TOPIC:

SUBMITTED TO

SIR.MOHSIN NAQVI

SUBMITTED BY

FATIMA GULZAR

ROLL NO

0089-BH(E)-CHEM-2018
 Introduction
Glass making process involves mixing of large amounts of silica
sand with comparatively smaller amounts of lime and soda ash, and
other materials to give the glass special qualities by heating the
mixture in a furnace until it turns into a syrupy mass. However, it is a
laborious process that requires specific skills during manufacturing
process.

 Soda-lime-glass

‟ is the kind of glass mostly used all over the world

including Pakistan. It is widely used as plate and window glass, light
bulbs etc. It contains about 72% silica, 15% sodium oxide, 9%
calcium oxide (lime) and 4% of other ingredients. The silica comes
from sand, dug out of sandstone queries. Sodium oxide usually
comes from soda ash made from salt (as is the case with the local
production) though some also comes from sodium nitrate and sodium
sulphate. Calcium oxide is usually obtained from limestone or
dolomite (Pakistan has very large deposits of both). The soda-lime
glass has always been popular as it is not only inexpensive to
manufacture but also easy to melt, shape, but reasonably strong. The
bulk of the local glass production comprise soda-lime glass for the
production of potash-lead glass, borosilicate glass and colored glass.

 Potash Lead Glass

It is commonly called „lead crystal glass”, made from sand, red lead,
potassium carbonate and may also include some soda. It is widely
used to manufacture the finest tableware and in certain cases,
electrical products.

 Borosilicate Glass
Borosilicate glass contains about 81 per cent silica, only 4 per cent
 lime or soda, 2 per cent alumina and 13 per cent boric oxide and is
heat and shock resistant. It is used to make baking ware, glass
pipelines and telescopic mirrors.

 Colored Glass
Colored glass contains metals or certain metal compounds to give the
glass a certain color. For instance, one part of nickel oxide in 500
produces a tint that may range from yellow to purple depending on
the base glass; one part of cobalt oxide in 1000 gives an intense blue.
The red color is usually caused by small amounts of copper or gold,
or compounds of selenium or cadmium. Similarly, many other colors
can be produced in glass by adding certain other chemicals.


Glass manufacturing materials can be divided into 5 categories:

1. Glass former

2. Flux

3. Modifier

4. Coloring agents

5. Fining agents

6. Cullet (broken glass pieces)

one of the most important components present in any glass

..Silica (SiO2),

..boric oxide (B2O3) and

..phosphoric oxide (P2O5) are the most common type of glass

formers present in oxide glass.
 The use of silica glass is wide but melting temperature of silica is too high
(1600- 1725ºC).To reduce the processing temperature of silica, different types
of flux such as Na2O and PbO can be used.

 As the raw materials melt and react inside the furnace, carbon dioxide and water
emission takes place which causes formation of bubbles.

 Fining agents such as arsenic, antimony oxides, potassium and sodium nitrates
are added to raw materials to remove bubbles from the melt.

 The high temperature and low viscosity is maintained to raise the gas bubbles at
the upper surface of the melt and hence removed from the melt.

 Fining is important because it controls the homogeneity of glass by eliminating

bubbles.

In addition to the raw materials, the cullet and decolourisers are also added for each type
of glass.

The cullet indicates waste glass or pieces of broken glass. They increase the fusibility of
glass and prevent loss of alkali by volatisation during the reaction in forming new glass.
They also reduce the cost.

The raw materials generally contain traces of the iron compounds. The ferrous oxide
imparts a green colour to glass and ferric oxide imparts a very light yellow tint. To avoid
such effects, the decolourisers are added. The usual substances used as decolourisers are
antimony oxide (Sb2O3), arsenic oxide (AS2O3), cobalt oxide (CoO), manganese dioxide
(MnO2) and nickel oxide (NiO).
 The raw materials, cullet and decolouriser are finely powdered in grinding
machines. These materials are accurately weighed in correct proportions before
they are mixed together. The mixing of these materials is carried out in mixing
machines until a uniform mixture is obtained. Such a uniform mixture is known as
the batch or frit and it is taken for further process of melting in a furnace


The batch is melted either in a pot furnace or in a tank furnace. The heating is
continued until the evolution of carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulphur dioxide and other
gases stops.

(i) Pot Furnace

In this furnace, the pots are adopted as units. A typical glass melting pot is shown
in fig. 14-1.

A pot is a vessel made of fire-clay. This process resembles the crucible steel
process. These pots are placed in specially prepared holes in the furnace. The
charging and collecting doors are kept projecting outside so that raw materials may
be added and molten glass may be taken out conveniently.
 The pots are filled with raw materials. The furnace is heated by means of producer
gas. When the mass has melted down, it is removed from the pot and it is taken for
the next operation of fabrication. The melting of glass by pot furnace is an
intermittent process. It is used to melt small quantities of glass at a time or to
prepare special types of glass.

(ii) Tank Furnace:

This furnace resembles the reverberatory furnace adopted for puddling of the
wrought-iron. Fig. 14-2 shows the section of a tank furnace adopted for the melting
of glass. It is constructed with reinforced masonry. The roof is given special shape
to deflect the flames of heated gas.

