ALTERNATING

CURRENTS (AC)

UNIT-1
Chapter -7
 Alternating currents (AC)

• ‘Direct Current’ (DC) is a current that does NOT change its direction with time (i.e.,
that always flows in a certain direction). It is a ‘steady DC’ if its magnitude is also
constant w.r.t. time. This is the type of current we deal with when we use cell or
battery.

• However, a type of current that changes in value (magnitude) with time is a ‘varying
current’.

• A current that alternates (i.e., changes/ reverses) its direction of flow with time is
called ‘alternating current’ (AC).

• Varying alternating currents can be in several forms:

 SQUARE AC
Sinusoidal AC

v
v t
t

Traingular AC Saw-Tooth AC

v
v

t t
 AC -Terminologies
Unlike the case of DC, in which current flow and voltage drop need not be associated with
time, we need to have several parameters defined for these in the case of AC.
• Period (T) of AC: It is time-interval after which values of AC repeats (both in
magnitude and in sign)

• Frequency (f) of AC: It is the number of times of the alternations (repetitions) in 1

second

• Angular frequency (  ) of AC: It is a radian measure of angle described in unit

time .It is numerically equal to 2 f

• Peak value of AC (I0): It is the maximum possible value of AC

 While discussing varying AC’s, such as sinusoidal AC, the following quantities are
considered:
• ‘Instantaneous’ value (of ‘current’ or ‘voltage’): value at any particular ‘instant’;
this changes from ‘instant’ to ‘instant’( i or v )
• ‘Peak (or maximum) value’ (of ‘current’ or ‘voltage’): modulus of maximum
possible value (I0 or V0)
• ‘Mean (or average) value’ (of ‘current’ or ‘voltage’): average value of
instantaneous values considered over only one-half cycle ( Imean or Vmean)
• ‘RMS (i.e., root mean square) value’ (of ‘current’ or ‘voltage’): square root of
mean of the squares of instantaneous values over a complete cycle (IRMS or VRMS)
• Phase of AC: Whenever we need to consider two sinusoidal variations, such as
current and voltage variations, a term ‘phase’ ( or more commonly, phase
difference) of angular measure finds significance.
RMS alternating current is equal to the value of the constant
direct current that would produce the same heating effect while flowing in a
resistor in a given interval of time .

For example, 1 A of DC flowing through 1  resistor for 1 second produces 1 J

[H=I2Rt=12 Ax1x1s = 1 J ] of heat. But, a sinusoidal AC of Ipeak  (1 A)=1.414 A flowing through
the same 1  resistor for 1 second, produces the same 1 J of heat . Thus, 1 A is the RMS current
of AC of peak value 1.414 A.

I
peak
I = I =I × 2
RMS 2 peak RMS

V
peak
Similarly,V = V =V × 2
RMS 2 peak RMS
SINUSOIDAL Voltage and current

Voltage v- time t graph

Vpeak V peak
VRMS VRMS   0.707 I peak
2 2
Vmean Current i-time
Vmean = t graph
 V peak  0.637V peak

∆𝒕
T

 2 
Ph.d .       t
T 
 Some inter-relationships:
For sinusoidal alternating voltages:
• v = V0 sin (t +)  equation for the ‘instantaneous value’ of AC at the instant ‘t’
• V0 = Vpeak peak voltage V
VRMS  0  0.707Vo
•  Initial ‘phase’ 2
2
• ω= 2π/T= 2πf angular frequency V =  Vo  0.637Vo
mean

For sinusoidal alternating current:
• i= I0 sin (t +) equation for the ‘instantaneous value’ of AC at the instant ‘t’
• I0 = IPeak Peak current I0
I RMS   0.707 I o
•  Initial ‘phase 2
2
I mean =  I o  0.637 I o

V peak  V0  15 V
Vo
Vrms   0.707 15  10.605 V
2
2
Vmean   Vo  0.637 15  9.555 V

 AC Circuit Elements
• The electrical components that can be used to control currents in AC circuits are
generally referred to as ‘Circuit elements’.

• Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors are the AC circuit elements.

• Each of these affects, but in different ways, the flow of AC in the circuit.

