Unit 3 Transformer

UNIT 3 Single-Phase Transformer

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:

Fig. 1 Transformer Construction

A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power
in one circuit is transformed in to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It
can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in
current.
The physical basis of transformer is mutual induction between two circuit linked by a
common magnetic flux. In this simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are
electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as shown in
fig. (1). The two coils possess high mutual inductance.
If one coil connected to source of alternating voltage an alternating flux is setup in the
laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually
𝑑𝑖
induced emf (according to faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction 𝑒 = 𝑀 ).
𝑑𝑡

If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flow in it and so electric energy is transferred
(entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil, the first coil in which electric
energy is fed from the a.c. mains supply is called primary winding and the other from which
energy is drawn out is called secondary winding.
In brief a transformer is a device that.
(1) Transfers electric power from one circuit to other.
(2) It does so without a change of frequency.
(3) It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
(4) Where the two electric circuits are in mutual indicative influence of each other.

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 Unit 3 Transformer
IDEAL TRANSFORMER:
Definition: - The transformer which is free from all types of losses is known as an ideal
transformer. It is an imaginary transformer which has no core loss, no ohmic resistance and
no leakage flux. The ideal transformer has the following important characteristic.
1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes zero.
2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The infinite permeable means
less magnetising current requires for magnetising their core.
3. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of the flux induces in the
core of the transformer links with their primary and secondary winding.
4. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the transformer is free from
hysteresis and eddy current loss.
The above mention properties are not possible in the practical transformer. In an ideal
transformer, there is no power loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input
power.
Elementary theory of Ideal Transformer: -

Fig 2 (a) Ideal Transformer under no load condition (b) Waveforms (c) Phasor Diagram
An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e. its winding has no ohmic resistance there
is no magnetic leakage & hence which has no I2R and core losses. In other words, an ideal
transformer consists of two purely inductive coils wound on a loss free core.
Consider an ideal transformer fig.2 (a). Whose secondary is open & whose primary is
connected to sinusoidal alternating voltage V1, this potential difference causes an alternating
current to flow in the primary. Since the primary coil is purely inductive and there is no output
(secondary being open). The primary draws the magnetizing current I μ only. The function of
this current is merely to magnetize the core; it is small in magnitude and lags V 1 by 900. This
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 Unit 3 Transformer
alternating current Iμ at an alternating flux Φ which at all times proportional to the current.
(Assuming permeability of the magnetic circuit to be constant) and hence, is in phase with it.
This changing flux is linked both with the primary and the secondary windings. Therefore, it
produces self-induced emf in the primary. This self-induced emf E1 is, at every instant, is equal
to and in opposition to V1. It is also known as counter emf or back emf of the primary.
Similarly, there is produced in the secondary an induced emf E2 which is known as mutually
induced emf, this emf is anti-phase with V1 and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of
change of flux and the number of secondary turns.
The instantaneous values of applied voltage, induced emfs, flux and magnetizing current are
shown by sinusoidal waves in fig. 2(b). Fig.2(c) shows the vectorial representation of the
effective values of the above quantities.
Emf Equation of Transformer: -

Fig 3
N1 = No. of turns in primary,
N2 = No. of turns in secondary,
Φm = Maximum flux in core = Bm  A, and
f = frequency of a.c. input in Hz
As shown in fig. (3) Flux increase from its zero value to maximum value Ф m in one quarts of

the cycle i.e. in  1 4 f  second.

 
 
 m 
So average rate of change of flux =  
 14 f 
 
= 4f Фm web per sec. Or Volts

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 Unit 3 Transformer
Now rate of change of flux turns means induced emf in volts.

So average emf per flux = 4f Фm Volts.

If flux Ф varies sinusoidal the rms value of induced emf is obtained by multiplying the average
value with form factor.
rms _ value
Form factor = = 1.11 (for sine wave)
average_ value

 rms value of emf turns = 1.11  4f Фm volts

Now rms value of the induced emf in the whole of primary winding
E1 = (induced emf per turns)  no. of primary turns
 E1 = 4.44 fN1Фm = 4.44 fN1Bm A ------------------ (1)
Similarly, rms value of the emf induced in secondary is,
E2 = 4.44 fN2Фm = 4.44 fN2Bm A ------------------ (2)

From equation (1) & (2) that  E1 N    E 2 N  = 4.44f Фm

 1   2 

It means that emf turns is the same in both the primary and secondary winding.

