1.6 Real Single-Phase Transformer.

 The ideal transformer in Section 1.5 can never been made. The
real transformer has many imperfections.
 The real transformers consists of two or more coils of wire
physically wrapped around the ferromagnetic core. The real
transformer approximate the characteristic of the ideal
transformer.
 Operation if the real transformer;
(i) It consists of two coils of wire wrapped around a transformer
core.
(ii) The primary of the transformer is connected to an ac power
source, and the secondary winding is an open-circuited.
(iii) Figure 1.5 is the hysteresis of the transformer.
(iv) Basic operation from the faraday law, d
eind 
dt
 l is the flux linkage in the coil across which the voltage is
being induced.
 The sum of the flux passing through each turn in the coil
added over all the turns of the coil is;
N
   i
i 1
 The average flux per turns is given by ;


 
N
 And Faraday’s law can be written as ,

d
eind N
dt
  1.7 The Equivalent Circuit of a Real
Transformer.
 m

s_leakage

p_leakage

Leakage flux in the real transformer

 Copper losses are resistive loses in the windings of the

transformer core.
 Copper losses are modeled by placing a resistor Rp in the primary
circuit of the transformer and a resistor Rs in the secondary circuit.
  1.7 The Equivalent Circuit of a Real
Transformer.
The leakage flux in the windings is,
di p
eLP (t )  L p
dt
dis
eLS (t )  Ls
dt
 Core excitation effect can be model as
 i) magnetization reactance, XM
 ii) core resistance, Rc

 Figure 1.7 is an exact model of a transformer. To analyze the

transformer it is necessary to convert the entire circuit to an
equivalent circuit at a single voltage level as in Figure 1.8.
 Figure 1.7: Model of a R eal Transformer.

Fi gure 1.8: (a) The Trans former Model Referred to i ts Primary Windings (top).
(b) The Transformer Model R ef erred to its Sec ondary Voltage Level (bottom).
 Symbols used for the Exact Equivalent Circuit above;
  1.7 The Equivalent Circuit of a Real
Transformer.
 Figure below is an exact model of a transformer.
 Transferring impedances through a
transformer
VS
Z load  Zs 
IS
IP IS
T

Vac VP VS Zload VP aVS V

ZP    a2 S
I P  IS  IS
 
a

Thévenin equivalents of transformer

circuit Z P  a 2 Z load
 Transferring impedances through a
transformer
IP
Equivalent circuit when secondary impedance is
Vac VP a2Zload transferred to primary side and ideal transformer
eliminated

IS
Equivalent circuit when primary source is
transferred to secondary side and ideal transformer
Vac/a VS Zload eliminated
 Cont’d…
 To analyze practical circuits containing transformer, it is necessary
to convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a single
voltage level.
 Therefore, the equivalent circuit must be referred either to its
primary side or to its secondary side in problem solving.

The Transformer Model Referred to its Primary Windings

Cont’d…

The Transformer Model Referred to its Secondary Voltage Level.

 Cont’d…

The Transformer Model Referred to its Primary Windings

 Cont’d…

 Based on the above equations and assuming a zero degree

reference angle for V2, the phasor diagram is shown as
 1.8 The Approximate Equivalent Circuit
of a Transformer.
 In the Approximate model the voltage drop in Rp and Xp is negligible because the current is very small.

Approximate Transformer Model Referred to the Primary Side.

 Cont’d…

 The voltage in the primary series impedance (r1 + jx1) is small,

even at full load. Also, the no load current (I0) is so small that its
effect on the voltage drop in the primary series impedance is
negligible.
 Therefore, it matters little if the shunt branch of Rc in parallel with
Xm is connected before the primary series impedance or after it.
The core loss and magnetizing currents are not greatly affected by
the move.
 Connecting the shunt components right at the input terminals has
the great advantage of permitting the two series impedance to be
combined into one complex impedance.
 The equivalent impedance referred to the primary side is;
 Cont’d…

Figure 1.11 shows the approximate equivalent circuit of

transformer referred to the secondary side.

