Alternating Currents

A direct current is one whose magnitude is constant and it flows in one direction round the circuit.

Note :

 Electric current is a scalar quantity as it does not demonstrate vector nature like vector addition or it
does not show any vector components.

An alternating current differs from a direct current.

An alternating current is a current flow where the magnitude of the current is not constant, that is, the
magnitude of current varies as well as the direction of the current flow.

The variation of the current and the change in direction can be illustrated by a sinusoidal graph as shown
below.

The graph below also shows alternating nature of current (rectangular a.c) but, here the magnitude of the
current is constant in both forward (positive direction) and backward (negative direction).

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 In a circuit where the power supply allows an alternating current to flow, the potential difference, V, also
varies in the same manner as the alternating current.

Note:

 Positive (+) current implies that the current is flowing in a given direction while the negative (-)
current means that the current is flowing in the opposite direction.
 A cycle is completed when the current changes from a particular value and back to the same value in
the same direction.
 The time taken for a complete cycle is known as the period, T.
 Frequency, f, of the alternating current (a.c) is the number of cycles per second.
𝟏
E.g: frequency of a.c = 50 Hz. f=
𝐓

 Peak current, I0, is the maximum value of the alternating current.

 An equation for an alternating current is as follows:

𝐈 = 𝐈𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭
𝟐𝝅
𝝎= = 𝟐𝝅𝒇
𝑻

Therefore, I = I0 sin (2πf)

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Root mean square (r.m.s) value

The value of an alternating current (a.c) varies from one step to the next and the problem arises of what value
we should take to measure. The average value over a cycle is zero.

Therefore, the root mean square (r.m.s) value of an alternating current, Ir.m.s, is considered.

What is meant by root mean square value of an alternating current, Ir.m.s?

The root mean square value of an alternating current, Ir.m.s , is the steady current which when flowing
through the same resistor, produces heat at the same rate as the mean rate of heat produced by the alternating
current.

Consider two electric circuits, A and B, each comprising of an identical fixed resistor, R, and identical
connecting wires. The only difference between the two circuits is that circuit A has a battery supplying direct
current (d.c) and circuit B has a power supply, supplying an alternating voltage and therefore an alternating
current (a.c) as well.

Circuit A Circuit B

Calculating the heat energy dissipated by the resistor in circuit A and B respectively.

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑰𝟐𝒅𝒄 𝑹 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒄 𝑹

Energy = = Energy = =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕

If both circuits have same time of operation, t, and the energy dissipated by the resistor, R, in each circuit is
equal, then

Energy dissipated by R in circuit A = Energy dissipated by R in circuit B

𝑰𝟐𝒅𝒄 𝑹 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒄 𝑹
=
𝒕 𝒕

𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 2
𝐼𝑎𝑐

= Square root of the mean value of the square of the

alternating current.

𝑰𝒅𝒄 = Ir.m.s
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 Ir.m.s and I0 are related as shown below.

𝐈𝟎
Ir.m.s = Proof: Ir.m.s = 𝑰𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒘𝒕
𝟐
= I0 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒘𝒕
𝟏
= I0 𝟐
𝑰𝟎
=
𝟐

What is meant by root mean square potential difference, Vr.m.s?

Root mean square potential difference, Vr.m.s, of an alternating potential difference is the value of the steady
(direct) potential difference which when applied across the same resistor, produces heat at the same rate as
the rate of heat produced by the alternating potential difference (p.d).

𝐈𝟎
Vr.m.s = 𝟐

Test yourself
Question 1:
An alternating current of r.m.s value 4.0 A and frequency 50 Hz flows in a circuit comprising a fixed resistor.
What is

(a) The peak current? [5.66 A]

(b) The value of the current 6 x 10-4 s after it changes direction? [1.06 A]
Hint: use I = I0 sin(2πft)

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Question 2:
The variation of current with time is shown graphically, in the diagram below.

(a) What is meant by peak current? Write down the value of the peak current. [5A]

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Calculate the value of Ir.m.s. [3.54 A]

(c) Calculate the frequency of the power supply.[25 Hz]

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(d) What is the change in phase in 15 ms? [ 4 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑]

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 Maximum power and Mean power in a circuit incorporating a fixed resistor

Power generated by a power supply is given by:

Pgen = I E

where I is the current flowing and E is the e.m.f of the supply.

