Chapter1 Alternating Voltages and Currents

Introduction; Generation of and alternating e.m.f and current

Alternating current electrical energy is produced by placing a conductor inside a magnetic field.
An experiment by a scientist named Michael Faraday showed the following important principle:
When a conductor moves across the lines of force of a magnetic field, electrons in the conductor
tend to flow in a certain direction. When the conductor moves across the lines of force in the
opposite direction, electrons in the conductor tend to flow in the opposite direction. This is the
principle of electrical power generation. Most of the electrical energy used today is produced by
using magnetic energy

Principle
Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant angular velocity symmetrically between the
poles of a magnet system as shown in Figure 1.1. An e.m.f. is generated in the coil (from
Faraday’s Laws) which varies in magnitude and reverses its direction at regular intervals. The
reason for this is shown in Figure 1.2. In positions (a), (e) and (i) the conductors of the loop are
effectively moving along the magnetic field, no flux is cut and hence no e.m.f. is induced. In
position (c) maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is induced. In position (g),
maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is again induced. However, using Fleming’s
Right-hand rule, the induced e.m.f. is in the opposite direction to that in position (c) and is thus
shown as E. In positions (b), (d), (f) and (h) some flux is cut and hence some e.m.f. is induced. If
all such positions of the coil are considered, in one revolution of the coil, one cycle of alternating
e.m.f. is produced as shown. This is the principle of operation of the ac generator (i.e. the
alternator).

Figure 1.1

1
 figure1.2

1.1 Waveforms
If values of quantities that vary with time t are plotted to a base of time, the resulting graph is
called a waveform. Some typical waveforms are shown in Figure 1.3 .Waveforms
(a) And (b) are unidirectional waveforms, for, although they vary considerably with
Time, they flow in one direction only (i.e., they do not cross the time axis and become
Negative). Waveforms (c) to (g) are called alternating waveforms since their quantities are
Continually changing in direction (i.e., alternately positive and negative).

A waveform of the type shown in Figure 1.3(g) is called a sine wave. It is the shape of the
waveform of e.m.f produced by an alternator and thus, the mains electricity supply is of
“sinusoidal” form

Figure 1.3
Definitions
Alternating current
Basically an alternating voltage (current) waveform is defined as the voltage (current) that
fluctuates with time periodically, with change in polarity and direction.

Periodic Time (T):

The time taken for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle it is measured in second (S) see figure below.

2
Frequency (f):
It is the number of cycles that a wave completes in one second. Frequency is measured in hertz
(Hz) The standard frequency of the electricity supply in Cameroon is 50 Hz.

The relationship between time period and frequency is given by

1 1
T = Sec or f= Hz
f T

Instantaneous values
Are the values of the alternating quantities at any instant of time?

Peak value or the maximum value or the crest value or the amplitude of the waveform this
is the maximum value of an alternating quantity. During positive half cycle or during negative
half cycle

3
Peak-to-peak value
The peak to peak of an alternating quantity is the value from positive to the negative peak. See
figure below

Average or mean value the average value of an alternating current is that steady
value which transfer across any circuit the same charge for a given period as that
alternating current
2× max . value
For a sine wave, average value = =0.636 × max . value
π

Root mean square value (effective value) of an alternating current is that current which
will produce the same heating effect as an equivalent direct current.

max . value Emax

For a sine wave, rms value =
√2 e.g. Erms = √2 = 0.707× Emax

Peak factor
The peak factor any waveform is defined as the ratio of the peak value of the wave
to the rms value of the wave.
maximum value
Peak factor = rms value
=1.414

Form factor (FF):

The form factor of a waveform is defined as the ratio of rms value to the average value of the
wave.

rms . value 0.707 ×max . value

For a sine wave, F.F = av . value = 0.636 ×max . value =1.11

1-2Addition of Phasors

4
2-Elementary Receptors in A.C
Introduction
In d.c circuits, the current and the voltage flow in one direction all the time. in a.c circuits the
phase relationship between the voltage and the current depends on the nature of the load.
However, all the laws in d.c circuit apply in a.c circuit when the load is purely resistive.