• When time varying alternating voltage is applied to,

(1) RESISTOR: For moderate frequencies, resistor opposes the flow of AC just in the case of
DC. The behavior of a resistor is that of a dissipative element which converts electrical
energy into heat. It is independent of the direction of current flow and frequency
independent.
 …..continued

(2)CAPACITOR: A capacitor opposes the change in voltage (and hence the current)
across its plates. This opposition is frequency (of AC) dependent, decreasing with
increase in frequency.

(3)INDUCTOR: An inductor opposes the change in current, when AC is applied. This

opposition is also frequency dependent, but the opposition increases with
increase in frequency.
 Phasor vector representations of Alternating Voltages and Currents
A ‘phasor vector’ is a ‘rotating radius vector’, rotating anticlockwise in
X-Y plane along a circle about the Z-axis, representing an ‘alternating
voltage’ or ‘alternating current’.

For such a vector:

(1) ‘Radius’ of the circle of certain length (on a
chosen scale) corresponds to the ‘peak- value’ of
the voltage or current phasor vector.
(2) The vector starts its rotation along the +ve X-axis
at time t=0.
(3) ‘Angular frequency’ of the vector is equal to
‘angular frequency’ of the alternating voltage or
current it represents.
4) The angle the radius vector makes with respect to X-
axis at any instant corresponds to its instantaneous
‘phase’ angle.
5) The ‘projection’ of radius vector along the Y-axis at any
instant corresponds to its ‘instantaneous’ value.
6) If both ‘voltage’ and ‘current’ [or ‘voltages across
different component circuit elements’] are represented
with concentric circles in X-Y plane, the angular
difference between the corresponding vectors gives the
‘phase difference’ between them.
 AC applied to a pure resistor
Consider a pure resistor of resistance R connected to sinusoidal voltage supply of
peak voltage V0, frequency f, and angular frequency ω= 2πf.
R

i R = i0 sin (t)

S
v = V0 sin t
The instantaneous voltage at any instant t is given by :
v = V0 sin ωt---------- (1)
The resistor offers opposition to AC and the corresponding instantaneous
current i is given by v V0 sin t V0
i   sin t
R R R
V0
i = I 0 sinωt  (2) where I 0 =
R
Comparing equations (1) and (2), it follows that phase terms (ωt) of voltage and
current are same,
i.e., the current & voltage are in the same phase. Opposition in the form of
resistance is frequency (of AC) independent.

The time response of Voltage and current in Pure Resistor circuit applied with
Sinusoidal AC is shown in the figure:
Voltage and Current wave forms when
sinusoidal AC is applied to ‘pure’
resistor
Phasor Diagram: Phasor vectors (with voltage phasor shown @ t=0 , always
conventionally, along +ve X-axis; corresponding current phasor vector @ t=0
makes an angle  w.r.t. voltage phasor.)

Phase difference  = V –I= ωt - ωt = 0

RMS values of the Current and Voltage:
Voltage and Current wave forms when
sinusoidal AC is applied to ‘pure’
resistor
V I t
I V
 AC applied to a pure Capacitor
Consider a pure capacitor of capacitance C connected to sinusoidal voltage supply
of peak voltage V0, frequency f, and angular frequency ω= 2πf.
C

iC = i0 sin (t+900)

S

 rad  900
v = V0 sin t 2

The instantaneous voltage at any instant t is given by :

v = V0 sin ωt---------- (1)
The Capacitor offers opposition to AC and the corresponding
instantaneous charge q is given by
q = C v = C V0 sin ωt
The corresponding instantaneous current is given by
dq d d
i  CV0 sin t   CV0 sin t 
dt dt dt
V0
 CV0 cos t  cos t
 1 
 
 C 
V0
 I 0 cosωt where I 0 = is the peak value current .
 1 
 
 ωC 
V0 voltage
I0 = is of the form : current= .
 1  resistance
 
 ωC  i  I cosωt
0

i = I 0 sin(900  ωt)  (2)

  1 
 The term   is some sort of opposition to current, and this opposition
 ωC 
offered by capacitor to AC is called 'Capacitive Reactance', and denoted X C .

 1  1
X = =  (3) is ' frequency dependent opposition '.
C  ωC  2πfC

SI unit of capacitive reactance is ohms, the same as that of

resistance.

