Electric Circuit Analysis

Electric Circuit Analysis | Isaac O.
Nana
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

CHAPTER ONE: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
1.1 Principles of Complex Quantities
Definition: In mathematics, a complex number is an element of a number system that contains the real
numbers and a specific element denoted j, called the imaginary unit, and satisfying the equation j2 = −1.
It is generally a number of the form z = x + jy
Complex number = z
Real part = x
Imaginary part = jy
For example, 2 + j3 is a complex number.
Graphical Representation of Complex Numbers
z = x + jy - positive imaginary part

z = x - jy - negative imaginary part
r = magnitude or modulus of z which is given by:
r = |z| ¿ √ x 2+ y 2
Φ = angle between x and r known as phase angle
Ways of expressing complex numbers
a) Rectangular form
The number is generally expressed as z = a ± jb
Rem: a and b are real numbers but due to the presence of imaginary unit j, the term jb becomes imaginary
number.
b) Polar Form
From the graphical representation
CosΦ = x/r i.e x = rCosΦ
SinΦ y/r i.e y = rSinΦ
z = rCosΦ ± jrSinΦ
z = r ∟± Φ
pg. 1
Electric Circuit Analysis | Isaac O. Nana
c) Exponential form
The complex number can also be expressed using Euler’s formula:
z = re±jΦ
1.2 Applications of Complex Analysis in Solving A.C Circuits

A.C circuit elements include
Resistance(R) – Opposition to the flow of current. Measured in Ohms(Ω)
Inductance (L) – Opposition to the change in current flow. Measured in Henry(H)
Capacitance(C) – Ability of a circuit to store charges in electric field. Measured in Farad(F)
Circuit Impedance (Z)

It is a combined opposition to the flow of current in a.c circuits. It combines the effects of the above three
elements. It is measured in Ohms(Ω)
Z = R ± jX
Magnitude of Z = |Z| = √ R2 + X 2
R- Resistance of the circuit in ohms. It is real component of the circuit
X – Reactance of the circuit in ohms. It is imaginary component of the circuit
Reactance X, combines both inductive(XL) and capacitive(XC) reactances.
i.e X = |XL- XC| ohms
XL = ωL = 2πfL
1 1
XC = =
ωC 2 πfC
XL and Xc are also measured in ohms
1.3 Classification of A.C Circuits

1.3.1 Purely Resistive circuit
Consider an ac circuit containing a non-inductive resistance of R ohms connected across a sinusoidal
voltage represented by v = Vmaxsinωt, as shown:
When the current flowing through a pure resistance changes, no back emf is set up, therefore, applied
voltage has to overcome the ohmic drop of iR only:
pg. 2
And instantaneous current may be expressed as:

i = Imax sin ωt
Power in purely resistive circuit

The instantaneous power delivered to the circuit in question is the product of the instantaneous values of
applied voltage and current.
Hence power P = VI
Where V and I are r.m.s values of voltage and current respectively
1.3.2 Purely Inductive Circuit:

An inductive circuit is a coil with or without an iron core having negligible resistance. Example is a coil
of thick copper wire wound on a laminated iron core has negligible resistance and is known as a choke
coil.
When an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, an emf, known as self-induced emf, is
induced in the coil which opposes the applied voltage. Since coil has no resistance, at every instant
applied voltage has to overcome this self-induced emf only.
pg. 3
The above expression shows that instantaneous current flowing through a purely inductive coil lags the
applied voltage by π/2 i.e by 90o angle as shown
Inductive Reactance- ωL in the expression Imax = Vmax/ωL is known as inductive reactance and is
denoted by XL i.e., XL = ω L. It is measured in Ohms
pg. 4
Power in Purely Inductive Circuit:

Instantaneous power, p = v × i = Vmax sin ω t Imax sin (ωt – π/2)
Vmax Imax
Or p = – Vmax Imax sin ω t cos ω t = sin 2 ωt
2
The power measured by wattmeter is the average value of P, which is zero since average of a sinusoidal
quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. Hence in a purely inductive circuit power
absorbed is zero.
1.3.3 Purely Capacitive Circuit:

Let an alternating voltage represented by v = VmaxSinωt be applied across a capacitor of capacitance C
farads.
The expression for instantaneous charge is given as:
q = C Vmax sin ωt
Since the capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge, the capacitor current may be obtained
by differentiating the above equation:
It is observed that the current leads the applied voltage by π/2, as shown in the graphs below
Capacitive Reactance: 1/ω C in the expression Imax = Vmax/1/ω C is known as capacitive reactance and is
denoted by XC i.e., XC = 1/ω C and is measured in Ohms.
pg. 5
Power in Purely Inductive Circuit
Hence power absorbed in a purely capacitive circuit is zero.

The energy stored by a capacitor at maximum voltage across its plates is given by the expression:
1.3.4 R-L Series a.c circuit(inductive circuit)

A circuit that contains a pure resistance R ohms connected in series with a coil having a pure inductance
of L (Henry) is known as RL Series Circuit. When an AC supply voltage V is applied, the current, I
flows in the circuit.
Where,
 VR – voltage across the resistor R
 VL – voltage across the inductor L
 V – Total voltage of the circuit
V = VR + jVL - complex value
|V| = √ VR 2+ VL2 - magnitude
Z = R + jXL - complex value
|Z|= √ R + XL
2 2
- magnitude
V
I =
Z
The current I, lags the voltage V by an angle Φ known as the phase angle. The angle is such that
0o˂ Φ˂90o
pg. 6
Power factor p.f = cosΦ (lagging)
1.3.5 R-C Series a.c Circuit(capacitive circuit)

A circuit that contains pure resistance R ohms connected in series with a pure capacitor of capacitance C
farads is known as RC Series Circuit. A sinusoidal voltage is applied and current I flows through the
resistance (R) and the capacitance (C) of the circuit.
Where,
 VR – voltage across the resistor R
 VC – voltage across the inductor L
 V – Total voltage of the circuit
V = VR - jVC - complex value |V| = √ VR2+ VC 2 - magnitude
Z = R - jXC - complex value
|Z| = √ R2 + XC 2 - magnitude
V
I =
Z
The current I, leads the voltage V by an angle Φ known as the phase angle. The angle is such that
0o˂ Φ˂90o
pg. 7
Power factor p.f = CosΦ (leading)
1.3.6 R-L-C Series A.C Circuit

Consider the circuit consisting of R, L and C connected in series across a supply voltage of V (RMS)
volts. The resulting current I (RMS) is flowing in the circuit. Since the R, L and C are connected in series,
thus current is same through all the three elements.
Where,
 XL = jωL = Inductive Reactince,
 Xc = 1/jωC = Capacitive reactance.
 VR is in phase with I.
 VL is leading the current I by 90°.
 VC is lagging the I by 90°.
The total supply voltage, V is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC
V = VR + j(VL - VC)
V = √ VR2+(VL−VC)2
The impedance of the circuit is also the phasor sum of R, XL and XC
Z = R + j(XL - XC)
Z = √ R2 +( XL−XC )2
pg. 8
The supply current I, is given by:

V
I=
Z
When
i) XL ˃XC
The resultant circuit is inductive and the current lags supply voltage by angle Φ (phase angle)
ii) XL˂XC
The resultant circuit is capacitive and the current leads the voltage by angle Φ (phase angle)
iii) XL = XC
The resultant circuit is purely resistive since the reactance is zero and the supply current and
voltage are in phase.
Power factor CosΦ = R/Z
Exercises
1. A coil of inductance 80mH and resistance of 60Ω is connected to 200V, 100Hz supply. Calculate
the circuit impedance and the current taken from the supply. Find also the phase angle between
current and supply voltage
2. An alternating voltage given by v = 100sin240t volts is applied across a coil of resistance 32Ω
and inductance 100mH. Determine
i) The circuit impedance
ii) The current flowing
iii) The p.d across the resistance
iv) The p.d across the inductance
3. An alternating voltage v = 250sin800t volts is applied across a series circuit containing a 30Ω
resistor a 50uF capacitor. Calculate the
i) Circuit impedance
ii) Circuit current
iii) P.d across the resistor
iv) P.d across the capacitor
v) Phase angle between voltage and current
Power in a.c Circuit
Apparent(Total) power S = VI. Measured in volts ampere(VA), KVA or MVA
Active(Real) power P = VICosΦ - also known as power dissipated or power consumed. Measures in
watts(W) or kilowatts(kW) or MW
Reactive (Imaginary) power Q = VISinΦ. Measured in volts ampere reactive(VAR) or KVAR or
MVAR
P VICosΦ
Power factor = = = CosΦ
S VI
1.3.7 Series Resonance

The resonance occurs in a series RLC circuit, when the effective reactive component of the impedance is
zero, i.e XL = XC
1
ω oL =
ωoC
pg. 9
1
ω o2 =
LC
ωo =
√1
√ LC
1
2πfo = √ ( )
LC
1 1
fo = √
2 π LC
fo is known as resonant frequency
Effects of series resonance

 XL = XC,thus ω0 = 1/LC−−−√1/LC
 ZR = R = Minimum
 Circuit current at resonance, Ir = V/R =Maximum.
 Circuit power factor is unity. Hence, circuit is purely resistive.
 The voltage across inductor and capacitor being equal, i.e. VL= VC.
Resonance curve
Lower cut-off frequency ω1 =

(√ 2RL )+ LC1
−R
2L
+
2 L √ ( 2 L ) LC
R R 1
Upper cut-off frequency ω = 2 + +
R
Bandwidth = ω2 - ω2 = (Bandwidth of the circuit)
L
Q- Factor(Quality factor)
This is the ratio of voltage across L or C to supply voltage at resonance
IXL XL
Q−Factor= = =
IR R
XL = 2πfoL
2 πfoL
Q- factor=
R
pg. 10
1 1
From the expression fo = √ substitute fo with the expression and simplify to get
2 π LC
1 L
Q−Factor= √
R C
Exercise
1. A coil having resistance of 10Ω and inductance of 125mH is connected in series with a 60uF
capacitor across a 120V supply. At what frequency does resonance occur? Find the current
flowing at the resonant frequency
2. The current at resonance in a series R-L-C circuit is 100uA. If the applied voltage is 2mV at a
frequency of 200kHz and the circuit inductance is 50uH, find
i) The circuit resistance
ii) The circuit capacitance
3. A coil of inductance 80mH and negligible resistance is connected is series with a capacitor of
capacitance 0.25uF and resistor of resistance 12.5Ω across a 100V, variable frequency supply.
Determine
i) The resonant frequency
ii) The current at resonance
iii) The Q-factor of the coil
1.2 Network Theorems

1.2.1 Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, irrespective of how complex it
is and how many sources it has, to an equivalent circuit with a single voltage source, Thevenin’s
voltage(VTh)and a series resistance, Thevenin’s resistor(RTh) connected across a load resistor, RL.
In a.c circuit, RTh becomes ZTh(thevenin’s impedance) and RL besomes ZL(load impedance).
Procedure in solving a network By Thevenin’s theorem

i) Remove load resistor(impedance) and replace it with open circuit terminals ab
ii) Determine the voltage across open circuit terminals Vab. If the sources are more than one,
use superposition theorem to determine Vab. Vab= Vth
pg. 11
iii) Reduce all sources from the network to zero by replacing voltage sources by short circuit and
current sources by open circuit.
iv) Determine an effective resistance looking into the network from open circuit terminals ab.
This is Rth.
v) Redraw the circuit with with Vth in series with Rth and RL
Thevenin’s Theorem Example 1

Determine the current flowing throw the load resistor 40Ω in the circuit below using Thevenin’s theorem.
Solution:
 Find Rth
With the load resistance removed and the voltage source shorted, the equivalent resistance of the circuit is
calculated as follows:
The resistor 10 Ω is parallel to 20 Ω, therefore the equivalent resistance of the circuit is:
10× 20
Rth = =6.67 Ω
20+10
 Find Vth
To calculate the equivalent voltage, reconnect the voltage sources back into the circuit. V s = VAB,
therefore the current flowing around the loop is calculated as follows:
pg. 12
20−10
I= =0.33 A
20+10
Vab = Vth = (10 × 0.33) + 10 = 13.33V
OR Vab = Vth = 20 – (20 × 0.33) = 13.33V
Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit consists of a series resistance
of 6.67 Ω and a voltage source of 13.33 V.
The current flowing in the circuit is calculated using the formula below:
13.33
I= =0.286 A
40+6.67
Example 2: If I = 33∠ -13o A, find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to the left of terminals x-y in the
network of figure 1.
Solution:
Let us first find the equivalent impedance across the current source. However, assuming the equivalent
admittance to be Yeq, we find that
where Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4 is the branch admittance of each branch.