2-1-1 Resistive circuit (R)

The simplest type of ac circuit is a resistive circuit, such as the one shown in Figure 2-22. The purely resistive circuit
offers the same type of opposition to ac as it does to pure dc sources. In dc circuits,
In a pure resistive circuit, the current is in phase with the applied voltage

Voltage (V) = current (I) × Resistance (R)

Voltage ( V )
Current (I) =
Resistance ( R )

Voltage (V )
Resistance (R) =
Current ( I )

Power (P) = Voltage (V) × Current (I)

5
2 -1-2 Reactance: (I) inductive reactance
Inductance in a.c circuit

In alternating current circuit which set up magnetic fields, there is opposition to the current in
addition to that cause by the resistance of the wires. This additional opposition is called inductive
reactance. it is measured in ohms( ) ignoring the resistance of the wires we have

Inductive reactance
U
XL = 2πfL = ωL IL = X
L

Pure inductance is inductance without resistance or capacitance. In a pure inductive

Circuit, the current lags the voltage by 90.

6
Where: f is the frequency of the supply measured in hertz (Hz)
L is the inductance of the coil measured in henry (H)
ω =2πf = angular velocity in radians/second (rad/s)

Examples
1) Suppose a coil has an inductance of 0.500 H, and the frequency of the ac passing through
it is 60.0Hz. What is the inductive reactance?

Solution
Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL
=2π (60) (0.500) = 94.26
XL = 94.26Ώ

2) A coil has an inductance of 40mH and negligible resistance. Calculate its inductive reactance and
the resulting current if connected to (a) a 240V, 50Hz, and (b) a 100V, 1 KHz supply.
Solution

a) Inductive reactance , XL = 2πfL

=2π (50) (40 × 10-3)
=12.57Ώ

b) Inductive reactance ,XL = 2π(1000)(40 × 10-3)

=251.3Ώ
V 100
Current, I = X = 251.3 = 0.398A
L

2-1-3Reactance: (II) Capacitive reactance

7
Capacitance in a.c circuit
When a capacitor is connected to an a.c. supply current is limited by the reactance of the
capacitor (Xc).
Capacitive Reactance (XC) - capacitive reactance is the opposition which capacitance present to
the flow of alternating current. it is measured in ohms(Ώ)
In a pure capacitive circuit, the current leads the applied voltage by 900.
1 1
XC = =
2 πfC ωC
And
U
IC = XC
=2 πfCU =ωCU

Where C is the capacitance of the capacitor measured in microfarads ( )

F is the supply frequency in hertz (Hz)

Examples
1) Calculate the reactance of a 15microfarad capacitor to a 50Hz supply
Solution

8
 1
Inductive reactance, XC =
2 πfC
1
XC =
2 π ( 50 ) ( 15× 10−6 )

= 212.18Ώ
2) A capacitor has a reactance of 40Ώ when operated on a 50Hz supply. Determine the
value of the capacitance

Solution
1 1
Since X c =
2 πfC
, capacitance, C = 2 πf X C
1
= 2 π ( 50 ) ( 40 ) F
= 79.58µF
3) An a.c generator produces an emf of 250Vrms at 50Hz Determine
a) The maximum value of the emf generated
b) The period
c) The average value of the emf generated

Solution
Data: U = 250V; f = 50Hz
UM
a) U = ; UM = √ 2× U= √2 ×250 ; UM =353.6V
√2
1 1
b) T = f ; T = 50 =0.02 S ; T = 0.02s
2U MAX 2× 353.6
c) UAV = ; U AV = =225.1 UAV = 225.1V
π π

4) Calculate the inductive reactance of a choke coil of 0.01H inductance when connected to
a 50Hz supply.

5) A coil of 0.1H is found to have a reactance of 37.68 ohms. Determine the frequency of
the supply

6) An inductor is required which will cause a voltage drop of 200V when the current
through it is 2A at 50Hz. calculate the value of the inductor.

7) A coil of inductance 0.2H and negligible resistance is connected to a 100V, 50Hz supply
calculate
a) The inductive reactance
b) The current through the coil

9
8) A 47microfarad capacitor is supplied from a voltage source and the circuit current is 4A the
frequency of the supply voltage is 60Hz. Find capacitive reactance and the supply voltage

Solution

data

C= 47× 10-6 IC = 4A, F = 60Hz, XC = ? , V=?

