Outline

1. Alternating Current Through a Resistor

E. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 2. Alternating Currents Through an Inductor
3. Alternating Currents Through a Capacitor
18. Alternating currents
4. R-C and R-L Circuits in Series

AUTHOR LIEW SAU POH 2

EDITOR SHERRY TAN

1

Objectives Objectives
(a) explain the concept of the r.m.s. value of an alternating j) derive an expression for the current from V = V 0 sin t
current, and calculate its value for the sinusoidal case only k) explain the phase difference between the current and voltage for
(b) derive an expression for the current from V = V 0 sin t a pure capacitor
(c) explain the phase difference between the current and voltage l) define the reactance of a pure capacitor
for a pure resistor m) use the formula XC = 1/ C
(d) derive and use the formula for the power in an alternating n) derive and use the formula for the power in an alternating
current circuit which consists only of a pure resistor current circuit which consists only of a pure capacitor
(e) derive an expression for the current from V = V 0 sin t o) define impedance
(f) explain the phase difference between the current and voltage p) use the formula
for a pure inductor q) sketch the phasor diagrams of R-C and R-L circuits
(g) define the reactance of a pure inductor
(h) use the formula XL = L
(i) derive and use the formula for the power in an alternating
current circuit which consists only of a pure inductor
3 4

Introduction Sine Waves

Alternating currents and voltages vary with time by far the most important form of alternating
and periodically change their direction quantity
important properties are shown below

5 6

Instantaneous Value Angular Frequency

shape of the sine wave is defined by the sine frequency f (in hertz) is a measure of the
function number of cycles per second
y = A sin each cycle consists of 2 radians
in a voltage waveform therefore there will be 2 f radians per second this
v = Vp sin is the angular frequency (units are rad/s)
=2f

7 8
Equation of a Sine Wave Example
the angular frequency can be thought of as the Determine the equation of the following voltage
rate at which the angle of the sine wave changes signal.
From diagram:
at any time
Period is 50 ms = 0.05 s
= t Thus f = 1/T =1/0.05 = 20
therefore Hz
Peak voltage is 10V
v = Vp sin t or v = Vp sin 2 ft
Therefore
similarly
v Vp sin2 ft
i = Ip sin t or i = Ip sin 2 ft 10sin2 20t
10sin126t
9 10

If alternating voltage is applied across a resistor,

the voltage and current across the resistor obeys

18.1 Alternating Currents Through

a Resistor V = IR

11 12

Phase Angles Phase Difference

the expressions given above assume the angle of two waveforms of the same frequency may have
the sine wave is zero at t = 0 a constant phase difference
if this is not the case the expression is modified we say that one is phase-shifted with respect to
by adding the angle at t = 0 the other

13 14

Average Value of a Sine Wave Average Value of a Sine Wave

average value over one (or more) cycles is clearly
zero
however, it is often useful to know the average
magnitude of the waveform independent of its
polarity
we can think of this as Vav 1 0Vpsin d
the average value over
Vp
cos 0

of the rectified signal 2Vp

0.637 V p
16
15
r.m.s. Value of a Sine Wave r.m.s. Value of a Sine Wave
While the mean-square voltage is useful, more
the instantaneous power (p) in a resistor is often we use the square root of this quantity,
given by v2 namely the root-mean-square voltage Vrms
p
R where Vrms = v2
therefore the average power is given by
we can also define Irms = i2
[average (or mean)of v ] 2 v2 it is relatively easy to show that
Pav
R R
Vrms 1 V 0.707 Vp Irms 1 I 0.707 I
p
where v 2 is the mean-square voltage 2 p 2 p

17 18

r.m.s. Value of a Sine Wave Form Factor

r.m.s. values are useful because their relationship for any waveform the form factor is defined as
to average power is similar to the corresponding
DC values Form factor r.m.s. value
average value
P V I
av rms rms for a sine wave this gives
2
V
P rms 0.707 V p
av R Form factor 1.11
0.637 V p
2
P I R
av rm s
19 20