In ideal transformer on no load V1 = E1 & E2 = V2 where V2 is the terminal voltage fig. (4).

Fig 4
Voltage Transformation Ratio (k): -

From equation (1) & (2) we get  E 2 E    N 2 N  = k

 1   1 

This constant k is shown as voltage transformation ratio

(1) If N2 > N1, i.e k>1 than transformer is called step up transformer.
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 Unit 3 Transformer
(2) If N1 > N2, i.e k<1 than transformer is called step down transformer.
Input VA = output VA

V1I1 = V2I2 or from equation (1) & (2) that  I 2 I   V1 V  

1
 1   2  k

Hence current are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformer ratio.
Ideal Transformer versus Practical Transformer:
Parameter Ideal Transformer Practical Transformer
Losses No Losses Has I2R loss and Iron Loss.
Ohmic Because primary and secondary Because primary and secondary
Resistance resistance is zero, therefore ohmic resistance is non-zero, therefore
voltage drop is zero. ohmic voltage drop is non-zero.
Permeability μ is infinite, therefore very less μ is finite, therefore significant
current is required to magnetize the current is required to magnetize the
core. core.
Leakage Flux Zero Non-zero
Efficiency 100% Less than 100%

LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER:
The different losses in the transformer are as follows

Copper Losses (Winding Resistance): -

Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher
frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.

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 Unit 3 Transformer
2
Primary Copper Loss = I1 R1 watt
Secondary Copper Loss = I22R2 watt
Total Copper Loss, Wcu = (I12R1 + I22R2) watt

Core or Iron Losses: -

There are two types of core or iron losses in a Transformer.
a) Hysteresis Losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis
within the core. For a given core material, the transformer losses are proportional to the
frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.
We can find Hysteresis losses by this formula.
Wh = η B1.6max fV watt
Where, Wh = hysteresis loss (watt)
η = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient, depending on material (J/m3)
η = Steinmetz exponent, ranges from 1.5 to 2.5, depending on material
Bmax = maximum flux density (Wb/m2, T)
f = frequency of magnetic reversals per second (Hz)
V = volume of magnetic material (m3)
b) Eddy Current Losses
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core made from such a material also
constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore
circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating
of the core material.
The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and square of
the material thickness. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of
plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers
operating at low frequencies using laminated or similar cores.
We can find Eddy currents losses by this formula.
We = K B2max f2 t2 watt
Where, We = eddy current loss (watt)

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 Unit 3 Transformer
K = eddy current constant
Bmax = flux density (Wb/m2, T)
f = frequency of magnetic reversals per second (Hz)
t = material thickness (m)
Stray losses (leakage Flux)
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is
returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts
nearby conductive materials such as the transformer’s support structure will give rise to eddy
currents and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating
magnetic field, but these are usually small and negligible.
Dielectric Loss
In the solid insulation or transformer oil i.e. insulation material of the transformer, dielectric
loss occurs when the solid insulation gets damaged or the oil gets deteriorated or its quality
decreases over the time. Hence, the overall efficiency of transformer may be affected due to
this loss.

TRANSFORMER ON NO –LOAD WITH LOSSES:

Fig. 5 (a) Transformer on no-load (b) Phasor diagram of transformer on no-load with losses
Even when the transformer is on no load the primary input is not wholly reactive. The primary
input under no load conditions has to supply.
(1) Iron losses in the core i.e. hysteresis loss and eddy current loss and
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 Unit 3 Transformer
(2) A very small amount of copper loss in primary (there being no cu loss and it is open).
Hence the no load primary input current Io is not at 900 behind V1 but lags it by angle
Фo<900. No load input power Wo = V1 I 0 Cos Фo
Where cos Фo is primary power factor under no load condition. No load condition of an actual
transformer is shown vectorially in fig. (5). Form fig. (5) Primary current I 0 has two
components.
(1) One in phase with V1 this is known as active or working or iron loss plus small quantity
of primary cu loss. Ic =I0 cos Фo.
(2) The other component is in quadrature with V1 and is known as magnetizing component
Im because its function is to sustain the alternating flux in the core. It is wattles.
Im = I0 sin Фo. Obviously I0 is the vector sum of Ic and Im Hence I02 = (Ic2 +Im2).
Note: -
(1) The no load primary current I0 is very small as compared to the full load primary current.
It is about 1% of the full load current.
(2) As I0 is very small the no load primary cu loss in negligible small which means that no
load primary input is practically the iron loss in transformers.
(3) As it is principally the core loss which is responsible for shift in the current vector angle
Фo is known as hysteresis angle of advance.