1
XC =
2 πfC
1 106
XC = = = 56.43
2 π ( 60 ) ( 47 ×10−6 ) 2 π ( 60 ) × ( 47 )

XC = 56.43Ω

V = IXC

= 4× 56.43 = 225.7V

2-2 Ohm's law in A.C

Impedance:
In a.c circuit the current is limited by the impedance (Z). i general Impedance is define as the
total opposition offered to the flow of an alternating current. It measured in ohms and:
Voltage =Current (amperes) x Impedance (ohms)
V=IxZ

Examples

A. the current through an impedance of 24ohms is 6A. Calculate the voltage drop.
V=IxZ
V = 6 x24
=144V

B. the current in a fluorescent lamp circuit is 1.5A when the voltage is 240V. Determine the
impedance of the circuit.

Solution
V
Impedance, Z= I
240
= 1.5 = 160Ώ
Z = 160Ώ

10
C. An a.c contactor coil has an impedance of 300 ohms. Calculate the current it will take from a
415V supply.

Solution
V
Current, I =Z
415
= 300 =1.38
I = 1.38A

3- Association of elementary receptors

3-1 Resistance and Inductance (R-L) in series

In an a.c circuit containing inductance L and resistance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor
sum of VR and VL, and thus the current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle lying between 00
and 900. As shown in the impedance triangle below.

XL = 2π fL

1) A coil has a resistance of 4Ώ and an inductance of 9.55mH. Calculate (a) the reactance,
(b) the impedance and (c) the current taken from the 240V, 50Hz supply. Determine the
phase angle between supply voltage and current.

Solution
a) Inductive reactance , XL = 2πfL
= 2π (50) (9.55 × 10-3)
= 3Ώ

11
b) Impedance ,Z = √ R2 + X L2 = √ 4 2+ 32 = 5Ώ
V 240
c) Current ,I = Z = 5 =48 A
X XL 3
d) Since tanɸ = RL , ɸ=tan -1 R
=¿tan-1
4
=36.870 lagging
2) A pure inductance of 1.273mH is connected in series with a pure resistance of 30Ώ. If the
frequency of the sinusoidal supply is 5 KHz and the p.d across the 30Ώ resistor is 6V.
Determine the value of the supply voltage across the 1.273mH inductance draw the
phasor diagram.

Solution

Supply voltage, V =IZ

VR 6
Current, I = = =0.20 A
R 30
Inductive reactance XL =2πfL
= 2π (5 × 103) (1.273 × 10-3)
=40Ώ
2 2
Impedance, Z = √ R + X L =√ 302 +402 =50 Ώ
Supply Voltage V= IZ = (0.20) (50) = 10V

Voltage across the 1.273mH inductance, VL = IXL

= (0.20) (40)
= 8V
Phasor diagram

12
3-2 Resistance and capacitance (R-C) in series
In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and resistance R, the applied voltage V is the
phasor sum of VR and VC and thus the current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying
between 0and 90

1
XC = 2 πfC
U
Z =√ R2 + X C2 ; I= Z

Example
1) A resistor of 25Ώ is connected in series with a capacitor of 45µF. calculate (a) the
impedance, and (b) the current taken from a 240V, 50Hz supply.
Solution
R =25Ώ; C = 45µF; V = 240V; f = 45Hz

1
Capacitive reactance XC = 2 πfC
1
= 2 π ( 50 ) ( 45 ×10−6 )
= 70.74Ώ
a) Impedance Z = √ R2 + X C 2= √ (25)2 +(70.74)2
=75.03Ώ

13
 V 240
b) Current I= =
R 75.03
=3.20 A

2) A capacitor C is connected in series with a 40 _ resistor across a supply of frequency 60

Hz. A current of 3 A flows and the circuit impedance is 50 _. Calculate: (a) the value of
capacitance, C, (b) the supply voltage, (c) the phase angle between the supply voltage and
current, (d) the p.d. across the resistor, and (e) the p.d. across the capacitor. Draw the
phasor diagram.

a) Impedance Z = √ R2 + Xc 2
Hence Xc = √ Z 2−R 2=√ 502−40 2=30 Ώ
1 1 1
Xc = 2 πfC hence C= 2 πfXc = 2 π ( 60 )( 30 ) f =88.42 μF
V
b) Since Z = I thenV =IZ =( 3 ) ( 50 )=150 V
Xc 30
( )
c) Phase angle φ = arctan R =arctan 40 =36.87
=36.870 leading
d) P.d across resistor VR =IR = (3)(40) = 120V
e) P.d across capacitor Vc = IXc = (3)(30) = 90V

3-3 Inductance and capacitance (L-C) in series

When inductive reactance XL and capacitive reactance XC is in series, they turn to cancel out as
they are pulling in opposite direction.
If XL = XC then net reactance X =XL - XC = 0

14
Examples
1-A coil of resistance 10 ohms and inductance 0.05H is supply a 24V, 50Hz a.c source. Calculate
the circuit current.

