Waves (Unit V)

Short Overview of the Unit

1.Interference phenomenon and concept of

resonance.
2.Production of ultrasonic waves by magneto-
striction method, audible, ultrasonic and
infrasonic waves.
3.Production of ultrasonic waves by piezoelectric
method, ultrasonic transducers and their uses.
4. Applications of ultrasonic waves, detection of
ultrasonic waves (Kundt's tube method, sensitive
flame method and piezoelectric detectors).
5. Absorption and dispersion of ultrasonic waves
 Review - wavelength and frequency
Amplitude Phase
Displacement

y ( x, t )  A cos(kx   t   )
angular wavenumber Phase
Transverse wave

angular frequency shift

2 k is the angular wavenumber.

k

2
  is the angular frequency.
T
1 
frequency f  
T 2
 
velocity v   f
k T
 1. Interference
phenomenon and
concept of
resonance.
 The principle of superposition for waves
•It often happens that waves travel simultaneously through the
same region, e.g.
Radio waves from many broadcasters
Sound waves from many musical instruments
Different colored light from many locations from your TV

•Nature is such that all of these waves can exist without altering each others'
motion
•Their effects simply add

•This is a result of the principle of superposition, which applies to all

harmonic waves, i.e., waves that obey the linear wave equation
 The principle of superposition for waves
•If two waves travel simultaneously along the same stretched string, the
resultant displacement y' of the string is simply given by the summation

y '  x, t   y1  x, t   y2  x, t 
where y1 and y2 would have been the displacements had the waves
traveled alone.

•This is the principle of superposition.

Overlapping waves algebraically add to produce a resultant wave

(or net wave).

Overlapping waves do not in any way alter the travel of each other
 Interference of waves
•Suppose two sinusoidal waves with the same frequency and amplitude
travel in the same direction along a string, such that

y1  ym sin  kx   t 

y2  ym sin  kx   t   
•The waves will add.

•If they are in phase (i.e.  = 0), they combine to double the
displacement of either wave acting alone.
•If they are out of phase (i.e.  = ), they combine to cancel
everywhere, since sin(a) = sin(a  ).
•This phenomenon is called interference.
 Interference of waves
•Mathematical proof:
y1  ym sin  kx   t 

y2  ym sin  kx   t   
Then:
y '  x, t   y1  x, t   y2  x, t 

 ym sin  kx   t   ym sin  kx   t   

But: sin a  sin   2sin 12 a    cos 12 a   

Phase
y '  x, t    2 ym cos 12  sin  kx   t  12  
shift
So:

Amplitude Wave part

 Interference of waves
y '  x, t    2 ym cos 12  sin  kx   t  12  
If two sinusoidal waves of the same amplitude and frequency
travel in the same direction along a stretched string, they interfere
to produce a resultant sinusoidal wave traveling in the same
direction.

•If  = 0, the waves interfere constructively, cos½ = 1 and the

wave amplitude is 2ym.
•If  = , the waves interfere destructively, cos(/2) = 0 and the
wave amplitude is 0, i.e. no wave at all.
•All other cases are intermediate between an amplitude of 0 and
2ym.
•Note that the phase of the resultant wave also depends on the
phase difference.
 Interference - Standing Waves
If two sinusoidal waves of the same amplitude and
wavelength travel in opposite directions along a
stretched string, their interference with each other
produces a standing wave.
y '  x, t   y1  x, t   y2  x, t 

 ym sin  kx   t   ym sin  kx   t   

 2 ym sin  kx  12   cos  t  12  
x dependence t dependence
•This is clearly not a traveling wave, because it does not have
the form f(kx  t).
•In fact, it is a stationary wave, with a sinusoidal varying
amplitude 2ymsin (kx+Φ/2).
Reflections at a boundary
•Waves reflect from boundaries.
•This is the reason for echoes - you
hear sound reflecting back to you.
•However, the nature of the
reflection depends on the
boundary condition.
•For the two examples on the left,
the nature of the reflection
depends on whether the end of the
string is fixed or loose.
Standing waves
and resonance
•At ordinary frequencies,
waves travel backwards
and forwards along the
string.

