Transformer Fundamentals

1 Introduction
The physical basis of the transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common
magnetic field. Transformer is required to pass electrical energy from one circuit to another via pulsating
magnetic field, as efficiently and economically as possible. This could be achieved using either iron or steel
which serves as a good permeable path for the mutual magnetic flux. An elementary linked circuit is shown in
Fig 1. The principle of operation of this circuit can be explained as follows:
Let an alternating voltage v1 be applied to a primary coil of N1 turns linking a suitable iron core. A
current flows in the coil, establishing a flux φp in the core. This flux induces an emf e1 in the coil to
counterbalance the applied voltage v1. This e.m.f. is

Figure 1: Elementary transformer

e1 = N1 dφp (1)
dt
Assuming sinusoidal time variation of the flux, let φp = Φm sin ωt. Then,
e1 =N1ωΦm cos ωt, where ω = 2πF
The r.m.s. value of this voltage is given by:
E1 = 4.44FN1Φm
V 1 and E1 then Now if there is a secondary coil of N2 turns, wound on the same core, then by mutual induction
an emf e2 is developed therein. The r.m.s. value of this voltage is given by:
E2 = 4.44F N2 ΦJm
where ΦJm is the maximum value of the (sinusoidal) flux linking the secondary coil (φs ).
If it is assumed that φp = φs then the primary and secondary e.m.f.’s bear the following ratio:
e1 E2 N2
e2 = E1
= N1

Note that in actual practice, φp = φƒs since some of the flux paths linking the primary coil do not link the
secondary coil and similarly some of the flux paths linking the secondary coil do not link the primary coil.
The fluxes which do not link both the coils are called the “leakage fluxes” of the primary and secondary coil.

1
 In a practical transformer a very large proportion of the primary and secondary flux paths are
common and leakage fluxes are comparatively small. Therefore φp ≈ φs = φmutual and therefore Φm ≈ ΦJm .
If in addition, winding resistances are neglected – being usually small in a practical transformer, then

V 1 ≈ E1
Similarly,
V 2 ≈ E2

2 Magnetization and associated losses

Although the iron core is highly permeable, it is not possible to generate a magnetic field in it without the
application of a small m.m.f.(magneto-motive force), denoted by Mm. Thus even when the sec- ondary
winding is open circuited, a small magnetizing current (im) is needed to maintain the magnetic flux. The
current of the primary circuit on no-load is of the order of 5% of full load current.
Also, the pulsation of flux in the core is productive of core loss, due to hysteresis and eddy currents. These
losses are given by:

Ph = KhB1.max
6
F, Pe = Ke B2 max F 2 and Pc = Ph + Pe
where Ph, Pe and Pc are hysteresis, eddy current and core losses respectively, Kh and Ke are constants which
depend on the magnetic material, and Bmax is the maximum flux density in the core. These losses will remain
almost constant if the supply voltage and frequency are held constant. The continuous loss of energy in the
core requires a continuous supply from the electrical source to which the primary is connected. Therefore,
there must be a current component ic which accounts for these losses. It should be noted that magnetizing
current (im) and core loss component of current(ic) are in phase quadrature. The resultant of these two currents
is the no-load current io. Generally the magnitude of this current is very small compared to that of the rated
current of the transformer ( may be of the order of 5% of the rated). This current makes a phase angle ζo of
the order of (cos −1(0.2)) with the applied voltage.

3 Ideal transformer
If a load of finite impedance is connected across the second coil, a current i2 will flow through it. This tends
to alter the mmf and thereby the flux in the core. But this is prevented by an immediate and automatic
adjustment of the primary current i1, thereby maintaining the flux φ at the original value. This value of flux
is required to produce the emf of self induction e1. Any reduction of the flux would cause a reduction of e1,
leaving a voltage difference between v1 and e1 which would be sufficient to increase the primary current and
thereby re-establish the flux. Thus any current which flows in the secondary causes its counterpart to flow in
the primary so that the flux φ (and therefore the mmf - Mm) shall always be maintained at a value such that
the voltage applied v1 to the primary terminals shall be balanced by the induced emf e1 (neglecting voltage
drops due to resistance and leakage flux effects). Thus if current flows in the secondary (i2), then i1 = io + N2
i2 so that effective mmf in the
core remains at Mm. In phasor notation:
I 1 = I o + N2 I2 N1
N1

2
Io is quite small compared to the rated current and is usually neglected if transformer is loaded. Thus:
I1 ≈ NN2 I2
1
It is therefore, evident that energy is conveyed from the primary to secondary by the flux: the primary stores
the energy in the magnetic field, and an extraction of some of this for the secondary load is made up by the
addition of energy from the primary, which consequently takes an increased current.
Thus by making the assumptions :
• Winding resistances are small
• Magnetising current is small
• Core losses are small
• Leakage fluxes are small
we can infer that (for an “ideal transformer”):
I 1 N2 E2 V2 (2)
= = =
I2 N1 E1 V1