2-A coil of resistance 100 ohms is supplied from a 220V, 50Hz source and the current is 1.6A.
Determine the inductance of the coil.

3-A 2mF capacitor is connected in series with a 5 ohms resistor and supplied from a 12V, 50Hz
source. Determine the circuit current.

15
3-4 Parallel R-L-C Circuit
Introduction

In parallel circuits, such as those shown below, the voltage is common to each branch of the
network and is thus taken as the reference phasor when drawing phasor diagrams

3-4-1 Resistance and Inductance (R-L) in parallel

3-4-2 Resistance and capacitance (R-C) in parallel

1 U U
XC = 2 πfC ; IC = XC ; IR = R

16
3-4-3Inductance and capacitance (L-C) in parallel

When an inductor and a capacitor are connected in parallel their current cancels out. If
XL=XC then IL =IC and I=0

U U
IL = X L; IC = XC ; I = IL –IC = IX (Nett reactive current )

Examples

3-5 Reactance, Inductance and Capacitance (R-L-C) in series

The combined effect of resistance (R) and reactance (X) is called impedance (Z) is
measured in ohms. For a series circuit,

Z2 =R2 + X2

XL =2πfL

17
 1
XC = 2 πfC
U
Z2 =R2 + (XL –XC)2 = R2 +X2 ; Z = √ (R ¿ ¿ 2+ X 2¿ ) ¿ ¿; I= Z

Examples
1-A circuit consist of resistance 20 ohms, inductance 0.2H and capacitance 100micro farad all
connected in series across a 100V, 45Hz supply. Calculate the impedance of the circuit and the
current.
Solution

3-5-1 voltage drop in A.C series circuit

18
Examples
Coil of inductance 0.15H and resistance 10 ohms is wired in series with a 60microfarad
capacitor to a 240V 50Hz supply. Calculate the current which flows and the voltage drop across
the capacitor

L =0.15H
R = 10Ω
C = 60µF = 60 × 10-6 F
V = 240V
F = 50Hz

U
I=
Z
1
Xc =
2 πFC
1
= = 53.04Ω
2 π ( ( 50 ) × ( 60 × 10−6 ) )
XL = 2πfL
2π ×50 ×60 ×10-6 = 0.01Ω
Impedance (Z) = √ R2 + Xc 2

19
 =√ 102 +53.042= √100+2813.24=√ 2913.24
Z = 54Ω

U 240
I= =
Z 54
=4.44 A

Voltage drop at capacitor

U = IXc
= 4.44×53.04 = 235.5V

3-6 Reactance, Inductance and Capacitance (R-L-C) in parallel

U U
IR = ; I L= ; IC =U / X C
R XL
2 2 U
I = I R + ( I L−I C )2 = √I +I X 2 ; I=
R
Z
Example
A circuit is made of resistance 25Ω, inductance 0.02H and capacitance 120µF all connected in
parallel to a 48V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (a) the branch currents (b) the total circuit current, (c)
The circuit impedance, (d) draw the phasor diagram

Solution
Data
R = 25Ω
L = 0.12H
C = 120µF
U = 48V
F =50Hz

U 48
i. I R= ; I R= ; I R=1.92 A
R 25
U U 48
ii. IL ¿ ; I L= ; I L= × 10 ×0.02 ; I L=1.3 A
XL 2 πfC 2π
U U
I C= ; I C=
iii. XC 1 = 2πfcv
2 πfC
Ic = 2π×50×120×10-6 ×48; Ic = 1.81A

20
 Ix =Ic - IL
I = √ I R2 + I X 2=√ 1.922+(1.81−1.3)2 I =1.99 A

U
c) Z ¿
I
48
Z= ; Z =24.16 Ω
1.99

d) Phasor

Example
A coil of resistance 30Ω and inductive reactance 50Ω is connected in parallel with a
capacitor of reactance 35Ω and the combination I is supplied from a 110V, 50Hz supply.
Calculate (a) the impedance of the coil, (b) the current in each branch of the circuit, (c) draw the
phasor.

