Experiment 6:

AIM: To perform a direct load test on a single-phase transformer and determine the
efficiency and voltage regulation at different loads.

MACHINE SPECIFICATION:

1-phase, 1.5 kVA, 230/115 Volts, 50 Hz transformer

APPARATUS:
(1) Voltmeter (MI) : 300V

(2) Voltmeter (MI) : 150V

(3) Ammeter (MI) : 10A

(4) Ammeter (MI) : 20A

(5) Wattmeter : 300 V, 10A, 1500 W

(6) Wattmeter : 150 V, 20A, 1500 W

(7) Single phase variac : 0- 270V, 10A, 50Hz

THEORY:

The efficiency of an apparatus is defined as the ability of a device to convert energy from one
form to other. In other words, it is the ratio of the useful power output to the input power.

While converting energy, some losses take place in the device. Losses occur more in rotating
machines due to friction and windage. The transformer is a static device, so its efficiency is
96 to 99%.

In a transformer, there are mainly two types of losses (1) constant loss (iron loss) and (2)
variable loss (copper loss).

Constant losses are constant for a given frequency and voltage. The variable loss depends on
the square of the load current.

In large transformers, iron losses are between 0.5 to 1.0% and Cu losses between 0.5 to 1.5%
of its capacity.

To find efficiency at any load, we require evaluating output and input. This can be done by
actually loading the transformer, known as a load test. In this case, the load impedance varies,

31 | P a g e
keeping the power factor constant. For different values of load output in KVA, corresponding
input is measured.

Thus, in this case, there is no necessity to calculate the losses separately.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1-phase transformer

Fig. 1 Circuit diagram for 1-phase transformer

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the transformer to the supply system through single phase variac by including
appropriate meters, as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Connect lamp banks on the secondary side of the transformer. Vary load to give load
current equal to 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 % and 100 % of the full load current in steps. For
each step, measure input power and output power.
3. At each load condition see that the input voltage to the primary of the transformer
remains normal.
4. To determine regulation, set rated conditions and disconnect the load. Measure secondary
no-load voltage (VNL) with the primary voltage held constant.
5. Draw the graph of efficiency v/s load current (I2) or output (W2) and comment.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

S INPUT OUTPUT EFFICIEN REGULATI

R CY ON

N V1 I1 W1 V2 I2 W2 = W2 100 = (VNL -

O VFL/
VOL AMP WAT VOL AMP WAT W1
TS S. TS TS S. TS VNL) *100%

CALCULATION:

Efficiency

The efficiency of the transformer is calculated directly by measuringthe power input

and output.

Input power to the transformer = W1 = V1I1

Output power of the t ransfo rme r = W2 = V2I2

(Assuming power factor cos Φ=1 for resistive load or lamp bank)
Thus, Transformer Efficiency = Output/Input = W2/W1 x 100%

(%) = (W1 / W2)  100 % %

Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation is defined as the change in magnitude of the secondary (terminal) voltage
from no-load to full-load.
  V V 
%Voltage regulation   NL FL 100
 VNL 
where, VNL  Noloadsecondary voltage
VFL  ratedsecondary voltageat full load andspecified PF

Plot the graph of efficiency v/s load current.

CONCLUSION:
 EXPERIMENT 7
AIM: To obtain the transient response of RL and RC circuit

a) Study the transient response of a series RC circuit and understand the time constant
concept with DC Power Supply.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)
2. NV6514 Transient Analysis of RC/RL kit

CIRCUIT CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
Make the connections on the NV6514 Transient Analysis of RC/RL Circuits, as shown in
the figure.
1. Ensure that the toggle switch connected across the DC Supply is in a downward
position.
2. Connect +5V DC Power Supply to the input of RC Circuit, i.e., connect +5V terminal
to terminal 1 and Gnd terminal to terminal 2.
3. Connect the mains cord to the trainer and switch ‘On’ the mains supply.
4. Now switch ‘On’ the power switch of the trainer.

35 | P a g e
 5. Switch the toggle switch upward so that DC Supply will connect to the RC circuit.
6. Connect DSO across the capacitor, i.e. across TP1 and TP2. Keep DSO at 10 seconds
or more Time Base.
7. Observe the transient response (exponentially rising) on DSO till the steady state
(+5V DC level) is achieved, i.e. for 50 seconds.
8. Now switch the toggle switch in a downward direction so that resistor R will short
with the capacitor, C.
9. Now observe the response (exponentially decaying) until it reaches DSO’s reference
level. Now immediately press RUN/STOP Switch of DSO to hold the Response shown
on the DSO screen