3.1 Equivalent Circuit of a practical Transformer

The practical transformer has coils of finite resistance. Though this resistance is actually distributed
uniformly, it can be conceived as concentrated. Also, all the flux produced by the primary current cannot be
confined into a desired path completely as an electric current. Though a greater proportion links both the
coils( known as mutual flux), a small proportion called the leakage flux links one or other winding, but not
both. It does not contribute to the transfer of energy from primary to secondary. On account of the leakage
flux, both the windings have a voltage drop which is due to ‘leakage reactance’. The transformer shown in
Fig. 1 can be resolved into an equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 2 in which the resistance and leakage
reactance of primary and secondary respectively are represented by lumped R1, X1, R2 and X2. This
equivalent circuit can be further simplified by referring all quantities in the secondary side of the transformer
to primary side and is shown in Fig. 3. These referred quantities are given by:

Figure 2: Equivalent circuit of a transformer

R2J = R2 (N1 ) X2J = X2 (N1 )2 I2J = I2 (N2 ) V2J = V2 (N1 )

2
N2 N2 N1 N2

Generally the voltage drops I1R1 and I1X1 are small and magnitude of E1 is approximately equal to that of V
1 . Under this condition, the shunt branch (comprising Xm and Ro) can be connected across the supply
terminals. This approximate equivalent circuit (shown in Fig. 4) simplifies the computation of currents and
other performance characteristics of a practical transformer.

3
 Figure 3: Reduced equivalent circuit of a transformer

Figure 4: Simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer

4 Efficiency
Efficiency of the transformer is defined as:
output power
η= input power
Interms of losses,

η = output power+output power

iron losses+copper losses
Let ‘S’ be the rated VA of the transformer, ‘x’ is the fraction of full load the transformer is supplying, and ζ
is the load power factor angle. Under this condition the output power of the transformer is =
x.S. cos ζ. If Pc is the copper loss (loss in winding resistance) at rated current, the corresponding loss while
supplying the fraction of load is = x2.Pc. With transformers of normal design, the flux in the core varies only
a few percent between no-load to full load. Consequently it is permissible to regard the core loss ( iron loss) as
constant, regardless of load. Let this loss be Pi. Therefore equation becomes :
x.S. cosζ
η= x.S. cos ζ+Pi+Pc.x2

5 Regulation
From Fig. 4 it can be seen that if the input voltage is held constant, the voltage at the secondary terminals
varies with load. Regulation is defined as the change in magnitude of secondary (terminal) voltage, when the
load is thrown off with primary voltage held constant. Since, the change in secondary voltage depends only on
the load current, the equivalent circuit is further simplified and is shown in Fig. 5. The phasor diagrams for
lagging, unity and leading powerfactor loads are shown in Fig. 6 to

4
 Figure 5: Equivalent circuit to determine regulation

Figure 6: Phasor diagram for lagging power factor

Fig. 8. It can be proved that angle σ is very small and can be neglected. In that case, the expression for
regulation is given by

I2J .Req . cos ζ ± I2J .Xeq . sin ζ

%regulation = × 100 ...‘+’ for lagging pf and ‘ ’−for leading pf (3)
V2J
where, I2J =load current, Req = R1 + R2J , Xeq = X1 + X2J ,

Figure 7: Phasor diagram for leading power factor

5
 Figure 8: Phasor diagram for unity power factor

Note to TAs/RAs: Open the cover of the transformer and show the students HV and LV termi-
nals, conductors used for LV and HV winding. Also show them E & I laminations, and ferrite core.
Also, conduct the no-load test on high frequency ferrite core transformer at
•50 Hz (using single phase ac source). Ask the students to observe the deflection on the ammeter as
you increase the voltage. Observe the current waveform on the power analyzer. Note down the
magnitude of applied voltage.
•about 10 kHz (use the signal generator) and observe the waveforms on the storage oscilloscope.
Note down the magnitude of applied voltage.
1

6
What is a transformer?

A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of electric power in
one circuit to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. The voltage can be raised or
lowered in a circuit, but with a proportional increase or decrease in the current ratings.

Transformer – Working Principle

The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits which is
linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two coils that are electrically
separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance. The working principle
of the transformer can be understood from the figure below

As shown above the electrical transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core laminations
are joined in the form of strips in between the strips you can see that there are some narrow gaps right
through the cross-section of the core. These staggered joints are said to be ‘imbricated’. Both the coils
have high mutual inductance. A mutual electro-motive force is induced in the transformer from the
alternating flux that is set up in the laminated core, due to the coil that is connected to a source of
alternating voltage. Most of the alternating flux developed by this coil is linked with the other coil and
thus produces the mutual induced electro-motive force. The so produced electro-motive force can be
explained with the help of Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction as

e=M*dI/dt
If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and thus electrical energy is transferred
magnetically from the first to the second coil.

The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be called as the primary
winding. The energy is drawn out from the second coil and thus can be called as the secondary
winding.

In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:

7
 1. Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.
2. Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
3. Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
4. The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.

