Chapter 0 basic mathematic concepts

0bjectives; at the end of this lesion the student should be able to;

 State the basic SI unit

 Recognize derived SI unit
 Understand prefixes denoting multiplication and division
 State the unit of electrical potential, emf, resistance, conductance, power and energy and perform
simple calculation involving these units

1. INTRODUCTION

The S.I Units

The system of units in engineering and science used worldwideknown as international system of
units and known in the Frenchacronym as the syste'me international d'unite'sabbrivatiated to S.I
units. This was introduced in 1960 and is now adopted by majority of official system of
measurement. In this system there are six principal units from which the units of all other
physical quantities can be derived. Table 1.1 shows the six units, their symbols and physical
quantities they represent.

Table 1.1 Six basic SIunits

Quantity Basic unit Symbol

Length meter M
Mass kilogram Kg
Time second S
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Charge coulomb C

The basic units in the SI system are listed with their symbols in the table below

Quantity Quantity symbol Unit Unit symbol

Length l Meter M
Mass M Kilogram Kg
Time T Second S
Velocity v Mass per second m/s or ms-1
Force F Newton N
Electric current I Ampere A
Resistance R Ohm Ω

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 Power P Watt W
Electric charge Q Coulomb C
Frequency F Hertz Hz
Voltage V Volt V
conductance G semen S

1.1 Multiple and submultiples

SI units may be made larger or smaller by using prefixes which denote multiplication or division
by a particular amount. Example the speed of light is about 3000000000m/s this number is very
large and tedious to write down. So we need we need to used shorter form to write them.the table
below show multiples, with their meaning.

prefi Name Meaning Example

x
M Mega Multiple by 1 000 000 2MΏ
(i.e. ×106) 2 000 000
K Kilo Multiple by 1 000 10KV
(i.e. ×103) 10 000 volt
m Milli Divide by 1 000 25mA=A
(i.e. ×10-3) =0.025 amperes
µ micro Divide by 1 000 000 50mv = V
(i.e. ×10-6) =0.000 05 volts

Example

59,800,000,000,000,000,000,000,000kg = 5.98×1024kg

0.00000000000000000000000000167kg = 1.67×10-27kg

3,000,000,000m/s = 3×109m/s

Make the following conversions

1. 500kv =
2. 5A =
3. 5000Ω=
4. 000006=

1.2 Multiplication and division by the power of ten

Multiplication

To multiply a number by a power of 10 (10,100,1000 etc) move the decimal place to the right.

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Example

0.5×10 = 5

0.9851×1000 = 985.1

25×10000 = 250000

Division

To divide a number by a power of ten (10, 100, 1000 etc) move decimal point to the left.

Example

501
501÷100 = = 5.01
100

21
21÷10000 = = 0.002
10000

Circuit diagrams are a pictorial way of showing circuits. Electricians and engineers draw circuit
diagrams to help them design the actual circuits. Here is an example circuit diagram.

The important thing to note on this diagram is what everything stands for. You see that there are
straight lines that connect each of the symbols together. Those lines represent a wire.

This is the Ammeter symbol.

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 This is the Voltmeter symbol.

This is the resistor symbol.

This is the switch symbol.

This is the battery symbol.

The important thing to remember about this symbol is that the long bar on top represents the
positive terminal on a battery while the short bar on the bottom represents the negative terminal.

Below is the actual circuit made from the circuit diagram above. Pay close attention to see how
similar the diagram and the real circuit looks.

In the next sub-unit you will be creating your own circuits from a circuit diagram as you learn
about what series and parallel circuits are. However, before you do, there are few more symbols
you will need to learn.

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Chapter1:DIRECT CURRENT

Objectives: at the end of this chapter student should be able to;

 Describe the phenomena of electrification
 Define electric current
 State the effect of electric current

Introduction

Electricity has a very large influence on our lives, but it is not well understood by many
people. Electricity is used to power many of the things that we use every day. For example we used for
lighting our bulbs, heating, television , electric pressing iron phones etc to understand the phenomenon of
electric current let look at the following points.

