Interference of Light

 Introduction –definitions

 Coherent sources and Interference of light

 Conditions for constructive and destructive interferences

 Analytical Theory of Interference

 Young’s double slit arrangement of coherent sources

 Expression for fringe width in double-slit arrangement

 Interference at thin films (qualitative)

 Newton’s Rings (qualitative)

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 Introduction

• When two or more progressive waves pass through a medium, they

overlap on one another. The resultant displacement at the region of
overlapping follows 'Law of Superposition of waves':

“The resultant displacement at any point is the vector sum of

individual displacements due to the component waves”.

• Intensity is proportional to square of the amplitude. The resultant

intensity at the region of overlapping is a function of both
amplitudes and the phase difference of the overlapping waves.

• If the waves that overlap, do not have (or maintain) constant phase
difference between themselves, the overall intensity averages to the
sum of intensities of the individuals.
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 ….contd.

•However, if a constant phase difference exists (or maintained)

between them, an energy redistribution (subject to law of conservation
of energy) takes place in the region of the overlap in such a way that at
some points, there may be more energy and at others, less energy than
the simple sum of individual energies of the superposing waves. This
leads to the observance of a phenomenon called Interference.

•This energy redistribution in the region of overlapping in the case of

superposition of two (or more) progressive light waves is called
interference of light.

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 Coherent Sources

• Coherent Sources of light are the sources that maintain constant

phase difference between them.
– They produce waves of same frequency, same (or very
nearly same) amplitude.

• The coherent sources are, usually, derived from a

single (common) source. That way, if any change in
phase of one takes place, then corresponding (equal)
change will take place in the other also [ thus
maintaining same phase difference].
• Note: Two independent sources, such as two bulbs, cannot
serve as coherent sources; because the phase change in
one is independent from that of the other and hence they do
not keep the phase difference
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• When waves [from coherent sources] overlap, they produce
interference i.e., a change in intensity in the regions of their overlap.
• The intensity changes can be of two types, in the extreme.
• For example, if two waves of same amplitude (a) overlap, the
intensity can be proportional to 4a2 or can be 0 (zero) depending
on how they overlap.
For interference to be steady, the two sources must be
(1) coherent so that they have same wavelength and maintain
steady phase difference
(2) narrow and of equal widths so that the amplitudes of the
interfering waves are almost same
(3) closer to each other so that the interfering waves travel
almost along the same straight line.

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Constructive and Destructive Interferences
• The interference is said to be “constructive”, if at the point of
overlap,
– Intensity (energy) is more than the average OR
– Crest of one falls on the crest of the other; trough of one falls on
the trough of the other. OR
– Path difference between the waves is even multiple of half-
wavelength; i.e., p.d. = 2nλ with n = 0,1,2,3…
– Phase difference between the waves is even multiple of  .i.e.,
ph.d. = 2n  with n = 0,1,2,3…
• The interference is said to be “destructive”, if at the point of
overlap,
– Intensity (energy) is less than the average OR
– Crest of one falls on the trough of the other; trough of one falls
on the crest of the other. OR
– Path difference between the waves is odd multiple of half-
wavelength;
i.e., p.d. = (2n –1) λ with n = 1,2,3…. OR
– Phase difference between ckv the waves is odd multiple of 
i.e., ph.d. = (2n- 1)  with n = 1,2,3 ……
 …..contd.

• If a1, and a2 are the amplitudes of the interfering waves from the
coherent sources, then
(1) at the constructive interference point, the resultant amplitude is
amax = (a1 + a2),
and hence intensity is maximum
I max  (a1 + a2)2
If a1 = a2 = a, then I max = 4a2
(2) At the destructive interference point, the resultant amplitude is
amin = (a1 ~ a2),
and hence intensity is minimum
I min  (a1 ~ a2)2.
If a1 = a2 =a, then I min= 0
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ckv
 Wave –A in phase
with Wave B Superposed
A&B
Crest falling on crest  B

Constructive interference A

Wave –A
completely out of Superposed
phase with Wave B A&B
B
Crest falling on trough
Destructive interference A

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 Young’s Double –Slit arrangement
• A convenient experimental setup for obtaining coherent line sources
is due to Thomas Young.
• Young’s Double-Slit arrangement, consists of two narrow parallel
slits, illuminated in turn by a single slit that is shone by a
monochromatic source of light.
• Two wave trains of light from a double slit produce interference
effect that is visible on a screen as a pattern of alternating dark and
light bands caused by intensification and extinction at points at
which the waves are in phase and out of phase, respectively.

