WAVES

It is a kind of disturbance which

travels through the medium due to
periodic oscillations of the particles of
the medium about their mean positions.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVE MOTION

Energy is transferred from place to place without any

actual transfer of the particles of the medium.
Each particle receives disturbance a little later than
its preceding particle i.e. constant phase difference is
present.
Velocity of the wave ≠ velocity of the vibrations of
particles.
Wave velocity is constant v = f λ
 TYPES OF WAVES

MECHANICAL WAVES – The waves which require a

material medium for their propagation.
Eg: water ripples

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES – The waves which

travel in the form of oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
Eg : light

MATTER WAVES – The waves associated with

microscopic particles like electrons, protons, neutrons.
 SPRING MODEL

 This animation portrays a medium as a series of particles connected by

springs. 
 As one individual particle is disturbed, and then returns to its initial
position, it transmits the disturbance to the next interconnected particle. 
 This disturbance continues to be passed on to the next particle. 
 The result is that energy is transported from one end of the medium to the
other end of the medium without the actual transport of matter. 
 Each particle returns to its original position.
 MECHANICAL WAVES

 TRANSVERSE WAVES – The waves in which the individual

particles of the medium (solids and liquids) oscillate perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation.
Wave Pulse

 LONGITUDINAL WAVES – The waves in which the individual

particles of the medium (solids, liquids or gas)oscillate along the
direction of wave propagation.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A WAVE

 Amplitude (A): It is the maximum displacement suffered by the

particles of the medium about their mean positions.
 Time Period (T) : The time in which a particle of the medium completes
one vibration about its mean position.
 Frequency (υ) : It is the number of waves produced per unit time in the
given medium. υ= 1/T
 Angular frequency (ω): The rate of change of phase with time is called
angular frequency of the wave. ω= 2π/T = 2 π υ
 Wavelength (λ) : Distance covered by a wave during the time in which a
particle of the medium completes one vibration to and fro about its
mean position.
 SPEED OF MECHANICAL WAVES

TRANSVERSE WAVES
On a Stretched String where v = velocity
T = tension
μ = mass per
unit length
In a solid where v = velocity
η = modulus of
rigidity
ρ = density
• LONGITUDINAL WAVES
In a liquid or gas In solids
B = Bulk Modulus Y = young’s Modulus
 FACTORS AFFECTING SPEED OF SOUND
in GAS

So presence of moisture in air

 Effect of Pressure : decreases density. Since
PV = Constant
Or P m/ρ = constant sound travels faster in moist air.
Hence speed of sound is independent of
Pressure.
Effect of Temperature :
PV = RT (if n =1)
 Effect of Density:
At a constant Pressure

 Effect of humidity:
Density of water vapour < Density of dry air Hence :
0.8 kg/m3 < 1.293 kg/m3
 PROGRESSIVE WAVE

A wave that travels from one point of the medium

from another is called a progressive wave.
If during the propagation of wave through a
medium, the particles of the medium vibrate simple
harmonically about their mean positions, then the
wave is said to be plane progressive harmonic wave.
 Y Wave velocity v
DISPLACEMENT EQUATION A
Consider a particle O in the medium. The displacement y
at any instant of time is given by 0
P
Where A is the amplitude,  x
w is the angular frequency
λ
Consider a particle P at a distance x from the particle O on its right. Let the wave
travel with a velocity v from left to right. Since it takes some time for the
disturbance to reach P, its displacement can be written as
Where Ф is the phase difference between the particles
O and P
As

Amplitude
Displacement + X axis direction

Angular frequency
time
Initial phase
- X axis direction
Wave number
Position
 WAVE VELOCITY

The distance covered by a wave in Wave velocity v Wave at t = 0

the direction of its propagation Y Wave at t = Δt
P
per unit time is called wave A
velocity.
Consider a transverse wave travelling 0
X
on a string in the +ve X axis. Let the
Δx
initial phase angle ф0=0
During a small interval of Δt, the entire λ Δx
wave pattern moves through a distance
Δx in the +ve X axis.
As y = A sin (ωt – kx)
The points on the waveform eg: P can retain their displacement if ф = constant
Therefore, ωt – kx = constant
Differentiating both sides,
 PARTICLE VELOCITY
PARTICLE ACCELERATION

PARTICLE VELOCITY
Velocity with which the particles of the medium vibrate about its mean positions.

