Section 2: Power System

Mathematics and Physics,

Three-phase, Power factor
 Power System: Mathematics, Phasors
• A sinusoidal voltage or current at constant frequency is
characterized by two parameters, a maximum value and a
phase angle
• V(t)=VmaxCos(wt+d)
• The root mean square (rms) value also called effective
value, of the sinusoidal voltage is
Vmax
V
2
Euler’s identity, ejf=cosf+jsinf can be used to express
the voltage as:

v(t )  Re Vmax e j (wt d ) 

v(t )  Re 2(Ve jd )e jwt 
 Instantaneous Power in Single-Phase AC
Circuit
• Power is the of change of energy with respect to time.
• The Instantaneous Power absorbed by a load is the product
of voltage and current
• The load could be purely resistive, purely inductive,
purely capacitive and general RLC loads.
• Real Power, power factor and reactive power.
 PHASOR REPRESENTATION IN POWER
SYSTEM ANALYSIS
• The elements of a power system - active sources (generators) and passive
(transformers, lines, loads) can all be represented by a combination of R, L
and C components and idealized voltage generators.
• Whilst transients in power systems are important, and need to be analysed in
protection and insulation design, much power system analysis, including
fault (short-circuit) is based on steady-state conditions.
• When ac (sinusoidal) voltages are applied to devices which can store
energy - inductances and capacitances - the current response contains two
components - the transient and steady state (sinusoidal). The example in
Figure 3.1 below, for a sinusoidal source suddenly applied to a R - L circuit
refers:
di
Vmax Sin (wt  f )  Ri  L
dt

the transient component is because of di/dt

(90 degrees)
 (90 degrees)

di
v (t )   L
dt
i (t )  I m cos(wt  fi )
d ( I m cos(wt  fi )
v (t )   L
dt
v (t )  LwI m sin(wt  fi )

v (t )  LwI m cos(wt  fi  )
2
and
v (t )  Vm cos(wt  fv )

LwI m cos(wt  fi  )  Vm cos(wt  fv )
2
Vm  LwI m

cos(wt  fi  )  cos(wt  fv )
2

fi   fv
2
 1
I
di
v (t )   L 0.5
V
dt
i ( t )  I m cos(wt  fi ) 0

d ( I m cos(wt  fi )
0 5 10 15 20

v (t )   L -0.5
dt
v ( t )  LwI m sin(wt  fi ) -1


v ( t )  LwI m cos(wt  fi  )
2
and
v ( t )  Vm cos(wt  fv )

LwI m cos(wt  fi  )  Vm cos(wt  fv )
2
Vm  LwI m

cos(wt  fi  )  cos(wt  fv )
2

fi   fv
2

In contrast to a resistor which
spends or dissipates energy
irreversibly, a capacitor
stores or releases energy
(I.e., has a memory)
Capacitor AC response
J
wC
V across a capacitor lags I because
the current must flow to build up the
charge, and V is proportional to that
charge which is built up on the C
plates.
 RLC Series Impedance

The frequency dependent impedance of an RLC series

circuit
 Phase

When C or L are involved in an AC circuit, the current and voltage do not peak at
the same time. The fraction of a period difference between the peaks expressed in
degrees is said to be the phase difference. The phase difference is <= 90 degrees. It
is customary to use the angle by which V leads I. This leads to a positive phase for
inductive circuits since current lags the voltage in an inductive circuit.

The phase is negative for a capacitive circuit since the current leads the voltage..
 Phasor Diagrams
• The phase relation is often presented graphically in a phasor diagram.
• The phase can be defined as a vector in a plane. The usual reference
for zero phase is taken to be the positive x-axis and is associated with
the resistor since voltage and current are in phase.
• The length of the phasor is proportional to the magnitude, and its angle
represents its phase relative to that of the current through the resistor.
The phasor diagram for the RLC series circuit shows the main features.
 The “j” Operator
When using phasors, it is very convenient to indicate 90
deg out-of-phase components by using a “j” prefix. E.g.
the phasors below:
“Imaginary”

“Real”

Unit phasor =1/ 0 Unit phasor =1/ 90 Unit phasor =1/ 180
= 1 (+ j0) = + j1 = j21 = -1