Two other practical methods modes by which coherent sources

can be obtained experimentally are :
(1) Two ‘Refracted images’ of a single illuminated slit,
produced using a ‘bi-prism’
(2) Lloyd’s single mirror arrangement producing a ‘reflected
image’ of a ‘single Illuminated
ckv slit’.
 ….Contd.

• For interference to be steady, the two sources must be

– (1) coherent so that they have same wavelength and
maintain steady phase difference

– (2) narrow and of equal widths so that the amplitudes

of the interfering waves are almost same

– (3) closer to each other so that the interfering waves

travel almost along the same straight line.

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YOUNG’s DOUBLE-SLIT Experiment

Interference pattern with violet light

and intensity distribution curve of fringe

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 Analytical (Theory) treatment for Interference of Two
Progressive coherent Waves:

Let y  a sin (t - kx ) and y  a sin (t - kx ) be the displacements

1 1 1 2 2 2
due to the two waves (from coherent sources of same frequency, and amplitudes
that are equal / nearly equal) that superpose at a point in space at the instant 't '.
2
[   2 f is angular frequency and k = is the propagation vector

of the wave]

By law of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement y at any point of

superposition is given by
y  y  y .
1 2

 y  a sin (t - kx )  a sin (t - kx )

1 1 2 2
 a [sin t.cos kx - cos t. sin kx ]  a [sin t.cos kx - cos t. sin kx ]
1 1 1 2 2 2
 sin t  [ a .cos kx  a .cos kx ] - cos t  [ a .sin kx  a .sin kx ]  (1)
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
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 ….contd.
As the superposition of two simple harmonic progressive coherent waves is
equivalent to a simple harmonic progressive of the same frequency and wave
number, mathematically, the displacement equation for such a wave is also
given by
y  a sin (t - kx) where a is unknown constant to be evaluated
 a sin  t. cos kx - a cos  t .sin kx (2)
Comparing eqns. (1) & (2)
a cos kx  [ a .cos kx  a .cos kx ]  (3)
1 1 2 2
& a sin kx  [ a .sin kx  a .sin kx ] (4)
1 1 2 2
Squaring (3) & (4) and adding ,
a 2  a 2  a 2  2 a a ( cos kx . cos kx  sin kx . sin kx )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
a 2  a 2  a 2  2 a a [cos k ( x ~ x )] - - - - - (5)
1 2 1 2 1 2
Intensity  (amplitude)2 and k ( x  x )  ph.d .
1 2
 I  I  I  2 I I cos( ) ckv
1 2 12
 ….contd.

Thus, the value of amplitude of the resultant wave, " a ",

depends not only on the values of " a1 " & " a2 ", but also on phase difference
2
term k ( x1 ~ x2 )    x1 ~ x2 

Constructive Interference point is a point
where intensity I is maximum proportional amaximum 2 .

i.e., when I max  amax 2 where a max  (a  a )

1 2
This will be the case if cos k ( x ~ x )  1 [ From (5), a 2  ( a  a ) 2 ]
1 2 1 2
i.e., if ph.d .  k ( x ~ x )  0, 2 , 4  2n  i.e., even multiple of 
1 2
   
or if p.d .  ( x ~ x )  0, 2 , 4 , 6 , &. 2n
1 2 2 2 2 2

i.e., p.d .  even multiple of
2
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 …contd.