CALCULATION:
1. Theoretically,
Time Constant, TC = R*C = 10×103×1000×10-6 [where, R = 10 kΩ, C = 1000 μF.]
=10s
Practically (on the DSO screen),
In the charging circuit, Time Constant is the time by which the capacitor attains the 63.2%
of steady state voltage or final value (in our case, +5 V).
Time Constant or Time required to rise to 63.2% of 5 V (i.e. 3.16 V) = 10s
In the discharging circuit, Time Constant is the time by which the capacitor discharges to
36.8% of its initial steady state voltage (in our case, +5 V).
Time Constant or Time required to decay to 36.8% of 5V (i.e. 1.84 V) = 10s

2. Similarly, 2TC is the time required to achieve 86.5% of the final or initial value of
voltage.
Practically, 2TC= 20s Theoretically, 2TC = 20s

CONCLUSION:
b) Study the transient response of a series RL circuit and understand the time constant
concept with DC Power Supply

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)
2. NV6514 Transient Analysis of RC/RL kit

CIRCUIT CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
Make the connections on the NV6514 Transient Analysis of RC/RL Circuits, as shown in the
figure.
1. Ensure that the toggle switch connected across the DC Supply is in a downward
position.
2. Connect +5 V DC Power Supply to the input of RL Circuit, i.e. connect +5 V terminal
to terminal 3 and Gnd terminal to terminal 4.
3. Connect the mains cord to the trainer and switch ‘On’ the mains supply.
4. Now switch ‘On’ the power switch of the trainer.
5. Switch the toggle switch upward so that DC Supply will connect to the RL circuit.
 6. Connect DSO across the inductor, i.e. across TP1 and TP2. Keep DSO at 200 μs or
500 μs Time Base.
7. Observe the transient response (firstly, a sudden increase in voltage and then
exponentially decaying) on DSO. Now immediately press RUN/STOP Switch of DSO to
hold the response shown on the DSO screen.
8. Now switch the toggle switch downward so that resistor R will short with Inductor L.
9. Now observe the response till it ( first sudden increase of voltage in the negative
direction and then exponentially rising towards reference level) reaches the reference
level of DSO.

CALCULATION:
Theoretically,
3
Time Constant, TC =L/R= 141.37×10 = 141.37s
103

Where, L = 141.37mH, R =1kΩ

Practically (on the DSO screen),

In the charging circuit, One Time Constant is the time by which the inductor attains the 36.8%
of maximum voltage (in our case, +5 V).

Time Constant or Time required to decay to 36.8% of 5V (i.e. 1.84 V) = 141.37µs

CONCLUSION:
 EXPERIMENT 8
AIM: To evaluate the AC R, L and R-L series circuit performance and to measure the active
power, the reactive power and the apparent power connected with single phase AC
supply.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sr. No. Name of equipment Range Quantity

1 AC Voltage Supply ( )V 1
2 Voltmeter ( )V 1
3 Ammeter ( )A 1
4 Rheostat / Lamp Load ( ) in A 1
5 Inductance ( ) in mH 1
6 Connecting wires
Specify the range of meters, and load in the bracket with the required unit.

THEORY:
Case 1: Sinusoidal waveform applied to pure resistive (R) load:
The circuit for the resistive load connected with the sinusoidal supply is shown in Fig. 1. Let
the equation give the applied voltage.
v  Vm sin  Vm sint (1)

Let R = Ohmic resistance; i = instantaneous current

Obviously, the applied voltage has to supply Ohmic voltage drop only.
Hence for equilibrium;
v  iR (2)

Putting the value of ‘v’ from above, we get Vm;

iR  Vm sint
Vm (3)
i sint
R

Current ‘i’ is maximum when sin t is unity; so;

39 | P a g e
 Vm (4)
i 
m
R
i  Im sint (5)

VR
IR

i VR

V=Vmsint
Fig. 1 Resistor (R-load) connected across AC voltage supply.

Case 2: Sinusoidal waveform applied to inductive (L) load:

Whenever an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, a back e.m.f. is
produced due to the self-inductance of the coil. The back e.m.f., at every step, opposes the
rise or fall of current through the coil. As there is no Ohmic voltage drop the applied voltage
has to overcome this self-induced e.m.f. only. Fig. 2 shows the layout of L type of load
connected with the sinusoidal AC supply.

Applying voltage to the circuit; let the applied voltage to the circuit is represented by;
v  Vm sint
di
L  v  Vmsint
dt
Vm
di  sintdt
L
Vm
i L sintdt

Vm  cost 
i  k L    

Summarizing and simplifying;

Vm  
i  si nt  
L 2
  (6)
 Vm
I 
m
L
The term L controls the current of the inductor, thus expression of instantaneous current;
 
i  I sin t  (7)
m  
 2

So the current lags 90° by voltage.

I VL

L
i

V=Vmsint
Fig. 2 Inductor (L-load) connected across AC voltage supply.