The ports are provided for the entry of preheated producer gas. The doors are
provided for charging and for taking out the molten glass. A bridge separates the
tank into two unequal compartments.

The batch is heated in large compartment and it contains somewhat impure glass.
It flows through opening of bridge into small compartment. The gall or floating
impurities are collected at the top of large compartment. The refractory lining is
provided to the interior surface of tank.

The tank is filled with raw materials. The furnace is heated by allowing producer
gas through ports. The charging of raw materials and taking out of molten mass are
simultaneous. This is a continuous process and it is adopted to melt large quantities
of glass at a time.
 The molten glass is given suitable shape or form in this stage. It can either be done
by hand or by machine. The hand fabrication is adopted for small scale production
and machine fabrication is adopted for large scale production.

Following are the different ways of fabrication:

(i) Blowing

(ii) Casting

(iii) Drawing

(iv) Pressing

(v) Rolling

(vi) Spinning.

(i) Blowing

For this purpose, a blow-pipe is used. Its diameter is about 12 mm and its length is
about 1.80 m. One end of the blow-
pipe is dipped in the molten mass of
glass and a lump of about 50 N
weight is taken out. This lump of
glass will then lengthen to some
extent by its own weight.

The operator then blows vigorously

from other end of blow pipe. It can
also be done with the help of an air
compressor. This blowing causes the
molten mass to assume the shape of a
cylinder. It is then heated for few
seconds and is blown again.

The blowing and heating are

continued till the cylinder of required
size is formed. It is then placed on an
iron plate and it is disconnected from blow pipe. The cylinder is then cut vertically
by a diamond. It falls into a thin plate by gravity.
(ii) Casting:

The molten glass is poured in moulds and it is allowed to cool down slowly. The
large pieces of glass of simple design can be prepared by this method. It is also
adopted to prepare mirrors, lenses, etc.

(iii) Drawing:

This process consists in simply pulling the molten glass either by hand or by
mechanical equipment. An iron bar is dipped sideways in the molten mass of glass.
It is lifted up horizontally and in doing so, it catches up a sheet of molten glass.
This sheet is then allowed to pass over a large rotating roller. The roller helps the
molten glass to spread in the form of a thin sheet.

(iv) Pressing:

In this process, the molten glass is pressed into moulds. The pressure may either be
applied by hand or by mechanical means. This process is adopted for ornamental
articles, hollow glass articles etc.
(v) Rolling:

There are two methods of rolling. In one method, the molten mass of glass is
passed between heavy iron rollers and flat glass plate of uniform thickness is
obtained. In another method, the molten mass of glass is poured on a flat iron
casting table and it is then turned flat with the aid of a heavy iron roller.

(vi) Spinning:

In this process, the molten glass is spun at high speed by a machine to form very
fine glass fibres. This glass has tensile strength equal to that of mild steel. It does
not fade, decay or shrink. It is not attacked by acids, fire and vermins. It is very
soft and flexible. It is used for providing insulation against heat, electricity and
sound.
 The glass articles, after being manufactured, are to be cooled down slowly and
gradually. This process of slow and homogeneous cooling of glass articles is
known as the annealing of glass.

The annealing of glass is a very important process. If glass articles are allowed to
cool down rapidly, the superficial layer of glass cools down first as glass is a bad
conductor of heat. The interior portion remains comparatively hot and it is
therefore in a state of strain. Hence, such glass articles break to pieces under very
slight shocks or disturbances.

Following are the two methods of annealing:

(i) Flue treatment

(ii) Oven treatment.

(i) Flue Treatment:

In this method, a long flue is provided and it is constructed in such a way that there
is gradual decrease in temperature from one end of flue to the other. The red-hot
articles of glass are allowed to enter at the hot end of flue and they are slowly
moved on travelling bands. They become cool when they reach the cool end of flue.
This method is useful for large scale production.
(ii) Oven Treatment:

In this method, the red-hot glass articles are placed in ovens in which arrangement
is made to control the temperature. After articles are placed in the ovens, the
temperature is slowly brought down. This method is useful for small scale
production.

Fiberglass is available in two types:

 continuous glass fiber

 short glass fiber (glass wool).

The first one is used in fabrication of composite materials and latter one is used
for thermal insulation.

Continuous glass fiber is produced by drawing molten glass through multiple

orifices
 Rice, P. and Dutton, H. (1995). Structural Glass. 2nd Edition. UK: Taylor &
Francis.
 Schttich, C., Staib, G., Balkov, D., Schuler, M. and Sobek, W. (2007). Glass
Construction Manual. 2nd Edition. Munich: Institut fur internationale
architektur-dokumentation GmbH. pp.8-10 & pp 15-20.
 Overend, M., Haldimann, M. and Luible, A. (2008). Structural Use of Glass. 1st
Edition. Zurich: ETH Zurich. pp.1-4.
 Overend, M., Bridge, I,., S., Luible, A., and Haldimann, M. (2008). Structural
Use of Glass. ZWrich, Switzerland: International Association for Bridge and
Structural Engineering.
 Haldimann, M. (2009). Fracture Strength of Structural Glass Elements. 1st
Edition .Germany: Hochschulschriften. pp.6-7