Physical Mid Term Paper

Topic:
“Photoelectric effect and Schrodinger wave equation”

Submitted to:
Dr. Arshad Raza

Submitted by:
Fatima Gulzar

Roll No:
0089-BH(E)-CHEM-2018

Government College University, Lahore

 Photoelectric effect:
The electrons are emitted from the surface of metal surface, when a
beam of electron of the proper energy is made incident on the metal surface. The
electrons emitted are attracted towards the positive plate. As a result of which current
flows through the circuit, this current id termed as photoelectric current. And this
current can be detected through the galvanometer. Following are some of the features
of photoelectric current,supported by some experiments:

i. The photoelectric current varies directly proportional to the intensity of beam of

light having particular frequency. Where the intensity define as the number of
photons which are incident or are falling on the per unit area of the metal surface
per second.
ii. The beam which is incident should have minimum frequency,below which no
electrons will be emitted, for a particular metal surface. Thus, this minimum
frequency is termed as threshold frequency, for a particular matter.
iii. Whatever may be the intensity of incident beam of light, there will be no
photoelectric current, if the threshold frequency is not attained.
iv. The kinetic energy of the electrons, which are emitting from the metal surface,
does not depend on the intensity of incident beam of light.
v. Maximum energy of the electrons depends on the frequency of the beam of light
which is incident on the metal surface.

Photons of light
Cathode Anode

e e

P e Q
e

Galvanometer

Retarding Potential:
If we made positive plate, the negative plate with respect to the
plate P’, then the electrons which are emitted experience a force called retarding
potential, so that it could reach towards the collector plate Q. So the electrons must
have maximum energy K.E so that they can overcome this retarding potential factor.
None of the electron will reach to the plate Q the collector plate, if we keep on
increasing the retarding potential for the beam of light of certain frequency than at the
certain potential.
The minimum retarding potential which is required to stop the
photoelectric current id termed as “stopping potential” ( Ps ). So;

1
(Stopping potential) e.Ps  mv 2 max
2

2.e.Ps
vmax 
m

Thus the stopping potential varies directly proportional to the beam of light
frequency’s ( by increasing the frequency the stopping potential also increases).
whereas it is independent of the intensity of the beam of light.
If we increase the potential of the plate Q the collector plate to the positive direction
with respect to the plate, the current will go on increasing. Then after a certain positive
value, there will be no further increase in the current, which is termed as saturation
current. The reason for this is that, the electrons which are emitted having both
maximum or minimum velocity, are all capable of reaching towards the plate.

Theory of Einstein’s of Photoelectric Effect:

By the application of quantum theory of light, in 1905, Einstein explained the
photoelectric effect. There are two possibilities, according to the Einstein, when a
photon is incident or strikes an electron:

i. Whole energy of the photon is transferred to the electron when it strikes to an

electron.
ii. Or either none of the energy is transferred.

When a photon strikes a metal surface, some of the energy of the photon is used to
free the electrons from the metal surface, while the rest of it is used to provide the
kinetic energy to the electron.
Some of the additional energy is also used to bring electron to the surface, if an
electron lies below the surface. So, we can say that the photon has to do three things:

I. Bring the electron to the surface.

II. Release the electron from the metal surface.
III. Give the kinetic energy to the free electron.

Those electrons which are present on the surface of the metal, need least energy.
These electrons require less energy to get free from the surface. This minimum energy
is termed as work function (w).
Work function (w) hv
There will be no emission of photo electrons, if the energy of the photon is less then
W or hv . So,

1 2
mv max  W  hv
2

1 2
mv max  hv  hv
2

1 2
mv max  hv  hv
2

1 2
mv max  h(v  v )
2
So,
e.Ps  h(v  v ) , where “Ps”, is the stopping potential.

Conclusion of Einstein’s Theory:

i. There will be no emission of photoelectric current, if the frequency of the incident

beam of light is less then that of the threshold frequency.
ii. ‘Ps’ the stopping potential of the electron does not depend upon the intensity of the
beam of light (photon). And this was experimentally verified by the Millikan’s
experiment:

hv hv
Ps   ………………(1)
e e

Above equation is a straight line equation. And if a graph is plotted between the ‘Ps’
on y-axis and the frequency on x-axis, a straight line obtained.
 Y

Ps

h
Tan θ =
e

θ
X’
X
h  ʋ
e Y‘

 Schrodinger Wave Equation and its Significance:

According to the Bohr electron is corpuscular in nature. Bohr’s this idea violates two
fundamental laws:
i. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
ii. de Broglie’s relation

Many properties of these electrons were successfully explained by both of these ideas.
The concept of the probable distribution of electronic cloud was the need of time,
rather than definite path around the nucleus.
An Austrian physicist E.Schrodinger, in 1926, give a mathematical concept of the
wave particle dualism. He assume that just like the wave of stretched strings, the
electrons have the standing waves. This was a new idea of that time which lead to the
formation of wave mechanics so far as to face the problems both in molecular and
atomic physics.
Microscopic particles behaving like wave lies beyond the reach of our senses. But all
the praise goes to the Schrodinger that he formulate an equation termed as
“ Schrodinger wave equation”. This equation has following applications:
I. The harmonic oscillators to define their energy levels.
II. The motion of electrons to describe the atomic level.
III. To define their rotational and vibrational energy levels, the diatomic molecules.
Now we will derive the Schrodinger wave equation.

Schrodinger Wave Equation Derivation:

The electrons have the standing waves, was proposed by the Schrodinger. Let us
take an equation for the standing sine wave, having the wavelength “ ꟾ ”.
So this wave is being produced in a vibrating string, which is fixed at its both ends.

 2x 
  A sin   …………………(1)
  
 wave equation which represent the amplitude of the wave and its variation is just
like the curve of the sine θ along x-axis.