1.0 The nature of electric current

Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight. Matter can be a solid, a liquid, or a gaseous
material. Solid matter includes such things as metal and wood; liquid matter is exemplified by water
and gasoline; and gaseous matter includes such things as oxygen and hydrogen. Solids can be
converted into liquids, and liquids can be made into gases. In an even deeper look into the structure of

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matter, there are particles called atoms. Within these atoms are the forces that cause electrical energy
to exist. An atom is considered to be the smallest particles to which an element can be reduced and
still have the properties of that element. If an atom were broken down any further, the element would
no longer exist. The smallest particles that are found in all atoms are called electrons, protons, and
neutrons. Elements differ from one another on the basis of the numbers of these particles found in
their atoms. The relationship of matter, elements, compounds, molecules, atoms, electrons, protons,
and neutrons is shown in Figure below.

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The simplest atom, hydrogen, is shown in Figure below The hydrogen atom has a center part called a
nucleus, which has one proton. A proton is a particle that has a positive (+) charge.

The hydrogen atom has one electron, which orbits around the nucleus of the atom. The electron has a
negative (–) charge. Most atoms also have neutrons in the nucleus. A neutron has neither a positive nor a
negative charge and is considered neutral

Hydrogen atom

1.1 Electric current (I)

In metals atom are packed so closed together that their electrons may break loose from their atom and
became free. These free electrons travel between the atoms at random attracting themselves to one
another as show below

Random movement of electron in a

metal

When a potential voltage or electric force is applied across the conductor, the free electrons are caused to
move in one direction. It is the movement of this electron in one direction that is called electric current as
shown below

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1.1 .1Direction of Current Flow

Electric current flow is the movement of electrons along a conductor. Electrons are negative charges.
Negative charges are attracted to positive charges and are repelled by other negative charges. Electrons
move from the negative terminal of a battery to the positive terminal. This is called electron current flow.
Electron current flow is in a direction of electron movement from negative to positive through a circuit.

1.1.2Definition of electric current

Electric current is defined as the movement of electron through a conductor. It is measured in ampere(A)
and denoted by (I)

1.2TYPES OF CURRENT

THERE ARE TWO MAIN TYPES OF CURRENT

 Direct current (dc)

 Alternating current(ac)

1.2.1 Direct current

Direct current (dc) is defined as that current that in which the direction of electrons flow only in one
direction. Examples of dc are batteries, solar panels. It has the positive pole (+) and a negative pole (-)

Graph of pure DC example of a pure dc source

The current maintain the same direction all times. Other form of dc are seen below

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1.2.2 Alternating current(AC)

AC is the short form for alternating current;this means that electrons keep drifting forward and
backward. Their value and direction are constantly changing as shown below with other forms of
alternating current.This is done with any type of AC current/voltage source.

AC
wave form

The frequency of repetition of this current is 50 Hertz. This means the direction of the current changes
fifty times every second.

1
F= T in Hertz (Hz)

1.3The effect of electric current

The three main effects of an electric current are:

(a) Magnetic effect

(b) Chemical effect

(C) Heating effect

Some practical applications of the effects of an electric current include:

Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators, transformers, Telephones, car-ignition and lifting
magnets

Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and electroplating

Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons, furnaces, Kettles and soldering irons

Assignment

 Define what AC stands for and what it means.

 Explain how AC is created and delivered to different places.

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  Discuss the differences between AC and DC.

Chapter2POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Objectives: at the end of this chapter student should be able to;

 Define electric field
 Define potential difference
 Define quantity of electricity and state it mathematical formula

2.1 Electric Field

2.2 Potential Differences (P.d)

Potential difference (p.d) is defined as the voltage between two points in a circuit when a
current is flowing, or the difference existing between two points in a circuit when a current is
flowing. P.d is denoted by U and measured in volt (V).

Mathematically

2.3 Quantity of electricity

Quantity of electricity or electric charge (Q)

The unit of charge is the coulomb(C) where one coulomb is one ampere second. (1coulomb =
6.24× 1018 electrons).The coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which flows past a
given point in an electric circuit when a current of one ampere is maintained for one second.
Thus,

Mathematically

Q
Charge, in coulombs Q = It or I =t

Where Q is the symbol of charge measure in coulomb, I is the current in amperes (A) and t is the time in
seconds (s).

Problem1.

If a current of 5A flows for 2minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.