TRANSFORMER ON LOAD WITH LOSSES:

Fig. 6 (a) Ideal Transformer on Load

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 Unit 3 Transformer

Fig. 6 (b) Main Flux and Leakage Flux in Transformer

When the secondary is loaded, the secondary current I2 is setup. The magnitude and phase of
I2 w.r.t. V2 is determined by the characteristics of the load current I2 and is in phase with V2 if
load is resistive, it lags if load is inductive and it leads of load is capacitive.
The secondary current sets up its own mmf (= N2I2) and hence its own flux Φ2 which is in
opposition to the main primary flux Φ which is due to I 0. The secondary ampere turns are
known as demagnetizing ampere turns. The opposing secondary flux Φ 2 weakens the primary
flux Φ momentarily, hence primary back emf E1 tends to be reduced. For a moment V1 gains
the upper hand over E1 and hence causes more currents to flow in primary.
Let the additional primary current be I2’. It is known as load component of primary current.
This current is anti-phase with I2. The additional primary mmf N1I2’ sets up its own flux Φ2’
which is in opposition to Φ2 (but is in the same direction as Φ) and is equal to it in magnitude.
Hence, the two cancel each other out. So we find that the magnetic effects of secondary current
I2 is immediately neutralized by the additional primary current I2’ which is brought into a
distance exactly at the same instant as I2. The whole process is illustrated in fig.6.
Hence, whatever the load conditions the net flux passing through the core is approximately the
same as at no load. An important conclusion is that due to the consistency of core flux at all
loads, the core loss is also practically the same under all load conditions as Φ2 = Φ2’
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 Unit 3 Transformer
N2
Therefore, N2 × I2 = N1 × I2’ Or I2’ = I 2 = kI2
N1

Hence, when transformer is on load, the primary winding has two currents in it; one is I 0 and
the other is I2’ which is anti-phase with I2 and k times in magnitude. The total primary current
is the vector sum of I0 & I2’.

Transformer with winding resistance but no magnetic leakage: -

An ideal transformer was supposed to possess no resistance but in an actual transformer, there
is always present some resistance of the primary and secondary windings. Due to this
resistance, there is some voltage drop in the winding. The result is that:
(1) The secondary terminal voltage V2 is vectorially less than the secondary induced emf E2
by an amount I2R2 where R2 is the resistance of secondary winding. Hence, V2 is equal to
vector difference of E2 and resistive voltage drop I2R2.
So V2 = E2 – I2R2 vector difference
(2) Similarly, primary induced emf E1 is equal to the vector difference of V1 and I1R1 where
R1 is the resistance of primary winding.
E1 = V1 – I1R1 -------------------- vector difference.
Equivalent Resistance: -

Fig 9
In fig. (9) is shown a transformer whose primary and secondary have resistance of R 1 and R2
respectively to the winding.
It would now be shown that the resistance of the two winding can be transferred to any one of
the two winding. The advantage of concentrating both the resistance in one winding is that it
makes calculations very simple and easy because one has than to work in one winding only. It

will be proved that a resistance of R2 in secondary is equivalent to R2 in primary. The value

k2

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 Unit 3 Transformer
R2 will be denoted by R2 / . The equivalent secondary resistance as referred to primary. The
k2
copper loss in secondary is I22R2. This loss is supplied by primary which takes a current of I1.
Hence if R2 / is the equivalent resistance in primary which would have cause the same loss as
R2 in secondary than.
2
2 2
I2 R2 = I1 R2 /
or R2 /
=  I 2 I  .R2
 1

Now if we neglect no load current I0, Than I 2 I  1 k Hence R2 / = R2 2 .