Destructive Interference point is a point

2
where intensity I is minimum, proportional to amin
i.e., when I  a 2 where a  (a ~ a )
min min min 1 2
a  a  (a ~ a )
min 1 2
This will be the case if cos k ( x ~ x )  -1
1 2
 [ from (5), a 2  (a ~ a ) 2 ]
1 2
i.e., if ph. d .  k ( x ~ x )   , 3  , 5  (2n -1)
1 2
i.e., odd multiple of 
   
Or if p.d .  ( x ~ x )  1 , 3 , 5 , (2n -1)
1 2 2 2 2 2

i.e., odd multiple of
2
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 Expression for the path–difference between the waves
from double-slit coherent sources:

S2 yn
O d θ O’
S
d sin
S1

• S  single slit illuminated by a monochromatic light of wavelength λl

• S1, S2 narrow, parallel slit with their plane parallel to that of S
• S1S2 slit width i.e., separation of slits’d’
• P a point on the screen at a distance y from the centre (point on the
right bisector)
• D distance of screen from the ckv
plane of the slits
• Consider coherent waves spreading out from S1 and S2 and arriving at the
screen.
Path difference between waves from S1 & S2 as they meet at P (on the
screen) is
p.d. = S2P- S1P = S2Q = S1S2 sin  = d sin  from  S1 S2 Q
= d tan  = d y/D from the O’PO ….
• (As d is very small, of the order of ‘mm’, and D is very large, of the
order of ‘m’,  will be very small and hence sin  ~ tan  )
y
p.d .  d 
D

For an alternative proof

For expression for ‘Fringe width’:

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 Alternative method for p.d. Similarly,
P
From S2 NP, S2 P 2  S2 N 2  NP 2
S2 yn  

d 
2

N
  d   1 n 2  
y 2 1/ 2

O d  θ O’  S2 P   D   yn -    D 1    
S
X 
  2  
  2  D  
S1
d sin M 
   
  d 
2
  d 
2

 1  yn     1  yn   
D S1 P  S2 P  D 1   2 2 
   D 1   
Path difference at P for waves from S1 and S2  S1 P - S2 P  2  D    2  D  
       
From S1MP, S1P 2  S1M 2  MP 2
d  d 
2 2

 2  2 1/ 2
 1  1 
d
 S1 P   D   yn  
 D  yn     D   yn   
 2D  2

2D  2

  2 
  
2 1/ 2
 1  d  y d
  yn 
d

S1 P  S 2 P   2   2 yn    n
2  2D  2 D
S1 P  D 1    
  D   On simplification (noting that only middle terms remain un  cancelled )
   
As D (in orders of m)  d and y (in orders of mm) yn  d
  d 
2
 P.d . 
 1  yn 
2   D
S1 P  D 1     ---using binomial expansion relation :(1  x)n  1  nx... for small x
 2 D  
    ckv Back to Proof1
 Expression for the Fringe Width of Interference
Fringes: (in terms of bright fringes)
• Consider the point P to be the position of the nth bright fringe. If yn is its distance
from the centre of the fringe system,
y 
Then, the p.d. of the waves at 'P' is p. d. = d  n = 2n  ( ) (1)
D 2
n D
i.e. yn = (2)
d
Similarly, for a point P' where (n+1) th bright fringe is formed,
(n  1) D
y  (3)
(n+1) d

Fringe width of n th fringe (i.e., distance between two consecutive n th and

D
n+1th fringes) is given by  = y - yn =  (n  1)  n 
n+1 d
D Note: Fringe width  is:
i.e., .  = (1) Independent of the order of the fringe (n)
d
(2) Directly proportional to wavelength, ‘’
(3) Directly proportional to distance between screen & slits, ‘D’
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(4) Inversely proportional
(5) Same for ‘dark’ or ‘bright’ fringe.
• Interference pattern due to a symmetrical double-slit arrangement
consists of:
(1) Alternate bright and dark fringes of equal widths; all bright
fringes are equally bright (i.e., intensities same) and all dark
fringes are equally dark.
(2) Central fringe (0th fringe) is always bright.
(3) Central fringe (0th fringe) remains white when white light
illuminates the double-slits while all others are coloured. [This
is because, at the centre, path difference for wavelengths is zero
and hence satisfies the condition for constructive interference
while different colours satisfy the conditions for constructive
interference at different points.]

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 …contd.