Obviously,
pg. 13
Then,
To find Zin(= ZTh), the current source is deactivated and by inspection it is observed that
Figure 2 represents the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit where
and
Exercise 1: Find VTH, RTH, load current IL flowing through and load voltage VL across the load resistor in
the circuit below using Thevenin’s Theorem.
Exercise 2: Find the current through 10Ω resistor using Thevenin’s theorem (figure 5).
pg. 14
1.2.2 Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s theorem is similar to Thevenin’s theorem. It states that any two terminal linear network or
circuit can be represented with an equivalent network or circuit, which consists of a current source,
Norton’s current(IN) in parallel with a resistor, Norton’s resistor(RN). It is known as Norton’s equivalent
circuit.
Procedure in solving a network by Norton’s theorem

Method 1:
 Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by opening the terminals with respect to which, the
Norton’s equivalent circuit is to be found.
 Step 2 − Find the Norton’s current IN by shorting the two opened terminals of the above circuit.
 Step 3 − Find the Norton’s resistance RN across the open terminals of the circuit considered in
Step1 by eliminating the independent sources present in it. Norton’s resistance RN will be same as
that of Thevenin’s resistance RTh.
 Step 4 − Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Norton’s current IN in parallel
with Norton’s resistance RN.
Method 2:
 Step 1 − Find a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit between the desired two terminals. We know that
it consists of a Thevenin’s voltage source, VTh and Thevenin’s resistor, RTh.
 Step 2 − Apply source transformation technique to the above Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
We will get the Norton’s equivalent circuit. Here,
Norton’s current, IN = Vth/Rth
Norton’s resistor RN = Rth
pg. 15
Example 1
Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by first finding a Norton’s equivalent circuit to the left
of terminals A and B.
Solution:
Let us solve this problem using Method 2
200 40
Vth = and RN = Rth =
3 3
200
3
IN = =5 A
40
3
The Norton’s equivalent circuit corresponding to the above Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in the
following figure.
pg. 16
By using current division principle, the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor will be
40
3
. I20 = ×5=2 A
40
+ 20
3
Therefore, the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor is 2 A.
1.2.3 Maximum power Transfer Theorem

It states that a load resistance will receive maximum power from a circuit when resistance of the load is
exactly equal to the Thevenin’s or Norton’s resistance
Rth
E t
R L
h
From the figure above diagram, current flowing in the circuit is given by:
I = Eth/(Rth + RL)
Power delivered to the load is given by
P = I2RL = E2thRL/(Rth + RL)2

Under max power condition,
RL = Rth
Pmax = E2thRth/(Rth + Rth)2
Pmax = E2thRth/(2Rth)2
Pmax = E2thRth/4R2th
Pmax = E2th/4Rth
It is similarly found that, in terms of Norton’s theorem
Pmax = INRN/4
pg. 17
Example
Consider the circuit below
6kΩ
15 V 5mA 2kΩ R L
i) Determine the value of load resistor to ensure that maximum power is transferred to the
load
ii) Find load load voltage, load current and maximum power delivered to the load
1.2.4 Millman’s Theorem

This theorem is used to simplify circuits having several parallel voltage sources.
Consider the circuit in figure (i) below. Voltage sources may be replaced with a single equivalent voltage
source as shown in figure (ii)
………………
R 1 R 2 R n
R L
E 1 E 2 E n
……………
(i)
R eq
R L
pg. 18
E eq
(ii)
Equivalent voltage (Eeq) is calculated by first determining the equivalent current (I eq) and Equivalent
resistance (Req).
Equivalent current Ieq is calculated by getting algebraic sum of branch currents
Ieq = E1/R1 + E2/R2 + E3/R3 +…….+ En/Rn
Note: Direction of individual branch currents is determined by direction of voltage source in
each branch i.e. branch current is negative when voltage source faces downwards.
To determine equivalent resistance, we first reduce voltage sources to zero by introducing a short
across each source. Then equivalent resistance is calculated from parallel combination of
resistances
Req = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + … + 1/Rn)
Equivalent voltage, Eeq = IeqReq
Example: Use Millman’s Theorem to simplify the circuit below. Use the simplified circuit to find the
current in the load resistor, RL
R R
R
1 3
1
R L
E E
E 1
2 3
Given R1 = 240Ω, R2 = 200Ω, R3 = 800Ω, RL = 192Ω, E1 = 96V, E2 = 40V and E3 = 80V

Determine equivalent current
Ieq = -96/240 + 40/200 + -80/800 = -0.3A
Determine equivalent resistance external to load resistor
Req = 1/(1/240 + 1/200 + 1/800) = 96Ω
Determine the equivalent voltage in the circuit
pg. 19
Eeq = IeqReq = -0.3 × 96 = -28.8V
Millman’s equivalent circuit is shown below
I L
96Ω
192Ω
28.8V
Note: Eeq faces downwards since it is negative

Load current is given by
IL = 28.8/(96 + 192) = 0.1A
pg. 20
CHAPTER TWO: TRANSIENTS

2.1 Introduction
This chapter explores the response of capacitors and inductors to sudden changes in DC voltage (called
a transient voltage), when wired in series with a resistor. Unlike resistors, which respond instantaneously
to applied voltage, capacitors and inductors react over time as they absorb and release energy.
Definition: The behavior of the current i(t) charge, q(t) and the voltage, v(t) in the circuit (like from the
time switch is closed until it reaches its final value is called dc transient response of the circuit.
2.2 Growth and Decay in R-C Circuit

Consider a circuit containing a capacitor of capacitance C and a resistor R connected to a constant source
of emf (battery) through a switch key (K) as shown below in the figure below.
Source of Emf, E can be connected or disconnected from the circuit using this two way key
iii) Growth of Charge (Capacitor Charging)

When the switch is placed on contact a, battery is connected in the circuit. Current starts to flow through
capacitor C and resistor R. By KVL, at any given time,
E = VR + VC ……………………(i)
VR - voltage drop on resistor
VC - voltage drop on capacitor
q
E = Ri + ……………………….(ii)
C
Where i is instantaneous current flowing in the circuit, c is capacitance and q is the charge on capacitor
pg. 21
q
(Rem: v= )
C
 Initial condition (t = 0)
At the instant the switch is closed, capacitor has not begun to charge i.e Vc = 0.
Hence E = Ri
E
i= - It is the maximum current, I flowing in circuit hence,
R
E
I= ……………………………….(iii)
R
 Charging period(t ˃ 0)
As the capacitor begins to charge, its charge, q increases and so is capacitor voltage Vc. Since E is
constant, VR decreases gradually.
 Steady state condition(t = ∞)
When the switch has been closed for a long time, the capacitor becomes fully charged. Its voltage equals
source voltage. An open circuit appears across its terminals so that charging stops. The circuit appears
open hence current, i equals to zero. Since Vc = E, VR = 0
q
E=
C
Equations for circuit voltages and current during charging of capacitor

E = VR + VC
q
E = Ri + ………………..(i)
C
dVc
RC +Vc=E ………………(ii)
dt
The equation (ii) can be solved for Vc using basic calculus
VC = E(1 – e-t/RC) …………………(iii)
This is the voltage drop on capacitor at any given time during capacitor charging
The voltage drop on resistor is given as:
VR = Ee-t/RC ………………..(iv)
pg. 22
And the instantaneous current flowing is given as

E -t/RC
i= e …………………(v)
R
a) Decay of Charge (Capacitor discharging)

When the switch is placed on contact b, battery is disconnected from the circuit. The source of circuit
current is the fully charged capacitor. Current therefore starts to flow in the opposite direction from
capacitor to resistor. Capacitor discharges and its voltage decreases. Since resistor does not store voltage
and it fully depends on capacitor voltage, resistor voltage also decreases proportionately
Capacitor discharging Equations

At any given time, from KVL
VC – VR = 0
dVc
Vc−¿ RC =0
dt
dVc
Vc=¿ RC
dt
Again from basic calculus:
VC = Ee-t/RC ……………..(i)
VR = Ee-t/RC ……………..(ii)
E -t/RC
i= e ……………..(iii)
R
Time constant (τ) in RC circuit
The term RC is referred to as time constant of RC transient circuits. It is the product of capacitance and
resistance. It is the time required to charge the capacitor, through the resistor, from an initial charge
voltage of zero to approximately 63.2% of the value of an applied DC voltage, or to discharge the
capacitor through the same resistor to approximately 36.8% of its initial charge voltage. It is denoted by
Greek letter tau(τ) and is measured in seconds
τ = RC
Relationship between time constant and cut-off frequency(fc)
1
τ =
2 πfc
pg. 23
2.3 Growth and Decay in R-L Circuits

Consider the circuit below. A series combination of an inductor L and a resistor R are connected across a
cell of e.m.f. E through a switch S as shown.
Growth of Current
When the switch is closed, current starts flowing in a closed circuit from the source Emf. Therefore from
KVL at any instant of time:
E = VR + V L
E - Source Emf
VR – voltage drop across resistor, R.
VL – voltage drop across inductor, L.
di
But VL ¿ L and VR = Ri
dt
di
Therefore: E = Ri + L
dt
Where i is the instantaneous current in amperes.
Initial condition (t = 0)
At the instant of closing the switch, the inductor develops self-induced emf which opposes an instant
current change. Its terminals appear open hence the initial circuit current is zero(i = 0). Initial dropp at the
resistor is also zero. An open circuit voltage equivalent to E therefore appears across the inductor
terminals i.e
i=0
VR = Ri = 0
di
E = VL = L
dt
After sometime (t˃0)
After the switch has been closed for some time, The inductor terminals close, current starts flowing and
increases gradually since an instant increase or change is opposed by the effect of inductance. V R also
increases. Since E is constant, VL decreases proportionally to VR
At steady state (t = ∞)
After the switch has been closed for so long, VL finally reduces to zero. A short circuit develops across
the inductor terminals. i. reaches it maximum value so does VR. Since E is still constant. Therefore:
VL = 0
pg. 24
E = Ri
E
i= this is maximum current I, flowing in the circuit hence
R
E
I=
R
Current growth curve
2.4Equations for circuit voltages and current during current growth in RL circuit
At any given time:
di
E = Ri + L ………………..(i)
dt
Equation (i) can be solved using basic calculus so that
The value of instantaneous current

E
i= (1 – e-Rt/L)
R
The voltage drop across resistor
VR¿ E (1 – e-Rt/L)
The voltage drop across inductor
VL¿ E e-Rt/L
Decay of current
When the switch is disconnected from the circuit, the source Emf becomes zero, hence
di
0 = Ri + L
dt
Again from calculus, it is found that
E -Rt/L
i= e ) …………………(i)
R
VR¿ E e-Rt/L ………………...(ii)
pg. 25
VL¿ E e-Rt/L ………………….(iii)
Current decay curve
Time constant in RL circuit

The term L/R is the time constant in the circuit in seconds
Example 1: A current of I = 10 A is passed through the part of a circuit shown in the figure. What will be
the potential difference between A and B when I is decreased at constant rate of 10 2 amp/s, at the
beginning?
Solution : Applying the law of potential between the points A and B we obtain,
VB − VA = −IR + E −L di/dt
=> VB − VA = −10 × 2 + 12 − 5 × 10-3 × 102
=> VB − VA = −20 + 12 − 0.5
=> VB − VA = −8.5 volt.
Example 2: A cell of 1.5 V is connected across an inductor of 2 mH in series with a 2 Ω resistor. What is
the rate of growth of current immediately after the cell is switched on.
Solution:
di
E = Ri + L
dt
pg. 26
di E−Ri
=
dt L
E = 1.5 volt , R = 2Ω , L = 2 mH = 2 × 10-3 H when the cell is switched on, I = 0
Hence
di E 1.5
= = = 750 A/s
dt L 0.002
Exercise
1. An uncharged capacitor of 0.2uF is connected to a 100V d.c supply through a resistor of 100kΩ.
Determine the capacitor voltage 10ms after the switch is closed.
2. A 50uF uncharged capacitor is connected in series with a 1kΩ resistor and the circuit is switched
to 100V d.c supply. Determine
i) The initial current flowing in the circuit
ii) The time constant
iii) The value of current when t = 50ms
iv) The voltage across the resistor 60ms after closing the switch
3. For an RL circuit, i = 40(1 – e -5t)A and vL = 100e-5tV. determine the values of E, time constant, R
and L
pg. 27
CHAPTER THREE: THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Introduction: A 3-phase induction motor is an electromechanical energy conversion device which
converts 3-phase input electrical power into output mechanical power. An induction motor is also called
asynchronous motor as it runs at a speed other than the synchronous speed. Like any other electrical
motor, induction motors have two main parts – the rotor and the stator.
3.1. Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor

It mainly consists of stator which is stationary part and rotating part called rotor. A closer look at the
internal structures of the motor reveals the following parts:
pg. 28
A table showing the different parts of motor, the material used for the parts and function of the parts :
Parts Material Function
Stator
frame Cast iron Supports the core. Protects inner-parts.
Stator core Silicon steel Houses stator winding.
Stator
Winding Copper coils Produce rotating magnetic field.
Rotor core Silicon steel Houses rotor winding.
Rotor
winding Copper coils To produce rotor current.
Separates stator and rotor. It is through

Air gap – which emf is induced into rotor conductors
Air inlet-
outlet – For air circulation.
pg. 29
Cooling
fan Aluminium or steel For air circulation.
Connects resistance to rotor circuit via-

Slip-rings Phosphorus Bronze brushes.
To provide connection between resistance

Brushes Carbon and slip-rings.
Mild steel, chromium- Transmits electrically induced torque to

Shaft vanadium alloy the load
3.2. Classification of 3-Φ Induction Motor

Depending upon the type of rotor used the three-phase induction motor is classified into to two i.e
a) Squirrel cage induction motor
b) Slip Ring Induction Motor or Wound Rotor Induction Motor
3.2.1 Squirrel cage induction motor

The squirrel cage is a cylindrical, skewed conductor that fits around the shaft. The skewed conductors
prevent cogging and reduces magnetic humming which causes a lower torque at start-up. They also help
to provide a better transformation ratio between the rotor and stator. The rotor has a fan attached to the
backside to provide heat exchange and keep the motor temperature within limits.
The motor’s bearings are used to ensure a smooth rotation. It uses a series of small steel bars to provide
torque to a rotating rotor.
Advantages of Squirrel Cage IM
Some advantages of squirrel cage induction motors are:
 They are low cost
 Require less maintenance (as there are no slip rings or brushes)
pg. 30
 Good speed regulation
 High efficiency in converting electrical energy to mechanical energy (while running, not during
startup)
 Have better heat regulation
 Small and lightweight
 Explosion proof (as there are no brushes which eliminate the risks of sparking)
Disadvantages of Squirrel Cage IM

 Very poor speed control
 Although they are energy efficient while running at full load current, they consume a lot of
energy on startup
 They are more sensitive to fluctuations in the supply voltage. When the supply voltage is reduced,
induction motor draws more current. During voltage surges, increase in voltage saturates the
magnetic components of the squirrel cage induction motor
 They have high starting current and poor starting torque (the starting current can be 5-9 times the
full load current; the starting torque can be 1.5-2 times the full load torque)
Applications of Squirrel Cage IM

These motors are widely used in industrial applications because of their constant-speed, durability and
low maintenance applications.
They are commonly used in:
 Centrifugal pumps
 Industrial drives (e.g. to run conveyor belts)
 Large blowers and fans
 Machine tools
 Lathes and other turning equipment
3.2.2 Slip Ring Induction Motor or Wound Rotor Induction Motor

The rotor of this type of motor is wound type. It comprises of a cylindrical laminated steel core and a
semi-closed groove at the outer boundary to accommodate a 3-phase insulated winding circuit.
pg. 31
As seen in the figure above, the rotor is wound to match the number of poles on the stator. The three
terminals of a rotor and three start terminals connecting through slip rings are connected to a shaft. The
aim of the shaft is to transmit mechanical power.
Difference Between Squirrel Cage and Slip Ring Induction Motor
The difference between these two motors is discussed below.
Slip Ring Motor Squirrel Cage Motor
It has a rotor of wound type Its rotor is of squirrel cage type
Rotor has cylindrical core has parallel slots, in

which each slot has a bar Slots are not parallel to each other
Construction is complicated because of slip rings

and brushes Construction is simple
No external resistance circuit as bars of the rotor

