ALTERNATING CURRENT

Introduction
We have considered circuits with dc sources. From a dc source we get direct current
which does not change direction with time. The dc sources usually used are cell, battery and dc
dynamo. Resistor (R) is a basic element in dc circuits. Capacitor (C) is not used in dc circuits
because current can not flow through it. Inductor (L) is not used in dc circuits because current is
steady and resistance offered is negligible.
In the circuit, an ac source is used. From an ac source, we get alternating voltage or current
which changes its magnitude and direction periodically with time. The source of ac voltage (or
alternating voltage) is usually an ac generator or ac dynamo.

Alternating voltage and current :-

The source of alternating voltage or current is an ac generator or ac dynamo. The emf
induced in the coil of ac generator at any instant of time t is  = 0 sin t, where  is called the
instantaneous value of emf, 0 is the maximum value or peak value of emf and  is the angular
velocity of rotation of the coil. If T is the period and v is the frequency of rotation of the coil,
2
= = 2v. Therefore  is also known as angular frequency,
T
 = t is the angle which represents the phase or state of variation of alternating emf.
The potential difference (voltage) across the terminals of the generator is V = V 0 sin t
where V is the instantaneous value and V0 is the maximum or the peak value of this potential
difference (usually called ac voltage). The variation of V during one complete rotation of the coil
(or during a time interval equal to the period T) is called a cycle of alternating voltage. The
number of cycles of alternating voltage produced in one second is equal to v and it is called
frequency of alternating voltage.

Mean value (average value) of alternating current:-

It is equal to the arithmetic mean of the instantaneous currents in a half cycle. (Note that
the average value over one complete cycle is equal to zero).
The mean (or average) value of alternating current over a half cycle is defined as that steady
current which would send the same amount of charge through a circuit to the time of half cycle,
T
(i.e., ) as is sent by the alternating current in the same circuit in the same time.
2
2
Im = I0 = 0.637 I0

2
Thus the mean value of alternating current for half cycle is times or 0.637 times the peak

value of alternating current.
The same result is true for alternating emf and alternating voltage. If 0 is the peak value of
2
alternating emf, the mean value of alternating emf is m = 0 .

2
If V0 is the peak value of alternating voltage, the mean value of alternating voltage is Vm = V0 .


Root mean square value or effective value of alternating current:-

The root mean square value of alternating current is equal to the square root of the mean
of the squares of instantaneous currents.
The root mean square value (rms value) of alternating current is defined as that value of
steady current (dc) which would generate the same amount of heat in a given resistance in a
given time, as is done by the alternating current when passed through the same resistance for the
I
same time. It is also known as effective value or virtual value. Irms = 0 = 0.707 I0
2
Thus, the rms value (or effective value or virtual value) of alternating current is equal to
1
times or 0.707 times its peak value.
√2
The same result is true for alternating emf and alternating voltage.
𝜀
The rms value of alternating emf is rms = 0 Where 0 is the peak value of emf.
√2
𝑉0
The rms value of alternating voltage is Vrms = = 0.707 V0 where V0 is the peak value.
√2
The rms value of the alternating voltage supplied to our homes is 220 volt.

REPRESENTATION OF AC CURRENT AND VOLTAGE BY ROTATING VECTORS -

PHASORS

In order to show phase relationship between voltage and current in an ac circuit, we use the
notion of phasors. The analysis of an ac circuit is facilitated by the use of a phasor diagram. A phasor is
a vector which rotates about the origin with angular speed ω, as shown in Figure. The vertical
components of phasors V and I represent the sinusoidally varying quantities V and I. The magnitudes
of phasors V and I represent the amplitudes or the peak values Vm and Im of these oscillating quantities.
Figure shows the voltage and current phasors and their relationship at time t1 for the case of an ac
source connected to a resistor i.e., corresponding to the circuit shown in Figure. The projection of
voltage and current phasors on vertical axis, i.e., vm sinωt and Im sinωt, respectively represent the value
of voltage and current at that instant. As they rotate with frequency ω, curves in Figure are generated.
Alternating voltage applied to a resistor:-

Consider a circuit of pure resistance R connected to a source which produces alternating

voltage across it terminals (fig).