• (4) When a thin transparent plate (e.g., glass plate) is placed in the path of
one of the interfering beams, the entire system of fringes shift in that
direction by a Distance (n-1) t where n is the refractive index of the
material of the plate and t is its thickness. This is because, in the path where
the glass plate is introduced, an extra optical distance (n-1) t is introduced.
To compensate this the other beam also has to travel this much of extra
distance to produce the same interference
•
(5) The position of nth bright fringe from the centre of the system is
 D D 1
yn  2 n [ yn  n &   ]= even multiple of fringewidth
2 d d 2
and that of nth dark fringe is
 1
yn  (2n -1) = odd multiple of fringewidth
2 2

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ckv
 Some practical examples of Interference

• Colour of Thin Films:

– A beautiful pattern of colours are seen when a person views a
thin film of soap (or of oil over water) in a broad day light. The
colours appear to change as well, when viewed in different
directions.
– This observation of ‘colour of thin films’ can be accounted as
due to interference between waves two sets of waves (A & B) –
one reflected directly and the other obtained after partial
refraction at the top surface, a reflection at the bottom surface
and again partial refraction at the top surface( in that order)- as
shown in the diagram.
A B
n t

C
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 ……contd.

• The path difference between them is given by p.d. = 2 n t cos r

(where n is RI of the film medium, t is the thickness of the film
and r is the angle of refraction at the film).

• As the condition p.d = even multiple of λ/2 or odd multiple of

λ/2 for constructive and destructive interference change with
colours and r is different for different angles of viewing, the
pattern appears differently coloured in different directions.

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 Newton’s Rings
– When a monochromatic light (such as from sodium lamp)
illuminates normally a convex lens (preferably, Plano-convex) of
large radius of curvature placed over a plane glass, and viewed also
along the normal, a set of alternate bright and dark concentric
circular rings are seen a thin air film enclosed between. The rings
are all centered at the point of contact between the lens and plane
glass plate, and appear to converge outwards of the centre. These are
called ‘Newton’s rings”.

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 ….contd.

Appearance of Newton’s Rings can be explained (on the lines similar to

that in case of thin films) based on interference of two sets of waves
from the air (or liquid placed) enclosed between the curved surface
of the lens and the plane glass plate. Two sets of waves that account
for interference observed are – one partially reflected (A) directly
from the curved surface of the lens, and the other corresponding to a
partially refracted at the top, partially reflected at the bottom and
partial refracted at the top (A') as shown schematically. As the
thickness t of the air enclosed (RI n =1) from point to point from the
centre of contact, the condition for constructive and destructive
interference p.d. = 2 n t cos r = even multiple of λ/2 or odd multiple
of λ/2 gets satisfied along the loci of circles, and hence is the
formation of concentric circular fringes.

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 Interference at wedge

• Sharp, alternate bright-dark fringes of equal widths and intensities in

the normal field of view of a wedge shaped air film enclosed
between two optical flats are due to interference [between waves
from the two layers of the air film].

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Two coherent sources of light send waves of amplitude 1 unit and 2 units. They interfere
at points with a path difference equal to (1) /2 (2)  (3) 5/2 (4) 9 Find (i) the phase
difference (ii) intensity, at the points of interference, in each case.

Ph.d is odd multiple of  in case (1), (3)

2
Ph.d = ( )  p.d.   point of interference is minimum

2 
(1) Ph.d. = ( ) = for intensity I  [a12  a2 2
 2a1 a2 cos ( )]
 2
2  [ 12  22  2  1 2 cos (odd  ) ]
(2) Ph.d. = ( )   =2  1  4 - 4 1

2 5 Ph.d. is even multiple of  in the case (2) and (4)
(3) Ph.d = ( ) =5
 2 point of interference is maximum
2
(4) Ph.d. = ( )  9 =18 for intensity I  [a12  a2 2
 2a1a2 cos ( )]

 [ 12  22  2  1  2 cos (even  )]
 1  4  4  9
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 When two coherent waves of light interfere, the intensities at the bright
and dark points on the screen are found to be in the ratio of 16:9. Find the
ratio of the amplitudes of the light that interfere. What is the ratio of
intensities of the sources producing the pattern?