Solution

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 Quantity of electricity Q =It coulombs

I= 5A, t = 2×60 = 120s

Hence Q = 5× 120 = 600C

Chapter3 ELECTRIC RESISTANCE

Objectives: At the end of this lesson student should be able;

• defined resistance
• determine the value of the combination equivalent resistance of a combination of resistor
• determine resistor valve using color code

3.1Definition

Electric resistance is defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes or restricts
the flow of electricity i.e. electrons through it.
The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on four factors, these being:
a) the length of the conductor,
b) the cross-sectional area of the conductor,
c) the type of material
d) The temperature of the material.

3.2Resistivity is defined as the resistance between the opposite faces of a meter cube of that
material. It is measure in ohmmeter (Ωm)
1 ρl
Rα a or R = a
ohms

Where
Resistivity, in ohm-meters (Ω-m)
l = Length, in meters (m)
A = cross-sectional area, in square meters (m2).
3.3Temperature coefficient
Indicated that the resistance of a conductor will not be constant at all temperatures as
temperature increases, more electrons will escape their orbits, causing additional collisions
within the conductor. For most conducting materials, the increase in the number of collisions
translates into a relatively linear increase in resistance.

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If the resistance of a material at 0°C is known, the resistance be determined from:

Rθ = R0(1+ α θ)
0

Where Rθ= resistance at 0°C

Rθ = resistance at temperature θ °
α0 = temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C

3.4 combinations of resistors

3.4.1 Resistors in series

When resistors are connected in series, the total resistances equal the sum of the individual
resistance. In a series circuit there is only one path of current flow.

Sum of individual resistance = total resistance; R1+R2+R3 = RT

Example; 1

Two resistors of resistances 2Ω and 3Ω are connected in series. What is their total resistance?

Solution

R1+R2 = RT 2+3 = 5ΩRT = 5Ω

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example2; what is the total resistance of the series resistor below

- R1+R2 = RT = 10Ω + 5Ω = 15Ω = RT = 15Ω

Example 3

Two electric lamps are connected in series and it is found that their total resistance is 13Ω. If one
lamp has a resistance of 5Ω. What is the resistance of the other lamp?

Solution
RT = 13Ω, R1 = 5Ω, R2=?
RT = R1 +R2
R2 = R T - R 1
R2 = 13-5
= 8Ω
R2 = 8Ω
3.4.2 Resistors in parallel

When resistances, lamps cells etc are connected side by side with end connected together, they
are said to be connected in parallel. For such connection, they are many paths for current flow.

Equivalent resistance of two unequal resistances in parallel

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When only two resistors of unequal values are connected in parallel the total resistance can be
calculated as follows;

R1× R2
R=
R1 + R2

Example
Two loads of resistance 3Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel. What is the total resistance of the
circuit?

Solution

R1 = 3Ω, R2 = 6Ω

R 1 × R 2 3 ×6 18
R= = = ; R = 2Ω
R1 + R2 3+6 6

When there are more than two resistances in parallel in a circuit the following method is used.as
shown in the figure below

1
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + … or R= 1 1 1 1
R R1 R2 R3 n + + +…
R1 R 2 R 3 n

Example1; Five lamps of resistance 50Ω each are connected in parallel. What is the total
resistance of the circuit? See figure below.

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Example2;Two resistors, of resistance 3Ω and 6Ω, are connected in parallel across a battery
having a voltage of 12V. Determine (a) the total circuit resistance and (b) the current flowing
inthe 3Ω resistor.

3.4.3Series and parallel combination of resistors

When solving series – parallel circuit problems the entire circuit should be broken to parts
consisting of simple series and parallel circuits

Exercises

Calculate the total resistances in the circuits below

3.5 Different type of Resistors Color Code (resistor)

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3.5.1 Types of resistor

Virtually all electric and electronic circuits involve the control of voltage and/or current. The best
way to provide such control is by inserting appropriate values of resistance into the circuit.
Although various types and sizes of resistors are used in electrical and electronic applications,all
resistors fall into two main categories:fixed resistors and variable resistors.

3.5.2 Fixed resistor

As the name implies, fixed resistors are resistors having resistance values which are essentially
constant. There are numerous types of fixed resistors, ranging in size from almost microscopic
(as in integrated circuits) to high-power resistors which are capable of dissipating many watts of
power. Figure below illustrates the basic structure of a molded carbon composition resistor.

Structure of a molded carbon composition resistor.