Wave function : y = A sin (ωt – kx)
Differentiating w.r.t. time
v = ωA cos (ωt – kx)
= ωA sin [(ωt – kx)+π/2]
1. Wave velocity remains constant but
particle velocity changes
harmonically with time.
2. The particle velocity is ahead of
displacement in phase by π/2
radians.
3. Maximum velocity v0 = ωA

PARTICLE ACCELERATION
v = ωA cos (ωt – kx)
Differentiating w.r.t. time 1. The particle acceleration is ahead of
a = -ω2A sin (ωt – kx) displacement in phase by π radians.
= ω2A sin [(ωt – kx)+π] 2. Maximum velocity v0 = ωA
REFLECTION OF WAVES (BOUNDARY EFFECTS)

 When a travelling wave is reflected from a

rigid boundary, it is reflected back with a
phase difference of π radians.
Incident wave
y = A sin (ωt – kx)
Reflected wave
y = A sin (ωt + kx + π)

 When a travelling wave is reflected from a

free or open boundary, it suffers no phase
change.
Incident wave
y = A sin (ωt – kx)
Reflected wave
y = A sin (ωt + kx)
 SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

Principle : When a number of waves travel through a medium

simultaneously, the resultant displacement of any particle of the
medium at any given time is equal to the algebraic sum of the
displacements due to the individual waves.

Let y1, y2, y3 , _ _ _ _ yn be the

displacements due to waves
acting separately,
Then, resultant displacement

y = y1 +y2 + y3 _ _ _ _ _ + yn
 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

FIXED END

FREE END

Superposition of two equal and Superposition of two identical pulses

opposite pulses travelling in opposite travelling in opposite directions.
directions.
 APPLICATIONS

INTERFERENCE

STATIONARY WAVES

BEATS
 INTERFERENCE

When two waves of same frequency moving with the same speed in the same
direction in the medium superpose on each other, they give rise to Interference

When the blue one is "out of phase", they

interfere destructively and cancel each
other out; the black wave vanishes.
 STATIONARY WAVES

 When two identical waves of same amplitude and frequency

travelling in opposite directions with the same speed along the same
path superpose each other , the resultant wave does not travel in the
either direction and is called Stationary Waves.

They can be set up on:

1. Strings
2. Organ pipes
• Closed
• Open
 STATIONARY WAVES ON STRINGS
GRAPHICAL TREATMENT

Consider 2 waves
•Dotted Blue (moving right)
•Solid Green (moving left)
At t=0, the two waves are in same
t =0 phase. The amplitude of the result-
ant wave is twice as that of each.
At t=T/4, each wave has advanced a
t =T/4 distance of λ/4 from the opposite
directions, hence opposite phase.

t =2T/4 At t=T/2, each wave has advanced a

distance of λ/2 from the opposite
directions, hence same phase.
t =3T/4 At t=3T/4, each wave has advanced a
distance of 3λ/4 from the opposite
directions, hence opposite phase.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF STATIONARY WAVES

 There are certain points called nodes where

the particles are permanently at rest and
certain other points called antinodes where
the particles vibrate with maximum
amplitude.
 All the particles of the medium except those at the nodes, vibrate simple
harmonically with a time period equal to that of the component waves.
 The distance between two successive nodes or antinodes is λ/2
 The amplitude of vibration increases gradually from zero to maximum from a
node to an antinode.
 The particles attain their maximum or minimum velocity and acceleration at
the same instant.
 There is no net transport of energy in the medium.
 PROGRESSIVE WAVES STATIONARY WAVES

