A COMPREHENSIVE RESEARCH PAPER

AC GENERATORS

AC generator, also known as alternators, is a machine that converts mechanical energy

into electrical energy. The generated electrical energy is in the form of an alternating current
sinusoidal output waveform. The mechanical energy is usually supplied by steam turbines, gas
turbines, and combustion engines.
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
which states that electromotive force -EMF or voltage – is generated in a current-carrying
conductor that cuts a uniform magnetic field. This can either be achieved by rotating a
conducting coil in a static magnetic field, or by rotating the magnetic field that contains the
stationary conductor. The preferred arrangement is to keep the coil stationary because it is easier
to draw induced alternating current from a stationary armature coil than a rotating coil.

Fig. 1 AC Generator retrieved from

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/motorac.html 9/30/2020

ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS)

The root mean square (abbreviated RMS or rms), also known as the quadratic mean, is a
statistical measure of the magnitude of a varying quantity. It is especially useful when the
function alternates between positive and negative values, e.g., sinusoids.The RMS value of a set
of values (or a continuous-time function such as a sinusoid) is the square root of the arithmetic
mean of the squares of the original values (or the square of the function). In the case of a set
of n values {x1,x2,….,xn}, the RMS value is given by this formula:

The corresponding formula for a continuous function f(t) defined over the interval

T1 ≤ t ≤ T2 is as follows:

The RMS for a function over all time is below.

The RMS over all time of a periodic function is equal to the RMS of one period of the
function. The RMS value of a continuous function or signal can be approximated by taking the
RMS of a series of equally spaced samples.

Application to Voltage and Current

Consider the case of sinusoidally varying voltage:

 AC POWER ANALYISIS

AC Power

As in the case with DC power, the instantaneous electric power in an AC circuit is given
by P = VI, but these quantities are continuously varying. Almost always the desired power in an
AC circuit is the average power, which is given by

Pavg = VI cosφ

where φ is the phase angle between the current and the voltage and where V and I are understood

to be the effective or rms values of the voltage and current. The term cos φ is called the "power
factor" for the circuit.

Instantaneous Power

As in DC circuits, the instantaneous electric power in an AC circuit is given by P=VI

where V and I are the instantaneous voltage and current.

Since

then the instantaneous power at any time t can be

expressed as

and using the trig identity

the power becomes:

Averaging this power over a complete cycle gives the average power.

Average Power

Normally the average power is the power of interest in AC circuits. Since the expression
for the instantaneous power

is a continuously varying one with time, the average must be obtained by integration. Averaging
over one period T of the sinusoidal function will give the average power. The second term in the
power expression above averages to zero since it is an odd function of t. The average of the first
term is given by

Show

Since the rms voltage and current are given by and

 ,

the average power can be expressed as

Pavg = VI cosφ

Average Power Integral

Finding the value of the average power for sinusoidal voltages involves the integral

The period T of the sinusoid is related to the angular frequency ω and angle θ by

Using these relationships, the integral above can be recast in the form:

Which can be shown using the trig identity:

which reduces the integral to the value 1/2 since the

second term on the right has an integral of zero over the
full period.
Active Power

The situation in Sinusoidal or AC Circuits is more complex than DC because of phase
difference (θ) between Current and Voltage. Therefore average value of power (Real Power)
is P = VI Cosθ is in fact supplied to the load. In AC circuits, When circuit is pure resistive, then
the same formula used for power as used in DC as P = V I.

Active Power Formulas:

 P = V x I                                         (In DC circuits)
 P = V x I x Cosθ                            (in Single phase AC Circuits)
 P = √3 x VLx IL x Cosθ         or      (in Three Phase AC Circuits)
 P = 3 x VPh x IPhx Cosθ
 P = √ (S2 – Q2)or
 P =√ (VA2 – VAR2) or
Real or True Power or Active Power = √ (Apparent Power2 – Reactive Power2) or
kW = √ (kVA2 – kVAR2)
Where:
 P = Power in Watts
 V = Voltages in Volts
 I = Current in Amperes
 Cosθ = Power Factor (Phase angle Difference)
 VL = Line Voltage
 IL = Line Current
 S = Apparent Power in VA (Volt Ampere)
 Q = Reactive Power in VAR (Volt Ampere Reactive)

Reactive Power (Q)

Also known as (Use-less Power, Watt less Power). The powers that continuously
bounce back and forth between source and load is known as reactive Power (Q). Power merely
absorbed and returned in load due to its reactive properties is referred to as reactive power.

