Chapter: The Principles of Operation and Construction of Transformer.

Transformer is considered to be a backbone of a power system.

For generation, transmission and distribution of electric power, AC system is adopted instead of
DC system because voltage level can be changed comfortably by using a transformer. For
economic reasons, high voltages are required for transmission whereas, for safety reasons, low
voltages are required for utilization. Transformer is an essential part of power system. Hence, it
is rightly said that transformer is a backbone of a power system. In this chapter, we shall
discuss the general features and principle of operation of single-phase transformers.
3.0 Definition
A transformer is a static device that transfers AC electrical power from one circuit to the other at
the same frequency but the voltage level is usually changed.
The block diagram of a transformer is shown in Fig. 3.1. When the voltage is raised on the
output side (V2 > V1), the transformer is called a step up transformer, whereas, the transformer
in which the voltages is lowered on the output side (V2 < V1) is called a step down transformer.

Fig. 3.1 Block diagram of a single-phase transformer

3.1 Working Principle

The basic principle of a transformer is electromagnetic induction.
A single-phase transformer consists of two windings placed over a laminated silicon steel core.
The winding having less number of turns is called low-voltage winding and the winding having
more number of turns is called high voltage winding.

Fig. 3.2 (a) Single-phase transformer (core and windings) (b) Flux linking with
primary and secondary

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Also, the winding to which AC supply is connected is called a primary winding and the other one
is called a secondary winding to which load is connected. Once AC supply of voltage V1 is
given to primary winding, an alternating flux is set-up in the magnetic core which links with the
primary and secondary winding. Consequently, self-induced emf E1 and mutually-induced emf
E2 are induced in primary and secondary, respectively. These induced emf’s are developed in
phase opposition to V1 as per Lenz’s law. The self-induced emf in the primary is also called
back emf since it acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage.
Although, there is no electrical connection between primary and secondary winding, still electric
power is transferred from one circuit (primary side) to the other circuit (secondary side). It is all
because of magnetic coupling, i.e., the alternating flux which is set-up in the core linking with
both the windings. The magnitude of induced emf in a coil depends upon rate of change of flux
linkages i.e., e ∝N. since, the rate of change of flux for both the winding is the same, the
magnitude of induced emf in primary and secondary will depend upon their number of turns, i.e.,
primary induced emf E1 ∝ N1 and secondary induced emf E2 ∝ N2. When N2 > N1, the
transformer is called a step-up transformer, on the other hand, when N2< N1 the transformer is
called step-down transformer.

3.2 Transformer equation

When sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, a sinusoidal flux, as
shown in Fig. 3.3.is set up in the iron core which links with primary and secondary winding.

Fig. 3.3 Wave diagram of flux

Let, ϕm = Maximum value of flux in Wb;

f = supply frequency in Hz (or c/s);
N1 = No. of turns in primary;
N2 = No. of turns in secondary.
1
As shown in Fig. 3.3, flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle i.e. second,
2f
ϕ m−(−ϕ m)
Average rate of change of flux = = 4fϕm Wb/s
1/2 f
Now, the rate of change of flux per turn is the average induced emf per turn in volt.

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∴Average emf induced per turn = 4 f ϕm volt
R . M . S value
For a sinusoidal wave, = Form factor =1.11
Average value
∴R.M.S. value of emf induced/turn, E = 1.11 × 4 f ϕm = 4.44 f ϕm volt
Since primary and secondary have N1 and N2 turns, respectively.
∴ R.M.S. value of emf induced in primary,