3.5.2Variable resistor

Variable resistors provide indispensable functions which we use in one form or another almost
daily. These components are used to adjust the volume of our radios,set the level of lighting in
our homes,and adjust the heat of our stoves and furnaces. Figure below shows the external view
of typical variable resistors

3.5.3 Resistor Color Code

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Some resistors have color bands that indicate their values and tolerances. You’ll see three, four,
or five bands around carbon-composition resistors and film resistors. Other units are large
enough so that the values can be printed on them in ordinary numerals.

The following table shows the colors used to identify resistor values:

Example of a four and five band resistor

Chapter4 GENERATOR

4.1 Electromotive force (e.m.f)

Electromotive force (emf) is defined as the force which tends to create the flow of
electric current in a circuit. It is denoted by E and measured in V.
4.2 Potential difference

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 Potential difference (p.d) is defined as the voltage between two points in a circuit when a
current is flowing.it is denoted by U and measured in vilt (v)

The different between voltage and potential difference see fig below

4.3 Internal resistance

voltage
From ohms law, resistance =
current
Let r = internal resistance
I = circuit current
E = electromotive force (open circuit voltage)
U = potential difference (closed circuit voltage)
Ur = voltage drop due to internal resistance
The voltage drop due to internal resistance Ur = E-U
Ur E−U
Internal resistance r = = I
I

4.4 Electric power

Power means the rate of doing work. Work is done when ever a force causes motion. So
electric power can therefore be defined as the rate of doing work in moving electrons through
a conducting material. Electric power is given by the expression

P = U ×I

Where
P = power in watts (w)
U = supply voltage in volts (v)
I = current in amperes (A)
U
From ohm’s law, U = I×R; P = U×I; P = (I×R)×I; P = I2R again, I = R ; P=U×I ,

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 U U2
P =U× ; P =
R R

Power rating of electrical equipment

The power rating of electrical equipment is the rate at which it coverts electrical energy
ot other form of energy such as heat, ligth,etc electrical equipment are rated for both
voltage and power. Commonly fine on electric lamps rated as
220-230,40W; 220-230v, 60W

4.5 Efficiency
4.6 Combination of identical cells
cells in parallel
when cells are connected in parallel, the emf remains the same but they supply more
current. therefore, cells are connected in parallel to supply more corrent.

ET =E1=E2 =E3 and IT =I1 +I2 +I3

r1
Total internal resistance rT =
n
where r1= internal resistance ofs any one cell and n = number of cells in parallel
NB. for cells to be connected in parallel, they must be identical. that is , they must have
the same emf and internal resistance. in short, only cells of the same type should be
connected in parallel

cells in series
when cells are connected in series, the total emf adds. the internal resistance also adds

ET = E1+E2+E3
rT = r1+r2+r3

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 cells are connected in series for more emf and hence, pd
NB . battery is made up of cells

series - parallel connection

cells are connected in series=parallel to give more emf and current.

ET =E1×n6 ( the total emf is equal to the emf of the series group)

IT = I1 ×np ( the total current is equal to the sum of branch currents) rT =(r ¿ ¿ 1 ×n s)/n p ¿

Chapter5 OHM’S LAW

Objecties; At the end of this lesson student should be able to;

 Identify ohms law and apply it

 Calculate the electric power and electric energy

Ohm’s law;
Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage Vand inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature
remains constant. Thus,
I = V/R,
I = current, V = voltage, and R = resistance
*Depending on what you are trying to solve we can rearrange it two other ways.

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 V=IxR
R = V/I
*All of these variations of Ohm’s Law are mathematically equal to one another.

As you can see, voltage, current, and resistance are mathematically, as well as, physically related
to each other. We cannot deal with electricity without all three of these properties being
considered.
Examaple1. The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20V is applied.
Determine the value of the resistance.

From Ohm’s law,

V 20
Resistance = R = 0.8 = 25A

Resistance(R) = 25A

Multiples and sub-multiples

Currents, voltages and resistances can often be very large or very small. Thus multiples and
sub-multiples of units are often used, as stated in Chapter 1. The most common ones, with an
example of each, are listed in chapter zero
Example2. Determine the p.d. which must be applied to a 2kΏresistor in order that a current of
10mA may flow.

