Unit-5

Digital Electronics
Introduction
Logic gates are the basic building blocks for forming digital electronic circuitry. A logic gate has one output
terminal and one or more input terminals. Its output would be HIGH (1) or Low (0) depending on the digital
level (s) at the input terminal (s). The logic gates can be used to design digital systems that will evaluate digital
input levels and produce a specific output response based on that particular logic circuit design.
Followings are the types of logic gates.
(1) INVERTER (or NOT gate) (2) AND gate (3) OR gate (4) NAND gate (5) NOR gate (6) Exclusive-OR gate
(7) Exclusive- NOR gate.
The INVERTER, AND and OR gates are considered to be the basic logic gates in the field of digital
electronics. The NAND, NOR, Exclusive-OR and Exclusive- NOR gates are constructed using the basic logic
gates.

Boolean Constants and Variables

Boolean algebra differs in a major way from an ordinary algebra in that Boolean constants and variables are
allowed to have only two possible values, 0 or 1. A Boolean variable is a quantity that may, at different times,
be equal to either 0 or 1. Boolean variables are often used to represent the voltage level present on a wire or at
the input/output terminals of a circuit. The inputs are considered logic variables whose logic levels at any time
determine the output levels.

Boolean constants and Variables

Boolean algebra is relatively easy to work with as compared to an ordinary algebra because of only two possible
values. It may be noted that in Boolean algebra there are no fractions, decimals, negative numbers, square roots,
cube roots, logarithms, imaginary numbers and so on. As a matter of fact, in Boolean algebra there are only
three basic operations, NOT, AND and OR. These basic operations are called logic operations.
Truth Tables
A truth table is a means for describing how a logic circuit’s output depends on the logic levels present at the
circuit’s inputs. The table lists all possible combinations of logic levels present at inputs along with the
corresponding output level.
The INVERTER
The INVERTER is also known as a NOT gate. It is a logic gate that performs inversion (also called
complementation) operation. It changes one logic level to the opposite logic level, i.e., from HIGH to LOW
level or from LOW to HIGH level. In terms of bits, it changes a 1 to 0 and a 0 to 1. Fig 3-1 (a) shows a logic
symbol of an INVERTER. Note that input is shown on the left (labeled as A) and the output is on the right
(labeled as X).

Logical Operation: When the INVERTER input is LOW (0), the output, X is HIGH (1). On the other hand, if
the input is HIGH(1), the output is LOW (0). This operation is summarized in the form of a truth table as shown
in Figure 3-1 (b).

Boolean Expression for an INVERTER

Boolean algebra is a convenient and systematic way of expressing and analysing the operation of logic circuits.
In the last chapter, we have already introduced the Boolean operations and expressions in terms of their
relationships to INVERTER, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, exclusive-OR (XOR) and exclusive-NOR (XNOR)
gates.
DeMorgan’s Theory
DeMorgan’s Theorems are basically two sets of rules developed from the Boolean expressions for AND, OR and NOT
using two input variables, A and B. DeMorgan’s first theorem states that two (or more) variables NOR´ed together is
the same as the two variables inverted (Complement) and AND´ed, while the second theorem states that two (or more)
variables NAND´ed together is the same as the two terms inverted (Complement) and OR´ed. That is replace all the
OR operators with AND operators, or all the AND operators with an OR operators.
DeMorgan’s First Theorem
The first theorem of DeMorgans’ law defines that the inverted result from AND operation is the same as the OR operation
of the complement of each variable where the result equals NAND operation. So, DeMorgan’s theorem formula is:
Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is an important mathematical tool for designing and analysing digital systems.
A basic knowledge of Boolean Algebra is indispensable to the study and analysis of logic circuits.
As in other areas of mathematics, there are certain well developed rules and laws that must be followed in order
to apply Boolean Algebra properly. Let us now study some of the important laws and rules of Boolean algebra.
First we will study the laws of Boolean algebra and then the rules.

Implementation of given Boolean expression using logic gates

Covered in theory and lab session.

Applications of Digital Circuits

 Digital to Analog Converter & Analog to Digital
Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)
Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
The method of converting an analog voltage into equivalent digital number is known as analog to digital
conversion.
1. Temperature, pressure, and other such data in nature are in the form of analog signals (continuously varying
signals). For practical use in real-time applications, these analog signals need to be converted into electrical
analog signals by using different types of sensors (transducers). When analog signals are used in digital
instruments and industrial process control instrumentation, they are converted into digital format using ADC
ICs. Digital signal conditioning and processing is done using microcontrollers. Such processes provide noise-
free, accurate systems as in energy monitoring and management systems.
2. The output of an ADC consists of digital values representing the binary values of 0s and 1s in digital form.
The number of discrete values depends upon the resolution of the ADC and the method of reconstruction
(recovery) process used by the DAC to get back the original analog signal. The number of discrete levels
sampled is represented as 2N, where N represents the number of samples.
Counter or Tacking Type Analog To Digital Converter
Counter type ADC is one of the simplest ADCs. The following are the components of counter type ADCs:
1. Analog input signal. 2. Op amp comparator 3. AND gate.
4. Clock generator. 5. Reference voltage. 6. DAC.
7. Binary counter. 8. Digital output. 9. Digital display.
The schematic block diagram of a counter type ADC is shown in Fig. 10.4. Its input is an analog signal and
output is a digital signal, which is a collection of 0s and 1s.
Principle of Operation
1. Reset the binary counter to zero (before starting the analog to digital conversion).
2. At the beginning of the ADC process, voltage VDAC (VD) = 0.
3. There are two input signals to the op amp comparator.
4. The input signal of the ADC is connected to the input terminal of the comparator.
5. The output voltage VDAC of the DAC is compared with the analog input signal of the ADC.
6. The input signals to the AND gate are the output voltage from the comparator and the clock generator output
(clock pulses).
7. If the analog input signal Vin is greater than 0, its comparator output will be logical 1. The logical 1 output
enables the AND gate for transmission of clock pulses to the binary counter. The counter then receives the
clock pulses.
8. The clock pulses from the AND gate are connected to the binary counter.
9. The binary counter output is the digital output. It will become 0001.
10. The maximum number of count levels N = 2n, where n is the number of bits in the counter.
11. The digital output from the binary counter is converted to analog voltage (VDAC) by the DAC and produces
an output voltage VDAC = 1. If the analog signal is greater than one at this instant of time, the comparator output
goes to logical 1. It enables the AND gate, and the counter advances and reads 0010. The output of the DAC is
continuously compared with the analog input (to ADC) for conversion into digital output display.
12. The comparison of the analog signals Vin and VDAC (output of DAC) is made by the comparator. If its output
is greater than one, counting progresses. When the analog input signal equals or is less than the DAC output, the
counter stops. The digital output is used for the external process.
13. The binary counter output is the digital output, which is the converted signal of the external analog input
signal. Thus, analog to digital signal conversion takes place. The digital output is displayed in the seven-
segment display.
Advantages
1. The operation is simple and straightforward.
2. Computer data acquisition systems.
Disadvantages
1. The variable conversion time depends upon the amplitude of the analog signal.
2. The speed of conversion is low because of the following reasons:
(a) Time taken in the conversion of the binary input into analog output by the DAC.
(b) Limitation in the response of the comparator in the comparison process between the external analog input
signal and the input from the DAC.
3. The time taken for conversion by the DAC will be high for large signals.