Reactive Power represent that the energy is first stored and then released in the form
of magnetic field or electrostatic field in case of inductor and capacitor respectively.
Reactive power is given by Q = V I Sinθ which can be positive (+ve) for inductive
loads and negative (-ve) for capacitive load. The unit of Reactive Power is Volt-Ampere
reactive i.e. VAR where 1 VAR = 1V x 1A. In more simple words, in Inductor or Capacitor,
how much magnetic or electric field produced by 1A x 1V is known as  the unit of Reactive
Power.

Reactive Power Formulas:

 Q = V I Sinθ
 Reactive Power = √ (Apparent Power2– True power2)
 VAR = √ (VA2 – P2)
 kVAR = √ (kVA2 – kW2)
Where:
 θ = Phase angle
Apparent Power (S)

The Product of voltage and current if and only if the phase angle differences between

current and voltage are ignored.

Total power in an AC circuit, both dissipated and absorbed/returned is referred to as

apparent power. The combination of reactive power and true power is called apparent power. In
an AC circuit, the product of the r.m.s voltage and the r.m.s current is called apparent
power which is denoted by (S) and measured in units of Volt-amp (VA). It is the product of
Voltage and Current without phase angle. The unit of Apparent power (S) VA i.e. 1VA = 1V x
1A. When the circuit is pure resistive, then apparent power is equal to real or true power, but in
inductive or capacitive circuit, (when Reactances exist) then apparent power is greater than real
or true power.

Apparent Power Formulas:

 S=VI
 S = √ (P + Q2)
 Apparent Power = √ (True power2 + Reactive Power2)
 kVA = √kW2 + kVAR2

Complex Power

The Complex sum of Real Power (P) and Reactive Power (Q) is known as Complex

Power which can be expressed like S = P+jQ and measured in terms of Volt Amps Reactive
(generally in kVAR). It may also be expressed as S=VI* where “I*” is the conjugate of the
complex current I. This current “I” flows through a reactive load Z caused by the Voltage.
Complex Power Formulas:

Complex Power in Capacitive Loads

 Z = R – jXC
 I = IP + jIQ
 Cosθ = R / |Z| (leading)
 I* = IP – jIQ
 S = P – jQ

A Capacitive Load provide Leading VARS (i.e. it eliminates VARS and improves
the overall power factor of the system). That’s why capacitors are used to correct and improve
the power factor.

Complex Power in Inductive Loads  P = Active Power

 Z = R + jXL
 I = IP – jIQ  S = Apparent Power
 Cosθ = R / |Z| (lagging)
 I* = IP + jIQ  Q = Reactive Power
 S = P + jQ
An Inductive Load provide lagging VARS (i.e. it added
Where:
 Z = Impedance VARS and decrease the overall power factor.)
 R = Resistance
 XL = Inductive Reactance Complex power can also be expressed by the following
 XC = Capacitive Reactance formula.
 Cosθ = Power Factor

Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier is a very close approximation to a perfect amplifier which has

infinite gain, infinite input impedance and zero output impedance. In reality op-amps do not
quite attain perfection, but with gains often in the region of 100 000 or more, input impedance
levels of Megohms and more and very low output impedance levels, they come sufficiently close
to enable the imperfections to be ignored in most cases. The operational amplifier has two inputs.
One is called the inverting input and is marked with a "-" sign on circuit schematic diagrams.
The other is the non-inverting input and this is marked with a "+" sign.

The op amp is basically a differential amplifier because the output is proportional to the
difference in voltage between the two inputs.

Fig. 2 Operational amplifier equivalent circuit retrieved from

https://electronicspost.com/operational-amplifier/ 9/30/2020

The two inputs gain their names from the way in which they amplify the signals:

-Non-inverting input:   The operational amplifier non-inverting input is marked by a "+" sign
on the circuit diagram. It is found that a positive voltage applied to the non-inverting input
will produce a positive swing at the output. If a changing waveform, such as a sine wave is
applied to the non-inverting input, then it will appear in the same sense at the output. It has
not been inverted.