External resistance circuit is connected with a motor is completely slotted
Starting torque is high Torque is low
Efficiency is low Efficiency is high
Advantages and Disadvantages of Slip Ring Induction Motor
The advantages are
 High and excellent starting torque to support high inertia loads.
 It has a low starting current due to external resistance
 Can take full load current that is 6 to 7 times higher
The disadvantages are
 Includes higher maintenance costs due to brushes and slip rings compared to squirrel cage motor
pg. 32
 Intricate construction
 High copper loss
 Low efficiency and low power factor
 Expensive than 3 phase squirrel cage induction motor

Applications
 These motors are used where higher torque and low starting current are required.
 Used in applications like elevators, compressors, cranes, conveyors, hoists, and many more
3.3 Working Principle Of 3-Φ Induction Motor

The stator winding is fed from 3-phase supply and the rotor winding derives its voltage and power from
the stator winding through electromagnetic induction. Therefore, the working principle of a 3-phase
induction motor is fundamentally based on electromagnetic induction.
The working of the motor can be explained by using the diagram below:
 When the stator winding is connected to a balanced three phase supply, a rotating magnetic field
(RMF) is setup which rotates around the stator at synchronous speed (Ns). Where,
120 f
Ns ¿
P
Where f is supply frequency and P is the number of poles.
 The RMF passes through air gap and cuts the rotor conductors, which are stationary at start. Due
to relative motion between RMF and the stationary rotor, an EMF is induced in the rotor
conductors. Since the rotor circuit is short-circuited, a current starts flowing in the rotor
conductors.
 Now, the current carrying rotor conductors are in a magnetic field created by the stator. As a
result of this, mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of mechanical forces on all
the rotor conductors produces a torque which tries to move the rotor in the same direction as the
RMF.
pg. 33
 Hence, the induction motor starts to rotate. From, the above discussion, it can be seen that the
three phase induction motor is self-starting motor. The rotor accelerates up to a speed(N) just
below synchronous speed.
3.3.1 Slip (S) in an Induction Motor
Slip in an induction motor is the difference between the main flux speed and rotor speed. It is expressed
by the percentage of synchronous speed. Mathematically, it is written as:
Ns - synchronous speed
N- rotor speed
The value of slip at full load varies from 6% in the case of a small motor and 2% in a large motor.
Why Induction motor rotor speed is always less than synchronous speed
If the speed of the rotor is equal to the synchronous speed, no relative motion occurs between the
stationary rotor conductors and the main field. Then no EMF induces in the rotor and zero current
generates on the rotor conductors. The electromagnetic torque is also not induced.
The difference between the synchronous speed and the actual speed of the rotor is known as the slip
speed.
Slip speed S=Ns−N
Ns−N
Per unit slip (fractional slip) s=
Ns
Rotor speed is therefore given by:
N=Ns−sNs
N=Ns (1−s)
Importance of Slip
Slip plays an essential role in the induction motor. As we know, the slip speed is the difference between
the synchronous and rotor speed of the induction motor. The emf induces in the rotor because of the
relative motion, or we can say the slip speed of the motor. So,
pg. 34
The rotor current is directly proportional to the induced emf.
The torque is directly proportional to the rotor current.
Therefore,
Hence, torque is directly proportional to slip.
3.3.2 Rotor Current Frequency
The frequency of current and voltage in the stator of a 3-phase induction motor must be same as the
supply frequency and is given by:
NsP
f= ……………………..(i)
120
But the frequency of the current and EMF in the rotor circuit of the 3-phase induction motor is variable
and depends upon the difference between the synchronous speed (NS) and the rotor speed (Nr), i.e., on the
slip. Thus, the rotor frequency is given by:
( Ns−N )P
fr= ……………………..(ii)
120
Now, from the equations (i) and (ii), we get:
fr Ns−N
= =s
f Ns
Therefore fr = sf
3.3.3 Rotor EMF
pg. 35
When the rotor is stationary, the 3-phase induction motor behaves as a 3-phase transformer with
secondary winding short circuited. Thus, the per phase induced EMF in the rotor (or secondary) is given
by:
N2
E2 ¿ E 1× =KE 1
N1
 E1 = Per phase stator voltage.
 N1 = Number of turns in stator winding per phase.
 N2 = Number of turns in rotor winding per phase.
When the rotor is running at slip ‘s’, then the relative speed between the rotating magnetic field of the
stator and the rotor is (NS – Nr). Therefore, the rotor EMF is directly proportional to the (NS – Nr) or slip
(s), i.e
E’2 ¿ sKE1
3.3.4 Rotor Current and Power Factor
Let k = 1
Rotor Emf/phase E’2 ¿ sE1
Rotor reactance/phase X’2 = sX2
Where, X2 is the rotor reactance per phase at standstill condition. The resistance of the rotor circuit is
R2 per phase and is independent of the frequency and hence does not depend upon slip. Similarly, the
resistance (R1) and reactance (X1) of the stator winding do not depend upon slip.
Case 1 – When the rotor is stationary
When the rotor is stationary, the motor is at standstill (slip, s = 1)
E2 E2
Rotor current/phase I2¿ =
Z 2 √ R 22+ X 22
R2
Rotor p.f , cosΦ2 ¿
√ R 22 + X 22
pg. 36
Case 2 – When the motor is running at slip ‘s’
sE 2 sE 2
Rotor current/phase I’2¿ =
Z ' 2 √ R 22+¿ ¿ ¿
R2
Rotor p.f , cosΦ2 ¿
√ R 2 +(sX 2)2
2
Example 1
A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has 8 poles and operates with a slip of 4 % at a certain load. Determine
the frequency of the rotor current.
Solution: fr = sf = 0.04 × 50 = 2Hz
Example 2
A 3-phase, 4-pole induction motor is connected to a 50 Hz supply. The voltage induced in the rotor bar
conductors is 5 V when the rotor is at standstill. Calculate the voltage and frequency induced in the rotor
conductors at 500 RPM.
Solution:
Ns = (120f)/p = (120 × 50)/4 = 1500rpm
s= (Ns – Nr)/Ns = (1500 - 500)/1500 = 0.67
E’2 = sE2 = 0.67 × 5 = 3.35 volts
f’r= sf 0.67 × 50 = 33.5Hz
3.3.5 Torque Equation of 3-phase IM
The torque (T) developed in a three phase induction motor depends upon the following three factors:
1. The rotating magnetic field which is responsible in producing Induced EMF in the rotor(φ)
2. Magnitude of rotor current in motor running condition (I’2),
3. The power factor of rotor of the three phase induction motor (cosθ2).
pg. 37
The flux Φ produced by the stator is proportional to stator emf supply voltage E1.
i.e E1 ∞ Φ
Remember: k = E2/E1
k = E2/Φ
When k= 1, E2 = Φ
Putting the values of flux Φ, rotor current I 2 and power factor(cosӨ) found previously in torque equation
above, we get
R2
T ∞ sE22 2 2
R 2 +(sX 2)
R2
T = skE22 2 2
R 2 +(sX 2)
3
The constant k =
2 πn
Where n is synchronous speed in revolutions per second (rps) and n= Ns/60
Hence the torque finally becomes
R2 3
T = sE22 × newton-metres
R 2 +(sX 2) 2 πn
2 2
This is Torque Equation of Three Phase Induction Motor
Power Flow in three phase Induction Motor

NOTE- Motors are always rated in kilowatts(kW) or megawatts(MW) for large motors or watts(W) for
small motors
The power input to the stator windings is
Pis = √3VLILCosΦ = 3VsphIsphCosΦ - in all three phases
Pis = VsphIsphCosΦ - per phase
Pis = power input to the stator windings
VL = line voltage
pg. 38
IL = line current
CosΦ = power factor
Vsph = stator phase voltage
Isph = stator phase current
Stator losses = Psc + Psh
Psc = stator copper loss = 3Isph2Rsph
Psc = stator core loss which includes eddy current and hysteresis losses
Power output from stator Pos = Pis – Stator Losses
This output power of the stator (Pos) is transferred to the rotor of the machine across the air-gap between
the stator and the rotor. It is also known as air-gap power (Pg) of the machine or rotor input power.
Rotor Losses:
Rotor copper loss = 3Ir2Rr
Ir – rotor current
Rr – rotor resistance
Rotor core losses = Prc – includes hysteresis(Ph) and eddy current loss(Pe)
Friction and windage loss = Pfw
Stray load losses = Pmisc inclusding any other loss e.g due to harmonic effects
Mechanical power developed by the rotor
Pm = Pg – Rotor copper loss
Useful output power from the roror
Po = Pm - (Prc + Pfw + Pmisc)
Po is the useful power developed my the motor to do work
The power flow is illustrated by the diagram below
pg. 39
NOTE: Po=ωT
Po = Useful output power of the rotor
ω = angular velocity in rads/second

T = rotor output torque
ω = 2πn where n is rotor speed in revolutions per second

Hence Po=2 πnT
¿
Efficiency ή = power output ¿ the rotor the rotor ¿ × 100
power input ¿
Po
= × 100
Pg
Rem: Pg = Po + sum of rotor losses
For solved problems and exercises, refer to:
 Electrical and electronic principle and Technology (pg 355 to 371)

 A Text Book of Electrical Technology by Theraja (topic: Induction Motors)
Exercises
pg. 40
1. The stator of a 3-phase, 4-pole induction motor is connected to a 50Hz supply. The rotor
runs at 1455rpm at full load. Determine
a) Synchronous speed
b) The slip at full load
2. A 3-phase, 50Hz induction motor has 8 poles. If the full load slip is 2.5 per cent.
Determine
a) The synchronous speed
b) The rotor speed
c) The frequency of the rotor emf
3. A 12-pole, 3-phase, 50Hz induction motor runs at 475rpm. Determine
a) The slip speed
b) The percentage slip
c) The frequency of the rotor current
4. The power supplied to a 3-phase induction motor is 50kW and the stator losses are 2kW.
If the slip is 4%, determine
a) The rotor copper loss
b) The total mechanical power developed by the rotor
c) The output power of the motor if friction and windage losses are 1kW
d) The efficiency of the motor, neglecting rotor iron losses
CHAPTER FOUR: THREE PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
pg. 41
Introduction: A synchronous machine is an electromechanical transducer which converts mechanical

energy into electrical energy or vice versa. The fundamental phenomenon or law which makes these
conversions possible are known as the Law of Electromagnetic Induction and Law of interaction invented
by English physicist, Michael Faraday.
The rotor and stator fields are locked in synchronism and both rotate at same synchronous speed hence
the name synchronous machine. The synchronous speed is given by
120 f
Ns¿
P
4.1 Law of Electro-Magnetic Induction
This law is also called Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction. This law relates to the
production of emf, i.e. emf is induced in a conductor whenever it cuts across the magnetic field as shown
below:
4.2 Law of Interaction

This law relates to the production of force or torque, i.e., whenever a current-carrying conductor is placed
in the magnetic field, by the interaction of the magnetic field produced by the current-carrying conductor
and the main field, force is exerted on the conductor producing torque. The figure is shown below:
Like induction machines, synchronous machines are broadly classified into

 Synchronous generator
 Synchronous motor
4.3 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR (ALTERNATOR)
pg. 42
Synchronous generator converts mechanical power into AC electrical power. It is also known as
alternator or AC generator because it generates AC quantities i.e AC current and voltage. It is either
classified as single phase or polyphaser(3-phase).
The diagram below is a typical synchronous generator showing its internal structures.
4.3.1. Construction of Alternator

An alternator is similar to DC generator in construction, but there is one major difference:
 In DC generator, the armature windings are on rotor which rotate to induce emf in stationary field
windings on the stator. In alternator, field windings are mounted on the rotor and rotate to induce
emf in stationary armature windings on the stator.
The alternator is majorly composed of the following parts:
 Stator
 Rotor
 Miscellaneous
4.3.1.1. Stator Construction

The stationary part of the machine is called Stator. It includes the following parts:
 Stator Frame
It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron, and it protects the inner parts of the machine.
pg. 43
 Stator Core
The stator core is made of silicon steel material. It is made from a number of stamps that are insulated
from each other. Its function is to provide an easy path for the magnetic lines of force and accommodate
the stator winding.
 Stator Winding
Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core in which 3 phase or 1 phase winding is placed.
Enameled copper is used as a winding material. The winding is star-connected. The winding of each
phase is distributed over several slots. When the current flows in a distributed winding it produces a
sinusoidal emf.
4.3.1.2. Rotor Construction

The rotating part of the machine is called Rotor. There are two types of rotor construction, namely the
salient pole type and the cylindrical rotor type.
 Salient Pole Rotor
The term salient means projecting. Thus, a salient pole rotor consists of poles projecting out from the
surface of the rotor core as shown below in the figure:
Since the rotor is subjected to changing magnetic fields, it is made of steel laminations to reduce eddy
current losses. They are constructed for medium and low speeds as they have a large number of poles.
The salient pole rotor has the following important parts.
Spider: It is made of cast iron to provide an easy path for magnetic flux.
Pole Core and Pole Shoe: It is made of laminated steel sheet material. The Pole core provides
the least reluctance path for the magnetic field and the pole shoe distributes the field over the whole
periphery uniformly to produce a sinusoidal wave.
pg. 44
Field Winding or Exciting Winding: It is wound on the former and then placed around the pole core.
DC supply is given to it through slip rings. When direct current flows through the field winding, it
produces the required magnetic field.
Damper Winding: At the outermost periphery, holes are provided in which copper bars are inserted and
short-circuited at both sides by rings forming Damper winding.
 Non- Salient Pole Rotor or Cylindrical Rotor