Transformer Construction

For the simple construction of a transformer, you must need two coils having mutual inductance and a
laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and from the steel core. The device
will also need some suitable container for the assembled core and windings, a medium with which the
core and its windings from its container can be insulated.

In order to insulate and to bring out the terminals of the winding from the tank, apt bushings that are
made from either porcelain or capacitor type must be used.
In all transformers that are used commercially, the core is made out of transformer sheet steel
laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with minimum of air-gap included. The
steel should have high permeability and low hysteresis loss. For this to happen, the steel should be
made of high silicon content and must also be heat treated. By effectively laminating the core, the
eddy-current losses can be reduced. The lamination can be done with the help of a light coat of core
plate varnish or lay an oxide layer on the surface. For a frequency of 50 Hertz, the thickness of the
lamination varies from 0.35mm to 0.5mm for a frequency of 25 Hertz.

Types of Transformers

Types by Design

The types of transformers differ in the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are provided
around the laminated steel core. According to the design, transformers can be classified into two:
1. Core- Type Transformer
In core-type transformer, the windings are given to a considerable part of the core. The coils used for
this transformer are form-wound and are of cylindrical type. Such a type of transformer can be
applicable for small sized and large sized transformers. In the small sized type, the core will be
rectangular in shape and the coils used are cylindrical. The figure below shows the large sized type.
You can see that the round or cylindrical coils are wound in such a way as to fit over a cruciform core
section. In the case of circular cylindrical coils, they have a fair advantage of having good mechanical
strength. The cylindrical coils will have different layers and each layer will be insulated from the other
with the help of materials like paper, cloth, micarta board and so on. The general arrangement of the
core-type transformer with respect to the core is shown below. Both low-voltage (LV) and high voltage
(HV) windings are shown.

8
 Core Type Transformer Cruciform Section

Core Type Transformers

The low voltage windings are placed nearer to the core as it is the easiest to insulate. The effective
core area of the transformer can be reduced with the use of laminations and insulation.

2. Shell-Type Transformer
In shell-type transformers, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings. The comparison
is shown in the figure below.

9
 Core Type and Shell Type Transformer Winding

The coils are form-wound but are multi layer disc type usually wound in the form of pancakes. Paper is
used to insulate the different layers of the multi-layer discs. The whole winding consists of discs
stacked with insulation spaces between the coils. These insulation spaces form the horizontal cooling
and insulating ducts. Such a transformer may have the shape of a simple rectangle or may also have
a distributed form. Both designs are shown in the figure below:

Shell Type Transformers Rectangular Form

Shell Type Transformers Distributed Form

10
A strong rigid mechanical bracing must be given to the cores and coils of the transformers. This will
help in minimizing the movement of the device and also prevents the device from getting any
insulation damage. A transformer with good bracing will not produce any humming noise during its
working and will also reduce vibration.

A special housing platform must be provided for transformers. Usually, the device is placed in tightly-
fitted sheet-metal tanks filled with special insulating oil. This oil is needed to circulate through the
device and cool the coils. It is also responsible for providing the additional insulation for the device
when it is left in the air.

There may be cases when the smooth tank surface will not be able to provide the needed cooling
area. In such cases, the sides of the tank are corrugated or assembled with radiators on the sides of
the device. The oil used for cooling purpose must be absolutely free from alkalis, sulphur and most
importantly moisture. Even a small amount of moistures in the oil will cause a significant change in the
insulating property of the device, as it lessens the dielectric strength of the oil to a great extent.

Mathematically speaking, the presence of about 8 parts of water in 1 million reduces the insulating
quality of the oil to a value that is not considered standard for use. Thus, the tanks are protected by
sealing them air-tight in smaller units. When large transformers are used, the airtight method is
practically difficult to implement. In such cases, chambers are provided for the oil to expand and
contract as its temperature increases and decreases.
These breathers form a barrier and resist the atmospheric moisture from contact with oil. Special care
must also be taken to avoid sledging. Sledging occurs when oil decomposes due to overexposure to
oxygen during heating. It results in the formation of large deposits of dark and heavy matter that clogs
the cooling ducts in the transformer.

The quality, durability and handling of these insulating materials decide the life of the transformer. All
the transformer leads are brought out of their cases through suitable bushings. There are many
designs of these, their size and construction depending on the voltage of the leads. Porcelain
bushings may be used to insulate the leads, for transformers that are used in moderate voltages. Oil-
filled or capacitive-type bushings are used for high voltage transformers.

The selection between the core and shell type is made by comparing the cost because similar
characteristics can be obtained from both types. Most manufacturers prefer to use shell-type
transformers for high-voltage applications or for multi-winding design. When compared to a core type,
the shell type has a longer mean length of coil turn. Other parameters that are compared for the
selection of transformer type are voltage rating, kilo-volt ampere rating, weight, insulation stress, heat
distribution and so on.

Transformers can also be classified according to the type of cooling employed. The different types
according to these classifications are:

Types of Transformers based on Cooling method

1. Oil Filled Self-Cooled Type

Oil filled self-cooled type uses small and medium-sized distribution transformers. The assembled
windings and core of such transformers are mounted in a welded, oil-tight steel tanks provided with a
steel cover. The tank is filled with purified, high quality insulating oil as soon as the core is put back at
its proper place. The oil helps in transferring the heat from the core and the windings to the case from
where it is radiated out to the surroundings.