•Each new reflected wave

has a new phase.
Standing waves and resonance
•However, at certain special
frequencies, the interference
produces strong standing
wave patterns.

•Such a standing wave is

said to be produced at
resonance.
•These certain frequencies
are called resonant
frequencies.
 Standing waves and resonance
•Standing waves occur whenever the
phase of the wave returning to the
oscillating end of the string is precisely in
phase with the forced oscillations.

l determined by geometry •Thus, the trip along the string and back
should be equal to an integral number of
wavelengths, i.e.
2L
2 L  n or   for n  1,2,3...
n
v v
f   n , for n  1,2,3...
 2L
•Each of the frequencies f1, f1, f1, etc, are
called harmonics, or a harmonic series; n
is the harmonic number.
2. Production of
ultrasonic waves by
magneto-striction
method, audible,
ultrasonic and infrasonic
waves.
Classified of Sound Waves:
• Depends upon Frequency
• Divided into 3 groups.
Description Frequency range Hz Example

Infrasound 0 – 20 Earth quake

Audible 20 – 20,000 Speech, music

Ultrasonic > 20,000 to 5M Bat, Quartz crystal

The word ultrasonic combines the Latin roots
ultra, meaning ‘beyond’ and sonic, or sound.
The sound waves having frequencies above the
audible range i.e. above 20000Hz are called
ultrasonic waves.
Generally these waves are called as high
frequency waves.
 Just like ordinary sound waves, ultrasonic
waves get reflected, refracted and absorbed.
 They can be transmitted over large distances
with no appreciable loss of energy.
 Ultrasonic Wave Production

1. Magneto-striction generator or oscillator

2. Piezo-electric generator or oscillator

 Magnetoagneto-striction Generator

When a ferromagnetic rod like iron

or nickel is placed in a magnetic
field parallel to its length, the rod
experiences a small change in its
length. This is called magneto-
stricion effect.
The change in length (increase or decrease)
produced in the rod depends upon the
strength of the magnetic field, the nature of
the materials and is independent of the
direction of the magnetic field applied.
 Construction

Magneto-striction oscillator
XY is a rod of ferromagnetic materials like iron
or nickel. The rod is clamped in the middle.
The alternating magnetic field is generated by
electronic oscillator.
The coil L1 wound on the right hand portion of
the rod along with a variable capacitor C.
This forms the resonant circuit of the collector
tuned oscillator. The frequency of oscillator is
controlled by the variable capacitor.
The coil L2 wound on the left hand portion of
the rod is connected to the base circuit. The coil
L2 acts as feed –back loop.
Collector Tuned Oscillator
• C1 Starts charging, after it
fully gets charged it starts
discharging through L1.
• Capacitor fully discharged and
transferred its energy as EM
field to L1.
• After C1 fully discharged,
current through the C1L1
circuits collapses and in order
to oppose this a back emf
generates by L1 which again
starts charging the capacitor.
• Again C1 discharges as above
and gets charged….This
produces oscillations.
 Working

When High Tension (H.T) battery is switched on, the

collector circuit oscillates with a frequency,

1
f=
2  L1 C

This alternating current flowing through the coil L1

produces an alternating magnetic field along the
length of the rod. The result is that the rod starts
vibrating due to magneto-strictive effect.
 The frequency of vibration of the rod is given by
1 Y
n =
2l 
where l = length of the rod
Y = Young’s modulus of the rod material and
 =density of rod material
•The capacitor C is adjusted so that the frequency of the
oscillatory circuit is equal to natural frequency of the rod and thus
resonance takes plate.
•Now the rod vibrates longitudinally with maximum amplitude
and generates ultrasonic waves of high frequency from its ends.
 Advantages
1. The design of this oscillator is very simple and its production cost
is low
2. At low ultrasonic frequencies, the large power output can be
produced without the risk of damage of the oscillatory circuit.