Resistance R = 2 k Ώ = 2×103 = 2000Ώ

Current I =10mA
= 10×10-3 A
= 0.01A

From Ohm’s law, potential difference,

V= IR= (0.01) (2000) = 20V

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 Conductors and Insulators
A conductoris a material having a low resistance which allows electric current to flow in it. All
metals are conductors and some examples include copper, aluminum, brass, platinum, silver,
gold and carbon

An insulatoris a material having a high resistance which does not allow electric current to flow
in it. Some examples of insulators include plastic, rubber, glass, porcelain, air, paper, cork, mica,
ceramics and certain oils.

Electrical power and energy

Electrical power

Power P in an electrical circuit is given by the product of potential difference V and current I,
as stated in Chapter .The unit of power is the watt, W. Hence

P = V ×I watts

From Ohm’s law, V =IR

Substituting for V in equation
P = (IR) × I

P = I 2R watts
V
Also, from Ohm’s law, I =
R
V
Substituting for I in equation above gives P=V×
R

P = V2R watts
There are thus three possible formulae which may be used for calculating power.

Example3.A 100W electric light bulb is connected to a 250V supply. Determine (a) the current
flowing in the bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb.
Solution
P
Power P=V ×I, from which, current I =
V

100 10 2
(a) Current I= = = = 0.4A
250 25 5

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 V 250
(b) Resistance R = = = 625Ω
I 0.4

Example4.Calculate the power dissipated when a current of 4mA flows through a resistance of
5 kΩ.

Power P=I2R = (4×10−3)2 (5×103)

=16×10−6 ×5×103 =80×10−3
=0.08W or 80Mw

Example5. An electric kettle has a resistance of 30Ω. What current will flow when it is
connected to a 240V supply? Find also the power rating of the kettle.

V
Current, I =
R
240
I = 30 =8A

Power, P=VI =240×8 =1920W

=1.92kW
=power rating of kettle

Review
• Ohm's Law is used to describe the mathematical relationship between voltage,
current, and resistance.

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summary ;for finding voltage, current ,resistance, or power

EXCERCISES

Further problems on Ohm’s law

1. The current flowing through a heating element is 5A when a p.d. of 35V is applied across it.
Find the resistance of the element.

2. A 60W electric light bulb is connected to a 240V supply. Determine (a) the current flowing in
the bulb and (b) the resistance of the bulb.

3. A 100V battery is connected across a resistor and causes a current of 5mA to flow. Determine
the resistance of the resistor. If the voltage is now reduced to 25V, what will be the new value of
the current flowing?

Calculate the power dissipated when a current of 4mA flows through a resistance of 5 kΏ

.4. The hot resistance of a 240V filament lamp is 960_. Find the current taken by the lamp and its
power rating.

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 Chapter6 Joule’s Law

6.1joule’s effect
Joule effect is a physical law expressing the relationship between the heats generated by the
current flowing through a conductor. Joule studied this phenomenon in the 1840s. it expressed as

H=I2R.t

Where H is the heat generated by constant current flowing through a conductor of electrical
resistance for a time, when current, resistance and time are expressed in ampere, ohms and
second.
6.2 state joule’s law

6.3current density (J)

The current density in a conducting material is defined as the current per unit cross-sectional area
in that material. It is measured in amperes per square metre (A/m2)
I
ȷ= A
Where: I= current flowing in amperes (A)
A= cross-sectional area of conductor in square metre (m2)
Example
A conductor of 1mm2 cross-sectional area carries a current of 10A. What is the current density
in the conductor?
Solution
Date: I = 10A, A = 1mm2 =1× 10-6 m2 find ȷ
I 10
ȷ = A ; ȷ= ;J =10×106 A/m2
1× 10−6
6.4 powers dissipated

Chapter7 Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff’s laws

Kirchhoff’s laws state

7.1Current Law. The sum of currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of current
leaving the junction. i.e

ƩI =0
I1+I2 = I3+I4+I5
I1-I2- I3-I4-I5=0
Incoming currents = out going current
Incoming currents -outgoing currents=0

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Thus, referring to Figure below

7.2 Voltage Law. It states that the sum of the voltage drops around a circuit equals the
voltage applied across the circuit.