11
For smaller sized transformers the tanks are usually smooth surfaced, but for large size transformers a
greater heat radiation area is needed, and that too without disturbing the cubical capacity of the tank.
This is achieved by frequently corrugating the cases. Still larger sizes are provided with radiation or
pipes.

2. Oil Filled Water Cooled Type

This type is used for much more economic construction of large transformers, as the above-told self-
cooled method is very expensive. The same method is used here as well- the windings and the core
are immersed in the oil. The only difference is that a cooling coil is mounted near the surface of the oil,
through which cold water keeps circulating. This water carries the heat from the device. This design is
usually implemented on transformers that are used in high voltage transmission lines. The biggest
advantage of such a design is that such transformers do not require housing other than their own. This
reduces the costs by a huge amount. Another advantage is that the maintenance and inspection of
this type is only needed once or twice in a year.

3. Air Blast Type

This type is used for transformers that use voltages below 25,000 volts. The transformer is housed in
a thin sheet metal box open at both ends through which air is blown from the bottom to the top.

E.M.F Equation of a Transformer

Transformer EMF Equation

Let,

NA = Number of turns in primary

NB = Number of turns in secondary
Ømax = Maximum flux in the core in webers = Bmax x A
f = Frequency of alternating current input in hertz (HZ)
As shown in figure above, the core flux increases from its zero value to maximum value Ømax in one
quarter of the cycle , that is in ¼ frequency second.
Therefore, average rate of change of flux = Ømax / ¼ f = 4f ØmaxWb/s
Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced electro motive force in volts.
Therefore, average electro-motive force induced/turn = 4f Ømaxvolt
If flux Ø varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s value of induced e.m.f is obtained by multiplying the average
value with form factor.

Form Factor = r.m.s. value/average value = 1.11

Therefore, r.m.s value of e.m.f/turn = 1.11 x 4f Ømax = 4.44f Ømax

12
Now, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in the whole of primary winding

= (induced e.m.f./turn) x Number of primary turns

Therefore,

EA = 4.44f NAØmax = 4.44fNABmA

Similarly, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in secondary is

EB = 4.44f NB Ømax = 4.44fNBBmA

In an ideal transformer on no load,

VA = EA and VB = EB , where VB is the terminal voltage

Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)
From the above equations we get

EB/ EA = VB/ VA = NB/NA = K

This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

(1) If NB>NA , that is K>1 , then transformer is called step-up transformer.

(2) If NB<1, that is K<1 , then transformer is known as step-down transformer.
Again for an ideal transformer,

Input VA = output VA
VAIA = VBIB
Or, IB/IA = VA/VB = 1/K
Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.

Applications of a transformer

Transformers are used in most electronic circuits. A transformer has only 3 applications;

1. To step up voltage and current.

2. To Step down voltage and current
3. To prevent DC – transformers can pass only Alternating Currents so they totally prevent DC from
passing to the next circuit.
But the application of these 3 applications are endless which is why they have a place in lots of circuits

10-1 Transformers classify according to their Applications

Applications of Transformers
There are four principal applications of transformers viz.
(i) power transformers (ii) distribution transformers
(iii) Autotransformers (iv) instrument transformers

(i) Power Transformers.

13
 They are designed to operate with an almost constant load which is equal to
their rating. The maximum efficiency is designed to be at full-load. This means that full-
load winding copper losses must be equal to the core losses. A power transformer has
two or more windings wound on a laminated iron core. The transformer is used to supply
stepped up and stepped down values of voltage to the various circuit in electrical
equipment.

(ii) Distribution Transformers.

These transformers have variable load which is usually considerably less than the
full-load rating. Therefore, these are designed to have their maximum efficiency at
between 1/2 and 3/4 of full load.
A distribution transformer has two windings wound on a laminated iron core. The
transformer is used to supply stepped down values of voltage to the various circuit in
electrical equipment.

(iii) Autotransformers.
An autotransformer has a single winding on an iron core and a part of winding is
common to both the primary and secondary circuits. Fig. (10-3) shows the connections of a
step-down autotransformer and the connections of a step-up autotransformer. In either
case, the winding ab having N1 turns is the primary winding and winding bc having N2
turns is the secondary winding.
Note that the primary and secondary windings are connected electrically as well as
magnetically. Therefore, power from the primary is transferred to the secondary
conductively as well as inductively (transformer action). The voltage transformation ratio a of
an ideal autotransformer is

An autotransformer requires less copper than an ordinary 2-winding transformer.

Autotransformers are used for starting induction motors (reducing applied voltage during
starting) and in boosters for raising the voltage of feeders.

Fig.(10-3 the connections of Autotransformer

(iv) Instrument transformers.

Current and voltage transformers are used to extend the range of a.c. instruments.