From equations (1) and (2), it follows that in capacitor applied with AC, ‘the
current leads the voltage’ OR ‘ voltage lags the current’ in phase by 900 = π / 2
radians.
This is to be expected because the current must flow to build up the charge, and
the voltage is proportional to that charge which is built up on the capacitor plates.
Phase relation between the voltage and the current is shown clearly in the time
response - voltage and current graph & in phasor diagram below:

V
I

I
V
 AC applied to a pure INDUCTOR
Consider a pure inductor of inductance L connected to sinusoidal voltage supply
of peak voltage V0 , frequency f, and angular frequency ω= 2π f.

The instantaneous voltage at any instant t is given by

v = V0 sin ωt ---------- (1)
While the voltage is changing with time, the current also changes with
time that in turn changes the flux through the inductor coil. This gives rise
to an induced emf that opposes the changes.
At one stage, the applied voltage and induced emf become equal and the
changes stop.
d d ( Li ) di
The induced emf is given by: e   L
dt dt dt
e  v in equilibrium,
di
vL
dt
using the equation (1),
di
V0 sin t  L
dt
Then the instantaneous value of the current is given by,
V0 sinωt V0  1  V0
i=  dt = -   cos  t   sin( wt  900 ) 
L L   L
sin( t  900 )   cos  t
V0
i  I 0 sin( t  900 )  (2) where I 0  .
L
 V0 voltage
The term I 0 = is of the form current  .
L resistance
 ωL = 2πfL represents some sort of opposition to the flow of AC in the inductor.
This frequency dependent oppisition to flow of AC in the inductor is called
'Inductive Reactance', denoted X L .
Thus X L = ωL = 2πL  (3)

SI unit of inductive reactance is ohms.

From equations (1) and (2), it follows that inductor applied with AC, ‘the
current lags the voltage’ OR ‘voltage leads the current’ in phase by
900 = π / 2 radians.

This is expected to be so because the Lenz' law behavior resists the

buildup of the current, and it takes a finite time for an imposed
voltage to force the buildup of current to its maximum.
Phase relation between the voltage and the current is shown clearly in the
time response - voltage and current graph & in phasor diagram below:
 AC applied to a series LCR circuit
A pure resistor of resistance R, a pure capacitor of capacitance C and a pure inductor of
inductance L are all connected in series to a sinusoidal voltage v =V0 sint of peak
voltage V0, frequency f, and angular frequency .
Expression for Current through the circuit is required.

The circuit elements are in series with the supply. So, the current through each of
the elements is ‘same’ i.e., current has ‘same phase’ and ‘amplitude’. But the
voltages across the elements differ in ‘magnitudes’ and ‘phases’ depending on the
type of opposition they offer:
In a
(i) Pure resistor, voltage and current are in phase.
(ii) Pure capacitor, voltage lags current in phase by 900.
(iii) Pure inductor, voltage leads current in phase by 900.

The instantaneous value of the current i can be calculated if the combined opposition
(Z) for AC is found out. This can be easily done using the phasor addition method.

B )
t 
vC= i  (1/C) (
vL= i  L sin
V0
D =
E v
vL -vC= i  (XL-XC) Z

O i = I0sin(t)
A
v R= i  R
vC= i  (1/C)
C
 B )
t 
vC= i  (1/C) i n(
vL= i  L =
s
V0
D E v
vL -vC= i  (XL-XC) Z

O i = I0sin(t)
A
v R= i  R
vC= i  (1/C)
C

In the figure: OA  vR = iR, OB  vL = iXL and OC = BD  vC = iXC respectively

represent the phasor vectors of voltage drops across resistance, inductive
reactance, and capacitive reactance.
OD = (OB-BD)  vL - vC
By convention, the vR phasor is drawn along +X-axis, vL phasor along + Y-axis

and vC phasor along the – Y-axis. The phasor vector addition yields OE for the
OE 2  OA2  AE 2  OA2  OD2  OA2  (OB  BD)2
v 2  vR2  (vL2  vC2 )
(iZ ) 2  (iR )2  (iX L  iX C )2
Z 2  R 2  ( X L  X C )2
V0 Vrms
Z  R  (X L  XC )
2 2 Z 
I o I rms
and phase  is defined through the relation,
EA (vL  vC ) i ( X L  X C )
tan    
OA vR iR
(X L  XC ) 
  tan 1

 R
Z’ is called ‘impedance’, and it is the ‘combined opposition’ offered by the ‘circuit elements’ in series
with the AC supply.
Just as resistance and reactances, Z is measured in ohms () in SI system.
Voltage and current waveforms as well as phasor diagrams are shown:

