The Basic Elements and Phasors

14.1 INTRODUCTION
 Response of R, L, and C elements to a sinusoidal voltage and
current with the effect of the frequency.
 Phasor notation will be introduced and employed in the analysis.

14.2 THE DERIVATIVE

dx
The derivative: dt of the variable x is defined as the rate of change of x with respect
to time.
The sine wave and its derivative:
dx π 3π
 dt
=0 at ωt= 2 and 2

dx
 dt
=max ⁡( positive) at ωt=0, 2π

dx
 dt
=max ⁡( negative) at ωt=π .
dx
 dtwill change gradually
between these values in
between.

The derivative of a sine wave is a

cosine wave
The peak value of the cosine wave is proportional to the frequency of the original
wave.
The derivative of a sine wave has the same period and frequency as the original
sinusoidal waveform.
For e (t )=E m sin ( ωt ± θ ) , the derivative is:
14.3 RESPONSE OF BASIC R, L, C
1- Resistor R
For low and medium frequency up to ~100 kHz
Ohm’ Law apply even for sinusoidal voltage and
current, for v=V sin ωt
m

for a purely resistive element, the voltage across

and the current through the element are in phase,
with their peak values related by Ohm’s law.
 2- Inductor L
The voltage across an inductor is directly related to the
rate of change of current through the coil.
Higher frequency ⟹ higher magnitude of vL.
d iL
v L =L
dt

Investigating the sinusoidal

response of an inductive element.

Vm is proportional to ω
For an inductor, vL leads iL by 90o.
iL lags vL by 90o.
The quantity XL:
Vm
X L=
Im
=ωL (ohms, Ω)

is called reactance.

For a pure inductor, the voltage across the

coil leads the current through the coil by 90°.

In an inductor there is a continual exchange of energy between the inductor and the
source.
 3- Capacitor C
The current of a capacitor is directly related to the
frequency and the capacitance of the capacitor
Higher frequency ⟹ higher magnitude of iC.
d vC
i C =C
dt
vC =V m sin ( ωt )
d vC
i C =C =C ( ω V m cos ( ωt ) )=ωC V m cos ( ωt )
dt

i C =I m sin ( ωt+ 90° ) Investigating the sinusoidal

I m=ωC V m
response of a capacitive element.
For a capacitor, iC leads vC by 90o.
vC lags iC by 90o.
The quantity XC:
Vm Vm
XC= = =
1
I m ωC V m ω C
(ohms, Ω)
is called reactance.

 Capacitive reactance is the opposition to the change in the flow of charge

 Capacitor does not dissipate energy
 There is continual interchange of energy between the source and the capacitor
 d iL 1
v L =L
dt
⟹ iL=
L
∫ v L dt

d vC 1
i C =C
dt
⟹ vC = ∫ i dt
C C
dc, High-, and Low-Frequency Effects on L and C
1. DC (very low frequency)
At dc the frequency is zero: f =0
a. Inductor: X L =ωL=2 πfL=0 Ω (short circuit)
1 1
b. Capacitor: XC= =
ωC 2 πfC
=∞ Ω (open circuit)
2. very high frequency ( f ⟶ ∞ )
At very high frequency: f ⟶ ∞
a. Inductor: X L =ωL=2 πfL⟹ ∞ Ω (open circuit)
1 1
b. Capacitor: XC= =
ωC 2 πfC
⟹0 Ω (short circuit)

Resistors R(f)
Inductors XL(f)
Capacitors XC(f)

a
y=
x
14.5 AVERAGE POWER AND POWER FACTOR
 V mIm
The average value of the power is: Pavr =
2
cos ( θv −θ i )

It is also called the real power,

it the power delivered to and dissipated by the load.

The angle ( θ −θ ) is the phase angle between v and i.

v i

the magnitude of average power delivered is independent of whether v leads i or i

leads v. cos (−α )=cos ( α )

define: θ=|θ v −θi|

Resistor
In a purely resistive circuit, since v and i are in phase, |θ −θ |=θ=0° ,
v i

and cos θ=1, so that:

Inductor
In a purely inductive circuit, since v leads i by 90o, |θ −θ |=θ=9 0° ,
v i

and cos θ=0, so that:

Capacitor
In a purely capacitive circuit, since i leads v by 90o, |θ −θ |=θ=|−9 0 °|=9 0° , and cos θ=0, so
v i

that:
Power Factor

In the expression of the power ( P=V I /2 ) cos θ

m m the factor that has significant
control over the delivered power level is cos θ

This term is called Power factor

1- Purely resistive load: θ=0 ⟹ F p=cos θ=1

2- Purely reactive load: θ=9 0 °⟹ F p =cos θ=0

The terms leading and lagging are often used

with the power factor:
 i leads v: leading Power factor
 i lags v: lagging Power factor