For intefering coherent waves ,

I max : I min  (a1  a2 ) 2 : (a1 a2 ) 2  16 : 9

 a1  a2   16 4

 a1 a2  9 3
 (a1  a2 )  4 &  a1 - a2   3
7 1
 2a1  7  a1  & 2a2  1  a2 
2 2

49 1
 I1  a12  & I 2  a2 2 
4 4

ckv
 Find the fringe width in a Young’s symmetrical double-slit arrangement on a
screen placed 1.5 m from the slits which are 1mm apart. The slits are illuminated
by mercury green light of wavelength 5460 Å.
(b) What will the fringe width be when screen distance is reduced by 1/3 and slits
are separated by double the initial value?
D
fringe width  
d
5460  10 m  1.5 m
-10
(a) 1 
1  10-3 m
 0.819 mm
 1  2D
(b) Screen distance in the second case  D2   D  D  
 3  3
slits separation  d2  2d
2D
 D2  ( )
2   3  1  D
d2 2d 3 d
1 1
  1   0.819  0.273 mm
3 3 ckv
An interference pattern in Young’s arrangement has 5th bright fringe at a distance of
1.25cm from the centre of the fringe system. If the screen is at 1.5 m from the slits which
are 0.03cm apart, calculate the wavelength of light used.

distance of nth bright fringe from the centre of the system = n

 5 = 1.25 cm
 D
  = 0.25 cm =
d

 1.5
0.25 10 m =
-2

0.03 10-2
0.0025m  0.03 10-2 m
 =
1.5m
 = 5 10-7 m = 5000 Å

ckv
A Young’s Double-slit arrangement, with slits separated 0.02 mm apart and
illuminated by a bi-chromatic light consisting of 450 nm and 600 nm wavelength
lights, produces the pattern on a screen 1.5 m from the slits. Find the minimum
distance from the centre of the system at which the two wavelengths again produce
their maximum at the same point.
Note: The two wavelengths produce their zeroth maximum coinciding at the centre of
the system. Nearest point where their maxima again coincide will be the common
position where nth bright fringe of the larger wavelength light & (n+1)th bright fringe of
the lower wavelength are produced.

Distance of nth fringe of 1  600 nm (larger wavelength) from the centre

n 1 D
of the system yn  n 1 
d
Distance at which (n  1) fringe of 2 ( 450nm, lowerwavelength)
th

is produced is given by
(n  1) 2 D
y( n 1)  (n  1)  2 
d

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 At the point where they coincide
n 1 D (n  1) 2 D

d d
 n1  (n  1)2
 n  600  (n  1)  450
450
n   3
(600 - 450)
i.e., 3rd bright fringe of 600 nm coincides with (3+1) = 4th bright fringe of 450 nm

Distance of the 3rd bright fringe of 600 nm light from the centre is given by

n1 D 3  600  10 -9 m  1.5m

yn    0.135 m
d 0.02  10 m
-3

This is where the 4th bright fringe of 600 nm is also produced.

Check :
2 D 4  450 109 1.5
y n1   n  1   3
 0.135m
d 0.02 10
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In a symmetrical double slit arrangement that uses light of wavelength 550 nm , slits of
separation 5 mm, the pattern is observed on a screen 1m away from the plane of the
slits. When a thin glass plate (RI =1.5) of thickness 1mm is introduced in front of one
of the slits, by how much distance the centre of the system changes?
By how many fringes?
Distance by which centre of the system shifts by the introduction of a glass plate in one of
the paths of the interfering beams = (n-1) t
d = (1.5-1) × 1.1 × 10-3 m = 5.5×10-4 m
No. of fringes N contained in d =5.5 ×10 - 4 m is given by

D
d  N  N 
d
4 550 109 m 1.0m
5.5 10 m  N 
5 103 m

4 5 103 m
 N  5.5 10  9
5 N= 5
550 10 m 1.0m

ckv
Find the position of 10th dark fringe in the double slit arrangement consisting
of slits with separation of 3mm, slits to screen distance of 80 cm illuminated by
a light of wavelength 589nm. What is the separation between 5th bright fringe
on either side of the centre of the fringe system.

Distance of nth dark fringe from the centre of the fringe system is given by
 1 D
(2n  1)  (2n  1)  
2 2 d

distance of 10th dark fringe from the centre =

1 589 109 m  0.8m

 (2 10  1)   3
 1.492mm
2 3 10 m
Distance between 5th bright fringe on either side of the centre of the fringe system.

589 109 m  0.8m

= 10  = 10 x =1.571mm
3 103 m

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