EE-260

Lecture No 06, 07

Electrical Machines
Text Book: Chapter 02 (Stephen J. Chapman 4th Ed)

2.1 Why Transformers are Important to Modern Life Page 66

2.2 Types and Construction of Transformers Page 66
2.3 The Ideal Transformer Page 68
2.4 Theory of Operation of Real Single-phase Transformers
Page 76
2.5 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer Page 86

Instructor: Dr. Farid Gul

Class: BEE-20AB Fall 2022
Electrical Engineering Department
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Transformers

Bushing

Steel
Iron core tank
behind the steel
bar

Winding

Insulation

2
Radiator
 Why Transformer are Important To
Modern Life
• The first power distribution system in U.S was invented by
Thomas A. Edison in 1882.
• It was 120V dc system to supply power for incandescent light
bulbs.
• The power was transmitted at very low voltage level.
• To minimize line losses power stations were located for every
few blocks of the city.
• The invention of transformer and concurrent development of ac
power sources eliminated these restrictions for ever.

3
 Construction of Transformer
A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power from one voltage
level to another voltage level through the action of magnetic field. It has two
windings on a ferromagnetic core.
Primary winding – energized by connecting it to an input source

Secondary winding – to which an electrical load is connected and from

which output energy is drawn.

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Types of Transformers w. r. t. Core Design

With respect to the core of the transformer, there are two types of the
transformers:

Core Type: Shell Type:

Each winding on a separate leg Both winding on a the same leg

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 Types of Transformers w. r. t. Core Design
(cont…..)
The primary and secondary windings in a
physical transformer are wrapped one on the
top of the other with low voltage winding
innermost. Such an arrangement serves two
purposes:

1) It simplifies the problem of insulating

the high voltage winding from the
core.

2) It results in much less leakage flux

than would be in the case if the two
windings were separated by a distance
on the core.
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 Types of Transformers w. r. t. Applications
(cont…..)
1. Unit Transformer: To step up the voltage at generation.
2. Substation Transformer: To step down voltage from
transmission to distribution level.
3. Distribution Transformer: Takes distribution voltage and steps
it down to final voltage at which the power is used.
4. Potential Transformer/Voltage Transformer (PT/VT): Is
used to change the high voltage to low voltage, but can handle
very small current.
5. Current Transformer (CT): Is used to change the primary
current to much smaller secondary current but the current is
directly proportional to the primary current.

Types 4 and 5 are used for instrumentation.

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 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Ideal Transformer Why?
Core of the
No Leakage Flux transformer
No Losses - {No Winding Resistance Losses}
- {No Core Losses due to eddy current and hysterisis}
Secondary Side

Primary Side (P) IP Mutual Flux  IS

(S)

L
Source V VP NP NS VS O
A
D

Vp Np
Is
   a  Transforma tion Ratio
Vs N s I p 8
 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
(cont……)
Voltage polarity:
the Dot convention:
The dots are used to indicate polarities

The direction of the windings determines

polarity of the voltage across the secondary
winding with respect to the voltage across
the primary

Schematic symbol

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TRANSFORMERS

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11
TRANSFORMERS

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12
TRANSFORMERS

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14
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15
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 Power in Ideal Transformer
Primary side:
The power supplied to the transformer by the source is given by:
Pin  VP I P cos  p Where θp is the angle between Vp and Ip
Secondary side:
The power supplied by the transformer to the load is given by:

Pout  Vs I s cos  S Where θs is angle between Vs and Is

Since voltage and current angles are unaffected for an ideal transformer.

P  S  0

Power factor on primary and secondary side is the same

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 Power in Ideal Transformer (cont….
Comparison of Input and The same relationship applies to
Output Power reactive power Q and the apparent
power S:
Pin  Pout
Pout  VS I S cos 
Qout  VS I S sin   VP I P sin   Qin

and

Sout  VS I S  VP I P  Sin

Thus the output power of an ideal

transformer is equal to its input power.