Thus, referring to Figure

E1 −E2 =IR1 + IR2 +IR3

(Note that if current flows away from the positive terminal of a source, that
source is considered by convention to be positive. Thus, moving anticlockwise
around the loop of Figure 5.2 , E1 is positive and E2 is negative.)

examples
Find the unknown currents marked in Figure (a) . (b) Determine the value of e.m.f.
E in Figure (b) below.

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7.3Current Divider

In the circuit shown in Figure below the current splits or divides between the two resistors that

are connected in parallel. The total current entering in to the parallel branches is divided into the
branches currents according to the resistances values.

IT splits into the individual currents I1 and I2, and then these recombine to form IT.

R2
I1 = IT. R + R
1 2

R1
Similarly, I2=IT R + R
1 2

From the above equations, we can conclude that the current in any branch is equal to the ratio of
the opposition branch resistance of the total value, multiple by the total current in the circuit.

R T IT
I1 = R + R
1 2

Example
Determine the current I1 and I2 in the figure below

Solution
R2 200 Ω
( )
I1 = R + R I T = 300 Ω+200 Ω ( 20 mA ) =8.00mA
1 2

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 R1 300 Ω
( )
I2 = R + R I T = 300 Ω+200 Ω ( 20 mA )=12.0 mA
1 2

Example 2 determine the resistance R1 so that current will divide as seen above

Solution; there are several methods which may be used to solve this problem. We will examine
two.
Method one since we have resistor in parallel, we may use

R1
I2= I
R 1+ R 2 T
R1
5A = ( )(25 A )
R 1+ R 2
Using algebra, we get
(5A)R1 + (5A)(30Ω) = (25A)R1
(20A)R1 = 150V
150V
R1 = =7.50 Ω
20 A
Method 2 applying Kirchhoff's current law

7.4Voltage Divider

The circuit shown in Figure below is called a voltage divider. It is the basis for many important
theoretical and practical ideas you encounter throughout the entire field of electronics.
The object of this circuit is to create an output voltage (V0) that you can control based upon the
two resistors and the input voltage. Note that V0 is also the voltage drop across R2.
In general if the circuit consists of a number of series resistors, the total current is given by the
total voltage divided by equivalent resistance.

V S ( Rm )
Vrm=
RT

Example; for the circuit shown in Figure below what is V0?

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Superposition theorem
The superposition theorem states the following:
The voltage across (or current through) an element is determined by summing the voltage (or
current) due to each independent source.
In order to apply this theorem, all sources other than the one being considered are eliminated. As
in dc circuits, this is done by replacing current sources with open circuits and by replacing
voltage sources with short circuits. The process is repeated until the effects due to all sources
have been determined.

Example 1
Figure 5.12 shows a circuit containing two sources of e.m.f., each with their internal
Resistance. Determine the current in each branch of the network by using the
superposition theorem.

Solution
Procedure:
1. Redraw the original circuit with source E2 removed, being replaced by r2 only, as
shown in Figure 5.12(a) .
2. Label the currents in each branch and their directions as shown in Figure 5.12(a) and
determine their values. (Note that the choice of current directions depends on the battery
polarity, which, by convention is taken as fl owing from the positive battery terminal as
shown.) R in parallel with r2 gives an equivalent resistance of:

4×1
=0.8Ὡ
4+1

From the equivalent circuit of Figure 5.12(b),

E1 4
I1 = = =1.429 A
r 1+ 0.8 2+ 0.8

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from figure 5.12(a)

I2 = ( 4 1+1 )I = 15 (1.429) = 0.286A

1 AND

(4) 4
I3 = 4 +1 I1= 5 (1.429) = 1.143A by current division

3. Redraw the original circuit with source E1 removed, being replaced by r1 only, as
shown in Figure 5.13(a) .
4. Label the currents in each branch and their directions as shown in Figure 5.13(a) and
determine their values. r1 in parallel with R gives an equivalent resistance of:

2× 4 8
= =1.333Ὡ
2+ 4 6

From the equivalent circuit of Figure 5.13(b)

E2 2
I4 = = =0.857 A
1.333+ r 2 1.333+1

From Figure 5.13(a)

2 2
( )
I5 = 2+4 I 4= 6 (0.857) = 0.286A

(4) 2
I6 = 2+4 I4= 6 (0.875) = 0.571A

Thevenin`stheorem
Thévenin’s theorem states:

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The current in any branch of a network is that which would result if an e.m.f. equal to the voltage across a
break made in the branch, were introduced into the branch, all other e.m.f. being removed and represented
by the internal resistances of the sources.