Let the alternating voltage be given by V = V0 sin t………..(1)

Where V0 is the maximum or peak value (amplitude) of the alternating voltage and  is the its
angular frequency.
If I is the current through the resistance Rat any instant of time t, the potential difference
across the resistance is VR = IR. Since the potential difference across R is equal to the potential
𝑉0
difference across the source, IR = V0 sin t or I = sin t ……………(2)
𝑅
𝑉0
Where I0 = sin t is the maximum or peak value of current.
𝑅
From equation (1) and (2) it is found that V and I reach zero, maximum or minimum value at the
same time. Clearly, the voltage V and current I are in phase with each other as shown in figure.

The phase difference between V and I is zero.

Alternating voltage applied to an inductor:-

Consider a circuit in which an ac source is connected to an inductance L. Usually
inductors have resistance in their windings. It is assumed that the inductor has only self
inductance L and its resistance is negligible.
L

V  V0 sin  t
Let the alternating voltage across the source be V = V0 sint ……(1)
where V0 is the peak value (amplitude) of the alternating voltage and  is the angular frequency.
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼
If is the rate of change of current in the circuit, the emf induced in the inductors is  = -L 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
where the negative sign follows from the Lenz’s law.
Since there is no resistance in the circuit, using Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
we get V+  =0
𝑑𝐼
i.e., V0 sin t -L 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝐼 𝑉0
 L 𝑑𝑡 = V0 sin t or dI = sin t dt.
𝐿
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
Integrating , ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ sin t dt i.e. I = [− ] + constant.
𝐿 𝐿 𝜔
𝑉0 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
 I= [ ]
𝐿 𝜔
𝑉  
or I = 0𝐿 sin (t - ) since (– cos t) = sin (t - )
2 2

 I = I0 sin (t - ) ……….(2)
2
𝑉
Where I0 = 0𝐿 is the peak value of current.
From equations (1) and (2), it is found that the current lags behind the applied voltage by /2
or 90o (or voltage leads current by /2 or 90o ) as shown in figure.

Inductive reactance:-
Inductive reactance is the opposition offered by an inductance to alternating current (or
any varying current) through it. It plays the same role in ac circuit as that played by resistance in
dc circuit. If  is the angular frequency and 𝛾 is the frequency of the alternating voltage applied
across the inductor of self inductance L, then inductive reactance is
XL = L = 2 L The SI unit of inductive reactance is ohm ().
Alternating voltage applied to a capacitor:-
Consider an ideal capacitor connected to an ac source as shown in figure. As the applied
alternating voltage varies sinusoidally, the capacitor is alternately charged and discharged. As a
result, there is alternating current through the circuit. (But, the current does not flow through
the capacitor) C

V  V0 sin  t

Let the alternating voltage across the source be

V = V0 sin t ………(1) where V0 is the peak value (amplitude ) of the
alternating voltage and  is the angular frequency.
Let q be the charge on the capacitor at any instant of time t. Then, potential difference across
𝑞
the capacitor is VC = 𝐶
From Kirchhoff’s loop rule, voltage across the capacitor is equal to the voltage across the source.
𝑞
 = V0 sin t or q = V0 C sin t.
𝐶
The current in the circuit at any instant of time ‘t’ is
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
I = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 (V0 C sin t) = V0 C cos t
𝑉 𝜋
 I = V0 (C) sin (t + /2) = 1/𝜔𝑐
0
sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2 ) (∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋⁄2))
𝑉
or I = I0 sin (t + /2) …………….(2) 0
where I0 = 1/𝜔𝑐 is the peak value of current
1
The quantity is analogues to resistance and it is called capacitive reactance denoted by X C.
𝜔𝑐
From equation (1) & (2) it is found that the current leads the applied voltage by /2 or 90o
(or voltage lags behind the current by /2 or 90o ) as shown in figure.

