CHAPTER 7

1 INTRODUCTION TO SINUSOIDAL WAVE

2 THE PHASE CONCEPT

3 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN THE PHASE DOMAIN

42 KIRCHOFF’S LAW IN THE PHASOR DOMAIN

5 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVIDER

62 WORKING WITH Vrms

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1. INTRODUCTION TO SINUSOIDAL WAVE

Before this we have considered circuit energized by constant voltage and current
sources. We will now begin to consider circuit energized by time varying voltage or
current sources. In particular, we will deal with SINUSOIDAL voltage and current
sources.

V
5
A constant voltage source
5V supplies the same voltage
at every instant.
t

V A sinusoidal voltage soucre

supplies a voltage that varies
t with time.

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 As an overview, let us consider a circuit that is excited by a sinusoidal
voltage source. The purpose of doing this is to give a picture as to where the
word “steady-state” is placed in circuit analysis.

t=0s R L

Sinusoidal voltage
C
source, Vs

The story goes like this:

When the switch closes at t=0, current will flow. There is response
in the circuit element. The response in the element can be divided to two
types;

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•TRANSIENT RESPONSE (or NATURAL RESPONSE)
This response is only significance at a time just after the switch is closed. As
time elapses, the response vanished. This type of response is not analyzed
in this course. It will be analyzed in the course ( Circuit Analysis 2).

•STEADY-STATE RESPONSE (or FORCED RESPONSE)

This response exists as long as he switch remains closed and the circuit is
excited by the sinusoidal voltage source. This is the response that we want to
analyse in this course.

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The Sinusoidal Wave

A general expression for a sinusoidal voltage is

The sinusoidal wave:

• The period, T, is the time taken to
T complete one cycle ( unit : second, s)
V

Vm
• The frequency, f, is the number of cycle
t per second, where

•  is the angular frequency of the sinusoidal function , where

• Vm is the maximum value for the voltage or amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage.
•  is the phase angle of the sinusoidal function. It determines the value of the
sinusoidal voltage at the time t=0s. Changing  will shift the wave along the time
axis.
• From the expression of the sinusoidal voltage source Vmcos(t + ), we will able
to find the value of the voltage at any given instant time.

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Example 1

For the following sinusoidal voltage , find the value v at time t=0s and t=0.5s.
V = 6cos(100t + 600) .

• Be careful when adding t and . The unit t is radians. The unit for  is degrees.
To add both the values, they should be the same units. To change radians to
degrees, multiply the number in radians with 1800/.To change degrees to radians,
multiply the number in degrees with /1800.

• An important value from the sinusoidal function is its RMS value. RMS mean for
root-mean-square. For sinusoidal functions;

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Example 2

A sinusoidal current has a maximum amplitude of 20A. The current passes

through one complete cycle in 1ms. The magnitude of the current at zero time is
10A.
i) What is the frequency of the current in Hz?
ii) What is the value of the angular frequency?
iii) Write the expression for i(t) in the form Imcos(t + ).
iv) What is the rms value of the current?

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 Example 3

A sinusoidal voltage is given by the expression v = 300cos(120t + 300).

i) What is the frequency in Hz?
ii) What is the period of the voltage in milliseconds?
iii) What is the magnitude of v at t = 2.778 ms?
iv) What is the rms value of v?

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In a linear circuit, the following points between the sinusoidal source and
response are evident:

 If the source is sinusoidal, the response is also sinusoidal.

 The frequency of the response is the same as the frequency of the source.
 Only the amplitude and phase angle differs between the source and the
response.

Complex number can be written in several form

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 2. THE PHASOR CONCEPT

The phasor is a complex number representing the amplitude and phase angle of
a sinusoidal voltage or current. As we know, the sinusoidal voltage can be
represented by the cosine function as in

V = Vm cos t + )

This expression is in the time domain. In the phase method, we no longer work in
the time domain. Wee work in the phase domain( some books call it the
frequency domain). The sinusoidal voltage is not represented by the cosine
function. It is represented by a complex number. He phasor representation of the
sinusoidal voltage is

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 For example, doing a phasor transform on the sinusoidal voltage,
v = 12cos(377t – 600), results in V = 12-600 = 6 –j10.39.