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Voltage and Current Transformation
Through a Transformer

Vp
 a  V p  aVs
Vp I Vs
 s a
Vs I p
Is Is
 a  Ip 
Ip a

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 Impedance Transformation Through a
Transformer
• The impedance of a device is defined as the
ratio of voltage across it to the current
through it:

VL VS
ZL  
IL IS
• The apparent impedance of
primary circuit of transformer is:

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 Impedance Transformation Through a
Transformer (cont…
• To analyze the circuit replace
the circuit on one side of the
transformer by an equivalent
circuit with the same terminal
characteristics.
• The process of representing an
element on one side of
transformer by its equivalent at
the other side is known as
referring the first side of
transformer to the second side.

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Example 2-1.
A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator supplying a load
Zload = 4 +j3 Ω through a transmission line of impedance Zline = 0.18+ j0.24 Ω. Answer
the following questions about this system.

(a) What will be the voltage at

the load and the transmission
line losses when the source is
connected to the load without
transformers (Fig (a))?

(b) What will be the

voltage at the load and
the transmission line
losses when the source
is connected to the load
through transformers
(Fig (b))?

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 (a)
Vload  ?
Ploss  ?

Vload  I line Z load

Ploss  I line
2
Rline

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 (b)

1. Eliminate transformer T2 by referring the load over to the transmission

line's voltage level.

Zeq

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 2. Eliminate transformer T1 by referring the transmission line's elements and
the equivalent load at the transmission line's voltage over to the source side.

Zeq

Z eq

Ploss   I G    95.94 A   0.0018   16.7 W

2 2
Rline

or 24
 Real Single Phase Transformer
• Primary connected to an
AC source and secondary
is open circuited
d
eind 
dt
λ is the flux linkage in the coil across
which voltage is being induced.
• Total flux linkage is the sum of the flux passing through each
turn in the coil added over all turns of the coil.
N
   i
i 1
• The average flux can be expressed as:
d
Thus eind  N
dt
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 The Magnetization Current in Real
Transformer
• When AC power is connected to the transformer a
current flows even when secondary is open circuited.
N p d
eind 
dt
1
 
Np  eind d (t )

eind  v p (t )  VM cos t
1
 
Np  VM cos t dt

VM
  si n  t
Np
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 The Magnetization Current in Real
Transformer
• When an ac power source is connected to a
transformer, a current flows in its primary circuit, even
when the secondary circuit is open circuited.
• It consists of two components:

I. The magnetization current iM, which is the current required

to produce the flux in the transformer core
2. The core-loss current ih+e , which is the current required to
make up for hysteresis and eddy current losses

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The magnetization curve of the
transformer core

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The magnetization current

v p (t )  VM cos t

1
 
Np  VM cos t dt

VM
  sin t
Np
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The core-loss current in a transformer

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 vp
iex iex

im

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The Total No Load (Excitation) Current in Real Transformer

iex  im  ih  e

The total excitation current in a typical transformer

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 The Voltage Ratio Across a Real
Transformer
When the voltage is applied on the primary side of the transformer then the
average flux produced is:
__
1

NP  v P (t )dt

• Some of the flux lines leave the

iron core and pass through the air
• The flux that goes through one of
the transformer coils but not the
other one is leakage flux.
• The flux in the primary coil can be
divided into two components
P  M  LP dP d M dLP
v p (t )  N P  Np  Np
dt dt dt
 eP (t )  eLP (t ) 34
 The Voltage Ratio Across a Real
Transformer
d M dLP From these equations it is obvious that:
v p (t )  N p  Np
dt dt d M
eP (t )  N P
v p (t )  eP (t )  eLP (t ) dt
d M
eS (t )  N s
For secondary side: dt
S  M  LS eP (t ) dM eS (t )
  
NP dt NS
d s eP (t ) N P
vs (t )  N s   a
dt eS (t ) N S
d M dLS The ratio of the primary voltage
 Ns  NS caused by the mutual flux to the
dt dt secondary voltage caused by the
vs (t )  es (t )  eLS (t ) mutual flux is equal to the turn ratio
of the transformer.
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 The Voltage Ratio Across a Real
Transformer
• In a good design ϕM >> ϕLP and ϕM >> ϕLS. Therefore, ratio
of the total voltage on the primary of transformer to the
ratio of the total voltage on the secondary of a transformer
is approximately given as :
v p (t ) Np
 a Resembles the ideal transformer.
vs (t ) Ns

• The smaller the leakage flux, the closer the transformer

will be to the ideal one.