Peak Factor Square Waves

for any waveform the peak factor is defined as Frequency, period, peak value and peak-to-
peak value have the same meaning for all
peak value repetitive waveforms
Peak factor
r.m.s. value
for a sine wave this gives

V
p
Peak factor 1.414
0.707 V p

21 22

Phase Angle Average and r.m.s. Values

we can divide the period the average value of a symmetrical waveform is
into 360 or 2 radians its average value over the positive half-cycle
useful in defining phase thus the average value of a symmetrical square
relationship between wave is equal to its peak value
signals V V
av p
in the waveforms shown similarly, since the instantaneous value of a
here, B lags A by 90 square wave is either its peak positive or peak
we could alternatively give negative value, the square of this is the peak
the time delay of one with value squared, and
respect to the other V V
rm s p
23 24
Form Factor and Peak Factor Power in Alternating Current Circuits
from the earlier definitions, for a square wave Power
The instantaneous power (for some frequency, w)
V delivered at time t is given by:
r.m.s. value p
Form factor 1.0
average value V
p
The most useful quantity to consider here is not the
instantaneous power but rather the average power
V delivered in a cycle.
peak value p
Peak factor 1.0
r.m.s.value V
p To eva luate the average on the right, we first expand the
25
sin( t- ) term. 26

Power in Alternating Current Circuits Power in Alternating Current Circuits

Power Power
Expanding, sin t sin( t ) This result is often rewritten in terms of rms values:
(Product of evenand
sin t(sin t cos cos t sin ) odd function = 0) 1 1
+1 rms p Irms I p
Taking the averages, sin tcos t
2 2
sin t cos t 0 0
Generally: 2
1 1 -1 P(t) rms rms I cos
sin2 x sin2 xdx 0
t
2 0
2 +1 sin2 t
Putting it all back togetheragain,
0

P(t ) pI p cos sin 2 t sin sin t cos t Phase depends on the values of L, C, R, and w
1/2 0 -1
0 Therefore...
t

P(t)
1
p I p cos 27
P(t) rms Irms cos 28
2

Power in Alternating Current Circuits Average and r.m.s. Values

Power Let us first consider the general case of a
Power, as well as current, peaks at w = w0. The
current the waveform of which cannot be
sharpness of the resonance
depends on the values of the components. represented by a simple mathematical
Recall: expression. For instance, the waveform shown in
2
rms Fig. below.
Ip m cos P(t) cos2 2
I rms R
R R
We can write this in the following manner (which we
i2 i3 i4
2 2 i1 t
rms x in
P(t) i7 i8 i9
R x2 Q (x 2 1)2
2
Fig.4.4
29 30

Average and r.m.s. Values Average and r.m.s. Values

In a.c. work, however, the average value is of
comparatively little importance. This is due to
the fact that it is the power produced by the
i2 i3 i4
i1 t current that usually matters. Thus, if the current
in represented in Fig.4.4 is passed through a
i7 i8 i9
resistor having resistance R ohms, the heating
Fig.4.4 effect of i1 is (i1)2R, that of i2 is (i2)2R etc., as
shown in Fig. 4.5.
Average value of current For a pure sinusoidal wave, Therefore, the average heating effect in half-
i i i in Iav = 0.637 Im
= Iav = 1 2 3 n cycle is :
Vav = 0.637 Vm
i2 R i2 R i2 R
1 2 n
(I r.m.s. )2 R
31 n 32
Average and r.m.s. Values Average and r.m.s. Values

So, Ir.m.s. = root-mean-square of the current

Heating effect
i12 i22 i23 i2n
r.m.s. value
n
For a pure sinusoidal wave,
(i 3)2 (i8)2
Ir.m.s. = 0.707 Im (i7)2
(i4)2
(i2)2 (i 9)2
Vr.m.s. = 0.707 Vm t
33 34