14
 (a) Current transformer
A current transformer is a device that is used to measure high alternating current in a
conductor. Fig. (10-4) illustrates the principle of a current transformer. The
conductor carrying large current passes through a circular laminated iron core. The
conductor constitutes a one-turn primary winding. The secondary winding consists
of a large number of turns of much fine wire wrapped around the core as shown.
Due to transformer action, the secondary current is transformed to a low value
which can be measured by ordinary meters.

For example, suppose that IP = 100 A in Fig. (10-4) and the ammeter is capable of
measuring a maximum of 1 A. Then,

Fig. 0.4 Current Transformer

(b) Voltage transformer

It is a device that is used to measure high alternating voltage. It is essentially a step-
down transformer having small number of secondary turns as shown in Fig.(10-5). The
high alternating voltage to be measured is connected directly across the primary. The
low voltage winding (secondary winding) is connected to the voltmeter. The power rating
of a potential transformer is small (seldom exceeds 300 W) since voltmeter is the only
load on the transformer.

Fig.(10-5 Voltage transformer

15
 (v) Audio-frequency transformer
A transformer used in audio-frequency circuits to transfer AF signals from one
circuit to another.

(vi) Radio-frequency transformer

A transformer used in radio-frequency circuits to transfer RF signals from one
circuit to another.

(viI) Impedance-Matching Transformer

A transformer used to match the impedance of the source and the impedance
of the load. The mathematical relationship of the turns and impedance of the
transformer is expressed by equation:

Transformer Voltage regulation, losses and efficiency

Voltage regulation:

When a transformer is loaded, with a constant supply voltage, the terminal voltage
changes due to voltage drop in the internal parameters of the transformer i.e., primary and
secondary resistances and inductive reactances. The voltage drop at the terminals also
depends upon the load and its power factor. The change in terminal voltage from no-load to
full-load at constant supply voltage with respect to no-load voltage is known as voltage
regulation of the transformer.

Let, E2 = Secondary terminal voltage at no-load.

V2 = Secondary terminal voltage at full-load.

Then, voltage regulation = 𝐸2− 𝑉2

𝐸2 (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡)

In the form of percentage, % Reg = 𝐸2− 𝑉2 × 100

𝐸2

16
 Approximate Expression for Voltage Regulation

Similarly

(ii) For resistive load % Reg = % resistance drop

(iii) For capacitive load % Reg = % resistance drop x cos Ø2 - % reactance drop x sin Ø 2

Losses in a Transformer:

The losses which occur in an actual transformer are:

(i) Core or iron losses (ii) Copper losses

(i) Core or iron losses: When AC supply is given to the primary winding of a transformer
an alternating flux is set up in the core, therefore, hysteresis and eddy current losses occur
in the magnetic core.

(a) Hysteresis loss: When the magnetic material is subjected to reversal of magnetic flux, it
causes a continuous reversal of molecular magnets. This effect consumes some electric
power which is further dissipated in the form of heat as loss. This loss is known as hysteresis
2.6
loss. (Ph = Kh V f Bm ). This loss can be minimized by using silicon steel material for the
construction of core.

(b) Eddy current loss: Since flux in the core of a transformer is alternating, it links with the
magnetic material of the core itself also. This induces an emf in the core and circulates eddy
currents. Power is required to maintain these eddy currents. This power is dissipated in the
2 2 2
form of heat and is known as eddy current loss (Pe = Ke V f t B m). This loss can be
minimized by making the core of thin laminations.

The flux set up in the core of the transformer remains constant from no-load to full load. Hence,
iron loss is independent of the load and is known as constant losses.

(ii) Copper losses: Copper losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due
to their ohmic resistance. If I1, I2 are the primary and secondary currents and R1, R2 are the
primary and secondary resistances, respectively.

17
Where Rep = equivalent resistance referred to primary side

Res = equivalent resistance referred to secondary side

The currents in the primary and secondary winding vary according to the load; therefore,
these losses vary according to the load and are known as variable loss.

Efficiency of a Transformer:

The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output to the input power, the two
being measured in same units (either in watts or in kW).

If x is the fraction of the full load, the efficiency of the transformer at this fraction is given by
the relation;

Condition for Maximum Efficiency:

The efficiency of a transformer at a given load and p.f. is expressed by the relation

The terminal voltage V2 is approximately constant. Thus for a given p.f., efficiency depends
upon the load current I2. In the above expression, the numerator is constant and the efficiency
will be maximum if denominator is minimum. Thus the maximum condition is obtained by
differentiating the quantity in the denominator w.r.t. the variables I2 and equating that to zero
i.e.,

18
Thus, the efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper (or variable) losses are
equal to iron (or constant) losses.

Also, the value of output current I2 at which the efficiency of the transformer will be maximum
is given by;

If x is the fraction of full load kVA at which the efficiency of the transformer is maximum. Then,
copper losses = x2 Pc (where Pc is the full load Cu losses)
Iron losses = Pi

All-day Efficiency:

The all-day efficiency is defined as the ratio of output in kWh (or Wh) to the input in kWh (or
Wh) of a transformer over 24 hours.