A constant which gives the maximum value of the amplitude  .

The amplitude of the wave is changing as it travels along the x-axis. So we will be
able to find out the rate of change of  with respect to the x. For this purpose we
differentiate the equation (1)

If y = sin θ

dy
 cos  (1)  cos 
d

If y = sin (3 θ)

dy
 3 cos(3 )
d

d   2x   2  2A  2x 

  A cos     cos  
dx           

Differentiate this equation again;

d 2 2A  2   2x   4 2  2x 

  sin   A sin  
dx 2   x     2  

d 2 4 2
  
dx 2 2
 Or;

d 2 4 2
 2  0
dx 2  …………………(2)

The above equation (2), is called classical wave equation for the standing wave as in a
vibrating string.
Now let replace the wavelength of the wave  , of the particle i.e electron in terms of
the mass and velocity of an electron and the Planck’s constant.

h

mv
Taking the square root, we will have;

h2
2  ……………..(3)
m 2v 2

Since as we know that the;

1 2
K .E  mv
2

Let the K.E is shown by  ; we will have;

1 2
 mv
2

Or,

2
v2  ………………..(4)
m

Now place the equation (4) in equation (3), we have;

2 h2
  2
m .2  / m

h2
2  ……………………….(5)
2m
Putting the value of 2 from equation (5) in (2);

d 2 4 2
  0
dx 2 h 2 / 2  m

Total energy (E) K.E + P.E  +P

So
 E-P
Now, putting the value of the kinetic energy  in terms of the total energy (E) and
the potential energy (P), we will have;

d 2 8 2 m
 2 ( E  P )  0 ……………..(6)
dx 2 h

This equation is termed as the Schrodinger wave equation, in case of a particle which
is moving in the one dimension. The above equation is not the Schrodinger wave
equation with respect yo the time. The above equation just tell us that the mass of the
particle is m and the matter wave is moving on the x-axis.
If the matter wave is moving in the three dimensional space, then it can be written
as;

 2  2  2 8 2 m
   2 ( E  P )  0 …………..(7)
x 2 y 2 z 2 h

According to this equation, the displacement of the electron is changing with respect
to the x,y, and z. There is one dependent variable  and three independent variables
x,y and z. the variable  depends on the three parameters. This is the reason that why
we use the symbol of partial differentiation  in replace of the total differentiation
having symbol d.
The above equation (7), gives the information related to the motion of the particle in
a three dimensional space, along the x,y and z axis., and is termed as the celebrated
Schrodinger wave equation.
Where;
 wave function which is the amplitude of the wave.
E total energy of the particle.
P potential energy of the particle
, m mass of the particle.
(E-P) kinetic energy of the particle  .

Schrodinger wave equation’s different forms:

let take the  as a common from the terms of the differentiation from the equation
(7), we have;
  2 2 2  8 2 m
 2  2  2   2 ( E  P )  0
 x y z  h
Or

8 2 m
V 2  ( E  P )  0 ……………..(8)
h2
Where V 2 is the laplacian operator and is spoken as del square. It is differential
operator and is the sum of three terms.

2 2 2
2
 2  2  2
x y z

Another form of Schrodinger wave equation is equation (8). for the change we will
bring the total energy change on the L.H.S of this equation.

 h2 
E   2  2  P   ……………..(9)
 8 m 

All of the quantities which are within the brackets are termed as,Hamiltonian
operator(H).

 h2 
H    2  2  P 
 8 m 

H includes ‘  2 ’ which is also an operator. This is a function of the various

co-ordinates and of the potential energy “P”. where this “P” is also function of the
co-ordinate. So,

E  H ……………(10)
This equation is the most simple form of the Schrodinger wave equation.
To convert the above equation in the form by which we can calculate the energy
of the molecule, we will have to made the following calculations;

Multiply by  on both side of the equation (10) we will get;

 E    H
  on the left side is multiplying with the H and  on the R.H.S of H is being
operated by H. So the both  remain at their positions.
Or
E  2   H
Or

 H
E
2
Integrate the numinator and denominator.

E
  H d  …………………(11)
  d
2

Where d  is the “ volume element of the electronic cloud.

When we apply the equation (11) on any system. We will have to construct the wave
function  and the Hamiltonian operator “H” , as a result of which the value of the
energy of the system can be calculated.

Physical significance of  and  2 :

Symbol  shows the amplitude of the wave. Its square at any point varies directly
proportional to the intensity of the wave. The position of the electron cannot be
determined with certainty, according to the uncertainty principle. We can say that
greater will be the probability of locating the electron at that point,if the intensity of
the wave function at a particular point is greater. So  2 can be interpreted as
proportional to the electron density. Electron density will high when  2 has high
value, which means that the chances of finding the electrons are high.
Probability is low, when the  2 is low. We must use “ . * ” in place of the “  2 ”
If we want to avoid the imaginary values. Where “  * ” is the complex conjugate of
“  ”.
The electrons will be found at that volume,if  extends over the finite volume, in
space, dx  dy  dz  d . this means that the    * d gives the probability for finding
the electron in volume d . The wave function might be negative, positive or

imaginary but the probability density . * will always be real and positive. The
. *d must give real values if the probability of finding the electron is finite.

Conditions which  must satisfy:

i.  Must be single value, if we want meaningful results from  as a wave function.
ii. When the variable of  is changed there should not a sudden change in the values
of the  , in other words we can say that  must be continuous at all the points in
space.
iii.  should be normalized. The probability of finding the electron in space must be
unity.
iv.  has to become zero at infinity.
v.  must have a definite value over the space d , that can occupy by the electrons.
Above of the all discussion shows that only the acceptable values of  have
significance. And these significant values of  are known as functions or wave
functions.