There are no projected poles. Cylindrical rotors are made from solid forgings of high-grade nickel
chrome-molybdenum steel.
It has a comparatively small diameter and long axial length. They are useful in high-speed machines.
Non-salient pole-type rotors have the following parts. They are as follows:
Rotor Core: The rotor core is made of silicon steel stampings. It is placed on the shaft. At the outer
periphery, slots are cut in which exciting coils are placed.
Rotor Winding or Exciting Winding: It is placed on the rotor slots, and the current is passed through
the winding in such a way that the poles are formed according to the requirement.
Slip Rings: Slip rings provide DC supply to the rotor windings.
 Miscellaneous Parts
Brushes: Brushes are made of carbon, and they slip over the slip rings. A DC supply is given to the
brushes. Current flows from the brushes to the slip rings and then to the exciting windings.
Bearings: Bearings are provided between the shaft and the outer stationary body to reduce the friction.
They are made of high carbon steel.
pg. 45
Shaft: The shaft is made of mild steel. Mechanical power is taken or given to the machine through the
shaft.
4.3.2. Operation of Alternator
When the rotor field winding of the alternator is energised from the DC exciter, the alternate N and S
poles are developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in the anticlockwise direction by a prime
mover, the armature conductors placed on the stator are cut by the magnetic field of the rotor poles. As a
result, the emf is induced in the armature conductors due to electromagnetic induction. This induced emf
is alternating one because the N and S poles of the rotor pass the armature conductors alternatively.
The direction of the generated emf can be determined by the Fleming’s right rule and its frequency is
given by
NsP
f=
120
Ns- synchronous speed in rpm
P- number of rotor poles
The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage
dΦ
emf =N
dt
N- number of stator coil turns
For the balanced condition, the generated voltage in each phase of the winding is the same but differ in
phase by 120° electrical. The waveforms of generated voltages in the three phases are shown below:
pg. 46
4.3.3. Generated EMF Equation of an Alternator
Let
P = No. of poles
Z = No. of conductors/phase i.e. Z = 2T…Where T is the number of coils or turns per phase
f = frequency of induced emf in Hz
Φ = Flux per pole (Weber)
N = rotor speed (RPM)
emf wth distributed winding

Kd = Distribution factor =
emf withconcentrated winding
vector ∑ of induced emf per coil

Kc = pitch factor ¿
arithmetic ∑ of induced emf per coil
If induced emf is assumed sinusoidal then,
Kf = Form factor = 1.11
In one revolution of the rotor i.e. in 60/N seconds, each conductor is cut by a flux of ΦP Webers.
ΦP NΦP
Average Emf/phase/conductor = =
60/ N 60
For Z conductor,
NΦPZ
Average emf/phase =
60
pg. 47
But P= 120f/N
Average emf/phase = 2 ΦfZ=4 ΦfT since Z=2 T
Root means square (rms) value of emf = emf =1.11× average value
EMFrms/phase ¿ 4.44 ΦfT
The actual phase emf generated is given as
EMFrms/phase = 4.44 KC Kd f ΦT volts.
Where:
 KC = Coil Span Factor or Pitch Factor

 Kd = Distribution Factor
NOTE:
Distribution factor Kd is determined by the following expressions
emf wth distributed winding sinmβ /2

Kd = =
emf withconcentrated winding msinβ /2
180 180
β¿ =
No . of slots / pole n
m=¿ number of slots/phase/pole
Pitch factor, Kp or coil factor, Kc is determined by the following expressions
vector ∑ of induced emf per coil

Kc ¿ =Cosα /2
arithmetic ∑ of induced emf per coil
α = electrical angle at which coil span falls short of full pitch
Example
Calculate the distribution factor for 36-slots, 4-pole, single layer three-phase winding
n = 36/4 = 9
β = 180/9 = 20
pg. 48
m = 36/(4 × 3) = 3
20
sin(3 × )
Kd 2
¿ =0.96
3 sin 20 /2
4.3.4. Starting of synchronous machine
Above a certain size, synchronous machines are not self-starting. This property is due to the inertia of the
rotor; it cannot instantly follow the rotation of the magnetic field of the stator. Once the rotor nears the
synchronous speed, the field winding is excited, and the motor pulls into synchronization.
Methods of Starting Synchronous Machine
i) Using pony motor
In this method, the rotor is brought to the synchronous speed with the help of some external device like
small induction motor. Such an external device is called ‘pony motor’.
Once the rotor attains the synchronous speed, the d.c. excitation to the rotor is switched on. Once the
synchronism is established pony motor is decoupled. The motor then continues to rotate as synchronous
motor.
ii) Using Damper Winding
In addition to the normal field winding, the additional winding consisting of copper bars are placed in the
slots in the pole faces. The bars are short circuited with the help of end rings. Such an additional winding
on the rotor is called damper winding.
pg. 49
These windings are short circuited, acts as a squirrel cage rotor winding of an induction motor. Then d.c.
supply is given to the field winding. At a particular instant motor gets pulled into synchronism and starts
rotating at a synchronous speed.
iii) As a Slip Ring Induction Motor
The above method of starting synchronous motor as a squirrel cage induction motor does not provide high
starting torque. So to achieve this, instead of shorting the damper winding, it is designed to a form a three
phase star or delta connected winding. The three ends of this winding are brought out through slip rings.
An external rheostat then can be introduced in series with the rotor circuit. So when stator is excited, the
motor starts as a slip ring induction motor and due to resistance added in the rotor provides high starting
torque. The resistance is then gradually cut off, as motor gathers speed. When motor attains speed near
synchronous. d.c. excitation is provided to the rotor, then motors gets pulled into synchronism ang starts
rotating at synchronous speed.
The initial resistance added in the rotor not only provides high starting torque but also limits high inrush
of starting current. Hence it acts as a motor resistance starter.
pg. 50
iv) Using Small D.C. Machine
This machine is used as a d.c. motor to rotate the synchronous motor at a synchronous speed. Then the
excitation to the rotor is provided. Once motor starts running as a synchronous motor, the same d.c.
machine acts as a d.c. generator called exciter. The field of the synchronous motor is then excited by this
exciter itself.
4.3.5. Synchronization of Alternators

Synchronization is the process of matching the speed and frequency of a generator or other source to
a running network. An AC generator cannot deliver power to an electrical grid unless it is running at the
same frequency as the network. If two segments of a grid are disconnected, they cannot exchange AC
power again until they are brought back into exact synchronization.
Note: A stationary generator must not be connected to live Busbars because the induced EMF is zero at
standstill resulting in a short circuit.
Conditions Required for Paralleling Alternators

In order to connect an alternator in parallel with another alternator or an alternator to the infinite busbars,
the following conditions are met:
 The phase sequence of the voltages of the incoming alternator should be the same as that of the
busbars.
 The terminal voltage of the incoming alternator must be the same as the busbar voltage.
 The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming alternator must be equal to frequency of
the busbar voltage.
4.4 Methods of Synchronizing generators
4.4.1 Synchronization by Synchronizing lamps
A dark lamp method along with a voltmeter used for synchronizing is shown below. This method is used
for low-power machines.
pg. 51
The lights will flicker at the frequency proportional to the difference between generator frequency and
system frequency as the generator speed changes. When the voltage at the generator is opposite to the
system voltage, the lamps will be bright. On the other hand, when the voltage at the generator matches the
system voltage, the lights will be dark. If lamps flicker concurrently, it indicates the phase sequence of
the generator matches with the grid. If they flicker one after another, it shows the incorrect phase
sequence.
Advantages of the Dark Lamp Method
 This method is cheaper.

 The correct phase sequence is easily determined.
Disadvantages of the Dark Lamp Method
 The lamp becomes dark at about half of its rated voltage. Hence, it is possible that the
synchronizing switch might be switched off even when there is a phase difference between the
machine.
 The filament of the lamp might burn out.
 The flicker of the lamps does not indicate which lamp has the higher frequency.
4.4.2 Synchronization by Synchroscope
The Synchroscope is an instrument inserted between incoming generator and bus bar and it compares the
voltage from one phase of the incoming alternator with that of the corresponding phase of the 3-phase
system.
pg. 52
The position of the pointer of the Synchroscope indicates the phase difference between the voltages of the
incoming alternator and the infinite busbar.
 When the frequencies of the two voltages are equal, the pointer remains stationary.
 When the frequencies differ, the pointer rotates in one direction or the other.
The speed of the rotation of the pointer is equal to the difference between the frequency of the incoming
alternator and the frequency of the infinite busbar.
When the pointer of the Synchroscope moves very slowly, that is the two frequencies are almost same
and passes through the zero-phase point, the circuit breaker is closed and the incoming alternator is
connected to the busbar.
Limitation of Synchroscope
Synchroscope checks the relationships only on one phase and it does give any information about the
phase sequence.
4.4.3 Characteristics of synchronous machine
 The speed is synchronous and does not depend on load conditions.

 External force is required to start the synchronous motor as it has no starting torque.
 The power rating of synchronous motors ranges between 150kW to 15MW.
 The Synchronous Motors are highly efficient machines and their efficiency is much
 The Synchronous motors use brushless Exciter which decreases the maintenance problem.greater
than induction motors.
Application Areas of Synchronous Motors
pg. 53
 The basic use of a synchronous motor is power factor correction which means to increase the
power factor of a system.
 voltage regulation
 for low speed, high power loads.
 air and gas compressors and vacuum pumps.
 crushers, mills and grinders.
 exhausters, fans, and blowers.
Example
A 3-phase, 16-pole alternator has star-connected winding with 144 slots and 10 conductors per slot. Then
flux per pole is 0.03Wb, sinusoidally distributed and the speed is 375 rpm. Find the frequency, phase and
line e.m.f. Assume full-pitched coil
Solution:
Frequency, f = PN/120
(16 × 375)/ 120 = 50Hz
Since kc is not given, it’s assumed unity
n = 144/16 = 9, β = 180/9 = 20o, m = 144/(16 ×3) = 3
kd = sin 3 ×(20o/2)/3sin(20o/2) = 0.96
Z = 144 × 10/3 = 480; T = 480/2 = 240/phase
Eph = 4.44 × 1 × 0.96 × 50 × 0.03 × 240 = 15.34V
EL = √3 × 15.34 = 26.58V
Exercise
pg. 54
1. Find the number of armature conductors in series per phase required for the armature of a
3-phase, 50Hz, 10-pole alternator. The winding is star-connected to give a line voltage of
11kV. The flux per pole is 0.16Wb. assume Kp = 1 and Kd = 0.96
2. The armature of an 8-pole, 3-phase, 50Hz alternator has 18 slots and 10 conductors per
slot. A flux of 0.04Wb is entering the armature from one pole. Calculate the induced emf
per phase.
CHAPTER 5: TWO PORT NETWORK
Introduction: A two-port network is an electrical network (circuit) or device with two pairs of
terminals to connect to external circuits. the electric current entering one terminal must equal the current
emerging from the other terminal on the same port. The ports constitute interfaces where the network
connects to other networks i.e the points where signals are applied or outputs are taken. In a two-port
network, often port 1 is considered the input port and port 2 is considered the output port.
The two-port network model is used in mathematical circuit analysis techniques to isolate portions of
larger circuits. A two-port network is regarded as a "black box" with its properties specified by
a matrix of numbers.
5.1 Importance of two port analysis
 It allows the response of the network to signals applied to the ports to be calculated easily,
without solving for all the internal voltages and currents in the network.
 It also allows similar circuits or devices to be compared easily.
Examples of circuits analyzed as two-ports are
 filters
 matching networks
 transmission lines
 transformers
 small-signal models for transistors
5.2 Two-port mathematical models
The network is described by a 2 by 2 square matrix of complex numbers. Common models that are
used in transmission line analysis are
 z-parameters,
pg. 55
 y-parameters
 ABCD-parameters
Consider the below two-port network
5.3 Impedance (Z) Parameters
They are properties used in electrical engineering to describe the electrical behavior of linear electrical
networks. These Z-parameters are used in Z-matrixes to calculate the incoming and outgoing voltages and
currents of a network. Since they are calculated in open circuit condition, they are also known as open-
circuit parameters. Z parameter values are measured in Ohms(Ω)
Impedance Z = V/I hence possible values of Z are V1/I1, V1/I2, V2/I1, V2/I2
These values can be determined by either putting I1 = 0 or I2 = 0
To reduce current to zero, the circuit must be opened hence the name open circuit parameters
The resultant matrix should be of the form [V] = [Z][I]
Z11 = V1/I1 when I2 = 0 – open circuit input impedance
Z12 = V1/I2 when I1 = 0 - open circuit transfer impedance from input port to output port.
Z21 = V2/I1 when I2 = 0 – open circuit transfer impedance from output port to input port
Z22 = V2/I2 when I1 = 0 – open circuit output impedance
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2 ……………………..(i)
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2 ………………………(ii)
The matrix is shown below:
5.4 Admittance parameters (y-parameters)
pg. 56
The admittance of the network is calculated.

Since admittance Y = I/V, we determine the four admittances by putting either V 1 = 0 or V2 = 0
For voltage to be zero, we have to short the circuit hence they are also known as short circuit parameters.
Y- parameters are measured in mhos(Ω-1)
The values are written in matrix form as [I] = [Y][V]
Y11 = I1/V1 when V2 = 0 – short circuit input admittance
Y12 = I1/V2 when V1 = 0 – short circuit transfer admittance from input to output port
Y21 = I2/V1 when V2 = 0 – short circuit transfer admittance from output to input port
Y22 = I2/V2 when V1 = 0 – short circuit output admittance
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 ………………..(i)
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 …………………(ii)
The matrix is shown below
¿
5.5 ABCD Parameters

The ABCD parameters of a transmission line give the relationship of the input voltage and currents to the
output voltage and currents. They simplify complex calculations when transmission lines are cascaded.
The voltage V1 and current I1 are represented mathematically in terms of independent variables V 2 and
I2 as follows:
V1 = AV2 + BI2
I1 = CV2 + DI2
Where A, B, C and D parameters are expressed as follows:
A = V1/V2 when I2 = 0
B = V1/I2 when V2 = 0
C = I1/V2 when I2 = 0
D = I1/I2 when V2 = 0
And they are described as below:
Parameter Ratio Unit
A Open circuit reverse voltage transfer ratio Unitless
B Short circuit reverse transfer impedance Ohms
C Open circuit reverse transfer admittance Siemens
D Short circuit reverse current transfer ratio Unitless
The matrix is represented as below:
pg. 57
5.6 Characteristic Impedance

Characteristic impedance Zo of an infinite transmission line at angular frequency ω is the ratio of voltage
and current of a pure sinusoidal wave of the same frequency travelling along the line. The general
equation of characteristic impedance is given below:

Zo=
√ R+ jωL
G+ jωC
R - Resistance in Ohms(Ω/m)
 L - Inductance in Henry(H/m)
 G - Conductance in Siemens(S/m)
 C – Capacitance in Farads(F/m)
 J – the imaginary unit
 ω- angular frequency in rads/second
All these parameters are expressed in per unit length.
With R and G being very small:
Zo =
√ L
C
pg. 58
5.7 Symmetrical T Network in Network Analysis

In transmission line theory, the symmetrical T network is the most frequently used network. The
condition in the symmetrical T network is that the total series arm impedance and shunt arm impedance
must be Z1 and Z2 respectively. To have a total series arm impedance of Z1, the two series arm impedances
must be selected as Z1/2 each as shown in the Fig. 8.7.
Derivation of Characteristic impedance