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Assumptions to Convert a Real Transformer
into Ideal Transformer
1. The core must have no Real
hysteresis or eddy current.
2. The Magnetization curve must
be an ideal one.
3. The leakage flux in the core
must be zero, (i.e. all the flux in
the core couples both the
windings).
4. The resistance of the Ideal
transformer winding must be
zero.

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 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
The losses that occur in real transformers have to be accounted for in
any accurate model of transformer behavior. The major losses are:
1. Copper Losses( I2R): The resistive heating losses in the primary
and secondary winding of the transformer. They are proportional
to the square of the current in the winding.
2. Eddy Current Losses: These are resistive heating losses in the
core and are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to
the transformer.
3. Hysteresis losses: These are associated with the rearrangement
of the magnetic domains in the core during each half cycle and
are nonlinear function of applied voltage.
4. Leakage Flux(φLP φLS): The fluxes which escape the core and
pass only through one of the transformer winding. These
escaped fluxes produce a self inductance in the primary and
secondary coil.
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 The Exact Equivalent Circuit Model
1.Copper Losses
The resistive copper losses are modeled by placing a
resistance RP in the primary and RS in the secondary winding
of the transformer.

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 The Exact Equivalent Circuit Model
2. Leakage Flux: The flux which escapes the core and passes only
through one of the transformer winding.
Primary coil d Secondary coil
eLP (t )  N P LP dLS
eLS (t )  N s
dt dt
LP  (  N P )iP LS  (  N S )iS
d d
eLP (t )  N p (  N P )iP eLS (t )  N S (  N S )iS
dt dt
di p diS
 Np 2  NS 
2

dt dt
di p di
eLP (t )  L p eLS (t )  LS S
dt dt
 LP  N P2  LS  N S2 
LP: self inductance of LS: self inductance of
primary coil secondary coil
Leakage flux is modeled by primary and secondary inductances. 42
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit Model
Leakage flux modeled by primary and secondary
inductances LP and LS.

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 The Exact Equivalent Circuit Model
3. (Eddy Current +Hysteresis Losses): The core loss current, ih+e, is
proportional to voltage applied to the core and is in phase with voltage.
Therefore, can be modeled by Rc across primary.
4. The Magnetization Current: Is proportional to the voltage applied to the
core and is lagging the applied voltage by 90o. So it can be modeled by
a reactance connected across the winding, represented by X M.

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 The Exact Equivalent Circuit Model

 The XM & RC represent the excitation effect which includes the core
loss current (eddy + hysteresis) and the magnetization current.

 The XM & RC are placed inside, after LP and RP, because the voltage
applied to the core is input voltage less the internal voltage drop of the
winding.
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 Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
• To analyze practical circuits containing transformers, it is
important to convert the entire circuit to a single voltage level.
• Therefore, the circuit must be referred either to primary or to its
secondary side.

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Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

Transformer Model Referred to its Primary Voltage

Transformer Model Referred to its Secondary Voltage

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 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a
Transformer
The excitation branch has a very small current compared to the load current,
so small that under normal circumstance it causes a completely negligible
voltage drop in RP and XP. Therefore, the excitation branch is moved to the
front of the transformer

a) Approximate Transformer Model b) Approximate Transformer Model

Referred to Primary Side Referred to Secondary Side
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 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of a
Transformer
• Excitation branch adds complexity. However, current through this
branch is very small, as compared to the load current.
• It causes negligible voltage drop in the Rp and Xp and hence can be
neglected.

Rp Xp
Req P  R p  a 2 Rs X eqP  X p  a 2 X s ReqS  2
 Rs X eqS  2
 Xs
a a
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???
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