19
 Short Answer Type
Questions
Q.1. What are no-load losses occurring in the transformer?
Ans. Iron losses which are also known as magnetic losses or core losses. These losses include
hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.

Why is efficiency of a transformer high as compared to

Q.2.
other electrical machines?
Ans. Transformer is a static device i.e., it has no rotating part, therefore, it is free of
mechanical losses. Hence, it operates at higher efficiency in comparison to other electrical
machines.

Q.3. Define efficiency and all-day efficiency of a transformer.

Ans. The ratio of power output (in kW) to power input (in kW) is called efficiency or
commercial efficiency of a transformer, i.e.,

The ratio of output energy (in kWh) to the input energy (in kWh) in a day of a transformer is
called its all-day efficiency.

Q.4. Are transformers normally considered to be efficient devices?

Ans. Yes, normally transformers are considered as efficient devices.
Q.5. Why is the efficiency of a transformer high as much as
96%?
Ans. It is because transformers do not have rotating parts and mechanical losses do not occur.

Q.6. How can eddy current loss be reduced?

Ans. Eddy current loss can be reduced by laminating the core (0.35 mm to 0.5 mm thickness)
and each lamination must be insulated from the other by an insulating layer (varnish).

Q.7. How may the iron loss be reduced to a minimum?

Ans. Iron loss can be minimized by using steel having sufficient quantity of silicon, now- a-
days cold rolled grain oriented steel (CRGOS) is used, and the core is laminated, each
lamination has a thickness 0.35 to 0.5 mm and insulated from each other.

Q.8. In a transformer, buzzing noise cannot be avoided. Justify.

Ans. Since magnetostriction phenomenon cannot be avoided, the buzzing noise produced by a
transformer cannot be avoided.

20
 Transformer Tests:

All the transformers are tested before placing them in the field. By performing these tests, we
can determine the parameters of a transformer to compute its performance characteristics
(like voltage regulation and efficiency etc.).
Large transformers cannot be tested by direct loading because of the following reasons:
(i) It is almost impossible to arrange such a large load required for direct loading.
(ii) While performing test by direct loading, there is huge power wastage.
(iii) It is very inconvenient to handle the power equipment.
Therefore, to furnish the required information open circuit and short circuit tests are
conducted conveniently without actually loading the transformer.
Open-circuit or No-load Test:
This test is carried out at rated voltage to determine the no-load loss or core loss or
iron loss. It is also used to determine no-load current I0 which is helpful in finding the no-load
parameters i.e., exciting resistance R0 and exciting reactance X0 of the transformer.
Usually, this test is performed on low voltage side of the transformer, i.e., all the measuring
instruments such as voltage (V), wattmeter (W) and ammeter (A) are connected in low-
voltage side (say primary). The primary winding is then connected to the normal rated voltage
V1 and frequency as given on the name plate of the transformer. The secondary side is kept
open.

Since the secondary (high voltage winding) is open circuited, the current drawn by the
primary is called no-load current I0 measured by the ammeter A. The value of no- load
current I0 is very small usually 2 to 10% of the rated full-load current. Thus, the copper loss in
the primary is negligibly small and no copper loss occurs in the secondary as it is open.
Therefore, wattmeter reading W0 only represents the core or iron losses for all practical
purposes. These core losses are constant at all loads.

21
 Equivalent circuit of a transformer at no-load

Short Circuit Test

This test is carried out to determine the
(i) Copper losses at full load (or at any desired load). These losses are required for
the calculations of efficiency of the transformer.
(ii) Equivalent impedance (Zes or Zep), resistance (Res or Rep) and leakage reactance
(Xes or Xep) of the transformer.
This test is usually carried out on the high-voltage side of the transformer i.e., a wattmeter
W, voltmeter V and an ammeter A are connected in high-voltage winding (say
secondary). The other winding (primary) is then short circuited by a thick strip. A low
voltage at normal frequency is applied to the high voltage winding with the help of on
autotransformer so that full-load current flows in both the windings.
Since a low voltage (usually 5 to 10% of normal rated voltage) is applied to the
transformer winding, therefore, the flux set up in the core is very small. Wattmeter reading
Wc only represents the copper losses in the transformer.

22
After calculating Res and Xes, the voltage regulation of the transformer can be determined at any
load and power factor.

23
Three Phase Transformers

Three-phase Transformers are the backbone of electrical power distribution whether Delta or Star connected
windings

Thus far we have looked at the construction and operation of the single-phase, two winding voltage
transformer which can be used increase or decrease its secondary voltage with respect to the primary supply
voltage. But voltage transformers can also be constructed for connection to not only one single phase, but for
two-phases, three-phases, six-phases and even elaborate combinations up to 24-phases for some DC
rectification transformers.
If we take three single-phase transformers and connect their primary windings to each other and their
secondary windings to each other in a fixed configuration, we can use the transformers on a three-phase
supply.
Three-phase, also written as 3-phase or 3φ supplies are used for electrical power generation, transmission,
and distribution, as well as for all industrial uses. Three-phase supplies have many electrical advantages over
single-phase power and when considering three-phase transformers we have to deal with three alternating
voltages and currents differing in phase-time by 120 degrees as shown below.