The procedure adopted when using Thevenin’s theorem is summarized below. To determine the current in
any branch of an active network (i.e., one containing a source of e.m.f.):

(i) remove the resistance R from that branch,

(ii)determine the open-circuit voltage, E , across the break,

(iii)remove each source of e.m.f. and replace them by their internal resistances and then determine the
resistance, r , “ looking-in ” at the break,

(iv)determine the value of the current from the equivalent circuit show in fig A below

E
i.eI=
R +r

figure A

figure B

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Example 1
Use Thevenin’s theorem to find the current flowing in the 10 Ω resistor for the circuit
shown in Figure B of (a) .
Solution
Following the above procedure:
i. The 10 Ω resistance is removed from the circuit as shown in Figure b of (b)
ii. There is no current flowing in the 5 Ω resistor and current I1 is given by:

10 10
I1¿ =
R 1+ R 2 2+ 8
=1 A

Voltage across R2 =I1R2=1×8=8V

Voltage across AB, i.e the open-circuit voltage across the break, E =8v

iii Removing the source of e.m.f given the circuit of fig B of (c)

R1 R2 2× 8
Resistance, r =R3 + =5 + =5 +1.6 = 6.6Ὡ
R 1+ R 2 2+8

iv The equivalent Thevenin's circuit is shown in fig B of (d)

E 8 8
Current I = = = =0.482 A
R +r 10+ 6.6 16.6

The current flowing in the 10Ὡ resistor of figure B of (a) is 0.482A

Example 2
For the network shown in Figure C of (a) below determine the current in the 0.8 Ω resistor
usingThevenin’s theorem.

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Norton`s theorem
Norton’s theorem states:

The current that flows in any branch of a network is the same as that which would flow in the branch if it
were connected across a source of electrical energy, the short-circuit current of which is equal to the
current that would flow in a short-circuit across the branch, and the internal resistance of which is equal
to the resistance which appears across the open-circuited branch terminals.

The procedure adopted when using Norton’s theorem is summarized below.

To determine the current flowing in a resistance R of a branch AB of an active network:

(i) short-circuit branch AB,

(ii)determine the short-circuit current ISC fl owing in the branch,

(iii)remove all sources of e.m.f. and replace them by their internal resistance (or, if a current source
exists, replace with an open-circuit), then determine the resistance r , “ looking-in ” at a break made
between A and B,

(iv)determine the current I fl owing in resistance R from the Norton equivalent network

shown in Figure C, symbol of an idea current source

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I= ( r +r R ) I SC

Example 4
Use Norton’s theorem to determine the current fl owing in the 10 Ω resistance for the
circuit shown in Figure D of (a) .

Solution
Following the above procedure:
(i) The branch containing the 10 Ω resistance is short-circuited as shown in
Figure D of (b) .
(ii) Figure D of (c) is equivalent to Figure D of (b)

10
ISC = 2 =5 A

(iii) If the 10 V source of e.m.f. is removed from Figure D of (b), the resistance “ lookingin at a
break made between A and B is given by:

2× 8
r= 2+8 = 1.6 Ὡ

(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in Figure D of (d), the current in the 10 Ω
resistance, by current division, is given by:

1.6
I=( 1.6+5+10 )(5) = 0.482A
as obtained previously in example above using Thevenin's theorem
Example 5
Use Norton’s theorem to determine the current I fl owing in the 4 Ω resistance shown in
Figure 5.35(a)

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 Chapter11 Capacitors
11.1 Definition
A capacitor is defined as a device capable of storing electrical energy.

11.1.0 Constitution
A capacitor consist of two metal plate separated by an insulating medium(dielectric). Is termed a
capacitor

11.2 Definition of Capacitance

The amount of charge Q that a capacitor can store depends on the applied voltage. Experiments
show that for a given capacitor, Q is proportional to voltage. Let the constant of proportionality
be C. Then,

Q = CV
Rearranging terms yields
Q
C = V (farads, F)
The term C is defined as the capacitance of the capacitor. As indicated, its unit is the farad. By
definition, the capacitance of a capacitor is one farad ifit stores one coulomb of charge when the
voltage across its terminals is onevolt. The farad, however, is a very large unit. Most practical
capacitors range in size from Pico farads (pF or 10_12 F) to microfarads (mF or 10_6 F). The
larger the value of C, the more charge that the capacitor can hold for a given voltage