Average V Value of a Sine Wave Average V Value of a Sine Wave

average value over one (or more) cycles is clearly
zero
however, it is often useful to know the average
magnitude of the waveform independent of its
polarity 1
we can think of this as
Vav 0Vp sin d
the average value over
Vp
cos 0

of the rectified signal 2Vp

0.637 Vp 36
35

r.m.s. Voltage Value of a Sine Wave Average V Value of a Sine Wave

the instantaneous power (p) in a resistor is given by While the mean-square voltage is useful, more
v2 often we use the square root of this quantity,
p namely the root-mean-square voltage Vrms
R
where Vrms =
therefore the average power is given by v2
we can also define Irms = i2
[average(or mean)of v ] 2
v2
Pav it is relatively easy to show that (see text for
R R
1
analysis) V rms
2
V
p
0.707 V p

where v 2 is the mean-square voltage

I r ms 1 Ip 0.707 Ip
2
37 38

Average V Value of a Sine Wave Average V Value of a Sine Wave

r.m.s. values are useful because their relationship Form factor
to average power is similar to the corresponding for any waveform the form factor is defined as
DC values
F or m factor r. m . s . v a lu e
P V I a v e r a g e v a lu e
av rms rms
2
V rms
P for a sine wave this gives
av R
0.707 V
P I
2
R p
F o r m factor 1 . 11
av rms 0.637 V p
39 40
Average V Value of a Sine Wave Square Waves
Peak factor Frequency, period, peak value and peak-to-
for any waveform the peak factor is defined as peak value have the same meaning for all
repetitive waveforms
peak value
Peak factor
r.m.s. value
for a sine wave this gives

Vp
P e a k factor 1 .4 1 4
0.707 V p

41 42

Phase Angle Average and r.m.s. Values

we can divide the period the average value of a symmetrical waveform is
into 360 or 2 radians its average value over the positive half-cycle
useful in defining phase thus the average value of a symmetrical square
relationship between wave is equal to its peak value
signals V V
in the waveforms shown
av p
similarly, since the instantaneous value of a
here, B lags A by 90 square wave is either its peak positive or peak
we could alternatively negative value, the square of this is the peak
give the time delay of one value squared, and
with respect to the other V V
rms p
43 44

Form Factor and Peak Factor Pure Resistor in the AC Circuit

from the earlier definitions, for a square wave

VR
I
V
r.m.s. value p
Form factor 1.0
average value V
p

V I V
peak value p
Peak factor 1.0
r.m.s.value V
p
45 Phasor diagram 46

Vrms Vo
The resistance in a pure resistor is R
The current flows in the resistor is I rms Io
The instantaneous power,
I I 0 sin
2
V The average power,
The voltage across the resistor VR at any instant is P IV I 2R
R 2
VR IR Pave I rmsR
P I o s in t V o sin t
VR I0 R sin I0 R V0 1 2
P I oVo sin 2
t I R
V : Supply voltage 2o
VR V0 sin V
Power (P) 1
VI
The phase difference between V and I is P0 2 oo
1
P
2o
0
In pure resistor, the voltage V is in phase with the 0 1 3 2T
t
T T T
2 2
current I and constant with time.(the current and the
A resistor in ac circuit dissipates energy in the form of hea48t
voltage reach their maximum values at the same time4)7.
 Inductor Circuits
An inductor is a
device that produces a
uniform magnetic
18.2 Alternating currents through an field when a current
inductor passes through it. A
solenoid is an
inductor.
L| = L dI/dt

49 50

Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied across a
Pure inductor means inductor, the voltage reaches its maximum value
that no resistance and VL
I I one quarter of a cycle before the current reaches its
capacitance effect in the
maximum value,( rad )
a.c. circuit. 2
The current flows in the ac circuit is I I 0 sin
When the current flows in the inductor, the back emf
caused by the self induction is produced and given by
V dI
L
B
I dt