Three Phase Voltages and Currents

24
 Where: VL is the line-to-line voltage, and VP is the phase-to-neutral voltage.
A transformer can not act as a phase changing device and change single-phase into three-phase or three-
phase into single phase. To make the transformer connections compatible with three-phase supplies we need
to connect them together in a particular way to form a Three Phase Transformer Configuration.
A three phase transformer or 3φ transformer can be constructed either by connecting together three single-
phase transformers, thereby forming a so-called three phase transformer bank, or by using one pre-
assembled and balanced three phase transformer which consists of three pairs of single phase windings
mounted onto one single laminated core.
The advantages of building a single three phase transformer is that for the same kVA rating it will be smaller,
cheaper and lighter than three individual single phase transformers connected together because the copper
and iron core are used more effectively. The methods of connecting the primary and secondary windings are
the same, whether using just one Three Phase Transformer or three separate Single Phase Transformers.
Consider the circuit below:

Three Phase Transformer Connections

The primary and secondary windings of a transformer can be connected in different configuration as shown to
meet practically any requirement. In the case of three phase transformer windings, three forms of connection
are possible: “star” (wye), “delta” (mesh) and “interconnected-star” (zig-zag).
The combinations of the three windings may be with the primary delta-connected and the secondary star-
connected, or star-delta, star-star or delta-delta, depending on the transformers use. When transformers are
used to provide three or more phases they are generally referred to as a Polyphase Transformer.

Three Phase Transformer Star and Delta Configurations

But what do we mean by “star” (also known as Wye) and “delta” (also known as Mesh) when dealing with
three-phase transformer connections. A three phase transformer has three sets of primary and secondary
windings. Depending upon how these sets of windings are interconnected, determines whether the
connection is a star or delta configuration.
The three available voltages, which themselves are each displaced from the other by 120 electrical degrees,
not only decided on the type of the electrical connections used on both the primary and secondary sides, but
determine the flow of the transformers currents.

25
With three single-phase transformers connected together, the magnetic flux’s in the three transformers differ
in phase by 120 time-degrees. With a single the three-phase transformer there are three magnetic flux’s in
the core differing in time-phase by 120 degrees.
The standard method for marking three phase transformer windings is to label the three primary windings with
capital (upper case) letters A, B and C, used to represent the three individual phases
of RED, YELLOW and BLUE. The secondary windings are labelled with small (lower case) letters a, b and c.
Each winding has two ends normally labelled 1 and 2 so that, for example, the second winding of the primary
has ends which will be labelled B1 and B2, while the third winding of the secondary will be
labelled c1 and c2 as shown.

Transformer Star and Delta Configurations

Symbols are generally used on a three phase transformer to indicate the type or types of connections used
with upper case Y for star connected, D for delta connected and Z for interconnected star primary windings,
with lower case y, d and z for their respective secondaries. Then, Star-Star would be labelled Yy, Delta-Delta
would be labelled Dd and interconnected star to interconnected star would be Zz for the same types of
connected transformers.

Transformer Winding Identification

Connection Primary Winding Secondary Winding

Delta D D

Star Y Y

Interconnected Z Z

We now know that there are four different ways in which three single-phase transformers may be connected
together between their primary and secondary three-phase circuits. These four standard configurations are
26
given as: Delta-Delta (Dd), Star-Star (Yy), Star-Delta (Yd), and Delta-Star (Dy).
Transformers for high voltage operation with the star connections has the advantage of reducing the voltage
on an individual transformer, reducing the number of turns required and an increase in the size of the
conductors, making the coil windings easier and cheaper to insulate than delta transformers.
The delta-delta connection nevertheless has one big advantage over the star-delta configuration, in that if one
transformer of a group of three should become faulty or disabled, the two remaining ones will continue to
deliver three-phase power with a capacity equal to approximately two thirds of the original output from the
transformer unit.

Transformer Delta and Delta Connections

In a delta connected ( Dd ) group of transformers, the line voltage, VL is equal to the supply voltage, VL = VS.
But the current in each phase winding is given as: 1/√3 × IL of the line current, where IL is the line current.
One disadvantage of delta connected three phase transformers is that each transformer must be wound for
the full-line voltage, (in our example above 100V) and for 57.7 per cent, line current. The greater number of
turns in the winding, together with the insulation between turns, necessitate a larger and more expensive coil
than the star connection. Another disadvantage with delta connected three phase transformers is that there is
no “neutral” or common connection.
In the star-star arrangement ( Yy ), (wye-wye), each transformer has one terminal connected to a common
junction, or neutral point with the three remaining ends of the primary windings connected to the three-phase
mains supply. The number of turns in a transformer winding for star connection is 57.7 per cent, of that
required for delta connection.
The star connection requires the use of three transformers, and if any one transformer becomes fault or
disabled, the whole group might become disabled. Nevertheless, the star connected three phase transformer
is especially convenient and economical in electrical power distributing systems, in that a fourth wire may be
connected as a neutral point, ( n ) of the three star connected secondaries as shown.