11.2.1 Energy store in a capacitor

To charge a capacitor, a voltage must be applied across the plates and current flows. Therefore a
charge capacitor contains energy. This energy could be used during discharging to light a lamp
To determine the energy stored in a capacitor it is given by

1
W= 2 CV2 (J)

Example

Calculate the energy stored in a 47µF capacitor connected to a 100V supply

1 1
W = CV2 = ×47×10-6 ×1002 =0.235J W = 235mJ
2 2

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11.3Capacitors in Parallel and Series

11.4.1 Capacitors in Parallel

For capacitors in parallel, the effective plate area is the sum of the individual plate areas; thus,
the total capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances. This is easily shown. Consider
Figure 10–20. The charge on each capacitor is given by Equation 10–1. Thus, Q1 =C1V and Q2
=C2V. Since

Q
T =
Q
1
+
Q 2,
Q
T = C1V + C2V = (C1 _ C2)V. But QT = CTV. Thus, CT = C1 + C2. For more than two capacitors,

CT + C1 + C2 +… +CN
That is, the total capacitance of capacitors in parallel is the sum of their individual capacitances

EXAMPLE
Two capacitors of 8µF and 12µF are connected in parallel across a 100V supply. Calculate the
total capacitance and the charge across each capacitor.
Solution

C =C1 + C2 = 8+12; C = 20µF

Q1 = C1U = 8×100×10-6 =800×10-6µC

Q2 = C2U = 12×100×10-6= 1200×10-6; Q2 = 1200µC

A 10-µF, a 15-µF, and a 100-µF capacitor are connected in parallel across a 50-V source. Determine the
following:

a. Total capacitance.

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b. Total charge stored.

1. Three capacitors are connected in parallel. If C1 = 20 µF, C2 = 10 µF and CT = 32.2 µF, what
is C3?
2. Three capacitors are paralleled across an 80-V source, with QT =0.12mF. If C1 = 200 mF and
C2 = 300 µF, what is C3?
3. How much charge is stored on a 10-µF capacitor when it is connected to a 24-volt source?
4. The charge on a 20-nF capacitor is 1.7 µC. What is its voltage?

11.4.2 Capacitors in Series

For capacitors in series (Figure blow), the same charge appears on each.
Thus, Q =C1V1, Q =C2V2, etc. Solving for voltages yields V1 =Q/C1, V2= Q/C2, and so on.
Applying KVL, we get V =V1 +V2 +… +VN. Therefore,

Q Q Q 1 1 1
V = C + C + …+ C =Q( C + C + …+ C )
1 2 N 1 2 N

1 1 1 1
Capacitor in series C = C + C +…+ C
T 1 2 N

For two capacitors in series, this reduces to

C1C2
CT = C +C
1 2

N.B
1. For capacitors in parallel,total capacitance is alwayslarger than the largest capacitance,while for
capacitors inseries, total capacitance isalways smaller than thesmallest capacitance.

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2. The formula for capacitors in parallel is similar to the formula for resistors in series, while the
formula for capacitors in series is similar to the formula for resistors in parallel.

Series and parallel combination of capacitors

Determine the total capacitance in the circuit beside

The problem is easily solved through step-by-step

reduction. C2 and C3 in parallel yield 45 µF +15 µF = 60 µF.
C4 and C5 in parallel total 20 µF. The reduced circuit is
shown in (b). The two 60-µF capacitances in series reduce
to 30 µF. The series combination of 30 µF and 20 µF can be
found from Equation above

30 µF × 20 µF
CT = =12 µF
30 µF +20 µF

11.5Types of Capacitors

Since no single capacitor type suits all applications, capacitors are made in a variety of types and sizes.
Among these are fixed and variable types with differing dielectrics and recommended areas of
application.

types of fixed capacitors

 Electrolytic capacitors
 Titanium oxide capacitors
 ceramic capacitor
 Variable air capacitors.
 Mica capacitors.
 Paper capacitors

capacitor colour codes

capacitors are of different sharp and sizes on some capacitors their values are clearly printed on them will
some are know by the colour printed on it. see resistor colour code.

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