B
L d I0 sin
dt
Phasor diagram rad LI 0 cos
2 51
B
52

At each instant the supply voltage V must be equal The phase difference between V and I is
to the back e.m.f B (voltage across the inductor)
but the back e.m.f always oppose the supply voltage V. 2
Hence, the magnitude of V and B , 0
V B IR 2
V B L I0 cos or V B
In pure inductor,
V LI0 sin the voltage V leads the current I by /2 radians or the
2
current I lags behind the voltage V by /2 radians.
V Vo sin The inductive reactance in a pure inductor is
2
Vrms Vo LIo
XL
where Vo LIo I rms I o Io
XL L 2 fL
53 54

The inductive reactance is defined as X L L 2 fL

Example 1
A coil having an inductance of 0.5 H is
The instantaneous power, The average power,
connected to a 120 V, 60 Hz power source. If the
V2 Pave 0
P IV I 2R
R
resistance of the coil is neglected, what is the
Power(P)
P I o sin t Vo cos t P0 effective current through the coil.
1 2
P I oVo sin 2 t
2
1 3 2T
t V rms Vrms
1 0 T 0.64 A
P P sin 2 t T T I r ms
o P0 2 2 XL 2 fL
2
2
For the first half of the cycle where the power is
positive, the inductor is saving the power. For the
second half cycle where the power is negative, the
56
power is returned to the circuit. 55
Example 2
A 240 V supply with a frequency of 50 Hz causes
a current of 3.0 A to flow through an pure
inductor. Calculate the inductance of the
inductor. 18.3 Alternating Currents Through
a Capacitor
V
XL 80
I
XL 2 fL L 0.25 H

57 58

Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit When an alternating voltage is applied across a

Pure capacitor means that no resistance and capacitor, the voltage reaches its maximum value
self-inductance effect in the a.c. circuit. one quarter of a cycle after the current reaches its
maximum value,( rad )
2
I VR I The voltage across the capacitor VC at any instant
rad is equal to the supply voltage V and is given by
2 ) V
V V0 sin( C
2
The charge accumulates on the plates of the
I
capacitor is
Q CVC
Q CV0 sin( )
V 2
dQ
Phasor diagram The current flows in the ac circuit is I
59 dt 60

d In pure capacitor,
I CV0 sin
dt 2 the voltage V lags behind the current I by /2 radians
or the current I leads the voltage V by /2 radians.
d
I CV0 sin The capacitive reactance in a pure capacitor is
dt 2
Vrms Vo Vo
I CV0 cos( XC
) and CV0 I0 Irms Io CVo
or 2
1 1
I I 0 sin XC
C 2 fC
The phase difference between V and I is
The capacitive reactance is defined as
2 1 1
XC
C 2 fC
2 61 62

Example
The instantaneous power, The average power,
An 8.00 F capacitor is connected to the terminals
2
V2 Pave 0 of an AC generator with an rms voltage of 150 V
P IV I R Power (P)
R
P0 and a frequency of 60.0 Hz. Find the capacitive
P I o sin t V o cos t
2 reactance rms current and the peak current
1
P I oVo sin 2 t
2 0 1 3 2T
t in the circuit.
T T T
1 P0 2 2 1 1
P Po sin 2 t Capacitive reactance, Xc 332
2 2 C 2 fC
Rms current, Peak current
For the first half of the cycle where the power is
negative, the power is returned to the circuit. For Irms Vrms
0.452 A Ip 2 Irms
the second half cycle where the power is positive, XC 0.707 0.452 0 . 3 20 A
the capacitor is saving the power. 63 64
 RC in series circuit
R C
VR
I
VR VC
VC : phaseangle
I V
V V s upplyvoltage
18.4 R-C and R-L circuits in Series Phasor diagram
In the circuit diagram: VR and VC represent the
instantaneous voltage across the resistor and
the capacitor.
In the phasor diagram: VR and VC represent the
peak voltage across the resistor and the
65
capacitor. 66