Effectively, “j” rotates a vector (or phasor) by 90 deg. Thus j2 rotates 180 deg
and hence j2 = -1 or an “imaginary” number. Actually it's not; j indicates 90
deg out of phase components of a vector.
 Some more “j” Examples

Unit phasor =1/ 0 Unit phasor =1/ 45 Unit phasor =1/ 90

= 1 (+ j0) = 0.707 + j 0.707 = + j1

Note: 0.707 = 1/√2

Unit phasor =1/ 135 Unit phasor =1/ 180 Unit phasor =1/ 270
= -0.707 +j0.707 = + j21 = -1 = j31 = -j1 =1/ -90
Power dissipation in any circuit element
The phase voltage and current in average AC
power dissipation
Power Factor
Complex Power

The complex power S absorbed by an AC load

is: the product of the Voltage and the complex
conjugate of the current
Complex Power in a Single-phase AC Circuit

Note: I* is the complex conjugate of the current, I

S, V and I in general are complex numbers

representing phasor quantities.
 Power Factor Correction
• The process of increasing the power factor without
altering the voltage or current to the original load is
known as Power Factor Correction.
• Most loads are inductive motors
 Summary

V=IR

V=jwLI

Note: “j” rotates

phasor +90 deg

V=1/(jwC)
=-j/(wC)
 Power system analysis and design
a) Estimate the loads
b) Generation planning
c) Transmission line planning
d) Electrical design
- What does it mean?
The objective is to supply power to the
loads at acceptable frequency and
voltage.

 


Generator

Loads Loads

 What are loads?

a) Loads are specified as power consumption at the rated voltage.

This course deals with :

 Computing load voltage given the specified load and generation.
 Design of power systems using specifications of conductor size, circuit breakers, and
system needs.
Load Models:

Inductive load - Impedance representation

IL

VL ZL

ZL = RL + jwL = R + jXL = / ZL /

/ ZL / = R2 + XL2  = tan-1 (XL/R)

Inductive load - Power representation

IL = VL 0 / ZL  = IL - / IL / = / VL /
/ ZL /
With the load voltage as the reference (ie VL = VL 0), the load current lags the voltage.

VL 0


IL
The complex power absorbed by the load is:

SL = VLI*L = VL (IL -)* = VLILcos + j VLILsin

SL = / VL // IL / ( in units of VA)

P = VLILcos (in Watts) Q = VLILsin (in Vars)

 S = P + jQ (for an inductive load)  = tan-1 (Q/P)

cos = pf (power factor) Note: for inductive loads IL lags VL

The load model is:

VL
Inductive load - Power model, pf lagging
IL

P + jQ
Load Models:

Capacitve load - Impedance representation

IL

VL ZL

ZL = R - jXc = / ZL /-

/ ZL / = R2 + Xc2  = tan-1 (Xc/R) Note: that Xc = 1/ wc =

Capacitive load - Power representation

IL = VL 0 / ZL - = IL  / IL / = / VL /
/ ZL /
With the load voltage as the reference (ie VL = VL 0), the load current leads the
voltage.
IL


VL 0
The complex power absorbed by the load is:

SL = VLI*L = VL (IL )* = VLIL- = VLILcos - j VLILsin

SL = P - jQ (for a capacitive load)  = tan-1 (Q/P)

cos = pf (power factor) Note: for capacitive loads IL leads VL

The load model is:

VL
capacitive load - Power model, pf leading
IL

P - jQ

Power Formulas: for a single phase system when V is given in kV, it is easier to use the
formula:

P = VI cos  Note: P is in kW when V is in kV.

kW = kVA cos 
/kVA/ = /S/ = / kV // I / = / V / x / I /
Q = VI sin  Note: Q is in Vars when V is in kV
kVar = kVA sin  When V is in kV and I is in kA, then
P = MW = MVA cos , Q = Mvar = MVA sin 
/ S / = MVA = / V / / I /
Power Formulas: for a single phase system, when V is in kV, it is easier to use the
formula:

P = VI cos  Note: P is in kW when V is in kV.

kW = kVA cos 
/kVA/ = /S/ = / kV // I / = / V / x / I /
Q = VI sin  Note: Q is in kVars when V is in kV
kVar = kVA sin  When V is in kV and I is in kA, then
P = MW = MVA cos , Q = Mvar = MVA sin 
/ S / = MVA = / V / / I /

Power Formulas: for a three phase system:

S = 3 V I*
P3f = 3 V I cos 
Q3f = 3 V I sin 

Let V = VL-L /  3 Where VL-L is the Line to Line voltage.