 In terms of series and shunt arm impedances
Consider a symmetrical T network terminated at its output terminal with its characteristic impedance as
shown in the Fig. 8.8.
pg. 59
 In terms of open and short circuit impedances

For symmetrical networks, impedances measured at any pair of terminals with other pair of terminals
either open circuit or short circuit are of same value. Consider symmetrical T network with terminals 2-2′
either open circuit or short circuit as shown in the figure 8.9 below:
pg. 60
Multiplying equations (3) and (4), we can write,
Hence in any symmetrical network, the characteristic impedance Z 0 is the geometric mean of open and
short circuit impedances measured at any pair of terminals.
5.8 Symmetrical π Network in Network Analysis:
The Symmetrical pi Network in Network Analysis is another important network in line transmission
fulfilling the conditions of total series and shunt arm impedances as Z 1 and Z2 respectively. Thus the
series arm impedance of the network is selected as Z1 and to have a total shunt arm impedance of Z2, each
shunt arm impedance is selected as 2Z2 as shown in the Fig. 8.15.
Similar to the symmetrical T network, let us derive the expressions for the characteristic impedance (Z 0)
of the Symmetrical pi Network in Network Analysis.
Characteristic Impedance (Z0):
 In terms of series and shunt arm impedances
pg. 61
Consider a symmetrical π network terminated at its output terminals with its characteristic impedance
Z0 as shown in the Fig. 8.16.
The input impedance of a symmetrical π network is given by
Multiplying numerator and denominator by the factor Z1/4,
pg. 62
Taking square root on both the sides,
 In terms of open and short circuit impedances

Consider Symmetrical pi Network in Network Analysis shown in the Fig. 8.17 (a) and Fig. 8.17 (b).
Consider Fig. 8.17 (a),
Consider Fig. 8.17 (b),
Multiplying equations (3) and (4), we can write,
pg. 63
Thus the characteristic impedance of symmetrical π network is given by
CHAPTER 6: THREE PHASE SYSTEM

Definition: The system which uses three wires for generation, transmission and distribution is known as
the three phase system. The three phase system is also used as a single phase system if one of their phase
and the neutral wire is taken out from it. The sum of the line currents in the 3-phase system is equal to
zero, and their phases are differentiated at an electrical angle of 120º
It generally consists of three phases namely Red, Yellow and Blue in a three phase, three wire system or
the three phases and the neutral in three phase, four wire system.
Advantages of three phase system
 Requires fewer conductors com[pared to single phase system
 It gives continuous supply of load
 It has high efficiency and minimum losses
The magnitude of the currents and voltages in the three phases are equal but displaced by 120 o electrical
angle.
pg. 64
6.1 Principles of Three Phase Generation

The generation of three phase power is done by three phase AC generator or alternator. The generator has
three windings displaced apart from one another by 120 degrees electrical. When these windings are kept
stationary, and the magnetic field is rotated as shown in figure A below or when the windings are rotated
and the magnetic field kept stationary as shown in figure B, an emf is induced in each winding. The
magnitude of induced EMF is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage.
The magnitude of frequencies of the induced EMF are equal but displaced by 120 o electrical.
Explanation
Consider three identical coils a1a2, b1b2 and c1c2 as shown in the above figure. In this figure a1, b1 and
c1 are the starting terminals, whereas a2, b2 and c2 are the finish terminals of the three coils. The phase
difference of 120 degrees has to be maintained between the start terminals a 1, b1 and c1.
Let the three coils be mounted on the same axis, and they are rotated by either keeping coil stationary and
moving the magnetic field or vice versa in an anticlockwise direction at (ω) radians per seconds. Three
EMFs are induced in the three coils respectively.
pg. 65
At the beginning of generation, the EMF induced in the coil a1a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive
direction as shown by the waveform in the above figure C represented as ea1a2.
The coil b1b2 is 120 degrees electrically behind the coil a1a2. The EMF induced in this coil is negative and
is becoming maximum negative as shown by the wave eb1b2.
Similarly, the coil c1c2 is 120 degrees electrically behind the coil b1b2, or it is 240 degrees behind the coil
a1a2. The EMF induced in the coil is positive and is decreasing as shown in figure C represented by the
waveform ec1c2.
Phasor Diagram
The EMFs induced in the three coils in 3 phase circuits are of the same magnitude and frequency and are
displaced by an angle of 120 degrees from each other as shown below in the phasor diagram:
These EMFs of 3 phase circuits can be expressed in the form of the various equations given below:
pg. 66
Note: Emsin(ωt - 240) = Emsin(ωt + 120)

Power in Thee Phase Circuits
In single phase circuits, power is given by
P = VphIphCosΦ
Where,
Vph – per phase voltage
Iph – per phase current
Cosϕ - power factor of the circuit.
In 3 phase circuits (balanced load), the power is defined as the sum of various powers in a three-phase
system. i.e.
P = 3VphIphCosΦ
6.2 Types of Connections in Three-Phase System

The three-phase systems are connected in two ways i.e in star(Y) and or delta(Δ)
6.2.1 Star Connection
The star connection requires four wires in which there are three phase conductors and one neutral
conductor. Such type of connection is mainly used distribution of power because it has a neutral point.
The neutral point passes the unbalanced current to the earth and hence make the system balance.
Phase voltages are voltages between phase and neutral e.g ENR, ENY, ENB and phase currents are INR, INY,
INB. Line voltages are
voltages between any two phases e.g ERY, EYB and EBR and line currents are IR, IY, IB.
Relationship between Line and Phase voltages and currents in Y-connected system
pg. 67
 Line and phase voltages

From the figure above ERY = ENR - ENY
Taking ENR = E as reference and ENY = E(cos120 - jsin120)
Hence ERY = E – E(-0.5 - j0.866)
= E(1 + 0.5 + j0.866)
= E(1.5 + j0.866)
√(1.52 + 0.8662) = 1.732
ERY = 1.732E(0.866 + j0.5)
ERY = √3E(cos30 + jsin30) = √3E˂30o
i.e EL = √3Eph˂30o
Hence line voltage is √3 times phase voltage and phase voltage leads line voltage by 30 o electrical.
 Line and phase currents
Since line and phase currents flow through a common line, they are therefore equal i.e
IL =Iph
6.2.2 Delta Connection
The connection has three wires with no neutral point. It is majorly used in transmission lines
 Line and phase voltages

E12, E23 and E31 are phase voltages and ERY, EYB and EBR are line voltages. Since both voltages are
measured between same points, they are equal. Hence in delta connection
EL = Eph
 Line and phase currents
IR, IY and IB are line currents and I12, I23 and I31 are phase currents
IR = I12 – I31
Let I12 = I(reference) and I31 = I(cos120 + jsin120)
IR = I + I(cos120 + jsin120)
IR = I + I(-0.5 + j0.866)
pg. 68
Following the same procedure as the one for voltage above

IR = √3I˂-30o
i.e IL = √3Iph˂-30o
this shows that in delta-connected system, line current is √3 times phase current and phase current lags
line current by 30o electrical.
Expression of 3-phase power in terms of line voltages and voltages
P = 3VphIphCosΦ
But Vph = VL/√3 for y-connection or Iph = IL/√3 for delta connection
Let’s for example consider Y-connection and replace Vph with Vph = VL/√3
P = 3 × VL/√3 × ILCosΦ
Hence 3-Φ power is given as P = √3 VLILCosΦ
6.3 Measurement of three phase Power by Wattmeter Method
A wattmeter is an equipment used to measure power in a circuit. It consists of two types of coils. They
are:
 A Current Coil that possesses a low resistance.
 A Pressure or Potential Coil that possesses a high resistance.
The current coil is connected in series with the line carrying current. The pressure coil is connected across
the two points whose potential difference is to be measured.
6.3.1 Three Wattmeter Method
Used for measurement of 3- phase, 4 wire circuits. Both balanced and unbalanced loads.
The current coil of each wattmeter carries the current of one phase only and the pressure coil measures
the phase voltage of the phase. Hence, each wattmeter measures the power in a single phase. The total
power in the load is given by the algebraic sum of the readings of the three wattmeters.
P = W1 + W2 + W3
where , W1 = V1I1 , W2 = V2I2, W3 = V3I3
Disadvantages of Three Wattmeter Method
 In the case of 3 phase, 3 wire star connected load, it is difficult to get a neutral point which is
required for connection.
pg. 69
 In case of delta connected circuits, the difficulty in using this method is due to the fact that the
phase coils are required to be broken for inserting current coils of wattmeter
.
6.3.2 One Wattmeter Method
In this method, the current coil is connected in any one line and the pressure coil is connected
alternatively between this and the other two lines. The connection diagram is shown in the figure below.
Used in Balanced 3 phase, 3 wire load circuit.
In balanced 3-wire, 3-phase load circuit the power in each phase is equal. Therefore, the total power of
the circuit can be determined by multiplying the power measured in any one phase by three.
Total power in balanced load = 3 x Power per Phase
= 3 x Wattmeter reading
Disadvantages of One Wattmeter Method
It is restricted to fairly balance loads only. Even a slight degree of unbalance in the loading produce a
large error in the measurement.
6.3.3 Two Wattmeter Method
Two wattmeters are used to measure three-phase power. This is the most popular method among the
three.
This method is generally used for the measurement of power in 3 phase, 3-wire load circuits. It can be
used to measure power in star/delta connected load in balanced or unbalanced condition.
pg. 70
The algebraic sum of two wattmeter reading gives the total power in the 3-phase, 3 wire star-connected or
delta connected load circuits whether the load is balanced or unbalanced.
P = W1 + W2
6.3.4 Derivation of Power Factor by Two-Wattmeter Method
The two wattmeter method, when applied to measure power in a three-phase balanced circuits, provides
information that help us to calculate the power factor of the load.
Load is assumed balanced hence

Z1 ∠Φ1 = Z2 ∠Φ2 = Z3 ∠Φ3 = Z ∠Φ
Assuming RYB phase sequence, the three rms load phase voltages are V RN, VYN and VBN. IR, IY and IB are
the rms line (phase) currents. These currents will lag behind their respective phase voltages by an angle
Φ.
WR measures the product of current IR through current coil, voltage across its pressure coil VRB and the
cosine of the angle between the phasors IR and VRB. The voltage-across the pressure coil of WR is given as
follows.
pg. 71
It is clear from the phasor diagram that the phase angle between
Similarly, WY measures the current through its current coil IY, the voltage across its pressure coil, VYB and
the cosine of the angle between the phasors VYB and IY.
From Fig. 9.47, it is clear that the phase angle between VYB and IY is (30° + Φ).
Since the load is balanced, the line voltage VRB = VYB = VL and the line current IR = IY = IL
Adding WR and WY gives total power in the circuit, thus
Subtracting WY from WR gives the value below

WR - WY = VLILsinΦ
Taking the ratio of the above two values, we get
CHAPTER 7: D.C MACHINES
Introduction: A DC Machine is an electro-mechanical energy conversion device. There are two types of
DC machines; one is the DC generator, and another one is known as DC motor. DC generator converts
mechanical power (ωT) into DC electrical power (EI), whereas, DC motor converts DC electrical power
into mechanical power. The AC motor is invariably applied in the industry for conversion of electrical
pg. 72
power into mechanical power, but at the places where the wide range of speeds and good speed regulation
is required, like in electric traction system, DC motor is used.
7.1 Construction of DC Machines
The construction of DC generator is similar to that of DC motor. This means that DC generator can be
used interchangeably as DC motor and vice versa. Both have stator and rotor as main parts.
The following are other parts of DC machine:
 Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It not
only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding.
 Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They carry
field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they
support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
 Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on
each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they
form alternate North and South poles.
 Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots
to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for
reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling
purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
pg. 73
 Armature winding: It is usually wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The armature
conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature winding can
be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding.
i) Lap winding – the number of parallel paths equals the number of poles
ii) Wave winding – there are two paths in parallel irrespective of the number of poles.
 Commutator and brushes: The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the
current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in
providing current to the armature conductors. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite.
They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates
keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.
7.3 Principle of Operation of DC Generator

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is placed in a varying
magnetic field or a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, an emf gets induced in the conductor. The
magnitude of induced emf is equal to rate of change of magnetic flux linkage and can be calculated from
the emf equation of dc generator. If the conductor is provided with a closed path, the induced current will
circulate within the path. The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
How DC Quantity is generated

From the above diagram, let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left is
moving upward. When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of that particular
conductor will be reversed to downward. Hence, the direction of current in every armature conductor will
be alternating. But with a split ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors also gets
reversed when the current reversal occurs. And therefore, we get unidirectional current at the terminals.
Equation of generated EMF in DC Generator

Let:
Emf – generated emf
Φ – magnetic flux per pole
pg. 74
P – number of armature poles

N – armature speed in rpm
Z – number of conductors
A – number of parallel paths
Each conductor passes through P poles in one revolution, hence total flux induced in one revolution is
equal to PΦ at a time period of 1/N minutes or 60/N seconds.
Emf induced per conductor in one revolution is given by
PΦ PΦN
Emf per conductor= =
60/ N 60
Emf for Z number of conductors is given by
PΦNZ
Emf =
60
PΦNZ
Emf induced in one parallel path is given by Emf =
60
PΦNZ
Emf =
60 A
PΦNZ
For wave winding: Emf =
120
ΦNZ
For lap winging: Emf =
60
Note: When N/60 = n rps
PΦnZ
Emf = −wave winding
2
Emf =ΦnZ−lap winding
This is the same equation in DC motor. However, in DC motor, it is known as back emf while in Dc
generator, it is generated emf.
Problem 1: An 8-pole wave connected armature has 600 conductors and is driven at 625rev/min. if the
flux per pole is 20mWb, determine the generated emf.
Problem 2: A 4-pole generator has lap-wound armature with 50 slots and 16 conductors per slot. The
useful flux per pole is 30mWb. Determine the speed at which the machine must be driven to generate an
emf of 240 volts.
pg. 75
7.4 DC Generator and its Types
7.4.1. Separately Excited

The field winding is supplied by an independent external DC source (like a battery). The magnitude of
generated voltage depends upon the speed of rotation of armature and the field current, i.e., greater the
speed and the field current, higher is the generated voltage. In practice, the separately excited DC
generators are rarely used.
Armature current Ia = load current IL
Terminal voltage V = Eg - RaIa
Developed electric power = EgIa
Power delivered to the load VIL = EgIa – Ia2Ra
Problem 3: Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which develops an emf of 200V and has
armature current of 30A on load. Assume armature resistance to be 0.30Ω.
Problem 4: A generator is connected to a 60Ω load current of 8A flows. If the armature resistance is 1Ω.
Determine i) terminal voltage
ii) generated emf
Check more exercises from Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology (p.g 333)
Applications of separately-excited generators
 Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are generally used for testing
purpose in the laboratories.
 Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation in field excitation.
Because of this property, they are used as supply source of DC motors.
pg. 76
7.4.2 Self–Excited generators
Field winding receives its supply from the armature of its own machine
Types of Self–Excited Generator
i) Shunt-wound
Field winding is connected in parallel with armature. Field winding is of high resistance and low field
current If hence much current flows to the load.
Armature current, Ia = IL + If
Shunt field current, Ish = VT/Rsh this implies VT = IshRsh
VT = terminal voltage and Rsh= shunt resistance
Terminal voltage, VT = Eg – RaIa
Power developed by armature = EgIa
Power delivered to the load = VTIL
Check examples in Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology p.g 334
Applications
 They are used for general lighting.