1 k

Similarly equivalent primary resistance as referred to secondary is

2
2
I1 R1 = I2 R1 2 /
or R1 =  I 1 I  .R2 Hence, R1 / = k2 R1.
/

 2 

(a) Fig 10 (b)

In fig.10 (a), secondary resistance has been transferred to primary side leaving secondary

circuit resistance less. The resistance R1+ R2 / = R1+ R2 is known as the equivalent or
k2
effective resistance of the transformer as referred to primary and may be designated as

R01 = R1+ R2 / = R1 + R2 .
k2

Similarly the equivalent of the transformer as referred to secondary is R 02 = R2+ R1 / = R2 +

k2R1. The fact is shown in fig. 10(b) where all the resistance of the transformer has been
concentrated is the secondary winding.
Note:
(1) A resistance of R1 in primary is equivalent to k2R1 in secondary. Hence it is called the
equivalent primary resistance as referred to secondary i.e. R’1.

(2) A resistance of R2 in primary is equivalent to R2 in primary. Hence it is called the

k2
equivalent secondary resistance as referred to primary i.e. R2/.
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 Unit 3 Transformer
(3) Total effective resistance of the transformer as referred to primary is
R01 = primary resistance + equivalent secondary resistance as referred to Primary

R01 = R1 + R2/ = R1 + R2 .
k2
(4) similarly, total transformer resistance referred to secondary is

R02 = R2 + R2/ = R2 + R2
k2
Transformer with magnetic leakage but no winding resistance: -

Fig 11 (a) Fig 11 (b)

If it is found that all the flux linked with primary does not link the secondary but part of it
i.e.  l completes its magnetic circuit by passing through air rather than around the core as
1

shown in fig.11 (a). This leakage flux is produced when the mmf due to primary ampere
turns existing between points a & b acts along the leakage paths. Hence this flux is
proportional to the primary amp turns alone because the secondary turns do not link the
magnetic circuit of  l .The flux  l is in time phase with I1. It induces an emf el in primary
1 1 1

but none in secondary.

Similarly, secondary amp. Turns (or mmf) acts across points c & d to setup leakage flux
 l2 which is linked with secondary winding alone (and not with primary turns). This flux

 l2 is in time phase with secondary winding current and carry huge current. Hence large

mmf is setup which, while acting on leakage paths, increases the leakage flux. As said
earlier the leakage flux linking with each winding produces a self-induced emf in that
winding. Hence in effect it is equivalent to a small choke or inductive coil in series with
each winding such that voltage drop in each series coil is equal to that produced by leakage
flux. In other words, a transformer with inductive coils connected in both primary and
secondary circuits as shown fig.11 (b). Such that the internal emf in each inductive coil is

equal to that due to the corresponding leakage flux in the actual transformer X 1  eL1 I &
1
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 Unit 3 Transformer
eL 2
X2  . The terms X1 and X2 are shown as primary and secondary leakage reactance
I2

respectively.
NOTES: -
(1) The leakage flux links one or the other winding but not both, hence it in no way
contributes transfer of energy from the primary to secondary winding transformer.
(2) The primary voltage Vl will have to supply reactive drop I1X1 in addition to I1R1.
1

Similarly, E2 will have to supply I2R2 and I2X2.

Transformer with Winding Resistance and leakage Reactance: -

Fig 12
In fig. (12) is shown the primary and secondary windings of transformer with reactance

taken out of the windings. The primary impedance is given Z1  R12  X 12 . Similarly the

secondary impedance is given Z 2  R2 2  X 2 2 . The resistance and leakage reactance of

each winding is responsible for some voltage drop in each winding. In primary the leakage
reactance voltage drop is I1X1 (usually 1 or 2% of V1).
Hence V1 = E1 + I1 (R1 +jX1) = E1+I1Z1.
Similarly, there are I2R2 and I2X2 drops in secondary which combine with V2 to give E2.
E2 = V2 + I2 (R2 +jX2) = V2+I2Z2.
The vector diagram for such a transformer for different kinds of loads is shown in fig. (13),
in these diagram, vector for resistive drops are drawn parallel to current vectors whereas
reactive drops are perpendicular to the current vectors. The angle Φ1 between V1 & I1 gives
the power factor angle of the transformer.

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 Unit 3 Transformer
If may be noted that leakage reactance can also be transformed from one winding to the
other in the same way as resistance.