Both forms of V are complex numbers. We need to be able to switch from the
polar to rectangular form and vice-versa using the calculator. We will have to
learn to be “comfortable” in handling complex numbers.

The phasor representation carries only the amplitude and phase angle
information. The frequency term is dropped since we know that he frequency of
the sinusoidal response is the same as the source. The cosine expression is also
dropped since we know that the response and source are sinusoidal.

The phasor V can be represented by a phasor diagram

Imag

Vm
Vmsin

Real
Vmcos

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 Once a sinusoidal voltage or current is represented in its phasor form, we can do
simple arithmethic operations on complex numbers (such as add, subtract,
multiply and divide). You may use calculator to perform these operations.

Once we are done with the arithmetic operations on the complex numbers i.e
once we have arrived at the phasor form of the response that we are looking for,
we can leave the phasor domain and return to the time domain. In order to return
to the time domain, we will have to do an INVERSE phasor transform.

From V = Vmresponnse , we can get back the cosine function in the time domain,
v = Vmcos (t + ). Observe that the information on the amplitude and phase
angle carried by the phasor voltage is carried back to the time domain.  of the
response is the same as the source.

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 EXAMPLE 4

Given y1 = 20cos(100t – 300) and y2 = 40cos(100t + 600). Express y1 + y2 as a

single cosine function.

Doing an inverse phasor transform on Y1 + Y2 (which is in the phasor domain) will

give us y1 + y2 back to the time domain.

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 3 . CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN THE PHASE DOMAIN

Analysis of circuit is simpler in the done in the phasor domain. In order to perform phasor domain
analysis, we need to transform all circuit elements t its phasor equivalents. For sinusoidal source,
phasor transform will make the source eligible to enter the phasor domain. All will have to be
converted to impedance , Z. Impedance , Z, is the constant relating phasor voltage V and phasor
current I. Z is a complex number. Unit :

i) RESISTOR

In the phasor domain, Z = R. Voltage –current

relationship is given by V = IR

Imag
VR VR and IR are
in phase; I = V
IR
V
I
Real

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 ii) INDUCTOR

In the phasor domain, Z = jL. Voltage –current

relationship is given by V = jLI

iii) CAPACITOR
j  j
In the phasor domain, Z = Voltage –current relationship is given by V = )I
C C

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 A general expression for impedance , Z , is

Where R = resistance , X = reactance

ELEMENT THE IMPEDANCE THE RESISTANCE THE REACTANCE

Resistor Z= R R 0
Inductor ZL = jXL= jL 0 L
Capacitor ZC = jXC= -j/C 0 1/C

Z is a complex number but a phasor. Phasors represent voltages and

currents. Z characterizes the elements. Passive sign convention is also
applied to impedance for the reference sign of direction of the voltages and
currents through the elements.

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The reciprocal of impedance, Z , is admittance, Y.

The general expression for Y is , Y = G  jB

Where G = Conductance and B = Susceptance

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Example 5
The current in the 75mH inductor is 4cos(40000t – 380) mA. Calculate:

i) the inductive reactance

ii) the impedance of the inductor
iii) the phasor voltage V
iv) the steady-state expression v(t).

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Example 6
Find the phasor domain equivalent circuit for the following circuit.
50 10F

35cos1000t 25mH

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Drill 1
Find the phasor transform of each trigonometric function.

i) v = 170cos(377t – 400) V
ii) i = 10sin(1000t + 400) A
iii) i = 5cos(t + 36.870) + 10cos(t – 53.130) A
iv) v = 300cos(20000t + 450) – 100sin(20000t + 300) V
(Ans: (a) V=170-400, (b) I= 10-700, (c) I=11.18-26.570, (d) V=339.961.510)

Drill 2
The voltage across the terminals of the 0.2F capacitor is 40cos(105t - 500)V.
Calculate:

i) the capacitive reactance

ii) the impedance of the capacitor
iii) the phasor current I
iv) the steady-state expression for i(t).
(ans: (a) -50 , (b) –j50, (c) 0.8400 , (d) 0.8cos(105t + 400) )

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 4. KIRCHHOFF’S LAW IN THE PHASOR DOMAIN

In the phasor domain:

KVL states that the algebraic sum of phasor voltages around a loop is zero.
KCL states that the algebraic sum of phasor currents at a node is zero.