Case 3: Sinusoidal waveform applied to resistive and inductive series connected (R-L
series) load:

A pure resistance R and a pure inductive coil of inductance L are shown connected in series in
Fig. 3.
Let V = RMS value of the applied voltage, I = RMS value of the resultant current; VR = I.R
represents voltage drop across R (in phase with I), VL = I.XL represents voltage drop across

coil (ahead of I by 90°). The quantity R2  XL 2

is known as the impedance (Z) of the circuit.
Recall the impedance triangle.
 VR VL
IR I
Z
XL
VR VL
i i 
R

V=Vmsint

(a) (b)
Fig. 3 (a) Series R-L circuit connected across AC voltage supply & (b) impedance
triangle.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram for R, L, R-L series circuit.
2. Switch ON power supplies, adjust them to required values.
3. Measure the voltage drops across Resistance and Inductance for R and L, RL series
circuit & measure the current for R, L and R-L series circuit.
4. Measure the current for R-L parallel circuit.
5. Note down the reading of wattmeter.
6. Find out the value of active power, reactive power and apparent power for each case.
7. Refer power triangle shown in fig. 8 for power calculations.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Case 1:

CC

M L
Variac
A
C PC V
230V Vin
VR
50Hz
Power
Supply

Fig. 5 Circuit diagram for only resistive load.

Case 2:

CC

M L
Variac
A
C PC V
230V Vin
VL
50Hz
Power
Supply

Fig. 5 Circuit diagram for only inductive load.

Case 3:

CC

M L
Variac
A
C PC V VL

230V Vin
VR
50Hz
Power
Supply

Fig. 7 Circuit diagram for R-L series circuit.

Apparent Power in VA

Reactive
Power in VAr

Active Power in Watt

Fig. 8 Power triangle.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Case 1: For pure resistive (R) load:
Sr. Vapplied I VR Active Apparent Power
No. Power Power Factor
1
2
3
4
5
The voltage drops are measured in volt, current in ampere, active power is measured in watt,
and apparent power measured in VA.

Case 2: For inductive (L) load:

Sr. Vapplied I VL Active Reactive Apparent Power
No. Power Power Power Factor
1
2
3
4
5
The voltage drops are measured in volt, current in ampere, active power is measured in watt,
reactive power measured in Var and apparent power measured in VA.
Case 3: For Resistive - inductive (RL series) connected load:
3.1 Measurement of voltage, current and power.
Sr. Vapplied Itotal VR VL Active Reactive Apparent Power
No. Power Power Power Factor
1
2
3
4
5
The voltage drops are measured in volt, current in ampere, active power is measured in watt,
reactive power measured in Var and apparent power measured in VA.
Measurement of resistance, inductance and impedance.
Sr. Vapplied I Resistance Inductance in Impedance
No. in Volt in Ampere in in Ω in mH in Ω
1
2
3
4
5

CONCLUSION:
 EXPERIMENT 9

AIM: To evaluate performance of AC parallel circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1 Function Generator
2 Resistors
3 Capacitor
4 Breadboard
5 Conducting wires.

THEORY:
For a parallel RC circuit, if the impedance of each branch is known, the current in
that branch can be determined directly from Ohm’s Law.
In the phasor diagram, the Current in the capacitor leads the voltage across the
capacitor by 90° whereas there is no phase difference between current & Voltage across the
resistor.
The total current in circuit can be calculated using the equation: IT = √ (IR2+
Ic2)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

46 | P a g e
PROCEDURE:
1. Note down the measured value or the actual capacitance of a 100 µF capacitor.
2. Construct the circuit shown in the figure. Set the function generator to a voltage of 5.0
Vpp at 1.0 kHz. Check the voltage and frequency with your oscilloscope.
3. Using a voltmeter/multimeter, measure the voltage drop across each resistor. The
voltage drops are small, so measure as accurately as possible. Record the voltage
drops in the Observation table.
4. Compute the current in each resistor using Ohm’s law. Record the computed current
in the observation table. The total current flows through the sense resistor Rs1. The
current flows through sense resistor Rs.
5. Now, compute the total circuit impedance theoretically from the circuit and calculate
the total current with the help of the applied voltage Vs. The total current should
basically agree with the value determined in step 4.
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
Impedance at branch 1, Z1=R1=10 K ohm
Impedance at branch 2, Z2 = (Xc2 +
Rs2)1/2
Xc1= 1/2πfC2= ohm
Z2= ohm
Since Z1 & Z2 are parallel
Z=Z1Z2/Z1+Z2 = ohm
From the circuit
ZT =
Z+Rs1= ohm
IT=Vs/ZT = mA

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr.no Vs VRs1 VR1 I1= VR1/R1 I2= IT=

VRS2
VRS2/Rs2 VRs1/Rs1
(volts) (volts) (volts) (mA)
(volts)
(mA) (mA)