Capacitive Reactance :-
Capacitive reactance is the effective opposition offered by capacitance to alternating current (or
any varying current) in the circuit.
Xc = 1/ C
Alternating voltage applied to series LCR circuit:-

Consider a series LCR circuit connected to an ac source as shown in figure. Let the alternating
voltage across the source be V = V 0 sin t where V0 is the peak value (amplitude) of the
alternating voltage and  is its angular frequency.

Phasor diagram solution to series LCR circuit:-

Let an alternating voltage V = V0 sin t be applied to a series combination of a pure
inductor L, an ideal capacitor C and a pure resistor R (figure). Since the three elements L, C and R
are in series, the alternating current in each element is the same at any instant of time t, having
same amplitude and phase. Let it be
I = I0 sin (t + 𝜙)
Where I0 is the peak value of current and is the phase difference between voltage across the
source and current in the circuit.
Let 𝐼⃗ be the phasor representing current and 𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑅 , 𝑉𝐿 , 𝑉𝐶 and 𝑉 be the phasors
representing voltage across resistor, inductor, capacitor and the source respectively. If VR , VL
and VC are the peak value of the voltages across R, I and C respectively, the length of the phasor
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 is VR = I0 R, the length of the phasor ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐿 is VL = I0 XL and the length of the phasor 𝑉⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶 is VC =
I0 XC where XL is the inductive reactance and XC is the capacitive reactance. The length of the
⃗⃗ is V0.
phasor 𝑉
 From previous sections, we know that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑉𝐿 is ahead of 𝐼⃗ by /2 and 𝑉
𝑉𝑅 is parallel to 𝐼⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶 is
behind 𝐼⃗ by /2 . Also we have ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉 ⃗⃗
𝐶 = 𝑉
This relation is represented in figure. Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐶 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐿 are always along the same line and
in opposite directions they are combined into a single phasor (𝑉⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶 + 𝑉𝐿 ) whose magnitude is (𝑉𝐶 -
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐿 ) assuming 𝑉⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐶 > 𝑉𝐿 (or XC > XL). The resultant of 𝑉𝑅 and (𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝐿 ) is 𝑉 which is given by the
diagonal of the parallelogram (in this case, rectangle) whose adjacent sides are ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 and (𝑉⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶 + 𝑉𝐿 ).
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA represents VR, OB represents VC, OC represents VL, OD represents |𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶 + 𝑉𝐿 | = VC - VL
assuming VC > VL and OE represents V0. We have
OE2 = OA2 + OD2
𝑉02 = 𝑉𝑅2 + (VC - VL )2 = (I0R)2 + (I0 XC - I0 XL)2
= 𝐼02 [R2 + (XC - XL)2]
or V0 = I0 √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
 I0 = =
√𝑅 +(𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )2
2 𝑍

where Z = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 is called impedance of the ac circuit.

we have,
𝐴𝐸 𝑉𝐶 −𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝑜𝑋𝐶 −𝐼𝑜 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿
tan  = = =
𝑂𝐴 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑜𝑅 𝑅
𝑋 −𝑋
= tan-1( 𝑅 𝐿 )
𝐶

Equation gives the peak value of current and equation gives the phase difference between source
voltage and current in the circuit.
If XC > XL ,  is positive and the circuit is predominately capacitive. Consequently current in
the circuit leads the source voltage.
If XC < XL ,  is negative and the circuit is predominately inductive. Consequently, current in
the circuit lags the source voltage.
The variation of V and I in the circuit with t is shown in figure for the case XC > XL .
Figure shows the phasor diagram.
 𝑉𝑜 𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿
When XC < XL , we get Z = and  = tan-1( ). The peak value of current
√𝑅 +(𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )2
2 𝑅
𝑉𝑜
is Io =
√𝑅2 +(𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )2
Electrical resonance in series LCR Circuit:-
For series LCR circuit driven with alternating voltage of peak value V0 and angular
frequency  the peak value of current is given by
𝑉 𝑉𝑜
Io = 2𝑜  Io =
√𝑅 +(𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )2
2