Transformer Star and Star Connections

27
The voltage between any line of the three-phase transformer is called the “line voltage”, VL, while the voltage
between any line and the neutral point of a star connected transformer is called the “phase voltage”, VP. This
phase voltage between the neutral point and any one of the line connections is 1/√3 × VL of the line voltage.
Then above, the primary side phase voltage, VP is given as.

The secondary current in each phase of a star-connected group of transformers is the same as that for the
line current of the supply, then IL = IS.
Then the relationship between line and phase voltages and currents in a three-phase system can be
summarised as:

Three-phase Voltage and Current

Connection Phase Voltage Line Voltage Phase Current Line Current

Star VP = VL ÷ √3 VL = √3 × VP IP = IL IL = IP

Delta VP = VL VL = VP IP = IL ÷ √3 IL = √3 × IP

Where again, VL is the line-to-line voltage, and VP is the phase-to-neutral voltage on either the primary or the
secondary side.
Other possible connections for three phase transformers are star-delta Yd, where the primary winding is star-
connected and the secondary is delta-connected or delta-star Dy with a delta-connected primary and a star-
connected secondary.
Delta-star connected transformers are widely used in low power distribution with the primary windings
providing a three-wire balanced load to the utility company while the secondary windings provide the required
4th-wire neutral or earth connection.
When the primary and secondary have different types of winding connections, star or delta, the overall turns
28
ratio of the transformer becomes more complicated. If a three-phase transformer is connected as delta-delta
( Dd ) or star-star ( Yy ) then the transformer could potentially have a 1:1 turns ratio. That is the input and
output voltages for the windings are the same.
However, if the 3-phase transformer is connected in star–delta, ( Yd ) each star-connected primary winding
will receive the phase voltage, VP of the supply, which is equal to 1/√3 × VL.
Then each corresponding secondary winding will then have this same voltage induced in it, and since these
windings are delta-connected, the voltage 1/√3 × VL will become the secondary line voltage. Then with
a 1:1 turns ratio, a star–delta connected transformer will provide a √3:1 step-down line-voltage ratio.
Then for a star–delta ( Yd ) connected transformer the turns ratio becomes:

Star-Delta Turns Ratio

Likewise, for a delta–star ( Dy ) connected transformer, with a 1:1 turns ratio, the transformer will provide
a 1:√3 step-up line-voltage ratio. Then for a delta-star connected transformer the turns ratio becomes:

Delta-Star Turns Ratio

Then for the four basic configurations of a three-phase transformer, we can list the transformers secondary
voltages and currents with respect to the primary line voltage, VL and its primary line current IL as shown in
the following table.

Three-phase Transformer Line Voltage and Current

Primary-Secondary Line Voltage Line Current

Configuration Primary or Secondary Primary or Secondary

Delta – Delta

Delta – Star

Star – Delta

Star – Star

Where: n equals the transformers “turns ratio” (T.R.) of the number of secondary windings NS, divided by the
number of primary windings NP. ( NS/NP ) and VL is the line-to-line voltage with VP being the phase-to-neutral
voltage.
29
Three Phase Transformer Example
The primary winding of a delta-star ( Dy ) connected 50VA transformer is supplied with a 100 volt, 50Hz
three-phase supply. If the transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 100 turns on the secondary winding,
calculate the secondary side voltages and currents.
Given Data: transformer rating, 50VA, supply voltage, 100v, primary turns 500, secondary turns, 100.

Then the secondary side of the transformer supplies a line voltage, VL of about 35v giving a phase
voltage, VP of 20v at 0.834 amperes.

Three Phase Transformer Construction

We have said previously that the three-phase transformer is effectively three interconnected single phase
transformers on a single laminated core and considerable savings in cost, size and weight can be achieved
by combining the three windings onto a single magnetic circuit as shown.
A three-phase transformer generally has the three magnetic circuits that are interlaced to give a uniform
distribution of the dielectric flux between the high and low voltage windings. The exception to this rule is a
three-phase shell type transformer. In the shell type of construction, even though the three cores are
together, they are non-interlaced.

Three Phase Transformer Construction

30
The three-limb core-type three-phase transformer is the most common method of three-phase transformer
construction allowing the phases to be magnetically linked. Flux of each limb uses the other two limbs for its
return path with the three magnetic flux’s in the core generated by the line voltages differing in time-phase by
120 degrees. Thus the flux in the core remains nearly sinusoidal, producing a sinusoidal secondary supply
voltage.
The shell-type five-limb type three-phase transformer construction is heavier and more expensive to build
than the core-type. Five-limb cores are generally used for very large power transformers as they can be made
with reduced height. A shell-type transformers core materials, electrical windings, steel enclosure and cooling
are much the same as for the larger single-phase types.

1
This experiment/chapter is prepared by Makarand M Kane (Research Scholar, 2015 batch).

31