Solution
Data;
R=30Ω
XL = 50Ω
XC = 35Ω
U =110V
f = 50Hz

Z =√ aR2 + X L 2=√ 302+50 2=√ 900+2500

=√ 3400 Z = 58.31Ω

U 110
I1 = Z ; I 1= 5831 ; I 1=1.89 A

21
 U 110
I C= ; I C= ; I =3.14 A
XC 35 C

Phasor

You have seen how the inductor and the capacitor each
present an opposition to the flow of an AC current, and how the magnitude of this reactance
depends upon the frequency of the applied signal.
When inductors and capacitors are used together, in series or in parallel, a useful phenomenon
called resonance occurs. Resonance is the frequency at which the reactance of the capacitor and
the inductor is equal.

Resonance in series R-L-C circuit

This condition which occurs when the inductive reactance is equal the capacitive reactance,
XL = XC
And XL - XC =0 since XL -XL =0, impedance Z =R
At resonance, the circuit current is maximum I =U/Z =U/R
If the resistance R is small compare with the capacitive and inductive reactances, the potential
differences across the inductive and capacitive reactance will be many times higher than the
supply voltage.
At resonance
UR =IR; UL =IXL; UC = IXC; UL =UC ; UX = UL - UC = 0 ; and U = UR = IR

Voltage magnification at resonance

UL and UC can be many times higher than UR. Therefore the voltage magnification
at resonance

Where Q is the quality factor

Resonance frequency (fr)

This is the frequency at which resonance occurs. At resonance, XL = XC

22
 1 1 1
2πfL= 2 πfC ; 4π2 f2LC =1; f2 = 2
4 π LC
; fr = 2 π √ LC

Examples

Parallel resonance

Resonance also occurs in parallel circuit. At parallel resonance,

XL = XC; IL = IC; IL =IC; IL – IC =0; I =IR

Therefore at parallel resonance, the current is minimum since the only component taking current
from the supply is the resistance. Q-Factor in a parallel circuit, the Q- factor is defined as the
ratio of the capacitor current to the line current

IC
Q- Factor =
I

2 πfL 1 L
It can also be shown that Q-Factor =
R
= R
×
C √
NB. In the series circuit, Q-Factor gives the voltage magnification whereas in the parallel circuit
it gives current magnification. The resonance frequency for parallel circuit is

1
Fr = 2 πfL × (√ CL )−R
Power in A.C. Circuit

Power-in dc circuit power P is calculated by multiplying voltage U by current I

P = UI watt

In a.c. circuits, the power depends on the phase relationship between voltage and current. As
seen earlier if an alternating voltage is applied across a pure capacitor or inductor, the current
and voltage will be 900 out of phase. At some instance, the current will be at its peak.

23
 true power P
Power factor = apparent power = S =cosɸ

Power factor (p.f)

24
Power factor
Improvement
For a particular power supplied, a high power factor reduces the current flowing in a supply
system and therefore reduces the cost of cables, switch-gear, transformers and generators. Supply
authorities use tariffs which encourage electricity consumers to operate at a reasonably high
power factor. Industrial loads such as a.c. motors are essentially inductive
(R–L) and may have a low power factor. One method of improving (or correcting) the power
factor of an inductive load is to connect a static capacitor C in parallel with the load (see Figure
(a). The supply current is reduced from ILR to I, the phasor sum of ILR and IC, and the circuit
power factor improves from cos φ1 to cos φ2 (see Figure (b).

a b

25
Problem 1 A motor has an output of 4.8 kW, an efficiency of 80% and a power factor of 0.625
lagging when operated from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. It is required to improve the power factor to
0.95 lagging by connecting a capacitor in parallel with the motor. Determine
(a) The current taken by the motor,

26
(b) The supply current after power factor correction,
(c) The current taken by the capacitor,
(d) The capacitance of the capacitor, and (e) the kvar rating of the capacitor.

Solution

power input 80 4800

a) Efficiency = power output hence 100 = power input
4800
Power input = 0.8 =6000 W
Hence, 6000 = VIM cosɸ = (240) (IM) (0.625),
Since cosɸ = p.f = 0.625
6000
Thus current taken by motor IM = ( 240 )( 0.625 ) =40 A

The phase angle between IM and V is given by:

ɸ= arccos 0.625 = 51.32= 51190, hence the phasor diagram is as shown in Figure (b).

b) When a capacitor C is connected in parallel with the motor a current IC flows which leads
V by 90. The phasor sum of IM and IC gives the supply current I, and has to be such as to
change the circuit power factor to 0.95 lagging, i.e. a phase angle of arccos 0.95 or
18120 lagging, as shown in Figure (c).