 X2/ = X 2 & X1/ = k 2 X 1 .

k2

And X01 = X1 +X2/ = X1+ X 2 and X02 = X2 +X1/ = X2+ k 2 X 1 .

k2
It is obvious that total impedance of the transformer as referred to primary is given by

& Z 02  R02  X 02
2 2
Z 01  R01  X 01
2 2

Fig 13 (d) Fig 13 (e)

Equivalent Circuit: -

The transformer shown in diagram can be resolved into an equivalent circuit in which the
resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer are imagined to be external to the winding
whose only function then is to be transform the voltage. The no load current I 0 is simulated by
pure inductance X0 taking the magnetizing component Iμ and non-inductive resistance R0
taking the working component Iw, connected in parallel across the primary circuit. The value
of E1 is obtained by subtracting vectorially I1Z1 form V1. The value of
X0 = E1 / Iμ and R0 = E1 / Iw. It is clear that E1 and E2 are related to each other by expression
E2 / E1 = N2 / N1 = k.

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 Unit 3 Transformer
To make transformer calculation simpler, it is preferable to transfer a voltage, current and
impedance either to the primary or to the secondary side. In that case we would have to work
in one winding only which is more convenient. The primary equivalent of the secondary
induced voltage is E2/ = E2/k = E1.
Similarly, primary equivalent of secondary terminal or output voltage is V 2/ = V2/k. primary
equivalent of the secondary current is I2/ = kI2.
For transferring secondary impedance to primary K2 is used.
Therefore, R2/ = R2 / K2, X2/ = X2/K2, Z2/ = Z2/K2
The same relationship is used for shifting external load impedance to the primary. The
secondary circuit is shown in fig.19 (a) & its equivalent primary values are shown in fig. 19(b).

Fig. 19a Fig. 19b

The total equivalent circuit of the transformer is obtained by adding in the primary impedance
as shown in fig.20 (b). This is known as the exact equivalent circuit but it presents a somewhat
harder to solve. A simplification may be made by transferring the exciting circuit across the
terminal as in fig.20 (b). It should be noted that in this case X0= V1/Iμ. The values of R0 and
X0 are found from the open circuit test.

Fig. 20a Fig. 20b

Further simplification may be achieved by omitting I0 altogether as shown in fig.20 (b).
From fig.20 (a), it is found that the total impedance between the input terminals is

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 Unit 3 Transformer
 Z (Z  Z ) 
/ /

Zin = Z1 + Zm ll (Z2/+ZL/) =  Z 1  m 2 / L / 
 Z m  (Z 2  Z L ) 

Where Z2/ = R2/ +jX2/ & Zin = impedance of exciting circuit

 Z m (Z 2  Z L ) 
/ /

 V1 = I1 Z 1  / 
.
Z m  (Z 2  Z L ) 
/


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 Unit 3 Transformer

EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER: -
As in the case with other types of electrical machines, the efficiency of the transformer at a
particular load and power factor is defined as the output power divided by the input power.
The two being measured in the same units.
η = output power/ Input power
But a transformer being a highly efficient piece of equipment, has very small loss hence it is
impractical to try to measure transformer efficiency by measuring input and output. These
quantities are nearly the same. A better method is to determine the losses and then to calculate
the efficiency from:
η = (output) / (Output + Losses) = output / (output + Cu loss + Iron loss)
Output = V I cos φ
It may be noted that efficiency is based on power output in watts and not in volt-
amperes, although losses are proportional to VA load, the efficiency depends on PF being
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 Unit 3 Transformer
maximum at a Unity PF. Efficiency can be computed by determining core loss from no load
or OC test and from the SC test.
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY: -
Cu loss = I1 2 R01 or I2 2 R02 = Wcu
Iron loss = Hysteresis loss + eddy current loss = We + Wh = Wi
Considering primary side,
Primary I/P = (V1I1 cosФ – Losses) = (V1I1 cosФ - I12 R1 - Wi)
V1I1 cosФ V1I1 cosФ
=1- I12 R01 - Wi
V1I1 cosФ V1I1 cosФ
Differentiating both side wrt I1, we get
dη = 0 - R01 + Wi
dI1 V1 cosФ V1I12 cosФ
Or Wi = I1 2 R01 = I2 2 R02
Cu Loss = Iron Loss.
The output current corresponding to maximum η is I2 = √ (Wi / R02).
Note: 1. If we are given iron loss and full load Cu loss, then the load at which two losses would
be equal (corresponding to maximum η) is given by
KVAMax η = KVAFL √ (Iron loss / FL Cu loss)
2. The η at any load is given by
η = X. FL KVA. pf. 100
X. FL KVA. pf + Wi + Wcu
Where X ratio of actual load KVA to FL KVA

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Unit 3 Transformer

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