VR VR
Note I R C I
2 2 2 VC VC : phaseangle
Vo V Ro VC o V VR VC V V s upplyvoltage
Vo2 Io R 2
Io X L
2 I
Phasor diagram V Phasor diagram
2 2
Vo Io R Io X L
2 2 The total p.d (supply voltage), V across R and C is
Vo Io R XC ...divide both s ideby 2 equal to the vector sum of VR and VC as shown in
Vrms I rms R 2
XC
2 the phasor diagram.
VR IR V 2 VR2 VC2 1
V I R 2
XC
2 V I R2 2
V2 2 2 C2
VC IX C IR IX C
2
1 1
R 2 V2 I 2 R2 X 2C where X C
V I 2
C2
67 68

VR R
Z
I
V X Z 1
C
XC
C
V 2 fC

Phasor diagram Impedance diagram

R
From the phasor diagrams,
The impedance in RC
circuit, I leads V by f
0
2 1
I R VC XC Graph of Z against f
Vrms 2 2
C tan tan
Z
VR R
Irms I
or
1
Z R2
2
C2 IX C 1
tan tan
IR
69 70

Example RL in series circuit

R L
An alternating current of angular frequency of 1.0
x 104 rad s-1 flows through a 10 k resistor and a VR VL V : phaseangle
VL V supply voltage
0.10 F capacitor which are connected in series. I
I
Calculate the rms voltage across the capacitor if V VR
the rms voltage across the resistor is 20 V. Phasor diagram
XC VC The voltage across the resistor VR and the
From tan and tan
R VR inductor VL are
VR IR
V
XC 1 0.1 C
tan 0.1
R CR
VR VL IX L
VC 20 0.1 2.0 V
71 72
 R L
V Z
VR VL : phaseangle V XL
VL
V supplyvoltage VL
I I
VR I R
VR Impedance diagram
V Phasor diagram
Phasor diagram From the phasor diagrams,
The total p.d (supply voltage), V across R and L is The impedance in RC
equal to the vector sum of VR and VL as shown in circuit, V leads I by
the phasor diagram. VL XL
V I R2 2
L2 tan tan
V 2
VV 2 2
Z rms
VR R
R L
I rms I
or
I R2 2 2
2
V2 IR 2
IX L V L Z R 2 2 2
L IX L
V2 I 2 R2 X L2 tan tan
where X L IR R
73 74

Z RLC in series circuit

L C
R
X L 2 fL
VL VC
VR
I
R V
0 f

Graph of Z against f

75 76

VL
L R C
L R C VL
VL VC
VL VR VC V
VL VR VC VL VC
I I V
VR
VC I
V I
Phasor diagram
VR
V VC
Phasor diagram

The voltage across the inductor VL , resistor VR and

capacitor VC are

VL IX L VR IR VC IX C
77 78

XL
VL
VL
L R C
VL VC XL XC Z
VL VR VC V VL VC
V
I I
VR
I R
VC VR XC
V VC
Phasor diagram
Impedance diagram
The total p.d (supply voltage), V across L, R and C Phasor diagram
From the phasor diagrams,
is equal to the vector sum of VL ,VR and VC as The impedance in RLC
V leads I by
shown in the phasor diagram. circuit,
V 2 VR2 VL VC 2 2 VL VC I X L XC
Vrms I R2 X L
X C tan tan
2 2
Z VR IR
V2 IR 2
IX L IX C V I R2 XL XC I rms I
1
2
2 Z R2 XL XC XL XC
V2 I 2R2 XL XC tan tan
79 R R 80
RLC in series
RLCcircuit
in series circuit Variation of XL and XC
When a circuit contains an inductor and In a series RLC circuit, the
capacitor in series, the reactance of each tend circuit can be capacitive or
to cancel. inductive, depending on the