 They are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant output
voltage.
 They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
pg. 77
 They are also used for small power supply such as a portable generator.
i) Series wound generator
Field winding is connected in series with the armature winding. Since the load current flows through the
field winding of the generator, so the field winding has a few turns of thick wire having low resistance.
Armature current, Ia = field current, If = load current, IL = I
Terminal voltage, VT = Eg – I(Ra + Rse)
Power developed by armature, Pa = EgI
Power delivered to the load, PL = EgI – I2(Ra + Rse) = VTI
Applications
 They are used for supplying field excitation current in DC locomotives for
regenerative breaking.
 As boosters to compensate the voltage drop in the feeder in various types of distribution
systems such as railway service.
 In series arc lightening
i) Compound wound
It combines both series and shunt wound generators
 Short shunt
In a short shunt generator, only shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature.
pg. 78
Series field current, Ise = load current, IL

Shunt field current, Ish = Ia – IL = (VT + ILRse)/Rsh
Terminal voltage, VT = Eg – IL(Rsh + Rse)
Power developed by armature Pa = EgIa
Power delivered to the load PL = VTIL
 Long shunt
In a long shunt generator, the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with both series field and
armature winding.
Series field current, Ise = Ia = IL + Ish

Terminal voltage VT = Eg – IaRa
Shunt current Ish = VT/Rsh
Power developed by armature Pa = EgIa
Power deliverd to the load PL = EgIa – Ia2Ra = VTIL
Problem 5: A short-shunt compound generator supplies 80A at 200V. If the field resistance is 40Ω, series
resistance is 0.02Ω and armature resistance is 0.04Ω, determine the emf generated.
Problem 6: A separately excited generator develops a no-load emf of 180V at an armature speed of
15rev/s and flux per pole of 0.20Wb. calculate the generated emf when:
a) The speed increases to 20rev/s and the flux per pole remains constant
b) The speed remains the constant and the flux per pole reduces to 0.125Wb
c) The speed increases to 25rev/s and flux per pole is decreased to 0.18Wb
pg. 79
7.4.3 DC Generator Losses
Upon conversion of energy from one form to the other, losses occur in the machine which are dissipated
in form of heat.
 Copper Losses – these are losses due to Ia2Ra which results to evolution of heat in ar,ature and
field windings.
 Iron(Core) Losses – these are due to hysteresis and eddy current losses in the armature
 Friction and Windage Losses – These are due to bearings contacts and air resistance against
moving parts.
 Brush Contact Loss –Losses between brushes and commutator
7.4.4 Efficiency of the machine
It is the ratio of output power to input power expressed as a percentage
poweroutput
Efficiency, ή = ×100
power input
Power input = power ouput + losses
V = E + Vb + IaRa
In motor, E < V
V = terminal voltage
E = induced emf
Vb = brush contact voltage drop
Ra = armature resistance
Ia = armature current
pg. 80
7.5 DC Motor and its Types
The equivalent circuits of different types of DC motor are similar to those of DC generators. The only
diffenece is the direction of current which flow in opposite direction in motor as in generator
They include the following:

 Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)
 Separately Excited DC Motor
 Self Excited DC Motor
 Shunt wound
 Series wound
 Compound wound
 Short shunt
 Long shunt
i) Separately Excited
As the name suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to the field
and armature windings.
ii) Permanent Magnet DC Motor(PMDC)

It consists of an armature winding as in case of a usual motor, but does not necessarily contain the field
windings. The construction of these types of DC motor are such that, radially magnetized permanent
magnets are mounted on the inner periphery of the stator core to produce the field flux.
pg. 81
iii) Self-Excited DC Motor

In case of self excited DC motor, the field winding is connected either in series or in parallel or partly in
series, partly in parallel to the armature winding. Based on this, self excited DC Motors can be classified
as:
o Shunt wound DC motor
o Series wound DC motor
o Compound wound DC motor
 Shunt-Wound DC Motor
V = Eb + RaIa
IL = Ia + Ish
Ish = V/Rsh
Mechanical power developed by the motor Pm = EbIa
Torque-speed characteristic is shown below
pg. 82
 Series Wound DC Motor
Ia = IL = Ise
V = Eb + Ia(Ra + Rse)
Expression for power output remains the same
Torque-speed characteristic is shown below
 Compound Wound DC Motor

The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be obtained by combining the operational
characteristic of both the shunt and series excited DC motor. There are two forms of connection:
 Short shunt
 Long shunt
pg. 83
 Short shunt compound wound
IL = Ia + Ish
V = Eb + IaRa + ILRse
IshRsh = Eb + IaRa
 Long shunt compound wound
IL = Ish + Ia
V = Eb + Ia(Ra + Rse)
OR
V = IshRsh
Ish = V/Rsh
pg. 84
7.6 DC Motor torque
In a dc motor
V = E + IaRa
Multiplying each term by Ia
VIa = EIa + Ia2Ra
VIa = electrical power supplied to the armature
EIa = mechanical power developed by armature
Ia2Ra = losses due to armature resistance
EIa = Tω
T = torque in newton-meter
ω = 2πn = angular velocity
n = speed in rev/sec
EIa = 2πnT
T = EIa/2πn
Rem E = (PΦZn)/A (from generated emf equation)
PΦnZIa PΦZIa
T= OR T =
ωA 2 πA
PZ
Take K = then T =KΦIa
2 πA
This means that torque is directly proportional to magnetic flux, Φ and armature current, Ia.
Check problems on EEPT p.g 339-340
Problems
5. A 4-pole DC motor has wave-wound armature with 800 conductors. The useful flux per
pole is 20mWb. Calculate the torque exerted when a current of 40A flows in each
armature conductor
6. A 240V shunt motor takes a total current of 30A. if the field winding resistance is 150Ω
and the armature resistance is 0.4Ω. Determine
a) The current in the armature
b) Back emf
pg. 85
7. A 250V series motor draws a current of 40A. The armature resistance is 0.45Ω and field
resistance is 0.05 Ω. Determine the maximum efficiency of the motor.
CHAPTER EIGHT: SINGLE PHASE A.C MOTORS
Introduction: These are motors which receive power from single phase AC supply.
8.1 Construction of Single Phase Induction Motor
A single phase induction motor is similar to the three phase squirrel cage induction motor except there is
single phase two windings instead of three phase winding in 3-phase motors mounted on the stator and
the cage winding rotor is placed inside the stator which freely rotates with the help of mounted bearings
on the motor shaft.
The construction of a single-phase induction motor is similar to the construction of a three-phase
induction motor.
a) Stator
The stator winding is single-phase winding instead of three-phase winding. The stator core is the same as
the core of the three-phase induction motor.
In a single-phase induction motor, two windings are used in stator except in shaded-pole induction motor.
Out of these two windings, one winding is the main winding and the second is auxiliary winding.
The stator core is laminated to reduce eddy current losses. The single-phase supply is given to the stator
main winding.
b) Rotor
Rotor of single-phase induction motor is the same as a rotor of squirrel cage induction motor. Instead of
rotor winding, rotor bars are used and it is short-circuited at the end by end-rings. Hence, it makes a
complete path in the rotor circuit. The rotor bars are braced to the end-rings to increase the mechanical
strength of the motor.
The rotor slots are skewed at some angle to avoid magnetic coupling. And it is also used to make a motor
run smoothly and quietly.
pg. 86
The below diagram shows images of stator and rotor of single phase AC motor.
Note:
 construction minimizes eddy current losses
 stampings are of materials from silicone which minimize hysteresis losses
8.2 Working of Single-phase Induction Motor

Single-phase AC supply is given to the stator winding (main winding). The alternating current flowing
through the stator winding produces magnetic flux. This flux is known as the main flux. Since rotor is
placed in the magnetic field, According to Faraday’s law, Emf is induced in the rotor which sets current
in the rotor circuit.
Due to the rotor current, the flux is produced around the rotor winding. This flux is known as rotor flux.
There are two fluxes; main flux which is produced by stator and second is the rotor flux which is
produced by the rotor.
Interaction between main flux and rotor flux causes the torque to be produced in the rotor and it starts
rotating.
8.3 Types of Single-phase Induction Motors

The single-phase induction motors are classified as;
 Split Phase Induction Motor
 Shaded Pole Induction Motor
 Capacitor Start Induction Motor
 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor
 Permanent Capacitor Induction Motor
pg. 87
8.3.1 Split Phase Induction Motor

There are two windings: One winding is known as the main winding or running winding and second
winding is known as starting winding or auxiliary winding. A centrifugal switch is connected in series
with the auxiliary winding. The aim of auxiliary winding is to create a phase difference between both
fluxes produced by the main winding and rotor winding. The circuit of the motor is shown in the diagram
below.
The auxiliary winding is highly resistive in nature. So, the current I A is almost in phase with supply
voltage V. The main winding is highly inductive in nature. So, the current IM lags behind the supply
voltage with a large angle. Auxiliary winding is only used to start the motor. When the motor reaches 75
to 80 % of synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch opens. So, the auxiliary winding is out from the
circuit. And motor runs only on main winding.
Characteristics of Split Phase Induction Motor
 Starting torque is 15 to 200% of full load torque
 Most popular due to low cost
 Current density is high since starting winding is made of fine wire
 They are constant speed motors
Advantages
 The motor is economical and installed in many domestic appliances.
 It can be changed once it wears out before trying to reverse it.
 These are available in different frame sizes so that they can be placed effortlessly in most of the
machines.
Disadvantages
 Poor starting torque hence not suitable for application above 1kW
 Low efficiency
Applications
The phase difference created by this method is very small. Hence, the starting torque of this motor is
poor. So, this motor is used in low starting torque applications like
 fan
 blower
 grinder
pg. 88
 pumps etc.
8.3.2 Shaded Pole Induction Motor

This type of motor does not require auxiliary winding. A stator pole of this motor is divided into two
parts; shaded part and un-shaded part. A copper ring is placed in the small part of the pole. This ring is a
highly inductive ring and it is known as a shaded ring.
The construction of this motor is as shown in the below figure.
Working
When a single phase AC supply is applied, an alternating flux is generated in the core. A portion of this
flux links with the shaded coil, inducing emf in the coil. This sets current in the short-circuited shaded
portion. The current produces flux in the ring which opposes the main flux. The two fluxes have phase
difference. This produces rotating magnetic field and a torque is generated in the cage rotor. Rotor
therefore stsrts rotating.
Advantages
 low cost
 self-starting
 construction is simple and robust because there is no centrifugal switch
 reliable
Disadvantages
 starting torque is very low
 poor power factor
 losses are high hence low effciency
Applications
Used to drive devices which require low starting torque e.g
 relays and fans
 record players, projectors, tape recorders, photo typing machine
 air conditioning and refrigeration equipment
 exhaust fans, air dryers e.t.c
pg. 89
8.3.3 Capacitor Start Induction Motor

This type of motor is an advanced version of the Split phase induction motor. The disadvantage of split-
phase induction is low torque production. Because in this motor, the phase difference created is very less.
This disadvantage compensates in this motor with the help of a capacitor connected in series with
auxiliary winding. The circuit diagram of this motor is as shown in the below figure.
Working
Stator windings are supplied from single phase AC supply, current splits into two: I A which flows through
auxiliary winding and capacitor circuit and IM which flows through the main winding. A phase difference
is created between the currents where by IA leads IM by about 80o. The torque is therefore produced which
makes the rotor to rotate. Once the rotor speed reaches 75% to 80% of synchronous speed, centrifugal
switch is automatically opened and capacitor and auxiliary windings are disconnected from the circuit.
Motor continues to run with the main winding. Starting torque is higher than in split phase induction
motor due to large phase difference.
Capacitor Start Induction Motor Features
 The starting winding of a capacitor starts motor heats up less quickly and is well suited to
applications involving either frequent or prolonged starting periods.
 Phase angle between two currents is about 80o
 The power rating of such motors lies between 120 W and 7-5 kW.
 The capacitor starts motor develops a much higher starting torque of about 3 to 4.5 times of the
full load torque. To obtain a high starting torque, the two conditions are essential that are as
follows:
 The Starting capacitor value must be large.
 The valve of the starting winding resistance must be low.
Capacitor Start Induction Motor Application

 These motors are used for the loads of higher inertia where frequent starting is required.
 They are used on a wide range of belt-drive applications like small conveyors, large blowers, and
machine tools.
pg. 90
 They are used in pumps and compressors.