Then:
P3f = 3 VL-L IL cos 
Q3f = 3 VL-L IL sin 

Note: that IL (line current) is equal to I for Y connected systems.

P3f = kW = kVA cos 
Q3f = kVars = kVA sin 
Where:
/ kVA / = / S3f / =  3 VL-L IL Note: VL-L is in kV and IL is in Amps.
We can also write:
P3f = MW = MVA cos 
Q3f = MVars = MVA sin 
/ MVA / = / S3f / =  3 VL-L IL Note: VL-L is in kV and IL is in kA.

Example: for a single phase inductive load, given below, compute the line current.
Vs
Solution:
40kVA kVA = / V/ / IL / x 103
Vload=220V / IL / = 40x103 / 220 = 181.8
pf = .9 lagging IL = 181.8-25.8

Example 2: for a three phase inductive load given below compute the line current.
Vs
Solution:
2000kVA kVA3f = 2000
Vload=20kV VL-L = 20kV
pf = .9 lagging kVA =  3 VL-L IL
/ IL / = 2000/ 3 x 20 = 57.8A
IL = 57.8 -25.8
P3f = kW = kVA cos  = 2000 x .9 = 1800kW
Q3f = kVars = kVA sin  = 2000 x sin (25.8) = 870.46kVars
 3-Wires or 4? (Refer to previous slide)
In general, a 3-phase system where the phase loads may not
be all equal (unbalanced), requires 4 wires – one for each of
the 3 phases, plus a neutral wire. The neutral wire carries the
(phasor) sum of the currents in the three phases. Example:
the 230/400 V LV distribution network, where the existence
of single-phase loads means that currents will not always be
balanced.
A balanced 3-phase system has the same voltages, currents
and phase differences (power factor) in each of the phases,
i.e. each phase is only separated by 120 degrees. Then the
currents will sum to zero. Balanced systems do not require a
neutral (4th wire) conductor. All HV systems are balanced.
 Per-Phase Method of Analysis of
Balanced 3-Phase Systems
If the voltages and currents of all 3-phases are the same (only 120 degrees
apart), then there will be no neutral current and effectively each phase is
independent of the others.

So all you have to do is analyse one phase to neutral – say A phase - and
the remaining two phases will be the same. Called the “per phase”
method.

Take Care !!
• The per-phase quantities will be phase-to-neutral voltages, single-phase
power, and line current. Multiply power x 3 to get 3-phase power.
• It can only be applied to balanced 3-phase systems. Remember, a
balanced 3-phase system has the same voltages, currents and phase
differences in each phase.
 Real and Reactive
Power
Convention: an inductive load absorbs reactive power (Q in Vars).
V I I P&Q

P Q  V R + jX

Inductive load S = VI* V

S = P + jQ 
IL

A capacitor or a capacitive load supplies or generates reactive power.

V I

P Q  V R - jXc

S = P - jQ
V

IL

A synchronous motor with a leading power factor supplies reactive power to the bus
that is connected. P
V jXL I jXL Q
jXM
P Qm  V  EM

M the motor acts as a capacitor

A generator with a lagging power factor also supplies reactive power to the system which is
connected.
VG V0 jXs V0 VG
 
system  VG PG
QG IG

S = VG I*G = PG + jQG
the generator acts as a capacitor

The machine (synchronous motor or generator) under these conditions is called an over
excited machine.
A synchronous motor with a lagging power factor consumes, or absorbs, reactive power.
V
Vm Vm
Im  pf = lagging
M Im

the motor absorbs reactive power and acts as an inductor. This machine is called an
under excited machine. A synchronous generator with a leading power factor also absorbs
reactive power, acts as an inductor and is called under excited. See Ex. Below.