Note: v   vR  vL  vC  but v  v   vL vC 

2 2 2
R

Note:
(1) AC-driven series LCR circuit behaves as
(i) ‘resistive’ circuit if XL=XC i.e.,  = 0
(ii) ‘inductive’ circuit if XL>XC
(iii) ‘capacitive’ circuit if XL<XC
(2) Reciprocal of ‘reactance’ is called ‘susceptance’.
(3) Reciprocal of ‘impedance’ is called ‘admittance’.
V & I phasors in V & I phasors in
‘Resistor’ ‘Capacitor’

 =+900
 = 00
V & I phasors in V & I phasors in ‘L_C_R’
‘Inductor’

V

 =- 900 V

I
 Resonant frequency of series LCR circuit applied with AC

XC
XL

X
R

f0
f

The impedance and phase in LCR circuit are functions of R, L, C and f.

For a given value of R, L and C, they depend on f.
While XL increases linearly with increase in f [XL = 2πf L],
XC decreases non linearly with increase in frequency [XC= 1 / (2πf C) ]
as shown in the graph above.
• If the frequency of the AC source applied to series LCR can be varied
(using a signal generator, say), from 0 Hz to a large frequency, then it
may so happen that at a certain frequency f0, the inductive and
capacitive reactances are numerically same [refer to the figure].
• “A frequency at which :
• (1) Inductive and Capacitive reactances are numerically equal,

• (2) impedance is equal to the resistance and

• (3) voltage and current will be in phase

• (4) current in the circuit is maximum

is called ‘Resonant Frequency’”.

• The RLC series circuit is a very important example of a resonant

circuit.
 RESONANT FREQUENCY
At resonant frequency f  f 0 ,
1 1
 L 
X L  X C   2 f 0 L 

C 2 f 0 C
1
Resonant frequency f0 
2 LC

At f  f 0 ,
impedance Z  R 2  ( X L  X C )2
=R
at resonant frequency f  f0 ,
1 1  ( X L  X C )  1
Phase X C   
X L  diffrence L tan   2  f L    0
C  R 0
2 f 0 C

1
Resonant frequency f0 
2 LC

At f  f 0 ,
impedance Z  R 2  ( X L  X C )2
=R
(X L  XC ) 
Phase diffrence   tan 1 
   0
 R 
 Sharpness of resonance

Although values of L and C determine the resonant frequency f0 ,

1
f 
2 LC

the sharpness (quality) of resonance is determined by resistance

(external resistance R + resistance of the source) in the circuit.

The current in the circuit I = V/Z is also a function of frequency and

the graph of I versus f is a bell shaped graph with a maximum at the
resonant frequency (I max= V / Z min= V/R).
The quality (sharpness) is high at low R, as shown in the graph.
Quality factor of resonance (Q) is given by
Imax1 R1
Imax2 Imax1 / √2
Imax2 / √2
i R2 > R1
f0
f1 f2
f

f0 f0
Q 
f ( f 2  f1 )
where f1 and f 2 are lower and higher half - power frequencies,
I max
the frequencies at which current = 0.707 I max
2
1 0 L
Also, numerically, Q =  where ω0 =2πf 0 .
R 0 C R
 Power in AC circuits

•In DC circuits with resistor only, the electrical power which is the rate at which electrical
work is done or energy is consumed, is given by: P= V ×I
•Energy (dissipated) wasted in the form of heat during an interval t at power P, is given by
• H = P × t = V × I × t = I2 × R × t = V2 × t /R
•In AC circuits, where voltage and current keep changing with time, power is defined by

Paverage = VRMS  IRMS  Cos where  is the phase difference between voltage and current.
• Cos  is the ‘Power factor’. It is the ratio of ‘(average) true power’ to ‘virtual power’.
 Power factor
True average power Paverage
Power factor cos   
Apparent power VRMS  I RMS
• With pure resistor in the circuit,  =0; Cos =1; P=V I.
• For pure inductor or capacitor in the AC circuit,
= 90 0; Cos  = 0;
• P = VRMS × IRMS×0 =0.
• Such a current in a pure inductor or pure capacitor is often referred to as
‘wattless current’. Current does not do any work in the circuit. It is simply
absorbed in one-half cycle and given out in the other half cycle.