At low frequencies XC > XL and at high frequencies XL > XC . But at a particular frequency o we
get XC = XL then the above equation becomes

𝑉 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
Io = √𝑅2𝑜 =  Io =
+𝑜 𝑅 𝑅
i.e. the current Io will have a maximum value. This frequency is called resonant frequency. The
phenomenon of impedance of the series LCR circuit becoming minimum and current in the circuit
becoming maximum at a particular frequency of the applied alternating voltage is called
electrical resonance.
At Resonance
XC = XL
1
= = o L
𝜔𝑜 𝐶
1 1
𝜔𝑜2 = 𝐿𝐶  o
√𝐿𝐶
1 1
2o =  o =
√𝐿𝐶 2 √𝐿𝐶

𝑉𝑜
At Resonance the impedance z = R i.e. the current in the circuit is maximum i.e. Imax = i.e. the
𝑅
current is pure resistive.  The phase difference between voltage and current is =0
The variation of current with frequency in series LCR circuit is as shown below.

A series resonant circuit allow maximum current to flow through it at a particular

frequency equal to resonant frequency called acceptor circuit.
Band Width ()
It is the difference between the half power frequency
Pmax

Pmax
P
P 2

1 0 2 

2
At resonant frequency o the power in the circuit is Pmax = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 R
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
at I =
√2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
then P = R  P =
2 2
At half power frequencies 1 & 2 , the power is half of the value at resonance.
Sharpness of Resonance:-
For a given value of L & C the resonant frequency o does not depend on ‘R’. Hence in all
cases current is maximum at the same value of resonant frequency o . But maximum current
Imax decreases with increases in the value of R. For smaller value of ‘R’. The resonance curve is
more sharp. There is a sharp decrease in the values of R, the resonance curve is more sharp. For
larger value of R. The resonance curve is less sharp as shown below.

The sharpness of resonance represents at what rate the current in the circuit decreases on either
side of the resonance. It is indicated by a term called quality factor. Quality factor is the ratio of
resonant frequency to the band width.
𝜔 𝑜
i.e. Q = 2∆𝜔
𝑜
(or) Q = 𝛾
2. − 𝛾1

we can prove that 2 = 𝑅⁄𝐿

𝜔 𝐿
 Q = 𝑅𝑜
Power in AC circuits:-
The expression for average power in LCR circuit is P = Vrms Irms cos
This is called true power. The quantity is called apparent power (or) virtual power.
The term cos is called power factor of the ac circuit. Power factor is defined as the ratio of true
power to the apparent power.
𝑅
cos = 𝑧
Case 1:- If the circuit contains pure resistance then  = 0
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
P = Vrms Irms = = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 R
𝑅
Case 2: If the circuit contains pure inductance then  = 𝜋⁄2 (or) 90o  p = 0
Case 3: If the circuit contains ideal capacitance then  = 𝜋⁄2 (or) 90o  p = 0
Wattless current:-
In an ac circuit, if the voltage and current differ in phase by 𝜋⁄2 then power factor cos  = 0. So
p = 0 i.e. the current consumes no power for maintenance in the circuit, such a current is called
wattles current (or) idle current.
Such a current flows only in purely capacitive (or) in purely inductive circuits.
LC Oscillations
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C connected to an inductor of inductance L through a
key K2. A cell is connected to C through key K1.
When K1 is closed, the capacitor is charged to a potential V. The charge on the capacitor is
q = CV. The energy stored in the capacitor is
1 2 q2
UE = CV = Now key K1 is opened so that the cell is disconnected and the key K 2
2 2C
is closed so that the capacitor is connected to inductor L. The capacitor starts discharging
through L and an induced emf develops in the inductor which opposes the growth of current in L.
When the capacitor is completely discharged, the energy stored in the capacitor appears as
magnetic potential energy around L. (i.e., UB =1/2 LI2).
 As soon as the discharge of the capacitor is complete, the current stops and the magnetic
flux linked with L starts collapsing. Therefore, an induced emf develops in L which starts
recharging the capacitor in the opposite direction. When the capacitor is recharged completely,
the magnetic energy around L reappears in the form of electrostatic potential energy in the
capacitor. This entire process repeats. Thus, energy taken once from the cell and given to the
capacitor keeps on oscillating between L and C. If the resistance of the circuit is zero, there is no
loss of energy and the oscillations produced will be of constant amplitude. Such oscillations are
called undamped oscillations.
1 1
The natural frequency of such oscillations is given by  = or v=
LC 2 LC
Transformer
A transformer is a device used to change alternating voltages to any desired valve. It works on
the principle of mutual induction. In construction, it consists of a closed laminated iron core of
low hysteresis loss. The laminations are insulated from one another to minimize eddy current
losses. Two coils are wound over the limbs of the core. One of the coils is called the primary and
the other secondary. The primary coil is connected to the source of alternating voltage and an
output voltage appears across the terminals of the secondary coil due to mutual induction.
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, current flows through it and the core is
magnetized. The alternating magnetic flux produced by this current links the secondary coil and
induces an emf in it. As a result, an alternating voltage appears across the secondary coil as
output voltage. The output voltage across the secondary coil depends on the input voltage across
the primary coil and ratio of the number of turns in secondary coil to that in the primary coil.

Consider an ideal transformer in which primary coil has negligible resistance and all the
magnetic flux in the core links both primary and secondary. Let  be the magnetic flux in each
turn in the core at time t due to current in the primary when a voltage V P is applied to it.
d
The induced emf in the secondary with NS turns is S = - NS .
dt
d
The alternating magnetic flux  also induces a back emf in the primary and it is p = - Np .
dt
where NP is number of turns in primary. If VP is the applied voltage across primary and VS is the
output voltage across secondary, we have p = Vp and S = Vs (to a good approximation) That is
 d d
VS = - NS and Vp = - NP
dt dt
Vs N
 = s
Vp Np
If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power input is equal
to the power output. Since P = VI, we have VPIP = VSIS
I V N
Thus P = S = S
IS VP NP
If the secondary coil has a greater number of turns than primary coil (N S > NP), the output
voltage across secondary is more than the input voltage across primary (V S > VP). This
type of transformer is called step – up transformer. However, in this case, current in secondary
is less than current in primary. (IS < IP).
If the secondary coil has less turns than primary coil (N S < NP), the output voltage across
secondary is less than the input voltage across primary (VS < VP). This type of transformer is
called step – down transformer. In this case, current in secondary is more than current in
primary. (IS < IP).
The energy losses are due to the following reasons:-
1. Hysteresis loss: The magnetization of the core is repeatedly reversed by the alternating
magnetic field. The energy spent in magnetizing and demagnetizing the core appears as
heat. This energy loss in the core is kept minimum by using a soft ferromagnetic material
as core which has low hysteresis loss (narrow hysteresis loop)
2. Loss due to flux leakage: All the magnetic flux due to the primary may not pass through
the secondary due to poor design of the core. This causes certain amount of energy loss. It
can be minimized by winding the primary and the secondary coils one over the other.
3. Loss due to resistance of the windings: The wire used for the primary and secondary
windings has some resistance. So energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire. This
loss can be minimized using thick wire.
4. Loss due to eddy currents:- The varying magnetic flux due to alternating current
induces eddy currents in the iron core and causes heating. This energy loss is reduced by
having a laminated core.