27
 The horizontal component of IM (shown as oa) = IM cos 5119’
= 40 cos 5119’
= 25 A

The horizontal component of I (also given by oa) = I cos 1812’

= 0.95 I
Equating the horizontal components gives: 25 = 0.95 I

25
Hence the supply current after p.f. correction, I= 0.95
=26.32 A

c) The vertical component of IM (shown as ab) = IM sin 5119’

= 40 sin 5119’
= 31.22 A

The vertical component of I (shown as ac) = I sin 18120

= 26.32 sin 1812’
= 8.22 A

The magnitude of the capacitor current IC (shown as bc) is given by

ab - ac, i.e. 31.22- 8.22 = 23 A

V
V
d) Current IC = X = 1 = 2πfCV,
C
2 πfC

IC 23
From which C = =¿ F = 305µF
2 πfV 2 π ( 50 ) (240 )

28
 VI C ( 240 )( 23 )
e) Kvar rating of the capacitor = = =5.5 Kvar
1000 1000

2- A coil of resistance 15Ώ and reactance 25Ώ is connected in series to a 24V, 50Hz supply.
Determine

Solution

Data:
R = 15Ώ
XL =25Ώ
U =24V
F =50Hz
Z = √ (R2 + XL2 ) =√ ¿ ¿) = 29.15Ώ

a) The circuit current

U 24
I= ; I= ; I =0.823 A
Z 29.15

a) The power factor of the coil

R 15
Pf = cosɸ = ; P.f = ; P . f =0.515 lag
Z 29.15

(For inductive loads, p.f lags and for capacitive loads p.f leads.)

b) The copper loss in the coil

Copper loss pj = I2R = 0.8232 ×15; Pj = 10.16W

3)

Solution
Pout = 2.5hp =2.5 ×735.5W = 1838.75W, U = 220V, Pf = 0.8, η =79% =
0.79p.u
a) Input power in watts
P out P 183875
η= ; P¿ = out ; P ¿= ; P=2327.5W
P¿ η 0.79

Apparent power in VA

29
S =UI; P =UIcosφ = s cosφ
P¿ 2327.5
S = cosθ ; S = 0.8 S = 2909.4VA
Reactive power in VAR
S2 =P2 + Q2 Q2 = S2 – P2
2 2
Q = √ S −P Q = √ 2909.42−2327.52 Q = 1745.7VAR

S 29094
S = UI; I = U I = 220 I =13.22 A

5 THREE PHASE AC CURRENT

INTRODUCTION
Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity via the National Grid system is
accomplished by three-phase alternating currents. The voltage induced by a single coil when
rotated in a uniform magnetic field is shown in Figure below and is known as a single-phase
voltage. The standard voltage for a single-phase a.c. supply is 240 V.

Three-phase supply A three-phase supply is generated when three coils are placed 120apart
and the whole rotated in a uniform magnetic field as shown inFigure (a). The result is three
independent supplies of equal voltageswhich are each displaced by 120from each other as
shown inFigure (b).

30
Phase sequence

The phase sequence is an indication of how the three phases attain their peak or maximum value.
In fig (b) above, the phase sequence is 1→2→3. The phasor diagram below the wave shows how
the three phasors differ in phase displacement (1200) and the various positions of the phases at
each instant. The national standard phase sequence is R, Y, and B.

Numbering
The phases may be numbered 1-2-3 or a-b-c or R-Y-B (RED – YELLOW - BLUE) and the
neutral n, N or Black (for system with a neutral wire)

If the three-phase windings shown in Figure (a) above are kept independent then six wires are
needed to connect a supply source (such as a generator) to a load (such as motor). To reduce the
number of wires it is usual to interconnect the three phases. There are two ways in which this can
be done, these being: (a) a star connection, and (b) a delta, or mesh, connection. Sources of
three-phase supplies, i.e. alternators, are usually connected in star, whereas three-phase
transformer windings, motors and other loads may be connected either in star or delta.

5-2-1 star coupling (connection) (3phase 4 wires)

Is shown in Figure below where the three line conductors are each connected to a
load and the outlets from the loads are joined together at N to form what is termed
the neutral point or the star point.