1
CALCULATIONS:

I1= VR1/R1 = mA
I2 = VRs2/Rs2 = mA
IT= VRS1/Rs1 = mA

CONCLUSION:
 EXPERIMENT 10
AIM: To draw the time-current characteristics of MCB and ELCB

APPARATUS: MCB and ELCB simulation panel

THEORY:

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):

Purpose: Miniature circuit breakers perform the dual functions of a switch and a fuse. They
can open a circuit for safety or maintenance reasons simply by switching their toggle levers to
the OFF position. As substitutes for fuses, they provide automatic circuit protection and need
not be replaced after a dangerous over current has passed or a short circuit has been corrected.
MCBs are electromechanical devices which protect an electric circuit from an over current.
The over-current, in an electrical circuit, may result from short circuit, overload or faulty
design.

An MCB is a better alternative to a Fuse since it does not require replacement once an
overload is detected. Unlike fuse, an MCB can be easily operated and thus offers improved
operational safety and greater convenience without incurring large operating cost

Fig. 1 Cross sectional view of miniature circuit breaker

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Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB): ELCB is short form of Earth Leakage Circuit
Breaker which is a Residual Current device (RCD). RCCB is also another synonym for
ELCB (Residual Current Operating Circuit Breaker).

A Residual Current Device (RCCB, ELCB, RCBO etc.) is a device that is designed to
provide protection against electrocution or electrical fires by cutting off the flow of current
automatically when it senses a ‘leakage’ of electric current from a circuit.

Residual Current Devices have the following Specifications

 Sensitivity - milli Amperes (mA)

 Current Rating - Amperes (A)
 Short Circuit Rating - Kilo Amperes (kA)
 Poles - 2 Pole or 4 Pole

Operating Principle of a Residual Current Device

When the load is connected to the supply through the Residual Current Device (RCD), the
line and neutral conductors are connected through primary windings on a toroidal
transformer. In this arrangement the secondary winding is used as a sensing coil and is
electrically connected to a sensitive relay or solid state switching device, the operation of
which triggers the tripping mechanism.

Fig. 2 Operational diagram of ELCB

When the line and neutral currents are balanced, as in a healthy circuit, they produce equal
and opposite magnetic fluxes in the transformer core with the result that there is no current
generated in the sensing coil. (For this reason the transformer is also known as a ‘core
balance transformer’).

When the line and neutral currents are not balanced they create an out-of-balance flux. This
will induce a current in the secondary winding which is used to operate the tripping
mechanism. It is important to note that both the line and neutral conductors pass through the
toroid.

A common cause of unwanted tripping is failure to connect the neutral through the RCD,
RCDs work equally well on single phase, three phase or three phase and neutral circuits, but
when the neutral is displaced it is essential that it passes through the toroid.

PROCEDURE:

I. To draw the time current characteristics of MCB

1. Make the connection to load from supply through MCB path as shown in the figure
below.

2. Close the Circuit Breaker and note down the system voltage and load current in the
table.
3. Reset DT and Annunciator.
4. Select the required fault resistance Rf. Now press the fault push button FP1 to make
the fault as shown in the figure below.
5. Now note down the fault current and operating time of the MCB from Ammeter and
Digital timer respectively
6. Now release the FP1 button to make another fault and allow some time to cool down
the thermal trip release in MCB before making the another fault.
7. Repeat procedure from point 3 to point 6 and note down the fault currents and
corresponding times of operation of MCB from Ammeter and Digital timer
respectively in the table.

II. To draw the time - current characteristics of ELCB

1. Make the connection to load from supply through ELCB path as shown in the figure
below.

2. Close the Circuit Breaker and note down the system voltage and load current in the
table.
3. Reset DT and Annunciator.
4. Select the required earth fault resistance Rfe.
 5. Now press the fault push button FP2 to make the fault as shown in the figure below.

6. Now note down operating time of ELCB from Display timer.

7. Now release the FP2 button to make another fault
8. Repeat procedure from point 3 to point 6 and note down the times of operation of
ELCB from Digital timer in the table.
9. Draw a graph between leakage current (on X-axis) and TOP of ELCB (on Y-axis)
10. Draw a graph between current (on X-axis) and TOP of MCB (on Y-axis)
OBSERVATION TABLES:

For MCB

Sr.N Syste Fault Load Equivalent Theoretic Practical TOP

o m resistanc resistanc resistance al Fault fault of
voltag e(Rf) e(RL) (Req)=RL// current current(I MC
e Rf =voltage f) B
/Req
For ELCB
Sr.N Syste Earth Equivalent Theoretica Leakage TOP
o m Fault resistance l Fault current=Ileakage of
voltag resistanc (Req)=(50+(7//Rfe) current =If*7/(7+Rfe) ELC
e e ) (If)=voltag B
(Rfe) e
/Req

CONCLUSIONS: