# Lecture 01 - Waves

Monday, January 17, 2022 4:57 PM

" The flow of energy from one point to another point such that only the energy flows but there is no transfer of matter from

one point to another is called a wave "

• Types of waves -

➢ Mechanical waves - these waves require medium to flow from one point to another.
Ex: sound waves, string waves , water ripples.

➢ Electromagnetic Waves / Non mechanical waves - do not require medium for propagation and can travel
through vacuum.

Ex: X rays, radio waves , light.

• Matter waves - these waves are related to matter particles like electrons, protons etc.

❖ Classification of mechanical waves -

❖ Transverse waves -

✓ The constituent medium particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction of flow of energy (wave).

✓ String waves , water ripple come under this category.

✓ A pulse generated in a string is an example of transverse wave.

Longitudinal wave -
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 ❖ Longitudinal wave -

✓ The medium particles oscillate along the direction of propagation of the energy.

✓ Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

✓ Motion of piston in an air filled tube creates a pulse of compression and rarefaction, which is the method by which

sound travels.

• A travelling wave that transfers energy from one point to another

➢ Progressive Wave -
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 • A travelling wave that transfers energy from one point to another
➢ Progressive Wave -
is called a progressive wave.

• The wave equation must be able to give position of every

medium particle at any position and any instant of time.

○ General equation of a progressive wave -

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Q. Which of the following represent a progressive wave.

Y = A log Kx

Y = A log (Kx - wt)3

Y=

Y=

Q. Which of the following represent a progressive wave.

Y = (x+5t)3

Y = tan (2x+3t)

Y=

Y=

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➢ Simple Harmonic Wave - • If the oscillator performs SHM the wave generated is a simple

harmonic wave.

• The wave equation must represent the equation of SHM of all the

medium particles in a combined form.

• The general equation of a simple harmonic wave is given as

Let equation of oscillator be y = A sin (wt + )

Then equation of wave can be given as y = A sin [ w(t - )+ ]

OR y = A sin ( kx - wt + ) Y is the displacement of medium particles situated at x = x at time t

from their mean positions.

A = amplitude of wave

W = angular frequency of wave

K = angular wave number

= initial phase angle

(For longitudinal wave)

(For transverse wave)

○ OTHER FORMS OF WAVE EQUATION -

• Y = A sin w ( )
• Y = A sin (wt - kx)

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 • Y = A sin w ( )
• Y = A sin (wt - kx)

• Y = A sin k( x - vt) • Y = A sin 2π ( )

✓ Note :

• In the equation of the wave if x is made constant, the equation

represents

• In the wave equation if time is fixed, the equation represents

➢ General terms for a Wave

○ Amplitude and Phase The maximum displacement of a wave particle from mean position is called Amplitude and the

initial position and the displacement of the medium particle at a time is governed by the Phase.

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○ Wave length and wave number The distance travelled by wave in one oscillation of medium particle is

called its wave length.

- The minimum separation between any two points in the same phase is called

wave Length (

- number of wavelengths before which the function starts repeating itself is called

angular wave number (k).

- Separation between consecutive crest or consecutive troughs is equal to the wave length.

V=f

○ Frequency and time period The number of oscillations per second is called its frequency (f) and the

time needed for one medium particle to complete its oscillation is

called time period (T).

W= 2πf T=

○ Important relation
K= = =

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Q. The equation of a wave is y = 3mm sin ( π t - x ) where x is in cm, find the amplitude, frequency, time period and

wavelength of the wave. Also find wave velocity.

Q. A travelling wave is represented by the equation y = where x and y are in meter and t is in seconds.
Find

a. The direction of propagation of wave.

b. The wave speed

c. Amplitude of wave

d. Is it a symmetric pulse.

Q. A source of wave produces 60 crests and 60 troughs in 0.5 seconds. Find the frequency of the wave.

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Q. A source of wave produces 60 crests and 60 troughs in 0.5 seconds. Find the frequency of the wave.

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# Lecture 02 - Waves
Thursday, February 3, 2022 7:02 PM

✓ Differential form of a simple harmonic wave -

Y = A sin (wt - kx)

Differentiating with respect to t

Differentiating with respect to x

➢ Differential form :

(valid for all

travelling waves)

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➢ Relation between wave velocity and particle velocity (String waves)

Y = A sin (wt- kx)

Q. Identify the direction of motion of the marked points for the travelling wave.

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➢ Phase difference between two points in a wave

Y = A sin (wt - kx )

Q. A wave of frequency 400 Hz is travelling at speed 200 m/s. Find the distance between two points having a phase

difference of 60o.

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Q. For a wave of frequency 200 Hz and speed of 400m/s, find

a. Distance between two points having a phase difference of 36o

b. By how much will the phase of any point in the wave change over an interval of seconds.

➢ Identifying points of compression and rarefaction ( Sound Waves )

Y = displacement of medium particle from its mean along

propagation line of wave

✓ As particles perform SHM, the pressure at every point in the medium from where the wave passes also performs SHM

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✓ Representing displacement along direction of wave propagation on Y axis
Po = atmospheric pressure

ΔPo = Pressure amplitude

• Compression : Points in medium at maximum pressure i.e. pressure at these points

P = Po + ΔPo

• Rarefaction : Points in medium at lowest pressure i.e. pressure at these points

P = Po - ΔPo

❖ Speed of a travelling wave

• Generally for a wave of frequency f and wavelength , the velocity of propagation of the wave is

given as
V=f

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 • The speed of a mechanical wave also depends on the medium of propagation and the external

conditions.

➢ Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string -

○ The speed depends on the inertial (related to density and mass ) and elastic properties of the

Medium.

○ The speed of a transverse wave on a string under tension T and mass per unit length µ.

= density of string
V = µ= S
S = area of cross section of the string

Q. Find the speed of a pulse generated on a stretched string of mass 50 gm and length 2m under a load of 20 kg.

Q. A uniform rope of mass 4kg and length 8m hangs vertically holding a 2kg block at rest. Find the ratio of speed of

pulse generated in the string at the lowest point to the highest point of the string. Also find the ration of their

wavelengths at these points.

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Q. A pulse if generated at the bottom of a uniform rope of mass per unit length d and total length l hanging vertically from

the ceiling. Find the time it takes the pulse to reach the ceiling. Also find the average speed and average acceleration

of the pulse.

Q. A circular loop of mass M and radius R is being rotated on a smooth horizontal table at angular speed w. Find the

Speed of a pulse generated on the string.

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 Speed of a pulse generated on the string.

Q. A composite string is made up of two strings of mass per unit length 2d and d as shown. Find the ratio of speed of wave

generated in string 1 to string 2.

➢ Speed of longitudinal wave (speed of sound wave) -

• Sound waves travel using compressions and rarefaction using the inertial and elastic properties of the medium and the

velocity of a longitudinal wave in an elastic medium of elasticity modulus E is given as

= denisty of the medium.

V=

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 Where Y = Young's Modulus
✓ In Solid material the speed of sound is given as V=

✓ In liquids the speed of sound is given as V= Where B = Bulk modulus of the liquid

B=-

✓ In gases the speed of sound is given as

- Newton's Formula He considered the flow of sound in a gaseous medium to be an

isothermal process.

PV = Constant

- Laplace Correction He explained that the transfer of sound energy in the medium was so

fast that there was no time for heat exchange hence the process is

Adiabatic.

P = constant

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 Vair = 330m/s

✓ Effect of factors on Speed of sound in a medium :

1. Pressure

2. Temperature

○ Speed of sound at toC if speed at 273 K is 332m/s

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 3. Humidity

Q. Find the speed of sound in oxygen gas at 27 oC.

Q. At what temperature is the speed of sound in air double as that at 0 oC.

Q. The speed of sound in water is 1400 m/s, find the bulk modulus of water.

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Q. Find the percentage error in the speed of sound when measured using newton's formula at NTP, given the actual

speed of sound at NTP is 332 m/s given the density of air is 1.3 kg/m 3.

Q. Find the speed of sound in CO 2 as at 127oC.

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# Lecture 03 - Waves
Friday, February 4, 2022 3:29 PM

➢ Sound as a Pressure wave :

• Particle perform SHM along the direction of

propagation of sound

○ Increase in volume of element

○ Bulk strain =

○ Equation of pressure wave

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 " The pressure at a point also undergoes SHM ( changes as a function of time ) "

" The displacement equation and the pressure equation are out of phase by "

• The pressure amplitude is generally of 1 pascal.

• Hence when displacement is zero, pressure is either maximum or minimum and vice- versa.

• With change in pressure density of gas also changes, the pressure equation is in phase with the density equation.

Q. If the pressure variation in a sound wave in water is given by ΔP = 8 sin (4x - 2000t + π/4 ). Find the displacement

amplitude.

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➢ Power transmission, Intensity and Loudness

Y = A sin(wt - kx)

• Component of force along Y axis

• Power delivered by force F to the string on right side of x is

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• For sound waves we generally define intensity

➢ Intensity for various shapes of sound waves -

1. Point source -

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➢ Intensity for various shapes of sound waves -

1. Point source -

2. Line source -

Q. Find the intensity of sound received at point A and B if power of point source S is P. If the surface area of A nd B is

equal to A0, find the total energy falling on A and B per unit time.

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Q. A point source and a line source of same power P are placed as shown. Find the net intensity of sound at point A.

✓ Quality : The characteristic of sound used to differentiate the sources.

✓ Pitch : • The characteristic of sound that depends on the frequency.

• Shrillness or graveness is decided by the pitch.

• Smaller frequency has smaller pitch.

✓ Scale of Loudness :

• Range of human hearing is 10-12 W/m2 to 1 W/m2

• Threshold of hearing is the smallest intensity that can be heard which is 10 -12 W/m2

• Human can hear any sound between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz

• Loudness (L) is measured in decibels (dB)

• Humans can hear from 0dB and the threshold of pain is 120 dB.

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 •

Q. Find the average power delivered through a string of linear mass density 500 g/m under a tension of 50 N. The wave

travelling has frequency 125 Hz and has amplitude of 10 mm.

Q. The loudness of a source of sound increases by 50 dB. By what factor does the intensity increase.

Q. A jet plane flies at a height of 100m. The intensity of sound is 150dB. What should be the height of the jet so that the

intensity drops to the threshold of pain.

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➢ Reflection & transmission of waves

✓ Reflection from a rigid boundary (string wave)

• When a transverse wave is incident on a rigid body it is reflected back with a phase change of 180o.

• The crest is reflected as trough.

If incident wave equation is y = A sin (wt - kx)

Then, reflected wave equation will be

✓ Reflection from a free boundary (string wave)

• When a transverse wave is incident on a rigid body it is reflected back with no phase change.

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• The crest is reflected as crest.

If incident wave equation is y = A sin (wt - kx)

Then, reflected wave equation will be

✓ Reflection from a rigid boundary (sound wave)

• When a longitudinal wave is incident on a rigid body it is reflected back with a phase change of π.

• Compression is reflected back as compression and rarefaction as rarefaction.

• Echo is an example of longitudinal wave reflection.

If incident wave equation is y = A sin (wt - kx)

Then, reflected wave equation will be

✓ Reflection from a free boundary (sound wave)

• When a longitudinal wave is incident on a rigid body it is reflected back with a no phase change.

• Compression is reflected back as rarefaction and rarefaction as compression.

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 If incident wave equation is y = A sin (wt - kx)

Then, reflected wave equation will be

➢ Reflection & transmission of a wave at interface of two media

Amplitude of incident wave Amplitude of transmitted wave

Amplitude of reflected wave

• At boundary Ai + Ar = At

• If wave moves from denser to rarer medium the reflected wave remains erect.

• If waves moves from rarer to denser medium the reflected wave is inverted.

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 • If waves moves from rarer to denser medium the reflected wave is inverted.

• Transmitted wave is always erect and is never inverted.

Q. A wave y = 10mm sin (π t - π x/4 ) is moving on a composite string from string of mass density 200 g/m to 400 g/m. if

tension in the string is 200 N, write the equation of reflected and transmitted wave.

❖ Superposition of Waves

• Two waves travelling on the same string in opposite direction retain their individual identities.

• During their overlapping the shape of the string is different from the individual strings.

• The resultant displacement of particle of the rope is the resultant of the algebraic sum of displacement of individual

waves. This is called superposition principle.

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Q. Find the shape of string at complete overlap.

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Q. If the shape shown is at t = 0 , find the shape of the string at t = 1 sec.

❖ Interference of waves :

• When waves from two sources meet at a point, the resultant displacement and intensity a point is the resultant of

the two waves.

• For incoherent sources (having time dependent phase difference) interference pattern is not studied.

Y = A1 sin (w1t - kx) y = A2 sin (w2t - kx)

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 For such cases resultant intensity is I = I1 + I2

• Interference is only studies for coherent sources (sources that have constant phase difference i.e. time independent)

y1 = A1 sin (wt - kx)

y2 = A2 sin (wt - kx + )

○ Phase difference =

○ Resultant Amplitude =

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○ Resultant intensity =

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Q. Find the resultant intensity at point P due to the two coherent sources emitting same wavelength and have no initial

phase difference given intensity due to S1 and S2 at P is I1 and I2.

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Q. Find minimum distance by which P must be displaced along line joining S1 and S2 such that it detects minimum

intensity.

Q. Find the number of maxima and minima detected by a detector as it moves along the given line, both sound sources

emit same wavelength

Detector moves from S1 to S2

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 Detector moves from S1 to S2

Detector moves from S1 to S2

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# Lecture 04 - Waves
Sunday, February 6, 2022 12:52 AM

❖ STANDING WAVES :

• When a wave is reflected from a rigid boundary such that the reflected wave has same amplitude as the

incident wave and a phase change of π.

• Interference of these two waves results to an wave that does not transmit energy rather forms a fixed pattern of

vibration.

• As Y1 = A sin (wt - kx) and Y2 = A sin (wt + kx)

So the resultant wave y = y1 + y 2

i.e. y = A sin (wt -kx) + A sin (wt + kx)

Or Y = 2A sin kx cos wt Not a function of X + vT so not a progressive wave

➢ Points about the standing wave :

• Does not transfer energy from one point to another rather energy is stored in a region in a pattern of vibrations.

• The amplitude of all the particles on the string is not same rather it depends on the position. All particles have different

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 amplitude of the oscillation depending on their position from the source.

• Nodes : the points that do not oscillate and always stay at rest.

• Antinodes : the points that have the maximum amplitude of all the points in the string.

✓ Position of Nodes

✓ Position of antinodes

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Q. The equation of a standing wave is given as y = 5mm sin 0.5x cos 200t , find

a. Amplitude of individual waves

b. Frequency of source

c. Wavelength

d. Speed of wave

Q. For a wave y = 4mm cos 0.2x sin 50t , find

a. Amplitude of individual waves

b. Frequency of source

c. Wavelength

d. Speed of wave

e. Position of nodes and antinodes

➢ For String Waves

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○ String fixed at both ends (Sonometer)

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○ String fixed at one end

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Q. A sonometer wire of length 4m vibrates in 3rd overtone between the two knives. Find the wavelength and the

position of antinodes.

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Q. A tuning fork is in resonance 2nd overtone vibration of a string of length 2m , mass 200 grams under a load of 1 kg. If

the string is free at one end, find the frequency of the tuning fork.

Q. Two strings A and B made of same material ( mass per unit length 0.1 kg /m ) and having same length 2m oscillate in

resonance with the same tuning fork under same load of 2kg. If A is clipped at both ends while B at one end, mention the

possible frequency of the tuning fork.

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Q. Solve the above question if length of string B is 1.5 m and A is 1m. Mention at least 3 possible frequencies of the tuning

fork.

➢ For Sound Waves

○ Open organ pipe

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○ Closed organ pipe

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Q. The distance between two nodes is 4 cm in a standing wave formed in a closed organ pipe where the speed of

propagation is 1600m/s. find the frequency of sound wave.

Q. For a closed organ pipe the fundamental frequency is 412 Hz. If it is cut into two pieces of equal length, find the

fundamental frequency of the two pieces.

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Q. For an organ pipe, three successive resonance frequencies are observed at 425, 595 and 765 Hz. The speed of sound

in air is 340 m/s. Find the nature of the pipe and its length.

➢ RESONANCE COLUMN :

Q. The tuning fork of frequency 500 Hz is sounded on a resonance tube. The first and second resonances are obtained

at 17cm and 52 cm. find the speed of sound.

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❖ End Correction / Rayleigh correction

• The nodes or antinodes for open ends of the organ pipes are formed a little outside the ends, this extra length is

called End correction.

• For an organ pipe ( tube ) of radius R the end correction is given as

e = 0.6 R

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➢ BEATS If two waves of intensity f1 and f2 undergo interference at a point the resultant wave has a frequency

called the beat frequency.

fbeat = | f1 - f2 |

• For two sound waves of angular frequency w1 and w2, the beat angular frequency can be given as

Wbeat = W1 - W2

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Q. Two organ pipes have a beat frequency of 10 Hz with a tuning fork of frequency 200 Hz. On filing the tuning fork, beat

frequency with A decreases while with b increases. Find the frequency of the organ pipes.

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# Lecture 05 - Waves
Sunday, February 6, 2022 2:31 PM

Q. A tuning fork produces 5 beats per second when sounded together with another fork of frequency 364 Hz. When the first

fork is loaded a little with wax the beat frequency becomes 3 beats per second. Find the original frequency of the first

fork.

Q. Find the speed of sound in a gas having two wavelengths 204 cm and 208 cm producing 20 beats in 6 seconds.

Q. Sound waves of frequency 100 Hz, 105 Hz and 104 Hz are heard by a man , find the beat frequency.

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Q. An open tube of length 48 cm has fundamental frequency of 320 Hz. Find the radius of tube if the speed of sound is 320

m/s. Also find the fundamental frequency if one end is now closed.

Q. A resonance tube resonates with a tuning fork of frequency 256 Hz. If the length of 1st and 2nd resonating air column are

32 cm and 100 cm , find the end correction.

Q. An open organ pipe of length 60 cm stand vertical with its lower end dipped in water. When length above water is 14.8 cm

and 48 cm tube resonates at frequency 512 Hz. Find the fundamental frequency of the tube.

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Q. Sound of wavelength enters the end A from the left side and is heard on the right side. Find the minimum radius of

curvature of the tube such that intensity of sound heard on the other side is minimum.

➢ DOPPLER EFFECT

• When there is relative motion between the source of sound and observer, the frequency of sound heard by the

observer is different from the frequency produced by the source.

• Doppler effect must be applied along the line joining the observer and the source.

• Direction of propagation of sound must be taken as the positive direction.

• If wind is also blowing its speed can be added or subtracted from the speed of sound considering if the sound

moves in direction of blowing of wind or opposite.

CASE A Net speed of sound =

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 Net speed of sound =
CASE B

• The apparent frequency can be calculated using the formula

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Q. If the source is emitting sound of frequency 300 Hz, find the frequency heard by the observer if speed of sound is 330 m/s.

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➢ Apparent frequency after reflection

• When a sound wave is reflected from an object, the object behaves as a source of the apparent frequency it

receives.

Ex : A car moving at 30m/s towards a wall moving towards it at 30m/s. If the car blows a horn of frequency 300 Hz, find

the beat frequency heard by the car driver given speed of sound is 330 m/s.

Q. A car moving at 60m/s away from a wall moving towards it at 30m/s. If the car blows a horn of frequency 600 Hz, find

the beat frequency heard by the car driver given speed of sound is 330 m/s.

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Q. Find the beat frequency heard by the man on the road, if speed of sound is 330 m/s (f = 300 Hz)

➢ Incase the source and observer are not on the same line

• Take components along the line joining the source and the observer and consider direction of propagation of

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 sound as positive.

Q. Find the apparent frequency heard by the observer if the source emits sound of frequency 300 Hz and speed of sound in

air is 330 m/s.

30 m

40m

30 m

40m

Q. The source moves on a circular track at constant angular speed of π/8 rad/s emitting 300 Hz sound. If speed of

sound is 330 m/s then find ( P is the observer at rest ).

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Q. The source moves on a circular track at constant angular speed of π/8 rad/s emitting 300 Hz sound. If speed of

sound is 330 m/s then find ( P is the observer at rest ).

a. Maximum and minimum frequency heard by the observer. 10m

20m P
b. Shortest Interval between the maxima and minima. S

c. Position of source when maximum frequency is observed.

10m
20m P
S

❖ Apparent Wavelength heard by the observer

• For sound waves , the separation between consecutive compressions or rarefactions is the wavelength of sound.

✓ Source is moving towards the observer

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✓ Source is moving away from the observer

✓ Observer is moving

○ NOTE

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Q. A source is moving at 30m/s towards an observer moving at 20m/s towards the source. If the source emits a

wavelength of 1m find the apparent wavelength received by the observer.

Q. A source is moving at 60m/s away from an observer moving at 50m/s towards the source. If the source emits a

wavelength of 4m find the apparent frequency received by the observer.

➢ Shift in wave length of light

• The observer and the source move at relatively slow speed as compared to the speed of light.

• Let U be the relative speed of source with respect to the observer, then shift in wavelength can be given as

C = speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s

emitted wavelength

• If source is moving towards the observer wavelength decreases and if source moves away from the observer

(relative) wavelength increases.

Q. A star is moving towards earth at 1/4 the speed of light. Assuming earth to be at rest find the apparent frequency and

wavelength of light received by the earth given the source emits light of wavelength 2000 nelecting the effect of

atmosphere of the earth.

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Q. A car is moving at night with speed 100 m/s towards a man moving away from it at 50 m/s. the headlights of the car

emit light of wavelength 3000 , then find the apparent change in the wavelength of light received by the man in

vacuum.

End Of Physics Syllabus

Class

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