Reactance
XC>XL XL>XC
frequency.
The total reactance is given by X X X tot L C
At the frequency where
The total impedance is given by Z tot R 2 X 2 tot XC=XL, the circuit is at series
resonance. XC XL
The phase angle is given by tan 1
X tot
R XC=XL
Below the resonant
R L C
frequency, the circuit is
f
predominantly capacitive. Series resonance
VS
Above the resonant
frequency, the circuit is
81 predominantly inductive. 82

Example 1 Example 2
What is the total impedance and phase angle of What is the magnitude of the impedance for the
the series RLC circuit if R= 1.0 k , XL = 2.0 k , circuit? R L C
and XC = 5.0 k ? R L C V
470 330 H 2000
S
pF
VS 1.0 kW XL = XC = f = 100 kHz
2.0 kW 5.0kW

XL 2 fL 2 100 kHz 330 H 207

The total reactance is Xtot X L XC 2.0 k 5.0 k 3.0 k 1 1
XC 796
The total impedance is Z tot
R2 X 2 tot 1.0 k 2
+3.0 k 2
3.16 k 2 fC 2 100 kHz 2000 pF

3.0 k X L XC 207 796 589

The phase angle is tan 1 Xtot tan 1 71.6o
Xt ot
R 1.0 k
2 2
Z= 470 589 753
The circuit is capacitive, so I leads V by 71.6o. 83 84

Impedance of Series RLC Example 3

Depending on the frequency, the circuit can What is the total impedance for the circuit when
appear to be capacitive or inductive. The circuit the frequency is increased to 400 Hz?
in the Example-2 was capacitive because XC > XL R L C

470 W 330 mH 2000

X V f = 400 pF
S kHz

XL XL 2 fL 2 400 kHz 330 H 829

XC 1 1
XC 199
2 fC 2 400 kHz 2000 pF
XL XC
Xt ot XL XC 829 199 630
f The circuit is
2 2
786 now inductive. 86
85 Z= 470 630

Impedance of Series RLC Voltages in Series RLC

The voltages across the RLC components must
By changing the frequency, the circuit in Example-3 is add to the source voltage in accordance with
now inductive because XL>XC
X
KVL. Because of the opposite phase shift due to L
and C, VL and VC effectivelysubtract.
XL Notice that VC is out
XL of phase with VL. VL

XC When they are

XC 0
algebraically added,
f VC

87
This example is inductive. 88
 Exercise
A series RLC circuit has a resistance of 25.0 , a
capacitance of 50.0 F, and an inductance of
0.300 H. If the circuit is driven by a 120 V, 60 Hz
source, calculate
a) The total impedance of the circuit
b) The rms current in the circuit
c) The phase angle between the voltage and the
current.

64.9 , 1.85 A, 67.3o

89 90

Summary
18.1 Alternating currents through a resistor
Power, Prms = Vrms Irms
R.m.s. value, Irms = 0.707I0, Vrms = 0.707V0
18.2 Alternating currents through an inductor
V leads I by /2 radians
I = I0sin t, V = V0cos t, P=1/2 I0Vosin(2 t)
3. Alternating currents through a capacitor
I leads V by /2 radians MORE ABOUT
I = I0cos t, V = V0sin t, P=1/2 I0Vosin(2 t)
4. R-C and R-L circuits in series
Impedance, 91 92