E1 = (emf induced/turn) × No. of primary turns

= 4·44 N1 f ϕm volt ……………………………………… (1)
Similarly, R.M.S. value of emf induced in secondary,
E2 = 4·44 N2 f ϕm volt ………………………… (2)
We can find the voltage ratio,
E 2 4 · 44 N 2 f ϕm E2 N 2
= or = = K (Transformation ratio)
E 1 4 · 44 N 1 f ϕm E1 N1
N1
Turn ratio: The ratio of primary to secondary turns is called turn ratio, i.e., turn ratio =
N2
Equation (i) and (ii) can be written in the form of maximum flux density Bm using relation,
ϕm = Bm × Ai (where Ai is iron area)
E1 = 4·44 N1 f Bm Ai volt ……………………………………………….... (3)
and E2 = 4·44 N2 f Bm Ai volt ………………………………………………….(4)
3.3 Different Types of Transformer cores and windings
3.3.1 Core Construction
For core construction sheets of alloy steels are used. The main constituents of alloy steel are
silicon and carbon in small quantities which increases the permeability at low flux densities and
reduces the hysteresis loss to large extent. Addition of silicon also reduces the eddy currents to
some extent because it increases the resistivity. In addition to this, these constituents also
increase the mechanical strength of the core.
In order to reduce eddy current loss, the core of the transformer is laminated. Since eddy current
losses are proportional to the square of the thickness of laminations, every effort is made to
reduce their thickness as small as possible. But there is a practical limit beyond which the
thickness of laminations cannot be decreased further on account of mechanical considerations.
This practical limit of thickness of each lamination is 0.3 mm. The laminations are usually made
of 0.33 to 0.5 mm thick. These laminations are insulated from each other by a thin layer of oxide

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coating or varnish.

Small transformers have rectangular section limbs with rectangular coils or square section limbs
with circular coils as shown in Figs. 3.4(a) and (b).

Fig. 3.4 Core and windings

3.3.2 Types of Windings

Transformer windings may be classified into two groups viz. concentric winding and sandwiched
winding. Concentric windings are used in core type transformers as shown in Fig. 3.5(a).
Sandwiched windings are almost exclusively used in shell type transformers as shown in Fig.
3.5(b).

Fig. 3.5 Single-phase transformer (sectional view)

The positioning of the H.V. and L.V. windings with respect to the core is also very important
from the point of view of insulation requirement. The low-voltage winding is placed nearer to the
core in the case of concentric windings and on the outside positions in the case of sandwiched
windings as shown in Figs. 3.5(a) and (b) on account of less and easier insulation facilities.
3.4 Resultant magnetic flux, magnetic inductance, leakage fluxes and inductance
In a transformer, let's say we have:
I1,I2 - currents through the primary and secondary winding
V1,V2 - voltages
N1,N2 - number of turns
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F1,F2 - magnetic fluxes through core, produced by the currents I1 and I2 (they are opposing...)
R - the reluctance of the core
3.5 Transformer Phase diagram on no-load and on-loaded conditions
3.5.1 Transformer on No-load
A transformer is said to be on no-load when its secondary winding is kept open and no-load is
connected across it. As such, no current flows through the secondary i.e., I2 = 0. Hence, the
secondary winding is not causing any effect on the magnetic flux set-up in the core or on the
current drawn by the primary. But the losses cannot be ignored. At no-load, a transformer draws
a small current Io (usually 2 to 10% of the rated value). This current has to supply the iron losses
(hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the core and a very small amount of copper loss in the
primary (the primary copper losses are so small as compared to core losses that they are
generally neglected moreover secondary copper losses are zero as I2 is zero).
Therefore, current Io lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle ⵼0 (called hysteresis angle
of advance) which is less than 90º, as shown in Fig. 2.20(b). The angle of lag depends upon the
losses in the transformer. The no-load current I0 has two components;
(i) One, Iw in phase with the applied voltage V1, called active or working component. It supplies
the iron losses and a small primary copper losses.
(ii) The other, Imag in quadrature with the applied voltage V1, called reactive of magnetizing
component. It produces flux in the core and does not consume any power.