 They are used in the refrigerator and air conditioner compressors.
 They are also used for many direct-drive or geared applications.
8.3.4 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor

In this type of motor, two capacitors are connected in parallel and the combination is connected in series
with the auxiliary winding. Out of these two capacitors, one capacitor is used only for starting (starting
capacitor) and another capacitor is connected permanently with the motor (running capacitor).
The circuit diagram of this figure is as shown in the below figure.
The starting capacitor has high capacitance value and a running capacitor has low capacitance value. The
starting capacitor is connected in series with a centrifugal switch that will open when the speed of the
motor is 70% of synchronous speed.
During running conditions, both running winding and auxiliary winding are connected with motor.
Characteristics of CS CR motor
 The best running and starting conditions
 Starting torque is high, less starting current hence better efficiency and pf
 High cost
Applications
The starting torque and efficiency of this motor are very high. Therefore, this can be used in the
application where high starting torque is required like
 Refrigerator
 air conditioner
 ceiling fan
 compressor, etc.
8.3.5 Permanent Capacitor Induction Motor
pg. 91
The low-value capacitor is connected constantly with the auxiliary winding. Here, the capacitor has low
capacitance. The capacitor is used to increase the starting torque but it is low compared to the capacitor
start induction motor. The circuit diagram and phasor diagram of this motor is as shown in the below
figure.
The power factor and efficiency of this motor are very high and also it has a high starting torque that is
80% of full load torque.
Applications
This type of motor is used in the application like an
 exhaust fan
 blower
 heater, etc.
8.4.6 Universal Motor

A universal motor is a special type of motor that runs on both AC and DC power supplies. They are
series-wound (the armature and field windings are in series).
Most of the universal motors are meant to operate at speeds as high as 3500 RPM. These motors run at a
higher speed on DC supply than they run on AC supply of the same voltage. This is due to the reactance
voltage drop that is present only in AC and not in DC.
Operation of Universal Motor

 When fed with a DC supply
pg. 92
When the universal motor is fed with a DC supply, it works as a DC series motor. In this case, when the
current flows in the field winding, it produces an electromagnetic field. The same current also flows in the
armature conductors. When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force. This mechanical force causes the rotor to rotate. Fleming’s Left-hand
rule gives us the direction of this force.
 When fed with an AC supply

A unidirectional torque is produced when the universal motor is supplied with AC power. This is because
the armature winding and the field winding are connected in series and are in the same phase. Therefore,
whenever the polarity of the AC changes, the direction of the current in the armature and the field
winding changes simultaneously. The direction of the magnetic field and the direction of armature current
reverse so that the direction of force experienced by armature conductors remains the same. Thus,
regardless of AC or DC supply, universal motors work on the same principle that DC series motors work
on.
8.4.7 Repulsion Motors

A repulsion motor can be defined as, an electric motor that works by using an AC (alternating
current). In the past, these motors are used as a traction motor in electric trains
These motors are equivalent to an AC series motor except brushes in the motor are not allied
with power supply but are short-circuited. As a result, the flow of current can be induced within
the armature conductors through transformer action. The field structure of the motor has a
cylindrical construction.
Repulsion Motor Working Principle

The working principle is based on repulsion between two magnetic fields. For instance, consider
a motor which has two poles along with a magnetic axis. The armature winding of this motor is
connected to a commutator as well as brushes. The brushes are short-circuited with the help of a
jumper with low-resistance.
Once an alternating current (AC) is applied to the stator winding, an e.m.f will be induced within
the armature. The direction of AC will create two poles like south and north, where a north pole
pg. 93
can be formed at the top of the magnetic axis and a south pole can be formed at the bottom of the
magnetic axis. The induced emf induces current within the armature cicuit.
Advantages of repulsion Motor
 Starting torque is high
 Good speed regulation
 For sudden heavy loads, the torque can be developed.
 Starting current will be reduced
Disadvantages of Repulsion Motor
 Sparks will occur at brushes
 The power factor is very less at less speed.
 The speed at no-load condition is extremely high & unsafe
 Brushes & commutator exhaust quickly due to heat generation & arcing at the assembly
of the brush.
Applications
The applications of repulsion motor include the following.
 Hoists
 Machines in Textile
 Printing presses
 Air compressors
 Pumps & Fans
 Laundry equipment
 High-speed lifts
 Mixing machines
 Air pump
 Petrol pumps
 Drive compressors
pg. 94
CHAPTER NINE: SPECIAL MACHINES

Introduction: Special Electrical machine are those machine which constructionally, technically
and functionally little different from rest of conventional machine.
The concept or principle are same in both type of machine. Special electric machine are use in
special purpose.
Suppose, we required rectilinear motion then we use linear induction motor LIM. Because LIM
besically aspecial purpose motor that is in use to achieve rectilinear motion rather than rotational
motion as in case of conventional motors.
If we required precise speed and precise position control at high torques then definitely, we do
not use an ordinary motor we use servomotor.
9.1 Types of Special Machines

 Stepper Motor
 Linear Motor
 Metadyne
 Amplidyne
 Series Motor
 Universal motor
9.1.1 Stepper Motor

It is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a full rotation into a number of equal steps. The
rotor will require 24 pulses of electricity to move the 24 steps to make one complete revolution.
That is, the rotor will move precisely 15° for each pulse of electricity that the motor receives.
Working Principle
pg. 95
It works with the principle of Electro-Magnetism. It includes a rotor which is made of a permanent
magnet whereas a stator is made of electromagnets. Once the supply is provided to the winding of the
stator then the magnetic field will be developed within the stator. Now rotor in the motor will start to
move with the rotating magnetic field of the stator.
The stepper motor can be controlled by energizing every stator one by one. So the stator will magnetize &
works like an electromagnetic pole which uses repulsive energy on the rotor to move forward. The
stator’s alternative magnetizing as well as demagnetizing will shift the rotor gradually and allows it to
turn through great control.
Driving Techniques
There are several methods to drive this motor. Some of them are discussed below by taking an example of
a four-phase stepper motor.
 Single Excitation Mode
In this technique every phase otherwise stator next to each other will be triggered one by one alternatively
with a special circuit. This will magnetize & demagnetize the stator to move the rotor forward.
 Full Step Drive
In this technique, two stators are activated at a time instead of one in a very less time period. This
technique results in high torque & allows the motor to drive the high load.
 Half Step Drive
This technique is fairly related to the Full step drive because the two stators will be arranged next to each
other so that it will be activated first whereas the third one will be activated after next. This drives the
motor. This technique will result in improved resolution of the stepper motor while decreasing the torque.
 Micro Stepping
This technique is most frequently used due to its accuracy. The variable step current will supplied by
the stepper motor driver circuit toward stator coils within the form of a sinusoidal waveform. The
accuracy of every step can be enhanced by this small step current. This technique is extensively used
because it provides high accuracy as well as decreases operating noise to a large extent.
Stepper Motor Circuit & Its Operation

They effectively have multiple toothed electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of
iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit, for example, a microcontroller.
pg. 96
How the Motor works

To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear’s teeth
magnetically attracted to the electromagnet’s teeth. At the point when the gear’s teeth are thus aligned to
the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next
electromagnet is turned ON and the first is turned OFF, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one
and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a step, with an integer
number of steps making a full rotation.
Types of Stepper Motor

There are three main types of stepper motors, they are:
 Permanent magnet stepper
 Hybrid synchronous stepper
 Variable reluctance stepper
Parameters of Stepper Motor

The stepper motor parameters mainly include step angle, steps for each revolution, steps for each
second, and RPM.
 Step Angle
It is the angle at which the motor’s rotor turns once a single pulse is given to the stator’s input.
The resolution of the motor is the ratio of the number of steps of the motor to the number of
revolutions of the rotor.
Resolution = Number of Steps/Number of Revolutions of the Rotor

 Steps for Each Revolution
It is the number of step angles necessary for a total revolution.
pg. 97
Steps for each revolution = 360°/Step Angle.

 Steps for Each Second
It measures the number of steps covered within each second.
 Revolutions per Minute(RPM)

It is used to measure the frequency of revolution. So by using this parameter, we can calculate the number
of revolutions in a single minute.
Steps for Each Second = Revolution per Minute x Steps per Revolution / 60
Applications
The applications of stepper motor include the following.
1. Industrial Machines – Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges and machine tooling
automated production equipment.
2. Security – new surveillance products for the security industry.
3. Medical – Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners, samplers, and also found inside
digital dental photography, fluid pumps, respirators, and blood analysis machinery.
4. Consumer Electronics – Stepper motors in cameras for automatic digital camera focus and zoom
functions.
9.1.2 Metadyne
It is a special machine which consists of two pairs of brushes or has an additional set of brushes on the d
axis. This arrangement enables the armature MMF to provide most of the excitation and achieve higher
power gains. In this, the brushes of the quadrature axis (q axis) are short-circuited, and direct axis (d axis)
brushes give the output.
The schematic diagram of a Metadyne is shown below.
Working
A stator of the machine has a control field winding. A current if flows through the control field winding.
The generator is rotating at a constant speed; an EMF eaq is induced between the quadrature axis brushes
qq’ because of the control field winding MMF. A Metadyne acts as a constant current generator.
Applications of Metadyne
 To supply DC power to process control motors
 To supply the excitation systems of large AC generators
pg. 98
 In traction systems and Ward-Leonard speed control systems, etc.

 It is used to control the speed of electric trains and control the aiming of guns.
9.1.3 Amplidyne
Amplidyne is the most common version of the Metadyne. It consists of the basic metadyne in which a
compensating winding is connected in series with the power output brush terminals. The compensating
winding cancels out the d axis MMF, which opposes the control field MMF.
It is a special kind of DC generator where this generator can be converted into an amplidyne.
The primary step is to short the brushes jointly so that resistance can be removed within the
armature circuit. Due to extremely low resistance within this circuit, a low control-field flux can generate
full-load armature current. The schematic diagram of the Amplidyne is shown below.
Working
The compensating winding is located in the direct (d axis) on the stator. This compensating winding
carries the load current id. The winding produces a flux which opposes the flux produced by the direct axis
armature current. The effect of the negative feedback of the load current is minimized. The d axis flux
now depends on the field winding current.
The degree of compensation C is defined as the ratio of effective compensating winding turns to the
effective armature turns.
Applications of Amplidyne
 As a voltage regulator, a current regulator, or as a speed regulator.
 It is used to provide large DC currents.
 Used for positioning of heavy loads through the use of synchro/servo systems.
 Because of the amplidyne’s ability to amplify, its output can be used to drive a powerful motor,
which turns the heavy object (antenna).
9.1.4 Linear Motors
pg. 99
Linear motors are electric induction motors that produce motion in a straight line rather than rotational
motion. In a traditional electric motor, the rotor spins inside the stator. In a linear motor, the stator is
unwrapped and laid out flat and the rotor moves past it in a straight line. Linear motors often
use superconducting magnets, which are cooled to low temperatures to reduce power consumption.
Construction of Linear Induction Motor

To understand the construction of the motor, let us examine stator of the rotary induction motor
(Fig. 6.66(a)). Let the stator be cut and unrolled (Fig. 6.66(b)). This forms stator of Linear
Induction Motor. Secondary (rotor) of the linear induction motor consists of a flat aluminium
conductor with a ferromagnetic core.
Working Principle
If primary of the linear induction motor is connected to a three-phase supply, a flux wave
travelling along the length of primary will be produced. Due to the relative motion between
travelling flux wave and aluminium conductor, current is induced in the aluminium conductor.
The induced current interacts with travelling flux wave to produce translational force F. If
secondary is fixed and primary is free to move, the force will make primary to move in the
direction of travelling wave. In order to maintain the motion, the secondary has to be laid out
along the whole length primary is required to move.
Drawbacks of Linear Induction Motor

A linear induction motor (LIM) has the following disadvantages:
 They larger air-gap as compared to a conventional rotary induction motor.
 The magnetising current drawn by a linear induction motor is larger than that of a rotary
induction motor of same rating.
 The efficiency and the power factor of a linear induction motor are lower than that of a
conventional induction motor of the same rating.
pg. 100
Applications of Linear Induction Motor

The applications of the linear induction motor are given below:
 The primary application of linear induction motor is in transportation, including electric
traction where the primary is mounted on the vehicle and the secondary laid along the
track.
 Linear induction motors are used in cranes for material handling.
 Also used for pumping of liquid metal.
 Used as actuators for door movement.
 Linear induction motors are used in high-voltage circuit breakers.
 Linear induction motors are also used in accelerators for rigs for testing vehicle
performance under impact conditions.
9.1.5 Servomotors
A servomotor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for precise control of angular or
linear position, velocity and acceleration. It consists of a suitable motor coupled to a sensor for
position feedback. It also requires a relatively sophisticated controller, often a dedicated module
designed specifically for use with servomotors.
Types of Servomotors
a) On the Basis of Rotation
 Positional Rotation Servos: Positional servos can rotate the shaft in about half of the
circle. Also, it has the feature to protect the rotational sensor from over-rotating.
Positional servos are mainly used in limbs, robotic arms, and in many other places.
 Continuous Rotation Servos: Continous servos are similar in construction to the
positional servo. But, it can move in both clockwise and anticlockwise directions.
These types of servos are used in radar systems and robots.
 Linear Servos: Again linear servos are also like a positional servo, but with additional
gears to the adjust the output from circular to back-and-forth. These type of servos are
used in high model airplanes and are rare to find on the stores.
b) On the Basis of Operating Signal

There are also two types of servo motors used which differ in processing information and signal.
pg. 101
 Analog Servomotors
Analog servos are operated over PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) signals. And, the range of the signal is
4.8V to 6V. In this type of servo, the PWM is off when the servo is at rest. The torque produced at rest
time makes the starting time inactive. Also, an analog servo can be able to send 50 pulses per seconds
only.
 Digital Servomotors
Using small microprocessors, Digital Servo receives signal and acts at high-frequency voltage pulses. A
digital servo can be able to send 300 pulses per seconds, which is very high in comparison to an analog
servo. Digital servo gives a smooth response and consistent torque, due to faster pulse. Digital servos
consume more power than an analog servo.
c) On the Basis of Operating Power

 DC Servo Motor
DC Servos are used for providing fast torque response and are also known as a permanent magnet DC
motor or separately excited DC motor. A small variation in the armature voltage or current can produce a
notable shift in the position or speed of the shaft. DC servos are most used servo motors among all the
types.
 AC Servo Motor
There are two types of AC servo motors. One is 2 phase and the second is 3 phase. Mainly two-phase
squirrel cage servo motor is used for low power applications. And, three-phase squirrel cage servo is used
for high power systems.
Working of servomotors
A servo system primarily consists of three basic components – a controlled device, a output sensor, a
feedback system.
This is an automatic closed loop control system. The device is controlled by a feedback signal
generated by comparing output signal and reference input signal.
When reference input signal or command signal is applied to the system, it is compared with output
reference signal of the system produced by output sensor.
This input signal to the device presents as long as there is a logical difference between reference input
signal and the output signal of the system.
After the device achieves its desired output, there will be no longer the logical difference between
reference input signal and reference output signal of the system.
pg. 102
Hence, the primary task of a servomechanism is to maintain the output of a system at the desired value in
the presence of disturbances.
Working Principle of Servo Motor

A servo motor is basically a DC motor (in some special cases it is AC motor) along with some other
special purpose components that make a DC motor a servo. In a servo unit, there is a small DC motor, a
potentiometer, gear arrangement and an intelligent circuitry. The intelligent circuitry along with the
potentiometer makes the servo to rotate according to wishes of the user. The gear mechanism takes high
input speed of the motor and converts it to a slower speed which is more practical and widely applicable.
Say at the initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the potentiometer knob is such that there is
no electrical signal generated at the output port of the potentiometer. This output port of the potentiometer
is connected to one of the input terminals of the error detector amplifier. Now an electrical signal is given
to another input terminal of the error detector amplifier. Now difference between these two signals, one
comes from potentiometer and another comes from external source, will be amplified in the error detector
amplifier and feeds the DC motor.
This amplified error signal acts as the input power of the DC motor and the motor starts rotating in
desired direction. As the motor shaft progresses the potentiometer knob also rotates as it is coupled with
motor shaft with help of gear arrangement.
As the position of the potentiometer knob changes there will be an electrical signal produced at the
potentiometer port. As the angular position of the potentiometer knob progresses the output or feedback
signal increases. After desired angular position of motor shaft the potentiometer knob is reaches at such
position the electrical signal generated in the potentiometer becomes same as of external electrical signal
given to amplifier.
At this condition, there will be no output signal from the amplifier to the motor input as there is no
difference between external applied signal and the signal generated at potentiometer. As the input signal
to the motor is nil at that position, the motor stops rotating. This is how a simple conceptual servo motor
works.
Applications of Servo Motors

Here are some applications used to control speed when the servo is overheaded or over rotating:
 They are used to control the positioning and movement of elevators in radio controlled airplanes
 They play an important role in robotics information of robot because of their smooth switching on
or off and accurate positioning.
 They are used in hydraulic systems to maintain hydraulic fluid in the aerospace industry.
 In radio controlled toys
 They are used to extend or replay the disc trays in electronic devices such as DVDs or Blue-ray
Disc players.
 They are used to maintain the speed of vehicles in the automobile industries.
Advantages:
 The driver will increase the current to the motor coil when we place a heavy load on the motor as
it attempts to rotate the motor.
 In servo motor, the High-speed operation will be possible.
Disadvantages:
pg. 103
 The cost will be higher.