In an electric circuit comprising a fixed resistor, R, the power dissipated is given by:

P = I2 R
where I is the current flowing through the resistor.
Consider an electric circuit comprising a power supply that supplies an alternating voltage, V, and an
alternating current, I.

V = V0 sin wt
I = I0 sin wt

Instantaneous power developed in the circuit at a time, t, is given by:

P=IV
= I0 sin wt . V0 sin wt
= I0 V0 sin2 wt
For maximum power, Pmax = I0 V0 [sin2 wt = 1]

Mean power is given by: Pmean = < I0 V0 sin2 wt >

= I0 V0 < sin2 wt >

I0 V 0 1
= [<sin2wt> = ]
2 2

𝐼0 𝑉0
Pmean = × [ 2 = 2 × 2]
2 2

Pmean = Ir.m.s Vr.m.s

Manipulation of formula:

Given that: Vr.m.s = Ir.m.s R

𝟐
𝑽𝒓.𝒎.𝒔
Pmean = 𝑰𝟐𝒓.𝒎.𝒔 𝑹 or Pmean =
𝑹

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Graphical analysis

Rectifying alternating currents

What is meant by rectification of alternating currents?

Rectification refers to changing an alternating current (a.c) to a direct current (d.c).

For rectification to occur, a rectifier is required. A junction diode acts as a rectifier in a circuit. A junction
diode allows current to flow in one direction.

When the diode is in forward bias, its resistance to current flow is low.

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In reverse bias, the diode has infinite resistance and current flow is almost zero.

Note:

 A potentiometer is used because a junction diode requires low voltage to operate and therefore, the
potentiometer provides required voltage by just moving the jockey along the potentiometer wire. If a
battery is connected directly to the diode, a resistor should also be connected in series with the diode
to protect the diode from excessive current.
 For reverse bias, either the polarity of the battery is reversed or the diode is reversed in the circuit. In
the circuit diagram above the diode has been reversed.

Half-wave rectification
When a alternating power supply is connected to a junction diode, as shown in the diagram below, only
current flowing in a given direction is able to flow through the diode and the output voltage, V, can be
measured across the load (resistor).

From the diagram, you can see that only currents flowing in the forward (positive) direction is able to flow in
the circuit. For the reversed (negative) currents, the output voltage , V, is zero, that is, no current flows in
the circuit at that instant as the diode is reversed biased.

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Full-wave rectification
To rectify an alternating current completely, an arrangement of several diodes is required to form a bridge,
known as a bridge rectifier. The arrangement of the diodes is shown in the circuit diagram below. An
alternating power source, supplying the alternating input voltage, is also connected and the output voltage,
V, is measured across the load.

The variation of the input voltage with time is graphically illustrated below.

Study the diagrams below to see how the current flows in the circuit at two different instant, when flowing in
forward direction and when in the negative direction respectively.

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The current flow through the load (resistor) is always in one direction, irrespective of the polarity of the
power supply. Hence, the current through the load is a direct current. However, the magnitude of the direct
current is unsteady as shown in the graph below.

To convert the unsteady voltage (d.c) to a steady voltage (almost like a battery) across the load, a capacitor,
also known as smoothing capacitor, has to be connected between point B and D, that is, parallel to the load.

The unsteady voltage forms ripples. By introducing the smoothing capacitor, the ripples will be flattened to
almost a horizontal line indicating a steady voltage (d.c).

The flattening of the ripples depends on two factors:

1. The capacitance of the capacitor. The larger the capacitance, the slower (smoother) is the discharge of the
capacitor. Hence, the ripples decrease further.

2. The resistance of the load (resistor). The higher the resistance of the load, the discharge of the capacitor
will be smooth (takes longer time). Hence, the ripples will be flattened further.

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 EVALUATION

1. An electric appliance is shown below. The values on the label are the r.m.s values.

(a) Calculate the r.m.s current that flows in the appliance during its operation.[6.00 A]

(b) Calculate the peak current, I0. [8.49 A]

(c) Calculate the peak voltage. [339 V]

(d) Calculate the peak power, P0. [2 880 W]

(e) Calculate the mean power, Pmean. [1440 W]

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2. A heater operates with an input alternating voltage of 240 V and the r.m.s current of 8.0 A flows in its
circuit.

(a) Calculate the resistance of the heating element in the heater. [30 Ω ]

(b) Calculate the mean power. [1900 W]

(c) Calculate the maximum instantaneous power. [3 800 W]

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