuit (ii) phase angle
between current and voltage. Take  = 3.
I0 = 2 I v = 1.414 1.037 A = 1.47 A
Sol. Here, R = 12 , XC = 14 ohm, L = 0.1 H
Example - 19
Ev = 200 V, v = 50 hz, Iv = ?,  = ?
Find the maximum value of current when
XL =  L = 2  v L = 2 × 3 × 50 × 0.1 = 30 ohm.
inductance of two henry is connected to 150 volt, 50
cycle supply. Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C ) = 122 + ( 30 − 14 ) = 20 ohm
2 2

Sol. Here, inductance, L = 2 henry E v 200

Iv = = = 10 A
r.m.s. voltage, Ev = 150 volt Z 20
frequency of A.C. supply, v = 50 c/s. X L − X C 30 − 14
tan  = = = 1.33
 Inductive reactance, R 12
–1
22 4400  = tan (1.33) = 53.06°.
XL =  L = 2  v L = 2 ×  50  2 = ohm
7 7 Example - 22
If E0 is the peak value of the alternating voltage, then
The number of turns in the primary and secondary
maximum value of current (I0) is given by coils of an ideal transformer are 2000 and 50
respectively. The primary coil is connected to a
E0 2 Ev
I0 = = main supply of 120 V and secondary to a night bulb
XL 2  v L
of 0.6 . Calculate
2 Ev 1414 150 (i) Voltage across the secondary,
I0 = = = 03A
2  v L 2  3.14  50  0.9 (ii) Current in the bulb,
Example - 20 (iii) Current in primary coil,
(iv) Power in primary and secondary coils.
A 200 km long telegraph wire has capacity of 0.014
 F/km. If it carries an alternating current of 50 kc/s, Sol. Here, np = 2000; ns = 50;
what should be the value of an inductance required Ep = 120 V; Rs = 0.6 
to be connected in series so that impedance is
minimum. Es = ?, Is = ?, Ip = ?, Pp = ?, Ps = ?
Es n
Sol. Here, Capacity of telegraph wire, (i) As = s
Ep np
–6
C = 0.014 × 200  F = 2.8 × 10 F
ns 50
3
v = 50 k c/s = 50 × 10 c/s, L = ?  Es = E p . = 120  = 3V
np 2000
Impedance is minimum at resonance where
Es 3
1 1 (ii) As Is =  Is = =5A
v= or L = R 0.6
2 LC 4 v C
2 2

Ip Es
1 (iii) As =
L= Is Ep
4   ( 50 103 )  2.8 10−6
22 22 2

7 7 Es 3
 Ip =  Is =  5 = 0.125 A
–6 Ep 120
 L = 0.36 × 10 H
(iv) Power in primary,
Example - 21
Pp = Ep × Ip = 120 × 0.125 = 15 W
A resistor of 12 , a capacitor of reactance 14 ohm
Power in secondary, Ps = Es × Is = 3 × 5 = 15 W
and a pure inductor of inducatance 0.1 H are joined
168 ALTERNATING CURRENT & ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

k = 1.8 rad/m;  = 5.4 × 10 rad/s;

8
Example - 23

Why is the core of a transformer made of a magnetic E0 = 3.1 N/C

2 2  ( 22 / 7 )
material of high permeability ?
= = = 3.492m  3.5m.
Sol. When permeability of magnetic material of k 1.8
transformer core is high, almost whole of magnetic
flux will be linked with the core. Therefore, magnetic  5.4  108
(c) v= = = 85.9  106  86 MHz.
flux linked with the secondary coil will almost be 2 2  ( 22 / 7 )
equal to the amount of magnetic flux linked with the
primary coil. Therefore, energy loss due to leakage of E0 3.1
(d) B0 = = = 1.03 10−8 T  10.3nT.
magnetic flux will be reduced considerably. c 3 108
Example - 24
(e) B = B0 cos (ky + t) = (10.3 nT) cos
Give difference between displacement current and 8
[(1.8 rad/m) y + (5.4 × 10 rad/s) t]
conduction current.

Sol. Conduction current is due to flow of electrons in the

circuit. It exists even if the flow of electrons is at
uniform rate.
Displacement current is due to time varying electric
field. It does not exist under steady condition.

Example - 25

Suppose that the electric field part of an

electromagnetic wave in vacuum is
8
E = 3.1 N/C cos [(1.8 rad/m)y + (5.4 × 10 rad/s) t]
(a) What is the direction of motion ?
(b) What is the wavelength  ?
(c) What is the frequency v ?
(d) What is the amplitude of the magnetic field part
of the wave ?
(e) Write an expression for the magnetic field part of
the wave.

Sol.

(a) From the given equation, it is clear that the

direction of motion of e.m. wave is along negative
y direction i.e. along − ĵ .

(b) Comparing the given equation with the equation

E = E0 cos (ky + t), we have