Fig. 3.6 Transformer on no-load

Fig. 3.7 Equivalent circuit

Working component, Iw = IOcosϕ0

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Magnetizing component, Imag= I0 sin ϕ0

No-load current, I0 = √ Iw2 + I mag2

Iw
Primary p.f. at no-load, cosϕ0 =
Io
No-load power input, Po = V1Iocosϕo
V1
Exciting resistance, R0 =
Iw
V1
Exciting reactance, X0 =
Imag
The equivalent circuit of a transformer at no-load is shown in Fig. 3.7. Here, R0 represents the
exciting resistance of the transformer which carries power loss component of no-load current,
i.e., Iw used to meet with the no-load losses in the transformer, whereas X0 represents the exciting
reactance of the transformer which carries wattless component of no-load current, i.e., Imag used
to set-up magnetic field in the core.
3.5.2 Transformer on-loaded condition

(Neglecting winding resistance and leakage flux)

When a certain load is connected across the secondary, a current I2 flows through it as shown in
Fig. 3.8. The magnitude of current I2 depends upon terminal voltage V2 and impedance of the
load. The phase angle of secondary current I2 with respect to V2 depends upon the nature of load
i.e., whether the load is resistive, inductive or capacitive.

Fig. 3.8 (i) Circuit diagram for loaded transformer

The operation of the transformer on load is explained below with the help of number of
diagrams;
(i) When the transformer is on no-load as shown in Fig. 3.8 (ii) (a) it draws no-load current I0
from the supply mains. The no-load current I0 produces an mmf N1 I0 which sets up flux in the
core.

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 (ii) When the transformer is loaded, current I2 flows in the secondary winding. This secondary
current I2 produces an mmf N2 I2 which sets up flux ϕ2 in the core. As per Lenz’s law this flux
opposes the main flux ϕ as shown in Fig. 3.8 (ii)(b).
(iii) As ϕ2 is set-up in opposite direction to the main flux, the resultant flux tends to decrease and
causes the reduction of self-induced emf E1 momentarily. Thus, V1 predominates over E1 causing
additional primary current I1’ drawn from the supply mains. The amount of this additional
current I1’ is such that the original conditions i.e., flux in the core must be restored, so that V1 =
E2. The current I1 is in phase opposition with I2 and is called primary counter balancing current.
This additional current I1’ produces an mmf N1 I1’ which sets up flux ϕ’, in the same direction as
that of ϕ as shown in Fig. 2.27(ii)(c), and cancels the flux ϕ2 set up by mmf N2 I2.

Fig. 3.8 (ii) Transformer action when load is applied to it.

Now N1 I1’ = N2 I2 (ampere-turns balance)

N2
∴ I1’ = I2 = K I 2
N1
(iv) Thus, the flux is restored to its original value as shown in Fig. 3.8 (ii)(d). The total primary
current I1 is the vector sum of current I0 and I’, i.e., I1 = I0+ I1’.
This shows that flux in the core of a transformer remains the same from no-load to full-load; this
is the reason why iron losses in a transformer remain the same from no-load to full-load

3.5.2.1 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Transformer

(Neglecting voltage drops in the windings; ampere-turns balance)
Since the voltage drops in both the windings of the transformer are neglected, therefore,
V1 = E1 and E2 = V2
While drawing the phasor diagram the following important points are to be considered.
(i) For simplicity, let the transformation ratio K = l be considered, therefore, E1 = E2.

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 (ii) The secondary current I2 is in phase, lags behind and leads the secondary terminal voltage V2
by an angle ϕ2 for resistive, inductive and capacitive load, respectively.
N2
(iii) The counter balancing current I1’ = I
N1 2
(i.e., I1’= K I2 here K = 1 ∴ I1’= I2) and is 180º out of phase with I2.

Fig. 3.9 Phasor diagram on-load (neglecting winding resistance and leakage reactance)
(iv) The total primary current I1 is the vector sum of no-load primary current I0 and counter
balancing current I1’

i.e., I´1=⃗ I 1 ' or I´1=√ (I 0)2 +( I 1' )2 +2 I 0 I 1 ' cosϕ

I 0 +⃗

Where ϕ is the phase angle between I0 and I1’.

(v) The p.f. on the primary side is cosϕ1 which is less than the load p.f. cosϕ2 on the secondary
side. Its value is determined by the relation;

I 0 cosϕ 0+ I 1' cosϕ 2

cosϕ1=
I1
The phasor diagrams of the transformer for resistance, inductive and capacitive loads are shown
in Figs. 3.9 (a), (b) and (c), respectively.

3.6 Transformer equivalent Circuit

3.7 Determination of Transformer circuit parameters
3.8 Transformer efficiency and voltage regulation
3.9

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