Half-wave Rectifiers Half-wave Rectifiers

Forward biased Reverse biased

Output result

93 94

Half-wave Rectifier Half-wave Rectifier - Example

Note that the frequency stays the same Draw the output signal
Strength of the signal is reduced Vp(out) = Vp(in) 0.7
Vavg = 99.3/
Vavg = Vp(out)/ = 0.318 x Vp(out) [31.8 % of Vp] What happens to the
Vp(out) =Vp(in) VBar frequency?
For Silicon VBar = 0.7V
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
The peak voltage at which the diode
Output:
Vp(out) is reverse biased
Vp(in)
Half-wave In this example PIV = Vp(in)-
Rectifier Vavg Hence, the diode must be rated for
2
PIV = 100 V
95 96
Transformers (Review) Half-wave Rectifier - Example
Transformer: Two inductors coupled together Example:
separated by a dielectric Assume that the input is a sinusoidal signal with
When the input magnetic field is changing voltage
Vp=156 V & T = 2 msec; assume Nsec:Npri = 1:2
is induced on the secondinductor
The dot represents the + (voltage direction) Draw the signal
Applications: Find turns ratio;
Step-up/down Find Vsec;
Isolate sources Find Vout.
Turns ratio (n)
n = Sec. turns / Pri. turns= Nsec/Npri
Vsec = n. Vpri
depending on value of n : step-up or step-down
Center-tapped transformer
n = ½ = 0.5 78-0.7

Voltage on each side isVsec/2 Vsec = n.Vpri = 78 V

97
Vout = Vsec 0.7 = 77.3 V 98

Full-wave Rectifier Full-wave Rectifier Circuit

Note that the frequency is doubled
Vavg = 2Vp(out)/ = 0.637 x Vp(out)
Center-tapped full-wave rectifier
Each half has a voltage = Vsec/2
Only one diode is forward biased at a time
The voltages at different halves are opposite of each
other

99 100

Full-wave Rectifier Circuit Full-wave Rectifier Circuit

Center-tapped full-
Vout = Vsec /2 0.7
wave rectifier
Each half has a Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
voltage = Vsec/2 PIV = (Vsec/2 0.7)- (-Vsec/2) = Vsec 0.7
Only one diode is Vout = Vsec/2 0.7
forward biased at a
time Assuming D2 is
The voltages at reverse-biased
different halves are No current through D2
opposite of each
other
101 102

Full-wave Rectifier - Example Full-wave Rectifier - Multisim

XFrmr can be virtual or real
Assuming a center-tappedtransformer
Find the turns ratio
Use View Grapher to see the details of your results
Find Vsec The wire-color can determine the waveform color
Vsec
Find Vout Make sure the ground is connected to the scope.
Find PIV
Draw the Vsec and Vout
What is the output freq?

n=1:2=0.5
Vsec=n*Vpri=25
Vout = Vsec/2 0.7
PIV = Vsec-0.7=24.3 V 104
103
Bridge Full-wave Rectifier Bridge Full-wave Rectifier - Example
Uses an untapped transformer larger Vsec Assume 12 Vrms secondary voltage for the
Four diodes connected creating a bridge standard 120 Vrms across the primary
When positive voltage Find the turns ratio
D1 and D2 are forward bi ased Find Vp(sec)
When negative voltage Show the signal 120V rms

D3 and D4 are forward bi ased direction when Vin is pos itiv

Find PIV rating e
Two diodes are always in series with the load
Vp(out) = Vp(sec) 1.4V n=Vsec/Vpri = 0.1 10:1
Vp(sec) = (0.707)-1 x Vrms = 1.414(12)=17 V
The negative voltage is inverted
Vp(out) = V(sec) (0.7 + 0.7) = 15.6 V throughD1&D2
The Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) PIV = Vp(out) + 0.7 = 16.3 V Note: Vp-Vbr ; hence, always
PIV=Vp(out)+0.7 105 convert from rms to Vp 106

Bridge Full-wave Rectifier - Comparison Smoothing by capacitors

Filters and Regulators

120
V rm
s

Vp(2)=Peak secondary voltage ; Vp(out) Peak output voltage ; Idc = dc

load current

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Filters and Regulators Filters and Regulators

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Filters and Regulators Filters and Regulators

Too much ripple is bad!

-Ripple voltage depends on voltage variation across the Ripple factor = Vr (pp) / VDC
capacitor Vr(pp) = (1/ fRLC) xVp(unfiltered)
- Large ripple means less effective filter VDC = (1 1/ fRLC) xVp(unfiltered)

peak-to-peak
ripple voltage
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