Fig. 3 Signal applied to the non-inverting input appears at the output in the same sense
retrieved from https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/analogue_circuits/operational-
amplifier-op-amp/op-amp-basics.php 9/30/2020
By applying an input signal to the non-inverting input and negative feedback to the investing
input, it is possible to design a circuit that does not invert the sense of the input signal.

-Inverting input:   The operational amplifier inverting input is marked by a "-" sign on the
circuit diagram. A positive voltage applied to the inverting input will produce a negative
swing at the output. Thus a sine was applied to the inverting input, will appear inverted at the
output.

Fig. 3 Signal applied to the inverting input appears at the output in the opposite sense
retrieved from https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/analogue_circuits/operational-
amplifier-op-amp/op-amp-basics.php 9/30/2020

By applying the signal and negative feedback to the inverting input of an operational
amplifier, it is possible to design a circuit where the output signal is the inverse of the input.

If the same voltage is applied to both inputs together then there should be no change at the
output. In fact the output is proportional to the difference between the inverting and non-
inverting inputs. It is for this reason that these amplifiers are often called differential
amplifiers .Like any electronics circuit design, those using operational amplifiers need to have
a power supply. Normally op-amps are supplied using dual, i.e. positive and negative
supplies. Additionally the supply lines are often not shown as they add confusion to the
circuit diagram. In most cases the operational amplifier will only need five connections for its
operation - inverting, non-inverting, output and the two power rails. Very occasionally a
further three may be used. These are usually for the "offset null" capability. This is used to
reduce any DC offsets that may be present, and for most applications these can be ignored and
left disconnected.

Characteristics:

Very high gain:   One of the key attributes of operational amplifiers is their very high gain.
Typical figures extend from around 10 000 upwards – figures of 100 000 and more are
common. Although an open loop amplifier with a level of gain of this order would be of little
use, op-amps are able to harness the advantages of the very high gain levels by using negative
feedback. In this way the gain levels are very controllable and distortion levels can be kept
very low.

The use of negative feedback is key to unlocking the power of operational amplifiers. The
high gain of the op-amp combined with clever use of negative feedback means that the
negative feedback network is able to control the overall performance of the op-amp circuit
block, enables it to perform many different functions.

High input impedance:   A high input impedance is another key aspect of op-amps. In theory
their input resistance should be infinite, and the op-amps in use today come very close to this
with impedances anywhere from 0.25MΩ upwards. Some using MOSFET input stages have
an impedance of hundreds of MΩ.

Low output impedance:   The op-amp output impedance is also important. As may be
expected this should be low. In the ideal amplifier this should be zero, but in reality many
amplifiers have an output impedance of less than a hundred ohms, and many very much less
than this. That said, the drive capability of many IC based op-amps is naturally limited.

Common mode rejection:   Another important feature of the op-amp is its common mode
rejection. This refers to the situation where the same signal is applied to both inputs. For an
ideal differential amplifier no output should be seen at the output under these circumstances,
however the amplifier will never be perfect.

The actual common mode rejection ratio, CMMR, is the ratio between the output level when
the signal is applied to both inputs compared to the output when it is applied to just one. This
figure is expressed in decibels and is typically upwards of 70dB or so.

By using the common mode rejection of an operational amplifier it is possible to design a

circuit that reduces the level of interference on a low level signal. The signal and return lines
are applied to the two inputs and only differential signals are amplified, any noise or
interference picked up and appearing on both lines will be rejected. This is often used within
instrumentation amplifiers.

Limited bandwidth:   The bandwidth of an op-amp can vary quite widely. An ideal amplifier
would have an infinite bandwidth but as one may imagine this would be impossible create,
and also very difficult to use and tame in practise. In reality op-amps have a limited
bandwidth. Many of the chips used for audio applications may only exhibit their full gain
over a relatively small bandwidth, after this the gain falls. Despite this most circuits act to
reduce the gain, and enable this smaller level of gain to be maintained over a larger
bandwidth.