 The voltages, U1N, U2N and U3N are called phase voltages or line to neutral voltages.
Phase voltages are generally denoted by UP

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  The voltages, U12, U23 and U31 are called line voltages

 From Figure above it can be seen that the phase currents (generally denoted by IP) are
equal to their respective line currents I1, I2 and I3, i.e. for a star connection:
IL = Ip

Where IP = the phase current and IL = the line current

For a balanced system: I1 = I2 = I3, UN1= UN2= UN3

U12 = U23= U31, Z1 = Z2= Z3

And the current in the neutral conductor, IN = 0

When a star connected system is balanced, then the neutral conductor is unnecessary and is often
omitted.

The line voltage, U12, shown in Figure (b) above is given by

U12= UN1 – UN2 (UN2 is negative since it is in the opposite direction to U12). In the phasor diagram
of Figure (b) above, phasor
UN2 is reversed (shown by the broken line) and then added phasorially to UN1 (i.e. U12 = UN1.−UN2
/). By measurement, U12 =√ 3UN1, i.e. for a balanced star connection:

UL = √ 3×UP
Therefore for a star connected system IL= IP and UL = √ 3×UP

5-2-2 Delta coupling

A delta (or mesh) connected load is shown in Figure below where the end of one load is
connected to the start of the next load. From Figure below it can be seen that the line voltages
U12, U23 and U31 are the respective phase voltages, i.e. for a delta connection:
UL = Up

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Using Kirchhoff’s current law in Figure above, I1 =IA -IB=IA+ (-IB). From the phasor diagram
shown in Figure below by measurement, I1 = √ 3IA i.e. for a delta connection:

IL = √ 3 I P

5-3 Powers:

The power dissipated in a three-phase load is given by the sum of the power dissipated in each
phase. If a load is balanced then the total power P is given by: P = 3 × power consumed by one
phase.
The power consumed in one phase = Ip2Rp or VpIp cos ɸ (where ɸ is the phase angle between
Up and Ip)
UL
For a star connection, Up = ∧I =I hence
√3 P L

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 VL
P=3 ( √ )I cosɸ = √ U I cosɸ
3
L 3 L L

IL
For a delta connection, UP= UL and IP = hence
√3
IL
P = 3UL (√ ) 3
cosɸ=√ 3 U L I L cosɸ

Hence for either a star or a delta balanced connection the total power P is given by:

P = √ 3U L I L cosɸ watts or P = 3Ip 2Rp watts.

Total volt-amperes, S = √ 3 ULIL volt-amperes

Unbalance load; for an unbalance load system, the total power is;
P =P1 +P2 +P3
Where P1 = UI1cosɸ1 P2 = UI2cosɸ2; and P3 = UI3cosɸ3
When loads are unbalance, I1 ≠ I2 ≠ I3 In star connected system the neutral carriers
the out of balance current IN.

Example
1) Three 12Ώ resistors are connected in star to a 415 V, 3-phase supply. Determine the total
power dissipated by the resistors.

Solution
Power dissipated, P = √ 3ULIL cosɸ or P = 3Ip2Rp

415
Line voltage, UL = 415 V and phase voltage Up = = 240V
√3
(Since the resistors are star-connected)

PU P U
240
Phase current, Ip = Z = R = 12 =20 A
P P

For a star connection IL = Ip =20 A

For a purely resistive load, the power factor = cos ɸ =1

Hence power P = √ 3ULIL cosɸ = √ 3(415) (20) (1) = 14.4KW

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 P = 14.4KW

2) The input power to a 3-phase a.c. motor is measured as 5 kW. If the voltage and current
to the motor are 400 V and 8.6 A respectively, determine the power factor of the system.

3) Three identical coils, each of resistance 10Ώ and inductance 42 mH are connected (a) in
star and (b) in delta to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. Determine the total power
dissipated in each case.

4) A 415 V, 3-phase a.c. motor has a power output of 12.75 kW and operates at a power
factor of 0.77 lagging and with an efficiency of 85%. If the motor is delta-connected,
determine (a) the power input, (b) the line current and (c) the phase current.

5) Three loads, each of resistance 50Ώ are connected in star to a 400 V, 3-phase supply.
Determine (a) the phase voltage,
(b) The phase current and (c) the line current.

5-3-1 Apparent Power (S)

5-3-2 Active Power (P)
5-3-3 Reactive Power (Q)

5-4 Power factor (Cosφ)

5-5 Power factor improvement using capacitors

6 TRANSFORMERS

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