The disturbance travels forward with a The disturbance remains confined to the
definite velocity. region where it is produced.
Each particle of the medium executes Except nodes, all particles of the medium
SHM about its mean position with the execute SHM with varying amplitude.
same amplitude.
There is a continuous change of phase There is no change of phase between two
from one particle to another. successive nodes.
No particle of the medium is permanently The particles at Nodes are permanently at
at rest. rest
There is flow of energy across every plane Energy of one region remains confined in
along the direction of propagation of the that region.
wave.
The avg energy over a wavelength is half The energy becomes alternately wholly
kinetic and half potential. potential and wholly kinetic.
All the particles attain the same maximum All the particles attain their own maximum
velocity when they pass through their velocity at the same time when they pass
mean positions. through their mean positions.
 STATIONARY WAVES ON STRINGS
ANALYTICAL TREATMENT

Let a harmonic wave is set up on a string fixed at two ends x=0, x= L length of string

Let

Reflected wave has phase difference of π L

According to superposition principle

y = y1 + y2

As amplitude keeps on changing

with x, it is a standing wave and
Amplitude not progressive wave.
 At other end x = L
At one end x = o
Fixed point so, y =0

NODE sin kL = 0 x=o x=L

sin kL = sin nπ
kL = nπ or

n = 1,2,3_ _ _ _ _ called as normal modes

1stNORMAL MODE 2stNORMAL MODE 3rdNORMAL MODE

n=1 n= 2 n=3

Fundamental First Overtone Second Overtone

Frequency

First Harmonic Second Harmonic Third Harmonic

 STATIONARY WAVES IN CLOSED ORGAN PIPE
ANALYTICAL TREATMENT

Let a harmonic wave is set up in an organ pipe closed at one end, L- length of pipe

Let

Reflected wave has phase difference of π L

According to superposition principle

y = y1 + y2

Amplitude
At the closed end x =0 At the open end x = L
sin kx = 0, hence y = 0 sin kL = max = ± 1
NODE
x=0 x=L

or n = 1,2,3_ _ _ _ _
called as normal modes

1stNORMAL MODE 2stNORMAL MODE 3rdNORMAL MODE

n=1 n= 2 n=3

f2 = 3 f1 f2 = 5 f1

First Harmonic Third Harmonic Fifth Harmonic

 STATIONARY WAVES IN OPEN ORGAN PIPE
ANALYTICAL TREATMENT

Let a harmonic wave is set up in an organ pipe closed at one end, L- length of pipe

Let

Reflected wave has phase difference of π L

According to superposition principle

y = y1 + y2

Amplitude
 At x =0 , x = L y = max
This implies cos kL = ± 1
cos kL = cos nπ
x=0 x=L

n = 1,2,3_ _ _ _ _ called as normal modes

1stNORMAL MODE 2stNORMAL MODE 3rdNORMAL MODE

n=1 n= 2 n=3

Fundamental Frequency First Overtone Second Overtone

First Harmonic Second Harmonic Third Harmonic

 BEATS

The phenomenon of alternate variation in the intensity of

sound with time at a particular position, when two sound
waves nearly same frequencies and amplitudes superimpose
on each other is called BEATS

Wave 1

Wave 2

Resultant
wave
 BEAT FREQUENCY

 Consider two simple harmonic sound waves each of amplitude A, frequencies

f1 and f2 respectively, travelling in the same direction.
y1 = A sin ω1t = A sin 2πf1t
y2 = A sin ω2t = A sin 2πf2t

According to superposition principle

y = y1 + y2

Amplitude
A will be max when A will be min when
cos π(υ1 – υ2)t = ±1 = cos kπ cos π(υ1 – υ2)t = 0 = cos (2k+1)π/2

where k= 0,1,2,3_ _ _ where k= 0,1,2,3_ _ _

Time interval between two successive maxima of sound

Frequency of maxima = (1)

Time interval between two successive minima of sound

Frequency of minima = (2)

By (1) and (2) Frequency of beats =

ESSENTIAL CONDITION FOR FORMATION OF

BEATS

For beats to be audible, the difference in the frequency of the two

sound waves should not exceed 10.
 APPLICATIONS OF BEATS

1. used in tuning musical instruments 2. used in radio reception

3. used to determine the

unknown frequency of a
tuning fork