CHEMISTRY PROJECT

TOPIC: ALTEERNATING CURRENT

SUBMITTED BY:
ROLL NO.:
SESSION: 2022-23
CLASS: XII
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF: MR. D. JHA (P.G.T PHYSICS) I.P.S, MADHUBANI

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project has been

completed solely and satisfactorily by this student,
going through original and genuine research work
carried out to investigate about the subject matter
as prescribed by CBSE.

Name:
Class:
Roll No.:
Session: 2022-2023

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 Acknowledgement

It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude towards

our physics teacher Mr. F.B. Kanth for his guidance, support
and encouragement throughout the duration of the project.
Without his motivation and help the successful completion of
this project would not have been possible
 Table of Content
- Phasors and Alternating Currents
- Resistance and Reactance
- Magnetic-Field Energy
- The L-R-C Series Circuit
- Power in Alternating
- Current Circuits
- Resonance in Alternating-Current Circuits
- Transformer
- Bibliography
1. Phasors and Alternating Currents
Ex. source of ac: coil of wire rotating with
constant ω in a magnetic field  sinusoidal
alternating emf.

v  V cost i  I cost
v, i = instantaneous potential difference / current.
V, I = maximum potential difference / current 
voltage/current amplitude. ω = 2πf

Phasor Diagrams

- Represent sinusoidally varying voltages /

currents through the projection of a vector,
with length equal to the amplitude, onto a
horizontal axis.

- Phasor: vector that rotates counterclockwise

with constant ω.
- Diode (rectifier): device that conducts better in full wave rectifier circuit
one direction than in the other. If ideal, R = 0 in one
direction and R = ∞ in other.

Rectified average current (Irav): during any whole number

of cycles, the total charge that flows is same as if current
were constant (Irav).

irav  2 I


average value
of Іcos ωtІ or
Іsin ωtІ
Root-Mean Square (rms) values:

irms  (i2 )av  I Vrms

V
2 2

i2  I 2 cos2 t

cos2 t  0.5  (1 cos 2t)

i2  0.5 I 2  0.5I 2 cos2t 

2. Resistance and
Reactance
Resistor in an ac circuit
vR  iR  (IR) cost  VR cost (instantaneous
potential)

VR  IR (amplitude –max- of voltage across R)

- Current in phase with voltage  phasors rotate together

Inductor in an ac Circuit

- Current varies with time  self-induced emf 

di/dt > 0  ε < 0
di
  L
dt
Va > Vb  Vab = Va-Vb = VL = L di/dt > 0

v L di  L d (I cost)
L
dt dt

L IL sin  t  IL cost  90

 ∘
v

vL has 90º “head start” with respect to i.

Inductor in an ac circuit

i  I cost
vL  IL
 90∘ )
cos(t
VL

v  V cos(t  )

φ = phase angle = phase of voltage relative to current

Pure resistor: φ=0

Pure inductor: φ = 90º
VL
I High ω  low I
Inductive reactance: X L  L Low ω  high I
L
Voltage amplitude: VL  IX L  IL Inductors used to block high ω
Capacitor in an ac circuit
As the capacitor charges and discharges  at each t, there is
“i” in each plate, and equal displacement current between the
plates, as though charge was conducted through C.

dq
i  dt  I cost   dq   I C = q / vC
costdt
q  I sin t


v  q  I sin t  I
 C cos(t  90∘ )
c
C C

Pure capacitor: φ = 90º

 I
VC
C vc lags current by 90º.
 1
Capacitive reactance: XC C

VC  IXC (amplitude of voltage across C)

I  High ω  high I
Capacitor in an ac circuit
Low ω  low I
VCC

Capacitors used to block low ω (or low f)

 high-pass filter
Comparing ac circuit elements:

- R is independent of ω.
- XL and XC depend on ω.

- If ω = 0 (dc circuit)  Xc = 1/ωC  ∞

 ic = 0

XL = ωL = 0

- If ω  ∞, XL  ∞  iL = 0

XC = 0  VC = 0  current changes direction so rapidly that no

charge can build up on each plate.
Example: amplifier  C in tweeter branch blocks low-f components of sound but
passes high-f; L in woofer branch does the opposite.
3. The L-R-C Series Circuit
- Instantaneous v across L, C, R = vad = v source
- Total voltage phasor = vector sum of phasors of
individual voltages.

- C, R, L in series  same current, i = I cosωt 

only one phasor (I) for three circuit elements, amplitude I.

- The projections of I and V phasors onto

horizontal axis at t give rise to instantaneous i
and v.

VC  IR
VL  IX (amplitudes = maximum
L values)
VC  IXC
-The instantaneous potential difference between terminals a,d =
= algebraic sum of vR, vC, vL (instantaneous voltages) =
= sum of projections of phasors VR, VC, VL
= projection of their vector sum (V) that represents the source voltage v and
instantaneous voltage vad across series of elements.

V  VR2  (V
L
V
c
)2 (IR)2  (IX L  IX c )2  I R2  ( X L  X c )2

Impedance: Z  R2  ( X L  X c )2

V  IZ

Impedance of R-L-C series circuit

tan   VL VC  I  X L  X C   X L  X C Phase angle of the source
VR voltage with respect to
IR R current

L 1/ C
tan  R

i  I cost
v  V cost   

V I
Vrms  I  Z
rms Z 2 2
Example 31.5

Z R2 [L  (1/ C)]2

4. Power in Alternating-Current Circuits
1
P  VI
2
V I V I 
2 V 2
P  RI rms

av
2 2
rms rms
rms 
R

P  1 VI
2
 Power in a General Circuit

P  vi  [V cos(t  )][I cost]  [V (cost cos  sin t sin)][I cost]

 VI cos cos2 t VI sin  cost sin t

Pa 1
v
 cos  Irms cos
VI Vrms
2
5. Resonance in Alternating-Current Circuits
1 1
X X  L  
L C 0
0C
0 LC
6. Transformers

1  N1 d B d B
2 
dt N2 dt

 2 N2

1 N1

V 2 N2
V 1  N1

V2
R
 (N 2 / N1
I1 )
 Bibliography-

1) Reference from the book – Alternating Current

2) Google
3) Youtube
4) Wikipedia
5) College Physics – (R.L. Weber )