IG Vs VG jX Vs I
 I P VG
 Q  Vs

S = VI* = V(I)* = VI- = VI cos  - jVI sin  = P - jQ

Problem 1: Consider a three phase distribution feeder as shown below:

source Vs j100()
bus load #3{ kVA = 133.34
VR { pf = 0.0(leading)

load #1 { kVA = 100 load #2 {100kW load #4 { kVA = 100

{ pf = .6(leading) {pf = .6(lagging) { pf = 0.0(lagging)

Compute the following:

1) The source voltage Vs, if VR is to be maintained at 4.4V (VR = 4.4kV line value).

2) The source current and the power factor at the source

3) The total complex power supplied by the source.

4) How much reactive power should be connected to the source bus to obtain unity power
factor at the source bus?
Problem #2: A balanced three phase, three wire feeder has three balanced loads as
shown:

source +a

+b

+c

R R R
lamp j20 j20 -j20 -j20

R = 100

j20 -j20

Each lamp is rated at 500 watts and 120 volts. The line to line voltage on the feeder
is 220 volts and remains constant under the loads. Find the source current in the feeder
lines and the power delivered by the source.
 Why Use Transformers and High Voltage
Transmission?

Example 1
– A single-phase power system consists of a 480V/60Hz generator
supplying a load ZL = 4+j3Ω through a transmission line of impedance
Zline = 0.18 + j0.24 Ω. If the power system is exactly as described in the
figure above, what will be the voltage at the load be? What will the
transmission line losses be?
Example 2
– Following Ex. 1, suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the
generator end of the transmission line and a 10:1 step-down
transformer is placed at the load end of the line. What will the load
voltage be now? What will the transmission line losses be now?
 Three-phase Transformer Connections

• Two main transformer connections are used

• Star (Y-connection)
• Delta (D-connection)

• Also Zigzag (Z) connection used on small power

transformers. (We won’t worry about them).
Advantages of Star Winding:

• More economical for high-voltage winding (less

insulation needed)
• A neutral point is available
• Permits direct earthing (or through an
impedance)
• Insulation level of neutral can be reduced
• Single phase loading possible with neutral
current
Advantages of Delta Winding:

• More economical for a high current, low-

voltage winding
• Helps reduce third harmonic current (see next
Section).
Conventions:
• HV winding capital letters
• LV winding small letters
• Subscript 1 is neutral end (if available)
• Subscript 2 is the line end

A a a2
C1 A2
a1
c1 b
A1 b1 b2
C2
C B1 B2 B c2
c
Common Transformer Connections
• 0° Phase Displacement
• e.g. Yy0, Dd0, Zd0
• 180° Phase Displacement
• e.g. Yy6, Dd6, Dz6
• 30° Lag Phase Displacement
• e.g. Yd1, Dy1, Yz1
• 30° Lead Phase Displacement
• e.g. Yd11, Dy11, Yz11

In Australia, most “transmission” substations (>=132 kV)

use Yy0 windings (with small tertiary delta winding).
Most “distribution” substations (<=66 kV) use Dy1 or
Dy11 windings .
• How to determine the phase shift across 3-
phase transformers and hence “vector
group”:
• Complete the delta winding on either the HV or
LV side as appropriate
• Mark the winding terminal numbers
• Induced voltage between matching HV and LV
windings should be in the same direction
• This determines phase direction of the star
winding.
Example: Dy11 Transformer
• Note: The A-ph HV winding A1-A2 is magnetically coupled to the A-
ph LV winding a1-a2. Hence the winding voltage are in phase.

A2 a1 a2
A1

b1 b2
B2
B1

C2 c1 c2
C1
Voltage Analysis of Dy11 Trf. VAB
• Voltage across A phase primary
VAN
• VAB = VAN - VBN
Van
• VAB is in phase with Van
30°
• Windings are linked by same flux
• Van lead VAN by 30°
• (hence “11 o’clock)
VCN
Similar Method for Dy1 Transformer:
A2 a1 a2
A1

b1 b2
B2
B1

C2 c1 c2
C1
Voltage Analysis of Dy1 Trf. : VAC
• Voltage across A phase primary
VAN
• VAC = VAN - VCN
• VAC is in phase with Van Van
30°
• Windings are linked by same flux
• Van lags VAN by 30°
• (ie “1 o’clock”)
VCN VBN
End of Section