The principles observed while covering DC circuits for these laws are also
applicable to phasor equivalent circuits. The difference is simply that the
voltages, currents and resistance/inductance/capacitance are converted to
phasors and impedance.

Example 7

Four branches terminate at a common node. The reference direction of each

branch currents (i1, i2 ,i3 ,i4) is toward the node. If i1 = 100cos (t + 250),
i2 = 100cos (t + 1450), i3 = 100cos (t - 950)A, find i4 .

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Solution

By using the phasor concept, i1 = 100250, i2 = 1001450, i3 = 100-950.

Applying KCL,

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 Example 8 :For the phasor circuit below, find the phasor current I.

2 j5
= 6.71 26.570A

15  00 j4

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 SERIES & PARALLEL SIMPLICATION

Simplifying impedance in series and parallel is similar to simplifying resistance is

series and parallel. Impedance in series can be combined to form a single
impedance by adding the individual impedance.

a) Series connection

Z1 Z2 Z3 ZN

Zeq

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 a) Parallel connection

Z1 Z2 Z3 ZN Zeq

Impedance connected in parallel can be combined to form a single impedance by

the reciprocal relationship.

For the special case of just two impedance in parallel;

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 Example 9

A 90 resistor, a 32mH inductor and a 5F capacitor are connected in series across
the terminal of a sinusoidal voltage, a shown in Fig 9(a) below. The steady-state
expression for the source Vs is 750cos(5000t + 300)V.
i) construct the phasor domain equivalent circuit
ii) calculate the steady-state current i(t) by the phasor method
90 5F

I
750cos(5000t + 300) 32mH

Figure 9(a)

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 Figure 9(b) illustrate the frequency domain equivalent circuit of the circuit
shown in fig 9(a).

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Drill 3

The sinusoidal current source in the circuit shown in Figure D3 produces the
current is = 8cos(200kt)A.
i) Construct the phasor domain equivalent circuit.
ii) Find the steady-state expression for v, i1 , i2 and i3

[Ans: i1=4cos(200kt – 36.870), i2=4cos(200kt – 900), i3=8cos(200kt + 53.310),

v=40cos(200kt – 36.870) ]

+ 6
Is V 10
1F
-
40H

i1 i2 i3

Figure D3

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 5. VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

Voltage Divider
The voltage has to be divided in series connected impedance.

+
V1 Z1
-
Vs

+
V2 Z2
-

Current Divider
The current has to be divided to a branch or parallel connected impedance

I1 I2

Is Z1 Z2

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 Example 10

Use the concept of voltage division to find the steady-state expression for v0(t) in
the circuit if the vg = 100cos(8000t) V.
0.2H
300 500

V0 125nF
Vg

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 Applying voltage divider,

Drill 4
Use the concept of current division to find the steady-state expression for io in the
circuit shown in fig D4 below if ig = 400cos(20000t)mA .
(ans: io(t) = 474.34cos(20000t + 18.40)
Drill 5
Using voltage divider rule, find the phasor voltage for V1 in the circuit shown in fig D5.
(ans: V1 = 6.8-7.380).

j4
3

+ V1 -
200 600 2

ig 10  00 j5
125nF 60mH j4

Fig D4 Fig D5

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 WORKING WITH Vrms

When we apply Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Law and all the other method of
analysis, we have a choice of working with the maximum voltage Vm or the
effective voltage Vrms.

• If we work with Vrms or Irms , the values that we find are rms values as
well.
• If we work wit maximum values, the values that we find are maximum values.

The Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Law equation are such that we can choose
either one of the values to work with.

V = ZI
Vmv = Z ImI
Vrmsv = Z Irmsi

We should however be careful when doing power calculations. We should be

aware of which value (between the peak and rms value) we use because it does
make a slight difference to the equation we will use in this chapter.

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