Approximate Circuit Model of a Transformer Referred to the

Secondary.
 The equivalent impedance is;
 1.9 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency.
 Voltage regulation is a measure of the change in the terminal
voltage of the transformer with respect to loading. Therefore the
voltage regulation is defined as:

Vs ,nl  Vs , fl
VR   100%
Vs , fl
 For ideal transformer, VR = 0. It is a good practice to have as small
voltage regulator as possible.
 Cont’d…
 Transformer Efficiency, efficiency of a transformer is defined as
follows;
Output Power P2
 
Output Power P1
 For Non-Ideal transformer, the output power is less than the input
power because of losses.
 These losses are the winding or I2R loss (copper losses) and the core
loss (hysteresis and eddy-current losses ).
 Thus, in terms of the total losses, Plosses, the above equation may be
expressed as;

P1  P1\ losses P2 P2
  
P1 P2  Plosses P2  Pcopper  Pcore
Ex 3: Transformer Voltage Regulation.
Cont’d…Ex.3
 1.10 Open Circuit and Short Circuit.
- Determination of transformer parameter by
measurement
Open Circuit Test.
 Provides magnetizing reactance and core loss resistance
 Obtain components are connected in parallel
 The open circuit test is conducted by applying rated voltage at
rated frequency to one of the windings, with the other windings
open circuited.
 The input power and current are measured.
 For reasons of safety and convenience, the measurements are
made on the low-voltage (LV) side of the transformer.
 Cont’d…

Equivalent Circuit of the Open-Circuit Test.

 The secondary / high voltage (HV) side is open, the input current is
equal to the no load current or exciting current (I0), and is quite small.
 The input power is almost equal to the core loss at rated voltage and
frequency.
Cont’d… Open circuit test evaluation
 Cont’d…
Short Circuit Test.
 The short-circuit test is used to determine the equivalent
series resistance and reactance.
 Provides combined leakage reactance and winding
resistance
 One winding is shorted at its terminals, and the other
winding is connected through proper meters to a variable,
low-voltage, high-current source of rated frequency.
 The source voltage is increased until the current into the
transformer reaches rated value. To avoid unnecessary high
currents, the short-circuit measurements are made on the
high-voltage side of the transformer.
 Cont’d…

Equivalent Circuit of the Short-Circuit Test.

Vsc
Psc  I Req _ HV
2 Z eq _ HV 
sc I sc
Psc
Req _ HV  2 2
X eq _ HV  Z eq _ HV  Req _ HV
2
I sc
Equivalent circuit obtained by measurement

Xe_s Re_s

Xm_p Rc_p

Equivalent circuit for a real transformer resulting from the open and
short circuit tests.
 1.11 Three Phase Transformer.

 Almost all the major power generation and distribution

systems in the world today are three-phase ac system.
 Two ways of constructing transformer of three-phase
circuit;
(i) Three single phase transformers are connected in
three-phase bank.
(ii) Make a three-phased transformer consisting of three
sets of windings wrapped on a common core.
 The three-phased transformer on a common core (ii) is
preferred because it is lighter, smaller, cheaper and
slightly more efficient.
 Three-Phase Transformer Connections.
 A three-phase transformer consists of three transformers
either separate or combined on one core.

combined on one core.

3 separate core
 Three-Phase Transformer Connections.

 There are four possible connections between the secondary and

primary of a three-phase transformer.
(1) Wye-Wye (Y-Y). - don't use causes harmonics problems
(2) Wye-Delta (Y-). - use : high voltage transmissions
(3) Delta-Wye (Y) - use : most common; commercial and
industrial.
(4) Delta-Delta (). - use: industrial applications
Figure 1.15: Three-Phase Transformer Connections and Wiring Diagram
 V LP
(1) Wye-Wye Connection. a Y Y
V LS

(2) Wye-Delta Connection.

V LP
 3a Y 
VLS

(3) Delta-Wye Connection. VLP 3

  Y
VLS a

VLP VP
(4) Delta-Delta Connection.  a 
VLS VS
 Cont’d…
Ex. 2.6: Three-Phase
Transformer.
What should be the ratings (voltages and currents)
and turns ratio of a three-phase transformer to
transform 10 MVA from 230 kV to 4160 V, if the
transformer is to be connected:
a) wye-delta, b) delta-wye, and
c) delta-delta?
Solution

For both delta and wye connections, the line

currents can be obtained as:

.
Ex. 7: Voltage Regulation at Full Load.
A 7200V/208V, 50kVA, three-phase distribution
transformer is connected delta-wye. The transformer
has 1.2% resistance and 5% reactance.
Find the voltage regulation at full load, 0.8 power
factor lagging.
Voltage Regulation.
 Ex.8: Transformer Efficiency.

If the core loss of the transformer in Example 7 is 1kW, find

the efficiency of this transformer at full load and 0.8
power factor.

Solution