 The servo motor is not suitable for precision control of rotation because the servo motor is trying
to rotate according to the command pulses, but lags behind.
CHAPTER TEN: THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Introduction: A three-phase transformer is a static electromagnetic device made to transmit

energy or send alternating electrical signals between circuits through Faraday's electromagnetic
induction phenomenon. The transformers play an important role in the power transmission and
distribution system.
10.1 Construction of Three-Phase Transformer

It can be constructed in two ways:
1. Three separate single-phase transformer are suitably connected for three phase operation.
2. A single three-phase transformer in which the cores and windings for all the three phases
are merged into a single structure.
The three single-phase transformer can be used as a three-phase transformer when their primary and
secondary winding are connected to each other. The three phase transformer supply has many advantages
as compared to three single phase units like it requires very less space and also very lighter smaller and
cheaper in size.
Types of Three-Phase Transformer

The three phase transformer is mainly classified into two types, i.e., the core type transformer and the
shell type transformer.
a) Core-Type Three-Phase Transformer
In a core type 3-phase transformer, the core is divided into three limbs in which each limb carries both
high-voltage HV and low-voltage LV windings of the three phases. The flux produced by the primary
ampere-turns will be linked by the secondary windings.
pg. 104
The primary and secondary of each phase on each limb is placed such that the LV winding is placed over
the core limb and HV winding is placed on the LV winding. The main reason of placing LV winding next
or nearer to the core is that the amount of insulation required to insulate LV winding is lower as compared
to what is required to insulate HV winding
10.2 Shell-Type Three-Phase Transformer

The shell-type core construction of a three-phase transformer is less commonly used. It consists of five
limbs and the core surrounds the windings made on three limbs. The other two limbs (between phases)
hold the three limbs as a one-unit and also provides a return path for the fluxes.
Working Principle of Three-Phase Transformer :

The basic working principle of a three-phase transformer is the same as a single-phase transformer i.e., on
mutual induction. The alternating supply is given to the primary windings and it induces an emf in the
secondary winding. The amount of induced emf depends upon the number of secondary turns (either can
be a step-up or a step-down transformer).
Advantages of a single three-phase transformer over three single-phase transformers

 A three-phase transformer has considerably less weight.
 Three-phase transformer occupies less floor area.
 Three-phase transformer costs 15% less than three single-phase transformers of equal ratings.
 Only one unit (3-phase transformer) is to be handled.
 The busbars, switchgear, and protection equipment for a single unit transformer are less which
makes the unit more economical.
Disadvantages of Single Three-Phase Transformer over Three single phase Transformers
In a three-phase transformer, the three windings of three phases form one unit. This makes the whole
transformer shut down in case of any fault in any one of the phases and it can be replaced or repaired.
But, in the case of three single-phase transformers, the faulty phase transformer gets isolated and the
system can run on open-delta with reduced efficiency.
pg. 105
Transformer connections
Like single phase transformers, three phase transformers are either connected in
 Star-star
 Delta-delta
 Star-delta
 Delta-star
 Interconnected star
Transformer Winding Identification
Connection Primary Winding Secondary Winding
Delta D d
Star Y y
Interconnected Z z
Wye and Delta configurations are applied for three-phase transformers because Wye connections provide
the options to have multiple voltages, whereas delta configurations offer high reliability. The phaser
diagrams of Wye and Delta is given below. For Wye connection, either all the minus or all the plus
points of windings shall be tied together. However, in delta connection, polarities of winding are
connected in a converse way. The phase difference between any two phases is 120˚.
pg. 106
a) Wye-wye Connection
The diagram of Y-Y connected transformers is shown below. It can serve both single-phase and three-
phase loads. In this connection, all the windings ending with dots are connected to phases A, B, and C,
while non-dots endings are connected to become the centers of Y configuration.
Advantages
 Phase voltage = (Line Voltage)/√3 . The voltage gets reduced in-phase and this, in turn, reduces
the number of turns per phase and the amount of insulation.
 There is no phase displacement between the primary and secondary voltages
 Star points on both sides make it possible to provide a neutral connection
Disadvantages
 If the load on the secondary side of the transformer is unbalanced, the phase voltages of
load side change unless the load-star point is earthed.
 The primary of the transformer draws a magnetizing current which has third and
fifth harmonics.
 If neutral of the primary winding is not connected to neutral of the generator, the third
and fifth harmonics current cannot flow hence the flux in the core cannot be of a
sinusoidal wave and, therefore, the voltages will be distorted.
pg. 107
Applications
b) Wye-Delta Connection
The Y-Delta connection shown in the figure below shows that the secondary windings (which are at the
bottom in the figure) are connected to form a chain. The windings with dot connection on one side are
connected with the non-dot connection of the other side to form the “Delta” loop.
c) Delta-Wye Connection
The connection of Delta-Y is shown in the figure below. This type of configuration allows wye-connected
secondary to connect multiple voltages such as line-to-line or neutral.
pg. 108
Application
The delta-wye connection works satisfactorily with large unbalanced and balanced loads. It can handle
third harmonic components because of the circulating currents in the delta.
d) Delta-Delta Connection
The diagram of the delta-delta connection is shown below. These connections can be made either with
three identical single-phase transformers or one three-phase transformer. The delta-delta configuration is
preferred due to its inherent reliability.
EMF Equation of Transformer

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, alternating flux Φ sets up
in the iron core of the transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and secondary winding.
The flux is a sine function.
Let
 Φm be the maximum value of flux in Weber
 f be the supply frequency in Hz
 N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
 N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding
Φ is the flux per turn in Weber.
As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f seconds.
By Faraday’s Law, let E1 be the induced emf in the primary winding
pg. 109
Where Ψ = N1ϕ
Since Φ is due to AC supply = ΦmSinωt
d
E1 = -N1Φm Sinωt
dt
E1 = -N1ω ΦmCosωt
E1 = N1ω ΦmSin(ωt – π/2) ………………(3)

Equation (3) shows that induced emf lags flux by 90o
Maximum value of emf E1max = N1ωΦm ……………….. (4)
E1max = 2πfN1Φm ……………………………………(5)
Root mean square value E1rms = E1max/√2

E1rms = (2πfN1Φm )/√2 ………………(6)
E1rms = √2πfN1Φm …………………….(7)
Substituting the value of π = 3.142
Similarly
pg. 110
Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get
The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is known as the transformation ratio.
It can also be expressed as
Φm = BmAi
Bm = maximum flux density
Ai = cross-sectional area of iron core
Transformer on Load Condition

When the transformer is loaded i.e. its secondary is connected to the load terminals. The connected load
can be resistive, inductive or capacitive. At this condition, the secondary current I2 starts flowing in the
secondary winding.
Operation of Transformer on Load
 I2 circulates and produces its own flux Φ2, and it is in opposition to the primary winding flux Φ
which is due to Io. This opposition weakens the Φ and hence the resultant flux in the transformer
reduces which in turn reduces the primary induced EMF E1 as shown in the below figure.
pg. 111
 At a moment when E1 goes on decreasing, the voltage V1 gains the upper hand over E1. This
causes the primary winding to draw additional current I2' in order to restore the primary flux Φ so
that E1 = V1. This additional current I2' produces additional flux Φ2' in the primary as shown
below.
 The nature of the Φ2' is in such a way that it cancels out the flux Φ2 produced by the secondary
current I2. This completely neutralizes the magnetic effect of the secondary current. Therefore,
the net flux is only due to primary (i.e. Φ) which is the same as that of the no-load condition
shown in the below figure.
pg. 112
Hence, when the transformer is loaded, the primary has two component of currents in it i.e., no-
load Io and load component of primary current I2'. The total primary current is the vector sum of
Io and I2' as given by
Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Load Condition :

The phasor or vector diagrams for a transformer on resistive, inductive, and capacitive loads are
drawn by taking flux Φ as the reference. Let,
V1 = Primary supply voltage.
E1 & E2 = Primary and secondary induced emf's.
Io = No-load primary input current.
I1 = Primary current.
I2 = Secondary current.
I2' = Balancing current or load component of the primary current.
 Resistive (non-inductive) Load :

When the transformer secondary is connected to a resistive load, the current will be in phase with
the voltage.
pg. 113
 Inductive Load :
When the transformer secondary is connected to an inductive load, the current flowing will lags
with respect to the voltage as shown below.
 Capacitive Load :
Similarly, when the transformer secondary is connected to a capacitive load, the current flowing
will leads to the respective voltage as shown below.
pg. 114
When transformer is loaded, I2' starts to flow and Io becomes very small an d can be neglected. Then
primary current I1 is equal to I2'
Example 1: A single phase 440/110 V transformer takes a no-load current of 4 A at 0.2 power factor. If
the secondary supplies a current of 100 A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging determine (i) the current
takes by the primary winding (ii) the magnetising reactance and resistance representing core losses.
Solution:
Primary emf, E1 = 440 V
Secondary emf, E2 = 110 V
No-load power factor,
Secondary current, I2 = 100 A
Load power factor,
Transformer ratio,
Primary balancing current,
pg. 115
Lagging behind the supply voltage V1 by an angle

Where
No-load current, I0 = 4 A lagging behind the supply voltage V1 by an angle
Solution for (i)
Primary current,
Energy component of no-load current.
Magnetising component of no-load current
Solution for (ii)

Resistance representing core losses;
Magnetising reactance;
Exercise 1
A three phase transformer has 600 primary turns and 150 secondary turns. If the supply voltage is 1.5kV,
determine the secondary voltage on no-load when the windings are connected in
a) Delta-star
b) Star-delta
Exercise 2
Three phase, 50Hz transformer has delta-connected primary and star-connected secondary, the line
voltages being 22000V and 400V respectively. The secondary has star-connected balanced load at 0.8 p.f
lagging. The line current on primary side is 5A. determine current in each coil of primary and ech
secondary line. What is the transformer output in kW?
pg. 116

Electric Circuit Analysis

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Electric Circuit Analysis | Isaac O.

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

z = x + jy - positive imaginary part

1.2 Applications of Complex Analysis in Solving A.C Circuits

Circuit Impedance (Z)

1.3 Classification of A.C Circuits

And instantaneous current may be expressed as:

Power in purely resistive circuit

1.3.2 Purely Inductive Circuit:

Power in Purely Inductive Circuit:

1.3.3 Purely Capacitive Circuit:

Power in Purely Inductive Circuit

Hence power absorbed in a purely capacitive circuit is zero.

1.3.4 R-L Series a.c circuit(inductive circuit)

Power factor p.f = cosΦ (lagging)

1.3.5 R-C Series a.c Circuit(capacitive circuit)

Power factor p.f = CosΦ (leading)

1.3.6 R-L-C Series A.C Circuit

The supply current I, is given by:

1.3.7 Series Resonance

Effects of series resonance

Lower cut-off frequency ω1 =

1.2 Network Theorems

Procedure in solving a network By Thevenin’s theorem

Thevenin’s Theorem Example 1

where Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4 is the branch admittance of each branch.

Figure 2 represents the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit where

1.2.2 Norton’s Theorem

Procedure in solving a network by Norton’s theorem

1.2.3 Maximum power Transfer Theorem

P = I2RL = E2thRL/(Rth + RL)2

1.2.4 Millman’s Theorem

Given R1 = 240Ω, R2 = 200Ω, R3 = 800Ω, RL = 192Ω, E1 = 96V, E2 = 40V and E3 = 80V

Eeq = IeqReq = -0.3 × 96 = -28.8V

Millman’s equivalent circuit is shown below

Note: Eeq faces downwards since it is negative

CHAPTER TWO: TRANSIENTS

2.2 Growth and Decay in R-C Circuit

iii) Growth of Charge (Capacitor Charging)

Equations for circuit voltages and current during charging of capacitor

And the instantaneous current flowing is given as

a) Decay of Charge (Capacitor discharging)

Capacitor discharging Equations

2.3 Growth and Decay in R-L Circuits

Current growth curve

The value of instantaneous current

VL¿ E e-Rt/L ………………….(iii)

Current decay curve

Time constant in RL circuit

CHAPTER THREE: THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

3.1. Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor

Parts Material Function

Stator core Silicon steel Houses stator winding.

Rotor core Silicon steel Houses rotor winding.

Separates stator and rotor. It is through

Connects resistance to rotor circuit via-

To provide connection between resistance

Mild steel, chromium- Transmits electrically induced torque to

3.2. Classification of 3-Φ Induction Motor

3.2.1 Squirrel cage induction motor

Some advantages of squirrel cage induction motors are:

 They are low cost

 Require less maintenance (as there are no slip rings or brushes)