Disadvantages
1. It has low upper frequency limit and cannot generate
ultrasonic frequency above 3000 kHz (ie. 3MHz).
2. The frequency of oscillations depends on
temperature.
3. There will be losses of energy due to hysteresis and
eddy current.
3. Production of ultrasonic
waves by piezoelectric
method, ultrasonic
transducers and their uses.
 Piezo Electric Generator or Oscillator

Principle : Inverse piezo electric effect

• If mechanical pressure is applied to one pair of
opposite faces of certain crystals like quartz, equal
and opposite electrical charges appear across its
other faces. This is called as piezo-electric effect.
• The converse of piezo electric effect is also true.
• If an electric field is applied to one pair of faces, the
corresponding changes in the dimensions of the
other pair of faces of the crystal are produced. This
is known as inverse piezo electric effect or
electrostriction.
Construction

Piezo electric oscillator

• The quartz crystal is placed between two
metal plates A and B.
• The plates are connected to the primary (L3) of
a transformer which is inductively coupled to
the electronics oscillator.
• The electronic oscillator circuit is a base tuned
oscillator circuit.
• The coils L1 and L2 of oscillator circuit are
taken from the secondary of a transformer T.
• The collector coil L2 is inductively coupled to
base coil L1.
• The coil L1 and variable capacitor C1 form the
tank circuit of the oscillator.
 Working
• When H.T. battery is switched on, the oscillator produces high
frequency alternating voltages with a frequency.
1
f 
2 L1C1
• Due to the transformer action, an oscillatory e.m.f. is induced
in the coil L3. This high frequency alternating voltages are fed
on the plates A and B.
• Inverse piezo-electric effect takes place and the crystal
contracts and expands alternatively. The crystal is set into
mechanical vibrations.
• The frequency of the vibration is given by

P Y where P = 1,2,3,4 … etc. for fundamental, first

n = over tone, second over tone etc.,
2l 
Y = Young’s modulus of the crystal and
ρ = density of the crystal.
• The variable condenser C1 is adjusted
such that the frequency of the applied
AC voltage is equal to the natural
frequency of the quartz crystal, and thus
resonance takes place.

• The vibrating crystal produces

longitudinal ultrasonic waves of large
amplitude.
 Advantages
• Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 5 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 Hz or 500
MHz can be obtained with this arrangement.
• The output of this oscillator is very high.
• It is not affected by temperature and humidity.

Disadvantages

• The cost of piezo electric quartz is very high

• The cutting and shaping of quartz crystal are very
complex.
 Ultrasonic Transducer

• Ultrasonic transducer (piezoelectric transducer) is

device that converts electrical energy into
ultrasound and vice a versa.

• Upon receiving sound echo (pressure wave) back

from surface, ultrasound transducer will turn sound
waves into electrical energy which can be measured
and displayed

• Ultrasound are sound waves above normal range of

human hearing (greater than 20K hertz).
 Applications
Medical:
 Medical ultrasonic transducers (probes):
 Come in variety of different shapes and sizes
for use in making pictures of different parts of
body
 Transducer may be:
 Passed over surface of body or
 Inserted into body opening such as rectum or
woman’s reproductive organ
 Clinicians who perform ultrasound-guided
procedures often use probe positioning system to
hold the ultrasonic transducer.
4. Applications of ultrasonic
waves, detection of
ultrasonic waves (Kundt's
tube method, sensitive flame
method and piezoelectric
detectors).
 Applications of Ultrasonic Waves in Engineering

(a)Detection of flaws in metals (Non Destructive

Testing –NDT)

Principle
• Ultrasonic waves are used to detect the presence of
flaws or defects in the form of cracks, blowholes
porosity etc., in the internal structure of a material
• By sending out ultrasonic beam and by measuring
the time interval of the reflected beam, flaws in the
metal block can be determined (Time of flight
measurement).
 (b) Ultrasonic Drilling
• Ultrasonic are used for making holes in
very hard materials like glass, diamond
etc.
• For this purpose, a suitable drilling tool
bit is fixed at the end of a powerful
ultrasonic generator.
• Some slurry (a thin paste of
carborundum powder and water) is
made to flow between the bit and the
plate in which the hole is to be made
• Ultrasonic generator causes the tool bit
to move up and down very quickly and
the slurry particles below the bit just
remove some material from the plate.
• This process continues and a hole is
drilled in the plate.
 (c) Ultrasonic welding
• The properties of some metals
change on heating and therefore,
such metals cannot be welded by
electric or gas welding.

• In such cases, the metallic sheets

are welded together at room
temperature by using ultrasonic
waves.

• For this purpose, a hammer H is

attached to a powerful ultrasonic
generator as shown in adjacent
Figure.
• The metallic sheets to be welded are put
together under the tip of hammer H.

• The hammer is made to vibrate ultrasonically.

As a result, it presses the two metal sheets
very rapidly and the molecules of one metal
diffuse into the molecules of the other.

• Thus, the two sheets get welded without

heating. This process is known as cold
welding.
 (d) Ultrasonic soldering

• Metals like Aluminium (Al) cannot be directly

soldered. However, it is possible to solder such
metals by ultrasonic waves.
• An ultrasonic soldering iron consists of an ultrasonic
generator having a tip fixed at its end which can be
heated by an electrical heating element.
• The tip of the soldering iron melts solder on the
Aluminium and the ultrasonic vibrator removes the
Aluminium oxide layer.
• The solder thus gets fastened to clear metal without
any difficulty.
 (e) Ultrasonic cutting and machining

Ultrasonic waves are used for cutting and

machining.
(f) Ultrasonic cleaning
It is the most cheap technique employed for
cleaning various parts of the machine,
electronic assembles, armatures, watches
etc., which cannot be easily cleaned by other
methods.
 (g) SONAR
Technique of detection and identification of
under water objects by Ultrasonic waves.

(h) Medical Sciences

Ultrasonography/Medical
ultrasound/Diagnostic Sonography is a
medical imaging technique working in
ultrasonic frequency range.
 Detection of Ultrasonic Waves
a. Piezoelectric Detector
• Piezoelectric effect can also be used to detect ultrasonics. If
ultrasonics comprising of compressions and rarefactions are allowed
to fall upon a quartz crystal a certain potential difference is developed
across the faces which after amplification by a value amplifier can be
used to detect ultrasonics.
b. Kundt’s Tube Method
• Kundt’s tube is a long glass tube supported horizontally with a air
column in it when the ultrasonic waves are passed the Kundt’s tube,
the lycopodium powder sprinkled in the tube collects in the form of
heaps at the nodal points and is blown off at the antinodal points.
This method is used provided that the wavelength is not very small.
 c. Thermal Detector
• This is the most commonly used method of detection of
ultrasonic waves. In this method, a fine platinum wire is
used. This wire is moved through the medium.
• At the position of nodes, due to alternate compressions
and rarefactions, adiabatic changes in temperature takes
place. The resistance of the platinum wire changes with
respect to time.
• At the position of the antinodes, the temperature remains
constant.
 d. Flame Method

• A narrow sensitive flame is moved along the medium.

At the positions of antinodes, the flame is steady.
• At the positions of nodes, the flame flickers because
there is a change in pressure. In this way, positions
of nodes and antinodes can be found out in
the medium. The average distance between the two
adjacent nodes is equal to half the wavelength.
• If the value of the frequency of ultrasonic wave is
known, the velocity of ultrasonic wave propagated
through the medium can be calculated.